Encyclopaedia Britannica [15, 14 ed.]

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THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

FOURTEENTH

EDITION

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA FIRST

EDITION

SECOND THIRD

EDITION EDITION

FOURTH

EDITION

1768 1777 1788 1801

FIFTH

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1815

SIXTH

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1823

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TENTH

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ELEVENTH TWELFTH

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THIRTEENTH

FOURTEENTH

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1830 1853 1875 1902

1910 1922 1926

19290,1932

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ENCYCLOP/EDIA BRITANNICA, INC. NEW YORK PON Ye

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BY THE ENCYCLOPEDIA

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INC.

Note: Pages 170, 171, 244, 245, 520 and 522 were missing from the original digital version of this volume. Replacements were inserted from the 1929 edition.

INITIALS AND NAMES OF CONTRIBUTORS IN VOLUME WITH THE ARTICLES WRITTEN BY THEM. A. Be.

ae

BERNARD. rofessor of Geography and of Colonization of the Peoples of North Africa, at the

aot Done, Paris, Author of L'Archipel de la Nouvelle Calédonie; Les Régions naturelles e l Algérie; etc.

A. C. D. C.

XV

.

Morocco (1 part).

ANDREW CLAUDE DE LA CHEROIS CROMMELIN, D.Sc., B.A. Assistant at Royal Observatory, Greenwich, 1891 to 1927. President of the Royal

Astronomical Society, 1929. Author of The Star World; Catalogue of Comets, a sequel }Minor Planet. to Galle’s Cometen-ahnen. Part-Author of Science in Modern Life; Splendour of the

Heavens; The Orbit of Halley's Comet from 1759 to 1910; etc.

A. C. H.

ALFRED Cort Happon, Sc.D., F.R.S. Fellow of Christ's College, Cambridge. Late reader in Ethnology in the University o: ee Author of The Races of Man and Their Distribution; The Wanderings of

A. C.R. À. D.I.

ALBERT C. RITCHIE. Governor of Maryland, Professor of Law, University of Maryland Law School, }Maryland. 1907-20, A. D. Ixus, M.A., D.Sc. Chief Entomologist, Rothamsted Experimental Station, Harpenden, Hertfordshire, |May-Fly; England. Formerly Forest Zoologist to the Government of India and Professor of

A. E.G.

Biology, University of Allahabad. Author of A General Textbook of Entomology; etc. Rev. A. E. Garv, M.A., D.D. Principal of Hackney and New College, Hampstead. Editor of the Westminster New Testament. Author of Siudtes in the Inner Life of Jesus; etc.

A. E. Hu.

A. E. J. A.E. R.

A, Fer.

A. G. D.

Migration (in part).

Leoples.

Mosquito.

>Miracle.

ALBERT EpwarpD Humpuries, Hon.Lh.D.

Member of the Royal Commission on Wheat Supplies and Flour Mills Control, 1917- Middtin 21. President of the Incorporated National Association of British and Irish Millers, 85. 1906-7, 1917-8, 1918-9.

ARTHUR ERNEST JOLLIFFE, M.A. Professor of Mathematics at King’s College, London. Christi College, Oxford. ALBERT EDWARD RICHARDSON, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A.

Formerly Fellow of Corpus

Professor of Architecture, London University. Architect to the Prince of Wales for the Duchy of Cornwall Estates in the West of England. !Author of London Houses; Monumental Architecture; etc.

LIEUTENANT-COLONEL A. FERRERO. Assistant Instructor of Tactics in the Scuola di Guerra, Turin. ARTHUR G. Doucuty, C.M.G., Litr.D., F.R.Hist.S., F.R.S.C. Deputy Minister of the Public Archives of Canada, Ottawa, and Director of War

Archives. Author of The Siege of Quebec and the Battle of the Plains of Abraham; The

}Maxima and Minima.

| Modern Architecture (iz part).

z i }Mountain Warfare (tn part). Meichen

ir

ghen, Arthur.

Acadian Exiles; Under the Lily and the Rose; The Cradle of New France; etc.

A. G. D. W.

ARTHUR Gitpert Drxon West, M.A., B.Sc. Chief Research Engineer, British Broadcasting Corporation.

A. G. M. B.

A. G. M. BATTEN.

A. Ha.

The Alliance Assurance Company, London, Fellow of the Chartered Insurance Institute, Sometime Stanley Brown Prizewinner of the Chartered Insurance Institute. ADOLF HARNACK.

Microphone.

i

German Theologian. Author of Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte; Das Mönchtum, seine Ea

Ideale und seine Geschichte; etc, See the biographical article: Harnack, AnoLe. J 2274). À. H. W.

CAPTAIN A. H. WALKER, R.N. Director of Torpedoes and Mining, Admiralty, Oct. 1926 to Jan. 1929.

A. Hy.

ALEXANDER Hay, N.D.A., N.D.D.

A. L. K.

A. L. KROEBER, PE.D. ES Professor of Anthropology, University of California. Author of Zuni Kin and Clan;

Insurance (in

a

EN

;

|Mines,Minelaying and Minesweeping. arga

Senior Lecturer, East Anglian Institute of Agriculture, Wye, Kent,

Milk (in pari).

. >Micmac,

Anthropology; etc.

À. Ln.

eee

ARNOLD LUNN.

Editor, British Ski Year Book since 1919. Author of Alpine Ski-ing; A History of Mountaineering (în part).

Ski-ing; The Alps; etc.

À. L. S.

Seas,

ANDRÉ L. Simon

Of Messrs. Pommery and Greno, Ltd. Author of The Blood of the Grape; Wine and the oe Wine Trade, y

;

Montanism (in

= :

INITIALS A. Ma.

A. M. C.

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

Fellow in Industrial Hygiene, South African Institute for Medical Research, Johannesburg. i AGNES M. CLERKE.

of Late Hon. Member, Royal Astronomical Society. Author of 4 Popular History Astronomy During the roth Century; The System of the Stars; Problems in Astrophysics.

See the biographical article:

T

R

A. MAVROGORDATO.

iners Phthisis.

Mayer, Johann Tobias (ix part).

CLERKE, AGNES M.

,

,

Aå. M. Dreper, B.S. Ix E.E.

Engineering Supervisor of Development, Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company, Pittsburgh. Author of Connecting Induction Motors; Induction Motor

Practice.

Motor, Electric. ——~

A. NEVILLE J. WayMant, Pa.D., Litt.D.

Professor of Chinese and Oriental Philosophy in Hosei University, Tokyo. Member of Council of Asiatic Society of Japan. Sometime Davis Chinese Scholar, University of Oxford. Member of the Editorial Staff, London, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica. Author of The Oceanic Theory of the Origin of the Japanese Language and People.

ALFRED Norru Wuarrenean, Sc.D., F.R.S.

Professor of Philosophy, Harvard University. Professor of Applied Mathematics, Imperial College of Science, London, 1914-24. Author of A Treatise on Universal

Mass (in part);

Mongolian Language and Literature (in part);

Mongols (in part). —r

Mathematics, Nature of.

Algebra; Science and the Modern World; Introduction to Mathematics; etc.

. z Motor-Boat (in part).

A.P.C.

ALFRED Pitre CHALKLEY, B.Sc., A.M.I.C.E. Editor of The Motor Ship and the Motor Boat.

A. S.

A. SAFRASTIAN.

A.S.E

SIR ARTHUR STANLEY EppincTon, D-Sc., F.R.S. Plumian Professor of Astronomy, Cambridge University. Director of the Observatory, Cambridge. President of the Royal Astronomical Society, London, 1921-3. Editor of the Astronomy section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica. Author o Stellar Movements and the Structure of the Universe; Stars and Atoms; etc.

A. V.E.

Mosul Leys eea ees

Formerly British Vice-Consul at Bitlis, Kurdistan.

A. V. Hut, O.B.E., Sc.D., F.R.S. Foulerton Research Professor of the Royal Society, London. Hon. Professor of Physiology, University College, London. Hon. Fellow, King’s College, Cambridge. Nobel Prize for Medicine, 1922. Author of Muscular Activity; Living Machinery; Muscular Movemeni in Man.

A. W. Ma.

A. Wo.

ALEXANDER W. Marr, Lrrr.D.

Late Professor of Greek, Edinburgh University. Lecturer, Aberdeen University, 1898-9; Edinburgh University, 1899-1903. Classical Examiner to London University, 1919-23. Author of Callimachus; Hesiod: Introduction, Translation and Appendices.

Micrometer.

Muscle and Muscular < Exercise.

(Menander

°

Meaning;

Apranam Wotr, M.A., D.Lrrt.

Professor of Logic and Scientific Method in the University of London.

Fellow of St. John’s College, Cambridge.

(Vilayet) (in part).

Sometime

Fellow of University College, London.

Mechanism:

Metaphysics:

Author of The Oldest Biography of Spinoza; Textbook of Logic. Editor of the Philos- | “7C™@Pnysics; Monism.

ophy and Psychology section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

A. W. R.

Sir ALEXANDER Woop Renton, G.C.M.G., M.A., LL.B.

B. E. W. C.

MAJOR-GENERAL C

Puisne Justice Supreme Court and Procureur and Advocate-General, Mauritius, Maxims, Legal. 1901-5; Ceylon, 1905-14. Chief Justice, 1914, etc. Author of Law and Practice of ~~ Lunacy. Editor of Encyclopaedia of English Law; etc.

Sır BorLAsSE Exrwoop WynpHam

Caitps, K.C.M.G.,

K.B.E.,

\tititary Law (in part).

Formerly Assistant Commissioner, Metropolitan Police.

B. H. L. H.

CAPTAIN B. H. Lippert Hart, F.R.H1stT.S.

B. M.

BuDGETT MEAKIN.

B. T. D. S.

Rev. B. T. D. Smm, M.A., B.D.

C. A.

CHRISTOPHER ADDISON, P.C., M.D., B.S., F.R.C.S.

C. A.C.

Military Historian and Critic. Military Correspondent to the Daily Telegraph, Lendon. Editor of the Military and Military History section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

Author of The Moors; The Land of the Moors; The Moorish Empire.

University Lecturer in Divinity and Fellow of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge. Examining Chaplain to the Bishop of Lichfield. Parliamentary Secretary to the Ministry of Agriculture, 1929. Minister of Munitions, 1916-7. Minister in Charge of Reconstruction Board, 1919. First Minister of Health, I919-21. Minister without Portfolio, 1921. Author of The Betrayal of the Slums; Pohtics from Within; Practical Soctalism; etc.

CLAUDE A. CLAREMONT, B.Sc.

Assistant to Dr. Montessori (Montessori Diploma).

national Training Course, 1914.

C. A. Co.

CHARLES ABEL CORWIN.

Militia (in part); Mongol Campaigns. |Morocco

(tm part).

Matthew, St.; Matthew, Gospel of St.

Munitions, Ministry of.

Interpreter in his 2nd I\nter- }wtontessor System.

Staff Artist, Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago. staff of the Chicago Art Institute.

Formerly Instructor on

Museums of Science (zx port).

INITIALS C. A. M,

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

vii

CARLILE AYLMER MACARTNEY.,

Scholar of Trinity College, Cambridge. H.B.M. Acting Vice-Consul for Austria, pe . 1921-6. Passport Control Officer for Austria, 1922~5. Intelligence Officer, League of ‘ani Frontier. Nations Union, 1926. Author of The Social Revolution in Austria; Survey of International Affairs for 1925, part IT, (in part).

C. B. De M.

Cecit Brount DE Mitre.

Playwright, Actor and Moving Picture Producer. Has produced several successful plays for David Belasco. Productions: “Ten Commandments”; ‘Feet of Clay”; ' Road to Yesterday”; etc.

Motion Pictures (in pari).

