Encyclopaedia Britannica [15, 7 ed.]

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ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA SEVENTH EDITION.

THE

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA OR

DICTIONARY OF

s

ARTS, SCIENCES, AND GENERAL LITERATURE.

SEVENTH EDITION,

WITH PRELIMINARY DISSERTATIONS ON THE HISTORY OF THE SCIENCES, AND

OTHER EXTENSIVE IMPROVEMENTS AND ADDITIONS; INCLUDING THE LATE SUPPLEMENT.

A GENERAL INDEX, AND NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS.

VOLUME XV.

ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK, EDINBURGH; M.DCCC.XLIL

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

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MEZERAI, FRANCOIS EUDES DE, a celebrated French M&serai. Meyahoon j^/i’EYAHOON, a town of the Burman dominions, ex|| IVJL tending about two miles along the western margin historian, the son of Isaac Eudes, a surgeon, was born atv'—‘'v'—^ Meynn- 0f ^ xrrawaddy, and glittering at a distance with gilded Rye, in Lower Normandy, in 1610, and took the surname ' v spires. It has also many spacious convents. The vicinity of Mezerai, from a hamlet near Rye. Having completed is uncommonly productive in rice, of which large stores are his studies at Caen, he discovered a strong inclination to kept here ready to be transported to any part of the empire poetry ; but on proceeding to Paris, he was advised by where a scarcity occurs. Long. 95. 8. E. Lat. 18. 19. N. one of his friends to apply himself to the study of politics MEYWAR, a very extensive district of Hindustan, in and history, and procured the place of commissary at war, the province of Ajmeer, situated principally between the which he held during two campaigns. He then shut him25th and 26th degrees of north latitude, and occasionally self up in the college of St Barbe, in the midst of books named Chitore and Odeypoor. The general surface is and manuscripts; and, in 1643, published the first volume hilly, but not mountainous, although it abounds in natu- of the History of France, in folio. Some years afterwards, rally strong positions. The productions of this territory the other two volumes also appeared. In that work Meare wheat, rice, sugar, barley, and other grains; besides zerai surpassed all who had written the history of France which it has a good breed of camels and horses. The before him, and was rewarded by the king with a pension principal manufactures are matchlocks, swords, and cotton of four thousand livres. In 1668 he published an Abridgcloth. The principal towns are Odeypoor, Shapoorah, and ment of his History of France, in three volumes quarto, Bilarah. The district is at present possessed by numerous which was well received by the public ; but as he inserted petty rajpoot chiefs, who live in perpetual hostility with in that work the origin of most of the taxes, with very free reflections, M. Colbert complained of it, upon which Meeach other. MEYRINGEN, a town of Switzerland, which, on ac- zerai promised to correct what he had done in a second count of its natural beauties, is visited by most persons edition. As his corrections, however, amounted rather to who, to gratify their taste for picturesque scenery, visit palliations than changes or retractations, the minister caused that country. It is situated in the vale of Hosli, in the half of his pension to be suppressed. Mezerai complained upper part of the canton of Berne. It stands on a moun- of this in very severe terms, but the only answer he obtaintain 1950 feet above the level of the sea, and is surrounded ed was the suppression of the other half. Annoyed at this by the snow-covered pinnacles of the neighbouring hills. treatment, he resolved to write on subjects which could The town, though so high, is situated in a rich and well- not expose him to such disappointments, and composed cultivated valley, into which there are some of the most his treatise on the origin of the French, which did him lofty and copious waterfalls from the surrounding heights. much honour. He was elected perpetual secretary to the The most remarkable of these cascades is the Reichen- French Academy, and died in the year 1683. He is said bach, which forms seven successive falls, the first of which to have been extremely negligent of his person, and so is the largest, being 300 feet in height; it falls into a basin, careless of his dress that he might have passed for a beginto which the sun rarely penetrates, and, when seen from ger rather than a man of letters. He was actually seized below, exhibits, about noon, in fine weather, some surpris- one morning by the archers des pauvres, or parish officers; ing rainbows. The town itself contains only 650 inhabi- a mistake which, so far from provoking, highly diverted tants ; but there are two large hotels generally well filled him. He used to study and write by candle-light, even with strangers during the summer months. The whole at noon-day in summer; and, as if there had been no sun valley and parish contain 4490 souls, whose chief occupa- in the world, always waited upon his company to the door tion consists in making butter and cheese, their cows being with a candle in his hand. In regard to religion, he affectnearly 4000 in number. ed a species of Pyrrhonism, which, however, was not so much VOL. xv.

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Mezieres in his heart as in his mouth, and rather the effect of a con- ed that, to avoid making themselves ridiculous, by writing Mezzotinto. 11 tradictory humour than the result of conviction. This ap- the commandments of God without their doors, or rather Mezuzoth. peare(j from his last sickness ; for having sent for those to avoid exposing themselves to the profanation of the v'“ ^friends who had been the most frequent auditors of his li- wicked, they ought at least to write them on a parchment, centious talk about religion, he made a sort of recantation, and to enclose it in something. They, therefore, wrote these which he concluded with desiring them to forget what he words upon a square piece of parchment prepared on purmight formerly have said upon the subject of religion, and pose, with a particular ink, and in a square kind of characto “ remember that Mezerai dying was more to be be- ter. The Hebrew word mezuza properly signifies the doorlieved than Mezerai living.” The following is a list of the posts of a house ; but it is also applied to the roll of parchworks of Mezerai, viz. 1. Histoire de France, 1643, 1646, ment now mentioned. MEZZOTINTO, a particular manner of representing 1651, in three vols. folio; 2. Abrege Chronologique de figures on copper, so as to form prints in imitation of paintTHistoire de France, 1668, in three vols. 4to ; 3. Traite de 1’Origine des Fran^ais, Amsterdam, 1688, in 12mo ; 4. ing in Indian ink. See ENGRAVING. The invention of this art has usually been attributed to Une Traduction de 1’Histoire des Turcs de Chalcondyle, Paris, 1662, in two vols. folio; 5. Une Traduction f'ra^" Prince Rupert. But Baron Heinikin, a judicious and ac^aise du Traite de Jean de Salisbury, intitule La Vanite curate writer upon the subject of engraving, asserts, with de la Cour, Paris, 1640, in 4to ; 6. Traite de la \ erite de great appearance of truth, that it was a Lieutenant-colonel la Religion Chretienne, translated from the Latin of Gro- de Siegan, an officer in the service of the landgrave of tius, Paris, 1644, in 8vo; 7. Histoire de la Mere et du Hesse, who first engraved in this manner; and that the Fils, that is, of Mary of Medicis and Louis XIII., Amster- print which he produced was a portrait of the Princess dam, 1730, in 4to. A compilation entitled Memoires His- Amelia Elizabeth of Hesse, engraved in the year 1643. toriques et Critiques sur divers points de X Histoire de Franee, Prince Rupert learned the secret from this gentleman, and has also been ascribed to Mezerai, though apparently with- brought it into England when he came over the second time with Charles II. Prince Rupert’s print of an execuout the slightest foundation. MEZIERES, an arrondissement of the department of tioner holding a sword in one hand and a head in the other, the North, in France, extending over 380 square miles. It a half length, from Spagnoletto, is dated 1658. This art is divided into seven cantons, and subdivided into 113 has never been cultivated with success in any country but communes, containing 56,500 inhabitants. rl he capital is England. The prince laid his grounds upon the plate with a chanthe city of the same name situated on the river Meuse, by which it is separated from Charleville. It contains 460 nelled roller ; but, about the same time, one Sherwin laid houses, and 3400 inhabitants. There is a strong citadel, his grounds with a half-round file, which was pressed down and also a school for the engineers. Long. 4. 38. 1. E. with a heavy piece of lead. Both these grounding tools have for many years been laid aside; and a hand tool, reLat. 49. 45. 47. N. MEZIRIAC, CLAUDE GASPAR RACKET SIEUR DE, one sembling a shoemaker’s cutting-board knife, with a fine ci eof the most ingenious men of the seventeenth century, was nelling on the edge, was introduced by one Edial, a smith born at Bourg-en-Bresse on the 9 th of October 1581. He by trade, who afterwards became a mezzotinto engraver. Mezzotinto is very different from the common way of was a good poet, an excellent grammarian, a great Greek scholar, and an admirable critic. Fie was well versed in engraving. To perform it, the surface of the plate is raked, the controversies both in philosophy and religion, and hatched, or punched all over with a knife, or instrument deeply skilled in algebi'a and geometry, of which he gave made for the purpose, first one way, and then the other, proof by publishing the six books of Diophantus, enriched until the surface of the plate is entirely furrowed with lines with a very able commentary and notes. In his youth he or furrows, close and as it were contiguous to each other; spent a considerable time at Paris and also at Rome, so that, if an impression were then taken from it, it would where, in competition with Vaugelas, he wrote a small col- be one uniform blot or smut. Ibis being done, the design lection of Italian poems, amongst which there are imi- is drawn or marked on the same face ; after which, the tations of the most beautiful similes contained in the first artists proceed with burnishers, scrapers, and other tools, to eight books of the .ZEneid. He also translated Ovid s expunge and take out the dents or furrows in all parts Epistles, great part of which he illustrated with very cu- where the lights of the piece are designed to be; and that rious commentaries of his own ; and undertook the trans- more or less as the lights are to be stronger or fainter, leavlation of Plutarch’s works, with notes, which he had near- ing those parts black which are to represent the shadows or ly brought to a conclusion, when he died, at Bourg-en- deepenings of the draught. As it is much easier to scrape or burnish away parts of Bresse, in 1638, at the age of fifty-seven. He left behind him several works, the principal of which are, 1. Problemes a dark ground corresponding with the outline of any design Plaisans et Delectables qui se font par les Nombres, Ly- sketched upon it, than to form shades upon a light ground ons, 1613, 1624, in 8vo ; 2. Diophanti Alexandrini Arith- by an infinite number of hatches, strokes, and points, which meticorum libri sex, et de Numeris multangulis liber unus, must all terminate with exactness on the outline, as well Gr. et Lat. Commentar. illustrat. Paris, 1621, in folio; 3. as differ in their force and manner, the method of scraping, Chansons devotes et saintes sur toutes les principales as it is called, in mezzotinto, becomes much more easy and fetes de I’Annee, et sur autres divers sujets, Dijon, 1615, expeditious than any other method of engraving. The inin 8vo ; 4. Les Epitres d’Ovide, trad, en vers Francois, struments employed in this kind of engraving are, cradles, scrapers, and burnishers. avec des Commentaires, Bourg-en-Bresse, 1626, in 8vo. In this engraving, the plate must be prepared and poMEZUZOTH, in the Jewish customs, certain pieces of parchment, which the Jews affix to the door-posts of their lished in the same manner as for other engravings, and afhouses; taking that literally which Moses commanded them, terwards divided equally by lines parallel to each othei, and when he said, “ Thou shalt never forget the laws of thy traced out with very soft chalk. T-he distance of these God, but thou shalt write them upon the posts of thy lines should be about one third of the length of the face house, and on thy gates.” This expression apparently of the cradle w hich is to be used, and these lines should be meant nothing more than that they should always remem- marked with capital letters, or strokes of the chalk. The ber the lawrs of their God, whether they came into the cradle is then to be placed exactly between the first two house or went out. But the Hebrew doctors imagined lines, and passed forwards in the same direction, being that their lawgiver meant something more. They pretend- kept as steady as possible, and pressed upon with a mode-

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rate force. The same operation must be repeated with respect to all other lines, till the instrument has thus passed over the whole surface of the plate. From the extremities of the other two sides, other lines must then be drawn, which, intersecting the first at right angles, will with them form squares; and the same operation must be repeated with the cradle as in the case of the first. New lines must then be drawn diagonally, and the cradle passed between them as before; and when the first diagonal operation is performed, the lines must be crossed at right angles, like the former, and the cradles passed between them in the same manner. The plates having undergone the action of the cradle according to the disposition of the first order ot lines, a second set must be formed, having the same distances from each other as the first. But they must be so placed as to divide those already made into spaces one third less than their whole extent; that is, every one after the first on each side will take in one third of that before it. These lines of the second order must be marked with small letters, or lesser strokes, to distinguish them from the first; and the same treatment of the plate must be pursued with respect to them as was practised for the others. When this second operation is finished, a third order of lines must be made. By these means, the original spaces will be exactly divided into equal thirds ; and the cradle must be again employed between those lines, as before. When the whole of this operation is finished, it is called one turn ; but in order to produce a very dark and uniform ground, the plate must undergo the repetition of all these several operations for above twenty times, beginning to pass the cradle again between the first lines, and proceeding in the same manner through all the rest. When the plate is prepared with a proper ground, the sketch must be chalked on it, by rubbing the paper on the back with chalk; and it is also proper to overtrace it afterwards with black lead or Indian ink. The scraping is then performed by paring or cutting away the grain of the ground in various degrees, so that none of it is left in the original state, except in the touches of the strongest shade. The general manner of proceeding is the same as drawing with white upon black paper. The masses of light are first commenced; then those parts which go off into light in their upper part, but are brown below. The reflections are next entered upon, after which the plate is blackened with a printer’s blacking ball made of felt, in order to discover the effect, and then the work is proceeded with, observing always to begin every part in the places where the strongest lights are to be. The art of scraping mezzotintos has been applied to that of printing with a variety of colours, in order to produce the resemblance of paintings. The inventor of the method of doing this was Le Blon, a native of Frankfort, and pupil of Carlo Marata, between the years 1720 and 1730. It was established by the inventor upon this principle, that there are three primitive colours, of which all the rest may be composed by mixing them in various proportions ; that any two of these colours being mixed together, preserve their original power, and only produce a third colour such as their compound must necessarily give, but if transparent colours be mixed, and three primitive kinds compounded together, they destroy each other, and produce black, or a tendency to it, in proportion to the equality or inequality of the mixture ; and that if the three primitive colours be laid, either separately or upon each other, by three plates, engraved correspondent!y on these principles to the colouring of the design, the -whole variety of tints necessary may be produced. The requisites, therefore, to the execution of any design in this method of printing are the following: 1. To settle a plan of the colouring to be imitated, showing where the presence of each of the three simple colours is necessary, either in its pure state or com-

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bined with some other, to produce the effect required, and Mezzoto reduce this plan to a painted sketch of each, in which tinto-1 not only the proper outlines, but the degree of strength, shall be expressed ; 2. to engrave three plates according to this plan, which may print each of the colours exactly in the places where, and the proportion in which, they are wanted; 3. to find three transparent substances proper for printing with these three primitive colours. The manner in which M. le Blon prepared the plates may be briefly stated. The three plates of copper were first well fitted to each other with respect to size and figure, and grounded in the same manner as those designed for mezzotinto prints; and the exact place and boundary of each of the three primitive colours, conformably to the design, were sketched out upon three papers answering in dimensions to the plate. These sketches were then chalked upon the plates ; and all the parts of each plate which were not to convey the colour to which it was appropriated to the print were entirely scraped away, as in forming the light of mezzotinto prints. The parts which were to convey the colours were then worked upon ; and where the lightest or most diluted tints of the colour were to be, the grain in the ground was proportionally taken off; but where the full colour was required, it was left entire. In this, regard was had not only to the effects of the colour in its simple state, but also to its combined operation, either in producing orange-colour, green, or purple, by its admixture with one alone; and further, to its forming brown, gray, and shades or different degrees, by its co-operation with both the others. But though the greater part of the engraving was performed in the mezzotinto manner, yet the graver was employed occasionally for strengthening the shades, and for correcting the outline where it required great accuracy and steadiness. It was found necessary sometimes to have two separate plates for printing the same colour, in order to produce a stronger effect; but the second plate, which was used to print upon the first, was intended only to glaze and soften the colours in particular parts which might require it. As to the black and brown tints, which could not be so conveniently produced in a due degree by the mixture of the colours, umber and black were likewise used. With respect to the order in which the plates are to be applied, it may be proper to observe, that the colour which is least apparent in the picture should be laid on first; that which is between the most and least apparent next; and that which predominates last of all; except where there may be occasion for two plates for the same colour, as was before mentioned, or where there is any required for adding browns and shades. M. le Blon applied this art to portraits, and showed, by the specimens he produced, the possibility of its being brought, by further improvements, to afford imitations of painting which might have some value. It is, nevertheless, much better adapted to the simpler subjects, where there are fewer intermixtures of colours, and where the accuracy of the reflections and demi-tints are not so essentially necessary to the truth of the design, from the greater latitude of form and disposition of the colour, as in plants, anatomical figures, and some subjects of architecture. But perhaps plates engraved, or rather finished, with the tool, particularly with respect to the outline, would be better accommodated in some of these cases than those prepared only by scraping. M. Cochin remarks, at the end of an account he has given of M. le Blon’s manner, that although this ingenious artist confined his method principally to the use of three colours, yet, should this invention be again taken up and cultivated, there would be more probability of success in using a greater variety; and that several different kinds might be printed by one plate, provided they were laid on in their respectively proper places by printing-balls, which should

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Mt'lin be used for that colour only. His hint might, however, be son of Dr Christian Benedict Michaelis, professor in the MichaelII very greatly improved by tbe further assistance of pencils, university of Halle, in Lower Saxony, and was born at mas Mkhaeli?. accommodated to the plates, for laying on the colours in that place on the 27th of February 1717. His father deII v voted him at an early age to an academical life ; and with ^ the proper parts. MGLIN, a circle of the Russian province of Tscherne- that view he received the first part of his education in a v , " gow, extending in north latitude from 52. 49. to 53. 17. celebrated Prussian seminary called the Orphan-house, and in east longitude from 32. 37. to 33. 54. The capital at Glanche, in the neighbourhood of his native place. He is a city of the same name situated on the river Sudenka. commenced his academical career at Halle in 1733, and It is one of the best built cities of the province, and con- took his master’s degree in the faculty of philosophy.in tains 980 houses, with 5370 inhabitants, who carry on con- 1739. In 1741 he made an excursion to this country, siderable trade in the productions of its vicinity, especially where his superior knowledge of the oriental languages, in hemp, which is conveyed by the rivers to the Baltic , which was considerably increased by his indefatigable reports. It has some large annual fairs, and is 611 miles searches in the Bodleian Library at Oxford, introduced him to the acquaintance, and gained him the esteem, of our from Petersburg. Long. 32. 39. E. Lat. 53. 6. N. MIANA, a village of Persia, in Azerbijan. Here the first literary characters, with several of whom, particularly celebrated traveller Thevenot died upon his return from Bishop Lowth, he afterwards corresponded for many yearsOn his return to Halle, after an absence of fifteen months, Ispahan. It is 60 miles S. E. from Tabreez. MIASSE, a considerable river of Asiatic Russia, which he began to read lectures on the historical books of the rises in the Ural Mountains, and, traversing the district of Old Testament, which he continued after his removal to Kourgan,in the government of Tobolsk, falls into the Icette. Gottingen in 1745. In 1746 he was appointed professor MIASMA, amongst physicians, a particular kind of extraordinary, and soon afterwards professor of philosoeffluvia, by which certain fevers, particularly intermittents, phy, in that university. The next year he obtained the place of secretary to the Royal Society there, of which are produced. MIAVA, a town of Hungary, in the circle of Neustadtel, he was director in 1761, and he was soon afterwards made in the province of the Lower Danube. It stands upon the aulic counsellor by the court of Hanover. In 1764 his river Waag, and is a manufacturing place, producing large distinguished talents, and a publication relative to a jourquantities of linen and woollen cloths, of blankets and quilts ; ney to Arabia, which was undertaken by several literary there are also several distilleries and extensive tanneries. men at the expense, of the king of Denmark, in conseThe inhabitants amount to 10,000 persons, who are chiefly quence of his application through Count Bernsdorf, procured him the honour of being chosen a corresponding, of the Sclavonian race. MICA, Muscovy Glass, or Glimmer, a species of mineral and afterwards a foreign, member of the Academy of Inscriptions at Paris, of which class the institution admitted substance. MICAH, or The Book of MICAH, a canonical book of only eight; and in the same year he became a member of the Old Testament, written by the prophet Micah, who is the society of Haerlem. In 1775 Count Hopkin, who, eighteen years before, had prohibited the use of his writthe sixth of the twelve lesser prophets. MICHAEL, MOUNT, formerly one of the most celebrated ings at Upsal, when he was chancellor of that university, state-prisons of France. It is a rock situated in the middle prevailed upon the king of Sweden to confer upon him the of the Bay of Avranches, and is only accessible at low wa- order of the Polar Star, as a national compensation. In ter. Nature has completely fortified one side, by its craggy 1786 he was raised to the distinguished rank of privy and almost perpendicular descent, which renders it imprac- counsellor of justice by the court of Hanover ; and in 1788 ticable to ascend it by any address or courage. The other he received his last literary honour, by being unanimously parts are surrounded by walls fenced with semilunar towers elected a fellow of the Royal Society of London. His after the Gothic manner, but sufficiently strong, together great critical knowledge of the Hebrew language, which with the advantage of its situation, to render it impreg- he displayed in a new translation of the Bible, and in nable to any attack. At the foot of the mountain begins other works, raised him to a degree of eminence almost a street or town, which winds round its base to a consider- unknown before in Germany ; and his indefatigable laable height. Above are chambers where state-prisoners bours were only equalled by his desire of communicating are kept, and where there are other buildings intended for the knowledge he had acquired to the numerous students residence. On the summit is erected the abbey itself, oc- of all countries who frequented his admirable lectures, cupying a prodigious space of ground, and of a strength which he continued to deliver, in half-yearly courses, on and solidity equal to its enormous size; since it has for various parts of the sacred writings, and on the Hebrew, many centuries withstood all the injuries of the weather, Arabic, and Syriac languages, to the last year of his life. to which it is so much exposed. In an apartment called He was forty-five years professor in the university of Gotthe Salle de Chevalerie, the knights of St Michael used to tingen, and during that long period he filled the chair meet in solemn convocation on important occasions. They with dignity, credit, and usefulness. He died on the 22d oi were the defenders and guardians of this mountain and October 1791, in the seventy-fourth year of his age. MICHAELMAS, or Feast of ST MICHAEL and all abbey, as those of the Temple, and of St John of Jerusalem, were of the holy sepulchre. The hall in which they Angels, a festival of the Christian church, observed on the 29th of September. met is very spacious, but rude and barbarous. MICHEL ANGELO BUONAROTTI, the greatest MICHAEL’S Mount, St, in the county of Cornwall, and in the corner of Mount’s Bay, is a very high rock, only master of the arts of design who has appeared since divided by the tide from the main land, so that it is land the days of Phidias, was born in the castle of Caprese, and island twice a-day. The town here was burned by the in Tuscany, on the 6th of March 1474. His father, LuFrench in the reign of Henry VIII. At the bottom of dovico di Leonardo Buonarotti Simone, was a descenthis mount, in digging for tin, there have been found dant of the noble and illustrious family ot the counts spear-heads, battle-axes, and swords, of brass, all wrapt up of Canossa, and allied to the imperial blood. This cirin linen. The county is contracted here into a sort of cumstance had nearly occasioned the world the loss ot isthmus. Large trees have been driven in by the sea be- the great artist; for when the strong bias ot his mind became apparent, which occurred at a very early age, his fatween this mount and Penzance. MICHAELIS, JOHN DAVID, a celebrated biblical cri- ther and uncles discouraged his pursuits, and treated him tic, and author of many esteemed works, was the eldest with harshness, conceiving that their family would be de-

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traded should a scion of their race adopt the profession of artist. But objection, prejudice, and even persecution, proved useless when opposed to devoted attachment and irresistible genius. Michel Angelo received the rudiments of his education at Florence, the nursing-mother of the arts, and here he enjoyed ample facilities of gratifying his taste for drawing. Ludovico finding it hopeless to attempt to frustrate the intentions of nature, yielded at last to the advice of friends, and the wishes of his son, who was accordingly placed under Domenico Ghirlandaio, a distinguished professor of the arts of painting and design. The youth was articled to serve three years ; but, contrary to custom, instead of paying, he received a premium, an indubitable proof of his great merits, even at the age of fourteen. The original document by which he was engaged bears date April 1488. His earliest effort in oils showed that he was born to grapple with difficulties from which other men shrink, whilst his success proved that he was also destined to overcome them. The subject was St Antony beaten by devils. In this little picture, besides the figure of the saint, there were crowded wild and grotesque forms and monsters, to which he was so intent upon giving an aspect of reality, that he painted no part without referring to some natural object. But painting did not engross the whole of his time and attention. 1 he great patron of the arts at this period was Lorenzo de’ Medici, who, for the purpose of elevating sculpture to a level with painting, opened a garden in blorence, which he amply supplied with antique statues, bas-reliefs, busts, and the like. Thither the youth of the city repaired to study the classic creations of antiquity ; and it is scarcely necessary to say that it became the favourite haunt of Michel Angelo. From copying the drawings and paintings of others, his attention was turned to the modelling of figures in clay, in imitation of the monuments of ancient art; and the transition from this, the initiatory step in sculpture, to the mouldingofthe marble into symmetrical forms, was natural, and speedily withdrew his mind from every other study. The vigilant and practised eye of Lorenzo soon discovered the genius of the'youthful sculptor in the execution of a mask representing a laughing faun. His father was sent for, and requested to resign Michel to the care of the family ; and this being complied with, apartments were allotted to him in the ducal palace. Here he received every indulgence and attention, being treated with parental affection, and allowed to pursue the bent of his genius, not only without interruption, but cheered and encouraged by the cordial approbation of his munificent patron. Amongst the works which he executed under these favourable auspices, was a bas-relief representing the battle of the Centaurs; on viewing which at a future period of his life, he lamented that he had not confined himself to a branch of art therein he had so soon attained such excellence. This is the strongest evidence which could be produced of the rare merits of the sculpture ; for artists almost uniformly speak disparagingly of their early efforts. On the death of Lorenzo, which happened about two years after he had entered his service, Michel Angelo, with a heavy heart, returned to the paternal mansion. Nothing belonging to Lorenzo was inherited by his son Piero, except the territorial possessions of the family ; and although the young artist continued to pursue his studies with unabated zeal, little patronage or encouragement was to be expected or obtained from a frivolous debauchee. The pusillanimity of this person soon distracted the councils of Florence ; and Michel, to escape the storm which he saw impending over that city, retired to Bologna, but returned in about a year afterwards, when tranquillity had been restored. About this period there prevailed a sort of mania for the antique. Whilst the discoveries of antiquity created a new

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era in art and literature, the importance of which can never Michel be too highly estimated, many ignorant individuals, smit- v Angelo, ten with the enthusiasm of the time, betrayed their want of judgment by the indiscriminate manner in which they lavished their praise on these remains ; and Michel Angelo resolved to take advantage of the popular excitement. He executed a Sleeping Cupid ; and having stained the marble in such a way as to give it the appearance of a genuine antique, it was transmitted to a proper person in Rome, who, after burying it in his vineyard, dug it up, and then reported the discovery. The pardonable trick completely^ succeeded for a time, and the statue was bought by a cardinal for a considerable sum; but of this Michel Angelo received only a small portion. Such deceptions, however, seldom remain long concealed ; the officious zeal of friends, or the vanity of authorship, usually brings about the exposure of a successful imposition. After the mask was laid aside, and the real artist became known, he received a flattering invitation to visit Rome. Thither he accordingly repaired, and whilst there he executed a statue of Bacchus, another of a Cupid, and a group of the Virgin with a dead Christ reclining on her knees, together with a cartoon representing St Francis receiving the stigmata. The celebrated gonfaloniere, Pietro Soderini, well known as a patron of genius, having been elected to guard the peace and protect the liberties of Florence, Michel Angelo returned to that cify. With the sanction of the new chief magistrate, he was allowed to appropriate to his use a huge block of marble, which had for many years lain neglected in Florence; and out of this he executed a gigantic statue of David, which gave great satisfaction. He also cast a figure in bronze, of the size of nature, and a group of David and Goliath ; but, that his hand might not “ lose its cunning” in the sister art, he painted a Holy Family. This picture is preserved in the Florence gallery ; and it is the only painting in oil by Michel Angelo now remaining, the authenticity of which is not disputed. Having been commissioned to ornament the hall of the ducal palace with a cartoon, he chose for the subject an event connected with the war between the Florentines and Pisans. The work represents the Florentine soldiers, who, alarmed by an unexpected assault whilst bathing in the Arno, are getting out of the water with the utmost expedition, and preparing for action; and, although only outlined in charcoal, chalk, and the like, it was considered as the most extraordinary production which had appeared since the revival of the arts in Italy. In the mean time Julius II. having been raised to the pontifical throne, Michel Angelo was invited to the Vatican, whither he repaired without finishing the cartoon ; but being disgusted with Rome, he returned to Florence, and completed the design. The painting of the picture itself, however, w as never begun. Political events, and a second invitation from Julius II. again attracted him to the Eternal City, and he was employed by his holiness to construct a magnificent mausoleum, which, although immediately commenced, was interrupted during its progress, first on account of a misunderstanding between the artist and the pope, and afterwards from other causes. The artist repaired to Bologna, and political events having brought the pope to this city, a reconciliation took place. In a few days Julius II. ordered a colossal statue of himself to be executed in bronze, which Michel Angelo finished in sixteen months, and returned to Rome at the end of June 1508. He was, however, disappointed in his hopes of being allowed to proceed with his great architectural undertaking; for the pope had changed his mind, it is alleged through the jealousy of Bramante, and the artist was requested to decorate with pictures the ceiling and walls of the Sistine Chapel. But his primary disappointment was forgotten in his subsequent triumph. This stupendous work of genius excited the highest admiration.

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r MIC Michel which contemporary opinion and the judgment of after ages Angelo, have confirmed ; yet, from its commencement till its conelusion, only eighteen or twenty months elapsed.

After the death of Julius II. in 1513, the papal throne was filled by Leo X., whose magnificent reign forms an era in the intellectual history of modern times. Yet, strange as the fact may appear, the life of Michel Angelo during his pontificate is nearly an entire blank. He was employed in^extracting marble from a quarry which was wrought with difficulty, and in constructing a road over intricate swamps and through mountainous ridges, for the purpose of conveying it to the sea. Leo X. died in 1521, and under his successor Adrian VI., Michel Angelo employed himself upon the monument of Julius. The reign of Adrian was short, and on his death Clement VII. was raised to the papal throne. The confusion with which the civil affairs of Rome were soon overwhelmed, drove the artist to Florence, where he continued his architectural and other works for the chapel and library of S. Lorenzo, and executed a statue of Christ. His talents as an engineer were likewise put in requisition for the defence of the city. Before commencing the works, he visited Ferrara, then the best fortified town in Italy, and was received with the utmost courtesy by the Duke Alphonso, who showed him every part of the works, and at the same time requested a specimen of the artist’s abilities either in sculpture or in painting. A picture of Jupiter and Leda was the result; but this great production is generally supposed to have been lost. Michel Angelo was enabled to complete the fortifications of Florence before the siege of the city commenced ; and, as in the case of Syracuse, the genius of one individual for a considerable time proved more than a match for thousands of armed men and the mightiest engines of war. By treachery the city passed into the hands of the enemy; but the great artist, although he had shown the dexterity of Archimedes in frustrating the designs of the besiegers, did not share the fate of the great geometrician. The finishing of twro monuments for the Medici family was the price of his liberty. Tranquillity being restored to Italy, Buonarotti returned to Rome; and although frequently interrupted, both by Clement VII. and by his successor Paul III., he at last completed the monument to Julius II. It consists of seven statues, amongst which is the celebrated one of Moses, a production evincing, in a higher degree than any of his other sculptures, that character of majesty and sublimity which more or less pervades them all. Flis next work was the painting of the Last Judgment in the Sistine Chapel, which was finished in 1541 ; and so great was the admiration excited by this mighty effort of genius, that many persons came from distant parts of Italy to see it. He subsequently painted the martyrdom of St Peter and the conversion of St Paul, which cost him great fatigue, as age was beginning to impair his physical energies. But that his intellectual powers still retained their pristine vigour, the church of St Peter’s, the most splendid monument of his genius and success as an architect, affords ample evidence. This fabric was begun by Julius II. in 1506, and, being successively intrusted to Bramante and Antonio de San Gallo, by this transference from hand to hand it was in danger of becoming a huge incongruity. On the death of the last-named architect in 1546, Michel Angelo was appointed architect; and, notwithstanding the jarring and complexity of the original designs, he succeeded in simplifying and harmonizing the whole. The work proceeded for a time with considerable rapidity. But he was occasionally withdrawn from it to other things, such as the building of bridges, the superintendence of which might have been safely intrusted to some inferior person. During the latter years of his life the papal chair was filled by several pontiffs, some of whom forwarded, and others

MIC retarded, his great undertaking, employing him in the con- Michelstruction of chapels and other buildings. Nor did he live to dean I! witness the completion of this splendid edifice, the greatest and most magnificent Christian temple on earth. He was Michigan. carried off by a slow fever on the 17th of February 1563. His obsequies were celebrated as became the memory of so unrivalled a genius. Michel Angelo was of the middle stature, bony in his make, and rather spare, but broad over the shoulders. His complexion was good; his forehead was square, and somewhat projecting; his eyes were of a hazel colour, but rather small; and the general effect of his countenance was impaired by a blow which he had received in youth. The character of Michel Angelo as an artist has already been delineated in this work by a masterly hand (see the article ARTS, FINE). Grandeur of conception is the quality which distinguishes his works from those of all other artists who have appeared in modern times. Whether he excelled most in painting, in sculpture, or in architecture, it would not be easy to determine. He has left the noblest specimens of human genius in each department of art. He is the Milton of artists. Things beyond the visible diurnal sphere were within the range of his imagination ; and when he stoops to earth, he invests nature with an ideal grandeur and majesty. His boys are men, his men are a race of giants ; his demons are the evil spirits of Dante and Milton made visible : and his angels are the offspring of the sky. The Sistine Chapel is allowed to be the most finished wmrk of art in the world ; and its perfection is owing chiefly to Michel Angelo’s divine paintings. The whole wall behind the altar is covered by his picture of the Last Judgment; the vaulted ceiling represents the creation of the world, and around it are prophets and sibyls. In the sublime painting of the Last Judgment, terrible power is the predominating feature. The good and the bad, angels and devils, crowd the scene, and Christ is represented in the act of judging, or rather of condemning. His complete knowledge of anatomy, which he constantly studied, enabled him to represent in the most perfect manner the human figure in every possible attitude, and to express pain and despair through all their gradations. His other pictures exhibit the same daring sublimity of conception and power of execution. The church of St Peter’s at Rome j.s the most splendid triumph of his architectural talents. His style in architecture is distinguished by grandeur and boldness; and, in his ornaments, the untamed character of his imagination is frequently apparent, in his preference of the uncommon to the simple and elegant. In sculpture, his statue of Moses is universally acknowledged to be the noblest monument of his genius, displaying, more than any other of his numerous works in this department of art, ail the great qualities of his mind. Michel Angelo was like wise an author, and excelled both in verse and prose. His works have been printed in several collections; but they have also been published separately. (R. R. R.) MICHELDEAN, a town of the county of Gloucester, in the hundred of St Breavell, 119 miles from London. It is on the western side of the Severn, in the forest of Dean, which abounds in mines of coal, and in iron-works, that have consumed much of the wood that formerly covered it. The town consists principally of one long street, and has a market which is held on Monday. The population amounted in 1801 to 563, in 1811 to 535, in 1821 to 556, and in 1831 to 601. MICHIGAN, one of the United States of North America, which, until 1835, was denominated a territory. It is situated between 41. 38. 58. and 46. 50. of north latitude, and 82. 15. and 87. 10. of west longitude, being bounded on the north by the Straits of Michilimackinac, on the south by Ohio and Indiana, on the west by Lake Michigan, and on the east by Lakes Huron, St Clair, and

MICHIGAN.

Michigan. Erie, and their waters. It may be described generally as 'a large peninsula, somewhat resembling a triangle, with its base resting upon the states of Ohio and Indiana. It is two hundred and fifty miles in length from north to south, from one hundred and eighty to two hundred miles in breadth from east to west, and comprehends a superficies of about 36,000 square miles. The surface of this state is generally level, or gently undulating, there being no mountains, nor even elevations, with the exception of a strip of table-land, stretching north and south, and assuming toAvards the north the character of a ridge, but at the highest it is only three hundred feet above the level of the lakes. Notwithstanding the almost uniform flatness of the country, there is comparatively little swampy or wet land ; at any rate, not so much as is found on the northern belt of the state of Ohio adjoining the lakes. The soil is a bed of alluvial earth from thirty to one hundred and fifty feet deep, resting upon limestone and argillaceous sandstone. Ferriferous sand rock, saliferous rock, and millstone grit, are found alternating on the surface, at various points in the middle and western parts of the peninsula. The general level of the interior, towards the sources of the rivers, is interspei'sed with lakes and morasses; and a considerable belt of land along the southern shore of Lake Michigan is sandy and sterile, being exposed to the bleak and desolating gales of the lake. But a great proportion of the land is fertile, and well adapted to the purposes of agriculture. The country generally is divided into nearly equal proportions of grass prairies, distinguished, according to their prevailing character, by the names of wet and dry ; and broad and deep forests of trees, nearly similar to those of Kentucky, namely, black walnut, black cherry, honey locust, buck-eye, pawpaw", sugar-tree, mulberry, elm, ash, hawthorn, coffee-tree, and the grand yellow poplar, which indicates the richest soil. South of a line drawn due west from the southern extremity of Lake Huron, Michigan consists of open land, known by the name of Oak Plains. The soil is a loam, with varying proportions of clay. It becomes fertile by cultivation, and is good farm land. In the country bordering on the Kalemagoo and St Joseph Rivers, prairies of a black, rich, alluvial soil, and unusual productiveness, frequently occur. The northern part of the peninsula is less known, being occupied by Indians ; but the land there is in many parts more elevated than that farther south, and is covered with the trees usually met with in those latitudes. Amongst the minerals found in this state may be mentioned bog iron ore, lead ore, gypsum, and bituminous coal, but none of them are present in great quantities. Peat is abundant in many parts. There is a plentiful supply of water everywhere; rivers with their tributaries, and small lakes and springs, being unusually numerous. The principal stream is Grand River, which flows into Lake Michigan. It rises in the south-east angle of the state, and interlocks at its sources, or in its course, with the waters of the Raisin (which derives its name from the number of vine-trees on its banks), the Black, the Mastigon, and the Saganum. Small boats reach its source, and, by means of this river and that of the Huron, periogues pass from Lake Michigan to Lake Erie. The St Joseph is a considerable stream, falling also into Lake Michigan; as do the Kikalamezo, Barbue, Beauvaise, St Nicholas, Marguettes, and other rivers. On the other side of the peninsula are the Detroit, which is twenty-five miles in length, and above a mile in average breadth ; the St Clair, which is forty miles in length and half a mile in average breadth; the St Mary’s, which is fifty miles in length and three quarters of a mile in average breadth ; and the Huron, Thunder, and Sagana, which are considerable rivers. Other streams there are in abundance, but not of such magnitude as to merit particular attention. The peninsula of Michigan being surrounded upon all

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sides, excepting the southern extremity, with water, the va-Michigan, rious lakes and straits require to be described. That lake which bears the name of the state is one of the five great lakes in the northern part of the United States. It is nearly three hundred miles in length, about sixty miles in breadth, and has an average depth of about nine hundred feet. The waters are clear and wholesome, and contain many kinds offish. In the north-west part there are two large bays, called Noquet’s and Green ; and on the east side there are also two, called Sable and Grand Traverse. Lake Michigan is connected with Lake Huron by the Straits of Michilimackinac, a channel forty miles in length from east to west, and four miles in breadth at the narrowest part. Lake Huron is two hundred and eighty miles in length, about ninety miles in breadth, and has a medium depth of nine hundred feet. There are two large bays on this lake called Thunder and Sagana, the latter of which is about forty miles in length, by from eight to twelve in breadth. Lake Huron is connected with Lake St Clair by a strait of the same name, twenty-six miles in length, and having deep groves of beautiful white pine all along its banks. Lake St Clair is only twenty-four miles in length by forty in breadth, and about twenty feet in depth. It is connected with Lake Erie by the Strait of Detroit, which is twenty-four miles in length, narrow, and studded with islands, but navigable by large vessels. A rise and fall of water has been observed in some of these inland seas, particularly at certain points of Lakes Michigan and Huron ; but the experiments instituted have failed to determine whether these are to be regarded as tides corresponding with the flux and reflux of the ocean. In the interior of this state there are great numbers of small lakes and ponds, from which the rivers chiefly derive their origin. In consequence of the level nature of this region, and from its being nearly surrounded by a belt of noble lakes, the climate is milder and more temperate than might have been expected from its latitude. The southern parts are, of course, more so than the northern, which is subjected to a Canadian temperature. The transition from the cold of spring to the heat of summer is rapid; but the change from summer to winter proceeds by slow degrees. .As generally characterising the climate, the spring may be termed wet and backward, with an average temperature of 50° of Fahrenheit j the summer dry, wuth a temperature of 80°; the autumn mild, with a temperature of from 60° to 65°; and the winter dry but cold, the temperature being only from 20° to 25° upon an average. The winter commences early in November, and does not terminate until the end of March. The climate throughout the whole state is considered as healthy. From the general fertility of the soil, the productions, as well natural as cultivated, are numerous. The wild rice or wild oats, which covers the marshes near the margins of the lakes and rivers, is a valuable grain of the former class. The great varieties of forest trees we have already noticed. Wheat, Indian corn, oats, barley, buck-wheat, potatoes, turnips, peas, apples, pears, plums, cherries, and peaches, are raised easily and in abundance; and no part of the United States is more abundantly supplied with fish, aquatic game, and wild fowls. The country is favourable to cultivated grasses, more so than the territory to the westward; and in all respects it is well adapted to farming operations. Possessing admirable facilities for commerce, Michigan enjoys considerable trade. A number of steam-boats are continually plying upon the lakes, bays, and rivers, by far the largest proportion of which belong to Detroit, the capital. No inland country, considering its comparatively recent settlement, possesses a greater trade. The value of the imports for the year ending 30th September 1833 was 63,876 dollars, and the value of the exports for the same year was 9051 dollars; the whole consisting of domestic produce.

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MICHIGAN.

Michigan. Detroit is the political capital, and the only place of any “v'"'—" size in the state. It is situated upon the western bank of the river of the same name, eighteen miles from Lake Erie, and seven from Lake St Clair. It was settled as early as 1683 by the French from Canada, who penetrated these inland districts for the purpose -of prosecuting the fur trade. Its site is an elevation of between twenty and thirty feet above the level of the river, and the plain upon which it stands is adorned with beautiful and romantic scenery. The plan of the town upon the river, and for twelve hundred feet backwards, is rectangular ; behind this it is triangular. The streets are wide and airy, three of them running parallel to the river ; and these again are crossed at right angles by six other streets. It contains above four hundred houses, some of which are built of stone. The public edifices are, a council-house, Statehouse, United States store, a Presbyterian church, a Roman Catholic chapel, and other buildings. Three roads, constructed by the general government, terminate in the centre of this town ; the Chicago, leading to Illinois ; the Sigana, leading to the head of Sigana Bay; and the fort Gratiot, to the foot of Lake Huron. A United States road, leading from Detroit to Ohio, has also been completed. Several wharfs project into the river, one of which is 140 feet long; and vessels of 400 tons burden can load and unload at its head. The population of this place in 1830 amounted to 2222, but it has since been greatly augmented. A strong and increasing tide of immigration has set in; and as its situation is favourable for a very extensive inland commerce, it must rapidly rise into a town of considerable importance. Hitherto its prosperity has depended principally on the precarious support afforded by the fur trade, the disbursement of public monies whilst it was a military post, and the liberal appropriations of government for public objects. But the settlement and cultivation of the surrounding country has advanced considerably, and the impulse and vitality which this has imparted to trade is already great. In 1834 it possessed thirteen steam-boats, one brig, thirty-three schooners, and thirty-five sloops, being an aggregate tonnage of four thousand nine hundred and thirteen. A considerable number of these vessels trade between Detroit and Ohio; others go regularly to Buffalo and other places. All along the banks of the Detroit River are numerous mansions, chiefly built by the French. They are embosomed in ancient and rich orchards, all having an appearance of comfort, and some of splendour and opulence. Mackinac, or Michilimackinac, is a post-town and also a military post in this state. It is situated on an island of the same name, about nine miles in circumference, lying in the strait which connects Lakes Huron and Michigan. The town stands on the south-east side of the island, on a small cove, which is surrounded by a steep cliff one hundred and fifty feet in height. It consists of.two streets running parallel with the lake, intersected by others at right angles, and contains a court-house, a jail, and several stores. It is much resorted to by fur traders, and during the summer months is visited by thousands of Indians on their way to Drummond’s Island. On a cliff above the town is the fort, which is remarkably strong, indeed almost impregnable. The population of the island may be about 1000. There are a number of other islands in Lake Michigan, the largest of which, called Manitou, is six miles in length and four in breadth. Fort Gratiot is a military post on St Clair River, and defends the entrance into Lake Huron. The Sault de St Marie is of importance as a military and trading post, being at the head of ship navigation on the great lakes, and the grand thoroughfare of Indian communication for the upper countries as far as the arctic circle, ad the fur trade of the north-west necessarily

passing through it. The government of the United States Michigan, resolved to occupy this post, and in June 1820 obtained from the Chippewayan Indians the cession of a tract of land four miles square, commencing at the Sault, and extending two miles up and the same distance down, with a depth of four miles. Michigan being now one of the principal points of immigration, a correct statement of the n umber of inhabitants is not to be expected. The counties into which the state of Michigan is divided, the seats of justice, and the number of inhabitants, are shown in the following table. Topographical Table.

Counties.

Berrien Branch Calhoun...., Cass Jackson Kalmazoo... Lenawee.... Macomb.... Monroe Oakland.... St Clair St Joseph... Washtenaw, Wayne

Population.

1,787 764 3,280 1,865 3,124 7,911 6,035 6,055 8,542 13,844 2,244 3,168 14,920 16,638

Seats of Justice.

Berrien Branch Eckford Cassopolis.... Jacksonburg. Bronson Tecumseh.... Mount Clemens Monroe Pontiac St Clair White Pigeon... Ann Arbour.... Detroit

Distance from Detroit.

180 133 100

160 77 137 63 25 36 26 60 125 42

The population, as shown in the above table, is 85,856, and it is given according to the census taken near the end of the year 1834. The number of counties at the commencement of the year 1836 was 36 ; and the population in July 1836 was supposed to amount to 120,000. The Indians who reside in this state are chiefly the Ottawas, Miamies, Pottawattomies, Chippeways, and Wyandots. By different treaties they have ceded the greater part of their native soil to the United States; but they still retain some fine tracts of country, and have many reservations and villages even amongst the settlements. The Ottawas and ChippewayS are hunters and trappers. The former are the most agricultural in their habits ; and a band of this tribe have a flourishing settlement at L’Arbre Croche, on the western coast of Lake Huron. Some of the Indians have made »no inconsiderable advances in cultivation and the arts of civilized life. Most of the converts to Christianity are Roman Catholics; but the Protestants have within these few years established missionary stations and schools amongst them. Their numbers are gradually diminishing, and the whole may not exceed 8000. The borders of St Clair River and Lake, Rivers Detroit, Raisin, Clinton, and Plaisance Bay at the mouth of the Raisin, are settled by French inhabitants. They occupy a belt of land upon the borders of these streams, three miles broad. They are civil, honest, unobtrusive, and industrious, with little education, and essentially deficient in enterprise. This state began to be regularly settled about the beginning of the last century. Under the French the government was arbitrary, uniting the civil and military authority in the power of a “ commandant.” In the year 1763 it passed into the hands of the British, along with other possessions in this quarter, which had been wrested from the crown of France. By the treaty of Paris of 1783, the country was transferred to the United States; and although the British government held possession of the military posts until 1796, it ceased to exercise criminal jurisdiction over it from that period. Subsequently it was

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into a district territorial government. Upon the out this state. The legislature is to provide for a system Mickle, breaking out of the last war with America, this state be- of common schools, by which a school may be kept up and '""■'■'v— came the theatre of part of the military operations. Mac- supported in each district at least three months in the kinack was captured by the British, and Chicago surren- year ; and any district neglecting to keep and support such dered to the savages. Soon afterwards the Americans a school may be deprived of its equal proportion of the made an inglorious surrender of Detroit, of which Britain interest of the public fund. Besides the state of Michigan, there is a tract of counheld possession for a year. But the disastrous affair on Lake Erie, together with the subsequent defeat of the Bri- try lying to the westward of Lake Michigan, which goes tish on land, changed the current of success, and Michigan by the same name, and is attached to the state without was again amalgamated with the United States. For being included in it. This region is bounded on the east many years it continued to be only what is called a terri- by Lake Michigan, on the north by Lake Superior and the tory, sending a delegate to Congress, who was elected bi- chain of small lakes connecting that inland sea with the ennially, and might debate in the great council of the na- heads of the Mississippi, and on the west and north-west by tion, but could not vote on any question. On the 11th of the Upper Mississippi. It has not been thoroughly explorMay 1835 a constitution was formed by a convention which ed ; but, judging of the whole from those portions which met at Detroit, with a view to the erection of Michigan have been examined, it is likely to become of great inteinto a free and independent state. This being submitted rest and importance as its natural resources are deveto the people for ratification or rejection in the October fol- loped. The district included between the Fox and Wislowing, was approved of, and forwarded to congress, which, cousin Rivers is particularly inviting. The soil is a rich towards the close of the session of 1836, passed an act ad- black alluvial mould, irrigated by innumerable streams of mitting Michigan into the Union as a state. The follow- water, unbroken by mountain ridges, and in all respects ading are some of the principal features of the constitution, mirably adapted for agriculture. From its northern boundary south to the Milwalky and the heads of Rock River, taken from the American Almanac for 1836. The powers of the government are divided into three dis- it is covered with a dense forest, which, as traced farther tinct departments; the legislative, executive, and judicial. down to the southern head of Lake Michigan, opens into The legislative power is vested in a senate and house of re- fertile and extensive prairies. It has been remarked as a presentatives. The representatives are chosen annually, geological characteristic, that the pebbles which are usually and their number cannot be less than forty-eight, or greater found upon the surface of these prairies, and to a depth of than a hundred. The senators are chosen for two years, two or three feet downwards, are entirely wanting. Clay one half of them every year, and they consist as nearly as constitutes the succeeding stratum. More than 36,000,000 possible of one third of the number of the representatives. pounds of lead were yielded by the mining district in this An enumeration of the inhabitants is to be made in 1837 region from the autumn of 1824 to that of 1829. Strong and 184*5, and every ten years after the latter period; and indications of the presence of copper appear on the southafter every enumeration so made, and also after each enu- ern shore of Lake Superior. By the treaty of Prairie du meration made by order of the United States, the number Chien, which was entered into in 1829, the^United States of senators and representatives is to be apportioned anew purchased from several Indian tribes a tract of about six amongst the several counties, according to the number of millions of acres of land, of which between two and three white inhabitants. The legislature meets on the first Mon- millions are supposed to be within the limits of the terriday in January every year. The executive power is vest- tory. About one hundred and thirty-two thousand acres ed in a governor, who holds his office during two years, and in the vicinity of Green Bay have likewise been ceded. a lieutenant-governor, who holds his office for the same The former cession comprehends nearly all the mining dis- . period. The governor, lieutenant-governor, and members trict of the Upper Mississippi, and is occupied by various Indian tribes. The white population, which is confined of the legislature, are chosen at the same time. The judicial power is vested in one supreme court, and chiefly to Green Bay, is estimated at six thousand. Miliin such other courts as the legislature may from time to tary posts are established at Green Bay, Prairie du Chien, time establish. The judges of the supreme court are ap- Fort Snelling on the river St Peters, and Fort Winnepointed by the governor, with the advice and consent of bago at the portage of the Fox and Wiscousin Rivers. the senate, for the term of seven years. Judges of all Settlements more or less extensive have been formed at county courts, associate judges of circuit courts, and judges Green Bay, Pembino on Red River, Lake Winnepeg, of probate, are elected by the people, for the term of four- Prairie du Chien, the Mississippi, and the lead mine borteen years. Each township is authorized to elect four jus- dering on the latter river and the Wiscousin. (R. R. R.) MICKLE, WILLIAM JULIUS, the translator of the Lutices of the peace, who hold their offices for four years. In all elections every white male citizen above the age of siad, was the son of Mr Alexander Mickle, a Scottish twenty-one years, having resided six months immediately clergyman, who had formerly been a dissenting minister preceding any election, is entitled to vote at such election. in London, an assistant to Dr Watts, and one of the transSlavery, lotteries, and the sale of lottery tickets, are pro- lators of Bayle’s Dictionary. He was born in London hibited. The seat of government is at Detroit, or such about the year 1735, and educated by his father, after other place or places as may be prescribed by law, until whose death he came to Edinburgh to reside with his the year 1847, when it is to be permanently fixed by the uncle, who was a brewer there, and who admitted him legislature. The governor has power to nominate, with into a share of his business; but not being qualified to the advice and consent of the legislature, a superintendent succeed in this line, he went to London about the time of of public instruction, who shall hold his office for two years, the conclusion of the war which began in 1755, with a and whose duties are prescribed by law. The legislature view to procure a commission in the marine service. In is required to encourage, by all suitable means, the pro- this he was disappointed; but he introduced himself to motion of intellectual, scientific, and agricultural improve- the first Lord Lyttelton, to whom he sent one of his poems. ment. The proceeds of all lands which have been or may From his lordship, however, he received no other favour be granted by the Union to this state for the support of than that of being admitted to several interviews, and enschools, and which shall hereafter be sold or disposed of, couraged to persevere in his poetical plans. From the time of Mr Mickle’s arrival in London till the are to remain a perpetual fund, the interest of which, together with the rent of all such unsold lands, is to be year 1765, it is not known how he employed his time, inviolably appropriated to the support of schools through- although it is probable that he was occupied in some branch £ VOL. xv.

Michigan, erected

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Micro- of the printing business ; and in that year he engaged himtnoter. self as corrector to the Clarendon press. From this time till 1770, he published several small pieces in prose and verse, which brought him into some notice ; and he was likewise a frequent writer in the Whitehall Evening Post. When not more than seventeen 3rears of age, he had read Gastara's translation of the Lusiad of Camoens into French, and then projected the design of giving an English version of that poem. This, however, he was prevented from executing by various avocations till the year 1771, when he published the first book as a specimen ; and having prepared himself by acquiring some knowledge of the Portuguese language, he determined to apply himself entirely to the task of translation. With this view he quitted his residence at Oxford, and went to a farm-house at Forest Hill, where he pursued his design with unremitting assiduity till the year 1775, when the work was completed. During the time that Mr Mickle was engaged in this work, he subsisted entirely by his employment as corrector of the press; and on his quitting that employment he had only the subscriptions which he received for his translation to support him. But notwithstanding these difficulties, he adhered steadily to the plan he laid down, and completed his task in about five years. When his work had been finished, Mr Mickle applied to a person of high rank, with whom his family had been connected, for permission to dedicate it to him. The permission sought was granted, and his patron honoured him with a very polite letter ; but after receiving a copy, the latter did not think prop'er to take any notice of the author. The applause with which the work was received, however, soon banished from the author’s mind the disagreeable sensations which had been occasioned by the contemptuous neglect of his patron, as well as some severe criticisms which

C

had been circulated concerning it. A second edition was Micone prepared in 1778; and whilst he was meditating a publiII cation of all his poems, he was appointed secretary to Commodore Johnstone, who had obtained the command ^ of the Romney. In November 1779 he arrived at Lisbon, and was appointed by his patron joint agent for the prizes which were taken. . In June 1782 Mr Mickle married Miss Tomkins, daughter of the person with whom he had resided at Forest Hill whilst engaged in translating the Lusiad. Having received some fortune with this lady, and made a little money himself when in the service of Commodore Johnstone, he now enjoyed a comfortable independence. He afterwards fixed his residence at Wheatley, in Oxfordshire, where he died after a short illness, on the 25th of October 1788, leaving a son behind him. His poetry possesses considerable beauty, variety, and harmony of numbers. His life was without reproach; his foibles were few and inoffensive, his virtues many, and his genius respectable. MICONE, an island of the Archipelago, in the Turkish province of Andros, which, with the small islands which surround it, contains forty-six square miles, and about 6000 • inhabitants, living in one town of the same name, and in many detached rural hamlets. Although the soil is not good, and there is a scarcity of water, yet much wine and some corn, besides olives and figs, are produced. A great number of seamen*are educated in the island. There are very few Turks, except the officers of government. Long. 25. 59. E. Lat. 37. 30. N. MICROCOSM, a Greek term signifying a little world, and used by some for man, who is supposed to be an epitome of the universe or great world. MICROGRAPHY, the description of objects viewed with the assistance of a microscope. See MICROSCOPIC OBJECTS.

MICROMETER. MICROMETER, from /i/zpo;, small, and [tsrzov, a measure, is the name of an instrument generally applied to telescopes and microscopes, for measuring small angular distances within the field of the former, or the size of small objects within that of the latter. Previously to the invention of the telescope, astronomers experienced great difficulty in measuring small angles in the heavens ; but we may safely infer from the observations of Hipparchus, that he had succeeded, either by the actual division of his instruments, or by estimation, in determining celestial arcs to one third of a degree. When the telescope was applied by Galileo, and our countryman Harriot, to the examination of the solar spots, it does not appear that they executed their drawings from any other than estimated measures. This indeed seems quite certain in the case of Harriot, whose original sketches we have had an opportunity of inspecting.' The elaborate solar observations of Scheiner made in 1611, with a telescope on a polar axis, and published in 1630 in his Rosa Ursina, though minutely laid down, and performed with great care, were certainly made without any instrument for subdividing the field of view. Gascoigne. As telescopic observations, however, multiplied, astronomers felt the necessity of having something more accurate than their eye for ascertaining minute distances in the heavens ; and there can be no doubt that a micrometer was invented by our countryman Mr Gascoigne, previous to 1640, not long after the publication of the Rosa Ursina. According to the description of it which he addressed in

.

1

a letter to Mr Oughtred, and to the account of one of Gascoigne’s own instruments which Dr Hooke examined, its construction is as follows:—A small cylinder, stretch- , ing across the eye-tube of the telescope, is cut into a fine screw throughout one third of its length, the other two thirds being formed into a coarser screw, with threads at twice the distance. This compound screw is confined at both ends to its place, the fine part of it passing through a female screw in one bar, and the coarse part through a female screw in another bar, these two bars being grooved into each other, as in a sliding rule. Hence, if a nicely ground edge is fixed to one bar, and another to the other * bar, so that these edges are accurately parallel, a motion of the screw round its axis will separate these two edges, and each edge will move with a different velocity. The parts of a revolution are measured by an index and divided face, at the coarse end of the screw, while the number of whole revolutions is measured by a graduated bar moved by the coarse screw. The fine screw serves the purpose of keeping the middle part of this variable field (or the opening between the edges) in the axis or line of collimation of the telescope ; for while the coarse screw moves the edge which it carries from the other edge considered as fixed, the fine screw moves both the edges, and indeed the whole frame, in an opposite direction, with one half of the velocity, an effect which is produced by fixing its bar to the tube of the telescope.1 As Mr Gascoigne fell in the civil wars, near Y’ork, in 1644, before he had given any full account of his invention, and its application to as-

See Phil. Trans. No. 29, p. 540, Nov. 1667 ; Lowthorp’s Abridgment, voh i. p. 226 ; and Costard’s History of Astronomy.

11

MICROMETER. Introduction.

Hooke.

Mai vasia.

Auzout.

Huygens.

tronomy, we are indebted to Mr Richard Townley, into whose hands one of the instruments fell, for the preservation of so valuable a relic. Mr Townley informs us that Mr Gascoigne had made use of his micrometer for some vears before the civil wars, and had measured distances on the earth, determined the diameters of the planets, and erfdeavoured to find the moon’s distance from two observations of her horizontal and meridional diameters. Mr Townley’s instrument was of the size and weight of “ an ordinary pocket watch.” It marked 40,000 divisions in a foot, 2^ divisions corresponding to a second of space. Mr Townley had it improved by a common watchmaker. Flamsteed was presented with one of the instruments in 1670, by Sir Jonas Moore ; but though he left three guineas with Mr Collins to get proper glasses made for it, he could not procure them till autumn 1671, when he began his observations with it at Derby, and1 continued them with it in 1671, 1672, 1673, and'1674. He informs us that Townley’s improvement consisted in substituting one screw for two. He mentions also that Gascoigne had, in August 1640, measured with his micrometer the diameters of the sun and moon, and the relative distances of the stars in the Pleiades. Dr Hooke made an important improvement in this micrometer, by substituting parallel hairs for the parallel edges of the brass plates;2 and Dr Pearson conjectures that he had adopted this construction in his zenith sector, by which he proposed, in his dispute with Hevelius, to measure single seconds. It would appear, from the Ephemerides of the Marquis of Malvasia, published in the year 1662, that he had measured the distances of stars, and the diameters of the planets, and projected the lunar spots, by means of a reticle of silver wire fixed in the focus of the eye-glass of his telescope. In order to determine the distances of the wires which composed this network, he turned it round till a star moved along one of the wires, and having counted the number of seconds which the star took to pass over the different distances between the wires, he obtained a very accurate scale for all micrometrical purposes. About the year 1666, MM. Auzout and Picard, unacquainted with what had been done by Gascoigne, published an account of a micrometer.3 Auzout’s micrometer is said to have divided a foot into 24,000 or 30,000 parts. It resembled the Marquis of Malvasia’s, with this difference, that the divisions were measured by a screw, and he sometimes employed fibres of silk in place of silver wires. The celebrated Christian Huygens was also an early inventor of micrometrical methods ; and the subject wras prosecuted with great diligence and success by Cassini, Roemer, Bradley, Savary, Bouguer, Dollond, Maskelyne, Ramsden, Sir W. Herschel, Troughton, Wollaston, Arago, Fraunhofer, and Amici. In giving an account of the inventions and methods of these various authors, we shall adopt the following arrangement :— 1. Description of wire-micrometers in which the wires are moved by one or more screws. 2. Description of wire-micrometers in which the angular distance of the wires is varied optically, by changing the magnifying power of the telescope. 3. Description of double-image micrometers in which two singly refracting lenses, semi-lenses, or prisms, are separated by screws. 4. Description of double-image micrometers in which the two images formed by two singly refracting lenses, semi-lenses, or prisms, are separated optically. 1

5. Description of double-image micrometers in which the twro images are formed by double refraction. 6. Description of position-micrometers. 7. Description of the lamp-micrometer, and the lucid disc micrometer. 8. Description of fixed micrometers with an invariable scale. 9. Description of micrometers for microscopes. CHAP. I

Wire-Mi-

crometers.

DESCRIPTION OF WIRE-MICROMETERS IN WHICH

THE WIRES ARE MOVED BY MEANS OF ONE OR MORE SCREWS.

The micrometer of Gascoigne, when furnished with Troughhairs, as suggested by Dr Hooke, embodies the principle ton’s wireof the best and most recent micrometers. Instruments on tGr nncromethis construction have been made by all our eminent opti- ' cians ; but we have no hesitation in saying, that the micrometer constructed by the late celebrated artist Mr 1 roughton combines all the ingenuity which has been displayed in this delicate and useful apparatus. This eye-piece, and micrometer attached to it, are shown in Plate CCCLVII. fig. 1, 2, and 3, where fig. 1 is a horizontal section in the direction of the axis of the telescope. The eye-piece AB consists of two plano-convex lenses A, B, of nearly the same focal length, and the two convex sides facing each other. They are placed at a distance less than the focal length of A, so that the wires of the micrometer, which must be distinctly seen, are beyond B. This arrangement gives a fiat field, and prevents any distortion of the object. This eye-piece slides into the tube CD, which screws into the brass ring EF, through two openings, in which the oblong frame MW passes. A brass circle GH, fixed to the telescope by the screw' I, has rack-teeth on its circumference, that receive the teeth of an endless screw W, which, being fixed by the arms XX to the oblong box MN, gives the latter and the eye-piece a motion of rotation round the axis of the telescope ; and an index upon this box points out on the graduated circle upon GH, fig. 3, the angular motion of the eye-piece. The micrometer properly so called is shown in fig. 2, where K, L are two forks, each connected with a screw O and P, turned by the milled heads M and N. These forks are so fitted as to have no lateral shake. Two pins Q, R, with spiral springs coiled round them, pass loosely through holes in the forks K, L, so that when the forks are pressed by their screws towards Q.and R, the spiral springs resist them, and consequently push them back when the screws are turned in the opposite direction. Two fine hairs, or wires, or spiders’ lines, S, T, are stretched across the forks, the one being fixed to the inner fork K, and the other to the outer fork L, so as to be perfectly parallel, and not to come in contact when they pass or eclipse one another, in which case they will appear as one line. A wire ST is stretched across the centre of the field, perpendicular to the parallel wires. The most difficult part of this instrument in the execution, as well as the most important, is the screw or screws which move the forks. The threads must not only be at the same distance, but have their inclination equal all round. In the screw used by Troughton, there are about 103'6 threads in an inch. On the right hand of the line ST, fig. 2, is seen a scale, which indicates a complete revolution of either screw, the small round hole being the zero. This hole is bisected when the two lines appear as one. In using this instrument, we separate the wires by their respective screws, till the object to be measured is exactly

See Mr Baily’s Account of the Reverend John Flamsteed, 1835, p. 24, 29, &c. 3 Phih Trans. No. 21, p. 373, January 1660.

2

Hooke’s Posthumous W orks, p. 497-8.

12

MICROMETER.

included between them. The number of revolutions and crometers. parts of a revolution necessary to bring the two wires into the position of zero, will then be a measure of the angle required, provided the value of a revolution has been previously ascertained with accuracy. Methods The easiest method of ascertaining the value of a revoof finding lution of the screw, according to the late Dr Pearson, who the value devoted much attention to this subject, is to ascertain how of a revolution of many revolutions and parts of one measure exactly the the screw. sun’s vertical diameter in summer, when his altitude is such that the refraction of both limbs is almost the same. The sun’s diameter in seconds being divided by that number, the quotient will be the value of a single revolution, the sun’s diameter having been corrected by the difference between the refraction of his two limbs. The ordinary method of ascertaining the value of a revolution is, to observe accurately the time taken by an equatorial star, or a star of known declination reduced to the equator, to pass over the space between the wires when at a distance, and to convert this time into degrees, at the rate of 15° per hour. The number of degrees, minutes, and seconds, divided by the revolutions and parts of a revolution which are necessary to bring both wires into zero, will give the value of one revolution of the screw. The same thing may be done by measuring a base with great accuracy, and observing the space comprehended between the wires at that distance. The angular magnitude of this space, divided by the number of revolutions of the screws which bring the wires to zero, will be the value of each. New meA most elegant and accurate method has been recently thod. employed, we believe by Professor Gauss of Gottingen, for measuring the value of the revolutions of micrometer screws. He employs for this purpose a standard telescope, with a micrometer the value of whose scale has been accurately determined. Since the wires of a telescope-micrometer adjusted to distinct vision of the stars or planets are accurately in the focus of parallel rays falling on the. object-glass, it follows, that rays issuing from the wires and falling on the inside of the object-glass, will emerge from it perfectly parallel. Now, if we place the object-glass of the standard telescope close or near to that of the first telescope, the parallel rays formed by those issuing from its wires will be refracted to the focus of the standard telescope, and a distinct image of the wires will be there formed. The observer, therefore, when he looks into the standard telescope, will see distinctly the wires of the first telescope, and, by means of his micrometer, he will be able to measure exactly the angular distance of these wires, at whatever distance they happen to be placed. This angular distance divided by the revolutions and parts of a revolution which are necessary to bring the wires of the first telescope to the zero of their scale, will give the value of one revolution of the screw, or of one unit of the scale on the right hand of the long wire ST, fig. 2. Fibres for The most essential parts of a micrometer are the paralmicrome- lel fibres, which require not only to be extremely fine, but ters. of an uniform diameter throughout. Gascoigne, as we have seen, employed the edges of brass plates, Dr Hooke hairs, and subsequent astronomers wires and fibres of silk. Fontana, in 1775, recommended the spider’s line as a substitute for wires, and he is said (we think erroneously) to have obtained them so fine as the 8000th part of a line. Mr Troughton had the merit of introducing the spider’s line, which he found to be so fine, opaque, and elastic, as to answer all the purposes of practical astronomy. This distinguished artist, however, informed the writer of this article, that it was only the stretcher, or the long line which sustains the web, which possesses these useful properties. Sir David Brewster has employed the fibres of spun glass, which are bisected longitudinally with a fine transparent line about the yo^Q-th of an inch in diameter. This central Wire-Mi-

line increases with the diameter of the fibre, and diminishes Wire-Mi. with the refractive power of the glass. In cases of emer- crometera. gency, the fibres of melted sealing-wax may be advantageously employed, or, as recommended by Professor Wallace, the fibres of asbestos. We have found crystals of mesolite so minute and regular as to be well adapted for the same purpose. The art of forming silver wire of extreme minuteness w0llashas been perfected by Dr Wollaston. Having placed a ton’s fine small platinum wire in the axis of a cylindrical mould, he wires, poured melted silver into the mould, so that the platinum wire formed the axis of the silver cylinder. The silver was now drawn out in the usual way, till its diameter was about the 300th of an inch, so that if the platinum wire was at first jQth of the diameter of the silver cylinder, it will now be reduced to the 3000th part of an inch. The silver wire is now bent into the form of the letter U, and a hook being made at each of its ends, it is suspended by a gold wire in hot nitric acid. The silver is speedily dissolved by the acid, excepting at its ends, and the fine platinum wire which formed its axis remains untouched. In this way Dr Wollaston succeeded in forming wire ^ly^th, jy^th, and even ygjjgoth of an inch in diameter. When the fibres are prepared, their ends are placed in parallel scratches or grooves drawn on the forks, or, in other cases, on the diaphragm or field bar, and fixed by a layer of bees’ wax or varnish, or, what is more secure, by pinching them with a small screw-nail near their extremities. For a great deal of valuable practical information respecting the construction and use of the wire-micrometer, the reader is referred to the late Dr Pearson’s Introduction to Practical Astronomy (vol. ii. p. 99, 110, 115, &c.), where valuable tables will be found for facilitating the application of the micrometer, both to celestial and terrestrial purposes. See also Sir John Herschel and Sir James South’s Observations of SSO Double and Triple Starsfp. 22, 23), containing tables of the values of Troughton’s screws. CHAP. II.

DESCRIPTION OF WIRE-MICROMETERS IN WHICH

THE ANGULAR DISTANCE OF THE WIRES IS VARIED OPTICALLY

BY CHANGING THE MAGNIFYING POWER OF

THE TELESCOPE.

MM. Roemer and De la Hire first conceived the ideaiioemer, of varying the angular magnitude of the meshes of a net of silver wire fixed in the focus of the eye-glass of a telescope, for the purpose of measuring the digits of eclipses. This was done by a second lens moving between the wires and the object-glass. The late Mr Watt informed the writer of this article that he had used a similar principle, but had never published any account of it. The plan of opening and shutting a pair of parallel wires optically instead of mechanically, and of using it as a general principle in micrometers, was first adopted by Sir David Brewster, and has been applied to a variety of methods of varying the magnifying power of the telescope. The general principle will be readily understood from the annexed diagram, where AB, CD are two wires or lines of any Fig. 1. kind permanently fixed in the focus of the eye-glass of a telescope. If the sun SV is in contact with the lower wire CD, it is obvious, that if we increase the magnifying power of the telescope by any optical means anterior to the wires, c we may magnify or expand the sun’s disc SY, till it becomes Ss, when its north or upper limb will exactly touch the upper wire AB. Now if the sun’s diameter happens to be ‘3F

13

MICROMETER. Wire-Mi- when its crometers. .AB, CD,

disc Ss just fills the space between the wires the distance of the wires must have been 62' v—^ when, as at S's', it fills only half that space. Hence the wires have been moved optically, so to speak, and have subtended all angles between 31' and 62'. The methods of varying the magnifying power of the telescope used by Sir David Brewster, consist, 1, in varying the distance of the two parts of the achromatic eyepiece ; and, 2, by varying the focal length of the principal object-glass by means of another object-glass, either convex or concave, moving between it and its principal focus. Eye-glass The first of these methods is shown in fig. 2, where AB micrometer. Fig. 2.

is the eye-piece with its four lenses, A, C, D, B, in their natural position. The part AFG, with the two lenses A, C, is fixed to the telescope, and a space is left between the tube AC and the outer tube AFG, to allow the moveable part DB of the eye-piece to get sufficiently near the lens C. The tube DB is moved out and in by a rack and pinion E. A scale is formed on the upper surface mn, and subdivided in the usual manner with a lens and vernier, which it is unnecessary to represent in the figure. The value of the divisions of the scale are determined by direct experiment. A motion of DB through a space of four inches will, generally speaking, double the magnifying power of the telescope. ObjectThe best method, however, of varying the magnifying glass mi- power of the telescope is the second, which is shown in crometer. ^ where O is the object-glass,/its principal focus, and Fig. 3.

L the second lens, which is moveable between O and / Parallel rays HR, after being refracted by O, so that they would converge to f, are intercepted by L, which converges them to F, the focus of the combined lenses. The effect of the lens L is therefore to diminish the focal length of the object-glass, and consequently the magnifying power of the telescope, which will obviously be a minimum when the lens L is at /, and a maximum when it is at V. The angle subtended by a pair of fixed wires will suffer an opposite change to the magnifying power, being a maximum when the lens L is at /, and a minimum when it is atHence the scale for measuring the variable angle of these wires may always be equal to the focal length of the object-glass O ; and the inventor of the instrument has shown, both by theory and by experiment, that the scale is one of equal parts, the variations in the angle of the fixed wires being proportional to the variations in the position of the moveable lens. When we wish to measure angles that do not suffer a great change, such as the diameters of the sun and moon, a scale less than the focal length of the object-glass will be sufficient. For example, if we take a lens L, which by a motion of ten inches varies the magnifying power from 40 to 35, then, if the angle of the wires is 29' when the lens L is at C, it will be 33' 9" when the lens is ten inches from or the magnifying power 35. We have, therefore, a

scale of ten inches to measure a change of angle of 4' 9'', Wire-Miso that every tenth of an inch will correspond to 3"*3, and crometers.^ every 100th of an inch to ^d of a second. Such a micrometer w-ill serve to measure the diameters of the sun and moon at their various distances from the earth. If we wish to measure the distances of some double stars, or the diameters of some of the smaller planets, with a telescope whose magnifying power varies from 300 to 240, by the motion of a lens over ten inches, place the parallel wires at a distance of 40", which will be increased to 50" by the motion of the lens. Hence we have a scale of ten inches to measure ten seconds, or the tenth of an inch to measure one second, or the 100th oftm inch to measure Tiyth of a second. Several pairs of wires placed at different distances might be fixed upon the same diaphragm, or upon separate diaphragms, which could be brought into the focus when wanted; and the second pair of wires might be placed at such a distance that their least angle was equal to the largest angle of the first pair, and so on with the rest. A wire-micrometer thus constructed is certainly free from almost all the sources of error which affect the common moveable wire-micrometer. The errors arising from the imperfection of the screw, the uncertainty of zero, and other causes, are avoided; and the wires are always equidistant from the centre of the field, so as to be equally affected by any optical imperfection in the telescope. The scale indeed may be formed by direct experiment, and the results will be as free from error as the experiments by which the scale was made. When this micrometer is applied to a portable telescope, it becomes of great use in naval, military, or geodetical operations, and is employed in measuring distances, either by taking the angle subtended by a body of known dimensions, or by measuring the two angles subtended by a body of unknown dimensions from the two extremities of a known or measured base. For these purposes the telescope is fitted up without a stand, as shown in Plate CCCLYII. fig. 4. The principle of separating a pair of wires optically is singularly applicable to the Gregorian and Cassegrainian telescopes, where no additional lens or mirror is required. As the magnifying power of both these telescopes may be increased merely by increasing the distance of the eyepiece from the great speculum, and then re-adjusting the small speculum to distinct vision, we can thus vary the angle of a pair of fixed wires by making the eye-piece moveable. This will be easily comprehended from the annexed figure, where SS is the great speculum of a Gregorian reflector, AA the tube, M the small speculum, whose focus is G, and centre of curvature H. It is fixed to an arm MQ, moveable to and from SS in the usual way. The image RV is that formed by the speculum SS, and r"R" that Fig. 4.

formed by the small speculum. This last image being in the focus of the eye-glass E, will be seen distinct and magnified. If the eye-glass E is pulled out to E', then, in order that the object may be seen distinctly, the image r"R" must be brought into the position r'"R'", FF' being equal to EE'; but this can be done only by advancing the small speculum M to M',/and F' being now the conjugate

14

MICROMETER.

DoubleImage Micrometers.

Rbemer.

Savary.

Dollond.

foci of M. But by this process the magnifying power has been considerably increased, because the part of the whole magnifying power produced by M was equal to MF whereM . . M'F , , . / as it is now a much larger quantity. The angle sub-

circular object whose diameter is to be measured, or P, Q two points whose angular distance is to be determined, the lenses are to be separated Fig. 5. till the two images x, z are in contact at F. As the rays QHF, PEF pass unrefracted through the centres H, E of the semi-lenses, tended by the wires has therefore been diminished in the the angle subtended by QP will be equal to same proportion as the magnifying power has been in- the angle HFE, or that which the distance creased. The scale, in this case, is not one of equal parts, of the centres of the semi-lenses subtends but after the extreme points of it have been determined at F. As the angles, therefore, are very experimentally, the rest may be filled up either by calcu- small, they'will vary as HE ; and when the lation or direct experiment. angles corresponding to any one distance Dr Pearson1 has, with singular inaccuracy, stated that of the centres is determined, those for any Sir David Brewster’s “ patent micrometer is not competent other distance will be ascertained by simple to measure very small angles, even if it had sufficient mag- proportion. nifying power.” If he means the patent micrometer as Mr Dollond, who had not at this time inmade by Mr Harris, as a naval and military telescope for vented the achromatic telescope, applied measuring distances, or as a coming-up glass, he is quite his micrometer to the object end of a reright, because the power of measuring small angles is not flecting telescope, as shown in Plate required for these practical purposes. But it is quite evi- CCCLVII. fig. 5, which represents the mident that the smallest angles can be measured by the mi- crometer as seen from beyond the object crometer when fitted up for astronomical purposes. We end of the reflector. A piece of tube B, have only to use a pair of wires placed at a very small dis- carrying the micrometer, slides into or over tance, or a pair of semi-lenses whose centres are placed at a the tube A of the telescope, and is fastvery small distance, and then vary their angles till it be- ened to it by a screw. The tube B carries a wheel (not comes equal to the very small angle which we wish to seen in the figure) formed of a ring racked at the outer measure. edge, and fixed* M the brass plate CC, so that a pinion moved by the handle D may turn it into any position. Two plates F, G are kept close to the plate CC by the CHAP. III. DESCRIPTION OF DOUBLE-IMAGE MICROME- rabbeted bars H, H, but with so much play that they TERS IN WHICH TWO SINGLY REFRACTING LENSES, SE- can move in contrary directions by turning the handle MI-LENSES, OR PRISMS, ARE SEPARATED BY SCREWS. E, which drives a concealed pinion that works in the two racks seen in the highest part of the figure. As the two M. Rbemer, the celebrated Danish astronomer, is said semi-lenses are fixed to the plates F, G, their centres to have been the first who suggested the use of a double- will be separated by the action of the handle E, and their image micrometer. He did this about 1678, but the idea degree of separation is measured by a scale of five inches does not seem to have been carried into effect, or known subdivided into 20ths of an inch, and read off by a verto his successors. Nearly seventy years afterwards, viz. nier on the plate F, divided into 25 parts, corresponding in 1743, Mr Servington Savary, of Exeter, communicated to 24 of the scale, so that we can measure the separation to the Royal Society an account of a double-image micro- of the semi-lenses to the j^th of an inch. The vernier meter ; and five years afterwards, in 1748, the celebrated is seen to the right of H, and may be adjusted to the zero Bouguer proposed the very same construction, which he of the scale, or the position of the lenses when they give called a heliometer. This instrument consisted of two' only one image, by means of the thumb-screw I, a motion lenses, which could be separated and made to approach of the vernier being permitted by the screws which fix it each other by a screw or other mechanical means. These to the plate F passing through oblong holes.2 lenses gave double images of every object; and when the In this construction, the micrometer is too far from the two images of any object, such as the sun or moon, were observer, and destroys the equilibrium of the telescope. separated till they exactly touched one another, the dis- The instrument itself, however, has more serious defects, as tance of the object-glasses afforded a measure of the solar it has been found that the measures of the sun’s diameter, or lunar diameter, after an experimental value of the divi- taken by different observers/with the same instrument, sions of the scale had been obtained. and at the same time, differ so much as 12 or 15 seconds. As two complete lenses, however, must always have This defect has been ascribed to the different states of the their least distance equal to the diameter of either, this observers’ eyes, according as they have a tendency to give instrument was incapable of measuring the diameters of distinct vision within or beyond the focal point, where the small bodies. This obvious defect no doubt led John Dol- image is most perfect; in the former case the limbs being lond, in 1753, to the happy idea of the divided object-glass somewhat separated, and in the latter overlapping. M. micrometer, in which the two halves of an object-glass are Mosotti, in the Effemeride of Milan for 1821, has discovmade to recede from the position in which they form a com- ered the true cause of this defect, by a series of accurate plete object-glass. When the centres of the two halves coin- experiments which he made with this micrometer attached cide, they obviously form one lens, and give only one image. to a Gregorian reflector of two feet in focal length. The When the centres are slightly separated the images will focal length of the divided object-glass was 511-3357 inches, be slightly separated; and small objects may be brought or 42 feet 7^ inches. M. Mosotti has shown that a diverinto contact, and have the angles which they subtend ac- sity of measures will be obtained by the same observer, curately measured. The scale will, therefore, have a zero if, for the purpose of obtaining distinct vision, he gives a corresponding to the coincidence of the centres of the slight displacement to the small speculum by the adjusting semi-lenses. The principle of this instrument will be un- screw. If the position of this speculum which gives disderstood from fig. 5, where H, E are two semi-lenses, tinct vision were a point, it would be easy to find that whose centres are at H, E, and F their focus. If PQ be a point; but as distinct vision may be obtained within a 1

Introduction to Practical Astronomy, vol. ii.

’ Phil. Trans, vol. xlviii.

Double Image Micromi ters.

MICROMETER.

space of 10 or 12 thousandths of an inch, owing to aberration, every different observer will place the mirror at a different point within that range, and consequently obters ’ tain a measure corresponding to the image which he views. M. Mosotti recommends that the axis of the adjusting screw, which carries the small speculum, should carry a vernier connected with a scale on the outer surface of the tube A. By means of this vernier the observer is able to give a fixed position to the small speculum, so that he always views the same image, and is thus sure of obtaining the same measure of the same object, so far as the observation is concerned. M. Mosotti found also that the measures were affected by a change of temperature, which, by changing the length of the tube, displaced the small speculum. In his instrument this displacement amounted to 0-0075 of an inch, which, he has shown, corresponds to a change of focal length from 511-3357 to 5l4-84j inches ; and that the error from this cause, upon a length of 30', will be 13" in excess. The following is Dr Pearson’s enumeration of the different sources of error in the divided object-glass micrometer when applied to reflectors. 1. A variation in the position of the small mirror when the eye estimates the point of distinct vision. 2. A displacement of the small mirror by change of temperature. 3. A change of focal distance when central and extreme rays are indiscriminately used. The amount of this error depends on the aberration of the semi-lenses. 4. A defect of adjustment, or of perfect figure, in the two specula, as they regard each other, the measures varying when taken in different directions. In order to enable Dollond’s micrometer to measure differences of declination and right ascension, Dr Maskelyne introduced the aid of cross wires, which he fixed in a moveable ring at the place where the double image is formed. One or both of the two planets or stars are referred to Fig. 6. one or other of these lines, as IS* will be seen in the annexed figure, which we take as an example, out of four cases. Let ENWS be the field of view, NS the meridian, and EW the line of east and west; then, in order to obtain the difference of right ascension and declination of two stars, he opened the semi-lenses till he obtained double images of each star. He then turned round the micrometer till the two images of the first star passed over the vertical wire NS at the same instant, and having counted the time that elapsed till the two images of the other star passed over the same line, he had the difference of right ascension in time. By means of the screw which elevated his telescope, and partly by opening the semklenses, he made the north image of one star, and the south image of the other, as at A, B, describe in their motion the horizontal wire EW, and at that position of the semi-lenses the scale indicated the difference of declination. Mr DolA very important improvement upon the divided objectlond’s im- glass micrometer’ was made by Mr Dollond’s son, who DoubleImage Microme-

menT*

adapted it to a refracting telescope, and removed the different sources of error to which it had been found liable. This improvement consists both in the nature, form, and position of the semi-lenses. The semi-lenses are made concave, and consist of crown and flint glass, so as to give an achromatic image along with the object-glass of the tele1

15

scope to which they are applied. These concave semi- Doublelenses, of course, lengthen the focal distance of that object- Image glass. When a circular lens was bisected, as in the old construction, the metallic parts which held the semi-lenses v . obstructed the light in proportion to their separation ; a defect of a serious nature in an instrument. In order to correct this evil, Mr J. Dollond substituted two long slices of glass cut from the diametral portion of a lens nearly six inches in diameter. Hence, in every position of these oblong semi-lenses, none of the metallic setting comes before the object-glass, and consequently the light is never obstructed, and is always of the same amount, whatever be the separation of the lenses. In the old construction, where the diameters of each lens slid along each other in contact, a part of the central portions having been removed by grinding the diameters smooth, the two images of an object never could coincide so as to give an accurate zerobut in the new construction, the space equal to what was removed by grinding is filled up with a brass scale and vernier, and the only evil of this is the loss of light corresponding to the thickness of this scale; but this trifling defect is amply compensated by the perfect coincidence of the images at zero. This important instrument is shown in Plate CCCLVII. fig. 6, where the same letters are used as in fig. 5 to denote the analogous parts of the two instruments. The end of the telescope is shown at A, and B is the rim of brass, which, by sliding upon A, fixes the micrometer to the telescope. The frame CC', moved by teeth on its outer edge, carries one of the halves G of the lens, and a similar frame with teeth carries the other half F. The scale S, six inches long, is fastened like an edge-bar to CC', and each inch is subdivided into 20 parts, which are read off with a vernier of 25 parts, which is fastened as an edge-bar to the moveable frame that carries F. The two moveable frames are imbedded in a fixed plate HIT, screwed to the tube B of themicrometer, and having a circular hole in its middle equal to the diameter of the object-glass. The two semi-lenses are separated by turning the milled head to the right of A, which moves the frame CC', and then the other frame F through the medium of a concealed wheel and a concealed pinion. The mechanism for giving the rotatory motion is also concealed. The adjustment of the vernier to zero is effected by the screw I. The property which the double-image micrometer possesses, of measuring angles in all directions, directed to it the attention of Itamsden and other eminent opticians. Itamsden accordingly communicated to the Royal Society of London, in 1777,1 an account of two instruments of this kind, under the name of the Dioptric and Catoptric Micrometers. In order to avoid the effects of aberration, Itarnsden’s Ramsden proposed, in his dioptric micrometer, to place two dioptric semi-lenses in the conjugate focus of the innermost lens of j™crome" the erect eye-tube of a refracting telescope. In place or “ the imperfections of the lenses being magnified by the whole power of the telescope, they are magnified only about five or six times, and the size of the micrometer glass does not require to be Tooth Part °f the area which is necessary in Dollond’s instrument. This instrument is shown in Plate CCCLVII. fig. 7, where A is a convex or concave lens, bisected in the usual way. One of the semilenses is fixed in a frame B and the other in a similar frame E, both of which slide upon a plate H, against which they are pressed by thin plates a, a. The milled button D, by means of a pinion and rack, moves these frames in opposite directions ; and the separation of the semi-lenses thus effected is measured by a scale of equal parts L on the frame B, the zero being in the middle, and the divisions read off by two verniers at M and N, carried by the frame E; the

See Phil. Trans, vol. Ixix. 177£), p> 419.

16

MICROMETER.

Double- vernier M showing the relative motion of the two frames h fixed to the arm D, turns in the nut H on the arm B. Double. Image when the frame B moves to the right, and N when the A spiral spring within the part n presses the two arms B, lma8e 5 Microme- frarae B is moved to the left. An endless screw F gives D against the direction of the double screw e g, so as to ters prevent all shake or play in the nut H. The progressive ' v the whole micrometer a motion round the axis of vision. s This instrument being only the divided object-glass mi- motion of the screw through the nut will be half the discrometer in miniature, and differently placed, the reader tance of the semi-specula, so that these specula will be will have no difficulty in understanding its construction moved equally in opposite directions from the axis of the and use, from the details already given in the preceding telescope. A graduated circle V, divided into 100 parts on its cylinpages. Dr Pearson informs us, on theauthority of Mr Troughton, drical surface, is fixed on the upper end of the screw G, so that a Captain Countess, R. N. having accidentally broken as to cause it to separate the semi-specula. The fixed the third lens of a terrestrial eye-piece of his telescope, index I shows the parts of a revolution performed by the observed the double images which it produced; and that screw, while the number of whole revolutions of the this observation led to the contrivance of the coming-up screw is shown by the divisions of the same index. A glass that was first made by Nairne, with a double screw steel screw R, moveable by a key, inclines the small spefor separating the halves of the amplifying lens. Hence culum at right angles to the direction of its motion. Disit is conjectured that Ramsden derived his idea of using a tinct vision is procured in the usual manner, and the telebisected lens for his dioptric micrometer and dynameter. scope has a motion about its axis, in order to measure the The above facts may be quite true, but Ramsden certainly diameter of a planet in any direction ; and the angle of rodid not require any such hint, as it was a very natural tran- tation in reference to the horizon is shown by a level, grasition from a bisected object-glass to a bisected eye-glass. duated circle, and vernier, at the eye end of the large tube. A catoptric double-image micrometer has been suggest- Catoptric Dr Pearson also states that Mr George Dollond had constructed a dioptric micrometer almost the same as ed by Sir David Brewster as applicable to the Newtonian microme. rfora . Ramsden’s, without knowing any thing of what Ramsden telescope. The plane mirror is bisected, and is made tote form two images, either by giving each semi-speculum had proposed. We have no doubt that both these ingenious opticians were quite original in their ideas, for it will motion round .their common line of junction, or round a not be supposed that Captain Countess’s broken lens fur- line perpendicular to that common line. The mechanism nished Mr Dollond with the idea of his contrivance. Dr by which this may be effected does not require any dePearson has given a drawing and description of Mr Dol- scription. If the micrometer is required for the sun or lond’s construction of the micrometer as made for Mr any luminous body, the small mirror may be made of paDavies Gilbert and himself.1 It does not appear that Mr rallel glass, which would have the advantage of not obRamsden ever constructed it. The weight of this micro- structing any of the light which enters the telescope, while meter was found by Dr Pearson too great for an ordinary it reflects enough for the purposes of distinct vision. We shall again have occasion to refer more particularly to this {; achromatic telescope. tl liamsden’s Mr Ramsden likewise proposed a catoptric double-image idea in the next section. Professor Amici of Modena has described, in the Me- Amici’s catoptric micrometer,"which, from being founded on the principle of microme- reflection, is not disturbed by the heterogeneity of light, moirs of the Italian Society, a new micrometer, which ter ter ' while he considered it as “ avoiding every defect of other gives double images by means of semi-lenses separated by * mechanical means; but as we have not access to this micrometers,” having “no aberration, nor any defect which arises from the imperfection of materials or of ^execution, work, we shall draw our description of the instrument as the extreme simplicity of its construction requires no from one given by Dr Pearson, which is very far from beadditional mirrors or glasses to those required for the te- ing distinct, in so far at least as the construction of the lescope.” “ It has also, peculiar to itself, the advantages semi-lenses, or bars of glass as they are called, are conof an adjustment to make the images coincide in a direc- cerned. The semi-lenses seem to be portions of a large tion perpendicular to that of their motion. In order to concave lens, separated in the usual manner, so as to give effect these objects, Mr Ramsden divided the small spe- two distinct images of objects; but the peculiarity of the culum of a Cassegrainian reflector into two equal halves, and invention seems to consist in the lenses being placed beby inclining each half on an axis at right angles to the tween the object-glass of a telescope and its principal foplane that separated them, he obtained two distinct images; cus, the cone of rays being divided at a point about six but as their angular separation was only half the inclina- inches before the place where the focal image is formed. tion of the specula, which would give only a small scale, Dr Pearson, who made experiments with one of these inhe rejected this first idea, and separated the semi-specula struments, has hinted at the inconveniences which he exby making them turn on their centre of curvature, any perienced in using it. extent of scale being obtained by fixing the centre of motion at a proportional distance from the common centre of curvature. The mechanism necessary to effect this is CHAP. IV. DESCRIPTION OF DOUBLE-IMAGE MICROMETERS IN WHICH THE TWO IMAGES FORMED BY TWO shown in Plate CCCLVII. fig. 8, where A is the bisected SIMPLY REFRACTING LENSES, SEMI-LENSES, OR PRISMS, speculum, one of the semi-specula being fixed on the inner ARE SEPARATED OPTICALLY. end of the arm B, its outer end being fixed on a steel axis X extending across the mouth of the tube C. The other In the year 1776 Dr Maskelyne constructed and used Maskesemi-speculum is fixed on the inner end of the arm D, its prisouter end terminating in a socket«/, which turns upon the his prismatic micrometer, which he had contrived with lyne’s0 nU mad ' steel axis x. These arms are braced by the bars a, a. A the view of getting rid of the sources of error to which he cu>meter ' compound screw G, having its upper part cut into double the found the divided object-glass micrometer liable. Having number of threads in an inch, viz. 100, to the lower part g, cut a prism or wedge of glass into two parts, so as to form which has only 50, works with the handle in a nut F in the two prisms of exactly the same refracting angle, he conside of the tube, while the part g turns in a nut H fixed to ceived the idea of fixing them together, so as to produce the arm B. The point of the compound screw separates the two images, and to vary the angle which these two imaends of the arms B and D, and, pressing against the stud ges formed, by making the prisms move between the ob1

Introduction to Practical Astronomy, vol. ii. p. 182.

17

MICROMETER.

ject-glass and its principal focus ; so that the scale is equal to the whole focal length of the telescope. The two prisms may be placed in three, ways, with their thin edges joined, with their square thick edges or backs joined, or 'with their sides or triangular edgds joined. In the first position the double images will have only one halt of the light which is incident on the object-lens when the prisms are close to it, and their degree of illumination will diminish as they approach the focus. In the second position they will, as before, have only one half of the incident light when close to the object-glass, but the illumination will gradually increase as the prisms advance to the focus. In the third case, the prisms being in a reverse position, the light will be the same in every part of the scale, each of them receiving half the rays which fall upon the objectglass. On this account Dr Maskelyne preferred this last arrangement. In the instrument which Dr Maskelyne constructed, and which seemed to have had only a thirty-inch objectglass, the prisms were not achromatic, and consequently the touching limbs of a luminous body were affected with the prismatic colours. In the case of the sun, where all the rays might have been absorbed but the red, this was of little consequence; but in other cases it was a serious defect, which could be removed only by making the prisms achromatic ; or it might have been diminished by making the prisms of fluor spar, in which the dispersion is very small. One of the Dollonds, accordingly, executed for Dr Maskelyne an achromatic prism, which performed well. It does not appear that Dr Maskelyne made any observations of value with this instrument. [New diA new divided object-glass micrometer has been convided ob- structed by Sir David Brewster, and described in his Treaject-glass tise on New Philosophical Instruments. It consists of micromean achromatic object-glass LL, fig. 7, between which ter.

I

DoubleImage Micrometers.

have an instrument which will measure with the greatest accuracy all angles between the two extreme ones. Another or more pair of semi-lenses may be used in the same telescope, and placed at smaller or greater distances, so that, by means of other scales adapted to them, we may obtain all angles that may be required. The lenses A, B may be concave or convex; and when a large scale is required, with a tenth of an inch to a second, or even greater, we have only to use semi-lenses of long foci, and the scale may be confined to the part of the tube nearest the focal point. Sir David Brewster has proved, both from theory and experiment, that the scale is one of equal parts; so that, after having ascertained by experiment the two extreme angles, the whole scales may be completed by dividing the interval into any number of equal parts, and these subdivided, if necessary, by a vernier scale. When the semi-lenses are placed without the object-

DoubleImage Micrometers.

Fig. 9

glass LL, and this object-glass moved towards / as in the annexed figure, the angular distance of the images is invariable. This instrument has been constructed for measuring distances, and as a coming-up glass for ascertaining whether a ship is approaching to or receding from the observer. In this form it constitutes part of fig. 4, Plate CCCLVIL, the semi-lenses being made to screw into the same place as the second object-glass, and having a sepaFig. 7. rate scale for themselves. In this form many of the instruments have been constructed by Tulley. Among the optical micrometers, we may describe ano- Prismatic ther invented by Sir David Brewster, and adapted solely micrometo the Newtonian telescope. In order to get rid of the ^g^?rnian loss of light by the reflection of the small plane speculum, he uses an achromatic prism to reflect the light just as much out of the axis of the telescope as will allow the head of the observer to be applied to the eye-tube, without oband its principal focus/ two achromatic semi-lenses, fixed structing any of the light which enters the tube. By using at a given distance, are made to move. These lenses are two prisms, as in Maskelyne’s instrument, and moving them shown in fig. 8, and are fixed on a piece of tube, which screws along the axis of his telescope through a small distance, we shall obtain a good micrometer. The prisms may be into a tube ; by pulling out and Fig. 8. separated mechanically, or a doubly refracting prism may pushing in which, they are be fixed upon the face of the single or achromatic prism made to recede from or apused to turn aside the rays. The achromatism of a single proach to the object-glass LL. By this motion the angle subglass prism may be corrected by the doubly refracting prism, a balance of refraction being left sufficient to turn tended by the two images vaaside the image to the observer’s eye. ries in the same manner as the angle subtended by a pair of fixed wires was made to vary by the motion of a second obCHAP. V. DESCRIPTION OF DOUBLE-IMAGE MICROMETERS ject-glass. When the semiIN WHICH THE TWO IMAGES ARE FORMED BY DOUBLE lenses are close to LL, as REFRACTION. shown at A, B, fig. 7, the two images which they form are much separated, and their cenThe happy idea of applying the two images formed by Rochon’s tres subtend a large angle ; but as the lenses approach to/ double refraction to the construction of a micrometer un-first miciothe centres of the images gradually approach each other, questionably belongs to the Abbe Rochon ; and though Dr meter. and consequently the angle which they subtend continually Pearson has laboured to show that Dr Maskelyne’s prismaincreases. Hence, if we determine by experiment the an- tic telescope was constructed before Rodion’s, yet this does gular distance of their centres when the lenses are close to not in the smallest degree take away from the originality LL, and likewise the angle when they are at/ the other and priority of Rochon’s invention ; for the idea of varying end of the scale, and if we fill up the intermediate points of the angle by the motion of the prisms can scarcely be viewthe scale either from theory or direct experiment, we shall ed as an essential part of the invention. VOL. xv.

18 DoubleImage

MICROMETER.

Although the double refraction of rock-crystal is small, In place of cutting off the prism AKCBLE, we may cut off Double limpidity and hardness, the Abbe Rochon re- only the prism GCDHEF, leaving the intermediate one 1 Image 0 arded as su )er or t0 ters™ * g ^ I ‘ any other substance for making KGCLHE attached to AKCBLE, and proceed as before. Microme ^r . doubly refracting prisms. When he used one prism so The object of this is to leave enough of solid quartz at KL ters. cut Rochon’s that its refracting edge coincided with the axis of the to give a face of the same breadth as GDFH. If the first micro-prism, in which case its double refraction was the greatest, prisms required are small compared with the quartz crysmeter. he found that the separation of the two images was too tal, we may obtain, by the first method, six prisms out of small to give the angles which he required.1 He therefore the crystal, or three pair of compound ones. On the other fell upon a most ingenious plan of doubling the amount of hand, if the required prism is large compared with the the double refraction of one prism, by using two prisms of crystal of quartz, it may require one half of the crystal to rock-crystal, so cut out of the solid as to give each the make one prism, and the other half the other. Nay, it may same quantity of double refraction, and yet to double that be necessary to cut each individual prism out of separate quantity in the effect produced. This construction of the crystals, the method of doing which is very obvious from compound prism was so difficult, that M. liochon informs the preceding description. When the prism is completed, it is obvious that a ray of us, that “ he knew only one person, M. Narci, who was capable of giving rock-crystal the prismatic form in the light incident perpendicularly on the face GHFD will be proper direction for obtaining the double refractions neces- perpendicular to the axis of the prism CE, and therefore sary to the goodness of the micrometer.” The method the extraordinary ray will suffer the greatest deviation, viz. used by Narci seems to have been kept a secret, for in 17'; and the same is true of the other prism. But when 1819 Dr Wollaston set himself to discover the method of the ray passes through both, constructing these compound prisms, and has described it it is found to have a deviaFig. 11. in the Philosophical Transactions,2 but not in such a man- tion of 34', which is produner as to be very intelligible to those who are not familiar ced in the following manner: ' with such subjects. We conceive that the process may be Let AB be a line viewed ° easily understood from the following rule. Cut a hexago- through one of the prisms, nal prism of quartz into two halves by a plane passing with its refracting angle through or parallel to its axis. Grind and polish the two turned upwards ; two images cut faces, and by means of Canada balsam cement the one of it will be seen, viz. the A____ _B upon the other, so that any line or edge in the one face extraordinary image at E, may be perpendicular to the same line in the other. Cut and the ordinary one at O. and polish a face on each of the united portions, so that If we now interpose the other prism with its refracting the common section of these faces with the cemented angle downwards, both these images E, O will be refractplanes may be parallel to the axis of the crystal, while ed downwards. But, owing to the transverse cutting of they are equally inclined to these planes, and the prism the prisms, the extraordinary image E, which was most will be completed. raised, now suffers ordinary refraction, and is least depressMethod of We shall now’explain, by a diagram, a more simple and ed, so that in place of being refracted back to AB, it comes cutting the economica] way 0f cutting these prisms, though the prin- only to E'Q'. On the other hand, the ordinary image O, prisms from the ciple is exactly the same. Let AKGDBLHF be half of a which suffered the least refraction, is now extraordinarily hexagonal prism of quartz, the height of which, DF, is refracted, and, in place of reaching AB, is depressed to crystal. equal to half of its diameter AD. Bisect AD in C, and O'E'; and since the double refraction of each prism, as join CK, CG, and draw CE parallel to AB or DF. This well as the angles of the prism, are equal, the angular line CE will be the axis of the prism. Grind and polish distance of the images E'O', O'E' foi'med by the combined the section ABFD, and cut off the prisms AKCBLE and prisms will be double of the distance EO, or 34'. DGCFHE, setting aside the intermediate similar prism The same rule maybe followed in cutting the prism out KGCLHF. The faces ACEB, DCEF are square and of the limpid and homogeneous topazes of New Flolland, equal, so that if we cement these faces together, making the principal axis of which coincides with the axis of the the line AB coincide with FE, AC will coincide with FD, prism. When the crystals are amorphous, the cleavage CE with CF, and EB with CF. If we wish each prism to planes will be a sufficient guide, as the above axis is alhave an angle of 60°, we may take either GDFH or GCEH ways perpendicular to them. Such prisms are incomparfor the refracting face of it; we ably superior, as we have practically experienced, to those shall suppose the former. In this made of rock-crystal. case we must grind and polish a When a very large angle is required for any particular face on the other prism ABL, which purposes, artificial crystals, such as carbonate of potash, is accurately parallel to the face &c. may be advantageously employed, the crystals being GDFH, and the compound prism ground with oil, or any fluid in which they are not soluble. will be completed. If 60° is too By cementing plates of parallel glass on their outer surgreat, we must grind down the faces, they will be as permanent as rock-crystal. face GDFH till it has the desired Dr Pearson fitted up with one of Rochon’s micrometers inclination to DF, and grind and an achromatic telescope r 33 inches in focal length, and polish a face parallel to it on the having a magnifying pow er of 35^. He applied to it two other prism. The external faces, in separate compound prisms, one of which had a constant short, to be made upon each prism, angle of 32', and the other an angle only of 5', the vermust be equally inclined to the cenier in the former case indicating seconds, and in the latmented planes DCEF, ABEC, and ter tenths of seconds. A drawing is given of the tube, with have their common section DF pathe prisms and scales, in Plate CCCLVII. fig. 9 and 10, rallel to the axis CE of the prism. as given by Dr Pearson. The tube is graduated from the yet? from jts

1 In his first experiments Rochon corrected the dispersion of the rock-crystal prism by a similar prism placed in front of it, and having its exterior face perpendicular to the axis of the crystal. This prism, having no effect in doubling the image, gave him a complete correction of the dispersion for the ordinary image. a Phil. Trans. 1820, p. 120.

■

MICROMETER. Double- solar focus into two scales, one being placed on each side Image of the slit or opening cut along the middle of the tubes, Microme- t0 all0w the sliding piece, shown separately in tig. 10,. to ters-

move from the object-glass to the solar focus. This sliding piece holds the prism, the larger prism of 32' being shown as placed with its sliding piece in the tube, and the smaller prism of 5' being shown in the separate sliding piece, tig. 9. The two verniers of the scales are seen on each side of the two screws with milled heads, which pass through the slit, and serve to move the sliding piece to or from the object-glass when they are not too much tightened. In his original memoir on 1the subject, published in the JournaldePhysique \'ox 1801, M.Rochon makes the following observations. “ I ought not to omit, that in this new construction there are difficulties of execution not easy to surmount, which may have been one reason why these instruments, so useful to navigators, and in certain very nice astronomical observations, have not been adopted. This induced me at length to adopt Euler’s method. In the construction of achromatic object-glasses I found I could increase or diminish the absolute effect of the double refraction within certain limits, by means of the interval between the glasses of different refracting powers; the separation of the images at the focus being so much the greater, as the interval is larger, when the flint-glass is the first of the object-glasses, and less when it is the second. Conformably to these new principles, I have had two telescopes with a doubly refracting medium constructed under my own inspection, which General Gantheaume will employ for determining the position of his ships, and to find whether he be approaching any he may meet with at sea.”2 Rodion’s In 1812 M. Rochon constructed his doubly refracting second mi-micrometer in another form, from which he anticipated crometer. great advantages. He made a parallelepiped of rockcrystal, consisting of two prisms whose refracting angles were each about 30°, so that the angle which they gave was less than 30', and the two images of the sun of course - overlapped each other. The prisms being firmly united by mastic, he ground the parallelepiped into a convex lens, so that when combined with a concave one of flintglass, it formed an achromatic object-glass with a focal length of about 3 decimetres, or nearly 12 inches. This object-glass separated the centres of the images of the sun about 28 minutes. “ He then adapted to this objectglass a common micrometer, which measured angles of 10 minutes, and he had thus 3 decimetres and 10 minutes to complete the measure of the diameters of the sun or moon.”3 M.Arago’s M. Arago appears to have been the first person to apmicrome- p]y doubly refracting prisms to the eye-pieces of teleCer ' scopes for the purpose of measuring very small angles. He explained his general method to the writer of this article in July 1814 when well executed, liable to error. Mr Dollond’s improvement consists in making a sphere or lens from a piece of rockcrystal, and adapting it to a telescope in place of the usual eye-glass, as shown in Plate CCCLVII. fig. 11, where a is the sphere or lens, formed of rock-crystal, and placed in half holes, from which is extended the axis bb, with an attached index, the face of which is shown in fig. 12. This index registers the motion of the sphere on the graduated circle. The sphere a is so placed in the half holes, that when its natural axis (axis of double refraction, we presume) is parallel to the axis of the telescope, it gives only one image of the object. In a direction perpendicular to that axis, it must be so placed that when it is moved the separation of the images may be parallel to that motion. The method of acquiring this adjustment is by turning the sphere a in the half holes parallel to its own axis. A second lens d is introduced between the sphere and the primary image given by the object-glass, and its distance from the sphere should be in proportion to the magnifying power required. The magnifying powers engraven in fig. 12 are suited to an object-glass of 44 inches focal length. The following are the advantages of this construction, as stated by its inventor. 1. It is only necessary to select a piece of perfect crystal, and, without any knowledge of the angle that will give the greatest double refraction, to form the sphere of a proper diameter for the focal length required. 2. The angle may be taken on each side of zero, withoxit reversing the eye-tube ; and intermediate angles may be taken between zero and the greatest separation of the images, without exchanging any part of the eye-tube, it being only required to move the axis in which the sphere is placed. 3. It possesses the property of a common eye-tube and lens; for when the axis of the crystal is parallel to that of the objgct-glass, only one image will be formed, and that 7as distinctly as with any lens that does not refract doubly. Dr Pearson had one of these instruments constructed by Mr Dollond, and applied to an achromatic object-glass 43-6 inches in focal length. He has shown that the scale is not one of equal parts, and has pointed out a method of determining the constant angle of the crystal. Knowing from experience the imperfect structure of rock-crystal, especially in directions approaching to the axis, we dreaded that a spherical eye-glass ot this material would not give perfect vision. Dr Pearson confirms this opinion by actual observation. He attempted to measure the diameter of Mars when about 9", “ but its limits were

2 Translated in Nicholson’s Journal, 8vo, vol. iv. p. 110-120. Hid. p. 117* This description is not very intelligible, but we cannot at present refer to the original memoir. 4 Introduction to Practical Astronomy, vol. ii. p. 20G-212. 5 We regret that M. Arago has, in so far as we know, not published an account of his methods. What Dr Pearson says is not very intelligible. We presume his meaning to be, that M. Arago made his scale for measuring the varying angle of the images by direct experiment. u 7 Introd. Pract. Astron. vol. ii. p. 219. See Phil. Trans. 1821, p. 101-104. 3

19

MICROMETER. so imperfectly defined that no satisfactory observation r, the angle viso will open, and if drawn from r towards q, Position could be made.”1 We would therefore strongly recom- it will shut again. The case cc must have a sharp corner Micromeers mend to Mr Dollond the substitution of limpid topaz from t, which serves as an index to point out the divisions on ^ ^ ‘ 3 the index-plate. New Holland, in place of the rock-crystal. We do not know the value of the divisions in the instrument used by Sir William Herschel ; but in the position micrometer of the five-feet equatorial used by Sir John CHAP. VI. DESCRIPTION OF POSITION MICROMETERS. Herschel and Sir James South, in their observations on Position A position micrometer is an instrument for measuring double stars, the position circle was large enough to show microme- angles when a plane passing through the two lines which distinctly minutes of a degree by means of its vernier. The position micrometer which we have now described ters. contain these angles is perpendicular to the axis of vision. Sir W. Herschel first proposed such an instrument for the has been greatly improved by Sir David Brewster; and purpose of verifying a conjecture, that the smaller of the the following account of these improvements, which is not two stars which compose a double star revolves round the susceptible of abridgment, is given in his own words. In the position micrometer invented by Sir William Improved larger one. Hence it became necessary to observe if a line joining the centres of any two stars always formed the Herschel, “ the two wires always cross each other at position same angle with the direction of its daily motion. After the centre of the field, and consequently their angular microme. er constructing the instrument which we are about to de- separation is produced uniformly by the motion ot the ‘ pinion. This very circumstance, however, though it renscribe, and making a long series of observations, he verified his conjecture by the important discovery, that the ders it easy for the observer to read off the angle from double stars formed binary systems, in which the one re- the scale, is one of the greatest imperfections of the instruvolved round the other.2 The position micrometer used ment. The observations must obviously be all made on by Sir William Herschel in his earliest observations, viz. one side of the centre of the field, as appears from fig. 16 ; Sir W. and the use of the instrument is limited to those cases in Herschel’ 5 those made in 1779-1783, was made by Nairne, and was position constructed as shown in Plate CCCLVII. fig. 13, which which Ss is less than the radius SC. The greatest disadmicrome- represents it when enclosed in. a turned case of wood, vantage of the instrument, however, is the shortness ot ter. and ready to be screwed into the eye-piece of the tele- the radius SC ; for the error of observation must always scope. “ A is a little box which holds the eye-glass. B diminish as the length of this radiifs increases. This disis the piece which covers the inside work, and the box A advantage does not exist in measuring the angle of posiscrewed into it. C is the body of the micrometer, con- tion of two stars S, s, for the distance Ss remains the same taining the brass work, showing the index-plate a project- whatever be the length of SC ; but in determining the ing at one side, where the case is cut away to receive it. angle tvhich a line joining two stars forms with a line joinD is a piece having a screw b at the bottom, by means of ing other two stars, or those which compose a double star which the micrometer is fastened to the telescope. To the (an observation which it may often be of great importance piece C is given a circular motion, in the manner the hori- to make), and all other angles contained by lines whose zontal motion is generally given to Gregorian reflectors, apparent length is greater than SC, this impertection is by the lower part going through the piece D, where it is inseparable from the instrument. Nay, there are some held by the screw E, which keeps the two pieces C and D cases in which the instrument completely fails; as, for intogether, but leaves them at liberty to turn on each other. stance, when we wish to measure the angles formed by two Fig. 14 is a section of the case containing the brass work, lines which do not meet in a focus, but only tend to a rewhere may be observed the piece B hollowed out to re- mote vertex. If the distance of the nearest extremities of ceive the box A, which consists of two parts enclosing the these lines is greater than the chord ot the angle which eye-lens. This figure shows how the piece C passes through they form measured upon the radius SC, then it is imposD, and is held by the ring E. The brass work, consisting sible to measure that angle, for the wires cannot be brought of a hollow cylinder, a wheel and pinion, and index-plate, to coincide with the lines by which it is contained. Nay, is there represented in its place. F is the body of the brass when the chord of the angle does exceed the distance tvork, being a hollotv cylinder with a broad rim C at its between the nearest extremities, the position of the wires upper end ; this rim is partly turned away to make a bed which can be brought into coincidence with the lines is so for the wheel dL The pinion e turns the wheel d, and car- small as to lead to very serious errors in the result. The new position micrometer which we propose to subries the index-plate a. One of its pivots moves in the arm f screwed on>the upper part of c, which arm serves stitute for this instrument is free Fig. 12. also to confine the wheel d to its place on c. The other from the defects just noticed, and is founded on a beautiful property of pivot is held by the arm g fastened to F. A section of the brass work is shown in fig. 15, where the circle. If any two chords, AB, the wheel d, which is in the form of a ring, is laid on the CD, fig. 12, intersect each other in upper part of F or C, and held by two small arms_/i h, screw- the point O within the circle, the angle which they form at O will be ed down to e with the screws i, i. A plan of the brass work is shown in fig. 16, where d equal to half the sum of the arches d is the wheel placed on the bed or socket of the rim of AC, BD ; but if these chords do the cylinder cc, and is held down by the two pieces f, h, not intersect each other within the which are screwed on cc. The piece f projects over the circle, but tend to any point O without the circle, when centre of the index-plate to receive the upper pivot of they would intersect each other if continued, as in fig. 13, the pinion mn, the fixed wire being fastened to cc, and then the angle which they form is equal to half the differthe moveable wire op, fastened to the annular wheel dd. ence of the arches AC, BD ; that is, calling

oduced on the same principresented itself in the curved lines on the scale of the pie as those of micrometers, why are they not as easily seen ? Podura plumbea, some idea of which may be obtained by No penetrating power or large angular aperture is requi! examining figs. 9 and 10 of Plate CCCLXII. site to bring out the lines on a micrometer, though divid“ The motive that has induced me to offer the above ed nearly as finely as ordinary tests, to the extent perhaps remark is, that it may lead to a complete investigation of of 10,000 in an inch.” These observations are just and phithe subject. What is here given is merely the crude idea losophical, and we would add only a single observation in that presented1itself in the course of their examination as support of them, that Dr Wollaston made platina wires the proof-objects.” 18,000th of an inch in diameter, and saw them distinctly ; Dr Goring has published, in the Journal of the Royal In- and we venture to say, that in no instrument whatever stitution, vol. xxii. and also in the Micrographia? many in- would such lines appear either dotted or ragged, teresting observations on lined objects, of which it is neSuch was the state of this subject when these lined obcessary to give some account. In order to explain the jects were examined by Sir David Brewster, both in reeffects of aperture on lined objects, he has represented in ference to their action upon light when examined by the the seven circles shown in fig. 23, Plate CCCLXII. the naked eye, and when placed under the microscope as test different appearances of a portion of the scale of the Mor- objects. Having been occupied for several years in a sepho menelaus, shown in fig. 1, produced by increasing the ries of analogous observations on the lines which apparentaperture. He used a triple achromatic object-glass nine ly separate the component fibres of the crystalline lenses tenths of an inch focus, and half an inch in aperture, with of animals, he was familiar with the class of optical illua negative eye-piece of one fourth of an inch. sions which interfere with the accurate development of No. 1. shows the appearance of the scale when the such structures, aperture was one tenth of an inch, not a vestige of lines Upon exposing the finest lined objects to a bright light, being visible. and excluding as much as possible all other extraneous •jj : No. 2. Aperture three twentieths ; Dr Goring fancied he rays, he saw distinctly the fringes of colour produced by d saw indications of lines or scratches. interference ; and on measuring the angular distances of the ,oi No. 3. Aperture one fifth ; traces of irregular scratches first red fringe from the light, he found that the distance ol)' seen. of the lines, or rather the diameter of one black line and No. 4. Aperture three tenths ; nascent lines recognised half the bright space between the lines, varied from the by a practised eye, like an aggregation of dots, but inter- 10,000th to the 22,000th of an inch. Hence, if we take Irupted and broken. the black lines and their intervals to be equal, the diaNo.5. Aperture four tenths; the lines resolved, but not meter of each will vary from about the 13,000th to the fairly. They are very faint, and seem rugged, as if still 29,000th of an inch. composed of dots and points. Although these apparent lines give colours by interNo. 6. Aperture five tenths ; the full aperture of the lens, ference, exactly like the analogous lines in the laminae The lines appear in their true character, as if drawn by a of the crystalline lens, yet neither of them are real lines, pen with some blue pigment on light-violet coloured paper, as decided upon by Dr Goring. With small apertures the No. 7. Same aperture. When the object is turned one lines in the crystalline lens appear dotty, interrupted, uneven, fourth round, the cross striae become perceptible. and ragged, and exhibit, in short, all the general phenoOur limits will not permit us to give Dr Goring’s excel- mena of the lines on proof objects; but with a good milent observations on the lines of the Pontia brassica, as croscope and a large aperture, we discover the true seseen also with apertures of different sizes in a reflecting cret of all these appearances. They are not lines, but a microscope. With a well-figured metal, three tenths of succession of teeth arranged in lines; and from the great an inch focus, and an angle of 551° aperture, the lines and number of lines forming the sides of the teeth, they appear cross striae he found never to be resolved into dots and dark. Lach fibre, in short, has teeth on each side ot it, points, but to appear in what he supposes to be their proper and the teeth of one fibre lock into the spaces between character. “ The two sets of diagonal lines,” he remarks, the teeth of the adjacent fibres. When we trace these fibres “will be shown with a force and effect which will leave no towards the pole to which they converge, they become doubt of their existence in the mind of a candid obser- smaller and smaller, the teeth diminishing in the same ver; the various lines, the longitudinal, the cross striae, proportion, so that they become as difficult, and finally and the two sets of diagonals, being all observable succes- more difficult to resolve than the lines in the proof objects. sivelyby a slight change of illumination, though we can After a laborious examination of the lined tests, and Structure 3 scarcely see tvvo of the systems well at the same instant.” the use of every optical resource which he could com-oj the fom Dr Goring elsewhere observes,4 that the reflecting mi- mand, Sir David Brewster has found that the mysterious croscope invariably shows the diagonal lines on the brassica lines on these test objects are only apparent lines, being as distinct as the eye sees the ruled lines on a copy-book; composed of a succession of interlocking teeth, by which that in some “ pet scales” one of the systems of oblique lines the fibres to which they are attached form that delicate may be seen by looking into the instrument directly, and film which composes the scale of a moth. W e now see the other by looking into it obliquely, without any altera- the source of all the perplexities which have beset this tion in the illumination f and that if one instrument shows class of observations. We understand why such lines are the lines dotty, broken, interrupted, or ragged, while not seen so distinctly as the real lines on micrometers, another shows them clearly made out as veritable lines or and the dots and the raggedness are all explained. In stripes drawn with a pen and ink, the latter is the best.6 the lenses of quadrupeds the teeth of the fibres are not Notwithstanding these repeated decisions of Dr Goring, round like those of fishes, but are often sharp pointed he seems, in an earlier part of his volume,7 to have had and extremely short, like a jagged line, or a line with 1 2

Microscopic Cabinet, p. 160, 161. Hall, 159, &c. •* Micrographia, p. 163.

4 5 6

Micrographia, p. 130 and 144. Ibid. p. 102, note. Ibid. p. 104.

7 8

Micrographia, p. 44. See Phil. Trans. 1830.

56 MICROSCOPE. On Test points projecting from it. In like manner, the separation of physiology ; and even geology itself, conversant with the On Mi. Objects, of the teeth is much more distinct in some of the lined grandest subjects of research, has recently been illustrated croscopk objects than in others. See fig. 24, in which we have by the aid of the microscope. Objects, given a rude representation of the lines. M. Ehrenberg, to whom we are indebted for so manyp^p" Diagonal With regard to the diagonal or oblique lines, which have important discoveries respecting the organisation of infu- fusoria!” lines explained. been such a source of perplexity to microscopical observ- sorial animalcules, has lately made the most remarkable ers, we have little hesitation in pronouncing those which discovery of infusorial organic remains. These remains we have seen to be optical illusions from the accidental are the siliceous shells of animalcules belonging to the dialignement of the sides of the teeth in different grooves, vision Bacillaria, and form strata of Tripoli, or poli-schiefer when similarly illuminated by oblique rays. When the (polishing-slate), at Franzenbad, in Bohemia.2 M. Ehrenscales are immersed in diluted sulphuric acid, we have berg has still more recently discovered them in the seminever seen the diagonal lines. When the sulphuric acid opal found along with the polishing-slate in the tertiary is too strong, the scales curl up, and often in this state ex- strata of Bilin, in the chalk flints, and even in the semihibit the lines very beautifully. We have observed dia- opal or noble opal of the porphyritic rocks.3 The size of gonal lines singularly developed in the laminae of the crys- a single individual of these animals is about ^^th of a talline, and clearly arising from the interference of the rays line, or ^jj-th of an inch. In the polishing-slate from acted upon by the lines on one side of the lamina, with the Bilin, in which there appear to be no vacuities, a cubic lint rays acted upon by the lines on the other side, and there- contains, in round numbers, 23 millions of these animals, fore we have been the more confirmed in our opinion. As and a cubic inch contains 41,000 millions of them ! we have not had the advantage, however, of using any of The weight of a cubic inch of the polishing-slate is 270 the fine reflecting microscopes with which Dr Goring ob- grains. There are, therefore, 187 millions of these aniserved the oblique lines so distinctly brought out, it is still mals in a single grain, or the siliceous coat of one of these with considerable diffidence that we place our conclusions animals weighs the 187 millionth part of a grain ! in opposition to so direct and distinct an observation, made In Plate CCCLXII. figs. 24 and 25, we have given reby such skilful and experienced observers as he and Mr presentations of these singular microscopic objects, as 1 Pritchard. seen by Ehrenberg. With the view of arriving at a just decision respecting Another example of the value of microscopical observa- Fibres of the nature of the lines, Sir David Brewster endeavoured to tions may be drawn from the discovery of the teeth of the teeth in ascertain the disposition of the colouring matter on the fibres, which compose the crystalline lenses of almost all thecr.vst;>1scales. Owing to the great brightness of the lines on the animals. The crystalline lens is composed of innumerableline Jensblack scales, especially near their root, he was at first dis- fibres of nearly the same length, each of which tapers from posed to infer that, at least in these scales, the colouring its middle to its two extremities, where it comes to the matter was arranged along the black lines, the particles sharpest point. The sides of each of these fibres are furbeing more readily detained in their places by the edges nished with teeth like those of a watch-wheel, and the of the teeth. He has found, however, that in other scales teeth of the one lock into those of the adjacent ones, as the colouring matter lies also along the bright lines ; and shown 28, Plate CCCLXII. When the power it is only when this colouring matter is removed, or its ef- is small,inor fig. the microscope not good, or the laminae too fect masqued, by removing the refraction at its surface by thick and not nicely detached, each row of interlocking immersion in a fluid, that the lines of proof objects are de- teeth appears as a dark line, sometimes as sharp as a black veloped with perfect distinctness. Sir David Brewster has made an attempt to count the line drawn upon paper with a pen. Sometimes the lines numbei of scales and teeth in the wing of a brown moth, or appear rough and ragged, and as the fibres become less and less in approaching the poles, the black lines are as m one superficial inch, the area of the two surfaces of each difficult to resolve into teeth as the lines on test-objects wing. He supposes, of course, all the scales to be the already described. The following measures, taken by Sir same in size and structure, and he finds that there are David Brewster, will shoiv what a wonderful structure in ca,es ?leeth 158,400 the eye has been thus disclosed to us by the microscope, 19,800,000,000 ihe calculations refer to the lens*of a cod, four tenths of or nineteen thousand eight hundred million. an inch in diameter. Number of fibres in each lamina or spherical coat....2,500 Number of teeth in each fibre 12,500 CHAP. VIII.—ON MICROSCOPIC OBJECTS. Number of teeth in each spherical coat 31,250,000 5,000,000 TIkrosco. In the preceding chapter we have already described Number of fibres in the whole lens 62,500,000,000 pic objects, some of the most interesting objects for microscopical ob- Number of teeth in the lens servation. Every department of nature is full of obiects, or the lens of a cod contains five millions of fibres, and 10m tne examination of which the most important disco- sixty-two thousand five hundred millions of teeth; and if veries may be expected ; but though the zealous observer we reckon the curved end of4 the tooth as one surface, each can never be at any loss for subjects of research, it is de- tooth will have six surfaces, which come into contact with sirable to know what has been done by our predecessors, the corresponding surfaces of the adjacent tooth, so that and what trams of inquiry are most likely to prove of -el the number of touching surfaces will be three hundred and nera interest. There are subjects of microscopic inquiry seventy-five thousand millions f “ and yet this little sphere wnich are closely connected with the most interesting parts of tender jelly is as transparent as a drop of the purest water, and allows a beam of light to pass across these alMr Pritchard informs us that the diagonal lines or cross siW^JT^ ^ m " the scales from~ the hmniacx, and in the blue scales from theFWu, Pari,, where thev^ Jv , of the Euplcta easily devel -00 times.” In speaking of the ordinary lines, Mr Pritchard rpmnrK ^ 0r °ped under a power of from 100 to e e appear detached like short hairs or spines covering the delicate tissu^f i-f . , 1 1. tter “ markings,” with his best instruments, portions of the lines which hare escaped the pressure of those of the sm-™ l(\.scaeSCa ' le be ? appearance is correct, the prominent the lines. This opinion of the structure of the lines! publiKd i^ ® . ^ “ « P^ne above the other portions of ot re )eatf d 111 the Dr Goring decides that they are real lines. See List of 2000 MkroscoDlr 0h" ecU l ^ Lon Micrographia, published in 1837, where - PoggendorfPs Annalen der Physik, 1836, No. V. p. 225 ^ l ' ?• J°- . d. 1835. Ihis includes the concave surface between two adjacent teeth. P* 464. . „ p. Philosophical Transactions, 1833, p. 329.

MICROSCOPE. 57 4. Circulation in Plants, or Cyclosis. Nitella hyalina* MicroscoNitella translucens, Chara vulgaris, Caulinia frigalis, pic ObHydrocharis or frog-bit in the stipulae of the leaves jects* and the ends of the roots, Tradescantia virginica or spiderwort in the filaments around the stamina, Senecio vulgaris or groundsel in the hairs surrounding the stalks and flowers. 5. Circulation in Animals. In the arachnoida or spider tribe at the joints of the legs, Peria viridis and Semblis bilineata on the antennae and wings when they have just emerged from the chrysalis, larva of the Ephemera, larvd of Hydrophilus, small Dysticus, Agrion puella, Libellula, round Lynceus, fresh-water shrimp, water-hog (Oniscus), Ligia, water-flea (Daphnia pulex). (See Pritchard’s Microscopic Illustrations, and Microscopic Cabinet.) 6. Circulation in Zoophytes. Mr Lister has discovered a circulation resembling that in plants in some of the polypiferous zoophytes, as the Tabularia indivisa, Sertulariae, Campanulariae, Plumulariae, &c. 7. Crystals. For an account of various interesting microscopic phenomena observed by H. F. Talbot, Esq. of Lacock Abbey, we must refer the reader to a series of interesting papers in the recent numbers of the London and Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine. The oxalate of chromium and potash dissolved in water and rapidly crystallised is a fine object. In polarised light the most splendid object is the Faro Apophyllite when the prisms are complete, as represented by Sir D. Brewster in a coloured drawing in the Edinburgh Transactions, vol. ix. p. 317, plate xxi. fig. 1. Size. 8. Animalcules. Monas Termo, 18,000th of an inch. Monas atom us, 4000th of an inch. Monas volvox, 3456th to 1728th of an inch. Volvox globator, found in stagnant water, 30th of an inch. Vibrio, bipunctatus, 200th of an inch. Vibrio spirillum, like a screw, 2000th to 1000th of an inch. Vibrio glutinis.2 Kolpoda cucullus, 28th of an inch. Cercaria podura. Cercaria viridis. Cercaria hirta. Leucophrys fluida, 400th of an inch. Trichoda vulgaris, 1200th to 240th of an inch. Trichoda longicauda. Vorticella polymorpha. Vorticella convallaria. Vorticella senta, 100th of an inch. Vorticella rotatoria.3 The reader will find beautiful drawings and full descriptions of these and many other animalcules in Mr Pritchard’s interesting work entitled The Natural History of Animalcules, London, 1834. In the Microscopical Illustrations of Mr Pritchard and Dr Goring, and in the Microscopic Cabinet by the same authors, he will find every thing that he desires respecting microscopic objects. (n. n. n.)

icrosco- most innumerable joints without obstructing or reflecting H | oc Ob- a single ray!” ^ jects. There is another class of objects of extreme interest, which Mr Pritchard has omitted to notice, and the de• ■ cavTfles vel°Pment which called forth all the resources of optij sems. cal knowledge and practical experience with the microscope. These objects are the microscopic cavities in minerals, containing two fluids unknown to the chemist, groups of crystals, floating balls, and exhibiting actual chemical operations going on in these minute laboratories when exposed to changes of temperature. These various phenomena have been described and represented in drawings, in two papers by Sir David Brewster, published in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. In some of the precious stones, particularly in diamond, garnet, &c. these cavities are perfect spheres ; but, owing to the great refractive power of the gem, they appear completely black and opaque, though the microscope descries a small spot of light in their centre, which is the pencil of light which they refract. These spherical cavities, and this central spot, are the finest objects for examining the aberration of lenses and specula, and are infinitely preferable to the reflected patches of light from small spherules of quicksilver. Dr Goring has observed spherical cavities or air-bubbles in fluids, and, with his usual ingenuity, recognised their utility for indicating the effects of aberration. Those which we have used in the gems are, however, permanent instruments of much greater utility, not only from our being able to use the same bright spof with all instruments and on all occasions, but from the dark ring round the bright spot being incomparably greater in the gems than in fluids.1 Representations of some of the cavities in fluids are given in Plate CCCLXII. fig. 29, 30, 31. Fig. 29 shows the cavities containing the two new fluids, which will not mix, though in the same cavity. The little circle is the bubble either of gas or of vacuity. The fluid round it is a highly evaporable fluid, and the fluid in the angles and ends of long cavities is a thick and unevaporable fluid, which indurates when exposed to the air. Figs. 29 and 30 are beautifully formed cavities in topaz. Our limits will not permit us to pursue this subject farther, and we shall conclude the article with a very brief selection of microscopic objects from Mr Pritchard’s admirable little pamphlet, entitled a List of 2000 Microscopic Objects. 1. Insects,—Eggs, wings, tongues, antennm, and scales of. Eyes of, Agrion, 12,000 eyes; Bombyx Mer, 6236 eyes; Phalama cossus, 11,300; Scarabaeus, 3180; Hawk-moth, 20,000; Libellula, 12,544; Melalontha, 8820; Mordella, 25,088 ; Papilio, 17,000. 2. Hairs of Animals. Hair of an infant, Ornitborynchus, mouse, bat, bee, Acilius canaliculatus, Melecta punctatus, Siberian fox, spider, wing of Tipalis, stagbeetle, white cat, dormouse, dermestes, caterpillar, badger, ant-eater, civet cat. 3. Scales of Insects. Podura plumbea, Pontia brassica, Pierisbrassica, Parnassus Apollo, Atlas moth, diamondbeetle, Euplcea limniace, house-moth, Lepisma saccharina, 10-plumed moth, 20-plumed moth, Morpho Menelaus, Papilio Apollo, Papilio Paris, Urania leilus, privet moth.

1 The ratio between the diameter of the dark sphere and of the small luminous spot gives a measure of the refractive power of the solid or fluid. 2 Figured by Dr Goring in the Microscopic Cabinet. 3 The Rotifer vulgaris. See Microscopic Cabinet, chap. vi.

VOL. XV.

H

M I D 58 MID Midas MIDAS, in fabulous history, a famous king of Phrygia. into two, namely, on the west, Caspar’s Strait, and on the Middle. j[jd ^ .11 Bacchus, having been received by him with great magni- east, Clement’s Strait. It is also the name of a small island burg Middle ficence> offered, out of gratitude, to grant him whatever in the narrowest part of the Straits ot Sunda, opposite | s ou ^ ^ ^ as^* Midas desired that every thing which he to Hog’s Point, in Sumatra, called also Thwart the Way. v touched should be changed into gold. Bacchus consented ; Long. 105. 43. E. Lat. 5. 55. S. MIDDLEBURG, one of the Friendly Islands, in the and Midas, with extreme pleasure, found everywhere the effects of his touch. But he had soon reason to repent of South Sea. See Polynesia. MIDDLEBURGH, a small island, about ten miles in his folly; for, when he wanted to eat and to drink, the aliments no sooner entered his mouth than they were chan- circumference, situated off' the north-western extremity ged into gold. This obliged him to have recourse to of Ceylon. MIDDLEHAM, a market-town of the north riding of Bacchus again, to beseech him to restore him to his former state ; upon which the god ordered him to bathe in the the county of York, in the wapentake of Hang West, 232 river Pactolus, which thenceforward had sands of gold. miles from London. It has the remains of an ancient Some time afterwards, being chosen judge between Pan royal castle, where King Richard III. was born, and Edand Apollo, he gave another instance of his folly and bad ward IV. died. The church is large, and was formerly taste, in preferring Pan’s music to Apollo’s; upon which collegiate. The inhabitants amounted in 1801 to 728, in the latter, being enraged, provided him with a pair of ass’s 1811 to 714, in 1821 to 880, and in 1831 to 914. A marears. This Midas attempted to conceal from the know- ket is held here on Monday. MIDDLESEX, an English county, and, though in exledge of his subjects; but one of his servants having seen the length of his ears, and being unable to keep the secret, tent one of the least, yet, as containing within it the meyet afraid to reveal it from apprehension of the king’s re- tropolis of the British empire, with its numerous populasentment, opened a hole in the earth, and after he had tion, its extensive wealth, and its repositories of art and whispered there that Midas had the ears of an ass, he co- science, and being the theatre of the most interesting hisvered the place as before, as if he had buried his words in torical and political transactions, naturally attracts to it the ground. On that place, however, as the poets mention, the attention of all who are connected with the united there grew a number of reeds, which, when agitated by kingdoms. the wind, uttered the same sound which had been buried This county is bounded on the north by Hertfordshire; beneath, and published to the world that Midas had the on the west by Buckinghamshire ; on the south by Surrey, ears of an ass. Some explain the fable of the ears of Mi- and at the eastern point by a small portion of Kent; and das, by the supposition that he kept a number of inform- on the east by Essex. Its general figure is quadrangular, ers and spies, who were continually employed in gather- but rendered very irregular by the course of the rivers ing and retailing every seditious word which might drop Thames, Coin, and Lea, which bound it on three sides, from the mouthsof his subjects. Midas, according to Strabo, and by a considerable projection into Hertfordshire on died of drinking bull’s blood hot, a potion which he is said the north. Its greatest length is twenty-three and its to have taken in order to free himself from the numerous greatest breadth seventeen miles. Its square contents are evil dreams which continually tormented him. According estimated at 285 miles, or 182,400 statute acres. to some, this personage was son of Cybele, and built a town, According to the census of 1831, the whole number of which he called Ancyrce. inhabitants was 1,358,330, of whom 631,410 were males MIDDELBURG, a circle of the province of Zealand, and 726,920 were females. These composed 314,039 fain the Netherlands, consisting of the island of that name, milies, of whom 9882 were chiefly occupied in agriculture ; which is separated by the Eloe water from South Beve- 173,822 were chiefly occupied in trade, manufactures, and land ; it is divided into six cantons, and contains 30,000 in- handicraft; and the remainder, 130,335, were not comprehabitants. The capital is the city of the same name, near- hended in either of these two classes. ly in the centre of the island; it was once fortified, but is A more minute classification is as follows :— now with its walls converted into pleasing promenades. Males under twenty years of age 358,521 It is well built, and has twelve churches, one of which, the Occupiers of land, employing labourers 1,050 New Church, has a lofty tower, serving as a useful sea- Occupiers of land, not employing labourers 490 mark. In 1830 it contained 14,700 inhabitants, viz. 6469 Labourers employed in agriculture 11,376 males and 8231 females. The city has manufactories of Employed in manufacture, or in making manufaclinen and woollen cloth, and is celebrated for its chocolate. turing machinery 11,064 It is connected by water with the West Scheldt, but its Employed in retail trade, or in handicraft, as masshipping operations have been on the decline, and but ters or workmen... 163,220 slightly revived since the return of peace. This city Capitalists, bankers, professional and other educatwas the birth-place of the celebrated jurist Bynkershoeck. ed men 49,457 Long. 3. 32. 10. E. Lat. 51. 30. 6. N. Labourers employed in labour other than agriculMIDDELTON, a market-town of the county of Lantural 79,735 caster, in the hundred of Salford, 190 miles from London Other males, twenty years of age, not servants.... 22,549 and seven from Manchester, on the road to Rochdale. The Male servants, twenty years of age... 19,578 inhabitants are chiefly employed in the different branches Male servants under twenty years of age 5,923 of the cotton manufacture. It is a parish of itself, and 87,554 has a market, which is held on Saturday. The inhabitants Female servants The baptisms of 1830 were, males 167,444, of females of the town were, in 1801,3265 ; in 1811, 4422; in 1821, 165,683 ; the burials in the same were, of males 148,390, 5809 ; and in 1831, 6903 ; but at the last census the whole and of females The marriages were 13,295. parish, which comprises also seven other chapelries or Ihe illegitimate 141,529. children born in the same year were, of townships, contained 14,370 inhabitants. males 526, of females 380. MID-HEAVEN, the culminating point of the ecliptic, Ihe proportion of burials to the whole population, which or that in which it cuts the meridian. in 1801 was one in thirty-one, was in 1830 one in fortyMIDDLE Island lies off the south coast of New Holland, in longitude 123. 10. east, and latitude 34. 7. south. tuo. Ihe amount expended for the relief of the poor but little during the ten years from 1820 to There is another small island of this name in the strait ^varied 1830. In the first of these years it amounted to L.625,665, between the islands of Billiton and Banca, which it divides and in the last to L.681,567.

MIDDLESEX. 59 Iddlesex. The annual value of the real property of the county, as sixty-five per cent. If the same rate of increase should Middlesex, assessed in the year 1815, was L.5,595.337. The increase continue till 1841, which there seems no reason to doubt, of the population is shown by the several decennial enu- the county will then have doubled its inhabitants in about merations to have been as follows, viz. in 1801, 818,129; in the period of forty or forty-one years. The county is divided into six hundreds, and the three 1811, 953,276, being an increase of seventeen per cent.; in 1821, 1,144,531, being an increase of twenty per cent.; cities of London within the,, walls, London without the and in 1831, 1,358,200, being an increase of nineteen per walls, and Westminster. The most populous of the huncent. The whole increase in the thirty years has been dreds, that of Ossulstone, is formed into four divisions. Cities or Hundreds. Edmonton hundred Elthorne ditto Gore ditto Isleworth ditto Ossulstone. Finsbury division Holborn ditto Kensington ditto Tower ditto Spelthorne hundred London within the walls... London without the walls Westminster city Militia under training

Families.

Males.

Females.