CHARLES CREIGHTON, M.A., M.D. ae a al History of Epidemics in Britain; Jenner and Vaccinaiton; Plague in } monster (im part). ia; etc. Major CYRIL James DAVENPORT, F.S.A., F.L.A. Late Superintendent

of Book-binding,

British

Museum.

Editor,

Connoisseurs’

Library. Author of The English Regalia; Cameos; Mezzotinis; Miniatures; British

Mezzotint.

Heraldry; etc.

C. D. T.

Cart D. THomrson, M.A., B.D. Secretary, Public Ownership League of America. Author of 3funicibal Ownership; etc.

C. E. C.

MAJOR-GENERAL SIR CHARLES EDWARD CALLWELL, K.C.B.

Director of Military Operations at the War Office, London, 1914-6. Author of Sma/l Wars; The Dardanelles; etc.

C. E. H.

C.E. K. M.

CHartes Evans Hucsers, M.A., LL.B. American Lawyer and Statesman. Secretary of State for America, 1921-5. Author of Addresses and Papers; Conditions of Progress in Democratic Government; etc.

}Municipal Trading (in part). .

}Mesopotamia, Operations in.

>Monroe Doctrine, The.

CHARLES EDWARD KENNETH MEES, D.Sc.

Director of the Research Laboratory, Eastman Kodak Co., Rochester, New York. Author of Photography of Coloured Objects; The Ailas of Absorption Spectra; The Fundamentals of Photography; etc.

Motion Pictures (in pari). Metamorphism; Metasomatism; Mica-schist; Microline; Monzonite; Moonstone; Mullite.

C. E. T.

Crcit EpGAR TILLey, B.Sc., Pa.D., F.G-.S. Lecturer in Petrology, University of Cambridge.

C. F. Ke.

CHARLES FRANKLIN KETTERING, E.E., M.E., D.E., D.Sc. General Director, General Motors Research Laboratories. Vice-President and Di- Motor Car (in part). rector, General Motors Corporation, Pontiac, Mich. CEDRIC GIBBONS. . Art Students League, New York City. Art Director, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Stu- }Motion Pictures (in pari). dios, Culver City, California. CarLTon HuntLey Haves, A.M., Pa.D. . Professor of History in Columbia University, New York. Member of the American Pe Countess of Historical Association, uscany.

C. Gi. C. H. H. C. H. Ha. C. H. Ku.

C. J. Ff. C. J. L.

C. K. W.

C. Mon.

CHARLES Henry Hatt, B.A.

.

Editor of Motor Boai, 1924-9. Formerly Editor of Shipping Illustrated; Sea Power. |Motor-Boat (în port). Major C. H. Kusne, R.A.O.C., D.S.0., O.B.E. M otor Transport, Military Deputy Assistant Director of Mechanisation, Mechanisation Directorate, The War (in part). Office, London.

CONSTANCE JOCELYN FFOULKES.

_

|Morelli, Giovanni (in part).

Translator of Morelli’s Italian Painters; etc.

Sır CHARLES JAMES LYALL, K.C.S.I., C.I.E., LL.D.

Late Secretary, Judicial and Public Department, India Office, and Fellow of King’s College, London. Secretary to Government of India in Home Department, 1889—94. Chief Commissioner, Central Provinces, India, 1895-8. Author of Translations of

Ancient Arabic Poetry; etc. CHARLES KINGSLEY WEBSTER, M.A., Lrrr.D. Wilson Professor of International Politics, University of Wales, Aberystwyth. Professor of Modern History, Liverpool University, 1914-22. Secretary, Military Section, British Delegation, Conference of Paris, 1918-9. Author of British Diplomacy, 1813-5; The Foreign Policy of Castlereagh, 1815-22. Contributions to the Cambridge Modern History on British Foreign Policy. Wrirram Cosmo MONKHOUSE.

Mofaddaliyat.

Minorities (in part). wilt

te

vats

:

English Poet and Art Critic. Author of The Italian Pre-Raphaelites; British Con- | ails Sir John Everett (in

temporary Artisis; etc. See the biographical article: MONKHOUSE, WILLIAM Cosmo.

C. Pf.

CHRISTIAN PFISTER, D.-s-L. Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris.

Chevalier of the Legion of Honour.

Author of

-Mayor of the Palace.

Etudes sur le régne de Robert le Pieux.

C. P. O.

CHARLES P. Orrvier, M.A., Pu.D.

C. R. B.

CHarites RAYMOND Beaztey, M.A., D.Lrrt., F.R.G.S., M.R.AS.

Director of Flower Observatory, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. Founder of American Meteor Society. Author of Meteors, Professor of History, University of Birmingham.

>Meteor.

Late Fellow of Merton and Uni-

versity Lecturer in History and Geography, Oxford. Formerly on Council of R. G. S., and of Hakluyt and African Societies, and a member of the House of Laymen. Mem-

ber of Advisory Committees of British Labour Party for International Affairs and for Education. Member of Executive of Birmingham Labour Party. of Russia; Nineteenth Century Europe.

Author of History

Monte Corvino, Giovanni di.

INITIALS

Vill

OF CONTRIBUTORS

NAMES

AND

C. R. L.

C. R. LUCATO.

C. R.M.

CHARLES RoBERT MovuLTON, M.S.A., PH.D.

C. R.R.

CHARLES RUSSEL RICHARDS. Director of American Association of Museums.

C. Si.

CHARLES SINGER, M.D., D.Lirt., F.R.C.P., F.S.A. Late Lecturer in History of the Biological Sciences at Oxford, and now Lecturer in Medicine, History of. the History of Medicine in the Universityof London. Author of Greek Biology and

|Morris Motors (1926), Ltd.

Of the firm of Morris Motors (1926), Ltd.

Director, Department of Nutrition, Institute of American Meat Packers, and Lec- Meat. turer, University of Chicago. Co-Author and Editor of The Service of Science in the Packing Industry; The Animal as a Converter of Matter and Energy. Modern Tendencies in Applied Art.’

Author of Art in Industry; etc.

Greek Medicine; A Short History of Medicine; etc.

C. W. C. O.

C. W. H. D. B.

SIR CHARLES WILLIAM CHADWICK Oman, K.B.E., F.S.A., F.B.A.

M.P. for Oxford University. Chichele Professor of Modern History, Oxford, and Fellow of All Souls. President, Royal Historical Society, 1917-21, Royal Numismatic Society, 1919, and Royal Archaeological Institute, 1927.

CuHarites WILson Hackett, M.A., Pa.D. |Mexico (in part). Professor of History, University of Texas. Davip BAXENDALL, A.R.C.S., F.R.A.S. ; Deputy Keeper of the Science Division, Science Museum, South Kensington. Author >Mathematical Instruments.

D. Bru.

of numerous papers on the history of scientific instruments. CAPTAIN D. BRUNT. aie Superintendent, Army Division, Meteorological Office, Air Ministry, London.

D. D. C. T.

Mrs. D. D. Cotrtrncton TAYtor.

D. Ma.

rofessor aE

Emeritus a ofaM Mathematics, th

Menus.

Teachers College, College, Columbia Columbia U University, N New Teachers

.

York. Editor of the Mathematics section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica. Author of A History of Mathematics; Progress of Arithmetic in Twenty-Five Years.

Mathematics, History of.

Mass (in part); Melody; Mendelssohn~Bartholdy, Reid Professor of Music in Edinburgh University. Author of Essays on Musical Jakob Ludwig Felix; Analysts comprising The Classical Concerto, The Goldberg Varzations, and analyses of Monteverdi, Claudio; many other classical works, Editorial Adviser for Music, 14th Edition, EncycloMotet; pedia Britannica. Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus

DoNALD Francis Tovey, M.A., Mus.Doc.

a

fe Hine o ate Historiographer

RoyalRoyal forfor Scotland. Scotland. Prof Professor o f Rh etoric

and d English Litera-

.

.

ture, Edinburgh University, 1865-93. Author of Life of Milton. See the biographical (Milton, John (in part). article:

D. M. S. W.

} Meteorology.

Certificate Household and Social Science, King’s College for Women, London. First Class Teaching Diplomas for Cooking, Laundrywork, Housewifery, High Class Cookery, National Training School of Cookery, London. Director of Good Housekeeping.

se

D. F. T.

Mohammedan Campaigns.

Masson, DAvID.

'

Davip MereprtH Stares Watson, M.Sc., F.R.S. Jodrell Professor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy, University College, London. | Mastodon; Author of many papers on Vertebrate Palaeontology and connected subjects in Pro- {Morphology. ceedings of the Zoological Society, Journal of Anatomy; etc. = =

D. R.

DUNBAR ROWLAND, B.S., LL.D.

.

Mississippi

Director of Mississippi State Department of Archives and History.

D. S. Ma.

pra

oe De

Davin SamueL Marcoriouts, M.A., D.Litt., F.B.A. Laudian Professor of Arabic, Oxford. Fellow of New College. Author of Avabic Papyrt of the Bodletan Library; Mohammed and the Rise of Islam; Early Development of Mohammedanism.

Mohammed (in part).

CAPTAIN EDWARD ALTHAM, C.B., R.N.

Secretary and Chief Executive Officer, Royal United Service Institution since 1927. Senior Naval Officer, Archangel River Expeditions, 1918-9. Secretary and Editor of the Journal of the Royal United Service Institution. Editor of the Naval section,

Midshipman (in part); Monitor: Naval.

i

14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

E. A. S.

Rev. E. A. SHatrocg, M.A., B.Lirr., F.R.ANTHROP.L. Vicar of St. Mark, Woodcote, Purley.

E. Bg. E. B. Po.

Esx BERG, M.E. General Electric Company, Schenectady, N. Y. namics, steam turbines and ship propulsion.

Author of papers on thermody-

EDWARD BAGNALL Poutton, M.A., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S.

Hope Professor of Zoology in the University of Oxford. Fellow of Jesus College, Oxtord,. Author of Colours of Animals; Essays on Evolution; etc.

|Morality, Primitive. +Mercury-Vapour Boiler. >Mimicry.

E. Ca.

EMILE CAMMAERTS, C.B.E., Hon.LL.D., F.R.Hist.S. Chevalier de l’Ordre de Léopold: Professor of French Literature at Queen’s College,| Mercier, Désiré, London.

E. C. B.

Rr. Rev. Epwarp Curspert Burter, O.S.B., D.Litt. Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath, 1906-22.

Maurists; Mechitharists; Mendicant Movement and Orders (in part).

INITIALS

AND

EDUARD Mever, D.Lirv. Professor of Ancient History

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

in the University

of Berlin.

Author of Geschichte des Media;

Alterthums; etc. > A Sir Epwarp Denison Ross, C.I.E., Pu.D., F.R.G.S., M.R.A.S., F.S.A.B.

;

(im part).

ea

Director, School of Oriental Studies, London, and Professor of Persian in the Univer-

sity of London.

PUGENE E. BR

1X

e

. Language and iterature (in part).

A.M., Pa.D.

rotessor of Economics and Director of Bureau of Economic and Business Research, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, N. J. Author of Tke Budget in the American Commonwealih; Organized Banking.

”

. Money Market (in part).

E. E. L.

EDWARD E. Lone, C.B.E.

E. E. Sm.

Formerly Director of Eastern Propaganda. Officer in Charge, Eastern Section, News Department, Foreign Office, 1918-21. The Times (London) Correspondent in Mentawei. Northern India. Late Editor of The Indian Daily Telegraph; The Rangoon Times; etc. ERNEST E. Suite, P#.D., M.D. :

E. E. T.

E. E. Taum, E.M.

E. F. E. F. S. D. E. G. Bu.

Specialist in Experimental Medicine and Clinical Pathology. Author of many papers on chemical and medical subjects.

í

ee

Associate Editor, The Iron Age, New York. Author of Elementary Metallurgy.

(in part);

Mushet Steel.

;

í

EVELYN Fox.

Honorary Secretary, Central Association for Mental Welfare.

}Mental Deficiency (in part).

Lapy DIrKxe.

je

Author of French Painters of the Eighteenth Century; etc.

Jean Francois (in

part).

EDWARD G. BUDD.

.

}

Budd Wheel Company and E. G. Budd Manufacturing Company, Philadelphia.

Motor Car (in part).

EvA HissBert, M.Sc. TEcH.

.

Assistant Lecturer in Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Technology, Manchester.

E. Ja.

i

noe Jurisprudence (in part).

University of ->Mercerizing.

Michigan, Lake: lengan, Lake;

EDGAR JADWIN, Hon.D.E.

Major-General, Chief of Engineers, United States Army, Washington.

—

Mississippi River (in part);

Missouri River. E. N. da C. A. EDWARD NEVILLE DA Costa ANDRADE, D.Sc., P#.D., F.Inst.P. Quain Professor of Physics in the University of London. Author of The Structure of |Michelson-Morley the Atom; The Mechanism of Nature; etc. Editor of the Physics section, 14th Edition, { Experiment. Encyclopædia Britannica.

E. R. D.

ELIZABETH P Directorof the

e

D

Educational

EE Departmentof Pathé

ee Exchange,

Inc.,

New

ee ee York.

Author

.

e

;

of many magazine and newspaper articles dealing with the use of motion pictures by Motion Pictures (in part).

E. Ste.

social, religious and educational groups. ETHELBERT STEWART. : : Chief Statistician, Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1913-8. United States Commissioner of Labor Statistics.

E. W. MacB.

ERNEST WILLIAM AE Professor of Zoology at

kai aa the Imperial

Collegeof

a Science,

Professor of Zoology at McGill University, Montreal.

Zoology.

Sac London.

Minimum Wage (in part).

ees Formerly

Strathcona

sa

Tya

Author of A Textbook of Metamorphosis (in part).

Rev. CANON Epwarp Wit1t1am Watson, D.D. B E Canon of Christ Church, Oxford, and Regius Professor of Ecclesiastical History in the >Ministry, The Christian.

F. A. E. C.

University of Oxford. F. A. E. CRew, M.D., P.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. Professor of Animal Genetics and Director of the Animal Breeding Research Department, University of Edinburgh. Co-Editor of the British Journal of Experimental

Mendelism

Btology.

e

:

Sc.D.

F. A. Lu. `

FreDERIC AuGustus Lucas,

F. Bn.

Frank BRANGWYN, R.A., R.P.E., R.S.A.

Formerly Curator, U.S. National Museum, 1893-1904. Director of American Museum of Natural History, New York, 1911~23.

rae

.

of Science (in

Officer and Cross of the Legion of Honour. Commander and Cross of the Order of St. Maurice and St. Lazarus, Italy. Commander and Cross of the Order of Leopold Mural Painting of Belgium. President of Graphic Arts Society; Royal Society of Painters in Water e Colour; Académie Royale des Beaux Arts, Antwerp; Franco-British Union of Archi-

tects.

F. G. K. F. G. M. B. F. G. P.

Sır FREDERIC GEORGE KENYON, K.C.B., G.B.E. Director and Principal Librarian, British Museum. FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BECK, M.A.

, Formerly Fellow and Lecturer in Classics, Clare College, Cambridge. f K GYMER Parsons, F.R.C.S., F.S.A. ; eee er ek of Anatomy, University of London. President, Anatomical Society of Great |Mouth and Salivary Glands;

Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on Anatomy at St. Thomas’ Hospital and the London

School of Medicine for Women.

of Surgeons. F.

H.

A and Art Galleries (in part). MerHa

Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Royal College

Muscular System, Anatomy of.

HORNER.

PCs

es

:

ane Engineer. Contributor to The Times Engineering Supplement; Enginer-VMiitingMachines.

ing; Machinery.

-

l

INITIALS

X

F. J. G. Du.

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

FRANK J. G. Duck, B.S., Ca.E. Of iheWorthington Pump and Machinery Corporation, New Jersey. Member of the |Mercurochrome; American Institute of Chemical Engineers. Miner's Handbook.

F. J. McC.

Francis J. McConnett, Pu.D., D.D., LL.D.

F. Ki.

Fiske KIMBALL,

Co-Author of original edition of Coal {Mining Engineer.

;

Maho of the Methodist Church, New York.

Author of Diviner Immanence; Re- -Methodism (in part).

ligious Certainty; Christian Focus; The Increase of Faith; The Christ-like God.

,

,

A.B., PE.D.

Director, Pennsylvania Museum and School of Industrial Art. Author of Jeferson |Modern Architecture (in

and the First Monument of Classical Revival.

Editor of Foundations of Classic Archi-

part).

tecture,

F. L. DENDY, A.B. Editorial Staff (New York), r4th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica. Formerly Pro-

l Museums and Art Gallerie (in part).

F. LI. G.

F. LLEWELLYN GRIFFITH, M.A., PH.D., F.S.A. Professor and Reader in Egyptology, Oxford University. Editor of the Archaeological Survey and Archaeological Reporis of the Egypt Exploration Fund.

Meroe;n? erred gea 3 Moeris, Lake of.

F. L. P.

FREDERIC LOGAN Paxson, PH.D., A.M., B.S. Professor of History, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. Author of Recent His-

i >Middle West, The.

F. M. P.

FREDERICK MAURICE PowIckE, M.A., Litt.D., F.B.A.

F. L. D.

fessor of Public Speaking and Director of Dramatics at Davidson College, Davidson, New York.

tory of the United States; History of the American Frontier.

Regius Professor of Modern History, University of Oxford.

College, Oxford.

FRANK Prumpron Ramsey, M.A.

Middle Ages, The.

F. S. B.

F. S. Boas,

pre emanes Foundations

University Lecturer in Mathematics and Fellow of King’s College, Cambridge.

Divisional

f

Late Fellow of Merton

Author of The Loss of Normandy; Stephen Langton; etc.

F. P. R.

ee aerator

Ki

Inspectorof English

a Language and

ate See Literature to the

of.

‘

London

County

Coun-

‘

cil, 1905-27. Fellow and Professor of the Royal Society of Literature. Vice-President of the English Association.

F. T.G.

FRAC?

OfWadhos Wadham

Medwall, Henry (in part).

Author of Shakespeare and His Predecessors; etc.

Collese’ Law. A Assistant College, Oxford, Oxford, and andof of Lincola’s Lincoln’s Ina,Inn, B Barrister-at-Law.

Hon-

.

Member of the representative body of the British Medical Association.

Late Surgeon, Royal Navy.

Assistant

F. W. Ha.

Frank W. HALLIDAY, A.M.

F. W. La.

FREDERICK WILLIAM LaNncHESTER, M.Inst.C.E., M.Inst.M.E., M.Inst.A.E., F.R.S.

G. Ab.

GRACE ABBOTT, P.B., A.M.

;

part).

si

Major, Judge-Advocate General’s Department, United States Army.

}Military Law (in part).

Consulting Engineer and Technical Adviser to the Birmingham Small Arms Co., rMotor Car (in part). Ltd., and the Daimler Co., Ltd.

Author of Aerial Flight;

Chief of United States Children’s Bureau, Washington. Community, and articles and reports on child welfare.

GEORGE B. EVERITT.

Atrcraft in Warfare; etc.

`

Author of Immigrant and the Maternity

and Infant Welfare (in part).

,

on Bombi

President, Montgomery Ward & Company, Chicago.

G. C. E.

:

orary Secretary of the International Law Association and of the Grotius Society, Medical Jurisprudence (in Deputy Coroner, County of London.

G. B. Ev.

and

GEORGE C. PTER Associate

DB

Professor of

Ward & Co.,

Inc.

i Anthropology, University of Texas, Austin, Tex.

Formerly

*

.

Chief Geologist, Instituto Geologico Nacional, Mexico. Author of Six Leçons de Pre- [Mexico (in part). tSstotre.

G.C. R. G. C. W.

Guy Corwin Rosson, M.A. Assistant Keeper in the Department of Zoology, British Museum. oe CHARLES ATEON, oo . hevalier of the

Légion d'Honneur.

lm it ouusca.

Author of Portrait Miniatures; Life of Richard

Cosway, R.A.; George Engleheart; etc. Editor of Bryan's Dictionary of Painters and ngravers.

G. D. H. C.

G.G.

G. G. A.

GEORGE FREDERICK BARWICK, B.A. Keeper of Printed Books, British Museum, 1914-9. Assistant Keeper and Superin-

-Midhat Pasha.

GEORGE FREDERICK ZIMMER, A.M.Inst.C.E.

Consulting Engineer and Joint Editor of Engineering and Industrial Management. Author of Mechanical Handling; etc.

Mechani

:

ce anical Handling; Monorails and Telphers.

GEORGE GLASGOW.

S

Author and Publicist. Author of The Minoans; Ronald Burrows, a M: emotr; etc. MAJO GENERAL e o a ASTON, K.C.B. ecturer on

G. G. Si.

;

-Minimum Wage (in part).

tendent, Reading Room, British Museum, 1900-14.

G. F. Z.

ees

GEORGE Doveras Howarb Corr, M.A. University Reader in Economics, Oxford. Author of The World of Labour; Self Government in Industry; Guild Socialism Restated; Social Theory; etc.

G. F. B.

qp;

Miniature Painting (in part).

Naval

History,

University College,

London.

Formerly

Professor

|Masaryk, Thomas Garrigue. ot |

.

Fortification at the Royal Naval College, Greenwich. Author of Sa Land and Air Morocco (in pari). Strategy; Memories of a Marine; The Navy of Today. Editor of The Study of War. J

GEORGE

lg one SIMPSON, PE.D.

Assistant Curator of Vertebrate Palaeontology, The American Museum of Natural History, New York. Author of A Catalogue of the Mesozoic Mammalia in the Geological Department of the British Museum.

> Multituberculata.

INITIALS G. L, B. G. Sa.

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

Rev, GEorcE HERBERT Box, M.A., Hon.D.D.

i

Guy Lestrz Bucxeripce, M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.

Pee

xl

Rector of Sutton, Beds, Hon. Canon of St, Albans. Davidson Professor of Old Testa- +Messiah. ment Studies in the University of London.

Surgeon-Commander in the Royal Navy. GEORGE EDWARD BATEMAN SAINTSBURY, LL.D., D.Litt., F.B.A. Professor of Rhetoric and English Literature at Edinburgh University, 1895-1915.

Service, Navy (in

part),

G. Sc.

Mérimée, Prosper. of English Literature, See the biographical article: Sarytsaury, G. E. B. G. ScHort, Oceanographer. German Naval Observatory, Hamburg. Hon. Professor of Oceanog- }Mediterranean Sea (in part),

G. S. D.

GEOFFREY SPENCE DAVISON.

Author of Essays on French Novelists; Short History of French Literature; Short History

raphy, University of Hamburg.

Technical Journalist.

G. T. M.

;

Late Assistant Editor of Motor Cycling.

}Motorcy cles (in part).

GILBERT T. Morean, O.B.E., D.Sc., F.I.C., F.R.S. Director, Chemical Research Laboratory, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, London. Formerly Mason Professor of Chemistry, University of Birming-

Mercury:

ham, Professor in the Faculty of Applied Chemistry, Royal College of Science for M thrlAl hol Ireland, and Professor of Applied Chemistry, Technical College, Finsbury. Author Cty? ALCOMOL. of Organic Compounds of Arsenic and Antimony. Editor of the Chemistry section of the 14th Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica.

GEORGE THURLAND Prior, D.Sc., F.G.S., F.R.S.

Keeper of the Department of Mineralogy, Natural History Museum, South Kensington, London, 1909-27. President of Mineralogical Society since 1927.

G. W. Cu.

G. W. Cussons. Of the firm of Messrs. G. Cussons Ltd., makers of scientific and technical apparatus for education, research and industry, Manchester.