4,801 4,224 2,049 2,871

12,969 9,998 5,697 6,515

13,961 10,093 5,618 7,053

26,930 20,091 11,315 13,568

34,569 83,467 20,179 84,282 3,175 11,719 15,884 46,004

70,641 154,743 39,217 168,146 7,325 27,327 33,413 95,219 200

80,768 191,512 48,744 191,718 7,887 28,451 34,492 106,623

151,409 346,255 87,961 359,864 15,212 55,778 67,905 201,842 200

314,039

631,410

726,920

1,358,330

The places of most note in this county, besides the cities of London and Westminster, aretowms which have sprung up from their contiguity or vicinity to the metropolis, and which, in many instances, though forming only suburbs, are to all appearance, and to all practical purposes, parts of the great city. In giving the population, those places in contact with London must be first noticed. Mary-le-bone parish 122,206 Pancras, with its hamlets 103.548 Paddington 14,540 Bethnal Green 62,018 Chelsea 32,371 Kensington, with its hamlets 20,902 Shad well 9,544 Stepney parish, including Poplar, Blackwall, Limehouse, Mile-end, Old and NewTown, and Ratcliffe 67,872 Bromley 4,846 The other populous places not in contact with the metropolis are, Hackney, with its hamlets 31,047 Islington 37,316 Fulham, with Hammersmith 17,539 Hampsteed 8,588 Ealing, including Old Brentford 7,783 Tottenham 6,937 Enfield 8,812 Cheswick 4,994 Twickenham 4,571 Hornsey, with part of Highgate 4,857 Hampton, including the court and Hampton Wick 3,992 Hendon 3,110 Uxbridge, with Hillingdon 6,885 Heston, with a part of Hounslow 3,407 Stoke-Newington 3,480 Staines 2,486 Edmonton 8,192 Harrow a 3,861 Isleworth 5,590 The face of this county may be described as a gently sloping tract rising from the banks of the Thames, its

Total.

southern boundary, to the hills on the north, none of which rises more than 350 feet above the level of that river, and few attain even that height. In receding from the banks of the stream, the surface is gently undulated, with sufficient slope to secure the necessary drainage. The prospects in the southern division of the county, from the level nature of its surface, are not distinguished by extent or variety; and the eye is only relieved from the fatigue of uniformity, by the numerous buildings, plantations, gardens, and the rich verdure of productive grass fields. Even in the more hilly parts of the county the prospects are far less impressive than those upon the opposite banks of the Thames, or those which are to be seen upon the borders of that river before it enters Middlesex. The best prospects of a rural kind are from the range of hills stretching from Pinner, Stanmore, Elstree, Totteridge, and Barnet, to the forest scenery of Enfield Chace. The Hill of Harrow, a projection from this ridge, is one of the highest points ; and the whole of the richly-cultivated valley of Middlesex is comprehended in the view from it. The original soil on the southern side of the county is of a most sterile kind of gravel; but the vast quantities of manure which have been furnished to it from the extensive cities in its vicinity, have been so spread over the surface, that a most luxuriantly-productive soil of garden mould has been created ; and from the same cause it is renewed as rapidly as it becomes exhausted by the crops grown upon it. The northern part of the county generally consists of a soil of clayey loam, which, though rather difficult to plough, is, when properly pulverised, very well adapted for the cultivation of wheat, and has been long celebrated for the excellent quality of that grain which is produced upon it. The table of Queen Elizabeth was regularly furnished with white bread from the wheat grown in the vicinity of Hounslow. In several parts of the county the loamy clay, converted by the addition of cinders, technically called breeze, into bricks, becomes the most profitable application of the soil. This is peculiarly the case where such soil is found in the immediate vicinity of the metropolis, or upon the banks of the rivers or canals that communicate with it. “ Round the one-mile stone on the Kingsland Road,” says Mr Middleton, “ the surface is

MIDDLESEX. f)0 Middlesex, lowered from four to ten feet, by the earth having been soon afterwards as the season will permit, which is gene-Middlesei ^ dug up and manufactured into bricks, over an extent ot rally in February, the same ground is planted with caulimore than 1000 acres ; and it has been levelled, ploughed flowers from the frames, as thick as if no other crop had up, and laid down to grass. It is sufficiently dry, and by then possession of the ground. The radishes, &c. are soon the help of town manure is restored again to excellent sent to market; and when the cauliflowers are so far adgrass land; though it had previously yielded to the com- vanced as to be earthed up, sugar-loaf cabbages are plantmunity, through the medium of the brickmakers, upwards ed from the before-mentioned seed crops ; and daily as of L.4000 per acre on an average of the whole level; these crops are sent to market, the same ground is cropped but there are a few acres of choice marl earth, which have with celery for winter use. The foregoing rotation is the produced through the same medium L.20,000 per acre.” common practice, but there are many deviations, according The greater portion of the land in the county is appro- to the judgment of the cultivators, the state of the weapriated to the cultivation of grass, which is converted into ther, and the demands of the market. Such a system, howhay for the supply of the numerous horses kept in the me- ever, can be pursued only in the vicinity of great cities, the tropolis. These upland meadows have been gradually ex- abundant manure of which gives the means of raising vegetending as the metropolis has increased, so that at present table productions in defiance of the inclemency of our northnot more than 20,000 acres are under cultivation by the ern winters. A species of cultivation of a nondescript kind, plough. The meadows, however, even those which have partaking of the nature of agriculture and horticulture, is been longest laid down in herbage, discover the marks of extensively pursued in this county. The ground is ploughtheir having been formerly ploughed. The great consump- ed in January and February, and cropped with early pease, tion of hay in the London markets has induced the most which are gathered green in June. The land is then skill to be applied to that particular branch of rural econo- sowed with turnips, which are sold in autumn, when the mics which, under the term haymaking, is usually deemed kind of cabbages called collards are planted, and these the simplest of all agricultural operations, but which is here three crops are annually raised from the same soil. Manufactures of every kind may be ascribed to this counmanaged in so superior a way as to bring to the stack hay of a quality far better than is preserved in the more dis- ty, in so far as the best workmen of every description are tant counties. The corn grown in this county is inconsi- employed in London for combining, fitting, and finishing derable. Upon an average of years, about 10,000 acres are all the commodities requisite for the consumption of the sown with wheat, about 4000 with barley, about 3000 with metropolis, which is at the same time the seat of governbeans, and about 2000 with pease ; some rye is grown, but ment, the temporary residence of the wealthiest subjects principally for green food, and scarcely any oats are culti- of Great Britain, and the greatest sea-port of the empire, vated. There are fewer sheep and cows kept in Middle- but workmen of this kind, forming more than 400 classes, sex than in any other county; but of the latter some thou- cannot be here so appropriately described as under the arsands are maintained solely for the purpose of supplying ticle London, to which the reader is referred. milk for the consumption of the metropolis. Many pigs In the more appropriate application of the word manuare fattened from the offal produced in the vast breweries facture, none of importance can be attributed to Middleand malt distilleries of London and its vicinity. sex, other than that of silk, which subsists in Spittalfields, The horticulture of Middlesex, although it does not ex- and which employs upwards of 5000 males above twenty tend over quite so great a surface as its arable culture, years of age. In St Mary’s parish, Whitechapel, 440 men produces a far greater annual return. Exclusively of the of that age are employed in sugar-refining. Ship-building, gardens attached to the houses of the nobility and gentry, and the various auxiliaries of that art, such as rope-making, the extent of land appropriated to the growth of fruit is sail-making, block-making, anchor-making, and the fabrireckoned by Mr Middleton to be 3000 acres, of that de- cation of copper sheathing and bolts for ships, with nuvoted to culinary vegetables 10,000, and of that used as merous smaller articles, employ a great number of persons. nursery grounds and plantations 1500. The same writer Ihere are manufactories of chemical preparations at Bow, estimated the annual value of the productions of horticul- mustard-mills at Staines, copper-works at Harefield, and ture at somewhat more than one million sterling. The mills for throwing silk in many places. gardeners of Middlesex practise a wonderful economy in I he rivers of Middlesex are, the Thames, the Coin, the the raising of crops. The fruit gardeners have what they Brent, and the Lea. The former of these is navigable for call an upper and an under crop growing on the same barges, along almost its whole extent, to Leachlade in Glouground at the same time. First, the ground is stocked cestershire, within a few miles of its source. The tide is with apples, pears, cherries, plums, walnuts, &c. like a com- felt as high as Teddington, above which the navigation is plete orchard, and called the upper crop. It is secondly performed by penning the \yater at various locks till a suffully planted with raspberries, gooseberries, currants, ficient body is collected, which, by making w hat is locally strawberries, and all such fruits, shrubs, and herbs as are called & flash, permits the passage of the barges over the known to sustain the shade and drippings from the trees obstructions and shoals, which, a few hours after, become above them without the least injury ; this they term the again impassable. The picturesque beauties on the banks under crop. Some of these gardens have walls which are of this stream are too well known to need a description in completely clothed with fruit-trees, such as peaches, nec- this place. The Coin is not navigable. It enters Middletarines, apricots, plums, and various others, all adapted to sex from Hertfordshire at the north-western extremity of the aspect of the wall. In order to increase the quantity the county, and falls into the Thames in various channels of warmth and shelter in autumn, they raise earthen banks at considerable distances from each other, having in its of about three feet in height, laid to a slope of forty-five course been applied to the working of numerous mills for degrees to the sun. On these slopes they plant endive in paper, corn, and other purposes. The Brent, also not navithe month of September; and near the bottoms of them gable, enters the county from Hertfordshire, and joins the they drill pease from October to Christmas; by this means Ihames at Brentford, i'he Lea is navigable for barges the endive is preserved from rotting, and, as well as the pease, reaches maturity at an early period. The common along its whole course through this county. It enters from Hertfordshire, forms the eastern boundary of Middlesex, routine ot the best kitchen gardeners is the following: and the ihames at Limehouse, below London. BeSoon after Christmas, when the weather is open, they be- sidesjoins these natural streams, the artificial one called the gin by sowing the borders, and then the quarters, with raIliver belongs to this county. The artificial channel dishes, spinach, onions, and all the other seed crops. As m ew which this stream flows towards London has a very de-

M

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llddlesex. vious course, in order to keep the waters at a due level. IT—' It is ultimately received into a spacious reservoir near Islington, whence, by means of pipes, its water is conveyed through the streets of the metropolis to the houses of individuals. Amongst the public works of this county, the canals deserve notice. These are, the Grand Junction, the Paddington, and the Regent’s Canal. The first forms a connection with the whole interior of the kingdom, and the second is connected with it. Through them, internal navigation is conducted to the manufacturing counties, and to the distant ports of Liverpool, Bristol, and Hull, and to the potteries, iron-founderies, and collieries of Staffordshire and Warwickshire. The Regent’s Canal surrounds the whole of the northern side of the metropolis, around which it describes a semicircle, commencing at the dock of the Paddington Canal, and terminating at the river Thames at Limehouse. Its principal utility is supposed to be derived from forming the means of conveying coals and other heavy commodities from the river to the more distant parts of the capital without expensive land-carriage. We may here notice two works actually in operation, which may become of vast importance. These are, the railroad from London to Birmingham, which has been considerably advanced, and a similar one to Southampton, already commenced. For another to Bristol an act of parliament has been obtained. The docks constructed of late years for the facilities of commerce are most extensive and magnificent works, and the warehouses which surround them are wonderful exhibitions of the commercial opulence of this country, having been all completed from the capitals of individuals. The West India Docks contain about sixty acres of water, in which the largest vessels can float. The London or Wapping Docks are of nearly the same extent. The St Catherine’s Docks, finished in 1828, can accommodate annually 1400 vessels ; and, being near the centre of the trading establishments, are found of vast benefit. The East India Docks are more than thirty acres; and near them is a dock belonging to private individuals (Messrs Wigram and Green), of nearly twenty acres, where the business of shipbuilding is carried on upon a scale which exceeds that of most of the establishments of the governments of Europe. The most remarkable edifices of this county are more properly described under the articles London and Westminster in this work. Beyond the limits of these cities may be noticed the- palaces of Hampton Court and Kensington ; the Hospital of Chelsea, for invalid soldiers ; the Royal Military Asylum ; the bridges of Staines, Vauxhall, and Waterloo ; Middlesex Hospital; St George’s Hospital; Jews’ Hospital; and Harrow School. The number of other erections, of a second and third order, are too numerous for recapitulation. The changes of property have been so rapid in this county, and the taste for substituting fashionable novelty in the room of venerable antiquity has been so prevalent, that very few first-rate seats are to be found, but a vast number of second and third-rate houses, which, if removed from the vicinity of the metropolis, would attract considerable notice. The most remarkable residences are, Bendy Priory, Marquis of Abercorn; Bushy Park, the residence of his present majesty when Duke of Clarence ; Caenwood, Earl of Mansfield ; Chiswick House, Duke of Devonshire; Fulham Palace, Bishop of London ; Holland House, Lord Holland ; Littleton, Thomas Wood, Esq.; Osterley House, Earl of Jersey; Sion House, Duke of Northumberland ; Strawberry Hill, Countess of Waldegrave ; Wrotham Park, George Bvng, Esq.; Harrow, Lord North wick ; and Sion Hill, Duke of Marlborough. (See Middleton’s View of the Agriculture of Middlesex; and Brayley’s Beaidies of England and Wales.)

MID 61 Middlesex is also the name of four different counties Middlesex in the United States of America, one of which is in Mas11 sachusetts, another in Connecticut, a third in New Jersey, Middleand the fourth in Virginia. * v > MIDDLETON, Dr Conyers, a celebrated English divine, was the son of a clergyman in Yorkshire, and born at Richmond in 1683. He distinguished himself, whilst fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, by his controversy with his master Dr Bentley, relative to some mercenary conduct of the latter in that station. He had afterwards a controversy with the whole body of physicians upon the dignity of the medical profession, concerning which he published JJe medicorum apud veteres Romanos degentium, conditione Dissertatio; qua, contra viros celeberrimos Jacobum Sponium et Richardum Meadium, servilem atque ignobilem earn fuisse ostenditur. In the course of this dispute much resentment was manifested, and many pamphlets appeared. Hitherto he had stood well with his clerical brethren ; but in 1729 he drew upon himself the resentment of the church, by writing a Letter from Rome, showing an exact conformity between Popery and Paganism ; as this letter, although politely written, yet attacked Catholic miracles with a gaiety which appeared dangerous to the cause of miracles in general. Nor were his Objections to Dr Waterland’s manner of vindicating Scripture against Tindal’s Christianity qs old as the Creation, looked upon in a more favourable point of view. In 1741 appeared his great work, entitled History of the Life of M. Tullius Cicero, in two vols. 4to, which is indeed a fine performance, and will probably be read as long as taste and polite literature subsist amongst us. In 17’48 he published a Free Inquiry into the Miraculous Powers which are supposed to have subsisted in the Christian Church from the earliest ages, through several successive centuries. He was nowattacked from all quarters ; but before he took any notice of his antagonists, he supplied them with another subject, in an Examination of the Lord Bishop of London’s Discourses concerning the Use and Extent of Prophecy. Thus Dr Middleton continued to display talents and learning, which are highly esteemed by men of a free turn of mind, but by no means in a method calculated to invite promotion in the clerical profession. In 1723 he was chosen principal librarian of the public library at Cambridge ; and if he rose not to a high station in the church, he was at least in easy circumstances, which permitted him to assert a dignity of mind that is often forgotten in the career of preferment. He was one of the best writers of his age; and he displays a degree of skill and beauty in the structure of his long sentences, which has but rarely been equalled. He died in 1750, at Hildersham, in Cambridgeshire, an estate which he had purchased; and in 1752, all his works, except the life of Cicero, were collected in four vols. 4to. A second edition, in five vols. 8vo, was published in 1755. Middleton, Sir Charles, Island, one of the Fejee Islands, in the South Pacific Ocean. It is fertile, and situated in long. 181. W. lat. 17. 2. S. Middleton Cheyney, a town of the county of Northampton, in the hundred of King’s Sutton, seventy miles from London. It is situated in a fertile district on the borders of Oxfordshire, and contained a population in 1801 of 1153, in 1811 of 1172, in 1821 of 1398, and in 1831 of 1415 persons. MIDDLEWICH, a town of the county of Chester, in the hundred of Northwich, 166 miles from London. It is situated between the rivers Wheeloch and Dane, which unite below the town and fall into the Wever; and it has also a canal communication with the Mersey at Runcorn. It has celebrated brine springs of great strength, from which abundance of culinary salt is made, and conveyed with facility to Liverpool. Of late years a branch of the cotton

62 M I D Midhurst manufacture has been established here. The market is held II on Tuesday. The population of the town amounted in 1801 Midwifery. t0 1190j in ]8U t0 1232, in 1821 to 1212, and in 1831 to 1325; but the whole parish, at the last census, contained 4782 inhabitants. MIDHURST, a town of the county of Sussex, in the hundred of Westbourne and rape of Chichester, fifty-one miles from London. It is situated on the river Arun, and adjoining to it is the magnificent park of the Lords Montague, and the remains of the fine mansion, Cowany House. It is an ancient borough, and returned two members to parliament; but one has been taken from it by the reform act. The population amounted in 1801 to 1073, in 1811 to 1256, in 1821 to 1335, and in 1831 to 1478. There is a market on Thursday. MIDIAN, or Madian, in Ancient Geography, a town on the south side of Arabia Petraea, which was so called from one of the sons of Abraham by Keturah. MIDNAPOOR, a district of Bengal, in the province of Orissa, containing an area of 6102 square Iniles, and about a million and a half of inhabitants. The bulk of the people are Hindus, but there is a greater proportion of Mahommedans than in most other parts of India. Two thirds of this extensive district consists of a jungle swarming with noxious animals, and exceedingly unhealthy, although the land is rich and fertile. This district was formerly ceded to the East India Company in 1761. Having been long the scene of warfare between the Afghans, Moguls, and Mahrattas, it contains a great number of small forts, which serve as a refuge for robbers, from which they frequently annoy the inhabitants. The country produces abundance of grain, sugar, tobacco, cotton, and indigo. Its principal towns are Midnapore, Jellasore, Piply, and Narraingur. Midnapore, the capital, formerly possessed a fort, which has been converted into a criminal prison. It is seventy miles west by south from Calcutta. Long. 87. 25. E. Lat. 22. 25. N. MIDSHIP-Frame, a name given to that timber, or combination of pieces formed into one timber, which determines the extreme breadth of the ship, as well as the figure and dimensions of all the inferior timbers. MIDSHIPMAN, a sort of naval cadet, appointed to second the orders of the superior officers, and to assist in the necessary business of the vessel, either on board or on shore. MIDWIFERY, the art of assisting women in parturition. In a more extended sense, it is understood to comprehend also the treatment ot the diseases of women and children. It is obvious that the obstetrical art must have been almost coeval with mankind; but in Europe it continued in a very rude state till the seventeenth century ; and even after physic and surgery had become distinct professions, it remained almost totally uncultivated. It is a curious fact, that in China the very reverse of this has taken place. In that empire, both physic and surgery are still in a state of degradation ; but for some hundreds of years, the art of midwifery has, it is said, been practised by a set of men destined to the purpose by order of government. These persons, who hold in society the same rank which lithotomists formerly did in this country, are called in whenever a woman has been above a specified number of hours in labour, and employ a mechanical contrivance for completing the delivery without injury to the infant. A proportional number of such individuals is allotted to each district containing a certain population. It is said, that the Chinese government was led to make this provision for alleviating the sufferings of women in childbirth, in consequence of a representation, that annually many women died undelivered ; and that in the majority of cases the cause of obstruction might have been removed by very simple mechanical expedients.

M I D Both Sir George Staunton and Mr Barrow were igno- Midwifer rant of this fact; and the latter in particular expressly II mentions that there are no men-midwives in China; but Mieza. we have learned the facts above stated from a gentleman who resided upwards of twenty years as surgeon to the British factory at Canton, and who had both the ability and the inclination to make himself acquainted, during the course of so long a residence, with all the customs and prejudices of the natives relating to the preservation of human life and health. Towards the end of the seventeenth century, the same causes which had so long before led to the cultivation of midwifery in China produced the same effect in Europe. The dangers to which women are sometimes exposed during labour excited the compassion of the benevolent; and hence a considerable part of the first hospital which was established for the reception of the indigent sick, the Hotel Dieu of Paris, was appropriated to lying-in women. The opportunities of practice which that hospital afforded, directed the attention of medical men to the numerous accidents which happen during labour, and to the various diseases which occur after delivery. Public teaching followed, and soon afterwards began the custom of employing men in the practice of midwifery. From this period the art rapidly improved ; and it is now in many parts of Europe, particularly in Great Britain, in as great a state of perfection as physic or surgery. There can be no doubt that the improvement of the art of midwifery chiefly arose from medical men directing their attention to the subject; but the propriety of men being employed in such a profession has been much questioned by many individuals of considerable respectability. It appears, indeed, that this question may be brought within a very narrow compass. It may be assumed as a fact established beyond the reach of controversy, that sometimes dangers and difficulties occur during labour, which can be lessened or removed by those only who have an intimate knowledge of the structure of the human body and of the practice of physic. On such occasions, it must be admitted, that medical men alone may be useful. But as such labours occur only in the proportion of two or three in the hundred, the general practice might be confided to midwives, if they could be taught to manage ordinary cases, and to foresee and distinguish difficulties or dangers, so as to procure in sufficient time additional assistance. It is on this point that the decision of the question must depend, and there can be no doubt that women may be taught all this. But there are many who allege, that, a little knowledge being a dangerous thing, midwives acquire a sell-sufficiency which renders them averse to calling in superior assistance; and that, in consequence, they often occasion the most deplorable accidents both to the mother and the child. In England this is the popular opinion, and hence women are there almost entirely excluded from the practice of midwifery. A similar prejudice against midwives has, it is believed, begun in some parts of Scotland ; but it is presumed this will gradually cease, when it is considered that, in general, the Scotch midwives are regularly instructed, and are at the same time both virtuous and industrious. It they attend strictly to their duty, and invariably prefer the safety of their patients to their own eehngs or supposed interest, they will deservedly retain tue public confidence. But if in cases of difficulty or danger they trust to their own exertions, or from interested motives decline the assistance of able practitioners, and if trey interfere in the treatment of the diseases of women and children, they will in a few years be entirely excluded trom practice. For details connected with the practice of mi wi ery, we refer to the professional works which treat °. J'le su and which are too well known to require sper cification. ’ MIEZA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Macedonia,

1 M I L IliVlieza situated near Stagira, and in the olden time called StryII monium. Plutarch informs us, that in this place were Milan, the stone seats and shady walks of Aristotle. MIGDOL, or Magdol, in Ancient Geography, a place in Lower Egypt, between Pihahiroth and the Red Sea. The term denotes a tower or fortress. It is probably, the Magdolum of Herodotus; at least the Septuagint render it by the same name. MIGRATION, the passage or removal of a thing out of one place into another. For the migration of birds, See Ornithology. MIGUEL, St, or St Michael, one of the Azore Islands, situated in long. 25. 45. W. lat. 38. 10. N. See Azores. MIHEL, a town of the department of the Meuse, and arrondissement of Bar-le-Duc, in France, on the right bank of the Meuse, containing 5250 inhabitants, who produce very good wine. MIKH AILOW, a circle of the Russian province of Riasan, extending from east longitude 38. 24. to 39. 4. and from north latitude 53. 52. to 54. 29. It is very productive in corn, hemp, flax, and cattle. The capital is the city of the same name situated on the river Prona, and containing 408 houses and 2300 inhabitants. Long. 38. 42. E. Lat. 54. 12. N. MILAN, called by the Italians Milano, and by the Germans Mailand or Mayland, is one of the governments into which the Austrian kingdom of Lombardy is divided. It was known as the duchy of Milan, till it came under the dominion of the imperial family of Austria. In the article Italy of this work, the history of the ancient realm of the Longobards, with its kings of the iron crown, is noticed, as well as the other remarkable events respecting this country; and here we need only state the dates of the principal occurrences under the independent dukedoms. The first duke was Galleafco Visconti, who was installed in that dignity by the Emperor Wenzel in the year 1395; and it continued in his family till the male line became extinct in 1447. Erance made some urgent efforts to obtain the authority, but these were of no avail, as Francisco Sforza, who had married an illegitimate daughter of the last Visconti, succeeded in gaining possession of the supreme power in this beautiful country, and transmitted it to his successors, who ruled till 1499. At that period Louis XII. king of France, and Francis I. emperor of Germany, laid claim to it. It was long the subject of contention between these two great powers, sometimes possessed by one, sometimes by the other, till after the decisive battle of Pavia in 1525, by which the emperor became master of Milan ; and, Ry the treaty of Madrid in 1556, the possession of it was confirmed, when Francis granted it to Maximilian Sforza, to be held as a fief of the Holy Roman empire. The house of Sforza became extinct in 1535, upon which the Emperor Charles V. granted the duchy to his son Philip the Second, king of Spain. It remained under the power of the heirs of that crown till the war of the succession in 1706, when the events of that contest placed it in the hands of the house of Austria; but, by the treaty of Vienna in 1735, and by that of Worms in 1745, several portions of the country were delivered over to the king of Sardinia. The French revolution occasioned a successful invasion and much fighting, which in 1796 produced the ephemeral Cisalpine republic, which was annihilated by the Austrians and Russians in 1799 ; but the decisive battle of Marengo in 1801 gave the whole country to Bonaparte, who soon erected his kingdom of Italy, with the city of Milan as its capital and the residence of his viceroy. The peace of Paris in 1814 restored it again to the Austrian dominions, under which it has continued to the present day. Milan is at present divided into the following nine delegations.

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63 Milan.

Delegations.

Extent in Square Miles.

Population.

Milan Brescia Cremona Mantua Bergamo Como Pavia Lodi, with Crema... Sondrio

1034 1254 484 594 1452 1450 528 748 1364

483,103 335,157 182,559 255,307 205,042 356.015 153,242 204,042 86,947

8906

2,261,414

By a late return, it appears that the males under seventeen years of age were 390,634, those between seventeen and twenty-four 88,993, those betw-een twenty-four and thirty-four 105,780, those between thirty-four and fortysix 230,405, and those above forty-six were not classed, as the account was taken for military purposes, from which persons above that age are exempt. The chief occupation of this body of inhabitants consists in the cultivation of the soil. As that subject has been discussed in what appears its most appropriate place in this work under the head of Lombardy, our readers are referred to that article. This government contains 462,700 families, who inhabit 279,160 houses, in fifteen cities, ninety-seven market-towns, and 3217 villages. It is bounded on the east by the government of Venice, on the north by the Swiss cantons, on the west by the territory of Sardinia, and on the south by Parma, Modena, and Sardinia. The northern part is mountainous and sterile, comprehending a portion of the Alps and extensive lakes ; but the southern and much the larger part is level and highly fertile, being watered by numerous streams issuing from the lakes, all of which, with their various tributary rivulets, are finally emptied into the Po. There are abundance of canals connected with the rivers and with each other, which are made use of both for the purposes of irrigation and for the conveyance of goods ; but on these highly interesting topics we must refer the reader, as before, to the general article Lombardy. Milan, a city, the capital of the Austrian kingdom of Lombardy, as well as of the delegation in which it stands. Although it has suffered much by war, and by the political events of the last fifty y^ears, it is still the richest, and, except Naples, the most populous city of Italy. It stands on the river Olona, and, by means of the canal called Naviglio Grande, is connected with the river Ticino, and, by the Martesana, with the river Adda, From this water intercourse, and from the excellence of the roads in all directions round the city, the markets are supplied with every necessary in the most convenient and easy manner. The city is nearly of a circular figure; it is walled, but scarcely defensible against a decided attack; and it is protected by a citadel containing six bastions. The whole compass of the wall is 5900 fathoms, or nearly seven English miles. The longest part, from the Porta Romana to the Porta Sempione, is 1800 fathoms; and the broadest part, from the Porta Ticenese to the Porta Orientale, is 1600 fathoms. The wall is furnished with eleven gates, some of which are the most striking objects of the city, and merit special notice. The most remarkable ol these is that at the gate leading to 'licino, which resembles the entrance to a Roman temple. It is built of granite, and consists of colossal pillars of the Ionic order, with an appropriate peristyle ; and in connection with it is the fine bridge over the Naviglio Grande. The Area della Pace, or del Sempione, Bonaparte had formed the design of erecting as a trium-

64 M I L Milan, phal arch to celebrate his conquest and dominion over Italy. It was not finished at the fall of Napoleon in 1813, but was completed by the Emperor of Austria in 1816, and a name given to it intended to commemorate the return of peace. The pillars, of six feet in circumference and forty feet in height, formed out of a single block of marble, are its most distinguishing ornaments. The arch resting on them, of a breadth nearly equal to that of Constantine, is ornamented with a car of bronze, to which six horses are harnessed, and in which the goddess of victory is seated. The whole building is of white marble, with the various figures and bas-reliefs of bronze. The streets of this city are generally narrow and crooked, and rather gloomy from the height of the buildings. One of the streets, the Corso, or High Street, is an exception ; it runs through the whole city, is nearly two miles and a half in length, is of great breadth, and on both sides has magnificent and lofty houses. In the whole city the pavement is far better than is usually seen in towns on the Continent. It is composed of small pieces of marble or of granite, and in the middle, where the carriages pass, there are in the narrow streets two, and in the broad streets four, rows of flat granite laid dowm, on which the wheels run ; and for foot passengers there is a similar pavement close to the houses. The streets are kept clean, which is owing to a branch of industry exercised by the poorest people, who collect in baskets whatever filth can be converted into manure, and carry it out of the gates, where it alwrays finds ready purchasers. There are in Milan few piazzas or squares, and none either large, fine, or even regular. The Piazza di Duomo is long, but narrow and disfigured by the booth-like shops and buildings that surround it. The Piazza di Mercante has in its centre a portico where the traders assemble, but it is small. The Piazza Fontana has a fine fountain, with two excellent figures in marble. The Piazza d’Armi, formerly the Foro Bonaparte, is the best promenade in Milan. It is used as an exercising place for the garrison, stands near the citadel, and on Sundays and holidays is much frequented by the more fashionable part of the inhabitants. It is planted with tx-ees, and is about 600 yards long and 540 broad. Amongst the public buildings in Milan, the churches are the most remarkable; the first of which, the Duomo or cathedral, is the most remarkable. Next to St Peter’s at Rome, it is the largest church in Italy. It is 480 feet in length, 285 feet in breadth ; the height of the cupola is 240 feet, and of the highest pinnacle 352 feet. This vast edifice, dedicated to St Charles, was commenced so long ago as the year 1386. The various turns of fate that have attended the city have had their influence in retarding or furthering the progress of the work. Under Napoleon, large sums were drawn from the public revenue and applied to this structure; and since the restoration of the Austrian government, the Emperor of Austria has directed 12,000 francs, or about L.500, to be paid monthly till the completion of the edifice. It is now finished, except the placing of a number of statues, for which vacant places are left, and some few ornaments which wait the finishing touch of the artists. The outside of the church, which is wholly of white marble, and which in several places, from the weather, had become black, has been well rubbed, and now appears quite as white as the newer parts. It is to be regi-etted that there is no place from which a good point of view of this cathedral can be obtained. On three sides it is built up by narrow streets, and only the majestic front with its five colossal entrances can be seen from the Piazza di Duomo. The whole building is in the Gothic style, but it has been frequently departed from, which is considered by the critics as its greatest,, or, indeed, its only fault. A vast col-

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lection of figures from the hands of the most eminent statuaries, to the number of more than 5000, are placed upon the walls, upon the Gothic turrets, and upon the pinnacles. They are images of various saints, all as large as life. Richly-ornamented galleries, with finely-carved volutes and roses, extend from one tower to the other. The roof is a surprising work, which is reached by a winding staircase of two hundred steps, from which the labyrinth of pillars surrounding the spectator haS a most singular effect. In the centre of the roof rises the majestic dome, on which is placed a bronze statue of the Virgin Mary. The church has five entrances, which lead to that number of divisions, pointed out by fifty-two octagonal marble pillars, eighty-six feet in height, which are bound together at the top by Gothic arches. The altars are numerous and richly ornamented, and on the floor a meridian line was inserted in 1786. The floor is composed of pieces of marble of different colours, by which various ornamental figures are formed. The first entrance to this edifice is most imposing and exciting. The panorama from the top is very gratifying, exhibiting near to it the whole circuit of the city; the verdant fields in contact with it on the south side; the rich plain of Lombardy, extending to the river Po, and terminating with the Apennines, studded with towns, villages, and hamlets, intermingled with vineyards and woods of mulberry trees; whilst on the north the same kind of prospect is bounded by the Alps, having Monte Rosa in front, with ranges of mountains rising one above the other, the most distant rearing their tops into the region of eternal snow. I he other ecclesiastical edifices are numerous, being stated to be no less than seventy-nine, most of them of great interest; but our space will admit of noticing but a few of the most remarkable. The imperial collegiate church of St Ambrosio is distinguished by its antiquity; and the most costly ornaments, and numerous objects of art, are to be seen within it. It is a kind of museum for the histoi'y of the arts, and is also the church iix which the kings of Lombardy of the iron crown were consecrated. The church of St Alessandro contains valuable treasux-es in paintings chiefly in fresco, and sumptuous statuary; whilst the capitals of the pillars that support it are of bi*onze. The churcn of St Nazax*o is one of the finest and largest in the city, and is adorned with some of those best paintings, both in oil and in fresco, which have immortalised the master’s of the Italian school. St Sebastian’s is worthy of notice from its architectui’e in the rotunda form. It was formerly a Roman temple, and still displays many specimens of its antiquity. It is said to have been one of the three churches which Barbarossa spared from Ifis general devastation. Ihe church of St Fidele unites simplicity with great extent, but its facade is yet unfinishid. The St Maria Maggiore contains many vei’y fine ancient paintings, and the monument of St Bernhardin. The celebrated fresco painting of the Last Supper, by Leonai’do da Vinci, remains in what was formerly the refectory of the Dominican convent, but is now used as a magazine for hay and straw. It has been much neglected, and the saltpetre, which has extended itself over the wall on which it is painted, has destroyed the glow of the colours, and in many places the paint has peeled off, whilst in others it is covered with mould. Sevei'al amongst the civil buildings are deserving of notice. Ihe x’oyal palace, though its exterior makes but little impression, is the residence of the vicei’oy. It is called the Villa, and contains a magnificent apartment, in which stands .the tin-one. It contains many curiosities, and amongst the rest the fresco paintings of Appiani. The palace of the archbishop is a fine piece of architecture, and contains an admii’able collection of paintings The Palace Marini, now used as an office for the public accounts, is considered as the most perfect, as it is one of the largest, buildings in Milan. Besides these edifices, the mint, in which

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iMilan. is a fine statue of Philip II. of Spain, the Villa Belgioso, the palaces of the families of Serbelloni, of Cicogna, of Litta, of Melzi, of Andreani, of Borromeo, and of numerous others, are of great extent, as well as of various kinds of architecture, and produce much interest amid the general aspect of the city. Of modern buildings, the barracks, erected under the viceroyship of Eugene Beauharnois, are the largest, the most handsome, and the most convenient, of any pile of the kind in Europe. The establishments and the erections devoted to the sciences, to literature, and to the fine arts, are the most distinguishing objects on which the Milanese can pride themselves. Above all others is the Brera, formerly the college of the Jesuits, and before them of a bi'otherhood called Umiliati; at present it is connected with the university of Pavia. The interior square of the building is surrounded with colonnades, on the ground floor composed of Doric, and on the upper floor with Ionic pillars, forming open halls. The tower of this edifice is employed as an astronomical observatory, and the garden is made use of for the purpose of botany. The ground floor is adapted for lecturerooms, and the upper floor contains a library of more than 100,000 volumes and numerous valuable manuscripts. Adjoining to it is the picture-gallery, containing many excellent productions, especially some most valuable fresco paintings, which have been preserved and removed from the churches and monasteries in and around the city. On the upper story are apartments, wherein is a collection of numerous casts of ancient and modern sculpture in plaster of Paris, and also one of coins and medals. The next in celebrity of the libraries in Milan is the Ambrosian, founded by Cardinal Borromeo. It consists of 60,000 volumes of books, and 15,000 of manuscripts, now bound so as to form only 6000 volumes. With this, in some other apartments, are connected collections of pictures and of statuary, both of great merit. Besides these public establishments, there are many collections of old and valuable works in the libraries Fagnani, Melzi, Reina, Litta, Archinto, and Trivulzi. In this large city, where the destitute, the aged, and the infirm, are very numerous, the institutions for their relief are upon a commensurate scale. The Ospitale Moggiore is a prodigious range of building, with a beautiful front, entered by magnificent portals of 450 feet in length. The usual number of patients contained in it is from 3700 to 4000. With this is connected the foundling hospital, in which 1100 children are maintained within the walls, and about 2900 are sent to board in the villages around the city. There is also a large lying-in-hospital; a lunatic asylum, in which are kept generally 420 insane persons ; the lazaretto, containing many small houses without the gates, as a precaution against the plague ; the Trivulzi, which contains 480 poor of both sexes, above seventy years of age, who are maintained by property bequeathed to it by the noble family of that name ; an orphan-house, which supports 350 young persons, and several smaller institutions. Besides these, the monks and the nuns of the order of mercy have each their benevolent establishments. Ihe places of amusement are not numerous, though upon a large scale. The opera-house, Della Scala, is one of the most extensive theatres of Europe. It was built in 1776, on the site of an ancient church of that name. It contains 240 boxes in six tiers, one above the other, and has seats for 800 persons in the pit, besides standing room in the centre and both sides of it, so that it is calculated to contain 7000 spectators. The performers, both in music and dancing, are of the very first class during the fashionable season. There is also another, the imperial theatre, or Canobbianca, and four or five small private theatres. The city, including the suburbs and the garrison, convol. xv.

MIL 65 tains 163,000 inhabitants. The chief wholesale trade con- Milazzo sists in silk, either raw or spun, and in cheese; for the J{ particulars of which see the article Lombardy in thisv lieto'. work. The retail trade is much divided, and consists in that usually carried on in large cities, which it dispenses to the towns and the villages around it for domestic use. As Milan is a kind of metropolis to the north of Italy, and resorted to in the winter by the rich, at that time of the year the tradesmen are in full occupation ; but at other seasons they have little occupation, except what arises from the foreign visitors. The city, by observation taken at the cathedral, is in long. 9. 5. 45. E. and lat. 45. 27. 35. N. MILAZZO, a parliamentary city of the island of Sicily, in the kingdom of Naples, on the sea-shore, near the termination of Cape Blanco. It is fortified, and though the situation is rather unhealthy, it contains a population of 8000 persons, who are chiefly occupied in the tunny fishery, and in the export of wine and oil. MILBOURN-PORT, a town of the county of Somerset, in the hundred of Horethorne, 117 miles from London. It stands on a branch of the river Parret, and is a poor and scattered place, with small houses, chiefly built for election purposes. It formerly returned two members to the House of Commons, but has been disfranchised. It has no market. The population amounted in 1801 to 953, in 1811 to 1000, in 1821 to 1440, and in 1831 to 2072. MILDENHALL, a town of the county of Suffolk, in the hundred of Lachford, seventy-one miles from London. It is situated on a branch of the river Ouse, which is navigable for barges up to it, and is a source of its trade. There is a well-supplied market, which is held on Friday’. The population amounted in 1801 to 2283, in 1811 to 2493, in 1821 to 2974, and in 1831 to 3267. MILDEW is said to be a kind of thick, clammy, sweet juice, exhaled from, or falling upon, the leaves and blossoms of plants. By its thickness and clamminess it prevents perspiration, and hinders the growth of the plant. It sometimes rests upon the leaves of trees in the form of a fatty juice, and sometimes upon the ears of corn. It is naturally tough and viscous, and becomes still more so by the sun’s heat exhaling its more fluid parts; by which means the young ears of corn are so daubed over that they never arrive at their full growth. Bearded wheat is less subject to the mildew than the common sort; and it is observed that newly-manured lands are more liable to mildew than others. The best remedy is a smart shower of rain, and immediately afterwards a brisk wind. If the mildew be observed before the sun has attained power, it has been recommended to send tw’o men into the field with a long cord, each holding one end ; and drawing this along the field over the ears, the dew will be dislodged from them before the heat of the sun has been able to dry it to the viscous state in which it does the mischief, or rather, perhaps, to occasion that rapid evaporation which produces a degree of cold sufficient to nip and chill the ears, or, in other words, to affect them with mildew. Some are of opinion that lands which have for many years been subject to mildews have been cured of it. by sowing soot along with the corn, or immediately after it is sown. MILE, a measure of length or distance, containing eight furlongs. The English statute mile is eighty chains, or 1760 yards, or 5280 feet. See Weights and Measures. MILETO, a city, the Miletus of antiquity, of the kingdom of Naples, in the province of Calabria Ulteriore. It stands on elevated ground, but is wateredr by three small streams. It is the seat of a bishop. Ly the earthquake in 1783, the castle, the cathedral, a parish church, two monasteries, and many dwellings, were thrown down, and 1700 lives were lost. It has been in some degree rebuilt since. i

M I L 66 Miletus MILETUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Crete, mentioned by Homer, but the situation of which has not II Milillo. been ascertained. It is said to have been the mother town of Miletus in Caria, whither a colony was led by Sarpedon, brother of Minos. Miletus, in Ancient Geography, a celebrated town of Asia Minor, situated on the confines of Ionia and Caria. It was the capital city of Ionia, famous both for the arts of war and peace, and situated about ten stadia south of the mouth of the river Mseander, near to the sea coast. It was founded by a Cretan colony under Miletus the companion of Bacchus, or by Neleus the son of Codrus, or by Sarpedon a son of Jupiter. It has been successively called Lelegeis, Pithyusa, and Anactoria. The inhabitants, called Milesii, were very powerful, and long maintained an obstinate war against the kings of Lydia. They early applied themselves to navigation, and planted no less than eighty colonies, or, according to Seneca, three hundred and eighty, in ditferent parts of the world. This was the only town which made head against Alexander, and which was with much difficulty taken. It gave birth to Thales, one of the seven wise men, and the first who applied himself to the study of physical science. It wras also the country of Anaximander, the scholar and successor of Thales, the inventor of the gnomon, and the first who published a geographical map; of Anaximenes, thescholarand successorof Anaximander; and also of other illustrious men. It was noted for its excellent wool, and was also celebrated for a temple and oracle of Apollo Didymseus. It is called by the Turks Melas, and not far distant from it flows the river Maeander. St Paul proceeding from Corinth to Jerusalem passed by Miletus, and as he went by sea, and could not take Ephesus in his way, he caused the bishops and priests of the church of Ephesus to come to Miletus, which was about twelve leagues distant. MILFORD, a town of North America, in Sussex county, in the Delaware state, is situated at the source of a small river, fifteen miles from Delaware Bay, and 150 southward of Philadelphia. This town, which contains about eighty houses, has been built, excepting one house, since the revolution. It is laid out with much taste, and is by no means disagreeable. The inhabitants are Episcopalians, Quakers, and Methodists. Milford Haven, a township of Pembrokeshire, in South Wales, in the parish of Harbrandstone, 257 miles from London. The town is of recent origin, having been created by the excellence of the haven, or rather bay, which, both m regard to extent and security, is perhaps one of the est in the south of the island. It has several creeks and bays, is calculated to receive a thousand sail of vessels, and is well fortified. It was the first place which commenced the southern whale-fishery; and many ships of wai have been built there, as well as smaller vessels. It is the principal point of communication between the south of England and of Ireland, by vessels daily departing for Waterford. The nearest town to the Haven is Haberston. MILHAU, an arrondissement of the department of Aveiron, in trance, 806 miles in extent. It consists of nine cantons, divided into seventy-nine communes, and contains ol,o00 inhabitants. The capital is the city of the same name situated on the right bank of the Tarn where the Dourbie falls into that stream. The surrounding country abounds with fruit, especially almonds and grapes. It contains 1230 houses, with 5750 inhabitants who make gloves, hats, various kinds of leather, and some porcelain. Long. 17. 1. E. Lat. 44. 10. N. MiULLO, a city of the island of Sicily, in the kingdom of Naples, and province of No to, 140 miles from Palermo. It stands on a mountain near the river Cantara, and is a healthy place, with 4000 inhabitants.

M I L • v "” children. MILLSTONE, the stone by which corn is ground. The millstones which we find preserved from ancient times are all small, and very different from those which are now in use. Thoresby mentions two or three such found in England, amongst other Roman antiquities, which were but twenty inches broad ; and there is reason to believe that the Romans, as well as the Egyptians and Jews, did not employ horses, or wind, or water, as we do, to turn their mills, but made their slaves and captives of war do this laborious work. Sampson, when a prisoner to the Philistines, was treated no better, but condemned to turn the millstone in his prison. The runner or loose millstone, in this sort of grinding, was usually heavy for its size, being as thick as it was broad. This is the" millstone which is expressly prohibited in Scripture to take in pledge, because, lying loose, it was more easily removed. The Talmudists relate, that the Chaldeans made the youno- men of the captivity carry millstones with them to Babylon ; and hence, probably, their paraphrase renders the text “ have borne the mills or millstones,” which might thus be true in a literal sense. I hey have also a proverbial expression of a man with a millstone about his neck ; which they use to express a man under the severest weight of affliction. This also plainly refers to the same small kind of stones. MILLLNARIANS, or Chiliasts, a name given to those in the primitive ages, who believed that the saints will reign with Christ on earth for a thousand years. See Millennium. MILLENER, or Milliner, one who sells ribands and dresses, particularly head-dresses for women, and who makes up those dresses. Of this word different etymologies have been given. It is not derived from the French, who cannot express the notion of milliner otherwise than by the circumlocution marchande or marchande des modes. Neither is it derived from the low Dutch, the great but neglected magazine of the Anglo-Saxon. For Sewel, in his English and Dutch Dictionary, published in 1708, desciibes millener as a “ pedlar who sells ribands and other trimmings or ornaments, a French pedlar.” Littleton, in his English and Latin Dictionary, published 1677, defines millener, “ a jack of all trades,” millenarius, or mille mercium venditor ; that is, “ one who sells a thousand different sorts of things.” from this etymology, which seems fanciful, we must hold, that it then implied what is now termed a haberdasher of small wares.” Before Littleton’s time, however, a somewhat nicer characteristic than seems compatible with this notion, appears to have belonged to them ; for Shakspeare, in his Henry IV. makes Hotspur, when complaining of the daintiness of a courtier, say, “ he perfumed Yxke a milliner.” The fact seems to be, that tiere were milleners of several kinds ; as, horse milleners, w io make ornaments of coloured wmrsted for horses; haberdashers of small wares, the milleners of Littleton ; and milleners such as those now peculiarly knowm by that name, w lether male or female, to whom Shakspeare’s allusion seems most appropriate. Lastly, Dr Johnson, in his dic, ives the w°rd from milaner, an inhabitant of i an, whence first came people of this profession, as a Lombard is a banker.

M* I L 81 MILLE Passus, or Millia Passuum, a very common Mille expression amongst the ancient Romans for a measure of Passus distance, commonly called a mile. Milliarium, rarely used. A Roman mile Hesychius made to consist of seven stadia; Plutarch, little short of eight; many others, as Strabo and Polybius, eight stadia and no more. The reason of this difference seems to be, that the former had a regard to the Grecian foot, which is greater than the Roman or Italic. Ibis distance is oftentimes called lapis, from the stone by which it was marked or indicated. MILLENNIUM, a period of a thousand years; generally used with reference to the thousand years during which, according to the statement of the Apostle John in the 4th verse of the twentieth chapter of the Apocalypse, Christ is to reign with his saints upon earth. As almost all nations are possessed of some traditionary information respecting the existence of a happy and a holy age at the commencement of the world’s history, so among most of them do we find traces, more or less distinct, of an expectation that a period of still greater excellence will immediately precede its close. In several of the oriental religious systems this expectation occupies a prominent place p nor will the classical reader need to be reminded of the well-known Eclogue of Virgil, in which he describes the glories of “ the last age,” and the return of the Saturnian reign, in strains which so strikingly accord w ith those of the Jewish Scriptures, that this poem seems to have been commonly regarded by the early church as prophetic of the birth and reign of Christ.2 A still more remarkable, because more explicit, allusion to a millennium, occurs in the writings of Plato, in the statement which he repeatedly makes, that a period of a thousand years (’fcihtirris nooua, yChiooTw irog, iregiodog yjkiiTr[g) must intervene betw een death and our “ arrival at the inheritance and possession of the second life.”3 Among the Jews this expectation assumed a more definite form, and was expressed in less hesitating language. Their prophets distinctly revealed to them the certainty of a period of future felicity under the reign of the Messiah ;4 and they had, from a comparatively early age, the tradition, that that period would extend through a thousand years. This tradition seems to have had its rise in the notion, that as the work of creation was divided among six ordinary days, so the world would have to pass through six divine days of toil and suffering (each of which days they imagined to be a millennium, from a misinterpretation of Ps. xc. 4) ; and that as God rested on the seventh day, so should the seventh millennium be a period of universal rest and quiet under the reign of the Messiah. In the rabbinical waitings, frequent allusions to this opinion are to be found, the most important of which have been collected by Wetstein, in his notes on Apoc. xx. Of these allusions, the following maybe taken as a specimen : “ There is a tradition in the house of Elias, that the righteous whom the holy blessed God shall raise from the dead, shall not return again to the dust, but for the space of a thousand years, in which the holy blessed God shall renew the world, they shall have wings like the wings of eagles, and shall fly above the waters.”5 From the Jews, this notion of a personal reign of the Messiah with his saints on earth, was adopted by several in the early church, by whom the passage in the Apocalypse above referred to was confidently quoted in support of the opinion. By some of these the blessings

% ^ee ' }utarc^. et Osir. c. 47 ; Hj'de De llelig. Vet. Pen. p. 832. Ceet. cVUgUStine’ lnchoat- Expos, in Ep. ad, Romanos; Lactantius, Instit. vii. 24; Eusebius, Constantini Orat. ad Sanctorum ^ nnanis, p. 1054, E.; see also Phaed. p. 1223, D. ; and De Rep. lib. x. n. 761, E. bee, among other passages, Is. ii. 1-4, ix. xi. xxv. ; Zech. xiv. sanhedrin, fol. 92, quoted in Dr Ad. Clarke’s Comment, in loc. VOL. XV. L

MILLENNIUM. 82 Millen- anticipated during the millennium were regarded as en- the minds of the people recovered their equilibrium. Millen. E\ tirely of a temporal and sensual kind, while others looked Those who had fled returned to their homes, and resumed nium. , v nium. jr— Y ' forward to that period as a season of spiritual enjoyment their wonted occupations ; “ and the only, lasting effect of and religious harmony. In neither of these forms, how- this stupendous panic was the 5augmentation of the temever, does the opinion ever seem to have become general poral prosperity of the church.” Since the reformation, the opinion of the early Millenin the church. Indeed we are expressly informed by Origen, that it was confined to those “ of the simpler sort,” narians has been revived in the church; and the doctrine and to such as, “ refusing the labour of intelligence, fol- of a personal reign of Christ on earth with his saints has lowed the superficial mode of literal interpretation.”1 Great been maintained by many excellent persons, as one of the obscurity, however, attends the history of this dogma in truths clearly revealed in the Scriptures. The tenets of the early church, as the documents we possess are too those who avow this opinion are chiefly the following :— is to be rebuilt, the temple restored, and few, and too partial in their information, to justify our ex- That Jerusalem (r sacrifice a ain offered on the altar ; that this city is to pressing any definite opinion on the subject. from the testimony of Eusebius, we learn that the first who taught form the residence of Christ, who is to reign there in glory it in the church was Papias, a bishop of Phrygia, in the with all his saints for a thousand years; that for this purearlier part of the second century, who professed to have pose there shall be a resurrection of all the pious dead, received a traditional revelation on the subject from the that none of the Saviour s followers may be absent during apostles. Influenced by a regard to the piety and anti- his triumph ; that at the close of the thousand years, they quity of the man (rr^ d.pyjJ-tdr^ra ruvdgog ‘Tgo3if3Xrilaivoi), shall all return to heaven, and the world be left to Satan several ecclesiastics, and among the rest Irenaeus and Jus- and his followers for a season ; and that then the genetin Martyr, adopted his opinion. Adherents were also ral resurrection and last judgment shall taxe place, and found in the Latin church, especially from among the the history of the world be brought to a close. In supMontanist party. It is justly remarked, however, by Pro- port of these tenets, they appeal to numerous passages in fessor Neander, that the defensive attitude which the ad- the prophetical writings of the Old Testament, to some vocates of the doctrine perpetually assume in regard to it, sayings of Christ himself recorded in the Evangelists, affords a strong presumption that it was not the doctrine to one or two detached passages in the writings of the apostles, and principally to the declarations of St John in of the church in general.2 In the third century it was vehemently assailed by Ori- the Apocalypse. The passages in the Prophecies on which gen, and as eagerly defended by Nepos, a bishop of the most stress is laid by them, are those in which the latterdistrict of Arsinoe, in Egypt. The latter, however, was day glory seems to be described in connection with the but a feeble antagonist for so redoubtable a controversial- return of the Lord of Hosts unto Zion, the establishment ist as Origen, whom his scholars delighted to style the of his sanctuary with men for ever, and the coming of the to receive instruction, and offer their Adamantine; and consequently his interference served only nations to Jerusalem 6 to quicken the downfall of the cause he had espoused. homage to him. The declarations of our Lord referred to The assault of Origen was followed by that of Dionysius, are those in which he speaks of the destruction of Jerubishop of Alexandria, and one of Origen’s most able scho- salem in connection with his second advent L from which lars, which seems, in the Eastern church at least, complete- it is inferred that Jerusalem shall remain in its present ly to have driven the opinion into obseurity.J From this state, and that seasons of tribulation and sorrow shall betime forward we find no traces of it in ecclesiastical history, fall the church, until Christ come to restore the one to its8 until we arrive at the tenth century, when it was revived, former glory, and to exalt the other over all its enemies. though in a very altered form, and used for the purpose The passages quoted from the apostles are chiefly two : the of terrifying the ignorant populace into larger concessions one the address of St Peter to the Jews,—“ Repent and be to the ambition and avarice of the papal power. They converted, that your sins may be blotted out, when the were taught that the millennium, during which Satan was times of refreshing shall come from the presence of the to be bound, was to be calculated from the birth of Christ, Lord ; when he shall 9send Jesus Christ, which before was and consequently was then rapidly drawing to a close ; preached unto you ;” which is held to prove that Christ that at its termination Satan would be again set free, and shall come again, and that this event shall be attended the reign of Anti-Christ would commence ; and that, after with times of refreshing to the Jews; the other the dea short season of triumph to the enemies of the church, claration of St Paul to the Thessalonians,10 that “ the dead the last judgment would take place, and the world be in Christ shall rise first;” from which it is inferred that consumed by the final conflagration. So powerful was the there will be a resurrection of the just antecedent to the effect produced by the teaching of this doctrine, that mul- general resurrection. The main prop of the doctrine, titudes, as the eventful year that was to close the last cen- however, is the passage in the twentieth chapter of the tury of the millennium approached, forsook their homes, Apocalypse, already referred to, and which is as follows : “ and hastened to the shores of Palestine, with the pious “ And I saw thrones, and they sat on them, and judgment persuasion that Mount Sion would be the throne of was given unto them ; and I saw the souls of them that Christ when he should descend to judge the world ; and were beheaded for the witness of Jesus, and for the word these, in order to secure a more partial sentence from of God, and which had not worshipped the beast, neither the God of mercy and charity, usually made over their his image, neither had received his mark upon their foreproperty before4 they departed, to some adjacent church heads or in their hands; and they lived and reigned with or monastery.” The much-dreaded year, however, hav- Christ a thousand years. But the rest of the dead lived ing passed away, without any of the expected convulsions, not again till the thousand years were finished. This is 1 2

Proleg. in Cant. cant. 69, B.; de Princip. ii. 11, sect. 2. Kirchengcschichte, bd. i. abt. 3, p. 728; see also Waddington’s Church History, ch. iii.; Whitby’s Treatise on the Millennium, appended to his Commentary, &c. 3 4 5 Euseb. Hist. Eccl. vii. 24, 25. Waddington’s Church History, chap. xv. Ibid. 6 See Begg’s Connected View of some of the Scriptural Evidence of the Redeemer’s Speedy Personal Return, &c. pp. 85-118. 7 Matt. xxiv.; Mark, xiii.; Luke, xxi. 8 Begg’s Letters on our Saviour’s Predictions, See. passim. 9 0 Acts, iii. 19, 20. 1 Ep. iv. 16.

MILLENNIUM. 83 rest of the dead,” refers to “ the remnant” spoken of in the Millenthe first resurrection.” Verses 4, 5. Here it is contended that we have a distinct testimony in favour of a millennial 21st verse of the 19th chapter (the words in the original nium reign of Christ and his people, and of a resurrection of are the same in both verses, 6/ Xoikoi), by whose resurrecthose who had been faithful to him, as well as of those tion is intended the temporary restoration of the reign of who had suffered for his sake, antecedent to that of the rest evil after the millennium : 3dly, That it is not a legitimate interpretation to regard the expression, “ I saw the souls of the dead, and hence called “ the first resurrection.” By those who oppose this system, it is generally admit- of them that were beheaded,” &c. as intimating their corted that the expectation of a long season of uninterrupted poreal resuscitation ; for though we may properly enough triumph to the cause of Christ, is one which is fully au- speak of a soul when we mean a person, yet it wmuld outthorized by the declarations of Scripture. It is denied, rage all propriety of language for any one to say that he however, that these declarations, when properly interpret- saw the souls of certain individuals, when he meant that ed, support the notion of a personal reign, and a twofold he saw these individuals themselves : £thly, That by the resurrection. With regard to the passages from the Old return to the earth of the souls of the martyrs and conTestament prophecies, it is maintained, that many of those fessors, nothing more is intimated than the universal preadduced by Millennarians, as favouring their system, have valence of that holy and determined spirit by which they been already fulfilled in the temporal history of the Jew- were distinguished ; in the same way as the ancient proish nation, and that in others which seem to have a still phecy, that Elias should return to earth before the appearfuture reference, Jerusalem is used as typically represen- ance of the Messiah, is allowed to have received its accomtative of the Christian church in its triumphant state ; the plishment when John the Baptist came “ in the spirit and temple is spoken of in reference to the ministrations of power of Elias:” 5th/y, That it is as contrary to sound the Gospel; and the coming of the people to Jerusalem is principles of interpretation to expound a book professedly set forth as indicative of the universal prevalence of the symbolical literally, as it would be to expound a professed Christian faith. The inference deduced by Millennarians narrative symbolically : Gthly, That it is imperative on from the words of our Lord above referred to, is regarded those who insist on the literal interpretation of this pasby their opponents as at best very obscure and far-fetched, sage to be consistent, and interpret literally the whole while, on the other hand, it is contended, that the ob- book, in which case we should have literal vials, and trumvious comparison which our Lord draws between the de- pets, and mill-stones, and chains, and burning lakes, &c.; struction of Jerusalem and his second coming, as well as an extent of literality for which few will be hardy enough the circumstances of appalling and unexpected suddenness to contend : and, lastly, That by interpreting the whole with which his appearance will be made, seem much bet- passage symbolically, and understanding by it a predicter to accord with the notion, that the coming spoken of tion of a season of joyful triumph to the church, during is his coming to judgment, than with the opinion that it is which the whole world shall be under the religion of an advent for which his church shall be longing, and the Christ, and the zeal and piety of its holiest members in world prepared. In the statement of St Peter to the its purest days shall be universally diffused, no violence Jews, it is admitted that there are some expressions which is done to any part of it, while a meaning is elicited in enwould seem at first sight to favour the millennarian scheme ; tire accordance with the general tenor of Scripture. It is further objected by those who are opposed to Milbut it is argued that every such inference is precluded by the words which follow, and in which the apostle declares, lennarianism, in the first place, that the hypothesis is in itthat the heavens must retain Christ “ until the restitu- self exceedingly improbable ; for since Scripture assures us tion (or accomplishment) of all things, which God hath that the departed saints are already with Christ in heaven, spoken by the mouth of all his holy prophets since the in the enjoyment of unspeakable felicity, it is hardly conworld began.” As, therefore, by the showing of Millenna- ceivable that they would leave such a state to dwell for a rians themselves, the glories of the millennium form part of thousand years on earth, in a state which at best must be the “ all things” that are revealed in inspired prophecy, one of imperfect enjoyment, and then return to heaven to and which must be fulfilled before Christ shall re-appear permit their enemies for a season to reign in their stead : on earth, it is plainly impossible that he can come to our 2dly, That the millennarian notion of a resurrection of the world in person at the commencement of that period ; and righteous, antecedent to that of the wicked, is directly consequently the times of refreshing spoken of by St Pe- opposed to the testimony of Scripture, which represents ter must be interpreted of other blessings than those which the two as simultaneous; see, e. g. John v. 28-29, &c.: would flow from the personal reign of Christ at Jerusalem. Qdly, That the idea of a long interval elapsing between As to the statement of St Paul, that “ the dead in Christ the advent of Christ and the last judgment, is inconsistent shall rise first,” it is affirmed that a single glance at the with those passages which represent the one as immecontext is sufficient to convince us that the apostle is not diately consequent upon the other; such as, 2 Thess. i. establishing a difference between the righteous and the 7-10; 2 Tim. iv. 1, &c.: \ttldy. That, on the millennarian wicked as to the time of their respective resurrections ; hypothesis, there can be no judgment of the righteous but is simply showing that those believers who are alive whatever, for they having been once admitted to reign at the season of Christ’s second advent shall not enjoy any with Christ, can never after that be placed for trial at his advantage over those who are dead, for the latter shall be bar,—a hypothesis clearly at variance with innumerable raised first, i. e. previous to the common ascent of the passages of Scripture, such, e. g. as Horn. xiv. 10-12; whole to meet the Lord in the air. In reference to the Math. xxv. 31-46, &c.: btlily, That to represent the milpassage from the Apocalypse, it is contended, ls£, That lennium as a state of immortality on earth, is to confound the expression “ first resurrection” no more necessitates it with the New Jerusalem, though the two are distinctly a twofold corporeal resurrection, than the phrases “ first revealed as separate states, the one previous and rthe other and second death,” so frequentljr employed by the same subsequent to the final judgment: and, lastly, Ihat the writer, necessitate the supposition of a tw'ofold corporeal theory of millennarianism is in two points at least selfdissolution ; but that in both cases we have an instance of contradictory ; for it not only represents Christ as reignthe same intermingling of the spiritual with the material, ing until the last enemy has been destroyed, and yet supas in our Lord’s declaration, “ Let the dead bury their poses the existence of a w hole host of enemies, who, at the dead,” where, as is generally admitted, the first adjective close of that reign, are to be gathered together; but also is used in a spiritual or metaphorical, the second in a represents them as contending with the saints, until they literal and corporeal sense: 2dly, That the phrase, “ the are consumed by fire from God (Rev. xx. 7-10), though,

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M I L Milliarium according to another part of their hypothesis, the saints ed it only upon the condition that the recipiendary should Milo,, Aurem. siiail before this have returned with Christ to heaven. write a little better ; and D’Alembert, to tranquillize the " M illot. For these reasons, among others of Jess weiglit, this hy- philosophers, who hesitated to support an abbe, said to pothesis of a personal reign of Christ on eartli has been them, “ I assure you he has nothing of a priest but the rejected by the majority of divines, and the period of the habit.” The Abbe Millot was a man of a cold and serious millennium regarded as a season of great spiritual blessed- character; he had no love for society, seldom spoke in ness, consequent on the complete triumph of Christianity company, and avoided that egotism which is so tyrannical throughout the earth. (n. n. n. n.) in conversation. Attentive to the discussions which were MILLIARE, or Milliarium. See Mille Passes. continually arising about him, he rarely took part in them ; MILLIARIUM Aureum, was a gilded pillar in the and contradiction never ruffled his temper. Grimm, who orum of Rome, at which all the highways of Italy met, as saw him often in the society of Paris, describes his appearone common centre. From this pillar the miles were count- ance as melancholy and dejected. “ Nevertheless,” adds ed, and at the end of every mile a stone was put down. the baron, “ he is one of the happiest beings I know, beThe military column was erected by Augustus Caesar, and, cause lie is moderate, content with his lot, and attached to as we are informed by travellers, is still to be seen. his particular kind of life and labour.” D’Alembert used MILLOT, Claude-Fran^ois-Xavier, a distinguished to cite him as the man in whom he had found the fewest historian, was born in 1726 at Ornans, a small town of prejudices and the least pretensions. The following is a Franche-Comte, being descended from an old family con- complete list of his works, viz. 1. Deux Discours, one to nected with the profession of the law. When his studies prove that true happiness consists in making men happy, were completed, he was admitted amongst the Jesuits; and the other, that hope is a good of which we do not sufand after having taught classical learning in several towns, ficiently estimate the value, Lyons, 1750, in 8vo ; 2. Dishe was appointed professor of rhetoric in the College of cours Academiques, ibid. 1760, in 12mo; 3. Discours sur Lyons, one of the most celebrated institutions of the so- le Patriotisme Fran gats, ibid. 1762, in 8vo ; 4. Discours ciety in France. In a discourse, crowned by the academy de Reception, Paris, 1768 and 1778, in 4to; 5. Essai sur of Dijon, he ventured to pronounce an eulogium on Mon- l'Homme, translated from Pope with notes, and a discourse tesquieu, an act of boldness which offended his superiors, on English philosophy, Lyons, 1761, in small 12mo; 6. and, from the disagreements that ensued, led to his return Harangues dCEschine et de Demosthene, translated into to the world. The Abbe Millot, who was often success- French, Lyons, 1764, in 12rno ; 7. Harangues choisies des ful in academical competitions, fancied that his talents Historiens Latins, ibid. 1764, in two volumes 12mo ; 8. fitted him to excel in the pulpit; but after having preach- Elemens de VHistoire de la France, Paris, 1769, in three ed, without success, an advent at Versailles, and a lent at volumes 12mo ; 9. Elements de PHistoire d’Angleterre, Luneville, he abandoned a career for which he was disqua- Paris, 1769, in three volumes 12mo ; 10. Elements d"Hislified by the weakness of his voice and the timidity and toire Generate Ancienne et Moderne, ibid. 1783, in nine voembarrassment of his manner. The desire of being use- lumes 12mo, a work which has been translated into the ful to young people had induced him to undertake trans- German, Danish, Dutch, English, Swedish, Italian, Spalations ; and it was with this view that he composed nish, and Portuguese languages ; 11. Histoire Litteraire des abridgements of the history of France and of England, Troubadours, Paris, 1774, in three volumes 12mo; 12. two works which had great success. About this time the Memoires Politiques et Militaires pour servir d l’Histoire de Marquis of Felino, minister of Parma, having established Louis XIV. et de Louis XV. ibid. 1777, in six volumes in that city a college for the education of the young nobi- 12mo; 13. Extraits de PHistoire Ancienne, de PHistoire lity, appointed the Abbe Millot to the chair of history, on JRomaine, et de l Histoire de France, Paris, 1796, in 4to ; the recommendation of the Duke of Nivernais. He was 14. Dialogues, et Vie du Due de Bourgogne, pere de Louis stranger to the intrigues which agitated the court, and, XV. Besancon, 1816, in 8vo. Other works have been asfoi the benefit of his pupils, formed the plan of an abridge- cribed to Millot, but these are now known not to have been ment of general history. Whilst he was occupied w ith this his. He was a member of the academies of Lyons, Nancy, work, Felino was marked out by his enemies as an object and Chalons-sur-Marne; but that of Besancon neglected of popular hatred, insulted in the streets of Parma, and to adopt a man who did so much honour to the province, menaced even at*the gates of his own palace. From this an omission which was repaired in 1814, by proposing as moment the Abbe Millot refused to quit his patron. In the subject of a prize an eloge on Millot. vain was it represented to him that the alfection he evinT. Annius, a native of Lanuvium, who attemptced for the unfortunate minister would cause him to lose ed MILO, to obtain consulship at Rome by means of intrigue is place. “ My place,” said he, “ is with a virtuous man, and seditiousthetumults. Clodius the tribune opposed his my benefactor, who is persecuted ; I shall not lose that at views; yet Milo would have succeeded but for an event retirement fuf: Millotthe of the Marquis of courageous Felino, the which has given a collateral celebrity to his name. As he Abbe returned to France, where his conduct was known, and had procured him many friends. was going into the country, attended by his wife and a nuThe court of Versailles, in name of that of Parma, orant- merous retinue of gladiators and servants, he met on the ed him a pension of four thousand francs; and, in^lTTS Appian road his enemy Clodius, who was returning to he was appointed preceptor to the Duke d’Enghien, a si- Rome with three of his friends and some domestics comtuation for which he was indebted to the high opinion en- pletely armed. A quarrel arose between the servants; teitained of his character. He was about to reap the re- Milo supported his attendants, and the dispute became geward of his labour and pains, when he was seized with an neral ; Clodius received many severe wounds, and was obillness, which soon carried him off in the fifty-ninth year liged to retire to a neighbouring cottage. Milo pursued of his age. He died on the 21st of March 1785, the same his enemy in his retreat, and ordered his servants to deday on which, nine years afterwards, his august pupil was spatch him. Ihe body of the murdered tribune was carshot in the fosse of Vincennes. The Abbe Millot had been ried to Rome, and exposed to public view. The enemies received into the French Academy in 1777, in the room of of Milo inveighed bitterly against the violence and barbaCresset. His election, managed by the house of Noailles, nty with which the sacred person of a tribune had been treated. Cicero undertook the defence of Milo ; but the was a transaction or compromise between the parties which continual clamours of the friends of Clodius, and the sight then divided the academy. There was one of the members who qualified his suffrage by declaring that he grant- o an armed soldiery, which surrounded the judgment seat, so tenified the orator, that he forgot the greater part of

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Milo his arguments, and the defence he made was weak and inP judicious. Milo was condemned, and banished to Massilia. iltiades. Cicero soon afterwards sent his exiled friend a copy of the oration which he had prepared for his defence, in the form in which it now appears ; and Milo, after having read it, exclaimed, “ O Cicero, hadst thou spoken before my accusers in these terms, Milo would not now be eating figs at Marseilles.” The friendship and cordiality of Cicero and Milo were the fruits of long intimacy and familiar intercourse. It was by the successful exertions of Milo that the orator was recalled from banishment, and restored to his friends. MILO, or Melos, an island of European Turkey, in the Archipelago. It is about sixty-six square miles in extent. It is mountainous and volcanic, and though in ancient times reported to have been populous, is now so unhealthy, that the population of less than 700 persons can only be kept up by annual emigrations from the Morea. The chief town of the same name is on the south part of the island, and is said once to have had 200 houses, but now has not so many inhabitants. Long. 24. 8. E. Lat. 36. 40. MILTIADES, son of Cypselus, an Athenian captain, who obtained a victory in a chariot race at the Olympic games. He led a colony of Athenians to the Chersonesus. The causes of this appointment are striking and singular. The Thracian Dolonci, harassed by a long war with the Absynthians, were directed by the oracle of Delphi to take for their king the first man they met in their return home, who should invite them to come under his roof and partake of his entertainments. This was Miltiades, who was very much struck at the appearance of the Dolonci, and with their strange arms and garments. He invited them to his house, and was made acquainted with the commands of the oracle. He obeyed ; and when the oracle of Delphi had a second time approved the choice of the Dolonci, he departed for the Chersonesus, and was invested by the inhabitants with sovereign power. The first measures he took were to stop the further incursions of the Absynthians, by building a strong wall across the isthmus. When he had established himself at home, and fortified his dominions against foreign invasion, he turned his arms against Lampsacus. But his expedition proved unsuccessful; he was taken in an ambuscade, and made prisoner. His friend Croesus, king of Lydia, informed of his captivity, procured his release. He lived a few years after he had recovered his liberty. As he had no issue, he left his kingdom anti possessions to Stefagoras the son of Cimon, who was his brother by the same mother. The memory of Miltiades was greatly honoured by the Dolonci, who regularly celebrated festivals and exhibited showrs in commemoration of a man to whom they owed their greatness and preservation. Miltiades, the son of Cimon, and brother of Stefagoras mentioned in the preceding article, was, some time after the death of the latter, who died without issue, sent by the Athenians with one ship to take possession of the Chersonesus. On his arrival Miltiades appeared mournful, as if lamenting the recent death of his brother. The principal inhabitants of the country visited the new governor to condole with him ; but their confidence in his sincerity proved fatal to them. Miltiades seized their persons, and made himselfabsolute in Chersonesus. To strengthen himself, he married Hegesipyla, the daughter of Olorus, the king of the Thracians. But his triumph was short-lived. In the third year of his government, his dominions were threatened by an invasion of the Scythian Nomades, whom Darius had some time before irritated by entering their country. Miltiades fled before them ; but as their

M I L 85 hostilities were of short duration, he was soon restored to Milton, his kingdom. Three years afterwards he left Chersonesus, ^ and set sail for Athens, wdiere he was received with great applause. He was present at the celebrated battle of Marathon, in which all the chief officers ceded the power to him, and left the event of the battle to depend upon his superior abilities. He obtained an important victory over the numberless forces of his adversaries. Some time afterwards Miltiades was intrusted with a fleet of seventy ships, and ordered to punish those islands which had revolted to the Persians. He was successful at first, but a sudden report that the Persian fleet was coming to attack him, changed his operations as he was besieging Paros. He raised the siege, and returned to Athens. He was accused of treason, and particularly of holding correspondence with the enemy. The falsehood of these accusations might have appeared, if Miltiades had been able to come into the assembly. But a wound which he had received before Paros detained him at home ; and his enemies, taking advantage of his absence, became more eager in their accusations, and louder in their clamours. He was condemned to death ; but the rigour of his sentence was mitigated on the recollection of his great services to the Athenians, and he was imprisoned till he should pay a fine of fifty talents to the state. His inability to discharge so great a sum detained him in confinement; and his wounds having become incurable, he died a prisoner about 489 years before the Christian era. His bodj1' was ransomed by his son Cimon, who was obliged to borrow and pay the fifty talents, in order to give his father a decent burial. The accusations against Miltiades were probably the more readily believed by his countrymen, when they remembered how he had made himself absolute in Chersonesus. In condemning the barbarity of the Athenians towards a general who was the source of their military prosperity, we must also remember the jealousy which ever reigns amongst a free and independent people, and how watchful they are in defence of the natural rights which they see wrested from others by violence. Cornelius Nepos has written the life of Miltiades the son of Cimon ; but his history is incongruous and unintelligible, from his confounding the actions of the son of Cimon with those of the son of Cypselus. Greater reliance is to be placed on the narrative of Herodotus, who was indisputably better informed and more capable of giving an account of the life and exploits of men who flourished in his age, and of which he could see the living monuments. Herodotus was born about six years after the battle of Marathon; and Cornelius Nepos, as a writer of the Augustan age, flourished about 450 years after the age of the father of history. MILTON, a town of the county of Kent, in the hundred of Toltintrough and lathe of Aylesford, twenty-three miles from London. It stands on the bank of the Thames, and forms the eastern part of the town of Gravesend. It is a thriving place, partly owing to being visited for bathing, as the river salts with the flood tide. It has some fortifications constructed to defend the passage of the river. The population amounted in 1801 to 2056, in 1811 to 2470, in 1821 to 2769, and in 1831 to 4348. Milton, or Milton-Royal, a town of the county of Kent, in the hundred of Milton and lathe of Scray, forty miles from London. It stands at the head of a navigable creek, in a swampy situation between Seltingbourne and the river Thames. It has a corporation governed by a portreeve ; has a market on Saturday, and is principally known for the excellence of the oysters bred there. The population amounted in 1801 to 1622, in 1811 to 1746, in 1821 to 2012, and in 1831 to 2223.

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John Milton, the immortal author of Paradise Lost, and, excepting Shakspeare, the greatest of the English poets, was born at his father’s house in Bread Street, London, on the 9th, and baptized on the 20th of December 1608. Milton was by birth a gentleman, being descended from the proprietors of Milton, near Thame, in Oxfordshire, one of whom forfeited his estate in the times of York and Lancaster. The grandfather of the poet was underranger of the forest of Shotover, near Halton, and, being a zealous Catholic, disinherited his son because he had forsaken the faith of his ancestors. The father was educated as a gentleman, and became a member of Christ Church College, Oxford, where he probably imbibed those opinions which led him to change his religion, and thereby to incur disinherison. Being thus deprived of his patrimony, the father of the poet had recourse for his support to the profession of scrivener, in the practice of which he proved so successful, that he was enabled to give his children the advantages of a liberal education, and at length to retire with comfort into the country. He appears to have been an accomplished scholar, a man of refined taste, and a great proficient in music, a circumstance to which allusion is made by his son in his beautiful poem Ad Patrem.1 He married a gentlewoman of the name of Caston, of a Welsh family, by whom he had two sons and a daughter. Christopher, the second son, was educated for the bar, and adhered to the royal cause, which at one time brought him into trouble; but soon after the accession of James II. he was rewarded with a knighthood, and appointed one of the barons of Exchequer. Anne, the only daughter, married a gentleman of the name of Philips, who rose to be secondary in the crown-office, and had by him two sons, John and Edward, who were educated by the poet. It is to be lamented that so little information has reached us respecting the early life of our immortal poet. We know not for what profession his father had destined him, though it is certain that it was not the law; and we are equally in the dark regarding other matters connected with his early years. His education, however, was liberal, and the care with which it was conducted evinces the discernment and solicitude of his father. He had the benefit both of private and public tuition. His first instructor was Thomas Young, a puritan minister of Essex, who appears to have gained the affections of his pupil, and to have deserved the testimony which the latter has borne to his merits in an elegy and two Latin epistles. At what period this connection began or ended has not been ascertained. It seems probable that loung continued in his office until the time when, on account of his religious opinions, he withdrew to the continent, and became chaplain to the British merchants resident at Hamburg. Milton was then sent to &t Paul s school, at that time under the direction of Dr 1

Gill, and remained some time at that seminary, distinguishing himself by almost incredible progress, and giving nu- v merous indications of that gigantic intellect, the energies of which afterwards more fully developed themselves. Being thus initiated in several languages, and having already tasted the sweets of philosophy, he was, in the beginning of his sixteenth year, removed to Christ’s College, Cambridge, where he entered as a pensioner, on the 12th of February 1624. He was committed to the tuition of Mr Chappell, the reputed author of The Whole Duty of Man, and afterwards successively provost of Trinity College, Dublin, dean of Cashel, and bishop of Cork and Ross. At the time when he entered the university he was eminently skilled in the Latin language, and, by annexing dates to his first compositions, he has afforded us the means of estimating his early proficiency. At fifteen he translated or versified two Psalms (the 114th and 136th), which he thought worthy of publication, and in which may be discerned the dawning of real genius. This is still more apparent in his poem On the Death of a Fair Infant, which displays equal vigour and sensibility. Many of his elegies appearj to have been written in his eighteenth year; and from them it is evident that he had then read the Roman authors with critical discernment. Indeed, Milton was the first Englishman who, after the revival of letters, wrote Latin verses with classical elegance. If any exceptions can be made, they are few in number. Haddon and Ascham, the pride of Elizabeth’s reign, however they succeeded in prose, no sooner attempt verses than they provoke derision. Not many persons will, therefore, be inclined to agree with Johnson, that “ the products of his vernal fertility have been surpassed by many, and particularly by his contemporary Cowley.” Milton is not only the most learned of modern poets, but his writings show him to have been a man even from his very childhood; and hence Politian, Tasso, Cowley, Voltaire, Pope, and others, who have written poetical pieces of merit at an early age, must all bow to him as to a superior spirit. He also attracted particular notice by his academical exercises, some of which were published by him in his more mature years, as well as by several poems, both Latin and English, upon occasional subjects. Although his chief object seems to have been the cultivation of his poetical talents, he neglected no department of literature, and, by his persevering application, became “ inured and seasoned betimes with the best and elegantest authors of the learned tongues.” He continued seven years at Cambridge, where he took both the usual degrees ; that of bachelor in 1628, and that of master of arts in 1632. Of his conduct, and the treatment which he experienced in his college, much has been asserted, and but little proved. That “ he left the university with no kindness for its institution,” may be admitted even

The lines above referred to are the following, which strike us as being exceedingly beautiful £ec tu perge, precor, sacras contemnere Musas ; Aec vanas mopesque puta, quarum ipse peritus Munere, mille sonos numeros componis ad aptos ; Minibus et vocem modulis variare canoram Doctus Arionii merito sis nominis hares. Nor you affect to scorn the Aonian choir, Blessed by their smiles, and glowing with their f A ou . who by them inspired, with art profound,• fire. Can wield the magic of proportioned sound: through thousand tones can teach the voice to stray, And wind to harmony its mazy wav — Arion’s tuneful heir.

M I L J'ilton. on the suspicious authority of Johnson. But if such a feeling existed in his mind, it must, from Johnson’s own statement, have been produced “ by the injudicious severity of his governors,” and not the result of his “ own captious perverseness,” as the surly biographer has uncharitably insinuated. That Milton “ obtained no fellowship, is,” he tells us, “ certain; but the unkindness with which he was treated was not merely negative. I am ashamed to relate,” he adds, “ what I fear is true, that Milton was one of the last students in either university that suffered the public indignity of corporal correction.” Surely, injustice on the one hand, and personal outrage on the other, were not the most likely or natural means to beget “ kindness” for the institution where such wrongs had been suffered. In the violence of controversial hostility, it was also objected to Milton that he had been expelled, or, to use the words of his original accuser, “ vomited, after an inordinate and riotous youth, out of the university.” But even Johnson admits that the charge “ was apparently not true,” and it is now quite certain that it was altogether false. Some time after taking his degree in arts, he left the university, and returned to his father’s house at Horton, near Colebrook, in Berkshire. During his residence at Horton, he frequently visited London; and this circumstance, added to a reflection on the university, contained in the first of his elegies to Charles Diodati, written about the same time, was afterwards made the occasion of charging him with having been expelled from Cambridge for some misdemeanour, or with having left it in discontent because he could not obtain preferment; relinquishing his academical studies that he might spend his time in London, frequenting the playhouses, or keeping company with lewd women. Some lines in the same composition have often been cited or referred to as giving countenance to, if not altogether proving, this imputation.1 Milton answered this calumny in his Second Defence, and his enemies had not the hardihood to repeat it. “ Here,”

T O N. 87 says he, speaking of the university, “ I passed seven years Milton, in the usual course of instruction and study, with the ap-y—— probation of the good, and without any stain upon my character, till I took the degree of master of arts. After this, I did not, as this miscreant feigns, run away into Italy, but of my own accord returned to my father’s house, whither I was accompanied by the regrets of most of the fellows of the college, who showed me no common marks of friendship and esteem. On my father’s estate, where he had determined to pass the remainder of his days, I enjoyed an interval of uninterrupted leisure, which I devoted entirely to the perusal of the Greek and Roman classics; though I occasionally visited the metropolis, either for the sake of purchasing books, or of learning something new in mathematics, or in music, in which I, at that time, found a source of pleasure and amusement. In this manner I spent five years,^ till my mother’s death. I then became anxious to visit foreign parts, particularly Italy.” Such is his own clear and distinct statement, which has never been contradicted, or at least refuted. In regard to the lines in the epistle addressed to Diodati, it must be obvious that they would never have been published if they had been conceived to contain any allusion to transactions dishonourable to the writer ; and Milton himself, speaking of his calumniator, says, “ He flings out stray crimes at a venture, which he could never, though he be a serpent, such from ony thing that I have writteti.” The fact seems to be, that he had too strong and settled a distaste for episcopacy to think of entering the church as a profession ; and that his lofty intellect and haughty spirit disdained to submit to the petty formalities and the pedantic discipline of the college, after he had made sufficient advances in learning to be able to pursue it himself, agreeably to the dictates of his own taste and genius.2 He conceived, indeed, “ that he who would take orders, must subscribe himself slave, and take an oath withal, which, unless he took with a conscience that could not retch, he must either strain, per-

1 The whole support of the accusation preferred against Milton’s college life is rested upon the following passage of the elegv addressed to Diodati: Jam nec arundiferum mild cura revisere Camum ; Nec dudum vetiti me laris angit amor: Nuda nec arva placent, umbrasque negantia molles Q,uam male Phoebieolis convenit ille locus ! Nec duri libet usque minas perferre maglstri Caeteraque ingenio non subeunda meo. Si sit hoc exilium patrios adiisse penates, Et vacuum curis otia grata sequi; Non ego vel profugi nomen sortemve recust, Laetus et exilii conditione fruor. From these lines both Johnson and Warton infer that he had incurred rustication, or a temporary removal from Cambridge, with perhaps the loss of a term. The words vetiti laris, and afterwards exilium, which is twice used in reference to himself, scarcely admit of any other interpretation. But the supposition of any immoral irregularity is excluded by many considerations. Had he been conscious of having justly incurred censure and punishment, he would never have said “ Laetus et exilii conditione fruor.” Besides, the same poem which mentions his exile, proves that it was not perpetual; for it concludes with a resolution of returning to Cambridge. His declaration that he is weary of enduring “ the threats of a rigorous master, and something else which a temper like his can ill brook,” seems to suggest the true explanation of the difficulty. Though not chargeable with immoral irregularities, he might, upon other accounts, have become obnoxious to the governors of his college. He might have offended their prejudices by the bold avowal of his puritan opinions; or he might have wounded their pride by exposing their negligent or injudicious discharge of duty ; or he might have excited their displeasure by a haughty inattention to their rules, by refusing to exchange the pleasure of banqueting on the works of Plato or of Homer, for the barren fatigue of translating a sermon, or loading his memory with cumbrous pages of scholastic theology. A mere technical breach of discipline is all that can be legitimately inferred or supposed ; and, from the frankness with which he has perpetuated the fact of his exile, we may be well assured that its cauce was such as gave him no shame. ' In the Apology for Smectymnuus, Milton, speaking of the universities, has afforded us the means of ascertaining his thoughts and feelings respecting these institutions. Having described many individuals of the parliament as descended from the ancient and high nobility, he adds: “ Yet had they a greater danger to cope with ; for being trained up in the knowledge of learning, and sent to those places which were intended to be the seed-plots of piety and the liberal arts, but were become the nurseries of superstition and empty speculation, as they were prosperous against those vices which grow upon youth out of idleness and superfluity, so were they happy in working off the harms of their absurd studies and labours ; correcting by the clearness of their own judgment the errors of their misinstruction; and were, as David was, wiser than their teachers. And, although their lot fell into such times, and to be bred in such places, where if they chanced to be taught any thing good, or of their own accord had learnt it, they might see that presently untaught them by the ill example of their elders." If Milton, when at Cambridge, was in the habit of speaking such plain truths as are contained in this passage, that “ nursery of superstition and empty speculation” must have withal dealt gently by the young heretic, in inflicting on him no higher punishment than that of “ rustication.”

M I L T O N. 88 Milton, force, or split his faith wherefore he “ thought it bet- the axe, should have been permitted to issue from the uni- Milta, ter to prefer a blameless silence before the office of speak- versity press. The guardians of the church must surely have been slumbering at their posts; or, perhaps, this poem ing, bought anti begun with servitude and forswearing.” During the five years which Milton spent under his father’s being only part of a collection, it was not scrutinized before roof at Horton, and which may justly be regarded as the it went to press. The most objectionable part of the comhappiest of his life, he produced some of the finest speci- position is the speech assigned to St Peter, “ the pilot of mens of his genius; as extraordinary for their copiousness the Galilean lake,” and it is also inferior in poetical merit and command of early fable and history, as for the har- to what precedes and follows it. But, taking the monody mony of their numbers, and the sublimity and purity of as a whole, it is indubitably instinct with high genius, and an Arcades their conceptions. The Comm in 1634, and the Lycidas effusion of the purest and most exalted poetry. in 1637, were unquestionably written at Horton ; and there is evidently nothing more than the poetical part of an enis strong internal evidence to prove that the Arcades, L'Al- tertainment, the bulk of which consisted of prose dialogue legro, and IIPenseroso, were also composed in the same rural and machinery; yet, whatever proportion it constituted of retreat, during this season of propitious leisure. The Mask the piece, it must have imparted a value to the whole, disof Comus was acted before the Earl of Bridgewater, presi- playing, as it does, a kindred though inferior lustre to that dent of Wales, at Ludlow Castle, in 1634 ; upon which oc- which irradiates the dramatic poem of Comus. LAllegro casion the character of the lady and her two brothers were and II Penseroso first appeared in a collection of Milton’s represented by Lady Alice Egerton, then about thirteen poems published in 1645 ; but the precise time of their years of age, and her two brothers, Lord Brackley and the production has not been ascertained. There is reason to honourable Thomas Egerton, who were still younger. The believe, however, that they were written at Horton, in story of the piece is said to have been suggested by the the interval between the composition of Comus and that circumstance of Lady Alice having been separated from of Lycidas ; though it is not easy to adjust the precedency her company in the night, and having wandered for some between these victorious efforts of the descriptive muse. time by herself in the forest of Haywood, as she was re- They were certainly composed in the happiest mood of turning from a distant visit to meet her father, tipon ins the poet’s mind, when his fancy disported in glorious sunshine, and no cloud or star interposed to obstruct or darken taking possession of his presidency. Comus,1 or revelry, had already been personified in a her perceptions. Milton, having lost his mother in 16:27, when he was sublime passage of the Agamemnon of TEschylus ; and the jolly god had been introduced upon the English stage about twenty-nine years of age, now felt himself at liberty in a written Mask by Ben Jonson. But it was reserved to carry into effect a project which he had long meditated ; for Milton to develope his form and character, to give and having obtained his father’s concurrence, he resolved to him a lineage and an empire, and to make him the hero visit foreign parts, and particularly Italy. His reason for of one of the most exquisite dramatic poems which the wishing to travel in -foreign countries was, as Toland genius of man has ever produced. The Comus is framed quaintly expresses it, a persuasion “ that he could not betupon the model of the Italian Masque, and is certainly ter discern the pre-eminence and defects of his own counthe noblest production of the kind which exists in any try than by observing the customs and institutions of others ; language. It is dramatic only in semblance. The finest and that the study of never so many books, without the passages14 are those which are lyrical in form as well as in advantages of conversation, serves either to render a man spirit. I should much commend the tragical part,” says a stupid fool or a pedant.”3 He left England in 1638, and Sir Henry Wotton, “ if the lyrical did not ravish me with proceeded to Paris, whence, after a short stay, he hasa certain dorique delicacy in the songs and odes, where- tened to Italy, the grand object of his curiosity ; and, after unto I must plainly confess, that I have seen yet nothing an absence of a year and three months, the greater part of parallel in our language.” It is when Milton escapes from which was spent in that classic region, he returned home the shackles of dialogue, and feels himself at liberty to in- through France. The only account of his ti'avels is that dulge his choral raptures without reserve, that he rises furnished by himself, in his brief autobiography; and, as above himself, and expatiates in celestial freedom and no one can describe Milton so well as himself, we shall beauty. Then, to use the impassioned expressions of an give it in his own words, rather than attempt to paraphrase eloquent writer,he seems to skim the earth, to soar it, after the absurd fashion of his biographers. above the clouds, to bathe in the Elysian dew of the rain“ I became anxious to visit foreign parts, and particubovy, and to inhale the balmy odours of nard and cassia, larly Italy. My father gave me his permission, and I left which the musky wings of the zephyr-scatter through the home with one servant. On my departure, the celebrated cedared valleys of the Hesperides.2 Llenry W otton, who had long been King James’s ambasThe Lycidas was written to commemorate the death of sador at Venice, gave me a signal proof of his regard, in Mr Edward King, the son of Sir John King, secretary for an elegant letter which he wrote, breathing not only the Ireland in the reigns of Elizabeth, James, and Charles. warmest friendship, but containing some maxims of conYoung King was a great favourite at Cambridge, where duct which I found very useful in my travels.4 The nohis learning, piety, and talents had secured universal re- ble I homas Scudamore, King Charles’s ambassador, to spect, and his untimely fate was deplored as a public loss. whom I carried letters of recommendation, received me He perished by shipwreck in his passage from Chester to most courteously at Paris. His lordship gave me a card Ireland, the vessel on board of which he was having foun- oi introduction to the learned Hugo Grotius, at that time dered in a calm sea at no great distance from land. In ambassador from the Queen of Sweden to the French a collection of poems, published in 1638, Lycidas occupies court; whose acquaintance I anxiously desired, and to the last, and (as it was no doubt intended to be) the most whose house I was accompanied by some of his lordship’s honourable place ; but we may reasonably wonder how a friends. A few days after, when I set out for Italy, he production, breathing such hostility to the clergy of the gave me letters to the English merchants on my route, that Church of England, and even menacing their leader with they might show me any civilities in their power. 2 3 ' . , Edinburgh Review, vol. xlii. p. 315. Life of Milton, n. 9. niaxims 1 th a t lk 1 ) ian oracle of . mio,f, said. , .? ” prudence which Wotton himself had will beengotaught bcipioni. fgnor annco the old; l l\ Roman courtier, “ i pemicri stntti, cd il vuo sciollo," safely by overhisthefriend world,Alberto without offence of others, or of your own conscience. ’

M I L lilton. “ Taking ship at Nice, I arrived at Genoa; and after“-v—-'wards visited Leghorn, Pisa, and Florence. In the latter city, which I have always particularly esteemed for the elegance of its dialect, its genius, and its taste, I stopped about two months; when I contracted an intimacy with many persons of rank and learning, and was a constant attendant at their literary parties; a practice which prevails there, and tends so much to the diffusion of knowledge and die preservation of friendship. No time will ever abolish the agreeable recollections which I cherish of Jacob Gaddi,1 Carolo Dati,2 Frescobaldo, Cultellero, Bonomathai, Clementillo, Francisco, and many others. From Florence I went to Sienna, thence to Rome ; where, after I had spent about twm months in viewing the antiquities of that renowned city, where I experienced the most friendly attentions from Lucas Holstein,3 and other learned and ingenious men, I continued my route to Naples. There I was introduced, by a certain recluse with whom I had travelled from Rome, to John Baptista Manso, marquis of Villa, a nobleman of distinguished rank and authority, to whom Torquato Tasso, the illustrious poet, inscribed his book on Friendship.4 During my stay, he gave me singular proofs of his regard ; he himself conducted me round the city, and to the palace of the viceroy ; and more than once paid me a visit at my lodgings. On my departure, he gravely apologised for not having shown me more civility, which he said he had been restrained from doing, because I had spoken with so little reserve on matters of religion. “ When I was preparing to pass over into Sicily and Greece, the melancholy intelligence which I received of the civil commotions in England, made me alter my purpose ; for I thought it base to be travelling for amusement abroad, while my fellow-citizens were fighting for liberty at home. While I was on my way back to Rome, some merchants informed me that the English Jesuits had formed a plot against me, if I returned to Rome, because I had spoken too freely of religion ; for it was a rule which I laid down to myself in those places, never to be the first to begin any conversation on religion ; but if any questions were put to me concerning my faith, to declare it without any reserve or fear. I nevertheless returned to Rome. I took no steps to conceal either my person or my character ; and for about the space of two months I again openly defended, as I had done before, the reformed religion, in the very metropolis of Popery. “ By the favour of God I got back to Florence, where I was received with as much affection as if I had returned to my native country; thei’e I stopped as many months as I had done before, except that I made an excursion of a few days to Lucca, and crossing the Apennines, passed through Bologna and Ferrara to Venice. After I had spent a month in surveying the curiosities of this city, and had put on board a ship the books which I had collected

TON. 8! in Italy, I proceeded through Verona and Milan, and along Milton, the Leman Lake to Geneva. '"““'“v-—” “ I he mention of5 this city brings to my recollection the slandering More, and makes me again call the Deity to witness, that in all those places where vice meets with so little discouragement, and is practised with so little shame, I never once deviated from the paths of integrity and virtue ; and perpetually reflected, that, although my conduct might escape the notice of men, it would not elude the inspection of God. At Geneva I held daily conferences with John Diodati, the learned professor of theology. “ Then, pursuing my former route through France, I returned to my native country, after an absence of about one year and three months, at the time when Charles, having broken the peace, was renewing what is called the Episcopal war with the Scots ; in which the royalists being routed in the first encounter, and the English being universally and justly disaffected, the necessity of his aftairs at last obliged him to convene a parliament.”6 Upon his return to England, Milton, it seems, could discover no way in which he might directly serve the cause of the people. He was not formed for participating in the rough and fierce encounters of the field; he wanted both the means and the connections necessary to enable him to take any share in the management of public affairs; and the time had not yet arrived, in the development of the drama, when the part which alone he was eminently qualified to sustain could be brought upon the stage. He therefore hired a house in St Bride’s Church-yard, and renewed his literary pursuits, calmly awaiting the issue of the contest, which he trusted “ to the wise conduct of Providence, and to the courage of the people.” Here he consented to receive as pupils his two nephews, John and Edward Philips ; and subsequently, yielding to the importunities of some intimate friends, he added to their number. Finding his apartments too small, he now took a house in Aldersgate Street, where he received more boys, and instructed them in Latin, Greek, and Hebrew, with its dialects, as well as in mathematics, cosmography, history, and some modern languages, particularly French and Italian. “ This,” says Dr Johnson, “ is the period of his life from which all his biographers seem to shrink. They are unwilling that Milton should be degraded to a schoolmaster; but since it cannot be denied that he taught boys, one finds out that he taught for nothing, and another that his motive was only zeal for the propagation of learning and virtue ; and all tell what they do not know to be true, only to excuse an act which no wise man will consider as in itself disgraceful. His father was alive ; his allowance was not ample ; and he supplied its deficiencies by an honest and useful employment.”7 Milton, in his little'circle of scholars, was usefully if not splendidly employed ; and no man of sense can suppose that, whilst he was occupied in pro-

•* The historical painter. -3 A Florentine nobleman, author of an Essay on the Discoveries of Galileo, and of Lives of the Ancient Fathers.] The librarian of the Vatican. 4 this nobleman composed a Latin distich, which he addressed to Milton : LTt mens forma, decor, facies mos ; si pietas sic, Non Anglus, verum, hercle, Angelus ipse fores. 5 The Clamor Regii Sanguinis ad Ceelum to which the Defensio Secunda pro Copula Anglicano (whence the above passage is extracted) was the answer, is now known to have been written by Peter du Moulin ; but having been published by Alexander Morus or More, it was at first supposed to have been the production of that individual. ® Prose Works, edited by Fletcher, pp. 993, 996. 7 The strong good sense of these observations contrasts forcibly with the unwieldy £‘ merriment” of Johnson “ on great promises and small performance ; on the man who hastens home, because his countrymen are contending for their liberty, and, when he reaches the scene of action, vapours away his patriotism in a private boarding-school.''’ The sneer contained in these words is characteristic only of the writer by whom they are employed, and whose bad feeling towards the author of Paradise Lost shows itself on so many occasions. Milton’s “ patriotism,” as we shall soon find, wras not so volatile as to evaporate even under the hardest trials of adversity ; and he will be honoured and revered for his steady and consistent attachment to liberty, long after the rhetorical exaggerations of his enemies have sunk into merited oblivion. VOL. xv. M

MILTON. moling the highest interests of some of his species, he was pose into effect. Conscious of his own strength, and sen- Miltc sible that genius, armed with knowledge, would prove a ''—'V' degrading himself in the estimation of the rest. Toland has described the nature of the education which more powerful auxiliary to the popular cause than if he he aimed at bestowing upon his pupils, and which involved had carried ten battalions into the field, he decided in faa great innovation upon the established practice. In this, as vour of the pen against the sword, and took his position on in many other respects, Milton appears tor have been great- ground whence no adversary was able to dislodge him. The long parliament, representing a nation alarmed and ly in advance of his age. His purpose w as to teach something more solid than the common literature of the schools; irritated by many flagrant abuses of power, had now asto expand the faculties and to inform the judgments of his sembled, and evidently possessed a strong sympathy with pupils, by combining the knowledge of things with that of the public feeling. The king’s violent conduct to former words, instead of subjecting them to the irksome and com- parliaments, in imprisoning refractory members, one of paratively useless task of acquiring the mere knowledge of whom had died under the length and rigour of his confinewords, without any adequate conception of those ideas or ment; his unconstitutional attempts to govern by prerogaobjects of which they are the representatives. Not con- tive alone ; his arbitrary exactions in violation of all law ; tent with those books which are commonly used in the and the severe sentences with which his council and his schools, he placed in the hands of his disciples such an- courts abetted and enforced his reckless despotism ; these cient works as were capable of affording information in va- and many other causes had concurred in alienating the afrious departments of science; and “a formidable list” is fections of all orders of the community, and preparing their given of the authors, Greek and Latin, which w’ere read minds for resistance and innovations. The leaders of the in Aldersgate Street, by youth between fifteen and sixteen church party imitated the despotic policy of the court; years of age. That he perhaps attempted to do more than and their rigorous persecution of the puritans, offensive any degree of diligence or industry could accomplish, may alike to the feelings of the humane and the common sense be admitted without impeaching the soundness of the prin- of the enlightened, excited against them the fears of the ciple upon which he proceeded; and although “ nobody good and the jealousies of the wise. The power of the can be taught faster than he can learn,” yet it is at least episcopal courts had been everywhere urged into unusual equally certain, that some teachers can make young men activity by the superintendence and incitement of the high learn much faster than others, and that, in general, the com- commission ; and almost every diocese had witnessed parative progress of the pupil is a pretty fair measure of the scenes of rigour similar to those which had at once disdiligence and skill of the master. He set his pupils an ex- graced and exasperated the capital.2 There were not ample of close application and spare diet; indeed absti- wanting in the church some men of learning and piety ; nence was one of bis favourite virtues, which he practised at this unfortunate crisis she could boast, amongst her invariably through life ; and the only indulgence which he prelates, of a W illiams, a Davenant, a Hall, and an Usher ; allowed himself was passing a day of temperate festivity but at their head was placeed the domineering and intoonce in three weeks or a month.1 “ One part of his sys- lerant Laud, a man of narrow views, unrelenting zeal, and tem,” says Johnson, “ deserves general imitation. He was abject superstition, who, unrestrained by any consideracareful to instruct his scholars in religion. Every Sunday tions of prudence, took care on every occasion to magnify was spent upon theology, of which he dictated a short sys- the regal authority, and sought by all possible means to tem, gathered from the writers that were then fashionable extend that tyranny which supported his own.3 in the Dutch universities.” Milton, a diligent and attentive observer of all that was But whilst Milton’s occupation as a teacher preserved passing around him, having discerned in the church the his familiarity with the Greek and Roman authors, it pre- source of much of the political and social evil which had ascluded him from discharging what he conceived to be his sumed so frightful an aspect, as well as the grand engine of duties as a citizen, and defeated the patriotic object which oppression in the hands of the king, now came to the resoluhad recalled him from the shores of Sicily and Greece. tion of taking an active part in the rude conflict of affairs. From his first acquaintance with the struggles of his coun- -The moment was propitious for an assault upon the prelacy. try, he had determined to devote himself to her service; and The parliament had impeached the bigoted and persecutthe time seemed,now to have arrived for carrying his pur- ing primate ; they had rescued his victims from their dun1 This day was allotted to the society of some young and gay friends : according m Inline,™n WaS u au s ent. „ ... gentlemen of Gray’s Inn.” But, as Dr Symmons observes the gav men nf tl™ nnnL ’ i fV 7 P with some gay babl in e cess the revellers of that which succeeded it, when the profligacy ofVshameless court snreadVk^f contaglon . ®* ^ ’ compared with ing life and manners as well as literature with a debasing immorality ■ and when modest v au kept them company, relieved them laws of the land, or stood up for any public interest, for good order or government n ^ hlS (:ountr.f maintained the good u r 1 tan ln views of the needy courtiers, the proud encroaching priests, the thievish nmiertm-c’ ri P 1 . , t ?and short, all that crossed the ous for God’s glory or worship, See. were puritans; and if puritans, then enemies tnHm K d anobdblS ! y vernSentr>% whoever was zealhypocrites, ambitious disturbers of the public peace, and, finally the nest of tP v i ff’ tc As such g° she ment, seditious, factious, made them the sport of the pulpit, which was become but a more solemn sort of smim . nbUtf e' ei ’” an adds. “ they not only S puppet-play, belched forth profane scoffs upon them ; the drunkards made them fi10 ’ y 7,'stage, d every table, and every learned t0 abuSe them, as finding it a most gameful way of fooling.” (Memoirs of Colonel Hutchimon, ro°L PppM^lS 124

M ALTON. Iton. geons, recalled his exiles to behold his fall, released the course, receive no quarter at his hands. He tears the Milton, “Y—'press from its “ horrid silence,” and permitted it to pour veil of hypocrisy from their hearts ; exposes their worldlyout its long-imprisoned vengeance on the heads of the op- mindedness and love of pelf and power ; and having anipressor and his followers. “ The rigour of the parliament,” madverted on the conduct of the prelacy in former times, says Milton, “ had begun to humble the pride of the bi- he pourtrays, with unsparing severity, its character in his shops. As long as the liberty of speech was no longer own,2 reproving the unconcern with which the bishops exsubject to control, all mouths began to be opened against torted large incomes from the nation, as well as the prothe bishops ; some complained of the vices of the indivi- fligacy with which they expended their revenues, and conduals, others of those of the order. They said it was un- tending that prelacy is one of those forms of evil which are just that they alone should differ from ail other reformed “ the same yesterday, and to-day, and for ever.” To this churches, and particularly the word of God. This awa- and other attacks from the pens of puritan writers, Hall, kened all my attention and my zeal: I saw that a way was bishop of Norwich, replied in An Humble Remonstrance opening for the establishment of real liberty; that the to the High Court of Parliament; and about the same foundation was laying for the deliverance of man from the time Usher, archbishop of Armagh, published The Aposyoke of slavery and superstition ; that the principles of re- tolical Institution of Episcopacy. In answer to these able ligion, which were the first objects of my care, would ex- and learned works, Milton wrote two pieces, one of them ert a salutary influence on the manners and constitution entitled Of Prelatical Episcopacy, and the other, The Reaof the republic ; and as I had from my youth studied the son of Church Government urged against Prelacy? He distinctions between religious and civil rights, I perceived had now entered fairly into this great controversy, and he that, if I ever wished to be of use, I ought at least not to was not disposed to shrink from the labour or the responbe wanting to my country, to the church, and to so many sibility of carrying it on. “ When two bishops of supeof my fellow Christians, in a crisis of so much danger. I rior distinction,” he observes, “ vindicated their privileges therefore determined to relinquish the other pursuits in against some principal ministers, I thought that, on those which I was engaged, and to transfer the whole force of topics, to the consideration of which I was led solely by my talents and my industry to this one important object.” my love of truth, and my reverence for Christianity, I Influenced by these views, Milton emerged from his soli- should probably not write worse than those who were contude, and took up his weapon for his country.1 tending only for their own emoluments and usurpations.” In 1641 appeared the first of his works, which was en- Nor did he form an erroneous or exaggerated estimate of titled, Of Reformation touching Church Government in Eng- his own powers. These productions of Milton, distinguishland, and the Causes that have hitherto hindered it. This ed by vigour, acuteness, and erudition, were unquestiontreatise consists of two books, the object of which is to de- ably the most able, eloquent, and learned on the puritan monstrate the proposition that prelacy is essentially inimi- side of the controversy. But the publication which apcal to civil liberty. In the opinion of the author, the refor- pears to have attracted most attention at the time was mation in the church had not proceeded to the proper ex- a pamphlet, the joint production of five presbyterian ditent ; and the suspension of its progress he attributes vines, under the appellation of Smectymnuus, a word principally to its prelates, “ who, though they had re- formed from the initial letters of the name of the authors.4 nounced the pope, yet hugged the popedom, and shared To this production Bishop Hall replied in a Defence of the authority among themselves.” He declares, with im- the Remonstrance; and Milton’s formidable pen, again empressive solemnity, that wherever, in this book, he has laid ployed in opposition to the prelates, produced Animadopen the faults and blemishes of fathers, martyrs, or Chris- versions on the Remonstrant's Defence, a work which is tian emperors, he has done so “ neither out of malice, nor thrown into the form of a dialogue between the remonlist to speak evil, nor any vain glory, but of mere necessity strant and his antagonist, who answers him. “ Why this to vindicate the spotless truth from an ignominious bond- close and succinct manner was rather to be chosen,” says age.” In prosecution of this grand object he displays a the author, “ this was the reason; chiefly that the ingenious profundity of learning, a vigour of reasoning, an earnest- reader, without further amusing himself in the labyrinth ness of purpose, an impassioned eloquence of style, and a of controversial antiquity, may come to the speediest way comprehensive grasp of his subject, which must ever ex- to see the truth vindicated, and sophistry taken short at cite admiration ; indeed, the work is throughout one con- the first bound.” In this production the replies are altinued strain of wisdom and eloquence. The bishops, of ways severe, frequently jocose; and there prevails through1 It was not from moral cowardice, as Johnston has insinuated, that Milton preferred the pen to the sword, the closet to the field. “ I did not,” says he in his Defensio Secunda, “ for any other reason decline the dangers of war, than that I might in another way, with much more efficacy, and with not less danger to myself, render assistance to my countrymen, and discover a mind neither shrinking from adverse fortune, nor actuated by any improper fear of calumny or of death. Since, from my childhood, I had been devoted to the more liberal studies, and was always more powerful in my intellect than in my body, avoiding the labours of the camp, in which any robust common soldier would have surpassed me, I betook myself to those weapons which I could wield with the most effect; and I conceived that I was acting wisely when I thus brought my better and more valuable faculties, those which constituted my principal strength and consequence, to the assistance of my country and her honourable cause.” Can any one read this without assenting to 2its justice, or admiring the motives which determined the choice of the immortal writer ? Here is the process for transforming a modern into a primitive bishop. “ He that will mould a modern bishop into a primitive, but yield him to be elected by the popular voice, undiocesed, unrevenued, unlorded, and leave him nothing but brotherly equality, matchless temperance, frequent fasting, incessant prayer and preaching, continual watchings and labours in his ministry ; which, what a rich booty it would be, what a plump endowment to the many-benefice-gaping mouth of a prelate, what a relish it would give to 3his canary-sucking and swan-eating palate, let old Bishop Mountain judge for me.” {Prose Works, p. G.) In this book, he discovers, not with ostentatious exultation, but with calm confidence, his high opinion of his own powers ; and promises to undertake something, which may prove both useful and honourable to his country. “ This,” says he, “ is not to be obtained but by devout prayer to the Eternal Spirit, that can enrich with all utterance and knowledge, and sends out his Seraphim with the hallowed fire of his altar, to touch and purify the lips of whom he pleases. To this must be added, industrious and select reading, steady observation, and insight into all seemly and generous arts and affairs ; till which in some measure be compass’d, I refuse not to sustain this expectation.” What can be more noble or more affecting than the aspiration here breathed out, in prophetic announcement of the imperishable monument which he was destined to raise, and upon which his name and fame were to be written in characters of unextinguishable glory ! It seems to have moved even the obduracy of Johnson. “ From a promise like this,” says he, “at4 once fervid, pious, and rational, might be expected the Paradise Lost.” Stephen Marshal, Edward Calamy, Thomas Young, Matthew Newcommen, and William Spurstow.

92 MIL TON. Milton, out the piece a sort of grim smile of derision, which shar- such a bungler in his trade, as the greater number of them Milton, v —pens and aggravates the severity. These various publica- are in their profession, he would starve for any custom; tions were written in the course of one year, 164il, when and should he exercise his manufacture as little as they do their author was only thirty-three years of age, and occu- their talents, he would forget his art; or, should he misdo theirs, he would mar all the work pied with the fatiguing duties of an instructor of youth ; take his tools as they 1 a circumstance which cannot fail to excite wonder at the he took in hand.’’ Dr Symmons, with the natural bias of a churchman, thinks unwearied industry, the ready application of various knowledge, and the exuberant fertility of mind, which are dis- that “ the learning of Usher, and the wit of Hall, preponderated in the contestand that this, he says, “ seems to played in their composition. In the beginning of 1642, the Ammadversiojis, which have been felt not only by the Smectymnuan divines, but are unquestionably personal and offensive, elicited a reply by Milton himself.” As to the former part of this judgthat was supposed to emanate from a son of the insulted ment, it is matter of opinion and taste, in regard to which bishop, and appeared under the title of a Modest Confuta- different men will come to different conclusions; though, tion of a Slanderous and Scurrilous Libel. If this reply if the balance of learning and wit was on the side of the had been published with its author’s name, the motive prelates, the balance of genius and eloquence was decidedwould probably have atoned with Milton for its virulence. ly on that of the puritans. Nor, on the other hand, have But the publication was anonymous ; and in it Milton was we been able to discover any indications which would lead not only treated with contumely and insult, but assailed us to infer that Milton was really sensible of the “ preponwith enormous falsehoods, random accusations, and the derance” here somewhat gratuitously ascribed to his oppomost rancorous personal vituperation. He was, however, nents. So far from this, there is evidence to show that his “ dauntless, defiant, and, when insulted, fierce.” In his conviction was directly the contrary of that here imputed Apology for Smectymnuus, the result of this accumulated to him. From a just confidence in his own powers, he provocation, he proved himself a match for his adversaries assumes and maintains throughout a tone of lofty supeeven at their own weapons, and, what is of more import- riority, and vindicates his title to pre-eminence, by the unance, successfully vindicated his character from the foul rivalled ability and eloquence with which he repulses the imputations which had been cast upon it. On this occa- assaults of his adversaries, and defends what he believes sion, there was every excuse for the warmth of Milton’s to be the cause of truth and of God. And the impression reply, and the unscrupulous vigour with which he poured made by his writings was commensurate with their power. his overwhelming sarcasms on his assailants. He had When he first directed his attention to the evils growing been accused of lewdness and sensuality; other crimes out of the church, there was a strong public feeling against had been darkly hinted at; and his fellow Christians had it; but that feeling was vague, and, wanting direction, was been called upon “ to stone the miscreant to death.” Be- expending itself in useless declamation. Milton, and those sides, he knew that others were partakers of his adversary’s who laboured with him in the same cause, turned it into a sins ; that the latter was but the organ or mouthpiece of definite channel, and rendered it productive of great and the episcopal order; and that, in the most bitter and ma- important results.2 We may admire the abilities of Usher lignant aspersions of his character, his reviler had their and of Flail, and even admit, with Dr Symmons, that if approbation and concurrence. This naturally turned the the church, at this crisis, could have been upheld, it would edge of his weapon against the bishops, to whom he never have been supported by these prelates ; but the evils growmisses an opportunity of expressing his hostility. In fact, ing out of the system were too great, the abuses and corit was as much out of his power to alter or soften the style ruptions were too gross, the tyranny exercised was too flain which he wrote, as to dissolve the groundwork of na- grant and exasperating, to be shielded or upheld by any tature which God has created in him. It was the full re- lents, especially when laid bare, in all their hideous deforflection of his very soul, whatever might be the state of rohy, by the unsparing hand of so formidable an adversary its emotions ; a mirror which showed the various workings as Milton. of that great and glorious spirit with which God had enWe come now to an event in Milton’s life which had a dowed him. In noticing the charge, that he had been material influence on his domestic comfort, and gave a new “ vomited out of the university,” he keenly remarks, “ Of direction to his literary labours. This was his marriage, small practice were the physician who could not judge, by in 1648, to Mary, eldest daughter of Mr Richard Powell, what she and her sister have of long time vomited, that the of Forest Hill, near Shotover, in Oxfordshire. His choice worser stuff she strongly keeps in her stomach, but the bet- seems to have been the suggestion of fancy alone, and its ter she is ever keeking at, and queasy; she vomits now consequences were such as might have beerf expected from out of sickness; but before it be well with her, she must so imprudent a connection. The lady was brought to vomit with strong physick.” The picture he draws of the London by her husband, w ho placed her at the head of university-men is marked with equal severity. “ What with his frugal establishment, and expected, no doubt, to enjoy truanting and debauchery,’’ says he, “ what with false all the delights of conjugal happiness. But in this he was grounds, and the weakness of natural faculties in many of destined to be cruelly disappointed. The lady, who was of them, perhaps there would be found among them as many a royalist family, and accustomed to the affluent hospitality unsolid and corrupted judgments, both in doctrine and life, of her father’s house, appears to have had no relish for the as in any other two corporations of the like bigness. This pleasures of spare diet and hard study ; for, as Philips reis undoubted, that if any carpenter, smith, or weaver, were lates, “ having for a month led a philosophic life, after 1 Prose Works, p. 92. * In December 1640, a petition was presented to the House of Commons, signed by fifteen thousand citizens of London, praying the legislature to suppress the archbishops and bishops. Early in 1641, a bill was passed by the Commons “to restrain bishons and others in holy orders, from intermeddling in secular affairsit was sent up to the Lords on the 1st of May and havimr met with great opposition, was finally rejected. A bill was now introduced, and by a large majority read a second timSk the CoZo“f “ for m th C ommons the utter abolishing abolishine and taking away of all archbishops, archbishons. bishops, bishons. their cha'„cello?s andJcom"missaries ^deans dTans and^ chaTeTdtant! : \ tor ers, canons, and other er under officers, out of the church of England.” On the 5th of February 1642, this bill paid the House of Lords, and on the 14th royal assent. .dth of the same month it received the roval nsseni So rapid was the progression • kf‘Bi^a^ o ., p -seat^e tn ^c^ ise

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M I N MILVERTON, a town of the county of Somerset, in the hundred of its own name, 152 miles from London, and ^lree ^rom Wellington. It was a borough, but lost its franchise many years ago. It was once a place where woollen cloths, serges, druggets, and other goods, were extensively made, but the trade has greatly fallen off of late years. There is a market on Friday. The population amounted in 1801 to 1667, in 1811 to 1637, in 1821 to 1930, and in 1831 to 2233. MIMI, Mimes, in the ancient comedy, were buffoons or mimics, who entertained the people by taking off certain characters, and using such gestures as suited the persons or subjects they represented. There were upon the Roman stage female performers of this kind, called mim **4 ••• ... 2_1, 2°, 21, 22. ... equal to those of the powers of the number 2. The more obtuse rhomboids B, C ... and the more acute ones, B', C'... derived from a given or supposed fundap

MINERALOGY. 114 Minera- mentai form A, their horizontal projections being equal, regular six-sided prism is the limit of the series of rhom- Minera l0 ^ produce a series, in which the axes of the subsequent mem- boids, we can imagine each face of the rhomboid to make ^ logj. a revolution round an immove-''“"V' bers increase on one side, and decrease on the other, like able line Q.S, fig. 3. This line is the powers of the number 2. z the side of that regular hexagon, 13. Designation. which can be inscribed into the horizontal projection HORZNT; The method of designating crystallizations, whether simthe hexagon itself will be the ple or compound, is founded on the present and similar basis or transverse section of the series, to be developed afterwards. Represent the fundaprism, and it differs from the homental form by any arbitrary letter, in this case, according rizontal projection by both its to the practice hitherto observed, by R. The sign of any contents and its situation. If the other member of the series contains the same letter ; the axis of the rhomboid decrease till exponent of the fundamental number of the series, which, it ultimately evanesce, the faces in the present case, is the number 2, being added for the contiguous not only to one, but sake of expressing the place occupied in the series by the also those contiguous to the other number to be designated. This yields the crystallographic apex, coincide in one plane; and sign for one member, and by applying the same proceedthe rhomboid is changed into a ing to the others, the designation also of the whole series. plane figure, equal and similar 14. Continuation. to the horizontal projection, to which it is parallel, and appears, The above mentioned part of the series of rhomboids is therefore, in all the combinations C, B, A, B', C'; as a face perpendicular to the the ratio of their axes axis. It must here be remarked, that forms of infinite dimensions 2 —1 1 2 2 , 2 , 2°, 2 , 2 ; cannot be produced by themits designation, therefore, selves, or as simple forms, but appear only in combinaR—2, R— 1, R, R + l, R + 2, tions. and in the same way R+«, the general term for each mem18. Position. ber of the series, which may be transformed into a partiThe series of rhomboids, already described, contains cular one, by putting whole numbers, positive or negative, every thing concerning the dimensions and the ratios of its instead of n in the expression. members, as far as each of them is considered singly or by 15. Usefulness of the Designation. itself. But there is still one object of great importance to From the ratio of the axis to the side of the horizontal be noticed, if those members are considered connected toprojection being known in a rhomboid, all the rest of its gether, or in combinations. This is their position. It is ratios, its dimensions (plain and solid angled), &c. can be evident that two subsequent members of the series, as, for deduced. The side of the horizontal projection is suppos- instance, R and R+l, or, in general terms, R+w and ed equal in all the members of the series, and made = 1 R+w+1, will produce the above combination; in which in the calculations which refer to the rhomboid. The de- the edges of combination are parallel, not only with each signation contains therefore, by representing the relation of other, but also with the terminal edges of the more acute; the axes, every thing required as a basis of calculation; and with the inclined diagonals of the more obtuse rhomand since it does not require any figures (for instance those boids ; but they will produce this combination only in the of a fundamental form), the letter R signifying by itself a case of their being in such a position, that the terminal rhomboid, the designation is also evident, and upon this edges of the one are in the same plane with the inclined depends the easiness of its application in crystallography. diagonals of the other, which plane passes at the same time through the axis, as is shewn by fig. 2. This position of 16. Limits of the Series. two rhomboids is termed the turned position, because it There can be no doubt of n being able to obtain any arises when a rhomboid is turned out of former position, possible value; or, which is the same, the series may be under an angle of 60° or 180°. If a rhomboid, in the turned continued as far as we choose. This produces always new position, undergo a new revolution of 60° or 180°, it rerhomboids, as long as n has a finite value. On one side turns to that which it occupied before, and this is called the axis will increase, if n increase and remain positive ; the parallel position. Rhomboids that affect a parallel poon the other the axes will decrease, if the negative value of sition with each other, have their terminal edges and their n increases. Let n become infinite, the axis will likewise inclined diagonals distributed in such a manner, that the be infinite ; let —n become infinite, the axis will be infi- terminal edges of both on one side, and the inclined dianitely small. It is clear that the limits of the series will be, gonals of both on the other, fall into one and the same on one side, a rhomboid of an infinitely large axis, on the plane, passing through the axis. other, a rhomboid of an infinitely small axis, and their seve19. Position of the Members in respect to each other. ral signs must therefore be R+oo and R—oo ; so that The position of the fundamental form R is considered as R—co ... R-j-ra ... R + oo the normal position, to which those of the derived memrepresent the series between its limits. bers are referred. In reference to R, R + 1 and R — 1 will be in a turned, R + 2 and R — 2 in a parallel, R + 3 and 17. The. Limits are Regular Six-sided Prisms. R—3 in a turned position again, and so on; from which it It is very easily shewn that a rhomboid of an infinite follows, that any two subsequent, or, in general, any two axis is a regular six-sided prism; for at the same time, as members of the series, between which an even number of the axis increases, the six faces of the rhomboid approach members (0 in the above case being considered as even) nearer and nearer to parallelism with the axis, and they are wanting, will be in the turned position, whilst any two become really parallel with it, if the axis becomes infinite- members of the series, between which an odd number of ly long. For rendering more evident in what manner the members are wanting, will affect the parallel position. All

MINERALOGY. 115 those members, therefore, which have their exponent an made evident by the designation. Include the general even number, are in the parallel, those which have their sign for the pyramid, expressed in such a manner as to re- Minera' exponent an odd number in the turned position, if com- er to the rhomboid from which it is derived, within crotchets logy. pared with R, the fundamental form of the series. The (), and add the number of derivation, or that by which the position exercises no influence upon the regular six-sided axis of the rhomboid has been multiplied, in order to proprism, since, by turning it under angles of 60° and 180°, duce the axis of the pyramid, in the form of an exponent; its faces will come into their former situation. the result will be the crystallographic sign of a scalene sixi ed pyramid. Thus (P+1)3 represents a scalene six20. Scalene Six-sided Pyramids. sided pyramid derived from R+l by multiplying its axis The rhomboid allows several forms to be derived from ra it, which are not themselves rhomboids like the original. by the number 3 ; and (P+>*) is the general term of any or of each series of scalene six-sided which can Lengthen the axis of a rhom- be derived from a series of rhomboids pyramids, having R for its funboid, fig. 4, on both sides to an indefinite but equal distance, and damental form, according to the value of™, determined for from the angles B, C, ... draw each particular series. If the axis of the rhomboid from a scalene six-sided pyramid is derived, and the numstraight lines to the terminal which ber of derivation m are known, the dimensions of the pvrapoints A', X', of the lengthened mm are easily to be found ; thus every thing that has been axis. The planes which can be said above (§15.) in respect to the designation, can be laid through any two contiguous lines of these, and the lateral equally applied in the present case. edges, BC, CB,...of the rhom24. Values of m. boid will produce a form, which, Although the value m be, as far as experience goes, from its faces being scalene tri- most commonly = 2, 3,of or 5, yet it sometimes affects others, angles, is called a scalene six- and even fractionary numbers. The only thing to be said sided pyramid. The solid an- in general of the value of m is, that it must be greater than gles, A', X', at the terminal 1, rational and positive. points of the axis, are its apices; the edges which terminate in 25. Limits. these apices are the terminal, Every series leads to its limits; it is, therefore, to be and those which correspond with that the series of scalene six-sided pyramids will the lateral edges of the rhom- expected, limits of their own. It appears by an easy geometriboid are the rhomboidal edges have cal construction, that scalene six-sided pyramids, derived of the pyramid. The terminal according a constant m, from the different members of edges allow of a farther distinc- a series of torhomboids, or even from any rhomboid though tion into more obtuse and more it be no member of that series, if cut perpendicularly upon, acute ones ; the faces being on AB, the first, inclined under and through the centre of their axes; that such pyramids a greater, on AC, the other, under a less angle. will have a common, or equal and similar transverse sec21. Their Axis a Multiple of the Axis of the Fundamen- tion, provided only the horizontal projections of these rhomboids have been equal. This section is an equilateral dotal Form. decagon of alternately equal angles. The limits of a series Instead of lengthening the axis, we may conceive it to of scalene six-sided pyramids must therefore be a scalene be multiplied by a certain number, expressed in general six-sided pyramid of an infinite axis; which, since m canby m. The values of m must be determined by observa- not become infinite, must be derivable from a rhomboid of tion, or, which is the same, they must be derived from an infinite axis, that is to say, from a regular six-sided combinations containing six-sided pyramids. They can- prism. Ihe limit will, therefore, appear in the shape of an not, therefore, be fixed arbitrarily, if we expect them to be unequiangular twelve-sided prism, of the same transverse confirmed by observation. section, which the finite members of the series produce. Each series of scalene six-sided pyramids is limited by a 22. Series of Scalene Six-sided Pyramids. prism of this kind; the number of different prisms will From each rhomboid, several scalene six-sided pyramids therefore be equal to the values of m, upon which the may be derived, and we are authorized to expect as many angles of their transverse sections depend. The opposite forms of this kind as observation has discovered different limit, viz. the scalene six-sided pyramid of an infinitely values for m. By deriving scalene six-sided pyramids, small axis again appears in a plane figure, equal and similar according to a constant m, from the subsequent members to the horizontal projection, its faces being perpendicular of the series of rhomboids, a series of such pyramids is pro- to the axis of those forms with which it is combined. The duced, the axes of which partake of the law followed by those of the series of rhomboids. For the horizontal pro- general sign of an unequiangular twelve-sided prism is jections of the pyramids are identical with those of the (P-f-co ) . The face perpendicular to the axis does not rhomboids, because the rhomboidal edges of the pyramids require any particular designation, since that of R—co have the same situation as the lateral edges of the rhom- (§ 15) is already applied to it. Respecting the position, boids from which they are derived; and the axes of the both of the scalene six-sided pyramids, and of their limits, pyramids, being equal to the axes of the rhomboids, multi- the unequiangular twelve-sided prisms to each other, and plied by a constant number m, will therefore persist in the to the rhomboidal form from which they are derived; § § 18 and 19 contain the necessary explanations. ratio of those. 23. Designation. The letter P, in general, signifies a pyramid, but more particularly a six-sided pyramid, if referred to a form derivable from the rhomboid. The quality of a scalene sixsided pyramid, in which there occur differences according to the relation of its axis to that of the rhomboid, must be

26. Subordinate Series of Rhomboids. There are several rhomboids in connection with R, without being members of the series derived from it, because their axes, the horizontal projections being equal, are not products of the axes of R, multiplied by powers of the number 2. These rhomboids follow, however, the law

MINERALOGY. 116 Minera- (§ 12) which governs the series of rhomboids immediately rhomboid will follow = 2 : 3, or the first w ill contain § of Miners, logy- derived from R, and their axes are results of the axes of the axis of that rhomboid from which it is derived. Thes logy, v the members of this series multiplied by a certain coefti- isosceles six-sided pyramid, derived from R+ra, is desig- —^y-.. cient. Series arising in this way are termed subordinate nated only by V-f n (§ 23), on account of its being always series, whilst that which has been derived from R has the obtained by a similar proceeding from its rhomboid. relative name of the principal series. 29- Series of Isosceles Six-sided Pyramids. 27- Coefficients of the Subordinate Series, and how the Each member of the principal series of rhomboids has Members of these belong to each other and to the Mem- its concomitant isosceles six-sided pyramid of the ratio just bers of the Principal Series. stated, the horizontal projections being equal. This gives Members of the subordinate series are geometrically ob- rise to a series of isosceles six-sided pyramids, the axes of tained by laying planes into the homologous terminal edges which, their horizontal projections being equal, increase of the scalene six-sided pyramids derived from the members and decrease as the powers of the number 2 ; that is to say, of the principal series, and by enlarging these planes till they follow the general law of all those forms which are they enclose the space by themselves. By applying the derived from the rhomboid. planes to the more obtuse terminal edges, the resulting 30. Limits and Position. -j-1 .-I i coefficient is = —^— ; by applying them to the more acute The limits of this series are regular six-sided prisms of infinite axes, like those of the series of rhomboids. Let 1 ones, it follows — . If the three most common values the axis of an isosceles six-sided pyramid increase, whilst 4 horizontal projection remains unchanged, the inclinaof m are one after the other put into the expressions, each the tion of the faces at the edges of the basis (those in which of the two coefficients give rise to members of two different the faces from different apices meet) will likewise increase subordinate series; but at the same time it yields one it becomes = 180°, in which case the axis will be inmember of the principal series, namely, if 3?»zh 1 becomes till In this case, each two corresponding faces from the equal to a power of the number 2. These numbers of the finite. principal series are not, however, objects of the present different apices coincide into a single plane parallel with consideration. The subordinate series, whose coefficient the axis, and the isosceles six-sided pyramid is thus transcontains, besides a power of the number 2, the number 5, formed into a regular six-sided prism, the basis or transis styled the first; that wdiose coefficient, also besides a verse section of which is the horizontal projection itself. power of the number 2, contains the number 7, the second By this basis and its situation the present prism differs from subordinate series. The members of the subordinate series that (§ 17), which limits the series of rhomboids ; and by arrange themselves with those of the principal series in this the necessity of considering them as two distinct forms such a manner, that the axes of those which are put to- becomes evident. The crystallographic sign for the limit gether stand in the ratio of 1 : f: f. According to this of the series of isosceles six-sided pyramids is P + QO . The disposition, a rhomboid, whose axis contains five-fourths of opposite limit, merely a face perpendicular to the axis of any of the foregoing forms, requires no particular designathe axis of R+w, or which is r= £ . 2”«, its horizontal pro- tion. Since the faces of an isosceles six-sided pyramid, jection being equal to that of R, is R-f-rc of the first subor- when this is turned round under 60° or 180°, resume their dinate series, and its designation |R+»; a rhomboid former situation, there is no difference prevailing in the whose axis is — J.2”a, is R+w of the second subordinate position of the members and limits of this series, either in series, and its designation is JR+w. Any other value of respect to themselves, or to the other forms derived from m affords other subordinate series. The members of a the rhomboid. subordinate series cannot be interpolated, or put between those of the principal one, without undoing both these series 31. Derivation from the Isosceles Four-sided Pyramid. themselves. The limits of the subordinate series are idenConsider an isosceles four-sided pyramid (fig. 6), a tical with those of the principal series; the position of their Fig. 6. members follows from their derivation. 28. Isosceles Six-sided Pyramids. Apply pairs of planes to the terminal edges AC, of a rhomboid, fig. 5, in such a manner and inclination, that Fig. 5.

form contained under eight equal and similar isosceles triangles, as a fundamental form; place it in its upright position, by making its axis AX vertical, and apply to it the process § 5. The tangent planes will limit a space representing again an isosceles four-sided pyramid, the plane angles of which at the apex, and the inclination of the those from the upper apex, AHO and AOR, may inter- faces at the terminal edges, will be greater than the same sect those from the under apex, XHO and XOR, in a in the fundamental form, and hence it will likewise be the plane figure HORZNT, similar to and parallel with the more obtuse of both. horizontal projection. The result will be an isosceles sixsided pyramid. The axes of both the pyramid and the 32. Patio of the Derived Pyramid to the Fundamental rhomboid being equal, as appears from the derivation, the Form. sides of their horizontal projections are in the ratio of 3 : 2. The axes of these pyramids are equal to each other. The Hence the horizontal projections being supposed equal, horizontal projection of the more obtuse is that square which the ratio between the axis of the pyramid and that of the can be circumscribed to the horizontal projection of the funda-

MINERALOGY. 117 mental form ; and, accordingly, its content twice the con- position towards P, that the sides of their bases are parallel Miner a tent of the horizontal projection of the fundamental form, with the diagonals of the basis of P ; whilst in P — 2 and logy. the ratio of their sides = \/2 : 1. Suppose now the hori- P + 2, the sides and the diagonals are parallel with the zontal projections of the two pyramids to be equal, the axis same lines in the basis of the fundamental form. The forof the derived more obtuse pyramid will be to the axis of mer are said to be in a diagonal, the latter in a parallel position with P ; and every thing contained in § 18 and 1 § 19, in respect to position, may be applied here, if only, the fundamental form in the ratio of —7=V 2 : 1. instead of 60° and 180°, a revolution of 45° is imagined. Suppose now the two different prisms, the regular six-sided, 33. Inversion of the Proceeding. as well as the rectangular four-sided, in both their peculiar This proceeding can be applied inversely, in order to positions. The faces of the first will, after having been obtain from the fundamental form the same more acute duly turned, assume their former situation, which is not the four-sided pyramid, from which, by the proceeding applied case in the second; and hence it becomes necessary to directly, the fundamental form would have been the result. adopt two rectangular four-sided prisms of an infinite axis This inverse application is as follows : Draw in the faces of as limits of the series of isosceles four-sided pyramids, one the fundamental form perpendicular lines from the apices being in a parallel, the other in a diagonal position with P. to the edges at the basis, lay cutting planes through every The sign of the first is P + go , that of the second [P + 00 ]. two contiguous of these lines, and separate those parts of The opposite limit, where there is no difference in the posithe pyramids which lie outside of them. The remainder, tion, is represented by P — 00; and the whole series of inclosed by the cutting planes, will be again an isosceles isosceles four-sided pyramids between its limits appears thus, four-sided pyramid, having the same axis as the fundamenr p+00 1 . P+a . ■8 tal form, but a horizontal projection, whose content is half the content of the horizontal projection of the fundamental 36. Scalene Eight-sided Pyramids. form, and the ratio of their sides, therefore, = The horizontal projections being made equal, the axis of the deWith the isosceles four-sided pyramids there are connectrived more acute pyramid is to tire axis of the fundamental ed scalene eight-sided pyramids, contained under sixteen form in the ratio of \/2 :1, which is the inverse of the ratio equal and similar scalene triangles (fig. 7)• These eight-sided deduced above. pyramids depend upon the Fig. 7* four-sided by the same 34. Series and Designation. process of derivation, by By continuing the derivation, the more obtuse pyramid •which the scalene sixproduces another still more obtuse ; the more acute another sided pyramids take their still more acute, and thus arises a series of isosceles four- rise from the rhomboid. sided pyramids, whose axes, their horizontal projections The application of this being equal, increase and decrease as the powers of the process to the isosceles square root of 2 ; which law of progression can be express- four-sided pyramid suped by 2 ^ or 2”. The designation of this series is con- poses, however, a preparation of this form, which is cordant with the principles already laid down and followed effected by enlarging its (§ 13). The fundamental form receives the letter P. faces beyond the edges of its basis, and by drawing Hence its neighbouring members will be in these enlai'gements tri... P_2, P-1, P, P + 1, P + 2, ... angles, equal and similar their axes that of P being = a, to the faces of the pyraa, a*/ 0, 2a;... mid. Thus the points a, ' ' ' 2 Va a', .. x, x . . are fixed in their ratio to each other, two squares that are perpendicular to the axis . . . a/22 + : \/21 : \/2° : x/21 : VTP ; . . . AX, in its terminal points, and P + 71 the general term of the series, which, by the or in the apices of the pysubstitution of any whole positive or negative number in ramids. Now, produce the place of n, gives a certain determined member. The the axis of the pyramid on both sides to an indefinite but present designation is quite the same as that in § 28, and equal length, or multiply it by a number m, greater than 1 as another to be mentioned in § 44. However, the obser- positive and rational (§ 24.) Join, then, the upper terminal vation in page 135 is sufficient to shew the impossibility of point A' of the lengthened axis with the points a, a! . . any confusion or ambiguity that could arise from making in the under, the under terminal point X' with the points use of identical signs for the expression of different forms. x, od . . \n the upper square, by straight lines. The points SS' . ., in which these lines intersect each other, will lie in 35. Limits. If n becomes greater or smaller than any given number, the prolongation of the basis of the four-sided pyramid. a transformation takes place similar to that by which the We now join these points with the neighbouring angles of isosceles six-sided pyramid gave rise to the regular six- the base by straight lines, the result of which will represent sided prism: the series of isosceles four-sided pyramids the basis of the derived scalene eight-sided pyramid, which terminates on one side in an unlimited four-sided prism, may now be completed without difficulty. I he most comon the other in a plane figure, equal, similar, and parallel mon, though not the only values given for m by nature, to the horizontal projection, and these two forms represent are 3, 4, and 5. the limits of the series. In respect to the first, however, 37. Series of Scalene Eight-sided Pyramids. there occurs the particular circumstance, that the series is If the number of derivation m be constant, the resultant doubly limited; because the different members in their succession assume a different position. The derivation scalene eight-sided pyramids have similar bases, the axes shews the pyramids, P — 1 and P + 1, to stand in such a of the isosceles four-sided pyramids may be whatever they

L,

MINERALOGY. 118 Minera- will. The application of the described proceeding to the circumstances remaining the same, with an axis : A v? MineraJogy. logy- subsequent members of the series of isosceles four sided ' -V ' pyramids will, therefore, m remaining for all the members is the member P + » of the second subordinate series, exthe same, not only produce a series of scalene eight-sided 5 pyramids, subject to the law followed by the isosceles four- pressed by the designation - P + w. The limits of the presided pyramids, which is that of a/2 ; but the bases or sent series coincide with those of the principal series. The transverse sections of all the members of this series will be positions of its members in respect to each other, and to similar to each other. The designation of an indetermithe members of the principal series, will become evident nate nth member of such a series is (P -\-n)m, and it is evi- by comparing what has been stated of their derivation with dent, that as many values of m as experience gives, so many § 27 regarding the position of the subordinate series of different series of scalene eight-sided pyramids will arise. rhomboids. 40. Scalene Four-sided Pyramids. 38. Limits. If in the basis of an isosceles four-sided pyramid, the The limits of those series are, on one side unlimited une- diagonals are supposed unequal, the pyramid itself is transquiangular eight-sided prisms, the transverse sections of formed into a scalene four-sided pyramid, or into one whose them being similar to the bases of the members of the basis is a rhomb, its faces scalene triangles, and its terminal series; on the other side, a plane figure, which in the edges of a different magnitude, the one more obtuse, the combinations appears as a face perpendicular to the other more acute, as is represented by ABCB'C'X, fig. 8. axis. This is evident from what has been said above, and Fig. 8. there remains only to be added, that the prisms of an A infinite axis coming into consideration in two different positions, they must be taken for two different forms, or as double limits of the series. These two positions are the parallel and the diagonal, as in § 35 ; the parallel being that which prevails between scalene eight-sided pyramids and that isosceles four-sided from which they are derived ; whilst forms of this kind in the diagonal position are supposed to have undergone a horizontal revolution of 45°. Now, the eight-sided prisms may be considered as scalene eight-sided pyramids, derived from isosceles four-sided pyramids of an infinite axis, namely, the rectangular foursided prism, according to a certain value of m. The necessity of considering the four-sided prism in m two different positions (§ 35) must therefore be extended to the From this we may conjecture that several of the preceding eight-sided. The designation of the series of eight-sided methods of derivation, though with some modifications, will pyramids, between their limits, will accordingly be thus : also in this case be applicable. + 1 ([(p+®f] s 39. Subordinate Series. There are series of isosceles four-sided pyramids belonging to that of § 33, which, in reference to the latter, or the principal series, are termed subordinate series. The members of these series are obtained by placing tangent planes in the homologous terminal edges of the scalene eight-sided pyramids; the same proceeding which applied to the scalene six-sided pyramids produced the subordinate series of rhomboids. The coefficient for the more obtuse termiP —00

nal edge (if

(P+H)

+

is = —

; that for the more

acute one (under the same supposition) —

If m be \/‘2 determined, each of those coefficients gives a member of a particular series. The members of the principal and of the two subordinate series arising from m — 3, 4, and 5, arrange themselves thus: 1 : — 7; and are said to 2^2 ' 4 belong together in this order. An isosceles four-sided pyramid, therefore, whose axis, the horizontal projection being equal to that of P, is — —V2ri a represents the member P -fn of the first subordinate series, and bears the de3 gignation of — P + »; and a similar pyramid, the other

41. Derivations from it. Auxiliary Form. Apply to the homologous terminal edges of a scalene four-sided pyramid tangent planes, and enlarge them till they intersect each other in every possible direction; the result will be no form limited on every side, or such as is finite in all its dimensions. If the tangent planes are laid in all the terminal edges of the fundamental form, a form limited from every side will indeed appear, but this form is not a simple one, its faces being homologous only by four and four (§ 1). The form thus arising represents a foursided pyramid, with an oblong rectangular basis, AIGHFX, fig. 8; and most of the crystallographers consider it as such, and term it accordingly. In this place it must be considered only as an auxiliary or intermediate form, which is not the derived form itself, but useful and auxiliary for its derivation. 42. Derived Form. Suppose taugent planes to be laid in the terminal edges of the auxiliary form, in such an inclination that those from the upper apex produce by their intersection with those from the under apex, a rhomb similar and parallel to the basis of the fundamental form, and situated in the prolongation of this basis. The result will be a scalene foursided pyramid, the basis of which is similar to that of the fundamental form; but the plane angles at the apex, and the inclination at the terminal edges, being greater than in this form, the derived will be more obtuse than the fundamental form. 43. Ratio to the Fundamental Form. The two pyramids, as produced by the derivation, have the same axis, the ratio betweeen the basis of the derived,

MINERALOGY. 119 and the basis of the fundamental pyramid being that of mid of an oblong rectangular basis, it is considered as an Mlnera. 4:1. This ratio is evident, since the basis of the auxiliaFig. 9. iogy. ^ ry form is double of the basis of the fundamental form, and c that of the derived form again double of the basis of the auxiliary form. Hence the horizontal projection of the two forms being supposed equal, the ratio between the axes of the derived, and of the fundamental pyramid, is that of £ : 1. The process of derivation, by which the more obtuse pyramid is produced, is liable to an inversion like that in § 10. 44. Series. Designation. Limits. Position. From a continued derivation on both sides of the fundamental form, a series of scalene four-sided pyramids, of equal and similar bases, will evidently arise, the axes of which increase on one side and decrease on the other, like the powers of the number 2. P -(- » will be the sign of an indeterminate «th member of the series, and if n becomes infinite, the series reaches its limits, which are on one side an obliquangular four-sided prism, whose transverse section on the other side is a horizontal plane, whose figure is equal and similar to the horizontal projection of the fundamental form. The designation of the series between its limits becomes thus: P 00 . . . P+rc . . . P + 00. It must be remarked, that such differences on account of the position of the members of the series as are met with in the rhomboid (§ 18) and the isosceles four-sided pyramid (§ 35), are not to be found in the scalene four-sided pyramid. 45. Further Derivations. The members of the present series are, or this series itself is, now the foundation of several other derivations; and although the forms derived by them will be nothing but scalene four-sided pyramids and obliquangular four-sided prisms, yet the variety in the relations of those forms is great enough to surpass that of the forms in connection with the rhomboid, and with the isosceles four-sided pyramid, for which reason it is one of the most interesting objects of crystallography. The derivations already mentioned apply as well to the fundamental form itself as to the auxiliary form; and they are similar to that which has been employed in deriving the scalene eight-sided from the isosceles four-sided pyramid. 46. From the Fundamental Form. Instead of the isosceles (§ 37), suppose the scalene foursided pyramid to be the fundamental form, and prepare it for derivation by enlarging its planes beyond the edges at the basis, and by drawing triangles equal and similar to the faces of the pyramid in these enlargements. The points a, a' x a/ . . will no longer be the angles of squares, but of oblong rectangles, the planes of which are perpendicular to the axis AX in its terminal points. Produce now the axis of the scalene four-sided pyramid on both sides to an indefinite but equal length, or, what comes to the same, multiply it by a number m, enjoying the general properties mentioned, §§ 24, 26. Draw straight lines from the points a, a' . . in the lower rectangle to the upper apex A', from the points #, af . . in the upper rectangle to the under apex X' of the lengthened axis, and join their intersections s,d.. in the plane of the enlarged basis by straight lines with the angles of this basis. The resultant octagon will not have alternately equal angles, like that in § 36, which is the basis of the scalene eight-sided pyramids, but it will be irregular, fig- 9, since of the angles B, B/, c, c', only the opposite are equal to each other. A form constructed upon such a basis cannot be contained under equal and similar planes, or it cannot be a simple form. Like the four-sided pyra-

auxiliary or intermediate form, whose resolution gives the simple forms of which it consists.' 47. Desolation of the Auxiliary Form. This resolution is executed by enlarging those places which are equal and similar to each other, till the rest disappear. In the present case, the resolution produces two different scalene four-sided pyramids of equal axes, their bases being different amongst themselves, as well as from the bases of the fundamental form. They are termed scalene four-sided pyramids of dissimilar bases, derived from the fundamental form, and more particularly that in which the long diagonal of the fundamental form remains unaltered, the pyramid belonging to the long: that in which the short diagonal remains unaltered, the pyramidal belonging to the short diagonal of the fundamental form. 48. Designation. This important difference between the two forms must be expressed by the designation. The designation (P + «)”* used for the scalene eight-sided pyramids in § 37, if referred to forms in connection with the scalene four-sided pyramids, denotes at the same time both of the pyramids just mentioned. In order to make it applicable to each of them singly, it is now necessary to express their difference in respect to the diagonals of the fundamental forms, which is effected by adding the signs o and -. Thus (P + w)m represents a scalene four-sided pju-amid of dissimilar basis, derived from P + w according to the number m, which belongs to the long diagonal; (P -{- ri)1, another pyramid of the same properties which belongs to the short diagonal of P. 49. Ratios. The pyramids just mentioned differ from the members of the series (§ 44), ls£, in their axes, which, the axis of P being — a, are expressed by ^ma ; 2c?, by the ratio of the diagonals of their bases. Let in P the ratio of the axis to the long and to the short diagonal be that of a : 5 : c, or the ratios of the same lines in P + » that of 2”a : 5 : c; the ratio of the homologous lines will be in (V -\-n)m ma : b : me, in (P11)1 — 2nma : mb : c, as follows easily from the consideration of a few triangles in the figures required for explaining the derivation. Hence the ratio between the diagonals of the bases in the derived forms, that of the fundamental form remaining constant, depends only upon the number m. Accordingly, if m be supposed constant, all the pyramids of this kind, derived from scalene four-sided pyramids of similar bases, will likewise, as far as they belong to one or the other diagonal, contain similar bases or transverse sections, the axes of the

MINERALOGY. 120 sed from the agreement existing between the forms derived MineraMinera- forms, subservient to the derivation, may be whatever they from the scalene, and those derived from the isosceles four- logy, logy. Wi sided pyramid. order to the obtain theofmembers of these ^ ^* 50. Double Series. ^ -subordinate series,In enlarge laces the fundamental If those forms are the members of the above series, each fi 10? on both gides . draw in the enlarged faces t,-.:„ Fig. jq m gives rise 4-r. to /-i/.rt tivo Qo'r'tps series nl* of derived derived nvramids pyramids of of aa dissimidissimi lar basis, viz. one whose members refer to the long, and another whose members refer to the short diagonal ol the basis of the fundamental form. From each of those series having constant transverse sections in all their members, it appears that the obliquangular four-sided prisms, limiting them, must likewise be subject to the equality of transverse sections or bases. Both the series stand, therefore, between their limits, thus: P — oo . . (P + n) ...(P+8) r p — oo . . . (P + w) ,..(P + 8) What has been observed in § 44 in respect to position, may be equally applied here. The values of m hitherto most commonly, though not exclusively observed, are _ 3, 4, 5. But neither in this case are they the only ones. 51. Derivations from the Auxiliary Form, § 41. Batios of the Series. Instead of the fundamental form P, or of P + w, suppose the auxiliary or intermediate form, belonging to it, to take its place; by applying to it the proceeding described in §§ 46, 47, the form produced in a compound one like that in § 46, but its resolution yields again two simple forms, which are also scalene four-sided pyramids, whose bases are dissimilar to those of the fundamental form. These pyramids can be distinguished from each other by referring, the one to the long, the other to the short diagonal; from those derived in § 47, by the form to which the derivation is applied, since, in § 47, it is the fundamental form itself, in the present case, the auxiliary form belonging to it; which latter circumstance is expressed in the crystallographic sign by the letter r added to P. From the dimensions of the three lines disposed perpendicularly to each other in the pyramid P + n, the axis and both the diagonals, being in the ratio of 2n« : & : c, it will follow, the ratio of the homologous lines in the scalene four-sided pyramids of dissimilar basis, derived from the auxiliary form, which belongs to the long diagonal of the fundamental form, or in

triangles, equal and similar to the faces off the fundamental form; through the point a, a' . . x, x . ., thus determined, lay rhombs, similar and parallel to the basis of the fundamental form; multiply the axis by a number m; join the points X', A', of the lengthened axis by straight lines with the said points a, a'. . x, x'; and, lastly, reduce the derived pyramid which has a basis similar to that of the fundamental form, to an equal horizontal projection with it. The number m being not yet determined, the coefficient of the subordinate series will be — —-— ; which, if m + 1

be equal to any power of the number 2, shews the member to which it belongs to be a member of the principal series. The subordinate series, whose coefficient, besides powers of the number 2, contains the factor 3, is termed Avefirst, and that which, in the same case, contains the factor 5, the (Pr+») tobe=(-2-).2 a: 6 second subordinate series. Members of the principal, of the first and of the second subordinate series, which are sup•,n(Pr /tT +B . ™ /m+l\ 2on “:U=I,)S: =(-r) posed to belong together, arrange themselves thus: 1: |: f> which numbers express the ratio between their axes. The The dependence of the ratios between the diagonals of the designation and the position of the members in the suborbasis, only from m, is evident; and this remains unaltered, dinate series is evident from the foregoing. how much soever a and n may be allowed to vary. If the derivation is applied to the whole series in § 44, there will 53. Besolution of the Auxiliary Form, § 41. Horizontal Prisms. arise two series of scalene four-sided pyramids, which pro„ of the fundamental series, and The only form now left for examination is the auxiliary ceed according to the law & are limited by obliquangular four-sided prisms, partaking form, § 41 ; which, as has been mentioned above, is not a of the similarity in the transverse sections of all the mem- simple one, its faces not being homologous. By enlarging bers. The crystallographic designation of the series, be- only those planes which, amongst themselves, are equal and tween their limits, stands thus: similar, there arise two obliquangular four-sided prisms, O JY* unlimited in the direction of their axis, and which, thereP — oo (Pr + n) . (Pr + co) fore, like all the prisms, are forms in which one dimension is infinite. The axes of the two prisms are perpendicular P — oo ... (Pr+«)W . . . (Pr-j-ao)1” to each other, and have a horizontal position, if the fundaThe values of m are here the same as in the above-men- mental form be in the upright position. These axes cointioned cases. To the position applies what has been said cide with the diagonals of the basis of the fundamental form in § 44. produced to an infinite length. Hence the prisms may be 52. — Subordinate Series. considered as scalene four-sided pyramids, one diagonal of That there are certain subordinate series belonging to wdiich has become infinite ; similarly to the vertical prisms, the series § 44, which, in reference to the former, may also that are scalene four-sided pyramids of an infinite axis. For be considered as the principal series, can easily be suppo- the sake of distinguishing them from these, they bear the

MINERALOGY. 121 finera- name of horizontal prisms, and their general designation is 56. Derivations from the Hexahedron. MineraPr + n. More particularly, Pr + rc expresses the horizonlogy. „ Besides the rhomboid, the isosceles, and the scalene foursided pyramids, there is only one other form existing fit for tal prism in which the longer diagonal, Pr + oo that in which the shorter diagonal of the fundamental form has re- being considered as a fundamental form, or which, without being derivable from any one of the former, can itself serve mained a finite quantity. as basis to the derivation. This form is the hexahedron^ 54. Series of Horizontal Prisms. Fi ]1 g Fig. 12. Every scalene four-sided pyramid, whatever its properties may be, has its dependent horizontal prisms. To every series of such forms will, therefore, belong two series of horizontal prisms, to be distinguished by their designation according to the properties of those series. It is, however, remarked, that, if we take the common values of rn, as stated above, the angles of several members of those series, and, therefore, the series themselves, will be identical; and, for this reason, one designation will suffice for them. Thus, the number of series of those forms taken together may be reduced to three pairs, of which the first pair belongs to the principal, the others to the subordinate series of scalene four-sided pyramids ; each of the diagonals having one series referred to it. The horizontal prisms belonging to a scalene four-sided pyramid are produced by placing tangent ties, differing, however, from each other more by their geplanes in its homologous terminal edges. If those terminal neral aspect than by their dimensions. The complete asedges connect the terminal point of the axis with the long semblage of those forms is obtained in the following way. diagonal, the prism is said to belong, or to be referred, to Bring first the hexahedron in an upright position, so as the long; if they connect it with the short, it is said to be- to bring one of its corners uppermost, and the opposite perlong, or to be referred, to the short diagonal of P. The pendicularly below it, by which means the rhomboidal axis, horizontal prisms are remarkable forms, often to be met passing the two corners, becomes vertical; then consider with in the natural combinations. the possible situations of a moveable plane, tangent to the hexahedron in the uppermost point of the said rhomboidal 55. Limits of the Series of Horizontal Prisms. axis. The different situations the plane can effect are seven By comparing the horizontal prisms belonging to mem- in number; but in one of them it becomes parallel to the bers of a series of scalene four-sided pyramids, it becomes face of the hexahedron itself. Every one of these situaevident how, whilst the axis of the pyramid increases, the tions gives rise to a peculiar form ; hence there will exist angle of the horizontal prism contiguous to the axis of the as many forms as the moveable plane can assume different fundamental form becomes smaller and smaller; whilst the situations, and no more. The forms thus obtained agree other, at the intersection of the planes from different apices, becomes greater and greater. If the axis of the pyramid Fig. 13. Fig. 14. become infinite, or the pyramid itself a vertical prism, the first of these angles will disappear, the second become = 180°. Hence a horizontal prism is transformed, in this case, in a pair of unlimited parallel planes, perpendicular to the diagonals to which they belong. These planes, which may be considered as forms unlimited, as it were, in two directions, are the limits of the series of horizontal prisms, the axis of the pyramid to which they belong being infinite. The opposite limits, or those which appear, if the pyramid have an infinitely small axis, appear as faces perpendicular to the axis. The series of horizontal prisms between their limits may, accordingly, be represented thus: in several of their properties, particularly in respect of the P — go . . . Pr + rc . . . Pr + co kind, number, and situation of their axis, and are as folP — GO . . . Pr + M . . . Pr -f 00 . Fig- 15. Fig. 16. For, having the designation in every respect complete, the coefficient of the series to which the horizontal prism belongs must be added to the sign for a particular member. Although this is not a place for entering into the examination of combined forms, yet that peculiar combination which is produced by the two limits of the series of horizontal prisms, and takes the appearance of a vertical rectangular four-sided prism, net yet limited in the direction of its axis, cannot remain unnoticed. This combination is designated by Pr + oo . Pr + oo ; it must carefully be distinguished from the rectangular four-sided prisms, limiting the series of isosceles four-sided pyramids, wdiich, abstraction being made of the face perpendicular to the axis, are simple forms ; a property not belonging to the rectangular prism in connection with the scalene four-sided pyramid. VOL. xv.