G. W. W. H. A. H. Ah. H. C. H. Ca.

GrorcE W. Watson, M.I.Mecz.E. Past President of the Institute of Automobile Engineers. Harrison Atwoop, A.B. Vice-President, The H. K. McCann Company, New York. HAKON AHLBERG. Professor of Ornamental Architecture, versity.

Hucns Carsporm, M.A.

H. D. A. M.

College, Stockholm UaiModera Architecture (in part).

i

University of Cambridge.

.

}Meredith, George.

HELEN Cam, M.A., F.R.Hist.S.

Lecturer in History, Girton College, Cambridge.

-Mathematical Models.

ae Vehicles, Commercial (im part), eee Marks (in part). i ;

Editor of the 1 Ith and 12th Editions of The Encyclopedia Britannica.

turer in History, H. Co.

Royal Technical

.

}Meteorite.

Probationer and University Lec- Mayor (in part).

Author of Studies in the Hundred Rolls.

aieHydraulic ervileEaEngineer. ChiefiefE

Engineer, M Mississippi RiverRiver PowerPower Co.Co. Hon.Hon. Prof Professor of Civil Engineering, Republic of Brazil Government School of Engineering, Designed 612,000-h.p. water-power project at Muscle Shoals, Alabama. Rev. Henry Dewsspury Atves Major, D.D., F.S.A. Principal of Ripon Hall, Oxford. Examining Chaplain to the Bishop of Birmingham. Editor of the Modern Churchman. Author of English Modernism.

Muscle Shoals.

>Modernism.

H. D. K. D.

H. D. K. Drew, D.Sc., PaD., F.I.C. Lecturer in Chemistry and Superintendent of the Microanalytical Laboratory, Uni-

H. Fo.

HENRY FORD. Organiser and President of the Ford Motor Co, Author (with Samuel Crowther) of >Mass Production.

H. G. B.

Harry G. BEASLEY.

H. Goe.

HERMANN GOETZ, PH.D.

versity of Birmingham.

, ; Microanalysis, Chemical.

My Life and Work.

:

Founder of the Cranmore Ethnographical Museum.

Volunteer Assistant in Charge of the Mohammedan Collections, Museum of Eth-

nology, Berlin.

H. H. Go.

Henry HERBERT oor

eer hee

Sete

ni

5

Bae

Professor of Abnormal an inical Psychology, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. Formerly Director of Research at the Training School for Mental Defectives, Vineland, N. J. Author of Feeblemindedness, Causes and Consequences.

H. H. L. B.

Huc Hare LeicH Betzot, M.A., D.C.L.

Late Associé de l'Institut de Droit International and Honorary

national Law Association, and Grotius Society. Constitutional Law, University of London.

Court of International Justice.

Hi. Br.

H. J. Ch,

Mohammedan Architecture; Mohammedan Art. : . ; Mental D eficiency (in part).

Master of the Rolls;

Secretary, Inter- |Mediation (in part);

Sometime Acting Professor of >Money-Lending (in pari);

Author of Commerce in War; Permanent

Most Favoured Nation

Clause.

HENRI BRENIER. Director-Genera: of the Chamber of Commerce, Marseilles. General Secretary to the National Colonial Exhibition of Marseilles, 1922, and to the Colonial Organisation Congress, 1922.

H. Ja.

s

Author of Pacific Island Records. } Micronesia.

Morocco (in part).

Sır HERBERT JACKSON, K.B,.E., F.R.S. Director of Research, British Scientific Instruments Research Association. Emeritus |Microscope (in part); Professor of Chemistry, University of London, istry, King’s College, London,

Henry

Formerly Daniell Professor of Chem-

James CHANEY, I.S.O.

red Superintendent of the Standards Department of ‘the Board of Trade, and Secretary of the Royal Commission on Standards.

Microscopy (in part).

siete, ey. es and Weights part).

sid (im

INITIALS

Xii

H. J. C. H. H. K. C.

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

HERBERT J. C. HENDERSON.

Director of Sales, Advertising and Service of the Fisher Body Corporation, Detroit.

}Motor Car (in part).

HENRY Kinc Carrot, LL.D.

Mennonites (in part);

Author of Religious Forces in the United States; Missionary Growth of the Methodist Episcopal Church.

Moravian Brethren (in part)

H. Mo.

H. Moore, D.Sc. eases (in part); Assistant Director of Research, British Scientific Instrument Research Association. ÍMicroscopy (in part).

H. M. St.

Henry Morse STEPHENS, M.A., Litt.D.

H. M.T. H. N. H. N. D. H. Pal. H. R.

H. S. H. H. St.

H. W. C. D.

H. W.

H.

H. Wit.

Editor of the Economist (London), 1916-21. Director of Financial Enquiries in the Treasury, 1915-6. ‘Sometime City Editor of The Times and Morning Post (London). Author of Money; International Finance; etc.

H. W. L. Evans, O.B.E.

H. Wo.

Superintendent of the Royal Mint. HumsERT Worre, C.B., C.B.E.’

I. A.

Mazarin, Jules (in part);

Hore W. Hoce, M.A. Late Professor of Semitic Languages and Literatures in the University of Manchester. }Mesopotamia (in part). HARTLEY WITHERS.

H. W. L. E.

H. W. R.

oe

Late Professor of History in the University of California. Author of History of The >Mirabeau, Honoré Gabriel French Revolution; etc. Riqueti. Horace M. Towner, LL.B. i fe Governor of Porto Rico. Mayagiiez. H. Nrsser, F.T.I. : iMoiré Textile Technologist and Consultant. Author of Grammar of Textile Design. : Henry Newton Dickson, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.G.S., F.R.S.E. , Late Professor of Geography, University College, Reading. Author of Meteorology; pMexico, Gulf of. Papers on Oceanography; etc. Howard PALMER, B.A., LL.B., F.R.G.S. |Mountaineering (in part). Explorer. Author of Mountaineering and Exploration in the Selkirks; etc. Str Humesry Davy Rotteston, K.C.B., M.D., Hon.D.Sc., LL.D., D.C.L. Physician-in-Ordinary to the King. Regius Professor of Physic, University of Cambridge. Consulting Physician to the Royal Navy. Examiner in the Universities of Oxford, Cambridge, London, etc. Formerly President of the Royal College of Phy- Medicine, General. sicians. Author of Clinical Lectures; etc., and Joint-Editor (with Sir Clifford Allbutt) of 2nd Edition of A System of Medicine. H. S. Harrison, D.Sc. Material Culture. Curator, The Horniman Museum, London. Henry Sturt, M.A. |Metempsychosis (in part). Author of Idola Theairi; The Idea of a Free Church; Personal Idealism. Henry Wriiram Caress Davis, M.A. Late Director, Dictionary of National Biography, Regius Professor of Modern Montfort, Simon de (in part). History and Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford.

}Mint (in part).

Poet and Writer. Principal Assistant Secretary, Ministry of Labour. Substitute British Government Member, Governing Body, International Labour Office. Author of London Sonnets; Circular Saws; The Unknown Goddess; etc.

Moore, George.

Rev. Henry WHEELER Rosrnson, M.A., D.D.

Principal of Regent’s Park College, London. Formerly Professor of Church History and the Philosophy of Religion in Rawdon College, Leeds. Author of Hebrew Psychology in Relation to Pauline Anthropology (in Mansfield College Essays): etc.

Micah.

Formerly Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature in the University of Cam-

}Menasseh Ben Israel:

ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A. bridge.

Author of A Short History of Jewish Literature; J:udaism; etc.

I. A. R.

Irma A. RICHTER. Artist and Writer.

Ja. H.

James HENDERSON, M.A., B.Sc. Assistant Lecturer in Mathematics, King’s College, University of London. JUDITH ANN SILBURN. .

J. A. Si

Money Market (in part).

Masaccio; M 5

; Panicale; o

. |Mathematical Tables.

Diplomée of Domestic Science, M.I.H, Formerly Trade Investigator, Ministry of Meat Cookery. Labour. Journalist and Domestic Science Consultant.

J. A. Th.

J. A. V. J. Bt. LÈL J. C. Pr.

SIR JOHN ARTHUR THOMSON, M.A., LL.D. os

Professor of Natural History in the University of Aberdeen. Terry Lecturer,

Yale University, 1924. Author of The Study of Animal Life; Outlines tof Zoology; Heredity; Darwinism and Human Life; What Is Man?; Concerning Evolution. JointAuthor (with Professor Patrick Geddes) of Evolution; Sex; Biology.

Migration of Animals.

Rev. J. A. VANES.

_ Formerly Professor of New Testament Exegesis, Wesleyan College, Richmond. |Methodism ) eh JAMES Late Lecturer on Construction, Architecture, Sanitation, etc., at King’s nry g >Masonry. 1 Q Quantities, , Etc., College, London. Author of Quantities. as oe i5 anager, Educational Department, National Automobile Chamber of C , Motori Y New York. Author of Public Relations; Motor Transport and Our Radial Frontis.

James C. Pryor.

Captain, Medical Corps, United States Navy. Senior Medical Officer.

Naval Academy.

Author of Naval Hygiene,

eae

United S ce

eee

}

(in part).

FEE (HE pari)

i

Medical Service, Navy (in part).

INITIALS J. D. du S.

AND

NAMES

OF

CONTRIBUTORS

J. Dionts pu Szyour.

Messageries Maritimes,

Managing Director, Compagnie des Messageries Maritimes.

J. D. M. S.

J. E.

J.E.A.D.

j.

J. F. C. F.

Compagnie des.

rey SMITH, PH.D., B.Sc., A.I.C.

ate Research Assistant to the Professor of Chemistry, University of Birmingham. Late Assistant Examiner in Chemistry, University of London. Author of Chemisiry and Atomic Structure ; etc.

Rev. JOEN ELSWORTE. Minister of the Wesleyan Methodist Church. the details of Methodist Reunion.

Member of Committees for arranging

}Methodism (in part).

Officer of the Legion of Honour, Director of the French Army Mechanical Transport |Motor Transport, Military during the World War.

Author of Les Transporis Automobiles sur le froni

(in part).

rancais. J. E. Sears, C.B.E., M.A., M.I.Mecs.E., A.M.Inst.C.E., F.Inst.P.

Deputy Warden of the Standards, Board of Trade, London, and Superintendent of Metrology. the Metrology Department, National Physical Laboratory, Teddington, Middlesex.

COLONEL JOHN FREDERICK CHarRLEs Futter, C.B.E., D.S.O.

Military Assistant to the Chief of the Imperial General Staff. Chief General Staff Officer, Tank Corps, 1917-8. Formerly Chief Instructor, Camberley.

J.G. R.

. Molecule, Chemical.

COMMANDANT J. E. A. DOUMENC. ae

J. E. S.

Mountain Warfare (in part);

Munda, Battle of; Mursa, Battle of.

Joun GEoRGE Rospertson, M.A., Pa.D. Professor of German Language and Literature in the University of London. Author

}Meistersinger.

of History of German Literature; Schiller ‘After a Century; etc.

J.H.

JoEN HILTON. Director of Statistics, Ministry of Labour, London.

J. Har.

|Monop oly.

J. HARADA. Of the Imperial Household Museums, Japan.

:

Formerly Professor in the Nagoya |Museums and Art Galleries

College of ‘Technology and in the 8th Higher School. Imperial Japanese Government

J. H. B.

J. H. D. J. H. H.

Josers H. BONNEVILLE, A.M. Department of Banking and Finance, New York University School of Commerce, Accounts and Finance.

Author of Elements of Business Finance.

J. H. DRIBERG.

J. H. Horton, D.Sc., C:LE.

Author of The

Joun Henry Mippieton, M.A., Litt.D., F.S.A., D.C.L.