«

V MINERALOGY. 122 Minera- teral triangles. 3. The one-edgcd tetragonal dodecahe- tetragonal dodecahedrons (fig. 20), contained under twelve Mineralogy. dron, fig. 13, contained under twelve rhombs. 4. The tetragonal faces, in which r there is only one pair of equal logy, y~'* ^ hexahedral trigonal-icositetrahedron (fig. 14), contained angles ; those from the tw o-edged tetragonal-icositetraheunder twenty-four isosceles triangles, its prominent form dron, the two trigonal dodecahedrons (fig. 21), contained being that of the hexahedron. 5. The octahedral trigonal- under twelve isosceles triangles ; and lastly, the halves of icositetrahedron (fig. 15), contained under twenty-four ’ Fis. 22. Fig. 21. isosceles triangles, its prominent form being that of the octahedron. 6. The two-edged tetragonal-icositetrahedron (fig. 16), contained under twenty-four irregular tetragons, in which two of the opposite angles are equal; and, 7, The tptracontaoctahedron (fig. 17), contained under forty-eight Fig. 18. Fig. 17.

the tetracontaoctahedron, viz. a, the tetrahedral irigonalFig. 23.

scalene triangles. The dimensions of the three first of these forms are constant, a property not to be met with in the others, of which, therefore, several varieties may be found differing from each other by their angles. 57* Resolution of some of those Forms into Halves.

Fig. 24.

MINERALOGY. 123 inera- only by the number of objects they contain, the latter being nection between different forms, and as they are, thereMinera)gy. a particular determination of the former; and both refer not fore, of consequence in the system of arrangement and dislogy. so much to the mere aggregation of forms-, as to the rela- crimination to be explained in this article. tions prevailing amongst them. Combinations of the rhomboidal system, produced by simple forms in such a manner that they appear in the com60. Denomination of the Systems of Crystallization. bination with the full number of their faces, and in their The systems of crystallization, agreeing in number with proper position, are termed rhomboidal combinations. the fundamental forms, of which there are four, receive Such are the most common combinations in the rhomboidal their names according to those fundamental forms. That system. Suppose, on the contrary, a rhomboid to combine which has been derived from the rhomboid is called the with itself in a turned position, it will affect the shape of a rhomhoidal system, because its forms agree with the rhom- simple form, and appear as an isosceles six-sided pyramid. boid in their general properties ; that which has been de- It is termed a dirhomboid, and designated by 2 (K -f- n). rived from the isosceles four-sided pyramid, for the same The dirhomboids do not arrange themselves with the isosreason, the pyramidal system ; that which has been derived celes six-sided pyramids in the same series (§ 29), because from the scalene four-sided pyramid, the prismatic system, there is a difference existing in the situation of the bases in on account of the great number and variety of prisms it the one and in the other, as becomes evident in considercontains ; and that which has been derived from the hexa- ing the derivation. In a similar way, two equal scalene hedron, the tessular system, in order to intimate that there six-sided pyramids being combined in a turned position, prooccurs no other system of crystallization in nature which duce a scalene twelve-sided pyramid, which has as little right shares in the general properties of the hexahedron. It is as the dirhomboid to be ranked with the simple forms, alevident that any form, if known, will suffice for the deter- though its faces are all equal and similar to each other. mination of the system to which it belongs, even though Combinations produced by, or containing forms of this kind, this form be a limiting one. Only the right rectangular are termed dirhomboidal combinations. four-sided prism is an exception, since it may be a simple form in the tessular, a double combination (P—oo . P+oo ) 64. Hemi-rhomboidal and Hemi-dirhomboidal Combinain the pyramidal, and a triple' combination (P—co . tions. O — It sometimes happens in the rhomboidal system, that the Pr+oo . Pr+oo ) in the prismatic system. The consideration of the mere form does not decide at all in this case. forms enter only with half the number of their faces into a Some of the means of removing this uncertainty will be combination. If these combinations contain simple forms, they are said to be hemi-rhomboidal; if they contain any explained hereafter. of the above-mentioned compound forms under this restriction, they are said to be hemi-dirhomboidal. A further 61. Determination of the series of Crystallization. A series of crystallization is determined by any one of distinction is to be made among such combinations, in as its members, which is no limiting form, if the dimensions of much as the faces contiguous to one apex are either parit are known. These dimensions, if they are not (like those allel, or inclined to those of the other. The hemi-rhomof the hexahedron, the octahedron, &c.) constant, must be boidal, or hemi-dirhomboidal, are said, in the first case, to made out by direct measurement. From these the dimen- be of parallel, in the other to be of inclined faces. An sions of any other member, or of the fundamental form, if example will put the importance of this difference in its full it has not been measured itself, can be found, in compliance light: enlarge in a scalene six-sided pyramid the alternating with the relations developed above. The series of crystal- faces contiguous to one apex, and, at the same time, those lization proves of great importance for the determination of the opposite apex, which are parallel to the former, the of the natural history species in the mineral kingdom. It resultant form will take the appearance of a rhomboid, withis also an external character of the utmost value in the cha- out in reality being a form of this kind. If, on the conracter of the species. This character requires, therefore, trary, the faces enlarged on the opposite apex are inclined the dimensions of a member of the series to be stated, of to those of the former, the resultant form is contained under which the most eligible is the fundamental form. The li- six trapezoidal faces. mits do not determine the series of crystallization, since, 65. Pyramidal and Hemi-pyramidal Combinations. in the rhomboidal and in the pyramidal system, they are A relation similar to that which in the rhomboidal system common to all; in the prismatic, at least to those series which possess a similar transverse section. Hence the ob- has been expressed by the name of hemi-rhomboidal, is taining the limiting forms is not sufficient for the character equally found in the pyramidal system, and here it constitutes the hemi-pyramidal combinations. The hemi-pyraof the natural history species. midal combinations of parallel faces refer only to the eightsided pyramids, which by this affect the shape of isosceles 62. General Laws of Combination. four-sided pyramids, without partaking of their other proThe second advantage flowing from the above inquiries, perties ; those of inclined faces refer also to the isosceles consists in the accurate understanding of the qualities of four-sided pyramids, which yield forms analogous to the tecombinations, and of the development of their most general laws. The first of these laws stands thus :—The forms trahedron, whilst the result of the scalene eight-sided pyrawhich nature combines must belong to one series of crystal- mid is a particular form, contained under eight scalene trilization. The second, The combination must be effected angles. in that position of the several simpleforms it contains, which 66. Prismatic, Hcmi-prismatic, and Tetarto-prismatic the derivation assigns to them. Upon these two laws deCombinations. pends the symmetry of the combinations, which, therefore, The differences already mentioned are particularly reis not the fundamental law of crystallization. markable in the prismatic system. From what has been said in respect to the other systems, it becomes evident 63. Tthomboidal and Dirhomboidal Combinations. what is meant by prismatic and by hemi-prismatic combiAn accurate investigation of the combinations is one of nations. The latter expression refers also to one or to sethe most interesting parts of crystallography. Without veral prisms, whose axes are parallel, if they enter into the entering into minute details, some of their relations may be combinations with only half the number of their faces. A shortly mentioned, as they convey general ideas of the con- similar relation of forms in the present system, marked by

r MINERALOGY. 124 Minera- the expression tetarto-prismatic, arises, when of a scalene tion of the edge of combination (§ 3.) is dependent upon Minera. logy, four-sided pyramid only the fourth part, as to the number, the length and situation of the line of combination: for, logy, of the faces appear in a combination. Such a combination join by a straight line the terminal point of the line of comcan also be produced by oblique angular four-sided prisms, bination with one of the points of intersection between the whose axes are perpendicular to each other, when only half edges and diagonals of the combined forms, amongst themthe number of their faces is visible. The hemi and tetarto- selves or with each other, the prolongation of this line will prismatic combinations illustrate the oblique, the rectangu- equally pass through the other point of intersection, and lar as well as the obliquangular prisms produced by nature. therefore be identical with the edge of combination. These belong altogether to the prismatic system, and none Hence if rtwo forms of a system, in a determined position, produce w ith a third form lines of combination equal both of them is a simple form. The signs of the hemi-rhomboidal, hemi-pyramidal, and in length and situation, the edges of combination thus prohemi-prismatic, are composed of the signs of the whole duced will be equally situated ; and if the two forms enter forms, and of the number 2, placed below them like a di- at once into combination with the third, the edges of comvisor ; instead of the latter, the signs of the tetarto-prisma- bination produced by the first and the third must be parallel to those between the second and the third. tic combinations contain the number 4 as divisor. Crystallography developes general formulae, expressing 67. Tessular and Semi-tessular Combinations. the quantity of the line of combination respecting the three Those combinations of the tessular system, into which no first systems of crystallization (this not being required for halves or fourths enter, are called tessular combinations, the tessular system), in which due notice is taken of the and in the present place they need no further explanation. kind of forms, their position, and the quality of the edges Combinations of this system, however, containing halves, of combination, namely, whether the faces producing them are termed semi-tessular combinations. These allow of a are contiguous to one or to different apices of the simple further distinction into semi-tessular combinations of paral- forms. Of these formulae, that which answers to the cirlel faces, and into those of inclined faces, as is the case in cumstances of a given combination between two known the hemi-rhomboidal and hemi-pyramidal combinations. simple forms, is chosen and determined for that particular The halves peculiar to the former are those in which every case, by substituting, instead of the variable quantities, m face is parallel to another, as the hexahedral pentagonal- and n occurring in them, those finite numbers, which dedodecahedron, the three-edged tetragonal-icositetrahedron, pend upon the place of the members in the series, and those and the general aspect of the forms undergoes thereby no factors by which the axes of the rhomboids and others have alteration. The halves peculiar to the latter have not two been multiplied. Thus the quantity of the line of combifaces parallel to each other, as the tetrahedron, the tetrahe- nation, expressed either by a terminal edge, or by a diagodral trigonal-icositetrahedron, &c., and the combination it- nal, or by the axis of one or the other form contained in the self assumes, or at least approaches to a tetrahedral aspect. combination, is found. Another formula must now be Instead of crystallographic signs, verbal expressions are chosen, answering to a combination between one of these employed, in the characteristic part of this article, when de- known forms, and another unknoion, which produces with scribing the forms of the tessular system ; because the use it edges of combination parallel to those in the combination of the former is in the present system subject to much of the two known forms. The formula must be determined greater difficulties, without affording services either so be- for the case in question, by the substitution of numbers to m and n. This can only be done in respect to the known neficial or so numerous as in the other systems. forms; m and n of the unknown remain unaltered in the 68. Development of the Combinations. expression. This expression, as is evident from the preTo develope a combination is to exhibit by itself each of ceding, must be equal to the value of the line of combinathe simple forms which it contains (§ 4). The determina- tion found above. These two equal terms give an equation tion of the kind of these forms has no difficulty whatever. to be resolved for the values of m and n. The homologous planes of a combination being enlarged till If the unknown form contains only n (as for instance it the rest disappear, one of the forms after the other is pro- being a rhomboid, where ra = 1), it is determined in the duced. To find out their relations, upon the knowledge of manner already mentioned. If, on the contrary, it contains which, nevertheless, depends the demonstration of the com- m and n at once, another equation must be established in binations, is somewhat more circumstantial, and here the order to determine the second quantity, which is effected in series of simple forms, produced by the derivation, shew the manner shewn already. Some experience in this metheir great utility. The following paragraph contains a ge- thod of developing the combinations will teach how to take neral idea of the mode of proceeding, followed for this pur- advantage of certain circumstances offering themselves, by posely crystallography, though its full explanation would which very often it is rendered possible to argue immerequire too much calculation to be given in this place. diately upon one of the unknown quantities m or n, or even sometimes upon both, and to determine the relations of se69. Line of Combination, General Formulce for it, and veral forms, according to such arguments, without being their Application. obliged to employ calculations. Imagine a combination of two simple forms, whose diEvery simple form being thus determined as member of mensions are known, and which themselves are in such a a series, and furnished with its crystallographic sign; the position as is peculiar to the system of crystallization to combination containing those simple forms will be desigwhich they belong. Suppose now two terminal edges, or nated by wrriting the signs for the simple forms one after the two diagonals, or one terminal edge and one diagonal, that other, as some instances in the preceding, § 60, have already are situated in a plane which, at the same time, passes shewn. As to the order in which the signs succeed each through the axis, to be prolonged, till they intersect each other in designating a combination, there are tw o distinct other above or below, in a finite or infinite distance from a methods, each of which may be applied. Either those horizontal plane, laid through the centre of the axis. The forms, whose planes are perpendicular to the axis, are set straight line measuring the distance between the mutual down first, those whose planes are parallel to it, last; the intersection of the two lengthened lines, and that in which rest following each other according to the greater or less one of the lines meets with the horizontal plane, is termed inclination which their faces have toward the axis, as dethe line of combination. The length and situation of the creasing from 90° to 0° ; or the forms, according to their line of combination are evidently dependent upon the di- kind, are collected into series between their limits, and then mensions of the combined forms; and inversely the situa- set down one after the other. The designation

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MINERALOGY. 125 JlStera^—1 • (P—2)5. R . | R. R 1 . (P)3. R -f_ qq . pyramidal copper-pyrites, the fundamental form is P, though "J* « b c d e f g Minera. the cleavage-form is P + 1. No cleavage-form, whose di■v ' represents fig. 26, according to the first method, mensions are infinite, can be employed as a fundamental logy. Fig. 26. A few technical expressions are employed by Mohs in determining the cleavage, of which the following mav be enumerated Cleavage, in the three first systems of crystallization, which are those of variable dimensions, is said to be axotomous, when it appears as a single plane or face perpendicular to the axis; it is said to be paratomous* if it is parallel to the faces of a finite form; and peritomous? if it takes place parallel to the axis, and equally distinct in moie than one direction. In the prismatic system, the expression prismatoidal means a single cleavage face parallel to the axis; and diprismatic denotes the cleavage to be parallel at the same time to the faces of a vertical, and to those of a horizontal obliquangular four-sided prism. The expression monotomous, referring to the three systems is more general than any of the foregoing; it comprises the axotomous and the prismatoidal, and is applied where a single cleavage-face is met with, whose position in regard to the axes, that is to say, whether it is parallel or perpendicuR—1 .R.R + 1 .| R.R + oo (P—2)s . (py lar to the axis, has not been determined. The perfection ace d g or distinctness of the cleavage, which is next to be consi* / the same, after the second method. dered, refers to the aspect of the faces of the cleavage, /0. Calculation of the Angles at the Edges of Combina- viz. whether these are more or less smooth or shining, whether they are streaked, &c. The most important obtion. After having developed the combination, the last of- ject be remarked in this respect, is the sameness of quafice of crystallography is to calculate the angles of com- lity existing in the faces belonging to one and the same, bination, or the incidences of the faces of different forms. and the diversity of faces belonging to different cleavageIn many instances this angle follows at once from those forms ; the latter is a particular illustrated and confirmed of the simple forms. If this will not do, crystallography by the derivations of the prismatic system. The nature of employs general formulae for the trigonometrical functions the faces of the cleavage is one of the means to remove the of the edge of combination, similar to those for the line uncertainty mentioned in § 60, on account of the right recof combination, containing equally the variable quanti- tangular prism. Lastly, it may be remarked, that we must ties m and n. The development of the combinations de- be careful not to confound certain faces of composition termines these quantities, and if substituted in the said for- (§ 86), which sometimes likewise keep constant directions mulae, they give the value of a trigonometrical function, with the cleavage-forms. commonly of the cosine of the angle, produced by two III. Hardness aces of different forms, meeting in the edge of combination, Is the resistance which solid minerals oppose, when we II. Cleavage. Foliated Fracture of Werner. attempt to separate their parts. Cleavage is the property which minerals possess of splitThis important character has been rendered more availir certa n able by y . ^ determinate directions. The faces or planes auic uy Professor x luicaam Mohs, iv±u who gives the following as a useus obtained, which are termed the faces of the cleavage, ful scale of hardness : are more or less smooth and shining. The forms contained 1. Talc, of a white or greenish colour, un er these forms are called of cleavage, or cleavage2. Rock-salt, a pure cleavable variety, or semitranspa/oms. rent wncrystallized gypsum, the transparent and crystallizva e )rrns , £’ "fi represent members of the series of ed varieties being generally too soft, crystallization of those mineral species to which the mine3. Calcareous spar, a cleavable variety, ra aving the cleavage belongs. The same may be infer4. Fluor-spar, in which the cleavage is distinct. . re o such individuals or species as possess more than one 5. Apatite, the asparagus stone, or phosphate of lime, c eavage-form. Hence cleavage extends the application of from Saltzburg. crystallography in the mineral kingdom, because a mineral, 6. Adulariafelspar, any cleavable variety. .. ^ crystallized, may be cleavable, and thus 7* Rock-crystal, a transparent variety, a ow t e series, at least the system of crystallization, to 8. Prismatic topaz, any simple variety. e ma e out by cleavage in most of the cases where no 9- Corundum from India, which affords smooth cleavage regular crystallizations occur. surfaces. The cleavage-forms are designated like those of crystal10. The Diamond. lization. Cleavage-forms, Mohs remarks, if among the If we wish, by means of this scale, to ascertain the e number of those which, in the preceding pages, served hardness of a mineral, we first try which of the members of as a basis to the derivation, are by preference chosen for the scale is scratched by it. In order to save the specirepresenting the fundamental form Mjiin in the uic species speiaea to lu which winuu mens oi oegm, in our ueierimnaof uie the scaie scale it is uesiraoie desirable to begin, determinaey ® on£ 5 as rhomboidal calc-spar, the rhomboid of tion of hardness, with the highest members of the scale, , *s r^eor ’ h°awpyramid, ever, suffers an occur exception in the scratched. and proceed We downwards, wehard reach which is case° off *a rhomboid which as cleavagenext takeuntil a fine file,the andone draw along oi ms, being too obtuse or too acute. For this reason, in its surface, with the least possible force, the specimen we ^ From,*!*,,, the axis, and I cut; cleavable in one direction. I rom beside, and Ti^u, 1 cut; with cleavage planes, which are parallel with the planes of the fundamental figure, or are inclined to the axis. from tnj/, round about, and rtpyu, I cut; with surrounding cleavage planes parallel to the axis

MINERALOGY. 120 6. Milk-white is snow-white mixed with a little Berlin - Miner;; Minera- are examining, and also one of the minerals in the scale logy. whose hardness is immediately above that of the mineral blue and ash-grey. The colour of skimmed milk. Exam- logy, which has been scratched, in order to compare them toge- pie, calcedony. 2. GREY. ther. From the resistance they offer to the file, from the noise occasioned by their passing along it, and from the 1. Bluish-grey is ash-grey mixed with a little blue. Exquantity of powder left on its surface, their relative hard- ample, limestone. ness is deduced. If the two specimens afford the same de2. Pearl-grey is pale bluish-grey mixed with a little red. gree of noise and resistance, and same quantity of powder, Example, porcelain jasper, and rarely quartz. their hardness is the same. When, after repeated trials, 3. Smoke-grey, or brownish-grey, is dark bluish-grey we are satisfied to which member of the scale of hardness mixed with a little brown. Colour of dense smoke. Examone mineral is most nearly allied, we say its hardness (sup- ple, dark varieties of flint. pose it to be felspar) is equal to 6, and write after it H = 4. Greenish-grey is ash-grey mixed with a little emerald6.0. If the mineral do not exactly correspond with any green, and has sometimes a faint trace of yellow. Examdegree of the scale, but is found to be between two of them, ple, clay-slate and whet-slate. we say H = 6.5. 5. Yellowish-grey is ash-grey mixed with lemon-yellow In our experiments we must be careful to employ speci- and a trace of brown. Example, calcedony. mens, each of which nearly agree in form and size, and 6. Ash-grey, the characteristic colour, is a mixture of also as much as possible in the shape of their angles. They black and white. It is the colour of wood-ashes. Examshould also be quite pure, as, if impure, their hardness can- ple, zoisite, zircon, and slate-clay. not be determined with accuracy. 3. BLACK. IV. Specific Gravity. 1. Greyish-black is velvet-black mixed with ash-grey. The specific gravity of minerals, a very important dis- Example, basalt, Lydian stone, and lucullite. 2. Velvet-black is the characteristic colour of this series. tinctive character, is determined by means of the hydrostatic balance, the hydrometer or areometer, and Adie’s ap- It is the colour of black velvet. Example, obsidian and paratus, a new instrument. {Vide Memoirs of the Werne- schorl. 3. Pitch-black, or brownish-black, is velvet-black mixed rian Society.) These instruments, and the mode of taking specific gravities, are given under other articles in this with a little yellowish-brown. Example, cobalt ochre, bituminous coal, and some varieties of mica. work. 4. Greenish-black, or raven-black, is velvet-black mixed II. CHARACTERS EMPLOYED IN THE DESCRIPTION with a little greenish-grey. Example, hornblende. 5. Bluish-black is velvet-black mixed with a little blue. OF THE SPECIES, SUB-SPECIES, KINDS, AND VAIs a rare colour; is well marked in the reniform cobalt RIETIES OF MINERALS. ochre from Saalfeld, Thuringia, &c. 1. Colour 2. Common and Particular External Forms 3. Dis4. BLUE. tinct Concretions 4. Surface.—5. Lustre—6. Fracture—7. Shape of Fragments.—8. Transparency.—9. Opalescence 10. 1. Blackish-blue is Berlin blue mixed with much black, Streak.—11. Soiling.—12. Tenacity.— 13. Frangibility 14. and a trace of red. Example, dark varieties of blue copper. Flexibility 15. Adhesion to the Tongue.—16. Unctuosity.— 2. Azure-blue is Berlin-blue mixed with a little red. 17. Smell—18. Taste. Examples, in bright varieties of blue copper and lapislazuli. I. Colour. 3. Violet-blue is Berlin-blue mixed with much red, and The colours in the mineral kingdom are not so numerous as is generally imagined; and even the varieties, al- very little black. Examples, amethyst and octahedral though often extremely beautiful, and apparently infinite fluor-spar. 4. Lavender-blue is pale violet-blue mixed with much in number, bera but a small proportion to the vast series that characterize the various productions of the vegetable grey. Examples, lithomarge and porcelain jasper. 5. Plum-blue is Berlin-blue with more red than in vioand animal kingdoms. Werner, who bestowed great attention on this interesting and beautiful character, enu- let-blue, and a small portion of brown and black. Exammerates eight 'principal colours, viz. white, grey, black, ples, spinel and octahedral fluor-spar. 6. Berlin-blue is the purest or characteristic colour of blue, green, yellow, red, and brown. Each of these principal colours exhibits a greater or less number of varieties; the series. Examples, sapphire, rock-salt, kyanite. 7. Smalt-blue is Berlin-blue, with much white, and a the purest variety is named the characteristic colour, thus snow-white, the purest colour of the white series, is the trace of green. Examples, pale-coloured smalt, named characteristic colour. Colours are further divided into no7i- eschel, and some varieties of gypsum. 8. Duck-blue is a dark blue colour, composed of blue, metallic, or those without metallic lustre, and into metallic, much green, and a little black. Examples, ceylanite, talc, or those with metallic lustre. and corundum. I. Definitions of the different Varieties of Colours. 9. Indigo-blue is a deep blue colour, composed of blue, Non-metallic Colours. with a considerable portion of black, and a little green. Example, earthy blue iron of Eckardsberg, in Thuringia. 1. WHITE. 10. Sky-blue, the mountain-blue of painters, is a pale 1. Snow-white is the purest colour, and agrees with that of newr-fallen snow. Examples of this colour occur in Car- blue colour, composed of blue, green, and a little white. It is the colour of a clear sky, hence its name. Examples, rara marble and common quartz. 2. Reddish-white is snow-white with a slight intermix- lenticular copper, some varieties of fluor-spar, and of bluespar. ture of red and grey. Example, heavy-spar. 5. GREEN. 3. Yellowish-white is snow-white with very little lemonyellow and ash-grey. Example, chalk. 1. Verdigris-green is emerald- green mixed with much 4. Greyish-white is snow-white mixed with a little ash- Berlin-blue and a little white. Examples, the variety of grey. Example, quartz. felspar named amazon stone, and prismatic liriconite. 5. Greenish-white is snow-white mixed with a very lit2. Celandine-green is verdigris-green mixed with ashtle emerald-green and ash-grey. Example, amianthus. grey. Examples, green earth, Siberian and Brazilian beryl.

MINERALOGY. 127 3. Mountain-green is emerald-green mixed with much The colour of tiles or bricks. Examples, fresh burned por- Minerablue, and a little yellowish-grey; or verdigris-green with celain jasper, and some varieties of foliated zeolite. togYyellowish-grey. Examples, beryl, aqua-marine topaz. 4. Scarlet-red is carmine-red mixed with a very little 4. Leek-green is emerald-green with bluish-grey and a lemon-yellow. Example, light red cinnabar from * Wolfstein. little brown. Examples, common actynolite and prase. 5. Emerald-green is the characteristic or pure unmixed 5. Blood-red is scarlet-red mixed with a small portion green. Examples, emerald, and some varieties of green of black. The colour of blood. Example, pyrope. malachite. 6. Flesh-red is blood-red mixed with greyish-white. 6. Apple-green is emerald-green mixed with a little Examples, felspar and heavy spar. greyish-white. Example, chrysoprase. 7. Carmine-red is the characteristic colour. The co7. Grass-green is emerald-green mixed with a little le- lour of carmine. Examples, spinel, particularly in thin mon-yellow. Examples, uranite, smaragdite, and some kinds splinters, also in rubellite. 8. Cochineal-red is carmine-red mixed with bluish-grey. of green malachite. 8. Blackish-green is pistachio-green mixed with a con- Examples, cinnabar and certain garnets. siderable portion of black. Examples, augite, and pre9. Crimson-red is carmine-red mixed with a considercious serpentine. able portion of blue. Examples, oriental ruby and cobalt 9. Pistachio-green, the sap-green of painters, is emerald- bloom. green mixed with more yellow than in grass-green, and a 10. Columbine-red is carmine-red with more blue than small portion of brown. Examples, chrysolite and epidote. the preceding variety, and, what is characteristic for this 10. Asparagus-green is pistachio-green mixed with a colour, a little black. Example, precious garnet. little greyish-white, or emerald-green mixed with yellow 11. Rose-red is cochineal-red mixed with white. Examand a little brown. Example, the variety of phosphate of ples, red manganese and rose-quartz. lime named asparagus stone, from Spain and Salzburg. 12. Peach-blossom-red is crimson-red mixed with white. 11. Olive-green is grass-green mixed with much brown The colour of the blossoms of the peach. Example, red and a little grey. Examples, garnet, olivenite, pitch-stone, cobalt-ochre. and olivine. 13. Cherry-red is crimson-red mixed with a considerable 12. Oil-green is emerald-green mixed with yellow, portion of brownish-black. Examples, spinel, red antibrown, and grey ; or pistachio-green with much yellow mony, and precious garnet. and light ash-grey. Is the colour of olive-oil. Examples, 14. 'Broivnish-red is blood-red mixed with brown. The yellow-blende, beryl, and pitchstone. colour of reddle, a ferruginous clay used in drawing, and of 13. Siskin-green is emerald-green mixed with much le- columnar clay ironstone. mon-yellow and a little white. Examples, uran mica and 8. BROWN. some varieties of phosphate of lead. 1. Reddish-brown is chestnut-brown mixed with a little 6. YELLOW. red and yellow; or chestnut-brown with a small portion of 1. Sulphur-yellow is lemon-yellow mixed with much aurora-red. Examples, brown-blende from the Hartz, and pyramidal zircon. emerald-green and white. Example, native sulphur. 2. Clove-brown is chestnut-brown mixed with cochineal2. Straw-yellow is sulphur-yellow mixed with much greyish-white. Examples, some varieties of schorlite and red and a little black. It is the colour of the clove. Examples, rock-crystal and axinite. carpholite. 3. Hair-brown is clove-brown mixed with ash-grey. 3. Wax-yellow is lemon-yellow mixed with reddishbrown and a little ash-grey; or it may be considered as Examples, wood-opal and brown iron-ore. 4. Broccoli-brown is chestnut-brown mixed with much honey-yellow with greyish-white. Examples, opal and yelblue and a small portion of green and red. Example, low lead-spar. 4. Honey-yellow is sulphur-yellow mixed with chestnut- zircon. 5. Chestnut-brown is the characteristic or pure brown brown. Colour of dark varieties of honey. Examples, colour. Example, Egyptian jasper. fluor-spar and beryl. 6. Yellowish-brown is chestnut-brown mixed with a con5. Lemon-yellow is the pure unmixed or characteristic siderable portion of lemon-yellow. Examples, iron-flint and colour. It is the colour of the rind of ripe lemons. Exjasper. ample, yellow orpiment. 7. Pinchbeck-brown is yellowish-brown with metallic or 6. Ochre-yellow is lemon-yellow mixed with a considerable quantity of light chestnut-brown. Examples, yellow semi-metallic lustre. Rather the colour of tarnished pinchbeck. Example, mica. earth and jasper. 8. Wood-brown is yellowish-brown mixed with much 7. Wine-yellow is lemon-yellow mixed with a small por- pale ash-grey. Examples, mountain wood and bituminous tion of red and greyish-white. Examples, !2>xon and Brawood. zilian topaz, and octahedral fluor-spar. 9. Liver-brown is chestnut-brown mixed with olive-green 8. Cream-yellow, or Isabella-yellow, contains more red and grey than the wine-yellow, and also a little brown. and ash-grey. The colour of boiled liver. Example, common jasper. Examples, bole from Strigau and compact limestone. 10. Blackish-brown is chestnut-brown mixed with black. 9. Orange-yellow is lemon-yellow with carmine-red. Examples, mineral pitch from Neufchatel, and moor coal. It is the colour of the rind of the ripe orange. Examples, Metallic Colours. uran-ochre, and some varieties of molybdate of lead1. WHITE. 7. RED. 1. Silver-white is yellowish-white, with metallic lustre. 1. Aurora, or morning-red, is carmine-red mixed with Examples, arsenical pyrites and native silver. 2. Tin-white is milk-white, with metallic lustre. Exammuch lemon-yellow. Example, red orpiment. 2. Hyacinth-red is carmine-red mixed with lemon-yel- ple, native antimony. low, and a minute portion of brown ; or aurora-red mixed 2. GREY. with a minute portion of brown. Examples, hyacinth and 1. Lead-grey is bluish-grey, with metallic lustre. Exdodecahedral garnet. 3. Tile-red is hyacinth-red mixed with greyish-white. ample, galena or lead-glance.

V MINER A L O G Y. 128 , Minera2. Steel-grey is dark ash-gtey with metallic lustre. Ex- semblage of yellow, green, blue, red, and brown colours, logy. ample, native platina. on a yellow ground. The colours are nearly equal in pro- * i0gV“ portion, and are never precisely distinct, but always pass'"— 3. BLACK. more or less into one another. Example, copper-pyrites. 1. Iron-black is greyish-black with metallic lustre. Exb. Iridescent, or rainbow tarnish. In this variety the ample, black or magnetic iron-ore. colours are red, blue, green, and yellow, on a grey ground. It is more beautiful and brighter than the preceding. Ex4. YELLOW. ample, specular iron-ore or iron-glance of Elba. 1. Brass-yellow is sulphur-yellow with metallic lustre. c. Columbine, or pigeon-necked tarnish. The colours Example, copper-pyrites. are the same as in the preceding, with this difference, that 2. Bronze-yellow is brass-yellow mixed with steel-grey, the tints of colour are paler, and the red predominates. and a minute portion of reddish-brown. Example, iron Example, native bismuth of Schneeberg. pyrites. d. Tempered-steel tarnish. The colours are vfcry pale 3. Gold-yellow is lemon-yellow with Metallic lustre. blue, green, and very little yellow. Example, grey cobalt. Example, gold-yellow native gold. VII. Colour Suite. 5. RED. Where more than one colour occurs in a species, we find 1. Copper-red is flesh-red with metallic colour. Ex- that the tints form characteristic groups or suites, peculiar amples, native copper and copper nickel. to the species. II. The Play of the Colours. If we look on a mineral which possesses this property, we observe, on turning it slowly, besides its common colours, many others, which are distributed in small shining points. It is beautifully seen in the diamond when cut, and also in precious opal, both in the rough state and when polished.

t

VIII. Dicrbism. Some minerals when examined by transmitted light in determinate directions, exhibit different colours. This property is called dichrbism. lolite, tourmaline, and mica exhibit this phenomenon. lolite is blue in the direction of the axis, yellow or grey perpendicular to it; some varieties of* tourmaline are nearly opaque in the direction of the axis, while they display several degrees of transparency, III. The Changeability of the Colours. and different green, brown, and blue colours in the direcWhen the surface of a mineral, which we turn in differ- tion perpendicular to it; several varieties of mica are green ent directions, exhibits, besides its common colours, differ- in the direction of the axis, but brown perpendicular to it. ent bright colours, that do not change so rapidly, are fewer in number, and occur in larger patches than in the play of II. Common and Particular External Forms. the colour, it is said to exhibit what is called the change1. Common External Shape. ability of the colours. The changeability of colour is seen only in particular directions connected with the structure Common external shapes are those in which there are of the mineral, while the play of colour is visible in all di- neither a determinate number of planes meeting under derections. Example, Labrador felspar. terminate angles, nor any resemblance to known natural or artificial bodies. As they occur more frequently than the IV. Opalescence. other shapes, they are named common external shapes. Consists in a kind of reflected milky-light, which some Six diftierent kinds are enumerated by Werner, which are minerals exhibit when cut en cabachon, or upon plain faces distinguished according to their relative length, breadth, and both natural and artificial. This appearance in catseye thickness, their relative magnitude, and their connections stone is alleged to be owing to the fibrous structure of the with other minerals. The kinds are massive, disseminatmineral; while in adularia and sapphire, in which it is beau- ed, in angular pieces, in grains, in plates, and in memtifully seen, it is traced to the foliated structure. branes. \. Massive is that common external shape which is from V. The Iridescence. the size of a hazel-nut to the greatest magnitude, and whose When a mineral exhibits the colours of the prism or the dimensions, in length, breadth, and thickness, are nearly rainbow, arranged in parallel, and sometimes in variously alike. It occurs imbedded in other minerals. A very comcurved layers, it is said to be iridescent. This appear- mon form. ance is supposed in some cases to depend on fissures in the 2. Disseminated is from the size of a hazel-nut until it interior of the mineral, as in iridescent rock-crystal, or on is scarcely visible, and its dimensions, in length, breadth, the lamellary structure, as in iridescent or rainbow calce- and thickness, are nearly alike. It occurs imbedded. dony. 3. In angular pieces. These are distinguished from massive, by their occurring loose and unattached. Of this VI. Tarnished Colours. A mineral is said to be tarnished when it shews on its external shape there are two kinds: a. Sharp-cornered, as in quartz. external surface, or on that of the distinct concretions, fixb. Blunt-cornered, as in common opal. ed colours different from those on its interior or fresh frac4. In grains. The form in grains bears the same relature. tion to angular pieces, as disseminated does to massive. Tarnished colours are simple or variegated. I hey are distinguished into coarse, small, and fine grains, I. Simple. and into roundish, angular, and flat grains. Examples, gara. Grey,—white cobalt. net, platina, and gold. b. Black—native arsenic. o. In plates. I his form is distinguished from massive, c. Brown,—magnetic pyrites. by its dimensions in breadth and length very much exceedd. Reddish,—native bismuth. ing that in thickness; and are generally formed in veins. II. Variegated. The variegated, or party-coloured, are distinguished ac- Example, red silver. 6. In membranes ox flakes. This shape is distinguished cording to the colour of their basis. Of these the followrom the former by its thinness, as it never greatly exceeds ing are enumerated by Werner. a. Pavonine, or peacock-tail tarnish. This is an as- the thickness of common paper, and the fracture cannot be seen. Examples, iron-pyrites and silver-glance..

lineral°gy.

MINERALOGY 129 II. Particular External Shape. c. Reniform consists of small segments of large balls, Mineralo gyParticular external shapes differ from the common ex- which are so closely set together that the interstices are — ternal shapes, in bearing a resemblance to natural or arti- very inconsiderable. Example, calcedony. d. Tuberose. This shape consists of irregular roundish ficial bodies, and in being far more characteristic and varied in their aspect. There are four different sets, entitled, or longish elevations and depressions. Example, flint. e. Fused-lihe or liquiform. This consists of numerous longish, roundish, flat, and cavernous. \er^ flat rounded elevations, which are generally depressed 1. Longish Particular External Shapes. in the middle. Example, lead-glance. a. Dentiform. Adheres by its thick extremity, becomes 3. Flat Par ticular External Shapes. gradually thinner, incurvated, and at length terminates in a. Specular on one side, seldom on two opposite a free point, so that it resembles a canine tooth, whence sides, a stiaight has smooth shining surface. It occurs in veins. its name. Example, native silver. galena or lead-glance. h. Filiform. Adheres by its thicker extremity, and Example, b. In leaves. In this external shape there are thin terminates by an almost imperceptible diminution of thick- leaves, which are either irregularly curved, or are straight, ness, and is usually curved in different directions. It is and have throughout the same thickness. It occurs frethinner and longer than the dentiform. Example, native quently in native gold. silver. c. Capillary. When the filiform becomes longer and 4. Cavernous Particular External Shapes. thinner, it forms the capillary. It is generally much ena. Cellular. A mineral is said to be cellular when it is tangled, and sometimes the threads are so near each other composed of straight or bent tables, which cross each other that it passes into the compact. Example, native silver. in a manner as to form empty spaces or cells. Examd. Reticulated is composed of many straight threads, ple,such quartz. that cross each other under 90°, or under 120° and 60°, b. Impressed. That is, when one mineral shews the imand thus form a reticulated shape. Example, silver-glance. of any particular or regular external shape of ane. Dendritic. In this external shape we can observe a pression other mineral. It borders on the cellular shape, and is trunk, branches, and twigs, which are distinguished from formed when a newer mineral is deposited over an older, each other by their thickness, the trunk being the thickest. the form of which it assumes and retains, even after the Examples, native copper and native silver. impressing mineral has been destroyed or removed. f. Coralloidal. When two or three branches, having c. Perforated consist of long vermicular which rounded or pointed extremities, proceed from one stem, occupy but an inconsiderable portion of the cavities, and terthe coralloidal external shape is formed. There are usual- minate on the surface in small holes. Whenmass, holes bely many stems together. Example, coralloidal aragonite. come very numerous, it passes into spongiform.the Example, g. Stalactitic. A mineral is said to possess a stalactitic external shape, when it consists of different straight, more bogd. iron-ore. Corroded. A mineral is said to be corroded when it or less lengthened rods, which are thickest at their at- is traversed with numerous hardly perceptible roundish tachment, and become narrower at their free extremity, holes. Example, quartz. which is rounded or pointed. Examples, calc-sinter and e. Amorphous is composed of numerous roundish and calcedony. h. Cylindrical consists of long, rounded, straight, imper- angular parts that form inequalities, between which there forated, usually parallel roads, which are attached at both are equally irregular hollows. Example, silver-glance or silver. extremities, and are generally thicker at the extremities sulphuretted f Vesicular. a mineral has distributed through than the middle. The interstices are either empty or fill- its interior many When single, usually round, elliptical, and spheed up with another mineral. Examples, galena or lead- roidal, also amygdaloidal, or irregularly-shaped cavities, it is glance. said to be vesicular. Example, wacke and lava. i. Tubiform consists of long, usually single, perforated tubes, which are somewhat longitudinally knotty. ExIII. Distinct Concretions. ample, calc-sinter. k. Claviform is the reverse of stalactitic; it is composed Distinct concretions are those parts into which minerals o c ub-shaped parallel rods, which adhere by their thin ex- are naturally divided, and which can be separated from one another, without breaking through the r solid or fresh part trermties. Example, compact black hematite. • Lruticose. This external shape has the appearance of the mineral. In describing them, w e have to attend to the following appearances, i. Their shape ; 2. Their suroreCaU 1"°Wer' ^xamP^es’ calc-sinter and hard manganese face ; and, 3. Their lustre. 2. Roundish Particular External Shapes. a. Globular. Under this head are comprehended: hematite, hard manganese-ore, and calcedony.

1. Shape of the Distinct Concretions. They are granular, lamellar, prismatic, radiated, and fibrous. 1. Granular distinct concretions are those in which the length, breadth, and thickness are nearly alike. Primitive limestone or marble is composed of granular distinct concretions. 2. Lamellar distinct concretions are those in which the length and breadth are nearly equal, and much more considerable than the thickness. Lamellar heavy-spar affords a good example of this kind of concretion. 3. Prismatic distinct concretions are those in wdiich the length is very considerable, in comparison of the thickness, thus forming irregular prisms. Examples, amethyst and prismatic heavy spar. 4. Radiated distinct concretions are those in w hich the form is thin prismatic, differing froift the preceding in be-

MINERALOGY. 130 2. Shining. When a mineral at a distance reflects but Minera. Minera- ing narrower, and in having the form of rays. The radiatlo y g- - ed fracture of Werner belongs to this division. Example, a weak light, it is said to be shining ; or when the lustre, logy. although considerable, does not form a distinct image. radiated iron-pyrites. 5. Fibrous distinct concretions are those in form of fibres. Example, heavy-spar. 3. Glistening. This degree of lustre is only observable The fibrous fracture of Werner is included under this head. when the mineral is near us, and at no greater distance Example, actynolite. than arms-length ; or when the surface no longer forms an 2. Surface of the Distinct Concretions. image, but reflects a more feeble light than the preceding. porcelain jasper. The surface varies considerably ; in some, it is smooth, Example, 4. Glimmering. If the surface of a mineral, when held as in hematite ; in others it is streaked, as in schorl, or it near to the eye in full and clear day-light, presents a numis uneven, as in hornblende. ber of small, faintly-shining points, it is said to be glimmering. Example, red hematite. 3. Lustre of the Distinct Concretions. When a mineral is destitute of lustre, it is Here the varieties of lustre are the same as already enu- said5. toDull. be dull. Example, chalk. merated, and therefore require no particular illustration. 2. The Sort of Lustre. IV. Surface. The following are the different kinds of lustre :— 1. Metallic lustre, which is always combined with opacity. The following are the varieties of this character :— 1. Uneven. This, of all the kinds of external surface, It is divided into perfect and imperfect. The perfect occurs presents the greatest and most irregular elevations and de- in native metals, and in all the species of the orders pypressions, yet they are not so considerable as to alter the rites and glance ; and the imperfect in tantalum ore, uraniexternal shape. Example, surface of balls of calcedony. um-ore, and glance-coal. 2. Granulated. When the surface appears like sha2. Adamantine. So named from its occurring beautifully green, it is said to be granulated. marked in the diamond. There are two varieties of this 3. Rough. This kind of surface is marked with small, lustre, viz. the perfect and metallic: the diamond, in its scarcely-visible elevations, which we can hardly discover rough and polished states, bright red varieties of ruby silver but by the feel. It has little or no lustre. Example, roll- ore, and some varieties of blende, and carbonate of lead, ed pieces of common quartz. afford examples of the perfect, as the dark varieties of red 4. Smooth. Here there is no perceptible inequality, silver-ore, and of zink blende, of the second. and the surface reflects more light than the preceding kinds 3. Pearly, so named from its resemblance to the lustre of external surface. Example, fluor-spar. observed in pearls, is divided into common and metallic5. Streaked. This kind of surface is marked with line- like. Mica and zeolite are examples of the first, and bronlike elevations. It is either simply streaked or doubly zite of the second. streaked. 4. Resinous is that which a body would present if smeara. Simply streaked when the line-like elevations run but ed with oil. Example, pitchstone and vesuvian. in one direction. 5. Vitreous or glassy. The lustre of glass. Example,

13 j ing to this genus must be either tessular, or rhombohedral, Minen.CLASS III. or prismatic ; because only one of these three can take place logy. Order L—RESIN. a.-, the same time. In the specific character this never happens, because all the forms must belong to one system. Genus L Mellilite, or Honey-Stone. 1. Pyramidal Mellilite, or Honey-Stone. Determination of a Mineral in general. Genus II. Mineral Resin. If a mineral is to be determined, first its form must be 1. Yellow Mineral Resin, or Amber. made out, at least so far as to know the system to which it 2. Black Mineral Resin. belongs. Then hardness and specific gravity must be asOrder II COAL. certained, and expressed in numbers. It is sufficient, howGenus I. Mineral Coal. ever, to know the latter to one or two decimals. The 1. Bituminous Mineral-Coal. specific character requires these data; and they are also of 2. Glance-Coal. use in the characters of the genera, orders, and classes. This being done, the system maybe consulted, and this will at Mode of determining a Mineral, or of referring it to its the same time point out what other characters are wanting ; place in the System. so that a mere inspection of the mineral, or a very easy The characters principally employed in the formation of experiment, for instance, to try the streak upon a file, or, what is called the Specific Character are the regular cry- still better, upon a plate of biscuit porcelain, will be suffistallizations (including cleavage); the degrees of hard- cient. Haying advanced in this manner to the character ness ; and the specific gravity. The first character given in of the species, it will, in some instances, be necessary, and the Specific Character is the system of crystallization to in all cases advisable, for the sake of certainty, to have rewhich the form and cleavage of the species belongs. Then course to the dimensions of the forms. This is particularly follows, together with its dimensions (if known), the funda- necessary, if the genus to which the mineral belongs conmental form, from which all the other simple and compound tains several species having forms of the same system, as is forms are derived. In rhombohedrons, that edge which the case in the genus Augite. This termination of the diends in the apex of the axis, that is to say, the terminal mensions of the forms may be effected by the common edge is given ; for instance, in calcareous spar, R = 105°5/; goniometer, the differences in the angles being in general in isosceles four-sided pyramids, both edges, first the ter- so great, that they cannot easily be mistaken, even by the minal one, and then that on the base, are mentioned; for application of that instrument. instance, in pyramidal zircon, Pz= 123° 19', 84°20/; and in It will seldom be necessary to read over the whole of scalene four-sided pyramids, first, both of the terminal any character of a class, order, genus, or species, excepting edges, and then that0at the basis,/ are given : thus, in pris- that which includes the individual; one character that does matic topaz, Pz=141 7', 101°52 , 90°55'. In this system, not agree sufficing for exclusion. Thus even the characbesides the dimension of the finite forms, those of the in- ters of the orders, though the longest, will not be found finite ones, or of the limits, are mentioned, as in the last troublesome. example, P-f-oo =124°19/, and so on; which is very conThe application of the method will become very easy and venient, as the cases in which these can be examined occur expeditious, by taking particular notice of some characters, more frequently than those in which the edges of pyramids which may be termed prominent. Such are a metallic can be measured. aspect; a high degree of specific gravity (particularly if the After this follows the indication of the general aspect of mineral is not metallic), and a high decree of hardness. the combinations, explained in the foregoing § § 63—67, The observation of these will immediately decide whether under the denominations of dirhomboidal, hemi-prismatic, an individual can belong to any particular class, order, &c. Of the former are mentioned the angles at the edges genus, or species. It is understood, that if it be not thereof combination, of the latter that terminal edge, which is by excluded, the other characters must next be examined, formed by the intersection of the remaining faces of the till either an excluding one be found, or, if not, the indiviscalene four-sided pyramid. dual may be considered as belonging to that class, order, With respect to cleavage, the expression “ cleavage, &c. with which it has been compared and found to agree. Example—The following example may serve as an illusR>” for instance in rhombohedral calcareous spar, means, that this mineral has its cleavage parallel to the faces of a tration :—Let the form of an unknown mineral be a comrhombohedron, similar to the fundamental form of the bination of a scalene eight-sided pyramid, of an isosceles species; “ cleavage P—oo . P +go .[P +oo ]” in pyramidal four-sided pyramid, and of a rectangular four-sided prism; garnet means that this mineral has its cleavage parallel to the cleavage parallel to the faces of two rectangular fourthe faces of two rectangular prisms, and at the same time sided prisms, in a diagonal position to each other ; form and cleavage, therefore, pyramidal, or belonging to the pyraperpendicular to their axis; “ cleavage Pr-f-oo ” in prisma- midal system. Let the hardness be —6.5; specific gravity tic chrysolite, indicates that the cleavage of this mineral 6.9. _ passes at the same time through the axis and the short di- = In this case, both hardness and specific gravity are pro3 agonal of the prism P+oo ; and “cleavage (Pr-f-oo) = minent characters, and exclude at once the individual from the first and third, but not from the second class; with the 87°42'. Pr-f-oo . Pr+oo ,” expresses, for instance, in para- characters of which its other properties also perfectly agree. tomous augite, that the individuals of this species can be Hence the individual belongs to the second class. cleaved, first parallel to the faces of an obliquangular fourComparing the properties of the individual mineral with sided prism, of the given dimensions ; and, secondly, pa- the characters of the orders in the second class, hardness rallel to planes, which pass through the axis and both dia- and specific gravity will be found too great for the order gonals of the prism P + oo ; or, what comes to the same, Haloide; hardness too great for the orders Baryte and parallel to the faces of a rectangular prism. Kerate ; both of them too great for the orders Malachite and Mica; and specific gravity too great for the orders Spar Characters mutually excluding each other. and Gem. But in the character of the order Ore, both If two or more characters, the one of which excludes the hardness and specific gravity fall between the fixed limits, other, be co-existent in the character of an order, or of a and cannot exclude the individual from this order. The genus, as in the genus Corundum, “ Tessular, rhombohe- other parts of this character are now to be taken in considral, prismatic,” the meaning is, that an individual belong- deration. If the lustre of the individual be metallic, its

136 MINERALOGY. Minera- colour must be black, otherwise it cannot belong to the ing cleavage, hardness, and specific gravity. In botany it Minera. logy, order Ore. But the lustre is not metallic ; therefore the is the same. The characters must be observable, other- logy, colour of the individual is of no consequence ; that is, this wise the determination will be impossible. In mineralogy, condition part of the character does not affect the indivi- the method affords sometimes more; it leads to a correct dual, and consequently cannot determine its place. Since determination, even if the knowledge of the form remains the lustre is not metallic, the individual must exhibit ada- imperfect. But it will be an useful rule for beginners to mantine, or imperfect metallic lustre : the first will be found occupy themselves at first with the determination of such inparticularly in the fracture. The next part of the character dividuals as present properties which can be easily and fully refers to minerals of a red, yellow, brown, or black streak; investigated. The rest will come of itself, when their knowand as the individual gives none of these, its streak being ledge of the mineral kingdom, and particularly of the prowhite, this part of the character does not come into con- perties of minerals, increases, and when they have by exsideration. Hardness keeps between the limits, as stated perience acquired the skill to judge properly of form and in the character of the order Ore. Should it be = 4.5 and cleavage, at least, so far as is necessary for the determinaless, the streak must be yellow, red, or black ; but hard- tion of the system of crystallization, even in those cases ness is = 6.5, therefore the colour of the streak is indiffer- where form and cleavage are somewhat difficult to be obent. If the hardness be =r 6.5 and more, and streak white, served. This exercise is recommended to every naturalist then the specific gravity must be = 6.5 and more. Now, who wishes to acquire a satisfactory knowledge of minerals, this condition exists: hardness is = 6.5, and the streak is by means of the method we have here explained. white ; the specific gravity being = 6.9, which is greater than 6.5. Lastly, the specific gravity keeps within the Immediate and Mediate Determination. limits. The method of determination, already illustrated by an As far as respects the individual wdiich is to be determined, all the characters in the characteristic of the order example, is termed the immediate determination, because Ore may be divided into two parts. The first part contains it is applied directly to the individual mineral which is to those which refer to the individual; the second those which be determined, without the aid of one or several other mido not; the last afford no decisive distinctions. But with nerals. If, on the contrary, we must employ one or several the first all the properties of the mineral agree. These other minerals for this purpose, we determinate it mediately. properties agree consequently writh the whole character of That variety of hemiprismatic augite, which is known by the order, as far as it is applicable to the individual, and the name amianthus, occurs in crystals so very seldom, as determine it to belong to the order Ore ; or, in shorter to withdraw their form, supposing it to be regular, from the sight, aided even by the most powerful magnifying instruterms, to be an ore. Beginners may also compare the characters of the re- ments; cleavage is evidently still less observable. These crysmaining orders. Sometimes they find one individual be- tals are flexible like fibres of flax, their hardness, therefore, longing to two orders, in which case there must be evi- cannot be estimated. Their surface has so great an extent dently a mistake in the comparison, w'hich would perhaps in respect to their bulk, that they will swim in water, though not have been discovered, had they stopt at the first order, endowed with a pretty considerable specific gravity, which, which does not exclude it. In the present case, the want therefore, cannot be ascertained. Some varieties, however, of metallic lustre excludes the individual from the orders may be observed, whose crystals are a little thicker, though Metal, Pyrites, and Glance; hardness from the order Blende ; in other respects, these varieties perfectly agree with amianand both hardness and specific gravity from the order Sul • thus. These varieties lose their flexibility, yet they are too phur. The individual can, therefore, be nothing else than frangible to be able to sustain the trial of hardness. Others an ore. The characters of the genera of the order Ore are still thicker, but the dimensions of their forms cannot may next be examined. be ascertained on account of their minuteness. They sink If we consider again hardness and specific gravity as pro- in water, and scratch prismatoidal gypsum, but they break, minent, the individual wall be immediately excluded from if tried upon calcareous spar. By thus proceeding, we come the genera Titanium-ore, Zinc-ore, and Copper-ore, but not to such varieties, as possessing a discernible form, allow the from the genus Tin-ore. The form of the pyramidal system, cleavage to be investigated ; we find their specific gravity and the white streak, shew that it belongs to this genus. about three times that of the water, and their hardness beFrom the genus Wolfram-ore, it is excluded by its too great tween five and six. These will be immediately determinhardness, and too low specific gravity. From the genera able, and be found to belong to the species of hemiprismaTantalum, Uranium, Cerium, Chrome, Iron, and Manganese- tic augite. Chalk, rock-milk, clay-slate, and a great many ore, by hardness and specific gravity, both of them being other minerals not allowing of an immediate determination, too high; as also by its white streak, which only agrees are determined in the same way, and thus nothing escapes with that genus from which the individual differs most by in the natural history method, which in any one of the other its hardness and specific gravity. The form also does not methods can be an object of determination Vide Edinagree with any in these genera, consequently the individual burgh Philosophical Journal, where this system was first can belong to no other than to the genus tin-ore. explained to English mineralogists, for fuller details in re*1 his genus contains but one species. I he conclusion gard to the determination of species, and also for a series that the individual must belong to this species might, never- of observations on the principles of the Natural History theless, be erroneous. There could exist a second species method. Mr Haidinger’s English translation of Mohs’ Treaof this genus. The dimensions of the form must now be tise is also particularly recommended to the attention of accurately considered. If these coincide with the angles natural historians. • given in the character, the highest degree of certainty that In the following account of simple minerals, we do not the individual belongs to or is pyramidal tin-ore, will be intend to describe all the species enumerated by authors, obtained. but to confine ourselves chiefly to those which are the most Perfect determination supposes all the Characters to be interesting. known. CLASS 1. The perfect determination of an individual depends, as the above example has shewn, upon the possibility of makSpecific gravity under 3.8. If solid, is sapid. No bituing out correctly those three properties, viz. form, includminous-smell.

2ra* y-

mineralogy. 137 Genus I.—Carbonic Acid. Mineralogy. Taste slightly acid. Sp. gr. =0.0018. Sp. gr. = 0.0001,—0.00014. Elastic. Not acid. 1. Aeriform Carbonic Acid. Genus I—Hydrogen Gas. Specific Character—Elastic. Taste acidulous and punEvident smell. Sp. gr. = 0.0001,—0.00014. gent. 1. Pure Hydrogen Gas. Constituent Parts.- Carbon 27.4, oxygen 72.6, =100. Specific Character Hydrogenous smell. Sp. gr. Berzelius. Geognostic and Geographic Situations Occurs in = 0.00012. Geognostic and Geographic Situations.—It rises from marshy places and in acidulous waters, in Great Britain limestone, and also from the coal'formation, not only in and other countries. Europe, but in other quarters of the globe. Genus II—Muriatic Acid. 2. Empyreumatic or Carhuretted Hydrogen Gas. Smell of saffron, and strong acid taste. Sp. gr. = 0.0023. Specific Character.—Empyreumatic smell. Sp. gr. 1. Aeriform Muriatic Acid. = 0.0008. Geognostic and Geographic Situations .Rises from Ex ansible P ’ Smell pungent and marshes and from beds of coal (forming the fire-damp of suffocTtmg Constituent Parts—Muriatic acid 73.31, water 24.69 miners) in different parts of Great Britain. It is also one Berzelius. * of the aeriform substances given out by volcanoes. Geographic Situations—Rises from volcanoes. 3. Sulphuretted Hydrogen Gas. Genus III—Sulphuric Acid. Specific Character—Smell of putrid eggs. Taste nauIf seous and bitter. Sp. gr. =0.00135. . gaseous, the smell is sulphureous. If liquid, the taste Geognostic and Geographic Situations Rises from is strongly acid. Sp. gr. = 0.0025, — 1.5.' marshes, sulphureous springs, and volcanoes. It is met with 1. Aeriform Sulphuric Acid. in many places in Great Britain. Specific Character—Expansible. Sp. gr. =0.0028. 4. Phosphuretted Hydrogen Gas. Constituent Parts—Sulphur 50.144, oxygen 49.856, Specific Character.—Smell of putrid fish. Sp. gr. un- = 100. Berzelius. known. Geognostic Situation—Often rises in considerable quanGeognostic and Geographic Situations.—It rises from tities from volcanoes. marshy places, where organic substances are in a state of 2. Liquid Sulphuric Acid. decomposition. Specific Character—Liquid. Sp. gr. =1.8, 1.9. Geognostic Situation.—Occurs in volcanic districts in Genus II—Atmospheric Air. Italy, America, and Java. Without smell or taste. Sp. gr. =0.001, — 0.0015. Genus IY—Boracic Acid. I. Pure Atmospheric Air. Solid. Sp. gr. 1.4 to 1.5. Specific Character—Without smell or taste. Constituent Parts.—Azotic gas 79, oxygen gas 21, 1. Prismatic Boracic Acid. Specific Character—Prismatic. Pyramid unknown. forms the atmosphere which surrounds the earth. Occurs in scaly crusts. Taste first sourish, or sub-acid, then bitter and cooling, and lastly sweetish. Constituent Parts—Boron 25.83, oxygen 74.17. BerOrder II.—WATER. zelius. Liquid. Tasteless, or with sensible taste and smell. Geognostic and Geographic Situations Found on the Sp. gr. = 1.0,-1.0269. edges of hot springs in Italy, &c. Genus I—Atmospheric Water. Genus V.—Arsenic Acid. Without smell or taste. Solid. Sp. gr. above 3.0. 1. Pure Atmospheric Water. 1. Octahedral Arsenic Acid. Specific Character—Without smell or taste. Arsenic oxyde.—Hauy. Constituent Parts.—Oxygen 88.94, hydrogen 11.06, Specific Character—Tessular. Cleavage octahedral. = 100. Berzelius. 1 he purest natural wrater contains small Taste sweetish-astringent. Hardness = 1.5. Sp. °t. = 3 6 portions of foreign matter. —3.7. This is common rain, river, and spring water. Mineral Description.—Colour white, often inclining to yellow. waters might be introduced into this part of the system. Occurs in delicate capillary crystals; also massive, in crusts, stalactitic, reniform and botryoidal. Lustre vitreous, inGenus II—Sea Water. clining to adamantine. Translucent or opaque. Sensible smell and taste. Constituent Parts.—Arsenic 75.82, oxygen 24.18, = 100. 1. Common Sea Water. Berzelius. Specific Character.—Bitter nauseous taste, and disagreeGeognostic and Geographic Situations Occurs in veins S able smell. at Andreasberg in the Hartz. Constituent Parts.—In 10,000 parts of water of the frith of forth, common salt 220.01, sulphate of soda 33.16, Order IV.—SALT. muriate of magnesia 42.09, muriate of lime 7.84,= 303.09. Sp.gr. =1.2, — 2.9. Solid. Not acid. Genus I.—Natron. Order III ACID. Prismatic. Taste pungent and alkaline. Hardness, Sp. gr. =0.0015,—3.7. Acid. = 1.0, —1.5. Sp. gr. =1.4, —1.6. VOL. XV. s Order I—GAS.

138 Minerar logy.

MINERALOGY. granular, fibrous, radiated, and prismatic concretions; mas1. Hemiprismatic Natron. Hemiprismatisches Natron-Salz, Mohs.—Natiirliches Mi- sive, dentiform, and stalactitic. Lustre between vitreous and resinous. More or less transparent and translucent. neral-Alkali, Werner Soude carbonatee, Hauy. Constituent Parts—Muriate of soda 98.32, sulphate of Specific Character. — Hemiprismatic. Cleavage prislime 0.65, muriate of magnesia 0.02, muriate of lime 0.01, matic. description—Its chief colours are grey, white, and yel- undissolved matter 1.0, =99. Henry. Geognostic and Geographic Situations It occurs in low. Occurs in acicular crystals, in radiated and granular beds, imbedded masses, and veins, associated with salinifedistinct concretions ; also in loose earthy particles, and in rous clay, gypsum, limestone, sandstone, and anhydrite, in crusts. Is more or less translucent. Constituent Parts.—Dry carbonate of soda 32.6, sulphate the salt formation; also in layers and crusts on soils of of soda, 20.8, muriate of soda, 15.8, water of crystallization particular kinds, and deposited on the shores of salt lakes, and in the vicinity of salt springs. Occurs abundantly in 31.6, =100.0. Geognostic and Geographic Situations.—Occurs in Cheshire, and also in other parts of England. crusts on rocks and soils of different kinds ; and also in the Genus V.—Sal Ammoniac. waters of natron lakes and springs. It is particularly abundant in the natron lakes in Egypt. Tessular. Taste pungent and urinous. Hardness = 1.5, —2.0. Sp. gr. 1.5, —1.6. Genus II.—Glauber Salt. 1. Octahedral Sal Ammoniac. Prismatic. Taste, first cooling, then saline and bitter. Hardness = 1.5, — 2.0. Sp.gr. 1.4, —1.5. Octaedrisches Salmiac, Mohs. Naturlicher Salmiac, Werner. Ammoniaque Muriatee, Hauy. 1. Prismatic Glauber Salt. Specific Character.—Tessular. Cleavage, octahedral. description—Colours white, grey, yellow, and somePrismatisches Glauber Salz. Mohs—Natiirliches Glauber Salz, Werner.—Soude sulphatee, Hauy. times green and bluish. Occurs in granular and fibrous Specific Character.—Prismatic. Pyramid unknown. concretions; also in efflorescences, in crusts, stalactitic, bo • tryoidal, tuberose, and corroded. More or less translucent. P ^ . . Constituent Parts—.Muriate of ammonia 99.4, sulphate Combination hemiprismatic. 7p. Cleavage, Pr + oo perof ammonia 0.5. Klaproth. Geognostic and Geographic Situations Occurs in fect. Less perfect, Pr go . (Fig. 29, 28.) description Colour white, sometimes inclining to yel- crusts in the fissures and on the surfaces of volcanic rocks, low. Occurs in acicular crystals, granular concretions, sta- as in Vesuvius, 7Etna, &c. lactitic, in loose earthy particles, and in crusts. More or Genus VI—Vitriol. less translucent. Constituent Parts—Sulphuric acid 24.84, soda 19.39, Pyramidal, prismatic. Taste, astringent. Hardness water 55.77, = 100. = 2.0,—2.5. Sp. gr. =1.8, — 2.3. Geognostic and Geographic Situations.—Occurs on 1. Hemiprismatic, or Green Vitriol. soils and rocks of different descriptions, in Scotland, England, and other countries. Hemiprismatisches Vitriol-Salz, Mohs. Eisen Vitriol, Werner. Fer Sulfatee, Hauy. Genus III.—Nitre. Specific Character—Prismatic. Combination hemiPrismatic. Taste cooling and saline. Hardness = 2.0. P Sp. gr. = 1.9, —2.0. prismatic -=102° 35', P + go =82° 21'. Cleavage = 4U 1. Prismatic Nitre. P + co . Inclination ofP — oo to P-f-oo = 990 23'. Prismatisches Nitrum-Salz. Mohs. Natiirlicher Salpe- Green. Hardness =2.0. Sp. gr. = 1.8, —2.9. ter, Werner. Potasse nitratee, Hauy. Description—Colour green. Occurs regularly crystalSpecific Character—Prismatic. Pyramid =132° 22'; lized, in fibrous concretions, massive, stalactitic, botryoidal, 91° 15'; 107° 43'. Cleavage, Pr + oo = 120°. More dis- and reniform. More or less translucent and transparent. Constituent Parts.—Sulphuric acid 31.02, oxide of iron tinct, Pr + a>. (Fig. 30, 29.) description—Colour white, grey, and sometimes yel- 27.19, water 41.79, = 100. Kobel. Geognostic and Geographic Situations.—Occurs in coal low. Occurs in acicular crystals, in crusts, and in fibrous and iron mines, both in Scotland and England. concretions. More or less translucent. Constituent Parts—Potash 55.28, nitric acid 44.72. 2. Tetartoprismatic Vitriol, or Blue Vitriol. Geognostic and Geographic Situations Occurs inPrismatisches Vitriol-Salz, Mohs. Kupfervitriol, Wercrusting limestone, marl, sandstone, calc-tuff, chalk, and on soils of particular kinds. It is collected in limestone ner. Cuivre Sulfatee, Hauy. Specific Character. — Prismatic. Combination, tetartocaves in Italy, in caves of various descriptions in America, and in abundance from the surface of the ground in many prismatic. Cleavage, two faces, one more distinct than the other; incidence, 149° 2'. Hardness =2.5. Sp. gr. of the Tartarian plains. = 2.2, 2.3. description—Colour blue. Occurs distinctly crystalGenus IV.—Rock-Salt. lized, massive, stalactitic, and dentiform. More or less Tessular. Taste saline. Hardness = 2.0. Sp.gr. = 2.2, transparent and translucent. — 2 3. Constituent Parts—Oxide of copper 31.72, sulphuric acid, 31.72, water, 36.14. 1. Hexahedral Rock-Salt. Geognostic and Geographic Situations.—Occurs in copHexaedrisches Steinsalz, Mohs. Natiirlich Kochsalz per mines in England and Ireland. Werner. Specific Character—Tessular. Cleavage, hexahedral. 3. Prismatic Vitriol, or White Vitriol. description.—Most frequent colours grey and w'hite; Prismatisches Vitriol-Salz, Mohs. Zink-vitriol, Werner. sometimes also blue, red, yellow,, and green. Occurs in Zink sulfatee. Hauy.

MINERALOGY. 139 Specific Character.—Prismatic. Pzrl27° 27; 126° 45; MineraGenus X —Glauberite. logy. , 78° 5'. P + qo = 90° 42'. Cleavage Pr + oo very perBrithyn-Salz, Mohs. fect. White. Hardness =z2.0,—2.5. Sp. gr. =2.0, Prismatic. Taste feebly saline and astringent, Hard— 2.1. Constituent Parts —Oxide of zinc 27.5, sulphuric acid, ness = 2.5,—3.0. Sp. gr. 2.75, —2.85. 20.0, water 50.0. Klaproth. 1. Prismatic Glauberite. Geognostic and Geographic Situations. — Occurs in Prismatisches Brithyn-Salz, Mohs.— Glauberite, Haiiy. mines where blende is met with, both in Flintshire and Specific Character.— Prismatic. Pyramid unknown. Cornwall. Genus VII Epsom Salt. Combination hemiprismatic. Cleavage Pr perfect. In2’ Prismatic. Taste bitter and saline. Hardness = 2.0, distinct P + oo = 104° 28'. (Fig. 35, 30.) — 2.5. Sp. gr. =1.7, — 1.8. Description—Colours white and yellow. Occurs crystallized in oblique four-sided prisms. Shining lustre. Frac1. Prismatic Epsom Salt. Prismatisches Bittersalz, Mohs. Natiirlicher Bittersalz, ture conchoidal. Transparent. Brittle. Constituent Parts.—Sulphate of lime 49.0. Sulphate Werner. Magnesie Sulfatee, Hauy. 51.0.—Brongniart. Specific Character. — Prismatic. P = 127° 22/; 126° of soda Geognostic and Geographic Situations. — Occurs in 48'; 78° 7/. P + a> = 90° 38'. Cleavage Pr + 8, very masses of rock-salt, associated with clay, at Villarubia near perfect. Ocanas, in the province of Toledo, in Spain. Description.—Colours white and grey. Occurs in crusts, botryoidal, reniform, and crystallized. Transparent or translucent. CLASS II. Constituent Parts.—Magnesia 16.0, sulphuric acid 32.53. Specific gravity above 1.8. Tasteless. water 51.43. Geognostic and Geographic Situations Occurs along Order I.—HALOIDE.1 with natural alum at Hurlet near Paisley. Not metallic. Streak white or grey. Hardness =1.5, —5.0. Sp. gr. = 2.2.—3.3. Genus VIII—Alum. If pyramidal or prismatic, the hardness = 4.0, and less. Tessular. Taste sweetish, astringent. Hardness = 2.0, If tessular, the hardness = 4.0. If single highly perfect —2.5. Sp.gr. = 1.7, — 1.8. faces of cleavage, the sp. gr = 2.4, and less. If the hardness ‘s under 2.5, the sp. gr. = 2.4, and less. If the sp. 1. Octahedral Alum. gr. = 2.4, and less, the hardness is under 2.5, and no resiOctaedrisches Alaun, Mohs Natiirlicher Alaun, Wer- nous lustre. ner.—Alumine Sulphatee Alcaline, Hauy. Genus I.—Gypsum. Specific Character.—Tessular. Cleavage octahedral. Description—Colours white. Occurs in crystals ; but Prismatic. Hardness = 1.5,—3.5. Sp. gr. = 2.2,—3.0. more frequently in farinaceous efflorescences, stalactitic, If the sp. gr. is above 2.5, there are cleavages in three and in fibrous concretions. Translucent. directions, perpendicular to each other, and of which two Constituent Parts—Alumina 10.8. Potash 10.1. Sul- are more distinct than the other. phuric acid 33.7. Water 45.4.— Gmelin. 1. Prismatoidal Gypsum, or Common Gypsum. Geognostic and Geographic Situations Generally occurs incrusting aluminous minerals, in which situation it is Prismatoidisches Gyps-Haloid, Mohs.—Chaux sulfatee, met with in various parts of Scotland and England. Hauy. Specific Character.—Prismatic. Pyramid = 149° 33'; Genus IX.—Borax. 135° 32'; 54° 52'. P-{-a>=110o 30'. Combination p o Borax-Salz, Mohs. hemiprismatic, —=149° 33'. Cleavage, Pr + co,very Prismatic. Taste feebly sweetish and alkaline. Hardperfect and distinct, Pr, Pr+oo, imperfect. (Fig. 41.) ness = 2.0,—2.5. Sp. gr. = 1.7,—1.8. Hardness = 1.5,— 2.0. Sp. gr. = 2.2, — 2.4. 1. Prismatic Borax. Description Most frequent colours white and grey; ocPrismatisches Borax-Salz, Mohs.—Soude Boratee, Haily. curs also yellow, red, blue, green, brown, and even black. Specific Character.—Prismatic. P = 150° 9'; 120° 20'; Occurs in regular crystals ; in granular, scaly-granular, and 67° 3'. P + oo = 52° 53'. Combination hemiprismatic, fibrous distinct concretions ; massive, disseminated, and dentiform. Lustre alternates from splendent to glimmerP - = 120° 23'. Cleavage (Pr + oo )3 = 88° 8'. More dis- ing, and is pearly. Fracture splintery. Fragments indeterminate, angular, and blunt-edged. Alternates fi'om tinct Pr + oo . (Fig. 32, 29.) transparent to translucent on the edges. Description—Colours white, grey, and green. Occurs The transparent and highly crystallized varieties are crystallized, internally shining and resinous. Fracture, named selenite ; those in granular concretions, foliated flat, conchoidal. Semitransparent. granular gypsum ; those disposed in fibrous concretion, Constituent Parts.—Soda 16.31. Boracic acid 36.59. fibrous gypsum ; the splintery fracture characterizes the Water 47.10.—Berzelius. compact gypsum ; while those varieties composed of scalyGeognostic andr Geographic Situations.—Occurs in the granular concretions form the subspecies named scalysoil, and in the w ater of springs in Thibet and Persia. foliated gypsum. Some varieties, composed of fine scaly or 1

From «Xf, salt; and *S»f, the appearance (habitus).

' MINERALOGY. 1. Rhombohedral Alumstone. Minen. Minera- dusty and slightly cohering particles, are named earthy gypRhomboidrisches Alaun-Haloide, Mohs. logy. logy. sum. Specific Character.—Rhombohedral. Rhomboid unv-—Constituent Parts.—Lime 33.0. Sulphuric acid 44.8. known. Cleavage R —go . R. Water 21.0.—Bucholz. Description Colours white, red, and rarely grey. OcGeognostic and Geographic Situations—Selenite, the purest subspecies, occurs most frequently in what are call- curs massive, porous, and vesicular. Lustre feebly glimed the gypsum and salt formations of the secondary class of mering Fracture uneven. Feebly translucent on the rocks ; also in metalliferous veins of different descriptions, edges. Brittle, and easily frangible. Constituent Parts.—Mont d’Or in Auvergne. Suland in various alluvial clays and marls. The foliated granular subspecies occurs in beds, in transition and secondary phuric acid 27.05, alumina 31.80, potash 5.79, silica 28.40, rocks,—-being in the former intermixed with mica, in the water and loss 3.72. Cordier. latter with quartz, boracite, &c. The compact variety ocGeognostic and Geographic Situations.—Occurs in beds curs in considerable abundance along with the granular in and large irregular masses in porphyry in Hungary, and in the secondary gypsum formation, and the fibrous is disposed veins and drusy cavities in aluminous rocks at Tolfa, near in veins in the same formation, which also contains the to Civita Vecchia. scaly-foliated and the earthy kinds. Genus IV Fluor. The salt mines in England afford examples of nearly all the subspecies, and several of them are also met with in Tessular. Hardness == 4.0. Sp. gr. = 3.0, — 3.3. Scotland. 1. Octahedral Fluor. 2. Prismatic Gypsum, or Anhydrite. Octaedrisches Flus-Haloide, Mohs.—Chaux fluatee, Hauy. Prismatisches Gyps-Haloide, Mohs—Muriacit, Werner.— Specific Character.—Tessular. Cleavage octahedral. Chaux Anhydro- Sulphatee, Hefuy. Description.—Colours white, grey, black, blue, green, Specific Character Prismatic. Pyramid = 121° 32'; yellow, red, and brown. Occurs regularly crystallized, in granular, prismatic, and lamellar concretions, massive, and 108° 35'; 99° 7'. Cleavage, Pr —oo . Pr + oo ,veryper- disseminated. Lustre from splendent to feebly glimmerfect. Less perfect?— oo . Traces of P + a* • (Eig* 29, ing, and vitreous. Fracture even, inclining to splintery 28, 27, 30.) Hardness = 3.0,— 3.5. Sp. gr. = 2.7,—3.0. and to conchoidal. More or less transparent and translucent. Description Colours white, blue, red, and grey. Oc- Brittle, and easily frangible. curs crystallized; in granular, fibrous, and lamellar conThe varieties, with even fracture and feeble lustre, are cretions; massive, and vermicular]y convoluted or contorted. named compact fiuor ; those in which the cleavage is disLustre alternates from splendent to glistening, and is pearly tinct are named common or foliated fiuor ; and some rare, Fracture splintery and conchoidal. Alternates from trans- dull, earthy, and loosely aggregated varieties, which occur, parent to translucent on the edges. incrusting other minerals, are described under the name Constituent Parts.—Lime 41.75, sulphuric acid 55.0, earthy fiuor. muriate of soda, 1.0. Klaproth. Constituent Parts.—Lime 67.75, fluoric acid 32.25. Geognostic and Geographic Situations.—Occurs mas- Klaproth. sive, and in beds in the salt and secondary gypsum formaGeognostic and Geographic Situations It occurs in tions. Is frequently intermixed with rock-salt, also with veins and beds in primitive gneiss, mica-slate, and claystinkstone, saliniferous clay, and occasionally with ores of slate, in various remarkable metalliferous formations of different kinds. Some varieties are met with in transition silver, tin, lead, copper, &c.; less frequently in and primitive rocks. Several of the varieties are found in cobalt, transition rocks, and very abundantly in some secondary the red sandstones of England and Scotland. rocks, as limestone, and rarely in secondary porphyries. It is a rare mineral in Scotland, its principal localities being Genus II.—Cryolite. Monaltree, in Aberdeenshire, Banffshire, Papa Stour in Prismatic. Cleavage in three directions, perpendicular Shetland, and Gourock in Renfrewshire. It is very abunto each other, of which one is more perfect than the others. dant in several of the mining districts in England. Hardness = 2.5, — 3.0. Sp. gr. = 2.9, — 3.0. Genus V—Apatite. 1. Prismatic Cryolite. Rhombohedral. Hardness = 5.0. Sp. gr. = 3.0,— 3.3. Kryolite, Werner—Prismatisches Kryon-Haloide, Mohs. 1. Rhombohedral Apatite. —Alumine fluatee alcaline, Hauy. Specific Character—Prismatic. Pyramid unknown. Rhomboedrishes Flus-Haloide, Mohs—Apatit, Werner.— Chaux phosphatee, Hauy. Cleavage, P — go . Less distinct, Pr + x;. Pr + oo . Specific Character Rhombohedral. R 0= 88° 4F.0 Traces of P. (Fig. 27, 29, 28.) Description—Colours white, brown, and red. Occurs Combination, dirhombohedral. 2. Rzrl31 14'; 111 massive, disseminated, and in lamellar concretions. Inter- 20', (P + ri)n hemi-dirhombohedral, with parallel planes. nally shining, and lustre vitreous, inclining to pearly. Cleavage, R—oo. P-j-oo . 11 = 5. Sp. gr. — 3.0, — 3.3. Fracture uneven. Fragments cubical. Translucent. BritDescription Colours white, green, blue, red, yellow, tle, and easily frangible. and brown. Occurs regularly crystallized ; in concretions Constituent Parts—Alumina 24.40, soda 31.35, fluoric which are granular, lamellar, and fibrous ; massive and disacid 44.25. Berzelius. seminated ; lustre resinous, and varying from splendent to Geognostic and Geographic Situations. It has hitherto glimmering. Fracture conchoidal and uneven. Alternates been found only in West Greenland, where it occurs in from transparent to feebly translucent on the edges. Britgneiss, associated with iron-pyrites and galena or lead- tle, and easily frangible. glance. One set of varieties, in which the cleavage is very distinct, is named foliated apatite; another, in which the Genus III—Alumstone. fracture is conchoidal, is named conchoidal apatite ; and Alaun-Haloide, Mohs.—Alaunstein, Werner. the varieties in which the fracture is uneven are named Rhombohedral. Hardness = 5.0. Sp. gr. = 2.4, 2.6. phosphorite.

H

MINER ALOGY. ]4 Qmtituent Parts.—Lime 55.75, phosphoric acid 44.25. stinkstone; the black varieties in granular and prismatic Minera■j. Klaproth. concretions, or with a compact fracture, with a glimmering logv. Geognostic and Geographic Situations Occurs in or shining lustre, and low degree of translucency on the gneiss, near Kincardine, in Ross-shire; in the same rock edges or complete opacity, and which, on rubbing, yield a in the Shetland Islands ; and in veins in greenstone, in the sulphureo-bituminous odour, are named anthraconite; those Island of Rume. Several varieties are met with in Corn- limestones which have the oolitic structure, or are comwall. posed of spherical granular concretions, set on a marly basis, Genus VI.—Limestone. are named roestone or oolite ; the soft varieties with earthy fractui e and white colour are named chalk ; the varieties Kalk-Haloide, Mohs. Rhombohedral, prismatic. Cleavage, rhombohedro-para- with dull fracture surface, in loosely cohering pieces and tomous, prismatoidal. Hardness = 3.0, — 4.5. Sp. gr. — crusts, and so light as nearly to swim upon water, are named 2.5, — 3.2. If prismatic, the specific gravity = 3.0 and agaric mineral; the fibrous varieties are named common less. If the hardness is above 4.0, the specific gravity = fibrous limestone or satin spar, and fibrous calc-sinter, or 2.8 and more. If specific gravity zr 2.9 and more, the calcareous alabaster; the earthy-looking opaque varieties that occur in many particular external shapes, near calcahardness = 2.8 and more. reous springs, and on the borders of lakes, are named calc1. Prismatic Limestone, or Aragonite. tufifi; while the varieties in spherical round granular concrePrismatisches Kalk-Haloide, Mohs Aragon, Werner. tions, and concentric lamellar concretions, found near hot —Arragonite, Haiiy. springs, are named peastone ; the slate-spar of mineraloSpecific Character—Prismatic. Pyramid =113° 44'; gists is a variety in lamellar concretions, with a beautiful 93° 43' ; 122° lO^ P -f- go = 105° 23/. Cleavage, pearly lustre and feeble translucency ; varieties with earthy Pr — 1 = 109° 28'. (Pr + oo )3 = 64° 4/. More distinct, fracture, more or less inclined to splintery and conchoidal, are named marl; and, lastly, the opaque dull black variePr + oo . (Fig. 42.) Hardness = 3.5, — 4.0. Sp. gr. = ties, with slaty fracture, are named bituminous marl-slate. 2.6, — 3.0. Geognostic mineral is one of the most Description—Colours white, grey, green, and violet- abundant and Situation—This widely distributed with which we are acblue. Occurs regularly crystallized ; also in prismatic con- quainted. Calcareous spar, one of its principal kinds, occurs cretions and massive. Lustre vitreous, inclining to resin- in every rock from granite to the newest member of the ous, and shining and glistening. Fracture conchoidal pass- secondary series, ft generally occurs in veins with numeing into uneven. Translucent and transparent. Brittle, rous metalliferous minerals, and assists in an eminent degree and easily frangible. in characterizing the vast host of mineral veins in primitive, Constituent Parts—Carbonate of lime 94.82, carbo- transition, and secondary rocks. In the state of granular, nate of strontites 4.08, water 0.98. Stromeyer. foliated, and compact limestones, also in the form of oolite, Geognostic and Geographic Situations Occurs along chalk, and lucullite, it forms beds, hills, mountains, and even with galena in the lead-mines of Leadhills, and in secondary ranges of mountains. The beautiful fibrous limestone or trap-rocks in different parts of Scotland. satin-spar, occurs in veins in clay-slate, and in rocks of the coal formation, while all the beautiful forms of calc-sinter 2. Rhombohedral Limestone. Rhomboedrisches Kalk-Haloide, Mohs Chaux carbona- are met with ornamenting the walls and floors of caverns in limestone and other formations ; calc-tuff abounds around tee, Haiiy.—Kalk-spath, Werner. Specific Character—Rhombohedral. Rhombohedron= cold, and also warm springs, frequently incrusting organic 105° 5'. Cleavage, R. Hardness = 3.0. Sp. gr. = 2.5, bodies, forming the calcareous incrustations so well known to mineralogists. Peastone is also a production of warm — 2.8. Constituent Parts—The purest kind of this species, springs. The white, porous, and nearly supernatent mineral named calcareous spar, is composed of lime 56.15, carbonic agaric incrusts rocky cliffs, particularly in limestone hills, and the rare variety, named slate-spar, has hitherto been acid 43.70. found only in primitive limestone. Description—Colours very varied, but of all the tints, Geographic Situation.—England and Scotland abound white and grey are the most frequent; besides these, the following kinds also occur, viz. red, blue, green, yellow, in interesting varieties of calcareous-spar, and the mounbrown, and rarely black. Occurs regularly crystallized, tains, hills, and valleys of Great Britain afford numerous and of all known minerals, exhibits the greatest number of localities of many of the different kinds of marble, limestone, varieties of the rhombohedral series of crystallization ; also chalk, marl, Lucullite, and oolite, while its calcareous in granular, prismatic, tabular, and globular distinct concre- springs, and caves and caverns, exhibit numerous deposits tions. Its other forms are massive, disseminated, globular, of calc-tuff and of calc-sinter. botryoidal, reniform, tuberose, stalactitic, tabular, claviform, 3. Dolomite or Macrotypous 1 Limestone. coralloidal, cellular, and curtain-shaped. Its lustre varies Macrotypes Kalk-Haloide, Mohs—Braunspath, Rhombfrom splendent to dull, and is vitreous, inclining sometimes spath, Dolomite, Werner,.—Chaux carbonatee ferrifere perto pearly, sometimes to resinous. Fracture splintery, con- lee, Chaux carbonatee magnesifere, Haiiy. choidal, earthy, and uneven. Alternates from transparent Specific Character.—Rhombohedral. Rhombohedron to opaque. Generally brittle, and easily frangible. 106° 15'. Cleavage, rhombohedral. Hardness = 3.5,— Those varieties which are regularly crystallized, and pos- 4.0. Sp. gr. = 2.8,—2.95. sess high degrees of transparency, are named calcareous Description—Colours wliite, grey, brown, red, and green. spar ; those in angulo-granular distinct concretions, with Occurs crystallized in rhomboids, in granular and prismatic a lower lustre and transparency than the former, are the concretions; massive, disseminated, globular, stalactitic, foliated granular limestone, or crystalline marble of au- reniform, and with tabular and pyramidal impressions. thors ; the varieties with splintery or conchoidal fractures Lustre varies from shining to glimmering, and is pearly, are named compact limestone; other varieties having a sometimes inclining to vitreous. Fracture splintery, congrey or brown colour, dull earthy fracture, and which, on choidal, and slaty. Varies from transparent to translucent rubbing, give out a sulphureo-bituminous smell, are named on the edges. Brittle, and easily frangible. 1

From ficix^oi long; and tvims, the type (fundamental form_).

142 MINER ALOG^. MineraThe white varieties in small and fine granular concre- pearly, and varying from shining to glimmering, and even ]yjj,nera logy. tions, which are sometimes so loosely aggregated as to to splendent. Fracture sometimes splintery. Translucent i0gj separate by the mere pressure of the finger, are the dolo- on the edges. Rather brittle, and easily frangible. Constituent Parts Protoxide of iron 57.50, carmite-marble of mineralogists ; the magnesian limestone of England is a dolomite with yellow or yellowish brown bonic acid 36.00, oxide of manganese 3.30, lime 1.25. colours; the green varieties are described under the name Klaproth. Geognostic and Geographic Situations.—Occurs in meMiemite, from Miemo in Tuscany, where they were first found; the brown, red, reddish-white, and pearl-grey varie- talliferous veins, and in common veins, in primitive, transities, with very distinct pearly lustre, are arranged together, tion, and secondary rocks in different parts of Great Britain and described under the names brown spar and pearl spar. and Ireland. The common clay ironstone of the coal forConstituent Parts.—Carbonate of lime 68.0, carbonate mation, the most important of ores, is an impure kind, of of magnesia 25.5, alumina 2.0, carbonate of iron 1.0, water this species. 2.0. Klaproth. Genus II.—Red Manganese. Geognostic and Geographic Situations.—The dolomite Hardness = 3.5. Sp. gr. =3.3,—3.6. marble occurs in the island of Iona; the yellow dolomite constitutes a secondary limestone formation very abundant 1. Rhombohedral Red Manganese. in England; the brown spar and pearl spar are not unfreMacrotyper Parachros Baryte, Mohs Rother Braunquent in the lead mines of Scotland and England. stein, Werner. Manganese Oxide Carbonate, Hauy. 4. Hreunnerite or Brachytypous1 Limestone. Specific Character.— Rhombohedron = 106° 51'. CleavBrachytypes Kalk-Haloid, Mohs Rautenspath, Werner. age, rhombohedral. Description.—Colours red and brown. Occurs in gra—Chaux carbonatee magnesifere, Haiiy. Specific Character.—Rhombohedral. Rhombohedron nular concretions, also in fibrous concretions, which are sco— 107° 22'. Cleavage rhombohedral. Hardness z=. 4.0, piformly and stellularly arranged, massive, and reniform. —4.5. Sp. gr. = 3.0,—3.2. Lustre varies from shining to glimmering, and pearly. Description Colours white, grey, and yellow. Occurs Fracture splintery. More or less translucent on the edges; crystallized in rhombs; also massive and disseminated. in some rare varieties translucent. Brittle, and rather Lustre splendent and vitreo-pearly. Fracture imperfect easily frangible. conchoidal. More or less translucent. Brittle, and easily The varieties with distinct cleavage are named foliated red frangible. manganese; those in fibrous concretions, fibrous red mangaConstituent Parts—Magnesia, 41.06, protoxide of iron nese ; and the splintery varieties, compact red manganese. Constituent Parts.—Oxide of manganese 54.60, carbonic 8.57, oxide of manganese 0.43, carbonic acid 48.94. Stromeyer. acid 33.75, oxide of iron 1.87, silica 4.37, lime 2.50. Du Geognostic and Geographic Situations.—Occurs imbed- Menil. ded in chlorite-slate on the banks of Loch Lomond, and Geognostic and Geographic Situations. — Occurs at associated with galena, copper-pyrites, and blende, near Kapnic in Transylvania, and at Catharinenberg in Siberia. Newton Stewart, in Galloway. It is named in honour of Genus HI.—Calamine. Count Breunner. 5. Anherite or Paratomous Limestone. Zinc-Baryt, Mohs. Specific Character.—Rhombohedral. Cleavage parallel Rhombohedral. Prismatic. Hardness = 5.0. Sp. gr. to a rhombohedron of 106° 12'. H = 3.5,—4.0. Sp. gr. =3.3,—4.5. If rhombohedral, the sp. gr. above 4.0. = 2.95,—3.1. Is a compound of carbonate of lime and 1. Prismatic Calamine, or Silicate of Zinc. carbonate of iron. Prismatischer Zinc-Baryt, Mohs. Zink Oxyde, Hauy. Geognostic and Geographic Situations.—Found in the Specific Character.—Prismatic. Pyramid =134° 59'; Styrian mines. Is named in honour of Professor Anker. Order II.—BARYTE. Not metallic. No metallic-pearly lustre. Streak white, grey, or orange-yellow. H = 2.5,—5.0. Sp. gr. = 3.3, —7.3. If cleavage monotomous, the specific gravity = 4.0 and less, or = 5.0 and more. Not elastic, not flexible, in thin folia. If lustre adamantine or imperfect metallic, the sp. gr. = 5.0 and more. If streak orange-yellow, the sp. gr. = 6.0 and more. If H = 5.0, and sp. gr. less than 4.5, the streak is white. If the sp. gr. is less than 4.0, and H = 5.0, the cleavage is diprismatic. Genus I.—Sparry Iron. Rhombohedral. Cleavage paratomous. Hardness =3.5, —4.5. Sp.gr.=3.3,—3.9. 1. Rhombohedral Sparry Iron. Brachytyper Parachros Baryte, if/o/w—Spath Eisenstein, Werner—Fer Oxyde Carbonate, Hauy. Specific Character—Rhombohedral. Rhombohedron = 107° 0/. Cleavage rhombohedral. H = 3.5, 4 5 Sp. gr. = 3.3,—3.9. Description.—Colours yellow, white, brown, and black. Occurs crystallized in rhombohedrons; also in granular concretions, massive and disseminated. Internally, lustre 7

99° 56'; 96° 56'. P +oo 118° 29'. Cleavage, Pr =120°. More distinct, (Pr -f-oo )3 = 80° 4'. (Fig. 43.) Hardness 5.0. Sp. gr. =3.3,—3.6. Description.—Most frequent colours white and yellow ; also green, grey, yellow, and brown; and with curved striped colour delineations. Occurs regularly crystallized, and in distinct concretions, which are scopiform radiated, and scopiform fibrous, granular, and curved lamellar. Massive, in crusts, stalactitic, reniform, botryoidal, and cellular. Internally alternates from glistening to dull, and lustre pearly, inclining to adamantine. Fracture small and fine-grained, uneven. Varies from transparent to opaque. Constituent Parts.—Oxide of zinc 66.83, silica 24.89, water 7.46. Berthier. Geognostic and Geographic Situations.—Occurs in veins of galena, in greywacke, and clay-slate, and in beds, and imbedded masses in secondary limestone. Is found in the lead mines of Wanlockhead, and in the mines of Flintshire and Leicestershire. 2. Rhombohedral Calamine or Carbonate of Zinc. Rhomboedrischer Zinc-baryt, A/oAa.—Galmei, Werner. —Zinc carbonate, Hauy.

From fyaxai, short, and rvvros, the type.

' ^

MINERALOGY. 143 [aeraSpecific Character—Rhombohedral. Rhombohedron=r Description.—Colours white, grey, and yellow. Ocgy. 110° (nearly.) Cleavage rhombohedral. Hardness == 5.0. curs regularly crystallized, and also in distinct concretions, Minera'•v'—Sp. gr. = 4.2,—4.5. winch are radiated and granular. Occurs massive, cellu- logy. Description.—Colours white, grey, green, yellow, and lar, globular, botryoidal, reniform, and stalactitic. Lustre brown. Occurs regularly crystallized, and in distinct con- shining and resinous. Fracture uneven, inclining to splincretions, which are radiated, granular, and curved lamellar ; tery. 1 ranslucent. Brittle, and easily frangible. massive, corroded, reniform, stalactitic, botryoidal, and Constituent Parts.— Witherit. Baryta 79*66, carbonic cellular. Internally ranges from shining to dull, and is acid 20.00, water 0.33. Bucholz. pearly. Fracture uneven, splintery, and flat conchoidal. Geognostic and Geographic Situations Occurs abunRanges from transparent to opaque. dantly in the lead mines of Cumberland, and at Anglesark Constituent Parts.—Oxide of zinc 65.20, carbonic acid m Lancashire. 34.80. Smithson. Geognostic and Geographic Situations.— Occurs in beds, 3. Prismatic Baryte, or Heavy-Spar. veins, nests, filling up or lining hollows, in transition limestone and in secondary limestone. Derbyshire, SomersetPrismatischer Hal-baryte, Mohs- -Schwerspath, Werner. shire, Flintshire, and Durham, afford numerous localities of —Baryte sulphatee, Hauy. this mineral. Specific Character—Prismatic. Pr = 105°6'; (Pr+oo )2 Genus IV.—Tungsten, or Scheelium. = 77° 27'. Cleavage Pr= 78° 18'. Pr + oo. (Fig. 45.) Pyramidal. Hardness =4.0,—4.5. Sp. gr. = 6.0,—6.1. Less distinct, P—oo . (Fig. 33, 20, 27, 28.) Hardness=3.0, —3.5. Sp. gr. = 4.1,—4.7. 1. Pyramidal Tungsten. Description—Colours white, grey, black, blue, green, Pyramidaler Scheel-Baryt, Mohs.—Schwerstein, Werner. yellow, red, and brown. Occurs regularly crystallized; —Scheelin Calcaire, Haiiy. also in granular, lamellar, fibrous, and prismatic distinct Specific Character.—Pyramidal. Pyramid = 107° 27'; concretions; massive, disseminated, reniform, botryoidal, 113° 35'. Combination hemi-pyramidal with parallel planes. and globular. Lustre alternates from splendent to glimCleavage, P + 1 = 100° 8'; 130° 20'. P. Traces in di- mering, and resinous or pearly, inclining to vitreous. Fracrection of P 00 . ture uneven, splintery, and earthy. Alternates from transDescription—White is the principal colour; but other parent to opaque. Brittle, and very easily frangible. varieties, as brown and orange yellow, occasionally occur. The varieties with uneven and splintery fracture are Sometimes crystallized, and also in distinct concretions, named compact h. spar ; those in fine granular concretion which are granular, prismatic, and curved lamellar. Oc- granular h. spar ; the lamellar varieties are named straight curs massive and disseminated. External lustre shining or curved lamellar h. spar, according to the direction of and splendent; internal lustre shining and resinous. Frac- the lamellar concretion ; the fibrous varieties fibrous h. ture uneven or conchoidal. More or less translucent, sel- spar ; the radiated varieties radiated h. spar ; those in prisdom transparent. matic concretions prismatic h. spar ; the varieties which, Constituent Parts.—Lime 19*40, oxide of scheelium on rubbing, emit a hepatic smell, fetid h. spar, or hepatite; 80.24. Berzelius. and those which occur in the earthy or powdery state, Geognostic and Geographic Situations.—Occurs along earthy h. spar. with tinstone, wolfram, magnetic iron-ore, and brown ironConstituent Parts.—Baryta 66.00, sulphuric acid 34.00. ore, in Cornwall, &c. Berthier Geognostic and Geographic Situations It occurs in Genus V. Baryte. veins, either alone or associated with various metalliferous formations of silver, copper, lead, cobalt, antimony, manPrismatic. Hardness = 3.0,—4.0. Sp. gr. 3.6,—4.7. ganese, zinc, arsenic, iron, &c. in rocks of the primitive, transition, and secondary classes. There are numerous lo1. Peritomous Baryte, or Strontianite. Peritomer Hal-Baryt, Mohs. -Strontian, Werner.—. calities of this mineral in Scotland, England, and Ireland. Strontiane Carbonate, Hauy. 4. Prismatoidal Baryte, or Celestine. Specific Character.—Prismatic. Pyramid unknown. Prismatoidischer Hal-baryt, Mohs.—Coelestin, Werner. Cleavage, P-j-ao=117° 19'; less distinct Pr. Traces —Strontiane sulphatee, Hauy. according to Pr+oo. (Fig* 46.) Hardness 3.5. Sp. Specific Character. — Prismatic. Pr = 103° 58'. gr. 3.6,—3.8. Description.-—Colours green and grey. Occurs regu- (P + oo .)2 = 78° 35'. Cleavage, P7 = 76° 2'. More larly crystallized, and in distinct concretions, which are scopiform radiated, and scopiform fibrous. Lustre shin- distinct, Pr + oo . Less distinct P—oo . Hardness =3.0, ing, glistening, and pearly. Fracture uneven. More or —3.5. Sp. gr. =3.6,—4.0. less translucent. Brittle, and easily frangible. Description.—Colours white, blue, and red. Occurs Constituent Parts.—Strontia 61.21, carbonic acid 30.20, regularly crystallized ; in granular, fibrous, and radiated water 8.59* Hope. distinct concretions; massive and stalactitic. Lustre alterGeognostic and Geographic Situations.-—Occurs at nates from splendent to glimmering, and is pearly. Ranges Strontian in Scotland in veins of lead-glance that traverse from transparent to translucent on the edges. gneiss. Constituent Parts.—Strontia 58.00, sulphuric acid 42.00. Klaproth. 2. Di-prismatic Baryte or Witherite. Geognostic and Geographic Situations.—Occurs in limeDi-prismatischer Hal-baryt, Mohs—Witherit, Werner. stone, in red sandstone, and gypsum, where it is associated —Baryte carbonatee, Hauy. with sulphur, and in vesicular cavities in amygdaloid. It Specific Character.—Prismatic. Pyramid unknown. has been found in sandstone near Inverness; in the amygdaCleavage, P. + oo = 118° 30'. Pr +go . Pr + 1 • (Fig. loid of the Calton Hill; in the neighbourhood of Bristol; and near Knaresborough, in Yorkshire. 46.) Hardness = 3.0,—3.5. Sp. gr. = 4.2,—4.4.

T 144 Mineralogy.

MINERALOGY. 4. Pyramidal Lead-Spar, or Yellow Lead-Spar. Minera- Ifi Genus VI.—Lead-Spar. Pyramidaler Blei-Baryt, Mohs.—Gelb Bleierz, Werner. logy. 1 Blei-baryt, Mohs. —Plomb molybdate, Hauy. |^ Rhombohedral, pyramidal, prismatic. Hardness = 2.5, Specific Character—Pyramidal. Pyramid = 99° 40'; 4.0. Sp. gr. =6.0,—7.3. If the hardness is above 131° 3*5'. Cleavage P. less distinct. P—oo . Hardness 3.5, the sp. gr. = 6.5, and more. = 3.0. Sp. gr. =6.5,—6.9. 1. Di-prismatic Lead-Spar, or White and Black LeadDescription.—Colour yellow. Occurs crystallized; also Spars. massive, in crusts, and cellular. Externally generally splenDi-prismatischer Blei-baryt, Mohs.—Plomb carbonatee, dent and shining; internally shining or glistening, and lustre resino-adamantine. Fracture uneven and conchoidal. Transllauy. Specific Character.—Prismatic. P =130° O'; 108° 28'; lucent, or translucent on the edges. Constituent Parts Oxide of lead 58.40, molybdic acid 92° 19'. Cleavage, P?=117° 13'. (Pr + ] imperfect. Hardness =4.5,— 5.0. Sp. gr. r=2.2,—2.5. Prismatischer Feldspath, Mohs—Orthoclase, Breithaupt. Description—Colour white. Occurs regularly crystal- Ice-Spar Amazonstone.—Potash Felspar. lized ; in straight and curved lamellar distinct concretions ; Prismatic. Pyramid = 134° 26/; 126° 52/; 72° 32'. massive and disseminated. Surface of the cleavage strongP ly iridescent. Externally splendent, the terminal planes of P + oo =81° 47/. Combination - = 126° 52'. Cleavage the prism pearly; internally glistening and vitreous. Ranges from transparent to translucent. Pr + oo. Both very perfect. Less distinct (Pr Constituent Parts.—From Iceland. Silica 50.76, lime 3 22.39, potash4.18, fluoric acid trace, water 17.36. Turner. + 00 ) = 120°. Sometimes only one of the faces. (Fig. 44.) Hardness = 6.0. Sp. gr. =2.5,— 2.8. Geognostic and Geographic Situations.—Occurs in seDescription—Colours white, grey, green, blue, red, and condary trap-rocks in the Hebrides and other parts of Scotbrown; and sometimes with pearly opalescence, and beauland : the finest specimens are found in Iceland. tiful changeability of colour. Occurs regularly crystal11. Macrotypous Zeolite, Brewsterite. lized ; in distinct concretions, which are angulo-granular / Specific Character Rhombohedral. R =79° 29 - and lamellar; massive and disseminated. Lustre ranges Cleavage rhombohedral but imperfect. Hardness =4.0. from splendent to glistening, and even to dull, and is vitreoSp. gr. 20,— 2.2. pearly, or vitreous. Fracture conchoidal, splintery, slaty, Constituent Parts.—Silica 58.66, alumina 17-49, Stron- and earthy. Ranges from transparent to opaque. tia 8.32, baryta 6.75, lime 1.34, oxide of iron, 0.29, water The transparent and translucent white-coloured varieties, 12.58. Connell. with the silvery or pearly opalescence, are named aduGeognostic and Geographic Situations—Found in the laria, also moonstone ; the white and grey transparent valead-mines of Strontian, in cavities of trap at Giant’s Cause- rieties usually in small crystals, which are traversed by way, and in the lead mines of St Turpet near Freyburg in numerous rents, are named glassy felspar p the transluthe Brisgau. cent varieties, with various shades of colour, such as white and red, are the most abundant, and hence are named Genus VI.—Petalite. common felspar; the blue and green varieties are named Petalin-Spath, Mohs. amazonstone; the dark-grey varieties, with the beautiful Prismatic. Hardness =6.0,— 6.5. Sp. g. =2.4,— 2.5. changeability of colour, from Frederickswarn, are named „ 1. Prismatic Petalite. Norwegian Labrador felspar ; the feebly translucent compact varieties, with splintery fracture, are named compact Prismatischer Petalin-spath, Mohs. Specific Character.— Prismatic. Pyramid unknown. felspar ; the slaty varieties, with feeble lustre and transluCleavage P + oo = 95° (nearly). More perfect, accord- cency, are named slaty felspar or clinkstone; the varieties, in a comparatively loose state of aggregation, and without lustre ing to P r + oo . and transparency, according to the degrees of compactness, Description—Colours red and white. Occurs massive; are named porcelain earth, earthy felspar, and claystone. internally glistening, shining, and nearly pearly. TransGeognostic and Geographic Situations.—Potash-felspar is lucent. Brittle, and rather easily frangible. one of the most abundant minerals in nature, as it occurs in Constituent Parts—Silica 79.21, alumina 17.22, lithia most of the principal rocks in primitive and transition moun5.76. Arfwedson. tains. It abounds in the alpine districts of Scotland, EngGeognostic and Geographic Situations It has hitherto land, and Ireland, in granite, syenite, gneiss, porphyry, and been found only in a mine of black iron-ore in the island of quartz rocks. Uton in Sudermania, associated with spodumene, felspar, 3. Tetarto-prismatic Felspar, Albite or Soda Felspar. quartz, mica, and tourmaline. Observations.—It was in this mineral Arfwedson discoCleavelandite. Tetartin, Breithaupt.—Soda felspar.— vered the alkali name lithia, since met with in other species. Some so called Adularias. Genus VII—Felspae. Specific Character.— Inclination of — to Pr + oo = 93° A Rhombohedral pyramidal, prismatic. Hardness = 5.0, (P + 00)2_ 6.0. Sp. gr. =2.5,—2.8. If hardness =5.5, and less, ( 2 20'; ofr il^i to 1 121° 38'. Combinathe form is pyramidal, but cleavage not axotomous. A 2 “ 1. Rhombohedral Felspar, or Nepheline. Pr Rhomboedrischer feldspath, Mohs Nepheline, Hauy tion tetarto-prismatic. Cleavage 2 ’ Pr + 00, very perand Werner. fect. Hardness = 6.0. Sp. gr. =2.6,—2.68. Specific Character—Rhombohedral. R = 131° 497 Description—Colour generally white, sometimes grey, Combination di-rhombohedral. 2 (R) =152°, 44'; 56° green, or red. Massive, and disseminated. Lustre upon 15'. Cleavage, R — 00 . R + 00 . Hardness = 6.0.’ Sp. faces of cleavage pearly, in other directions vitreous. Transgr. =2.5,—2.6. ^ parent, but more frequently translucent on the edges. Description.—Colours white and grey. Occurs regu- Streak white. Brittle. larly crystallized, and massive. Externally splendent, inConstituent Parts—From Chesterfield in America. Siternally shining and vitreous. Fracture conchoidal. Trans- lica 70.68, alumina 19-80, soda 9-06, lime 0.23, Stromeyer. lucent, passing into transparent. from Arendal. Silica 68.84, alumina 20.53, soda 9-12. Constituent Parts—Silica 43.36, alumina 33,49, soda Lime a trace. Rose. 13.36, potash 7-13. Gmelin. Geognostic and Geographic Situations.—Forms a conGeognostic and Geographic Situations Occurs in drusy stituent part of the greenstone rocks so abundant around cavities in granular foliated limestone, with meionite, Ve- Edinburgh. Is associated with epidote and garnet in gneiss suvian, pleonaste, rhombohedral garnet, mica, &c. in the rocks at Arendal in Norway. Transparent crystals are ejected masses on Monte Somma, near Naples. found along with pearl-spar in the Tyrol. In the granite Glassy I elspar has been lately described as a distinct species under the name Ryakolite.

MINERALOGY. 153 nera- of the Mourne mountains in Ireland it is associated with the sp. gr. _ 3.2, and more. If the sp. gr. is under 3.2, Mineragy. common felspar. le cleavage is very perfect, and, in obliquely intersecting logy, ^ —— vi— 4. Polychromatic or Labrador Felspar. Lime Felspar. directions, parallel to the axis. Polychromatischer feldspath, Mohs. 1. Paratomous Augite. O Pr Paratomer Augit, Mohs—Augit, Werner.—Pyroxene Specific Character—Inclination of to P r + oo Haiiy. Specific Character—Prismatic. Pyramid zzl52° 12'— 93° 20'. Combination tetarto-prismatic. Cleavage 120 ; 61 27 P+ co = 510 19'. Combination hemiPr _ —, very perfect; P + oo , less perfect. Hardness zz6.0. prismatic . — = 120°. Cleavage, (Pr + oo .)3 — 87° 42', Sp. gr. 2.69,— 2.76. Description—Colour grey, with splendent changeability of colour, exhibiting patches of brilliant blue, green, yellow, red, and pear-grey colours. Occurs massive and disseminated. Lustre pearly on the perfect cleavage faces. The beautiful changeability of colour seen to greatest advantage upon particular faces of the mass. Translucent, or nearly opaque. Constituent Parts—Silica 55.75, alumina 26.50, lime 11.0, soda 4.0, oxide of iron 1.25, water 0.50. Geognostic and Geographic Situations This beautiful mineral was first noticed on the coast of Labrador as a constituent part of syenite, hence its name Labradorite. Sir Charles Giesecke found it also in Greenland. It has also been met with in different parts of Europe. 5. Pyramidal Felspar, or Scapolite, Meionite. Pyramidaler Feldspath, Mohs—Meionite Scapolith, Schmelzstein. Werner.—Paranthine, Meionite, Wernerite, Dipyre, Haiiy. Specific Character.—Pyramidal. Pyramid zz 136Q 7'; 63° 48'. Cleavage P — oo . More perfect, P + oo . [P + go ]. Hardness zz5.0,— 5.5. Sp. gr. =2.5,— 2.8. Description.—Colours white, grey, green, red, and black. Occurs regularly crystallized; in distinct concretions, which are scopiform, fibrous, or radiated, and angulo-granular; massive and disseminated. Lustre ranges from splendent to glimmering, and is pearly, resino-vitreous, and resinopearly. Fracture conchoidal, uneven. Ranges from transparent to opaque. The white and more transparent and highly crystallized varieties are named Meionite, while the others have received the names Scapolite, Paranthine, Wernerite, Dipyre, and Schmelzstein. Constituent Parts—1. Meionite. Silica 45.53, alumina 32.73, lime 24.25, potash and soda 1.82, protoxide of iron 0.18. Stomeyer.—‘1. Scapolite. Silica 43.83, alumina 35.43, lime 18.96, water 0.03. Nordenshiold.—3. Wernerite. Silica 50.25, alumina 30.00, lime 10.45, potash and soda 2.00, protoxide of iron 4.45, water 2.85. John 4. Dipyre: Silica 60.0, alumina 24.0, lime 10.0, water 2.0. Vauqudin. Geognostic and Geographic Situations.—The meionite varieties are found in drusy cavities in granular foliated limestone, along with nepheline, augite, mica, pleonaste, garnet, and calcareous spar, on Monte Somma, near Naples ; scapolite and Wernerite varieties occur in beds of magnetic ironstone and iron-pyrites, in gneiss, along with quartz, felspar, mica, hornblende, epidote, garnet, augite, &c. at Arendal in Norway; the paranthine varieties in limestone quarries in Wermeland ; the dipyre varieties in the torrent of Mauleon in the Western Pyrenees. Observations.—Breithaupt describes a felspar under the name Perecline, nearly allied to albite, but distinguished from it by its inferior specific gravity, it being only 2.54, —2.56 ; and Rose describes another species under the name anorthite, but the limited nature of this article prevents us noticing them more particularly.

O _ p Pr + oo . Pr + oo . Sometimes -. (Fig. 32, 29, 28, 38.) Hardness = 5.0,—6.0. Sp. gr. = 3.2, 3.5. Description*—^Colours green, black, and brown; also grey and white. Occurs regularljr crystallized ; in granular and fibrous concretions ; massive and disseminated. Lustre ranges from splendent to glimmering, and is vitreoresinous, resino-pearly, and resinous. Fracture conchoidal and uneven. Ranges from transparent to translucent on the edges. Those varieties in which the colours are white and pale green, generally crystallized, with a vitreous external, and pearly internal lustre, and translucent, are named Diopside, Musite, Alalite, and by some Baikalite; those, again, in which the colours are darker green and muddy grey, less frequently crystallized, but disposed in straight, lamellar, and granular concretions, with a shining, vitreous, or pearly lustre, and translucent on the edges, are named Sahlite, Pyrogome, Fassaite, Malacolite, and by some Baikalite ; other varieties, in which the colours are black and dark green, with conchoidal and uneven fracture, resinous lustre, and opaque or faintly translucent on the edges, are named Conchoidal Augite and Common Augite ; those varieties in which the colours are principally leek-green and greenish-black, generally in loosely aggregated angulo-granular concretions, with a shining vitreo-resinous lustre, uneven fracture, and ranging from translucent to opaque, are named Coccolite and Granular Augite ; and, lastly, the fibrous varieties have been described as Amianthus. Constituent Parts 1. White Varieties. Silica 54.83, lime 24.76, magnesia 18.55, alumina 0.28, protoxide of iron 0.99* Bonsdorf.—-2. Green Varieties. Silica 54.08, lime 23.47, magnesia 11.49, protoxide of iron 10.02, manganese 0.51. Rose.—3. Black Varieties. Silica 53.36, lime 22.19, magnesia 4.19, protoxide of iron 17.38. oxide of manganese 0.09. Rose. Geognostic and Geographic Situations The diopside varieties are found imbedded in serpentine, and associated with magnetic iron-ore in Piedmont: the sahlite in beds of primitive trap, limestone, and magnetic iron-ore, subordinate to gneiss and mica-slate in Scotland, Ireland, and Scandinavia; the conchoidal augite and common augite occur principally in secondary trap-rocks ; and the coccolite and granular augite in the iron mines of Arendal, in Norway, in gneiss. 2. Hemiprismatic Augite, or Hornblende. Hemi-prismatischer Augit-spath, Mohs.—Hornblende, &c., Werner.—Amphibole, Hauy. Specific Character.—Prismatic. Pyramid = 151° 8'; 148° 39'; 42° 22' . P + oo = 87° 11'. Combination P ° hemiprismatic, —=148° 39'. Cleavage, (Pr + co )3 =

124° 34'. Less distinct, Pr + oo . Pr + co . (Fig. 32, 29, 28.) Hardness = 5.0,—6.0. Sp. gr. = 2.7,—3.2. Description*—Colours green, white, black, grey, blue, Genus VIII—Augite. and brown. Occurs regularly crystallized ; in fibrous, raPrismatic. Lustre not metallic-pearly. Hardness z= 4.5, diated, and granular distinct concretions. Lustre ranges —7.0. Sp. gr. zz 2.7,—3.5. If the hardness is above 6.0, from splendent to feebly glimmering, and lustre vitreou VOL. xv.

MINERALOGY. 154 Minera- pearly, pearly, or vitreous, and vitreo-resinous. Fracture &c. Inverness-shire, Ross-shire, the Shetland Islands, and Minera. % logv- conchoidal, uneven, and slaty. Alternates from transpa- other parts of Scotland, afford many varieties. 4. Prismatic Augite, or Wollastonite. rent to opaque. The varieties with dark green and black colours, in graPrismatischer Augit-spath, Mohs—Schaalstein, Werner. nular and fibrous concretions, and in which the lustre ranges Spath en Tables, Hauy. Table Spar. from splendent to shining, and is pearly or pearly-vitreous, Specific- Character. — Prismatic. Pyramid unknown. and the transparency from transparent to translucent on the edges, are named Hornblende and Carinthine ; the va- Cleavage, P + a> = 105° (nearly). Pr + co . Pr + co . rieties with light green, and also greenish-grey, and some- Sp. gr. = 2.7,—2.9. Hardness = 4.5,—4>.0. Description Colour white. Occurs in granular and times brown and yellow colours, rarely crystallized (and then generally in reed-like crystals), more frequently mas- lamellar concretions ; also massive and disseminated. Lussive, and in radiated, fibrous, and granular concretions, with tre ranges from shining to glistening, and is pearly-vitrea pearly or vitreous, splendent, shining, or glistening lustre, ous. Fracture splintery. Translucent. Brittle. Constituent Parts.—.Silica 51.45, lime 47.41, oxide of and transparency varying from transparent to opaque, are named Actynolite and Calamite ; the white and blue va- iron 0.40. Stromeyer. Geognostic and Geographic Situations—Occurs in pririeties, disposed in fibrous, radiated, and granular concretions, with a lustre which is shining, or glistening and pear- mitive rocks in the Bannat, in Norway, Finland, and in ly, or vitreo-pearly, and ranging from translucent to trans- rocks of the same description in the island of Ceylon. lucent on the edges, are named Tremolite ; other varieties, Genus IX.—Azure-Spar. in which the colours are white, green, yellow, blue, and Colour blue. Prismatic. Hardness = 5.0,—6.0. Sp. brown, and disposed in flexible, shining, silky, fibrous concretions, are named Flexible Asbestus or Amianthus; gr. =r 2.8,—3.1. 1. Prismatic Azure-Spar. others, which are of a white colour, or grey colour, and disposed in minute promiscuous fibrous concretions, and so Lazulit, Werner Lazulite, Hauy—Prismatischer Lalight as to swim in masses in water, are named Mountain zure-Spath, Mohs. Cork ; those in which the colours are generally green, and Specific Character.—Prismatic. Cleavage P + oo (imdisposed in straight, shining, pearly, rigid, fibrous concre- perfect). Colour lively. Hardness = 5.0,—5.5. Sp gr. tions, are named Rigid or Common Asbestus ; and, lastly, = 3.0,—3.1. those varieties in which the colour is wood-brown, and in Description Colour blue. Occurs massive. Fracture general aspect much resembling fossil-wood, are named uneven. Opaque. Very feebly translucent on the edges. Rockwood or Ligneous Asbestus. Easily frangible. Constituent Parts—White. Silica 60.31, magnesia 24.23, Constituent Parts.—Phosphate of lime 41.81, alumina lime 13.66, alumina 0.26, protoxide of iron 0.15, fluoric 35.73, magnesia 9*34, silica 2.10, protoxide of iron 2.64, acid 0.94, water and foreign matter 0.10. Bonsdorf.—• water 6.06. Fuchs. Green. Silica 46.26, magnesia 19.03, lime 13.96, alumina Geognostic and Geographic Situations.—Occurs imbed14.48, protoxide of iron 3.43, protoxide of manganese 0.36, ded in quartz in the district of Vorau, in Stiria. fluoric acid 1.60, water, &c. 1.04. Bonsdorf.—Black. Silica 2. Prismatoidal Azure-Spar, or Blue Spar. 45.69, magnesia 18.79} lime 13.85, alumina 1.18, proBlauspath, Werner.—Feldspath, Hauy. toxide of iron 7.32, fluoric acid 1.50. Bonsdorf. Geognostic and Geographic Situations.—The hornblende Specific Character.—Prismatic. Cleavage prismatoidal, varieties abound in primitive and transition rocks, and are imperfect. Colour pale. Hardness = 5.5,—6.0. Sp. gr. also met with in those of the secondary class ; those named = 3.0,—3.1. actynolite and tremolite scarcely occur in secondary rocks, Description.—Colour blue. Occurs massive and dissebeing confined principally to those of the primitive class ; minated. Lustre glistening. Fracture splintery. Feebly while the asbestine varieties are principally met with in the translucent. Yields a greyish-white streak. serpentine rocks of primitive and transition mountains. NuConstituent Parts Alumina 34.50, phosphoric acid merous localities of this species occur in Scotland, England, 43.32, magnesia 13.56, silica 6.50, oxide of iron 0.80, and Ireland, water 0.50. Brandes. Geognostic and Geographic Situations.—Occurs in pri2. Prismatoidal Augite, or Epidote. mitive rocks at Krieglach in Stiria. Prismatoidischer Augit-spath, Mohs.—Epidote, Hauy. or Calaite—Mineral TurSpecific Character.'—^Prismatic. Pyramid unknown. 3. Uncleavable Azure-Spar, quois. Combination hemiprismatic. Cleavage, two faces, of which Specific Character.—No cleavage. Hardness = 6.0. one is more distinct than the other. Incidence = 114° 37'. Sp. gr. = 2.8,—3.0. Hardness = 6.0,—7.0. Sp. gr. z= 3.2,—3.5. Description—Massive. Disseminated. Blue. Streak Description—Colours green and grey. Occurs regularly crystallized; in granular, fibrous, and prismatic con- white. Feebly translucent on the edges, or opaque. Incretions. Lustre ranges from splendent to glimmering, and ternally dull. Fracture conchoidal. Constituent Parts.—According to Berzelius it consists of is resino-pearly. Fracture conchoidal, uneven, splintery, and sometimes nearly earthy. Ranges from transparent to phosphate of alumina and phosphate of lime with silica, the oxides of iron and copper, and a little water. John, the translucent on the edges. Brittle, and easily frangible. The green varieties are named simply epidote, or pista- Russian chemist, on the contrary, found it composed of . cite ; while the grey and less perfectly crystallized varieties alumina 73.0 ; copper 4.5 ; oxide of iron 4.0 ; water 18.0. Geognostic and Geographic Situations.—This beautiful are named zoisite. Constituent Parts.— 1. Pistacite, or Green Varieties. mineral occurs in small veins in a slate-clay in Persia, where silica 37.0, alumina 27.0, lime 14.0, oxide of iron 17.0, it is much prized as an ornamental stone. Observation The Bone-Turquois is not true Calaite, oxide of manganese 1.5. Descostes.—2. Grey Variety, or Zoisite. Silica 45.0, alumina 29-0 lime 21.0, oxide of but bone coloured with oxide of copper. iron 3.0. Klaproth. Order VII GEM. Geognostic and Geographic Situations.—It occurs principally in primitive rocks, such as gneiss, mica-slate, syenite, Not metallic. Streak white or grey. Hardness == 5.5.

MINER A L O G Y. 155 nera- —10.0. Sp. gr. = 1.9,—4.7. If hardness = 6.0, and less, blackish-green. Occurs regularly crystallized. External Minera•s'y. the sp. gr. = 2.4, and less, and no traces of form or clea- lustie pearly, inclining to semimetallic, internally shining logy* vage. If sp. gr. is less than 3.8, there is no pearly lustre. and resinous. Fracture conchoidal. Opaque or faintly translucent on the edges. Genus I.—Andalusite. Constituent Parts—Alumina 60.00, oxide of zinc 24.25, Prismatic. Cleavage, not prismatoidal. Hardness — 7.5. oxide of iron 9.25, silica 4.75. Eckeberg. Sp. gr. == 3.0,—3.2. Geognostic and Geographic Situations.—Occurs imbedded in talc, and associated with lead-glance at Fahlun in 1. Prismatic Andalusite. Sweden, also in New Jersey in the United States of America. Prismatischer Andalusit, Mohs—Andalusit, Werner Feldspath apyre, Haiiy. 3. Rhombohedral Corundum. Sapphire. Oriental Specific Character.—Prismatic. Pyramid unknown. Ruby, fyc. Cleavage, P + oo. Pr + oo. Pr + oo. (Fig. 30, 29, Rhomboedrischer Corund, Mohs. 28.) Specific Character—Rhombohedral. Rhombohedron Description.—Colours red and grey. Occurs regularly zz 86° 6'. Cleavage R — oo . More perfect R. Hardcrystallized and massive. Lustre shining, glistening, and ness z: 9.0. Sp. gr. zz 3.0, —4.05. vitreous. Fracture uneven. Feebly translucent. Description—Colours blue, red, grey, white, green, Constituent Parts.—Alumina 60.5, silica 36.5, oxide of yellow, brown, and black. Occurs regularly crystallized, iron 4.0. Bucholz—Alumina 52.0, silica 28.0, oxide of also massive. Lustre ranges from splendent to glimmeriron 2.0, potash 8.0. Vauquelin. ing, and vitreous, or vitreous sometimes inclining to adaGeognostic and Geographic Situations Occurs in gneiss mantine. Fracture conchoidal and uneven. Ranges from in the Shetland Islands, and in slate rocks in Banffshire. transparent to feebly translucent on the edges. * Fibrolite—Bournon. The transparent blue varieties are named sapphire ; the Prismatic. P + oo = 100°. Cleavage imperfect. Hard- transparent red varieties, oriental ruby ; the massive, nearly opaque, grey and blackish varieties, emery; the transness more considerable than quartz, and sp. gr. = 3.214. Constituent Parts—According to Chenevix consists of lucent, massive, and crystallized varieties, common corunsilica 33.0, alumina 46.0, oxide of iron 13.0. Occurs in dum ; and the brown faintly translucent varieties, adamantine spar. the Carnatic and in China. Constituent Parts.—Sapphire. Alumina 98.5, oxide of * Chiastolite. Holspath, Werner.—Made, Hauy. iron 1.0, lime 0.5. Klaproth.—Emery. Alumina 86.0, Prismatic. P + oo = 84° 48. Pr zz 120 nearly. Cleav- silica 3.0, oxide of iron 4.0. Tennant. O — Geognostic and Geographic Situations The finest age, P + 00 . Pr + 00 . Pr + oo . All of them impersapphires and oriental rubies are found in alluvial soil in fect. Hardness = 5, — 5.5. Sp. gr. zz 2.9, — 3.0. Constituent Parts.—Silica 68.49, alumina 30.17, mag- Ceylon and Pegu, and other eastern countries; the emery nesia 4.12, oxide of iron 2.7, water 0.27.—Landgrabe. occurs in primitive talc-slate in Saxony; the common coGeognostic and Geographic Situations.—Occurs in rundum and adamantine spar in granite, syenite, and other clay-slate near Keswick in Cumberland, and near Bala- similar rocks in India and China. 4. Prismatic Corundum, or Chrysoberyl. hulish in Argyllshire. Prismatischer Corund, Mohs—Krysoberyll, Werner.— Genus II—Corundum. Cymophane, Hauy. Tessular, rhombohedral, prismatic. Hardness zz 8.0. Specific Character—Prismatic. Pyramid zz 139° 53'; — 9.0. Sp. gr. zz 3.5, — 4.3. If prismatic, the sp. gr. zz 3.7, and more, and hardness zz 8.5. If colour red, and sp. 86° 16'; 107° 29'. P + oo zz 128° 35'. Cleavage zz Pr + co . Less perfect Pr -4- oo . (Fig. 29, 28.) Hardgr. zz 3.7, and more, the hardness = 9.0. ness zz 8.5. Sp. gr. zz 3,65, — 3.8. 1. Dodecahedral Corundum, or Spinel. Description.—Colour green, and often exhibits a milkDodecaedrischer Corund, Mohs—Spinel and Zeilanit, white opalescence. Occurs regularly crystallized, and in Werner.—Spindle and Pleonaste, Hauy. blunt edged pieces. Lustre splendent and resino-vitreous. Specific Character.—Tessular. Cleavage, octahedral, Fracture conchoidal. Semi-transparent and transparent. but obtained with difficulty. Hardness zz 8.0. Sp. gr. zz Constituent Parts.—Alumina 76.75, glucina 17-79, pro3.5,—3.8. toxide of iron 4.49, moisture 0.48. Thomson. Description—Colours red, and sometimes green, black, Geognostic and Geographic Situations.—Occurs imblue, yellow, brown, and white. Occurs regularly crystal- bedded in granite veins in America, in alluvial soil in Ceylized. Lustre splendent and vitreous. Fracture conchoi- lon, and apparently in the granite of Aberdeen. dal. Ranges from transparent to translucent on the edges. Genus III Diamond. The dark green and black varieties, which are only translucent on the edges, are named ceylanite ; the other vaTessular. Hardness zz 10. Sp. gr. zz 3.4, — 3.6. rieties spinel or spinel-ruby. 1. Octahedral Diamond. Constituent Parts.—Red Spinel. Alumina 74.50, siliSpecific Character.—Tessular. Cleavage octahedral. ca 15.56, magnesia 8.25, oxide of iron 1.56, lime 0.75. Description Its colours are more numerous than in Klaproth. Geognostic and Geographic Situations—The ceylanite most other minerals, and of the various tints the grey and varieties occur in the sand of rivers in Ceylon; the others white are the most frequent; it exhibits also beautiful red, yellow, and blue varieties. Occurs regularly crystallized, and also in Ceylon, Pegu, and other countries. in roundish grains. The lustre splendent and adamantine. 2. Octahedral Corundum or Automolite. Fracture conchoidal. Transparent and semi-transparent. Octaedrischer Corund, Mohs Automalite, Werner.— Constituent Parts.—Consists of pure carbon, and is Gahnite. Spindle Zincifere, Hauy. completely volatilized at a temperature of 14°, WedgeSpecific Character.—Tessular. Cleavage, octahedral, wood, affording with oxygen, carbonic acid gas. and easily obtained. Hardness zz 8. So. gr. zz 4.1,— Geognostic and Geographic Situations.—It has hitherto 4.3. been found principally loose in alluvial soil, in the warmer Description.—Colour muddy dark-blue, passing into regions of the earth, as Brazil, Borneo, the Peninsula of

15(j

MINERALOGY. Description Colours green, blue, yellow, and grey. Minera. Minera- India, and lately is'reported to have been discovered in Occurs regularly crystallized, and in thin prismatic con- ^ l°gy. logy. Siberia. cretions. "Lateral planes longitudinally streaked or smooth." , Genus IV.—Topaz. Lustre ranges from splendent to glistening, and is vitreous. Prismatic. Cleavage axotomous. Hardness — 8. Sp. Fracture conchoidal. Ranges from transparent to translucent on the edges. Easily frangible. gr. — 3.4,—3.6. The varieties, with emerald-green colours, in short, 1. Prismatic Topaz. smooth, transparent, and translucent prisms, with rough Prismatischer Topaz, Mohs.—Topaz. Physalit. Piknit, terminal planes, are named precious emerald, while the Werner Silice Fluatee Alumineuse, i/awy. ^ others, in which the colours are green, blue, yellow, and Specific Character—Prismatic. Pyramid = 141° 7'; grey, and crystallized in long longitudinally streaked prisms, 101° 52'; 90° 55'. P + oo = 124° 19'. Combination, are named beryl, or common emerald. sometimes with different planes on opposite ends. CleavConstituent Parts 1. PteciousEmerald. Silica 68.50, age, P +co . (Fig. 27.) alumina 15.75, glucina 12.50, lime 0.25, oxide of chrome Description.—Colours yellow, green, blue,, red,, grey, 0.30, oxide of iron 1.00. Klaproth—2. Beryl, Siberia. white. Occurs regularly crystallized; also in prismatic Silica 66.45, alumina 16.75, glucina 15.50, oxide of iron and granular concretions, and massive. Lustre ranges from 0.60. Klaproth 3. Beryl, Broddbo. Silica 68.35, alusplendent to glistening, and is vitreous and resinous. Frac- mina 17.60, glucina 13.13, oxide of iron 0.72, oxide of ture conchoidal and uneven. Ranges from transparent to tantalum 0.27. Berzelius. translucent on the edges. Easily and uncommonly easily Geognostic and Geographic Situations—The precious frangible. , . emerald is found in mica-slate and clay-slate; the ancients The highly crystallized and transparent varieties are obtained their emeralds from Mount Zalora in Upper named precious topaz ; those in prismatic distinct concre- Egypt, but at present the finest varieties are those importtions, with a slight degree of translucency on the edges, ed from Peru. The beryl, or common emerald, occurs in and which are uncommonly easily frangible, schorlous to- Aberdeenshire, in the Mourne mountains in Ireland, the paz ; and those in coarse granular concretions, with a low United States, &c.; but nearly all the varieties met with degree of lustre, and feeble translucency on the edges, in trade, are brought from Russia. physahte. Constituent Parts.—1. Precious Topaz. Alumina 5 7.45, Genus VI—Quartz. silica 34.24, fluoric acid 7-75. Berzelius—2. Schorlous Rhombohedral prismatic. Cleavage not axotomous. Topaz. Alumina 51.00, silica 38.43, fluoric acid 8.84. Berzelius.—3. Physahte. Alumina 57.74, silica 34.36, Hardness = 5.5, — 7.5. Sp. gr. = 1.9, — 2.7fluoric acid 7-77. Berzelius. 1. Prismatic Quartz, or lolite. Geognostic and Geographic Situations.—Precious topaz Prismatischer Quarz, Mohs.—lolith. Peliom, Werner. occurs in alluvial soil in the upper parts of Aberdeenshire, in primitive rocks in Cornwall, in granite in the Mourne —lolithe, Hauy.—Dichroite. Cordierite. Steinheilite, Mountains in Ireland; schorlous topaz is said also to occur Auct. Specific Character Prismatic. Pyramid unknown. in Aberdeenshire; and the physalite in granite, at Finbo in Sweden, and at Altenberg in Saxony. The Uralian and Cleavage, P + oo = 120° nearly. Pr + oo . (Fig. 30,29.) Altain Mountains in Asiatic Russia, and those of Brazil in Hardness = 7.0, — 7*5. Sp. gr. =2.5, —.2.6. the New World, afford rich and beautiful varieties of this Description.—Colour blue. Of an indigo blue colour, gem. when viewed in the direction of the axis, but viewed perpendicular to the axis, is brownish-yellow. Occurs rarely Genus V Emerald. Rhombohedral. Prismatic. Cleavage rhombohedro- crystallized, generally massive and disseminated. Lustre axotomous and peritomous, or prismatoidal. Hardness = shining and vitreous. Fracture uneven and conchoidal. Translucent in the direction of the axis, and transparent at 7.5,—8.0. Sp. gr. 2.6,—3.2. right angles to it. 1. Prismatic Emerald or Enclose. Constituent Parts.—Silica 48.54, alumina 31.73, magEuclase, Werner.—Prismatischer Smaragd, Mohs.—Eu- nesia 11.30, oxide of iron 5.69, oxide of manganese 0.70, clase, Hang. water or loss 1.65. Stromeyer. Geognostic and Geographic Situations.—Occurs in graSpecific Character.—Prismatic. Pyramid unknown. P nite and gneiss; Abo in Finland, Arendal in Norway, St P -|- qo = 133° 26'. Combination hemiprismatic 2 Gothard in Switzerland, and Granatillo in Spain, Ujondlersok in Greenland, are localities of this mineral. Cleavage, Pr + oo . Very distinct. Hardness rr 7*5. Sp. 2. Rhombohedral Quartz. gr. = 2.9, — 3.2. Description.—Colours green, white, and blue. Occurs Quartz, Werner.—Rhomboedrisher Quarz, Mohs. regularly crystallized. Lustre splendent. Fracture conSpecific Character.—Rhombohedral. Rhombohedron = choidal. Transparent and translucent. Very easily fran- 75° 55'. Combination, hemirhombohedral and hemidigible. Constituent Parts.—Silica 43.22, alumina 30.56, glucina rhombohedral. R + w and (P + w') , with inclined planes, and P + n" with parallel planes. Cleavage, P = 133° 44'; 21.78, oxide of iron 2.22, oxide of tin 0.70. Berzelius. Geognostic and Geographic Situation?,.—This beautiful 103° 35'. P + qo • Hardness = 7-0. Sp. gr. = 2.5, — and rare mineral has been hitherto found only in Peru and 2.7.Description.—Colours white, grey, rarely black, blue, Brazil. green, yellow, red, and brown. Occurs regularly crystal2. Bhombohedral Emerald. lized ; in granular, fibrous, prismatic, and lamellar concreRhomboedrischer Smaragd, Mohs—Emeraude, Hauy. tions ; also massive, disseminated, in plates, stalactitic, reSpecific Character.—Rhombohedral, R — 104° 28'. niform, botryoidal, globular, specular, vesicular, and cellular. Combination dirhombohedral. 2 (R) = 138° 35' : 90. Lustre ranges from splendent to glimmering, and is vitreous. Cleavage, R — oo . Less perfect, P + oo . Hardness = Fracture conchoidal, even, uneven, and splintery. Ranges from transparent to opaque. Brittle, and easily frangible. 7.5, — 8.0. Sp. gr. = 2.6, — 2.8.

MINERALOGY. 157 tfinera- The transparent and highly crystallized varieties are cular external forms. Lustre ranges from splendent to Mineralogy, named rock-crystal. The pyramidal, translucent, and glistemng, and is vitreous, or vitreo-resinous. Ranges from Wv. -y—transparent varieties, having generally a violet-blue colour, transparent to opaque. — and disposed in prismatic, fibrous, and lamellar concretions, The grey and white varieties, with glistening and shining are named amethyst. The massive, strongly translucent, pearly lustre, and translucent on the edges, or translucent rose-red, and milk-white varieties, are named rose quartz. t le naSS are name(l . ’1 and, greyish quartzy sinter,with or pearl-sinter. Those varieties which have generally grey or white colours, nu 1| Ihe yellowish white varieties the botryoithe pyramidal form, and occur massive, disseminated, and dal and other particular external forms, conchoidal fracture, in the various particular external forms enumerated above, and vitreous lustre, and which are strongly translucent, with a low degree of translucency, are named common quartz. are named hyalite. Ihe milk-white varieties, with the The leek-green translucent varieties, with a resino-vitreous beautiful play of various rich and pure colours, are named lustre, and conchoido-splintery fracture, are named prase. precious opal. The transparent varieties, with the beautiThe cats eye is a variety, with a beautiful opalescence, like ml carmine-red and apple-green iridescence, are named the light of the eye of the cat. Those opaque varieties, in jire-opal. Those varieties which are milk-white, and frewhich the colours are red, brown, and yellow, and the lustre quently dendritic, with a pearly, shining, or glistening shining externally, and glistening internally, and vitreo- lustre, conchoidal fracture, and complete opacity, are named resinous, and fracture small conchoidal, are named iron- mother-of-pearl opal, or cacholong. The common opal flint. Those varieties which exhibit grey, yellow, brown, differs from the precious, principally in wanting the play of red, and green, generally muddy colours, and which occur colour. The feebly translucent varieties, with conchoidal massive, and in extraneous external shapes, with a splintery fracture, and glistening vitreo-resinous lustre, and white, or conchoidal and dull or glimmering fracture, and are grey, and brown colours, are named semi-opal. Those opaque or translucent on the edges, are named hornstone. varieties, in which the colours are red, yellow, and grey, The grey, brown, and black varieties which generally occur with a shining vitreo-resinous lustre, conchoidal fracture, massive, and in various particular and extraneous external and opacity, are navacHjasper-opal. Those varieties which forms, and exhibit a glimmering lustre, conchoidal fracture, occur in various vegetable forms, and are really vegetables and feeble translucency, are named flint. The semi-trans- impregnated, or petrified with opal, are named wood-opal. parent and translucent varieties, in massive and various And lastly, the brown and yellowish grey tuberose varieparticular external forms, with an even and dull fracture ties are named menilite. surface, are named common calcedony. The beautiful apConstituent parts 1. Precious Opal. Silica 90.0, ple-green strongly translucent varieties are named chryso- water 10.0. Klaproth—2. Fire-Opal from Mexico. prase. The grass-green varieties, with glimmering lustre, Silica 92.60, water 7.75, oxide of iron 0.25. Klaproth conchoidal fracture, and strong translucency, are named 3. Common Opal, Hungary. Silica 93.5, water 5.0, oxide plasma. The semi-transparent and strongly translucent of iron 1.0. Klaproth—4. Semi-Opal. Silica 82.75, varieties, with glistening or shining vitreous lustre and water 10.00, oxide of iron 3.00, alumina 3.50. Stucke. conchoidal fracture, and with various tints of red, brown, —5. Hyalite. Silica 92.00, water 6.33. Bucholz 6. yellow, green, and white, are named carnelian. The beau- Menilite. Silica 85.5, water 10.0. tiful variety, named heliotrope, is well characterized, on a Geognostic and Geographic Situations This species general view, by its green colour, and disseminated spots has a comparatively limited geognostic and geographic disof red and yellow jasper. Those varieties, in which the tribution. The quartzy sinter occurs in the vicinity of hotcolours are red, brown, and black, and seldomer yellow or springs, as in Iceland and other countries; the hyalite in green, which occur massive and disseminated, with a frac- secondary trap-rocks in Scotland, Germany; and the variture ranging from conchoidal to earthy, and lustre from ous opals are found prindpally in secondary trap, and in glistening to dull, and are opaque, are named jasper. And, porphyry rocks in Hungary, Germany, Scotland and other lastly, the white and grey varieties, which are so porous countries. and light, as to swim on the surface of water, are named 4. Fusible Quartz, Obsidian, Pitchstone, Pearlstone, spongiform quartz, or floatstone. Pumice. Constituent Parts—1. Rock-crystal. Silica 99.37, trace of alumina and oxide of iron. Bucholz 2. Amethyst. Empyrodox Quarz, Mohs. Silica 97.50, alumina 0.25, oxide of iron a trace, manganese Specific Character—In grains...Massive. No cleavage. 0.75. Rose—3. Common Quartz. Silica 97.75, alumina Hardness =r 6.0,—7-0. Sp. gr. = 2.2,—2.4. 0.50, water 1.00. Bucholz.—4. Red Iron-flint. Silica 76.8, Description—Colours black, green, and grey ; also alumina 0.25, oxide of iron 21.66, volatile matter 1.00. brown, blue, red, yellow, and white. Occurs in globular, Bucholz—5. Carnelian. Silica 94.00, alumina 3.50, oxide lamellar, and prismatic concretions; massive, vesicular, of iron 0.75. Bindheim.-—6. Chrysoprase. Silica 96.16, and porous. Lustre ranges from splendent to glimmering, alumina 0.08, lime 0.82. Klaproth—7. Common Flinty and is vitreous, resinous, and pearly. Ranges from transMate. Silica 51.84, alumina 15.43, lime 9.42, oxide of parent to opaque. iron 9*96. Dumeril. The varieties, with splendent and vitreous lustre, conGcognostic and Geographic Situations.—-Quartz is very choidal fracture, and ranging from transparent to transluUniversally distributed, and, as far as we know at present, cent on the edges, are named obsidian, and marekanite; !s the most abundant mineral in nature. It occurs in every those again in which the lustre is shining and resinous, rock, from granite to the newest secondary formation; and and are translucent on the edges, are named pitchstone ; every country, every district in the world, afford examples the beautiful varieties in globular and concentric lamellar, ot this mineral. shining, pearly, translucent concretions, are named pearlstone ; and lastly, the white and grey varieties, which are 3. Uncleavable Quartz or Opal. vesicular and fibrous, with a vitreous or pearly lustre, and Untheilbarer Quarz, Mohs. often so light as to swim on water, are named pumice. Specific Character.—Ileniform. Massive. No cleavConstituent Parts 1. Obsidian, from Mexico. Silica ag e. Hardness = 5.5,—6.5. Sp. gr. = 1.9,—2.2. 78.0, alumina 10.0, lime 1.0, potash 6.0, oxide of iron 3.6. escription.—Colours white and grey, also green, yel- Vauquelin.—2. Marekanite. Silica 81.00, alumina ow, brown, red, and black, and sometimes displays a beau- 9.50, lime 0.33, natron 4.50, potash 2.70, water and oxide 1 ul play of colour. Occurs massive, and in various parti- of iron 1.00. Klaproth.—3. Pitchstone. Silica 72.80,

MINERALOGY. 158 visible. Colours yellow, brown Hardness = 6.5. Sp. gr. Miner Minera- alumina 11.50, natron 2.85, lime 1.20, oxide of iron 3.03, = 3.15,-3.25. Jogv! logv. water and bituminous matter 0.50.—4. Pearlstone. Silica Description.—Colours straw, ochre, honey, orange, pass^ 77.0, alumina 13.0, potash 1.5, lime and natron 2.7, oxide into hyacinth-red and yellowish-brown. Occurs in of iron and manganese 2.0, water 4.0. Vauquelin.—b. Pu - ing grains in small massive pieces, and in longish mice. Silica 77.50, alumina 17.50, natron and potash 3.00, imbedded granular distinct concretions. Lustre vitreous. Fracture oxide of iron with manganese 1.75. Klaproth. conchoidal. Translucent. Geognostic and Geographic Situations. Pitchstone imperfect Constituent Parts.—Magnesia 54.00, silica 32.66, fluoric is found on the mainland of Scotland as in Dumfriesshire ; acid 4.08, oxide of iron 2.33, potash 2.10, water LOO. in the Islands of Arran, Egg, Rum, and Skye; pearl- Seybert. stone occurs in great beauty in Hungary and Iceland, and Geognostic and Geographic Situations.—Occurs in calc both pumice and obsidian are productions of Iceland, the spar and granular limestone in the parish of Pargas in FilmLipari Islands, and Mexico. land ; also in granular limestone, associated with graphite, Genus VII—Axinite. at Newton in New Jersey, United States, at Lochness, and Cleavage imperfect. Colour not inclining to yellow. in granular limestone in Kincardineshire. Perfect vitreous lustre. Hardness = 6.5,—7-0. Specific Genus IX—Boracite. gravity = 3.0,—3.3. Tessular. Hardness = 7. Sp. gr. = 2.8,—3.0. 1. Prismatic Axinite. 1. Octahedral Boracite. Prismatischer Axinit, dfo/is.—Thumerstein, Werner— Octaedrischer Borazit, Mohs.—Borazit, Werner—MagAxinite, Hauy. Specific Character—Prismatic. Pyramid unknown. nesie Boratee, Hauy. Specific Character—Tessular. Combination semitesCombination tetarto-prismatic. Cleavage, two faces, the one more distinct than the other. Incidence =101° 30'. sular of inclined planes. Cleavage octahedral but imperDescription Colours brown, blue, and sometimes grey fect. Description.—Colours white and grey. Occurs in cubes and black. Occurs regularly crystallized; in curved lamellar concretions, and massive. Lustre externally splen- and dodecahedrons. Internally shining, and nearly adadent, internally glistening or shining, and vitreous. Ranges mantine. Fracture conchoidal. Translucent and transfrom transparent to feebly translucent. Brittle, and very parent. Constituent Parts.—1. Boracic acid 54.55, magnesia30.68, easily frangible. Constituent Parts.—Silica 45.00, lime 12.75, alumina oxide of iron 0.57, silica 2.27. Pffaff.—Z. Boracic acid 10.00, oxide of iron 12.25, oxide of manganese 9.00, bo- 69*95, mangnesia 30.04.—Arfwedson. Geognostic and Geographic Situations.—Occurs imbedracic acid 2.00. Wiegmann. Geognostic and Geographic Situations. Occurs in beds ded in gypsum, in the Kalkberg, in Hanover, and in the and veins in gneiss, mica-slate, clay-slate, and hornblende- Segeberg, near Kiel, in Holstein. slate. It occurs in small quantities in Cornwall, but no Genus X Tourmaline. where else in Great Britain. Rhombohedral. Hardness = 7.0,—7.5. Sp. gr. = 3.0 Genus VIII—Chrysolite. —3.2. Prismatic. Colour green, brown, both inclining to yel1. Rhombohedral Tourmaline. low, yellow. Pure vitreous lustre. H = 6.5,—7.0. Sp. gr. Rhomboedrischer Turmaline, Mohs.—Tourmaline, Hauy. = 3.15,—3.5. Specific Character.—Rhombohedral. Rhombohedron 1. Prismatic Chrysolite. = 133° 26'. Combination hemirhombohedral, the opposite Prismatischer Chrysolithe, Mohs.—Peridot, Hauy.—— ends differently formed. Cleavage, R. P + go , imperKrisolith and Olivin, Werner. fect. , Description.—Colours black, brown, green, blue, red, Specific Character—Prismatic. Pr = 80° 53', (P + co )2 and white. Occurs regularly crystallized ; in prismatic and = 130°2/. Cleavage Pr 4- 00 . Traces in the direction granular distinct concretions, massive and disseminated. Pr + 00. Colour green. Hardness = 6.5,—7.0. Sp.gr. Lustre ranges from splendent to glistening, and is vitreous. = 3.3,—3.5. Fracture conchoidal and uneven. Ranges from transparent Description Colour green. Occurs regularly crystal- to opaque. Brittle and easily frangible. lized. Lustre splendent and vitreous. Fracture conchoiThe black coloured opaque varieties, with uneven fracdal. Transparent. ture, are named schorl; all the others are ranged under The varieties in granular distinct concretions, and which title tourmaline. have a lower degree of transparency and lustre than the theConstituent Parts.—1. Black or Schorl of Rabenstein. more highly crystallized kinds, are those generally described Silica 34.48, alumina 34.75, soda 1.75, potash 0.48, oxide under the name olivine. iron 17.44, oxide of manganese 1.89, boracic acid 4.02, Constituent Parts.—1 — — ..Chrysolite. Silica 39.0, magne- of magnesia Gmelin.—2. Blue Tourmaline, Uton. Sisia 43.5, oxide of iron 19-0. Klaproth—2. Olivine from lica 40.30,4.68. alumina 40.50, oxide of iron 4.85, oxide of manTTnkel. Silica 50.0. Unkel. 50.0, magnesia 38.5. 38.5, oxide of iron 12.0. 1.50, boracic acid 1.10, lithion 4.39. Arfwedson.—Klaproth 3. Olivine from Meteoric Iron. Silica 38.18, ganese magnesia 48.82, oxide of iron 11.19. Stromeyer.—Traces 3. Green Tourmaline, Brazil. Silica 39.16, alumina 40.0 , oxide of iron 5.96, oxide of manganese 2.14, boracic acid of Nickel were observed. lithion 3.59 Gmelin—4. Red Tourmaline, Siberia. Geognostic and Geographic Situations.—The mineral 4.59, 39.37, alumina 44.00, potash 1.29, oxide of mangaoccurs principally in secondary trap-rocks. The olivine Silica Gmelin. • nese ,0^ 5.02, boracic acid 4.18, ---'•'7 lithion 2.62. Gmelin. variety is not unfrequent in some of the middle and western Geognostic and Geographic Situations—It occurs imdistricts of Scotland. The chrysolites of commerce are bedded in granite, gneiss, mica-slate, talc-slate, chloritebrought from the Brazils and Upper Egypt. slate, dolomite, topaz-rock, and quartz-rock ; also in felspar, 2. Hemiprismatic Chrysolite or Chondrodite. mica, talc, &c. and in alluvial strata. The schorl varieties Brucite. Maclureite. occur in various primitive rocks in the alpine districts 0 Specific Character.—Hemiprismatic. Cleavage scarcely Scotland, and the purer varieties, or tourmaline, properly

MINERALOGY. 159 [inera- so called, are met with in Siberia, Spain, and many other garnet; the yellow nearly transparent varieties, topazolite Mineralogy, countries. or yellow garnet; the brown and green varieties, in crys- logy, tals often rounded on the edges, in granular concretions, ■'v— Genus XL Garnet. and translucent, or translucent on the edges, common garTessular, pyramidal, prismatic. Lustre not pure vitre- net; the deep blood-red variety in roundish and angular ous. Hardness = 6.0,—7.5. Sp. gr. rr 3.1,—4.3. If grains, and completely transparent, pyrope ; and the hyacolour red, the sp. gr. = 3.7, and more. If colour black, cinth and orange-yellow varieties, in granular distinct consp. gr. = 3.9, and less. If hardness 7.5, the colour is red cretions, and massive, with resino-vitreous lustre, conchoior brown. If sp. gr. less than 3.3, is tessular. dal fracture, and transparent or translucent, are named Essonite or Cinnamon Stone. 1. Pyramidal Garnet or Vesuvian. Constituent Parts 1. Grossulare. Silica 40.55, aluPyramidaler Granat, Mohs—Vesuvian and Egeran, mina 20.10, lime 34.86, oxide of iron 5.00, oxide of manWerner Idocrase, Hauy. ganese 0.48. Wachtmeister—2. Pyrenaite. Silica 43.0, Specific Character.—Pyramidal. Pyramid = 129° 29'; alumina 16.0, lime 20.0, oxide of iron 16.0, water 4.0. 74° 14'. Cleavage, P — go. P + qo. [P + oo]. Hard- Vauquehn.—3. Melanite. Silica 35.5, alumina 6.0, lime 32.5, oxide of iron 25.2, oxide of manganese 0.4. 4. Alness = 6.5. Sp. gr. = 3.3,—3.4. Description—Colours green and brown, and rarely blue. lochroite. Silica 35.0, alumina 8.0, lime 30.0, oxide of Occurs regularly crystallized; in granular distinct concre- iron 17.0, oxide of manganese 3.5. Vauquelin 5. Colotions; massive, and disseminated. Externally splendent, phonite. Silica 37-0, alumina 13.5, lime 29.0, oxide of and internally feebly shining and vitreo-resinous. Frac- iron 7.5, oxide of manganese 4.8, magnesia 6.5, water 1.0. ture uneven, inclining to small conchoidal. Ranges from Simon.—6. Precious Garnet. Silica 35.75, alumina 27.25, oxide of iron, 36.00, oxide of manganese 0.25.— transparent to translucent in the edges. Constituent Parts—Silica 38.85, alumina 21.93, lime Klaproth.—7. Pyrope. Silica 40.0, alumina 28.5, lime 3.5, oxide of iron 16.5, oxide of manganese 0.3, magnesia 33.61, oxide of iron 5.40. Kobell. Geognostic and Geographic Situations.—Occurs in pri- 10.0, chromic acid 2.6.—8. Essonite or Cinnamon Stone. mitive rocks in Ireland, also in Scotland ; and on the con- Silica 38.80, alumina 21.26, lime 31.25, oxide of iron 6.50. tinent of Europe the most beautiful varieties are there Klaproth. found in the ejected masses in Somma, near Naples, where Geognostic and Geographic Situations This mineral they are associated with granular limestone, garnet, horn- occurs principally in primitive rocks, either disseminated, blende, mica, chlorite, augite, meionite, nepheline, magne- or forming an ingredient in the composition of subordinate beds; it is comparatively rare in transition rocks, and is tic iron-ore, &c. still less frequently met with in secondary formations. In 2. Tetrahedral Garnet, or Helvine. Scotland the precious garnet is common in several HighHelvin, Werner.—Tetraedrischer Granat, Mohs. land districts in Perthshire, Aberdeenshire, &c.; the pyrope Specific Character.—Tessular. Combination semi- variety occurs in secondary trap-rocks in Fifeshire; the tessular of inclined planes. Cleavage octahedral, but im- cinnamon stone or essonite in gneiss in Kincardineshire; the melanite or black garnet is found in Vesuvius, and in the perfect. Hardness =r 6.0,—6.5. Sp. gr. = 3.1,—3.3. Description.—Colours wax-yellow, inclining to yellowish- neighbourhood of Rome ; the grossulare is met wdth near brown or siskin-green. Occurs regularly crystallized, in the river Willui in Siberia; the pyrenaite in the Pic Eres tetrahedrons, truncated on the angles, and in granular dis- Lids, near Bareges, in the Pyrenees; the co/qpAomYechiefly tinct concretions. Lustre ranges from splendent to glis- at Arendal, in Norway ; allochroite in the neighbourhood tening and vitreo-resinous. Fracture uneven. Translu- of Drammen, in Norway ; and the finest cinnamon stones cent, or translucent on the edges. Streak white. are the produce of Ceylon. Constituent Parts—Silica 35.27, alumina 1.45, oxide of 4. Prismatoidal Garnet, or Grenatite. iron 7-99, oxide of manganese 29.44, sulphate of manganese Prismatoidischer granat, Mohs.— Granatit, Werner.— 14.00, glucina 8.03. Gmelin. Geognostic and Geographic Situations.—Occurs in a Staurotide, Hauy. Specific Character.—Prismatic. Pyramid z= 121° 54'; bed in gneiss, associated with fluor-spar, slate-spar, chlorite, quartz, blende, and copper-pyrites, near Schwarzenberg, 80° 43'; 124° 48'. P + oo zz 129° 30'. Cleavage, in Saxony, also in brown ironstone, near Brei'tenbrun, also Pr -f- oo , perfect. Traces in direction (P + oo )2. (Fig. in Saxony. 29.) Hardness zz 7.0,—7.5. Sp. gr. zz 3.3,—3.9. 3. Dodecahedral Garnet. Description.—Colour reddish-brown. Occurs regularly Specific Character.—Tessular. Cleavage dodecahedral, crystallized. Internally the cleavage is shining and splendent ; fracture glistening and glimmering, and resino-vitreimperfect Hardness zr 6.5,—7.5. Sp. gr. zz 3.5,—4.3. Description—Colours red, brown, green, black, grey, ous. Fracture uneven. Ranges from semi-transparent to and yellow. Occurs regularly crystallized ; in angulo-gra- opaque. Streak white. nular concretions, and massive. Lustre ranges from splenConstituent Parts.—Silica 33.00, alumina 45.00, lime dent to glimmering, and is vitreous inclining to resinous, 3.84, oxide of iron 13.00, oxide of manganese 4.00. Vawresino-vitreous, and resino-adamantine. Fracture con- quelin. choidal, splintery, uneven. Ranges from transparent to Geognostic and Geographic Situations.—Occurs in priopaque. mitive rocks in the Shetland Islands, in Aberdeenshire, and The asparagus-green varieties in leucite formed crystals other parts of Scotland. are named grossulare ; the greyish-black dodecahedral opaGenus XII—Zircon. que varieties, which externally have a metallic-like aspect, pyrenaite ; the velvet-black, dodecahedral opaque varieties, Pyramidal. Hardness zz 7.5. Sp. gr. zz 4.5,—4.7. nielanite; the green, brown, and grey massive varieties, 1. Pyramidal Zircon. with glimmering lustre, and feeble translucency on the edges, allochroite ; the brown and red varieties in granular Pyramidaler Zircon, Mohs. concretions, with resino-adamantine lustre, colophonite; Specific Character.—Pyramidal. Pyramid zz 123° IS7? the red highly crystallized transparent varieties, precious 84° 20'. Cleavage, P. P + ® •

MINERALOGY. 160 MineraDescription Colours grey and hyacinth red ; also white, at Skeppsholm, one of the islands on which Stockholm is logy, green, brown, and rarely yellow, blue, and red. Occurs built, also at Lindenaes, in Norway, and in Greenland. It ~v ' regularly crystallized. Lustre splendent, shining, and ada- was named in honour of the late Mr Thomas Allan, one of mantine-resinous and resino-vitreous. Fracture conchoidal. our best mineralogists, and distinguished as an accurate and judicious geologist. Ranges from transparent to opaque. Those varieties in which the cleavage is very distinct, Genus II—Titanium-Ore. and which have frequently a hyacinth-red colour, are named Pyramidal, prismatic. Streak white, or very pale brown. hyacinth, the other varieties common zircon. If the sp. Constituent Parts—1. Zircon. Zirconia 69-0, silica 26.5, Hardness = 5.0,—6.5. Sp. gr. = 3.4,—4.4. gr. less than 4.2, the streak is white. oxide of iron 0.5. Klaproth—% Hyacinth. Zirconia 70.0, silica 25.0, oxide of iron 0.5. Klaproth. 1. Hemiprismatic Titanium-Ore, or Sphene. Geognostic and Geographic Situations Occurs in Prismatisches Titan-erz, Mohs—Gelb and Braun, Masyenite, granite, gneiss, primitive trap, in secondary trap, nak-erz, Werner Titane Siliceo-calcaire, Hauy—Hemiand ejected masses of Somma. The syenite rocks of Gal- prismatisches Titan-erz, Haidinger. loway, the gneiss rocks of Inverness-shire, and of the ShetSpecific Character.—Prismatic. Pyramid = 1110 12'; land Islands, alford examples of this mineral. The most 88° 47'; 131° 16'. P + oo =103° 20'. Combination esteemed varieties of zircon, are from the Island of Ceylon. hemiprismatic. - = 111° 12'. Cleavage, -. (Fig. 37). Zi Order VIII.—ORE. Streak white. Hardness = 5.0,—5.5. Sp. gr. = 3.4,—3.6. Streak not green. Hardness = 2.0,—7,0. Sp. gr. Description Colours brown, yellow, green, grey, and = 3.4,—7.4. If metallic, the colour is black. If not me- white. Occurs regularly crystallized ; in granular and latallic, the lustre is adamantine or imperfect metallic. If mellar distinct concretions, and massive. Lustre ranges streak yellow or red, the hardness equal 3.5 and more ; and from Sp]enjent t0 glistening, and is adamantine. Fracture 1 Tf streak brown hrnwn or nr black, h1ark thp sp. or more. If hard-- conc ]loi(jai_ Ranges from transparent to opaque. "" gr. 4.8 - the Wf1 nchoidal. ness is equal to 5.0 or more, or 2.5 and less; or single disOne set of varieties, in which brown is the predominatinct cleavage. If hardness is 2.5 or less, the specific gra- ting colour, is named common sphene, or brown titaniumvity is under 5.0. If hardness is 4.5 or less, the streak is ore ; and another, in which the principal colours are yelyellow, red, or black. If hardness equal to 6.5 or more, and low, and the cleavage distinct, is named yellow titaniumstreak uncoloured, the specific gravity equal 6.5 and more. ore, ox foliated sphene. Constituent Parts.—Oxide of titanium 33.0, silica 35.9, Genus I.—Melane-Ore. lime 33.0, trace of manganese. Klaproth. Prismatic. Black. Streak greenish and brownish-grey. Geognostic and Geographic Situations.—This mineral Hardness = 5.5,—7.5. Sp. gr. = 3.2,—4.3. occurs imbedded in syenite in Inverness-shire, Perthshire, 1. Prismatic Melane-Ore or Gadolinite. Galloway, and many other quarters of Scotland ; it also occurs in syenite rocks in England. Gadolinite.—Mohs, Hauy, and Haidinger. Specific Character.—Indistinct crystals which are prisms 2. Octahedral Titanium- Ore, or Pyrochlore. of about 109° 28'. Colour greenish-black. Streak greenishOctaedrisches Titan-erz, Mohs—Pyrochlor, Wohler. grey. Hardness = 6.5 —7.0. Sp. gr. = 4.2,—4.3, Specific Character.—Tessular. Cleavage scarcely perDescription Colours black, or greenish-black. Occurs massive ; in granular and prismatic concretions. Internally ceptible. Streak pale brown. Hardness == 5.0. Sp. gr. shining, and lustre resino-vitreous. Fracture conchoidal, = 4.2,—4.25. Description Colour dark reddish-brown, passing into seldom uneven. Opaque, or very faintly translucent on the blackish-brown. Streak pale brown. Occurs massive, disedges. Constituent Parts—Yttria 45.93, protoxide of iron 11.34, seminated, and in small octahedrons. Lustre shining and vitreo-resinous. Fracture conchoidal. From translucent protoxide of cerium 16.90, silica 24.16. Berzelius. Geognostic and Geographic Situations.—Occurs in beds on the edges to opaque. Constituent Parts.—Titanic acid 62.75, lime 12.85, proof felspar, or mica-slate at Ytterby, and in granite at Finbo, in Sweden; also in Disco Island in Davis’ Straits, and in toxide of uranium 5.18, oxide of cerium 6.80, protoxide of manganese 2.75, oxide of tin 0.61, oxide of iron 2.16, wagranite in the Island of Ceylon. ter 4.20. Wdhlar. 2. Anorthitic Melane-Ore or Allanite. Geognostic and Geographic Situations.—Occurs imbedAnorthisches Melan-Erz including Orthite, Haidinger. ded in syenite at Laurvig and Frederickswiirn, Norway; Specific Character.—Tetarto-prismatic. Prism = 115° also in Greenland. —deeply truncated on the obtuse edges. Cleavage imper3. Peritomous Titanium-Ore, or Putile. fect. Greenish and brownish-black. Streak greenish and brownish-grey. Hardness = 5.5,—6.0. Sp.gr. = 3.2,—3.6. Peritomes Titan-erz, Mohs.—Titan-oxyde, Hauy.—RuDescription.—Colours black, inclining to green, grey, or til. Nigrine, Werner.—Titan schorl. Sagenite. brown. Occurs massive or in acicular crystals. Lustre imSpecific Character—Pyramidal. Pyramid = 117° 2'; perfect, metallic. Fracture conchoidal. Opaque. Streak 95° 13'. Cleavage, P + cc . [P + oo ]. Streak pale greenish or brownish-grey. brown. Hardness — 6.0,—6.5. Sp. gr. =4.2,—4.4. Constituent Parts—1. Allanitic Melane-Ore. Oxide Description.—Colours brown, red, yellow, and sometimes of cerium 33.9, oxide of iron 25.4, silica 35.4, lime 9.2, nearly velvet black. Occurs regularly crystallized, masalumina 4.1, water 4.0. Thomson.—2. Orthitic Melane- sive, disseminated, in angular grains and in flakes. Lustre Ore. Silica 32.00, lime 7.84, alumina 14.80, oxide of ce- metallo-adamantine and adamantine, and ranges from splenrium 19*44, protoxide of iron 12.44, oxide of manganese dent to glistening. Fracture conchoidal. Ranges from 3.40, yttria 3.44, water 5.36. Berzelius. transparent to opaque. Geognostic and Geographic Situations The Allanite The dark brown and black opaque varieties are named varieties occur at Alluk, near the southern extremity of nigrine ; the others rutile. Old Greenland. The varieties named Orhite occur in Constituent Parts.—The pure varieties contain of titaquartz at Finbo, near Fahlun, in Sweden, and in granite nium 56.05, and oxygen 33.35 ; the black varieties, named

MINERALOGY. 16J Ifinera- nigrine, contain oxide of titanium 84.0, oxide of iron 14.0, is adamantine, inclining to semi-metallic. Fracture uneven. MineraRanges from translucent to opaque. Brittle. logy. logy- oxide of manganese 2.0. -v—^ Geognostic and Geographic Situations—The rutile vaI he varieties with cleavage are named foliated red coprieties occur in the granite of Cairngorm ; at Killin, and per-ore ; those which are massive, glistening, and opaque, in Ben-Gloe, in quartz-rock. The nigrine varieties are compact red copper-ore ; and the varieties in capillary crysmet with at Ely, in Fifeshire, and also in Bohemia and tals, capillary red copper-ore. Transylvania. Constituent Parts.—Copper 88.5, oxygen 11.5. Chenevix. 4. Pyramidal Titanium or Anatase. Geognostic and Geographic Situations.—Occurs in veins Pyramidales Titan-erz, Mohs.-—Octaedrit, Werner in. gneiss, mica-slate, clay-slate, and greywacke ; also in Titane, Anatase, Haiiy.—Oisanite, Lameth. veins and beds in secondary rocks. The copper mines of Specific Character.—Pyramidal. Pyramid z= 70° 56'; Cornwall afford fine examples of this beautiful ore. 136° 22'. Cleavage, P — oo . P. perfect. Streak white. Genus V—Tin-Ore. Hardness = 5.5,—6.0. Sp. gr. = 3.8,—3.9. Description.—Colours blue and brown. Occurs reguZinn-erz, Mohs. larly crystallized. Lustre splendent and adamantine, inPyramidal. Streak not black. Hardness = 6.0, 7.0. clining to semi-metallic. Translucent and transparent. Sp. gr. =6.3,—7.1. Constituent Parts.—Is a pure oxide of titanium. 1. Pyramidal Tin-Ore. Geognostic and Geographic Situations.—Occurs in small veins in primitive rocks, as greenstone, gneiss, mica-slate, Pyramidales Zinn-erz, Mohs. clay-slate, granite, in Dauphiny, Spain, Norway, and Brazil. Specific Character.—Pyramidal. Pyramid = 133° 26'; 67° 59'. Cleavage P -f- oo . [P -f- go ]. Streak white or 5. Prismatic Titanium-Ore, or Brookite. pale brown. Prismatisches Titan-erz, Haidinger.—Brookite, Levy. Description.—Colours brown, black, green, white, yelSpecific Character.—Prismatic. Prism = 160°. Co- low, and red. Occurs regularly crystallized, very generallour hair-brown. Streak yellowish-white. Hardness = 5.5, ly in four-sided prisms acuminated with four planes, and —6.0. Sp. gr. unknown. often in twin crystals; also reniform, botryoidal, and gloDescription. — Colour hair-brown, inclining to dark bular, and in delicate fibrous concretions. Externally splenorange-yellow and red. Streak yellowish-wRite. Lustre dent ; internally ranges from splendent to glimmering, and metallic, adamantine. Translucent or opaque. Brittle. is adamantine, inclining to resinous. Fracture uneven. Constituent Parts.—Chiefly composed of oxide of tita- Ranges from semi-transparent to opaque. nium. The varieties in fibrous concretions are named wood-tin, Geognostic and Geographic Situations Occurs along the others common tinstone. with quartz and anatase at Bourg d’Oisans in Dauphiny, Constituent Parts.— Oxide of tin 95.0, oxide of iron the Tete-Noire in Savoy, and in the mountain of Snowdon 5.0. Descotils. in Wales. Geognostic and Geographic Situations.—Occurs in granite, gneiss, mica-slate, clay-slate, porphyry, and in alluGenus III.—Zinc-Ore, or Red Oxide of Zinc. vial depositions. The mines of Cornwall afford all its vaPrismatic. Streak orange-yellow. Hardness =4.0,— rieties. 4.5. Sp. gr. = 5.4,—5.5. Genus VI.—Wolfram-Ore. 1. Prismatic Zinc-Ore. Scheel-erz, Mohs. Prismatisches Zink-erz, Mohs and Haidinger.—Red Prismatic. Streak dark reddish-brown. Hardness = 5.0, Oxyd of Zink, Zinc Oxide Ferrifere Lamellaire Brun—5.5. Sp.gr. =7.1,—7.4. Rougeatre, Hauy. Specific Character—Prismatic. Cleavage in the direc1. Prismatic Wolfram. tion of a rhombic prism of about 120° and its shortest diaPrismatisches Scheel-erz, Mohs Wolfram, Werner.— gonal. Scheelin ferrugine, Hauy. Description.—Colour between blood-red and aurora-red. Specific Character.—Prismatic. Oblique prism =105° Streak orange-yellow. Massive, disseminated, and in granu5', and 78° 56'. Cleavage Pr + oo , perfect. (Fig. 29.) lar concretions. Lustre adamantine, and shining. TransDescription—Colour brownish-black. Occurs regularly lucent on the edges. Fracture conchoidal. Brittle. Constituent Parts—Oxide of zinc 92.0, oxides of iron crystallized, and massive. Lustre ranges from splendent and manganese 8.0. Bruce.—Oxide of zinc 88.0, oxides to glistening, and is adamantine, inclining to semi-metallic. Fracture uneven. Opaque. of iron and manganese 12.0. Berthier. Constituent Parts—Tungstic acid 78.77, protoxide of Geognostic and Geographic Situations.—This important ore has hitherto been found only in America, where it oc- manganese 6.22, protoxide of iron 18.32, silica 1.25. Bercurs along with calcareous spar, and Franklinite at Sparta, zelius. Geognostic and Geographic Situations.—Occurs in priin New Jersey. mitive rocks in the island of Rona, one of the Hebrides, in • Genus IV.—Red Copper-Ore. Cornwall, in the Saxon and Bohemian tin-mines, &c. Tessular. Streak brownish-red. Hardness = 3.5,— Genus VII—Tantalum-Ore. 4.0. Sp. gr. = 5.6,—6.1. Tantal-erz, Mohs. 1. Octahedral Red Copper-Ore. Prismatic. Streak brownish-black. Hardness = 6.0. Octaedrisches Kupfererz, Mohs.—Roth Kupfererz, Wer- Sp. gr. 6.0,—6.3. ner —Cuivre oxydule and Cuivre oxide rouge, Hauy. Specific Character.—Tessular. Cleavage octahedral. 1. Prismatic Tantalum-Ore. Description—Colours red, particularly cochineal-red. Prismatisches Tantal-erz, Mohs. Occurs crystallized, frequently the cubo-octahedron; in Specific Character.—Prismatic. Cleavage prismatoidal. granular distinct concretions; massive, disseminated, and Description Colour black. Occurs regularly crystalin flakes. Lustre ranges from shining to glimmering, and lized ; massive and disseminated. Lustre shining and glisVOL. xv. x

MINERALOGY. 162 * Cerine. Minera, Minera- tening, and semi-metallic-adamantine. Fracture uneven, Cerium Oxide Siliceux Noire, Hauy. ^ kgy. logy. or conchoidal. Opaque. Constituent Parts.—Oxide of tantalum 67-6, oxide of tin Colour brownish-black. Prismatic. Cleavage prisma8.7, oxide of iron 7.6, oxide of manganese 5.9, oxide of toidal. Streak yellowish-grey. Hardness = 5.0.—60. Sp. gr. = 4.1, 4.2. Found in Sweden. scheelium 8.7, lime 1.5. Berzelius. Constituent Parts.—Silica 30.17, alumina 11.31, lime Geognostic and Geographic Situations.—Occurs in granite in Finland ; in granite, along with beryl, iolite, uran- 9.12, oxide of cerium 28.19, oxide of iron 20.72. mica, and iron-pyrites, at Bodenmais in Bavaria, also in Genus X.—Chrome-Ore. North-America. Chrom-erz, Mohs. Observations.—Berzelius mentions a variety of this speTessular. Streak brown. Hardness = 5.5. Sp. gr. cies with a pitch-black streak, and of rather higher specific = 4.4,—4.5. gravity, which he thinks may prove a new species. 1. Octahedral Chrome-Ore, or Chromate of Iron. Genus VIII—Fergusonite. Octaedrisches Chrom-erz, Mohs. —Chrom-eisenstein, Fergusonite, Haidinger. Werner Fer chromate, Hauy. Pyramidal. Colour brownish-black. Streak pale brown. Specific Character—Tessular. Cleavage octahedral, Hardness = 5.5,—6.0. Sp. gr. = 5.8,—5.9. but imperfect. Description Colour iron-black or brownish-black. Oc1. Pyramidal Fergusonite. Specific Character Pyramidal. Terminal edge = 100° curs regularly crystallized; also in granular distinct concretions ; massive and disseminated. Internally shining and 28', edge of base — 128° 27/. Constituent Parts.—Columbic acid 47.75, yttria 41.91? glistening, and imperfect metallic. Fracture uneven. oxide of cerium 4.68, zirconia 3.02, oxide of tin 1.00, oxide Opaque. Constituent Parts Oxide of chrome 60.04, protoxide of uranium 0.95, oxide of iron 0.34. Hartwcdl. Geognostic and Geographic Situations. This interest- of iron 20.13, alumina 11.85, magnesia 7-45. Abich. ing mineral occurs in quartz, at Kikertausak, near Cape k Geognostic and Geographic Situations.—Occurs in imFarewell, in Greenland, where it was found by Gieseke. bedded masses, and in veins in serpentine, porphyry, and It is named in honour of an excellent mineralogist, Mr Fer- secondary trap. In Scotland it occurs principally in serpentine rocks, and more abundantly in the Shetland Islands guson of Raith. than in any other quarter. Genus VIII Uranium-Ore. Genus XI—Iron-Ore. Uran-erz, Mohs. Eisen-erz, Mohs. Form unknown. Streak black. Hardness =5.5. Sp.gr. Tessular, rhombohedral, prismatic. Streak red, brown, = 6.4,—6.6. black. Hardness = 5.0,—6.5. Sp. gr. = 3.8,—5.3. If 1. Uncleavable Uranium-Ore. the streak is brown, the specific gravity is equal to 4.2, and Untheilbares Uran-erz, Mohs—Uran-pecherz, Werner. less, and form prismatic ; or = 4.8, and more. If the streak —Uran oxydule, Hauy. is black, and the specific gravity = 4.8, and more, it acts Specific Character Uncleavable, reniform, and mas- on the magnet. If the specific gravity is under 4.3, and the sive. No cleavage. colour black, the streak is not shining. Description.—Colour greyish-brown and velvet-black. 1. Octahedral Iron-Ore Black or Magnetic Iron-Ore. Occurs massive, and reniform. Lustre shining, and adaOctaedrisches eisenerz, Mohs—Fer oxydule, Hauy.— mantine, inclining to semi-metallic. Fracture conchoidal, Magnet-eisenstein, Werner. passing into uneven. Opaque. Specific Character.—Tessular. Cleavage octahedral. Constituent Parts—Protoxide of uranium 86.5, protoxide of iron 2.5, silica 5.0, sulphuret of lead 6.0. Klaproth. Streak black. Hardness = 5.5,—6,5. Sp. gr. = 4.8,—5.2. Description.—Colour iron-black. Occurs regularly crysGeognostic and Geographic Situations—Occurs in veins in primitive rocks, along with native silver, red silver, iron tallized ; in granular distinct concretions; and in loose and copper pyrites, galena, blende, and brown-spar, in Sax- grains; massive and disseminated. Lustre ranges from ony, Bohemia, and Flungary. The only British locality is splendent to glistening, and is metallic. Fracture uneven, or conchoidal. Opaque. It is magnetic. Cornwall. The variety in grains is named iron-sand. The other Genus IX—Cerium-Ore. varieties, common magnetic iron-ore. Constituent Parts—It contains 28.22 per cent, of oxygen. Cerer-erz, Mohs. Geognostic and Geographic Situations.—Occurs in beds, Rhombohedral. Streak white. Hardness = 5.5. Sp. gr. often of vast thickness and great extent, in rocks of the = 4,9,—5.0. older formations, as gneiss, mica-slate, hornblende-slate, 1. Rhombohedral Cerium-Ore. clay-slate, and primitive greenstone; also variously disposed Rhomboedrisches Cerer-erz, Haidinger. in granite, syenite, serpentine, and chlorite-slate; less freUntheilbares Cerer-erz, Mohs—Cerer-erz, Werner quently in transition-rocks, in veins, beds, and imbedded Cerium oxide silicifere. Hauy. masses, as in transition porphyry; and still less frequently Specific Character.—Rhombohedral. Low regular six- in secondary trap-rocks. The serpentine, chlorite, and sided prisms. Massive. Traces of cleavage. gneiss-rocks of the Shetland Islands afford examples of this Description—Colours red and brown. Occurs massive ore; the same is the case on the Mainland of Scotland, and disseminated. Internally glimmering and adamantine. both in primitive and secondary rocks. The great beds of Fracture splintery. Opaque. iron-ore at Arendal in Norway, and nearly all the ironConstituent Parts.—Oxide of cerium 68.59, silica 18.00, mines in Sweden, are of magnetic iron-ore. oxide of iron 2.00, lime 1.25, water and carbonic acid 9*60. 2. Rhombohedral Iron-Ore—Iron-Glance.—Red IronHisinger. Ore.—Red Hematite. Geognostic and Geographic Situations.—Occurs in a bed Rhomboedrisches Eisen-erz, Mohs.—Fer oligiste, Hauy. of copper pyrites in gneiss, near Ridderhyttan, in Westmannland, in Sweden. Specific Character.—Rhombohedral. Rhombohedron

MINERALOGY. Minera- = 85° 58'. Cleavage R, sometimes R—8. Streak red,... 77° 16'. P + a, = 112® 37'. Cleavage Pr = 113° 2'; Iv^ralogy, reddish-brown. Hardness = 5.5,—6.5. Sp.gr. =4.8,—5.3. s -"Y""-’' Description—Colours dark steel-grey bordering on iron- P + CO ; P — oo ; Pr + oo . The whole, but particularly ^—-v—~ the first, imperfect. Streak black, sometimes inclining to black, iron-black, and brownish-red. Occurs regularly crystallized ; in granular, lamellar, and fibrous distinct concre- green and brown. Does not affect the magnet. Hardness tions; massive, disseminated, reniform, botryoidal, sta- = 5.5,—6.0. Sp. gr. =3.8,—4.1. Description—Colour black, blackish-green. Occurs relactitic, and globular. Lustre ranges from splendent to dull, and is metallic and semi-metallic. Fracture conchoi- gularly crystallized; also in distinct concretions, which are scopifbrm radiated, or straight radiated. Lustre glistening dal or earthy. Ranges from translucent to opaque. The dark steel-grey and iron-black varieties, which are and semi-metallic. Fracture uneven. Opaque. Constituent Parts—Oxide of iron 52.24, silica 29.28, generally more or less regularly crystallized, are named specular iron-ore, or iron-glance; the red varieties are lime 13.78, oxide of manganese 1.58, water 1.27. Stromeyer. named red iron-ore. Constituent Parts—Specular iron-ore” is a peroxide of Geognostic and Geographic Situations Occurs assoiron, the proportion of metal to that of oxygen being ciated with epidote, garnet, magnetic iron-ore, and arsenicas 69-34 to 30.66. Red hematite affords of peroxide of iron pyrites, in limestone, in the island of Elba, and has also been found in Norway and West Greenland. 94.0, silica 2.0, lime 1.0, water 3.0. Daubuisson. Geognostic and Geographic Situations.—The specular Genus XII—Manganese-Ore. iron-ore occurs in gneiss, granite, mica-slate, transition clay-slate, greywacke, and less frequently in secondary Mangan-erz, Mohs. rocks. The island of Elba affords the richest and most Pyramidal. Prismatic. Streak dark-brown, black. Does beautiful varieties of specular iron-ore, and specimens of not affect the magnet. Hardness = 2.0,—6.5. Sp. gr. considerable beauty are met with in Fitful-head in Shet- = 4.0,—4.9. If streak brown, the sp. gr. = 4.7, and land, and near Dunkeld in Perthshire. The red iron-ore more; or hardness = 4.0, and less. If hardness above occurs also in primitive rocks, but less frequently than in 4.0, sp. gr. = 4.2, and less ; if the streak is black, it is those of the transition class, as greywacke and transition shining. clay-slate; and considerable depositions of it are met with in secondary limestone districts. Ulverstone, in Lanca- 1. Pyramidal Manganese-Ore, or Black Manganese-Ore. Hausmannite. shire, and other parts of England, afford beds and veins of this ore. Pyramidales Mangan-erz, Mohs—Schwarzer Braunstein, Werner—Manganese oxyde hydrate, Hauy. 3. Prismatic Iron-Ore. Specific Character.—Pyramidal. Pyramid = 105° 25'; Prismatisches Eisen-erz, Mohs.—Braun Eisenstein, Werner.—Fer oxyde, Hauy.—Fer Hydrate, Daubuisson. 117° 54'. Cleavage P — go . Traces in the direction of P Specific Character.—Prismatic. Pr rr 117° 30'. P + oo and P — 1 = 114° 51'; 99° 11'. Streak brown. Hard= 130° 14'. Cleavage = P -J- qo . Streak yellowish-brown. ness = 5.0,—5.5. Sp. gr. = 4.7,—4.8. Description.—Colour brownish-black. Occurs regularly Hardness = 5.0,—5.5. Sp. gr. = 3.8,—4.2. Description—Colours brown and yellow. Occurs re- crystallized; also massive, globular, in longish external gularly crystallized; in granular, fibrous, and lamellar dis- forms. Lustre glimmering, glistening, and imperfect metinct concretions; massive, stalactitic, coralloidal, reniform, tallic. Fracture conchoidal and uneven. Opaque. Constituent Parts.—Red oxide of manganese 98.10, botryoidal, tuberose, cylindrical, and fruticose. Lustre glimmering and semi-metallic, inclining more or less to oxygen 0.21, water 0.43, baryta 0.11, silica 0.34. Turner. Geognostic and Geographic Situations.—Occurs in veins adamantine. Fracture uneven, even, conchoidal, or earthy. in porphyry, in Thuringia, the Hartz, and the United States. Translucent on the edges, or opaque. Constituent Parts.—Hematitic or fibrous variety. Per2. Bractypous Manganese- Ore, or Braunite. oxide of iron 82.0, water 14.0, oxide of manganese 2.0, silica Specific Character.—Pyramidal. P = 109° 53'—108° 1.0, Daubuisson.—Compact variety. Peroxide of iron 84.0, water 11.0, oxide of manganese 2.0, silica 2.0, Daubuisson. 39'- Cleavage P, perfect. Streak black, slightly inclining to It is thus a hydryated peroxide of iron; the proportion of brown. Hardness = 6.0,—6.5. Sp. gr. = 4.8,—4.9. Description.—Colour dark brownish-black. Occurs reperoxide of iron and water being as 85.30 to 14.70. Geognostic and Geographic Situations.—Occurs in veins, gularly crystallized; also massive. Lustre imperfect mebeds, lenticular masses, and mountain masses, in primitive, tallic and shining. Opaque. Streak black, inclining but transition, and secondary rocks in Great Britain, Germany, slightly to brown. Fracture uneven. Brittle. Constituent Parts.—Protoxide of manganese 86.94, oxyand other countries. gen 9.85, water 0.95, and baryta 2.26. Turner. * Dog Iron-Ore. Geognostic and Geographic Situations.—Occurs in veins Limonit. Fer Oxyde, des Lacs des Marais, Sic.—Rasen- traversing porphyry, at Ochrenstock, near Ilmenau, also at eisenstein, Werner. St Marcel, in Piedmont. Description.—Colour brown. Occurs massive, vesicuObservations.—Named Braunite, in honour of Mr Braun lar, corroded, amorphous, and tuberose. Some varieties are friable. Lustre ranges from glistening to dull, and is semi- of Gotha. 3. Uncleavable Manganese-Ore, or Psilomellane. metallic-resinous. Fracture earthy or conchoidal. Opaque. Yields a yellowish-grey streak. Brittle, and easily frangiUntheilbares Mangan-erz, Mohs.—Schwartz-eisenstein, ble. Sp. gr. from 2.6 to 3.0. Werner. — Fasriger and Dichter Schwartz - braunstein, Constituent Parts—Oxide of iron 66.0, phosphoric acid Hausmann.—Dichter Schwarz Mangan-erz, Leonhard.— 8.0, water 23.0, oxide of manganese 1.5. Klaproth. Manganese Oxide-Hydrate Concretionne, Hauy. Geognostic and Geographic Situations.—It occurs in Specific Character.—Reniform, botryoidal, massive, unalluvial soil and in peat-mosses in various places in the cleavable. Streak brownish-black and shining. Hardness mainland of Scotland, and also in the Orkney, Shetland, = 5.0,—6.0. Sp. gr. = 4.0,—4.2. and Western Islands. Description.—Colour black, passing into dark steel-grey. 4. Diprismatic Iron-Ore, or Lievrite. Occurs massive, in roundish and longish extended forms. Fer Calcareo-siliceux, Haiiy. Lustre imperfect metallic, shining or glimmering. FracSpecific Character—Pyramid =139° 37'j 117° 38; ture compact and fibrous. Opaque.

Ml

MINERALOGY. 164 Constituent Parts—Red oxide of manganese 69-79, oxy- transition and secondary rocks ; rarely in beds, and never Mineni Mineralogy. gen 7-36, baryta 16.36, silica 0.26, water 6.22. Turner. in large quantity. The mines of Germany, Norway, France, % v-’ Geognostic and Geographic Situations.—This, ore of and Russia, afford examples of this mineral. manganese occurs in veins and in nests in primitive, tranGenus II—Tellurium. sition, and secondary rocks, very frequently associated with Rhombohedral. Tin-white. Hardness = 2.0,—2.5. brown iron-ore and grey manganese-ore. In Devonshire and Cornwall, it occurs in botryoidal and stalactitic masses. Sp. gr. = 6.1,—6.2. It is one of the ores found at Ilefeld, in the Hartz, and is 1. Rhombohedral Tellurium. well known in other mining districts in Germany. Gediegen silvan, Werner.—Gediegen tellur, Hausmann. Tellur natif ferrifere et aurifere, Hauy. 4. Prismatoidal Manganese- Ore, or Grey Manganese- Ore. Specific Character Rhombohedrah R zr 71° IP. Prismatoidisches Mangan-erz, Mohs—Grauer BranP — 130° 4'; 115° 12'. Cleavage, R — oo . stein, Werner Manganite, Haidinger—Manganese oxyDescription Colour tin-white. Occurs in granular disde, Hauy. — Specific Character. — Prismatoidal. Prismatic. I r z= tinct concretions, massive, and disseminated. Lustre shinmetallic. Rather brittle, and easily frangible. 114° 19'; P + oo r= 99° 40'. Cleavage, Pr + go , very per- ing andunchanged. fect. P oo , P + oo , less perfect. Streak brown. Hard- Streak Constituent Parts—Tellurium 92.55, iron 7.20, gold ness = 3.5,—4.0. Sp. gr. = 4.3,—4.4. 0.25. Klaproth. Description.—Colour dark steel-grey, inclining to ironGeognostic and Geographic Situations.—Occurs in greyblack. Occurs regularly crystallized; in granular, fibrous, and radiated distinct concretions. Lustre shining, glimmer- wacke, in Transylvania. ing, and metallic. Fracture conchoidal and earthy. BritGenus III—Antimony. tle. Opaque. Rhombohedral. Prismatic. Colour vrhite, but not inConstituent Parts.—Red oxide of manganese 86.84, oxyclining to red. Not malleable. Hardness = 3.0,—3.5. gen 3.05, water 10.10. Turner. Geognostic and Geographic Situations.—Occurs in veins Sp. gr. = 6.5,—10.0. and imbedded masses in primitive, transition, and secon1. Rhombohedral Antimony, or Native Antimony. dary rocks. Its chief locality in Scotland is the vicinity of Rhomboedrisches Antimon, Mohs—Gediegen Spiesglas, Aberdeen. Occurs in different parts of England, and also in Ireland. The finest crystallized varieties are found at Werner Antimoine natif, Hauy. Specific Character—Rhombohedral. R 117° 15'. Ilefeld in the Hartz. Cleavage R — co , very perfect; traces according to R + 2 5. Prismatic Manganese-Ore, or Pyrolusite. and P + oo . Hardness — 3.0,—3.5. Sp. gr. = 6.5,—6.8. Prismatisches Mangan-erz, Mohs.—Anhydrous Peroxide Description.—Colour tin-white. Occurs regularly crystallized ; in granular and lamellar concretions; massive, of Manganese. Turner. Specific Character.—Prismatic. P + co — 93° 40'. disseminated, and reniform. Lustre splendent and metalCleavage P + oo , Pr + oo , Pr + oo . Streak black. Soils. lic. Rather brittle. Constituent Parts.—Consists of antimony, with small Hardness = 2.0,—2.5. Sp. gr. = 4.6,—4.9. Description Colour iron-black, sometimes inclining to portions of iron, silver, and arsenic. Geognostic and Geographic Situations Occurs in mebluish-black. Occurs massive, reniform. Lustre metallic. talliferous veins in primitive rocks in Sweden, and in the Opaque. Streak black. Soils. Constituent Parts.— Red oxide of manganese 84.05, mountains of Hanover, Dauphiny, Hungary, Brazil, and oxygen 11.78, water 1.12, baryta 0.53, silica 0.51. Turner. Mexico. Geognostic and Geographic Situations.—This valuable 2. Prismatic Antimony, or Antimonial Silver. ore is extensively employed in the arts on account of the Prismatisches Antimon, Mohs.—Spiesglas Silber, Werlarge quantity of oxygen it affords. Occurs in Devonshire ner.—Argent antimonial, Hauy. and Cornwall, and is well known in the mines of Saxony, Specific Character Prismatic. P -J- co = nearly 120°. France, Hungary, and other countries. Cleavage, P — oo . Pr. Less distinct P + co . (Fig. 27, 34, 30.) Hardness = 3.5. Sp. gr. =r 8.9,—10.0. Order IX.—NATIVE METAL. Description.—Colour between silver and tin-white. OcMetallic. Not black. Hardness = 0.0,—5.0. Sp. gr. curs regularly crystallized, and massive. Lustre splendent = 5.7,—20.0. If grey, it is sectile, and sp. gr. rr 7.4, and and metallic. Sectile. Constituent Parts.—Silver 77.0, antimony 23.0. Klamore. If the hardness is above 4.0, it is malleable. proth. Genus I—Arsenic. Geognostic and Geographic Situations—Occurs in veins Rhombohedral. Colour tin-white. Hardness = 3.5. in primitive and transition rocks in Furstenberg, Salzburg, Hartz, and Spain. Sp. gr. = 5.7,—5.8. 1. Rhombohedral Arsenic. Genus IV Bismuth. Gediegen Arsenik, Werner and Mohs.—Arsenic natif, Tessular. Easily cleavable. Silver-white, inclining to Hauy. Specific Character—Rhombohedral. Cleavage R—oo . red. Hardness 2.0,—2.5. Sp. gr. = 9-6,—9.8« 1. Octahedral Bismuth. Description Colour tin-white, which, on exposure, soon tarnishes to black. Occurs massive, in plates, reniform, Octaedrisches Wismuth, Mohs.— Gediegen Wismuth, botryoidal, reticulated, and with impressions. Lustre glis- Werner.—Bismuth natif, Hauy. tening, glimmering, and metallic. Fracture uneven. Emits, Specific Character. Octahedral. Tessular. Combinawhen struck, a ringing sound, and an arsenical odour. tion semi-tessular, with inclined planes. Cleavage octoheConstituent Parts Arsenic 97.0, antimony 2.0, iron dral, perfect. and water 1.0. John. Description.—Colour silver-white. Occurs regularly Geognostic and Geographic Situations.—It occurs in crystallized ; massive, disseminated, dentiform, and in leaves metalliferous veins, particularly where they cross each other, with a plumose streaked surface. Lustre splendent and in gneiss, mica-slate, clay-slate, and porphyry; seldomer in metallic. Malleable.

MINERALOGY. 165 The gold-yellow varieties are named gold-yellow gold; inera- Constituent Parts—It is the pure metal, sometimes the brass-yellow varieties, brass-yellow gold ; those varie- Mineraogy. containing a small quantity of arsenic. Io gy' Geognostic and Geographic Situations Occurs in veins ties in which the brass-yellow verges on steel-grey, are in primitive rocks, as gneiss, granite, mica-slate, and ciay- named greyish-yellow gold ; and, lastly, the pale brass-yelslate, in Cornwall, Germany, France, Norway, &c. low, inclining to silver-white, varieties, are named electrum or argentiferous gold. Genus Y.—Mercury. Geognostic and Geographic Situations.—Occurs in veins, Tessular, liquid. Not cleavable. Not malleable. White. and disseminated in granite, syenite, gneiss, mica-slate, Hardness = 0.0,—3.0. Sp. gr. = 10.5,—15.0. hornblende-slate, porphyry, greywacke, clay-slate, &c. ; also in various alluvial deposites. The mines of Germany, 1. Liquid Native Mercury. Fliissiges Mercur, Mohs.—Gediegen Quecksilber, Wer- Hungary, and America, afford examples of the various mineralogical and geological relations of this important mineral. ner.—Mercur Natif, Hauy. Specific Character—Liquid. Colour tin-white. HardGenus VIII—Iridium. ness = 0. Sp. gr. = 12.0,—15.0. Rhombohedral. Easily cleavable. Colour pale steel-grey. Description.—Colour tin-white. Liquid. Splendent and Ductile. Flardness = 4.5,—5.0. Sp. gr. zr 11.5, 12.5. metallic. Opaque. 1. Rltombohedral Iridium. Geognostic and Geographic Situations.—Rarely in primitive and transition rocks. More frequently in rocks of the Rhomboedrisches Iridium, Mohs Osmium-Iridium, secondary class, as sandstone. Deux-Fonts, Idria, and other Leonhard.—Iridium Osmie, Hauy. European mining districts, afford examples of this metal. Specific Character.—Rhombohedral. Cleavage R — oo , perfect. 2. Dodecahedral Mercury, or Native Amalgam. Description.—Colour pale steel-grey. Occurs in grains, Dodecaedrisches Mercur, Mohs.—Natiirlich Amalgam, rarely in six-scaled prisms. Lustre metallic. Cleavage Werner—Mercur Argental, Hauy. easily obtained. Opaque. Specific Character—Tessular. Silver-white. HardConstituent Parts—Osmium 24.5, iridium 72.9, iron ness = 1.0,—3.0. Sp. gr. = 10.5,—14.0. 2.6. Thomson. Description.—Colour silver-white. Occurs regularly Geognostic and Geographic Situations It occurs along crystallized. Lustre shining and metallic. Fracture un- with platina in the province of Choco in South America. It even. When pressed between the fingers, or cut with a is found also in the Uralian Mountains. knife, it emits a creaking sound, like artificial amalgam. Geognostic and Geographic Situations Occurs in Genus IX.—Palladium. Deux-Ponts, and other mercury mines, along with cinnabar. Tessular. Colour steel-grey. Ductile. Hardness z=4.5, —5.0. Sp. gr. zz 11.5,—12.5. Genus VI Silver. 1. Octahedral Palladium. Tessular. Uncleavable. Silver-white. Malleable. HardOctaedrisches Palladium, Mohs. ness = 2.5,—3.0. Sp. gr. 10.0,—11.0. Specific Character.—Tessular. Uncleavable. 1. Hexahedral Silver. Description. — Colour steel-grey. Occurs in grains. Hexaedrisches, Silber, Mohs.—Argent Natif, Hauy. Lustre metallic. Ductile, and very malleable. Specific Character—Tessular. No cleavage. Geognostic and Geographic Situations Occurs along Description—Colour silver-white, and silver-white in- with platina and iridium in Minas Geras, in Brazil. clining to brass-yellow. Occurs regularly crystallized, masGenus X.—Platina. sive, disseminated, dentiform, filiform, reticulated, and in leaves. Lustre metallic, and ranges from splendent to Tessular. Uncleavable. Colour steel-grey. Ductile. glimmering. Fracture hackly. Opaque. Hardness = 4.0,—4.5. Sp. gr. = 16.0,—20.0. The yellow varieties are named auriferous native silver, 1. Hexahedral Platina. from their containing a portion of gold ; the other varieties Gediegen Platin, Werner—Hexahedrisches Platina, common native silver. Geognostic and Geographic Situations.—Common na- Mohs.—Platin natif, Hauy. Specific Character.—Tessular. In grains. tive silver occurs in veins, generally occupying their midDescription—Colour steel-grey. Occurs in small flat dle or upper parts ; and those veins traverse granite, gneiss, mica-slate, clay-slate, hornblende-slate, syenite, and por- or angular grains, seldomer in blunt-edged pieces. Lustre phyry> in primitive mountains, and greywacke in transition metallic, and shining. Fracture hackly. No cleavage, mountains. It rarely occurs in secondary rocks, as in sand- Ductile. Constituent Parts Grains from Columbia. Platina stone. The mines of Cornwall, Saxony, Hungary, Mexico, afford this mineral in all its forms. The auriferous na- 84.30, rhodium 3.46, palladium 1.06, iridium 1.46, osmium tive silver was formerly found in the mines of Konigsberg 1.03, copper 0.74, iron 5.31. Berzelius. Geognostic and Geographic Situations—It occurs in m Norway; and, at present, in those of Schlangenberg in blunt-edged pieces and grains along with iridium, pallaSiberia. dium, gold, magnetic iron-sand, &c. in the alluvial depoGenus VII—Gold. sites of Brazil, Choco, and Barbaco in South America. It Tessular. Gold-yellow. Hardness 2.5,—3.0. Sp. gr. also occurs, and rather abundantly, at Joetsk in the Go= 12.0,-20.0. vernment of Perm in Siberia. 1. Hexahedral Gold. Genus XI—Iron. exae drisches Gediegen Gold, Mohs Gediegen Gold, T ^ Tessular. Colour pale steel-grey. Hardness 4.5. Sp. Werner—Or natif, Hauy. gr. = 7*4,—7.8. Specific Character—Tessular. No cleavage. 1. Octahedral Iron. Description— Colours gold-yellow and brass-yellow. Occurs regularly crystallized, massive, disseminated, in Octaedrisches Risen, Mohs—Gediegen Eisen, Werner. flakes, in leaves, reticulated, capillary, dentiform, and in Fer natif, Hauy. grains. Lustre shining, glistening, and metallic. FracSpecific Character—Tessular. No cleavage. ture hackly. Opaque. Description Colour pale steel-grey. Occurs ramose,

MINERALOGY. 166 Minera- and disseminated in meteoric stones. Lustre glimmering, =122° 26'. Cleavage P — oo , perfect. Less Pr = 86° logy. glistening, and metallic. Fracture hackly. 10'. Traces in direction of P + • (Fig. 27, 30). Hard- v mr0^' Constituent Parts 1. Atacama. Iron 93.40, nickel ness = 5.0,—5.5. Sp. gr. r= 7.1,—7.4. ' 'C* 6.62, cobalt 0.53. Turner—2. Siberia. Iron 98.5, nickel 1.5. Description Colour pale steel-grey. Occurs massive. Klaproth 3. Agram. Iron 96.5, nickel 3.5. Klaproth. Lustre metallic and shining. Streak greyish-black. FracGeognostic and Geographic Situations—It is a meteo- ture uneven. Brittle. Constituent Parts—It is a compound of arsenic and iron. ric production, and has been observed to fall from fireballs Geognostic and Geographic Situations—Occurs with in Europe, Asia, and America. copper-nickel in Styria, with serpentine in Silesia, and also Genus XII—Copper. in Hungary. Tessular. Colour copper-red. Hardness = 2.5,—3.0. 2. Prismatic Arsenic Pyrites. Sp. gr. = 8.4,—8.9. Prismatischer Arsenik-kies, Mohs.—Arsenik-kies, Wer1. Octahedral Copper. ner.—Fer Arsenical, Hauy. Octaedrisches Kupfer, Mohs.—Gediegen Kupfer, WerSpecific Character—Prismatic. Pr.— 1 =145° 26'; ner Cuivre natif, Hauy. P + oo , 1110 53'. Cleavage?—oo . (Pr+oo )3 lllol9/. Specific Character.—Tessular. No cleavage. Description Colour copper-red. Occurs regularly (Fig. 27, 32.) Hardness = 5.5,—6.0. Sp. gr. —5.7,—6.2. Description Colour silver-white, inclining to steel-grey. crystallized; massive, dendritic, capillary, botryoidal, and ramose. Lustre glistening and metallic. Fracture hack- Occurs regularly crystallized; in prismatic concretions, ly. Ductile. Streak shining and unchanged. massive and disseminated. Lustre ranges from splendent Geognostic and Geographic Situations—Occurs in gra- to glistening, and is metallic. Fracture uneven. Opaque. nite, gneiss, mica-slate, clay-slate, primitive limestone, sye- Brittle. Streak greyish-black. Constituent Parts—Iron 36,04, arsenic 42.88, sulphur nite, serpentine, greywacke, secondary limestone, sandstone, and generally in small veins; also in grains, and 22.08. Stromeyer. sometimes in blocks many pounds weight, in alluvial disGeognostic and Geographic Situations.—This mineral tricts. It occurs in serpentine in Shetland, and in the cop- occurs in a variety of metalliferous formations in primitive per mines of Cornwall. Large masses are met with in al- mountains, and also in those of the transition and secondary luvial districts in the northern parts of North America. classes. In Scotland it occurs in secondary rocks in Stirlingshire, and in considerable quantity in the mines of Devon Order X.—PYRITES. and Cornwall. Metallic. Streak black. Hardness = 3.0,—6.5. Sp. gr. Genus III—Cobalt Pyrites. = 4.1,—7-7. If hardness = 4.5 and less, the sp. gr. is less Tessular. Colour white, inclining to steel-grey or red. than 5.3. If sp. gr. =5.3 and less, the colour is yellow or red. Hardness = 5.0,—5.5. Sp. gr. = 6.0,—6.6. Genus I Nickel Pyrites, or Copper-Nickel. 1. Hexahedral Cobalt Pyrites, or Silver White Cobalt. Prismatic. Colour copper-red. Hardness = 5.0,—5.5. Hexaedrisches Kobalt-kies, Mohs—Glanz Kobold, WerSp. gr. = 7.5,—7.7. ner.—Cobalt gris, Hauy. 1. Prismatic Nickel Pyrites. Specific Character.—Tessular. Combination semi-tessuPrismatischer Nickel-kies, Mohs.—Kupfer-Nickel, Wer- lar, of parallel faces. Cleavage hexahedral and perfect. Colour white, inclining to red. Hardness = 5.5. Sp. gr. ner.—Nickel Arsenical, Hauy. Specific Character.—Prismatic. Cleavage very imperfect. = 6.1,—6.35. Description.—Colour copper-red. Rarely crystallized ; Description.—Colour silver-white, inclining to copperin granular distinct concretions ; massive, disseminated, re- red. Occurs regularly crystallized ; in granular distinct ticulated, dendritic, fruticose, globular, and botryoidal. concretions, massive, disseminated, and reticulated. Lustre Lustre shining and metallic. Fracture conchoidal. Brittle. shining, glistening, and metallic. Fracture uneven or conConstituent Parts. — Nickel 44.21, arsenic 54.73.— choidal. Brittle. Easily frangible. Streak greyish-black. Stromeyer. Constituent Parts.—From Modum. Cobalt 33.10, arsenic Geognostic and Geographic Situations.—Occurs in sil- 43.46, iron 2.23, sulphur 20.08. Stromeyer. ver and cobalt veins in gneiss, mica-slate, clay-slate, and Geognostic and Geographic Situations Occurs in beds, syenite ; also in veins in secondary rocks, particularly bitu- in mica-slate, associated with iron and copper-pyrites, magminous marl-slate. In Scotland it is met with at Leadhills netic iron-ore, anthophylite, tourmaline, felspar, &c. in the and Wanlockhead, and in the coal-field of West Lothian. parish of Modum, in Norway, also at Tunaberg, in Swe* Nickel Ochre.—Colour apple-green. Occurs as a thin den. In some transition districts it is found in veins along coating, seldom massive, and disseminated. Dull. Frac- with various ores of iron and copper. ture uneven or earthy. Opaque, or translucent on the 2. Octahedral Cobalt-Pyrites, or Tin-White Cobalt. edges. Soft. Feels meagre. It occurs in mineral Veins Octaedrischer Cobalt-kies, Mohs.—Weisser Speis-koalong with copper-nickel at Alva in Stirlingshire, in Linbald, Werner.—Cobalt Arsenical, Hauy. lithgowshire, and at Leadhills. Specific Character Tessular. Cleavage hexahedral, ** Black Nickel.—Colour black. Occurs massive, disseminated, in crusts. Dull. Fracture earthy. Opaque. octahedral, dodecahedral, but indistinct. Tin-white, inSoft. Shining in streak. Soils slightly. It occurs in veins clining to steel-grey. Hardness = 5.5. Sp. gr. = 6.4,—6.6. Description.—Colour tin-white, inclining to steel-grey. in bituminous marl-slate at Reichelsdorf. Occurs regularly crystallized, and the faces of the crystals Genus II.—Arsenic Pyrites. frequently cracked; in lamellar and granular concretions; Prismatic. Colour not inclining to red. Hardness = 5.0, massive, disseminated, reticulated, fruticose, specular. Lus—6.0. Sp. gr. = 5.7,—7*4. If colour white or grey, the tre shining, splendent, and metallic. Fracture uneven. Brittle and easily frangible. Streak greyish-black. sp. gr. under 6.3, or above 7.0. Constituent Parts—Riechelsdorf. Cobalt 20.31, arsenic 1. Axotomous Arsenic Pyrites. 74.21, iron 3.42, copper 0.15, sulphur 0.88. Stromeyer. Axotomer Arsenik-kies, Mohs—Arsenik-kies, Werner. Geognostic and Geographic Situations.—Occurs in veins Specific Character.—Prismatic. Pr = 51° 20'. P + oo in primitive and transition rocks; also in old red sandstone,

MINERALOGY. 167 nera- and in copper-slate. Cornwall, Hessia, Thuringia, Hartz, Description—Colour bronze-yellow, inclining sometimes Mineragy. &c. afford many localities of this mineral. to steel-grey, or to brass-yellow. Occurs regularly crys- logy, tallized ; in radiated, granular, and lamellar concretions ; '^ 3. Isometric Cobalt-Pyrites. Isometrisher Cobalt-Kies, Mohs—Cobalt-Kies, Haus- massive, dendritic, reniform, globular, stalactitic, botryoidal, fruticose, and with impressions. Lustre varies from mann. glistening to glimmering, and is metallic. Opaque. BritSpecific Character—Tessular. Cleavage hexahedral, tle. Easily frangible. perfect. Colour white, inclining to red. Hardness = 5.5. The varieties in radiated concretions are named radiatSp. gr. = 6.3,—6.4. those in which the colour inclines to brassDescription—Colour white, inclining to red. Occurs mas- ed-pyrites; yellow, and which, on exposure to air, acquire a brown sive, in granular concretions, and in cubo-octahedral crystals. tarnish, are named hepatic-pyrites ; those in spear-shaped Lustre metallic. Fracture uneven or imperfect conchoidal. twin and triple crystals, spear-pyrites; and lastly, those Constituent Parts.—Musen, in Nausau Siegen. Cobalt in which the crystals are so aggregated as to have the form 53.35, sulphur 42.25, iron 2.30, copper 0.97. Wernekink of the comb of the cock, are named cockscomb-pyrites. 2. Ridderhyttan, Sweden. Cobalt 43.20, copper 14.40, Constituent Parts—Iron 45.66, sulphur 54.34. Hatchett. iron 3.53, sulphur 38.50. Hisinger. Geognostic and Geographic Situations This species Geognostic and Geographic Situations. Occurs in of iron-pyrites occurs more frequently and abundantly in gneiss, associated with hornblende and copper-pyrites at newer than in older formations. The newest secondary Bastnais, near Ridderhyttan, in Sweden, and at Musen, formations, and those of the alluvial class, both in this near Siegen, with heavy spar and sparry iron. island and on the continent of Europe, afford numerous 4. Eutomous Cobalt-Pyrites., or Nickeliferous Cobalt-Py- localities of the radiated varieties. The spear-pyrites is met rites. with in Bohemia and Saxony; and the cockscomb-pyrites Eutomer Kobalt-kies, Mohs. Nickelspiesglasserz, in veins in Derbyshire, and in some mines in Saxony. Hausmann—Nickel Arsenical Antimonifere, Hauy. 3. Rhombohedral Iron-Pyrites, or Magnetic-Pyrites. Specific Character—Tessular. Cleavage hexahedral, Rhomboedrischer Eisenkies, Mohs.—Magnetkies, Werperfect. Colour pale steel-grey. Hardness = 5.0,—5.5. ner—Fer Sulphure Ferrifere, Hauy. Sp. gr. = 6.4,—6.5. Specific Character—Rhombohedral. Rhombohedron Description—Colour pale steel-grey, sometimes on exCleavage, posure becoming blackish. Colour of the streak darker. unknown. Combination di-rhombohedral. Occurs massive, disseminated, and in cubo-octahedral crys- P — oo , perfect. Less distinct P -j- . Colour bronzetals, and in granular concretions. Lustre metallic. Frac- yellow, inclining to copper-red. Hardness = 3.5, 4.5. So. V gr. 4.4,—4.7. . ture uneven. Brittle. Description—Colours intermediate between bronzeConstituent Parts.—Nickel 36.60, antimony 43.80, sulyellow and copper-red. Occurs rarely crystallized; in phur 17.71, iron and manganese 1.89. Stromeyer. Geognostic and Geographic Situations.—Occurs in veins granular concretions, also massive and disseminated. Lusof ironstone and lead-glance, in transition rocks along with tre ranges from splendent to glistening, and is metallic. sparry iron, cobalt-pyrites, grey copper, and copper-pyrites, Fracture conchoidal and uneven. Opaque. Brittle. Easily frangible. in Nassau Siegen in the Westerwald. Constituent Parts—Iron 63.5, sulphur 36.5. Hatchett. Genus IV.—Iron-Pyrites. Geognostic and Geographic Situations This mineral Tessular, rhombohedral, prismatic, Yellow, partly in- occurs disseminated in primitive and transition rocks, and clining to copper-red. Hardness = 3.5,—6.5. Sp. gr. — also disposed in beds in rocks of the same classes, in Scotland, England, Saxony, &c. 4.4,—5.05. 1. Hexahedral Iron-Pyrites. Hexaedrischer Eisen-Kies, Mohs.—Gemeiner SchwefelKies, Werner.—Fer Sulphure, Hauy. Specific Character.—Tessular. Combination semi-tessular of parallel planes. Cleavage hexahedral and octahedral. Bronze-yellow. Hardness z= 6.0,—6.5. Sp.gr.rr4.9,—5.05. Description.—Colour bronze-yellow, sometimes inclining to steel-grey. Occurs regularly crystallized in various tessular forms ; in granular concretions; massive, disseminated, globular, and cellular. Lustre ranges from shining to glimmering, and is metallic. Fracture uneven and conchoidal. Opaque. Brittle. Constituent Parts—Iron 47.85, sulphur 52.15. Hatchett. Geognostic and Geographic Situations.—The cellular varieties are rare, and hitherto have been met with principally in Saxony; while the others occur in all countries, and more or less extensively distributed through rocks of every description, from those of the oldest primitive, to the newest alluvial formations. 2. Prismatic Iron-Pyrites or Radiated Iron-Pyrites. Prismatischer Eisenkies, Mohs.—Fer Sulphure Blanc, Hauy—Wasser-Kies. Strahl-Kies. Kam-kies. LeberKies. Spar-Kies. Zell-Kies. Specific Character—Prismatic. Pr r= 114° 19'. Pr — 106° 36'. P -j- co = 98° 13'. Cleavage Pr, traces accor mg to P -j- co . (Fig. 30.) Colour bronze-yellow. Hardness = 6.0,—6.5. Sp. gr. = 4.65, 4.9.

Genus V—Copper-Pyrites. Tessular. Pyramidal. Hardness = 3.0,—4.0. Sp. gr. = 4.1,—5.1. 1. Pyramidal Copper-Pyrites, or Yellow Copper-Pyrites. Pyramidaler Kupfer-kies, Mohs—Kupfer-kies, Werner. —Cuivre pyriteux, Hauy. Specific Character—Pyramidal. Pyramid 109° 53'; 108° 40'. Combination hemi-pyramidal, of inclined planes. Cleavage, P + 1 101° 49'; 126° 11'. Colour brassyellow. Hardness = 3.5,—4.0. Sp. gr. = 4.1, 4.3. Constituent Parts.—Copper 33.12, iron 30.00, sulphur 36.52, silica 0.39, Rose. Geognostic and Geographic Situations This species of pyrites is found in all the great classes of rocks, not only in veins, but also in beds, and in vast imbedded masses. The copper-mines in England afford it in great variety and abundance ; it occurs also in Scotland, but in smaller quantities. 2. Octahedral Copper-Pyrites, or Variegated Copper. Bunt Kupfererz, Werner.—Cuivre-Pyriteux-hepatique, Haily. Specific Character Tessular. Cleavage octahedral, very imperfect. Colour copper-red. Hardness = 3.0. Sp. gr. = 4.9,—5.1. Description.—Colour between copper-red and pinchbeckbrown, but soon acquires a variegated tarnish. Occurs in cubes truncated on the angles; also massive. Lustre shining and metallic. Fracture conchoidal.

168 Minera-

MINERALOGY. 4. Diprismatic Copper-Glance, or Boumonite. Miner Constituent Parts.—From Killarney. Copper 6l.07> Schwarz-Spiesglaserz, Werner—Diprismatischer Kup- logy, sulphur 23.75, iron 14.00, silica 0.50. Phillips. Geognostic and Geographic Situations—Occurs in pri- fer-Glanz, Mohs Plomb Sulphure Antimonifere, and Anmitive, transition, and secondary rocks. The finest British timoin Sulphure Plombo-Cuprifere, Hauy.—Endellione. specimens are from the coppermines of Cornwall. Rosslsland Specific Character—Prismatic. Pr = 93° 40'; Pr— 1 in Killarney in Ireland, also affords this ore, as do copper mines in Norway, Hessia, Silesia, the Bannat, and Siberia. = 87° 8'; (P oo )2 = 96° 31'. Cleavage Pr + oo ; Pr + qo . First the more perfect of the two. Colour Order XL—GLANCE. steel-grey, inclining to lead-grey or iron-black. Brittle. Metallic. Colour and streak grey, black. Hardness Hardness = 2.5,—3.0. Sp. gr. = 5.7,—5.8. Description Colour steel-grey, inclining to lead-grey, — 1.0,—4.0. Sp. gr. = 4.2,—7-6. If cleavage monotomous, and sp. gr. below 5.0, the colour is lead-grey. If or iron-black. Occurs massive and regularly crystallized. hardness = 2.5 and less, the sp. gr. is above 5.0, or the Lustre splendent and metallic. Fracture conchoidal or colour is lead-grey. If the sp. gr. is above 7-4, the colour uneven. Opaque. Streak unchanged. Brittle and very easily frangible. is lead-grey. Constituent Parts.—From Endellion. Lead 42.62, anGenus I Copper-Glance. timony Tessular, prismatic. Colour blackish lead-grey ; steel- Hatchett.24.23, copper 12.80, iron 1.20, sulphur 17.00. grey, sometimes inclining to yellow ; black. Cleavage imGeognostic and Geographic Situations The finest perfect, not axotomous. Hardness = 2.5,—4.0. Sp. gr. specimens of this mineral are found in the mines of Neudorf, = 4.3,—5.8. in the Hartz ; it was, we believe, first found in the parish 1. Tetrahedral Copper-Glance. of Endellion, near Redruth, in Cornwall, and was described Tetradrischer Kupfer-Glanz, Mohs—Fahlerz. Schwarz- by Bournon under the name Endellionite, but we, in comerz, Werner Cuivre gris, Hauy. pliment to Bournon, named it Bournonite. Specific Character.—Tessular. Combination semi-tes5. Hexahedral Copper-Glance. sular of inclined planes. Cleavage octahedral. Colour Zinnkies, Werner.—HexadrischerKupfer-Glanze, Mohs. steel-grey,...iron-black. Hardness = 3.0,—4.0. Sp. gr. Specific Character.—Tessular. Cleavage hexahedral, = 4.5,—5.2. dodecahedral. Colour steel-grey, inclining to brass-yellow. Description Colour steel-grey, and iron-black. Occurs Brittle. Hardness = 4.0. Sp. gr. = 4.3,—4.4. regularly crystallized, massive, and disseminated. Lustre Description Colour steel-grey, inclining more or less externally splendent and metallic, internally shining, or glis- to brass-yellow. Streak black. Occurs massive and crystening, and metallic. Fracture conchoidal or uneven. tallized in cubes. Lustre metallic. Fracture uneven. Opaque, brittle, and easily frangible. Brittle. Opaque. The grey varieties are named grey copper ; the black, Constituent Parts—Tin 24.0, copper 36.0, iron 2.0, black copper. sulphur 25.0. Klaproth. Constituent Parts—Fahlerz. Copper 48.0, arsenic Geognostic and Geographic Situations—It has hitherto 14.0, sulphur 10.0, iron 25.5, silver 0.5. Klaproth. been found only in metalliferous veins in Cornwall, prinSchwartzerz. Copper 40.25, arsenic 0.75, antimony 23.00, cipally at Huel Rock, in the parish of St Agnes, where it sulphur 18.50, iron 13.50, silver 0.30. Klaproth. Geognostic and Geographic Situations.—.The grey va- is associated with blende, copper-pyrites, and other minerals. * Tennantite, Phillips. rieties occur in veins in transition granite, and syenite, at Fassney Burn, in East Lothian ; at Airthrie, in StirlingDescription Colour blackish lead-grey. Streak darkshire ; in Ayrshire, and in Devonshire. The black varie- reddish grey. Tessular. Cleavage dodecahedral, but imties are found in transition rocks, at Clausthal in the Hartz. perfect. Lustre metallic. Fracture uneven. Brittle. Hardness = 4.0. Sp. gr. = 4.3,-—4.4. 2. Prismatoidal Copper-Glance. Constituent Parts Copper 45.32, arsenic 11.84, iron Prismatoidischer Kupfer-glanz, Mohs. Specific Character.—Prismatic. Pyramid unknown. 9.26, sulphur 28.74, silica 5.00. Phillips. Geognostic and Geographic Situations.—Hitherto this O Cleavage, Pr + ® • (Fig. 29.) Colour blackish lead- mineral has been found only in Cornwall, where it occurs grey. Brittle. Hardness = 3.0. Sp. gr. =5.7,—5.8. in copper veins, that traverse granite and clay-slate, in the Description.—Colour blackish lead-grey. Crystals in mines near Redruth and St Day. oblique four-sided prisms. Lustre shining and metallic. Genus II Silver-Glance, or Vitreous Silver. Geognostic and Geographic Situations Occurs along Silber-Glanz, Mohs. with sparry iron at St Gertraud, near Wolfsberg, in the valley of Lavan, in Carinthia. Tessular. Blackish lead-grey. Hardness = 2.0,—2.5. Sp. gr. = 6.9,—7.2. 3. Prismatic Copper- Glance, or Vitreous Capper. Prismatischer Kupfer-Glanz, Mohs Kupferglas, Wer1. Hexahedral Silver-Glance. ner.—Cuivre Sulphure, Hauy. Hexaedrischer Silber-glanz, Mohs—Glaserz, Werner.— O y Specific Character—Prismatic. Pr = 119° 35'. (P+oo .)2 Argent Sulphure, Hauy. Specific Character—Tessular. Cleavage dodecahedral, a = 63° 48'. Cleavage Pr. Colour blackish lead-grey. but very impesfect. Malleable. Very sectile. Hardness = 2.5,—3.0. Sp. gr.= 5.5,—5.8. Description—Colour blackish lead-grey. Occurs reguDescription—Colour blackish lead-grey. Occurs re- larly crystallized, most frequently in cubo-octahedrons; gularly crystallized, also in granular concretions, and mas- massive, disseminated, in plates, dentiform, filiform, capilsive. Lustre glistening, glimmering and metallic. Frac- lary, reticulated, dendritic, stalactitic, and with impressions. ture conchoidal and uneven. Opaque. Sectile. Lustre shining, glistening, and metallic. Fracture uneven Constituent Parts.—Copper 84.0, sulphur 12.0, iron 4.0. or conchoidal. Completely malleable. Flexible, but not Chenevix. elastic. Geognostic and Geographic Situations—Occurs in veins Constituent Parts—Silver 85.0, sulphur 15.0. Klaproth. at Fassney Burn ; in the rocks of Fair Isle ; in Yorkshire, Geognostic and Geographic Situations.—-It is one of the Caernarvonshire, and Cornwall. most common of the ores of silver. It was formerly met

MINER A L O G Y. 169 Miners- with at Airthrie in Stirlingshire, and is still found in the 1. Prismatic Bismuth-Glance. Mineralogy, mines of Cornwall. Prismatischer Wismuth-Glanz, Mohs Wismuth-Glanz, logy. Genus III.—Galena, or Lead-Glance. Werner—Bismuth sulphure, Hauy. Specific Character Prismatic. Pyramid unknown. Tessular. Colour pure lead-grey. Hardness — 2.5. Sp.gr. = 7.4,—7.6. Cleavage P—oo ; P + go , imperfect. Pr + a>. Pr 4- go larger, more perfect. (Fig. 30, 29, 28.) 1. Hexahedral Galena, or Lead-Glance. Description—Colour pale lead-grey. Occurs regularly Hexaedrischer Bleiglanz, Mohs Bleiglanz, Werner. crystallized; in granular and radiated concretions; massive Plomb Sulphure, Haiiy. Specific Character—Tessular. Cleavage hexahedral, and disseminated. Internally splendent and metallic. Fracture foliated or fibrous. Soils. Streak unchanged. Brittle perfect. Description.—Colour lead-grey. Occurs regularly crys- inclining to sectile. Easily frangible. Constituent Parts—Bismuth 80.98, sulphur 18.72. Rose. tallized, frequently in cubes and cubo-octahedrons ; in graGeognostic and Geographic Situations Occurs in veins nular, prismatic, and lamellar concretions ; massive, disseminated, specular, reticulated, botryoidal, and corroded. in Cornwall; associated with molybdena and apatite at Lustre splendent to glimmering and metallic. Fracture Caldbeck Fell, in Cumberland. even, or flat conchoidal. Fragments cubical. Sectile. * Bismuth-Ochre. Uncommonly easily frangible. Wismuth-ocker, Werner. The variety with glimmering lustre, and even or con• The yellow, grey, or green mineral which sometimes acchoidal fracture, is named compact galena. Constituent Parts—Lead 85.13, sulphur 13.02. Thom- companies bismuth-glance, is the bismuth ochre of mineralogists. son. A good series of analysis of this ore much wanted. Genus VII—Antimony-Glance. Geognostic and Geographic Situations This mineral, the species from which all the lead of commerce is obtainAntimon-Glanz, Mohs. ed, occurs in every lead mine, whether in primitive, tranPrismatic. Colour lead-grey, not blackish ; steel-grey. sition, or secondary rocks. Cleavage perfect. Hardness = 1.5,—2.5. Sp. gr. = 4.2, Genus IV—Tellurium-Glance, or Black Tellurium. —5.8. If the specific gravity is less than 5.3, the hardness = 2.0 ; easily broken when in thin plates. If sp. gr. Tellur-Glanz, Mohs. is above 5.3, the colour is steel-grey. Pyramidal. Colour blackish lead-grey. Cleavage monotomous, perfect. Hardness = 1.0, 1.5. Sp. r = 1. Prismatic Antimony -Glance, or Graphic Tellurium. Prismatischer Antimon-glanz, Mohs Schrift-erz, Wer7.0,—7.2. ^ * ner.—Tellure natif auro-argentifere, Hauy. 1. Pyramidal Tellurium-Glance. Specific Character—Prismatic. P + oo = 94° 20'. Pyramidaler Tellur-Glanz, Mohs.—Nagyagerz, Werner. O _ Cleavage Pr + oo , perfect. Less distinct Pr -f- oc . (Fig. —Tellure Natif Auro-Plombifere, Hauy. Specific Character—Pyramidal. P = 96° 43'; 140° O'. 29, 28.) Colour pure steel-grey. Hardness = 1.5, 2.0. Sp. gr. = 5.7,—5.8. Cleavage P — oo . Blackish lead grey. Description.—Colour steel-grey. Occurs regularly crysDescription.—Colour blackish lead-grey. Occurs regularly crystallized; massive, disseminated, and in leaves. tallized ; massive, disseminated, and in leaves. Externally splendent, internally glistening, and metallic. Fracture Lustre splendent and metallic. Sectile. Folia flexible. Constituent Parts.—Tellurium 32.2, lead 54.0, gold 9.0 uneven. Sectile. silver 0.7, copper 1.3, sulphur 3.0. Klaproth. Constituent Parts.—Tellurium 61.35, gold 28.36, silver Geognostic and Geographic Situations Occurs in veins 10.29. Klaproth. that traverse porphyry, in Transylvania. Geognostic and Geographic Situations Occurs in porphyry veins in Transylvania. Genus V—Molybdena, or Molybdena-Glance. 2. Prismatoidal Antimony-Glance, or Grey Antimony. Molybdan-Glanz, Mohs. Grau Spiesglaserz, Werner—Prismatoidischer AntimonRhombohedral. Colour pure lead-grey. In thin leaves, easily flexible. Hardness = 1.0,—1.5. Sp. gr. = 4.4, 4.6. Glanz, Mohs—Antimoine sulphure, Hauy. Specific Character—Prismatic. P = 109° 16'; 108° 10'; 1. Rhombohedral Molybdena. 110° 59'. P + go = 90° 45'. Cleavage Pr + oo, perfect. Rhomboedrischer Molybdan, Mohs Wasserblei, WerLess distinct, P — 00. P + go. Pr + oo. (Fig. 29, 27, ner—Molybdene Sulphure, Hauy. Specific Character.—Rhombohedral. Combination di- 30,28.) Lead-grey. Hardness = 2.0. Sp.gr. =4.2, 4.7. Description.—Colour lead-grey. Occurs regularly crysrhombohedral. Cleavage R — oo , very perfect. Description—Colour fresh lead-grey. Occurs regular- tallized ; in radiated, fibrous, and granular distinct concrely crystallized; massive, disseminated, and in plates; in tions. Lustre ranges from glistening to splendent, and is megranular concretions. Lustre splendent or shining and tallic. Fracture even and uneven. Rather brittle, and easily frangible. metallic. Sectile, approaching to malleable. Constituent Parts—Antimony 74.06, sulphur 25.94. 1 671 artS MoI Sdena Bucht ^ * ^ '— y 60.0, sulphur 40.0. Davy. Geognostic and Geographic Situations Occurs in veins Geognostic and Geographic Situations Occurs imbedaed in granite and syenite at Peterhead; in chlorite-slate that traverse greywacke, at Westerhall, in Dumfriesshire, and in Banffshire in primitive rocks. Being the ore from 6 rande and nf T ocn 1 Creran, ’ *n £and syenite in Corybuy, at the head which the antimony of commerce is obtained, it occurs in in various mines in Cornwall. all antimony mines. * Molybdena Ochre. 3. Axotomous Antimony-Glance, or Jamesonite. sul hur ell m -y °wmolybdena mineral which Axotomer Antimon-Glanz, Mohs. — Triple Sulphur^ moiybdenaPis named ochre. sometimes incrusts d'Antimoine, Plomb et Cuivre; Endellione, Bournon.— Genus VI.—Bismuth-Glance. Antimoine Sulphure, Hauy. Pr tic Specific Character Prismatic. P-f-00 = 101° 20'. pure lead-grey. Hardness =2.0,— 2.5 ™ r v Cleavage P — 00 , very perfect. P + 00, Pr + 00, imper. OL. XV. Y

■

MINERALOGY. 170 Minera- feet. (Fig. 27.) Colour steel-grey. Hardness = 2.0,—2.5. regularly crystallized; in granular concretions, massive, and disseminated. Lustre splendent, shining, and metallic, in- logy, logy- Sp. gr. = 5.5,—5.8. Description.—Colour steel-grey. Occurs massive, and dining to imperfect metallic. Slightly brittle. Opaque. Constituent Parts—Protoxide of manganese, 62.6, sulin parallel or scopiform prismatic concretions. Lustre externally shining, internally glistening and metallic. Frac- phur 37.0. Arfwedson. Geognostic and Geographic Situations.—This rare miture uneven or conchoidal. Opaque. Sectile. Constituent Parts.—Antimony 34.40, lead 40.75, sul- neral occurs in Cornwall and in Transylvania, in primitive phur 22.15, iron 2.30, with traces of zinc and copper. Bose. and transition rocks. Geognostic and Geographic Situations. It was first noGenus II Zinc Blende, or Garnet-Blende. ticed in veins traversing clay-slate in Cornwall, and since Tessular. Streak grey, white, reddish-brown. Hardin Hungary and Siberia. ness zz 3-5,—4.0. Sp. gr. zz4.0,—4.2. 4. Peritomous Antimony-Glance. 1. Dodecahedral Zinc-Blende. Peritomer Antimon-Glanz, Mohs.—Argent Sulphure Dodecaedrishe Granat-Blende, Mohs.—Blende, Werner. Antimonifere et Cuprifere, Levy.—Sulphuret of Antimony —Zinc Sulphure, Hauy. and Silver. Phillips. Specific Character Tessular. Combination semi-tesSpecific Character.—Prismatic. Pr 130° 8'. P+ Sandstone 5 3300 ^ Coloured cornstones, . t •{ (Flagstone beds, J

{

Argillaceous sandstone, shelly. Shelly and coralloidal.

Abounding in zoophytes, Wenlock Limestone, { trilobites, &c. Rocks,M 600Shale, Caradoc limestone, 830- Shelly Rock s.; Shelly sandstone, &c, } Llandeilo Rocks,

1 J 400

Calcareous lami- 1 With trilobites, &c. nated beds.s, . /

Grauwacke System, as it occurs in Wales. un- j Plynlymmon I known-j Rocks, J

Hard, slaty, fine or coarse grained rock, with few or no organic remains-.

Bala limestone,

Dark, laminated, slaty limestone, with fossils.

Snowdon rocks,

Hard slaty rocks, with (locally) few organic remains.

Red Sandstone System. gypsum and rock( Variegated marls, Contain salt, shells rarely found, 300 J | Variegated sand-1 Red, white, &c. sandstones, j stones, . . f no shells. \ (Conglomerate, . Pebbly sandstone.

Remarks.

Clayslate System, as it occurs in Cumberland and Westmoreland. Softer slaty rocks. No organic fossils.

Clay-slate,. Chiastolite slate,

The same, with chiastolite. No fossils.

unkn.

Hornblende lende 1 slate.> • J

The same, with hornblende. No fossils. Mica-schist System.

hlorite ^ schist, with V limestone, J

Quartz-rock, &c. No organic remains.

n.{

Mica-schist, "I with lime- > unkn.. stone, . )

Quartz rock, &c. No organic remains. Gneiss System.

Gneiss, with I unkn. ■ limestone, J

Quartz rock, mica-schist, &c. No organic remains.

In the preceding table several terms have been employed which it will be necessary to explain. The whole mass of known stratified rocks is conceived to be divided into A locally variable series of three great portions, called Primary, Secondary, and Terrocks, fossiliferous tiary, from the respective eras of their production: the the south of England, lowest being the oldest or earliest, the uppermost being the

1 This series is from near Bath. In Yorkshire and Sutherland it is different, as4 will be stated hereafter, 5 * As it occurs in the North of England. As in Yorkshire, &c. As in the North of England.

5

As in Herefordshire.

MINERALOGY. 182 Geology, newest or latest. These great portions are again subdi- Bound the shores of the Mediterranean analogies to the v GeoW ^ , vided into systems or assemblages, named from the most same type continually present themselves. In the basin of «-vv characteristic kinds of rock in each ; cretaceous from chalk, the Indus and on the slopes of the Himalaya mountains oolitic from oolite, carboniferous from coal, &c. or else from some of the secondary strata of Great Britain have been locality, as Silurian system. The systems are composed of recognised. What is known of Australia offers less exact formations, or groups of stratified rocks, proved to have analogies of the same kind. In North America not only many characters in common, so as to indicate many ana- are secondary and tertiary strata known corresponding in logies of origin; thus the chalk formation is obviously of general characters to those of Europe, but several of the one general type, the green sand formation contains repe- European formations have been satisfactorily identified. 2. In all parts of the globe where a considerable extent titions of green and irony sands and clays, the oolitic formation is a series of oolite, sandstone, and clay in many repe- of country has been surveyed stratified rocks have been found ; but many small portions of the terrestrial surface titions ; and so of the others. The subdivisions of formations are not established upon are devoid of them. Stratification is, therefore, not an similar principles in all cases; the general character of universal, but yet it is the most general form in which the them ought to be to include each one stratified rock, as rocky materials of the globe are accumulated. The three great divisions of stratified rocks appear to the coralline oolite, or one series of alternations of particular strata, as purbeck beds, lias limestones, variegated hold the same relative position in all parts of the globe. In very distant localities the successive formations are identimarls, &c. Upon this principle all the formations of the carbonife- cal, similar, or analogous, and it is evidently not unreasonrous and other lower systems should be more subdivided ; able to expect from the union of observations, conducted but this must be left to time, and not rashly attempted upon one general plan, that a general history may at last be formed of all the stratified rocks in the crust of the without sufficient data. Each of the stratified rocks or series of alternations thus globe, and according to the relative periods of their proconstituting subdivisions of formations contains one or duction. The unstratified rocks of Great Britain, though numemany strata, layers, or beds; the Bath oolite, the magnesian limestone, &c. are formed of many strata or beds ; and rous and individually variable, can yet be generally referso of the others. Nor is this the last term of the analysis; red to a few leading divisions, according chiefly to their for many strata, as sandstones especially, are composed of constituent minerals. This classification will be given parallel laminae, which are often separable, and bear the hereafter; we shall now content ourselves with noticing same relation to the stratum that this bears to a stratified two predominant groups of these rocks, remarkably contrasted in the circumstances of their occurrence—granitic rock. and basaltic rocks—the former lying in great masses below Diagram, No. 1. — all the strata, frequently in the centre of a mountain disBed without laminse. trict ; the latter occupying fissures in them or spreading irBed with waved lamina* Formation regularly over their surface. or Finely laminated rock. Few parts of the globe except some of its vast plains and Group of Coarsely laminated. deserts are entirely deficient of rocks which are not stratiStrata. Obliquely laminated. fied, though the surface which they occupy is not nearly so With parallel lamina;. great as that covered by the strata. Granitic and basaltic Obliquely laminated. rocks compose generally the greater portion of the unstraSCALE OF STBATA IN OTHER COUNTRIES. tified masses, as in Britain, and lie in the same relations to The series of strata classed in the preceding table is al- the strata. For granitic rocks, throughout the globe, are ways recognisable, wholly or partially, in every part of the the most frequent axes or centres of mountain groups, and Bi'itish islands ; that is to say, the stratified rocks occur- basaltic rocks fill dykes and spread in irregular cappings ring in any situation can be referred to their respective over the strata. It is evident, therefore, that the structure types in the general table. But the local variations are of the exterior parts of the globe, though full of local diconsiderable ; several of the stratified rocks are only of versity, is all formed upon one general plan, and produced limited extent; even whole formations, as the oolitic for- by similar agencies. mation, change their characters, or, as the millstone grit, are entirely extinct in particular regions where the groups GENERAL VIEW OF THE STRUCTURE OF THE CRUST above and below them are complete. OF THE GLOBE. This being the case, it is evident that such subdivisions are too minute and variable to be employed in comparisons An observer stationed on any of the widely extended between British and foreign series of strata. We must be plains, which occupy so large a proportion of the surface of satisfied with comparing formations and systems, and in the earth, finds, beneath the soil and loose materials, the some cases omit even these and look only to the succession different rocks almost universally stratified, lying in a setof primary, secondary, and tertiary classes of rocks. tled order of succession, and nearly horizontal, or gently This examination has been made in almost all parts of inclined in some one direction. the world, nowhere, indeed, except in Europe and certain On the other hand, the high mountain districts generally portions of the other continents completely, yet every exhibit in the central points, or along their axes, granitic where sufficiently to establish the truth of the following and other unstratified rocks under all their strata, which propositions-. slope away on all sides at high angles of inclination, descend 1. The series of British strata represents very well the to lower and still lower ground, and finally pass under the succession of stratified rocks in Europe, parts of Africa, plains and more level regions, and are there covered up Asia, and North America; this agreement is most strict and buried under other superimposed strata. Very few in those parts which are nearest to the British islands, and parts of the world offer real exceptions to this general statebecomes more vague and indefinite as the distance in- ment. The narrow mountain chains and groups occupy creases. In France and Germany, for instance, as far as far less space than the wide plains which they divide, and the Pyrenees and the Alps, not only the greater divisions, were the surface of the continents lowered only a thousand but nearly all the formations, most of the smaller groups, feet, most of them would form small islands in prodigiously and many of the particular rocks, are well exemplified. wide seas, liet they are really connected together, and

MINERALOGY. 183 G isogy. all united into one system beneath, both by the unstratified last—is a proposition so fully and freely admitted, that it GeoWy. rocks of the axis, and the strata of the slopes. may seem unnecessary to adduce arguments in its support; v-— Let the diagram (No. 2.) be supposed a section through but the iacts which prove the watery origin of the strata two mountain ranges and one intervening plain ; it will be open at the same time a great variety of other truths, and seen that the sloping strata of each mountain group are disclose so clearly the history of many great physical continued beneath the plain to unite with those on the c langes on the globe that a full examination of them is other side; the strata lying in the lower countries are essential to the acquisition of right fundamental views in higher in the scale than those which rise against the moun- geology. tains, and thus it happens that a person proceeding from Nature of the Rocks—Viewed generally, the most abunlow regions towards high districts finds strata which lay dant stratified rocks may be referred, according to their deep below gradually and successively emerge towards the chemical constitution, to one of three great groups, viz. mountains, and the lowest of all rise to form the highest biliceous rocks, Sihceo-aluminous rocks, Calcareous rocks. crests and loftiest ridges. Hence also it happens that the s . „ of ^ondary andstrata tertiary seriesqualities, of strata and consist prinstrata are seldom quite horizontal, but generally have an cipally alternating of these the same inclination depending on some mountain axis. Hence also is less obviously true of the primary strata. If we consider the term basin, so much used in geology, to express the on what mineralogical characters this general result desloping of strata in several directions toward a centre, a pends, we find the siliceous rocks have almost universally circumstance which seldom happens unless the country a preponderance of the mineral quartz ; the siliceo-argilalso agrees in geological features with the basin of the hy- laceous rocks consist ot quartz with distinct or indistinct drographers. To discover in the plain countries the strata of admixtures of felspar, mica, chlorite, or other minerals, the mountains, we must penetrate the earth by deep pits; but containing alumina. Distinct mixtures of these minerals man’s power is soon limited in this direction, and a much occur both in the primary and later classes of strata, but easier method is at hand for obtaining the complete section there is a great difference in the appearances of the comof strata existing together in any one great geological basin. pounds. Gneiss, mica-schist, &c. in the primary series, Proceeding from the point where the uppermost stratum have very much the air of crystalline aggregation; the is found, towards the borders of the basin, the country ris- secondary and tertiary sandstones are clearly mechanical ing gradually or by undulations, the strata a, b, c, &c. comupon more close scrutiny, this difference ing out successively, may be successively examined and diminishes j oryetvanishes. Several sandstones are almost measured, and a section be drawn representing the whole crystalline, the particles of gneiss are really fragmentary ; series, till we reach the axis of the mountains composed of in both the parts are truly crystallized as to the interior texunstratified rocks g, visible in one mountain ridge, but ture, but in neither of them entirely free from the effects covered in another. of some mechanical movement. The mica of gneiss is not Diagram, No. 2. often perfectly hexagonal as in granite, the quartz has generally lost its exact prismatic shape, the felspar its prominent angles. Exceptions to this occur certainly, but it is quite true as a general rule, and when fully investigated leads to a positive conclusion that nearly all the noncalcareous primary and secondary strata have been subjected, but in very different degrees, to mechanical agencies, like those concerned in the accumulation of common sandstone. In this diagram, the stratified masses ed may be con- Now the least examination of sandstone rocks, and compaceived to be primary strata, cb secondary, and a tertiary; rison of them with the sandy and argillaceous deposits from £ may shew one of the irregular overlying masses of basal- rivers, in lakes, and on the borders of the sea, leaves no tic and some other rocks. The reader will understand doubt that they have experienced the agitation of water ; from this, how it happens as a general rule that the lowest in fact, that they were sedimentary deposits. strata rise to the highest ground, and the contrary. Some limestones do and others do not yield evidence of In comparing the sections of different geological basins, similar agitation ; they are often to be considered as aggrea very striking general similitude prevails, but differences gations of particles of carbonate of lime, slowly collected perpetually occur ; the whole may be reduced to one ge- from chemical precipitation in water. neral law. The lowest or primary strata, in all the mountain ranges, and throughout all the basins of the globe, have ORGANIC REMAINS IN THE STRATA. very much of a common character; gneiss, mica schist, The contents of many of the stratified rocks leave no ay-slate, quartz rock, with few or no organic remains, are doubt of their watery origin, and inform us besides of the most characteristic strata of every country. many circumstances concerning the condition of the waters. The secondary and tertiary strata, recurring mostly in We find almost all the tertiary and secondary strata, and ower ground, every where exhibit very similar chemical some (the upper portions) of the primary strata, rich in orand mineralogical characters: they are composed of lime- ganic fossils of the animal and vegetable kinds ; some, as stone, sandstone, and clay, with abundance of organic re- zoophyta, Crustacea, and mollusca, abound in particular mains ; but in distinct regions, the formations in which rocks, so as to form a large part of their substance. Exey naturally group themselves are rather analogous than amined with care and all the advantages of modern science, closely related. The primary strata are the effects of al- marine, freshwater, and terrestrial plants and animals are most universal agencies, accompanied by very similar local found disposed with great regularity in the different strata, conditions; those of later date also agree in some general just as at the present day we find in the sandy bed of the eatures, but exhibit diversities of character apparently due sea and in lakes, the shelly remains of the marine and iversity of local circumstances. In this sense, the pri- freshwater mollusca, and other creatures; and, scattered mary deposits are almost universal, those of later date are amongst them or lying distinct, some of the vegetable spoils more local and limited. of the land. Origin of the Stratified Rocks.—That the stratified masses we had witnessed the elevation of a part of the bed ° ie globe, resting upon one another in a settled order of Ifthe sea or a lake, by the force of an earthquake, and 0 succes sion, have been deposited from water in the same wished to remove any doubt in the minds of those who or er as we now see them—the lowest first—the uppermost had not seen it, should we not triumphantly appeal to the

MINERALOGY. present day belong to the productions of different climates Geology, Gcolorrv presence of marine exuviae in the one, and lacustrine shells and different local conditions. Thus, while some veryw^ \_‘yin the other, for confirmation of the statement? Would not the argument be equally strong, the fact of the former large groups of fossils have only a very faint resemblance submersion of one part under the sea, and of the other under to existing forms of life, strike us with surprise and awaken fresh water, equally certain, from this circumstantial evi- a curiosity which can only be partially gratified,—the general effect of the whole investigation is to prove a unity of dence alone, a hundred years after the occurrence ? This is the reasoning employed in modern geology : we design pervading the fossil and living creations,—one general system is discerned,—and the variations are referred to find the greater part of the strata composing the known por- differences of circumstances. To reduce these differences tion of the crust of the globe, full of the remains of marine exuviae, exactly as we should find the stratified bed of the of condition to some general law, let us next attend to the sea at this day filled with the exuviae of now existing or distribution of organic remains in the earth. lately perished animals, and we conclude, without hesitaDISTRIBUTION OF ORGANIC REMAINS IN THE EARTH. tion, that the strata were deposited in the sea when the The stratified masses of the earth containing organic earth was in some different condition ; that in fact the whole terrestrial surface of the globe was formed under remains are of different antiquity, as indicated by their water, and has since been laid dry by some natural process. relative position, of different chemical and mineralogical Upon this clear and impregnable basis rests the whole of nature, and the situations in which they occur upon the geological science—this is the first of its grand and impres- globe are various ; these three circumstances influence the sive truths. Derived from observations over all the globe, distribution of organic remains. In the existing economy it has been fully established in modern times, yet was not of nature we know that marine life varies with geographical situation, and changes with the nature of the oceanic wholly overlooked in remote antiquity. Notions of the displacement of the ocean from lands of bed. But the present races of beings which become engreat extent which it once covered, occur in Ovid and gaged among the sediments of the ocean characterize only Strabo ; the perception of its importance became general one period : the organic remains belong to many different on the revival of learning in Europe, and gave rise to many successive ages of the world. Thus we must examine their hypotheses in Italy, France, England, and Germany. It is distribution in the earth with reference to three points,— 1. The different periods when they lived. the great truth which supports the Wernerian and Hut2. The geographical situation of the locality. tonian theories, as well as the otherwise baseless fabrics of 3. The different rocks which enclose them—(other fancy proposed by Burnet, and Woodward, and others of things being similar). our countrymen. The bare proposal of such problems for discussion is Besides the proof thus offered that our continents were formed under the ocean, and only recovered from it after enough to prove what real progress has been made in inthe deposition of many strata, enclosing the remains of vestigating the structure of the earth ; and it is scarcely many races of beings, we find more limited indications of beyond truth to say, that as much is already known of the the existence of fresh water and dry land contemporane- laws which govern the distribution of organic remains in ously with the production of some of the marine strata. the earth as of those which define the limits of life in the How is this known ? By the alternation of strata contain- sea. Nevertheless, we must not imagine this subject so ing freshwater shells and other products, or land plants, fully examined as to confer more than a provisional characwith those containing marine exuviae. Thus it is certain ter upon the conclusions which follow ; for accurate results that while the whole or greater part of the terrestrial sur- on the subject are yet collected from a very small part of face we now behold lay unborn on the bed of the prime- the surface of the globe. 1. The relative antiquity of the stratified rocks is found val deep, some land did exist, some lakes or rivers held fresh water, and the air nourished vegetables and animals to be, throughout most parts of the world, the circumstance of principal influence in limiting the occurrence of organic as well as the sea. But the greater proportion of organic remains found in reliquiae. In every restricted tract of country, as the north the earth is clearly of marine origin. They are incredibly or south of England, the fossil zoophyta, shells, and Crusnumerous, often perfectly preserved, and can be directly tacea are different in the different systems of formations, compared with existing species of mollusca, Crustacea, and sometimes even in all the successive stratified rocks. zoophyta, &c. so as perfectly to determine their affinity and Thus in the north of England the Silurian system, the cardiversity. The progress of philosophical zoology and bo- boniferous system, the red sandstone system, the oolitic tany is here of the highest importance: these sciences system, and the cretaceous system, all contain organic reenable us in many instances to state the degree of the ana- mains, and mostly in great plenty. Two things are here logy or difference observed, and to draw some important observed, first, that all the fossil shells, &c. are clearly inferences not otherwise attainable. The comparison of and completely distinct from any known recent species; recent and fossil species has now gone far enough to justi- secondly, that with hardly one exception, all those of one system are distinct from all those of another. fy some remarkable deductions. 2. In each system of strata lie entombed the exuviae of EXTINCT GENERA AND SPECIES. entirely different races of beings, all successively buried in Of many thousand species of marine zoophyta, mollusca, marine sediments on the same geographical area; a senes Crustacea, fishes, &c. very few can be exactly paralleled of monuments which mark the numerous changes of orgain the system of living nature, most of them are extinct, nic and inorganic nature. Each stratum is thus proved to and only to be understood by the application of laws de- have been in its turn the bed of the sea. After the deposition of a certain number constituting a formation or sysrived from the study of the most similar existing races. The amount of resemblance between the fossil and the tem of strata, all the phenomena were changed, sediments recent tribes is extremely variable; a few are perfectly of a different nature were deposited, enclosing the remains identical; a considerable proportion so far similar as to be of different races of living beings. Thp same things are referred to the same genera ; a still greater proportion can true of equal districts in the south of England, in trance, be included in the same great families; almost all can be Germany, and America. It is therefore adopted as an referred to the same great classes of the animal and vege- axiom sufficiently demonstrated to be of general application, table kingdoms. The differences of form and structure are that in a limited district particular species of organic rethus known to be of the same order as those which at the mains are distributed in certain assemblages of strata aC" 184

MINERALOGY. 185 G iogy. cording to their relative antiquity. Certain races oforga- the sandstones and argillaceous strata than from each other. Geoloer. 1 ^^ nic remains are of higher antiquity than others. t he same things are true in the mountain limestone series, To the discovery of these sure truths Mr W. Smith has a with this addition, that the fossils are principally confined just and recognised claim. His labours date from 1790; to the limestone portions of the strata. yet we must not omit to observe that not only Werner, but It would appear, therefore, that the conditions of existWhitehurst, Mitchell, and Lister, and others, had some ence of certain species of fossils occurred periodically, and knowledge of a similar kind, more, perhaps, than can be coincided with the deposition of particular strata, as if the inferred from the short notices left in their works, or in the dictum of Cuvier were true,—as if the oceanic fluid had memory of their pupils. changed its nature, and its depositions and inhabitants 3. But these are local truths. The attention of modern c anged in proportion. But before we adopt this conclugeologists, resolved to follow out the masterly researches of sion, we must assure ourselves of the truth of what has inMr Smith, are directed to ascertain their generality. The deed been long taken for granted by geologists, that the law just expressed may be universally true, and prove every marine animals lived on or near the spot where their rewhere changes of organic life proportioned to the time mains he imbedded. This does not require long discuselapsed, and yet not permit us to infer that these changes sion. I he general perfection of the delicate ornaments on were contemporaneously similar over all or even a great the surfaces of shells, echini, &c., the complete state of conpart of the globe, unless the organic contents are every servation of fishes, Crustacea, &c., proves them to have unwhere similar in the same or contemporaneous formations dergone little or no violence, such as transporting from a or systems of strata. The facts yet collected on this sub- distance in oceanic currents would necessarily occasion. ject are too fewr to allow of very precise inferences ; yet it is In some cases the fossil shells, &c. have experienced the too important to be lightly passed over. It is found that usual agitation of the shores of the sea, as in the forest particular species of fossils have rarely, even in the same marble group near Bath, the top of the oolite at Stamford, stratum, an universal diffusion. Not even over the conti- &c.; and this is of great importance in reasoning; but genenent of Europe can many particular species be traced at all rally we may conclude that the doctrine is sufficiently exact the points of a particular rock. One certain belemnite which fixes the local residences of the animals near the (B. mucronatus) is almost never absent from the European place of sepulture of their shelly or osseous remains. chalk, and is found in no other rock ; a particular trilobite ( Calymene Blumenbachii), and a certain coral ( Catenipora COMPARISON OF THE STRATIFIED AND UNSTRATIFIED Lam.) has been found not only in most localities of the ROCKS. silurian limestones in Europe, but also in America; but The arguments on which we rely for the proof of the these are rare cases. Particular genera and families are subaqueous origin of all the stratified rocks may be thus more widely distributed along the strata to which they beup. long ; for example, belemnites and gryphaeee occur every summed -The stratified structure is that which is always assumed where in the cretaceous and oolitic systems, and rarely or by successive depositions of sediments in water. not at all in any other systems. Orthoceratites and gonia1 he materials (clay, sand, limestone, &c.) composing the tites occur every where in the silurian and carboniferous strata of the crust of the globe, are exactly similar and in systems, and in none which lie above. Finally, each sys- the same condition, or else very analogous, to deposits now tem of strata, as far as is yet known, appears, wherever it forming under water in various parts of the globe, and sioccurs, to exhibit in its organic contents identity, affinity, milarly associated. or analogy with those found with it at other points nearly he organic contents of the rocks are such as admit of in the ratio of the proximity of the situations. Hence, as no Iother explanation, for they are mostly of marine or fresh a general rule, it is found that the marine organic contents water origin, and the few terrestrial reliquiie which occur in of each system of strata are the remains of successively them shew, by various circumstances, that they were drifted created and destroyed races of animals, each of which lived from the land or overwhelmed by the sea. By combining through particular periods of time, and no longer; that the all these considerations, we arrive at the positive concluamilies and genera living at one epoch were very widely sion that all the really stratified rocks are of aqueous origin. diffused, but that each species existed only in a definite and But when we turn to the unstratified rocks the same mostly very narrow geographical area. conclusion does not apply. Independent of the universal 4. Nature of the rocks.—In the modern ocean we know want of this unequivocal mark of watery action (except that the distribution of many mollusca and Crustacea is in- under particular cases not really exceptional, as will appear fluenced by the nature of the bed or shore of the sea. hereafter), the following circumstances are decisive. ysters love a muddy bank, cockles delight in sandy shores, The materials of which the rocks are composed are obsters seek subaqueous rocks. The same dependence neither similar to those now deposited by water nor in a appears amongst organic remains; for it is too remarkable similar condition. They are not composed of sands, clays, to escape ordinary attention, that the ostrea deltoidea is col- or limestone, but of a variety of crystallized minerals, many ected in immense oyster beds in the Kimmeridge clay; of them the same or very similar to those produced by volthat an analogous genus, the gryphaea, lies in excessive canic agency, or the artificial heat of a furnace. abundance in the Oxford clay, and the argillaceous lias I he association of these minerals into rocks is the same shales and limestones. or very similar to the grouping of similar minerals in volcaBut zoophytes, as lamelliferous corals, echinida, and nic rocks. In several instances the products of volcanos crmoidea, generally, are almost unknown in argillaceous and ancient unstratified rocks are identical. The variations rocks, unless when they are associated with calcareous por- of the different groups of rocks follow similar laws, and they tions, while they abound in many, if not all, the fossiliferous occur under similar relations to the stratified rocks. limestones. In these unstratified rocks organic remains do not occur This kind of dependence of certain races of fossil shells, (sometimes, indeed, portions of strata containing such rec ‘ nature of the enveloping rocks, can be well mains are enveloped in unstratified rocks); and from the studied in the oolitic and carboniferous limestone forma- whole evidence no doubt remains of the igneous origin of ions, where limestone, sandstone, and shales continually the crystallized and other unstratified rocks. ternate. There is a general accordance between the difIt is very conceivable that, in particular circumstances, erent oolitic limestones in the number and general charac • the effect of watery and igneous agency may be evident in ter, and often peculiar species of fossils which they contain, the same rock. These agencies may have been contemn respect of the fossils, the limestones differ more from poraneously or successively exerted; and thus combined, VOL. XV. 2A

MINERALOGY. 186 successive or confused results of two entirely different of lime is precipitated from solution, and suffered to fall in Geologr Geology* agencies may occasionally lead even the experienced geo- very tranquil water on a sloping or undulated bed. The logist into error. But this does not affect the principle; thickness of the strata produced would be greatest in the inaccuracies of detail must often occur in descriptions and deepest parts, and the whole deposit would grow thinner reasonings on natural phenomena, which involve various towards the edges. Now, in fact, among the stratified rocks which compose conditions and measures of force. Already, indeed, the clew is probably obtained for elucidating the differences as the crust of the globe, examples of these exceptional cases well as the agreements of geological phenomena, and it is do occur; instances are really known where coarse matenot necessary to say that no natural science can pretend to rials to a limited extent have been deposited in inclined have made greater progress than this; for to know the positions, and carbonate of lime collected in particular forms causes of general agreement, and to discover the causes of and not generally diffused ; but just as in the present ecopartial diversity, is the whole problem of physical science. nomy of nature we find unequivocal evidence of the geneOriginal Position of Strata.—The leading and funda- rality of the law of horizontal deposition of strata, so it mental fact of geology is the submarine origin of the strati- certainly was in the older times. We are fully convinced, fied rocks ; and the partial desiccation of the bed of the an- that for broad and extensive formations of strata composed cient sea is the general truth upon which all geological of various successions of sands, clays and limestones vatheory must be based; for in fact our examination of the riously stored with organic remains, there can be no risk structure of the existing land is nothing more than the ex- of error in assuming, as a fact sufficiently proved, that they amination of the successive deposits in the ancient ocean, were deposited nearly level. Position of Strata—Assured of this fact, as a basis of varied by the effects of subterranean movements. One of the first questions which presents itself to the mind on con- reasoning, we may proceed to inquire into the actual posidering this subject is this, Do we see these stratified sition of strata, as they are seen in the desiccated parts of rocks in their original state and place, or have any displace- the old oceanic bed which now compose our solid land. ments and derangements happened to confuse their order The most general condition of the stratified rocks of all and symmetry ? The theoretical considerations connected ages is to be not quite level, but inclined to the horizon in with this question w ill come before us hereafter, but, for the some one direction, and at some certain angle, in each losake of the descriptions of rocks which are to follow, it is cality. necessary to settle the facts. Over immense tracts of the earth’s surface, the angle of In this, fortunately, there is no great difficulty. By an inclination is extremely moderate ; more than f of the surinvestigation of the circumstances under which modern de- face of Europe (and probably of the other continents) is posits happen in water, we find as a very general result, ad- occupied by strata which in common language may be said mitting of few, and those local exceptions, that these depo- to be nearly horizontal. This character of horizontality is sits ever tend to assume horizontal surfaces. Wherever indeed almost exactly merited by the strata around Paris, the lateral influence of waves and currents agitates broad in the Great Plains of Northern Germany and Russia, the surfaces of water to a considerable portion of its depth, the Basin of the Danube, Hungary, &c.; but as we proceed in earthy sediments (sand, clay, &c.), and chemical precipi- any direction from such centres and lines of horizontal tates (carbonate of lime) are diffused by the movements with stratification, we find the rocks to assume more and more so much uniformity as to produce very regular strata, with a of some prevalent inclination, so as to permit the subjacent decided tendency to horizontal surfaces. Thus, all round the strata to come to the surface and present escarpments in British islands, the very moderate slope of the bed of the particular directions. sea is extremely characteristic ; between the Humber and These escarpments commonly look toward the nearest the Elbe, a distance of 4° longitude, the greatest depth is range of mountains; in that direction the inclination of the about 200 feet. (Whewell on Tides, Phil. Trans.) And, strata augments continually, and at length on the slopes, as Mr de la Beche has shewn, if r the British islands and or in the midst of such mountain range, we find them very the bed of the sea around them w ere raised only 600 feet steeply inclined, absolutely vertical, partially retroflexed, above their actual level (as compared with the ocean), they or bent into strange contortions. would be joined to the continent of Europe, and surrounded Among the Alps and Pyrenees, the strata which, in on all hands by a vast area of flat, or rather gently inclined, every part of their surface, were originally very little inland; for the fall from the coast to the new sea-line would clined, and which, at a distance from the mountains, retain be generally so gradual as to present to the eye one great nearly their original position, are thrown into various displain, uniting the western coasts of Spain, Ireland, the turbed positions; the local effect of violent convulsions. By Hebrides, and Scandinavia. a careful study of the circumstances, we observe that these The same horizontality of stratified deposits is observed indications of disturbance augment continually toward the in the dried beds of ancient and modern lakes; it is seen axis or centre of the mountain group; and that the direcin every delta and along all riversides, and even if, like the tion of the movements has there been upwards. There stormy Arve, the rivers sweep along large masses of stone has, in fact, been a real and violent elevation of the stratithrough irregular valleys, and accumulate heaps of detritus, fied crust of the globe, corresponding to the centre or axis with much local irregularity, the general result is a plane of each mountain group. surface. No. 3. There are indeed exceptions to this general truth. One of the most interesting is that brought forward by Mr Yates in his description of the sedimentary deposits in the lakes of Switzerland. Where a river discharges sediment into deep and tranquil water, the particles, when released from the lateral impulse, are in some degree in the same circumstances as materials thrown from a loaded waggon ; This truth, sufficiently attested by observation in all parts the coarser matters accumulate into conical heaps round of the globe, leads directly to another very important law the point of entrance of the river, while the finer sorts pass of the phenomena of disturbed stratification. The centre through greater breadths of the water and form more ex- or axis of the mountain group, and consequently of the distensive and less inclined deposits. (Jameson’s Journal, turbing movement, is generally seen to be a mass of un1830.) Another case of stratified deposits deviating con- stratified rock, such as granite, sienite, &c., which shews, by siderably from the horizontal, may happen when carbonate a variety of circumstances, that it was not deposited in wa*

MINERALOGY. ; gy. ter, but rather crystallized from igneous fusion. Very often, r—^ indeed generally, proofs of its having been in a state of fusion at the time of the elevation of the strata, are found in the extension of veins of the crystallized into the sedimentary rocks, accompanied by characteristic effects of heat. We are thus led to associate the phenomenon of the disturbance of strata, with the eruption of crystallized rock from beneath ; and though the latter is indeed not exactly the cause of the former, but rather a concomitant effect of Irregular as seems the origin of these fractures (being some general dynamical agency, geologists are not greatly to be censured who describe the phenomena as they appear, occasioned certainly by pressure on planes of unequal reand speak of the disturbed positions of the strata, as effects sistance), yet some general laws of phenomena are known concerning them. The faults in any district range in many of the elevation of unstratified rocks. Once acquainted with this relation of the two classes of directions ; yet they more specially follow two principal rocks, we are in possession of a clew to guide us through all lines nearly at right angles to one another ; they generally in a remarkable the mazes of local geology ; for it is equally true of small cross the anticlinal axis, and terminate 2 elevations of strata, as of all mountain chains, that the most master fault or axis of elevation. Another law has been long known to miners of the relageneral condition observable is the mutual dependence of tion between the plane of the fault and displacement of the these disturbances and irruptions of unstratified rocks. Particular Positions of Strata.—One of the most com- strata which it traverses ; if the fault forms unequal angles mon of the many forms in which the subterraneous move- with the plane of stratification, the strata are almost always ments alluded to have left the strata, is that of a longitudi- found depressed on that side towards which the plane of nal ridge, from which the strata decline on both sides, the fault dips or declines from the horizontal. In diagram usually at very high angles; this is called an anticlinal axis. (No. 8) A A being a level line, f f the plane of the fault In some cases (Diagram, No. 4.) the strata are continuous No. 8. h S h No, 4.

over the axis, as in the Ribblesdale system of faults in York- dipping from the horizon on the side D, the strata 1, 2, 3, shire ; in others (Diagram, No. 5.) they are removed along &c. are found (relatively) thrown down on the side D, and (relatively) elevated on the side E. Not as in the next diagram (No. 9), which represents rare and exceptional cases with the same letters.

the axis so as to constitute what is called a valley of elevation. The southern Cordilleras are in this state. The longitudinal depression or trough (Diagram, No. 6.) Both the anticlinal axis and the fault are, without impropriety, often called axes of (relative) elevation. When the violence of the disturbing agencies has been extreme, the strata are not only thrown into high angles of inclination towards or from an axis, but sometimes actually rendered vertical (as in the Isle of Wight), or even retroflexed (as in the Malvern Hills). Even a more remarkable case is common among the Alps, as in the Lake of the Four Cantons, and in the Valley of Lauterbrun, where the limestones are bent into the utmost conceivable variety of curvatures, evidently caused by great lateral and vertical pressure upon yielding materials. (Diagram, No. 10.)

towards which strata decline, is called a synclinal axis ; this is frequently placed parallel to an anticlinal axis. Cases of conical elevation do occur, but rarely ; elliptical ridges are more frequent; and the centres and axes of such being removed more or less completely, make round or elliptical valleys of elevation. One of the most remarkable is that of Woolhope in Herefordshire. (Murchison.) In some cases, instead of acclinal or declinal slopes to or from an axis, we have a complete fracture of the mass of strata along a vertical or inclined plane, parallel to which the beds on one side are uplifted, and on the other depressed. This is called a fault or slip ; almost every coal district and mining region in the world is full of such, though their number is, upon the whole, very much greatest in elevated districts, and least in the youngest strata. Areas of Deposition The study of the various circumThe extent of displacement on one side of such fault is sometimes only a few inches; in other cases 10, 100, or stances under which disturbances of the strata are mani1000 feet or yards. The great Craven fault and Cross Fell fested, has assumed a very high degree of importance since fault in the north of England1 is complicated with a narrow the speculations of M. de Beaumont recalled attention to *

1

See Phillips and Sedgwick in Geol. Trans. ,• also Geol. of 1 orkshire, vol. ii. * See Gcol. of Yorkshire, vol. ii., and Hopkins in Cambridge Transactions.

187

MINERALOGY. 188 Geology, their connexion with general theory. It had been long age of the fault is only approximately fixed. See Diagram Geology, known that the dislocations of the strata were of unequal No. 11. Diagram, No. 11. antiquity. Even as early as 1791, Mr Smith found proof of the faults in the coal strata of Gloucestershire and Somersetshire, being anterior to the new red marl, for the horizontal beds of that formation lie level over the inclined and broken planes of the coal system. In the north of England, the coal-works from Nottingham to Aberford as well as those in Durham and Newcastle, indicate the same truth ; but yet it is to M. de Beaumont that we owe the The principal difficulty, however, lies in the procurement impulse which has given the investigation of the ages of of any really satisfactory data. If the disturbed strata be disturbances a distinct station in geological science. The data required for determining the geological age of covered along the axis of movement by undisturbed dea convulsion or disturbance of strata are simple, yet they posits-, the data must be correct, though incomplete, and cannot always be had with sufficient exactness. We must the conclusion must be admitted ; but this is a rare case; know what strata are, and what are not, displaced by the most frequently the observations are individually indecisive. disturbance in question. If, for example, it be found that Certain older strata are seen to be dislocated with reference along any axis of elevation, the set of rocks included in the to a certain axis; other newer beds occurring in the vicinity gneiss, mica-slate, clay-slate, and greywanke slate sys- are not seen to be disturbed; if the observations can be retems, are dislocated, but that none of the strata belong- peated at many localities, not far removed from the axis, ing to the carboniferous or other more recent systems have the negative may sometimes be sufficiently established.^ In participated in the movement, the conclusion is plain, that such a case it generally happens that the disturbed strata the disturbance happened before the deposition of the lat- are somewhere or other found unconformed in dip or in ter rocks, but after the production of the former. If the direction on the surface to those which are presumed to be undisturbed strata D, E, F be consecutive with the disturb- undisturbed; on such evidence of unconformity, we might ed rocks A, B, C, the geological data of the occurrence is safely infer the geological dates of several great disturbances accurately fixed ; but if there be any chasm in this respect which have affected the Cumbrian slate district and other as A B—*—* E F, the limits of error are known, but the tracts in the north of England. DESCRIPTIVE GEOLOGY. LEADING DIVISIONS. The history of the successive formation of the crust of the globe is so far like a narration of human events, that it admits of being placed in chronological order, and classed in periods more or less characteristic. Those periods are not at present reducible to the scale of historical time which is measured by the earth’s rotation and revolution ; yet the sequence of events is in many cases perfectly ascertainable, and something like a scale of relative time may be composed. The basis of geological chronology is the succession of stratified rocks ; the lowest are the oldest, and the uppermost are the most recent. Unstratified rocks present no such series; yet, by their connexion with the others, these also may frequently be referred to their true dates. On this account, the section of strata in any country is the foundation of all true and philosophical knowledge of its geological history. Sufficient time has elapsed since the promulgation of the views of Werner and Smith on this subject to allow' of a just estimate of their respective merits ; both are amongst the brightest names in geology. The principle of geological time was very firmly adopted by both of these eminent men ; both produced sections of strata to form the scale of geological time ; Smith analyzed the English strata with masterly accuracy,—Werner grouped the rocks of Germany into large and comprehensive systems : the one established the practice of local and exact research, the other encouraged a hope of arriving at general truths. Both of these are included in modern geology. The series of strata in Germany was grouped by Werner, who in this was guided by earlier writers, under the heads of Primitive, Transition, and Floetz or Secondary rocks, terms which have been immeasurably censured, without sufficient reason. The primitive, or most ancient of the knowm strata, were supposed to be of crystalline origin, and to contain no organic remains ; the secondary rocks to be mostly of sedimentary origin, and to abound in organic exuviie; the transition rocks were defined by intermediate characters.