Author of The Engraved Gems of Classical Times; Illuminated Manuscripts in Classical

J. Jackson, M.A., D.Sc.

J. L. La.

J. J. Smueson, M.A., D.Sc.

J. M. M.

J. Pa.

J. P. M. J. P. V.-S.

of Science (ix

part).

Jonn L. Havcuton, D.Sc., F.Inst.P., F.R.A.S. Senior Assistant in the Metallurgy Department, National Physical Laboratory, Teddington. Jesse L. Lasxy. President, Jesse L. Lasky Feature Play Co. Vice-President, Famous Players Lasky

ESSIE L. WESTON, Liırr.D. J

pMeuse-Argonne Operation.

Bree

Corporation.

J.L. W.

Monreale (in part). Moon.

GENERAL JOHN JOSEPH PERSHING, G.C.B. Chief of Staff, United States Army, 1921-4. Commander-in-Chief, American ExpeFree Public Museums, Liverpool.

J. L. Ha.

Meithei;

>Metempsychosis (tn part); Moro.

` }

ditionary Forces in Europe, 1917-9.

J. J. Si.

:

Masai.

Chief Assistant, Greenwich Royal Observatory.

J. J. P.

}Money-Lending (in part).

}

Author of The Lango, a Nilotic Tribe of Uganda.

and Mediaeval Times.

J. Ja.

(in part).

Commissioner, Panama-Pacific International Exposition, San Francisco, 1915.

Director of Ethnology, Assam. Deputy Commissioner, Naga Hills. Angamt Nagas; The Sema Nagas; etc.

J. H. Mi.

X11

-Metals. Motion Pictures (in part).

}

Author of Arthurian Romances.

Merlin.

Joan Matcorm Mitcuett, O.B.E., M.C., F.S.A.

d

Secretary, Carnegie United Kingdom Trust. Vice-President, Library Association. Mnemonics. Assistant Editor for Classics, Archaeology, Ancient History, 11th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica, ; OHN PALMER.

Formerly Dramatic Critic and Assistant Editor of the Saturday Review,

}Molièr =

i h

. P. Murs, M.A., I.C.S.

J Assistant Commissioner, Makokehung, Assam. Lrevt.-CoLonEt J. P. Virirers-Stuart, C.B., D.S.0.,

Mikir. }

O.B.E.

Served N.W. Frontier, India, 1901-2; East Africa, 1903-4; European War, 1914-8.

:

J. S. B.

JoHN SUTHERLAND Brack, M.A., LL.D. Assistant Editor of 9th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

J. S. F.

Sır JoHN Smrt FrerrT, K.B.E., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S. l i , , Director, Geological Survey of Great Britain and Museum of Practical Geology. pMicropegmatite. Formerly Lecturer on Petrology in Edinburgh University. Joun Suretps Farrparen, M.B., B.CE., F.R.C.S., F.R.C.P. 1 | Obstetric Physician and Lecturer on Midwifery and Diseases of Women, St. Thomas’ Menopause.

J. S. Fa.

cd

Mountain Warfare (in part),

eee Joint-Editor of the En- pMazzini, Giuseppe (in part).

cyclopaedia Biblica.

Hospital. Physician, General Lying-in Hospital, London. Midwives; Gynaecology with Obstetrics; etc.

Author of A Textbook for | , at

x

.

a

XIV J. S. H.

INITIALS

AND

NAMES

e eae Ka

C ga baid

OF CONTRIBUTORS

Bea

Dia

o Piar

ai

Hon. Lecturer, King’s College, London. Fullerian Professor o ysiology in the sa f , Royal Institution. Author of Essays of a Biologist; etc. Editor of the Biology and, Metamorphosis (in part)

J.T. A.

J. Vi.

Zoology section of the 14th Edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. James Trustow Apams, A.M., LL.D., Lirr.D. Member of the Massachusetts Historical Society. Author of Founding

Jonas Vries, A.M., Pu.D.

|

i

pMassachusetts.

i

Professor of American History, University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo. Archives of Missouri; History of Missouri.

J. W. Ho.

of New

England.

, Author of

}Missouri.

J. W. Hottoway, JR., B.A., LL.B. | ae American Medical Association, Bureau of Legal Medicine and Legislation.

}Medical Legislation (in part)

K. A. M.

Kate A. MEAKIN (Mrs. Budgett Meakin).

|Morocco (im part).

K. B. M.

KENNETH BALLARD Murpock, A.M., Pu.D. Assistant Professor of English, Harvard University.

Mather.

Editor of Selections from Cotton Mather,

Mather, Cotton; Author of Portraits of Increase

Mather, Richard.

K. S. L.

KENNETH Scorr LATOURETTE, M.A., P.D., D.D. Professor of Missions and Oriental History, Yale University. Author of The Development of China; History of Early Relations Between United States and China,

L. A. W.

Lee A. Wate, M.A.

L. C. L. C. M.

Mather, Increase;

;

,

Associate Professor of Rhetoric, University of Michigan; formerly head of Department of Journalism, University of Washington. Lon CHANEY. Director, Motion Picture Production.

a -Mongolia (in part).

eo

Michigan.

Motion Pictures (in part).

SIR Leo Crozza Money, F.R.Stat.S., F.R.G.S., F.Z.S. Author and Journalist. Member of the War Trade Advisory Committee, 1915-8. oe Parliamentary Secretary to the Ministry of Shipping, 1916-8. Chairman of the +}Midland Bank Limited. Tonnage Priority Committee, 1917-8. Editor of the Economics, Engineering and Industries section of the 14th Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica,

L. D. C.

Lotus Detta CoFrMaNn, A.M., Px.D.

L. D. S.

Laurence Duprey Stamp, D.Sc., A.K.C., F.G.S., M.LP.T.

|Minnesota, University of.

President of the University of Minnesota.

L. F. S.

Reader in Economic Geography in the University of London. duction to Stratigraphy. `

i

Author of An Intro-

CMiocene.

Of Pembroke College, Cambridge. Hon. Editor, Sussex Archaeological Society. Author

}Minstrel.

L. F. Sarzman, M.A., F.S.A.

,

L. H. D. B.

of Mediaeval English Industries; English Life in the Middle Ages; Mediaeval Byways. LILLIAN GISH. : }Motion Pictures (in part). Leading Actress, Motion Pictures. Appeared in “Way Down East”: etc. LUTHER- GULICK. Director of the New York Bureau of Municipal Research and of the National Bureau-Mayor (in part). of Public Administration. Lecturer, Columbia University, New York, Mesopotamia (in part); L. H. Duptey Buxton, M.A. oye

L. H. P.

L. H. Pomeroy, M.I.Mecu.E., M.1.A.E.

L. Gi. L. Gu.

L. J. B. L. J. S.

Reader in Physical Anthropology in the University of Oxford.

Monet pera à

Chief Engineer to the Associated Daimler Co., Ltd., Coventry, England. |Motor Car (in part). LAWRENCE J. BURPEE, F.R.G.S., F.R.S.C. Secretary for Canada, International Joint Commission. Sometime Private Secretary Montreal to three successive Ministers of Justice in the Dominion Government, Author of ene Canadian Life in Town and Country; etc. š L. J. Spencer, Sc.D., F.G.S., F.C.S., F.R.S.

Keeper of Department of Mineralogy, Natural History Museum, South Kensington. | Mica (in part); and Harkness Scholar. Mineralogy. Editor of The Mineralogical Magazine. | LIONEL S. Marks, B.Sc., M.M.E. Professor of Mechanical Engineering, Harvard University. Author of Mechanical -Mechanical Engineer. Formerly Scholar of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge,

L. S. Ma.

Engineers’ Handbook; etc.

L. V.

ae coe

5

talian Vice-Consul in New Orleans, 1906; Philadelphia, 1907; Acting-Consul, Boston, 1907-10, On the Secretariat of the League of Nations, 19020-3. Author of Italian Life in Town and Country; The Fascist Experiment; etc.

L. W. B.

L. W. Baztpwin, B.S., C.E.

M. Bon.

Rr. Hon. MARGARET Grace BONDFIELD.

President of the Missouri Pacific Railway Company, St. Louis, Mo.

T . Mazzini, Giuseppe (in port).

|Missouri Pacific Lines.

Minister of Labour, 1929. Parliamentary Secretary to the British Ministry of Labour, |Maternity and Infant 1924. Labour Adviser to Labour Convention at Washington, 1919. Chairman, | Welfare (in part). General Council of the Trades Union Congress, 1923.

Marcorm CHARLES SALAMAN. Formerly Dramatic and Art Critic of The Sunday Times, London.

Author of Old _ English Colour-Prints; The Charm of the Eicher’s Art; Modern Masters of Etching; etc. Monotypes.

Montacur Hucnes Crackantuorpr, K.C., D.C.L., M.A.

Late President of the Eugenics Education Society. Formerly Member of the General Council of the Bar and Council of Legal Education,

Mediation (in part).

INITIALS

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

XV

M. L N.

Marron I. Newsrcrn, D.Sc. Editor of The Scottish Geographical Magazine. Author of A Geographical Study of te | Mediterranean Sea (in part).

M. Loc.

MARGERY LOCKET. Motion Pictures (im part). Education Manager, British Instructional Films, Ltd., London. JoHN WALTER Epwarp Dovuctras Scorr-Montacu, 2ND BARON Montacu oF BEAUMotoring (in pari); LIEU, K.C.L.E., C.S.I. Adviser on Mechanical Transport Services to Government of India, 1915-9. Founder Motor Transport, Commercial. and late Editor of The Car. Mitton Sits, A.B.

Peace Terms; Mediterranean Lands; etc.

M. of B.

M. Ss.

}Motion Pictures (77. part).

Actor, Motion Pictures. N. Ba.

N. E. C.

N. BAROV.

Member of the Russian Bar and Director of the Moscow Narodny Bank. Norman E. CRUMP. Statistical Correspondent to the Financial Times, London.

A. B.C. of the Foreign Exchanges.

N. P. C.

O. G. S. C. O. J. R. O. Wo.

P. C. M.

}Moscow Narodny Bank, Ltd. Mint Par of Exchange; Joint Author of Clare’s Mint Price of Gold;

Monetary Union.

NATHAN P. CoLweLt, M.D. Secretary of the Council on Medical Education of American Medical Association. Medical Education (in part). Editor of Federation Bulletin of State Medical Boards of the Uniied States. OsBERT Guy STANHOPE CRAWFORD, F.S.A. iMound-Builders. Archaeology Officer of the British Ordnance Survey. Author of Man and His Past. Miss O. J. Roprnson, M.Sc., N.D.A., N.D.D. }Milk (in part). Part-Time Lecturer, East Anglian Institute of Agriculture. D. Orson Woop, M.Sc., A.R.C.S., F.Inst.P. oa and Weights (in Senior Lecturer in Physics, University of London. part). SIR PETER CHALMERS MITCHELL, C.B.E., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. , Secretary to the Zoological Society of London. Author of Outlines of Biology; The pMonster (im part). Childhood of Animals; etc.

P. De Az.

P. DE AZCARATE.

}Minorities (in part).

League of Nations, Geneva. P. Gr.

P. G.T. P. M. H.

PHILIP GRAVES.

es

Assistant Foreign Editor of The Times, London. Correspondent of The Times at Mesopotamia (in part). Constantinople, 1908-14. Author of The Land of Fhree Faiths. PETER GUTHRIE Tart, LL.D. Physicist.

Professor of Natural Philosophy, Edinburgh University, 1860-1904.

P. M. R.

P. M. HELDT. Engineering Editor of Automotive Industries. Author of The Gasoline Automobile. P. M. Roxsy, M.A.

P. P. Cr.

PAUL PHILLIPPE CRET.

P. V.

PASQUALE VILLARI.

P.Z. C.

MAJOR-GENERAL SIR Percy Z. Cox, G.C.M.G., K.C.S.1,G. C.LE., F.R.G.S.