At a later period, Cuvier and Brongniart’s researches round Paris, shewed the necessity of adding an upper term to this series of systems, viz. the Tertiary strata, which Werner had little opportunity of knowing. The Wernerian hypothesis of the origin of the strata may, without hesitation, be rejected as entirely useless; but his view's of the leading groups of strata has had, and will long have, a decided and permanent influence in geology, The term Primitive rocks, as implying more than we know, is replaced by Primary ; and Du Halloy and others have united w ith these the cognate Transition rocks of Werner. Thus we have at present three well understood divisions,— primary, secondary, and tertiary strata,—between which are many transition strata, linking the whole into one comprehensive succession, w'hich contains all the monuments of mechanical, chemical, and vital phenomena open to the scrutiny of man. In the following pages we shall attempt to exhibit the progress made in decyphering these monuments in the order of their inscription : this, indeed, is not the progress of investigation, which rather begins with the things best known, proceeds from the recognised facts and laws of diurnal geology, and gradually encounters the increasing difficulties which beset the inquiry into the ancient revolutions of nature ; but our object is to state results in the smallest compass and most convenient order; and this is only to be attained by following the stream of time. PRIMARY STRATA. Primitive and great part of the Transition rocks of Werner. Inferior order of strata, Conybeare. Agalysian rocks, Brongniart. Base of the Brimary Strata Inferiorly the primary strata rest on unstratified, generally granitic rocks, so situated as to cut off all possibility of observation at greater depths. This granite floor,—this universal crystalline basis to the stratified rocks,—appears in many instances (Glen Tilt in the Highlands, Skiddaw in Cumberland, Land’s

MINERALOGY. 189 G logy,^ End in Cornwall, &c.) to have undergone fusion since the masses, so as to be inclined at high angles to the horizon. Cenlrwrv deposition of strata upon it, for veins pass from it into the t he great European basin is defined by irregular elevations' * fissures of these rocks j this may even be considered one of of this kind from the Frozen Sea to the Atlantic ; by the the most general truths yet ascertained in geology. Some Urahan and Caucasian chains, the ranges of Asia Minor, theorists have proposed the hypothesis, that granite is only Greece, South Italy, and the Atlas ; the irregular westa fused mass of stratified rocks. To this we shall again ad- ern border of Spain, Ireland, the north of Scotland, and vert, and at present shall only observe, that, whether that Scandinavia, is of similar structure. Within this area, the notion be true or false, it is enough for our present purpose Sienas of Spain, the Pyrenees, the Alps, and many minor that it recognises the general truth of the stratified rocks mountains, shew the extremely wide expansion of this oldwhich are the products of water, resting universally on un- est known system of stratified rocks. stratified crystalline rocks, which, through whatever previIn the British Isles it is little known in England and ous conditions their particles may have passed, have assum- Wales (about Snowdon and Skiddaw); but, in the Isle of ed their present characters from the agency of heat. Man, in all the very mountainous parts of Ireland (Derry, Igneous rocks, then, rest below all the aqueous de- Donegal, Galway, the south-western and south-eastern posits. districts), in the Western Isles, Zetland, and all the HighNature of the Primary Strata—The rocks included in lands of Scotland, it is the predominant class of rocks. this division may be referred to three principal types : Succession and Thickness of the Strata In the HighSiliceous, Argillaceous, and Calcareous rocks. The most im- lands of Scotland the expansion of the gneiss and micaportant siliceous rocks are gneiss, composed of the minerals slate system is extremely great, and the following general called quartz, felspar, and mica (with or without horn- formula may be stated of the succession of the component blende, garnets, &c.) ; mica-slate, consisting of quartz and rocks, it being always remembered that local variations ocmica (with or without felspar, garnets, hornblende, &c.) ; cur, which cannot always be reduced to a regular scale in quartz-rock, composed chiefly of grains of quartz aggluti- a country where no organic remains can be employed to nated in various degrees (with or without mica, &c.) ; verify the inferences from mineral character. The thickchlorite-slate, which, when highly quartzose, may be re- ness of these rocks is very great, even to miles, but cannot ferred to this division, but, when passing to clay-slate, more be accurately stated. naturally ranks with the next. Hornblende-slate has the Upper series. Chlorite-slates, apparently uniting the same double relation. Sandstones occur in the upper 1 clay slate and mica-slate deposits. No organic reparts. * mains. It ranges on the whole south-east border The argillaceous rocks are less varied: Clay-slate, a fine of the Grampians, from near Aberdeen to Argylegrained, apparently simple, mass; greywacke-slate, of a nashire. ture intermediate between this and common sandstone ; Middle series. Mica-slates, primary limestone, quartzgreywacke, a conglomerate of quartzose and other fragrock, in various combinations, the former by far the ments in a basis of clay-slate ; various shales. most predominant, the others only locally importThe calcareous portions are somewhat remarkable among ant ; the limestone occurs in different parts of the limestones, for their generally crystalline character; even series. That of Loch Earn, Inverary, and Balathe fossiliferous rocks have much of this feature, and all hulish, is in the upper part, approaching to chlothe older beds are really crystallized. (Garnet, mica, talc, rite-slate ; that of Glen Tilt, and the vale of Loch hornblende, augite, quartz, &c., sometimes occur in those Tay, is in the lower part. No organic remains. portions.) This occupies a great part of the eastern and southInduration or consolidation to a high degree, is a geneern Highlands, north-west of Ireland. ral property of these strata. There is, in fact, no sand, no Lower series. Gneiss, with primary limestone, quartz clay, no marl, in the whole series. rock, hornblende-slate, &c. Gneiss is the predoSuccession of the Primary Strata. The different rocks minant rock, and varies much in all respects; the named are naturally associated in particular groups, acothers are of local occurrence. Mica-slate altercording to geological time, and consequently admit of benates with Gneiss. No organic remains. The gneiss ing usefully combined in artificial arrangements which proseries occupies nearly all the Hebrides, and very ceed on the same basis. Thus, amid many local variations, large tracts of the northern and north-western it is certainly true that rocks of the general type of gneiss Highlands. and mica-slate lie most frequently and abundantly at the base of the whole series, and contain no organic remains ; Primary Stratification.—The stratification of primary that the coarser argillaceous, sandy, and calcareous rocks, rocks is sometimes very evident and indubitable, as in the become more abundant in the upper parts of the series, gneiss beds about Loch Sunart in Argyleshire, the limeand yield stores of organic exuviae, both of plants and ani- stones of Loch Earn and Balahulish, the mica-slate of mals. Between these extremes are found the deposits of Glen Croe, the chlorite-slate of Loch Lomond: but, in clay-slate, chlorite-slate, &c. In consequence we have many cases, it is extremely difficult to pronounce a candid the following series of systems, or great assemblages of and just opinion whether a particular mass of such rocks is strata, in the primary division {numbered according to their stratified or not. This arises from the causes which are geological date, but placed so as to represent their relative found to produce partial embarrassment even among rocks superposition). of the secondary age. These are ox\f\x\‘A peculiarities 3 Red colour very predominant. t is still quartz which constitutes the great bulk of the Organic remains few and local. masses. Mica interlaminates many sandstones, and felspar Calcareous, arenaceous, and argilvanes the substances of others. Some clays are but a finer laceous strata, with beds of coal an more argillaceous kind of sandstone, just as some clay. and ironstone. The limestones s ates are not obviously distinct from an argillaceous form usually low in the series, the coal o mica-slate. But yet, on a close comparison, we find 4. Carboniferous Sys- 6,000 most abundant above. Many land to tem, e condition of these mineral ingredients somewhat diff’erplants with the latter, the for16,000 en mer with marine exuvire consi* tle grains of quartz, mica, and felspar are in fact more derably analogous to those of worn on the surfaces, more broken and fragmentary in the the silurian system. secondary than in the primary strata. Also the aggrega-

MINERALOGY. low, brown, white, and other tints prevail. Chalybeate Geolo^r 4 springs are general, and salt springs not uncommon in the Geology. - CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM. Geographical Extent.—This valuable series of strata, to northern coal tracts. The Mountain Limestone Formation is best examined which Great Britain owes so much of her commercial 1 prosperity, is extended irregularly over the basin of Eu- in the north of England in the region between Pendle rope, in North America, Australia, &c. It occupies large Hill and the Tyne. The whole series undergoes great breadths in Scotland, Ireland, England and W ales, and lies changes, so as to afford northern and southern types applicable to all parts of the mountain limestone formation yet in patches in various quarters of France, Germany, Poland, known in Europe. and Russia. Commonly it is found at the foot or on the The Southern Type, complete in Derbyshire and the flanks of primary mountains which had been previously uplifted, so that its stratification is not in accordance with south of Yorkshire, is composed of three terms, viz— Upper Term Millstone grit, a coarse sandstone, in one, theirs. In particular regions, how ever, there is no such break two, or three masses, with shales and bad coal. in the continuity of deposition, but, as in Herefordshire, the Middle Term.—(Limestone shale), a thick mass of bitupassage is gradual from the upper silurian sandstones and minous shale, in wdiich locally black limestone bands shales and limestones to the limestone, shales, and sandand nodules of ironstone occur. stone, and coal of the carboniferous systems. In such a Lower Term Limestone of Derbyshire (Lower Scar district it might be quite reasonable (since the organic relimestone of Sedgwick and Phillips), a great mass of mains, though minutely different, are often generically sicalcareous rocks almost entirely free from arenacemilar) to unite the upper primary and lower secondary ous and argillaceous admixture. rocks; but this local practicability must yield to general convenience. To this type all the south of England mountain limeSuccession and Thickness of the Strata.—The variations stones, as well as those of Ireland, Belgium, Dusseldorf, in the development of the carboniferous system are consi- and Silesia are to be referred. derable, and its occurrence is often in detached portions : In the Northern Type the same three terms are comit is therefore requisite for obtaining a general section, to pounded and otherwise varied. combine the results of different and independent observers. The upper group is composed of three millstone grit rocks, The most complete view of the lower part of the system is alternating with shales, laminated sandstones, coal found on the border of Wales adjoining the silurian rocks. seams, ironstones, chert beds, and thin limestones. The middle and upper portions are most fully exhibited in The middle group consists of shales alternating with the north of England. There are tliree great formations sandstones mostly laminated, ironstones, coal seams, included in the carboniferous system. chert beds, and five or more limestone rocks, each Upper Formation, or Goal Measures ; three thousand feet from ten to eighty feet thick. (The name of Yorethick in the north of England, consisting of abundance of dale rocks is given to this group in Yorkshire.) sandstone and shales, layers of ironstone, and beds of coal. The lower group consists of limestone, alternating with Of these are many alternations, constituting a series of many shales and some sandstones, coals, &c. nearly similar terms, usually containing at least the three substances,—coal, sandstone, and shale. Scarcely any limeTo this type belong all the Northumberland limestones, stone occurs in this upper coal-measure series. One bed is, and those of the basins of the Forth and Clyde. The limehowever, found in the Yorkshire coal-field, containing marine stone of Burdiehouse, near Edinburgh, is maintained by shells, while in all the rest of the strata nothing but fresh-w^ater DrHibbert to be of fresh-water origin. and terrestrial exuviae occur. A limestone bed with estuary The lower part of the group, round the Cumbrian mounshells is found in Shropshire, and near Manchester. tains, and along the Penine escarpments, from Brough to r The coal seams, tw enty or thirty in number, amount in Brampton, contains alternating red sandstone beds, thus all to a thickness of about sixty feet, in a mass of shales constituting a real transition to the next or old red sandand sandstones at least 3000 feet. Nearly the same thick- stone formation. ness of coal occurs in the coal-fields of Newcastle, South The old red sandstone formation varies in its character so Wales, &c. though the earthy substances enclosing the ve- as to offer little that is really of general application except getable products vary in nature and thickness. The thick- its colour, and the absence of coal, and rarity of limestone. est coal-seams in Staffordshire and Ayrshire, ten or fifteen Along the flanks of the Grampian, Lammermuir, and Cumyards, are in fact composed of many beds of different qua- brian mountains, it is chiefly a rude conglomerate of peblities aggregated together. The quality of coal is partly bles torn by violent floods from the neighbouring high dependent on the plants of which it was Originally compos- ground ; but on the borders of the Welsh slates it is a comed, and partly on subsequent changes produced by subter- plicated mass of arenaceous, calcareous, and argillaceous straranean movements, effects of heat, &c. The principal dif- ta, graduating to the upper silurian system. Mr Murchison ferences arise from the variable quantity of gaseous mat- has thus classed the beds 10,000 feet in thickness, which he ter. In the stone coal (blind coal or culm) of South Wales, ascribes to the old red sandstone of the Welsh border:—• Kilkenny, and Virginia, which burns like coke, there is Upper part.—Red quartzose conglomerate, overlying little or nothing but carbon and earthy admixtures. The thick bedded sandstone. (Without orbox or cannel coal of Lancashire and Yorkshire, which ganic remains.) blazes like a candle, contains nearly half of its weight of Middle part.—Red and green (mottled) concretionary gaseous matter. There is but little coal, and that in the limestones, with spotted argillaceous marls lower part of tha, series, in Ireland. and beds of sandstone. (Singular fishes, The ironstones of a coal district lie generally in layers of Cephalaspis of Agassiz.) nodules, each frequently enclosing a leaf or shell, or some Lower part Flaggy, highly micaceous, red and green other nucleus of molecular attraction. sandstone. (With shells.) The shales are bituminous or sandy ; the sandstones laminated or massive, micaceous, argillaceous, subcalcareous, In the Geology of Yorkshire, vol. ii. is the following oi felspathic, very rarely of a red colour, though blue, yel- conspectus of the whole carboniferous group:—

19(5

1

See Gcoloyy of lorkshiret vol. ii, and Sedgwick’s Memoirs in Geological Proceedings and Transactions.

MINERALOGY. G ogr.

North of England and Scotland.

Derbyshire, North and South Wales.

Ireland.

Coal, shale, grit, and ironstone

Carboniferous Lime, stone Formation

Coal, shale, grit, and/ Coal, shale, grit, and) Coal, shale, grit, and ironstone. ironstone . 1 ironstone Millstone grit, coal Millstone grit, or fare- Millstone grit, or fare-/ Kvlkeagh grit. l shale well rock, shale . j Kulkeagh shale. ! { well, rock shale , / Limestone, Yoredale 1 Gritstone, Kulkeagh limestone. Limestone shale’ rocks. 1 Shale, and Loch Earn shales and grits. (Coal

Transition Series

Lower Scar limestone group

Mountain limestone

Old Red Formation

Alternations of red sandstone and limestone . .

Alternations of red l Alternations of red sandstone and lime ime- -< sandstone and lime, stone stone .

Coal Formation Transition Series

Limestone and shales

Red sandstones and red f Red sandstone and conconglomerates . glomerates STRATIFICATION. This varied series of rocks shews, in all its parts, the clearest proof of successive deposition ; laminae, beds, strata, whole rocks, and groups of rocks, are here seen to be generally parallel. It is, however, very true, that in each kind of rock the phenomena indicative of successive deposition are so far different as to admit of definition. The argillaceous members are universally laminated, but it is rare to see the laminae aggregated into beds. In a thickness of a few hundred feet, are many thousand laminae, but no real beds; in a mass of limestone, forty to eighty feet, are no lamince, but many beds ; in micaceous sandstone, are both laminae, and beds ; and in some block sandstones are oblique laminae and irregular oblique or waving beds. Does not this shew the imperfection of the nomenclature commonly used, which confounds all those various structures of deposition under one vague term of stratification ? Yet, on the other hand, how full of instruction are those different phenomena : are we not clearly informed by them of the different conditions of the aggregation of the different chemical substances ? Is it not apparent that the deposition of the argillaceous beds was subject to only minute and short interruptions ; that the limestone rocks were formed at intervals; and the sandstones accumulated w ith much irregularity ? The deposition of limestone is of an oceanic character; its maximum thickness and purity is in one direction, while that of the arenaceous and argillaceous rocks lies in another, and marks the agitation of the sea along its ancient shores, where rivers and inundations brought sediments to be swept away by the tides and currents. The organic remains of the carboniferous system are extremely numerous: upwards of four hundred species of animal exuviae have been figured from the mountain limestone alone; probably 200 species of plants belong to the coal measures, and it is certain that in both these formations considerable additions will yet be made : a few remain to be added from the old sandstone. The following short summary of British species is all that our limits allow us to introduce ;—. No. 12.

A

Belgium and South of England.

Red conglomerates

Enniskillen limestone. Alternation of red sandstone and limestone. Red sandstone and conglomerate. Coal Mountain Old Red Measures. Limestone. Sandstone.

Plants Marine . Terrestrial . Zoophyta—Polyparia Crinoidea Echinida Mollusca—Conchifera Plagimyona Mesomyona Brachiopoda Gasteropoda Cephalopoda Monoth Polythal Crustacea—Trilobites, &c. Fishes .

1 150

10 4 1 3 10?

41 40 3 36 24 110 95 10 78 10 a few.

a few. a few. a few.

1 he account of plants is derived from comparison of the works of Brongniart, Lindley, and Hutton, &c. and from private sources ; the other parts are chiefly taken from the Geology of Yorkshire and Sowerby’s Mineral Conchology. SYMMETRICAL STRUCTURES. The jointed structure of rocks of the carboniferous system has been minutely investigated. In the Geology of Yorkshire, vol. ii. it is shown, from eighty-five observations in the carboniferous system, that in the mountain limestone and coal tracts of Yorkshire, the long joints affect certain principal directions, so that two positive axes in which these divisional planes are most frequent, are traced at right angles to one another; and two negative axes in which no long joints have been observed, also at right angles to each other. The axes of frequent joints run N.N.W. and S.S.E., and E.N.E. and W.S.W.; the negative axes are N.E. by N., and N.W. by W. This singular result of observation harmonizes with the principal directions of mineral veins in the district bordering on the great Crossfell and Craven faults; it also bears a close analogy with the deductions from mechanical theory of Mr Hopkins, (Cambridge Trans. 1836), as to the production of planes of fissure at right angles to each other, in cases of continuous pressure being applied to large areas of the earth’s lamellar crust. The directions above named of the positive axes, obtain in newer strata (oolitic and red sandstone systems), and in situations at great distances from the Penine faults, and it appears probable that the joint planes are due to extremely general agency. These researches should be followed up in other districts, and in other systems of strata. The following table is extracted from the work above named, and it refers to diagram, No. 12.

MINERALOGY. Geology,

Table of the Directions of Long Joints in Yorkshire. Obs. Names of Formations. No. of in Yorkshire. Magnesian Limestone Coal . . Millstone Grit . Chert Group . Yoredale Series Scar Limestone . Old Red Sandstone Whin Sill

4 3 13 57 35 15 1 1 89

Igneous rocks are of frequent occurrence in the carboniferous system of the British islands, especially in the northern parts of England and southern parts of Scotland. It is very deserving of attention, that they are principally of the augitic and hornblendic family of igneous rocks. Greenstones and basalts are the prevalent rocks which lie in interposed beds, or fissures in the stratified limestones, shales, and limestones. While among the slates of Cumberland and the Lammermuir prophyritic rocks of many kinds abound, the coalmeasures and limestone rocks, not far removed, have only basaltic or greenstone masses mixed with them. The porphyry of the Cheviot and some other points along the Tweed, may indeed be ranked as exceptions. In Northumberland, Cumberland, and the northern part of Yorkshire, a stratiform mass of greenstone and basalt (whin sill) is interposed in the midst of the limestone series, apparently originating in several submarine lava currents. In Derbyshire, a somewhat analogous rock (“ toadstone”) interlaminates the limestone; in the Clee Hill, a mass of basalt (“jewstone”) has overflowed the coal. More commonly, through all the coal-field of Durham and Newcastle, and not unfrequently in the coal-basins of Scotland, rocks of the same kind have been injected in the fluid state into open fissures of the sandstones and shales, constituting whindykes. At the point of contact of these crystallized rocks with the coal, the latter is converted to coke (North of England), or to anthracite (Old Cumnock) ; earthy limestone is converted to crystalline (Teesdale) ; shale and sandstone are hardened to jasper (Salisbury Crags, &c.); garnets are generated in the shales of Teesdale. It is worthy of remark, that the ‘ whin-dykes ’ of the North of England are often unaccompanied by dislocation. Mineral veins abound in particular parts of the carboniferous rocks, chiefly in the limestone districts, and near to some considerable dislocations or axes of distinct elevation. Scarcely a single mine in the British islands is worked in the old red sandstone, or true coal-measures ; very few are established in districts which, like a large part of the Irish limestone, are removed from axes and centres of disturbance. But the dislocated mountain limestone of Cumberland, Durham, Yorkshire, Derbyshire, Flintshire, Mendip, and South Wales, and partially that of Belgium and Silesia, is characterized by prevalence of veins of lead, copper, calamine, and oxide of iron. There is seldom found in these districts the same great variety of metallic ores as in the older primary tracts; the vein stuff (matrix of the ore) differs according to locality—fluor-spar abounds in the mines of Aldstone Moor, &c—carbonate of barytes in Derbyshire. It is seldom that the same mining districts, almost never the same veins, yield copper and lead in abundance. One might venture to say, there is a peculiar elective attraction between sulphuret of lead and limestone rock; and this idea, followed too far, leads to the doctrine

23

9i 9|

12

of the metallic contents being secreted from the bordering rocks. The materials of the veins seem indeed in many instances to have been transferred by (electric) currents through solid substances, but they are really diffused from the veins into cavities of the neighbouring rocks, not collected from these into the vein fissures. Most of the veins of fissure are accompanied by dislocations (“ faults”), sometimes to the extent of several hundred feet, sometimes only a few inches. They pass through the stratiform basalt of Northumberland and Yorkshire, and yield ore in it abundantly; but though the toadstone of Derbyshire does not, as was once imagined, “ cut the veins oft’,” they are only feebly traced through it. But this circumstance is not peculiar to the igneous rocks; often, and perhaps generally, the veins in a limestone district are greatly contracted (“nipped”) and unproductive at the places where they divide the shales, and grow wider and more prolific in the limestones and thick gritstones. Pipe veins are of less frequent occurrence and inferior interest. Ecton is one of the most remarkable of these. The same phenomena of some veins crossing and cutting through others occur in this district as in the older strata, and the same tendencies to peculiar directions are recognised; the bearing veins running generally east north-east, or nearly so, and the cross courses north by west, in the north of England and Flintshire. DISTURBANCES OF THE CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM. After the deposition of this system, and before at least any considerable proportion of the superjacent rocks was formed, very extensive displacement happened in most parts of the surface of the globe where the carboniferous rocks had been deposited. Not that such displacements were limited in geographical extent to the area of this system; on the contrary, from there hardly being a known coal tract exempt from this influence, it would appear that convulsive movements took place of a very general description, so as to affect very large tracts of the surface of the globe. In the British islands, every coal district is disturbed and shaken in every square mile of its breadth by faults (“gauls, slips, troubles, and dykes”), passing in many directions, some of them having a great amount of “ throw,” and consequently affecting the working of the mines. But these minor effects, though on some accounts very interesting, lose their importance when we contemplate the gigantic disruption of Tynedale, the Penine chain, the Craven fault, the Derbyshire elevation, the fault of the vale of Clwydd, the double synclinal axis of the coal-fields of South Wales, and the parallel one of Namur. The Penine disruptions, ranked by De Beaumont under the title of the System of the North of England, are on a magnificent scale. Three principal lines compose this great system—the northern branch ranges along Tynedale from Brampton to the sea fifty miles, bending more than once

MINER jgv. from its average recticlinal course to the east by north ; ' the southern branch passes in a straight line to the eastsouth-east thirty miles, and the two are connected by a line of fault, whose mean direction is nearly north and south, but it has three several courses in a length of fifty miles. The Craven, or southern branch of the system, is a double fault; the Penine line is partly an anticlinal and partly a fault; the Tynedale branch is one great fault. With reference to a point in the middle of the area, enclosed by their dislocation, their effect is everywhere similar, viz. a mighty depression of all the exterior country. North of the Tynedale fault, is a depression or throw of 1000 to 2000 feet; west of the Penine fault, 2000 or 3000, or perhaps 4000 feet under Crossfell; and south of the Craven fault 3000 feet at least under Ingleborough. There is no direct connexion between this great Penine system of faults, and the elevation of Derbyshire ; between them is a singular system of anticlinal elevations and synclinal depressions, all chiefly ranging north-east, or northeast by east, from the Craven fault, right toward the more ancient but parallel anticlinals of South Wales. Before, however, reaching these lofty chains* a transverse break, almost exactly similar to the Crossfell fault, ranging north north-west, along the vale of Clwydd (which is a miniature copy of the vale of Eden), stops the Kibblesdale system of anticlinals in the south-west, just as the Craven fault, ranging west north-west, has stopped them on the north-east. It is from nearly the middle of the Ribblesdale faults that an anticlinal ridge, ranging south south-east, passes along the western border of Yorkshire and continues into Derbyshire, on the southern side of which county it is apparently cut off by an east and west fault. Charnwood Forest is an elevation of slate rocks (on an axis of sienitic rocks), and the date of its elevation is posterior to the limestone and coal-field of Ashby, but anterior to the new red sandstone system, which is seen to lie level over its vertical and broken slates. The other central coal-fields of Warwickshire, Staffordshire, and Shropshire, were dislocated at about the same or perhaps somewhat later period, for the magnesian conglomerate is disturbed by the faults of the Coalbrookdale-field. From this field to the Malvern Hills, a great north and south axis of violent elevation occurs, which in places actually overthrows the strata (Murchison in Geol. Soc. Abstracts), and others proceed south-west, parallel to Wenlock Edge, till they reach the vale of the Towey. Here a new axis of dislocation becomes predominant, that of the South Wales coal-field, which runs east and west from St David’s in Pembrokeshire, through the counties of Caermarthen, Glamorgan, and Monmouth, and may be considered to continue into the Mendip Hills and Somersetshire. Parallel to this, and in fact in the line of its prolongation to the east, is the coeval disturbance of the coal from near Boulogne through Belgium and Westphalia, and in the south of Ireland. A parallel but perhaps earlier disturbance ranges along the northern boundary of the greywacke region. It would be impossible here to investigate all the bearings of the mass of evidence furnished by these variously directed dislocations, on the dynamical principles of geology, but they are too important to be overlooked. We may, however, observe, that dislocations of different dates are thus shewn to be parallel, while others presumed to be coeval range in different directions. STATE OF THE GLOBE DURING THE CARBONIFEROUS PERIOD. Recollecting the proof already given of the partial elevation of our present dry land, we shall be prepared for considering the nature of the new conditions introduced into the geological formula, by this circumstance, and the variation of surface temperature, already concluded to be admis-

A L O G Y. 199 sible as a geological cause. The Grampians and other mountain chains being raised above the sea, and shore and Geology. deep sea currents established, we shall not be surprised to find the traces of mechanical movement in the ocean suddenly grow very strong and extensive. We find, in fact, round all the mountain ranges, which for other reasons were presumed to have been uplifted before the carboniferous epoch began, some of the most remarkable conglomerate rocks which occur in the British strata. The character of these conglomerates, too, varies in direct relation to the proximity of the mountains-. The composition of the red conglomerates of the Grampian borders reminds us continually of the rocks of the Highlands; those which surround the Lammermuir Hills are full of pebbles derived from these mountains (Bone); those which border the Cumbrian group contain pebbles of the neighbouring rocks. W hat is the cause of the universal red colour of these ancient sediments, is already felt to be an important problem, for it appears connected with absence of organic exuviae in more than one instance. Shall we say that the local accumulation of the old red conglomerates was a consequence of the local elevation of the primary strata from the bed of the sea ? During the course of the carboniferous period the sediments of the sea underwent a total change, for red sandstones and clays are scarcely seen (except locally) among the coal-measures, or in the upper parts of the mountain-limestone series. Shall we say that the dark shales and variously coloured grits came from regions in different directions ? The great quantities of those sediments imply, probably, some great physical changes of land and water in situations not far removed. The alternation of these deposits marks periods of intermitting action, and the circumstance of the prevalent association of terrestrial exuviae in these, but not in other strata, seems to instruct us that the earthy and vegetable materials were swept down from the land by some such means as a great river or periodical inundation. If so, the origin of coal and that of the accompanying characteristic rocks (or “ coal-measures”) is understood, the regular thickness and extension of the strata of coal are ascribable to the watery agitation, which at once permitted the association of similar earthy particles into shale and sandstone respectively, and collected the vegetable masses into layers. De Luc’s notion of the origin of coal from submerged peat beds is too limited and encumbered with inextricable difficulties to be ever adopted as a general doctrine, nor can the minor analogies observed between the position of the subterranean mass of vegetables, the vertical trees, and (often imaginary) roots and branches, be held at all conT elusive. What can be thought of an hypothesis such as that just named; when we try to apply it to a case like a north of England coal-field, with its numerous parallel seams of coal, ironstone, &c. for every one of which seams the land must first have been dried and covered with soil, then submerged to receive oceanic sediments; no fault, no wrant of conformity in the stratification, no unusual violence of water being in any case observable to justify the hypothesis of rising and falling land ? Again, will it be supported for a moment in a country where limestone, shale, gritstone, coal, are repeated many times (as in the dales of the north of England); yet where the grits and shales vanish, every trace of coal also disappears ? If there be any truth in the hypothesis, coal should be found in the midst of the limestone as well as enclosed in gritstone or shale ; some independent proof should be given of the rising and sinking being limited to certain tracts; or some reason assigned for the dependence of coal on the occurrence of such sedimentary rocks. It is evident that the general arguments must prevail, and the condition of the plants which compose the coal, the general absence of roots, the fragmentary state of the stems and branches, the dispersed condition of the separa-

MINERALOGY. 200 Geology, ble organs, the splitting and reunion of coal beds, all the mermuir district of Scotland. In Arran, and on the west Geology, ; ^phenomena, in fact, really general, confirm the conclusion coast of Ayrshire, on the south side of the Lammermuirs,^ , that the plants whereof coal consists were swept down from round Dumfries and Longtowh, is a large tract of these the land on which they grew by watery currents, often rocks, spreading into the plain of Carlisle, the vale of Eden, repeated, and deposited in basins or large estuaries of the and against the west face of the Cumbrian mountain limesea, or, perhaps rarely, in lakes of fresh water. The alter- stone. Small detached parts occur farther south on the nation of a bed of marine limestone in the Yorkshire coal- same side of the Lake district, and still smaller on the east, field, and perhaps the broad layers of bivalve shells (Unio), about Kirby Lonsdale. But the greatest expansion of these rocks in England which appear sometimes in positions indicating that they lived and died where they are now found, shew an estuary begins in Durham, about the mouth of the Tees, spreads deposit liable to temporary predominance of salt water. In southward in a narrow tract along the vale of York to Notthe coal-fields of Shropshire and Manchester, the supposed tingham ; then opens at once into the wide central plain of fresh-water limestone may perhaps be ascribed to the in- England, and occupies the whole breadth from the carboflux of a river, and other coal deposits probably have hap- niferous tract of Lancashire, North Staffordshire, Derbypened in the deep sea at intervals during the accumulation shire and Nottinghamshire, to Shrewsbury and Worcester, to Leicester and Shipston; then following the Severn to of limestone. What, then, were the circumstances of the dry land Bristol, it turns to the west along the south face of the favourable to the growth of the enormous mass of vege- South Wales coal-field, and is, interruptedly, continued table substance which is buried in the coal formation ? south from the Bath Avon to the mouth of the Exe. On the continent of Europe it occupies some space on That the atmosphere was warmer, and, by consequence, moister, may be easily admitted, and in fact what is known the left bank of the Rhine in the district south of the of the structure of the plants goes to confirm this opinion ; Ardennes, and parallel to the Vosges; but on the right for the most abundant forms are at least analogous to tro- bank it is expanded over larger breadths in Wurtemberg, pical vegetation. But in addition, it has been conjectured and occupies a great part of that enormous area included that the atmosphere might in those early periods have an between Basle, Amberg, Leipzig, and Minden. Almost universally it fills a low or level country, out of unusual dose of carbonic acid gas, and thus be more fit to supply the carbon requisite for the growth of such vast which arise insulated groups and short ranges of mountains forests as then must have encumbered the limited surface ot older strata or pyrogenous rocks. Such are Charnwood of the land. This speculation of Brongniart appears wor- Forest, and the central coal-fields of England ; the Vosges, thy of attention; nothing known to the chemist or natural Schwarzwald, Thuringerwald, Odenwald, Harz, &c., in philosopher is opposed to the notion that the quantity of Germany. Its highest point in England does not much carbonic acid gas in the atmosphere may be extremely va- exceed 800 feet above the sea. Succession of Strata This system consists of many riable ; it would not indeed be favourable to the life of animals, but what proof have ive of the globe being then tenant- alternations of arenaceous and argillaceous members, with ed by terrestrial animals? Moreover, speculation apart, let some less continuous interpositions of limestone, usually any one calculate the quantity of carbon contained in a impregnated with magnesia. The best types of the syssingle English coal-field, once a part of the living structure tem are those of Germany, the south-east of France, and of plants, and add the equivalent volume of carbonic acid north of England. The most complete in all respects is gas to that small quantity which it now holds, the conse- that of Germany ; but it will be convenient to describe the quence will be an atmosphere charged with this pabulum English series, and afterwards to present a general conof vegetable life, to a degree perhaps very favourable to spectus of the whole. It is to Professor Sedgwick (on Magthe growth of plants, but certainly detrimental to the life nesian Limestone, Geol. Trans.) that we owe the most sucof animals breathing by lungs. Now, surely, it is worthy cessful classification fo’r England; and the labours of Voltz, of attention, that after the coal was deposited, reptile life Elie de Beaumont, &c., have ascertained all that is required began to be manifested, and finally, to predominate ; while, for drawing the lines of geological contemporaneity between on the other hand, vegetable life, though the land was England and Germany. Upper red sandstone formation.—Consisting of variegated much more extensive and apparently not much lowered in red, white, and other clays, with gypsum; (organic temperature, never yielded again such thick and extensive remains, few and local). Red and white sandstone, carbonaceous deposits. with or without layers of clay ; (few or no organic From the nature of its numerous organic contents, as remains). Red conglomerate of pebbles derived well as from the texture and composition of its masses, from older rocks, imbedded in red sandstone; (no there is no doubt of the mountain limestone being truly an organic remains). oceanic deposit, diminishing and growing debased toward Magnesian limestone formation.—Consisting of upper the shores, but accumulating in masses of greater purity laminated compact limestone of a light or dark grey toward the deeper seas. It appears to have been a chemical precipitate, more or less tranquilly produced ; and if we or smoky colour. A few organic remains. may venture here to combine the facts known concerning Gypseous red and coloured marls. the primary and secondary limestone, it will appear the Lower or magnesian limestone, of a yellow colour, earthy, most probable inference, that a slow decomposition of the granular, crystalline, or concretionary in texture, and oceanic waters, partly by organic, partly by chemical action, (locally) organic remains in considerable abundance. is the true cause of the production of marine limestone. Marl slate or calcareous laminated rock, yielding fishes of the genus Palaeoniscus chiefly. NEW RED SANDSTONE SYSTEM. Lower red sandstone formation.—Red and yellow sandGeographical Extent.—The irregular expanse of sea stones with (locally) red and coloured clays, and left in the region of Europe by the broken masses of land, plants like those found in the coal series. belonging to the uplifted carboniferous rocks, was perhaps The usual arrangement adopted in England unites the not fully filled by the next succeeding deposit of sandstones, lower red sandstone, with the magnesian limestone formaclays, and limestone, which receives the name of Red Sand- tion. It is of little importance, however, whether we constone, or Saliferous or Pcecilitic formation, but it is very exten- ceive the whole system to be but one formation, or divide sively diffused in and beyond this area. It occurs in Ire- it into two or three. On the western side of the north of land, but not abundantly, and only in the north eastern part, England (Plain of Carlisle), the upper red sandstone rewhich may be viewed as a dismemberment from the Lam- tains its usual character; the magnesian limestone is re-

r n

MINERALOGY. 201 ^presented by s calcareous conglomerate. Further south layers; where pebbles and sand are mixed fNottineham r T" t m G l near Manchester, red and greenish marls and1 concretionary concretionary Castle), the layers lavers are oblique ohliene in t„ various drecrnriike f:“ Wth"'. ~ W limestones, both fossiliferous, divide the upper from the lower heaps of detritus left by rapid rivers or other sudden violence i ' red sandstones. In the centre of England (Cheshire, Worr 16 Imestone cestershire) salt rocks and springs occur. In all the southern ubedded; uf ^ ’t if argillaceous, areregular, thinly if magnesian, theybeds, are often thicker, less districts (Shropshire, Gloucestershire, Somersetshire), a cal- full of sparry geodes, and strings and veins of carbonate careous conglomerate represerits the magnesian limestone, ot lime. Ihese magnesian rocks are also often very con-* and the lower red sandstone is only locally seen. In the dis- cretionary, sometimes oolitic, in particular parts (Manstrict south of the Ardennes, and along the Vosges, there is held, Nottinghamshire) composed of real crystals of the no magnesian limestones, but in the midst of the variegated double carbonate of lime and magnesia. Some beds have marls, lies a thick limestone rock (muschelkalk), in some re- a conglomerate character, and in such, generally, stratificaspects comparable to the upper laminated limestone of the tion is almost imaginary, and the joints which pass through north of England, but containing many and different organic he other beds, lose themselves without penetrating; this. remains. In the variegated clays above the muschelkalk, is a (Shields and Sunderland.) thin bed of magnesian limestone ; with this series of varieOrganic Remains. South of a line drawn through gated clays is associated a variety of sandstones locally Chester and Derby, organic exuviae of plants or animals have rich in plants, the whole group being in France called been rarely found in the red sandstone system of England • “ roarnes irisees,’ in Germany, ‘ keiiper’.) The red grit of none have yet occurred in that of Scotland; but fishes the Vosges (Gres Vosgien, Volz) is rather a local rock pe- have been discovered in that of Ireland. (Report of Proculiar to that district, than a part of the lower red sandstone, ceedings of British Association at Dublin, 1835.) which does, however, occur there beneath it. But in the In the space north of this line it is only on the western Thuringerwald and north east of Germany, in addition to side of the island that a marine plant has been found in these, we have limestones corresponding to the upper and red sandstone, at Runcorn near Liverpool (Dr Buckland, lower magnesian limestone, gypseous marl, and marl-slates 1834), marine shells (conchifera and gasteropoda) lie in of England, under the general name of Zechstein. Thus the red and white marl, and calcareous bands near Manthe whole is capable of being represented in one formula, chester. On the eastern side of the island the lower magwhich is well calculated to shew both the agreements and nesian limestone is nowhere entirely destitute of shells and ftXd fZftl"

m C mparins diS,ant partS 0f

North-east of Germany The Vosges. Keuper sandstones I Marnes irisees. and marls. j .Muschelkalk. Muschelkalk. Bunter sandstone. Gres bigarre. Zechstein. Vosgien Rothetodteliegende. Gres gres.

°

South of England. North of England. J Variegated Variegated marls, ( marls. {Red and white sandstone, f Calcareous ( conglomerate

I Red and white V sandstone and ) conglomerate. ) Magnesian f limestone. \ Lower red ) sandstone.

Salt is associated with the upper parts of this system m England, France, and Germany, where the muschelkalk is quite as saliferous as ’ the variegated marls, to which apparently salt is confined in England. Upon the whole, then, this red sandstone system is a vast mass of sandy and argillaceous sediments ofa peculiar aspect, accompanied more than any others yet known by salt and gypsum,—generally deficient in organic remains, and only locally inclosing strata of limestone, which commonly are characterised by abundance of magnesia. nor . th of Germany the lower beds of it seem decidedly related to the coal deposits, (as also happens in the north of England); in fact, the coal is supposed by Hoffman to be only a local product in a vast mass of red rocks, inc u ing the whole series of the old red and new red rocks. early the same thing takes place in Arran where the diminished carboniferous system is merely a parting in the enormous thickness of red clays, sandstones, and conglomerates. Thus, it is evident that our best classifications o e series of stratified deposits can only be locally exact, an authors ot such arrangements must be prepared to see cm rejected, as in many cases inapplicable or very inconrx venient. Stratification—The same laws of phenomena on this su ject obtain in the red sandstone as in the carboniferous sys em > the argillaceous masses are laminated, often composed of alternating white, greenish, and red layers ; the an stones when very fine are also, in general, thinly b’ed’ w lere very coarse they are in ruder and less regular vol. xv. °

a HT’ rocks : the upper “"hea carboniferous laminated rock has also few shells, the lower red sandstone many plants. In Germany, the rothliegende, zechstein, bunter sandstein, muschelkalk, and keuper, all contain organic remains, and locally even in considerable quantity. No complete list of the fossils of the English magnesian limestone has ever been published. Professor Sedgwick, however, (Geol. Trans.), mentions a considerable number of the Durham fossils, and M. Agassiz has recently added to the list of fishes. The following summary includes some nondescript species now in the cabinet of the writer. Plants Voltzia ? Zoophyte, Polyparia, . 3 Crinoidea, . 1 Conchifera, Plagimyona, 9 Mesomyona, 6 Brachiopoda, 15 Gasteropoda, 4 Cephalopoda, 2 Fishes, 10? Reptiles, . 2 or 3 Igneous Rocks—Basaltic dikes divide the magnesian limestone of the north of England; and in the Island of Arran (Jameson, MacCulloch, &c.) these and other dikes of pyrogenous rocks and interposed beds are extremely abundant in Corygills, at Tormore, and other points. Nothing of the kind is found in the greater part of the English red marl and sandstone ; but the analogous red conglomerates and porphyritic masses of Exeter (investigated by De la Beche), appear important, as throwing light on the analogous, if not strictly coeval, mixtures of porphyritic and arenaceous rocks common in the north of Germany. It is chiefly by the occurrence of porphyritic fragments and pebbles that the mixture alluded to takes place near Exeter ; it appears a natural supposition that, in the confined accumulation of the red conglomerate from the action of violent water-currents, consequent on local displacements of the crust of the globe which followed the deposition of the coal-measures, some of the broken masses of igneous rocks should be retained among the materials then aggregated. In fact, the country was dislocated near the conglomerate of Exeter ; and Mr de la Beche notices circumstances tending 2c

MINERALOGY. 202 Geology, to shew that the porphyritic eruptions did happen, and some- pected to have caused greater local varieties in the com- Geology, of this system than we find. In fact, as a general -Y'"'-'' times overflowed parts of1 the conglomerate while it was in position rule, the traces of terrestrial admixture in the red sandstone process of accumulation. On the east side of the Harz the red sandstones and deposits are remarkable, and unusually few. The shells marls (of the Rotheliegende) rest on a porphyritic conglome- and other organic exuviae are marine ; and it is only in a rate, of which the porphyritic fragments are not always si- few places round particular mountain ranges (the Black milar to the nearest quartz porphyry of Saal, often being Forest especially), that the remains of land plants and replarger in proportion to the distance therefrom. This con- tiles are at all prevalent. Several reasons might be adglomerate is regular and widely expanded, and none of the duced to justify an opinion, that the time occupied in the other beds of the red formation contain such porphyry peb- production of the whole system was comparatively short,—. such as the general uniformity of its composition, the defibles. (Von Dechen). Thus, it appears certain that the detritus of igneous ciency (except in limited regions) of limestones ; the pecurocks (generated, it appears, in Devonshire at the same liar chemical and mineral character of these limestones; era) furnished the materials of the lower beds of the Ro- the general paucity of organic remains; the frequency of theliegende ; and we may perhaps hereafter be able to form conglomerates and local admixture of fragments of igneous a conception as to the extent to which igneous eruptions, rocks,—all these circumstances seem to indicate the proand wasted igneous rocks, may have modified the characters dominance of an unusual series of agencies. A notion has gradually been spreading, though it has of the deposition of the whole system, which, in mineral, structural, and organic characters, offers much that is wor- perhaps not been distinctly announced, that many of these circumstances are the result of temporary volcanic excitethy of notice, and very alluring to imprudent theorists. Metallic veins are, in England, very rarely heard of in ment consequent upon the deposition of the coal-measures; the rocks, nowhere worked. Lead veins occur in the marl- but it is difficult to collect adequate reasons from the vague slate near North Shields,—in the magnesian-limestone at data at present known, for clothing this suggestion with the Nosterfield, and Warmsworth, Yorkshire, and Barlborough substantial character of a probable inference. Concerning climate and other circumstances, the eviDerbyshire ; carbonate of copper is found at Farnhill near Knaresborough, Newton Kyme near Tadcaster, and Warms- dence from remains is of little value further than their analogy with those of the carboniferous system leads to the worth ; cobalt is found in Alderley Edge, Cheshire. In Germany the slate-beds, which are the equivalent of impression that no remarkable changes had occurred in this the marl-slate, are loaded with copper about the Harz respect. Mountains, and contain fishes. They receive the name of oolitic system. kupferschiefer. Geographical Extent.—In the British islands, and, we disturbances of the red sandstone system. may add, in the continent of Europe, this mass of calcareous rocks is very unequally distributed, yet in particular The most remarkable example is on the eastern face of regions its course is very persistent, and the different forthe Vosges Mountains, where the upper beds of the system rnations which compose it follow one another with remarklie at the foot of great precipices of the Gres Vosgien. In able conformity. Scarcely any traces of it occur in Ireland, England almost nothing of this kind is observable. The except in the north-eastern part, which contains the chalk magnesian limestone is divided and dislocated by some of and red sandstone. It is found on the east coast of Scotthe faults and basaltic dykes which traverse the coal of the land at only a few points about the Moray Frith, and along Newcastle district. One of the anticlinal lines west of the Sutherland coast. On the western coast it occurs at Shrewsbury, which ranges from west south-west to east Applecross, opposite to the Isle of Skye, and at several north-east, through the Breiddin Hills, has been noticed by points in that island, and some of the smaller islets adjacent. Mr Murchison as continuing in a narrow course through the In the same manner, it borders Mull, and is found skirting red sandstone of the plain of Shrewsbury, and directing itself the mainland along the Sound of Mull. toward the elevated coal and gritstone hills near Cheadle. But in none of the Irish or Scottish localities is the sysThe red sandstone along this line (at points fifteen or thirty tem completely, or even characteristically, exhibited ; it is, miles from the Breiddin), is thrown into angular positions, in fact, more properly an English than a British system of altered and impregnated with metallic substances; and dykes strata, and there are few tracts of Europe where it is more of trap occur at Acton Reynolds. The most curious infe- expanded or so fully and variously developed. From the rence on the subject is, that the same line has been the prominent parts of the Yorkshire coast, between Redcar and locus of the igneous eruption and disturbing movement du- Filey, it holds an uninterrupted course, with varying breadth, ring the silurian, carboniferous, and red sandstone eras, a through Yorkshire, Lincolnshire,Northamptonshire,Oxfordconclusion singularly at variance with the literal statement shire, Gloucestershire, Somersetshire, and Dorsetshire, to of De Beaumont’s hypothesis, though, as being a solitary the southern coast between Exmouth and the Isle of Purinstance, it ought not to be too much insisted on. It ap- beck, almost everywhere forming a rather high table-land pears from the same author and Mr Prestwich, that some and dry surface, sloping regularly to the east, and dividing the of the most considerable dislocations of the border of the eastern and western drainage of the island. It is nowhere coal-fields of Coalbrookdale and Dudley happened after the narrower than in a part of Yorkshire near Bishop Wilton, deposition of a part of the new red sandstone ; but it is cer- where, in consequence of unconformity of the chalk, only tain that those of Sommersetshire and Gloucestershire were the lower part of the lowest member is seen, and its breadth completed before the date of that rock. is only a few yards. On the contrary, in the middle of the island, as in the counties of Northampton, Rutland, Gloucester, and Worcesstate of the globe during the formation of the ter, its breadth is even as much as forty miles. Toward the NEW RED SANDSTONES. western edge, which is generally a line of bold escarpeThe greater extent of land, as indicated by the uplifting ment, many outliers, or detached masses, occur, separated of many portions of the coal deposit, might have been ex- by watery violence or other causes. Of these the most Proceedings of Geological Society, 1834.

MINERALOGY. 203 G iogy- singular and far removed is the newly discovered basin of rocks, exists very extensively in Kent and Sussex, and this GeoWv V Yulias (the lowest of the oolitic formations) in the centre of for the sake of making the Bath series general for the south '' the red marls and sandstones of Cheshire—(Geol. Pro- of England, has been placed in the above scheme of five ceedings, 1835). Other extensive outliers follow the oolitic formations. southern border of the South Wales’ coal-field far into GlaIn this alternation of limestones, sandstones, and clays, morganshire. we behold deposits effected in periods of alternating disOn the continent of Europe the oolitic system is largely turbance and quiet, such as might happen not far from the expanded; in France in a large semicircle round Paris, shores of the ancient sea; and in the uppermost formation from the Ardennes to Normandy. It has a long range in the effects of agitated water predominate. Wurtemberg and Franconia; occurs in places along the 1 he next type, taken from Yorkshire, shews these littoral range of the Carpathians (Poland), and margins, with a effects carried to extreme, in some parts of the sea, but not broad band, the north and south slopes of the Alps. It is in others. The following is a short view. supposed to enter into the composition of the Apennines, and the Dalmatian ridges, and to form a part of the lime- The Wealden Formation. Unknown in the North of England. stone ranges of Spain, perhaps also of Greece. Oolitic Formation, represented 1 The skirts of the Himalaya certainly contain at lea^t its TheonlyUpper s. Thick clay. by / lower members, and perhaps these are net wholly unknown in North America. Upper calcareous grit. Succession of Deposits—There are three principal types TheCoralline Formation r PPer §rouP:, ft Coralline oolite. of the oolitic system in which its developed characters apIP- Lower calcareous grit. is composed nearly as \ pear considerably unlike ; and it seems possible to ascertain in the south of Eng-*' Oxford clay. la d the proximate influences or causes of the diversity. The “ ’ • * * ( Lower Kelloway sandstone. • f series of oolitic rocks near Bath was the first field of the Thin blue clay. successful researches of Mr Smith in analyzing the secon/ /. Cornbrash limestone, thin. dary strata and determining the relation of organic forms to Ar ? Sandstones and clays, with the successive stages of geological time. The excellent and land plants, thin coal, exact arrangement which he here disclosed is the true fun&c. ; calcareous sanddamental standard of comparison for all the localities, not stone, or sandy, concreso much on the account of its being chosen by Mr Smith, tionary, shelly limestone. as because it is in fact the most complicated (that is most limest le fully expanded or developed) series of this system yet The Lower Oolitic Formation is very dif-i A ? Thlck mass «‘ > Afof san(lstone ferent from that of Bath in detail, ' known. The following classification will be found very (often carbonaceous) convenient for the Bath district. and clays, often full of plants, with coal-beds and ironstone. Names dn Description of Formations. Constituent Groups. tone8 of So th other limestones, green and irouy Wardour. shire section, the whole is a more fully } ' " " Yorkshire and Lincolnsands, and blue clays of consider- t. Sands of Swindon, and expanded series than that near Bath. shire. s. Clay of the Vale of able thickness, with organic re ■ a. Lower lias clays of Worth Wilts. mains. Composed of . the Trent-side (graduating to the red marls r. Thin calcareous grit. below.) Middle Oolitic Formation: consisting of J q. Coral rag and oolite. coralline and shelly oolites, calca- Ip. Calcareous grit. reous sandstones and clays, with 0. Blue clay and septaria. The oolitic series of Sutherland and the Western Isles n. Kelloway sandstone. organic remains, • . of Scotland, investigated by Murchison, agrees nearly with m. Blue clay. the Yorkshire type: so does that of the whole northern line of Westphalian oolites, from Bramsche, by Minden, to Lower Oolitic Formation : a complicated 1. Cornbrash limestone. group of oolitic and shelly and san- k. Forest marble group, Wolfenbiittel and Helmstadt, but the greater part of the continental oolites form a series analogous to that of the dy limestones, laminated and con- i. Bath oolite. cretionary sandstones, sandy and h. Fullers’ earth rocks. south of England. In Normandy there are almost exactly tenacious clay, fullers’ earth, p. Superior oolite, and the same groups (M. de Caumont). On the south of the &c. .... v f. Sandstone. Ardennes (M. Boblaye), the clays of the English series grow less conspicuous, but the series is similar. In Bure. Thin upper lias clay. Lias Formation : chiefly argillaceous, with gundy (M. de Beaumont), the calcareous character of the strata of limestone, all more or d. Marlstone rocks, group augments, and the argillaceous members diminish, less argillaceous, but rarely ooli- c. Middlelai selay. so that the several oolitic formations become more difficult tic ; layers of sandy irony rocks, it Lias limestones. and septaria; abundance of orga- a. Lower lias clays, ge- to define than in England. The same is true in a still more nerally passing to decided degree on the border of Switzerland; in Wurtemnic remains. new red marls. berg and Franconia; and generally along the borders of the Alps. Upon further examination in the country south of LonThe general result of all this is, that the type of the oodon, it is found that a superior formation, the Wealden litic system of the south of Europe is more calcareous ; that

MINERALOGY. 204 Geology, of the north of Europe more arenaceo-argillaceous. The clays,—are more frequently similar or identical than those GeoW, former has the air of an oceanic or deep-sea deposit, little of rocks differing in nature. Thus the same, or similar^—v-w disturbed by currents of water; the latter was accumulated ec. inida, occur in the Bath oolite and the coralline oolite; under the predominant influence of littoral agitation. In similar, if not the same grypheae occur in the lias clays, most cases, indeed, but not universally, the specially argilla- the Oxford clay, and the Kimmeridge clay. These local truths are found to be applicable in all situaceous lias formation is distinguishable (even among the Alps and around Auvergne) from the specially calcareous upper tions where the oolitic series is expanded ; they are repeatoolites; the middle part of the system (Bath oolite forma- ed on the Yorkshire coast (Geol. of Yorkshire), on the tion) is the most variable, and the uppermost formation west of Scotland (Murchison), (Dorsetshire (De la Beche), in Normandy (De Caumont, &c.), south of the Ardennes (Wealden rocks) is merely local. Organic Remains.—It is impossible to say with certainty (Boblaye), in Central France (Dufrenoy, &c.), in Franover what extent in extra-European countries the oolitic conia (Munster), in the south-east of France (De Beaumont, system spreads, because of the great alterations which mix- Voltz, &c.). In generalizing these local truths Mr Smith found that, ed secondary rocks experience near the axes of mountain elevation. Thus the description of the thick limestone for a considerable distance north and south, the fossils of overlying red sandstones, on the banks of the Lakes of the oolitic system, as a mass (1.), were almost universally Como and Lecco (De la Beche, Geol. Manual), would be similar, and generally the same, but universally distinct from insufficient to make us recognise the oolitic system, but for those of older or younger systems. (2.) That the distinction of the several oolitic formathe additional evidence afforded by certain fossils. The lias of the Swiss and Austrian Alps could not be satisfac- tions was practicable for considerable distances by the same torily understood without their aid (Necker and Murchi- species, or groups of fossils, which characterized them near son’s Notices); nor could the singular alternations of gra- Bath. (3.) That the several rocks contained, at great distances, nular limestones, micaceous slate, &c. of the Tarentaise (M. Brochant), and the problematical rocks of Piedmont many of the same fossils which occurred in them near (M. De Beaumont), be referred to the lias, but for the be- Bath. Hence arose the impression that, in England, the oolitic lemnites which occur abundantly among them. It is true, that here a singular anomaly occurs with respect to the or- and other strata of the same age contained the same or ganic remains, for the belemnites of the lias are found both similar organic bodies. It was not possible for Mr Smith above and below a great number of plants analogous to to state his laws as general principles universally applithose of the ancient coal-measures! But this ought not cable, because, originating in observation, generalized by greatly to surprise us. There is nothing known in geology observation, they were in no sense hypothetical ;—they which should forbid an admission that particular localities were inductive not deductive,—limited to things known, of land might enjoy an immunity from the effect of those not extended to things unknown. In following out Mr Smith’s views, it has been found, causes which wrought periodical changes in the physical that the proposition (1.) of the entire distinctness of the conditions and organic inhabitants of the sea. The plants of this anomalous series may be viewed as a whole group of oolitic fossils from the older and newer remainder of the vegetation of the era of coal deposits, fossils, is almost universally true; the exceptional cases transferred to a sea full of organic beings of the earliest mentioned along the range of the Alps, being, in fact, viewoolitic era. ed as singular and difficult anomalies. It has also been The importance justly attached to the study of organic found, that mineral masses of most contrasted types, as the exuviae has been overrated by some of the followers of Mr argillaceous lias compared to the calcareous oolites, reSmith, and wholly misunderstood by some of the opponents tain the same general features of distinction in organic reof his views. We, who have known intimately the princi- mains, wherever they have yet been examined. Whole ples really advanced and acted on by that distinguished groups of the same belemnites and ammonites mark the man, may be permitted to say this, and to shew what is lias of Yorkshire, Dorsetshire, and W7urtemberg. It has really their nature and meaning, by investigating their ap- also been found that the geological place of several of the plication to the geological history of the oolitic rocks, the species selected by Mr Smith as characteristic of Bath consideration of which undoubtedly suggested the whole rocks, is the same, or nearly so, in very distant situations doctrine of the identification and discrimination of strata (Apiocrinus rotundus, Cidaris florigemma, Avicula echinata, by their imbedded organic ‘l remains.” Terebratula digona, Ostrea delta, Gryphaea dilatata, AmmoThe local truths ascertained by Mr Smith with respect nites calloviensis, &c.) ; but it is also certain, that the numto the oolitic rocks in the neighbourhood of Bath, as ap- ber of these characteristic or monochronic fossils is conpears from his works, “ Stratigraphical System” and “ Strata tinually diminishing; that the influence of geographical identified by organized Fossils,” are these, the nomencla- position is more important than was at one time imagined; ture being made to suit the modern arrangements : that varying physical conditions exerted corresponding in(1.) The fossils of the oolitic system as a group, viz. fluence over the distribution of organic forms; that each the plants, zoophyta, shells, Crustacea, and fishes, differ species had a definite range of organic existence; and, completely from the fossils similarly grouped of the creta- finally, that identity of species is not often to be looked ceous system above, and the new red sandstone and coal for at very great distances, though a remarkable general systems below. analogy and similarity of form appears still to be very ex(2.) The organic remains of the lias formation differ, as tensively recognised in the same formation at every point a group, almost absolutely from those of the Bath oolite of its range. formation, and these present points of less general differThe abstractions used in zoological science,—the combience from those of the coralline oolite formation. Thus all nation of species into smaller groups,—and these into the formations have characteristic local distinctions in their larger families, are now so much improved, that the seemorganic remains. ing complication of the results of the study of the thousands (3.) Many of the individual rocks, or masses of analo- of fossil species is fast disappearing. Whole sections of gous beds and layers, contain particular characteristic fos- fishes, ammonites, and belemnites mark the lias, others the sils, which never or rarely occur in other rocks. oolites, others the chalk; while groups of terebratulae, gry(4.) The fossils of strata the most similar in their mi- phseae, &c. mark stages more or less definite in the scale ot neral nature, as the oolite rocks,—the sandstones,—the oolitic deoosition. Where the rocks come to be aggregated

MINERALOGY. 205 G ogy. together, the characters of division cease. On comparing of the strata, accompanying the elevation of the Ord of Geology distant regions, only the broader zoological features of the Caithness, has been already noticed. In the north of Eng-' rocks can be employed with safety. On comparing con- land, the unconformity of the chalk and oolite indicates a low temporaneous rocks produced under different conditions, a 1S levation u- °i? ’ Posing east and west, under we find the effects of such conditions in the monuments of shire V\ olds; and other dislocations parallel to the this Yorkoccur organic life; in the general conformity of organizations m Eskdale and other part^ of the Yorkshire oolites. A siimbedded in contemporaneous deposits, we read the evi- milar unconformity, and nearly equal amount of disturbdence of similar physical conditions over very large tracts ance is found in the Dorsetshire oolites, where, besides, are of the globe; in the successive diversity of these organic great faults of a later date. In this district, however, phetypes we see proof of the successive general changes of nomena have been observed in the Isle of Portland, leading these conditions. Who wall say that such results are un- to the impression that a limited tract of oolites had been philosophical, or inconsistent with Mr Smith’s fundamental raised into dry land, covered with soil and prolific in trees, doctrine, that the successive strata were successively the and again quietly submerged, so that the trees were left bed of the sea, and contain the remains of the vegetable standing in attitude of growth, or prostrate in “ the dirt-bed.” and animal creation then existing on the spot or in the This remarkable deposit has been observed by Mr M^ebster vicinity ? and other geologists; but it is to Dr Buckland and M. De The first column of the following summary of the or- la Beche that we owe a full account of the circumstances ganic remains in the oolitic system is taken from Mr de and suitable reasoning concerning them. la Beche’s Notes on the Geographical Distribution of OrNo. 13. ganic Remains in the Oolitic Series of England and France [Phil. Mag. 1830) ; the second column is compiled from Section of the Dirt-Bed in the Isle of Portland. the last edition of his Geological Manual (1833); the third contains the number of species of oolitic fossils in Yorkshire, from the second edition of the Geology of Yorkshire (1835). Vegetable Remains, Marine, Cryptogamia, Gymnospermia, &c. Zoophyta, Polyparia, , Crinoidea, Stellerida, , Echinida, Mollusca, Plagimyona, Mesomyona, Brachiopoda, Gasteropoda, Cephalopoda, Annularia, Crustacea, Insecta, Pisces, Reptilia, .

1 17 21 49 8 2 22 165 110 50 95 138 15 !+ Several 1+ 16+ 1 712

3 23 26 172+ 32 11 45 200 141 66 112 258 59 15

1 35 12+ 18 5 1 16 115 66 23 48 83 10+ 9

22+ 30+ 1

Several 7+

1216

449

The deposition of the oolitic system seems to have followed upon that of the red sandstone rocks without the intervention of more than local disturbances ; and it appears that, in general, few such occurrences broke the long uniformity of the periodical agencies exerted in the oolitic period. Mr Murchison has shewn that the elevation of the granitic mass of the Ord of Caithness-, took place after the deposition of most of the oolitic rocks, for these are thrown into great confusion in the vicinity. In the north of England, the only igneous rock found m connection with the oolitic system, is the great dyke which ranges from the mountain limestone near Middleton in feesdale, through the coal-measures of Cockfield Fell; the magnesian limestone of Bolam, in Durham; across the red sandstone of the Vale of Tees ; the lias of Cleveland; and the inferior oolite, Bath oolite, and intervening sandstones and clays of Eskdale and the Moorlands, near Robin Hood’s Bay. In this long course of seventy miles, the dyke retains so much of a common character,—its constituent basalt is so similar,—and the line which it describes so direct, that little doubt can be entertained of the contemporaneity of its whole mass. The effects which it has produced on the strata along the whole range are of the usual kind noticed near pyrogenous rocks : coal is charred; sandstone hardened ; shale bleached and indurated. Nothing of the kind is known in the south of England. Disturbances of the Oolitic System. The disturbed state

Portland stone. “We consider a small stratum,” say these geologists, “ called by the workman ‘ dirt-bed,’ to be by far the most interesting and remarkable deposit in the district. It seems to be made up of black loam, mixed with the exuvia? of tropical plants, accumulated on the spot on which they grew, and preserved during a series of years in which the surface of the Portland-stone had for a time become dry land, and accumulated a soil of about a foot in thickness, composed of an admixture of earth and black vegetable matter, interspersed with slightly rounded fragments of stone, which Mr Webster ascertained to be from the lower part of the Portland series. These fragments are found to be almost co-extensive with the ‘ dirt-bed,’ and the fact that we have yet found with them no admixture of pebbles derived from the subjacent oolites, or from any other more ancient rocks, shews that no violent rush of water from any distant region took place during the period in which these pebbles of Portland-stone were under the process of becoming slightly rounded.” This dirt-bed, as Mr Webster has stated, forms the matrix of the silicified trunks of very large coniferous trees, which are so abundant in the Isle of Portland, and are found there coextensive with the upper surface of the Portlandstone. Wherever the dirt-bed is laid open to extract the subjacent building stone, it is found to contain these silicified trees laid prostrate, partly sunk into the black earth, and partly covered by the subjacent calcareo-siliceous slate; from this slate the silex, to which the trees are now converted, must have been derived. A bed of snow falling on a modern peat-bog, and covering the upper portion of prostrate trees whose lower portion has been sunk by their weight into the substance of the peat, would represent the position of the calcareous slate which immediately covers these fossil trees in Portland. Some of them extend to a length exceeding thirty feet, and bifurcate at their upper end ; but the branches are not continuous to their extremities, and we find no trace of leaves. The leaves and small branches, and exterior parts of the trunks, had probably decayed whilst they lay exposed to air on the surface of the peat. Amid the prostrate trees, many of which attain three or four feet in diameter, we find silicified stems of plants closely resembling the modern Cycas and Zamia; they have been

mineralogy. 206 Geology, described by Professor Buckland under the name of Cyca- during the oolitiferous era, we may turn to a general con- Geolo*? dioideae, and are important as indicating that the tempe- templation of the subject. It is apparent from the plants^— rature in which they grew was much higher than that of found in the lias of Dorsetshire, the Bath oolite coralline our present climate. We find also, at nearly the same in- oolite formations of Yorkshire, and the Portland and Wealtervals at which trees are found growing in a modern forest, den formations in the south of England, that land, to some an assemblage of silicified stumps or stools of large trees, extent, existed in several points about the region of the with their roots attached to the earth in which they grew. oolitiferous sea of Europe. The analogy of some of these These stumps are from one to three feet long; they are plants to the tropical tribes of Zamia and Cycas, is sufficiently mostly erect, while a few are slightly inclined. The black exact to warrant our belief in the analogy of the climate in earth which contains their roots seldom exceeds one foot which they grew; the case of the dirt-bed seems inexpliin thickness ; the upper portions of the stumps, as repre- cable except on the supposition of alternation of land and sented by Mr Webstei', project upwards into the substance water without violence ; a given large area was subject to of the superjacent stone (called “ soft burr” and “ aish”), gradual vertical rise and fall to the extent of 1000 feet or which gives indication of their presence by hemispherical more, so that certainly once (perhaps thrice or more freconcretions accumulated around the top of each stump of quently), there was time allowed for the elevated bed of the sea to be covered with heaps of decaying vegetation, and wood. The dirt-bed is found in several places near Weymouth, the stumps of numerous large trees which it had nourished and is slightly traceable in the Vale of Aylesbury, at Swin- into dense forests. Can any thing more plainly teach the human intellect not to set narrow bounds to the time which don and Tisbury. “We consider the dirt-bed as quite decisive in forming elapsed in those numerous physical conditions which prethe barrier between the Portland (marine) and Purbeck ceded the era of the creation of man and the present adap(freshwater) deposits. Its accumulation must have proceed- tation of the surface of the globe ? If between the aggregation of marine and fluviatile sedied during a considerable portion of time, antecedently to which the districts it occupies were entirely submerged be- ments of the Portland and Wealden formations, the whole neath the sea, and subsequently to which the water again life of large and stately coniferous trees has elapsed, who returned to overwhelm them, first with a deposit of about will revive the unworthy folly of ascribing the curious proofs 1000 feet of the semilacustrine sediments of a great estu- of regular and orderly structure,—the rich monuments of ary (including the united thickness of the Purbeck series, physical changes which the earth offers to the eye of inteland the Wealden sands and clays), and afterwards with a ligent man,—to a sudden deluge or any other violent caseries of marine deposits, amounting to more than 1000 tastrophe ? It is time that the blind opposition to the profeet of greensand and chalk. gress of inductive geology, based on an erroneous view of Throughout the entire succession of all these changes, the true meaning of the Scriptures, derived from days of there is no evidence of any sudden and violent disturbance ignorance, should be wholly abandoned ; and perhaps the causing either elevation or depression of the Portland-stone consideration of the proof furnished in the Isle of Portland or of the subjacent oolites. The present high inclination may be sufficient to relieve at least some of the unreasonof all the beds is uniformly parallel to that of the beds of able pressure which geology feels from sources where it Purbeck-stone, greensand, and chalk, and these all seem should meet with hearty encouragement. to have been raised simultaneously by the same convulsion We do not at present concede that the equisetiform which elevated the axis of the Weymouth district, together plants which stand erect in the sandstones between Whitby with all the inclined strata in Purbeck and the Isle of and Scarborough grew on the spot where they are now Wight. found ; nor is it at all required to suppose that, in the Weald We have a measure of the duration of the period during of Sussex, the vegetable reliquiae were the produce of that which the surface of the Portland-stone continued in the very region; on the contrary, the manner of the occurstate of dry land covered with forest, in the thickness of rence of the plants in both these districts appears to prove the dirt-bed, which has accumulated more than a foot of that considerable tracts of land in some other situations black earth, loaded with the wreck of its vegetation. The were raised above the sea, and that rivers and inundations regular and uniform preservation of this thin bed of black from this land transported materials of different kinds with earth over a distance of so many miles, shews that the a certain periodicity of action from more ancient strata. In change from dry land to the state of freshwater lake or es- what direction, from what ranges of uplifted land these tuary was not accompanied by any violent inundation or rivers flowed, cannot perhaps be said ; perhaps no land now rush of water, since the loose black earth, together with above the waters yielded the sands and clays and calcathe trees which lay prostrate on its surface, must inevitably reous layers to the Weald of Sussex, the moors of Yorkhave been swept away had any such violent catastrophe shire, the borders of Sutherland and Argyle, or the northern then taken place.” 1 oolites of Westphalia. Yet some arguments might be adBesides the true dirt-bed above described, Professor Hen- duced, especially the analogy of mineral composition, to slow found two other argillo-carbonaceous layers lower in shew the probability of anciently elevated coal strata havthe rock : in one of the lower of these Dr Fitton has re- ing been the source of these sandy interpolations. At all cently found stumps of trees of the same kind as those in events, they are composed of matter swept by fresh water the dirt-bed, apparently in the position and attitude of from the land into lakes, estuaries, or the sea, for the plants growth. and shells found with them permit no other inference. These, then, if marine, are littoral deposits ; but the series of oolitic limestones, in which they form anomalous local GENERAL VIEW OF CIRCUMSTANCES ATTENDING THE and irregular terms, were certainly for the most part deDEPOSITION OF. THE OOLITIC SYSTEM. posited in situations considerably removed from the agitation of coasts and the intermixture of fresh water. This With this example in our minds of the progress toward their arrangement, freedom from conglomerates, perfection definite knowledge of the local conditions of land and sea of organic contents, and simplicity of composition, fully 1

Geological Transactions, second series, vol. ii.

MINERALOGY. Ge prove. Particular beds undoubtedly (especially the top ments of the cretaceous system on the north, south, and r i —-('—-''of the rocks) have suffered agitation. west in England, and on the east in France. v eo ogy. The concretionary structure of these limestones is imitatHence, in general terms, we may say the chalk of Enged in modern times only in situations where carbonate of land is distinctly related in escarpments and slopes to the lime is separated from chemical solution in water (Carlsbad). present German Ocean and the eastern part of the English If we ascribe this origin to the oolitic sediment, the con- Channel. W ere the level of the sea raised three hundred cretionary aggregation of the particles may be understood feet, its coast line would in all the eastern and south-eastern as arising from molecular attraction in the mass, and, in parts of England be parallel to escarpments of chalk. fact, many of the spherules of oolite contain an internal The long range of chalk escarpment is too obvious a nucleus of previously solidified matter, a small shell, a grain feature in the physical geography of England to have esof sand, or somewhat else, capable of determining the con- caped notice; and in the infancy of geology we find Lister densation of the particles to particular centres, just as the observing on its great extent and continuation with similar matter of ironstone has collected into nodules round a fish- characters into France. It does not occur in Scotland, and scale, a piece of fern branch, or a shell. in Ireland is confined to the north-eastern portion, where it The periodical occurrence of clays, sands, and limestones rests on greensand, lias, red sandstone, and coal-measures. is not less remarkable in some parts of the oolitic system In France, the cretaceous system, commencing at Calais, than in those of older date; the Bath oolite formation is opposite the Kentish margin of the great anticlinal denusandy at the base and sandy at the top; the coralline oolite dation of the Weald, sweeps in a vast circle round Paris by has superior and inferior sandstones, and the same is the Lille, Chalons, Troyes, Saumur, and Le Mans, to the emcase with the Portland oolite where the series is complete, bouchure of the Seine ; thus appearing as a great southward (Vale of Aylesbury). The clays of this series appear to be branch of the English chalk system, formed in a bay of the in a considerable degree independent of the compound then ocean, which was defined between the mountains of terms (of limestone and sandstone), and thus furnish means Brittany, La Vendee, Auvergne, the French Jura, and the for an easy and natural division of the English oolites, which Ardennes. fail in various parts of southern Europe. From this great area (principally chalk) a broad expanded but mostly subterranean mass of cretaceous strata ex# tends along the north side of the Ardennes and the valley CRETACEOUS SYSTEM. of the Meuse, and continues (seen only at intervals at the Geographical Extent.—In general we may perceive, as surface) along the northern border of high ground in Gerthe several systems of strata pass under review, that the many, from Essen to Paderborn, turning as that border areas which they respectively occupy are defined by nar- turns to Osnaburg, and then returning through Hanover rower boundaries, and that these approximate more and and Brunswick. It reappears along the range of the Carmore to the present distribution of the basins of the sea. pathians, and in some parts of the interior of the great terThe north-eastward ranges of the oolitic strata of England, tiary plains which stretch to the north into Russia, and to sloping gently to the east and south-east, are covered on the east to the Black Sea. In Denmark and Scania and their declining surfaces by ranges of chalk and greensand, along the Baltic (Isle of Rugen) chalk occurs in its usual which nowhere ascend to so great heights as the oolites character. which rise from beneath them. The cretaceous system is Along the northern and southern flanks of the Alps some unconformed to the oolites at only two points in England, beds of the cretaceous system range extensively, but not so viz. in Yorkshire and Dorsetshire, and round the basin of clearly distinguished from the subjacent or superior strata Paris and in the south of France the same conformity of as usual. Along the Pyrenees, however, the chalk system the two systems is found to prevail. is very fully developed, and has been uplifted to great eleIt thus becomes easy to trace the boundary of the cre- vations by disturbances of comparatively recent date. In taceous rocks by referring to the outline of the oolites. the south of Spain also chalk with flint occurs. In AmeThe chalk and its associated beds pass from Yorkshire rica rocks of the cretaceous period are abundant along the through Lincolnshire, Norfolk, Suffolk, Hertfordshire, Bed- eastern side of the United States, particularly in New Jerfordshire, Buckinghamshire, Oxfordshire, Wiltshire, to sey, along the coasts of the Carolinas, in Georgia, Florida, Dorsetshire, always presenting a noble front of rounded and Alabama,1 but true chalk is either wholly unknown or hills to the west and north-west. Thence they return to the at least very rare. east through the isle of Purbeck and the Isle of Wight, ofSuccession of Deposits.—In different parts of the geofering a front to the south, while the broad inland surfaces, graphical area above noticed, the cretaceous system differs which are included between the Isle of Wight and the considerably; yet, as in the case of the oolitic rocks, exHertfordshire Hills, are formed into two parallel synclinal treme differences from a common type are very limited, troughs (the vales of London and of Hampshire), separated and evidently caused by local conditions, which insulated to by one great anticlinal axis passing from Wiltshire to the a certain degree particular parts of the sea from the influcoast of Kent, and continued into France in the district of ence of the general agencies at work. If we take as a Boulogne. The anticlinal axis alluded to changes through standard of comparison the complete English series, we Sussex into a great denudation, or valley of elevation, ex- shall find the following conspection of its local variations posing the Wealden formation in the centre, with escarp- useful. Yorkshire. Lincolnshire. d. e. White chalk. d. e. White chalk. Red chalk. Red chalk. b. Clays, green and a. Green aud irony blue. sand, and calcareous beds.

1

Cambridgeshire. e. Flinty chalk. d. Hard chalk. c. Chalk marl. b. Golt. a. Ironsand.

Wiltshire. e. Soft chalk. d. Hard chalk. C. Greensand. b. Blue marl. a. Irony sand.

Rogers in Report of British Association for 1834.

South of England. e. Flinty chalk. d. Hard chalk. c. Chalk marl and greensand. b. Golt. a. Lower green or ironsand and limestone.

208 Geology.

MINERALOGY. Thus it appears that the most complete section is to be ristic mineral substance : thickness 600 feet. It includes Ge( ' found in the south of England : the upper green sand losing the following groups:—Maestricht beds, upper or flinty , % I & itself very quickly to the north, the lower green or iron chalk, middle or hard chalk, lower chalk or chalk marl. The Greensand Formation, commonly abounding in a sand also vanishing north of Lincolnshire, and the golt and chalk constituting a binary instead of quinary system. The green silicate of iron: thickness 600 feet. It includes most constant of all the terms in this system in England are upper greensand, &c. golt or blue marly clay, low-er green or ironsand, with beds of sandy or chalky limestone. the upper portions of the chalk. Stratification—In this system of strata, so evidently of The section of this system in the north of Ireland (neighbourhood of Belfast) yields chalk, greensand, and golt. In watery origin, stratification, if Playfair’s definition were the north of France generally the same five terms arq found adopted (“ strata can only be formed by seams which are as in the south of England, though the golt is less distinct parallel throughout the entire mass”) almost never occurs! than in England, and the two sandy beds not so well de- In very many instances the chalk and greensand masses fined. In the country north of the Ardennes and border- shew no more of stratification such as this definition reing on the Meuse, the chalky system, though less complete quires than the primary rocks ; but the cause is very differin the lower part (except about Aix la Chapelle), is much ent. Chalk differs remarkably in its composition and more developed in the upper part. In fact, a considerable structure from most other calcareous deposits. It is genemass of coarse, sandy, calcareous rocks, which is not really rally an earthy, that is, feebly aggregated mass ; it is selchalk, forming the hill of St Peter, near Maestricht, lies dom laminated like argillaceous limestones, unless where it upon the ordinary cretaceous rocks of Belgium, and, both is harder than usual, as for example on the Yorkshire coast by its mineral and organic contents, offers a real though and in some parts of the Isle of Wight. It contains evidence of consecutive deposition from a watery liquid as complete incomplete transition to the tertiary series of strata. In the north of Germany both the chalky rocks above as any other rock. In general we find through a great and the greensands below (Quadersandstein of Pirna, and mass of chalk a number of nodules of flint, variously shaped, other parts of Saxony adjoining the Erzgebirge) conform but disposed in certain layers which are almost exactly pain many particulars to the English type. In the Carpa- rallel to one another, and to the bounding surface of the thians the greensands predominate so as to constitute rock, and at equal distances, three to six feet. These nearly the whole system. In the Alps, likewise, this is serve to mark the successive deposits of the calcareous the case to a great extent, and it appears worthy of re- mass ; and from the frequent occurrence of zoophytic remark, 1st, that in the Saleve and parts of the Jura there is mains in these nodules, especially in the south r of England, a real alternation of greensands of the cretaceous type with it appears probable that the siliceous matter w as separated the upper limestones of the oolite formation; 2d, that in from the calcareous, and collected round these bodies, by particular parts of the north flanks of the Alps there ap- that molecular attraction which has been previously noticed pears to be a blending of the characters of the cretaceous in nodules of ironstone and spherules of oolite. We may and tertiary rocks (no chalk being found), so that it is hard suppose, therefore, with Dr Buckland, an intermitting but to say where the line should be drawn.1 This transition. abundant deposition of mingled carbonate of lime and as it is called, from the cretaceous to the tertiary strata is silica, nearly equal quantities in each successive deposition, very different from that previously noticed at Maestricht, and that the silica was specially attracted to local centres and seems to be due to an insulation of the Gosau and by organic and other solidified masses. This of course other districts, from the influence of the physical changes applies only to the flinty chalk, which in the south of Engwhich elsewhere happened at the close of the secondary land is generally at the upper part, but in Yorkshire and at period, while the Maestricht transition may be viewed as Havre flints are rather characteristic of the middle and lower one of the few monuments left to declare the nature of parts of the mass. those changes. The greensand formation shews the most complete straIn North America the most characteristic deposit, as tification parallel to its bounding surfaces in those parts along the Alps, is greensand, associated wdth limestones, where the argillaceous golt and calcareous layers (e. g. in compared to oolites in New Jersey, having a more chalky the vicinity of Folkstone and at the back of the Isle of aspect in Florida and Alabama, where it assumes important Might) vary the series of arenaceous aggregates. More features, but without real chalk or true flints. Some of regular stratification is nowhere to be seen than under such the deposits in New Jersey resemble the lower green or conditions. But where these divisions vanish, as in the iron sands of England. western part of the great M7ealden denudation (about It is thus rendered evident that the English type is more Hazlemere, Leith Hill, Ryegate) the case is wholly differor less applicable to the greater portions "of the earth’s sur- ent. The great mass of sand then exhibits little regularity face where the cretaceous system has been recognised ; of lamination, and besides is traversed by abundance of that the lower parts of the system are generally sandv, irony plates and shells in various directions, which render the upper parts often calcareous, but that the development it nearly impossible to find any seams passing through the of these two groups is not proportional nor depending on mass parallel to the bounding surfaces. In such a case, the same centres of influence. In the north of Europe the then, the nomenclature of Mr Smith coincides with the defiupper group seems generally to predominate, but in the nition of Playfair, and several hundred feet of irregularly middle of Europe the greensand system is more expanded laminated sand constitute but one stratum. and regular ; in the northern parts of the United States \ et even in this extreme case the interrupted layers and the greensand abounds, in the southern calcareous rocks nodules of chert (analogous to the flints in chalk) indicate are more important. Yet upon the whole it must be grant- the succession of deposits, and shew us that with respect ed that the agencies concerned in producing the cretaceous to rocks of w atery origin the adherence to the definition of system were more extensive and uniform than those by stratification commonly received is likely to close the eyes which the oolites were accumulated. of the observer on many more important matters. Two formations are almost universally admitted as con1 he golt beds are generally laminated as other argillastituting the cretaceous system. ceous deposits. The Chalk Formation, named from the most characteOrganic remains occur in all the beds of the cretace1

Murchison, Boue, and others, on the Gosau deposits, in Geol. Tram. &c.

MINERALOG Y. 209 G< '^y. ous system, and there is a considerable conformity in the Geof i lists which have been composed of the contents of the Chalk Formation. Greensand Formation. greensand and chalk formations. It is also observed that a Yorkshire. Sussex. Yorkshire. considerable proportion of the organic remains which are found in a certain member of the system in England, also Zoophyta, generally, 48 31 7 5 occurs in the same in France and Germany ; that a small Conchifera, generally, 57 10 46 22 number of fossils may even be esteemed characteristic of Mollusca, generally, 54 4 37 3 the chalk, and others of the greensand formation. Locally, the several minor groups, and even particular layers, are The small number of conchifera and mcllusca in the distinguishable by their organic contents. But if we seek i orkshire chalk is remarkable. to apply this rule beyond the continent of Europe, nothing igneom Docks.—In England, no rock of igneous origin but disappointment ensues. In Egypt the chalky rocks is associated with the chalk or greensand. Such occurrencontain different fossils from those which are known in ces are less rare on the continent of Europe, among the England. Even the Scaglia of the southern faces of the Pyrenees and the Alps: at Weinbohla, on the Danube, it Alps could not be identified by fossils wdth the chalk of is covered by sienitic rock. But the most remarkable ocEngland, much less could the greensand and chalky rocks currence is in the north-east of Ireland, where the chalk is of America, in the absence of other evidence, be referred almost universally covered by stratiform greenstone, basalt, to the cretaceous system by comparing the catalogue of and ochry rock, and traversed at several points by dykes of species of organic remains. similar rocks, and in one place (Murloch Bay) entangled What would be the feelings of a geologist accustomed to with a sienitic rock. A satisfactory notion of the nature of believe in the occurrence of particular characteristic forms the mass of igneous rocks, which, in this part of Ireland, ocat every step in the range of a certain rock, on finding in cupies nearly all the space to the east of a line from the souththe cretaceous rocks of America, which contain 108 species eastern angle of Lough Neagh to the mouth of Lough of clearly defined organic remains, only two which are Foyle, and in almost all parts rest on chalk and greensand, identical with those in the contemporaneous European may be gathered from Dr Richardson’s section of the cliffs rocks?1 Yet in this wre see only the illustration of a truth near the Giant’s Causewray. becoming every day more evident,—the measure of the Feet. influence of local physical differences; and instead of feel60 Basalt, rudely columnar. ing dismay at the loss of an (imaginary) infallible guide, 9 Red ochre, or bole. we ought to be alive to the investigation of the problem of 60 Basalt, irregularly prismatic. contemporaneous difference which this and other facts enun7 Basalt, columnar. ciate. There is still a remarkable analogy of the species 8 Of a nature intermediate between bole and basalt. buried on the two sides of the Atlantic during the creta10 Basalt, coarsely columnar. ceous period. Exogyrse, gryphseae, baculites, belemnites, 54 Basalt, columnar, constituting the upper range of scaphites, ammonites, occur in America, as well as in the pillars at Bengore Head. European greensand and chalky limestones; and it is pos54 Basalt, irregularly prismatic. In this the wacke sible that the specific differences of the organic forms may and wood-coal of Port Nocker. have been overrated, nothing being more difficult to define 44 Basalt, columnar, forming the Causeway. than the natural limits of organic variation. 22 Red bole, or ochre. In the following table, summaries of the invertebral or80 Tabular basalt, and thin seams of bole. ganic remains of the cretaceous system mentioned by the 88 Do. occasionally containing zeolite. authors of several works on the Geology of Sussex, Norfolk, Yorkshire, and Paris, are compared with a general The basaltic dykes which pass through the chalk in the catalogue of European fossils in this system, given by Mr island of Rathlin, and other places, convert it into granular De la Beche. In the Sussex and Norfolk catalogues, the crystallized limestone (close to the dyke largely crystallinumbers are in excess, because the same species has been zed), from which extreme change the effects diminish in counted in several beds of the system. proportion to the distance from the dyke, through the stages of small granular, arenaceous, and compact stone, to the ordinary chalk. (The Irish chalk is more close-grained than In the Geology of the English.) The colour of the chalk is altered also; near General Catalogue. the dyke very2 brown, at a certain distance bluish, further Sussex. Yorkshire. Paris. off yellowish. It is not improbable that much of the basaltic formation of the western coasts of Scotland, includPolyparia, . 146 26 21 1 32 Radiaria, ing the magnificent pillared rocks of Staffa (see the very 85 20 16 10 34 Conch. Plagim 87 32 13 4, correct engravings annexed), are of the same date as the Mesom. 122 46 8 Causeway rocks. 100 Rudista, 23 :.9} Disturbance.—Throughout England there is little or no Brach. Bra. 11 67 21 13^ proof of any considerable disturbing movements following Gasteropoda, 56 31 8 40 upon the deposition of the chalk; yet, from the character Cephalopoda 107 60 29 d} Crustacea, 11 of the lower tertiary strata of England which rest upon the 13 3 1 Annulosa, . 30 22 11 3 chalk, it appears undoubted that considerable agitation of Cirripeda, . 2 1 3 4 water occurred, for the surface of the chalk was wasted, and conglomerate or pebble beds formed of the detrital flints. The mass of igneous rocks poured out on the chalk The distribution of the organic remains in the chalk and of Ireland, is of too indefinite an age to be appealed to as greensand formations, may be best illustrated from the geo- proof of convulsions in that quarter. But on the continent ,0 gy of Sussex and the geology of Yorkshire. of Europe, De Beaumont assigns to this period his Pyre1 !

VOL. XV.

Brurer and Conybeare in Geol. Trans. Rogers in Report to tks British Association.

2D

210 MINER A L O G Y. Geology neo-apennine system of convulsion,—the elevation of the tate our inquiry into the conditions of nature in earlier pe- GeoW -v—^ Pyrenees, Carpathians, Northern Apennines, Dalmatia, and riods. They furnish the principal arguments on which Mr' the Morea, in lines ranging parallel to a great circle on Lyell rests his doctrines of the continual uniformity of the the sphere through Natchez and the Persian Gulf. It measure of terrestrial agencies, as the older strata have appears also that some disturbances which happened dur- long done to those who maintain that, in the construction ing the cretaceous era, are traceable in Mont Viso and the of the crust of the globe, periods of ordinary action have Western Alps. Supposing the Pyreneo-apennine system been broken by crises of unusual violence. Nature of the Tertiary Strata.—In very few instances, to be principally, if not wholly referrible to this period, we seem to behold a reason for the agitation of the shores during our survey of the products of earlier nature, have of the English chalk basin; the distant convulsion might we found reason to admit the deposition of strata in any sufficiently explain this local and transient agitation, but, other waters than those of the sea, in its depths and along in fact, it is very probable that the English chalk under- its shores. The coal deposits of the north of England gewent a gradual local elevation, which contracted the area nerally, belong to the class of estuary formations, in which of the bordering seas, and formed shores and dry land the influence of the sea was often less and never more senslopes of chalk, to be wasted by the waves, the rivers, sible than in the bed of a tide-river, where the water is only and the rains. The pebble-beds of the tertiaries which brackish. At intervals, indeed (Yorkshire coal-field), when rest on the chalk of England, do indeed more exactly cor- great distant disturbance or local change of the circumstanrespond to such an origin than to the effect of sudden and ces occurred, the influence of the sea has returned and produced its usual effects, leaving, as monuments of its short violent disturbance. dominion, peculiar kinds of animal exuviae. The oolitic formation on the Yorkshire coast and in SuTERTIARY STRATA. therland proves plainly enough the local addition of fresh Base of the Strata We have seen that during the waters and spoils from the land; the Wealden formation long and yet unmeasured period which elapsed during the indicates, in like manner, a wide estuary fed by some river, accumulation of the secondary strata, elevation of the land on whose banks gigantic reptiles or tropical plants aboundcontinually happened by gradual forces, and sometimes by ed ; but nothing has yet been shewn with respect to any violent disturbance. The most striking case of the latter carboniferous or oolitic deposit, which renders necessary is the general disruption of the coal system, at least before the supposition of lacustrine or purely fresh-water deposits. the completion of the red sandstone deposition. Of the Communication with the sea from the basins of the coal gradual elevation of strata, almost the whole series furnishes deposits, and from the Wealden beds, is apparently indiscontinual proof. Hence it is, that the oolitic rocks follow pensable in explaining the occurrence of particular sorts of one another so exactly in their geographical boundaries, fishes in these strata, and not in any respect inconsistent retiring continually into smaller and narrower areas, as the with the evidence of the molluscous exuviae. The most elevation of the old land proceeded. In the continuation plausible arguments for fresh-water deposits among the of the process, the greensand and chalk form, at least in older strata, are advanced by Dr Hibbert in his description England and France, a still interior band of deposits, which of the Burdiehouse fossils, and by Mr Murchison in his nomark the gradual contraction of the seas, that is, the gra- tices of Shropshire coal-fields. Without in the least wishing to intimate that the influence of fresh-water in accudual uprising of the land. The tertiary strata have, in general, to the chalk the same mulating the materials of the strata is most conspicuous in geographical relations as that to the oolites. Throughout the newer strata,—an inference not justifiable by the facts, England, the chalk is the base of all the tertiary strata. In —it is to be remarked, that the deposition of stratified France this is generally the case, and almost universally so rocks in limited basins of fresh-water is a phenomenon alfor the marine tertiaries. In the north of Germany, along the most characteristic of the tertiary period. north and south slopes of the Alps, and in the basin of the The same tracts of watery surface beneath which the coalDanube, this is at least very extensively true. In North field of Yorkshire was formed suffered alternate influence of America, the general basis of the tertiaries is the cretaceous the sea and river water. The estuary of the Wealden, and formation. On more close inquiry, it appears, however, the coal deposit of the oolitic hills, were alike formed upon that the tertiary strata are seldom exactly conformed to the the bed of formerly deep seas, and at a later period deep stratification of the chalk ; that any thing like a gradation sea again covered the same area: in a certain sense, the deor alternation of the cretaceous into tertiary deposits, is posits of fresh and salt water alternate in several secondary rarely known ; that the organic remains of the one group formations. But in the tertiary strata, this phenomenon of differ almost wholly and absolutely, except in the south of alternating marine and fresh-water products is more decided France, at Maestricht, &c., and constitute two distinct and remarkable. In the basin of Paris, at least two freshgroups of created life. Hence it has become a popular water and two marine deposits alternate in the tertiary seopinion, that wfith the secondary strata ended a certain ge- ries. Alternations of really fresh-water and really marine neral condition of the globe, and with the tertiaries com- products happen in the south of France, the valley of the menced a totally new arrangement. Moreover, because we Rhine, in Hungary, and the Isle of Wight. In these cases find the marine tertiary strata distinctly related, in geogra- the explanation is possible, without supposing repeated upphical expansion, to the present basins and arms of the liftings and submersions of the land—of which, from other ocean ; as the organic remains which they contain are simi- phenomena, there is no evidence—by merely conceiving lar, and, in rocks of later date, identical to those of the ex- estuaries or expansions of water, such that the influence of isting races in the sea and on the land; and as the tertiary rivers and the sea might alternately predominate, just as, in sediments are of a nature very analogous to the daily pro- fact, we know to have happened, even in historical times, ducts of the sea, estuaries, tide-rivers, and lakes,—there is in the marshes of East Norfolk,—and as must have often but a step farther to unite the tertiary era with the histori- occurred in similar tracts at the mouths of rivers where vacal period of the globe, and to place the commencement of riable sand-banks abound, and alter the direction of littoral the actual creation or arrangement of organic nature at the currents. At some later epoch, the wfliole bed of the estuary epoch immediately following the chalk. For these and has been uplifted to its present elevation above the sea. other reasons, the tertiary strata are of great interest. JSature of the Marine and Fresh-water Deposits.—It is a They admit of a clear comparison, in all respects, with the remarkable confirmation of the views of modern geologists, effects which daily occur before our eyes; and thus facili- that a great portion of the substance of sedimentary strata

MINER ALOGY. 211 Ge gy. was swept down to the sea by inundations and other watery marine teriiaries is scarcely inferior to that occupied by Geolo^r. —■''-—'forces operating on the surface of the dry land,—that the either the primary or secondary series. Ireland and Scot-~ marine and fresh-water sediments of the tertiary era'have land, and all their dependent islands, are wholly deficient so much general analogy. In each we have calcareous, in these strata, unless we choose to make exceptions in faargillaceous, and arenaceous deposits, alternating,—stra- vour of uplifted beaches whose date is yet uncertain, like tified, laminated, in a similar manner; the organic exuviae the terraces on the sides of the Forth, and the shelly beds are similarly disposed in the beds, and, but from the cha- on the coast of Wexford. No tertiaries occur in Wales, racter of these, we could not in general venture to pro- unless the shelly gravel on the north face of Snowdonia be nounce upon the nature of the water in which the beds of this date ; neither do any traces of these deposits occur were deposited. Some distinction is, however, to be traced; on the coast of England further north than Bridlington in the marine arenaceous sediments are thicker and more con- Yorkshire, nor to the west of the Isle of Purbeck. Raised fused than those of fresh-water; the marine clays are less beaches, however, are met with beyond these boundaries. minutely laminated. It may be remarked, in general, that Inland, the tertiaries follow a line parallel to the chalk limestones and fine light-coloured clays constitute the prin- escarpment in all its great flexures, and along the east and cipal mass of the fresh-water sediments ; while sands, and west axes of dislocation. There are, consequently, two blue and variously-coloured clays more particularly mark great troughs or basins of tertiary strata, viz. those of Lonthe marine depositions. The latter appear like the pro- don and Hampshire, both ranging east and wrest. ducts of littoral agitation, as if the wearing of clifiPs of older Succession of Strata—It is remarkable that in these tw'o strata had furnished the materials of these newer rocks; basins principally, though not exclusively, lie the lower while the former resemble the accumulations from the members of the tertiary series of England, while other memwasting surface of chalky and argillaceous countries. This bers have mostly a local distribution, depending on diffeis more particularly the case in the Isle of Wight, where rent circumstances. No complete type of the English sethe coloured sands of the marine tertiaries might seem really ries can be had at any one locality, not even in the Isle of to have drifted only a few miles from the equally- coloured Wight, where alone the fresh-water formations are distinctsands of the greensand and Wealden formations; while the ly seen. To compose a complete section, w'e must add fresh-water marls and limestone may be imagined to have together the strata of Norfolk and Suffolk, the beds of the been added from a wasting surface of chalk hills. London basin, and the varied deposits of the Isle of Wight. We thus find that the marine deposits of England range SCALE OF GEOLOGICAL TIME. themselves in three groups, viz. In all our former inquiries, the successive geological peUpper group or Crag, Generally arenaceous. riods have been arranged by the marine deposits and marine Middle group or London Clay, ...Mostly argillaceous. fossils; and the same plan must be followed in these terLower group, or plastic clay, &c...Clays and sands. tiary rocks if we wish to preserve consistency. The true plan of comparing the tertiary and earlier strata, in refe- Of these the upper group occurs only in Norfolk, Suffolk, rence to chronology, is to reject the lacustrine and estuary and Essex (unless the tertiaries of Bridlington may be classdeposits, and the remains of land and fresh-water animals ed with it) ; the lower group is confined to the basins ot and plants, and confine ourselves to the marine productions London and Hampshire. The following is a sketch of the merely. Had this prudence been duly observed in geolo- state of knowledge concerning each of these groups. gical reasoning, much inconsistency and contradiction might The Lower Group of Plastic Clays and Sands is best have been avoided ; the fresh-water depositions (which are seen in the Isle of Wight, where its characters are easily merely local terms in the series of strata), would not have examined at Alum Bay, at the west of the island. Mr been appealed to in proof of the relative ages of marine de- Webster, who first described this interesting spot, gives the posits, nor should we have been led, by the occurrence of a following succession of the beds lying next to chalk, all verfew exuviae of land mammalia, into conclusions at variance tical or nearly so. The chalk is covered by a calcareous with the evidence of marine invertebrata, which are the marly bed, probably not related to the tertiary deposit. true indices of past geological time. Then follow 60 feet of green, red, and yellow sand; 200 Succession of time, as determined by marine productions, feet of dark blue clay, with greensand and septaria, and a is the true scale of geological classification ; and it is clear few shells ; 321 feet of variously-coloured sands ; 543 feet that the fresh-water strata of any series can only be deter- of pipe-clays and sands of various colours, which, by crummined in age by their relations to the marine ; also, as the bling and exposing fresh faces, shew very bright and splenlaws of changes of organic life, which are gradually unfold- did tints of white, yellow, orange, red, green, grey, and ed by geology, are founded, in the first instance at least, on black. Near the middle, lignite is found in these beds the facts known with reference to marine fossils, it is to this (with remains of fruit); and in the higher part toward the standard that the independent series of analogous changes north, five other beds of lignite occur, each about a foot on the land must be referred. The rate of such changes thick; rolled black flints in yellow sand. (Dark colouron the land, however real and regular, may have been ed clay 250 feet thick, with greensand and septaria, and wholly different from that in the sea, and must be studied abundance of shells of the London clay closes the series.) apart. This reasoning leads directly to a classification of Reduced in thickness, these sandy and argillaceous layers the phenomena of tertiary deposits under three heads,— continue both east and west. At Poole they yield valuable pipe-clay and sands. The Marine deposits, In the basin London the plastic clays and sands vary The Fluviatile deposits, alternating with marine de- in thickness andofquality, but present general analogies with posits, those of the Isle of Whght, in the variously-coloured sands The Lacustrine deposits; and clays of Reading, layers of worn flint pebbles (Blacka classification, however, which is better suited to a philo- heath), mostly very small, and a few beds of shelly clay sophical review of the results of investigation than to a de- (Woolwich.) It is in most places somewhat confused in scription of the phenomena, for these are often intimately lamination, full of indications of littoral agitation, and apassociated. parently accumulated with considerable rapidity by very limited agencies. Whence have come the masses of sandy BRITISH MARINE TERTIARY DEPOSITS. materials which compose this deposit in the two basins in Geographical Extent.—In Europe, the area covered by question ? We have already said that in the Isle of Wight

MINERALOGY. 212 Geology, it appeared as if the tertiary sands had been derived from a littoral marine accumulation. The whole is very ferru- Geologj '-■y--*—'''the ruins of the very similar subcretaceous rocks of the vi- ginous. Shells are excessively plentiful; and in fact con- ‘'—v*. cinity. Perhaps the hypothesis may be extended to the stitute, in some places near Woodbridge, the principal part basin of London, (once certainly united with that of Hamp- of the mass. Corals are very rare (though not absolutely shire.) Mr Lyell, indeed, in reasoning on the basin of unknown); and solenostomatous gasteropoda, (including London, has proposed the ingenious hypothesis of the ac- reversed whelks), very plentiful. From the compositioji and character of the upper or red cumulation of all the materials of these basins from the waste of the Wealden district, assumed to be then rising crag we may venture to adopt the opinion, that it is little gradually to encounter the ravages of the atmosphere. The else than an elevated beach of the German Ocean, parallel evidence is not satisfactory, and the supposition involves a to the shore of which it is extended from north to south point of some importance not yet conceded, viz. the gra- through the eastern parts of Norfolk and Suffolk. The codual elevation of the Wealden district. At all events, the ralline crag below it may be viewed as a less disturbed proprobability is great that some uplifted greensand ranges duct of the same ocean farther toward the deep sea. What relation does this shelly deposit bear to the actual contributed materials to the plastic clay formation. The Middle Group of London Clay is most fully de- beach and littoral bed of the German Ocean ? This quesveloped in the vale of the Thames, and best known in the tion brings us to a more close consideration of the organic vicinity of London. The numerous wells established here remains of the crag, which, according to Mr Charlesworth, have shewn the inferiority of the plastic clays and sands to amount, in the collection of Mr Wood of Hasketon near the London clay, and contributed to make known the cha- Woodbridge, to 470 species, viz racters of this great argillaceous deposit, which, in some Annulosa, . . . . 13 Conchifera, . . . 189 places, is above 500 or 600 feet thick, and in Essex, at Cirripeda, .... 11 Mollusca, . . . 257 High Beach, 700 feet, according to Conybeare and Phillips. Of these 111 have been examined by Deshayes, and he asIn this great thickness of blue and brown clay is little variety, except what is caused by a few layers of nodular signs 45 of these (40.1 per cent.) to recent types mostly septaria, and toward the bottom greensands or sandstones, found in European seas. In the coralline crag Mr Charles(which are more fully developed at Bognor on the coast of worth finds 350 species of testacea, and in the red crag Sussex.) Laminated shelly beds also occur (Knightsbridge 230 ; 150 are common to both the deposits ; 80 are pecuWell), and in the Harwich Cliff are layers of stratified liar to the red crag ; 200 to the coralline crag. M. Deshayes’ result, quoted above, was principally foundlimestone, (Greenough.) Organic remains are nowhere rare in this deposit, and, ed on an examination of the red crag. Lately he has also in particular localities, extremely abundant; 239 species examined a portion of the shells of the coralline crag, and are mentioned by M. Deshayes from the London clay, finds in these1 the same, or rather greater, proportion of reprincipally of Hampshire and Highgate ; and of these only cent species. According to this evidence, the lower or twelve, or five per cent., have been found living in the pre- coralline crag is to be classed with the red crag; as a somewhat anterior deposit, produced under different local consent seas. What is the origin of this mass of clay ? Mr Lyell sup- ditions, but including organic exuviae which bear the same poses the uplifted Weald of Kent and Sussex to have numerical relations to the present forms of marine inverteyielded the materials of the whole of the marine tertiaries brata. In some of the Norfolk crag are detrital fossils to the north and south ; that waste of the sandy tracts of from the chalk and oolitic series of rocks. A deposit of shelly sands and clays has recently been the Weald furnished the plastic clays and sands, and the Weald clays contributed the argillaceous sediments. But found on the coast of Yorkshire at Bridlington Quay, which this speculation can neither be advocated nor opposed ex- cannot at present be referred to its true place in the scale cept by trains of argument involving too many assumptions of British marine tertiaries. The green and yellow sands and blue clays, which conto be admissible in inductive geology. ■ The Upper Group-, or Crag Formation, is a local de- tain the shells, form the base of a perishing diluvial cliff; posit of a character very different from all the older strata. and, in the compass of a few yards’ length, fifty-five species It consists of two parts, which, according to recent re- of shells have been found, besides some small cephalopoda, searches of Mr Charlesworth, are placed in superposition and several bones and teeth of fishes. Of the shells, four at some points on the eastern coast, particularly Ramsholt species are also found in the crag—five or six are identical near Woodbridge. The lower part is either a loose, par- with living species—a considerable part of the 2remainder are, tially calcareous sandy mass (Ramsholt), very full of shells, as far as yet known, peculiar to this locality. and containing a considerable quantity of corals, not at all agreeing with the zoophyta of the German Ocean, or else BRITISH FRESH-WATER DEPOSITS. a coarse sandy zoophytic limestone (Aldborough and OrThese are confined to the Isle of Wight and part of the ford), in which some of the same shells occur. The thick- adjacent coast of Hampshire. Mr Webster first called pubness of the lower, or coralline crag, is not certainly known ; lic attention to them. Against the London clay mentionfrom seven to twelve feet are exposed; it is scarcely ferru- ed in the section of Alum Bay rest a considerable mass ol ginous ; shews no considerable marks of watery agitation; sands, chiefly w hite or light coloured, which gradually lose pebbles and rolled shells are not seen in it. the verticality of the dislocated beds here, and turn so as In these particulars it differs much from the upper or to become almost perfectly horizontal, (See Diag. No. 14.) red crag, which shews, by its very confused, often curved, No. 14. and obliquely-intersecting lamination, by its abundance of rolled pebbles, bones, and shells, proofs of having been accumulated under the influence of agitated waters. No trace of land plants occurs ; in general no alternation of clay deposits is seen ; and though a few bones of mammalia have been found (as in the older and quietly deposited tertiaries of Italy), there can be no doubt that the whole is 1

Proceedings of British Association at Dublin.

* Ibid.

MINERALOGY. 213 Geol y Upon these lies a mass of nearly level stratified marls and reous, and not argillaceous, deposit. The fresh-water for- Geologv. —'limestones constituting Headen Hill. These calcareous mations differ considerably from those of the Isle of Wight, marls, &c. constitute the fresh-water formation, and they are by the prevalence of siliceous concretions and beds, the parted into two groups, upper and lower fresh-water beds, local production of gypsum and other circumstances. It appears by no means unlikely that the lower freshby an intermediate set of strata containing estuary and some water beds of the Paris basin are really the equivalent of really marine shells. The Upper Fresh-water Group consists of thick lime- both the fresh- water deposits of the Isle of Wight, while stone and marl beds, full of limneae, planorbes, and other the upper Parisian deposit from fresh water has more the fresh-water shells; the limestone is partly compact and part.- air of a really lacustrine accumulation, and is the most rely loose and chalky ; the marls of a light greenish-yellow cent deposit in the district. or blue ; altogether fifty feet or more thick. The tertiary series in the south of France has a general The Middle or Estuary Group is about thirty-six feet analogy to that of the vicinity of Paris ; but the differences thick in Headen Hill; it is a greenish marl, not materially are great, and, upon the whole, tend to produce a corresdifferent from some of the fresh-water beds, and is actually pondence with that of Italy. The following is the arrangecrammed full of neritina, potamida, ancillaria, and many ment of beds:— other small estuary and marine shells. A bed of oysters Upper Fresh-water Lacustrine deposit, containing shells, occurs with them in another part of the island. insects, and plants. The Lower Fresh-water Group, sixty-three feet thick in Upper marine beds. Headen Hill, is very like the upper beds (at Binstead are (3.) Sands. Micaceous and light-coloured, with realternations of siliceous limestone) ; the lower part is a dark mains of land and marine mammalia, land and freshclay. Fresh-water shells are very numerous in particular water reptiles, fishes and shells. layers. Below is white sand without fossils. (2.) Marls and limestone, {calcaire moellori), with remains of marine mammalia, fishes, mollusca, princiFOREIGN TERTIARY STRATA. pally in the upper beds. Though the English tertiary strata occupy but a very (1.) Argillaceous marls, the same as the blue subapensmall space, compared to the wide extent of these strata nine marls, with marine shells in abundance ; teron the continent, they are not inferior in interest to those restrial exuviae rare ; an estuary bed enclosed. of any district in Europe. There is a very remarkable Lower Fresh-water Formation. Pisolitic limestone; marly analogy between the tertiaries of the basin of Paris and and siliceous limestones, with land and river shells; those of the basin of Hampshire, extending even to the marls, silex, and slaty magnesite with gypsum, connumber and circumstances of the fresh-water beds, accomr taining land and fresh-w ater exuviae. panied, however, by as remarkable a difference in the com- Lower Marine Formation. Calcaire grossier; greensands, position and character of one part of the series. The fol&c. ; inferior clays, lignites, &c. lowing is the arrangement of the tertiary strata near Paris Combining the sections of the subapennine and Sicilian adopted by Cuvier and Brongniart, (Tableaux des Terformations, but rejecting the superficial gravel and detrij rains). Upper Fresh-water or Epilimnic Group, consists of two tus, we have three principal terms : sorts of rocks, separate or in combination, viz. marly limeUpper Subapennine, or Sicilian deposits. In the Yal stones with calcareous or argillaceous marls, and siliceous di Noto is the most complete section of these comrocks. The former always shew tubular cavities proceedparatively recent beds. The uppermost group, which ing upwards, as if gas had passed through the sediment rises in Castrogiovanni to 3000 feet above the sea, while soft. The latter consist principally of the cavernous is calcareous, sometimes 700 or 800 feet thick, strasiliceous substance called French burr, in some portions tified, and locally solid. The organic remains are of which are shells. almost exclusively of recent marine species. The Upper Marine Group, consisting of sands and sandstones middle group is a white calcareous sand or yellow of various colours, and some conglomerates with a few sand, like what is found covering the sub-apennine shells and marly beds. marls in Italy. The lowest group is a blue argillaLower Fresh-water, or Palccotherian Group, consisting ceous marl, with numerous fossils, mostly of recent of siliceous limestone, marls, clays, and gypsum, with a species (Dr Daubeny and Mr Lyell). considerable number of lacustrine shells and bones of exMiddle Subapennine deposits. Several thousand feet tinct pachydermata, and a few land and fresh-water plants. thick, composed of fine laminated, argillaceous, and Lower Marine Formation, or Calcaire grassier ; a thick calcareous marls, and blue clays; with rare inter| bedded coarse-grained shelly limestone, with abundance of polations of lignite, sandstone, and thin limestone ; marine zoophyta, shells, and fishes, some eehacea, &c. abundance of organic remains, often referrible to Some sandy beds accompany it, and grains of green silicate existing marine testacea, &c., and a few instances of iron. of imbedded remains of land mammalia (Mr Lyell). Plastic Clays and Sands of different colours, as green, redLower Subapennines. These occur in the Superga, dish ; beds of lignite in the upper part; some limited layers Piedmont, and consist of greensands and marls, restr of detrital pebbles in the low er part; few organic remains. ing on a conglomerate of fragments of primary rocks It will be seen from this brief notice of the tertiaries of (Brongniart, Lyell). the basin of Paris, that they present a marked general The researches of Murchison and Sedgwick on the north agreement with those of Hampshire ; similar plastic clays and sands below; similar alternations of fresh-water and flanks of the Austrian Alps, those of Boue in T ransylmarine strata above. Yet the particular differences are vania, and of Studer in Switzerland, have yielded comeven more striking. If the general agreements indicate plete information as to the tertiary strata of these districts. some predominant analogies of physical conditions, spread- The most complete section is that given by the English ing each way from the English channel, these particular geologists in Lower Styria. Uppermost group. Calcareous sand and pebble beds, differences are no less instructive in shewing the essential diversity of phenomena arising from local circumstances. calcareous grits and oolitic limestone; shells are The lower marine formation of the Paris basin corresponds plentiful; some of them still exist in the sea. White in geological age with the London clay, and contains the and blue marl, calcareous grit, white marlstone ; and concretionary white limestone, containing shells. same organic fossils, with many others; but it is a calca-

>14 Geology.

MINERALOGY. Middle group Coralline limestone and marls, several hundred feet thick ; organic remains of the middle subapennines. Lower group. Conglomerate, with micaceo-calcareous sand and millstone ; dark blue marly shale, sand, &c. Some of the shells are identical with species of the calcaire grossier and London clay ; shale and sandstone with lignitic coal, containing bones of anthracotheria and fluviatile shells and plants, micaceous sandstones, grits and conglomerates of primary detritus.

out which geological history has no principle of combina* Geology, tion,—no clue to general laws. '* For the sake of precision in our inquiries, let us suppose, in conformity with the general bearing of all the results arrived at by investigations among the earlier strata, that the changes of marine organic life were, in the region of Europe, during all the tertiary periods, proportional to the time elapsed; and since the tertiary strata contain forms identical with living species, let us agree to form our scale of geological time, as indicated by the change of organic life, by reference to the present catalogues of invertebral animals living in the sea and fresh-waters. According to the proportionate number (or per-centage) Without adding to these details the sections along the Carpathians, and in the plains which extend from them to of fossil forms identical with living species which are found the north, we may proceed to olfer a short view of the ge- in any tertiary stratum, its date will be nearer to or further neral analogies and distinctions which appear to prevail from the epoch of the commencement of the present order among the tertiary strata of Europe with reference to geo- and arrangement of living nature. That this principle is strictly and generally true, can neither be proved nor logical time. Mineral Composition.—It is evident, from comparing granted ; because it is neither proved nor probable that the the sections given, that no special resemblance of the strata influential circumstances according to which the changes in thickness or mineral composition can be traced, such as of organic life proceeded, varied in any place, much less we have found to be frequently observable while examin- in all places, exactly in proportion to the time elapsed. ing the older strata. All are composed principally of cal- Yet the change of organic forms is probably the most careous, arenaceous, and argillaceous matter ; but so are general and strict measure of time which can be found all the secondary strata. We do not find in the different among the tertiary strata; and in adopting it Mr Lyell has regions compared any settled order of succession among certainly entered upon a very interesting train of inquiry, the rocks of different nature. The English series has no capable perhaps of even more exact application among the marine limestone ; the Parisian no thick marine clays ; the strata of older date, when the contemporaneous conditions subapennine deposits have little arenaceous matter. It of different parts of the globe were certainly more uniform is apparent, in fact, that the tertiary deposits vary as to than during any part of the tertiary period. It is indeed this very diversity of local conditions that their mineral composition very much more in relation to locality than to geological time,—a fact which at once sub - makes it extremely doubtful how far we may venture to verts all hope of arranging them in geological chronology apply to individual cases the law which perhaps may be by comparison of their mineral constitution. It also leads true only of the assemblage; just as a mathematical exus to infer that the deposition of tertiary strata took place pression for terrestrial temperature of the surface may be in arms and gulfs of the sea, which ramified among the quite exact for the mean of a whole zone of latitude, yet not masses of land then raised in Europe, and derived sedi- correct in any one point of the whole surface, because of ments of different nature from these different lands. Hence different circumstances. For example, the shores of Italy are margined by terthe subalpine tertiaries have one character; those of the subapennines another ; the subpyrenean a third; the Pari- tiary deposits, which have been raised out of the existing Mediterranean Sea, and contain many species of marine sian a fourth ; the English a fifth. By prosecuting this research, we find, in fact, that the exuviae still living in that sea, and nowhere else. The vale tertiary formation was sometimes produced in insulated of the Danube is also full of tertiaries, which contain many seas, like the Adriatic, and the valleys of the Rhine and shells ; but this once tertiary sea has been wholly laid dry, Danube ; at other times under the influence of the general and all its peculiar testacea are imbedded in the earth. It is ocean, as those in the plains of the Garonne; often in apparent that the fossils of Italian tertiaries will shew nubasins, like the Parisian series. Thus a principle of classi- merically greater resemblance to existing species, than fication is indicated, not entirely inapplicable, it is true, to those which lie in the contemporaneous deposits of the the older strata, because these were also dependent on Danube, the numerical difference being in proportion to local conditions, but yet in a peculiar sense appropriate to the (unknown) number of shells which in a former condithis comparatively modern system of deposits. tion of the globe were peculiar to that now dried tertiary sea. It is easy, in fact, to perceive, that, by the united effect Some difficulties connected with the application of the of so many systems of disturbing movements, the expand- principle to th£ comparison of different basms, no time can ed seas, in which the older strata were deposited, had been remove ; others will be diminished by further research; and either completely divided into separate portions, united by in almost every instance important results will arise from narrow straits, or placed under very different relations to exact researches to test its truth in every separate basin or oceanic currents and inundations from the land. In con- branch of the old tertiary sea. sequence, the causes of local diversity, always operating We may now proceed to shew the results of the inquiry from the very commencement of geological time, approach- conducted by M. Deshayes, upon the supposition of the ed their maximum of effect in the tertiary periods, and left relative antiquity of tertiary beds being inversely proporamong contemporaneous marine deposits very slight ana- tioned to the per- centage of recent species among its imlogies. bedded fossils.1 Organic Remains.—But the phenomena of organic life Commencing with the English tertiaries, we find from offer us another and independent scale of comparison, which M. Deshayes, that among 111 species of shells from the the principles of Smith, developed by the researches of Crag, 45 are living ; =r 40.1 per cent.; and of 239 frorn Deshayes, and the reasoning of Lyell, have encouraged us London clay, 12 are living ; = 5 per cent. to apply to the tertiary strata, for the purpose of deterProceeding to the basin of Paris, it appears that among mining in each district, those lines of contemporaneity, with- 1122 species of shells, 38 are still living; = 3.4 per cent. 1

LyelPa Principles of Geology, vol. iiL (1st Edition).

MINERALOGY. Ur. On the Atlantic shore of France—1. At Angers, out tions which real y exist between the tertiary and existing GeoWv. -''of 166 species, 25 are still living; = 15.0 per cent. 2. In fresh-water shells. A small number of fresh-water plants rCw Touraine, out of 298 species, 68 are still living — 22.7 per (Lhaiaceae, Equisetacese), occurs in the calcareous deposits cent. 3. In the vicinity of Bordeaux and Dax, out of 0 the basin of Paris, and great masses of lignite, derived 594species, 136 are still living; r= 22.9 per cent. from land plants in the sands and sandstones of Switzerland, The subapennine series of Italy and Sicily—1. Lower r ranee, and England, and they all shew great analogy to subapennine (Turin), out of 97 species, 17 are still living; existing plants. = 17.5 per cent. 2. Middle subapennines, out of 569 species, Terrestrial Organic Remains of the Tertiary Era. These 238 are still living; = 41.8 per cent. 3. Upper (or Sicilian consist of a few land plants and mollusca, with a considerable beds), out of 226 species, 216 are still living; = 95.1 per number of the remains of mammalia. In the fresh-water cent. deposits of Hampshire, Paris, &c. belonging to the eocene The tertiaries of the Danube and Rhine—Baden, out period, the bones of certain extinct races of quadrupeds of 99 species, 26 are still living; — 26.2 per cent. Vienna occur, as thepalseotherium, anoplotherium,lophiodon,dicho(and north of Carpathians), out of 124 species, 35 are still bune, &c.; with living genera, as vespertilio, canis, sciurus. living ; = 28.2 per cent. In the lignite beds of Styria and Switzerland, anthracotheFrom these and some other investigations, M. Deshayes ria, beavers, &c. abound ; in the superficial lacustrine beds was led to group the tertiary deposits in three assemblages, of central France, Oeningen, &c. the bones of rhinoceros, viz.—The most ancient, including the Parisian and London felis, ursus, fox, and other modern genera are imbedded. and Hampshire beds ; those of Valognes, near Cherbourg, In some cases, as at Georgesgmiind, the bones of extinct and Belgium; Ronca and Castel Gomberto. From this genera (palmotherium, anoplotherium, mastodon) ; and exseries 1238 species of shells have been examined by M. isting genera, as hippopotamus, horse, ox, mustela, fox, are Deshayes, who finds 42 of them, or 3.5 per cent, still liv- found together, but this is not generally the case. ing. To these Mr Lyell gives the name of Eocene depoSeveral instances are known of remains of land mammalia sites (««j, the dawn ; recent.) in marine tertiaries, as might easily be imagined from conThe middle assemblage includes the beds of Bordeaux, sidering how large a proportion of the materials of these Dax, Touraine, Angers, Baden, Vienna, Hungary, Transyl- strata has been derived from the waste and detritus of the vania, Moravia, and the country north of the Carpathians. land, swept into the sea by inundations and rivers. Ronca is also provisionally included by M. Deshayes, but, Bones of the mastodon have been observed in the subapenas he conjectures, it would be more properly transferred to nines of Italy ; mastodon, hippopotamus, rhinoceros, lophiothe older division : 1155 species of shells are mentioned, of don, horse, deer, hare, &c. in the shelly beds of Touraine; which 176 are still living, being 15.2 per cent. These hyaena, rhinoceros, elephant, sus, antelope, in the molasse are called Meiocene by Mr Lyell (^s^v, less ; x* i date; and it is in fact very difficult to decide on the claims b®11efches Manual) The phenomenaare not preiiselv alik^ et of the d.fferent examples. It is probable that future geo- shew , y SI generally similar in all of them Some of t ^ og.sts will choose to class together all the supracretaclous t gf having been prostrated in particular di^ lacustrine deposits, and, by a general contemplation of sbire an d covered by river sediment (Tees M o V near them arnve at valuable generalizations, which can now ; the Humber); others arLompLed ofdrS only dimly be foreseen. We shall offer four cases of lacus- hazeIs’ W'™’ oaks. nines ^composed of drifted trine deposits in England and Scotland: the two oldest, of the elephantoidal era in England, and the mastodontic era in America; the next indicative of some different local I-.- ofh- drainage, , . — coeval with theuiexistence suiue uinerent local condition of the Irish aggregations old lakes (Holderness). Ver^oC lavlrs elk; the last descriptive of a deposit still in progress. ot bine clay, w.th shells of existing fresh-waL kolhsca A rremarkable ema of eat and A of bon bones, in lacustrine lacustrine’ marl, marl, lie he with Ppeat and timber timber in in old old lakes lakes (Holderness^ (Holderness). Sand Sand . l ffovc • occurrence f c!irrence es, *in un ^ ff f.T ff 1 +-J1 /-»AaJ -t.r.+K * ,. mterstratified with 4-I-. the„ ossiferous diluvium of the vale of unknow ferhes the woody denosits deposits of Mmmf’o Mount’s Bay ; clay of underlies „ York, was fully explored by Mr Harcourt, and other memn depth, is the base of that on the Frith of Tav hers of the Yorkshire Society. Resting upon upon nvor sedim fnts support that of the Cambridgeshire fenl • —Philosophical —ivesung ai eravel. and covered hv —.1 near Market Weighton, , and " diluvial’ gravel, by gravel, ^ iuviar clay that of Holderness. Bones of the Irish frish elk marls, to the aepth depth ot of he in o!d kk^, partly full of peat and shelly clay in Irewas found a mass of fresh-water iueuis, io tne an the 1816 of Man twenty-two feet, andd in these lay bones of elephant, rhino- lam!,' the hie of Man,’ Lancashire, llncashhk and Holderness Holdefne^f but iLo ,he' •W ceros horse, bison, deer, felis, wolf, birds, all, or nearly re common characteristic osseous reliquiae are those of aH, of extinct species. But with them lay thirteen spe- the stag or red deer, fallow deer, beaver, and other existing cies of land and fresh-water shells, exactly identical with quadrupeds, birds, insects, &c. Movements of the land are types now living in the vicinity. No wearing, no unusual commonly thought necessary to explain the position and fractures, the teeth still in the jaws of the lion and the wolf, particularly the level, of these “ forests.” ’ the bones of the leg of the horse nearly in their right situa’/tell-Marl—The best example was furnished by Mr tion, the horns on the skull of the ox, all the circumstances Lydl s description of Bakie Loch, Forfarshire, which agrees m short, indicated a quiet deposition of the remains near remarkably with some marl deposits in Tweeddale. Here the spot where the animals died. The north of England under peat w.th trees, shell-marl of variable thickness and was then inhabited by elephants and lions. This part of consistence occurs resting on a loose or partially cementYorkshire was dry land in that era; and, as far as can be ed sand. Under this is another bed of shell-marl, of an known, no change of level has since occurred. earthy consistence; then fine sand and detritus. Near the The largest collections of bones of the mastodon, and springs which enter the loch, and supply the calcareous other mammalia of the United States, occur in bog-y matter, the marl assumes greater consistence, and, from its grounds, called Licks, affording salt, in quest of which The Herbivorous animals, wild and domestic, enter the marshy “°RockLiar 18taI 11 ne substance> deserves the name of spots, and are sometimes mired. The most noted of these deposits is Big-Bone Lick, in Kentucky, occupying the Table of the Distribution of certain Extinct Quadrupeds. bottom of a boggy valley, kept wet by a number of salt spnngs, which rise over a surface of several acres. The Names of Some Localities in spot is thus described by Mr Cooper. “ The substratum of Some Localities in Locality in or Species. Caverns, B’issures, &c. Alluvial and Diluvial amongst ala. the country is a fossihferous limestone. At the Lick the Accumulations. rine Strata. va ley is filled up to the depth of not less than thirty feet Kirkdale, Gaileni with unconsolidated beds of earth of various kinds. The Felis speleeareuth, Luel uel Vi- f Weighton, Val d’Aruppermost of these is a light yellow clay, which, apparent-1 eil, Sundwich vich,&c. J no. ly, is no more than the soil brought down from the high Uyeena spe- Kirkdale, Kent’s ground by rains and land-floods. In this yellow earth are Hole, Fouvent, f Lawford, Val d’Arlaea, ound, along the water courses, at various depths, the bones Canis spe- ! Sundwich, &c. j no, Kostriz. Kirkdale, Franco- 1 Weighton. buffaloes (bison), and other modern animals, many brolaeus, f ni.a, . . f ken, but others quite entire. Beneath this is another thin- Castor, Luel Viei), Val d’Arno, Near Zurich. layer of a different soil, bearing the appearance of hav- Megatherium ) Buenos Ayres. ing been formerly the bottom of a marsh. It is more graCuvierii, f arber Val d’Arno, Weigh, loured, softer, and contains remains of 1 ton, Essex, Nor- Volhynia, nJifs Vt?18’ S™aller than the cane 80 abundant in some Elephas pri- Kirkdale, folk, &c. &c. and Warsaw, migenius"1 )., , ^ Kentucky, with shells of fresh-water mollusca. In thr oughoutEurope J Wielicska ayei an( Somebmes North of Asia, and | Estavayer. nf ue i’ ^ partially imbedded in a stratum clay, very compact and tenacious, are deposited the America, (Mastodon ) bones of extinct species.”—(%,orAv of Brit. Assoc.) f Italy, TouSouth America. maximus, f f raine. P haS been at the ains t0 i P compute, from the Mastodon | Val d’Amo, Austria, Touraine. an i T arts kn p- T »•TP °wn to have been removed from angustidens, J Peru, I n- l the .i°nespecimens ^calready uuuibercarried of individuals requisite to fur- HippopotaKirkdale, nish off. Val d’Arno, Essex, mus major, J Siberia, England, Rhinoceros ) Franconia, KirkMastodon maximus, . 100 individuals. Germany, Val leptorhiuus, J dale, Nice, Elephas primigenius, d’Arno. 20 Cervus me-) Kent’s Hole, i Megalonyx Jeffersonii, 1 Ireland, Rheinthal. gaceros, J Bos bombifrons, . . 2 Bos primi- ) Bos Pallasii, . . . Frequent. 1 genius, J General, Cervus Americanus, . 2 VOL. XV.

See Lyell in Geol. Trans, vol. ii. 2d Series, Principles of Geology, and De la Beche’s Manual. 2F

225

WI

MINERALOGY. Remains of the human race have often occurred in the Rhenish volcanoes, and many others, though perhaps the Geology. same repositories as the animals noticed above, but almost present volcanic cones of Etna and V esuvius may not be ' of such high antiquity. Many truly volcanic regions no never without sufficient proof of their later existence. In longer contain burning mountains, and never yield streams some cases distinct proof of inhumation at subsequent peof lava; yet by the nature of the rocks, by the phenomena of riods, in other cases different state of conservation, or dif- mineral springs, by the mere form of the surface, they yield ferent situation in the ossiferous deposit, have removed all evidence that volcanic once were active there, though doubt of this important fact. The only cases which can now extinct, dormant, forces or called off to some other focus of be considered at all doubtful, are those mentioned by MM. energy. From what we learn by comparison of volcanic Tournal, Teissier, &c. in caves of Bize, &c. in the vicinity in different conditions, it appears that each volcanic of Narbonne. In these instances, the proof of the poste- regions rior date of all the human reliquiae seems incomplete; but vent has a definite date of origin, lives through a period of and decays by gradual or intermitting stages, till the balance of opinion appears to be decidedly in favour of activity, is left but the marks of what has been. the view which has so long been adopted by geologists, nothing of Volcanic Action. This decay and extincviz. that these northern regions were not inhabited by men tionContinuity of volcanic vents is a phenomenon of the highest imduring the period when elephants and hippopotami roamed in reasoning on the condition and causes of the in the damp forests of Germany, F ranee, England, and Si- portance beria. . _ subterranean temperature. If volcanoes die away for lack What is the exact geological date of the existence ot of their chemical fuel, a presumption arises that the condiman, in other words, what is the exact point of union of tions of their excitement are local, limited, and exhaustible; historical and geological time—a most important problem but if this be not the case, if volcanic action only sleeps is therefore as yet wholly undetermined. Its solution below a certain point, because it is awakened to greater must, probably, be looked for in countries nearer to the tro- and more easy manifestations elsewhere, there is no reason pical regions of the Old World, where many concurring dpriori to prevent our admitting for all volcanoes one genecircumstances unite with the authority of Scripture in fix- ral physical condition or cause. Extent and Connection of Volcanic Action. Now it is ing the local origin of our species. certain, that in several instances volcanic phenomena have happened simultaneously, or rather after a short interval, IGNEOUS ROCKS AND DISTURBANCES OF THE MODERN PERIOD. at very distant points or foci of volcanic energy. Dr DauThe effects of subterranean heat have been exhibited at beny observes (Treatise on Volcanoes'), “ The connexion intervals in all the periods of geological time, measured by of the volcano near the town of Pasto with those of the the deposition of stratified rocks ; the resulting phenomena province of Quito, was shewn in a striking manner in 1797. have been noticed at so many points on the earth’s surface, A thick volume of smoke had proceeded, ever since the as to leave no doubt that the action of heat, below the sur- month of November 1796, from the volcano of Pasto, but, face of the solid crust of the globe, has been, either con- to the great surprise of the inhabitants of the city of that temporaneously or successively, as extensive as that of name, the smoke suddenly disappeared on the 4th February water above it. Certain phenomena, such as the general 1797. This was precisely the moment at which, 65 leagues character of composition and the absence of organic re- further south, the city of Riobamba, near Tunguragua, was mains, in the lowest primary strata, lead to the impression, destroyed by a tremendous earthquake.” Humboldt (Personal Narrative) appears to view the that in the most ancient known geological period the effects of heat were at one and the same time coextensive with higher part of the kingdom of Quito and the neighbouring these strata, which is nearly the same thing as saying they Cordilleras, not as a group of distinct volcanoes, but as an — — volcanic —mass,, stretching c? from north to south, were contemporaneously universal. But as we ascend in immense the order of strata, and come nearer, though by an unknown and occupying a surface of more than 600 square leagues; progression, to the modern era, the evidence of this con- the lofty mountains of Cotopaxi, Tunguragua, Antisana, temporaneous great extent of the subterranean caloric and Pichincha, affording so many apertures from which the influence diminishes; the effects are still striking and of fire finds vent, sometimes in one and sometimes in another. No doubt exists of the connection of earthquakes and the same general description and equal in violence, but more local and limited. In the older period, we found occa- volcanoes. Mr Lyell observes, that from the commencesional interstratification of igneous rocks and marine sedi- ment of the thirteenth to the latter half of the seventeenth mentary rocks, and other proofs of the submarine situation century, no earthquakes are recorded in Syria and Judea ; of the igneous agency ; but in the tertiary periods new phe- and during this interval of quiescence, the Grecian Archinomena were observed, which proved the igneous agency pelago and the coasts of Lesser Asia, Southern Italy, and to have burst forth on the dry land, or amidst fresh-water Sicily, were shaken by earthquakes and alarmed by eruplakes, and to have assumed in consequence much of that tions. Geographical Distribution of Volcanoes. But much peculiar character which belongs to actual volcanoes. It is very evident that the study of volcanic action af- stronger proof of the great extent and connexion ol the fords the only clew to a correct appreciation of the circum- conditions of volcanic excitement, is to be found in the stances under which igneous agency exerted itself in ancient view of their positions ort the globe. Von Buch was the times. The exhibition of modern volcanic action takes first to propose a classification of volcanoes in two groups, place under a sufficient variety of circumstances to furnish viz. central volcanoes and volcanoes in line. Those of the an adequate basis of reasoning upon the conditions which Italian shores and islands, Iceland, the Azores, Canary influenced the different effects of similar agencies in earlier Isles, Cape de Yerd Islands, Gallapagos, Sandwich Islands, Marquesas, Society Islands, Island of Bourbon, as well as periods. the mountains of Demavend, Ararat, &c. belong to the VOLCANOES. former class. The Greek Archipelago, the west of Aus The antiquity of volcanic phenomena is very great. tralia, the Isles of Sunda, the Moluccas and Philippines) Most of the districts in which volcanic phenomena take Japan, the Kurilian and Kamschatkan chains, the Aleutian place, or have left evidence of their former activity, appear Isles, the Marian Isles, the Antilles, as well as the CordiF to have been vents for subterranean fires from the era when leras of Chili, Quito, Guatimala, and Mexico, are ranked the district first rose above the sea. This appears certain- with the latter. The extinct volcanoes of the old wrorld, Auvergne, the ly to be the case with Sicily, Auvergne, Naples, the

MINER Eifel, Northern Germany, Hungary, north of Italy, Sec. be' long to the class of central volcanoes. The most remarkable line of volcanic vents on the globe, is that long chain of islands which, from Alaska, on the coasts of Russian America, passes by the Aleutian Isles, Kamschatka, the Kurilian, Japanese, Philippine, and Moluccan Islands, and then turns in a long course through Sumbawa, Java, and Sumatra, to Barren Island in the Bay of Bengal. Active and Extinct Volcanoes. The most common division adopted in works on volcanoes separates the known volcanic districts into extinct and active volcanoes,—a distinction which seems clearer than it is; for between the burning mountain with its formidable realities, and the long silent volcanic mound, surrounded by mineral springs, and other residuary phenomena, almost every gradation can be traced. Viewing the subject generally, it is difficult to resist the idea that the exhibition of volcanic excitement is in proportion to the proximity of the sea, or other repository of water; for almost every one of the active volcanoes of the globe is situated in an island, or near the sea-coast of a continent, and many of the extinct volcanoes are on the site or in the neighbourhood of ancient lakes now dried up. The following short synopsis of the situation of active volcanoes, will shew their general proximity to the sea. In the islands and sea-coasts of Europe Etna, Vesuvius, Stromboli, Volcano; several in Iceland, Jan Mayen, Santorino. In islands of Africa—Teneriffe, Lanzerote, Cape Verd Isles, Azores, Isle of Bourbon, Madagascar. In islands of Asia—Zibbel Teir in the Red Sea; an island in the Sea of Azoph; Aleutian Islands; Kurile Islands, Loo Choo, Formosa, Lucon, Fugo, Mindanao, Celebes, Ternate, Fidore, Sumbawa, Java, Sumatra, Barren Island, Banda, New Guinea, New Britain, New Ireland, Friendly Islands, Society Islands, Ladrone Islands. On the continent of Asia, near the coasts or inland seas. —Demavend, Kamschatka. America, in the islands.—West Indian Islands, Gallapagos. « America, near the coast—California, Nicaragua, Guatemala, Columbia, Peru, Chili. America, more inland.—Mexico. The principal volcanic tracts of Europe, which all belong apparently to the tertiary and modern periods of geology, are those of the Puy de Dome, Cantal, and Velai in France; of the Eifel; the Rhine below Andernach, near Heidelburgh, and near Freyburg; the Vogelgebirge; Rhongebirge; Eisnach ; north of the Lake of Constance ; Hungary ; Transylvania; the Grecian Archipelago. (See Daubeny on Volcanoes.^ Origin of Volcanic Vents. The origin or production of a new volcano has seldom been witnessed by competent observers. The phenomenon is, in fact, extremely rare; for though we read of new cones and craters being formed on Etna, and new islands occasionally raised from the sea, the fact in general is, that these are merely new vents to an old volcano, whose former and accustomed channels to the surface have by some circumstances been rendered incapable of giving passage to the vapours and lava of the teeming mountain. It is probable, from considering the lines of craters which belong to one of Von Buch’s classes, that some great fissure or line of subterranean movement has determined the local situation of volcanic vents. Even the central volcanoes of Von Buch appear to be often related to particular centres and axes of subterranean movement; as Auvergne, the Eifel, Sicily, and others.

A L o G Y. 22: Origin of Volcanic Cones and Craters. Von Buch sup- Geoloev. poses in addition, that many volcanic mountains have been formed by uplifting of stratified and igneous masses into a conical or elliptical mass depressed in the centre, and to such he gives the name of Erhebungs Cratere (craters of v elevation). Mr Lyell controverts this view, and attempts to prove that, like many of the new cones of Etna, Monte Nuovo, &c., near Naples, volcanic mountains generally are craters of eruption, that is, nothing but heaps of scoriae and ashes, and streams of lava, collected into a conical mass in consequence of issuing from a central orifice. Many volcanic mountains, probably all of a very decidedly conical shape, are formed in this manner; but certain dome-shaped hills in Auvergne are held by Dr Daubeny to be strictly referrible to elevation in mass. It is supposed that the formation of the Mexican volcano of Jorullo (1759), when, according to Humboldt, the ground rose up like a bladder for a sur°face of three or four square miles, to a central elevation of 324 feet, is a modern example of the truth of the hypothesis of Von Buch; and at all events, the possibility of such an origin cannot consistently be denied, if we pay attention to the many instances of elliptical elevation of stratified rocks of different ages, as at Woolhope in Herefordshire, Greenhow Hill in Yorkshire, &c. which have been brought forward of late years. Volcanic Phases. By whatever means a volcanic vent, whether it be a cone with a crater-shaped top or any other aperture, has been formed, its augmentation can only take place by the process of eruption. Scoriae, ashes, &c. blown from the mouth fall round and augment the cone ; streams of liquid rock flowing over the edge of the crater, may, by many successive currents in different directions, produce an equal conical mouth of concrete lava, or, rushing out from the side of the cone, spread or accumulate according U) the shape of the surface. These effects must differ according as the phenomenon happens in the sea or on the land. Hence Mr Scrope’s distinction of subaqueous and subaerial volcanoes. Subaqueous ejections of scoriae, &c. are subject, in the first place, to partial suspension in water, and in the next, to agitations of the liquid produced by the eruption and other causes. These act in the same direction, and tend to diffuse the disintegrated accumulations far and wide from the volcanic vent. Hence strata of very small inclination are produced round the crater, or, if any thing comparable to a volcanic cone is occasioned, the heap of large scoriae must yield to the lateral influence of the waves, and be at length dispersed over the bed of the sea. Of the truth of this view, the modern island of Sciacca, its rapid growth, and rapid degradation, offered good illustration. Subaqueous eruptions of lava must also for the most part flow under the pressure of the liquid columns to various breadths on the bed of the sea, so as to form irregular stratiform masses, embossed here and there by mounds of lava, too quickly congealed to spread into the tabular form. Thus it appears a necessary consequence of the conditions of a subaqueous volcano, that its accumulations, whether liquid or disintegrated, should be formed into broad expanded masses, having a stratiform arrangement; and this is what is always observed among the igneous rocks of ancient geological periods, unless where fissures in the rocks are filled by the irruptive lava. Thus the basalt of Teesdale and of Antrim, the porphyritic masses of Snowdonia, Cumbria, &c. have been formed. Subaerial ejections of loose materials must of necessity be collected round the point of exit into conical layers, determined in their angle of inclination by the angle of rest of the particles, under the influence of the forces of projection and gravitation. The lavas poured out from the crater, or bursting from the flanks of the cone, must accommodate

T1T

MINERALOGY. 228 According to the rate of cooling and other circumstances, Geol0 6 Geology, themselves to the form of the surface, so as to mantle round the original mountain, swell into knolls at its foot,, or flow the aggregation of these ingredients varies much. Lava^N-^J^' . away into valleys and hollows of the land, or enter the sea. which has flowed down into water, and been consolidated under even slight pressure, is found more condensed than All these variations are visible at Etna and Vesuvius. Subaerial volcanic ejections may alternate with fresh- that which has hardened in air, and become cellular by the water productions (Tantal), with detritus holding bones of free extrication of gaseous bubbles in the hot mass. Sudmammalia (Auvergne), or cover cities, as Pompeii and den cooling of lava gives it a glassy character, as obsidian, Herculaneum ; and submarine volcanic accumulations may pearlstone, &c. ; slow cooling developes its crystalline, granular, and earthy texture. Gaseous expansion in a fluid alternate with shelly sediments and limestones. But there is yet another form of modern volcanic aggre- mass of lava may convert it to cellular pumice, or scatter gates which it is of great importance to distinguish from it into dust or scoriae, which are thrown out of the crater. Again, the scoriae and dust are often collected by water the preceding, because of its bearing upon points of great importance in old geology. There are subterranean vol- into sedimentary deposits, called volcanic tuff, conglomerate, canic products which neither are poured into the sea nor puzzolana, and trap. It is this kind of accumulation which thrown into the air, but secretly elaborated under the pres- covers Herculaneum, while Pompeii seems to have been sure of a solid covering, and effused into the fissures of the buried in dry ashes. Besides the solidifying mineral aggregates which flow over rocks. Although it may reasonably be allowed that the great their summits or burst out from their flanks, and the disinvariety of productions ejected by subaerial volcanoes affords tegrated showers of scoriae and ashes which fall round them, a good* indication of the principal mineral substances gene- many volcanoes pour out floods of water, variously impregrated by volcanic action, we must be cautious not to limit nated with salts, and mixed with earthy sediments; and all our notions of their combinations in the deep parts of the discharge volumes of gaseous matter and steam, and subearth to those which are suggested by the compounds which limed mineral substances. The gases are chlorine, sulphuretted hydrogen, sulphuric are determined at the surface. The degree of pressure; rate of cooling, and mass of ingre- acid, carbonic acid, nitrogen, (Daubeny). Sir H. Davy found dients, which are known to be important modifying condi- the sublimations of Vesuvius to be chloride of sodium, tions of molecular aggregation, are wholly different at the chloride of iron, sulphate of soda, chloride of potassium, roots and about the surface of the immense volcanic chim- sulphate of potash, oxide of copper, chloride of cobalt. neys which, like Etna and the Peak of Teneriffe, become filled with the liquid rocks whenever the subterranean presPHENOMENA OF EXTINCT VOLCANOES. sure amounts to a particular degree. Long after volcanic fires have ceased to be visible exterAt the base of a volcanic vent, deep in the earth or under the sea, particular mineral aggregates, slowly cooled, nally, the regions which they once desolated are the theaunder great pressure, and in great masses, may, and pro- tre of residuary phenomena of considerable importance. In bably do, at this day assume the largely crystalline texture the neighbourhood of Vesuvius the ancient trachytic crater and distinctness of ingredients of granite ; on the bed of called the Solfatara, is still the channel through which come the sea they may flow in the state of porphyry or basalt ; to the surface abundant vapours of sulphuretted hydrogen. on the surface of the land appear as porous lava, and be Hot waters still gush out from the Monte Nuovo and the acid gas still fills the Grotto del blown into the air in disintegrated scoriae, ashes, and dust. Lago Agnano. Carbonic Cane, and rises wTith the springs of water in Auvergne and the Eifel. Earthquakes have often ravaged the districts of VOLCANIC PRODUCTS. Asia Minor, where, in very ancient times, volcanic fires The number of mineral substances found in volcanic were lighted: and, by combining these and other indicaejections is very great. Nearly 100 distinct minerals have tions, we find that it is rather from want of communication been recognised among the products of Vesuvius. But of to the surface than from any real stifling of their energies, these only very few occur in such abundance as to consti- that volcanoes appear to become extinct. tute ^iny great portion of the lava or scoriae. If we were to admit, with Dr Daubeny, that the pheno ■ It is almost correct to say that the principal portion of mena of hot-springs indicated a slow volcanic action still the masses of all the known volcanoes is constituted of two going on below the point of efflux, (and the arguments he minerals,—felspar and augite. has brought from the gases which they evolve1 appear imAccording to the predominance of one or other of these portant), it would follow that few districts of the globe are ingredients, the lava currents may generally be classed as exempt from such slow action of volcanic forces below felspathic lava, or augitic lava, but the permutations of in- them. But, on considering the cases where the same gases gredients is so frequent, that no definite mode of specific are evolved from cold springs, Harrowgate, Tunbridge, &c. nomenclature has more than a local value. Mr Scrope we find ourselves conducted to a more general result, viz. forms the groups Trachyte, Graystone, Basalt, and in each that in places where disturbed stratification occurs, or verproposes many subdivisions. Trachyte is divided by Beu • tical movements have happened, such as to render it cerdant upon different principles. Perhaps it is useless to at- tain, or very probable, that a communication, arising from tempt the drawing of lines where nature has permitted solution of continuity of the strata, exists from the surface to none to appear. Trachytic rocks, as in the Siebengebirge, great depths, the springs which issue have generally a saline Hungary, Auvergne, are composed of crystals of glassy fel- muriatiferous or mineral impregnation, and evolve gases, (sulspar alone, or mixed with mica, hornblende, titaniferous phuretted hydrogen, azote, carbonic acid,) which correspond iron, &c. and confusedly aggregated or cemented by com- to those of volcanic regions, and indicate that, at the present pact felspar. Porphyritic trachyte, like porphyritic granite, day, at some depths from the surface, the chemical agencies holds large crystals of felspar fSiebengebirge.) On the consequent on volcanic action or high temperature are conother hand, in the graystone of Mr Scrope augite or horn- tinually going on, or momentarily excitable. The temblende, or both, predominate over the felspar. In many perature of such springs may perhaps be a good indication cases the felspar is partially or entirely replaced by other of the nearness of the source of heat, provided allowance minerals, as leucite, melilite, hauyne, olivine, &c. be made for the quantity of water issuing. 1

Report to the British Association.

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WclVfS i euiing ana retlowmg at immense distances of coast CONNEXION OF EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES. trom tne places of principal disturbance. That such a connexion exists is perhaps universally alFrom all the circumstances, it is apparent that earthlowed ; but it is also capable of sufficient proof that earth- quakes are the effect of a powerful mechanical force, acquakes generally precede volcanic eruptions, and this some- cumulated to a maximum at particular points, and along times for a considerable period, increasing in violence until certam lines, at a considerable depth below the surface. the eruption happens and relieves the subterranean pres- IheroHing motion of the ground is a real undulation of sure. the flexible crust Oi the globe, consequent upon fluctuaOn the 26th of March 1812 Caraccas was utterly destroy- tions of an interior fluid, liquid or gaseous, which is verv ed by an earthquake, and a mountain near it subsided. On extensively spread below the solid rocks, and liable to irthe 27th April the eruptions of the Souffrier, in St Vin- regular disturbances, which are, at least partially, relieved cent’s, began. by volcanic eruptions. In the year 63 of our era earthquakes began to disturb On looking carefully at the recorded permanent effects the vicinity of Pompeii, and in 79j after a succession of of earthquakes, we find reason to believe that the most these phenomena, the fires of Vesuvius were rekindled. considerable displacements of parts of the land have been The extraordinary eruption of Jorullo in 1759, followed productive of local depression,—that, as the most frequent upon extraordinary earthquakes ; and the unparalleled ex- result, the land has sunk. It was so at Port-Royal in 1692; citements of Skaptar Jokul in 1783, were heralded bv simi- at Lisbon in 1755 ; at Caraccas in 1812. We read of Mount lar precursors. Acraus falling into the sea in 876 ; of Pompeiopolis being The elevation of Monte Nuovo in 1538 was, in like man- half swallowed up in 541 ; of Grecian cities overwhelmed ner, indicated by previous violent subterranean disturb- in the deep; at Darlington ground fell in 1179 ; at West ances.1 The connexion of earthquakes and volcanic erup- Ham in Kent in 1596 ; near Bordeaux in 1660. tions is that of two effects of one cause. In the Canary But cases of at least temporary rise of the land also occur. Isles, the Peak of Teneriffe is almost a continual safety In 1556, on the west coast of South America vessels were valve, which drains off the gases, &c. and so frees the sur- left dry far from their ancient place of mooring. In 1110, rounding islands from earthquakes. the Trent was dry at Nottingham for a whole day; in Earthquakes—These alarming indications of subterra- 1158, the Thames was dry at London. According to Mrs nean disturbances are far more extensively felt than in the Graham, the coast of Chili, for the distance of 100 miles, mere vicinity of the volcanic cones, whose renewed activi- rose to a height of three or four feet above its ordinary ty they often betoken. The numerous concussions which level, indications appearing that many such accidents had were experienced in England in the 11th, Pith, 13th, 17th, happened before: this case has been the subject of much and 18th centuries, seem as much dependent on the Ice- discussion. Permanent subsidences and elevations haplandic as on the Italian volcanoes. Those wdiich have af- pened in the valley of the Indus in 1809. fected all the countries north of the Mediterranean; the Upon the whole, the frightful devastations ascribed to convulsive movements of Asia Minor in the early Christian earthquakes are confined to particular regions of the globe, eras > those of India, are far removed from any centres of not far removed from the sites where volcanoes now are, volcanic excitement. We also find that, in some instances, or formerly were, in extreme activity. The permanent earthquakes have prevailed for years, and done great mis- changes of level which they have produced in the last chief, (as before the earliest recorded eruptions of Vesuvius) 1800 years, are very slight and difficult to substantiate. before the throes of nature have been relieved by the birth From 1048 to 1800 (752 years), no less than forty-five of volcanic fires. Hence, it appears that the earthquake is earthquakes were recorded in England alone; and no really the greater and more general, and the volcano the doubt many were unobserved; yet what remarkable perlesser and more limited, effect of a cause more &general than manent effects were ascribed to them even by the credueither. lous chroniclers of the middle ages ? After exploring all the The characteristic effect of earthquakes is the displace- exaggerated descriptions of the phenomena, written in the ment of the solid mass of the ground, and the violent agi- midst of fear and alarm, we rise from the’ perusal, satisfied tation of the liquid parts. A passing earthquake is known that the effects of earthquakes are of the same kind as by a peculiar vibration, or rather undulation of the solid those performed by ancient convulsive movements of the ground, which tends to throw down unstable bodies, and globe, and similarly connected with variations of interior to communicate vertical or oblique impulses to all. It is heat, but immeasurably inferior in amount. If modern not properly a vibration, but a forcible rolling of the solid earthquakes and volcanic fires be proportioned to the mocrust of the globe once, twice, or several times. In some dern rate of variation of interior temperature, how much instances the effects are permanently indicated by opened greater must have been the variations of heat correspondssures, subsided grounds, drained wells, elevated lines of ing to the incomparably greater convulsions of ancient country; but more frequently the yawning ground closes date ? It may be said, perhaps, that our period of 2000 again, and the convulsion passes on. It has been observed years’ experience is nothing to the long series of geologithat the apparent direction of the disturbance is the same cal ages consumed in the production of these greater efin the same earthquake ; that the celerity of the movement fects ; it may be said, that such extensive displacements, is very grea,t, but not instantaneous, and, in some instances, whether effected by few convulsive movements, or many particular lines of country are found to be more commonlv smaller disturbances, are equally a function of the time affected than others. elapsed; but, surely, if we find the modern feeble earthIt has been found that perhaps the greatest effects of quake and volcanic fire, adequate to restore momentarily earthquakes happen on the sea-coast (Lisbon, 1755; Port- the equilibrium of the disturbed interior forces, they are oyal, 1692 ; Catania, 1693); that the shock is felt in the the measure of such disturbances. sea as well as upon the land, vessels being struck upward There may indeed be a residual phenomenon ; the equiy a heavy blow, which could not be by vibration, and librium may be only partially restored, and the uncompen-

1

See Ly ell’s Principles of Geology.

MINERALOGY. 230 order of their succession, and, so far as the chemical ques- Geology, Geology sated portions may be terms of a series continually augment- tions are concerned, it appears to answer the conditions''—^ ing, till it be satisfied by a great convulsion ; this may be : The other speculation has been found more but if so, the point is at once conceded ; the inefficacy of required. powerful in the great extent of the subterranean earthquakes in producing such effects as the permanent up- movements explaining to which volcanic fires are but a local appendlifting of a mountain chain is granted, and for such an ef- age ; it is more satisfactory, when viewed in connexion fect we must look to some other and more adequate cause with older pyrogenous rocks and older tremors of the globe. than mere volcanic excitement. What, then, is volcanic Thus the Mechanical theory, as Cordier’s hypothesis has excitement ? been termed, explains better the mechanical effects ; the Chemical theory, as Dr Daubeny’s speculation has been HYPOTHESES OF VOLCANIC ACTION. named, fits better to the chemical phenomena. Discarding the antiquated notion of volcanic phenomena But as they do not exclude one another, as both may be depending on the combustion of coal-beds, the decomposiwhy are" they put in such determinate opposition ? tion of sulphuretted metals, &c., we have only two hypo- true, What are which occur at the base of voltheses of volcanic action to consider. "Ihe authors of these canoes,theis substances to be found by chemical researches; in what speculations call them theories ; but if we recollect how very insufficiently the laws of volcanic action have been de- state they are as to temperature, fluidity, density, &c. is veloped, we shall not readily grant that any great progress the province of general physics to ascertain. We may, therefore, very consistently agree with Corhas been made in developing the laws of causation; till dier, Von Buch, and De Beaumont, in viewing the origin this is done there is no true theory. of volcanic fissures as a case of violent displacement of the The hypothesis proposed by Cordier, of a heated interior mass mechanically disturbed, has been improved by the crust of the globe, arising from change of the thermal state additional postulate, that the heated interior of the globe of an interior fluid nucleus, and in ascribing to this mecondition the great extent of earthquakes from is chemically disturbed by access of water and other causes, chanical the bases of volcanic regions, and yet adopt at least the and in this state is in harmony with the general view of Leibnitz concerning the changing conditions of the globe, principle of Dr Daubeny’s hypothesis. If w e were to adopt and with the course of partial inferences contained in the completely the opinions of this writer, we should have the preceding pages. But these views and inferences must be following view of the series of chemical processes. The interior parts of the globe, whether hot or cold, further examined and more fully admitted before any hypothesis grounded on them can be adopted by more than fluid or concrete, consist, at least in part, of the metallic a party in geology. This examination we shall briefly at- bases of the alkalis and earths, and of some metals; to this tempt hereafter, but, at present, the truth of the doctrine water, generally sea-water, and atmospheric air find access of volcanic action being dependent on local thermal dis- through irregular and variable channels in the rocks. The turbances, must rest upon its power of explaining pheno- consequence is oxidation of the alkaline metals, potassium mena under the disadvantages of the want of knowing the and sodium, the earthy metals silicium, aluminum, &c., and iron and other ordinary metals ; a large volume of hydrolaws of these phenomena. Another hypothesis was proposed by Davy, and, for a gen will thus be liberated from its aqueous combination time, partially adopted by several chemists. Seeing the with oxygen ; the atmospheric air will also be decomposremarkable ignition and other effects of strong chemical ed, and its nitrogen set free ; chlorine will be liberated action consequent on the excessive attraction of the metallic from its combination with sodium ; sulphur will be disenbases of the alkalis for oxygen, it was easy to suppose these gaged from various mineral combinations in the superior substances existing uncombined in the interior of the globe, rocks. Then the oxygen will combine with sulphur to conto imagine the local addition of water, or other substances stitute sulphureous acid gas, and with hydrogen to form containing oxygen, and thus to account for the violent ig- steam ; the oxygen being consumed, hydrogen will unite nition, alkaline products, steam, convulsive movements, with sulphur, and form sulphuretted hydrogen, and with and other phenomena of volcanoes. Dr Daubeny, the most nitrogen to form ammonia, wdiich, neutralized by chlorine, strenuous supporter of this view in our days, places it on becomes sal ammoniac. Besides these, which may be called the primary chemiits true basis, viz. the power which it possesses of explaining phenomena. Thus both the hypotheses refer them- cal phenomena, there may be noticed secondary phenomena depending on the mere communication of heat to the selves to one and the same test. It is, perhaps, commonly imagined that these hypotheses rocks above. Such are the extrication of carbonic acid exclude one another, but this is unnecessary. Though the gas from calcareous rocks, the sublimation of sulphur so as globe be hot within, it may contain uncombined the me- to permit its combination with oxygen, to form sulphurous tallic bases of the earths and alkalis. Though it be to them acid gas, and with hydrogen to constitute sulphuretted hythat volcanic phenomena are owing, their action would not drogen. These and other effects are equally necessary on be impeded by a high temperature of the subterranean re- either hypothesis, and must be supposed to continue long after the primary chemical phenomena have ceased; as ingion, but, on the contrary, exalted. It is further remarkable, that the points of agreement deed, in old volcanic tracts, we know to be the ca.se. In are great. It is requisite, upon either view, that water be fact, along lines of dislocation of far higher antiquity than admitted to a hot mass, or to one capable of becoming so ; any merely volcanic mountains, we find the same phenothat chemical processes happen, in which oxygen is ab- mena of hot springs, carbonic acid, nitrogen, sulphurette sorbed, and hydrogen and other gases released. The sub- hydrogen, &c., and it thus appears almost a necessary conlimation of sulphur, salts, metals, &c. is just as intelligible sequence, that the heat, below a given point of the earths one way as the other. The situation of volcanoes in islands, surface^ though no proper volcanic phenomena be there on sea-coasts, and generally near water, is a consequence visible, is almost inexhaustible. Should not these consiof either hypothesis ; the long duration of volcanic foci,— derations have weight in determining geologists not to rethe intermission of their action,—the gradual extinction of fuse either the general thermal, or the local chemical hysome of them, are quite as easily understood the one way pothesis of volcanoes ? Both are perhaps true, though we as the other. Wherein, then, do they really differ ? Prin- may not have the power of explaining by them all the yet cipally in the development under the bias of the respective imperfectly known phenomena, depending on the changpartizans. The hypothesis of Dr Daubeny is chiefly di- ing temperature and chemical conditions of the subter rected to the explanation of the chemical products in the ranean regions.

MINERALOGY.

231

STATE OF GEOLOGICAL THEORY. GOgy* The caution which has been infused into every branch —natural science has been productive of excellent fruits “.en freeZmbe COmp'ete’ perhaPs "otology. in geology. Within a hundred years its whole aspect has I hough inferences from geological phenomena, and debeen changed; from a mass of crude speculations fitted to ductions from assumed first principles in theory, may be inaccurate observations, it has gradually grown up to a sys- a.most infinitely varied, according to the extent of the tem of sound, though limited, inferences, connected by data or the generality of the principles; yet, in fact, all some very probable generalizations, and supported by inde- theoretical views in geology, which can be considered gependent mathematical reasoning. The Laws of Phenome- nera!, are reduced to two types; the deductive speculations na are unfolded to a considerable extent, and, in the opi- of Leibnitz, and the inductive hypotheses of Hutton. nion of eminent men of science, the time is at hand for Ihese are really and necessarily different, and whoever effectual researches into the laws of causation. Not that ventures to choose one or other of these great leaders, must the labours of observation should, for an instant, be sus- in effect decide for himself the following important quespended ; they are the most important of all the means of advancing geology : on the contrary, they ought to be conAfe the disturbances of the statical condition of the tertinually excited by new impulses, and turned into more restrial forces of organic and inorganic nature of a periodiprofitable directions by the first, however rude, indications cal character merely, so that in any sufficiently long periof theory. The state of geology is so prosperous, that its od emlwacing all the cycles of their variations, the sum of numerous cultivators may well agree to divide their forces their effects is equal to the sum of a corresponding earlier so as to accomplish combined movements; to advance on or later period, which is Dr Hutton’s view put to extreme; the one hand the mass of generalized phenomena, and on or, are these disturbances of the nature of a series whose the other to multiply the points of contact between dyna- successive terms, (whether a single disturbance or cycles of mical, chemical, and vital laws, and the results of geologi- periodical disturbances), differ from one another in any recal inquiry. gular progression ? (as Leibnitz supposes.) In the exhibition of this subject, it is almost singular how This question cannot be answered upon analogy merely. useless and even trifling a thing it is to refer to the ancient Though the planetary system exhibits in all its perturbaopinions on the constitution and changes of the globe, tions a character of variation, such that the sum of the which modern sceptics concerning the progress of geology movements taken in any sufficiently long period is found seem to have ever before their eyes as spectra, warning to be constant, and the whole system permanent, unless them of the danger of listening to the reasoning of the the extraneous influence of the ether tend to slowly alter mathematician, the astronomer, the chemist, or the zoologist, its condition, we cannot deduce that the parts of this syswhen applied to the history of the globe. Were it not for tem shall, in matters of another kind, have the like chathis salutary terror which they inspire even in bold minds, racter of circular perpetuity. Nor, on the other hand, bethe reveries of Whiston, Catcott, and Whitehurst, perhaps cause of the many proofs of great convulsions in ancient we may add of Werner and Hutton, as to the origin and periods, and of the rarity or even absence of such phenomena changes of the globe, would be speedily forgotten. Even in historical times, may we conclude that such convulsions the beautiful work of Playfair loses its importance when will never be repeated. There may be a periodicity of fairly poised against the growing mass of partial geological these great disturbances of the solid globe, as we know truths ; and perhaps we ought to look upon the hypotheses there is of the lesser irregularities of the atmosphere surof Von Buch, De Beaumont, and Lyell, as over generaliza- rounding it. tions, proper to excite and direct inquiry on particular points, This great question is then to be tried by the applicabiand thus likely to have a temporary use rather than a perma- lity of one or other of the leading principles which it innent influence. However this may be, it is certain that the volves to the explanation of the phenomena of all geological researches of the last fifty years have justified the words of periods, and the only thing remaining to be settled is the Herschel: they have brought the grand problem of the degree of preparation in which we find ourselves for such a history of the globe fairly within the circle of inductive trial of principles. science, linked it inseparably writh the progress of physical Have we data, or laws of phenomena, sufficiently certain science and natural history, so that its progress or retarda- and known in all their relations to allow of ascending by tion can only be proportioned to that of the general mass inferences to one of the rival principles, or of testing deof human knowledge. ductions from the other ? From this an important conclusion results: the close It is probable that we have not such knowledge. For union and strict dependence of geological reasoning on the neither do we know fully the present state of operation of advancement of other sciences, must place a strong re- terrestrial forces, including, of course, their submarine efstraint on the presumption and confidence with which fects, nor their condition at any one former period; and crude hypotheses have been often advanced by men of it is only by a rigorous and careful scrutiny, and commere observation ; in future it will be trusted to minds of parison of many different periods, that any just determia higher order, habitually exercised in the combination of nation can be formed as to the laws which regulate the vanatural laws, to propose leading views in geology. It is riation of the forces. The utmost, then, which can be exalready known that a mathematical basis exists for geology pected is a presumption in favour of one or the other theas well as for astronomy, and the search for this cannot oretical principle, according to its observed correspondence long be unsuccessful in the accurate hands of the analysts with the succession of phenomena which are best known. of France, Germany, and Cambridge. Even this task we shall not attempt. Instead of it we So rapid is their progress that, even while we write, a shall employ a particular consideration really common to large accession of knowledge is brought by Mr Hopkins, both of them, though in their development under the in a memoir on Physical Geology, presented to the Cam- hands of partizans, it has come to be almost exclusively asbridge Philosophical Society, on the hitherto obscure sub- sociated with the Leibnitzian speculation. Either of the ject of subterranean movements, and other investigations principles previously contrasted admits of being developed concerning the interior of the globe are opening upon us. in two modes; according to both of them the changes now I he following view of the state of theory on several funda- going on upon the globe may be part of a long series of

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MINERALOGY. 232 Geology, similar or gradually changing phenomena, never interrupted compared. While describing the primary strata, we have —y—^ in their operations by extraordinary exertions of the same shewn the grounds for believing them to be derivative^ or different forces. This is Mr Lyell’s doctrine; or the aqueous from primitive igneous rocks ; but Mr Lyell, in his present may be viewed as a period of ordinary action of ingenious development of the Huttonian philosophy adds to terrestrial forces, similar to many which have gone before, this a reverse proceeding. According to his view the seand which have been preceded and terminated by greater dimentary aggregates from water at the surface of the and more violent effects of intermitting agencies. (This is globe, are derived from other such rocks, or from pyrogenous products ; but whatever was their proximate origin, the view of M. De Beaumont.) It is certain that unless this limited question can be dis- they change again in the deeper parts of the earth, by graposed of the general principles cannot be properly exa- dual transformation into crystalline or igneous rocks. So mined, and in the discussion of even this really practicable that the mechanical agency of water above, and the transproblem all the knowledge yet gathered in geology may forming agency of heat below, are, in this hypothesis, anperhaps be found inadequate. It will, however, be useful tagonist forces, separated by a zone of rocks (the crust of to make the attempt, if only for the purpose of pointing out the earth, as it is technically called) which above are of the* lines of research on which geological observation may the aqueous, but below of the igneous kingdom. Between these two polarities, so to speak, the particles be profitably directed. Fire In the system of continual compensation among the of the exterior parts of the earth continually circulate. r agencies of terrestrial nature, deluges and convulsions, raises matter from below: water wears aw ay the high surface, and adds to that load of strata which greater than those of the modern period, have, strictly parts of the r speaking, no place ; or if we relax a little the rigidness of in the low er part is hourly changing to granitic and other the dogma, and allow that, by a fortuitous combination of crystalline rocks, “ equal quantities in equal times.” In support of this view, only local and limited facts can circumstances, greater movements and inundations may have happened than have been recorded in the last thou- be adduced; but these, as far as they go, are important. sand years or so, at least these must be shewn to be per- It is found that earthy limestones, such as commonly ocfectly consistent with the ordinary diurnal measure of cur in secondary strata, are converted, by heat and proxithe influential agencies. For example, a lake may be mity to pyrogenous rocks, into crystalline marble, such as slowly emptied by erosion or suddenly by an earthquake ; occurs in primary strata (Kaiserstuhl, Teesdale, Antrim); the effects are very different; but the agencies equally be- that lias shales assume the aspect of clay-slate (Vale of long to the present system of nature. Great effects may Chamouni) near the primary rocks; that common sandstone v thus be performed, in consequence of particular combina- becomes quartz-rock under the influence of heat (Caer Cations, by very moderate measures of force; but in applying radoc). Hence, as a consequence, we infer the consolithis system to older phenomena, we must examine the direct dation, and many other characters of primary strata, to be effects : convulsionary movements must be the measure of the effect of heat. But this falls short of the proof redisturbing forces, and diluvial effects the guide to inferences quired, which must be to the extent of shewing, not the changes of secondary to primary strata, but the changes of concerning cataclymal agencies. these into granite, and other crystalline rocks generally. ORIGIN OF THE MATERIALS IN THE CRUST OF THE Satisfactory proof of this nature and to this extent, is, we GLOBE. believe, nowhere afforded. Moreover, what has been said before of the character The compound nature of these materials is a subject of great interest in any theory of the changes of the globe. and origin of the primary strata, their relation to the deveWhen we consider the various minerals included in one lopment of organic life, and other circumstances, appears rock, as granite ; the definite chemical formula which re- sufficient to shew that their formation is, in some importpresents the attractive forces of each of these ; the molecu- ant respects, of a different kind from that of secondary selar and elementary constitution of the different parts of dimentary rocks ; that the influencing conditions as to heat each; and recollect that any one of these molecules and and watery agency were dissimilar; that the globe was elements has various physical properties, how improbable then really in a different state generally. If so, we must does it appear that we shall ever arrive at a knowledge of certainly reject the doctrine of continual uniformity of nathe changes of condition through which these unchanging tural operations, and admit alternating periods of different particles have passed! Yet it is almost impossible to avoid modes and measures of mechanical and chemical action. the endeavour, useless though it be, to separate these par- It is probable, then, that the successive systems of strata ticles in imagination, and to represent them to the mind in which have been described, are all that have been formed above a state of individual, though associated existence. the original crystalline rocks by the operations of water. This is what Laplace and Herschel have expressed when ORIGIN OF CONVULSIVE MOVEMENTS OF THE CRUST OF they presented, as the result of their profound reflections, THE GLOBE. the speculation of this globe originating from the condensation of a gaseous expansion in space—a notion often exPeriods of Occurrence The proofs of the occurrence of tended to the other planets, and supposed to be in harmony such have already been given. Many examples have also with the common direction of their motion round the sun, been presented. It remains to ascertain what progress has the nearly coincident planes of their orbits, and other less been made towards discovering the cause. striking circumstances. That such gaseous or vaporous It is certain that convulsive movements have happened expansions exist in space is known both by observation of at various periods during the deposition of the strata; and, comets, and of nebulae. notwithstanding the difficulties noticed in an earlier part of Perhaps this view, as it is certainly the most elevated, this essay, as to the determining of their exact geological is also the most correct hypothesis of the early formation date, there is already collected a great mass of information of the globe ; but it would be unfair to employ so specu- on the subject. One of the most important results yet arlative an argument against the doctrine of continual com- rived at, is the conviction that the time occupied in these pensation among the agencies of Nature, because this was convulsions was very short, compared to that which was proposed only for the terraqueous globe. Given, then, the consumed in the deposition of the strata; short periods of globe reduced from its gaseous expansion, we may proceed convulsion alternated with long periods of ordinary action. to inquire into the proximate origin of its ancient rocks This at once decides the question as to the uniformity of Here a real discordance arises between the two systems the effects of naturd agencies in the negative. It is also

MINERALOGY. 233 Gee ;;y- found that the effects of these convulsions were very extenThe System of the Eastern Alps, parallel to the vale of Geology. ~ sive. The exact contemporaneity of those which followed tlie Danube. Some supratertiary or diluvial beds the Plynlymmon rocks of Cumberland, and the slaty rocks are statec to of North Wales and Cornwall, may not be proved, and is at De Beaumont l be disturbed convulsion. M. suggests that by thethis elevation of the Annot, for this part of the subject, very important. They des may have been posterior to all these; and a curious happened within a comparativelyr short period, so as to though ^exft corroboration of this opinion has been lateshew that the spasmodic action w as extensively felt within y furnished by Mr Darwin, who finds, in the southern parts certain limits of geological chronology, in quarters where of the chain, strata of extremely modern date uplifted to it had not been experienced before; and the general un- the height of several thousand feet. conformity of stratification between the primary and seIn North America there appears, according to Professor condary strata, shews that an almost universal disturbance Rogers, reason to suppose that, since the disturbances of or series of disturbances happened within these limits. the primary and carboniferous strata, the whole secondary Magnitude of Disturbance.—The extent of the disloca- and tertiary periods of geology have left few traces of any 1 tions effected by particular convulsions is really enormous, important convulsive movements. and puts to shame the utmost exertion of a succession of Direction of Convulsive Movements—The first notions modern earthquakes for many thousands of years. The on this subject were formed by miners, who in the course Penine region of the north of England, elevated posterior of their experience observed, as a fact of great practical to the era of coal-measures, is defined on three sides by importance to their art, that the mineral veins which were dislocations of 1000, 2000, 3000, and more feet; and there most generally and uniformly productive ranged east and is, perhaps, as little reason to suppose that more than one west, or nearly; and that these right running veins were effort was employed on any one of these sides, as in the divided by cross-courses, passing north and south, or nearcase of an ordinary fault. Such faults, indeed, sometimes ly. Not that there are no other directions of veins and occasion depression of several hundred feet; but seldom cross-courses, but, amidst many directions, these prevail. for such great lengths as the Penine and Craven disturb- Cornwall, W ales, Cumberland, the Penine limestone reances. gion, Brittany, the Harz, the Hungarian mines, and even It is not easy, nor perhaps possible, to prove that single Mexico, appear to confirm this law suggested by practical efforts have raised the Grampian or Snowdonian chains to men. It is very difficult, or rather impossible, to explain it; their present elevations; yet, in many cases, it is hardly to but we may remark, that, in many cases, the direction of he supposed that more than one exertion of force has been mineral veins follows that of the natural joints and fissures applied to straight anticlinal axes like those of the Malvern produced by consolidation of the rocks; and that it is very Hills, the Caradoc Hills, the Ribblesdale Ridges, and others conceivable that electrical currents, or other polarizing agents, of considerable extent. might communicate to such fissures one or more definite Systems of Disturbance.—Trom careful inquiries it is directions. In fact, it is proved that in Yorkshire, Derbyfound possible to range the disturbances into systems re- shire, and other large tracts, these fissures have definite lated to geological time, so as to present proofs of a defi- directions, mostly rectangular to one another. nite number of considerable convulsions having visited a But it is to M. De Beaumont that we owe the proposal particular region. Thus, in the British Isles, the following of the direction of convulsive movements, as a new and imsystems of disturbance occur in the particular periods men- portant problem in geology. He supposes that disturbances tioned. of the same system or geological era are parallel to a cerFirst Great System—After the deposition of the Cam- tain great circle of the sphere ; that those of different pebrian slates. The Grampians and Lammermuir; riods are related to different circles, the poles of these cirthe ranges of Donegal and Cavan; the Cumbrian cular systems being very irregularly posited on the globe. Mountains; Snowdonia; the Ocrynian Chain of 1 here are facts which make for and against this hypothesis, Devon and Cornwall; are supposed to have been but it is difficult, in the present state of our knowledge, to come to a right conclusion on the matter. It is very diffiuplifted at this time. Second Great System.—After the deposition of the coal- cult to know the relative ages of distant convulsions, bemeasures. The greater number of dislocations in cause the lines of contemporaneous stratification are often the coal-fields of Great Britain; the great Penine entirely unknown. Adjacent convulsions, even if parallel, Fault, Craven Fault, and Ribblesdale Anticlinals; cannot prove a rule which is to apply to a whole circle; the Derbyshire Faults; those of Mendip, South moreover, local variations of a line of convulsion sometimes derange all the reasoning. M ales, were then produced, Instances in favour of the view of M. de Beaumont may bird System.—After the deposition of some parts of found in the British islands,—none more remarkable the Nevy Red Sandstone strata. The Tynedale Fault; be Faults in the coal-fields of Shropshire and Dudley; than the north-east and south-west axes of anticlinal eleon the northern border of Derbyshire; the ridge vation, which compose the first great British system of disturbed strata. Less extensive analogy obtains among prolonged from the Breiddin Hills. Fourth System—After the Oolitic period. In Yorkshire the many anticlinals of Ribblesdale, which belongs to the second system ; but this also ranges north-east and southand Dorsetshire. Fifth System—After the Marine Tertiaries of the South west, or east-north-east and west-south-west; while of other lines of the same date in the same region, one, the of England, Isle of Wight, &c. Penine Fault, ranges north-north-east, and north-northOn turning to the continent of Europe, we find that M. w’est; another, the Craven Fault, ranges west-north-west. 6 eaumont, besides recognising these five systems, pro- If the South Wales system be contemporaneous (and it has poses several others, amounting in all to twelve; but we not been proved to be otherwise), east and west directions s a only add the two which have affected the Alps in pe- must be added to these various lines; and what makes the io s probably later than any of those of the British con- whole more perplexing, is the recurrence of east and west vulsions. directions in the post-tertiary, or fifth English system, between the basins of Hampshire and London. tem Under these circumstances, it is clearly impossible to ?Tf Western Alps,ofwhich appears followed upon the deposition tertiary stratatoofhave the adopt De Beaumont’s hypothesis, for w^ant of evidence age of the Touraine beds (Meiocene, I.yell). either exact or extensive enough to substantiate it. But VOL. xv. \ ’ J J 2G

MINERALOGY. 234 Geology, yet entirely to reject the principle which it involves, would stance, at points along the line of maximum elevation ef an Geulogy, elevated range, or at other points where the actual pheno- n^Vv be not only rash, but positively contradictory to important facts. That some symmetrical accordance does really exist, mena seem to indicate a more than ordinary energy of this and is traceable between the dislocations of a particular age subterranean action. I suppose this elevatory force, whatin a particular region, is certain. Some cases are known ever may be its origin, to act upon the lower surface of of this symmetry being more extensively recognised. the uplifted mass, through the medium of some fluid, which We may therefore continue our inquiries, not to test the may be conceived lo be an elastic vapour, or, in other cases, hypothesis of De Beaumont, but to find out what is the a mass of matter in a state of fusion from heat. Every geologist, I conceive, who admits the action of elevatory truth. Results of Observation In Mr Murchison’s notices of forces at all, will be disposed to admit the legitimacy of the Silurian system, and the igneous rocks associated there- these assumptions. “ The first effect of an elevatory force, will of course be with, are many proofs of the local parallelism of ridges of trap, and anticlinal axes in these ancient rocks, combined to raise the mass under which it acts, and to place it in a with some general directions of dislocation. The prevail- state of extension, and consequently of tension. The ining strike of all these deposits is north-east and south-west, crease of intensity in the elevatory force, might be so rapid or parallel to the Snowdonian chain, Irorn Shropshire to as to give it the character of an impulsive force, in which the mouth of the Towey, a range of 100 miles. Within case it would be impossible to calculate the dislocating this space are numerous minor axes of dislocation, short, effects of it. This intensity and that of the consequent but parallel to the same great strike of the beds; the beds tension, will therefore be always assumed to increase condipping north-west and south-east, from ridges of trap. tinuously, till the tension becomes sufficient to rupture the This general line of dislocation is broken through by trans- mass, thus producing fissures and dislocations, the nature verse rents and fissures. A north-eastern strike belongs and position of which it will be the first object of our into the Ludlow rocks and the old red sandstone. On the vestigation to determine. These will depend partly on the eastern side of the red sandstone of Herefordshire, the elevatory forces, and partly on the resistance opposed to its ridges of Abberley and Malvern point north and south, but action by the cohesive power of the mass. Our hypotheses are complicated by minor ridges running in different direc- respecting the constitution of the elevated masses, are by no means restricted to that of perfect homogeneity ; on the tions. They are posterior to the coal formation.1 In the mountain limestone tracts of Yorkshire, the dis- contrary, it will be seen that its cohesive power may vary, locations present the following general characters :—The in general, according to any continuous law; and morefaults and mineral veins have a tendency to range at over, that this power, in descending along any vertical line, right angles to one another; the lesser faults and veins may vary according to any discontinuous law ; so that the terminate in the greater to which they are rectangular. truth of our general results will be independent, for exWhere the great or Penine fault changes its direction, the ample, of any want of cohesion between contiguous horiveins also change. The intersection of the branches of zontal beds of a stratified portion of the mass. Vertical or the Penine fault with the main stem, though one of these nearly vertical planes, however, along which the cohesion branches is not of the same age, is nearly perpendicular. is much less than in the mass immediately on either side In the Ribblesdale system of anticlinals, many parallel of them, may produce considerable modifications in the ridges east-north-east and west-south-west occur, and these phenomena resulting from the action of an elevatory force, are subject to very frequent cross-rolls or undulations, The existence of joints, for instance, or planes of cleavage, which break them into oval quaquaversal elevations. Mi- in the elevated mass, supposing the regularly jointed or neral veins tend to cross these axes (one goes along an axis.) slaty structure to prevail in it previously to its elevation, The Ribblesdale anticlinals are directed at right angles might affect in a most important degree the character of toward the Craven fault, and near this fault some of them these phenomena. To a mass thus constituted, these in must not be considered as generally applicabend and turn to coincide in its direction. “ If we con vestigations 3 ceive all the country south of that fault to have undergone ble.” After a very clear summary of the mathematical results a vast relative depression, and that at right angles to the line of the fault many parallel undulations sprung out, which of the investigation, first as to a thin lamina acted on by one, two, or more systems of tensions, and, finally, to a arrived at their maximum of curvature a short distance from the fault, we shall have a right notion of the case.”2 mass of three dimensions, the author proceeds to apply Results of Mathematical Inquiry. It is evident that these results to the actual case of a portion of the earth’s the preceding results of observation, coupled with the ex- crust, under the hypotheses respecting the action of the perience of miners and many other circumstances, point to elevatory forces, and the cohesive power of the mass, which some common principle, which must recognise as one of its have been already stated, 1. Longitudinal Fissures. In the case of a mass of inresults, a tendency to local parallelism and rectangulation among the lines of dislocation in a given region. A valu- definite length, bounded laterally by two parallel lines, able contribution for this object has lately been added to geo- with the elevatory force uniform, the extension, and therelogy by Mr Hopkins (Camb. Trans.), who, from very simple fore the tension, will be entirely in a direction perpen\nd probable assumed conditions of the crust of the globe, dicular to the length, so that its whole tendency will be to has deduced mathematically a series of dynamical results for produce longitudinal fissures, or such as are parallel to the comparison with the observed laws of phenomena. The axis of elevation. These fissures will not commence at the following extract will explain his views and methods of surface, but at some lower part of the mass. The whole inquiry :—“ The hypotheses from which I set out, with series of stratified rocks existing above an originating line respect to the action of the elevatory force, are, I conceive, of fissure, will be affected by the tension producing it; but as simple as the nature of the subject can admit of. I as- under certain cases the fissures may not reach the surface, sume this force to act under portions of the earth’s crust The width of the fissure will be nearly the same at all of considerable extent, at any assignable depth, either with depths of disturbed strata (varying, however, with their uniform intensity at every point, or in some cases with a elasticity). Any number of these fissures might be formed somewhat greater intensity at particular points; as for in- simultaneously, more, it is probable, in the deeper parts. 1

Geological Proceedings.

* Geology of Yorkshire, vol. ii. p. 119.

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Cambridge Trans. 1835.

MINERALOGY. 235 Ge sgy. Thus there are complete and incomplete fissures, all paralS0 ,e veins as A B cross other w—w lei to the axis of the uplifted tract.' s as CD, (Diagram No. 15.) and? interrupt them, the conclusions of Geoloey. 2. Transverse Fissures. If the elevatory force be supposed to act with greater intensity at particular points along the general line of elevation, or an additional force superimposed on a uniform force, the axis of elevation will Vertical Cros* Vein. be undulated by one or more cross ridges and hollows ; and parallel to these another system or systems of fissures may be produced, circumstanced like the longitudinal fissures previously mentioned, as to completeness, width, &c. but the miners have generally been in accordance with the ranging across the axis of elevation and approximately per- Wernerian dictum, viz. that the continuous vein is of less pendicular to the longitudinal fissures. This result is al- antiquity than that which it divides; but Mr Hopkms most independent of time : the transverse fissures may be thinks this conclusion untenable. For if the displacements instantaneously following, or very long subsequent to' the of the veins be only apparent, that is, if either of the fislongitudinal ‘fissures.1 sures has been originally formed with the irregularity in 3. Fissures of a Conical Elevation, if produced solely by question, in consequence of any line of least resistance forces of great intensity and limited area, wall commence affecting the direction, it must be the newer C D, which has along or very near to the axis of the cone, and be continued deviated along the fissure AB, and then resumed its bearin a vertical plane, passing through the axis. If such forces ing. were exerted simultaneously with those determining a But if the displacement be real (whether verticallv or general axis of elevation and fissures parallel thereto, the horizontally), then, as far as relates to the fissures, they result would be a local convergence of such longitudinal may be contemporaneous. It may, however, be possible fissures towards the axis of the conical elevation, beyond from other considerations, to determine the relative epochs which they would resume their parallels. A contrary de- of the introduction of mineral matter into fissures, if not viation of these fissures would follow upon a spherical ele- the geological dates of their production. vation. I he differences of the contents of veins in a given min4. Faults. By the decrease of the expansive forces ing region, e.g. Cornwall., appear certainly in a considerable which produced the tensions occasioning the fissures, the degree i elated to their directions. Werner long since proequilibrium of the divided parts would be destroyed, and posed a classification of veins founded on their directions they might rest in unequal elevation above their original and contents, and supposed it possible to refer even Englevel, thus producing longitudinal and transverse faults. lish mineral veins to their place in his Saxon Mining Anticlinal, synclinal, and simple faults are thus easily un- System from such considerations. (Werner on Veins^ derstood to be all consequences of the new positions taken translated by Anderson.) Mr Carne gives no less than by the divided rocks upon the cessation of the sustaining eight principal systems and ages of mineral veins in Cornforces. wall. The criteria of age are founded on the displaceWithout prosecuting further our abstract from Mr Hop- ments, of the veins; east and west is the most prevalent kins’ ingenious paper (which embraces, however, many line of productive veins; north and south of the cross courses, other remarkable coincidences with observations), we may which are generally unproductive. quote his important conclusion. Repletion, of Mineral Veins—The opinion of the Cor“ If the approximate accuracy of our assumptions be al- nish miners and geologists generally appears to be, that lowed, as applied to the crust of the globe, it appears from most or all of these veins are to be regarded as contemporaour investigations that an elevated range characterized by neous with the rocks which enclose them; but the argucontinuous systems of longitudinal and transverse fissures, ments for this contemporaneity are not so satisfactory as referrible to the causes to which we have been assigning those employed by Professor Jameson in the case of consuch phenomena, could not be produced by successive ele- temporaneous veins in igneous rocks Wern. Trans. vations of different points, by the partial action of an ele • Dr Boase and others, however, mention the change of mevatory force. In such elevations, fissures would necessarily tallic contents with change of rock,—the favourable or undiverge in all directions from the central points, so that favourable character of certain rocks for yielding ore, &c. parallel systems, such as have been mentioned above, could Whatever force may be thought due to the facts and the not possibly be thus produced. Every system of parallel opinions brought forward on the subject of veins in Cornfissures in which no two consecutive fissures are remote wall, it is perfectly certain that, in distinctly stratified counfrom each other, must necessarily have had one simultane- tries, the mineral matter has been introduced into open ous origin.” fissures long after the deposition and consolidation of the strata. The proof is unanswerable. Joints and fissures ORIGIN OF MINERAL VEINS. filled with metallic and sparry matters (mineral veins), pass This has long been, and will for some time continue, a through rocks which are ruot contemporaneous but succesdisputable question in geology; but considerable progress sively deposited, and divide corals, fishes, §c.- It is eviEis been made in it since the days of Werner and Playfair. dent that this must close the discussion as far as regards The origin oj the fissures in which a great proportion of these rocks. mineral veins occur, is certainly proved to be either by moleBut, though it cannot be reasonably doubted, as a genecular attraction, causing contraction of the mass of rock, ral truth, that the vein-stuff has been transferred into open and thus generating joints or divisional planes, or by the fissures of the rocks, it is not so easy to determine how this tension of elevatory forces, as explained in the last section. was effected. Have the materials been injected from beThe relative antiquity of the fissures constituting rake veins, low as lavas into the fissures of a mountain (Hutton), or (in Cornwall called lodes), is become a practicable problem, sublimed from a hot region to a cold fissure (Buckland), or since Mr Hopkins has given mathematical deductions to segregated by some peculiar influence from the neighbouraid the observation of facts. When, as is universally found ing rocks (Sedgwick), or poured into them in aqueous soIhese deductions from theory are supported by many well established tacts.

2

Report British Association, Edinburgh Meeting.

MINERALOGY. 236 Geology, lution (Werner), or transierrecl by electrical currents (Fox), any time worked in any part of the British islands above Geology, \rC the new red sandstone. In the new red sandstone and '——v—as in some instances we have good reason to believe ? In the present state of our knowledge neither of these re- magnesian limestone hardly more than slight traces of such sults can be admitted exclusively, yet perhaps none ought products occur ; they are rare in our coal-tracts, but they to be absolutely rejected as a cause of the repletion of me- become abundant in the mountain limestone and older talliferous fissures. Many veins appear as much the result strata. But yet it is probable that this relation of mineral of a real injection of sparry and metallic matters from a veins to the age of deposits is merely a consequence of the subterranean source as any rock-dykes or granite-veins. more general truth, that their origin is from below, that But when, as in Derbyshire, we find mineral veins divided the fissures which they occupy, and the metallic and sparry horizontally by a particular stratiform mass, as toadstone, matters which compose them, are more numerous near the and in other parts by argillaceous beds, so that the vein, igneous rocks which in so many instances form the axes of being a full fissure above and below, is only represented movement. It is not merely because of the antiquity of in the toadstone or shale by one or a few strings of cal- the Killas of Cornwall, but of its proximity to granite rocks, careous spar, it becomes evident that injection is not the that it is so very metalliferous; the limestone of Ireland, only cause of the repletion of mineral veins. See Diagram undisturbed by great axes of movement, is very little metalliferous ; while the same rocks dislocated in Mendip, No' 16. Flintshire, Derbyshire, &c. yield many sorts of metals and No. 1(5. spars, in veins of different kinds. Vein complete Thus, the most general point of view in which mineral Limestone. veins present themselves, is that of dependence on proxiContracted in Shale, &c. mity to the sources of subterranean heat. In the rocks nearest these sources they are most numerous and varied; Complete in Limestone, &c. they abound near the disturbances which are consequences of variation of internal heat; and, in certain cases, (PyreSublimation from the heated subterranean laboratory of nees, &c.), they are not rare even among newer strata nature through the fissures of rocks is a very probable, but where the subterranean igneous rocks have exerted a renot universal, cause of the repletion of veins. It is proba- markable influence. ble because of the agreement between the successive vertical lamination of the materials of a vein and the supposDESICCATION OF THE ANCIENT BED OF THE SEA. ed successive introduction of them to the fissures ; but this The strata, with their organic contents, having been alis not conclusive, inasmuch as the processes of crystallization from a general fluid mass may as well be appealed to ready proved to have formed in succession the bed of the for producing the same phenomenon. It is not universal, sea, and the far greater part of the surface of the globe because of the frequent occurrence of perfectly insulated even to great heights in .the Andes and Himalaya, the Alps, nests of metallic and sparry matter in shells and in the sub- Pyrenees, Caucasus, and other mountains, it follows that stance of rocks. These, indeed, afford a very strong prima nearly the whole terrestrial surface of the globe was forfacie argument in favour of the collection by molecular se- merly submerged, and has since been laid dry. The desicgregation or electrical transfer of the different particles. If cation of the land is a problem of fundamental importance influencing a multitude of secondary inquiries. we consult general probability, it will appear most reason- in geology, able to admit these separate aggregations of metallic and If wTe might venture to suppose the quantity of water upon sparry matter, as being laterally transferred from the vein the globe variable, the land might be imagined to have risen rather than examples of segregation from the rock. Near- above the ocean in consequence of the great abstraction of ly every case of peculiar apparent relation between the the latter ; but, in the first place, there appears no proba ■ sparry and metallic contents of a vein to the nature of the bility that such a supposition is admissible, even by bringenclosing rock, vanishes on a careful scrutiny. It is not ing a comet in contact with the earth; nor does it agree because of any peculiar chemical quality that limestone with the observed condition of the strata. For these by no yields most lead-ore in Aldstone Moor, but because of its means appear in such arrangements as to correspond with being a rock which has retained openness of fissure. Grit- what we know of the character of a large part of the strastones, in many mining fields near Aldstone Moor, are tified bed of the sea. equally productive ; but shales, as being soft extensible Dismissing, then, this notion, and restricting ourselves layers, have closed up the fissures, and their crumbling to the conditions of sensible constancy in the quantity of faces appear to have rejected the crystallizations which at- water upon the globe, we find the problem of the desiccatached to the harder limestone, gritstone, and chert. tion of the bed of the sea reduce itself to the determination If any doubt could remain on this point, it is removed of the causes of the change of relative level of land and by the observations of Necker, Dufrenoy, Murchison, and water. others, as to the real and evident dependence of mineral Such a change of relative level might happen in many districts, that is, districts where the rock fissures are full of ways, some with, others without, local changes in the form valuable minerals, upon axes of disturbance and upliftings of the solid parts of the crust of the globe. To the last of igneous rocks. In the Pyrenees, in Brittany, in Corn- class may be referred variations of level arising from change wall, the Shelve district of Shropshire, Flintshire, Derby- of temperature or alteration of the earth’s axis of rotation. shire, Yorkshire, Aldstone Moor, this important law is cer- The former includes a variety of cases of subterranean movetain. Whatever be the chemical nature of the rock adjoin- ments. ing the dislocation or igneous rock, the productiveness of the veins is chiefly regulated by its condition as to fissures. Limestone in Derbyshire, millstone-grit in Nidderdale, chert EFFECTS OF VARYING TEMPERATURE NEAR THE SURFACE OF THE GLOBE. in Swaledale, basalt in Teesdale, coal near Bradford, and Richmond, all yield sulphuret of lead and various associatWhatever be the constitution of the interior of the globe, ed sparry substances. a general change of temperature of the whole mass of land Prevalence of Mineral Veins in Rocks .of different Age. and water must of necessity alter the relative level of land —As a general result, we cannot doubt of the far greater and sea, because the ratios of expansion and contraction oi prevalence of mineral veins in the older than in the newer the solid and liquid parts are unequal. Water changes its rocks. Not one case is known of a mineral vein being at dimensions in a higher ratio to the difference of tempera-

MINERALOGY. 237 Geoli |r< ture than the rocks of the crust of the globe ; hence a ge- influential on the point, which we may imagine possible, Geology. —r y neral cooling of the mass of the globe, or to a consider- though astronomers give no encouragement whatever to the able depth from the surface, ought to cause the ocean to admission of it as a basis of speculation, is a change of the sink relatively to the land; on the contrary, with any aug- position of the earth’s axis. mentation of temperature the ocean would rise upon the Upon the occurrence of such an event, there would eviland. As sea-water contracts continually down to its freez- dently be a new disposition of the ocean; its waters would ing point, and the greater part of the ocean never freezes, flow from the new poles towards the new equator, and some we may, by assuming a probable mean depth, arrive at some ancient lands might thus be submerged, and extensive suruseful results. If the mean depth of the ocean be taken faces laid dry. at ten miles, which is probably too much, though nothing is I he actual polar circles ought to be land; the equatorial positively known, and it be supposed to have cooled from a zone should be deep sea. I his want of agreement is reboiling heat to a mean temperature of 40° F., its change of markable ; and, when we add to it the consideration that volume would be about The corresponding cubical the absolute fixity of the pole of rotation, in a spheroid of contraction of the land, supposing it to have the rate of ex- ievolution such as the earth is known to be, is a point suppansion in glass, would be about If the areas of the posed to be proved, we shall feel the necessity of abandonsurfaces of land and sea were supposed nearly to continue ing altogether the attempt to explain the desiccation of the in the same proportion, the whole cubical contraction of the land, by imagining general depression, or partial abstracland and water would operate in lowering their level 10 tions of the ocean, without local changes of form of the surX il§o — t/oo — 0,395 miles, relative lowering of water- face of the globe. level. But this cannot be admitted; for the slopes of the land into the sea, over a great part of the globe, are very CHANGES OF FORM OF THE SURFACE OF THE GLOBE. moderate. If the linear contraction of the water alone be taken, and compared with that of the land, we have the Admitting such changes, the partial abstraction of the lowering of the ocean = 10 = 0-132 mile ocean may be viewed as a natural consequence, and the = 697 feet. surface of the land may be studied, for the purpose of disWhen we consider the gently sloping surfaces of a large covering the points of depression and elevation. We are part of the land, we shall see that the contraction of the area thus brought back again to the observation of local phenoof the ocean would diminish its linear depression, and upon mena, and may proceed by induction. the whole we cannot doubt that a fall of 697 feet is much It is undoubtedly certain, by a large induction of exambeyond the amount that could possibly happen if the whole ples derived from various geological periods, that mountain ocean had cooled from a boiling temperature to 40° Fahr. ranges and tracts of plain country have been raised by local But this difference of level is too small to account for the elevatory forces. Anticlinal axes, parallel and rectangudesiccation of more than a small portion of the surface of lated faults, are of a nature to prove the truth of this view. the land; the hypothesis must therefore be abandoned as a By such means, large breadths of land have been influengeneral explanation, though hereafter it may be found of ced, near and at considerable breadths from the axis of elegreat importance in a more comprehensive theory. vation. It further appears that still larger tracts of land, where no such evidence of violent and convulsive disruption of the strata occurs, must be supposed to have been GENERAL CHANGE OF DIMENSIONS OF THE GLOBE. gently and gradually lifted by an intumescence or expanLet us now trace the effects of a general change of the sion of the surface, depending on a continuous and very dimensions of the globe on the relative level of land and extensive subterranean agency. Thus, after the elevation water. of the Snowdonian chain, and the ridges of the Silurian If we suppose the whole globe to undergo change of di- system,—after the Malvern and Abberley elevations,—the mensions by variation of heat, the effects already ascribed whole plain of the midland counties has experienced one to variation of temperature in the exterior part would still general upward movement of a few hundred feet. Thus, take place; but, in addition, would be complicated with an the ancient vale of Eden has been raised since the rising effect depending on the change of spherical area of the sur- of the Penine chain ; and with it the whole area of the red face. In the case of augmenting temperature of the whole sandstone round the Solway Frith, after the relative upliftglobe, the water would rise upon the land, as explained in the ing of the Lammermuir Hills. Instances of this double last section, but its rise would be less in that case, in conse- movement in the same physical region are almost universal. quence of its expansion over a larger area. If the expanThat the elevation of the crust of the globe in one part sion of the whole globe should go to such an extent as to was accompanied by depression in other parts, is extreme, change the diameter (D) into D x (V1-039), or from 7900 ly probable; but we cannot offer satisfactory proof from to 8055 miles, the fall of the ocean would equal the rise of it observation of more than local subsidences, and these genedue to the unequal expansion of land and water from 40° rally complicated with subsequent elevations. The best to 212°. case of such fluctuations known, is perhaps that of the emerIt appears, then, that the desiccation of land is not an sion, submersion, and re-emersion of the Portland oolites, effect of the general cooling of the globe, without change as indicated by the dirt-beds. of form, for the effect due to that is of a contrary descripIt is, of course, in the sea that we are to look for effects tion ; nor of the unequal contraction by cooling of the su- of subsidences, as the land gives those of elevation. To perficial parts of the globe, for that effect, even through the whatever extent we suppose such subsidences to have hapwhole range from boiling heat (212°) to 40° F. would be pened, and the level of the sea to have been thereby lowertotally inadequate to account for the phenomenon, even if ed, the phenomena indicative of a real elevation of the land the depth of the ocean be supposed far greater than it is are not less conclusive. This is a matter of calculation. admitted by astronomers to be. From Mr Hopkins’s researches, it appears that the eleOf the great physical events to which such a change of vatory agency was of the nature of a gradually augmenting level may be ascribed, sound reasoning excludes all that force, very extensive compared to the areas simultaneousare exterior to our globe; none of its relations to the sun ly disturbed. No example of modern earthquakes can be and planets, none of the changes of these relations, are of brought to render it probable, that mere volcanic agency importance in the matter. The only leading event really could upraise the continents which it is capable of shaking-.

MINERALOGY. 238 grow less continually (the particles, which have a certain rota- Ge Geology. Yet, as far as we see, a more powerful exertion of the same V kind of agency might perform the effects; the principle of tory velocity, subsiding to describe circles of shorter radius), w this and every other explanation being the necessity of a To which the answer is immediate and satisfactory, viz. new adjustment of the exterior form and dimensions of the that it is true, that, since the days of Hipparchus, the space of two thousand years has shewn no such variation; but globe, in consequence of accumulating tension upon it. But if, for a moment, we abstract our attention from that the conduction of heat through the consolidated crust these limited developments of the energies of heat, and of the globe is known to be so slow as to render that a very consider the elevatory action below continents and islands short period for the experiment; and further, that the crust as the local resultant of diffused subterranean forces, it does necessarily not follow in its contraction uniformly on appears possible to arrive at a more general and equally ap- that of the nucleus, but is for a long time in a state of tenplicable theory. If, as observations appear to indicate, the sion, and is at last forced to accommodate itself to new diocean once covered all or a large part of the globe, its mensions by a collapse. In corroboration of the doctrine of a cooling globe, we mean depth must formerly have been less than at present: since the inequalities of the land arise from subterranean might here quote the phenomena of ancient organic life, convulsions, and the bed of the sea is very irregular, we which certainly agree with it, so far as to shew that vegemay admit that the whole or nearly the whole of the terra- tation of a tropical character, corals, and other zoophyta, queous area has been affected by local displacements. It crocodiles, and other reptiles analogous to the animals of is the resistance offered by the consolidated crust of the hot climates, formerly inhabited the land and sea near the globe to a gradually augmenting change of internal dinien- polar circles; and indicate that the surface of these now sions, which caused the disturbing movements. We may cold zones was then of a temperature explicable only by a therefore allow, that, before the production of a consolida- greater heating influence communicated from within the ted crust of the globe, the ocean (if it existed in a liquid earth. The most complete test of this theory would doubtless form) was spread with considerable uniformity over the be the deduction of phenomena from it: but this, in the spherical surface. From these postulates it must follow, that the actual bed present state of knowledge of the disturbed stratification of of the sea has been formed by displacements, which, upon the globe, and other associated circumstances, cannot be the whole, have caused a real subsidence ; as the displace- usefully attempted, unless in the very general expressions ments of the land have, upon the whole, caused a real ele- of Leibnitz, who, after enumerating the leading features of . vation of it. And our confidence in the assumed condi- the changes supposed to be effected in and on the cooling tion is augmented by observing, first, that they are all ini- globe by fire and water, states its present condition as one plied in the inferences from phenomena already adopted, of less unstable equilibrium,—“ Donee, quiescentibus causis 1 and that they agree with the sentiment of astronomers as atque sequilibratis, eonsistentior emergeret rerum status.” to the relation of the depths of the sea to the heights of the land. SUCCESSION OF ORGANIC LIFE’ ON THE GLOBE. REFRIGERATION OF THE GLOBE. Man, placed at the head of the last great system of orIn endeavouring to embrace the phenomena of elevation ganic life which has been created on the globe, finds innuand subsidence in one point of view, it appears almost im- merable monuments of more ancient systems of being, fitmaterial whether we suppose the tension of the consolidated ted to earlier conditions of the planet he inhabits. Guided crust of the globe, which preceded its fracture and displace- by the principle of adaptation of organic life to physical ment, to have arisen from inward or from outward pressure, conditions, which, at every point of the earth and sea, is —from expansion of, or contraction upon, the interior nu- found now to obtain, and which, were it not discoverable cleus,—because, in each case, the pressure would be of by observation, might be surely inferred from the wisdom the general and gradually accumulating description requi- and general beneficence of creation, human reason is capared ; but it seems an unavoidable condition that the inter ble, to a considerable degree, of penetrating within the rior nucleus should he of a yielding nature, to permit the mysterious veil of antiquity, and restoring the terraqueous subsidence of large portions of the surface, and accommo- conditions of many former periods. Yet, as the perspecdate itself permanently to the elevations. This condition tive of long past time lengthens, the clearness of the picleads us to the supposition of great interior heat, which, ture fades away, 'and the dim and doubtful light disappoints from general physical considerations, had before appeared our further scrutiny. Among the subjects which it is posvery probable, and, from experimental researches, almost a sible partially to illustrate by this investigation, are the rematter of certainty. lation of former systems of organization to that which is If then, finally, we regard this heat as variable,—and, contemporaneous with the human race,—the relations of placed as the hot globe is in the vast cold regions of space, these one to another,—the creation of the several classes of through which it radiates its uncompensated rays, it must animals, with reference to their place in the economy of be so—the globe must be growing cooler—we have at once creation. the general physical cause of the phenomena of disruption The relation of former systems of organic life to that and displacement on the crust of the globe, viz. a collapse which is in activity around us, is of a peculiar description, of this crust upon the internal nucleus slowly contracted by full of general agreement and innumerable differences. The refrigeration. system of organic life, is perhaps, properly speaking, one That this is the just inference from the principal laws of from the earliest epoch to the present hour; for all fossil phenomena known in geology, we have no doubt; and we Organization is reducible to the leading divisions of modern thinklt is free from any considerable objection. An ob- nature: and it is this only which allows us to include the vious and plausible one is this: If the diameter of the globe existing animals and plants of distant regions as parts of be contracting through refrigeration, the length of the day, one general arrangement. Fossil, as well as recent, plants as compared to the length of the year, should vary and are agamous, cryptogamous, or phanerogamous; the same 1

See Conybeare, Report on Geology to British Association, 1832.

mineralogy. leading divisions of zoophyta, mollusca, Crustacea,—many unequal parts m the economy of nature. Some, as plants, ^ of the same sections of fishes and reptiles, as those which are almost passive ; others, as animals, perform the funcwe now behold,—occur in various ancient series of strati- tions O- active life. Man reasons,—inferior animals obey fied rocks; and this is as much as can be said for the unity their instincts. Thus arises a peculiar scale of organizaof the existing creation, dismembered as it is in different tion, in which the places of the different living tribes may and distant lands and seas. be marked, with reference to their supposed degree of imBut when we come to examine minutely the degree of portance or excellence ; and the races of the animal kingsimilitude among the correlative parts of those systems, om, in particular, are said to be of higher or low er grade, great discrepancies appear. Groups and families of animals in proportion to the complexity of their organization, and now hardly known, or very limited in number, appear pre- the variety of their sensations and actions. What is the dominant in several ancient strata; as, for instance, the order of succession of these beings thus reckoned to be inbrachiopodous and cephalopodous mollusca, large sections terior and superior ? Is the earliest organization known to of radiaria, particular tribes of Crustacea, polyparia, &c. S r m kaWy in m o ^u fenor in complexity to that we now beOthers, which contain but a few small species in the pre- nhold ^ -these questions have been frequently proposed, and sent economy of nature, are found to have numbered many sometimes answered by an erroneous assertion instead of and gigantic forms in older nature (as the saurian races, candid and impartial investigation. The most popular nosalamanders, &c.): the same is true with respect to the tion appears to be, that as man is undoubtedly the highest vegetable world. type of the last creation of animal life, all the former ones The general result of the whole investigation may be should be viewed as gradually ascending step by step from thus expressed and paralleled. The organic forms imbed- the inferior tribes towards the point of ultimate perfecded in the earth exhibit less and still less agreement with tion ; that the several classes of animals, in the ratio of those of existing races, in proportion as they belong to pe- their rank in creation, should successively appear ; the inriods further removed from the present: just as, in modern na- ferior order of forms being found in the lowest and most ture, the differences between the productions of one country ancient order of strata. and another are, in several instances, distinctly proportioned There is some truth in this. Mollusca occur in the to the distance between them; and just as, in the present lowest of all the systems of fossiliferous strata (Snowdon) ; system of nature, we see a mixture of agreements and dif- zoophyta, mollusca,^ Crustacea, abound in all those above ferences between the productions of even remote regions; the lower series. Fishes appear in the silurian rocks ; repso, on comparing fossil and living tribes, the differences are tiles in the red sandstone; birds in the oolites; cetacea, found modified by various agreements. Extinct genera, mammalia, &c., in the supracretaceous beds. But on lookas producta and spirifera, lie buried with existing genera, ing carefully into the matter, it is found capable of a difas lingula and terebratula, in the ancient mountain lime- ferent construction. T he fossils are mostly of marine oristone. Ammonites, hamites, and belemnites, and other gin ; hence the rarity of insects, birds, and mammalia On perished forms of life, are mingled, in the chalk, with nau- the bed of a modern lake, how few bones remain to inform tili, pectens, and echinodermata, congenerous with those us of the ancient finny inhabitants. The rarity of such now in the sea. So with regard to plants. Extinct lepi- remains is remarkable among all the strata, not excepting dodendra and stigmariae lie confused with forms extreme- even the lias; and yet we find, in the silurian rocks near ly analogous to existing tribes; and crocodiles, like the Ludlow, a whole bed of fish-bones and scales, just as. in modern gavial, lived in waters the same or neighbouring to the lias of Westbury. (Mr Lewis of Aymestry.) The order those which nourished the ichthyosaurus, plesiosaurus, and of occurrence of vertebral reliquiae is generally fishes, repthe other almost fabulous monsters of the reptile class. tiles, birds^ and mammalia; yet the occurrence of one geFrom these, and a thousand other concurring facts, we nus of didelphoid quadrupeds in the oolite of Stonesfield, venture to present the following conclusion. The organic is a formidable exception ; and the general absence of all remains of the different stratified rocks are those of crea- land animals from the marine strata, offers an escape to those tures suited to the then conditions of the land and sea re- who totally deny this successive production of the classes of spectively ; and because those conditions had some general animals, according to their grade of organization. features of agreement with what we now behold, a resemNeither is the order of occurrence of marine reliquiai blance to this extent obtains between the fossil and recent such as to afford much countenance to the notion of gradual creations; but, because of the numerous differences in improvement in organic life. The classes of mollusca are physical condition, all the details of the organizations dif- more ancient than those of zoophyta, if we trust our prefer ; and this disagreement is unequal in the different races, sent knowledge, and both older than marine or land plants, because of original inequalities, or their capability of ac- —a seeming paradox, since the pre-existence of vegetables commodating themselves to new circumstances. This law seems capable of being sustained by strong arguments appears also to be true in the present economy of crea- drawn from the relations of animal and vegetable life. tion. But we may contemplate the question as to the gradual On comparing the different systems of strata one with improvement of animal organization in another point of another, and with the present scheme of creation, the same view. Instead of comparing class to class, let us compare law holds ; and we find, in addition, the differences between those of one group but different geological age. The bithe organic contents of one system and another, to be in valve mollusca of the oldest Snowrdonian rocks were cerproportion to the interval of geological time elapsed be- tainly as complicated, nay, more highly organized than the tween them. Thus the fossils of the Silurian system may greater number of conchifera of the present ocean, since be said to differ from those of the mountain limestone spe- they belong to the brachiopoda. The Crustacea of the silucifically,—from the oolitic system generically,—from the rian system were at least as curiously organized as the litertiary system, even by whole groups and sections of ani- muli of the North American coasts. The goniatites of the nial forms. This dependence on time, however, is a co- mountain limestone are far more curiously constructed incidence merely, as the analogy of fossils in rocks of ana- than the nautili which lie with them, and also inhabit logous composition though different age, is sufficient to modern oceans. The belemnites and ammonites, turrilites prove; the real dependence is on the change of physical and other extinct genera of the oolite and chalk, reveal to conditions, produced during the lapse of time. us an extinct order of cephalopoda, larger, more powerful, fhe present creation, and all the former effects of the and more curiously organized, than existing Toligines and Divine will, exhibits a series of beings destined to perform sepiae. GeC;.,y.

240 MINERALOGY. believe not at all more rapid in their effects. The Geol Geology. 1 It is evident, therefore,’ that the whole notion of a gra- may ^ dual amelioration or enrichment of the animal organization laminated sandstones often mark what appears to be the wl], may be dismissed as a mere illusion of the fancy of a finite ripple of a gentle tide, and the successive deposits of agibeing, who vainly transfers to the work of the Almighty tated water; the shelly limestones sometimes prove very slow deposition of even a single layer of calcareous rock; the the pattern of his own limited labours. The systems of organic life have always been adjusted alternation of igneous and sedimentary rocks gives us the to the actual conditions of the land and sea. When water similitude of volcanic submarine eruptions. Now, if we covered the globe, life was marine ; as land arose, and new compare with the sedimentary strata of any particular conditions supervened, terrestrial life was created; old period the most similar products of the present day,—the races died away; with new circumstances, new creations new land on the Adriatic,—the filling up of the Nile Valwere called into being to supply their place ; and at length ley,—the shallowing of the Bay of Bengal,—we shall be the physical revolutions of the globe brought that wonder- impressed wdth the necessity of allowing a long period for ful variety of external circumstances to which organic life the production of a single stratified formation. Again, if we recollect, that during these periods many is at this day adjusted. ' Thus a perpetual stimulus is afforded to man, the last creations of new' and destructions of old races of animals great creation of Divine power, to study the works of his and plants happened,—and that, ever since the records of Maker, and through them to receive proofs “ strong as Holy human art, the embalmed body or sculptured effigies, have Writ” of the long-enduring providence of the Almighty> given the means of judgment, no change has happened to whose appointed plans the permitted violence of the phy- modern races ; that two or three thousand years have not sical agencies of nature, amidst all their irregularities, ex- changed the forms of animals known to the early Egypactly fulfil; and whose care, now so manifest for his hu- tians; we shall see the impropriety of imagining such man creatures, has never been withheld from the meaner changes to have been of quick succession in the earlier forms of every age since the time when the earth became eras of nature. And when we behold conglomerate rocks which hold tenanted by beings capable of enjoying their own existfragments of other earlier deposits, and, in these fragments, ence. the organic remains of still earlier periods which had alGEOLOGICAL TIME. ready undergone their peculiar mineral changes; when we The chronology adopted by geologists is liable to an in- collect the history of such an organic form,—its existence herent uncertainty or indefiniteness, quite different in its in the sea,—its sepulture in a vast oceanic deposit of limenature from the sources of error in ancient history. In stone, or in a littoral aggregation of sandstone,—the indurathe history of human affairs, the whole period which elaps- tion of this rock,—its uplifting by subterranean forces,— ed between the two epochs chosen as limits is known or the rolling of it to pebbles,—the reunion of them in a tosupposed to be so ; but the intervening occurrences cannot tally different kind of substance,—it is evident that no often be correctly placed in their true succession. In geo- greater folly can be committed than to think to serve the logy, on the contrary, the whole period included between cause of truth by contracting the long periods of geology the* limits is, and perhaps must ever be, absolutely un- into the compass of a few thousand years. The task of reducing these long periods to any definite * known ; yet the succession of occurrences is, in general, clearly ascertained. Again, it frequently happens, that scale, is at present entirely hopeless. Three possible modes the histories of different nations have no common features seem open to us ; but we cannot advance a step in any one for very long periods, but remain insulated. This defect of these, without immediate aid from visionary and delusive is less sensible in geology ; for some of the monuments of guides. 1. Could we know the rate of secular refrigeration of contemporaneous physical conditions of the globe are very the globe, either from general physical considerations, or a widely diffused. The true scale of geological chronology is that of the summation of the effects of convulsive movements, a basis stratified rocks. According to the view previously advo- of inquiry would be established. But who will dare to atcated, the several systems of strata mark periods more or tempt the solution of such a problem ? 2. Could we know the mean or extreme rate of producless exactly definable; the last, or supratertiary period, which descends to the present era of the globe, being, as tion of stratified deposits at the present day, this would enable us to conjecture the lengths of some geological periods, yet, one of the least defined in its limits. It has been already explained that historical time, com- and with double hazard refer others to this conjectural mencing wdth the human race, is not yet united to geolo- scale ; but even this unsatisfactory estimate would be liable gical time. Whenever the exact place of the creation of to the further and fatal error of not knowing the ratio of man, on the scale of geological phenomena, can be fixed, the forces in the different periods. To assume this ratio and the twro scales continuously united, we may be able to is only to augment in a still higher degree the amount of advance, w ithout certainty of utter failure, to the consi- improbability. 3. Perhaps the safest, certainly the most alluring, of the deration of the problem lately proposed for a prize essay by the Royal Society of London, viz. the translation of three methods which geology may follow in this dark research, is that which is founded on a strict scrutiny of the geological into astronomical periods. At present the chronology of the globe, starting from history of organic remains. The life of animals and plants the origin of the stratified rocks, and including the whole is a phenomenon distinctly related to annual periods; and, series of successions of organic beings, and all the convul- for some systems of strata, as for example the tertian,', the resive disturbances of the cooled and consolidated crust, re- semblance of specific forms is enough, the great number of cognises many successive periods of unknowm duration. coincidences being considered, to authorize deductions as Neither does it appear possible to know their duration, or to the length of life of fossil and recent species ot marine even the limits of error within which they fall. How, mollusca. But here the want of knowledge is utterly fat^* then, it may be asked, do geologists justify their confident "Who can tell us the average term of life of marine mollusassertions of the very great antiquity of particular rocks as cous animals, sufficiently comparable with tertiary shells, to compared with the few thousand years of history ? To this form a basis of good reasoning ? It is evident that w'e have no knowledge capable of bethe reply is simple. Many of the ancient stratified rocks were formed in the sea by processes perfectly similar to ing employed, in the magnificent problem of the age of the those which go on at this day; and, in some cases, we crust of the globe, at all equal to the difficulty which meets

M I N jfiffra us on the very threshold. Until the constants of nature which relate to the dependence of organic or inorganic phenomena on annual periods be known, the determination "'of the antiquity of any of the marine stratified rocks must be despaired of.

We have thus briefly presented some fundamental inferences which must be embodied in any rational theory of geology. To combine these and other sound inferences is the true business of theory: it ought not yet to be attempted ; for

MIN 241 though the notion of a slow decrease of the heat of the Minervalia globe being the primary law of causation, is perhaps continually forcing itself on the attention of geologists, as well Mines. calculated to account for the consolidation, disruption, and irregularity of elevation of the crust of the globe, and almost necessary to explain its actual condition of sensible equilibrium ; though it is inconsistent with no astronomical, mechanical, or chemical truth, and meets without difficulty the problems suggested to zoology and botany by the monuments of ancient organic life; still the development of this truly general theory requires a far more exact survey of the structure of the globe, and a far more intimate acquaintance with the effects of modern terraqueous agencies, than we now possess.

MINERVA, or Pallas, in Pagan worship, the goddess of science and of wisdom, who sprung completely armed from Jupiter’s brain. She disputed with Neptune the honour of giving a name to the city of Athens, upon which it was agreed, that whosoever produced what was most useful to mankind should have the advantage. In consequence of this compact, Neptune, with a stroke of his trident, formed a horse; and Minerva caused an olive to spring from the ground. The latter was judged the most useful, from its being the symbol of peace. Minerva changed Arachne into a spider, for pretending to excel her in making tapestry. She fought the giants ; favoured Cadmus, Ulysses, and other heroes; refused to marry Vulcan, choosing rather to live in a state of celibacy ; deprived Tiresias of sight; turned Medusa’s locks into snakes ; and performed several other exploits. Minerva is usually represented by the poets, painters, and sculptors, as com-

pletely armed ; with a composed but agreeable countenance, bearing a golden breastplate, a spear in the riMit hand, and an aegis or shield in the left, upon which is represented Medusa’s head encircled with snakes ; whilst her helmet was usually entwined with olives. She had several temples both in Greece and in Italy. The usual victim offered to her was a white heifer, never yoked; and the animals sacred to her were the cock, the owl, and the basilisk. MINERVALIA, in Roman antiquity, festivals celebrated in honour of Minerva, in the month of March ; at which time the scholars were indulged with a vacation, and usually made a present to their masters, called from this festival Minerval. MINERAINO, a city of the kingdom of Naples, in the province of Bari, on the declivity of the Apennines. It is the seat of a bishop, and has a cathedral and three other churches, with about 6000 inhabitants.

GENERAL RESULT.

MINES. MINES (in Greek MsraXXa, and in Latin Fodince MetalliccB or Metalli Fodince) are pits dug deep in the earth, whence are drawn the metals, the demi-metals, and other mineral substances, such as coal, rock-salt, alum, and the like. The excavations from which stones are obtained, however deep these may be, are denominated quarries, and not mines. I.—ANCIENT MINES. Scripture ascribes the discovery of brass (or copper) and iron, at least that of the methods of working them, to Tubal Cain, who lived before the Flood. But ere these metals could have been subjected to the skill of the antediluvian artificer, the metalliferous ore must have been extracted from the earth, and subjected to some metallurgic process, however rude; in other words, the invention ascribed to Jubal Cain implies the previous existence of mines and mining. This, however, has occasioned some perplexity, and produced considerable speculation as to the causes, whether accidental or other, which led to the discovery of mines. The method of discovering these is still a matter of so much difficulty, that it cannot but appear surprising, how men totally unacquainted with the nature of metals should first have come to think of digging them out of the earth in the shape of ore, and then applying heat to disengage them from the extraneous matter with which they have almost always been found combined. According to the prevailing opinion of the ancients, this discovery was made by accident. Lucretius describes it as the result of the burning of woods or forests, which, melting VOL. xv

the veins of metals in the earth over which the conflagration passed, revealed to men the existence of substances previously unknown, and also indicated the method by which these might be converted into a state capable of being applied to useful purposes. Aristotle, who is of the same opinion with Lucretius, informs us, that some shepherds of Spain set fire to the woods, in consequence of which the earth became heated to such a degree by the flames that the silver near the surface melted and flowed into a mass, which was afterwards discovered in a fissure occasioned by an earthquake. The same story is told by Strabo, who ascribes to this accident the discovery of the silver mines of Andalusia. Cadmus, who first introduced letters into Greece, is said to have been also the original discoverer of gold ; but this has been contested by some mythologists, who attribute the honour of the discovery to various other fabulous personages ; as Thoas of Thrace, Mercury the son of Jupiter, and Pisus a king of Italy, who, having left his native country, and gone into Egypt, was elected king of the latter after the death of Mizraim, and, on account of this alleged discovery, was denominated the Golden God. The discovery, not only of gold, but also of all the other metals, is by iEschylus attributed to Prometheus, whose story, clouded as it is by fable and romance, seems to countenance such a supposition. The copper mines of Cyprus were originally discovered by Cinyra the son of Agryopa; and Hesiod ascribes to the Dactyli Idaei the discovery of the iron mines of Crete, the modern Candia. According to several ancient authors, the invention of the method of extracting tin from its ore was made by Medacritus, in the islands ot the Cassiterides, and by him communicated to the natives. It is highly probable, indeed, that these and all other similar

MINES. 242 Mines, discoveries or inventions were the result of accident rather mines let in the course of the year, the comparative rich- Mines, than of research or investigation. Chance disclosed the hid- ness or poverty of the veins worked, and the degree of'^—Y'* den treasure, and a happy thought enabled some shrewd ob- activity with which the business of mining was carried on. server to turn the casual disclosure to account. Even in When" Themistocles proposed to the Athenians to apply modern times, we know that many mines have been dis- the funds obtained from the mines to the building of ships, covered in this manner; as, for example, in sea-cliffs rent instead of dividing it as before amongst the people, the by the violence of the waves, amongst broken and craggy annual receipts appear to have amounted to thirty or forty rocks, by the washing of the tide or by floods, by torrents talents, although the accounts relating to this point are of water issuing from hills or mountains, by the wearing extremely indistinct and uncertain. Citizens and isoteles were alone entitled to the possesdown of roads, and sometimes by volcanic eruptions. I he ingenuity of man consists in taking advantage of those oc- sion of the mines. The number of the possessors was evicasions when either nature or fortune puts it in his power dently considerable, and, like the agriculturists, they were to extend his knowledge, or to add to his wealth and com- considered as a separate class of producers; sometimes they possessed several shares, sometimes^ they had only fort. Our information respecting ancient mines is, we regret one. The common price of a single share was rather more to say, extremely scanty and imperfect. The subject has than a talent; and occasionally several partners occur as not been specially treated of by any ancient writer with the joint possessors of a mine. The manual labour was whose works we are acquainted ; ami the detached notices performed by slaves either belonging to the possessors of which occur in the classical authors have not received the mines or hired from others; but although the cheapthat anxious and critical examination which is indispensa- ness of their labour diminished the expenses of mining, bly requisite in order to arrive at just and accurate con- the improvements of art in facilitating or abridging the clusions. To the general truth of this remark, however, processes of labour were necessarily retarded. . The secuthere is one distinguished exception, in Boeckh’s Disserta- rity of this species of possession was guaranteed by severe tion on the Silver Mines of Laurion, appended to his very law’s, and the rights of the state were strictly maintained. learned and interesting work on the Public Economy of There was a mining law (/uraXkixos voyog), and a particular Athens. In a short compass, all that can be gleaned from course of legal proceedings in cases relating to mines (&the ancient authors has been carefully brought together, xa/ /xiraT'.'kixui), which, for the greater encouragement of and treated with a degree of critical ability which has the proprietors of mines, were in the time of Demosthenes enabled the author to throw much new light upon a sub- annexed to the monthly suits. The mines were also free ject that had almost entirely escaped the researches of from property taxes, and did not subject the possessor to the performance of liturgies, nor were they transferred in preceding inquirers. The mines (/^sraXXa) belonging to the state of Athens the exchange (avndotnc) of property; immunities which did were partly native and partly foreign. But the most consi- not arise from any wish to encourage the working of the derable were the silver mines of Laurion, from which the na- mines, but were founded solely upon the particular nature tion derived no ordinary advantages, since, by the resources of the tenure by which they were held. They were consiwhich they supplied, Themistocles first raised the naval dered as public property let to usufructuary possessors in power of Athens to a state of consequence and efficiency. consideration of a fixed rate of payment, like the duties These mines extended from coast to coast, in a line of paid by the farmers; and no property, except such as was about seven English miles, from Anaphlystus to Thoricus. freehold, and exempted from rent or duty of any kind, subThe working of them had been commenced at an early pe- jected the holder to liturgies and property taxes. _ That Athens usurped the possession of the mines beriod, and appears to have been very profitable in the time of Themistocles; but they became less productive in the age longing to her subject allies, cannot be assumed in conforwith the general system of her foreign policy; and of Socrates and Xenophon, and before that of Strabo they mity r had been so entirely exhausted, that all further mining was w e must suppose that these everywhere remained the prodiscontinued. The ores extracted contained silver and perty of the persons to whom they had belonged previouslead, with zinc, and probably copper, but no gold, or at least ly to the dominion of Athens. The mines of Thrace, not enough to allow the ancients, with their imperfect pro- however, appear to have formed an exception, and to have cesses of separation, to disengage it with profit. At Tho- been immediately dependent upon Athens; indeed it is proricus spurious emeralds occurred in combination with the bable that they were let in the same manner as the Atheore ; cinnabar was also found there, and occasionally a sub- nian mines, although we have no certain information on stance which afterwards came to be much prized in dyeing. this point. The Thracian gold mines had been first workThe mines were worked by means of shafts and adits, and ed by the Phoenicians, along w ith the mines of Thasos; and whole masses were removed, so that supports alone were afterwards they were carried on by the Thasians of Paros. left standing. The processes of fusion carried on in the The gold mines of Scapte Hyle upon the mainland brought furnaces appear to have been the same as those employed to the state of Thasos an annual revenue of eighty talents; in the other mines which were worked in ancient times. those of Thasos were less productive, though notwithstandThe state was the sole proprietor of the mines; but they ing they yielded a large sum. When the Athenians had were never worked at the public expense; nor did the established themselves in Thrace, they entered into aeonstate ever let them for a term of years, like other landed test with the Thasians for the possession of the mines and property. They were always granted to private indivi- harbours of the mainland; Cimon captured thirty-three duals in fee-farm; and these leases were transferred from ships in a naval engagement, besieged and reduced Thasos, one person to another by inheritance, sale, and other kinds and thus obtained for his country the coast, together with oflegal conveyance. The sale of the mines, or rather of the the gold mines. Scapte Hyle, and other cities of the right of working them, was managed by the poletm; and mainland, were likewise conquered by the Athenians ; but this right was purchased at an appointed price; in addi- Boeckh conjectures that the gold mines were partly granted tion to which the possessor paid the twenty-fourth part of to the Athenians in fee-farm, whilst those of the ancient the net produce as a perpetual tax. The purchase-money possessors remained in undisturbed occupation. If as many was paid directly to the state, but the contingent rents of the names of proprietors of the Thracian as of the Lauwere very probably let to a farmer-general. The amount of rion mines had been preserved, we should have been able the money obtained from both sources necessarily depend- to speak with more certainty on this point; but the utmost ed upon a variety of circumstances, such as the number of extent of our knowledge is, that Thucydides possessed gold

MINES. 243 jfi,L mines in Thrace; and with regard to him it is doubtful in Ireland, upon the continent of Europe, in the republic of v Mines. —- v —/ —-v-p''what manner he acquired such a property, the account Mexico, and in the different states ot South America. most deserving of credit being that he obtained them by marriage with a lady of Scapte Hyle, whose predecessors had perhaps been long in possession of them.1 XI.—BRITISH MINES. Of all the metals, copper is that which is most frequently found pure in the ore ; and for this reason probably it was The mineral riches of Great Britain are immense, and, also the first amongst them all that was wrought. This ap- in some respects, superior to those of any other country. pears to have been the case in ancient Rome, where at first If it cannot boast of gold and silver mines, which are somethere was no coined money (pecunia signata), commodities times found in the poorest countries, it possesses a species being either exchanged by barter, or for a certain weight of of mineral wealth which is of still more importance to a uncoined brass (ces rude), used as a measure of value. To manufacturing nation. It commands an inexhaustible supavoid singularity of expression, we use the word “ brass” for ply of excellent coal, which is extensively diffused ; its tin what in reality was bronze, or copper rendered fusible by mines are the most productive of any in Europe; it has an admixture of zinc or of tin ; a metal which was in gene- also very valuable mines of copper, lead, manganese, and ral use, because masses of it were so easily transformed by other substances ; and its salt springs, and strata of fossil fusion that nobody incurred loss by the process. The salt, are alone sufficient to supply the whole world for an copper mines of Tuscany, especially in the country about indefinite period. The most valuable minerals are situated Volterra, although now perhaps exhausted, appear to have in the western and northern parts of England, and in the been at one time immensely productive; and to this must southern and middle parts of Scotland. But the English be added the produce of the mines in Cyprus, now ascer- mines are by far the most important, as will appear from tained to have been enormous, and the influx of which into subsequent details. In the meanwhile we shall commence Italy is attested by the Latin name of‘copper {cuprum). our notices of the different minerals with that of coal. The dependence of that island upon the Phoenicians in very remote times opened a way for this metal to the Punic 1. Coal Mines. markets; and Carthaginian vessels must have brought it into Italy. The low price consequent upon such plenty It is scarcely possible to exaggerate the advantages agrees with every thing that is known concerning the which England derives from her immense beds of coal. quantity of brass money, and its value in the times ante- In this climate fuel ranks amongst the principal necesrior to the introduction of silver money, which took place saries of life ; without an abundant supply of it the country about the commencement of the first Punic war. In fact, would be uninhabitable; and it is to the coal mines that it was long a remarkable and distinguishing peculiarity of we are indebted for a sufficiency of this indispensable arthe nations inhabiting the middle of Italy, that they em- ticle at a cheap rate. Nor is the advantage here stated ployed copper or bronze in heavy masses, and not silver ; the only one which we derive from these mines. They are whereas in the southern provinces, and along the coast as the principal source of our manufacturing and commercial far as Campania, silver money was usually employed.2 prosperity ; and their products constitute the materia priAnciently Spain yielded an abundant supply of the pre- ma of our superiority in all the more extensive and importcious metals, which her quicksilver served to refine. The ant departments of industry. Since the invention of the Asturias, Galicia, and Lusitania, yielded, according to Pli- steam-engine, coal has become of the highest importance ny, twenty thousand pounds of gold annually. Silver was as the means of generating the moving power; and no found in still greater quantities, and of the very best quality. nation, if scantily supplied with this mineral, however “ Argentum reperitur omnibus fere provinciis, sed in His- favourably it may be circumstanced in other respects, can pania pulcherrimum,” says Pliny ;3 and from that country ever expect to rival those which are so, in most branches both the Carthaginians and the Romans appear to have of manufacturing industry. To what else are we to asderived immense supplies. It is even said that the single cribe the astonishing increase of Manchester, Birmingmine of Belbel yielded Hannibal three hundred pounds a ham, Leeds, Sheffield, in England, not to mention Glasday; and we further learn, that after Spain had been re- gow and Paisley in Scotland, and the comparatively staduced to complete subjection by the Romans, these proud tionary or declining state of Canterbury, Winchester, Saconquerors drew from it upwards of an hundred and ten lisbury, and other towns, except to the abundance and thousand pounds of silver in the space of nine years, or at cheapness of coal in the north, and its scarcity, and conthe rate of about twelve thousand four hundred pounds sequent high price, in the south ? The citizens of Manannually. Strabo also informs us, that neither gold, sil- chester, Glasgow, and the other places similarly circumver, copper, nor iron, were found in such quantities, or so stanced, are enabled, at a comparatively small expense, to excellent in4quality, in any part of the known world, as in put in motion the most powerful and complicated machiTurdetania. nery, and to produce results which are altogether beyond These notices of the ancient mines are no doubt scanty the reach of those who do not possess the same command and meagre; but the want of precise information upon of this mineral. Coal has been happily defined “ hoarded this subject, which is only adverted to in the most cursory labour ;” and it might, with equal justice, be denominated manner by the ancient writers, renders it impossible to concentrated power. By means of it our manufacturers give any more ample or satisfactory account, either of the are supplied with a power of easy control yet of boundless localities of the mines, the methods employed in working energy, and are enabled to overcome difficulties insurthem, or the processes, rude enough no doubt, by which mountable by those who happen to be less liberally supthe metal was separated from the ore. Such being the plied with this truly invaluable mineral. case, we shall therefore take leave of this part of the subIt is uncertain when coal began to be first used as fuel, ject, and proceed to give as ample details as our limits will although, as early as the year 1281, Newcastle seems to have admit, of the mines presently worked in Great Britain and had some trade in this article. In the reign of Edward I. its 1 Boeckli, Public Economy of Athens, vol. xxil p. 18,19, et seq. and 415, et seq. *3 Niebuhr, History of Rome, vol. i. p. 398, et seq. Cambridge, 1828. 4 Pliny, Hist. Natural, lib. xxxiii. c. 4 and c. 6. Strabo, Geograph, p. 194 ; Anstice s Essay, p. 11.

'

MINES. 244 Mines, use was prohibited in London, on account of the smoke, neral. According to Mr Taylor, the coal fields of Durham ,Mines, ^“"■ y which was supposed to be injurious ; and afterwards this pro- and Northumberland are adequate to furnish the present hibition was renewed at different periods, but without any annual supply for seventeen centuries to come. The exeffect. But experience proved that the smoke was not de- tent of these coal fields he estimates at 732 square miles. leterious ; the growing scarcity of timber, and the superio- But, taking the workable coal strata at an average thickof twelve feet, the contents of one square mile will be rity of coal as an article of fuel, secured its ascendency; ness 12,390,000 tons, and of 732 square miles 9,069,480,000 and since the reign of Charles I. it has become almost the ; or, deducting one-third part for loss by small coal, inonly description of fuel which is used in the capital, and in tons by dikes, and other interruptions, 6,046,320,000 most other towns and districts of the kingdom. Excepting terceptions tonS!—a quantity sufficient to supply the present demand in certain parts of Ireland and the Highlands of Scotland, where peat is employed as a substitute, its use is now near- of 3,500,000 tons for a period of 1727 years. It is evident that this estimate of the quantity of coal in Durham and ly universal. The consumption of coal in Great Britain is immense. Northumberland can be only a rough approximation, espeIt has been estimated at 15,580,000 tons annually, exclu- cially as the south-eastern coal district of Durham is yet sively of exports to foreign countries ; but this estimate, Mr almost unexplored, and there is also a considerable extent M‘Culloch thinks, is greatly under the mark. According of coal field in the northern and south-western districts of to him, the consumption of Great Britain may be estimat- Northumberland, which is nearly in the same situation; ed at the rate of about a ton of coal for each individual, ex- but it is sufficient to satisfy the public that no apprehenclusively of the consumption in iron-works and other great sion need be entertained as to this valuable mineral being branches of manufactures. This gives 16,500,000 tons for exhausted for a great many generations to come. Dr Buckwhat may be denominated general or domestic consumption; land, it is true, considers Mr Taylor’s estimate as greatly although, to be within the mark, we shall take it at only exaggerated ; but in his examination before the committee 15,000,000 tons. If to this be added the quantities of coal of the House of Commons, he quotes with approbation a consumed in the making of iron, the cotton manufacture, statement in Bakewell’s Geology, that the coal fields in the woollen, linen, and silk trades, the smelting of copper South Wales are alone sufficient to supply the whole prein England for a period of two thouores, brass and copper manufactures, salt-works and lime- sent demand for coal 1 works, the total annual consumption of coal in Great Bri- sand years to come. Besides, in the west riding of Yorktain may be moderately estimated at upwards of 22,000,000 shire, there are many extensive coal fields hitherto un1 touched. In Staffordshire, the coal strata are of immense tons. Thus, magnitude, and the bed round Dudley is no less than thirty Tons. feet thick. In the present slovenly mode of working the Domestic consumption 15,000,000 coal, more than two thirds is left in the mine and wasted;2 Production of iron 3,850,000 but were any thing like a scarcity of coal apprehended, Cotton manufacture 800,000 this wasteful practice would be stopped, and means adoptWoollen, linen, silk 500,000 ed for clearing out the contents of the mines. For all pracCopper and brass works 400,000 tical purposes, therefore, the supply of coal may be consiSalt-works 300,000 dered as quite unlimited. Lime-works 500,000 The coal fields of Scotland are of great extent and value, indeed sufficient of themselves to furnish the whole empire 21,350,000 with an adequate supply of this mineral for a long series of Exports to Ireland 750,000 years. Coal is found in several districts of Scotland, as in Ditto to foreign parts 600,000 Dumfriesshire and Roxburghshire, in the more southern counties ; but the great field of Scotch coal stretches from 22,700,000 south-west to north-east across the centre of the kingdom ; If we suppose that the above quantity, in which no allow- and it is to be found in greater or smaller quantities in the ance is made for the coal consumed in the manufacture of counties of Haddington, Edinburgh, and Linlithgow, Stirhardware and cutlery, costs the consumer at an average ling, Clackmannan, Kinross, Fife, part of Perth, Ayr, Renabout seven shillings a ton, then 22,700,000 tons will be frew, Lanark, Dumbarton, and part of Argyle. Its average breadth is thirty-three miles, and its length upon the mainworth in all nearly eight millions sterling a year. The importance of coal as a necessary of life, and an in- land of Scotland ninety-eight miles ; so that its total area dispensable auxiliary in manufactures, has attracted atten- is 3234 square miles. If from this we deduct 360 miles for tion to the question as to the probable duration of the sup- the space covered by the Frith of Forth, there will remain ply, or the period when the exhaustion of the coal mines 2874 square miles of territory, in most parts of which coal may be anticipated. But the investigations hitherto made is found at different depths and of various qualities, whilst as to the extent and depth of the different coal formations, in about 600,000 acres of the same space it may be workand the degree to which they are capable of being worked, ed with advantage. The depth of coal varies, but in genedo not afford sufficient data for even an approximate solu- ral it seems to be rather nearer the surface in the western tion of this question. Vague and unsatisfactory as they are, than in the eastern division of the country. There is also a however, these inquiries leave no room for doubt that many great variety in the number of its seams or strata, as well as centuries must elapse before posterity can experience any in their thickness. The greatest thickness in the island is at serious inconvenience from a diminished supply of this mi- Quarrelton, where five contiguous strata are upwards ot 1 The passage in question is as follows : “ Fortunately we have in South Wales, adjoining the Bristol Channel, an almost exhaustless supply of coal and iron-stone, which are yet nearly unwrought. It has been stated that this coal field extends over about 1200 square miles, and that there are twenty-three beds of workable coal, the total average thickness of which is ninety-five feet; and the quantity contained in each acre is 100,000 tons, or 65,000,000 tons per square mile. If from this we deduct one half for waste, and for the minor extent of the upper beds, we shall have a clear supply of coal equal to 32,000,000 tons per square mile. Now, if we admit that 5,000,000 tons from Northumberland and Durham mines are equal to nearly one third of the total consumption of coal in England, each square mile of the Welsh coal field would yield coal for a hundred years’ consumption ; and as there are from 1000 to 1200 square miles in this coal field, it would supply England with fuel for 200n years, after all our English coal mines are worked out.” See also Treatise on the Collieries and Coal Trade, London, 1835. * Bakewell’s Geology, p. 183, 4th ed.

MINE S. 245 Mi |inations which cannot effected by cept terrorthe which we are apt to°connect withrmin^ such mStt -y art. Previously to the be year 17o2>1thl atmosphere,Thich ZoTg7,out J y uie aira annua! nrni nf ■ AaT T , ’ ospnere, winch throughout the be P o the mines of Almaden amounted to be- fltrnntr] strongly \impregnated withK mercurial and, must is m r\mrrr^ o • i vapour,mine . con-

1 1 El 10St eVer V ari ty of min eral destitute^of quicksilver! niore esneckllv ” f?laa’ in - . which 7. u that ® metal is. most produce as Great Britain should be entirely loped. There is, however a Dassaw fn asTh^pn^f Vi l \\r f°rm commonly found, is here so largely devein wllieh having been found in a natW^tat^at IwS °r ! C^mica ! . he mentions the circumstance of quicksilver a < 204), and also in Williams’ Natural Historv aft! f the same thing is This stated in the Commercial Magazine (vol. ii. p. digging out clay for the founda ion nS S f ? ^ £ P’111 the town discovery is said to have been made in t>he S reet C d yde Hl11, Place more than half a century ao-0 tHp pH 7 Tb ing i U 0Utf f ¥of Berwick; and it appears to have taken tmie where observed to exude from the smal'T i i!- f vere ’ fo foredsome it had been deposited, and the mercury was 511 a whole mass of ?he claT Ma ^ Z ^' ™ * « it dried, being apparently distributed throughout tlm some Pregnated with Zrc7r‘y, wSh/an ou^n^nT n’d penetrated into the same bed of clay, it appeared to be irn1T workmen 13 remarkablt> more attention, and lead to some examination f ! that so important a mineralogical fact did not attract tive state. xamination of the bed of clay, which appeared to be thus impregnated with quicksilver in the naVOL. XV. 2K

?!

MINE S. 258 Mines, stantly producing salivation amongst the workmen. Hav- inches deep and fifteen in diameter, which are piled up so Mines; ing descended by 727 steps, reaching to a depth of 120 as to fill the centre building. The doors of the chambers'''— fathoms, we arrived at the region where the cinnabar is are then carefully walled up; and a strong fire having chiefly procured. The mining operations are chiefly car- been lighted under the centre building, the quicksilver ried on in galleries, the friable nature of the rock seldom rises in the form of vapour, and passing into the small aflmitting of larger chambers. The cinnabar is in strata chambers, is there condensed by the cold atmosphere of from two to six inches in thickness, and of a variety of around them. Some of the gangue is brought here in the colours, from dark to light red, the quicksilver being some- form of the native rock. The expansive power of the vatimes mixed with it, and sometimes occurring in the in- pour, together with the heat of the fire, is sufficient to tervening strata of earth or stone. Sometimes the cin- cause the rock to disintegrate, and thus to allow the escape nabar is of a brilliant red, and once I found it in small of the quicksilver. When this process is over, the doorcrystals, but such specimens are rare ; it is generally of a ways of the chambers are once more opened, and the quickdull red colour, and the stone is so brittle, that nothing silver, which is found chiefly adhering in drops to the sides 'more than a pickaxe is required. The strata affording the and ceiling, is scraped off’, and running into a hollow in quicksilver appear to have no particular direction, and oc- the floor, is taken thence to the cleaning and bottling room. cupy about one third or one half of the entire mass of the It appears to act on the mortar of the chambers, for I found rock. Proceeding a short distance, however, we came to the latter flaky, and the crevices all filled with small glothe galleries where the cinnabar is less common, and the bules. “ The cleaning process is very simple, a piece of canquicksilver is the chief object of search. It occurs here sometimes imbedded in a friable rock, sometimes in a vass being merely spread over a funnel, and the quicksilver kind of earth in appearance and hardness resembling tal- being made to pass through this, comes out sufficiently cose slate, but principally in the former. Generally it is pure. That intended for home consumption is then tied in particles too minute for the naked eye, but often w^en up in sheep-skins, while that for exportation is put in iron the rock is broken small globules present themselves, va- bottles, large enough to contain sixty-eight pounds. The rying from a size just large enough to be seen, up to that furnace is kept in operation only during the winter months, of a common pin’s head. These globules are not distri- and then the vapour which escapes from it is a serious anbuted at random throughout the mass, but the substance in noyance to the town ; they have a blast three times every which they occur forms strata usually about one inch or fortnight.” Mines of Bavaria.—Extensive, but now almost neglecttwo in thickness.” The traveller, descending still lower, soon came to the ed, mines of quicksilver, have long been wrought in that richest part of the mine. Here the gangue or matrix con- part of the Bavarian dominions which is westward of the sists almost entirely of talcose earth, and the globules are Rhine, and anciently formed the Palatinate. These mines so large that when it is broken they roll out and fall to the are situated in the mountainous country to the south of .bottom of the gallery. The labourers are relieved every Kreuznach, a town on the southern frontier of the Prussian four hours, being unable, from the state of the atmosphere, territory, and they lie chiefly between that place and Wolfto work longer than this at one time. In the other parts of stein. This elevated range forms the northern prolongation the mine they work eight hours. The total number em- of the primary chain of the Vosges, and rises to its greatest ployed in the mine is 360, divided into three companies, altitude in the porphyritic summit of the Donnersberg or each of which works eight hours. Their pay is only from Mont-Tonnerre. They are entirely within the Bavarian dofifteen to seventeen kreutzers a day, the usual pay of day- minions, being in the immediate vicinity of Bingart, Nieder labourers in Germany. Several of them appeared to be Moschel, Ober Moschel, and Alzens. They are stated to suffering from the effects of the mercury. Having return- have been worked for about five centuries ; and both the ed to the upper mine, the traveller next proceeded to ex- excavations below, and the immense piles of attle on the amine the washing-rooms, which are situated a few hun- surface, prove that some have been wrought to a considerable extent. The working indeed has never been given dred yards from the mines. “ The gangues containing the metal are carried to this up for any length of time ; but this part of Germany havhouse ; and if the ore is of the earthy kind, it is broken up, ing been the theatre of the early campaigns of the French and thrown upon large sieves, by means of which the loose revolutionary army, the mines were for a time suspended, or native quicksilver, called here Jungfrau, or virgin quick- and have never since been effectually resumed. Prior to silver, is separated from the earth ; the latter is then cast this period their produce must have been considerable, as into shallow boxes, open at the ends and a little inclined, they were reported, by a commission of French engineers, and a gentle stream of water being made to pass over it, to have yielded annually 67,000 lbs. of quicksilver. a rake is used, and the earthy matter is carried off. There The deposits of quicksilver are chiefly worked in the are seven of these boxes in succession, and by the time sandstone formation, but in some places these appear to exthe residuum reaches the last of them, it resembles a heavy tend into the slate. The sandstone is of a pale brownish gray powder, and is sufficiently pure to be carried to the or grayish colour, usually very compact, and approaching the vapour furnace. The stony fragments require only a slight nature of hornstone. In some of the mines, strata of a much washing to cleanse them from the outward earthy impuri- softer description, and of an argillaceous nature, are conties. tained in the sandstone. The quicksilver occurs neither “ The furnace is half a mile lower down the valley, and in a bed nor in a vein, but forms rather what may be at the extreme end of the village. It consists of a circu- termed a metalliferous channel of ground, of considerable lar walled building, about forty feet diameter by sixty in breadth and extent. The direction of these channels apheight, on each side of which there is a continuous range proaches that of north and south, but in some mines there of chambers ten or twelve feet square, and nearly as many are two or more crossing one another. Their breadth is in height; by means of small square openings in the par- quite undefined, but they are worked from five to six feet tition walls, the air is allowed to pass from the centre in width, and appear to descend almost perpendicularly building to the remotest. Each has also a door commu- into the rock. In these channels exist thin fissures, called nicating with the external air. These buildings are all of klefts, which, although in themselves unproductive, seem to stone, and are plastered within. The gangue, after being be chiefly depended upon by the miners in guiding their prepared in the washing-house, as already described, is researches. The quicksilver is mostly found in the joints removed to this edifice, and placed in earthen pans four of the rock, which, in the vicinity of the hlefts, appear to

MINES. 259 ines. De more or less nnea witn it to an indefinite extent; but The present operations are chiefly confined to breaking —''whether it is of contemporaneous formation with the rock, down old pillars and masses of rocky ore left standing in va- Mines. or deposited in cracks which had subsequently opened in nous parts of the mine ; and even from these sources conit, has not been ascertained. The depth to which the siderable produce is obtained.* The cinnabar is generally quicksilver extends is also unknown, but none of the mines c inseminated throughout the rock, but abounds rather more in this district exceeds 300 feet in depth. The ore is in some strata than in others. The miners here are but cinnabar, which varies from a bright to a dull red colour, little affected by the mercurial vapours, owing to the spatraversing the mass of the rock in all directions, sometimes ciousness, dryness, and good ventilation of the workings, very abundantly; but its distribution does not appear to with the easy mode of access to them. follow any general law, or to be exclusively limited to any The Landsberg mine is about three miles distant from particular strata. Rich specimens often occur, containing, that of Stahlberg, being situated on the declivity of a lofty along with cinnabar, a good deal of native quicksilver dis- mountain, covered with wood, and crowned with the ruins seminated in small globules ; but these bear a very small of an ancient castle. It is equally extensive with the proportion to the poorer ores, or rather the masses of rock Stahlberg mine, and has been worked in a similar manner containing thin veins of cinnabar. Rich stones of ore, although at present the operations are carried on upon a such as are often found in the more productive parts of limited scale. The mode here practised of reducing quickthe deposits, yield from five or six to eighteen or twenty silver is one of the simplest operations in metallurgy, conper cent, of quicksilver, and picked specimens as much as sisting merely in a process of distillation. fifty or sixty per cent.; but, taking the general average of The furnace in which it is performed is about twent\rthe stuff raised from the mines, the produce does not pro- four feet in length, twelve in breadth, and six or seven in bably exceed three per cent. height; fires are placed at each end, and the heat, passimIn the vicinity of Bingart the mines are situated on the first through the body of the furnace, goes off by a crossdeclivity of the mountain, at an elevation of about a thou- flue in the middle. Forty-eight iron retorts, twenty-four sand feet above the valley, and are consequently worked on each side, are arranged in the interior of the furnace, chiefly by adits, which enter the mines at depths varying in two rows one above the other, so as to be exposed to from twenty to thirty lachters. In some of the mines the the heat in its passage from the fires to the cross-flue in the workings above the adits are considerable, and “ sinks” middle by which it escapes; and the necks of the retorts have penetrated to a depth of nearly twenty lachters be- pass through apertures in the w'all, so that smaller retorts low. These mines have been opened chiefly in the sand- upon the outside of the furnace can be luted on to them. stone, but one of them appears to extend into the slate. This will be better understood by reference to the annexThe Stahlberg mine is situated near Ober Mdschel. It is ed sketches, the first of which represents an end view, and very ancient, and has been extensively worked, the depth the second a cross section of the furnace. being near 300 feet, and the longitudinal extent of the exIn fig. 1, « represents the body of the furnace exteriorly, cavations considerable. It is situated on elevated rground, b the fire-place, cc the outer set of retorts arranged in turn and drained by an adit, which is driven into the w orkings rows one above the other, and d the cross-flue in the midnearly at the deepest point; but there are no shafts, ac- dle, thus: cess being afforded by levels driven into the side of the mountain. The mine is still worked to some extent, and Fig. 1. produces a good deal of cinnabar. The prevailing rock is a compact sandstone or hornstone, occasionally containing softer argillaceous strata. The great magnitude and extent of the excavations, and the very peculiar manner in winch they have been formed, render the appearance of this mine exceedingly picturesque. The excavations consist ol a series of irregular chambers fantastically over-arched, > H® -913® ^o g 1« ci g Ol ?J.3 ^33

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262 Mines.

MINES. That part of the mountains of Mexico which produces dred ounces of ore contain only from three to four ounces Mf ' the greatest quantity of silver is situated between the pa- of silver. “ The great mass of Mexican ore is so poor,” saj/s rallels of 21° and 24° 30'. The celebrated mines of Gua- Garces, in his work on Amalgamation, “ that the three naxuato are not more than ninety miles distant from those millions of marcs of silver which the kingdom yields in of San LuisPotosi. From the latter to Zacatecas the dis- good years are extracted from ten millions of quintals of tance is 102 miles; from Zacatecas to Catorce, 93 miles; ore, partly by heat, and partly by amalgamation.” Inand from Catorce to Durango, 222 miles. It is not a little deed, from the vast quantity of silver which Mexico had remarkable that the sites of the metallic wealth of Mexico for centuries poured into the circulation of Europe (someand Peru are, in 1 the two hemispheres, nearly equidistant times amounting, previously to the revolution of 1810, to from the equator. The greater part of the gold of Mexico between four and five millions sterling annually), the most is found in the veins of silver ore, either native or mixed extravagant notions were at one time entertained respectwith silver, from which it is separated by washing; the ing the riches of the Mexican mines ; and even the bestproportion being seldom more than 11 ounce in the 100 lbs. informed and the most scientific of travellers, Baron HumThe silver supplied by the veins of this country is extract- boldt, confesses that he had been misled by this erroneous ed from a great variety of ores, which, from the nature of opinion, and was surprised to find that the silver ores of their mixture, bear some analogy to those of Saxony, the Mexico were, as already stated, even poorer than those of Hartz, and Hungary. The greatest quantity is derived Europe, and that the mean produce of the whole mass exfrom the sulphuret of silver, from arsenical and antimonial tracted from the mines was only about one part of metal gray copper, from muriate of silver, from prismatic black in four hundred of ore, or about one quarter per cent.; a silver, and from red silver ore. Amongst these ores we do proportion which probably does not differ much from that not include native silver, because it is not found in sufficient which is obtained at the present time. Of the whole mass of the Mexican ores, a small part only, abundance to form any considerable proportion of the total produce of the Mexican mines. Sulphuret of silver and not perhaps above one fifth, is sufficiently rich in metal to black prismatic silver are common in the veins of Gua- render it adapted to the process of smelting; and the renaxuato and of Zacatecas, as well as in those of Real del mainder is therefore submitted to that of amalgamation, a Monte. The richest gray copper ore is that of the Sierra method which is costly, from the loss both of mercury and de Pino, and the mines of Ramos. The antimonial gray of the precious metals which attends it. Much has been copper ore is found at Tasco, and in the mine of Rayas, done by the English mining companies to lessen this dousouth-east from Valenciana. The muriate of silver, which ble evil; but a great deal still remains to be effected, and seldom occurs in the veins of Europe, is very abundant in the high price of quicksilver renders any further ameliothe mines of Catorce, Fresnillo, and the Cerro San Pedro, ration of the process a matter of the first importance to all near the town of San Luis Potosi. That of Fresnillo is parties concerned in the working of the Mexican mines. frequently of an olive-green, passing into a deeper shade This process, as actually performed, has been described of the same colour. In the veins of Catorce the muriate by Gamboa in his Commentaries on the Mining Ordinances of v of silver is accompanied with molybdate and phosphate of Spain ; but, from the complicated nature of the operation lead. The red silver ore constitutes a principal part of the itself, the obscurity of the technical terms employed, and wealth of Sombrerete, Cosala, and Villalta, in the pro- the difficulty of distinguishing the various changes, chemivince of Oaxaca ; and from the famous mine La Veta Ne- cal and mechanical, which are effected, a description in gra, near Sombrerete, more than 425,000 lbs. troy of silver which the whole subject is as much as possible simplified, have been extracted in the space of little more than six and these changes traced in succession as they occur, may months. The true white silver ore is very rare in Mexico ; not be unacceptable or uninteresting to the reader. The but its grayish white variety, rich in lead, is found in the account which follows is more particularly applicable to the intendancy of Sonora, where it is accompanied with ar- process as performed at the extensive hacienda of Saucegentiferous galena, red silver, brown blende, quartz, and da, belonging to the Bolanos Company, because of it very sulphate of barytes. The martial pyrites found at Pachuca minute information has been received; but it will neveryields as much as three marcs of silver to the hundred- theless be found to correspond in almost every respect weight of ore. In some parts the operations of the miner with the general practice pursued in the various mining are directed to a mixture of brown oxide of iron and na- districts of Mexico. tive silver, disseminated in particles imperceptible to the Processes at the Mine. naked eye. This ochreous compound formed the object of considerable operations at the mines of Angangueo, in Dressing.—The ores generally consisting of native silthe intendancy of Valladolid, and at Yxtepexi, in the pro- ver, sulphuret of silver, muriate of silver, argentiferous pyvince of Oaxaca. rites, &c. disseminated throughout the veinstone in a state Native silver is much less abundant in America than is of minute subdivision, are broken into small pieces with generally supposed; yet it has been found in considerable hammers, and partially separated from the matrix. masses, sometimes weighing considerably more than 400 Processes at the Hacienda. lbs. avoirdupois, in the mines of Batopilas, in New Biscay. In the veins of Mexico, as well as in the mountains of EuPreparatory Operations.—The ore first undergoes the rope, native silver is constantly accompanied by glaserz or process of dry-stamping by the molinos, which converts it prismatic silver, particularly in the mines of Sombrerete, into a coarse powder called granza. The granza then unMadrono, Ramos, Zacatecas, Hapujaha, and Sierra de Pe- dergoes the process of wet-grinding by the tahonas, which nos. Throughout Mexico, the ore, though infinitely more converts it into a very fine mud or slime called lama. abundant, is much poorer than in Europe. The average Amalgamation.—The lama is first arranged in tortas, proportion of silver obtained from the common ore is stat- or flat circular heaps, in the patio, or paved court of the haed at from 0-0018 to 0-0025 ; in other words, sixteen hun- cienda, and vvell mixed with sallierra, or impure muriate ie of theVentanas, north of Mexico in thein state of Durango, San(near Dimas, Tayoltita, Canelas, Sianori, Bacis,districts famasula, and San are, Andres, the Sierra Madre, Guarisamey, and Cuencame the Gavilanes, river Nazas), Yerva Buena, ilapum, Indee, El Oro, and Guanasevi, east of the Sierra Madre ; in the state of Chihuahua, El Parral, Santa Eulalia, Santa Rosa de Cosiquiriachic, El Pilar, Batopilillas, Rosario, El Potrero, and Milpillas; and in the state of Sonora and Senaloa, Mulatos, Cosala, Alamos, Arispe, and El Rosario.

mines. 263 ines. of soda (common salt). No chemical change whatever is ver, to insure which it is always greatly in excess. DuMines. — effected during these processes. ring the washing in the lavadero, the muriates of copper and Processes.—Pulverized calcined magistral, that is, sul- iron, and the sulphates of soda and lime, being all soluble phate of copper and iron, is now added to the torta, and salts, are dissolved in water, and carried off. The amalgam by the repaso process which follows is thoroughly mixed in the mean time settles at the bottom of the lavadero. up with it. Chemical action then commences, and heat is Processes.—amalgam, by a further washing in a tub given out. at the azoguema, is freed from any earthy impurities which Chemical Changes.—By the action of the air and mois- may yet remain. It is then placed in a canvass bag, which ture the magistral is decomposed, and its sulphuric acid is suspended over a vat, and the uncombined quicksilver, set free. The sulphuric acid, thus liberated, rapidly com- owing to its weight, filters through. The pure amalgam, bines with the water contained in the moist lama, and now termed pella de plata, is then moulded into wed-egreat heat is thus evolved, which favours the decomposi- shaped masses, called marquetas. In this form it is taken tion of the ores, and the subsequent oxidation of the metal. to the quemadero, and built up into a cylindrical pile, with The sulphuric acid, thus liberated from the magistral, hav- a hole down the centre. The pile of amalgam, or pina de ing a strong affinity for soda, decomposes the saltierra, set- plata, is then placed on a copper stand, the above aperture ting free its muriatic acid, and forming with its base sul- opening a communication with the reservoir of cold water phate of soda, or Glauber salt. Owing to its strong affi- below. A large inverted crucible, called the capellina, is nity for silver, the muriatic acid liberated from the salti- then placed over the pina de plata, and luted at the boterra combines with the silver of the ores, and forms mu- tom. No chemical change is effected during these proriate or chloride of silver, whilst the portion in excess cesses. A charcoal fire is then kindled around the capelunites with the copper and iron of the magistral, forming hna, the heat of which volatilizes the mercury of the amalmuriates of copper and of iron. gam. The vapour, having no other outlet, passes down Processes.— Calx or lime is used, when necessary, to cool the aperture in the middle of the pina de plata, and thence the mixture. Azogue, or quicksilver, is now applied, by through a pipe into a cistern of cold water, where it is sprinkling it through pieces of coarse cloth, so that it falls immediately condensed. in small drops like rain. It is then thoroughly incorporatChemical Changes.—Volatilization and subsequent coned with the mass, thus forming amalgam.'' When the first densation of the mercury. poition of quicksilver is supposed to have been quite taken the process of distillation has continuup, a second supply is added, called el ceho. Finally, a ed Process.—-When for a sufficient time, the capellina is removed, and the third quantity of quicksilver is added, called el homo. Du- crude silver, now forming a solid mass, is broken up into ring these operations the torta is thoroughly mixed toge- the original marquetas. The marquetas are then placed in ther by the repaso, and other processes. The torta or mass a test with charcoal, and melted down by the action of a of impure amalgam is then washed in the lavadero, being blast. By this process the silver is freed from any slight thoroughly stirred up in a cistern of water, by which prowhich yet remain attached to it. cess the earthy impurities are kept in a state of suspen- impurities Chemical Change.—Silver refined by fusion. sion, and finally carried away by the refuse water, which Process.—Whilst in a state of fusion, the silver, now nows off at the top. pure, is poured into a mould, and cast into bars, in which Chemical Changes.—The lime appears to act by com- form it is sent to the mint for coinage. The general weight bining with any portion of the sulphuric acid which may of bars is about 135 Spanish marcs, or 82 lbs. troy, e in excess, and thus forming sulphate of lime or gypsum, andthe the value about L.270, although depending, of course, ihe superabundant portion of sulphuric acid being thus on the fineness of the metal, and sometimes regulated by taken up, the evolution of heat by its absorption of water its containing a ley of gold.1 is prevented, and the torta consequently cools. The merHaving thus explained the process of amalgamation, we cury, owing to its strong affinity for silver, readily com- shall proceed to lay before our readers the most reinea witi informing an amalgam, the muriate appearing cent now information which has been obtained respecting the to nave been previously decomposed by the iron of the produce of the Mexican mines. The following statement magistral. Owing to the necessarily imperfect contact of of the coinage in all the mints of the Mexican republic, ie minute particles of the two metals, the formation of ie ama gam is very gradual; hence the mercury is added during the year ending the 31st of December 1834, is O’Gorin ervals, so as to take up the remaining particles of sil- contained in a communication by Consul-General man, addressed to the Duke of Wellington.2 MINTS.

GOLD.

SILVER.

TOTAL.

Dollars. 938,055 2,506,500 5,526,600 927,800 714,439 1,215,530

Dollars. 952,711 2,702,948 5,526,600 927,800 715,222 1,215,530

211.887

11,828,924

12,040,811

L.42,377

L.2,365,785

L.2,408,162

Value in Dollars. 14,656 196,448

Mexico Guanaxuato Zacatecas San Luis Potosi. Guadalaxara Durango

783

Total, dollars. At 48d. per dollar

a S66 p111)111^ Review, No. VIII. p. 249, et seq. °f

the

Sterli g

” °f G°Id

and Silver raised in each of the I

p 264 Mines.

MINE S. It appears, however, that the export of the precious me- in lead ores, principally argentiferous galenas; and towards M5, ' tals from Mexico in 1834 amounted to upwards of twenty- the south it occurs mineralized with sulphur. Copper is''—'* one millions, to which must be added the legal and clan- most frequently found in the state of sulphuret called destine exports by Matamoros, supposed to be about two bronze, but sometimes in 1that of carbonate, or sulphuret millions, and the smuggled treasure from Vera Cruz and and carbonate intermixed. The richness of the silver mines of Potosi, now includthe smaller ports, estimated at one million and a half; so that about twenty-five millions of dollars in gold and sil- ed in the territory of Buenos Ayres, may be judged of from ver, equal to L.5,000,000 sterling, were, in 1834, shipped the fact, that since the period of their discovery in the year to foreign countries, although the coinage of all the mints 1545, upwards of 1300 millions of dollars have been coinof the republic during that year was only 12,040,811 dollars, ed there. These mines are situated in an insulated mounas shown by the above return, or L.2,400,000. A large pro- tain, about eighteen miles in circumference, which rises to portion of this export was for the United States. “ The an immense height, in the form of a sugar-loaf or cone; it produce of the Mexican mines,” says Mr O Gorman, “ has is about an hundred leagues distant from the South Sea, evidently increased to a great extent, notwithstanding the near the sources of the river La Plata, is chiefly composed exorbitantly high price of quicksilver, which has prevent- of a yellow, firm, argillaceous slate, and is full of veins ed the reduction of ores of low quality for the last two which traverse the mountain in all directions, and are fillyears ; and the riches lately discovered in the mines of ed with ferruginous quartz, which constitutes the matrix Fresnillo, and again at Zacatecas, promise a still greater of the silver ores. These consist principally of native silver and vitreous silver ore, the latter of which, on the first augmentation of silver.” discovery of the mine, yielded about half its weight of pure silver; but the produce is much less now than formerly, all the richer veins having been wrought out and exhaustv. SOUTH AMERICAN MINES. ed. Copper, lead, and tin, are also found in Buenos Ayres, Under this head it will not be necessary for us to enter the last occurring in beds of sand or clay, from which it into any lengthened details, because ample information on is obtained by washing. On the opposite chain, in a level the subject of the mines of South America will be found in district, are the silver mines of Guantajaya, famous for the the various articles of this work especially devoted to the large masses of solid silver which they formerly yielded, description of the different countries, or states, into which and one of which weighed about 800 lbs. In Peru there are forty districts particularly famous for that great continent is now divided, particularly in the accounts given of Bolivia, Brazil, Buenos Ayres, Chile, Colom- their gold and silver mines. Gold is chiefly found in the bia, Peru, &c. to which accordingly the reader is referred. provinces of Guailas and Pataz, and silver in the districts There are few regions of the earth so remarkable for their of Guantajaya, Pasco, and Chota. The celebrated mines of mineral riches as the vast primitive.chain of mountains call- Pasco, which, some thirty years ago, produced considerably ed the Cordilleras, throughout which nature has distributed more than two millions of dollars annually, had, like most ores of the precious metals in greater abundance than in of those of South America, been very negligently managed almost any other part of the world ; although these are for until, in 1816, miners from Cornwall began to work them the most part placed at an elevation which renders the by means of steam-engines. These mines are properly in working of them equally difficult and expensive. The most the ridge of Yauricocha, and are situated at the great height important mines are those of silver; but gold, quicksilver, of 13,500 feet above the level of the sea. The distance of copper, and lead are also extracted, some of them in very the village of Pasco from Lima is about fifty-eight leagues. The only persons capable of being employed at so great an considerable quantities. In Chile, especially in the pi'ovinceofCoquimbo, there are elevation, where the barometer is always below nineteen several mines of silver, and some important ones of copper. inches, are the Indians of the country, who, being bred upon The Chileno mines are mostly situated in the interior of a high table-lands, can alone respire without inconvenience hilly country of difficult access, to which the conveyance the attenuated atmosphere of so lofty a region. The riches of fuel and materials is enormously expensive, and whence of the metalliferous bed of Yauricocha are at no great depth the transport of the produce to the places of embarkation below the surface, the greater proportion of the pits being is attended with much difficulty. The Chileno miners are somewhat less than 100 feet, and none of them exceeding described as very expert in following the course of a vein, 400 feet in depth. The length of this bed is about 16,000 though entirely ignorant of any thing like science, and even feet, its breadth 7200 feet, and its thickness somewhat less unable to explain the rules by which they are guided in than 100 feet. The number of mines does not exceed an pursuing their operations. The various processes followed hundred. The mineral bed consists of a porous ironstone, in the reduction of the ores are also rude and simple ; but throughout which fine silver is disseminated ; but patches being extremely economical, they are perhaps better adapt- of a friable white argillaceous earth about ten inches in ed to the circumstances of the country than those which thickness are sometimes met with in the midst of the large are employed in less difficult and more accessible regions. bed, and are often so rich as to yield from 200 to 1000 marcs The greater proportion of the gold found in Chile is ob- per caxon. The consequence has been, that many miners, tained from the auriferous sulphuret of iron, or gold py- instead of following the bed regularly, have perforated it at rites, which is generally met with in high and lofty ridges, random in search of these very uncertain riches, and, from such as those of Illapel and Petorca. Some portion, how- carelessness, have endangered the existence of the whole ever, is obtained from veins of rock, where very small grains mine. In fact, it is these perforations which are now deof gold are disseminated in syenite, so minute as not to be nominated mines. The mines of the pfovince of Chota visible to the naked eye, or from an ochreous decomposing now furnish above 40,000 lbs. troy of silver annually. The syenite, distributed in veins, throughout which native gold quicksilver mine of Guancavelica in Peru is the only one is disseminated in thin flakes. Silver is found principally of this kind in the New World. It is about fifty leagues in limestone, or calcareous syenite ; and it also occurs in to the eastward of Lima, being situated near the summit ol beds of quartz, amongst which it is disseminated in the one of the Cordilleras. This mine, which, for a period of two metallic state. But towards Copiapo it is generally found centuries, afforded annually from 7000 to 8000 quintals of Miers’ Travels in Chile and La Plata, vol. ii. chap. 22 and 23.

MINES. 265 mercury is now nearly exhausted. The cinnabar of Gu- rock-salt and pit-coal are found. For an account of the Mines, ines. ancavelica is disseminated in a sandstone similar to that gold and diamond mines or districts of Brazil, the reader v-—. of Almaden in Spain, being distributed in an immense ac- is referred to the article under that head. cumulated mass, without the form of bed or vein ; but the It now only remains to endeavour, by means of the taore has become so poor that fifty quintals do not now yield bu ar returns obtained from the British consular agents in more than six or eight pounds of mercury. South America, to exhibit a view of the actual produce of In the province of Guantajaya, there are mines of rock the gold and silver mines of that country. The followinoor fossil salt. To the north of the province of Chota, the is an account of the gold, silver, and copper, raised from Cordilleras are by no means so rich in metals. In New the mines in the province of Coquimbo, in Chile, distinGranada, however, there are several silver mines; at Aroa, guishing the different ports and mining districts from which in Caraccas, there is a copper mine which yields from 1400 the metals have been exported and remitted by land durto 1600 cwt. of metal annually; and at Santa Fe de Bogota ing the year ending the 31st December 1831: Ports and Mining Districts,

Shipped to Foreign Countries, and in Foreign Bottoms. Gold. Silver.

Coquimbo.. Huasco Copiapo.... Districts of Illapel and Com barbala.. Total.

Lis.

Shipped to Valparaiso, Conception, Chile, and Ports of Peru, in Chilean Bottoms.

Total.

Copper. Gold. Silver. Copper. Gold

Silver. Copper. Gold. Silver. Copper. Marcs. Quintals. Lbs. Marcs. Quintals. Lbs. Marcs. Quintals. Lbs. Marcs. Quintals 42,572^ 23,432 404 11,368 39 31,858 3 40i 85,7981 23,474 13,4201 3,232^ 7,594 8,934 12,1661 21,0144 1,686 2,7071 62,224g 2,702 72,072 5,409| 7,000

44,258£ 39,560

40£ 76,825 10,335

The total value of the different quantities above stated, estimated in the currency of Chile, amounted to 2,379,539 dollars. The quantity of gold actually raised from the mines, however, is said to be much greater than that here stated; but no accurate account of the quantity extracted could be procured, owing to the circumstance of the article being chiefly exported in a clandestine manner, in order to avoid the duties, which are about four per cent. ad valorem. For this reason, any returns that can be obtained are comparatively of but little avail, as far as gold is concerned. The following return of the marcs of gold coined at the mints of Lima and Cuzco between the years 1820 and 1833, is copied from the parliamentary paper to which we have already referred:— Years.

.Remitted by Land to the Capital, Santiago, and to the Port of Valparaiso.

Amount of Coinage at both Mints.

Marcs. Dollars. Rs. £ s. 1820 3,690 1 533,223 106,644 12 1821 1,957 4 282,853 6 56,571 15 1822 1,086 7 157,053 31,410 14 1823 179 4 25,937 f 5,185 11 1824 } No coinage No coinage No coinage. 1825/ 1826 2,781 5 401,944 80,388 19 1827 730 6 105,593 21,118 13 1828 622 3 89,933 17,986 12 1829 903 4 130,555 26,111 3 1830 1,256 7 181,618 36,323 13 1831 636 7 92,028 18,405 13 1832 517 7 74,832 14,966 II 1833 438 0 63,291 12,658 4 Totals, 14,801 7 2,138,870 7A 427,774 3 9 We shall next exhibit, from the same Comparative Statement, a return of the amount and value of silver coined at tne mint of Lima between the 1st of January 1820 and the 31st of December 1833: vol. xv.

7,000'

48,9531 7,003 404 170,037

Y ears.

56,898

At 8J Dollars per Marc.

At 5 Dollars per Pound Sterling.

1820 1821 1822 1823 1824 1825 1826 1827 1828 1829 1830 1831 1832 1833

Marcs. 469,808 157,957 193,200 60,000

Dollars. Rs, 3,758,464 0 1,342,634 4 1,642,200 0 510,000 0

751,692 268,526 328,440 102,000

67,638 217,050 318,000 264,000 130,150 193,500 217,909 312,700 301,600

574,923 1,844,925 2,703,000 2,244,000 1,106,275 1,644,750 1,850,226 2,657,950 2,563,600

114.984 12 368.985 0 540,600 448,800 221,255 328,950 370,445 531,590 512,720

Total,

2,903,512

0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 0

16 16 0 0

0 0 0 0

24,444,948 0 4,888,989 10 0

The number of marcs of silver coined at the mintofCuzco between the years 1824 and 1832 was as follows, viz. At Dollars per Marc.

Years. 1824 1825 1826 1827 1828 1829 1830 1831 1832

Marcs. 37,300 28,061 57,989 30,856 37,703 35,278 42,835 62,790 64,876

Totals,

397,688

Dollars. 317,050 238,518 492,906 262,276 320,475 299,863 364,097 533,715 551,446

At 5 Dollars per Pound Sterling.

Rs. £ s. 0 63,410 0 4 47,703 14 4 98,581 6 0 52,455 4 4 64,095 2 0 59,972 0 4 72,819 10 0 106,743 0 0 110,289 4

3,380,348 0

d. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

676,069 0 0 2L

266 Mines, Military.

MINES. les, Mlarv,

From this and the preceding return taken together, it therefore appears that the Total coinage of silver at the mint of Lima,^ in 13 years from 1820 to 1833, not in- >eluding 1824, amounted to} Coinage of silver at the mint of Cuzco, from 1 1824 to 1832 (the return for 1833 not > having been received), was )

£

*.

d.

Marcs.

Dollars.

2,903,513

24,444,938

4,882,924 12 0

397,688

3,380,348

676,069 0 0

3,301,201

27,825,286

5,558,993 12 0

Amount of coinage of silver at both mints....

The next return which we shall give exhibits the number specified, during the years from 1819 to 1833 both inclusive, of marcs of silver of eight ounces reduced to bars at the as far as the same could be procured by the consul-general different smelting houses of the republic of Peru therein of Great Britain, in that country. In Dollars, at 84 In Pounds Sterling, Total in Dollars per Marc. I at 5 Doll, per Pound. Pasco. Ayacucho. Puno. Areqtiipa. Tanca. Marcs. Trujillo. Years. 5f 697,677 15 0 26,998 0 190,427 0 5,157 2 25,172 7 27,910 1 5,575 5 422,834 73 3,488,387 laio 96,594 3,548,121 6| 709,624 7 0 24,403 0 283,906 0 2,639 0 24,898 5 37,405 4 6,004 2 430,075 1820 50,819 195,989 9 6 979,947 3 1,022 0 16,667 5 10,486 0 5,661 5 118,781 4 10,462 7 1821 74,481 171,9.18 13 0 859,593 2 2,213 1 14,989 1 2,040 0 2,785 1 104,181 0 17.983 2 1822 64,470 186^776 14 , 37,355 4 9 34,760 6 413 7 2,148 2 14,960 7 17,237 6 1823 564,856 7 112,971 7 6 8,341 7 11,629 7 3,203 7 2,028 l 68,467 4 43,263 6 1824 181,613 4 6 908,065 1 8,400 0 15,237 2 3,493 0 110,068 4 4,956 1 56,971 0 1825 21,010 516,334 12 0 0 16sl08 3 163,852 0 3,170 1 16,658 0 28,368 3 805 6 252,324 0 2,081,673 1826 23,361 54 2,359,703 2| 571,940 13 1 1827 15,607 11,997 3 221,707 0 2,922 2 21,999 3 11,671 4 119 5 286,024 513.391 5 0 2 5,395 5£ 201,330 0 1,841 3 22,931 4 7,370 3 4,720 7 250,540 IJ 2,066,956 1828 7,400 U 229,186 0 6 1,760 4 82,031 0 5,634 4 27,327 7 12,973 3 2,270 0 138,900 5 1,145,930 1829 6,453 352,590 19 6 7 23,550 5 95,265 0 12,336 0 30,758 6 18,422 5 212 5 213,691 4 1,762,954 1830 33,145 393,793 15 0 1,968,968 6 238,063 0 14,472 5 135,134 4 7,109 5 38,417 0 1831 34,262 9,267 2 527,722 12 0 2,638,612 71 319,831 7 2,851 0 42,130 4 219,378 1 8,776 0 11,721 1 1832 34,975 512,460 8 6 2,562,242 1 310,574 4 7,684 0 2,986 0 5,730 4 8.530 0 257,669 6 1833 27,974 The following table shows the number of marcs of sil- of 1819 to the end of 1833, and likewise the value ot the ver smelted at the different smelting houses of Peru dur- silver thus smelted in dollars and pounds, tor eac separa e ing the three quinquennial periods from the beginning period of five years :— Quinquenniums. 1819 to 1823 1824 to 1828 1829 to 1833..

Marcs. 1,110,663 4 967,424 6f 1,221,661 4

Dollars. Rs. 9,162,726 3 7,981,254 7$ 10,078,707 3

£ 1,832,545 1,596,250 2,015,741

*. 5 19 9

d. 6 6 6

Total for the 15 years,

3,299,719 6|

27,222,688 5f

5,444,537 14 6

From a return of the silver coined in Peru between the 1st of January and the 31st of December 1834, it appears that tire total amount of the coinage in 1834 exceeded the total amount of the coinage in 1833 by 18,586 marcs, which

are equal to 121,764 dollars, or L.24,352. 8s.; thus showing that the working of the silver mines in that country is at length proceeding with increased spirit, activity,A and success. ( 0

Mines, Military, denote subterraneous galleries or passages excavated under the walks or ramparts of fortifications, and intended to be blown up by gunpowder. * The gallery or passage of a mine is commonly about four feet square, and at the end of this is the chamber or fourneauai the mine, which is a cavity of about five feet in width, the same in length, and about six feet in height; and here the gunpowder is stowed. The saucisson of the mine is the train, for wdiich there is always a small aperture left. Two ounces of powder have been found, by experiment, capable of raising two cubic feet of earth ; consequently 200 ounces, that is, twelve pounds eight ounces, will raise 200 cubic feet, or sixteen feet less than a cubic toise; because 200 ounces, joined together, have proportionally a greater force than two ounces, from being an united force. All the turnings which a miner employs to carry on his mines, and through which he conducts the saucisson, should be well filled with earth and dung; and the masonry, in proportion to the earth to be blown up, should be as three to two. The entrance of the chamber or foumeau of the

mine ought to be firmly shut with thick planks, in the form of a St Andrew’s cross, so that the enclosure be made secure, and the void spaces filled up with dung or tempered earth. If a gallery be formed below or on the side of the chamber, it must absolutely be filled up with the strongest masonry, half as long again as the height of the earth ; for this gallery will not only burst, but likewise obstruct the effect of the mine. The powder should always be kept in sacks, which must be opened when the mine is charged, and some of the powder strewed about. The greater is the quantity of earth to be raised, the more decided will be the effect of the mine, supposing it to have the due proportion of powder. Powder has the same effect upon masonry as upon earth; that is, it will proportionally raise either with the same velocity. The branches which are carried into the solidity of walls seldom exceed three feet in depth, and two feet six inches in width, or thereby. This species of mine, when properly formed, is calculated to blow up the strongest walls. The weight of a cubic foot of powder should be about 80 lb.; one foot one inch cube should weigh 100 lb., and

mines. 267 one foot two inches and f^ths, 150 lb.: on the other hand, boloid, which is a solid generated by the rotation of a semi- Mines 200 Jb. of powder will be one foot five inches cube ; but parabola about its axis; but as the difference between Military. ' there is a diversity in this, according to the quantity of salt- these two solids is very insignificant in practice, that of the s''“~n petre contained in the gunpowder. frustum of a cone may be used. If, when the mines are formed, water be found at the botThe mines of a fortress are denominated counter-mines, tom of the chamber, planks are laid there, upon which the the gallery of which runs under the covered way, alona the powder is placed, either in sacks or barrels of 100 lb. each. outer margin of the fosse. From this, ramifications (raThe saucisson must have a clear passage to the powder, and rneaux) extend under the glacis, whence little passages are should be laid in an auget or wooden trough, through all formed on both sides, so as to afford means for listening and the branches. When the powder is placed in the chamber, discovering the subterranean proceedings of the enemy. the planks are laid to cover it, and others again across (jra lenes made within a fortification, before a place is atthese, then one is placed across the top of the chamber, tacked, and from which branches are carried in different which is shaped for that purpose ; and between it and those directions, are generally about four feet in width and about which cover the powder, props are placed, which shore it up, five in height. The earth is supported from falling in by some inclining towards the outside, and others to the inside arches and walls, as these galleries are intended to remain of the wall, all the void spaces being filled up with earth, for a considerable time; but when mines are to be used dung, bricks, and rough stones. Afterwards planks are as soon as formed, the galleries are only three feet or three placed at the entrance of the diamber, with one across the feet and a half in width, and five feet in height, and the top, upon which are buttressed three strong props, the other earth is temporarily supported by wooden frames or props. ends of which are likewise propped against another plank A word or two now respecting the globe de compression. situated on the side of the earth in the branch ; and these Suppose a large globe of earth, homogeneous in all its parts, props being well fixed between the planks with wedges, with a certain quantity of powder lodged in its centre, so as the branch should then be filled up to its entrance with to produce a proper effect without bursting the globe; it the before-mentioned materials. The saucissons which pass is evident that, by the ignition of the powder, the explothrough the side branches must be of exactly the same sion will act equally all round, and the particles of earth, length with that in the middle, to which they are joined. being porous, will compress each other in proportion as the The part which readies beyond the entrance of the mine expansive force increases the dimensions of the chamber. is that which conveys the fire to the other three ; and if The particles of earth next to the chamber will communithe saucissons be of equal length, the mines will spring to- cate a portion of their motion to those adjoining, and the gether. latter to those immediately beyond them; and this comFrom a great number of experiments, it appears that munication will continue in a decreasing proportion, until the force of a mine is always towards the weakest side, so the whole force of the explosion be spent; but beyond that that the disposition of the chamber of a mine does not at limit the particles of earth will remain in the same state as all contribute to determine this effect; tliat the quantity before. Thus the particles of earth which have been acted of powder must be greater or less in proportion to the upon by the force of the explosion will form a globe, and greater or less weight of the bodies to be raised, and to1 to a certain extent drive all before them. Tins is the globe their greater or less cohesion ; that the entonnoir of a mine, de compression invented by Belidor. Its object is, without if rightly charged, is a cone, the diameter of whose base is any explosion perceptible at the surface, to shake the double the height taken from the centre of the mine ; that ground, and to destroy the hostile mines in the immediate when the mine has been overcharged, its entonnoir is nearly neighbourhood. cylindrical, the diameter of the upper extreme not much Fougasses are a sort of small mines constructed before exceeding that of the chamber; and that, besides the shock the weakest parts of a fortification, as the salient angles and of the powder against the bodies it takes up, it likewise the faces when not defended by a cross fire. Treffle mines crushes all the earth which borders upon it, both under- are mines with two chambers only. T-mines, so called neath and sidewise. from their resemblance to the letter T, are double mines To chaige a mine so as to produce the most advantage- having four lodgments. Double T-mines have eight lodgous effect, the weight of the matter to be carried must be and four doors, whilst triple T-mines have twelve known; that is, the solidity of a cone whose base is double ments lodgments and six doors. Double treffle mines have four the height of the earth over the centre of the mine. Thus, lodgments and eight doors; triple treffle mines have six having found the solidity of the cone in cubic fathoms, lodgments and twelve doors. multiply the number of fathoms by the number of pounds Subterranean warfare has many peculiarities, and reo powder necessary for raising the matter it contains; and a rare union of skill, and courage, and perseverance. h the cone contain matters of different weights, take a quires mean weight between them all, due regard being always had Sappers and miners are usually armed with pistols and cuto their degree of cohesion. As to the disposition of mines, lasses for their defence, when there is a chance of their there is but one general rule, which is, that the side to- meeting a hostile counter-mine; and if a combat ensue, the wards which the miner would determine the effect be the dead and the wounded are passed backwards from the most workmen to those behind, until the mine is clearweakest; but this varies according to occasions and cir- advanced ed. Balls made of all kinds of substances which produce cumstances. an offensive stench when ignited, are also lighted, in order The calculation of mines is generally built upon the hy- to stop the enemy, whenever the mine permits the party who pothesis, that the entonnoir of a mine is the frustum of an set fire to the ball to effect an easy retreat from the mine. im erte cone, the altitude of which is equal to the radius of >e excavation of the mine, and the diameter of the whole Sometimes mines are excavated in the field, for the puresser ase is equal to the line of least resistance ; and al- pose of blowing up such of the enemy as can be allured to mug i t lese suppositions are not quite exact, yet the cal- the spot. In these cases, a small body of men is commonu a ions of mines deduced from them have proved suc- ly placed immediately above the mine, to induce the enemy to attack with a superior force; if the stratagem such06c n 10 ? f°r which reason this principle should ceed, the mine is instantly sprung (on fait jouer la mine), rle, v 161 e 10un a ^e^ter and more simple be found out. M. and, from the very nature of the operation, both parties are ^ d that the entonnoir of a mine was a para- sometimes sacrificed. 1

That is, the cavity, aperture, or hole which remains after the explosion.