Professor of Geography in Liverpool University.

sear

Italian Historian and Statesman. Author of I primi due secoli della storia di Firenza; pMedici (in part). VILLARI, PASQUALE.

|

Acting British Minister to Persia, 1918-20. High Commissioner in Mesopotamia, 1920-3; Secretary, Foreign Department, Government of India, 1914. Consul and Political Agent, Muscat, Arabia, 1899~1904.

R. C. ARCHIBALD, M.A., Pa.D., LL.D.

Professor of Mathematics, Brown University, Providence, R. I. Fellow of American

Academy of Arts and Sciences.

R. C. An.

Mongolia (in pari).

Professor of Architectural Design, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. Fellow, |Museum Architecture (in part). American Institute of Architects. Architect of Pan-American Union Building,{ Washington; Valley Forge Memorial Arch, Philadelphia.

etc. See the biographical article:

R.C. A.

|Maxwell, James Clerk.

pareo Vehicles, Commercial (in part). } AE

:

Meshed

À

Mathematical Societies and Periodicals.

Roy CHAPMAN ANDREWS, M.A., Sc.D.

Curator-in-Chief, Division of Asiatic Exploration and Research, American Museum of Natural History, New York. Leader of Asiatic Expeditions. Author of Across Mongolian Plains; etc.

R. Ch.

ROBERT CHAMBERS, M.A., PH.D.

R. C. S.

RALPH C. SMITH.

Research Professor of Biology, New York University, and Chairman of the Depart-

Mongolia (in part).

f

,

,

Micromanipulation.

ment of Biology, Washington Square College. Assistant Secretary, American Association of Museums.

of Museums and Museum Work; etc.

Roman DysoskI1, Pa.D.

n

Author of A Bibliography

a

Professor of English Literature in the University of Cracow (Poland). Member of the Polish Academy.

Corresponding

R. F. WOODHULL.

National President of the Motion Picture Theatre Owners of America, New York. T RICHARD GARNETT, C.B., LL.D. Librarian and Author. Late Superintendent of the Reading Room, British Museum, and Keeper of the Printed Books. Co-Editor (with Edmund Gosse) of English Literature. Author of A Chaplet from the Greek Anthology; Emerson; Milton; etc.

RALPH GEORGE HAWTREY.

Assistant Secretary to the Treasury, London.

Museum Architecture (in part).

Author of Currency and Credit; etc.

}Mickiewicz, Adam.

}Motion Picture Theatre. Müller, Max (in part). i Money.

INITIALS

XVI

R. H. Ch.

NAMES

OF

CONTRIBUTORS

Rev. RoseErT Henry CuarLes, M.A., D.D., Lirrt.D., F.B.A. e Archdeacon of Westminster. Late Grinfield Lecturer and Lecturer in Biblical Studies, Oxford.

R. H.R.

AND

>Moses, Assumption of.

Professor of Biblical Greek at Trinity College, Dublin, 1898-1906.

sir R. Henry Rew, K.C.B.

Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, 1898; Assistant Secretary, 1906-18.

to the Ministry of Food, 1916-7.

Secretary

;

Chairman, Inter-Departmental Committee on

Meat Trade (in pari).

Unemployment Insurance in Agriculture, 1925-6.

R. K. D. R. N. B.

SIR ROBERT KENNAWAY DOUGLAS.

s

Author of The Language and Literature of China; The Life of Jenghiz Khan; etc.

ROBERT NISBET BAIN.

Mongols (in part).

P

Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia: The Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1413-1900; Slavonic Europe: The Political History of Poland and Russia from 1469 to 1766; etc.

R. Sc.

RoBeERT Scott, M.B., Cua.B.

R. S. Cl.

R. S. Cray, D.Sc., F.INsT.P. Principal, Northern Polytechnic, Holloway, London.

Barrister-at-Law.

Menshikov, A. D. (in part) Medical Legislation (in part

Formerly Major in the R.A.M.C.

} President of Optical Society. +Mirror.

Author of Practical Exercises in Light; Treatise on Practical Light.

R. S. L.

R. S. Lewis, A.B., E.M. : Department of Mining, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah. Author of section

N , Mining, Metalliferous.

on Boring, Peele’s Mining Engineers’ Handbook.

R. Sm.

REED SMOOT.

American Senator from Utah. Member of the World War Foreign Debt Commission.

Mormonism; Mormons or Latter-Day

Regent of the Smithsonian Institution. RICHARD VYNNE SOUTHWELL, M.A., F.R.S.

R. W. M. R. W. P. R. W. Pe.

Saints.

University Lecturer in Mathematics and Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. In charge of Non-Rigid Airships Design at R.N. Air Station, Kingsnorth, 1915-8, and of Materials, Strength of; Aerodynamic and Structural Experiments at the Royal Aircraft Establishment, { Mechanics. Farnborough, 1918-9. Late Superintendent of the Aerodynamics Department, National Physical Laboratory, Teddington. Roy WALDO MINER. j : Curator of the Marine Life section of the division of Zoology and Zoogeography, American Museum of Natural History.

RAYMOND WILLIAM POSTGATE. Editorial Staff, London, of the 14th Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica. of Revolution from 1789-1906; The Builders’ History; ed. Pervigiium Veneris. Author SIr Poan na PERKS, BART.

airman of the Metropolitan District Railway, 1902-6. Treasurer, Wesleyan Methel Twentieth Century Million Fund. M.P. for the Louth Division of Lincolnshire, 1892-1910.

R. W. S.-W.

Rogert WILLIAM SEToN-Wartson, Litt.D.

S. A. C.

STANLEY ARTHUR Cook, M.A., Lirt.D.

rr

of Science (in

Municipal Trading (in part) . Methodism

. (in bart).

Masaryk Professor of Central European History at King’s College, University London. Founder of and Joint-Editor of The New Europe, 1916-20. Joint-Editor of Montenegro. of The Slavonic Review. Author of The Rise of Nationality in the Balkans; etc. —~ UX,

Moab: Fellow and Lecturer in Hebrew and Moloch (in part); Syriac, Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Co-Editor of the Cambridee 2 Ancient ` History. Editor for Palestine Exploration Fund. ; : Moses (in part). S. AUERBACH. Secretary, Metallgesellschaft, Frankfurt. Metallgesellschaft A.G. University Lecturer in Hebrew and Aramaic.

S. Au.

S. C.

SIR Sb

pad Kesey

Corvin, M.A.

nglish Literary and Art Critic. Late Slade Professor of Fine Art, University. Keeper of the Department of Prints and Drawings, British Cambridge Musua. 1884— 1921. See the biographical article: CoLVIN, SIR SIDNEY.

S. C. H. D.

S. C. H. Davis,

S. Cu.

STEWART CULIN. Brooklyn Museum of Art and Sciences, Brooklyn, N. Y. Games of the American Indians.

S. G. B.-B.

Rev. Grawam Brape-Birxs, D.Sc., F.Z.S.

S. H. H.

S. H. HAMER.

S. J. Bu.

SOLON Justus Bucx, Pu.D.

S. Le.

S. S. R.

. (in part).

Motor Racing (in part).

Of Autocar, London.

S. L.

‘ Michelangelo

Nae

Author of Korean Games;

-Masks (în part).

}mini d Lecturer in Zoology and Geology, South-Eastern Agricultural College, Wye, Kent. peee

; Secretary of the National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty, Monuments, Preservation of I911. Author of The Story of the Ring; Whys and Other Whys; The Jungle School; etc.

Superintendent of the Minnesota Historical Society. Professor versity of Minnesota. Author of The Granger Movement; Illinoisof History in the Uniin 7818;etc.

ae a

eye

on

>Minnesota.

B.D., P#.D.

rolessor of Assyriology, Oxford, since 1919. Curator in the Universit Mu Babylonian section, Philadelphia, 1916-8. Director of the Weld-Blundell andField Museum Expedition to Mesopotamia since 1922. > 3

Se ch Pu.D., D.C.L., M.F.S. rotessor of Law, New Jersey Law School. Author

d Politics; An Outline of American Federal Garneri. of Party Princip] Ka a

REAR-ADMIRAL SAMUEL S. Rozgison, U.S.N. Se et of United States Naval Academy. es Fleet.

so Mesopotamia

; a

f (in part).

i

i

Formerly in command of United| Midshipman (in part).

INITIALS

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

SAMUEL WESLEY STRATTON, D.Sc., LL.D., P.D. President of Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston.

xvii

EER Institute of Technology, The. M

Tuomas AsHBY, D.Litt., F.B.A., F.S.A., Hon.A.R.DB.A.

e

oe

ee

Formerly Director of the British School at Rome. Author of Turner's Visions of Metaurus: 3 Rome; The Roman Campagna in Classical Times; Revised and completed for press a Monreale (in part); Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome (by the late Prof. J. B. Plattner).

Monteleone Di Calabria.

T. E. L.

THomas East Lones, M.A., LL.D. Formerly Senior Examiner in H.M. Patent Office.

Author of Aristotle's Researches

pMeters, Electric.

an Natural Science; Zinc and Its Alloys.

T. E. R. P.

Rev. THEODORE EVELYN REECE Parties, M.A., F.R.A.S., F.R.MET.S.

T.F.H

TALBOT F. Hamtiin, B.A., B.ARCH.

T. G. B.

THOMAS GREGOR BroDIE, M.D., F.R.S. Late Po of Physiology at St. Thomas's Hospital Medical College, University of London. THEODOR NöLDEKE, PH.D. German Semitic Scholar. Late Professor of Oriental Languages at Strasbourg.

Th. N.

Secretary, Royal Astronomical Society, 1919-26; President, 1927 and Editor of the Splendour of the Heavens.

1928. Joint-Mercury.

Instructor in the History of Architecture, Columbia University, New York. man, City Plan Committee of the Merchants’ Association, New York.

Chair-

oe

M a Moulding

Muscle, Structure of. -Mo‘allaqat (in part).

Author of Geschichte des Korans and numerous essays.

T. H. R.

THEODORE H. Ropinson, M.A., D.D. fee of Semitic Languages, University College of South Wales and Monmouth-

; Moses (in part).

T. J.W.

shire. T. J. WALSE.

T. K. R.

Sır THOMAS KIRKE Rose, D.Sc., A.R.S.M.

T. Ra.

TERRY RAMSAYE. Editor-in-Chief of Eastern Production for Pathé Exchange, Inc., New York. Author

T. R. Pi.

T. R. PIRTLE. Department of Information, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington.Lill (in part).

}Montana.

American Lawyer and Senator.

Chemist and Assayer at the Mint, 1902-26. President, Institution of Mining and Metallurgy, 1915-6. Author of The Metallurgy of Gold; The Prectous Metals.

of A History of the Motion Picture.

Author of History of the Dairy Industry; Handbook of Dairy Statistics. T.

W.

T. W. A.

W.A. G. W. A. Ha.

W. A. P.

£

Head of Weaving and Textile Designing Department, Technical College, Dundee.

Sır THomAs WALKER ARNOLD, C.I.E., M.A., Lirr.D., F.B.A. Professor of Arabic, University of London.

Formerly Professor of Philosophy, `

VERNON HERBERT BLACKMAN, Sc.D., F.R.S. Professor of Plant Physiology and Pathology, Imperial College of Science and Tech-

nology, London. Editor of the Botany section of the I4th Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica.

W. A. Ba.

; : >Motion Pictures (in part).

|Matting

THOMAS WOODHOUSE.

Government College, Lahore.

V. H. B.

ae

pMint (in part).

WALTER A. BARDGETT.

Editor of cycling papers since 1915. Former Racing Cyclist, Manager tracks and referee at cycle race meets. Wirira{m A. Ganog, A.M., M.A.

of bicycle

Major, United States Army. Author of The History of the United States Army.

A. HAMOR. Wiliam Assistant Director

of Mellon Institute of Industrial Research. nation of Petroleum; American Fuels; etc. W. Arson PHILLIPS, M.A. Lecky Professor of Modern History, Dublin University.