268 MIN Mingrelia MINGRELIA, a large country of Asia, extending about it 140 miles in length along the Black Sea, which bounds Miniature jt on ^ westj ancj stretching into the interior about ^ air‘in^',forty or fifty miles. It is situated on the southern side of the Caucasus, between the Caspian and the Black Sea, and is bounded on the north by Georgia, on the east by Immeritia, and on the south by the river Phasis. The country, though it possesses great natural capabilities, has greatly declined, and is now sunk in poverty and barbarism. The soil, near the Black Sea more particularly, is . soft and moist, and neither wheat nor barley can be raised to any extent. It is chiefly on a small grain resembling coriander seed that the people subsist. Vines are plentiful, as is also honey ; and the climate is favourable for silk. There are, however, no manufactures of any great value in the country ; they consist chiefly of coarse taffeties, and an indifferent sort of handkerchiefs. A great trade is carried on in slaves, of which the number exported is about 12,000. The inhabitants are all of turbulent and predatory habits; fishing, war, and plunder, are the principal occupations of the chiefs. The females are remarkably handsome in their persons. This extensive tract of country, which long fluctuated in its obedience between the Russians and the Turks, is now under the dominion of the former. The Phasis, and its tributaries the Teghuri and Arascha, are the principal rivers. It has few towns worthy of the name. The largest is called • Zalikara; Rugh and Egers are well fortified ; and Rhcezia has an extensive trade. The country is well watered, and covered with extensive forests of the finest trees. The province, according to Reineggs, contains four millions of inhabitants. MINHO, a great river in Spain, which, taking its rise in Galicia, divides that province from Portugal, and falls into the Atlantic at Caminha. MINIATURE, in a general sense, signifies representation in a small compass, or diminished form. MINIATURE PAINTING, adelicatekind of painting, consisting of little points or dots, usually done on vellum, ivory, or paper, with very thin, simple water colours. The word comes from the Latin minium, red lead, that being a colour much used in this kind of painting. The French frequently call it mignature, from mignon, fine, pretty, on account of its smallness and delicacy ; and it may be ultimately derived from the Greek word fimgos, small. Miniature is distinguished from other kinds of painting by the smallness and delicacy of its figures, and the faintness of the colouring. - Of Drawing and Designing.—To succeed in this art, a man should be perfectly skilled in the art of designing or drawing ; but as most people who affect the one know little or nothing of the other, and would have the pleasure of painting without giving themselves the trouble of learning to design, which is indeed an art that is not acquired without a great deal of time and continual application, inventions have been found out to supply its place, and by means of which a man may design or draw without knowing how to do either. The first is chalking; that is, if you have a mind to do a print or design in miniature, the back of it, on another paper, must be blackened with small coal, and then rubbed very hard with the finger wrapped in a linen cloth ; afterwards the cloth must be lightly drawn over the side so blackened, that no black grains may remain upon it to soil the vellum you would paint upon ; and the print or draught must be fastened upon the vellum with four pins, to keep it from shifting. And if it be another paper that is blackened, it must be put between the vellum and the print or draught, with the blackened side upon the veiJum ; then, with a blunted pin or needle, you must pass over the principal lines or strokes of the print or draught,

M I N the contours, the plaits of the drapery, and every thing Mink re else that must be distinguished, pressing so hard that fain:,, the strokes may be fairly marked upon the vellum underneath. Copying by squares is another convenient method for such as are but little skilled in the art of designing, and would copy pictures or other things that cannot be chalked. The method may be shortly described. The piece must be divided into many equal parts by little squares, marked out with charcoal, if the piece be clear and whitish, and the black can be fairly seen upon it; or with white chalk, if it be too brown and dusky. After which, as many squares of equal dimensions must be made on white paper, upon which the piece must be designed ; because, if this be done immediately upon vellum (as one is apt to miscarry in the first attempt), the vellum may be soiled with false touches. But when it is neatly done upon paper, it must be chalked upon the vellum in the manner before described. When the original and the paper are thus ordered, observe what is in each square of the piece to be designed, as a head, an arm, a hand, and so forth ; and place it in the corresponding part of the paper. And thus finding where to place all the parts of the piece, you have nothing to do but to form them well, and to join them together. By this method you may reduce or enlarge a piece to whatever compass you please, making the squares of your paper greater or less than those of the original ; but they must always be of an equal number. To copy a picture or other thing in the same size and proportion, another method is, to make use of varnished paper, or of the skin of a hog’s bladder, very transparent, such as is to be had at the gold-beater’s. Talc or isinglass will likewise do as well. Lay any one of those things upon your piece; through it you will see all the strokes and touches, which are to be drawn upon it with a crayon or pencil. Then take it off; and fastening it under paper or vellum, set up both against the light, in the manner of a window ; and with a crayon, or a silver needle, mark out upon the paper or vellum you have put uppermost, all the lines and touches you shall see drawn upon the varnished paper, bladder, talc, or isinglass, you have made use of, and which will plainly appear through this window. After this manner, making use of the window, or of glass exposed to the light, you may copy all sorts of prints, designs, and other pieces, on paper or vellum, laying and fastening them under the paper or vellum upon which you would draw them; and it is a very good and a very easy contrivance for doing pieces of the same size and proportion. If you have a mind to make pieces look another way, there is nothing to be done but to turn them ; laying the printed or drawn side upon the glass, fastening the paper or vellum upon the back of it, and remembering to let your lights fall on the left side. » A good method likewise to take a true copy of a picture in oil, is to give a touch of the pencil upon all the principal strokes, with lake tempered with oil, and to clap upon the whole a paper of the same size; then passing the hand over it, the touches of the lake will stick and leave the design of your piece expressed upon the paper, which may be chalked like other things. But you must remember to take off with a crumb of bread what remains of the lake upon the picture before it be dry. You must likewise make use of pounce, made of powdered charcoal put in a linen rag; with this the piece you would copy must be rubbed, after you have pricked all the principal strokes or touches, and fastened white paper or vellum underneath. When the piece is marked out upon the vellum, you must pass with a pencil of very clear carmine over all the traces, that they may not be effaced as you work; then

MINIATURE PAINTING. 269 iature clean your vellum with the crumb of bread, that no black more must be put to the water with which you temper Miniature siting. may remain upon it. icm ; but take care you do not put too much, for that Painting, The vellum must be pasted upon a plate of brass or wood, makes the colour extremely hard and dry. It may be^’^'v'"^ of the size you would make your piece, in order to keep it likewise known by their glueiness and brightness ; for the firm and tight. But this pasting must be on the edges of more they are gummed, the darker they paint; and when your vellum only, and behind the plate, for which pur- you have a mind to give a greater strength to a colour than pose your vellum must exceed your plate above an inch it has of itself, you have nothing to do but to give it a great & on every side ; for the part you paint upon must never be deal of gum. pasted, because it would not only give it an ill look, but The use of good pencils is a great matter. In order to you could not take it off if you would. Cut off the little make a good choice, wet them a little; and if the hairs shags and locks of the vellum, and, wetting the fair side keep close together as you turn them upon the finder, and with a linen cloth dipped in water, clap the other upon make but one point, they are good ; but if they close not the plate, with a clean paper between them ; let as much together, but make several points, and some are longer as hangs over be pasted upon the back of the plate, draw- than others, they are good for nothing. When they are ing it equally on all sides, and hard enough to stretch it too sharp pointed, with only four or five hairs longer than well. the rest, yet closing altogether, they are, notwithstandino-, Of Materials.—As colours taken from earth and other good; but they must be blunted with a pair of scissars, heavy matter are always too coarse, be they ever so taking care at the same time you do not clip away too well ground, especially for delicate work, because of a cer- much. It is proper to have two or three sorts of them ; tain sand remaining in them, the finest parts may be the largest for laying the grounds and dead-colouring, and' drawn out by diluting them with the finger in a cup of the smallest for finishing. water. When they are well steeped, let them settle a To work well in miniature, you must do it in a room while; then pour out the clearest, which will be at top, which has but one window, and fix yourself very near it, into another vessel. This will be the finest, and must be with a table and desk almost as high as the window; plalet dry ; and, when it is used, it must be diluted with gum- cing yourself in such a manner that the light may always water. come in upon the left side, and never forward or upon Some colours are made clearer by fire, as yellow ochre, the right. brown red, ultramarine, and umber; all others are darkWhen you would lay a colour on all parts equally strong, ened by it. But if you heat these colours with a sharp as for a ground, you must make your mixtures in shells, fire, they will change; the brown-red will become yellow, and put in enough for the thing you design to paint; for yellow ochre will become red, and umber will also redden. if there be not enough, it is a great chance but the colour Ceruss, by fire, takes the colour of citron, and is often called you afterwards mix is too dark or too light. masticot. Observe, that yellow ochre heated becomes Of Working.—After having spoke of vellum, pencils, more tender than it was, and softer than brown-red; like- and colours, let us now show how they are to be employed. wise brown-red heated becomes softer than fine yellow In the first place, then, when you would paint a piece, be ochre. Both are very proper. The finest and truest ul- it carnation, drapery, or any thing else, you must begin by tramarine, heated upon a red-hot iron, becomes more dead-colouring; that is to say, by laying your colours on glittering than before; but it wastes, and is coarser and with liberal strokes of the pencil, in the smoothest manner harder to work with in miniature. you can, as the painters do in oil, not giving it all the force All these colours are diluted in little cups of ivory, it is to have for a finishing; in other words, make the made on purpose, or in sea-shells, with water in which lights a little brighter, and the shades less dark, than they gum-arabic and sugar-candy are put. For instance, in a ought to be, because in dotting upon them, as you must do glass of water put a piece of gum as big as a walnut, and after dead-colouring, the colour is always fortified, and half that quantity of sugar-candy. This last hinders the would at last be too dark. colours from scaling when they are laid on, which they There are several ways of dotting, and every painter has generally do when they want it, or the vellum is greasy. his own. Some make their dots perfectly round; others This gum-water must be kept in a neat bottle corked; make them a little longish ; others hatch by little strokes and you must never take any out of it with a pencil that cross each other every way, till the work appears as if it that has colour upon it, but with a quill, or some such had been wrought with dots. This last method is the best, thing. the boldest, and the soonest done ; wherefore such as would Some of this water is put into the shell w ith the colour paint ii* miniature ought to use it, and to inure themselves you would temper, and diluted with the finger till it be from the first to dot in the plump and the soft way; that v er , y If it be too hard, you must let it soften in the is to say, where the dots are lost, in a manner, in the shell with the said water before you dilute it. Afterwards ground upon which you work, and only so much appears et it dry; and do this with every colour, except lily-green, as is sufficient to make the work seem dotted. The hard sap-green, and gamboge, which must be tempered with and the dry way is quite the reverse, and always to be fair water only. But ultramarine, lake, and bistre, are to avoided. I his is done by dotting w ith a colour much be more gummed than other colours. darker than your ground, and when the pencil is not moistIf you make use of sea-shells, you must let them steep ened enough with the colour, which makes the work seem two or three days beforehand in water; then cleanse them rough and uneven. m boning-hot water mixed with vinegar, in order to carry likewise carefully to lose and drown your colours o a certain salt, which otherwise sticks to them, and.spoils oneStudy in another, so that it may not appear where they distbe colours that are put in them. join ; and to this end soften or allay your touches with To know whether colours are sufficiently gummed, you colours that partake of both, in such sort that it may not lave nothing to do but to give a stroke of the pencil upon your hand when they are diluted, which dries immediately: appear to be your touches which cut and disjoin them. By the word cut, we are to understand what manifestly sepa1 le < ia ) an sca e ^ by ^ passing f .^ the ^ Jfinger thereover is too much gum ; if little. they rates and divides, and does not run in and blend itself with ruK out them, there is too the neighbouring colours, which is rarely practised but may be seen likewise when the colours are laid on the upon the borders of drapery. e lum, by passing the finger over them. If they stick to When your pieces are finished, to heighten them a little, * e a powder, it is a sign there is not gum enough, and give them a fine air; that is to say, give, upon the extre-

270 MINIATURE PAINTING. Miniature tirity cff the lights, small touches with a colour yet lighter, to be of masticot or red lead, and a little white, now red- M Painting, which must be lost and drowTted with the rest. der, now yellower, at discretion. And when it is a tem- S ating, When the colours are dry upon your pallet or in your pestuous sky, and lightning appears in some places, be it^v^ shells, in order to use them they must first be diluted with blue or red, it is to be done as in a day sky, drowning and water; and when you perceive they want gum, which is losing the whole together at the first forming or dead coseen when they easily rub off the hand or the vellum if louring, and at the finishing. Oe Draperies.—To paint a blue drapery, put ultramayou give a touch with them upon either, they must be tempered with gum-water instead of pure water, till they rine near the white upon your pallet, and mix a part of the one with the other, till it makes a fine pale, and has a are in condition. There are several sorts of grounds for pictures and por- body. With this mixture you must form the brightest traitures. Some are wholly dark, composed of bistre, parts, and then adding more ultramarine, form such as are umber, and Cologne earth, with a little black and white ; darker; and go on after this manner till you come to the others more yellow, in which is mixed a great deal of ochre; deepest plaits and the thickest shades, where you must lay others grayer, which partake of indigo. In order to paint pure ultramarine ; and all this must be done as for a first a ground, make a wash of the colour or mixture you would forming or dead colouring, that is to say, laying the cohave it, or according to that of the picture or portraiture lour on with free strokes of the pencil, yet as smooth as you would copy ; that is to say, a very light lay, in which you can, and losing the lights in the shadows with a colour there is hardly any thing but water, in order to soak the neither so pale as the light nor so dark as the shades. vellum. Then pass another lay over that, somewhat Then dot with the same colour as in the first forming, but thicker, and strike it on very smoothly with large strokes, a small degree deeper, that the dots may be fairly seen. as quick as you can, not touching twice in the same place All the parts must be drowned one in another, and the before it be dry; because the second stroke carries off plaits appear without intersection. When the ultramarine what has been laid on at the first, especially when you is not dark enough to make the deeper shadows, how well lean a little too light upon the pencil. soever it be gummed, mix a little indigo with it to finish Other dark grounds are likewise made of a colour a them; and when the extremities of the lights are not little greenish; and these are most in use, and the proper- bright enough, heighten them with white and a very little est to lay under all sorts of figures and portraitures, be- ultramarine. cause they make the carnation or naked parts of a picture A drapery of carmine is done in the same manner as appear very fine, are laid on very easily, and there is no the blue, except that in the darkest places there is to be occasion to dot them, as one is often obliged to do the a lay of pure vermilion before you dead-colour with carothers, which are rarely made smooth and even at the first; mine, which must be applied at top; and in the strongest whereas in these one seldom fails of success at the first shades it must be gummed very much. To deepen it the bout. To make them, you must mix together black, more, mix a little bistre with it. Dutch pink, and white, using more or less of each colour, There is likewise made another red drapery, which is according as you would have them darker or lighter. You first drawn with vermilion, mixing white with it to deadmust make one lay very light, and then put >on a thicker, colour the bright places, laying it pure and unmixed for as of the first grounds. You may also make them of other those that are darker, and adding carmine for the grand * colours, if you please ; but these are the most common. shades. It is finished afterwards, like other draperies, For a day sky, take ultramarine and a good deal of with the same colours. And when the carmine with the white, and mix them together. With this make a lay, as vermilion do not darken enough, work with the first alone, smooth as you can, with a large pencil and liberal strokes, but only in the deepest of the shades. as for grounds, applying it paler and paler as you descend A drapery of lake is made in the same manner with that towards the horizon, which must be done with vermilion of carmine, mixing a good deal of white with it for the or red lead, and with white of the same strength with that bright places, and very little for those that are dark. It where the sky ends, or something less; making this blue is finished likewise with dotting; but you have nothing lose itself in the red, which you bring down to the skirts to do with vermilion in it. of the earth, or tops of houses, and mixing towards the Violet draperies are likewise done after this manner, afend gall-stone and a good deal of white, in such a manner ter making a mixture of carmine and ultramarine, putting that the mixture be still paler than the former, without always white for the bright parts. If you would have your any visible intersection or parting between all these colours violet be columbine or dove colour, there must be more of the sky. carmine than ultramarine ; but if you would have it bluer When there are clouds in the sky, you may spare the and deeper, put more ultramarine than carmine. places where they are to be ; that is to say, you need not A drapery is made of a flesh colour, beginning with a lay on any blue there, but form them, if they are reddish, lay made of white, vermilion, and very pale lake, and with vermilion, gall-stone, and white, with a little indigo, making the shades with the same colours, using less white and if they are more upon the black, put in a good deal of in them. This drapery must be very pale and tender, bethe last; painting the lights of one and the other with cause the stuff of this colour is thin and light; and even masticot, vermilion, and white, more or less of any of these the shades of it ought not to be deep. colours, according to the strength you would give them, or To make a yellow drapery, put a lay of masticot over according to that of the original you copy, roundmg the all, then one of gamboge upon that, excepting the brightwhole as you dot (for it is a difficult matter to lay them est places, where the masticot must be left entire; then very smooth at the first painting); and if the sky is not dead-colour with ochre, mixed with a little gamboge and even enough, you must dot it also. It is at your pleasure masticot, putting more or less of the last, according to the to exempt the places of the clouds, for you may lay them strength of the shades. And when these colours do not upon the ground of the sky, heightening the bright parts darken enough, add gall-stone ; and gall-stope pure and by putting a good deal of white, and fortifying the sha- unmixed is used for the thickest shades, mixing a little dows by using less. This is the shortest way. bistre with it if there be occasion to make them still A night or stormy sky is done with indigo, black, and darker. You must finish by dotting with the same colours white, mixed together ; and the composition is laid as for you dead-coloured with, and losing the lights and the a day sky. To this mixture must be added ochre, vermi- shades in one another. lion, or brown red, for the clouds; the lights of which are If you put Naples yellow, or Dutch pink, in lieu of mas-

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with which, if you find it ,00 &oef mi* ^aslkot for the lights, and gamboge for the shades; afterwards add to this mixture lily-green or sap-green, to shadow with ; and as the shades are thicker, put more of these last irreens and even work with them pure and mtmixed where they are to be extremely dark. You must fiTsh wi*The stme flours, a little darker. By putting more yellow, or more

^1^1, “T T" ” feSS, ^ the' n-rpatoat ■ ir strength or tenderness ; and in the miX d With giving only so me” ouch eel of ofthf’ f f little white’ t ls mixture bistro th , » f- ^ l , le > and even of pure the foid/miivt ./;x,reD1'tles 0^105 greatest shadows, where ,,th ,lle rett Thev mT h„ d “''u * ’ neral hty of this^xtureTf idtrSne I'],.r,|a'‘,n(;ia ge'

make different s ^“s^pSryou °-Sc’s sh es are To make a black drapery, you dead-colour with black dotted™ STuhed thin hS» 1Bie'liehts -^ and white, and finish with the same colour, putting more white and loco fi fu j* le- l^hts mt^ pure h dee e gS of the linen black as the shades are thicker; and fortledaStmlx Buof whn te^l ^ PWhm r indigo with it, especially when you wodd have the Z- ed you must o v» . y°u ^ are finishe

with wfo a brighter colour, to heighten hemhten the lights lurhts of „„v. any drapery whatsoever. A white woollen drapery is made by a lay of white, in which there must be a very small quantity of ochre, orpiment, or gall-stone, that it may look a little yellowish. Tken dead-colour and finish the shades with bl^'a Me Uack, white, and bistre; putting a great deal of the last

water, so that what is mtder/ea* may uotwithsSiug . - — VT 4LUOI plainlv appear, annenr. as woll plainly well fRo the shadows as .i.„ the dotting. Yellow linen cloth is done by putting a. lay of white mixed with a little ochre. Then form and finish the shades with bistre, mixed with white and ochre, and in St'e A^t sS ur^e''b streW“b™T„’^lr give some tints here aL there of “lire an? whL »tl

wit: S^K.sitrdeC^11 and fs:: fs,iteh rf 0f biStre Wbi e a d 8 the Who,e littleTrown""' J and ShadOW“W‘“1 • ‘ ’ ° ^erln .fothu^andlt SokMly "Ts l, t1 t,U3 m,! Ure m3de 8 fefedtZ ‘ ' “ >'0U fiBish' haighte'> lh' exlremitieslif the lights'with Tliere are otto draperies called rarM/e, because the rwe?»"wh1 JcTrZ^C^Snsp^’ ^th dtImMrfoeIan?carmiIlfit8^e^tr^^etw^?1^*^• Ihe most common are the violets, of which they make veils of this sort, and ^rofte^d a^ ^abam where they “e yellow.

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a la U tramar and ver wouId Wldmunlin R °{ ! r carmine, . yultraPale andIfthe y°ustuff sorts of linen transparent, Reupon thp’liEc the lights; and shadow with or huve otherboth thingthese that is beneath appear through mar,ire, and white as for a drapery wholly violet, so that them, make the first lay for tLm verTliZTod def ar Ue Yettl e must withSh1ar ‘ ;y be dotted tbe e ^ Inch • •iV* ^ 18 a great deal of white, and e Sh ade C is do e b Ju u , ?- T " >- Putg 1 e ll h rot JlrL-S ts only, instead of blue, a lay masticot; working the rest, as m the drapery, all violet,ofexceptIi t whh the ^ rtS, >l,lendec ! > W the latter with a htffo UmwT ‘ "' ‘ ' “ 'et’ “nd TKo • j • 18 done llk tbe last tliat is lights Rp jrmme ® ? h !et the Witb carmine and to los^hrlne"1^^ ^ » USfi The’ lake red is done k ganibogef done as the iX ^ carmine. Ihe green is grX t0 makfth/ilT7S “T*”? Verdlter ^^ °r SaP n S “v^rSer Hdra enes are °K Very, ^ ma be tion XavS P y ^de at discretb Um W nSvt ipT't f d rVG t r °f the C°r but a 80 ,n a of several fi^nX ° * ° T’ S««P allow the nufXr’nf hi1^ aS,,mucb 38 tbe object will C Ur f gr6en against bl^k - afd ^ ff ^ c^ °° , ° join and mT • ° ^ 1olours ^hlch cut and dis1S n0t Several ^ !^0Ugb',It>u, brown rod hmrp .raPerie8 are °f ^ colours, as and likewrr’r“ and ^ *“ same manner; agreement hptw6611 ° erl^0^Hfs>’ stniple and compound ; the 8 10 the mixture m Y PF ^ 1CCe n1S ^y , ^ attended to, that t to the eve TV °t ^ ^ebmg harsh and disagreeable c an e The fivrnp awA eVece! 0^ rU , b laid down for this, from nsp nn i . y°ur colours are only to be known eXpenenC€ ou mu&t work thaUnowS ’^y according to Linpn „i_tKis are done , , thus: After drawing the plaits or

mix in the colour to shadow with a Iittle°of that which’ is underneath, especially towards the end of the shades “"'y d» the borders too, are to be marked out with little filaments of black upon what is underneath ; which is likewise to be finished beforehand. Wben y°U Would make a stuff like a watered tabby, make the waves upon it with a colour a little lighter or a little darker in the lights and the shades. ^ There is a manner of touching draperies which distinguishes the silken from the woollen. The last are more terrestrial and sensible ; the others more light and fading, But it must be observed, that this is an effect which depends partly upon the stuff* and partly upon the colour ; and, for the employing of these in a manner suitable to the subjects and the deepenings of painting, we shall here touch upon their different qualities. We comes have no colour partakes more of light, which nearer thewhich air, than white; which shows or it

MINIATURE PAINTING. 272 Miniature to be fickle and fleeting. It may, nevertheless, be held is mixed with it. Afterwards follow all the traces with Mm, Pai Painting, and brought to by some neighbouring colour, more heavy vermilion, carmine, and white, mixed together; and begin %! s all the shades with this mixture, adding white in proper-’ and sensible, or by mixing them together. Blue is a most fleeting colour, and so we see that the sky and the re- tion as they are w-eaker, and putting but little in the darkmotest views of a picture are of this colour ; but it will be- est, and almost none in certain places where strong touches come lighter and tickler in proportion as it is mixed with are to be given; for instance, in the corner of the eye, white. Pure black is the heaviest and most terrestrial of under the nose, at the ears, under the chin, in the separaall colours; and the more of it you mix with others, the tions of the fingers, in all joints, at the corners of the nails, and generally in every part where you require to mark out nearer you bring'them to the eye. For the doing of lace, French points, or other things of separations in shades that are obscure. Neither need you that nature, put over all a lay of blue, black, and white, as fear to give to those places all the force and strength which for linen ; then heighten the flowerwork with pure white, they ought to have as soon as you begin or first-form them, afterwards make the -shades above with the first colour, because, in working at the top with green, the red you have and finish them with the same. When they are upon the put there is always weakened. After having begun, or first-formed, or dead-coloured, carnation or naked parts of a picture, or upon any thing else that you would show through another, finish what is with red, make blue tints with ultramarine and a great beneath, as if nothing was to be put over it; and at the top, deal of white, upon the parts which fly from the eyq,; that make the points or lace with pure white, shadowing and is to say, upon the temples, under and in the corners of the eyes, on both sides of the mouth, above and below, a finishing them with the other mixture. If you would paint a fur, you must begin with a kind of little upon the middle of the forehead, between the nose drapery, done, if it be dark, with bistre and white, making^ and the eyes, on the side of the cheeks, and on the neck and the shadings of the same colour, but with less white. It other places where the flesh assumes a bluish cast. Yelthe fur be white, do it with blue, white, and a little bistre ; lowish tints are likewise made with ochre or orpiment, and when this beginning, or first-forming, is done, instead and a little vermilion mixed with white, under the eyeof dotting, draw small strokes, turning, now in one man- brows, on the sides of the nose towards the bottom, a little ner, now in another, according to the course and flatting of underneath the cheeks, and upon the other parts which the hair; then heighten the lights of dark furs with ochre rise and come nearer the eye. It is especially from these and white, and of the other with white and a little blue. tints that the natural complexion is to be observed in orFor doing a building, if it be of stone, take indigo, bis- der to catch it; for painting being an imitation of nature, tre, and white, with which make the beginning or first the perfection of the art consists in the justness and simform thereof; and for shading it, put less of this last, and plicity of the representation, especially in face-painting. When, therefore, you have done your first lay, your more bistre than indigo, according to the colour of the stone you would paint. To these you may likewise add a dead-colouring, and your tints, you must work upon the little ochre, both for the forming and the finishing. But shades, dotting with green for the carnations or naked to make it finer, you must give, here and there, especially parts, mixing, according to the rule we have given for the for old fabrics, blue and yellow tints, some with ochre, and tints, a little blue for the parts which fly from the eye; others with ultramarine, mixing always white with them, and, on the other hand, making it a little yellower for whether before the first-forming, provided they appear those which are more sensible, that is to say, which rise, through the draught, or after it, losing or drowning them and come nearer the eye ; and at the end of the shades, on the side of the light, you must blend and lose your cowith the rest when you finish. When the building is of wood, as there are many sorts, lour insensibly in the ground of the carnation, with blue, it is done at discretion ; but the most ordinary way is to and then with red, according to the places where you begin or first-form with ochre, bistre, and white, and finish paint. If this mixture of green does not work dark enough without white, or with very little ; and if the shades are at first, pass over the shades several times, now with red, deep, with pure bistre. In the other, vermilion is some- and now with green, always dotting; and this do until they times added, sometimes green or black, according to the are as they should be. And if you cannot with these cocolour they would give it; and they finish with dotting, lours give the shades all the force which they ought to have, finish, in the darkest, with bistre mixed with orpias in draperies and every thing else. Of Carnations.—There are in carnations so many dif- ment, ochre, or vermilion, and sometimes with pure bistre, ferent colourings, that it would be a difficult thing to give according to the colouring which you would make, but general rules upon so variable a subject. Nor are they lightly, laying on your colour very clearly. You must dot upon the clear and bright places with a minded, when one has got, by custom and practice, some habit of working easily ; and such as have arrived at this little vermilion or carmine, mixed with much white, and degree employ themselves in copying their originals, or a very small quantity of ochre, in order to lose them with else they work upon their ideas, without knowing how; the shady, and to make the tints die away insensibly into insomuch that the most skilful, who do it with less reflec- one another; taking care, as you dot, or hatch, to make tion and pains than others, would likewise be more puzzled your strokes follow the turnings and windings of the fleshy to give an account of their maxims and knowledge in parts. For although the rule be to cross always, this dotthe matter of painting, if they were to be asked what co- ting or hatching ought to appear a little more here, belours they made use of for such and such a colouring, a cause it rounds the parts ; and as this mixture might make a colouring too red, if it were always to be used, artists tint here, and another there. Nevertheless, as beginners want some instruction at the work likewise in every part, to blend the tints and the first, we shall show in general after what manner several shades with blue and a little green, and much white, so mixed as to be very pale ; excepting, nevertheless, that carnations are to be done. In the first place, after having drawn the proposed figure this colour must not be put upon the cheeks, nor upon the with carmine, and ordered the piece, apply, for women and extremities of the clear parts, no more than the other mixchildren, and generally for all tender colourings, a lay of ture upon these last, which must be left with all their white, mixed with a very little of the blue made for faces, light, as certain places of the chin, of the nose, and of the of which we have mentioned the composition; but let it forehead, and upon the cheeks, which ought nevertheless hardly be seen. For men, instead of blue, put in this first to be redder than the rest, as well as the feet, the hollows lay a little vermilion ; and when they are old, a little ochre of the hands, and the fingers of both.

MINIATURE PAINTING. 273 niature Observe, that these two last mixtures ought to be so in ting. pale that the work shall hardly be visible; for they serve 6 8 d ad wile'black"Ud l ? -eoloured withMinkture only to soften it, to unite the tints with one another, and lour hut dpp i lstre, and finished with the same co- Tainting. the shades with the lights, and to drown the traces. Care of the ha r a^’n he,ghteninS tb^ bngbt and clear parts' must likewise be taken that you w*ork not too much with With wdd e andW 38 th,°S? ^ the eyebrows and the beard, the red mixture upon the blue tints, nor with the blue fi In d V-ely pa 6 bIue» after having formed them upon the others ; but change the colour from time to time the coi ur f tha 8kia ° ° > ‘hS when you perceive that it works too blue or too red. till Ut 10St im rtan thin the work be finished. fn hl g is as to well softenasone’s to blend?!T the tints P° in onet another, the work beard• The white of the eyes must be shaded with this same f reh d vvith the blue, and a little flesh colour ; and the corners, on the side the carnation carnation^tak’ , taking ^especial ° Tcare ’ not to work rom-h ^ and of the nose, with vermilion and white, giving them a little dry, and not to intersect the traces, turnings, and windtouch of carmine. The whole is softened with this mix- ings of the carnation or naked parts. You must likewise ture of vermilion, carmine, white, and a very small matter accustom yourself to put whitf in y„ colours X fa ur of ochre. proportion as you work lighter or darker; the colour The apples or balls of the eyes are done with the mix- you use the second time must always be a for little stronger ture of ultramarine and white, the last prevailing a little • 8 adding a little bistre if they are yellowish, or a little’ and deeper than the first, unless it be for softening. 1 gS are easiI made b black if they are gray. Make the little black circle in or wT TIoui y or bistre, ’ J puffing oi less of red, or T blue, or yellow, whethermore for the middle, called the crystal of the eye, and shade the the dead-colouring or for the finishing. That for women balls, with indigo, bistre, or black, according to the colour to be bluish ; that for children a little red; and both they are of; giving to each a small touch of pure vermi- aought esh and florid. That for men should be yellower, espe1 lion round the crystal, which must be lost with the rest cially when they are old. at the finishing. This gives vivacity to the eye. l or painting fire and flames, the lights are done with The round or circumference of the eye is done with bistre and carmine, that is to say, the slits or partings, masticot and orpiment; and for the shades, vermilion and and the eyelids, when they are large and bold, especially carmine are mixed. A smoke is done with black, indigo, the upper ones ; which must afterwards be softened with and white, and sometimes with bistre; one may likewise the red or blue mixtures we have mentioned before, that eimi i0n r Chre accordin t0 the ° ° ’ £ colour required they may be lost in one another, and nothing seem inter- for it Pearls are painted by putting a lay of white, and a litsected. \\ hen this is done, give a little touch of pure white upon the crystal, on the side of the lights. This makes tle blue; they are shaded and rounded with the same colour, deeper; a small white dot is made almost in the the eye shine, and gives life to it. The mouth is dead-coloured wuth vermilion mixed with middle, on the side of the light; and on the other side, bewhite, and finished with carmine, which is softened like tween the shadow and the edge of the pearl, a touch is the rest; and when the carmine does not work dark given with masticot, to make the reflection; and under enough, mix a little bistre with it. This is to be understood the pearls is made a little shadow of the colour of the of the corners in the separation of the lips, and particu- ground they are upon. Diamonds are represented with pure black ; then they larly of certain mouths half open. The hands, and all the other parts of carnation, are done heighten them with little touches of white on the side of light.. It is the same thing for any other jewels you in the same manner as the faces, observing that the ends the of the fingers be a little redder than the rest. When your lave a mind to paint; there is nothing to be done but to who e work is formed and dotted, mark the separations of change the colour. For making a figure of gold, put a lay all the parts with little touches of carmine and orpiment of shell-gold, and shade it with gallstone. Silver is done the same way, excepting that it must be shaded with indigo. 61- 38 W in the shad as in the One great means of acquiring a perfection in the art, hlufl iT? ’ and fstronger y first, and iight bu a little deeper in the loseplaces, them is to copy excellent originals. We enjoy with pleasure in the rest of the carnation. The eyebrows and the beard are dead-coloured, as are and tranquillity the labour and pains of others. But a man copy a great number before he is able to produce as the shades of carnations, and finished with bistre, ochre, must o black, according to the colour they are of, drawing fine effects; and it is better to be a good copyist than a them by little strokes the way they ought to go; that i? bad original. Of Landscapes.—In the first place, after having orderbe Sir t(?erai?11 r natTe °f hair- The %hts must ed the economy of your landscape in the same way as that of your other pieces, you must form the nearest grounds much white^ Wlth °Chre and biStre’a little verndlion> and or lands, when they are to appear dark, with sapor lily green, h nd white, and a little ; and when is veryochre, dark bistre, and a little verditer, togivea body toyour colour; then and whit6 ha u 0f Tth1e vermilion ead, make a lay of itbistre, dot with this mixture, but a little darker, adding somei! slead of ochre times a little black to it. For such pieces of ground as S’y USe ,blacl t : Afterwards form same Colours uttin ] the light falls upon, and as are therefore clear and bright, n thpm 5 GfiniW1? ’ P ? ess white h Wlt l ure bistre or mix make a lay of ochre and white, then shade and finish with or hi!! ^ f, P ’ ed with ochre othpr 7’ by smallu sti;okes, very fine, and close to each bistre. In some a little green is mixed, particularly for d U k ing them accordin of the h^inSTV, v u g to the curling shading and finishing. T h hgkt arts must also be There are sometimes upon the fore part certain reddish littlP -f P heightened by 1 v mi&r ' I°lclchr,0r orPiment> “ Me lands, which are dead-coloured with brown-red, white, a fter wl r ™ . ! . ’ l»se tile lights and the shades in and a little green, and finished with the same, putting a little more green in them. “^%rtti„"us,s°metimes with a dark and sometor the making of grass and leaves upon the foredf r th < hair a ° .; f>°« ‘he forehead, through which the ground, you must, when that is finished, form with seask:*" be first of and fir r1111the ,181 carnation -formed with the colour there- green, or verditer, and a little white; and for those that one and fi at > working and shading with are yellowish, mix masticot. Afterwards shade them with 8 lf U desi ned form it and .ind°fi^’if i g The to paint rn^it, finish withk° bistre. lightsnone are ; tothen be lily-green, or bistre and gallstone, if you would have them appear withered. The grounds or lands at a little distance 2M

MINIATURE PAINTING. 274 Miniature are formed with verditer, and shaded and finished with well. To learn, and break ones hand to it a little, the Mm. Painting. sap-green, adding bistre for some of the touches here and way is to copy good ones; for the manner or touching them v aiBi there. Such as°are at a greater distance are done with is singular, and cannot be acquired except by working upon sea-green and a little blue, and shaded with verditer. In trees themselves, in regard to which you must observe to a word, the farther they go, the more bluish they are to be make little boughs, which must be leafed, especially such made ; and the farthest distance ought to be of ultrama- as are below and toward the sky. Of Flowers.—It is a general rule, that flowers are rine and white, mixing in some places small touches of verdesigned and laid like other figures, but the manner of milion. Water is painted with indigo and white, and shaded forming and finishing them is different; for they are firstwith the same colour, but deeper; and to finish it, instead formed only by large strokes and traces, which you must of dotting, nothing is done but making strokes and traces turn at the first the way the small ones are to go with without crossing, and giving them the same turn with the which you finish, and this turning wil aid much therein, waves when there are any Sometimes a little green must And for finishing them, instead of hatching or dotting, you be mixed in certain places, and the light and clear parts must draw small strokes, very fine, and very close to one anheightened with 14 pure white, particularly where the water Hovbother,onrl without r*loe»r crossing ; repassing several times, till ^ rv^rtc h£»VP» all Q I the fhP Tnrr»Pwhir»h irrniyour dark and xrmiv your clear parts have force which you defoams. Rocks are dead-coloured like buildings of stone, ex- sire to give them. Of Roses.—After making your first sketch, draw with cepting that a little green is mixed for forming and shadcarmine the red rose, and apply a very pale lay of carmine ing them. Blue and yellow tints are made upon them, and lost with the rest in finishing; and when there are and white; then form the shades with the same colour, small branches, with leaves, moss, or grass, when all is putting less white in it; and lastly, with pure carmine, appearing dry. Rocks are dotted like the rest; and the farther they are Then finish, working upon it with the same colour by little strokes, which you must make go the same way with off the more grayish they are represented Castles, old houses, and other buildings of stone and those of the engraving, if it be a print you copy ; or the way wood, are done in the manner above mentioned ; speaking the leaves of the rose turn, if you copy after a painting, of those things, when they are upon the first lines. But or after nature; losing the dark in the clear parts, and when you would have them appear at a distance, you must Heightening the greatest lights, ana the ongntest or most mix brown red, and vermilion, with much white, and shade lightsome leaves, with white and a little carmine, 'iou very tenderly with this mixture ; and the farther they are must always make the hearts of roses, and the side of the off the weaker are the strokes to indicate the separations, shadow, darker than the rest; and mix a little indigo for If they are covered with slate, it is to be made bluer than shading the first leaves, particularly when the roses are blown, to make them seem faded. The seed is dead-cothe rest. Trees are not done till the sky be finished; one may, loured with gamboge, with which a little sap-green is nevertheless, spare the places of them when they contain mixed for shading. Roses streaked with several colours a o-ood number; and, however it be, such as come near ought to be paler than others, that the mixture of colours to the eye verditer, seen; is done carmine, little •s are _ to be ,dead-coloured , i a i with i i mixing 1.1 may ,-1 1 ^ s-.be -m i *-better » 4«/-t whichowr /"»I with in tim lirrrii-o oa I \irn\Q sometimes ochre, and shaded with the same colours, add- darker in the shades, and very clear in the lights, always ing lily-green. Afterwards you must work leaves upon hatching by strokes. For white roses you must put a lay them by dotting without crossing ; for this must be done of white, and form and finish them as the red, but with with small elongated dots, of a darker colour, and pretty black, white, and a little bistre; and make the seed a little full of it, which must be conducted on the side of the yellower. Yellow roses are done by putting in every part branches, by little tufts of a little darker colour. Then a lay of masticot, and shading them with gamboge, gallheighten the lights with verditer or sea-green, and mas- stone, and bistre, heightening the clear and light places ticot, making leaves in the same manner; and when there with masticot and white. The styles, the leaves, and the buds of all sorts of roses are dry branches or leaves, they are dead-coloured with brown-red or gallstone, and white, and finished with gall- are formed with verditer, with which is mixed a little masticot and gamboge; and for shading them, sap-green stone without white, or with bistre. The trunks of trees are to be dead-coloured with ochre, is added, putting less of the other colours when the white, and a little green, for the light and clear parts ; and shades are deep. The outside of the leaves ought to be for the dark, black is mixed, adding bistre and green for bluer than the inside ; wherefore it must be dead-coloured shadowing the one and the other. Blue and yellow tints are with sea-green, and sap-green mixed with that for shadlikewise made upon them, and little touches given here ing, making the veins or fibres upon this side clearer than and there with white and masticot, such as may ordinarily the ground, and those upon the other side darker. The prickles which are upon the styles and buds of roses are be seen upon the bark of trees. The branches which appear amongst the leaves are done done with little touches of carmine, which are made to go with ochre, verditer, and white, or with bistre and white, every way; and for those which are upon the stalks, they according to the light which they are placed in. They are formed with verditer and carmine, and shaded with carmine and bistre, making the bottom of the stalks more must be shaded with bistre and lily-green. Trees which are at a little distance are dead-coloured reddish than the top, that is, carmine and pure bistre bewith verditer and sea-green, and are shaded and finished ing mixed with the green. Of Tulips.—As there is an infinity’of tulips, different with the same colours, mixed with lily-green. When there are some which appear yellowish, lay with ochre and from one another, we cannot pretend to mention the cowhite, and finish with gallstone. For such as are in the lours with which they are all done. We shall only touch distances and remote views, you must dead-colour with upon the handsomest, called streaked, in which the streaks sea-green, with which, for finishing, you must mix ultra- are dead-coloured with very clear carmine in some places, marine ; and heighten the lights of one and the other with and with darker in others, finishing with the same colour masticot, by small disjoined leaves. It is the most difficult by little strokes, which must be carried the same way with part of landscape, in the manner of miniature, to leaf a tree the streaks. In others is put first a lay of vermilion;

M I N M I N iniature then they form them by mixing carmine, and finish them are all red, are done with vermilion and carmine as dark tinting, with pure carmine. In some they put Florence lake over as possible; others are all of lake; and, lastly, there are the vermilion instead of carmine, whilst others are done others, in which nature or fancy is the only rule. The with lake and carmine mixed together, and with lake alone, green of one and the other is sea-green, shaded with lilyor with white and lake for the first-forming, whether it be green or sap-green. rose pink or Florence lake. There are others, again, of a ,, ^ait.intin g m oilmore has its advantages, they time. only these; purple colour, which are formed with ultramarine, carmine, that exhibits work, and takeswere up less It is or lake, sometimes bluer and sometimes redder. The man- likewise better defended against the injuries of time; and ner of doing both one and the other is the same ; there is the right of birth must be granted it, as well as the clory no difference except in the colours. You must, in certain of antiquity. But miniature painting has likewise its adplaces, as between the streaks of vermilion, carmine, or vantages; and, without repeating such as have been allake, sometimes put blue made of ultramarine and white, ready mentioned, it is neater and more commodious. You and sometimes a very bright purple, which is finished by may easily carry all your implements in your pocket, and strokes like the rest, and lost with the streaks. There are work whenever and wherever you please, without a numsome likewise which have sallow tints, that are made with ber of preparations. You may quit and resume it as often lake, bistre, and ochre, according as they are found requi- as you please, and its elegance is only surpassed by its J site; but this is only in fine and rare tulips, and notin the convenience. common ones. For shading the bottom of them, indigo and MINIM, in Music, is a note equal to two crotchets, or white are ordinarily taken for those whose streaks’are of half a semibreve. carmine; but for such as are of lake, black and white are MINIMS, a religious order in the church of Rome, taken, with which, in some, bistre is mixed, and in others founded by St Francis de Paulo, towards the close of the green. Some are likewise to be shaded with gamboge and fifteenth century. I heir habit is a coarse black woollen umber, and always by strokes and traces which turn as the stuff, with a woollen girdle of the same colour, tied in five leaves turn. Other tulips are likewise done, which are call- knots. They are not permitted to quit their habit and ed bordered; that is to say, the tulip is not streaked except girdle by day or by night, formerly they went barefooted, on the edges of the leaves, where there is a border. It is but they are now allowed the use of shoes. white in the purple, red in the yellow, yellow in the red, and MINIMUM, in the higher geometry, the least quantity red in the white. The purple is laid on with ultramarine, attainable in a given question. carmine, and white, and the shading and finishing is done MINING, the art of working mines, or of extractin'&1' with this mixture. The border is spared ; that is to say, minerals and mineral ores from the bowels of the earth. let only a light lay of white be put there, and let it be shadT his includes the scientific knowledge necessary for opened with very bright indigo. The yellow is formed with ing and working mines, and preparing the ores for use ; gamboge, and shaded with the same colour, mixing with it requires an intimate acquaintance with mineralogy and it ochre and umber or bistre. The border is laid with ver- geology, as well as the different processes by which mines milion, and finished with a very small matter of carmine. may be wrought to advantage, useful minerals searched The red is formed with vermilion, and finished with the out and brought to the surface, and means employed for same colour, mixing with it carmine or lake. The bottom mechanically and chemically separating metals from their and the border are done with gamboge ; and, for finishing, ores; besides the essential operations of sinking shafts, it is usual to add gallstone and umber, or bistre. The white driving galleries and adit levels, removing all difficulties is shaded with black, blue, and white. Indian ink is very which occur in the course of the work, propping up the proper for this. The shadings of it are very delicate ; and supei incumbent earth or rock so as to give security to the it produces alone the effect of blue and white, mixed with miners, and constructing the machinery necessary either the other black. The border of this white tulip is done for draining mines or performing the requisite operations with carmine. In all these sorts of tulips, a nerve or si- in the preparation and reduction of ores. The preparation new is left in the middle of the leaves which are brighter of ores consists in breaking asunder the larger pieces, and than the rest, and the borders are drowned at the bottom then purifying them by means of water from the earth by small traces, turning crossways ; for they must not appear to be cut and separated, like the streaked or party-co- which adheres to them; in the separation of the coarser substances from the finer, by means of a sieve moved up loured. They are likewise represented of several other and down in water; in the crushing of the ore in stampcolours. When they happen to be of that kind the bot- ing-mills, by means either of hammers or iron cylinders; toms of which on the inside are black, as it were, it is and, lastly, in the separation of the metallic substances usual to form and finish them with indigo, as also the seed the stone or earth with which they are combined, about the nozzle or stalk ; and if the bottom is yellow, it is from by washing the crushed ore in troughs or on inclined tables ormed with gamboge, and finished by adding umber or crossed a current of water, so that the heavier ore may istre. The leaves and the stalks of tulips are ordinarily i emain, by whilst the lighter substances are carried away by ormed with sea-green, and shaded and finished with lilygreen, by large traces all along the leaves. Some may the stream of water. Mining further includes the final purification of the ore by amalgamation or otherwise, and ! ewije *?e. c*one verditer, mixing with it masticot, and its reductions by means of fusion. In the case where the beyeh * SaP‘^leen> ^iat t^le green °f the shades may object of mining is to obtain a mineral substance, as coal, The Carnation and Pink—It is with pinks and carna- which is fit for immediate use when brought to the surface, that term is employed in a more restricted sense, tions as with anemonies and tulips ; that is, there are some being limited to the operations which are requisite for the ot mixed colours, and others of one single colour. The simple extraction and bringing up from the pit or mine rst are streaked and diversified, sometimes with vermilion an carmine, sometimes with pure lake or with white; the mineral in question. I he application of science to the art of practical mining certain streaks being very dark and others very pale. Their hasI. hitherto been made only to a limited extent. Yet the bottoms are ordinarily shaded with indigo and white. theory of the formation of mineral and metallic substances, er are in s ver and the rules which may lead to their discovery, are ob£ ^ with °/ a another y Pa*ea little flesh colour, streaked Qna viversified deeper,and made with of much greater national importance than is commillion and lake. Some of them, which are of lake and jects monly The circumstance^ under which minei e, are shaded and streaked without white; others, which rals aresupposed. usually found, the mode of obtaining them, and

276 MIN I N G. Mining, their probable extent and value, are inquiries which, whilst tinued series of depositions. That these deposits were jj;r., , '"-“v—they must ever be highly interesting to the man of science, originally parallel with the earth’s surface may be reasonwho seeks knowledge for its own sake, are altogether es- ably supposed, and indeed appears to admit of almost no sential to the mining proprietor, as affording the only means doubt; yet by some great convulsion of nature, some proby which he can form a correct judgment respecting the digious force acting upwards, the strata have been raised and broken through, whilst the corresponding parts being mode of working adopted by the practical miner. The advantage to be derived from a knowledge of well- raised and depressed in different directions, the edges of established facts respecting the arrangement and distribu- the whole series have been elevated to the surface in an tion of mineral substances, will be best illustrated by ex- uniform curve or right line, appearing in the side of a cliff amples of the errors and oversights committed where this or mountain, or protruding in enormous masses of great knowledge was wanting. It is generally known that, for extent and altitude; at the same time that the lower strasome years, lime was exported to New South Wales, where tum still preserves the same relative position which it asit exists in abundance in its natural state. In Cornwall, sumed in its original formation. By attending to this imores of silver and cobalt were, until recently, thrown away portant fact, geologists are enabled to ascertain the order from a mine which has, since the discovery of their value, of stratification in any country or district, and thence to returned upwards of L. 10,000 a year from these ores ; and form a tolerably correct opinion respecting its mineral conin the same country, although celebrated for its tin mines tents to a much greater depth than can ever be reached from the earliest periods of history, yet, until last century, by mining operations. If, for instance, the stratum be found to dip at a certain the ores of copper were employed only to repair the roads. Wherever the copper appeared in a lode, it was a common angle, by observing carefully the superincumbent strata, we may at once discover not only the depth at which a shaft expression that the ore came in and “ spoiled the vein and, even in the present day, but little attention is paid proposed to be sunk will cut the stratum sought, but also to whatever is not manifestly either tin or copper, or known the nature of the strata to be passed through in its course. to yield these metals. In Derbyshire, although lead has The superincumbent strata will sometimes be found to been smelted from the common blue ore ever since the vary in thickness, and a proportional allowance must then time of the Romans, the other ores of the same metal be made in the working for this deviation from the previous were never thought of, but left in heaps, as rubbish ; yet estimate. When the strata descend in the line of their we have lived to see a public road, made and repaired with dip or inclination, the depth to wdiich they reach beneath these rejected ores, actually taken up and smelted to good the surface is unknown ; but they are seldom found to conaccount. Instances might also be mentioned of persons tinue their descent very far at the same angle, and are who, in the belief that their estates contained valuable mi- either curved in the coal formation, bent in another direcneral veins, engaged in expensive workings, and sometimes tion, or altogether dislocated. In the upper series or forruined their fortunes; wdien a slight acquaintance with mation, the strata are not uniform in their construction, geology would have served to convince them that a suc- but are intersected by fissures resembling the bottom of a cessful result, if not impossible, was at least highly impro- muddy pool dried up by the sun ; and these cavities, when bable. As to the practical miner, he is altogether the empty, are sometimes of great extent. Eldon Hole, and creature of habit, holding geology in but little estimation, the other subterranean wonders of the Peak in Derbyshire, and smiling at the nice distinctions of the mineralogist. may be cited as remarkable examples of such dislocations. Hence, if any inquiry be made of him respecting the in- These fissures, however, are commonly filled with mineral teresting phenomena of veins, he generally prefers the substances, or metalliferous ores, in which case they are theory of his forefathers to that which has been deduced termed veins ; their inclination generally ranges from 45° from the results of more recent and accurate investiga- to the vertical, or 90° ; and their course downwards, like that of the strata, is seldom terminated within the limits tions. In this country no public means have been employed of human labour and research. But some cases have nefor removing ignorance and counteracting prejudice in vertheless occurred wfflere the metallic produce has to all regard to the working of mines. But the case is different appearance been worked out, or where the vein has branchon the continent. Both France and Germany possess na- ed into filamentous portions at two or three hundred feet tional institutions for facilitating the study of the sciences below the surface. Formerly the richest part of a vein of copper ore was applicable to mining operations ; and the advantage of such a course of education is sufficiently demonstrated by supposed to be situated at a depth of from forty to fifty the fact, that the companies formed for working mines in fathoms, and that of a vein of tin at from twenty to sixty South America and Brazil have given a decided preference fathoms; but experience derived from the deep workings to mining officers trained in the schools of France and of carried on in Cornwall has proved this idea to be erroneGermany. Besides, of all speculative employments, min- ous. Wdien a vein or stratum is terminated abruptly, by ing is perhaps the most uncertain. Experience and ingenui- the crossing of another vein or stratum in a transverse dity are frequently baffled ; the most promising appearances rection, or by perpendicular fissures filled with alluvial often end in disappointment; whilst from veins which some matter, this is not considered as a termination of the vein, persons have abandoned in despair, others have frequently which, in fact, is only broken off or disjoined, and may derived enormous profits. This very uncertainty, how- again be discovered by searching in the analogous part on ever, only affords another argument for concentrating all the opposite side of the deranged strata. As to the methods the lights of science, in order as far as possible to lessen employed in following a metalliferous vein when broken the risk of disappointment, and to afford the miner some off by faults or dykes, these are necessarily various, accordsurer guide than chance or caprice in pursuing his explo- ing to circumstances ; and it is in such cases that the pracratory labours. tical knowledge and experience of the miner are of far more It may be observed generally, that the materials which avail than all the suggestions of theory. Veins occur in compose the crust, if not the body, of the earth, are vari- almost every species of rock, and vary in thickness from ously distributed, yet preserve their relative positions, from a mere filament to many fathoms ; they are very unequal the surface downwards to the greatest depths hitherto ob- in the different parts of their course, but they are commonly tained ; those substances which consist of homogeneous widest above. Narrow veins are usually short, whilst those matter being collected together and deposited either above of considerable breadth extend to a great distance. The or below a similar stratum of other substances in a con- silver vein of Veta Madre, at Guanaxuato, has been work-

M I N I N G. ning. ed to the extent of 14,000 yards, at a depth of more than in boring or sinking a shaft at a considerable distance from Mining, v--^570 yards, and from forty-three to fifty yards in thickness ; the original working. ” and some other veins in South America have been traced For the more complete elucidation of what has been to a distance of not less than eighty miles. A vein con- stated above, we shall now describe shortly the several sists sometimes of one substance, at other times of many. formations, with their general characteristics, the minerals In the latter case, these substances preserve an uniformity which are usually found in them, and the localities in of position, parallel to the sides of the vein, in regular cor- which the most important mines are situated. responding order, to the centre; so that, when traced downThe rocky masses composing the crust of the globe conwards, the central seam first disappears, and the layers that sist either of simple homogeneous bodies, as limestone ; or enclosed it, being of homogeneous matter, coalesce, forming of an aggregation of two or more simple materials, as graanother central seam, which disappears in its turn, and is mte. In some strata no organic remains whatever have succeeded by the next, until a simple vein alone remains, been discovered ; in others the fossil remains of animal and gradually decreasing to its final termination. It has been vegetable matter are of frequent occurrence. This diverobserved, that veins similar to each other in mineral pro- sity of character is the foundation of an arrangement, acduce run parallel, or follow very nearly the same course coiding to which rocks are divided into primary and sethroughout the district in which they are found, although condary. The rocks belonging to the primitive formation occurring in different strata; and that veins containing are found under every other stratified mass, and never other minerals in their immediate neighbourhood, or in the resting upon nor covering any; they follow a certain insame stratum, always run in another direction. Thus, in variable order of succession, and exhibit determinate reCornwall, when a vein of tin or copper ore, bearing east lations with other strata. "Ihus, granite is never found and west, is crossed by another running north and south, alternating with sandstone, nor gneiss covering a bed of the inteisecting vein is sometimes lead or antimony, but coal. In mountainous countries, the primitive formation, never tin or copper. upheaved in Alpine chains, offers itself to our notice in stuThe principal metalliferous veins in England take a di- pendous masses, having the strata of other formations restrection from east to west. When two veins running nearly ing upon and supported by their bases; or, as sometimes parallel meet and join, they produce a good body of ore happens, without such formations altogether. Primitive at the point of junction. If the principal vein dip at a less locks contain, either occasionally or exclusively, almost angle than the secondary one, it is usually found to be en- every metal hitherto discovered. They may be classed, in riched by the latter; but if it dip at a greater angle, it is the usual order of their occurrence, under the denominaimpoverished in like proportion. Sometimes a vein is join- tions of granite, gneiss, mica slate, topaz rock, clay slate, ed by another, which, after falling into its course, and con- porphyry, trap, limestone, serpentine, quartz, gypsum, flint tinuing for some distance to run parallel to it, suddenly re- slate, and syenite. Their component minerals are quartz, sumes its original state,and breaksoffin a different direction. hornblende, felspar, mica, and limestone. For the most part, tin and lead lie nearer the surface than Granite is supposed to be the most ancient and most copper. Where the latter is met with in large masses, abundant all substances. It forms the base and somethe vein commonly falls off shortly afterwards; but when times the of whole mass of mountains ; it constitutes a part the lode is found spotted with small portions of copper of the Alps and the Pyrenees, the mountains of Cornwall, ore, there is a strong presumption that the produce will Saxony, and Silesia, the grand chain of the Ural and Altai e rich and lasting. A large and productive vein is usu- in Asia, the Atlas in Africa, and the Andes and Cordilleras ally accompanied by others which fall into the main lode. in South America. It is formed by a concretion of the graIhe abundance of water in a lode is considered as a proparticles of felspar, quartz, and mica, irregularly mingmising indication, inasmuch as dry veins are never very nular led, strongly adherent, and evidently the effect of simulrich in ore. Lodes consist of hard solid stone, or less taneous crystallization. The size, colour, and relative procompact, soft, and crumbling materials. If the adjoining portions of the particles differ greatly, but felspar with a strata contain much spar and quartz, then the metallife- reddish tint predominates. It is one of the hardrous ore in the lode is found in a solid, hard, stony sub- est and mostgenerally durable rocks known. Granite is much less stance ; but when nature has been more sparing of her metalliferous than any other of the primitive rocks; but it cement, the ore is generally met with in a loose and rub- nevertheless yields tin and iron in considerable quantities, bly state. rarely gold or silver, and sometimes, in minute veins, moExperience has shown that certain minerals and metals lybdena, lead, copper, zinc, manganese, bismuth, galena, are more frequently found attached to particular rocks than and blende. o ot er materials, and that some of them are discovered Gneiss is immediately incumbent on granite, and is comon y in particular strata. Metalliferous veins are genera y encompassed with some stone or other substance pe- posed of the same substances ; but mica, being more abundant, forms a granular slaty mass. This rock is rich in culiar to the mine, which, from the appearance of the rock, mineral produce ; indeed all the useful metals, excepting apprises the miner of his approach to the vein. It has quicksilver, are found in it, sometimes in beds, but more een ascertained that the arrangement of the materials of the earth is to a certain extent regular and uniform. Hence, frequently in veins. The greater part of the mines in w ien we know the particular substances near which cer- Saxony and Bohemia are in gneiss mountains. In the vitain metals and minerals are generally found, together with cinity of Freyberg more than two hundred veins of silver, eir usual disposition in the strata; and when, in another lead, tin, copper, and cobalt, have been worked in gneiss ; and the silver mines of Konigsberg are in the same rock. situation, we meet with the same materials similarly dis- It is abundant in Scotland and the isles adjacent; and also pose , we may conclude with tolerable confidence, that in South America and the United States. or Mica slate, or schistus, is composed of mica and quartz. j/a mineral we are in quest of is not far distant, n at the operations may be continued with a reasone prospect of success. Where a bed of mineral pro- It has a slaty structure, mica being the chief ingredient; its colour is gray tinted with green or yellow, sometimes uce exists, it may be expected to extend throughout a brown; and it differs from gneiss, upon which it rests, by nsi erable tract of country; but, from the curvature of ormation, or from dislocation of the strata, it may never- being disposed in leaves rather than in distinct scales. It contains beds of magnetic iron ore; iron, copper, and arleiess disappear at a particular point, and be lost, until it senical pyrites; red iron ore, lead glance, blende, gold, gain rises to the “ outcrop,” or is accidentally met with and cobalt; whilst in the veins are found similar ores to

278 M I N Mining, those discovered in gneiss. The mines of Dalecarlia and Fahlun in Sweden, the gold mines of Monte Rose, some of those in Saltzburg, the silver mines of Johann-Georgenstadt and Bransdorf, and many others, are in this rock. It is also common in Scotland, on the continent, and in many other parts of the globe. Topaz rock is of very inconsiderable extent, and is hardly to be considered as a distinct species. It is composed of quartz, tourmaline, topaz, and lithomarge, in granular concretions ; but it has hitherto been met with only in Saxony, where it forms a rock which is known by the name of schnechenstein. Clay slate is a simple rock, sometimes forming entire mountains; but the cliffs are not so steep and rugged as in granite and gneiss formations ; and it is also much more favourable to vegetation. One of the varieties of this stratum is the well-known material for covering roofs of buildings ; the rest partake of its general characters. It passes by different gradations into mica slate, acquiring a glistening lustre in its approach to that formation; it is distinctly stratified, and is rich in metal, containing tin, lead, cobalt, silver, pyrites, copper ore, and sometimes gold. The veins in Cornwall often run in killas, which is a variety of clay slate; and some curious phenomena occur in their passage through the strata. If the vein contain tin ore in the granite, it will frequently change to copper in the killas ; and if tin be abundant in the killas, copper will supply its place in the granite. This rock is very widely distributed, and occurs in all parts of the world. In Saxony, Bohemia, Hungary, and in North and South America, mines are worked in it, some of them to a very considerable extent. Porphyry consists of crystals of quartz or felspar in a cement of hornstone or claystone ; it is not stratified, nor do any mineral beds occur in it; and its colour varies according to the nature of the basis, although red and black are the most common. It is so hard that the art of cutting it for sculpture is now lost; indeed modern tools make no impression on the surface, although huge columns, and many beautiful specimens of chiselling, remain to convince us that it was practised by the ancients in great perfection. Many metalliferous minerals are found in porphyry. The mines of Hungary are worked in enormous rents or fissures in this rock. Porphyry also appears in Cornwall, Sweden, France, Saxony, Carinthia, Hungary, Siberia, Abyssinia, and North and South America.1 For details as to the mineral deposits contained in the other primitive rocks, the reader is referred to the article Mines, where, under the different heads, ample information will be found on this, as well as on various other matters connected with the present subject. II. One of the most important operations of practical mining is that of blasting, of which we shall now proceed to give some account. I he first part of the process consists in preparing or boring the hole for the reception of gunpowder. This is effected with the sharpened bar and the borer, represented in fig. 1, the length and breadth of both being variable. The shaded portion a, which is the cutting part, is of tempered steel; and the upper part, which is held by the workman, consists of iron. In the western part of Cornwall, the borer is held in one hand and the hammer in the other, the operation being performed by one person ; but in the central and eastern parts, one person usually holds the borer, whilst another applies the hammer or mallet. From the borer being kept constantly in motion, the hole is made of a circular form, its depth varying from eight inches to five feet, and its breadth from one to three inches. Water is poured into the hole if none issue from the rock, to facilitate the operation of the borer; and the abraded matter 1

I N G. Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 3.

Fig. 4. Fig. 5. Fig 6. Mi

z

(3 is withdrawn by the scraper, fig. 2. It is afterwards farther cleaned with a piece of wood, called a swab-stick, one end of which is prepared for the purpose. When the hole is inclined, and intended to be deep, a long borer is used, which one man raises and lets fall, the operation being for the most part performed by the momentum acquired by the instrument in descending from the height to which it is raised. This is called 11 jumping 1' If the hole be dry and much inclined, the gunpowder is now poured into it, the quantity requisite being at first guessed ; but after a few explosions, it is seen whether the proportion employed beajust one or not, that is, sufficient to fracture the rock without breaking it in pieces and scattering them to a distance. If the latter effect be produced, the quantity of powder is diminished ; but if the rock be not fractured, it must be increased. As some of the gunpowder will adhere to the moist sides of the hole, this must be wiped down with the end of the swab-stick. If the rush be used to convey a spark to the charge, a piece of clay is laid upon it, and through both the needle is inserted until it reaches nearly to the bottom of the hole. The nail, fig. 3, is a metallic rod gradually tapering to a point, and at the other end it is formed into a ring. It was formerly made entirely of iron; but latterly its pointed extremity has been made of copper, because, during its insertion or removal, the iron-pointed nail sometimes caused ignition, and thus led to fatal consequences. Next to the powder is put some dry substance, and then clay, upon which are put down and gently beaten with the tamping or ramming box, fig. 4, pieces of some stony substance, which readily yields to the hammer without giving a spark, as roofing tile, soft slate, decomposing porphyry, friable granite, coal, or solid copper, which are all occasionally used. At first a little is put in and beaten firmly down; then a second small quantity, a third, a fourth, and so on until the hole be entirely filled. It is desirable that each layer should be very thin, as the confining power of the tamping is considered to be in proportion to the number of layers; but this must be understood within certain limits. The lamping bar is usually made of iron, the lower extremity being shod with copper or brass; Dr Paris found, however, that an alloy of eighty-six parts of copper and fourteen of tin proved the most durable. The next point is the removal of the nail, which is effected by striking it upwards, or by the use of a lever. The rush is then introduced into the hole left by the nail, the pith having been first removed and its place filled with fine gunpowder. When all this has been done, nothing remains but the application of the fire, which is communicated by the ignition of one end of a match, or a piece of coarse paper smeared with grease, the other end being placed in contact with the

See Mining Review, No. V. p 13, et seep

mining. 279 lining, rush, and the slow combustion affording time for the escape instrument. It consists of a copper cylinder a b, two feet Mining, the workmen. in length, and one inch in diameter, containing a moveable The ignition of the charge, however, is frequently ef- rod c, which is graduated in inches, and has affixed to its fected by the train being contained in a rod of quills, or by extremity a leaden plug d, whilst the cap g is made to take the use of Bickford’s patent safety-rods. When either of off, in older to allow, at any time, the removal of the rod, these is employed, it is placed in the hole before the in- for cleaning the interior. I he manner of using it has been troduction of the charge ; and in these cases the nail is not thus described. Draw out the rod as many inches as you required. The operation of tamping is in every respect require it to deliver of gunpowder, then invert the instruconducted as before. The rod of quills is merely a tube ment, fill it, and place a piece of moistened clay at the of common goose-quills, the smaller end of one being in- mouth of the cylinder; it is now to be inserted in the hole, serted in the larger extremity of another, until the tube when, by pressing down the sliding-rod, the whole charge be of the length required, that is, equal to the hole bored is immediately delivered in a mass without any loss ; but in the rock. The gunpowder with which the tubes are before the instrument is withdrawn, the rod should be sefilled should be bruised to dust, and packed very closely veral times rammed down smartly upon the gunpowder. in the tube. It might be thought that the compression to In charging back holes, that is, holes nearly horizontal, the which such tubes are exposed during the process of tamp- clay should be stuck upon the end of the plug d previousing would prevent their combustion; but this is not the ly to the introduction of the powder into the cylinder. case, for so strong are they, when properly filled, that even When quills are used for a fuze, it will be found advanthe pressure of a smith’s vice would produce no such re- tageous to affix in the cylinder a smaller tube for their result. The patent safety-rod is a column of gunpowder en- ception, as represented by ef. Much has been said as to veloped in a series of hempen yarns twisted spirally round the waste of gunpowder in mines in consequence of the it, and perfectly flexible. It is about three eighths or one ignorance or carelessness of the workmen; and there is prohalf of an inch in diameter, consumes slowly, and rarely bably some ground for censure in this respect. But, on becomes extinguished until it be entirely burnt. The ex- the other hand, whilst it is difficult for any but a practical pense of the quills and the safety-rods is nearly the same, miner to say where a perforation can be advantageously that is, threepence per fathom in length. made, so nothing but experiment can determine the quanThe preceding remarks are intended to apply to an in- tity of gunpowder requisite for any given hole, and this dined perforation. But when the aperture is nearly hori- must necessarily be left to the workmen. zontal, which is frequently the case, the introduction of the It has been frequently asserted that sand is a good and charge is somewhat more difficult. Some miners make a efficient substitute for tamping, as commonly practised; cartridge or tube of paper, which they cement with grease, and numerous experiments have been made to establish and which, being filled with fine gunpowder, is pushed with this point, but hitherto without any very satisfactory rethe swab-stick to the further extremity of the hole ; others sults. In many cases the sand has been blown out, whilst, in charge with the fluke, which may be described as the half some instances, effective explosions have ensued. Furof a hollow cylinder divided in the line of its axis, and be- ther experiments are certainly required to set this imporing attached to the end of an iron rod, fig. 5, resembles a tant point at rest, by determining the circumstances upon carpenter’s auger, or a marrow-spoon. The tamping is in which success or failure depend. all cases alike, and the train may be laid in either of the With respect to accidental or premature explosions, by ways already mentioned. far the larger portion of these either originate from the But when the hole has been moistened by the infiltra- nail, or are produced in the course of the tamping process. tion of water, the operation is much more difficult, and Those which originate through the nail occur only when is accomplished either by claying the hole, or by intro- the rush is used, and although the number of accidents has ducing the charge in a pitched bag or tin-plate cartridge. been considerably diminished since it was pointed with copClaying consists in filling as much of the further extremi- per, yet even this has not entirely prevented them. They ty of the hole as the charge is intended to occupy, with are caused, first, by the nail being driven to the very botstiff clay, impervious to water, or at least very nearly so. tom of the hole, and its there coming in contact with subThrough this clay a cylindrical bar, usually made of iron, stances which by percussion generate a spark; secondly, is pushed nearly to the extremity of the perforation, in or- the nail, during the tamping, is subject to concussion, der to make a space for the reception of the charge, which which, in certain circumstances, will produce a similar efis at once introduced, and then the hole is tamped and fect ; and, thirdly, the removal of the nail may occasion a the train laid in the ordinary manner. This operation re- like result, especially if, when introduced into the hole, it quires to be performed with great rapidity, because the had been so forcibly driven to the bottom as to bend its clay not being quite impervious to water, may become sa- point, for in this case the curved part will occasion conturated, and the charge moistened, so as not to ignite when siderable disturbance in the contents of the hole, and the the train is fired. The pitched bag, above mentioned, is danger will not be materially diminished by the circummade of canvass, and so covered with pitch as to be im- stance of the nail being pointed with copper. But by putpenetrable to water; the tin-plate cartridge is simply a tin ting a small piece of clay at the bottom of the hole, and case in a cylindrical form. When the bag or cartridge is by taking care not to force the nail against its lower extreused the charge is placed in it, the train for its ignition mity, the hazard arising from this cause may in a great being laid through a tin-plate tube about one fourth of measure be obviated. The dangers incident to the tampan inch in diameter. This receptacle is placed in the fur- ing process spring chiefly from the gunpowder adhering ther extremity of the hole, sometimes imbedded in clay, to the sides of the hole ; so thaf, if a spark be struck out and is tamped in the usual manner. The pitched bag is during the operation, it will communicate to these partipreferred to the cartridge, because the one fits the hole cles, and ignite the charge. Fire may be struck, first, by more exactly, whilst the regular figure of the other retains the contact of the tamping bar with such portions of the round it a little air, which, in yielding to the compressing sides of the hole as are calculated to afford a spark from orce, impedes the full effect of the explosion. collision ; secondly, by the action of this instrument upon An apparatus, invented by Captain Chenhalls, of St portions of the tamping, when the bar is not shod with ust, m the western part of Cornwall, and denominated copper or brass ; thirdly, by the friction of such substances e s lifting cartridge, has been found useful in charging in tamping, against similar bodies in the sides of the hole; 0 es 0I srna " ^ depth. Fig. 6 represents a section of this and, fourthly, by the friction of various parts of the tamp-

280 'MINI N G. Mining. jng against one another. The precautions to be used has sufficiently proved that the breadth of the shafts may Mi . against the occurrence of accidents of this kind are, first, be diminished without any danger of the ropes getting en-v"—' w j removing carefully the adhering particles of gunpowder tangled in their oscillatory motion. It would in general from the sides of the hole; secondly, the use of a tamping be very useful to make use of kibbles instead of leathern bar shod with a substance which does not readily strike fire ; bags suspended by ropes for the extraction of the ores. “ The greatest fault observable in the mines of New Spain, and, thirdly, care in selecting substances for tamping which do not readily afford sparks by impact upon one another. and which renders the working of them extremely expenNotwithstanding the use of quills and safety-rods, explo- sive, is the want of communication between the different sions of this class sometimes occur, their causes being ap- works. They resemble ill-constructed buildings, where, parently beyond the reach of such contrivances. But of to pass from one adjoining room to another, we must go the fatal accidents which have occasionally happened, the round the whole house. The mine of Valenciana is justly greater part are attributable to the carelessness of the admired on account of its wealth, the magnificence of its workmen, rather than to their ignorance. Many explosions walling, and the facility with which it is entered by spahave originated from want of caution in boring a charge cious and commodious stairs ; yet it exhibits only a union which has not ignited owing to the train having somehow of small works irregularly conducted; they are as it were been extinguished. In such cases, the tamping is removed cul de sacs, and without any lateral communication. I by the borer, and, from the indifference of habit, the work- mention this mine, not because it is more faulty than the men frequently take no more care than if they were form- others in the distribution of its labours, but because we might naturally suppose it to be better organized. As ing, or “ beating down,” a new perforation.1 III. Humboldt, speaking of the state of the mining art subterranean geometry had been entirely neglected in in Mexico, strongly censures the method of blasting by Mexico till the establishment of the School of Mines, powder, as therein employed. The holes for the reception there is no plan in existence of the works already executof the cartridges are, he thinks, generally too deep, and the ed. Two works in that labyrinth of cross levels and inteminers are not sufficiently careful in diminishing the mass rior winzes may happen to be very near each other withof rock intended to yield to explosion. A great waste of out its being possible to perceive it. Hence the impossigunpowTder is consequently occasioned. In the mine of bility of introducing, in the actual state of most of the Yalenciana, powder to the amount of L.150,000 was con- mines of Mexico, the wheeling by means of barrows, and sumed from 1794 to 1802; and the mines of New Spain an economical disposition of the ore plats.” The same distinguished traveller has also animadverted annually require from 12,000 to 14,000 hundredweights. Humboldt thinks it probable that two thirds of this quan- on the defective machinery employed in working and draining the Mexican mines. “ We have already spoken of the tity is uselessly employed. The timber-work is also, according to him, very care- truly barbarous custom of drawing off the water from the lessly performed, although it ought the more to engage the deepest mines, not by means of pump apparatus, but by attention of the proprietors of mines, as wood is every year means of bags attached to ropes which roll on the cage of a becoming scarcer on the table-laud of Mexico. “ The ma- whim. The same bags are used in drawing up the water sonry employed in the shafts and levels,2 and especially the and the ores; they rub against the walls of the shafts, and walling with lime, deserves great praise. The arches are it is very expensive to keep them in repair. At the Real formed with great care; and in this respect the mines of del Monte, for example, these bags only last seven or eight Guanaxuato may stand a comparison with whatever is most days ; and they commonly cost five, and sometimes seven perfect at Freyberg and Schemnitz. The shafts, and still and eight shillings a piece. A bag full of water, suspendmore the galleries or levels, have generally the defect of ed to the cage of a w'him with eight horses (malacate dobk), being dug of too great dimensions, and of occasioning, by weighs 1250 pounds; it is made of two hides sewed tothat means, exorbitant expenses. We find levels at Va- gether. The bags used for the whims called simple, those lenciana,3 executed with the view of making trial on a poor with four horses (malacates sencillos), are only half the size, vein, of a height of twenty-six or twenty-nine feet. It is and are made of one hide. In general the construction an erroneous opinion, that this great height facilitates the of the whims is extremely imperfect; the bad custom also renovation of the air; the ventilation depends on the equi- prevails of forcing the horses, by which they are made to librium and difference of temperature between two neigh- go at far too great a speed. I found this speed at the shafts bouring columns of air. They also believe, equally without of San Ramon, at Real del Monte, to be no less than ten foundation, that, in order to discover the nature of a power- feet and a half per second ; at Guanaxuato, in the mine of ful vein, very large drifts are requisite, as if, in mineral Yalenciana, from thirteen to fourteen feet; and everwhere veins of from six to eight fathoms in width, it were not else I found it more than eight feet. Don Salvado Sein, better to cut from time to time small cross drifts, for the professor of natural philosophy at Mexico, has proved, in purpose of discovering whether the mass of the vein be- a very excellent paper on the rotatory motion of machines, gins to grow richer. The absurd custom of cutting every that, notwithstanding the extreme lightness of the Mexilevel of such enormous dimensions prevents the proprie- can horses, they produce only the maximum of effect on tors from multiplying the means of trial, so indispensable the whims when, exerting a force of 175 pounds, they walk for the preservation of a mine and the duration of the at a pace of from five to six feet in the second. works. At Guanaxuato the breadth of the oblique shafts “ It is to be hoped that pumps, moved either by horsedug stairwise is from five to six fathoms; and the perpen- engines of a better construction, or by water-wheels, or by dicular shafts are generally three, four, or five fathoms in pressure-engines, will at last be introduced in the mines of diameter. The enormous quantity of ores extracted from New Spain. If wood, and coal, which has only yet been the mines, and the necessity of working in them the ropes discovered in New Mexico, should be found sufficiently attached to six or eight whims, necessarily occasion the abundant for employing the steam-engine, the use of it shafts of Mexico to be made of greater dimensions than would be of great advantage in the inundated mines of those of Germany ; but the attempt which has been made Bolanos, as well as in those of Rayas and Mellado. at Bolanos, to separate by beams the ropes of the whims, “ It is in the draining the mines of water that we particuMining Review, No. YI. p. 249, et seq.

2 Especially in the mines of Valenciana, Guanaxuato, and Real del Monte. | Canon de la Soledad.

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MIN 281 larly feel the indispensable necessity of having plans drawn of St Augustine, where they were employed in the culti- Minorca, up by subterranean surveyors {geometres). Instead of vation of the land in the manner to which they had been „ stopping the course of the water, and bringing it by the accustomed. But discontents in a few years broke out, and shortest road to the shaft where the machines are placed, some law proceedings at length dissolved the engagements, they frequently direct it to the bottom of the mine, to be when the settlers removed to St Augustine, abandoning afterwards drawn off at a great expense. In the district the establishment called New Smyrna, and found occupaof mines of Guanaxuato, nearly two hundred and fifty tion in various ways. They have, however, multiplied so workmen perished in the space of a few minutes, on the much in the sixty years since their emigration, that their I4thof June 1780, because, not having measured the dis- descendants formed the mass of the population at the petance between the works of San Ramon and the old works riod when East Florida became one of the states of the of San to Christo de Burgos, they had imprudently approach- North American Union. ed this last mine while carrying on a drift in that direction. Minorca was captured by the Spaniards in 1782, but in The water, of which the works of Santo Christo were full, 1798 was again taken possession of by the British ; and by flowed with impetuosity through this new gallery of San the peace of Amiens in the year 1802 it was finally ceded Ramon into the mine of Valenciana. Many of the work- to Spain, whose dominion over it has not since been dismen perished from the sudden compression of the air, turbed. which, in taking vent, threw to great distances pieces of This island is about thirty-eight miles from Majorca, timber and large masses of rock. This accident would and 120 from the coast of Spain. The exact position of not have happened if, in regulating the operations, they the parade in George Town, near Port Mahon, as ascercould have consulted a plan of the mines.” (a.) tained by a mean of several astronomical observations, is MINNIN, a stringed instrument of music amongst the 39. 52. 55. north latitude, and 4. 20. east longitude from ancient Hebrews, having three or four chords to it. There Greenwich. The whole extent is about 240 square miles. is reason to question the antiquity of this instrument, both About one quarter of the land is cultivated, and about one because it requires a hair bow, which was a kind of plec- half is pasture, the remainder being neglected and sterile. trum not known to the ancients, and because it so much 1 here are no woods, although abundance of myrtle shrubs resembles the modern viol. Kircher took the figures of grow in some parts, and are used for tanning leather, this instrument, the machul, chinnor, and psaltery, from an for brooms, and also for fuel. In the interior of the old book in the Vatican library. island there are a few small brooks only, and very few MINOR, a Latin term, literally denoting less, and used wells, many of which are brackish; and hence most of the in opposition to major, greater. houses are provided with cisterns for supplying the inhaMinor, in Law, denotes a person under age, or one bitants with rain water. Both wheat and barley are grown, who, by the laws of the country, has not yet arrived at the but not sufficient to feed the population ; so that one third power of administering his own affairs, or the possession of the consumption is supplied by importation. On the of his estate. other hand, fruits of all kinds are very abundant, especially Minor, in Logic, is the second proposition of a formal melons, grapes, and oranges. The wine is plentiful, and or regular syllogism, called also the assumption. both the red and the white are of excellent flavour and of Minor, in Music, is applied to certain concords, which great strength. The chief rural wealth, however, consists differ from or are lower than others of the same denomi- of the live stock. There are excellent breeds of asses of nation, by a lesser semitone, or by four commas. Thus we very large size and of great strength, and the mules arissay, a third minor, or lesser third, or a sixth major and ing from their crosses with horses are held in the highminor. Concords which admit of major and minor, or est estimation. There are said to be between 6000 and greater and less, are said to be imperfect concords. 7000 cows, from which cheese is made, that by some is MINORCA, one of the Balearic Islands, in the Mediter- preferred to the produce of Lodi in Italy. The sheep are ranean Sea, now belonging to the crown of Spain. Its his- stated to be 45,000, and the goats 5500; whilst the swine, tory is the same as that of the adjacent islands of the same fattened till they weigh from 450 to 500 pounds, are more group, till the year 1 /08, when,in thewarofthe Spanish suc- than 10,000 in number. cession, it was captured by a force consisting of a fleet of The island is divided into four districts, called terminos, Lnghsh ships, and a land army composed of English marines viz. Cittadella, Mercadel, Alayor, and Mahon. The inhaand some battalions of Spaniards, Italians, and Portuguese, bitants all adhere to the Catholic church with great zeal, which Count Starembourg, the imperial general at Barce- and with not a little superstition. The number is estimated lona, had furnished to the English general Stanhope. To at 31,800. The fishing on the shores gives occupation to this force, after some short time, the garrison surrender- many; whilst some few are employed in obtaining marble, t , and the inhabitants submitted to the English govern- slate, and limestone, from the quarries. The climate is in ment. The peace of Utrecht in 1712 fixed the island in general very healthy, being cooled in the summer by the the hands of the possessors, with whom it continued till breezes from the sea, and not being liable to frost or snow At the breakin out i of that war, a French force in the winter. The complexion and features of the nalanded at Minorca, and ginvested the citadel of St Philip, tives are like those of Spain, but somewhat darker. The m which vvith an insufficient army commanded. females marry at a very early age, so that by the time Admiral Byng with a fleet was despatched to his relief; but they reach twenty-five years, they become old women. not having acted with the decision that was anticipated, and having withdrawn to refit at Gibraltar, Blakeney, after It is not unusual to see females with children at the breast as ga lant a defence as could be made, was compelled to from eleven to twelve years of age. The island is of moderate height as approached from 1 nCwbe K ^ ^rencb retained their conquest till the year the sea, and its surface then appears level, with one re.1 J o> by the peace of Paris, it was again given up to markable elevation towards the centre, called Mount Toro, ne English. Soon after that cession, a great number of the having on its summit a convent dedicated to the blessed a ives were induced, by a body of speculators in England, o emigrate to the province of East Florida, which by the Virgin. The most important circumstance relating to Minorca same treaty had been delivered up to Great Britain. The o ony consisted of more than a thousand individuals, in- is the value capable of being derived from its excellent harbours of Port Mahon at the east end, Fornella on the 7pU Ia&r emales and children, who were indented to a Dr north side, and Cittadella on the west, from the small but urnbull, the agent of the company, and landed to the south v convenient coves around it, and from the good anchorage OL. xv. 2N

on its shores. The capital is Cittadella, and the other is 38,082 square miles, the poverty of the soil may account M ^ for the thin population. It is watered by several small towns are Mahon and Fornella. el MINORS, or Friars Minor, an appellation which the streams, which terminate either in the Dnieper and run Franciscans assume, out of humility, calling themselves to the Black Sea, or in the Diina and run to the Baltic- ' ^ fratres minores, or lesser brothers, and sometimes minorites. There is a canal uniting those rivers, which run in oppoThere, is also an order of regular minors at Naples, which site directions. The principal exportable commodity is was established in the year 1588, and confirmed by Pope wood. The chief product for home consumption is rye, which barely suffices for the supply of the inhabitants. Sixtus ;V. MINOS, in fabulous history, a king of Crete, who was There is little trade, and this may be described as the the son of Jupiter and Europa. He flourished about 14 if constructed upon a 220. Dr Lardner is of opinion that this work could not inv ntion of fbe came gJass, and the application of quick- have been finished before the year 190, or later. {Collecgenerally of Jewish and Heathen Testimonies, vol. i. p. 178.) a y employed, for such planeknown, mirrorsitashas arebeen used unifor tion Thus was formed the book called the Mischna, which the ornaments to houses. Jews have generally received with the greatest veneration. a own -^ Hindustan, in the province of The original has been published with a Latin translation 8 a istr ct of a ro ge ’ of?^.f ^ the ' Chunar. It of is situated the foot by Surenhusius, with notes of his own and others from 1 on hills south bank the riverat Ganges. & the learned Maimonides, in six vols. folio, Amsterdam, vol. xv. 2p

MIS 298 Misde- 1698-1703. It is written in a much purer style, and is meanour not nearly so full of dreams and visions, as the Gemara. jl . MISDEMEANOUR, in Law, signifies a crime. Every M.ispncrime is a misdemeanour the law made kind; a distincjiions.^ ^ ketween crimes of a; yet higher and has a lower the

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king might remit a prosecution for treason, and cause the delinquent to be censured in that court, merely for a high misdemeanour ; as happened in the case of Roger earl of Rutland, in the 43d of Elizabeth, who was concerned in thev Earl of Essex’s rebellion. Misprisions are generally divided former being denominated felonies, and the latter misde- into two sorts; negative, which consist in the concealment of something which ought to be revealed; and positive, meanours. MISE, in law-books, is used in various senses. 1 hus it which consist in the commission of something which ought sometimes signifies costs or expenses; in which sense it is not to be done. MISSAL, the Roman Catholic book, containing the secommonly used in entering of judgments in actions personal. It is also used to signify the issue to be tried on the veral masses which are said on particular days. It is degrand assize; in which case, joining of the mise upon the rived from the Latin word missa, which, in the ancient mere right, is putting in issue between the tenant and de- Christian church, signified every part of divine service. MISSENDEN, a town of the county of Buckingham mandant, the question as to who has the best or clearest and hundred of Aylesbury, thirty-one miles from London. right. MISELAR, a mountainous island in the Eastern Seas, It is situated on the high road to Buckingham, and near of an irregular form, and fifteen miles in circumference. to it is a mansion called Abbey House, built upon the site of a monastery of Black Nuns. The population amountIt lies off the Bay of Tappanooly, on the west coast of Su- ed in 1801 to 1411, in 1811 to 1576, in 1821 to 1735, and matra. Long. 98. 30. E. Lat. 1. 39. N. MISENUM, or Misenus, in Ancient Geography, a pro- in 1831 to 1827. About two miles from this place is montory, port, and town in Campania, situated to the south- Little Missenden, a pleasant village, containing, in 1801, west of Baiae, in the Sinus Puteolanus. Here Augustus 625, in 1811, 678, in 1821, 814, and in 1831, 937 inhabihad a fleet, called Classis Misenensis, for guarding the tants. MISSIO, amongst the Romans, was a full discharge Mare Inferum ; as he had another at Ravenna for protectgiven to a soldier after twenty years’ service, and it difing the Mare Superum. Upon this peninsula a villa was built by Caius Marius, fered from the exauctoratio, which was a discharge from with a degree of elegance which gave great offence to the duty after seventeen years’ service. Every soldier had a most austere amongst the Romans, who thought it but ill right to claim his missio at the end of twenty years. MISSION, in Theology, denotes a power or commission suited to the character of so rough a soldier. Upon the same foundation Lucullus, the plunderer of the eastern to preach the gospel. Jesus Christ gave his disciples their world, erected an edifice, in comparison of which the for- mission in these words, “ Go and teach all nations.” The mer house was only a cottage ; but even his magnificence Catholics reproach the Protestants with this, that their was eclipsed by the splendour of the palace which the em- ministers have no mission, as not being authorized in the perors raised upon the same spot. To these proud abodes exercise of their ministry, either by an uninterrupted sucof heroes and of monarchs, which have long been levelled cession from the apostles, or by miracles, or by an extrato the ground, a few fishing huts and a lonely public house ordinary proof of a vocation. But many amongst us deny have succeeded; and men resort thither to tipple perhaps that any other mission is necessary for the ministry than on the identical site where the voluptuous masters of the the talents necessary to discharge it. Mission is also used for an establishment of people world quaffed Chian and Falernian wines. MISER, a parsimonious person who is at the same time zealous for the glory of God and the salvation of souls, rich ; or a wretch covetous to extremity, whom avarice and who go and preach the gospel in remote countries and has divested of all the charities of human nature, and ren- among infidels. See Religious Missions. MISSISSIPPI, one of the United States of North Amedered an enemy even to himself. MISERICORDIA, in Law, is an arbitrary fine imposed rica, is situated between 88°'30' and 91° 50° of west lonon any person for an offence; it is called misericordia, be- gitude, and 30° 8' and 35° of north latitude. It is bounded cause the amercement ought to be but small, and less than on the north by Tennessee, on the south by the Gulf of that required by Magna Charta. If a person be outrage- Mexico and part of Louisiana, on the east by Alabama, ously amerced in a court that is not one of record, the and on the west by Louisiana and the River Mississippi. writ called moderata misericordia lies for moderating the It is above three hundred miles in length, and one hundred and sixty miles in average breadth, containing a superamercement according to the nature of the fault. ficies of fifty thousand square miles. The surface of this MISFEASANCE, in law-books, signifies a trespass. MISITRA, or Mistra, a city of Greece, in the Morea, state is diversified by a number of distinct ranges of hills one of the largest in the peninsula. It is situated upon a of moderate elevation, besides a succession of eminences wide plain, watered by two streams, and said to have been called blufirs, which in some cases approach to the river, raised out of the ruins of ancient Sparta, which was two and at other times are seen several miles from it. The miles from the modern city. The country around was bases of the Walnut Hills, Grand Gulf, Natchez, White fertile, but has been neglected; and the population of the Cliffs, and Loftus Heights, are washed by the river Miscity has declined from 16,000 to 4000. It still produces sissippi. Two of these ranges divide the state nearly in some good silk, but is commonly considered as an un- its whole extent, and separate it into sectional divisions. As we recede from the river, the bluffs spread out into a healthy place. MISNOMER, in Law, misnaming a person, or mis- kind of undulating table-land, but in many instances the richest table-lands have precipitous benches, by which taking his name. MISPRISIONS, a term derived from the old French, they are exposed to what agriculturists technically term mespris, a neglect or contempt, are, in the acceptation of “ washing.” By this casualty the land is divided into deep English law, generally understood to be all such high of- ravines, and the richest parts of the state are subjected to fences as are under the degree of capital, but nearly bor- it. In the northern part of the state, which is undulating, dering thereon. It is said that a misprision is contained in the soil is deep, black, and rich, and in its natural state every treason and felony whatsoever; and that, if the king is, to a considerable extent, covered with cane-brakes, so please, the offender may be proceeded against for the like some of the more southern parts of the state. Ihe misprision only. Upon the same principle, whilst the juris- north-west part of the state is agreeably variegated with diction of the Star Chamber subsisted, it was held that the hills and valleys of great fertility, and fine springs abound.

MISSISSIPPI. 299 : ;sis- In the lower parts of Mississippi, bordering on the river, all kinds of grain fruits, and vegetables can be cultivated. MIsm. rocks, stones ot any size, and even gravel, are seldom seen ic sugar-cane has hitherto been attempted only upon its sippi-"'above ground. The whole western limit of this state is southern frontier. The sweet orange is raised in some' washed by the river Mississippi, which has here a remark- par s, and in the middle regions figs, grapes, and other ably circuitous course. The flat margin of the river on fruits arrive at full perfection. But the grand staple of this side is less valuable than similar soil upon the opposite tie state is cotton, and hitherto it has been found more bank. It is an inundated swamp, thinly inhabited, and profitable than any other production, although its price has covered with dense forests. diminished nearly two thirds within these few years. Most The most considerable river whose course is wholly con- of the respectable farmers raise Indian corn enouch to fined to the state is the Yazoo. It rises near the limits meet their own consumption, and also rear hogs sufficient of Tennessee, and, taking a north-westerly course, flows to supply them with bacon. through a high, pleasant, and salubrious country, which, When Mississippi was admitted into the Union in 1817 however, is chiefly claimed and inhabited by Indians. There g nt th at after is a fine building stone on this river, in situations favourable ^n nnuTu . ’ and indemnifying P^g a debt of 1,250,000 dollars to Georgia, certain for conveyance to New Orleans. The next in importance claimants, five per cent, of the net proceeds of the public is the Pearl, which is navigable for fifty miles. The Pas- lands lying within the state shall be applied to the formacagoula, which has a course of two hundred and fifty miles tion of roads and canals. To facilitate this end several before it falls into the Gulf of Mexico, is likewise capable privileges were granted, such as exemption of the public of considerable navigation. The Big Black, which, mea- lands from taxation; and in 1829 a board of internal imsuring its meanders, has a course of two hundred miles, provement was formed, for the purpose of carrying the is navigable for fifty miles. It enters the Mississippi just views of government into effect. In consequence of this above the Grand Gulf. The Homochitto is also a consider- arrangement, a number of railways and canals have been able stream, but the other rivers and creeks are comparaconstructed, or are in progress. Ample public funds have r tively small. also been set apart for the endowment of schools, but eduThe climate of Mississippi is thus adapted to the growth is not very generally diffused, as the legislature has of cotton. It is mild, and in some parts delightful; but cation not enforced the establishment and support of suitable the state being exposed to the winds of the north-west, schools. An institution called a college has been incorthe winters are occasionally severe, though very irregular at Shieldsborough, and another, called Jefferson m point of temperature. From the swampy nature of the porated western border, this part of Mississippi is not very healthy ; College, at Washington, near Natchez. Besides these, there are a few flourishing seminaries of education in the the other parts, however, are salubrious. A considerable principal towns. The religious bodies in this state are portion of this state still remains in its primitive condition, Methodists, Baptists, Presbyterians, Roman Catholics, and and is covered with thick forests of oak, hickory, lime, Episcopalians. The following is a tabular view of the posassafras, cotton-wood, magnolia, poplar, and other valu- pulation of the counties and county towns, according to the able trees ; and the swamps abound with cypress. Almost census of 1830. Counties. Adams, S. W Natchez city... Amite, S. W Claiborne, W Copiah, S. W. M. Covington, S. M.. Franklin, S. M Greene, S. E Hancock, S Hinds, M. Jackson, S. E.... Jefferson, S. W. Jones, S. M Lawrence, S. M. Lowndes Madison, E Marion, S Monroe, E Perry, S. E Pike, S Rankin, W Simpson, S. M... Warren, W Washington Wayne, E Wilkinson, S. W. Yazoo, W Total population in 1830...

Population.

County Towns.

12,1291 2,790 J Natchez. 7,943 Liberty 9,818 Port Gibson.... 7,024 Gallatin 2,549 Williamsburgh. 4,622 Meadville 1,849 Leaksville 1,961 Pearlington Jackson 8,619 Raymond 1,789 Jackson, C. PL. 9,755 Fayette 1,471 Ellisville 5,321 Monticello 3,342 Columbus 4,973 Livingston 3,701 Columbia 3,855 Hamilton 2,285 Augusta 5,402 Holmesville 2; 084 Brandon 2,666 Westville 7,861 Vicksburgh 1,976 Princeton 2,778 Winchester 11,693 Woodville 6,550 Benton 136,806, of whom 65,659 were slaves.

Distance in miles from Jackson.

Washington.

112 122 67 53 83 105 171 200

1146 1156 1101 1087 1087 1139 1046 1135 1035 1053 1073 1127 1054 1120 900 1066 1097 916 1063 1128 1051 1090 1089 1154 1008 1182 1075

19 213 93 134 88 134 31 120 150 137 151 16 56 54 119 165 148 64

MISSISSIPPI. 300 Natchez is much the largest town, and the principal seat is included between the Alleghany and the Rocky Moun- My MississipJ sippi. of commercial transactions. It is romantically situated on tains. Mr Flint, in his volume descriptive of this large w and important part of North America, also includes in it' v the east bank of the river Mississippi, on a very high bluff, about two hundred and eighty miles above New Orleans, those portions which are watered by the comparatively in long. 91° 25' west, and lat. 31° 34' north. It is the small rivers Mobile, Pearl, and others of West Florida on principal town in this region for the shipment of cotton to the east side, and the Sabine, Brassas, and Colorado of New Orleans. Great numbers of boats are always lying Texas on the west side. If we include the minor valleys here, and in the autumn and winter Natchez presents an traversed by these streams, the great valley of the Missisanimated and bustling aspect, but in summer little busi- sippi is bounded on the south by the Gulf of Mexico, and ness is transacted. The streets are broad ; many of the extends on the south-east to Cape Florida. Running along buildings are in very good style, and the whole has the that cape in a northerly direction, the boundary on the east appearance of cleanliness, comfort, and opulence. T. he passes those table elevations which separate the waters of and Tombigbee from those of the rivers of Bank of the State of Mississippi, a United States’ Branch the Mobile Florida; thence it proceeds through what has been Bank, and the Planters’ Branch Bank, are at Natchez. The East designated the country of the Indian nations, and touchfirst has a capital of one million, and the last a capital of ing the north-western extremity of Georgia, it reaches the three millions of dollars. Monticello is a flourishing village situated on Pearl Ki- Alleghany Mountains, which constitute the eastern bounOn the north no mountain ridges indicate the line ver, and was some years ago the seat of government; but dary. of demarcation between this valley and the basins of the Jackson, near the head of the same stream, is now the poor between the waters of the Mississippi, and those litical metropolis. It has a central, healthy, and pleasant lakes, situation, but the inhabitants are not numerous. Vicks- which flow northward into Lake Winnipeg, Hudson’s Bay,* burgh, below the Walnut Hills, on the Mississippi, has risen and the Arctic Ocean; but the valley is generally consias terminating on the north where it begins to reup within these few years, and has already become a place dered of great trade. Gibson Post, which is situated on Bajmu ceive its waters. The Rocky Mountains define the westPierre, about thirty-five miles above Natchez, is a village ern boundary ; and one of the southern ridges of this chain of considerable importance. Shieldsborough, Greenville, divides the waters of Arkansas and Red Rivers from those Woodville, Winchester, Washington, and Warrenton, are of the Rio del Norte, and traverses Coahuila and Texas to the low grounds on the Gulf of Mexico. The valley ot also flourishing places. On the 1st of January 1832, the unsold lands, to which the Mississippi thus stretches over twenty degrees oflatithe Indian and the foreign titles had been extinguished, tude, exclusive of Cape Florida, and about thirty degrees amounted to 21,211,465 acres. At the same date the In- of longitude. No other valley on the globe, with the exception of that dians still claimed 6,529,280 acres, and 733,244 acres had been set apart for the erection of schools and for goyein- which is drained by the river Amazon, can be compared in ment purposes. The manufactures and shipping of this extent with that of the Mississippi; and it probably surstate are too unimportant to require particular mention. passes all others in the richness and variety of its soil, and In 1836 there were in Mississippi five banks, to which in its general adaptation to the support and comfort of cia number of branches were attached. Printing was intro- vilized men. In extent it resembles a continent; and in duced about the beginning of the present century, and in beauty and fertility it is the most perfect garden of nature. 1834 thirteen newspapers were published within the state. It is, however, unnecessary to enter into a particular acMississippi was admitted into the Union in 1817. Ihe count of it as a whole, the individual states into which it is constitution and laws bear a common resemblance to those divided being all described separately. The history of its of the other states. The legislative body is styled a general settlement, although interesting, would stretch this article assembly, consisting of a senate which is elected triennial- to an unreasonable length. It is given generally in that ly, and a house of representatives which is elected annu- on America, to which the reader is referred; and also ally. The rights of citizenship are enjoyed by those who more particularly under the heads of the various states emhave a freehold or an interest in real estate. The gover- braced within the limits of the great valley. Mississippi River.—This river is the largest in the nor serves two years, and is eligible only four years out of six. The judiciary consists of a supreme and circuit court, United States, and also one of the largest in the world. together with subordinate courts appointed by the legis- Until the year 1832, when an expedition to ascertain its lature. The judges are appointed by the legislature, and source was undertaken by order of Congress, it was unhold their offices during good behaviour. The state is known in our geography, that above Cass Lake the Missisdivided into seven circuits or districts, and one judge and sippi separates into two forks, and that it derives its origin a district attorney are chosen by the electors of each dis- from Itasca Lake, which is situated 182 miles above Cass trict ; and a circuit court is held in each county twice every Lake. This is a beautiful sheet of water, seven or eight year. This court has original jurisdiction in civil causes, in miles in extent, and lying amongst hills of diluvial formawhich the sum in controversy exceeds fifty dollars. All tion, surmounted with pines. The outlet of Itasca Lake persons above twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the is about ten or twelve feet broad, butof little depth. Ihe Mississippi is considered as originating at an altitude of United States, are electors. A great number of Indians still hold possession of con- 1500 feet above the Atlantic, in latitude 48° north, and lonsiderable tracts of country in this state. The principal gitude 96° west. Its length is about 3160 miles, and it falls tribes are the Chactaws and Chickasaws, the number of the into the Gulf of Mexico at Balize, in latitude 29° 6', and former being estimated at 20,000, and that of the latter longitude 89° 30'. Its general course in ascending above at about 4000. They are at present in a semi-savage state; Cass Lake is north of west as far as Lac Travers; then but many of them have good houses, slaves, enclosures, south to its primary forks, which is continued, following and cattle. Schools have been established amongst them up the east fork to Rubbakunna Lake, and lor some t is It then varies a short distance north and for the reception of Indian pupils, and there are missionary tance farther. T stations whence the truths of Christianity are diffused over north-w est, then south-west and south ; and, finally, southwest to its main source in Ussawa Lake. The portage the country. Valley of the Mississippi.—This name has been given thence to Itasca Lake is west-south-west. Both these lakes to the vast tract of country which is watered by the Missis- appear to rise in springs on the high ground, and they are sippi river and its numerous tributary streams, and which separated by about six miles of country. The Mississippi

M I S M I S 301 1 :sis traverses more degrees of latitude than any other river'in mv this point it is fifty feet; but it subsides above Nat- Missouri, )i. America, and consequently the varieties of climate and ve- chez, and thence gradually to the mouth of the river.' “^getable productions which it passes through are very great. Between the Missouri and the Ohio the most shallow parts It occupies about a thousand miles of the distance between of the channel have six feet of water when it is lowest. the arctic circle and the equator. Long as it is, however, I hence to the St Francis, between latitude 35° and 34°, the Mississippi has a tributary longer than itself, the Mis- there are several shoal places, where, when the water is souri. Like the Niger, its mouth was discovered by navi- low, pilots are perplexed to find a proper depth. Below that gating down its current; but, unlike that stream, which so point there is no difficulty for vessels of any draught, except long held the geographical world in suspense, its sources to And and preserve the right channel. There are no tides have also been sought from its central parts. Its entire in the Mississippi, although a variation of a few inches in course has at length been ascertained; and we may now ap- the height of the water is sometimes observed both during peal with full certainty to the Balize and to Itasca Lake as the day and night; but even at the very mouth of the river its extreme points. At the latter it is a placid basin of trans- the water is at all times fresh, and no ebb and flow corparent spring water ; at the former it is as turbid as the responding with those of the ocean are observed. Its naviearth which it holds in suspension can make it, and carries gation is at all times attended with some danger, on acforests of floating trees on its turbulent bosom. Below the count of the raging power of the current, and the numejunction of its primary forks it expands at very unequal rous trees which it dislodges on its banks and bears away distances into eight sheets of clear water, each of which in its course. Steam-boats, however, are admirably fitted possesses features worthy of admiration. Four of these, to avoid these dangers ; and the navigation above New OrLac Travers, Cass Lake, Winnipeg, and Lake Pepin, are leans is every year becoming more and more confined to lakes of respectable magnitude and striking scenery. The them, flat boats still bring down much produce, but albroadest parts of its channel lie in the central parts of the most no other vessels besides steam-boats are seen ascendvalley of the Mississippi. Its depth is great in all its low^er ing the river. R> ^ parts, and increases as it flows on to the gulf, and its geneMISSOURI, one of the United States of North Ameral descent and velocity are such as to appear very striking rica, is situated between 88° 17' and 94° 30' of west loncharacteristics. We are not aware that it has been sounded gitude, and 36° and 40° 30' of north latitude. It is 270 in such a manner as to justify any estimate of its average miles in length by 220 in breadth, and contains an area depth. At Natchez, about 400 miles from its mouth, it of about 60,000 square miles. If is bounded on the north has been stated to be from 100 to 150 feet deep, and this and west by the Missouri territory; on the east and northincreases the lower we descend. From the Falls of St east by the Mississippi, which separates it from Illinois; Anthony, to a few miles below the river Des Moines, in on the south-east by the Mississippi, which separates it in latitude 40°, the Mississippi is about half a mile broad. this quarter from Kentucky and Tennessee; and on the Below the rapids which occur at this place its average south by Arkansas territory. breadth is about a mile; its cun-ent is about two miles an A large portion of this state, situated in the south-east hour, and its average depth about four feet. Where it re- quarter, is low, swampy, full of lakes, and in many places ceives the Missouri, it is a mile and a half wide. The liable to inundation. Beyond this region, which is genemouth of the Missouri is about half a nnle wide, and when rally marked by a bold line of rolling and fertile high lands, these are united, they constitute a stream about three the country gradually becomes mountainous, and continues quarters of a mile in breadth, very deep, and having a fu- so to the Osage and its tributaries. It then becomes rious boiling current. The medium current is about four bioken and hilly, until it opens upon the boundless belt miles an hour, but it is often much greater. Its average of prairies which spreads beyond the western limits of the width during the remainder of its course does not exceed state. 4 he best land is situated between the Missouri a mile. In estimating its breadth, we refer to the space and the Mississippi; and no part of this vast tract is mounbetween the banks of its regular channel. At every flood tainous, consisting chiefly of alluvial and hilly prairies of it overspreads a vast tract of country, principally on its a very rich soil. 1 he importance of large navigable rivers western side, which is from ten to fifty miles in breadth to a civilized and commercial people is well known; and through the last five hundred miles of its course; and no quarter of the globe is so amply provided in this remost of the water which overflows below Red River goes spect as Missouri, the greater part of rich and easily culto the Gulf of Mexico without returning to the river. The tivated soil stretching along the banks of majestic streams. country thus overflowed is generally without any habitable The Mississippi sweeps along its eastern border 550 miles, spots, but is covered with cypress, cotton-wood, or coarse receiving in its course the great river from which the state grass, and its waters abound with alligators. The number derives its name. The Missouri, entering the western of the tributaries of the first, second, and third class, is boundary, traverses the state, receiving on either side triso great that it would form a labour of some research to butaries, which, if not contrasted with the stream into determine it. The Missouri, the Ohio, the Red River, which they empty their waters, would deserve the title of and the Arkansas, are of the noblest order. The first- fine rivers. The Osage, rising in the angle between Arnamed stream flows in a little below 39°, the Ohio be- kansas and Kansas Rivers, on the vast plains west from the tween 37° and 36°, the Arkansas between 34° _and 33°, state of Missouri, carries its serpentine but navigable voand the Red River a little below 31°. Below the latter lume into Missouri River, near the centre of the state. nver there are many large outlets, but no considerable I he St Prancis and White Rivers rise in this state, and streams join the Mississippi. After receiving the Missouri, flowing southward, connect it with the Arkansas. A great tie course of this great river is so serpentine as to present many large and beautiful rivers enter the Missouri as trivery few “ reaches,” or places where it is so straight that butaries. Some of these have a course in the state, but an extent of three or four miles can be seen at one time, most of them belong to the territory of Missouri. n many places the low alluvial tract upon its borders is The soil of this state is as varied as the surface, every t irty or forty miles in breadth. From the sources of the quality being found, from the most productive and inexriver to the mouth of the Missouri the annual flood ordi- haustible alluvium, to tracts of sterile clay or siliceous narily commences in March, and does not subside till the sand. According to Mr Flint, there is a specific differend of May; and its medium height is fifteen feet. Be- ence between the alluvium of the two rivers Mississippi ween the Missouri and the mouth of the Ohio the an- and Missouri; the bottoms of the latter being more loamy nual flood is twenty-five feet. For a great distance be- and sandy, and those of its rival more clayey and sub-

MISSOURI. 302 Missouri, stantial. On the eastern border, and near the streams rain falls here than in New England, or the southern states, Missot s generally, a dense forest covered Missouri; although in and the atmosphere is much drier and more bracing. It'w. ^ some parts naked prairie encroaches upon the streams. is, however, cold and windy; but successive years vary so Speaking in general terms, the south-east section is allu- much that a general rule can scarcely be laid down. Unvial, and liable to a partial annual inundation; the south- certain as are the revolutions in meteorology elsewhere, western is mixed prairie and “ flint hill” land ; the northern they are proverbially variable in the state of Missouri and section, west from the Mississippi and north from the Mis- the adjacent regions. In regard to health, this state has souri, contains, as we have already said, the choicest land a somerwhat suspicious character; but in course of time, in the state. The soil of the upland prairies is far inferior by cultivation, draining, and similar operations, it is likely to that of the alluvial prairies. Upon the whole, the good to become as salubrious as any other in the Union. Allands of this country have in general a great degree of fer- though but a few years since a tenement in any degree sutility; and there is scarcely any part sufficiently level for perior to a temporary log-hut was a very rare object, the cultivation which does not produce good crops of corn with- progress of civilization is marked by the rapid disappearout manure, whilst in many instances the poorer lands are ance of those primitive structures, and the substitution of found to be better for wheat than the richer. The prairies brick and stone houses. Bears, wolves, panthers, buffaloes, are in general level, and of an intermediate character be- elks, deer, the mole called gopher, the bite of which is said tween the richer and poorer uplands ; and the bottoms of to be poisonous, the prairie dog, rattle snakes, and other repall the water-courses are rich. The geographical extent of tiles, are found in this state. Great varieties of waterMissouri, and its great diversity of soil, admit of a corre- game swarm on the lakes, ponds, and rivers during certain sponding variety of vegetable productions. Wheat and In- seasons of the year. Generally speaking, the hunter will dian corn have been the staples of this state during the find in no country a finer field for his pursuits. The docomparatively short period that any part of it has been cul- mestic animals are the same as in other parts of the United tivated. Its soil also produces the other kinds of grain in States. Missouri is rich in minerals and metals, and it has beperfection. Cotton is raised in the south-eastern section ; tobacco thrives well; and flax and hemp are likely to be- come celebrated for immense deposits of lead ore, chiefly come largely cultivated. Turnips and bulbous-rooted ve- of galena. It is dug out in various parts of the state ; but getables grow to a great size. Pumpkins, squashes, and there is a district extending nearly a hundred miles in melons, are nowhere raised in greater abundance; and sweet length and forty in width, which is particularly distinas well as Irish potatoes thrive sufficiently well. Culti- guished for its lead mines. The centre of the district is vated grasses have hitherto not succeeded so well as the about seventy miles south-west from St Louis, and about other articles of culture. At present the fodder provided half as far from Herculaneum on the Mississippi. The for the stable in winter is chiefly corn, its leaves and husks, ore is found in imbedded masses, and appears evidently to with what is called prairie grass. This is a coarse and be a deposit. Coal in immense strata also exists in Mistall grass, covering the prairies in the greatest abundance. souri, and iron ore forms no inconsiderable part of many All the fruits of the northern and middle states thrive in of the hills. The other minerals discovered are plaster, an uncommon degree. Three species of vine are com- manganese, zinc, antimony, cobalt, various kinds of ochre, mon in all parts of the country ; whilst the warmth of sum- common salt, nitre, plumbago, porphyry, jasper, calcemer, and the dryness of the atmosphere, peculiarly fit this dony, and marble. There are as yet but few public roads, state for the cultivation of the medicinal plants, rhubarb, although Congress has paid attention to the construction of palma Christi, and the poppy. Indeed many parts of railways and other public works. A railroad from Mait are likely to rival the best tracts east of the Mississippi rion city to Palmyra has been commenced ; and it is inin the abundance of their productions. “ This state,” tended to continue it to New York, the capital of Shelby says Mr Flint, “ has lands already, fit for the plough, suf- county, and thence to the Missouri, near Chariton. Anoficient to produce wheat enough for the whole United ther has been projected extending from St Louis to FayStates. Prairies of hundreds of thousands of acres of first- ette, upwards of a hundred miles in length; and another rate wheat-lands, covered with grass, and perfectly free leading from St Louis to the lead mines in Washington from shrubs and bushes, invite the plough; and if the and Franklin counties. With a few exceptions, the habitcountry were cultivated to a proper extent it might be- able parts of Missouri constitute one vast plain, so that roads come the granary of the world.” “ Above all countries,” are easily constructed, and those which have been made are says the same writer, “ this is the land of flowers. In the remarkably good, and passable at all seasons of the year. season, every prairie is an immense flower garden. In the In 1825, commissioners of the United States laid out a early stages of spring rises a generation of flowers, whose road through the wilderness, leading from Missouri to Mexprevalent tint is peach-blossom; the next is a deeper ico ; and the Osages, by treaty, in consideration of 800 red ; then succeeds the yellow, and. to the latest period dollars, granted the right of making and using the road of autumn the prairies exhibit a brilliant golden hue.” through their lands. Agriculture in all its forms, either as an art or as a In reference to trade, it is not to be supposed that Misscience, is yet in its infancy in Missouri, as it may be sup- souri, so recently settled, can have much, excepting in such posed to be in any newly-settled country where nature articles as are immediately supplied by nature. Accordhas done so much. The climate is extremely fickle and ingly, lead and fur constitute the staples of commerce. variable, and the changes of temperature are very great. The lead annually smelted exceeds three millions ol During three winters in five the Mississippi is passable on pounds, a considerable quantity certainly, but nothing the ice at St Louis. Receding from the Atlantic, it is in compared with what might readily be obtained. There this state that the frigid winds of the north-west are first is doubtless ore enough of the best quality to supply the experienced in all their force. The prevailing winds fol- whole world with lead. The commerce in this article, low the direction of the Mississippi Valley ; those from the therefore, is likely to increase rapidly; for the mines are northward are cold, but the southern winds are warm. The rich, and the part of the country in which they are situatwfinter commences about Christmas, and is frequently se- ed is remarkable for its salubrity, as w^ell as for the fertility vere ; but the summers are very warm, and as the coun- of its soil, and its fine streams. Shot-towers are erected try is bare, and open to the sun’s influence, whilst the soil at Herculaneum and other places; and great quantities ot is of a warm and sandy texture, calculated to admit the shot are exported. St Louis is the centre of the fur trade. solar rays, a great quantity of caloric is imbibed. Less Boats are continually passing between this town and New

MISSOURI. ,uri. Orleans. Since Mexico achieved its independence, consi- ing to the American Almanac for the year 1837, the United Missouri. derable commercial intercourse has been established with Jprethren or Moravians had thirty-three ministers, twenty-v-"-* the interior provinces of that republic, by means of the four churches or congregations, and two thousand comroad above mentioned. Amongst other companies incor- municants ; whilst the Catholics had thirty-nine ministers. porated by the legislature within these few years are, the Rehgmus instruction and good schools are less esteemed Missouri Insurance Company, capital one hundred thou- and less common in this new state than in most others in sand dollars, and the privilege to increase it to four hun- the Union. St Louis College, a Catholic institution, was dred thousand; the St Louis Marine Railway Company; founded in 1829: in 1836 there were fifteen instructors, the St Louis Hospital; the St Louis Water-Works; and nine alumni, two hundred students, and 7500 volumes in the St Louis Marine and Fire Insurance Company. The the libiaiy attached to it. Corporations have been formbank of the United States has an office of discount and de- ed for a number of academies, colleges, and seminaries of posit at St Louis. There are various other companies education; and the legislature has passed an enactment established throughout the state, amongst which may be to sell all the lands appropriated to the interests of edumentioned an iron foundery on a respectable scale in the cation, and apply the funds thence arising to the purvicinity of St Louis, and one or two large establishments pose for which it was intended. There are a number of at Bellevue, in the mine country, which smelt their own convents in the state, to which young females are sent iron from mines in the immediate vicinity. to be educated. In 1810 there was only one newspaper The most numerous denominations of Christians in Mis- in the state, but in 1836 the number had increased to fifsouri are Methodists, Presbyterians, and Catholics. Accord- teen. Population of the Counties and County Towns in 1830. Counties. Boone Callaway Cape Girardeau. Chariton Clay Cole Cooper Crawford Franklin Gasconade Howard Jackson Jefferson Lafayette Lincoln Madison Marion Monroe Montgomery New Madrid Perry Pike. Ralls Randolph Ray St Charles St Franchise St Genevieve St Louis Saline Scott Washington Wayne Total population...,

Population. 8,829 6,102 7,430 1,776 5,342 3,006 6,019 1,709 3,484 1,548 10,844 2,822 2,586 2,921 4,060 2,371 4,839 3,900 2,351 3,377 6,122 4,346 2,962 2,657 4,322 2,386 2,182 14,907 2,893 2,136 6,797 3,254

County Towns. Columbia Fulton Jackson Chariton Liberty Jefferson City.. Booneville Little Piney Union Gasconade Fayette Independence.. Herculaneum... Lexington Troy Fredericktown. Palmyra Monroe Lewistown New Madrid.... Perryville Bowling Green. New London..., Randolph Richmond St Charles Farmington St Genevieve.... St Louis Walnut Farm..., Benton Potosi Greenville.

Distance from Jefferson City. Washington 56 32 208 79 190 51 98 79 47 65 177 164 138 97 170 190 129 67 278 187 132 167 96 149 123 152 168 134 85 236 127 200

891 967 856 1031 1142 980 1023 989 901 939 1017 1129 886 1090 913 894 984 998 932 892 882 948 961 1042 1101 876 912 874 856 1038 861 915 908

140,074

Of this population 24,990 are slaves. In 1836 it was estimated at 210,000, being an increase of 70,000 in less than six years. The commercial capital of Missouri, and the principal town west of the Mississippi, is St Louis. It is situated on t e western bank of the above-named river, eighteen miles y water below the junction of the Missouri, fourteen above

38. 36. N. The situation of the town is elevated, pleasant, healthy, and admirably adapted for commerce. The ground upon which it stands rises gradually from the first to the second bank, which is forty feet above the place upon which St Louis is chiefly built. On this bank are the fortificaorm ^ that ^aramac thirtybeing below the Illinois, -00 above of the >Ohio, in that long.of89.36. W., andand lat. tions erected in early times for the defence of the place.

304 MISSOURI. Missouri. The town extends two miles along the river, in three pa- the political metropolis of the state; and no place in the Missk ■“'-v'''—^ rallel streets, which are intersected by others crossing them western territory has a more interesting country adjoining'^—- £ at right angles. It contains several places of public worship, it than this village. The other places are too small to reamongst which is a Catholic cathedral. It has also a spa- quire particular description. This state adopted its present constitution, and was adcious town-house, a theatre, a land office, a bank, a museum, two or three printing offices, a brewery, and several mitted into the Union, in 1820. In its general features it remills. Many of the houses are built of stone, but not a sembles those of the other states. The senators are electfew are entirely constructed of wood. It is in a state of ed for four years, and the representatives for two. The rapid improvement, and fast increasing in population and governor is elected for four years. The judicial power is trade. Its situation is advantageous and interesting, being vested in a supreme court, a chancellor’s court, and circuit, more central with regard to the whole territory belonging and other subordinate courts, the judges of which hold to the United States than any other considerable town; their offices during good behaviour. Every free citizen and, uniting the advantages of the three great rivers Mis- who has resided a year in the state, and the last three sissippi, Missouri, and Illinois, with their numerous branches, months preceding the election in the district, is entitled whilst it possesses unrivalled facilities for trade, it will to a vote in that district. The legislature meets at Jefin all likelihood become a great city, and the centre of a ferson every second year, on the first Monday of Novemvery extensive commerce. An idea of the present state of ber. The article which allowed the existence of slavery in the trade of St Louis, and the rate at which it increases, the state was long and bitterly contested in the national lemay be formed from the following abstract made from the gislature ; but the admirers of the whip and chain prevailed. There is nothing, either interesting or remarkable in the steam-boat register. 1831. 1835. history of Missouri. It formed a part of the extensive Number of different boats arrived 60 121 country of Louisiana which was purchased from France by Number of arrivals 532 803 the United States in the year 1803. Although French setAggregate amount of tonnage 7769... 15,470 tlements were commenced at St Louis and St Genevieve as The country around and to the west of St Louis, for a dis- early as 1764, yet, at the time when the country was purtance of fifteen miles, is an extended prairie of a very luxu- chased, this portion of it contained but few inhabitants. riant soil. This town was settled, principally by French In 1804 this country was separated from the rest of Louiemigrants from Kaskaskias, soon after the peace of 1763, siana, and erected into a territorial government by the when France ceded to Great Britain her right to all the name of the Territory of Louisiana, which was afterwards country eastward of the Mississippi. It came to the United altered to the Territory of Missouri, and lastly to the State States by the cession of Louisiana in 1803. The popula- of Missouri. Immigration at first proceeded rapidly, but tion at that time was below 1000; in 1830 in had risen to received a check in the year 1811 from the sickliness of 5852 ; and at present (1837), judging from the increase of the season ; and the late war also effectually repressed for trade, it cannot amount to less than 10,000 or 12,000. a time the increase of the country. In 1817 various causes The other towns in the state of Missouri are, with a few conspired to retard the advancement of this state. Imexceptions, of but small size and little importance. Hercu- provements of every description not only came to a dead laneum is situated on the western bank of the Mississippi, pause, but seemed to retrograde. This continued for sevethirty miles below St Louis, upon a narrow alluvial plain, ral years; but in the year 1824 prosperity advanced anew, hemmed in on all sides but that facing the river by high the tide of immigration once more set towards Missouri, and romantic bluffs, rendered still more imposing by a num- and it has ever since continued to improve. ber of shot-towers planted on their summits. This is the Missouri Territory, a tract of country belonging to chief place of deposit for the lead of the lead mines. St the United States, which is bounded on the north by the Genevieve is situated at the upper extremity of a beauti- British possessions, on the east by the North-west Terriful alluvial prairie about a mile westward of the Mississippi. tory, Illinois and Missouri, on the south and south-west by The town is finely situated, and has some trade, most of the territories of the Mexican republic, and on the west the lead for exportation being brought to it. The popu- by the Rocky Mountains. It is 900 miles in length by lation amounts to about 1500. New Madrid is situated on 800 in breadth. The belt of land on the western bank of the Mississippi, about fifty miles below the mouth of the the Mississippi, which is partially wooded, is generally Ohio. Next to Natchez, it is the most noted landing place from 200 to 400 in breadth. Then commence the vast for steam-boats on the Mississippi above New Orleans. It prairies which constitute so striking and impressive a feais chiefly deserving of mention from having, along with the ture in the immense country stretching beyond the Miscountry around it, been visited, in 1811 and the following sissippi and the Missouri. It is for the most part a plain, year, by two of the most terrible and destructive earth- more or less covered with grass, and in many places fertile; quakes which ever laid waste the works of man and nature. but in others it presents only an ocean of moving sand. Jefferson, a new town above the mouth of the Osage, on Countless multitudes of buffaloes, elks, and other wild anithe south side of the Missouri, has become, since the seat mals, graze upon it. The principal sources of the Missouri, of government was removed there, the position of the Arkansas, and Red River, are found in this territory; and public buildings ; but not being a fortunate selection, it several large branches of the Mississippi, above the Mishas not greatly prospered. Franklin is situated on the souri, come from the north-western part of the same vast northern bank of the Missouri, 150 miles by land above St country. Of the Rocky Mountains, which are as yet but Louis. It is estimated to contain above 200 houses, and imperfectly known, Mr Flint, in his Geography of America, about 1200 inhabitants. It is surrounded by the largest gives the following account. body of rich Jpnd in the state, and is the centre of a po“ The Rocky Mountains commence in the unexplored pulous region of opulent and respectable farmers. Potosi, regions to the north-west of the United States, and, rangthe county town of Washington, is the centre of the mine ing across the sources of the Missouri, the Roche Jaune, district. It is situated in a pleasant valley surrounded by Platte, Arkansas, and Red River, in the Mexican states hills, sixty-five miles south-west, from St Louis. St Mi- of Texas and Coahuila, they diverge and unite with the chael is an old French village amongst the mines, and there ranges of Mexican mountains. They separate the waters are a number of other small villages in the same district. of the great tributaries of the Mississippi from those that St Charles, on the Missouri, is a pleasant village, contain- fail into the Columbia or Multnomah, the great lake of ing about 1200 inhabitants. It was for a number of years Buenaventura, and other waters of the Pacific. They

MIS M 1 T 305 iiouri. have a far greater extent than the Alleghany Mountains these the Missouri receives the waters of the Roche Jaune Misterbi. 'are of a wider range, and for the most part run, like them^ r lellow btone, probably its largest tributary. It rises in parallel ridges, though generally more ragged, detached, m the same ranges of mountains as the main river, and in anco II and broken, and are by no means so regular. They are many respects resembles it. It is a broad, deep, and sweep- Mite. also of a character decidedly more primitive. Their black ing stream, and at its junction appears to be the larger of precipitous, and frowning appearance has probably given the two, entering from the south by a mouth of 850 yards them the name of the Rocky Mountains. Their bases wide. Its course is commonly calculated at 1600 miles, have an elevation of between 3000 and 4000 feet above Said t0 be 1880 miles ab the level of the sea. James’s or Pike’s Mountain has been aof?l ^ntranC-e 1SIt °ve the mouth T was selected by the government the Missouri. as an given as about 12,000 feet in height. As this vast range of e igible situation for a military post and an extensive setmountains is as yet but very imperfectly known, there is tlement. At the junction of the Yellow Stone, the Mislittle reason to doubt that many of the peaks, when more souri has wide and fine bottoms, but unfortunately its banks fully explored and more accurately measured, will be found are almost destitute of timber, which will retard its settleto approach much nearer in height to the highest ranges ment for a long time. A great many rivers join the Misin Mexico than has been commonly supposed. Most of souri below this. The following are the most considerathe more elevated summits are above the limit of perpe- bie: Knife River ; Cannon-Ball River, which is 140 yards tual congelation. In one respect they resemble the Al- wide; Chienne, which is boatable 800 miles; Poncas, Quileghanies. In numerous places the waters that run into Courre, White Stone, Big Sioux, Floyd’s, and many other the Pacific rise near those that fall into the tributaries of all enter on the south side. La Platte, which has the Mississippi. Thus has nature kindly provided points astreams, longer course than any tributary of the Missouri, comes in of easy transit from the eastern to the western side of rom the south side. It rises in the same ranges of mounthese frowning and apparently impassable barriers of na- tams which give birth to the parent stream, and, measurture. By communications of unquestionable veracity, from cd by its meanders, is supposed to have a course of 2000 persons engaged in the Missouri Fur Company, we learn miles before it joins the principal stream. It is nearly a mile that, following up the valleys of the sources of the Platte m width at its entrance; but, as its name imports, is shalto the opposite valleys of waters that fall into the Great low, and not boatable except at its highest flood. Kansas, Lake of Buenaventura, on the other side, a good road was a large tributary from the south, has a course of 1200 miles, found, and easily passable by loaded waggons.” This vast and is boatable nearly the whole of its course. From the inland sea is one hundred miles in length by from sixty north side, the following, amongst other streams, flow to eighty in breadth, and its waters are much salter than into the Missouri: the Grand River, which is large, long, those of the ocean. deep, and boatable for a great distance; the Nowada, Little iere are ot J^ her ranges of mountains, which traverse Charatous, Bonne Femme, and Manitou. difterent parts of this territory; as the Black Hills, the Ozark Platte, b wbcde ®. length of the Missouri, above its junction with Mountains, the Masserne, and others. There are also fer- the'^' Mnssissippi, has been estimated at above 3100 miles. tile belts of land on the margins of most of the rivers, and Add to this the distance from the mouth of the Missouri some of them have a great extent of rich country. As to the Gulf of Mexico, and the total will be nearly 4400 we recede from the rivers, the soil becomes poor, and exThe Missouri is much longer than the Mississippi tensive deserts are found in the southern regions. In such mues. a vast extent of level country, naked and open, the climate before their junction, and has a much greater volume of water. It is about half a mile in breadth at its mouth, but must ot course in a great measure depend upon latitude. is wider in a great part of its course. (r. r. r.) Immediately beyond the state of Missouri and the ArkanM1STERBIANCO, a town of the island of Sicily, in ssas territory, the climate is mild and temperate; but it the kingdom of Naples and the province of Demone, 118 gradually becomes similar to that of Canada. There are miles from Palermo. It stands upon Mount AStna, and is very few settlements of whites in this vast country, and none so considerable as to have any established govern- the Monasterium Album of Pirro. The situation is healthy, ment. At Council Bluffs there is a military post, having and the inhabitants are 3500. It is surrounded with baone regiment of infantry. Many tribes of Indians still saltic rocks and warm baths. MISTRETTA, a parliamentary city of the island of possess vast tracts of country. The Sioux are the most Sicily, in the kingdom of Naples and province of Demone, miles from Palermo. It stands on the north abouHIO 00 thC Wh°le number has been estimated at seventy-eight shore, near the mouth of the river Nebroden, on an elevatMissouri, a very large river of the United States, which unites with the Mississippi a little beyond the thirtieth ed and healthy situation. It contains 8000 inhabitants. MU CHAM, a village of the county of Surrey, in the egree of north lat. It originates in the Rocky Mountains, and takes the name of Missouri in lat. 45. 10. north, and in hundred of Wallington, seven miles from London. It is ong. i 10. west, where the three branches, Jefferson, Gal- pleasantly situated on the river Wandle, a stream remarkin, and Madison unite. These head branches of the Mis- able. ior its trouts, and for the number of mills turned by it within a short distance. The population amounted in souri are navigable to a considerable extent before their 1801 to 3466, in 1811 to 4175, in 1821 to 4453, and in junction. Where the river makes its escape from the Rocky 1831 to 4387. MI ICHELSTOWN, a post-town of Ireland, in the aa distance ?.ua*'ains>of** about presents spectacle of rare For six amiles the rocks risesublimity. 1200 feet percounty of Cork, 132 miles south-west from Dublin. It is U arly fr water s ed e Tbe riv built on the site of an ancient town called Brighgobban, 5=y^shed ' . r the S -it rushes er is consiin width ’where through these said to have been founded by a saint of whom a relic was ttiIIo8 kelowr i 6 , .ocky Mountains. One hundred and ten long preserved. Lord Baron Kingston here founded an this chasm are the stupendous cataracts of establishment called the College, where a number of detv ® ? piaRfMlSS0Un r °ne of which has a perpendicular fall of cayed gentlemen and gentlewomen are comfortably proy fpff seven feet, but according to Mr Flint of ninety-eight vided for. Long. 8. 21. W. Lat. 52. 54. N. MITE, a small piece of money mentioned in St Luke’s a cpV; 3 °^about seventeen miles the river may be termed BivtJp °‘ cataracts. Not far below these falls Maria’s Gospel (xii. 59, and xxi. 2). In the Greek it is r0m nor b ns ahlact * j°i the Missouri. It Manoles, is a considerame stream, as are also the Dearborn, Fancy, Big quadransy or a quarter of the Roman denarius; so that ry, and others, which enter still farther down. Below the mite was worth about seven farthings, or nearly twopence of our money. V O-L. Xy, , — 2Q

306 M I T Mithras MITHRAS, Feasts of, in Antiquity, were celebrated II amongst the Romans in honour of Mithras or the Sun. Mithndamost anc;ent instance of this amongst the Romans .occurs in an inscription dated in the third consulate of x Trajan, or about the year of our era 101. This is the dedication of an altar to the Sun under the name of Mithras, and inscribed Deo Soli Mithrce. But the worship of Mithras was not known in Egypt and Syria in the time of Origen, who died about the year of Christ 263 ; although it was common at Rome for more than a century before this time. The worship of Mithras was proscribed at Rome in the year 378, by order of Gracchus, prefect of the praetorium. According to Freret, the feasts of Mithras were derived from Chaldaea, where they had been instituted for celebrating the entrance of the Sun into the sign Taurus. MITHRAS, or Mithra, a god of Persia and Chaldaea, supposed to be the Sun, and whose worship was introduced at Rome. He is generally represented as a young man, whose head is covered with a turban after the manner of the Persians; and he supports his knee upon a bull lying on the ground, one of the horns of which he holds in one band, whilst with the other he plunges a dagger in his neck. MITHRIDATES, the name of several kings of Pontus. Mithridates, surnamed Eupator, and also the Great, succeeded to the throne at the age of eleven, about 123 years before the Christian era. The beginning of his reign was marked by ambition, cruelty, and artifice. He murdered his own mother, who had been left by his father co-heiress of the kingdom ; and he fortified his constitution by drinking antidotes against the poison with which his enemies at court attempted to destroy him. He early inured his body to hardship, and employed himself in the most manly exercises, often remaining whole months in the country, and making frozen snow and the earth the place of his repose. Naturally ambitious and cruel, he spared no pains to acquire power and dominion. He murdered the two sons whom his sister Laodice had by Ariarathes king of Cappadocia, arid placed one of his own children, when only eight years old, on the vacant throne. This violent proceeding alarmed Nicomedes king of Bithynia, who had married Laodice the widow of Ariarathes, and ultimately involved Mithridates in a quarrel with the Romans. Mithridates never lost an opportunity by which he might lessen the influence of his adversaries ; and in order the more effectually to destroy their power in Asia, he commanded that all the Romans who were in his dominions should be massacred. This was done in one night, and no less than a hundred and fifty thousand according to Plutarch, or eighty thousand according to Appian, became the victims of his cruelty. This atrocious butchery called aloud for vengeance. Aquilius, and soon afterwards Sylla, marched against Mithridates with a large army. The former was made prisoner; but Sylla obtained a victory over the generals of Mithridates ; and another decisive engagement rendered the great Roman captain master of all Greece, Macedonia, Ionia, and Asia Minor. This adverse fortune was aggravated by the loss of about two hundred thousand men, who were killed in the different engagements; and Mithridates, weakened by repeated reverses both by sea and land, sued for peace from the conqueror, which he obtained on hard terms. But he soon took the field again with an army of a hundred and forty thousand infantry and sixteen thousand horse, consisting of his own forces and those of his son-in-law Tigranes king of Armenia. At the head of this army he made himself master of the Roman provinces in Asia; none dared to oppose his conquests; and the Romans, relying upon his fidelity, had withdrawn the greater part of their armies from the country. But

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the news of his warlike preparations were no sooner heard Miti than Lucullus the consul marched into Asia, and without | j delay blocked up the camp of Mithridates, who was then besieging Cyzicus. The Asiatic monarch, however, escap-^V' ed, and fled into the heart of his kingdom. Lucullus pursued him with the utmost celerity, and would have taken him prisoner after a battle, had not the avidity of his soldiers preferred the plundering of a mule loaded with gold to the taking of a monarch who had exercised such cruelties against their countrymen. The appointment of Glabrio to the command of the Roman forces, instead of Lucullus, proved favourable to Mithridates, who recovered the greater part of his dominions. But the sudden arrival of Pompey soon put an end to his successes. During the night a battle was fought near the Euphrates, and an universal overthrow ensued ; but Mithridates, bold in his misfortunes, rushed through the ranks of the enemy at the head of eight hundred horsemen, five hundred of whom perished in the attempt to follow him. He fled to Tigranes his son-in-law, who however refused him an asylum, although he had previously supported him with the collected forces of his kingdom. Mithridates found a safe retreat amongst the Scythians ; and though destitute of power, friends, and resources, he yet meditated the overthrow of the Roman empire, by penetrating by land into the very heart of Italy. But these wild projects were rejected by his followers, and he sued for peace. It was denied to his ambassadors; and the victorious Pompey declared, that, in order to obtain it, Mithridates must ask it in person. The proud monarch scorned to trust himself in the hands of his enemy, and resolved to conquer or to die. His subjects, however, refused to follow him ; and, having revolted against his authority, made his son Pharnaces king. The latter showed himself ungrateful to his father ; and, according to some writers, he even ordered his parent to be put to death. This unnatural treatment broke the heart of Mithridates, who obliged his wife to poison herself, and attempted to do the same himself. But his attempt was in vain. The frequent antidotes he had taken in the early part of his life had strengthened his constitution against the poison ; and when this proved unavailing, he attempted to stab himself. The blow did not prove mortal; and a Gaul who happened to be present, gave bim, at his own request, the fatal stroke, about sixty-four years before the Christian era. Such were the misfortunes, the abilities, and the miserable end, of a man who supported himself so long against the whole power of Rome, and who, according to the declarations of the Roman authors, proved a more powerful and indefatigable adversary than Hannibal, Pyrrhus, Perseus, or Antiochus. It is said that Mithridates conquered twenty-four nations, whose different languages he knew and spoke with the same ease and fluency as his own. As a man of letters he also deserves attention. He was acquainted with the Greek, and even wrote in that language a treatise on botany. His skill in physic is well known ; and even now there is a celebrated antidote which bears his name, and is called mithridate. The great work of Adelung has also been called by his name. MITRA was a cap or covering for the head, worn by the Roman ladies, and sometimes by the men ; but it was looked upon as a mark of effeminacy in the latter, especially when it was tied upon their heads. MITRE, a sacerdotal ornament worn on the head by bishops and certain abbots upon solemn occasions, being a sort of high cap, pointed and cleft at top. The high priest amongst the Jews wore a mitre or bonnet upon his head; and the inferior priests of the same nation had likewise their mitres, but in what respect they differed from that of the high priest is uncertain. Some writers contend that the ancient bishops wore mitres; but this is by no means a settled point.