Author of The Exami-

P

:

,

‘Miniature Painting (in part). (Millet

`

: Rone ie

esys a

|Monterr ey.

Motor Car Engines: Their Operation and Care.

s }Mephistopheles.

W. B. P.

WILLIAM BELMONT PARKER, A.B. Editor of South Americans of Today.

W. B. Sh.

WILFRED B. SHAW. General Secretary, Alumni Association, University of Michigan.

‘

of the University of Michigan.

. Author of History

Maximilian; Medina, José Toribio; Mendoza, Antonio De; Mitre, Bartolomé. pMichigan, University of.

7

WILLIAM DILLER MATTHEW, A.M., Pa.D., F.R.S.

Professor of Palaeontology. Director of Museum of Palaeontology, University of }>Megatherium. California. Author of various scientific treatises on fossil vertebrates.

MAJOR-GENERAL Sır Witt1am Epmounp Ironsipze, K.C.B., C.M.G., D.S.O. G. O. C. Meerut District, India, since 1928.

in Russia, 1918-9.

Commandant, Staff

Commander-in-Chief,

College, Cambridge,

British Troops

1922-6.

Author of

;

Masurian

the.

Lakes, Battles

Tannenberg: The First Thirty Days in East Prussia.

W. F. S.

S WILLIAM FLEETWOOD SHEPPARD, Sc.D., M.A., LL.M. Senior Examiner in the Board of Education. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge.

W. G. Co.

WILLIAM GEORGE CONSTABLE, M.A.

Assistant Keeper of the National Gallery, London. tion. Fellow of St. John’s College, Cambridge.

, l >Mensuration.

l

Lecturer at the Wallace Collec- aoe

a d Art Galle

of

XV111

INITIALS

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

W. G. Ma.

Sır WILLIAM GRANT MACPHERSON, K.C.M.G., M.B., D.P.H. i Late Major-General, Army Medical Service. Editor-in-Chief, Medical History of the Medical Service, Army. War. Served at the War Office as Deputy Director-General of the Army Medical Service, and as a member of the Advisory Board for Medical Services.

W. Gt.

W. GARNETT, B.Sc.

W. Ha.

WESLEY HARDENBERGH, B.LITT.

W. H. Di.

WILLIAM HEPWoRTS DIXON.

W. H. Ma.

W. J. B.-L. W.K.G.

$Migration (in part). jMeat Trade (in part). jMatch (in part). fMotion, Laws of.

Of the Overseas Settlement Committee, London.

Vice-President, Institute of American Meat Packers, Chicago.

Chief of the Research Department, Messrs. Bryant and May, Ltd., London. WILLIAM HERRICK MACAULAY, M.A. Fellow and Tutor of King’s College, Cambridge.

W. J. BASSETT-LOWKE.

}Models and Model-Making.

Messrs. Bassett-Lowke, Ltd., Locomotive Engineers, Northampton, England. Wittram Kine Grecory, A.M., Px#.D. Curator of the Departments of Comparative Anatomy and Ichthyology, American

Museum of Natural History. Professor of Vertebrate Palaeontology, Columbia Uni-

Monotremata.

versity. Author of The Orders of Mammals; etc.

Rev. WILLIAM Kemp LOWTHER CLARKE, D.D. Editorial Secretary of the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. St. Basil the Great; etc.

Author of }Matthias (Disciple).

Sır W. MARTIN CONWAY. English Art Critic and Mountaineer., Director-General of the Imperial War Musea since 1917. Author of The Alps from End to End; With Ski and Sledge over Arctic aciers; etc. W. Me.

Mountaineering (in part).

WILFRED MEYNELL.

iMeynell, Alice.

Editor of The Collected Works of Francis Thompson.

W. M.F. P.

Sır WiıLiraĮm M. FLINDERS PETRIE, D.C.L., Litr.D., Pa.D., LL.D., F.R.S. Edwards Professor of Egyptology, University College, London. Founder of the British School of Archaeology in Egypt. See the biographical article: PETRIE, SIR WILLIAM MATTHEW FLINDERS.

Wiriam N. Hasxett, D.S.M.

Major-General, New York National Guard. Head of American Relief Missions to Rumania and Russia. Red Cross Commissioner in Greece, 1922-3.

W. Pa. W. R. Be.

W. R. D. W. R. Ho.

W. Rn.

W. R.S. W. R. Sm.

Rev. W. PATON.

ormerly

}Masters, Edgar Lee. }Mummy.

BELTED, F.R.S.E.

Professor o

emistry and Metallurgy, Artillery

College, Woolwich.

WiruaĮ Roy Surts, M.A., Pa.D.

W. S. H. W. S. L.-B.

WALTER SyDNEY Lazarus-Bartow, B.A., M.D., F.R.C.P.

;

}Missouri Compromise.

?Motorcycles (in part).

Medical

a Britannica,

Mouth and Salivary Glands

THEODORE BENDA.

Hustrator and Painter.

Illustrates for leading American

graphical Society.

Author of The People of Mexico; Thodine with M. aie: ad a

Writram TEMPLETON Waves, M.A., B.D.

Kingsford Professor of History and Chairman of the De artment University, Montreal. Author of The M onarchy and iha Peoples

W. Warptaw, D.Sc., F.I.C.

W.

P e

Lecturer in Chemistry, University of Birmingham. W. Wyatt Paine, J.P., F.S.A. Author and Editor of numerous legal textbooks, Initial Used for Anonymous Contributors.

l

periodicals,

Magazine, Scribners; etc. Creator of Benda Masks used on dao. in Europe Century aud.Anaie, waT TEORTANN, B.Sc., Lrrr.D. itor-in-Chief of Ingenieria International (New York). Fellow of the Roval

W.

Fulmin

Member of the Cancer Committee, Ministry of Health. Formerly Professor of Experi- Medicine;Research; mental Pathology, Middlesex Hospital Medical School, London University. Editor, |Mirror-Writing: Medicine section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedi

WDT

W. Wa.

i

>Mer

A Part-Author of Valentine-Hodgkinson’s Practical Chemistry): ae . aaa oo ai eee Lae vara D.Sc., F.R.S. uperintendent of the Department of Metallurgy in the National Physical Labora- Metallography; tory, Teddington, Middlesex. Member of the International Conmmitice on Nomenclature of [ron and Steel. Author of Introduction to the Study of Physical Metallurgy. Metallurgy. W. Rosertson Suit, LL.D. }Moloch (im part). Editor of the gth Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica. Associate Professor of History, Bryn Mawr College, Pennsylvania. WILLIAM S. HARLEY, B.S. Harley Davidson Motor Company, Milwaukee, Wisconsin.

W.T. W.

. }Militia (im part).

i Missions.

Joint-Editor of The International Review of Missions. Wirm R. BENET, Pa.B., M.A. Associate Editor of Saturday Review of Literature, New York. WARREN R. Dawson, F.R.S.E., F.S.A. Author of numerous articles on Egyptology and the History of Medicine.

W. R Hopa neni

Measures and Weights, Ancient.

of

Hi

Mas

}

poner

-

RE

j

cond ar ana

\ jı ee Meal

Montcalm, Louis-J oseph de Montcalm-Gozon.

|Molybdenum (in part). |Master and Servant.

THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA FOURTEENTH

EDITION

VOLUME I5 MARY, DUCHESS OF BURGUNDY TO MUSHET STEEL ARY (1457-1482), duchess of Burgundy, land kauri”) are cut (Kingaroy district) and cattle and sheep only child of Charles the Bold, duke of rearing is carried on (e.g, Gayndah area). Around the town, Burgundy, and his wife Isabella of Bour- sugar (Isis district) and fruit growing, dairying and mixed farmbon, was born on Feb. 13, 1457. As heiress ing are progressing, while Maryborough itself is noted for its of the rich Burgundian domains her hand foundry and railway engineering works, and other industries of was eagerly sought by a number of princes. the area are sugar milling and butter-making. A good deep-water When her father fell upon the field of port exists at Urangan (29 miles N.E.) and, besides local lines Nancy, on Jan. 5, 1477, Louis XI. of (Gayndah, Nanango, etc.), Maryborough is connected by the France took possession of the duchy of North Coast Railway with Brisbane and the coastal towns furBurgundy as a fief lapsed to the French crown, and also of ther north. The population (1926-27) is c. 12,000. T Franche Comté, Picardy and Artois. He was anxious that Mary MARYBOROUGH, county town of co. Leix, Ireland. should marry the Dauphin Charles and thus secure the inheritance Pop. (1926) 3,382. It lies on the river Triogue and is st m. of the Netherlands for his descendants. Mary declined the French W.S.W. of Dublin by the Great Southern railway. Its charter was alliance, and turned to her Netherland subjects for help. She granted in 1570, and a bastion of the ancient castle remains. There obtained the help only at the price of signing (Feb. 11, 1477) are flour-mills and a considerable general trade. On Dunamase or “the Great Privilege,” by which the provinces and towns of the Dunmall rock, about 3 m. from the town, are ruins of a castle Netherlands recovered all the local and communal rights abolished belonging to the kings of Leinster, but probably built by William by the arbitrary decrees of the dukes of Burgundy. Bruce (¢. 1200) and dismantled in 1650 by Cromwell’s troops, Mary had to undertake not to declare war, make peace, or MARYLAND (mér’i-land), the “Old Line State,” is one raise taxes without the consent of the States, and not to employ of the original thirteen States of the United States of America, any but natives in official posts. Mary now married the archduke It is situated on the Atlantic coast and extends along the ChesaMaximilian of Austria, afterwards the emperor Maximilian I., peake bay beween lat. 37° 53’ and 39° 43’ 26-3” N., the northern at Ghent on Aug. 18, 1477. Affairs now went more smoothly in boundary being the Mason and Dixon line, and between long. 75° the Netherlands, the French aggression was checked, and internal 4’ and 79° 20’ 15” W. It is bounded north by Pennsylvania and peace was in a large measure restored, when the duchess died, Delaware; east by Delaware and the Atlantic ocean; south and of a fall from her horse, on March 27, 1482. Three children had west by the Potomac river and its north branch, which separates been the issue of her marriage, and her elder son, Philip, succeeded the State, except on the extreme west border, from Virginia and to her dominions under the guardianship of his father. West Virginia; west by West Virginia. It is one of the small States PERC EE eS

See E. Münch, Maria von Burgund, nebst d. Leben v. Margaretha v. York (2 vols., Leipzig, 1832), and the Cambridge Mod. Hist. (vol. i. of the Union—only seven are smaller—its total area being 12,327 sq.m., of which 2,386 sq.m. are water surface. The name Maryc. xii., bibliography, 1903).

MARYBOROUGH,

land was given to the original county palatine in honour of Queen

a coastal town in the south-east of Henrietta Maria, wife of Charles I. of England. The popular name

Queensland, Australia, situated 167 miles by rail north of Brisbane on the banks of the Mary river, c. 20 miles from its mouth. The lowlands here extend as far north as Bundaberg (q.v.), on the south to Gympie (q.v.), and inland (west) beyond Gayndah. Its extensive hinterland includes a variety of natural possibilities, mineral, forestal, pastoral and agricultural. (Av. ann. temps. 86°-

49° F; av. ann. rainfall: 46 in.), In the Wide Bay district is the Burrum (Cretaceous; bituminous) coal-field. The ten coal-mines of the Maryborough district produced c. 190,000—-120,000 tons

(1925-26). The Gympie and Kilkivan mining fields also find their

“Old Line State” has been applied to Maryland because of the

distinguished service of the Maryland Line during the Revolu-

tionary War.