MIT M N E 307 Mitre Island, a small uninhabited island in the South cumstances, however, ere long forced him, with his family, M‘Neill. re and Pacific Ocean, with two remarkable promontories. Lone. from this choice retreat, to occupy a farm on the banks of' I . 169. 55. E. Lat. 11. 49. S. Veil. MITTAU, a city of the province of Courland, in Euro- Loch Lomond, where part of the boyhood of Hector, the youngest and favourite child, was spent amongst those pean Russia, and the capital of a circle of the same name. scarcely less beautiful or less classic scenes, on which the It is in a marshy situation, at the junction of the river young eyes of Buchanan and Smollett had gazed with deDrive with the Aa. It was once fortified, but the walls hght; and where their “rural pipe,” as well as his own, have gone to decay. The ancient palace of the dukes of was first tuned to freedom and love. Courland has been repaired for an imperial residence, but His early education, with the exception of a short time never so occupied. It contains seven churches, and, in- spent at a school in the neighbourhood, was solely conductcluding the suburbs, 740 houses, with 12,420 inhabitants. ed by his father at home, who, along with the common There is here a college, with nine professors, and a library branches, carefully imbued his mind with piety and good of 16,000 volumes. It has little trade except at a great morals, and, with parental fondness and pride, also encoufair, which continues four weeks. Long. 23. 20. E. Lat. raged his boyish passion for the muses. Preparatory, how56. 45. N. ever, to going to Bristol to the house of a wealthy mercanMITTIMUS, as generally used, has two significations. tile relative, who had promised to provide for young Hector First, it signifies a writ for removing or transferring of re- the latter was, at the age of twelve, sent to Glasgow for two cords from one court to another. Secondly, it signifies a years, to acquire those branches immediately applicable to a precept or command in writing, under the hand and seal commercial life. On his arrival at Bristol, he was occupied of a justice of the peace, directed to the gaoler or keeper for a short time in the counting-house of his relative, and of some prison, for the receiving and safe keeping of an in completing his commercial education previously to his offender charged with any crime, until he be delivered by departure for the West Indies. Having spent three years, due course of law. with neither comfort nor success, in mercantile pursuits in MITWEIDA, a city of the kingdom of Saxony, in the Antigua, and other three with strict honour and integricircle of Leipsig, and bailiwick of Rochlitz. It stands on ty in a civil capacity, in the office of the provost-marshal the river Ztchopau, and is one of the most considerable of Granada, he returned to his native land with the acplaces in Germany for the manufacturing of cotton goods. quisition of the French language, but with no more wealth It contains 508 houses, and 3860 inhabitants. than when he departed. * MITYLENE, or Mytelene, in Ancient Geography, a Both his mother and sister had died in his absence, and celebrated, powerful, and affluent city, the capital of the his father did not survive his return above a year and island of Lesbos. It received its name from Mitylene, the a half. The small inheritance to which he thus succeeddaughter of Macareus, a king of the country. It is great- ed he sunk in an annuity ; but this only enabled him inly commended by the ancients for the stateliness of its dolently to waste six valuable years in a connection which, buildings and the fertility of its soil; but more especially howsoever regarded in the islands he had left, is still profor the great men it produced, particularly Pittacus, Al- perly dishonourable in this, and which must, no doubt, as caeus, Sappho, Terpander, Theophanes, Hellanicus, and much as “ the idle propensity of rhyming,” have impeded others. It was long a seat of learning; and, with Rhodes his future success in life. Ihe loss of his annuity by and Athens, it had the honour of educating many of the bankruptcy, however, broke the spell which had bound him, great men of Rome and Greece. In the Peloponnesian and urged him to seek some resource for warding off the war, the Mitylenians suffered greatly for their revolt immediate approach of want. against Athens; and in the Mithridatic wars they had the In this emergency, through the interest of a friend in boldness not only to resist the Romans, but to disdain the London, he was appointed to the office of assistant-secretreaties which had been concluded between Mithridates tary in the flag-ship of Admiral Geary. Having made two and Sylla. cruises, the one under Admiral Geary, and the other under MIXTURE, a compound or assemblage of several dif- Admiral Darby, he resigned a situation which necessity ferent bodies in the same mass. Chemical mixture is at- alone had made him at first accept. Soon afterwards, howtended with many phenomena which are never observed ever, he was induced to undertake the same office in the in simple mixtures; such as heat, effervescence, &c. To flag-ship of Sir Richard Bickerton, appointed to the East chemical mixture belong the union of acids and alkalies, Indian station. During this service he was present in the the amalgamation of metals, the solution of gums, &c.; and last naval engagement with the able French commander upon it depend many of the principal operations of che- Sufti ein ; and though his inkstand before him was swept mistry. away by the first broadside, and a block fell over his head M1ZEN, or Mizzen, in nautical language, is a particular on the quarter-netting, he evinced more calm intrepidity mast or sail. The mizen-mast stands in the sternmost part than the lyric bard of Rome in the battle of Philippi, or of the ship. In some great ships there are two of these, in the unrivalled orator of Greece on the field of Chteronea. which case that next the main-mast is called the mainBefore leaving the Indian shores, on the conclusion of ant ^ khat next the poop the bonaventure mize.n. peace with America, he visited Surat, the sculptured exMIZRAIM, or Misraim, the dual name of Egypt, em- cavations of Elephanta, and “smilingSalsett’s cave-wrought p oyed in Scripture to denote the upper and lower divi- coast.’ An account of these singular remains of Indian sions of that country. It sometimes occurs in the singu- superstition and antiquity, his first attempt at authorship, Z r Isaiah xix Micah vii beguiled the tedium of his voyage home, and was aftermTv ° 1 KingS ’ xixa* distinguished ’ ’ Scottish > -> iNEILL, Hector, poet, born wards published in the Archseologia. Neither enriched on tie 22d of October 1746, at Rosebank, on the Esk, and w ith the gold of India, nor secured in a competence by a a most amongst the classic woods of Hawthornden. Here is afher, descended from an old respectable family in the permanent appointment, he returned to Scotland after an absence of five years, where, to his mortification, he found, sout of Argyleshire, had retired from military service to as too frequently happens, that success or adversity is conen j°y the undisturbed calm of domestic life. Pecuniary cir- sidered as the proof of good or bad conduct. ablec cuvum&tances cirr!^laCC°r^anC j ^he impracticable. Poet’s usual orthography of his name, this article ought to have been placed under Mac, but unavoidrendered this

M N E M N E 308 M‘Neill. The reversion of his bankrupt annuity being still un- By the death of one of the companions of his boyhood, Mnet “v—-' settled, and economy necessary, he retired for two years the Grahams of Three-Mile-River, whose kindness and N nicu to a humble residence in the neighbourhood of Stirling, liberality he had formerly experienced when in Jamaica, he '“"v' distinguished alike by the beauties of nature and the me- now received a legacy, and the surviving brother settled on morials of national glory and independence. In this re- him an annuity for life. Under his friendly roof, previously tirement, enhanced by the contrast of vertical suns and to his return, he wrote “ The Scottish Muse,” descriptive tropical scenes, and so congenial to thought and the muses, of the various vicissitudes of his own poetical life; and he produced the beautiful descriptive poem of “ The Links also a grateful epitaph to his deceased friend, as in duty of Forth,” which gained him the enlightened friendship of he might “ with a brother’s woes record his own.” Upon his aAival in Scotland, almost like one risen from Mr Graham of Gartmore. The exhausted state of his pecuniary resources, how- the grave, when the voice of envy is silenced by death, a ever, compelled him to revisit the West Indies. On his ar- species of posthumous fame hailed his return. With the rival in Jamaica he was appointed to an office in the cus- well-deserved emoluments of his poetical labours, and antomhouse at Kingston ; but the debilitating effects of fever, other bequest of an intimate medical friend in Jamaica, in and other circumstances connected with his duties, obliged addition to his annuity, he spent the evening of his days him to repair to the upland vale of Guanaboo, whose lively in the capital of his native land, in the enjoyment of pubhues of vegetation, and “ coolness wafted in perfume” from licly-awarded honour, lettered ease, and comparative the orange, the logwood, and the lime (citrus medicay var.) affluence. Here he published “ The Pastoral or Lyric at once exhilarated the mind and invigorated the consti- Muse of Scotland,” illustrative of the music and song of tution. Here, by a providentially good fortune, he met the Scottish Arcadia—the green hills and dales of the with two old school-fellows, whom distance and time now Teviot, Tweed, and Yarrow: also two satirical poems, more closely united in friendship, and who, with a liberali- entitled “ Town Fashions,” and “ Bygane Times and Late ty becoming their wealth, made him share in their success. Come Changes.” His last literary efforts were “ The ScotAt the request of the distinguished Dr Currie, he drew up tish Adventurers,” and an unpublished autobiography in an impartial statement “ on the treatment of the negroes,” three volumes, which has been the chief guide in this brief which was published at Liverpool by his esteemed friend, account. Such were the calm labours of the years spent to whose memory he has done justice, both in “ The Scot- in Edinburgh, till the 15th March 1818, when, at an age beyond the common limit of human existence, he closed tish Muse,” and in “ The Rose o’ Kirtle his frequently adverse, but not inglorious career, leaving a “ And ye wha mourn at Currie't urn, name endeared to his countrymen, and embalmed in the Or weep by Mersey’s river, song of his father-land. Learn, that the rose that virtue blows, Though dead, will bloom for ever.” Born a poet, with a musical ear, a melodious voice, and Upon his passage home he composed the second canto of a feeling mind, Macneill’s disposition ill accorded with the the sweetly wild poem of “ The Harp,” founded. on a rough life of the British seamen, and still less with the tradition of the Hebrides, and communicated to him by cautious acquiring habits of the merchant. From his atGraham of Gartmore, with whom, on his return to Stirling- tachment to truth, he was free, undisguised, and even seshire, he lived for nearly two years in the closest intimacy vere ; quick in temper, yet serene and social; proudly hoof friendship. From prudential motives, however, and nourable, yet warm and benevolent. True to nature and feelperhaps not a little in the spirit of “ not burning his harp ing, as a poet he excels in the simple and pathetic; and for woman,” he retired from this loved abode to Argyle- though his humour and satire be less successful, his manshire, in order to break off a mutual attachment between ner is serious and his aim uniformly well directed. In the year 1801 an edition of his poetical works issued him and a near relative of his patron. But this separation told on his sensitive and feeling frame, though the inte- from the London press, in two vols. 12mo. The second resting scenery of Argyleshire, the society of friends, and edition, Edinburgh, 1806, in two vols. 12mo, contains adthe composition of admired songs to the favourite airs of ditional songs, The Rose o’ Kirtle, and Verses on Dr Doig, to whom the beautiful octavo edition of Scotland’s Skaith, the country, considerably alleviated his tender pain. Welcomed, from the popularity of his songs, by the Edinburgh, 1795, is dedicated. The third edition, Edinfashionable society of Glasgow, he was, by the liberality of burgh, 1812, in two vols. 12mo, does not, as might be supa friend, about to engage there in business, when, on the posed, contain the following poems, though written after breaking out of the revolution in France, the commerce and the publication of the preceding edition : The Pastoral or prosperity of that city experienced a reverse so severe as Lyric Muse of Scotland, Edinburgh, 1808, 4to; Town Facompletely to prevent the execution of his intentions. Soon shions, or Modern Manners delineated, Edinburgh, 1810, after he was afflicted with a nervous disorder, which, by im- 12mo; Bygane Times and Late Come Changes, Edinburgh, proper treatment, continued about six years. During this 1811, 12mo. His publications in prose are, an Account of the Caves malad "xed his residence for a time in a cottage near the fielu ot Bannockburn, “ dear to the muse, but doubly of Canara, Ambola, and Elephanta, in the eighth volume dear to'liberty.” Here, unable either to read or write above of the Archaeologia, 1787 ; On the Treatment of the a few minutes without distress, he, like the blind minstrels Negroes in Jamaica, Liverpool, 1788; and The Scottish of other times, composed “ Scotland’s Skaith,” by memory Adventurers, or the Way to Rise, a historical tale, two (s. s.) alone; the happiest effort of his genius, and which induced vols. Edinburgh, 1812, 8vo. MNEMONICS. Some ancient writers speak of an arhis countrymen to consider him as the gifted bard on whom the inspiring mantle of Burns had fallen. The sequel to tificial memory, and lay down rules for attaining it. Sithis simple, pathetic tale, which ran through fourteen edi- monides the poet is said first to have made this discovery, tions in a year, he composed in the same manner, and pub- or at least to have occasioned its being made. The story lished under the title of “ The Waes of War but this told of him is this. Being once at a feast, he recited a was not so well received, from its being then considered as poem which he had composed in honour of the person who gave the entertainment; but having made a large satirically reflecting upon the Dutch campaign. In the hope of recovery from his long-protracted com- digression in praise of Castor and Pollux, his patron, when plaints, although by many deemed irremediable, he again he had repeated the whole poem, only gave him half the sailed for Jamaica. This voyage happily contributed alike sum he had promised, telling him that he must get the to restore his health and to afford him a future competence. rest from those deities who had an eqi^gjiiare in the ho-

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M N E 309 j :mo. nour of his performance. Immediately afterwards, Simo- ner. Perhaps I should hesitate to this moment about the Mnemos. nides was informed that two young men were without, utility of this newly-invented method to assist our natural syne -■ ■'•'''and must needs speak with him. He had scarcely quit- memory, had I not had the pleasure of dining at his ex- , II ted the house, when the room where the company was as- cellency s, the Count de Metternich, the Austrian ambas- > Moab. sembled fell down, killed all the persons in it, and so mu- sador, who followed, with all his secretaries, the whole tilated the bodies that, when the rubbish was removed, course of lectures ; they all spoke very advantageously of they could not be distinguished one from another; but Si- it, likewise several other persons of the first rank I met monides, calling to mind the place which every one had there. In consequence of this I was inserted into the list occupied, was by that means enabled to distinguish them. of pupils, and I follow at this moment the lectures. All Hence it came to be observed, that fixing a number of I can tell you about this method is, it is a very simple places in the mind, in a certain order, served as a help to one, and easy to be learned, adapted to all ages and sexes. the memory; for we find by experience, that upon return- All difficulties in such sciences as require an extraordinary ing to places once familiar to us, we not only remember good memory, for instance, the names and epochs in histhem, but likewise many things which we both said and tory, are at once overcome and obviated. There is not did in them. This effort of Simonides was afterwards im- one branch of science to which this method cannot be approved into an art, and its nature is simply this: You are plied. It is easy to be perceived that such an invention required to form in your mind the idea of some large cannot pass without some critique, and even sarcasms, in place or building, which you may divide into a great num- the public prints ; some of them were very injurious, and ber of distinct parts, ranged and disposed in a certain or- plausible enough to mislead the public, who, knowing noder.- These you are frequently to revolve in your thoughts, thing of the method, are always more ready to condemn until, beginning at any part, you are able to run them than to assist. M. Feinaigle, to answer all these critics at over one after another without hesitation. Then you are once, adopted a method not less public for Paris than the to impress upon your mind as many images of living crea- public papers, but less public for the rest of Europe. He tures, or any other objects which are most likely to affect gave a public exhibition to about 2000 spectators, in which you, and to be soonest revived in your memory. These, he did not appear at all, only about twelve or fifteen of his like characters written in short-hand, or like hieroglyphics, pupils ; each of them made such an application of the mewill stand to denote an equal number of words, which can- thod as his situation in life required. The principal parts not so easily be remembered. When therefore you have a were the following : History, about names and years ; geonumber of things to commit to memory in a certain order, graphy, with respect to longitude, latitude, number of inall that you have to do is, to place those images regularly in habitants, square miles, &c.; grammar in various lanthe several parts of your building ; and thus, by going over guages, about different editions of the same work; panseveral parts of the building, the images placed in them dects, their division, and title of each book, title, &c.; will be revived in the mind, by which means the things or different systems of botany, poetry, arithmetic, &c. At words themselves will arise in the order in which you de- last one desired the company to give him one thousand sire to remember them. The advantage of these images words, without any connection whatsoever, and without seems to be this, that, as they are more likely to affect numerical order; for instance, the word astronomer, for the imagination than the words for which they stand, they No. 62; wood, for No. 188 ; lovely, for No. 370; dynasty, will for that reason be more easily remembered. Thus, for for No. 23; David, for No. 90, &c. till all the numbers instance, if the image of a lion be made to signify strength, were filled; and he repeated the whole, notwithstanding and this word strength be one of those which I am to he heard these words without order, and but once, in the remember, and be placed in the porch, then, in going over numerical order; or he told you what word was given the several parts of the building, when I come to the against any one number, or what number any one word porch I shall sooner be reminded of that image than of bore. It is still more striking, but certainly also more the word strength. Of this artificial memory both Cicero difficult, to retain as many numbers, however great they and Quintilian have spoken; but we know not of any mo- may be. For words and numbers I could venture myself, dem orator who has ever made use of it. It seems in- with the greatest safety, as far as one hundred of each; deed to have been a laborious way of improving the me- and I am sure, after having fixed them once, which is mory, if it serves that end at all, and fitter for assisting done in less than ten minutes, I could repeat them to you us to remember any number of unconnected words than at any period, without ever thinking any more of them.”1 a continual discourse, unless in as far as the remembrance Feinaigle afterwards delivered lectures on the same subof one word may enable us to recollect others. It is, how- ject to crowded audiences in London, Edinburgh, Glasever, in allusion to it that we still call the parts of a dis- gow, and other towns; but we do not find that any of his course places or topics, and say, in the first place, in the pupils received improvement from his instructions, and very second place, and so on. few of them could give any account of his method. In Germany this art was revived by M. Aretin ; and a MNEMOSYNE, in fabulous history, a daughter of pupil of his, M. Kaestner, was permitted to teach the new Ccelus and Terra, who married Jupiter, by whom she had doctrine at Leipzig, but on the express condition of not the nine Muses. The word mnemosyne signifies memory ; allowing his hearers to write down his lectures. The fol- and therefore the poets have rightly called Memory the lowing account is given of this art in a letter from Paris mother of the Muses, because it is to that mental endowwritten in the beginning of 1807 : “ During my resi- ment that mankind are indebted for their progress in scidence,” says the writer, “ in this metropolis, I heard a great ence. deal of a new method of mnemonique, or of a method to MO A Isle, in the Eastern Seas, is situated off the eastassist and fix our memory, invented by Gregor de Fein- ern extremity of Timor, and intersected by the 128th deaigle. Notwithstanding the simplicity with which he an- gree of east longitude. Lat. 8. 20. S. nounced his lectures in the papers, I could not determine MOAB, in Ancient Geography, a country of Arabia myself to become a pupil of his, as I thought to find a Petraea, so called from Moab the son of Lot, to whose posquack or mountebank, and to be laughed at by my friends terity this country had been allotted by divine appointment for having thrown away my cash in such a foolish man- (Deut. xi. 9). It was originally occupied by the Emim, 1

Phil. Mag. 28, 93,

310 M O C Moat a race of giants extirpated by the Moabites. Moab anil ciently lay to the south of Ammon, before Sihon the AmoMocha. rjte stripped both nations of a part of their territory, which was afterwards occupied by the Israelites (Numb, xxi.) ; and then Moab was bounded by the river Arnon to the north, the Lacus Asphaltites to the west, the brook Zared to the south, and the mountains Abarim to the east. MOxlT, Ditch, or Fosse, in Fortification, a deep trench dug round the rampart of a fortified place, to prevent surprises. See Fortification. MOATAZALITES, or Separatists, a religious sect amongst the Turks, who deny all forms and qualities in the Divine Being, and divest God of his attributes. Amongst the Turkish divines two opinions are entertained concerning God. The first admits metaphysical forms or attributes, as, that God has wisdom, by which he is wise ; power, by which he is powerful; eternity, by which he is eternal; and so of the rest. The second allows God to be wise, powerful, eternal; but does not admit any form or quality in God, for fear of admitting a multiplicity. Those who hold the latter opinion are called Moatazalites ; they who adopt the former, are denominated Sephalites. This sect is said to have first invented the scholastic divinity : it is subdivided into no less than twenty inferior sects, which mutually brand one another with infidelity. MOBILE, a city, port of entry, and capital of Mobile county, in Alabama, one of the United States of North America. It is situated on the west side of Mobile River, at its entrance into the bay, thirty miles north of Mobile Point, which is upon the east side of the mouth of the bay, fifty-miles west by north from Pensacola, and 160 miles east from New Orleans. Although its site is dry and pleasant, in rear of it there are swampy lands and stagnant waters, and near it is a sterile country of pine woods. It possesses a considerable trade in cotton, and in this respect ranks next to New Orleans and Charleston. The value of the exports of domestic produce from Alabama in 1829 amounted to 1,679,385 dollars, and nearly the whole of this must have been shipped at Mobile. The exports have since considerably increased. This city has a regular steam-boat communication with New Orleans through Lake Ponchartrain. During most of the year steam-boats are constantly plying between this place and the towns on the river, and many vessels are continually loading at the wharfs for distant ports. In January 1836, the Mobile and Tennessee Railway Company was incorporated. This work is to extend from the city or bay of Mobile to some point on the Tennessee River, and thence north to the Tennessee line. Mobile has a bank, and issues two daily papers. The population is estimated at between 4000 and 5000. Long. 88. 21. W. Lat. 30. 40. N. Mobile, Moveable, any thing susceptible of motion, or that is capable of being moved either by itself or by some other prior mover. Primum Mobile, in the ancient astronomy, was a ninth heaven or sphere, imagined to exist above those of the planets and fixed stars. This was supposed to be the first mover, and to carry round all the lower spheres along with it ; communicating to them a motion by which they revolved in twenty-four hours. But the diurnal revolution of the planets is now accounted for without the assistance of any such primum mobile. Perpetuum Mobile. See Perpetual Motion. MOCHA, one of the principal ports of the Red Sea, and the chief city of the province of Yemen, in Arabia. It has a handsome appearance from the sea, all its buildings being white-washed, and several of its minarets overtopping the other buildings, whilst some of the tombs, which, as in many eastern cities, are handsome structures, break the monotonous view of the flat roofs which are common in Mahommedan cities. But if the eye is pleased by the

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external aspect of the place, these ideas are quickly dispelled by a nearer view, owing to the filth which covers the streets and all the open places, and the mean and ruined state of many of the houses, which, being generally built of unburnt bricks, with little lime, are destroyed by the introduction of moisture, which decomposes the fragile materials of which these buildings are composed, and the bricks in consequence return to their original state of mud. The principal edifice is the residence of the Dola, which is large and lofty, having one front to the sea, and another to a square, which forms the only regular portion of the town. The other sides of this square are occupied by the residences of the other public functionaries, and by one extensive serai built by the Turks whilst they were in possession of the place. Those houses which front the sea, with their turreted tops and fantastic ornaments of white stucco, make a respectable appearance. They have mostly small and irregularly-placed windows, and in the upper apartments they substitute for glass a thin strata of a transparent stone found in a mountain near to Sana. These windows are mostly of a circular form. The houses are but rudely finished in the interior, the floors and roofs being made of chunam, and very uneven ; the passages in them are long and narrow, and their staircases very steep. Those of the lower classes are still more rude, being mere huts of brick covered in the inside with mats, and sometimes in the outside with a little clay, with which the roof is thatched. The town is fortified by a wall sixteen feet towards the sea,"but thirty feet towards the land; and it extends for about a mile in nearly a straight line facing the sea, and afterwards takes a circular direction. It is of no strength, and would be shattered to pieces by the first shock of artillery; in some places, indeed, it would scarcely bear the firing of its own cannon. Nor are the forts which defend it in any better condition. They might all be levelled to the ground by a single broadside from an English man-of-war. Its only use was to repel an irregular attack of the Wahabee cavalry. The garrison consists of about 200 musqueteers and eighty cavalry, who receive two dollars of pay per month, and provide their own arms and ammunition. Mocha possesses a considerable trade, and is the channel through which the intercourse of Europe with this part of the world is carried on. Coffee is the main staple, and is indigenous to the country, which produces it in great abundance, and of unrivalled excellence. It was introduced from Arabia into Aleppo and Damascus, and other great cities. It became known in France and England in the middle of the seventeenth century ; the demand for it increased, and it became a source of wealth ; but the shrub having been transplanted to the West Indies, the cheaper coffee of these countries, though ol inferior quality, rivalled the produce of Mocha in the European markets. The whole quantity of coffee produced at Mocha, amounting, according to the estimate of Lord Valentia, to 4,880,000 lbs. was formerly conveyed to Jidda, where it was purchased by merchants from Europe or from India, and partly also from America. Mocha also carries on a considerable trade in myrrh, frankincense, and gumarabic, which commodities are brought from the opposite coast of Berbera, in Africa ; in balm of Gilead or of Mekka, a resinous juice much used in the East as a cosmetic; in senna, of which about 30,000 cwt. are exported; in sharks fins, rhinoceros’ horns and hides, acacia and civet from the interior of Africa. Grain and piece-goods are imported to a considerable amount from Bombay. The trade is carried on by about 250 Banians or Gen too merchants, who are subject to great oppression, and who are only induced to remain from the great profits which they realize. Three per cent, of custom duty is imposed on English goods, and on those of other foreigners five per cent. A three-masted vessel pays 384 dollars on its arrival, and vessels with two masts only

MOD MOD 311 ha one half each. Mocha is not a city of any antiquity. It hence, in academies, they give the term model to a naked Model, does not appear to have been known so far back as four man or woman, disposed in several postures, to afford an' el ‘ centuries. When it was visited by Alphonso Albuquerque opportunity to the scholars to design them in various views "^in 1513, it seems to have been an inconsiderable place. and attitudes. The first attempt to open a trade with it was in 1610, by Models in imitation of any natural or artificial substance the British expeditions under Sharpey and Sir H. Middle- are most usually made by means of moulds composed of ton. It was here that the latter was treacherously surpris- faster of I aris. For the purpose of making these moulds, ed and made prisoner with a number of his men, though this kind of plaster is much fitter than any other subhe afterwards obtained his release, and exacted satisfac- stance, on account of the power it has of absorbing water, tion for the injuries which he had received. The Dutch and soon condensing into a hard substance, even after it took the lead amongst the Europeans in establishing a has been rendered so thin as to be of the consistence of factory here; and they were followed in 1708 by the French, cream. This happens in a shorter or longer time, accordand afterwards by the English, who at length engrossed ing as the plaster is of a better or worse quality • and its almost the whole trade, till they found formidable rivals in good or bad properties depend very much upon its age, to the Americans. The surrounding country is a dreary plain which, therefore, particular regard ought to be had. It is of arid sand, environed by mountains, and covered with sold in the shops at very different prices, the finest beinoa saline efflorescence, scarcely relieved in some parts by made use of for casts, and the middling sort for moulds. It embrowned leaves and stunted vegetables, whose burnt ap- may be very easily coloured by means of almost any kind pearance does not diminish,the dreariness of the scenery. of powder excepting what contains an alkaline salt; for this Dates grow in abundance around the town, but, like every would chemically decompose the substance of the plaster, thing else, are affected by the poverty of the soil from which and lender it unfit for use. A considerable quantity of they spring. The south-east wind, which blows for eight chalk would also render it soft and useless, but lime harmonths of the year, and passes over the burning sands of dens it to a great degree. The addition of common size Africa, renders the climate intensely hot. The north- will likewise render it much harder than if mere water is west wind, which blows for the other four months, is also made use of. In making either moulds or models, howhot, as it passes over the burning sands of Arabia. It is ever, we must be careful not to make the mixture too thick supposed by travellers that the town does not contain above at first; for if this be done, and more water be added to 5000 inhabitants. Long. 43. 20. E. Lat. 13. 20. N. thin it, the composition must always prove brittle and of a Mocha, an island off the coast of Chile, above sixty bad quality. miles in circumference. It is fertile, and was formerly The particular manner of making models, or casts, as settled by Spaniards, but it is now uninhabited. It is, how- they are also called, depends on the form of the subject to ever, frequented by whale ships belonging to England and be taken. The process is easy where the parts are elethe United States. vated only in a slight degree, or where they form only a MOCKWANPORE, a district of Hindustan, situated right or obtuse angle with the principal surface from which principally between the twenty-seventh and twenty-eighth they project; but where the parts project in smaller degrees of north latitude, and bounded on the south by angles, or form curves inclined towards the principal surBettiah and Tirhoot in Bahar. It is a fertile valley, and face, the work becomes more difficult. This observation, produces abundance of rice. The capital is of the same however, holds good only with regard to hard and inflexiname; it is situated on a hill, surrounded by a stone wall, ble bodies; for such as are soft may often be freed from and forms a hill-fort of considerable strength. Long. 85. the mould, even although they have the shape last men18. E. Lat. 27. 28. N. tioned. But although this be the case with the soft oriMODAIN, Ul, a village of Irak Arabi, which occupies ginal substance, it is not so with the inflexible model when the site of Seleucia and Ctesiphon, on the eastern bank of once it is cast. the Euphrates. Little else remains excepting ruins of those The moulds are to be made of various degrees of thickonce magnificent cities. It is twenty miles south-east of ness, according to the size of the model to be cast; they Bagdad. may be from half an inch to an inch, or, if very large, an MODANIA, a town of Asia Minor, situated on a gulf inch and a half. Where a number of models are to be of the same name, on the Sea of Marmora. It was ancient- taken from one mould, it will likewise be necessary to have ly called Myrlea and Apamea, the ruins of which are still it of a stronger contexture than where only a few are revisible. It is fifteen miles north-west of Bursa. quired ; and this for very obvious reasons. MODBURY, a town in the county of Devon and hunIt is much more easy to make a mould for a soft subdred of Ermington, 210 miles from London. It has some stance than a rigid one, as in any of the viscera of the anifew cloth manufactories, and a good market on Thursday. mal body ; for the fluidity of the mixture makes it easily It is celebrated for its white ale. The population amount- accommodate itself to the projecting parts of the substance ; ed in 1801 to 1813, in 1811 to 1890, in 1821 to 2194, and and as it is necessary to inflate these substances, they may m 1831 to 2116. be very readily extracted again by letting out the air MODE, a word of the same general import with man- which distended them. ner, is used as a technical term in grammar, metaphysics, When a model is to be taken, the surface of the origian mus c "^ i * See the articles on these subjects. nal is first to be greased, in order to prevent the plaster MODEL, in a general sense, signifies an original pat- from sticking to it; but if the substance itself be slippery, tern, proposed for any one to copy or imitate. as is the case with the internal parts of the human body, This word is particularly used, in building, to signify an this need not be done. When necessary, it may be laid nrti cial pattern made in wood, stone, plaster, or other over with linseed oil, by means of a painter’s brush. The matter, with all its parts and proportions, being intended original is then to be placed on a smooth table, previously t e better conducting and executing some great work, greased or covered with a cloth, to prevent the plaster from to give an idea of the effect it will have in its proper sticking to it; then the original is surrounded with a frame imensions. In all great buildings, it is much the surest or ridge of glaziers’ putty, at such a distance from it as will ay to make a model in relief, and not to trust to a bare esign or draught. There are also models for the build- admit the plaster to rest upon the table on all sides of the subject for about an inch, or as much as is sufficient to n s an give proper degree of strength to the mould. A suf^tr°o , els , Pare ’ likewise .^ ^or many other purposes. used in painting and sculpture; and ficientthequantity of plaster is then to be poured as uniform-

MOD MOD 312 Model. ly as possible over the whole substance, until it be every- time not to go too far, lest it should not deliver safely; ands M#, where covered to such a thickness as to give a proper as the plaster becomes more tenacious, add more upon the * r substance to the mould, which varies in proportion to pattern, until it has become sufficiently thick, keeping the the size. The whole must then be suffered to remain in edges square and smooth like the edge of a board. The this condition until the plaster has attained its hardness. plaster should be spread equally upon all parts, which is When the frame is taken away, the mould may be invert- best done by a painter’s pallet knife or apothecary’s bolus ed, and the subject removed from it; and when the plaster knife; but for this the instrument should be somewhat less pliable than it is commonly made. is thoroughly dry, let it be well seasoned. When the outside piece becomes hard, the edges are The moulds being thus formed and seasoned, they must next be prepared for the casts by greasing the inside of to be pared smooth, and made nearly square with a small them with a mixture of olive oil and lard in equal parts, pointed knife. Little holes of a conical shape are to be and then filled with fine fluid plaster, and the plane of the made with the point of a knife, about an inch distant from mould formed by its resting on the surface of the table one another, according to the size of the piece. These covered to a sufficient thickness with coarse plaster, to are designed to receive the fluid plaster in forming the form a strong basis or support for the cast where this sup- adjacent parts of the mould, and occasion points correport is requisite, as is particularly the case where the thin sponding to the hollows; and they are intended to preserve and membranous parts of the body are to be represented. the edges of the different pieces steadily in their proper reAfter the plaster is poured into the mould, it must be suf- lative situations. The third piece is then to be formed in fered to stand until it has acquired the greatest degree of a manner similar to the second, greasing the edges of the hardness it will receive ; after which the mould must be former plentifully with hog’s lard and oil, to prevent the removed: but this will be attended with some difficulty pieces from adhering to each other. Thus the pattern is when the shape of the subject is unfavourable; and in to be wholly enclosed, only leaving a proper orifice for some cases the mould must be separated by means of a pouring in the plaster to form the model; small holes besmall mallet and chisel. If by these instruments any parts ing also bored in the mould opposite to the wire-loops fixof the model should be broken off, they may be cemented ed in the inside pieces, through which a cord is to be conby making the two surfaces to be applied to each other veyed from the loop to confine such pieces during the time quite wet, then interposing betwixt them a little liquid of casting. In some cases, however, it is not necessary plaster, and smoothing the joint after being thoroughly that the mould should totally enclose the pattern; for indry. Any small holes which may be made in the mould stance, where a model is to be made of a pedestal, or a can be filled up with liquid plaster, after the sides have bust of any part of the human body. The bottom of such been thoroughly wetted, and smoothed over with the edge moulds being left open, there is accordingly ample room left for pouring in the plaster. of a knife. After the mould is completely formed, it is next to be In many cases it is altogether impracticable to prepare a mould of one piece for a whole subject; and therefore dried either naturally or by a gentle artificial heat, and it must be considered how this can be effected in such a then seasoned in the following manner. Having been manner as to divide the mould into the fewest pieces. made thoroughly dry, which, if the mould is large, will reThis may be done by making every piece cover as much quire two or three weeks, it is to be brushed over plentiof the pattern as possible, without surrounding such pro- fully with linseed oil boiled with sugar of lead, finely lejecting parts, or running into such hollows, as would not vigated litharge, or oil of vitriol. The inside and joints of admit a separation of the mould. It is impossible, how- the mould should be particularly well supplied with it. If ever, to give any particular directions in this matter which the mould be large, it is needless to attend to the outside; can hold good in every instance, the number of pieces of but when the moulds are small, it will not be improper to which the mould is to consist being always determined boil them in the oil, by which means their pores are more from the shape of the pattern. Thus the mould of the exactly filled than could otherwise be done. After the human calculus will require no more than three pieces, moulds have undergone this operation, they are again set but that of an os femoris could scarcely have fewer than by to dry, when, being greased with olive oil and hog’s ten or twelve. Where any internal pieces are required, lard, they are fit for use. If linseed oil be used for greasthey are to be first made, and then the outer pieces after ing the moulds, it will in a short time impart a disagreeable yellow colour to the casts. the former have become hard. The mould being properly prepared and seasoned, noTo make a mould upon a hard and dry substance, we must, in the first place, rub the surface of it smoothly over thing more is requisite to form the model than to pour into with the mixture of oil and lard above mentioned. Such it the finest liquid plaster of Paris. After a layer of this, hollows as require internal pieces are then to be filled up about half an inch in thickness, has been formed all round with fluid plaster ; and whilst it continues in this state, a the mould, the coarser kind may be used to fill it up enwire loop must be introduced into it, by which, when har- tirely, or to give to the model the thickness required. Besides the models which are taken from inanimate bodened, it can be pulled off'. The plaster should be somewhat raised in a pyramidal form around this wire, and af- dies, it has been frequently attempted to take the exact terwards cut smooth with a knife whilst yet in its soft state ; resemblance of people whilst living, by using their face as preserving two or three angular ridges from the loop to the original of a model from which to take a mould; and the outer edge, that it may fix the more steadily in the the operation, however disagreeable, has been submitted outer piece of the mould to be afterwards made upon it. to by persons of the highest ranks in life. A considerable Let the outer piece then be well greased, to prevent the difficulty occurs in this, however, by reason of the persecond piece from adhering; the loop being enclosed with son being apt to shrink and distort his features when the some glaziers’ putty, both to prevent the second piece liquid is poured upon him ; neither is he altogether withfrom adhering, and to preserve a hollow place for the cord. out danger of suffocation, unless the operator understand To form the second or outside piece, mix a quantity of his business thoroughly. plaster, proportioned to the extent of surface it is to cover To avoid the former inconvenience, it will be proper to and the intended thickness of the mould. When it is just mix the plaster with warm instead of cold water, by which beginning to thicken, or assumes such a consistence as means the person will be under no temptation to shrink; not to run off very easily, spread it over the internal piece and to prevent any danger of a fatal accident, the followor pieces as well as the pattern, taking care at the same ing method is to be practised: Having laid the person

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■na. horizontally on his back, the head must first be raised by means of a pillow to the exact position in which it is naturally carried when the body is erect; then the parts to be represented must be very thinly covered over with fine oil of almonds by means of a painter’s brush; the face is then to be first covered with fine fluid plaster, beginning at the upper part of the forehead, and spreading it over the eyes, which are to be kept close, that the plaster may not come in contact with the globe ; yet not closed so strongly as to cause any unnatural wrinkles. Then cover the nose and ears, plugging first up the meatus auditoriusw'wh cotton, and the nostrils with a small quantity of tow rolled up, of a proper size, to exclude the plaster. During the time that the nose is thus stopped, the person is to breathe through the mouth. In this state the fluid plaster is to be brought down low enough to cover the upper lip, observing to leave the rolls of tow projecting out of the plaster. When the operation has been thus far carried on, the plaster must be suffered to harden ; ,after which the tow may' be withdrawn, and the nostrils left open and free for breathing. I he mouth is next to be closed in its natural position, and the plaster brought down to the extremity of the chin. Begin then to cover that part of the breast which is to be represented, and spread the plaster to the outsides of the arms and upwards, in such a manner as to meet and join that which has been previously laid on the face. When the whole of the mass has acquired its due hardness, it is to be cautiously lilted, without breaking or giving pain to the person. After the mould is constructed, it must be seasoned in the manner already directed; and when the cast is taken, it must be separated from the mould bv means of a small mallet and chisel. The eyes, which are necessarily shown closed, are to be carved, so that the eyelids may be represented in an elevated posture ; the nostrils must be hollowed out, and the back part of the head, from which, on account of the hair, no mould can be taken, must be finished according to the skill of the artist. The edges of the model are then to be neatly smoothed off, and the bust fixed upon its pedestal. The method of making models in plaster of Paris is undoubtedly the most easy way of obtaining them. When mode s, however, are made of such large objects that the model itself must be of considerable size, it is vain to attempt making it in the way above described. Such moe s must be constructed by the hand with some soft substance, as wax, clay, putty, and the like ; and it being necessary to keep all the proportions mathematically exact, the construction of a single model of this kind must be a W0

\Tnnreat labo .ur and exPens e, as wellstate as ofintime. MODENA, an independent sovereign the north ot Italy, the chief of which bears the title of his Royal -Highness the Duke of Modena, Reggio, Mirandola, Massa, and Carrara, and is descended from a branch of the Austrian family. This sovereign is descended from the house of JCiSte, one of the most ancient families in Europe. A memer J101186in’ then Lombardy, Marqms°V™ of Modena, 960; settled and hisinsuccessor, in became 1097, obtainover nf A ZZ6 tt PjWer Milan and Genoa, under the name e was the unt l u u . ler ofand thatafterwards family, one branch which having settled inft>Bavaria, becoming 1 ssessed of Brunswick, in Germany, gave origin to that rnon rc ls th ^ ^ °f which five in succession have filled rao-o Britain. During the civil wars which 8 i in taef Great iy ,n the course of the thirteenth century, when 11 re u Fprr/^TVToa< ^ Panbfics were formed, the territories of Fsto ^’i. ZZ :”a’ wbo d ba< Reggio, chose the then Marquis of rinr V r # and the entrances are about ten miles asunder, thick in a certain place; and also, that it consisted entirely it ns eighty miles south of Ear. of iron ore. To this, having before set fire to a layer of • f a celebrated nation of Asia, whose conquests wood, and another of charcoal, placed along the foot of the er times _T wen? the most rapid and extensive of any mountain, they applied seventy large bellows, and at last e recor e nr\ ^ f ^ d in history. They themselves deduce their melted the mountain in such a manner that an opening Nnfl0 T n 1 urkorwas ’ as accor they call him, Japhis, the son of was made, large enough for a loaded camel to pass; and nr it n, o c those l° nations who ’ areding them,bythe king, through this passage they all marched out with great joy. now to known thefirst separate The Moguls having thus issued as it were from a new

316 MOGUL S. Moguls, world, overthrew the Tartars in their turn, and continued This prediction, if any such there was, Temujin most Mot. s —to form a considerable nation till the time of their great literally fulfilled. At the time of his fathers decease, his^'—- j hero Temujin, afterwards called Genghiz Khan, whom subjects amounted to between thirty and forty thousand they extol in the most extravagant manner. It is difficult, families ; but of these about two thirds quickly deserted, however, to say, at the time when Temujin made his ap- and Temujin was left almost without subjects. When only , pearance, how far the dominions of the Moguls extended, thirteen years of age, he fought a bloody battle against or in what estimation they were held by their neighbours, these revolters ; but he was either defeated, or gained an It seems to be pretty certain that great part of the vast indecisive victory, so that he remained in obscurity for region now known by the name of Tartary was then in a twenty-seven years longer. His good fortune at last he state of considerable civilization, and likewise extremely owed to the friendship of \ ang Khan, who ruled over a populous, as we find mention made of many cities which great number of lartar tribes to the north of Kitay, and the Moguls destroyed; and the incredible multitudes has been heard of under the name o^Pr ester John amongst whom they slaughtered abundantly prove the populousness the Europeans. Phis prince took lemujin under his proof the country. On the east, the country of the Moguls tection ; and a rebellion having afterwards been raised and Tartars had the great desert which divides lartary against himself, lemujin was made his general, and the from China; on the west it had the empire of Karazm, khan was kept in possession of his throne. Soon after founded by Mahmoud Gazni; and on the south were the this, Temujin subdued the tribes which had revolted from countries now known by the name of Hindustan, Siam, himself, and treated them with the utmost barbarity. Pegu, Tonquin, and Cochin-China. Thus it comprehended This happened in the year 1201; but Yang Khan, inthe eastern part of Modern Tartary, and all Siberia. This stead of continuing the friend of Temujin, now became whole region was divided amongst a great number of Ay- jealous, and resolved to destroy him by treachery. With macks or tribes, who had each one or more khans, accord- this view he proposed a marriage between Temujm’s son ino- as it happened to be more or less numerous, or di- Juji and his own daughter, and another between Temuvided into branches. Amongst these, that of the Kara-its jin’s daughter and his own son. Temujin was invited to was the most powerful. Their prince assumed the title of the camp of Yang Khan, in order to celebrate this double Great Khan, and, amongst the rest, the Moguls were tribu- marriage ; but having received intelligence of some evil tary to him ; but, according to the Chinese historians, both intention against him, he excused himself to Vang Khan’s the one and the other were tributary to the emperor of messengers, and desired that the ceremony might be put t0 Kitay or Katay. some other time. China was divided into two parts; the nine southern A few days after the departure of these messengers, provinces being in the hands of the Chinese emperors of Badu and Kishlik, two brothers, who kept the horses of the Song dvnasty, who kept their court at Hang-chew, the one of Vang Khan’s chief domestics, came and informed capital of the province of Chekyang ; and the five north- Temujin, that the Grand Khan, finding he had missed his ern provinces, excepting part of Shensi, being possessed aim, was resolved to set out instantly, and to surprise him by the Kin, a people of Eastern Tartary, from whom are next morning, before he could suspect any danger, ledescended the Manchoo Tartars, who are at present mas- mujin, alarmed at this intelligence, quitted his camp in ters of China. This vast dominion was named Kitay or the night time, and retired with all his people to some Katay, and was divided into two parts; that which be- distance. He was scarcely gone when Vang Khan s troops longed to China was properly called Kitay; and the part arrived, and discharged an incredible number of arrows which belonged to Tartary was called Karakitay, in which amongst the empty tents; but finding nobody there, they some even include the territories of the Moguls, Kara-its, pursued lemujin in such haste that they fell into great and other tribes which form the subject of the present disorder. In this condition they were suddenly attacked history. The western part of the empire of Kitay was and routed by Temujin, after which ensued an open war possessed by a Turkish prince, who had lately founded with Vang Khan. there a new kingdom called Hya, and whose capital city By this quarrel almost all the princes of Tartary were was Hya-chew, now Ninghya in Shensi, from which the put in motion, some taking part with Temujin, and others kingdom took its name. To the west of Hya lay Tangut, with Vang Khan. But at last fortune declared in favour a country of great extent, and formerly very powerful, but of the former. Vang Khan was overthrown in a battle, at that time reduced to a low state, and divided amongst where he lost forty thousand men, and was obliged to tty many princes, some of whom were subject to the empe- for refuge to a prince named layyan Khan, who was e ror of Hya, and others to the emperor of China. All mujin’s father-in-law, and his own enemy, and by whom Tartary to the westward as far as the Caspian Sea, with he was ungenerously put to death. Temujin immediately the greater part of Little Buckharia, which then passed began to seize on his dominions, great part ot winch rounder the general name of Turkestan, was subject to luntarily submitted ; but a confederacy was formed agams Ghurkhan, Khurkhan, or Kaver Khan ; to whom even the him by a number of Vang Khan’s tributaries, at the ea Gazni monarchs are said to have been tributary. This of whom wrasJamuka, a prince vvho had already distmguis Ghurkhan had been prince of the Western Kitan or Lyau, ed himself by his enmity to lemujin ; and even layyan who, when driven out of Kitay by the king, settled in Little Khan himself was drawn into the plot, through wa jea ousy Buckharia, and the country to the north, wdiere they of his son-in-law’s good fortune. But Temujin * founded a powerful state about the year 1124. prepared ; and in the year 1204 he attacked layyan an. Thus the Moguls, properly so called, had but a very entirely routed his army, killed himself, and took Ja'nu|. small extent of empire which could be called their own, if prisoner, whose head he caused instantly to be struc o , indeed they had any, when Temujin made his appearance, after which he marched against the other tribes w o a This hero is believed by the Tartars to have been of divine conspired against him. Ihese he quickly reduced, too origin, since his family could be traced no farther back a city called Kashin, where he put all to the swor " than ten generations. The names and transactions of his had borne arms against him ; and subjugated all the og predecessors are equally uncertain and unimportant. He tribes in 1205. , himself, however, was born in the year 1163, and is said Temujin having now none to oppose him, called a gene to have come into the world with congealed blood in his diet, which he appointed to be held on the first day o hands; whence it w'as prognosticated that he would be a spring in the year 1206; that is, on the day in which t great warrior, and obtain the victory over all his enemies, entered Aries. To this diet were summoned all the g

MOGULS. 317 ■rulg. lords, both Moguls and Tartars ; and in the mean time, to peror after Genghiz Khan, and had under his immediate Moguls. r—''establish good order in the army, he divided his soldiers government Mogulestan, or the country of the Moguls prointo bodies of ten thousand, a thousand, a hundred, and peGy so called, with Kitay, and the countries eastward to ten men, with their respective officers, all subordinate to the Tartarian Sea. Jagaty, his brother, governed under him the generals, or those who commanded the bodies of ten a great part of the western conquests. The country of the thousand; and these were to act under his own sons. On Kipjacks, and others to the east and north-east, north and the day of holding the diet, the princes of the blood and north-west, were governed by Batu or Patu, the son of Jugreat lords appeared dressed in white. Temujin, habited ji, who had been killed in the wars; whilst Tuli or Toley, in the same manner, with his crown on his head, sat down another son of Genghiz Khan, had Khorassan, Persia, and on his throne, and was complimented by the whole assem- that part of India which had been conquered. On the bly, who wished him the continuance of his health and east side the Mogul arms w'ere still attended with success; prosperity. After this they confirmed the Mogul empire not only the empire of Kitay, but the southern part of to him and his successors, adding all those kingdoms which China, was conquered. On the west side matters conhe had subdued, the descendants of whose vanquished tinued much in the same way till the year 1254, when khans were deprived of all right or title to them ; and af- Magu, or Menkho, the fourth khan of the IMoguls, raised ter this he was proclaimed emperor with much ceremony. a great army, which he gave to his brother °Hulaku or During this inauguration, a pretended prophet declared Hulagu, in order to extend his dominions westward. In that he came from God to tell the assembly, that thence- 1255 he entered Iran, where he suppressed the Ismaeforth Temujin should assume and bear the name of “ Gen- lians or Assassins, of whom an account is given under the ghiz Khan,” or “ the Most Great Khan of khans pro- article Assassins ; and twro years afterwards he advanced phesying also, that his posterity should be khans from ge- to Bagdad, which he took, and cruelly put to death the neration to generation. This prophecy, which was no doubt caliph, treating the city with no more lenity than the Moprompted by Temujin himself, had a surprising effect on guls usually treated those places which fell into their his subjects, who from that time concluded that all the hands. Every thing was put to fire and sword ; and in the world belonged of right to them, and even thought it a city and its neighbourhood the number of slain, it is said, crime against heaven for any body to pretend to resist them. amounted to one million six hundred thousand. The next Genghiz Khan having now reduced under his subjection year he invaded Syria. The city of Damascus was deall the wandering tribes of Moguls and Tartars, began to livered up, and, as it made no resistance, the inhabitants think of subjugating those countries to the south and south- were spared; but Aleppo being taken by storm, a greater west of his own, where the inhabitants were much more slaughter ensued there than had taken place at Bagdad, civilized than his own subjects; and the countries being not even the children in their cradles being spared. Some full of fortified cities, he must of course expect to meet cities of this country revolted the next year, or the year with more resistance. He began with the emperor of after; but having again fallen into the hands of the MoHya, whose dominions he invaded in 1209, and who at last guls, they were plundered, and the inhabitants butchered submitted to become his tributary. But in the mean time without mercy, or carried into slavery. Genghiz Khan himself was supposed to be tributary to the Hulaku died in 1264, and at his death we may fix the emperor of Kitay, who, in 1210, sent him an officer de- greatest extent of the Mogul empire. It now comprer manding the customary tribute. This w as refused with hended the whole of the continent of Asia, excepting part the utmost indignation, and a w^ar commenced, wdiich end- of Hindustan, Siam, Pegu, Cochin-China, and a few of the ed only with the dissolution of the empire of Kitay. countries of Lesser Asia, which had not been attacked by In the year 1216, Genghiz Khan resolved to carry his them ; and during all these vast conquests no Mogul army arms westward, and therefore left his general Muchuli to had ever been conquered, except one by Jaloloddin. From pursue his conquests in Kitay. In his journey westward this period, however, the empire began to decline. The he overthrew an army of three hundred thousand Tartars ambition of the khans having prompted them to invade the who had revolted against him ; and in 1218 he sent am- kingdoms of Japan and Cochin-China, they were miserably bassadors desiring an alliance with Mohammed Karazm disappointed in their attempts, and lost a great number of Shah, emperor of Gazna. His ambassador was haughtily men. The same ill success attended them in Hindustan, treated; the alliance was, however, concluded, but soon and in a short time this mighty empire broke into several afterwards broken, through the treachery, as it is said, of smaller ones. The governors of Persia, being of the family the Karazmian monarch’s subjects. This brought on a war, of Genghiz Khan, owed no allegiance to any superior ; and attended with the most dreadful devastations, and which those of Tartary were similarly circumstanced. The Chiended with the entire destruction of the empire of Ka- nese threw off the yoke, and thus the continent of Asia razm or Gazna. wore much the same face that it had done before Genghiz After the reduction of Karazm, part of the Moguls broke Khan began his conquests. ran or ^ Persia, where they also made large conquests, The successors of Hulaku reigned in Persia till the}7ear whilst others of their armies invaded Georgia and the 1335; but that year Abusaid Khan, the eighth from Hucountries to the west; in both cases committing such enor- laku, having died, the affairs of that country fell into conmities that the Chinese historians say both men and spi- fusion for want of a prince of the race of Genghiz Khan to rits burst with indignation. In 1225, Genghiz Khan re- succeed to the throne. The empire, therefore, was divided turned to Hya, where he made war upon the emperor for amongst a great number of petty princes, who fought against laving sheltered some of his enemies. The event was, each other almost without intermission, till, in the year t at the emperor fell in battle, and his kingdom was con- 1369, Timour Beg or Tamerlane, one of these princes, havquered, or rather destroyed ; but this was the last exploit ing conquered a number of others, was crowned at Balkh, o the cruel conqueror, who died in 1227, as he marched with the pompous title of “ Sahib Kharan,” that is, “ the to complete the destruction of the Chinese. emperor of the age, and the conqueror of the world.” As lie Mogul empire, at the death of Genghiz Khan, ex- he had just before taken that city, and destroyed one of his ended over a prodigious tract of country, being more than most formidable rivals who had shut himself up in it, the eighteen hundred leagues in length from east to w est, and new emperor began his reign with beheading some of the upwards of a thousand in breadth from north to south. inhabitants, imprisoning others, burning their houses, and s pnnces, however, were still insatiable, and pushed their selling the women and children as slaves. In the year 1370 conquests upon all sides. Oktay wras acknowledged em- he crossed the Sihun, made war on the Getes, and attacked

318 M O G Moguls. Karazm. Next year he granted a peace to his enemies; '''—'v——^ but two years after, he again invaded the country of the Getes; by the year 1379 he had fully conquered that country, as well as Khorassan ; and from that time he continued to extend his conquests in much the same manner as Genghiz Khan had done, though with less cruelty. In 1387 he had reduced Armenia, Georgia, and all Persia; the conquest of which last was completed by the reduction of Ispahan, seventy thousand of the inhabitants of which were slaughtered on account of a sedition raised by some rash or evil-disposed persons. After the reduction of Persia, Timour turned his arms northward and westward, subduing all the countries to the Euphrates. He took the city of Bagdad ; subdued Syria; and having ravaged great part of Russia, returned to Persia in 1396, where he splendidly feasted his whole army. In 1398 he crossed the Indus on the 17th of September, invaded Hindustan, reduced several fortresses, and made a vast number of captives. However, as he was afraid that, in case of any emergency, these prisoners might take part with the enemy, he gave orders to his soldiers to put all their Indian slaves to death ; and, in consequence of this inhuman order, more than one hundred thousand of these poor wretches were slaughtered in less than an hour. In the beginning of the year 1399, Timour was met by the Indian army, whom, after a desperate battle, he defeated with great slaughter, and soon afterwards took the city of Delhi, the capital of the country. Here he seated himself on the throne of the Indian emperors; and here the schei’ifs, kadis, and the principal inhabitants of the city, came to make their submission, and begged for mercy. The tame elephants and rhinoceroses were likewise brought to kneel before him as they had been accustomed to do to the Indian emperors, and made a great cry as if they implored his clemency. These war elephants, one hundred and twenty in number, were, at his return, sent to Samarcand, and to the province where his sons resided. After this, at the request of the lords of the court, Timour made a great feast, at which he distributed presents to the princes and principal officers. Delhi at this time consisted of three cities called Seyri, Old Delhi, and Jehan Penah. Seyri was surrounded with a wall in the form of a circle. Old Delhi was also walled, but much larger, lying south-west of the other. These two parts were joined on each side by a wall; and the third, situated between them, was called Jehan Penah, wdiich was larger than Old Delhi. Penah had ten gates; Seyri had seven, three of which looked towards Jehan Penah; and this last had thirteen gates, six to the north-west, and seven to the south-east. Every thing seemed to be in a quiet posture, when, on the 12th of January 1399, the soldiers of Timour, being assembled at one of the gates of Delhi, insulted the inhabitants of the suburbs. The great emirs were ordered to put a stop to these disorders ; but their endeavours proved ineffectual. The sultanas having a curiosity to see the rarities of Delhi, and particularly a famous palace adorned with one thousand pillars, built by an ancient king of India, went with all the court into the city; and the gate being on that occasion left open for every body, above fifteen thousand soldiers got in unperceived. But there was a far greater number of troops in a large place between Delhi, Seyri, and Jehan Penah, who committed great disorders in the two last cities. This made the inhabitants in despair fall on them; and many, setting fire to their houses, burnt their wives and children. The soldiers, seeing this confusion, did nothing but pillage the houses, whilst the disorder was increased by the admission of more troops, who seized the inhabitants of the neighbouring places that had fled thither for shelter. The emirs, to put a stop to this mischief, caused the gates to be shut; but they were quickly opened by the soldiers

U L S. within, who rose in arms against their officers, so that by Most. the morning of the 13th the whole army had entered, and'wv this great city was totally destroyed. Some soldiers carried out as many as an hundred and fifty slaves, men, wromen, and children; nay, some of their boys had twenty slaves a piece to their share. The other spoils, in jewels, plate, and manufactures, were immense ; for the Indian women and girls were adorned with precious stones, and had bracelets and rings on their hands, feet, and even toes, so that the soldiers were loaded with them. On the 15th, in Old Delhi, the Indians retired into the great mosque to defend themselves ; but being attacked there by the Tartars, they were all slaughtered, and towers erected with their heads. A dreadful carnage now ensued throughout the whole city, and several days were employed before the inhabitants could be made to quit it entirely; and as they went forth, the emirs took a number of them into their service. The artisans were also distributed amongst the princes and commanders; all but the masons, who were reserved for the emperor, in order to build him a spacious stone mosque at Samarcand. After this terrible devastation, Timour marched into the different provinces' of Hindustan, everywhere defeating the Indians who opposed him, and slaughtering the Ghebres or worshippers of fire. On the 25th of March he set out on his return, and on the 9th of May he arrived at Samarcand. In a few months after his arrival he was obliged to undertake an expedition into Persia, where affairs were in the utmost disorder on account of the misconduct of his son, whom he had appointed sovereign of that empire. Here Timour soon settled matters, after which he again set out on an expedition to the westward, reduced many places in Georgia which had not submitted before, and invaded and conquered Syria. At the same time he quarrelled with Bajazet the Turkish sultan, then engaged in an enterprise against Constantinople, in which he would probably have succeeded had not Timour interposed. At first the cause of this quarrel was, that Bajazet had demanded tribute from a prince who was under Timour’s protection, and is said to have returned an insulting answer to the Tartar ambassadors who were sent to him on that account. Timour, however, who was an enthusiast in the cause of Mahommedanism, and considered Bajazet as engaged in the cause of heaven when besieging a Christian city, was very unwilling to disturb him in so pious an enterprise, and therefore undertook several expeditions against the princes of Syria and Georgia, in order to give the Turkish monarch time to cool and return to reason. Amongst other places he again invested the city of Bagdad, which had cast off its allegiance to him ; and having taken it by assault, he made such a dreadful massacre of the inhabitants, that one hundred and twenty towers were erected with the heads of the slain. In the mean time Bajazet continued to give fresh provocation, and even protected one Kara Yussuf, a robber, who had openly insulted the caravan ol Mekka, so that Timour at length resolved to make war upon him. The sultan, however, foreseeing the danger of bringing such a formidable enemy against himself, thought proper to ask pardon, by a letter, for what was past, and to promise obedience to Timour’s will for the future. This embassy was graciously received; and Timour returned for answer, that he would forbear hostilities, provided Bajazet would either put Kara Yussuf to death, or send him to the Tartar camp, or expel him from his dominions. Along w ith the Turkish ambassadors he sent one of his own, telling Bajazet that he would march into the confines of Anatolia, and there wait his final answer. Though Bajazet had seemed at first willing to come to an agreement with Timour, and evidently dreaded his superior power, yet he now behaved in such an unsatisfactory manner that the Tartar monarch desired him to prepare for

M O H MO II 319 : iair war; upon which he raised the siege of Constantinople, south direction, and then turns eastward towards the HudMohilew. ■ 11 and having met Timour with an army greatly inferior to son, which it enters by several mouths between Troy and 3] iwk. Tartars, was utterly defeated and taken prisoner. Ac- Waterford, after a course of about one hundred and thirty"'“'cording to some accounts he was treated with great huma- five miles. I he stream of the Mohawk is unequal, having nity and honour; whilst others inform us that he was shut many breaks and rapids, and two considerable falls. With up in an iron cage, against which he dashed out his brains the aid of canals, however, it is rendered navigable from the following year. At any rate, it is certain that he was ochenectady to Rome ; but it chiefly serves the purposes of not restored to liberty, but died in confinement. navigation by supplying water to the canals in its immediate This victory was followed by the submission of many vicinity. It is remarkably well adapted for supplying waplaces of Asia Minor to Timour ; and the Greek emperor ter-power for all manufacturing purposes. The land upon its owned himself tributary, as did likewise the sultan of Egypt. borders is rich, and fitted for all agricultural purposes: The After this Timour once more returned to Georgia, which banks of this river were originally peopled by the Mohawks, he cruelly ravaged; and then he marched to Samarcand, an Indian tribe remarkable for courage and ferocity. where he arrived in the year 1405. Here, being now an MOHILEW, a province of the European Russian empire. old man, this mighty conqueror began to look forward to It is situated in N. lat. from 51. 58. to 55. 13., and in that state which at one time or other becomes the dread of E. long, from 28. 47. to 32. 53., and is bounded on the north all living creatures; and Timour, in order to quiet the re- by Witepsk, on the north-east by Smolensk, on the southmorse of his conscience, came to a curious resolution, which east and south by Tschernigow, and on the west by Minsk. he communicated only to his intimate friends. This was, It contains 45,008 square wersts, or 17,978 square miles. that “ as the vast conquests he had made were not ob- It is divided into twelve circles, and contains 1,084,600 tained without some violence, which had occasioned the inhabitants, who live in twelve cities, fifty-five towns, and destruction of a great number of God’s creatures, he was so great a number of small villages and farms, that they resolved, by way of atonement for his past crimes, to per- have not been accurately ascertained. There is a subdiviform some good action, namely, to make war on the infi- sion into a kind of Greek parishes, each surrounding the dels, and exterminate the idolaters of China.” This atone- 310 churches of that religion. Mohilew is one of the disment, however, he did not live to accomplish, for he died tricts which was taken from Poland in the year 1772, and, the same year, of a burning fever, in the seventy-first year with Witepsk, formed one province under the name of of his age and thirty-sixth of his reign. White Russia; but, in 1802, a division was made into two Upon the death of Timour, his empire fell immediately provinces, the one called that of Witepsk, and the other that into great disorder, and the civil wars continued for five of Mohilew. The people of this province, from being a mixor six years ; but at last peace was restored, by the settle- ture of Russians and Poles, have formed for themselves a ment of Shah Rukh, Timour’s son, on the throne. The lat- peculiar dialect, compounded of the language of these two ter, however, did not enjoy the empire in its full extent, races, with an intermixture of Latin, Moldavian, and Geror indeed much above one half of it; having only Karazm, man. The greater part of the inhabitants adhere to the orKhorassan, Kandahar, Persia, and part of Hindustan. thodox Greek church, but many are of the united Greek Neither was he, though a brave and warlike prince, able religion; and there are many Catholics, who have an archto extend his dominions; yet he transmitted them to his bishop, and several churches and monasteries. There are son Ulug-Beg, who proved a wise and learned monarch, also 40,000 Jews, who have synagogues in most of the towns. and is famous for the astronomical tables which he caus- The province is generally a level plain, intersected by nued to be composed, and which are well known at this merous streams ; and the soil, though for the most part day. Ulug-Beg was killed in 1448, by his son Abdallatif, sandy, is moderately fertile. More corn is grown than the who six months after w as put to death by his own soldiers. consumption requires in almost every year, and, after a deUpon the death of Abdallatif, Abdallah, a grandson of ficient harvest in Poland and Germany, large supplies are 8hah Rukh, seized the throne ; but, after reigning one furnished to these countries. The woods are extensive, and year, he was expelled by Abusaid Mirza, the grandson of yield large stores of timber of every description required Miran Shah, the son of Timour. His reign was one con- either for fuel or for the construction of houses or ships. tinued scene of wars and tumults, until at last he w as de- The chief productions, besides corn and wood, are black feated and taken prisoner by one Hassan Beg, who put him cattle, sheep ; wool, hemp and flax, and their seed ; honey, to death in 1468. From this time we may look upon the wax, bacon and bristles, with tallow and hides. These are empire of Fimour as entirely dissolved. conveyed both to the Baltic and to the Black Sea by ^ On the death of the above-mentioned monarch, his son means of the navigable rivers. Some iron is found, which Laber succeeded him, but was soon driven out by the Us- is used for making scythes and other agricultural implebeck Tartars ; after which he resided some time in Gazna, ments ; but the mines do not yield a quantity sufficient for whence he made incursions into Hindustan, and at length the demand. became master of the whole empire, excepting the kingMohilew, a city, the capital of the Russian province doms of Dekkan, Guzerat, and Bengal. See Hindustan. of that name, and of the circle in which it stands. It is siMOHAIR, in commerce, the hair of a particular kind of tuated on the river Dnieper, 564 miles from St Petersburg. goat frequent about Angora, in Turkey, the inhabitants of It is surrounded with walls, and has broad, well-paved which are all employed in the manufacture of camblets streets, one square, sixteen churches, four monasteries, made of this material. 2100 houses, and 16,900 inhabitants. From its situation Some give the name of mohair to the camblets or stuffs on a great river, it is the chief place where the commercial made of this hair, and of which there are two kinds; the transactions of the province centre, and whence goods are sn 00t anc transmitted to Riga, Konigsberg, Memel, and Dantzig. ti? ? ^ ^between ptam? and watered tabbies. he difference thethe twoother consists only like in this, that Long. 48. 4. 30. E. Lat. 53. 54. N. the latter kind is calendered, and the other not. There are Mohilew, a circle of the Russian province of Podolia, a so mohairs both plain and watered, the woof of which which extends in N. lat. from 48. 14. to 49. 5., and in E. consists of wool, cotton, or thread. long, from 27. 45. to 28.19. The river Dniester flows upon MOHAWK, a large branch of the Hudson, or North the southern side, and conveys the water of the smaller I iver, of the state of New York, in North America. It rises streams to the Black Sea. The circle produces excellent m t e north-east part of Oneyda county, about twenty wheat and other corn, with tobacco, hemp, and flax, in mi es north of Rome, to which place it runs in nearly a abundance. The capital, a city of the same name, is situ-

320 Mohurbunge P 0l re J ^

M O I ated on theDniester, 1106 miles fromStPetersburg. Itcontains several Greek and Catholic churches, 1176 houses, and 7200 inhabitants. Long. 35. 41. E. Lat. 48. 25. N. . MOHURBUNGE, a district of Orissa, in the province of Hindustan, situated between the 21st and 33d degrees of N. lat. It is a hilly, unfertile district, and derives its revenues chiefly from the Hindu pilgrims who visit the temple of Juggernaut. MOIDORE, a Portuguese gold coin, of the value of L.l. 7s. sterling. MOIRA, a post-town of Ireland, in the county of Down, ninety miles north from Dublin. It has a handsome church, two dissenting meeting-houses, and a free school. Moira Castle is situated in the vicinity of the town. Long. 6. 6. W. Lat. 54. 27. N. MOISSAC, an arrondissement of the department of the Tarn and the Garonne, in France, 372 square miles in extent. It comprehends six cantons, which are divided into sixty-seven communes, with a population of 61,800 persons. The capital is the city of the same name, situated in a fertile district, through which flows the Tarn, which soon after joins the Garonne. It contains 9800 inhabitants, who are chiefly occupied in trading with Bordeaux, to which city it conveys flour, oil, wool, wine, and a great deal of saffron, for the trade with the colonies. Long. 1. 17. E. Lat. 44. 8. N. MOIVRE, Abraham de, a very learned mathematician, was born in the year 1667, at Vitry in Champagne, in France, where his father was a surgeon. After the revocation of the edict of Nantes, he proceeded to England. Before he left France, he had commenced the study of the mathematics ; and having perfected himself in that science in London, he was obliged, by necessity, to teach it. But Newton’s Principia, which accidentally fell into his hands, ' showed him how little progress he had made in a science of which he thought himself master. From this work he acquired a knowledge of the geometry of infinites with as great facility as he had learned the elementary geometry ; and in a short time he was enabled to rank with the most celebrated mathematicians. His success in these studies procured him a seat in the Royal Society of London, and in the Academy of Sciences at Paris. His merit was so well understood in the former, that he was thought capable of deciding in the famous dispute between Leibnitz and Newton concerning the differential calculus. He published a Treatise on the Doctrine of Chances in 1738, and another on Annuities in 1752, both extremely accurate. The Philosophical Transactions contain many interesting memoirs of his composition. Some of these treat of the method of fluxions ; others of the lunula of Hippocrates ; others of physical astronomy, in which he resolved many important problems; and others of the analysis of games ot chance, in which he followed a different course from that of Montmort. Towards the close of his life he lost both his sight and his hearing; and the demand for sleep became so great that he required twenty hours of it in a day. He died at London in 1754, aged eighty-seven. His knowledge was not confined to the mathematics; and he retained to the last a taste for polite literature. He was intimately acquainted with the best authors of antiquity, and was frequently consulted about difficult passages in their works. Rabelais and Moliere were his favourite French authors; indeed -he had them by heart, and one day observed to an acquaintance, “ that he would rather have been Moliere than Newton.” He recited whole scenes of the Misanthrope, with that delicacy and force with which be remembered to have heard them recited atParis seventy years before, by Moliere’s own company. The character, indeed, was somewhat similar to his own. He judged severely of mankind, and could never conceal his disgust at .the conversation of a fool, or his aversion to cunning and

MOL dissimulation. He was free from the affectation of science, n and no one could have known that he was a mathematician except from the accuracy of his thoughts. His conversa- Moli,1 tion was general and instructive. Whatever he said was''^' well digested and clearly expressed. His style possessed more strength and solidity than ornament and animation • but he was always correct, and he bestowed as much pains' on his sentences as on his calculations. He could never endure any bold assertions or indecent witticisms against religion. MO LA, a city of the kingdom of Naples, in the province of Bari. It stands on the sea-shore, but has no good haven. It contains 7664 inhabitants, many of whom are occupied in the fisheries, and others in the cultivation of vines and olive trees. Mola Salsa, in Antiquity, was barley parched, and afterwards ground to meal or flour, after which it was mixed with salt and frankincense, with the addition of a little water. Thus prepared, it was sprinkled between the horns of the victim before it was killed in sacrifice. This act was called immolatio, and was common to both Greeks and Romans ; with this difference, that the mola of the Romans was of wheat. ^ MOLD, or Mould, a town of the county of Flint, in North Wales, in the hundi’ed of its own name, 207 miles from London. It consists of one long and wide street, and has a market on Saturday. It is an ancient borough, and, in conjunction with Rhyddlan, Overton, Caerwis, Caergwrley, St Asaph, and Holywell, returns one member to the House of Commons. Of late extensive cotton-works have been established at this place. The population amounted in 1801 to 4235, in 1811 to 5083, in 1821 to 6268, and in 1831 to 8086. MOLDAVIA, a principality nominally under the Turkish government. It was the ancient Transalpine Dacia, and received the name it now bears in the fourteenth century, from the principal river which drains it. It extends in east longitude from 25. 13. to 28. 26., and in north latitude from 45. 24. to 48. 17., occupying 17,017 square miles. It is bounded on the north and the east by the Russian province of Podolia, from which it is divided by the river Pruth, and in part by the Danube ; on the south by Wallachia, and on the south and west by the Austrian provinces of Transylvania and Gallicia. Its great divisions are into Upper and Lower Moldavia, the former being subdivided into four, and the latter into nine circles. It is difficult to determine the precise amount of the population; some authorities state it as low as 300,000, and others, especially Camperhausen, make it to be near 600,000, since a part of the country has been transferred to Russia. The people are mostly of the Wallachian race, but there are intermixed with them many Greeks, Armenians, Jews, gipsy slaves, and Hungarians. The prevailing religion is that ot the Greek church, which has an archbishop, three bishops, 87 monasteries, and 931 churches. The Catholics do not exceed 12,000, and have 13 churches, forming a part of the diocese of Nicopoli. There is a seminary for education at the capital, Jassy, but very little attention is paid to the instruction of the mass of the people. The government is conducted by a delegate from Turkey, called a waiwode, who purchases the office. He must be a Greek; and, after being installed, he has a most unlimited degree of power, by the exercise of which he seeks to reimburse himself for the price of his purchase. This viceroy, as well as his wife, is considered as of princely rank, and maintains a court and army ; but he is subject to sudden recall, and to heavy payments, at the will of the capricious or greedy cabinet of Constantinople. There is scarcely any written law; but what is by courtesy called justice is administered by the divan, of which the Archbishop of Jassy is president, and the other members are the several higher public function-

mol M O L taole aries. In each circle there is an inferior court, from which 321 P als Cai be to the divan Th roiiere body-guard * !f ] of, 400 men, and a force e waiwode has a smdi!'and'Schted^Jw, frecept0 ^ the «'«l>rated Gas- MoW of 3000 military, studies Bern?,0 7 d 3 Pth rhim ■ aS the companion of his' chiefly Arnaut Greeks, who are regularly trained. Cbdd but afterw r'° ’ ards famous The Carpathian Mountains, on the western frontier for his travels in 1 7r Gassend dRoosit on nf? b struck with the happy send out spurs, which gradually diminish in height as they hlm 1° ^ private approach the eastern side, and present the appearance of lessons which lieimve to'h “ot a beautiful!} undulating country. The soil is stony on the was equally enjojld by Cyr™ east, but gradually improves in fertility as it approaches profit qu„e so much by the opportuni^hus aSed him I iom the conversations of Gassendi, who had combated* the rivers ; and the greater part is abundantly productive amply rewarding the labour which is applied to it, notwith- and often with success, Aristotle and Descartes the two of ancient and modern phSphy P0 standing the excessive heat of the summers, and the in- great rival powers ed tense cold of the winters. The corn is excellent, especial- quelin conti act the habit of not submitting his reason to ly the summer or hard wheat. The wine is good, and pro- any other authority than that of demonstrated truT Th^ duced in abundance. Excellent cattle are fattened in the ethical system of Epicurus, almost equally calumniated bv meadows ; and good flax, hemp, honey, wax, and all kinds t Pnad7r?TS a?d Vs foUowers, was that which Poquelin n ac opted, and which he ever afterwards professed But or fruits, are most abundant. There is little of trade or manufactures, as each family produces and consumes the Ins studies were destined soon to experience an interruption necessaries of life in filth and idleness, and seems to re- Poquelin the father held the office of domestic upholsterer quire none of the gratifications of civilized man, whilst to the king; but being prevented by bad health from disthey indulge all the lower passions of our nature with lit- sion of theltSsituation, wasson obliged LouistheXIII. in sionfffiB -duties’ the > who tobadattend obtained revertle moral restraint. his journey to Narbonne in the year 1641. Having returned Mole, in Architecture, a massive work formed of large stones laid in the sea by means of coffer-dams, extended wi i ie court to Paris, his passion for the stage, which either in a right line or an arc of a circle, before a port, ad first induced him to study, revived more" strl % which ,t serves to close ; to defend the vessels in port from than ever. It has been said by some that he studied law the impetuosity of the waves,' and to prevent the passage foi a time, and that he was even called to the bar. But this seems at least doubtful; or, if true, he must soon have of ships without leave. It is frequently fortified. Mole is also sometimes used to signify the harbour it- bandoned his legal studies for those more attractive and fasematmg pursuits in which he afterwards attained unriself, which it serves to form and defend. Mole (moles), amongst the Romans, was also used for a valled eminence, and became the restorer of genuine cokind of mausoleum, built in the manner of a round tower on medy in France. The passion of Cardinal Richelieu for a square base, insulated, encompassed with columns, and dramatic amusements had communicated itself to the nacovered with a dome. The mole of the Emperor Hadrian tion; and everywhere in the capital private theatres were pened, where Rotrou and Desmarets, Corneille and Scunow the casfie of St Angelo, was the greatest and most dery, were indiscriminately applauded. Poquelin assemstately of all the moles. It was crowned with a brazen bled several young persons who had, or thought they had, pme-apple, in which was a golden urn containing the ashes a talent for declamation; and this society, which soon of the emperor. eclipsed all the others, was called the Jllustre Theatre. It LF dom nrf;? pTA’ It t Cjistysituated °f the kin of Naples, thea was then that Poquelin resolved to follow his vocation, aspro nice of Bari. on Sthe sea-shore, andinhas ha. hour, which is fit only for the reception of small vessels, sumed the name of Moliere, in order, as it should seem, but fiom it an extensive fishery is carried on. It is a place that his parents might not have to reproach him with prosof various manufactures, each upon a small scale. The tituting their name on the boards of a playhouse. But the troubles of the Fronde interrupted the amusemost considerable is the refining of saltpetre on account of ments of the theatre, and during this ridiculous tempest the government, which yields about 10,000 quintals yearly. ohere disappeared; nor did he show himself again until Seat f a bisho who has the royal authority had reconquered its sway by transactions t m 7 m,the ° P’ a handsome catPni ' i also ,erea ar ^s,x other churches five monasenes, and collegiate institution forand the education of Tria p0V!r/aI ,tban arms• B>tids interval, extending from 1648 to 16o2, he was probably occupied with the compo0 u,ation P P amounts to 11,496. sition of some of those pieces which were afterwards exJean B lehrnfpi comm • writer ' ofaptiste ce- hibited to the public. His first regular production was the lebrated France, Pouuelin, was born at the Parismost on the Ttour(k,ox Blunderer, which was represented at Lyons in He VVaS the SOn of Jean A53. Upon his arrival in that city, he had found another a merrhiar UaP7 ter^r and Poquelin, foCd 7 sam u ’ °f Marie Cress6> whose father company of comedians* whom the public, however, prompt1 tbe ®in their business, Being designed by his parents y abandoned for his, and the principal performers of which t, too ™ succeed them he was early employed then attached themselves to his fortunes, never more to a iS tbe m and at 1,1 e T:; ’ age of fourteen, all he had separate. With this reinforcement he repaired to Beziers, ] tunat-p] ■ iWaf a ltde reading, writing, and arithmetic. For- where his old class-fellow, the Prince of Conti, was holduspfl - 't- md a Sraodfather, who, being a lover of plays, ing the states of Languedoc. Being specially instructed he boy H6tel B meS t0 take^ him to him the to amuse the city, the assembly, and the prince, he brought el di fle Bourgoyne.^ This was alongst sufficientwith to inspire out in succession all the pieces in his little repository, which f r hlS situ tha Lr °, ation, and a desire to acquire had just been enriched with the Depit Amoureux. The 0f W h be feIt that he had prived W-Vr , fe been de- prince, delighted with his wit and his zeal, offered to em1 1 dlfficult he to nermif P’lm y prevailed on his parents ploy him as his secretary; but this he declined, observing, t0 to the Tnll c 7iU( y’ and be.was sent as 3 day-scholar “ I am a tolerable author, but I should make a very bad lermont vourablp eg.eUS .^tu - Circumstances the most fa- secretary.” Having continued for some time his strolling e and s that spm-1I ° 75 ?)ad bi genius attended him in performances in the south of France, he at length approachBourbon p7’ 7;?i .as bis class-fellow Armand de ed the cajiital, to which he was attracted by the secret vv ose became aft nnCe ,° b affectionate protection hope of hotter fortune and greater fame; and when he Hards to sion* him upon more than one occa- actually returned thither in the year 1658, he again ob)er W 10 Cha'Dellp°tf 7 °Wed tile same course of study was tained the protection of his august college-companion, and P 6 natUral S n f vo L x’y ° ° Lbaillier, a ric» magistrate, through it acquired still more elevated patronage, name2s

MOL 322 Moliere. ly, that of Monsieur, brother of the king, and also the fa- ly comic, and the Amans Magnifiques, in which he ridi- Moliet? the chimeras of astrology, with which many persons -vv vour of the king himself. It was under their auspices, and cules were then and, in 1670, the Bourgeois Gentilin their presence, that, on the 3d of November 1658, he homme, of infatuated; which the king said, “ Vous n’avez encore rien opened that theatre which, in less than fifteen years, he fait qui m’ait tant diverti, et votre piece est excellente.” enriched with more than thirty works, the half of which The Fourheries Psyche, and La Comtesse d'Esare masterpieces. Paris, which was now appealed to, con- carhagnas, camedeoutScapin, in 1671 ; and the following year he firmed the judgment of the provinces, and in the capital produced the Femmes Savantes, which was condemned the Etourdi and the Depit Amoureux were as successful before being heard, as much from apprehension as any as they had been in the south of France. On entering upon other cause. His last comedy was Le Malade Imaginaire, this new career, he had no other guide than his genius ; 1673, which terminated the dramatic career of Moliere. but it proved all-sufficient. Upon the day when this piece was acted for the fourth The Precieuses Ridicules appeared in 1659, and at once time, the author suffered severely from a pain in the chest, struck with consternation those haughty coteries where and his friends endeavoured to persuade him not to play. affectation perverted at once the understanding and the He persisted, however, and, in the entertainment of the feelings, and whose jargon infested literature as well as piece, at the moment when he pronounced the word Juro, society. This was succeeded by the Cocu Imaginaire, in he was seized with convulsions, which he endeavoured in which he combated Scarron with his own weapons, and suc- vain to conceal under a forced smile. He was removed ceeded, by manners more true, a gaiety more natural, and a to his house, where some hours afterwards he died from a buffoonery in better taste. Don Garde de Navarre, a he- vomiting of blood, which appears to have suffocated him. roic comedy, imitated from the Spanish, was but coldly His death took place in the evening of the 17th of Februreceived ; but the Ecole des Maris, a comedy at once of ary 1673, in the fifty-second year of his age. As he had manners, character, and intrigue, and of which the Adel- died in a state of excommunication, the curate of Saintphi of Terence had furnished the fundamental idea, was Eustache, his parish, refused him ecclesiastical sepulture. completely successful. The Fdcheux was produced the “ What!” exclaimed his widow, “ do they here refuse him same year, 1661, and was played at Vaux in presence of sepulture? In Greece they would have raised altars in Louis XIV. a few days before that monarch caused to be arrested, and imprisoned for the rest of his life, the minis- his honour.’’ This objection was overcome, however, and remains were interred in the cemetery of Saint-Joseph. ter who then entertained him. The Ecole des Femmes ap- hisAll that we learn respecting the personal character of peared in 1662, and, as might have been expected, excited Moliere is greatly to his honour. Happy in the society of a violent sensation, during the prevalence of which the his friends, he was respected and beloved by his equals; and, author was assailed on all sides, and with every species though courted by the great, he retained to the last the of abuse ; but in his Critique de l’Ecole des Femmes, which original simplicity of his character. Marshal Vivonne, the came out in 1663, he took ample vengeance on the enviConde, and even Louis XIV., treated him with that ous fools and prudes who had leagued together to vilify great that masterpiece. The same year he produced the Im- familiarity which considers the distinction of merit as plapromptu de Versailles, by way of reprisal on Boursault, who cing its possessor upon a level with the highest accidents of had attacked him in an impudently satirical piece, entitled birth or fortune ; but this flattering notice neither corrupthis heart nor misled his understanding. He was kind, Le Portrait du Peintre. The Marriage Force, 1664, is ed generous, and liberal alike of his means and his influence; drawn from Rabelais, whom Moliere, like La Fontaine, freely put in requisition ; and, the same year, he composed he had an honest consciousness of superiority, which exaltthe Princesse d'Elide, the subject of which belongs to the ed him above envy, whilst his disposition prompted him to Spanish theatre. In 1665, Moliere produced his Festin do all the good in his power. He assisted Racine in his de Pierre, and also EAmour Medecin, which last, he says, difficulties, and, by the encouragement he gave to that poet, was proposed, written, learned, and represented in five proved instrumental in bringing forward a genius destined days. The following year he brought out first the Mis- to become the glory of the French stage. T he occupation anthrope, and next Le Medecin malgre lui, the subject of of Moliere in lashing the vices and follies of his time naturally drew upon him the indignation of those who had smarted which is taken from one of the old Fabliaux. In 1677, besides the Fagotier, and Le Sicilien, out Amour under the poignant keenness of his wit; throughout his Peintre, he conceived and executed the Tar tuffe, one of whole career, indeed, he had been pursued by satirical lithe boldest and best of his compositions. The idea of bels ; and even after his death, his enemies, carrying their bringing upon the stage religious hypocrisy, in an age resentment beyond the grave, assailed his memory, in sarwhen devotion was the mode, certainly evinced no ordi- castic epitaphs. The author of one of these pieces had the nary hardihood on the part of the incomparable writer ; ill fortune, or the stupidity, to offer it to the great Conde: but, notwithstanding, he triumphed over all opposition. “ Plut a Dieu,” said the hero sternly, “ que celui dont tu “ Les faux devots,” says one of his French biographers, me presentes 1’epitaphe, fut en etat de me presenter a “ furent frappes de terreur ; des hommes vraiment pieux tienne ! ” The only one of these productions possessing en con^urent des vives alarmes; ils ne voyaient pas sans any point is the following :— Roscius hie situs est tristi Molierus in urna, , horreur le profane theatre s’arroger, pour ainsi dire, un Cui genus humanum ludere, Indus erat. droit de jurisdiction en matiere sacree. Et dans ce zele Dum ludit mortem, mors indignata jocantem ardent d’un comedien centre un vice dont 1’eglise gemisCorripit, et mimum fingere soeva negat. sait en secret, ils n’appercevaient qu’une envie mal deThe French nation has with one voice assigned to Moguisee d’insulter a la vertu meme dont ce vice empruntait les dehors. Quand on songe au nombre, a la puissance, liere the first and highest place amongst its comic authors. des personnes que les calculs d’un odieux interet ou les Nor does there appear to be any reason whatever for imerreurs d’un zele respectable avaient liguees centre le Tar- peaching the validity and the soundness of this judgmen tvffe, on ne peut etre surpris des difficultes qu’eprouva la Of all the dramatic writers who illustrated the age o representation ; on doit 1 etre seulement que Moliere soit Louis XIV., no one attained a higher reputation, or more parvenu a les surmonter.’’ In 1668, he produced the Am- nearly reached the acme of perfection in his art. Indee , phitryon and EAvare, both imitated, and in part borrow- Voltaire boldly pronounces him the most eminent comic ed, from Plautus, and also George Dandin, a comedy; in poet that any age or country has produced; nor is t ns 1669, Pourceaugnac, a farce, containing some scenes high- opinion peculiar to the author of the Henriade.

M O L M O L 323 foliere. Louis XIV. insisted upon Boileau telling him whom he •-'y'-—'considered as the most original writer of his time, Boileau “edSPnfe,1f 3|,“ v„.s 12mo; 6. That of Am- Molu, J n answered, Moliere. The French comic poet is always the satirist of vice and folly, and of these alone; virtue, with him, is ever sacred. The characters he selected for ridicule were mostly peculiar to the times in which he lived • Stt ^ but he has nevertheless managed to render each as it were* f 8 6 6 beS F™ eh Language** ‘I’ ‘ ^ the type of a class, and thus to impart to his delineations nied with a life nf Mpf'’ ’ ^ * °f Petltot> accompaan universality which must prevent them from ever be1 coming obsolete. The external manifestations of vice and reflections on each pie'cT ParfriTirTn^rvX’svo ! folly may change with time, and vary according to the fluc6 r e"gra,in*“ fro“ tuations of fashion, caprice, or accident; yet the essential deiigns^ HoX Verne, atf^fV f Mohere a reli discoursedand a comment y ° ’ P “”fy elements of human character and passion will remain always MOLINISTS, in ecclesiastical history a sect in thii the same; and Moliere penetrated too deeply below the surface not to distinguish the permanent from* the accidental, man Catholic church, who follow the doctrineandVenUme^s' SPeCting ufflcient and and to catch those generic indications which are at all times ggrace HeU'taS thatrrlthe ? of divine grace efficacious ace.6 we taught nthat operations were equally significant. Fie possessed comic powers of the entu-eJy consistent with the freedom of human wfll • and he very highest order, and wit of the purest kind ; his mirth is unalloyed with bitterness, and'his pleasantry is always introduced a new kind of hypothesis to remove the’diffmul innocent. IFis comedies in verse, such as the Misanthrope ties attending the doctrines of predestination and liberty and and the Tartuffe, constitute a specific variety of their class, to reconcde the jarrmg opinions of Augustines, ThomisS in which vice is exposed in the style of elegant and po- that , i-Pe^gians, other polemical divines. the decree ofand predestination to eternal gloryHe wasaffirmed foundlished satire, although with a formal gravity ill suited to our notions of the comic. His verses have all the freedom mde iS0nfffiPr710US ^now,ledge and consideration of the er its of the elect; that the grace, from the operations of and fluency of conversation, yet he is said to have passed which these merits are derived, is not efficacious by its own whole days in fixing upon a proper epithet or a suitable alS0 by the rhyme. In his prose comedies, though there is a profes- wmTfl E0™ °nly-’ ofVur own sion of ridicule equally pointed and effective, yet there is in which thTlTV1 admiaistered ia those circumstances Inch the Deity, by that branch of his knowledge which nothing to offend the most fastidious purity, or to throw saentia media, foresees that it will be efficacious contempt on sobriety and virtue. But, with all these high iscaUed The kind of prescience denominated in the schools scienqualities, Moliere has also some acknowledged defects. He is not happy in the unravelling of his plots. More atten- eveZedmh-1Shtba- foi;eknowledge of future and contingent VV UC1 arises from an tive to the strong exhibition of character than to the con- andfi cfacul , ties of rational beings, acquaintance with the the circumstances in nature which duct of the intrigue, he seems to be carried away by this they shall be placed, the objects which shall be presented natural predilection; and hence the denouement is fre- to them, and the influence which these circumstances and quently brought about with too little preparation, and without sufficient attention to probability. The scene is wound objects must exert on their actions. up on a sudden, and in a manner which leaves an impres- wffif ?fl]INOf IS*TS’ f SeC.t amonSst tke Roman Catholics who adhere to the doctrine of Molinos. These are the S1 sa 0 ntmen same with those otherwise called Quietests, whose chief °f ^* PP ^ b mixed with a conviction that, in unfolding the character, the author has neglected the inis, that men ought to annihilate themselves in ddents. In his rhymed comedies he is sometimes not principle order to be united to God, and afterwards remain in quietsufficiently interesting, and many of the speeches are by ness of mind, without being troubled for what shall happen far too long; whilst, in his shorter pieces, intended to serve as interludes or entertainments, the comic often degene- to the body. Molinos, the author of these opinions, was rates into the farcical. Upon the whole, however, few a Spanish priest, and was born in the year 1627. His sixtywriters ever possessed the genuine spirit and attained the eight propositions were examined in 1687, by the pope and true end of comedy so perfectly as Moliere. His Tartuffe the inquisitors, who decreed that his doctrine was false and m the graye style, and his Avare in the gay, are account- permcious, and that his books should be burned. He was ed by his countrymen his two greatest masterpieces. The obhged to recant his errors publicly in the Dominican church, and was condemned to perpetual imprisonment. rrench Academy, which had declined admitting him as a He was then sixty years of age, and had been spreading member on account of his profession, sought to render to fus doctrine twenty-two years before this time. He died mem , ory the homage which it had considered itself obliged to refuse to his person, and in the year 1778 ordered his in prison in 1692. MOLISE, a province of the kingdom of Naples, which us to be placed in the hall containing the portraits of extends in east longitude from 14. 7. to 15. 5., and in academicians, with this inscription, proposed by Saurin: north latitude from 41. 18. to 41. 51., being 1261 square Rien ne manque a sa gloire ; if manquait la notre miles in extent. It is divided from the province of Terra And, not content with this, it proposed, as the subject of di .Lavoro by the snowy mountains of Matese, the highest chain of the Apennines, whence the principal rivers, the compeution for a prize, an eulogium on Moliere. The Biferno, the I rigno, and the Tammaro, have their sources, «m ^fSSandj ^andulate was Chamfort, who evinced much ihe province comprises nine cities, sixteen market-towns, fif,uctions "• in judging and praising the pro- and seventy-seven villages, with 206,670 inhabitants, chiefofdiscrimination the great dramatist. ly subsisting by agricultural labour, and having few manuhnt tithe w?rk.s °f Moliere there have been many editions, factures and little commerce. Molise produces sufficient nC Pal are the folI DuhlUh!/K T °™g, viz. 1. The edition corn, oil, and wine for the consumption; and of the first it d by L range and Vinot Paris 1682 in vols 19 o £? ’ ’ > eight forms a kind of granary for Campania. Hemp, flax, and silk f are also produced, but in small quantities. The capital is ° Amsterdam, by Jacques Lejeune, m bve vcds 2iri(> an 1684 ^ ‘l > d that of the same, the city of Campobasso. V IS 12 MOL1TERNO, a city of Naples, in the province of Prinstein rqT r 5 3- That of Amsterdam, by Wet! 1 m° i/f 12mo; 4. That Joly, with oires suv’ l7a Vievols. et les Ouvrages de of Moliere by DeMe' cipal) Citeriore. It is situated between two branches of Serrp • 1734, i rvo i in • six . vols. ^ nor ages5. aeA Moliere Deprehla the river Maglio, on an elevation, with a suburb extending re, Pn Pans, 4to; reprint ofbythe into the valley of Diana. It contains 5176 inhabitants.

324

MOLLUSCA. throughout its whole length. In many species _ there is .a Molluy Mollusca. Tire Molluscous animals to which our attention is to be di- head, not, however, analogous to that member in the ver-V^y* rected in this article, formed, for a long period, two distinct tebral animals, and containing the brain and organs of the objects of study. The naked species were considered as constituting a particular group, to which the term Mollus- senses, but distinguished merely as the anterior extremity ca was in a great measure restricted; whilst the shelly spe- of the body, separated from the back by a slight groove, and cies attracted a large share of attention, being known as containing the mouth and tentacula. In many of the animals of this division, the different memobjects of study by the term Conchology. Of late years, however, this kind of syTstematical separation of the naked and bers of the body are in pairs, and are arranged, in reference shelly species has been supported by few advocates, whilst to a mesial plane, into right and left. In some, a part only those7 who have urged the propriety of their union have not of the organs has respect to a mesial plane, other parts being only been numerous, but acknowledged as the intelligent single, or in unequal numbers. In other species, the orand successful investigators of nature. In consequence of gans, which are not in pairs, are arranged round a central these changes, which have taken place in public opinion by axis, and give to the external form a radiated appearance. the introduction of more correct notions of the principles of But these characters are exceedingly variable and uncertain, classification, we have in this edition of our work, resolved as indicating the limits of particular tribes ; since, in differon incorporating the articles Mollusca and Conchology, ent parts of the same animal, modifications of all these forms suppressing the latter term as unnecessary. Indeed, in a may be readily distinguished. The skin of molluscous animals is more simple in its struc- Skin, physiological point of view, there is no definite boundary between the naked and the shelly species, many of the re- ture, than the same organ in the vertebral animals. The puted naked species having shells concealed under their cuticle is here very distinct; and, as in other classes, it is integuments, while in many of the shelly species, the solid thick and coarse where much exposed, but thin and delicate plate or shell can only be reached by removing the sur- in its texture, where it lines the internal cavities. A murounding soft or fleshy matter. But the propriety of aban- cous web may be detected in the cuttle fish and slug, but of doning the old divisions wall become sufficiently obvious, great tenuity. The conum is destitute of a villous surface; when we consider that all the species belong to one group and on its central aspect it is so intimately united to celluin the Invertebrate class of animals; that the organs of lar substance, that its fibrous structure can scarcely be disthe species have many points of resemblance; and that al- tinguished. The muscular web may, in general, be readily though differences prevail in the character of the protecting perceived. Its fibres proceed in various directions, accordcovering-, the gradations from one condition of the integu- ing to the kind of motion to be executed, and extend or corments to another, are too minute, in many cases, to admit rugate the skin at pleasure. The appendices of the skin in this class of animals ought of precise limits being fixed. We shall therefore consider shells as peculiar modifications of the external coverings of to be carefully studied, as they furnish the most obvious certain species, and, in this subordinate character, incorpo* marks for distinguishing species, and for constructing divirate the naked and shelly species; having recourse to the sions in their systematical arrangement. The appendices integuments, however, in connection with the other organs, of the cuticle are few in number, and perhaps ought to be in the distribution of the genera and other divisions of the considered as limited to hairs. These, in some species, invest the surface regularly and closely, and may be observed class now denominated Mollusca. In treating of this extensive division of the invertebrate on those which live on land, as well as those which reside animals, we "shall confine our remarks to a general view of in water. In some cases the hairs may be considered as their physiology, taking notice of the peculiarities of their united, and forming continuous crusts or ridges. These forms, organs, and functions. This will prepare us for a hairs, as well as the cuticle, are liable to be worn off, and in condensed view of the progress of the science, in reference some places can seldom be perceived, unless in early age. The most important appendix to the skin, for such it must Snell, to systematical arrangement, and the illustration of the characters of those divisions or groups into which the species be considered, appears to be the shell. This part is easily may be distributed, whether for assisting the student in his preserved, exhibits fine forms and beautiful colours, and has labours of investigation, or for facilitating the judicious dis- long occupied the attention of the conchologist. The matposition of the established truths of the science. We shall ter of the shell is secreted by the corium, and the form which then advert, in the last place, to molluscous animals as ob- it assumes is regulated by the body ot the animal. It is jects of utility. The limits of the article will unavoidably coeval with the existence of the animal, and appears previrestrict us to a very brief exposition of the various subjects ous to the exclusion from the egg; nor can it be dispensed connected with this very extensive department of natural with during the continuance of existence. The solid matter of the shell consists of carbonate of lime, united with a history. small portion of animal matter, resembling coagulated albumen. . CHAP. I PHYSIOLOGY. The mouth of the shell is extended by the application ot PhysiologyJ Molluscous animals exhibit very remarkable differences, fresh layers of the shelly matter to the margin, and its thickboth in their form and in the number and position of their ness is increased by a coating on the inner surface. These external members. Neither head nor foot can be observed statements are abundantly confirmed by the observations ot in some species; the principal organs being enclosed in a Reaumur, (M6moires de VAcademic des Sciences, 1709)) bag pierced with apertures for the entrance of the food, and whose accurate experiments have greatly contributed to the egress of the excrementitious matter. In others, with an elucidation of conchology. If a hole be made in the shell exterior still remarkably simple, cuticular elongations, term- of a snail, and a piece of skin so glued to the inner margin ed Tentacula, surround the mouth, and a foot, or instrument as to cover the opening, the shelly matter wall not ooze out of motion, may likewise be perceived. This last organ is in from the broken margin of the fracture, and cover the outsome free at one extremity, in others attached to the body side of the skin, but will form a coating on its inner surface,

MOLLUSC A. 325 jusca. thus proving it to have exuded from the body of the animal. responding increase of the dimensions of the contained ani- Mollusca. - When a portion of the mouth of the shell of a snail is bro- mat, or cavity for its reception. ' ken off, and a piece of skin glued to the inner margin, rePhe shells of the first kind which we have noticed, from flected outwardly, and fixed on the body of the shell, the being formed of cones or layers applied to the inner edge of defective part is again supplied, and the matter added to the the margin, and extending beyond it, have an imbricated inner surface of the skin, thus leaving the interposed sub- structure. Those of the second kind, consisting of layers stance between the new formed portion and the fractured rucedge. Similar experiments, repeated on a variety of shells, regularlysuperimposed,haveconsequentlya/a;/ima^ ture ; but between the two kinds there are numerous st interboth univalve and bivalve, by different naturalists, leave no mediate links, formed by a combination of the two processes. room to doubt that shells increase in size by the juxtaposiIn some cases, the hard parts of the skin are not entitled tion of shelly matter from the common integuments. to the appellation of shell, but may rather be considered as Each calcareous layer is more or less enveloped in the horn. Such are the coverings of the mandibles of the cutanimal matter which we have already stated as being pre- tie fish, the branchial lid of the aplysia, and the operculum sent ; so that the different layers of successive growth may, of the welk. Ihe two last appendices, however, though by various processes, be distinctly exhibited. If the shell horny in some species, are shelly in others. has been exposed for a short time in the fire, the animal The position of the shell, with respect to the constituent matter will appear charred, and its black colour, contrasted layers of the integuments, exhibits very remarkable differwith the white earthy matter, will indicate the arrangement ences. In some it appears instead of a cuticle, or at least of the different strata; in the same manner as the ivory and without an external membrane investing it. In general, enamel of a tooth can be distinguished, when subjected to however, it occurs between the cuticle and the skin ; a posimilar treatment. The same satisfactory results may be ob- sition which induced Cuvier (Lec.d’Anat. Comp. xiv. 11.) to tained by a different process. If the shell be steeped in consider it as analogous to the mucous web of the vertebral weak muriatic acid, the earthy matter will be dissolved, and animals. Its intimate connection with the muscular systhe flakes of albumen will remain as the frame-work of the tem of the animal, and the protection which it affords, seem edifice. adverse to such a conclusion. In many species the testaThe layers of grow th may often be distinguished on the ceous substance occurs in folds of the corium, or inserted surface of the shell, in the form of striae or ridges, more or in its substance. In this position it never acquires the soless elevated, but parallel to the margin of the aperture. lid texture which shells exposed, or covered only by the Other inequalities may likewise be observed on the surface, cuticle, exhibit. I hose shells which are thus concealed at right angles to the layers of growth, such as ridges, are in general white; those which are more exposed are knobs, and spines. T. hese last derive their origin from the frequently coloured. The colouring, however, does not deinequalities of the skin on which they have been moulded. pend on the direct exposure to the light, as some have imIn some univalve shells, the layers of growth parallel to agined, for many shells which are destitute of a cuticle are the opening cannot be discerned; when exposed in the fire, white, wrhile many of those covered with a dense cuticle are there is little darkening of colour; and when dissolved in finely variegated beneath. acids, but a feeble trace of animal matter remains. In the Between the skin and the shell neither vessels nor nerves fire, these shells crack in various directions, but exhibit no have been traced ; and the manner in which the latter is trace of a scaly structure. By careful management with the formed, forbids us to expect their existence. Yet the shell file, the shell may be separated into a central layer contigu- cannot be considered as dead matter, so long as it remains ous to the skin, and a peripheral layer, both similar in struc- in connection with the living animal. In those animals in ture, though frequently differing in colour. The shells which the shell is external, there are muscles which connect exhibiting such characters have been texxned. porcellaneous, the animal with its internal surface, and the bond of union from their dense structure, and the fine polish which their being a substance soluble in water, the muscle can be desurface presents. I he formation of shells of this kind must tached by maceration. The analogy between shell and take place in a different manner from those of the first kind bone is here obvious, although in the one case the connecwhich we have noticed. tion between the muscle and the bone is permanent, in the If vve attend to the form of a young shell belonging to the other, between the muscle and shell, temporary, or frequentgenus cypraea of Linnaeus, we may perceive that an addition ly changed during the life of the animal. But the vitality of shelly matter to the margin of the aperture, in the man- of the shell, if I may use the expression, is demonstrated, ner in which it is applied in other shells, wrould not enlarge from the changes which it undergoes when detached from the cavity, but completely close the aperture. The increase the animal: the plates of animal matter harden: the epiof the shell, (accompanied with a corresponding increase of dermis dries, cracks, and falls off; and in many cases the its inhabitant), must take place, therefore, either by ab- colours fade or disappear. We confess ourselves unable to sorption of the accumulated shelly matter of the mouth, and point out the means employed by the animal to prevent an elongation in the direction of the greatest curvature of these changes from taking place, by any process similar to the shell; or the old shell must be thrown off, and a new one circulation. The difficulty, however, is felt in contemproduced, suited to the size of the animal. The former sup- plating the functions of hairs, nails, and feathers, in verteposition has not been entertained, the latter is now generally brated animals. received by naturalists, though there are a few individuals When the shelly covering consists of two or more pieces, unwilling to adopt such a view of the matter. The inner they are joined together, as the articulated bones in the coat of such shells appears to be a transudation from the higher classes of animals, by ligaments. These, in some ody of the animal, and the outer one to be laid on the sur- cases, are of great thickness and strength, and, in conace by the loose reflected lobes of the cloak. In many other sequence of their elasticity, assist in the motion of the difshells, portions of matter, more compact than the other parts, ferent parts. roay be observed spread on the pillar, and applied to the In the molluscous animals the skin secretes a viscous, margin of the mouth by a similar process. Mr. Platt, in adhesive substance, differing according to the medium in support of Reaumur’s opinion, that shells are formed by jux- which the animal resides, but in all cases calculated to retaposition, against the objections of Mr. Poupart, (Phil. sist its influence. It is probably owing to the lubricating vans. vol. liv. p. 43), erroneously considers the different agency of this secretion, that both the cuticle and shell are sizes of the cypreae as depending on the thickness of the preserved from decomposition. The skin likewise secretes 8 e increasing according to age, without admitting a cor- the colouring matter by which the shells are variegated,

M O L L U S C A. 326 Molluscs. The glands from which it proceeds vary much in different struction of genera and higher divisions. They are inti- Mollm individuals, and even in the same individual in different pe- mately connected with the habits of the animal, and merit the attentive examination of the philosophical naturalist. riods of growth. In the molluscous animals the Nervous System is less Keivoii The characters furnished by the skin and its appendices are extensively employed in the systematical arrangement complicated in its structure than in the higher classes, and system of molluscous animals. Nearly all those characters which the brain is not restricted in its position to the head. The distinguish the species, and many of those on which genera whole nervous system appears in the form of ganglia and are established, are derived from the form of the shell, the filaments. The principal ganglion, or the one to which the tentacula, or the colour. This last character, however, is term brain is usually applied, is seated above the gullet or entrance to the stomach. It sends out nerves to the parts one on which little dependence should be placed. There is nothing peculiar intheMuscuiiAitSYSTEJvrof this about the mouth, the tentacula, and the eyes. It may be Muscular system. class of animals. Where the muscles are inserted in the considered as analogous to the cerebrum of the vertebral skin, as is usually the case, that organ is in some cases animals. From this ganglion proceed two filaments, one strengthened by condensed cellular substance, and even ac- on each side, which in their descent inclose the gullet, and unite underneath to form a second ganglion. From this quires a leathery density. Molluscous animals preserve themselves in a state of rest, last, which has been compared to the cerebellum, numerous chiefly by suction and cementation. The organ which acts filaments are likewise distributed to the parts around the as a sucker, is in some cases simple, soft, and muscular, as mouth, and to the other regions of the body. These filathe foot of the snail, while in others it is compound, and ments in some cases again unite, and form subordinate ganstrengthened internally by hard parts, as in the arms of the glia. In many cases the brain and ganglia are of a reddish cuttle fish. The force with which some animals adhere is colour, and granulated structure, while the nerves which very considerable, and is strikingly displayed, for example, issue from them are white and uniform, as in the genus Aplysia. The covering of the first ganglion, which is analowhen we attempt to detach a limpet from the rock. The rest, which is maintained by cementation, in some gous to the dura mater, does not adhere to it closely, but cases depends on a glairy secretion, which glues the body leaves a space filled with loose cellular matter. The tuof the animal to the substance to which it is disposed to be nics of the nerves are equally detached; and as they can attached. By such an expedient, the shells of snails adhere be inflated or injected readily, some have been led to supto rocks, stones, and plants. It is probable that the bivalve pose that the nerves were hollow, and others, that the tunics shells of the genus Cyclas, which readily adhere to the side were the vessels of the lymphatic system. The organs of perception common to the higher classes of a glass, secure their temporary attachment by means of their glutinous cuticle. In other animals threads are pro- of animals, do not all exist in an obvious manner amongst duced, termed a byssus, from particular glands, and while the mollusca. The touch, that universal sense, is here disone extremity is glued to the rock, the other remains in played in many cases with great delicacy; and the tentaconnection with the animal. But there is an attachment cula, and the other cuticular elongations which we have almore durable than any of these, which takes place in some ready referred to, contribute to augment its resources. The shells, they being cemented to rocks or stones by calcare- sense of sight is by no means universally enjoyed by the inous matter, and retained in the same position during the habitants of this class. In a few species, the eye is constructed on the plan of the same organ in the vertebral aniwhole term of their existence. The locomotive powers of the mollusca are confined to mals. In general, however, it appears only as a black point, creeping and swimming. The former action is performed the peculiar functions of which can only be inferred from by alternate contraction and relaxation of the foot, or mus- analogy. In many species there is no trace of an eye, concular expansion, which serves as a sucker, and is analogous sequently they cannot possess that varied information which to the motion of serpents. The motion of swimming is the others derive from that organ. Where eyes exist in executed either by the serpentine undulations of the foot this class, they are uniformly two in number. In one tribe and the body, or by the action of tentacula, or expanded only, namely the cuttle-fish, the rudiments of the organs of portions of the integuments. Many species are aided in hearing have been detected. The organs adapted to smellswimming, by being able to vary the specific gravity of their ing cannot be exhibited, but the existence of the sense is body at pleasure, and either rise or sink in the water as demonstrated by the facility with which molluscous animals circumstances may require. In some, as the Janthina, there discover suitable food, when placed within their reach. is a cellular organ peculiarly destined for this purpose, which The sense of taste appears to exist, but it is difficult to point may be regarded as in some measure analogous to the air- out the particular parts of the mouth fitted for its residence. bladder of fishes. In all these exertions the progress of mol- As, however, particular articles of food are selected in pre • luscous animals is proverbially slow. Some bivalve shells ference to others, it may be concluded from analogy that have the power of leaping or shifting their position by a taste regulates the choice. sudden jerk, produced by shutting the valves rapidly. This In the classification of the mollusca, the characters furis strikingly displayed in the common Scallop, and is less nished by the nervous system, from the difficulty of their perfectly exhibited in the river muscles. In a few instan- detection and exhibition, have never come into use. But ces, especially among the slugs, a thread is formed of the those furnished by the organs of preception are highly prizviscous secretion of the skin, by which the animal is enabl- ed. Of these, the eye is the most obvious and constant. ed to suspend itself in the air from the branches of trees It varies in position in different species; but, among individuals of the same species its characters are constant. like a spider. Although the progressive motions of molluscous animals In the cutaneous, muscular, and nervous systems, traces are comparatively slow, the other muscular actions are exe- of a general plan may be observed, according to which they cuted with ordinary rapidity. The irritability of some parts, have been constructed in the different tribes. In the oras the tentacula and branchiae, is so great, that the protect- gans which remain to be considered, there is less uniformity ing movements are executed almost instantaneously, and of structure, each family almost, being constructed accordthe organs are contracted or withdrawn into the body. But ing to a model of its own. these rapid exertions are only called forth in the moments The time when molluscous animals feed has not been Digest * of danger. carefully attended to. Those which live in the water aresyste'1, The characters furnished by the muscular system, are of beyond the reach of accurate observation. Those that regreat value in the discrimination of species, and in the con- side on land usually shun the light, and creep forth in the

mollusca. oo iollusca. evenings to commit their depredations. During warm dry 7 weather, they stir not from their holes. ’ ^ SyStem a ^^ ^ ^ MoUusl The animals under consideration, feed equally on the tensively^uscd'lrf ln feri0r d,Vlsions of , mohuscous ani-^^, products of the vegetable and animal kingdom. Those mX The fn J c fi 16 i the osi P tion of the mouth and which are phyttvorous appear to prefer living vegetables and anus" and tfJ t 11 Ure / ^ Stth °mach’ deServe tobe atfonrefuse to eat those which are dried. We are not aware’that tTveW coXdered"d, indlcatin Cmrr:r . iri a g er habits of the species. putrid vegetable matter is consumed by them, although CeSS b wh y ich the food Circulating many of the snails and slugs are found under putrid leaves is converted into chymThTs^t ? ° and decayed wood. In these places there is shelter from nor has the existencl of the 100,00““ ab^SIr'™' the sun, together with dampness, so that it is difficult to de- the chyme been demonstrated. In this class of uniLnlc tL termine, whether they sojourn in an agreeable dwelling, or I he0ePblood white, or both rather of a bluish XaXreXh blo0dmisthe h0ffiCeS °f iucteals andcolour lyma well-stored larder. Those mollusca which are carnivo- pnatics. rous, prey on minute animals in a living state, and many of COnStitution investigated?^ ^ yet remains to be them greedily attack putrid matter. The circulating system of molluscous animals, exhibits The means employed to bring the food within the reach of the organs of deglutition, are exceedingly interestino-, very remarkable differences in the different classes/ In all of both on account of their variety and success. Some are them, however, there is a systemic ventricle ; but the other provided with tentacula for securing their prey, and con- parts of the heart are not of constant occurrence. Ihe circulating system furnishes few characters which veying it to their mouth, as the cuttle-fish ; others protrude a lengthened probosis, or an extended lip or tongue, as the can be employed in systematical arrangements. The struclimpet, and thus bring their food into the mouth. By many ture of the systemic and pulmonary vessels does not appear to be co-ordinate with any particular plan of external however, which are fixed to the same spot during the continuance of existence, or only capable of very limited locomotive configuration and manner, as we see in the case of the pteropoda and gasteropoda. In these, the organs of circupower, successful areof made excite currents in with the water, whereby freshefforts portions it aretobrought in contact the lation are very much alike, while the externalTorms exhibit mouth, and its animal or vegetable contents separated. very obvious differences. The molluscous animals which respire by means of lungs Where part only of any kind of food is taken into the mouth at once, the lips are possessed of sufficient firmness to cut are few in number, and form a very natural tribe, which Cuvier has termed gasterpodespulmones. In them the resCOrnCOUS ma dibles piratory organ is simple, consisting of a single cavity, on the °to p^ormTe oflkertl0nS’ ” t'1CT° " In the mouth, there is scarcely any process performed walls of which the extremities of the pulmonary artery are analogous to that of mastication, in the higher orders of ani- spread. I his cavity communicates externally by an aperture which the animal can open or shut at pleasure. SS‘ .^ hen the food is in the mouth, or entering into the Ihe mollusca which breathe by means oi'gills, exhibit S mi Xed Wlt Sa hva as in the more / 7 , in’ which it is secreted, perfectareanimals. ’ Tl! I he salivary gland* in very remarkable differences, in their number, structure, and In some cases, there is a single cavity communigeneral of considerable size, divided into lobes, and, in some position. ing by an aperture, through which the water enters. cases, separated into distinct masses. In many species the ca existence of a gullet is doubtful, as the food seenis to enter Ihe walls of this cavity exhibit an uneven surface, disposed in ridges, which are the gills, and on which the pulmoCh immed tel tin Stof?T y 5 which while, has in others, theretoisthe a portion the intestinalfcanal some claim de- nic artery is expanded. This structure exhibits itself in the (gasteropoda pectini-branchia. In many cases the gills, nomination. t lough seated in a cavity, like the former, and equally exd he stoma ' ch, in many instances, is membranaceous, and posed to the contact of the surrounding element, are two in d m uished m the intt?!- yibe na f fIn SOmefo° the remaining portion of number, one on each side, as in the Cephalopoda. In the cases and m T n ’ however, it is strong Bivalvia, they are four in number, two on each side like eve wffih^orne ar kn bs f r the reduction °f a bird’ and « fortified leaves, and extend the whole length of the body. In these, ha the water is admitted at the pleasure of the animal. In in °i ° of rd substances, in some species, the stomach opens laterally into the pyThe gills of other mollusca are seated externally, and mStanCeS tached to it m a ’ P°ssesses a spiral ccecum at- consist either of aborescent productions, or simple cuticular elongations, within which the pulmonary artery terminates. ve c,olhejT isfusuall 7 °fhlch yy itlarge dimensions, and seated In some of these, as the Pteropoda, the branchial surface is 0mach in man It k d /a • ’7 ’ y cases envelopes, constantly exposed to the action of the surrounding water; mt many l0bes and receives vestk ° ’ numerous blood- whilst in others, the cuticular expansions, which are analoho eve not portarum nfn^ T J ^ hing analogous to the vena gous to gills, are retractile at the will of the animal. In 1 1 Z ZLi (llJadruPmeds he bile is poured, in some, into several examples, these cuticular elongations, which execute otbers> into the infpsf ’i ^ rV the pyloric extremity of the functions of respiration, are covered with moveable cilia, der. 11 by dlfferent openings. There is no gall-blad- well calculated to excite currents in the water, thus renewing the portions applied to the surface. By means of the characters furnished by the circulating tesSf isno div1ision of the canal into small and large indaSSeS 5 or rather amon a lusca thpS '"I -6Vehlgher ’ g the mol_ respiratory systems, the molluscous animals may be 8126 f the different Herethp ? ° is usually the largest, P^ts is while reversed, nere the pyloric extremity the divided into several distinct classes. But as we shall employ these characters in the construction of the different in pronorr ’ t Th^ intestiae’ as inand is short divisions to be employed, it is unnecessary, in this place, to he lengdl f the bod is suK /° ! ° y’ fo its course, enter into their details. Peculiar secretions.—The molluscous animals are con- Secretions, one side o^h T 'T*'- Tbe anuS is’ in some’ Plancd on sidered as destitute of organs for the production of urine, it opens on Zltk! ” * “ “ teminal> B hile but they possess various organs for the secretion of peculiar ll JJld!ESll'VyStV'' istIlus more s!mpk “ its structure fluids or solids, some of which are useful in the arts. c 556 8 The coloured fluid, which is secreted by the Cephalopospleen nor t And . ' Il possesses neither pancreas, hunger are , ’ ” ^ add’ ,hat the “lls “f da and some of the aquatic gasteropoda, appears to consist •tinence verf^eat. 4 “tervals, and tire power of ob- chiefly of a peculiar mucus, united to a peculiar pigment. The animals which furnish this secretion, eject it when in

M O L L U S C A. 328 Mollusca. danger or irritated, and thus envelope themselves in a dark species, the range of which is considered as limited, may Mollus cloud, and elude the pursuit of their foes. A milky secre- soon be found to be extensive. If the observations are few and imperfect, wrhich have been tion is poured forth over the surface of the skin of some made on the influence of temperature, in regulating the slugs when irritated. Other coloured secretions may likewise be detected in the mollusca, to which we shall after- physical distribution of mollusca, we are still in greater igwards advert. The threadlike secretions, termed a byssus, norance with regard to the power of habit. In the flcetz with which some molluscous animals, especially among the rocks, the relics of marine and fluviatile mollusca are found Conchifera, fix themselves to other bodies, appear to be of mixed in the same bed. This circumstance gave rise to the an albuminous nature. A few species in this division have inquiry, how far the mollusca of fresh w'ater can be habituthe power of secreting a luminous Its nature, and the ated to sea-water, and vice versa. In the account ot the organs in which it is elaborated, have not been investigat- proceedings of the National Institute of France, for the year ed. It is probable that some animals, as those which have 1816, it is stated, that M. Beuchant, professor at Marthe faculty of raising or lowering themselves in the water, seilles, has directed his attention to this subject. He found, have likewise the power of secreting air into those organs that all these animals die immediately, if we suddenly change their place of abode ; but that, if we gradually increase the which contribute to their buoyancy. Morbid secretions likewise occur amongst the animals or proportion of salt in the water for the one set, and diminish this division, chiefly, however, amongst the Conchifera. The it for the other set, we can, in general, accustom them to most important of these are pearls, so much prized as orna- live in a kind of water wdiich is not natural to them. He found, however, some species which resisted these attempts,^ ments of dress. . The organs of generation, some of which will be noticed, and which could not bear any alteration in the quality ot afterwards in detail, furnish many important characters for the water in which they reside. Before much confidence classification. The external openings are those which are can be placed in the accuracy of these results, it would be detected with the greatest facility, but the structure of the desirable that the experiments w ere repeated and varied by internal organs exhibits more varied and discriminating other observers. There are, indeed, many sources of error to be guarded against. When we change animals from marks. Condition. Condition of the Moeeusca.—Molluscous animals, in fresh to salt water, or from salt water to fresh, we must reference to their condition, are divided, according to the si- necessarily derange their motions, by compelling them to tuation in which they reside, into three groups, which may reside in a medium of a different degree of density from the be termed terrestrial, fluviatile, and marine. I hose that one in which they have been accustomed to dwell, and to inhabit the land belong exclusively to the gasteropoda. which the arrangement of the different parts of the body is Among these, some prefer open pastures, others the rub- adapted. By such a change of place, it would be difficult bish of old walls, while not a few reside in woods or among for those which breathe air to come to the surface, and dedead leaves and putrid plants. All the animals of this scend again in their new situation. In those with gills, the application of a new kind ot fluid to the surface of such degroup respire by means of a pulmonary cavity. The fluviatile mollusca, or such as reside in fresh waters, licate organs, would considerably influence the function of include not only many gasteropodous genera, but likewise respiration. The change of situation would likewise be a few belonging to the Conchifera Amongst these, some accompanied by a corresponding change of food, and conbreathe air by means of a pulmonary cavity, and come to sequently, not merely the organs of locomotion and respirathe surface to respire. Such species frequent the more tion, but likewise those of digestion, would suffer a derangeshallow ponds and lakes. Others, respiring by means of ment in their operations. We know that the power ot sujgills, are less dependent on the shallowness ot the water, fering in the animals of this class is very great, and that they survive, though sadly mutilated. Some ot the snails and consequently reside in different depths. The marine mollusca include genera of all the classes. will live in a quiescent state for years, without food, and alSome burrow in the sand, or adhere to the rocks which are most without air. Unless, therefore, the animals subjected left dry by the receding tide. These are termed littoral to these experiments of a change of situation, have been species. Others, however, which have been denominated observed to thrive on the food which it spontaneously yields, pelagic, reside in the deep, and are seldom obtained but by to execute their accustomed motions, and above all, to propagate their kind, we shall be disposed to conclude, that dredging, or when thrown ashore during storms. The effect of temperature in regulating the distribution patient suffering has been mistaken for health and vivaciof molluscous animals, has not been investigated with any ousness for the power of accommodation. , The influence of the seasons, in regulating the motions degree of care or success. Over the terrestrial and fluviatile species, it probably exercises a very powerful control, and habits of molluscous animals, has been but little attendgreatly limiting their geographical range. In proof of this, ed to. Those which live in the water, avoid the effects ot it may be stated, that the south of France possesses several low temperature, on the approach of winter, by retiring to species not to be found in England, whilst in England, there the deeper parts of the lakes or rivers in which they reside. are a few which have not been detected in Scotland. But, This migration, however, does not, in many cases, furnisa among the marine mollusca, the influence of climate is not the requisite security, so that they betake themselves to felt in the same degree. Living in an element, the bulk burrowing in the mud in which they repose until increasing and motions of which guard it equally from the extremes of warmth invites them to return to the open water. Among the naked terrestrial mollusca, it may be observheat or cold, these animals, like the sea-weeds, have a very extensive latitudinal and longitudinal range. Thus, some ed, that they burrow in holes of the earth, under the roots are common to Greenland and the Mediterranean, others to of trees or among moss, and there screen themselves trom Britain and the West Indies. The mollusca of the tropical sudden changes of temperature, and appear to spend the . , seas, however, differ widely as a whole from those of the winter in a state of torpidity. The different kinds of shelly mollusca which inhabit tne temperate regions. Some of the forms appear to be peculiar to warm regions, and, in general, the intensity of colour de- land, such as those belonging to the genera Helix, Bulicreases as we approach the poles. But as there have been mus, and Pupa, not only retire to crevices of rocks and otner few cultivators of this branch of science, the geographical places, for safety in the winter season, but they torm a distribution of the species has been but imperfectly explor- operculum or lid for the mouth of the shell, calculated ed. Few' parts of either England or Scotland have been exclude the access of the air, and by the intervention oi surveyed by the eye of the helminthologist, so that many which they likewise adhere to the wall of their dwelling.

M O L L D S C A. 829 llusca. rise of temperature, however, especially if accompanied by to the different form* nf , eStl nably theill0st Mollusca moisture, excites their revival and motion, and the lid be be- obvious and tho I j ° * obvious and the most ancient method. It was first employed' comes detached. If we bring, for example, the Helix ne by Aristotle, the father of natural history, and even in the moralis, from its cold abode, and in an apparently torpid present day its admirers are warm in its praisei It is with state, with the mouth of its shell closed by the lid and ad- great propriety termed the artificial method, because the hering to a stone, into a warm apartment, it will speedily characters employed have but a remote relation to the more revive, especially if it be moistened with a little water, important functions of the animal. This eminent philosoburst open the lid and begin to crawl. If the animal be pher had the merit of forming the great divisions oi univalagain exposed to a low temperature, it again secretes ma- ves and bivalves. He likewise separated the turbinated unitrials for a new lid, and speedily returns to its slumbers or valves from such as have bTinTpS spi'remd tomed ed inactivity. _ The first formed opercula, m these animals, al- many genera, or rather families sHlrSZ A 1 retainin ways contain a considerable proportion of carbonate of lime, which he imposed. * g the names a material which is found in smaller quantity in those of The progress of the shidv n-P tiro r. nly u , after formation. If the animal has revived frequently dur- naked kS^ein^ n l ire!17 ? ^lluSCa (the ing the winter, the last formed opercula will be observed to little progress fim many ages 'after Arisfoth had ThT Tu consist ch,eiiy of annual matter, and Jx, be very thin. The his mltlmd of arranged, Meed"t firs^ first formed winter lid of the Helix Pomatia is of the con- sort which claims attention, is the Dictionarium Ostracolosistence of card-paper. gicum of Major, which was published in 1675. To him we All the land shelly mollusca appear tq have the power of are indebted for the threefold division of shells into unipassing into a state of quiescence resembling torpidity, at valves, bivalves, and multivalves, and for an explanation of pleasure, and independent of low temperature. Thus, even the teims then employed by conchologistSi in midsummer, if we place in a box specimens of the Helix San ie career )ut w hortensis, nemoralis aut arbustorum, without food, in a day gms • followed, * Th more brilliant success, Nova Lan- Laneius ' 1 and, in ’ 1722, published his Methodus or two they form for themselves a thin operculum, become lestacea Marina m suas Classes, Genera et Species distriattached to the side of the box, and assume a dormant con- buendu I he following character is given of this work by duio, Iii this state of apparent torpidity they may be kept iSigent for several years. No ordinary change of temperature pro- count of Testaceological Writers. (Linn Trans vol vii duces anyeftec upon them, but they speedily revive if p. 156.) “ After having noticed a nmSde of mere de * moistened or plunged in water. Even in their natural scribersUe now come fo an author^ aunts, they are often found in this dormant state, during of the title of a scientific one, and whose system so far as Y 7there '7 a continucd marine testacea are concerned, (and of these alone’he treats! g e J eltx em • ? / fi oralis mayattached frequently be certainly glances at the great clue to simplicity, which was observed several feet from the ground, and to the so successfully and admirably seized by the great stem or leaves of plants, with the mouth of the shell closed. aiterwards reformer of natural history in general.” But Langius deBut it is not drought which influences these terrestrial serves more praise than is here bestowed upon him. Beshelly mollusca to assume this quiescent state. The Suc- fore his system appeared, the characters of the genera decinea putris, a species in ordinary cases delighting in mois- pended principally on the outline, and were of uncertain apture, may readily be observed during summer in a dormant plication. He remedied the defect, by directing the attenstate, high on the leaves of the Water Flag, having retired tion of conchologists to the form of the mouth in univalves, from the moisture below'. In the same manner, and from and to the structure of the hinge in bivalves. Among the causes equally obscure, some of the marine shelly mollusca, former, he constituted subdivisions of those oi'e superius as the Limpet, Periwinkle, and Trochus, may be observed aperto, ore superius in canaliculum abeunte, and ore sum a quiescent state on the rocks, above the reach of the perius clauso. Amongst the latter, the circumstance did not fide. A shower, however, in general excites the Succinea, escape him, that some of these shells are equivalve, others as well as the Limpets and Periwinkles, to motion. inequivalve ; some equilateral, others inequilateral. Hence he may be considered as the founder of the inferior divisions of the artificial method, and as having furnished, to CHAP. II PROGRESS OF THE SCIENCE. modern conchologists, many useful hints, of which they have availed themselves, without, however, acknowledging their Naturalists have pursued a variety of methods in their origin. Another important important improvement improvement was was effected effected by by BreyBrey-Ereynius. nrm^p??0^ this important bra“ch of Zoology, and have ^nomer winrinlps ^ °i .arra‘?.^ment f°unded on very different nius in his Dissertatio Physica de Polythalamiis, 1732,in4to. the This C nsisted in Se aratin from d me hodteal ^" f V sucb ° P g the ordinary univalves,’ n some tbe fo the shelhv coverfnl hb« h° ’f ’ ™ ^lls as possess a cavity divided by partitions into sebe 6n xcl vel attended to the omaLn^ S of - f ^ y j while veral compartments, and in forming them into a division, ani al even ddisregarded. tbe been overlooked, or called which Multilocular. he termed Polythalamium. These shells are now A few ^ have^sch madehasthe habits of the ani0thers have assed over the charamlr^K^^ . P the- shell a i liaV i cS eummeu i 1 7 their X aattention forms and meir excistiucture of end the I f structure of the contained « on exclusively to he orm and animal. Lastly, ere ave been a few, who, embracing all the circumstances connected with the shell, the animal, and its habits, have constructed systems at once natural and convenient. In the o low mg sections we propose to consider these four classes

, The system of Tournefort, which was published by Gu- Tournefort altieri, in his Index Testarum Conchyliorum qwe adservantur in Musceo Nicolai Gualtieri, Philosophi et Medici, Florentini, 1742, well deserves an attentive perusal. In his observations on the bivalves, now denominated the acephalous mollusca, he drew the attention of conchologists to an important character, and one of easy application, having observed that, in some genera, the valves do not close or unite be d A*1 b ^6 ^tivators of this department of science may all round, but that, at certain places, the shell remains in part open. Such shells, in modern language, are said to Sei t. h—-Systems constructed from circumstances connect- gape. ed with the characters of the Shell. The system of the celebrated Linnaeus, which ought now Linnaeus, to be mentioned, is toe too w'ell known in this country to demj < tangement of the ' testaceous mollusca, according serve 10 oe particular mennoneu,notice. In many of the other departments 2T

M 0 L L 330 Mollusca. of Zoology he effected the most important alterations; but ' his attempts to reform the science of conchology, were far from being equally successful. To the subject he never was much attached, nor does he appear to have availed himself sufficiently of the labours of those authors whom we have mentioned, and of others who preceded him. The primary divisions which he employed, were those which Major had established, and his genera, with a few exceptions, were those in common use. His merit as a conchologist rests entirely on the accurately defined terms, the concise specific characters, and the convenient trivial names which he employed and introduced. The particular consideration of the Linnaean genera, and the subsequent changes which have been introduced into them, will form the subject of a separate section. For some time after the publication of the Si/stema Nature, the illustrious Swede enjoyed a very dangerous reputation. All his arrangements were regarded as of such high authority, that it was considered as impious to attempt to introduce any change ; so that conchology, and along with it the study of the mollusca, according to the artificial method, remained a long time stationary. At last in France, a country which refused to submit to the fetters of the Linnaean school, several new systems were proposed, which had for their object the restoration of those well-founded genera, which Linnaeus, in his too great desire to simplify, had suppressed, and the accommodation of the divisions of the science to those new relations which a more extensive knowledge of species had discovered. In this number Bose stands Bose. eminently conspicuous. In his work entitled Histoire Naturelle des Coquilles, des Vers et des Crustaces, and in the conchological articles of the Dictionnaire d’Histoire Naturelle, he has favoured the world with a detail of his system, the outline of which we shall here present to our readers : I. Coquilles Multivalves. 1. Les unes n’ont point de charniere. Oscabrion, Anatif, Balanite. 2. Les autres en ont une. Pholade, Taret, Fistulane, Anomie, Calceole. II. Coquilles Bivalves. i. Equivalves. 1. A charniere sans dents. Pinna, Modiole, Moule, Anodonte. 2. A charniere garnie des dents. A. A une dent. Mulette, Crassalette, Paphie, Mactre. B. A deux dents. a. Simple, Trigonie, Tridacne, Hyppope, Cardite, Lutraire, Petricole, Venericarde, Solen, Capse, Sanguinolaire. b. Avec des sumumeraires. Isocarde, Donace, Cyclade, Telline, Venus. C. A quatre dents. Bucarde, Meretrice, Lucine. D. A beaucoup de dents. Nucule, Petoncle, Arche, Cucullee.

U S C A.

III. Coquilles Univalves. . MolluS '’-V i. Uniloculaires. 1. Sans spirale. A. En Calotte. Patelle, Oscane. B. En Tube. Vermiculaire, Silicaire, Arrosoir. 2. En spirale. A. L’ouverture entiere et sans canal a sa base. Carinaire, Haliotide, Sigaret, Stomate, Argonaute, Concholepas, Nerite, Natice, Helicine, Helice, Volvaire, Bulle, Jacinthe, Turritelle, Cyclostome, Bulime, Sabot, Toupie. B. L’ouverture echancree et canaliculee a sa base. Cerite, Pyrule, Rocher, Rostelaire, Strombe, Buccin, Casque, Vis, Pourpre, Volute, Ovule, Tarriere, Porcelaine, Cone. ii. Multiloculaires. Isi Nautile, Orbulite, Ammonite, Planulite, Camerine, Rotulite, Turrilite, Baculite, Spirule, Orthocere, Hippurite, Belemnite. In this system which we have exhibited, the arrangement is more methodical, and the genera are more definite, than in the Linnsean system. It unquestionably holds the first rank in the modern artificial methods. There is a class of writers whose labours deserve some Microsco. notice in this place. We allude to those who have devoted pic their attention to the very minute shells, so common among the sand on every sea-coast. These are too small to be examined by the naked eye, and from the instrument employed in their investigation, they are usually termed Microscopic Shells. Plancus, in his work, De Conchis Arirninensibus minus notis, published in 1739, may be considered as the first who drew the attention of conchologists to these nearly invisible objects. J. F. Hoffman, in his Dissertatiuncula de Cornu Ammonis nativo Littoris Bergensis in Norvegia, published in the Transactions of the Electoral Academy of Mentz, 1757, and in his essay de Tubulis Vermicularibus Cornu Ammonis referentibus, ibid. 1761, made us acquainted with various species of minute nautili produced on the northern shores. Nor did those discoveries fail to excite interest in this country. Boys and Walker devoted their attention to the subject, and gave to the world the result of their labours, in a thin quarto, entitled, Testacea Minuta, rariora nuperrime detecta in arena littoris Sandvicensis, London, 1784. Other observers, equally ardent and successful, have increased our knowledge of the forms of these minute bodies, particularly Soldani, who, in his Testaceographia ac Zoophytographia parva et microscopica, 1789 and 1795, exhibited many figures of the minute shells of Portoferrara, &c. Mr. Adams likewise described the minute species which he observed on the coast of Pembrokeshire, in the third and fifth volumes of the Transactions of the Linncean Society of London, and other species of British growth have been investigated by the author of Testacea Britannica. We shall close this list with noticing the Testacea Microscopica aliaque minuta ex generibus Argonauta et Nautilus ad Naturam Picta et Descripta, Vienna, 1798. It is the joint production of L. A. ii. Inequivalves. Fichel and J. P. C. A. Moll, and merits an attentive perusal. 1. A charniere sans dents. We are aware that such microscopic investigations are Acarde, Radiolite, Vulselle, Marteau, Huitre, Avicule, regarded by some conchologists as useless, so that the miPeigne, Lime, Houlette, Cranie, Hyale, Linqule. nute species are excluded from their systems. But it is 2. A une dent. surely a strange method of proceeding in natural history, to Came, Corbule. judge of the merits or importance of species from their size. At®. 3. A deux dents. It is true that we are still ignorant of the inhabitants of Spondyle, Plicatule, Placune, Pandore, Terebratule, Cal- those shells, and may long continue to be so ; but our preceole. sent know ledge of these shells has enabled us to fill up many 4. A plusieurs dents. blanks, to perceive several new relations, and even to draw Perne. some important conclusions.

M O L L U S C A. 331 ollusca. That this sort of inquiry has in many instances been in- made bv Adin^nn • N -\t * nle dt■, Sene a. , al, 1 .-^/judiciously conducted, all who are acquainted with the sub- published a/Paris’ in In 8 y tem f ! ? ’ Mollusca. ject must admit. Due care has not been taken to distin- classes of IwT tV> va i esInan( ^V * f ’ the ancient guish these minute testacea from the fry of the larger shells wloyed under the ) l ’ WMultivalves, are dem- Adanson. I that,he number of species has bin very ** “ multiplied. These remarks apply to several figures of Walker, and to a still greater number of those of Adams. Ceasse I. Les Limaqons. Sect. II.—Systems constructed from Circumstances conSect. I. Les Limaqons Univalves. nected with the Habits of the Animal. Fam. The authors of the preceding class have laboured to bring cornes? '' ^ lima?°nS univalves Tui “’o"1 ni yeux ni S sterns | "S “ f perft,‘l°n f j'e artoicial system of conchology, and have Fam. 2. Les Hniacons univalves qui ont deux cornes et f t h rarblt r “ni n7 , “ ™ )' '"dependent of the habits les yeux 3.plachs leur racine et sur leur cotequatres internerarnes »' of life of the contained animal. But the naturalists whom Fam. Les hlima^ns univalves qui ont we have now to consider, have traced these animals to their dont les deux exterieurs portent les yeux sur le sommet lurlnng places, and arranged them according to the situation Fam. 4. Les limaqons univalves, qui „„t deux cornes et in which they reside, instead of the forms which they ex- les yeux places it leur racine, et sur le c6te externe” ou pS I »•

mD11 ’ i t. j A th e head of this

i , ' . of conchologists, Dr. Martin Lise stands pre-eminently conspicuous. His great work, entitled Histona sive Synopsis Methodica Conchyliorum, was begun in 1685, and completed in 1692. It will long remain a monument of the extensive information and unwearied diligence of its author. The following synoptical view of cora rchend r °Ur ,earerS ? care. P its plan; the original should be consulted with

v derriere. Fan,. 5. Les limacons univalves qui ont deux cornes et les yeux poses un per, an dessus do leur racine 0^ leur cote externe.

Sect. II. Les Lima^ons Opercules. Fam. 1. Limaqons opercules qui ont deux cornes, avec un renflement, et qui portent les yeux ordinairement au dessus de leur racine, et a leur cote externe. ham. 2. Limaqons opercules qui ont deux cornes sans Lib. i. De Cochleis terrestribus. renflement, et les yeux places a leur racine, et sur leur cote Pars 1. De Buccinis terrestribus. Pars 2. Cochleae nudae terrestres Limaces quibusdam externe. Fam. 3. Limacons opercules qui ont quatres cornes, dont dictae. les deux exterieurs portent les yeux sur leur sommet. Lib. ii. De Turbinibus et bivalvibus aquae dulcis. Pars 1. De Turbinibus. Ceasse II. Les Conques Bivalves. Pars 2. De Testaceis bivalvibus fluviatilibus. Fam. 1. Les conques bivalves qui ont les deux lobes du Lib. iii. De Testaceis bivalvibus marinis. manteaux separes dans tout leur contour. Pars 1. De Testaceis bivalvibus, imparibus testis. Fam. 2. Les conques bivalves dont les deux lobes du Pars 2. De Testaceis bivalvibus, paribus testis. manteau forment trois ouvertures sans aucun tuyau. Pars 3. De Testaceis multivalvibus. Fam. 3. Les conques bivalves dont les deux lobes du Lib. iv. De Buccinis marinis, quibusetiamvermiculi, den- manteau fbrment trois ouvertures, dont deux prennent la figure d’un tuyau assez long. talia et patellae numerantur. TEx,! rn „ ^ie presence or absence of an operculum or lid, gives Sill Id. a n to OW by ir Robert lA . somewhat , different £ his Scotia rise, in this system, to a division of the univalves into two Illustrata is fromSibbald that of in Lister. He sections, and the families are established from circumstances divides the Testacea into two classes, land and water shells, connected with the number of the tentacula, and the numand the latter class he subdivides into fluviatile and marine! ber and position of the eyes. The families amongst the biHis inferior divisions are destitute of precision, and the num- valves are arranged according to the structure of their cloak ber of species referred to limited. or external covering. In the class of multivalves, which D7 The system of D’Argenville, which was so much esteem- w e have omitted in the table, the characters are taken from villi ed and so long followed in France, is essentially the same the form and structure of the shell. ■with that of Lister in the higher divisions. The-plan is inI he work of Geoftfoy, entitled, Trade Sommaire des Co- Geoffrey. deed so simple, and in appearance so natural, that it has met quilles tant fluviatiles que terrestres, qui se trouvent aux with many admirers. It has even been useful in encourag- environs de Paris, 1767, is constructed upon the principles ing naturalists to study particular departments of the science, of Adanson. Here, however, the objects wTere not suffiwhen they were prevented by their situation from devoting ciently numerous to admit of all the subdivisions of that their attention to the whole. It is probably to this circum- author, but he has made the form of the animal subservient stance that we are indebted to Schroter for his observations to the construction of generic characters. on the land shells' in the neighbourhood of Thangelstadt, After these attempts to classify the animals which inhabit Muller, and on the river shells of Thuringia. shells had been made in France, the celebrated zoologist of The preceding arrangements, formed according to the Denmark, O. F. Muller, turned his attention to the same situations in which the animals reside, and not according to subject. In the Zoologia Danica, which contains his dit eir external coverings, may be considered as the first at- gested views of the subject, he employs, in the construction empts at a natural method in conchology. They serve as of his genera of univalves, the characters first used by Adanin ro uction to a new class of authors, whose views may son; but among the bivalves, besides the form of the tubes ere( aS sh aST * attention °^a b'8btin ;r or ^erfollowing 5 an(I t° whose labours we or heornotices theofconstruction of the branchiae and devote our the section. thesyphon, presence absence a foot. Sect. Ill—Systems constructed from Circumstances con- v Toour knowledge of theanirnals which inhabitbivalves,PG- p0li. nected with the Form and Structure of the contained 1jyln>his ^pensive work, ilxe llistory ojthe Shells of the Two J Animal. cncuies, made very important additions. In the construction of 'pi his families, which are six in number, he employs merely the ous anima ^ ^ s aaccording ^cmP^ toanthe y consequence arrange testaceby the syphon foot. In the first family soft parts oftotheir bodies, was characters the animalfurnished has two syphons and a and foot; in the second, there

332 MOLL Mollusra. is only one syphon and foot; in the third, a syphon and no ''^“Y-w'feet; in the fourth there is an abdominal syphon and no feet; in the fifth there is a foot but no syphon; while, in the sixth, neither foot nor syphon can be discovered. In the formation of his genera, Poli takes advantage of the various forms of the cloak and the branchiae. Cuvier. To the celebrated Cuvier, the conchologist is also under the greatest obligations. By applying his vast knowledge of anatomy to the examination of the molluscous animals, he has unfolded many new conformations of parts, and exhibited many unlooked-for relations. The vast collection of objects, the spoils of all the museums of the continent, which Paris once possessed, lay open to his inspection, and his industry appears to have been equal to the harvest which invited him to labour. In his first attempts to classify the molluscous animals, as contained in his Tableau Elementairede FHistoire Naturelle desAnimaux (1798); and his Lemons d'Anatomic Comparee, (1800-1805), he employed chiefly the characters which the preceding writers had developed, in his inferior divisions ; but in his primary distinctions, he distributed the mollusca into three classes : Cephalopoda, having the head covered with tentacula, serving- as feet; Gasteropoda, with the head free, the animal crawling on the belly; and Acephala, having no distinct head. Some years after the appearance of this classification, Cuvier directed more of his attention to the internal structure of the mollusca, and, by means of accurate dissections, obtained a more intimate acquaintance with the organs and functions of these animals than any of his predecessors had acquired. The information which he thus gained was communicated to the public at different periods, in the wellknown publication Annales du Museum d’Histoire Naturelle de Paris. These papers, with some additional observations, were at last published in a separate form, under the title Memoires pour servir a Vhistoire et d VAnatomic des Mollusques, Paris, 1816. In the following year he published Le Regne Animal, distribue d'apres son organisation, in which he arranged the mollusca according to his peculiar views, from characters drawn exclusively from the animal. In the third volume, of what may be termed the third edition of that invaluable work, published in 1830, the same arrangement, with the exception of a few modifications, was adhered to. He divides the mollusca into six classes, which he terms Cephalopoda, Pteropoda, Gasteropoda, Acephala, Brachiopoda, and Cirrhipoda. In the class Cephalopoda, the body is in the form of a sack, open above, containing the branchiae, with a distinct head, surrounded by fleshy elongations or arms, adapted for moving the body or seizing prey. Into this class, along with the Sepia of Linnaeus, Cuvier has inserted the multilocular shells of his genus Nautilus and the genus Argonauta. But it is to be feared, that our knowledge of the testaceous mollusca which inhabit the numerous multilocular shells, is too limited to enable us to assign to all of them their true place in a natural arrangement of animals. In the second class, termed Pteropoda, the body is closed, the head is destitute of the long fleshy arms which distinguish the animals of the preceding division; two finlike membranes, situate,on the sides of the neck, and on which the branchial tissue is in general spread, serve as organs of motion. There is only one shelly mollusca belonging to this class, viz., the anomia tridentata of Forskaehl, now forming a part of the genus hyaloea. The third class, which includes a great number of naked and testaceous mollusca, and to which Cuvier gives the name Gasteropoda, from the circumstance of the belly being formed for crawling, has been subdivided into eight orders, from circumstances connected with the organs of respiration.

use A. In the first order, termed Pulmones, which breathe air, Mollusca he has constituted two divisions, the terrestrial and the aqua- '^y^, tic. The animals of the former live on land, and were included by Linnaeus in his genera Umax and turbo. They are the land shells of most authors. Those of the division, termed aquatic, live in the water, but require at intervals to come to the surface to obtain fresh air. They constitute, with a few exceptions, the fresh water shells of naturalists. In the second and third orders, or Nudibranches and Inferobranches, the species consist almost entirely of genera formed from the animals which Linnaeus and many others included in the genus doris. They are naked mollusca, and are likewise destitute of any internal testaceous plate. The fourth order, termed Tectibranches, contains animals whose branchiae, like small leaves more or less divided, are situate on the right side, or upon the back. The animals of this division possess a shell, but it is in general placed beneath the common integuments, such as the genus Aplysia and several species of the genus Bulla. The fifth order, termed Heteropodes, have the gills plumore and dorsal, with the foot compressed and vertical like a fin, with a small portion of it only formed to act as an organ of adhesion, as in the other gasteropoda. The Pectinibranches form the sixth order, and are distinguished by the branchiae, which are like leaves or threads placed parallel in one, two, or three lines, on the surface of the pulmonary cavity, and by having the sexes separate. It includes the whole of the marine species of the Linnaean genera of turbinated univalves. Into this order, Cuvier, from the consideration of other characters, has inserted the genus Cyclostoma, which, according to the characters indicated by the respiratory organs, belongs to the Pulmones. In the seventh order, termed Scutibranches, the branchiae are similar to those of the preceding order, but the sexes are united, each individual being capable of impregnating or being impregnated. The shells in general are cup-shaped, and destitute of a lid. It includes the genus Halyotis, and many species of the old genus Patella. In the last order, called Cyclobranches, the branchiae appear in the form of small leaves or pyramids strung round the under margin of the cloak. They enjoy a hermaphroditism similar to those of the preceding order. The species of the genus Patella which are allied to the vulgata, and tlie genus Chiton, are included in this order. In the fourth class, or Aceehala, he includes the bivalve shells, distributing them into families, from characters nearly similar to those which we have pointed out as having been previously employed by Poli. The fifth class, termed Brachiopoda, contains animals, resembling those of the preceding class in having a cloak of two lobes, but these are always open. The branchiae consist of small leaves placed on the inner margin of each lobe. In place of a foot they have two retractile fleshy arms, which are extensile. This class includes the Patella unguis of Linnaeus, the genus Terebratula and the Patella anomala of Muller. The class Cirrhipoda, distinguished by the articulated filaments with which the animals are furnished, contains the species of the genus Lepas of Linnaeus. The shells belonging to the Linnaean genera Sarpula and Dentalium, are transferred to the class termed Annelides. This system of the molluscous animals is unquestionably the most perfect of all those which have been published. But, with all its excellence, we must inform the reader, that many species, nay, whole genera, have their places assigned them in this natural method, merely because the shells occupied a similar position in the artificial system, the form of the inhabitants being unknown. Section IV—Mixed Systems. In this section, we shall confine our remarks to the only

M O L L llusca. system of this kind of any consequence which has hitherto '^appeared, and which is the production of the late industrious Lamark, one ofthe most celebrated zoologists of the French 0l e eS Animaux ™ - this. ieauthor embraces f ™ns Vertebres, Paris, ISO!, of the whole range of animals included in the classes Insecta and Vermes of Linnaeus. Where gating of the Mobusca hc divides them into two orders! The first, termed Cephalous, from possessing a head, indudes the univalves The second, termed Acephalous, from the absence of a head, includes the bivalves. This eminent author greatly modified his views, as appears from what he announced in Extrait du Coursde Zoologie, Paris, 1812 the prelude to his last and great work, Histoire Naturelle des Animaux sans Vertebres, the fifth, sixth, and seventh volumes of which refer to the Mollusca, he fortunately lived to finish between the years 1818 and 1822. The arrangement adopted m this invaluable work, has been greatly admired a circumstance which induces us to give the following sys y noptical view of its contents. r The species considered by the older naturalists as shells and mollusca, are in this system of Lamark distributed into three great divisions or classes, which he has denominated Cirrhipeda, CoNCHiFERiE, and Moleusca. These classes he has subdivided according to the following tabular view :

U S C A. 333

ORDRE I

CONCHIFERES DlMYAIRES. .u'"

' valves^tant rapprw:h^es^an,e a"’‘

•*» to«s

ie r

“ (1.) Coquille, soit contenue dans un fourreau tubulpmr aicU ,a S ses valves, soit entierdment, ou en parde in n i P r de ce fourreau, soit saillante au-dehors. Les Tubicolees. (2.) Coquille sans fourreau tubuleux. (ay Ligament exte'rieur. (t) Coquille, soit munie de pieces accessoires, e'trangSres h S s ses valves, soit tres baillante ant^rieurement. ■Les Pholadaires.

(++) et mh,, e Kuiemmt ‘ CIRRIPEDES. Animal -Les Solenacees. 1 ,orDus subresupmatum, ‘^u molha, oculisque carentia, carentia, testacea, fixa. Cnrn,,. csuhresiimnatiim • capite testacea, fixa fb) Ligament intdrieur. Corpus irvovfi.i^i. marticulatum, tegumenti , . aonendice inyolutum, dlsuper brachiiB leetacufaribu" dS Les ATyaires. multiarticulatis instructum. ’ (**) Conchifcres tenuipedes. Leur manteau n'a plus ou presque plus non romi P nulum; maxillis transversalises lobes reumspar-devant; leur pied est petit, comprimd bus dentatis per pana dispositis. Brachia numero varia, inle baillement de leur coquille est souvent peu considerable ’ ( +) Ligament mteneur, avec ou sans complication de ligament^xa , Wrdl at a 5 sin ula cerris TS i ; cihatis .? f tegumento ^ geminatis, tiarticulatis, corneo indutis,setaceis, pediculomulimLes Mactracees, Les Corbule'es. P0 tlS US tubum (ft) Ligament uniquement exterieur. A/r ! i,A?longitudinalis proboscedeum terminans. Medulla nodosa, branchiae externae, interLes Lithophages, Les Nymphacdes. dum absconditae ; circulatio corde vasculisque confecta. J ftw!s.Cl°Se aUX extre/mite/s lat4rales> l°rsqi|e les valves sont /.esta sessihs vel pediculo flexili tendineo elevata; valvis plunbus modo mobilibus, modb ferruminatis, tegu- (M0) LeUr Pied eSt applate ame > f lhforme ; menti appendice intus vestitis. es on qu s L 8 i^ ? . j > , ® Cardiacees, Les Arcacees, Les Nayades. ] (2) Coquille irreguliere, toujours inequivalve. ^ Ordre Premier—Cirrhipedes Sessiles. Les Camacees. S na de gdoncule et se coouillp W trouveestenferme dans une coquille fixee sur les corps Pmarins. >La Louche it la partIe narri* 1 SU Ordre II.—Conchxferes Monomyaires. perieure et anterieure du corps. ‘ Us n’ont qu’un muscle, qui semble traverser leur corps. Leur C Opercule Quadrivalve. coquille offre intdneurement une impression musculaire subcentrale Gen. Tubinicelle, Coronule, Balane, Acaste. . Section. Ligament marginal, allonge sur le bord sublineaire. 2. Opercule bivalve. (a) Coquille transverse, equivalve, ii impression musculaire allonGen. Pyrgome, Creusie. gee, bordant le limbe superieur. Ordre Second.—Cirriphedes Pedoncules. Les Tridacnees. (b) Coquille, soit longitudinale, soit subtransverse, a impression Par p6donCule tllbuleu la base Sfode TrT "" ^ mobile, dont musculaire resserree dans un espace isole sans border lefimbe. m 68 C rpS manns ferieure. ° ' ^ houcbe est presqu’ in(t) Ligament au bord lateral de la coquille et toujours entier. an« there are several groups of which Bergui^re formed sections T“eluf“e“^^^ enuSarca is now Ihl ry n ■gen Ta'l tdle The^ n whlch bll e 18in a stra restricted to ?» ight line, and composed,y of numerous small lamelhform teeth, without lateia libs. 1 hey have obtained their name from their resemblance to a ship, when the shell is inverted. Many

From the ostrea perna, ephippium, and isoqonum Bruguiere the genus Perna. parallel The hinge! cut intoformed a number of lengthened veins linear whieh and Z ceive the ligament. Th