Physical Features,—-Maryland is crossed from north to south

by each of the leading topographical regions of the east section of the United States—the Coastal plain, the Piedmont plateau, and the Appalachian region; hence its great diversity of surface. The portion within the Coastal plain embraces nearly the whole of the south-east half of the State and is commonly known as tidewater Maryland, It is marked off from the Piedmont plateau by a

outlet at Maryborough. Inland, valuable timbers (e.g., “Queens- “fall line” extending from Washington (D.C.) north-east through

2

MARYLAND

Baltimore to a point a little south of the north-east corner of the State, and is divided by the Chesapeake bay into two parts

known as the eastern shore and the western shore. The eastern shore is a low, level plain, the least elevated section of the State. Along its entire Atlantic border extends the narrow sandy Sinepuxent beach which encloses a shallow lagoon or bay also called Sinepuxent at the north and Chincoteague at the south. On the

ern portion Antietam creek to the east and Conococheague creek to the west flow in meandering trenches that in places exceed 75 ft. in depth. The Appalachian ridges of the western portion begin with North mountain on the east and end with Wills mountain

on the west. They reach a maximum height in Martin’s ridge of more than 2,000 feet. Overlooking them from the west are the higher ranges of the Alleghanies among which the Savage, Backbone and Negro mountains reach elevations of 3,000 ft. or more. In the extreme western part of the State these mountains merge as it were into the rolling Appalachian plateau, having an average elevation of 2,500 feet. All rivers of western Maryland flow south into the Potomac except in the extreme west where the waters jN VIRGINA;$7 NÝ $ of the Youghiogheny and its tributaries flow north into the Monongahela, a tributary of the Ohio. A ji $ 1 Cumberland WASHINGTON N Climate.—The climate of Maryland in the south-east is in2 Hagerstown P i 3 Frederick fluenced by ocean and bay, while in the west it is influenced by l| 4 Baltimore the mountains. The prevailing winds are westerly but generally 5 ANNAPOLIS north-west in winter in the west section and south-west in summer Dd Be aS Eee 6 Cambridge 7 Salisbury eee, Gate l in the south section. In the south the normal winter is mild, the normal summer rather hot; in the west the normal winter is cold, at the normal summer cool. The normal average annual temperature 0 680 10 20 30 40 SO MILES for the entire State is between 53° and 54° F, ranging from 48° MAP SHOWING THE MAIN ROADS IN MARYLAND at Grantsville in the north-west to 53° at Darlington in the northentire peninsula between the Delaware and the Chesapeake the east, and to 57° at Princess Anne in the south-east. The normal land is low, rising northward to a height of about 100 ft. near the annual precipitation for the State is about 43 inches. Soils——The great variety of soils is one of the more marked fall line. A water-parting extending from north-east to south-west and close to the Atlantic border separates the eastern shore into features of Maryland. On the eastern shore to the north is a two drainage systems, though that next to the Atlantic is insig- marly loam overlying a yellowish-red clay subsoil, to the south is nificant. That on the Chesapeake side is drained chiefly by the a soil quite stiff with light-coloured clay, while here and there, Chester, Choptank, Nanticoke and Pocomoke rivers together with especially in central and southern Maryland, are considerable their numerous branches, the general direction of all of which is areas both of light sandy soils and tidal marsh loams. On the south-west. The branches, as well as the upper parts of the main western shore the soils range from a light sandy loam in the lower levels south from Baltimore to rather heavy loams overlying a yelstreams, flow through broad and shallow valleys. The western shore is somewhat more undulating than the eastern lowish clay on the rolling uplands and on the terraces along the and also more elevated. Its general slope is from north-west to Potomac and the Patuxent. Crossing the State along the lower south-east, and along the west border are points 300 ft. or more in edge of the fall line is a belt heavy with clay, but so impervious height. The principal rivers crossing this section are the Patuxent to water as to be of little value for agricultural purposes. The soils and the Potomac, the right or southern bank of the latter forming of the Piedmont plateau east of Parr’s ridge are, like the underthe State’s southern boundary. These rivers, lined in most in- lying rocks, exceptionally variable in composition, texture and stances with terraces 30 to 40 ft. high on one or both sides, flow colour. For the most part they are considerably heavier with clay south-east into the Chesapeake bay through valleys bounded by than are those of the Coastal plain, and better adapted to general low hills. The fall line, which forms the boundary between the agricultural purposes. West of Parr’s ridge in the Piedmont the coastal plain and the Piedmont plateau, is a zone in which a principal soils are those the character of which is determined descent of about 100 ft. or more is made in many places within a either by decomposed red sandstone or by decomposed limestone. few miles, and in consequence is marked by waterfalls and rapids. In the east portion of the mountainous region the soil, so well The part of Maryland within the Piedmont plateau extends west adapted to peach culture, contains much clay together with parfrom the fall line to the base of Catoctin mountain, or the west ticles of Cambrian sandstone. In the Hagerstown valley are rich border of Frederick county, and has an area of about 2,500 square red or yellow limestone-clay soils. The Alleghany ridges have only miles. In general it has a broad rolling surface. It is divided into a thin stony soil but good limestone, sandstone, shale and alluvial two sections by an elevated strip known as Parr’s ridge, which soils occur in the valleys and in some of the plateaux of the extends from north-east to south-west a short distance west of the extreme west. Government.—The present State Constitution was adopted in middle. The east section rises from about 450 ft. along the fall line to from 850 to goo ft. along the summit of Parr’s ridge. Its 1867 and has been frequently amended, this requiring merely a principal streams are those that cross the western shore of the three-fifths vote of all of the members elected to each of the two Coastal plain and here wind their way from Parr’s ridge rapidly houses of the general assembly, followed by a majority of the toward the south-east in narrow steep-sided gorges and broad votes cast when submitted to the State electorate. It is further limestone valleys. To the west of Parr’s ridge the surface for the provided that once in 20 years, beginning with 1930, the wish of most part slopes gently down to the east bank of the Monocacy the people in regard to calling a convention for altering the Conriver, and then from the opposite bank rises rapidly toward stitution shall be ascertained by a poll. The law provides for the Catoctin mountain; but just above the mouth of the Monocacy direct primary elections. on the east side of the valley is Sugar Loaf mountain (1,250 feet). The chief executive authority is vested in a governor elected by The portion of the State lying within the Appalachian region is popular vote for a term of four years. Since becoming a State commonly known as western Maryland. To the eastward it Maryland has had no lieutenant-governor except from 1864 to abounds in mountains and valleys, but in the extreme western por- 1867. The office of governor is to be filled in the case of a vacancy tion is a rolling plateau. West of Catoctin mountain (1,800 ft.) by such person as the general assembly may elect; the president

í a

dii

is Middletown valley with Catoctin creek running through it from north to south and the Blue Ridge mountains (2,400 ft.), near the Pennsylvania border, forming its west slope.

Farther west the

serrated crests of the Blue Ridge overlook the Greater Appalachian valley, here 73 m. in width, the broad gently-rolling slopes of the Great Cumberland or Hagerstown valley occupying its eastern and the Appalachian ridges its western portion. Through the east-

of the senate serving as governor in the meanwhile. No veto power whatever was given to the governor until 1867, when, in the present Constitution, it was provided that no bill vetoed by him should become a law unless passed over his veto by a three-fifths vote of the members elected to each house. In 1922, in consequence of a plan prepared by Governor Albert C. Ritchie, the administrative branch of the State Government

MARYLAND was completely reorganized by consolidating more than 80 State agencies, according to their functions, into 18 major departments

and commissions. This reorganization plan has saved several hundred thousand dollars annually in the operation of the government

of the State and the various local subdivisions thereof. A merit system was established for the selection of State employees and in 1926 85% of all State employees were in the classified service. The legislature, or general assembly, meets biennially, on the first Wednesday in January in odd-numbered years, at Annapolis, and consists of a senate and a house of delegates. Senators are elected, one from each of the 23 counties and one from each of the six legislative districts of the city of Baltimore, for a term of four years, the terms of one-half expiring every two years. Delegates are elected for a term of four years. The administration of justice is entrusted to a court of appeals, circuit courts, special courts for the city of Baltimore, orphans’ courts and justices of the peace. Exclusive of the city of Baltimore, the State is divided into seven judicial circuits, in each of which are elected for a term of 15 years one chief judge and two associate judges, excepting the third judicial circuit which elects one chief judge and three associate judges. The seven chief judges so elected, together with one elected from the city of Baltimore, constitute the court of appeals, the governor with the advice and consent of the senate designating one of the eight as chief judge of that court. The court has appellate jurisdiction only. Finance.—Maryland was one of the first States in the Union to adopt the executive budget to control its finances. A constitutional amendment providing for such a fiscal plan was adopted in 1916. The governor prepares the budget and submits it in the form of a budget bill to the legislature. The legislature can reduce or eliminate appropriation items, but cannot increase them. The bill, when passed by the legislature, fixes appropriations, and becomes a law without’the approval of the governor. The comptroller’s report for the year ended Sept. 30, 1927, showed receipts $32,270,056, disbursements $32,057,479, and a

3

asylums, $2,256,943; and for the general government, $1,336,329. Population.—The population of Maryland at certain selected censuses was as follows: 319,728 in 1790; 341,548 in 1800; 447,040 in 1830; 687,049 In 1860; 934,943 in 1880; 1,042,390 in 1890; 1,188,044 in 1900; 1,449,661 in 1920; and 1,631,526 in 1930. Of the total population of the State in 1920 there were 1,204,737

GRAPH OF GROWTH OF POPULATION IN MARYLAND, 1790~1920, SHOWING RELATIVE PROPORTIONS OF NEGRO AND WHITE AT EACH CENSUS

whites, 244,479 negroes and 445 of all other races. Of the whites, 102,177 or 8-5% were foreign-born. The population of those cities in Maryland having in 1930 more than 12,000 inhabitants was as follows:

Baltimore . Cumberland Hagerstown Annapolis . Frederick .

. .

1930

1920

LQIO

804,874 37,747 30,861 12,531 14,434

733,826 20,837 28,064 11,214 11,066

558,485 21,839 16,507 8,609 10,411

The Roman Catholic Church, which was prominent in the early history of Maryland, has the greatest membership. Other denominations in the order of their numerical strength are: Methodist Episcopal; Protestant Episcopal; Lutheran, General Synod; Baptist; Methodist Protestant; and Presbyterian. Charities and Corrections.—State institutions controlled by boards appointed by the governor comprise two penal institutions, a training school for boys and another for girls, one for feeble-minded and one for the deaf; three hospitals for white insane and one for coloured; two general hospitals and four tubercular hospitals, three for white and one for coloured. The Stateaided institutions include a school and workshop for the blind, reformatories for coloured boys and girls, tuberculosis sanatoria, homes for children and the aged, schools, colleges and hospitals.

Education.—A

ee

an

oes

Ye

Te ners ae

THE STATE CAPITOL

AT ANNAPOLIS

balance in the treasury of $7,741,655. The net debt after deducting the sinking fund was $22,288,270. The chief sources of revenue, other than bonds, were: a general direct property tax; the motor licence fees; a motor vehicle fuel tax; a tax on the gross receipts of corporations; an inheritance tax; traders’ licences; and franchises’ on ordinary business corporations. The main expenditures in the order of their importance were: payments on the public debt, $7,115,371; highway maintenance, $4,898,010; education, $4,382,721; maintenance of hospitals, homes and

completely revised code of school laws was

passed by the legislature of 1916, supplanting the common-school system established by the act of 1865. At the head of the educational system is a State board of seven lay members appointed by the governor. This board elects the State superintendent for a term of four years. The State’s population between the ages of 5 and 17, inclusive, was 388,462 in 1926. In 1927, the enrolment in the public schools was 267,831. Expenditures for public elementary and secondary education in 1927 amounted to $23,048,000. The University of Maryland was formed in 1920 by an act of the legislature merging the University of Maryland, comprising the schools of law, medicine, pharmacy and dentistry at Baltimore, the Maryland State college, formerly known as Maryland Agricultural college, at College Park, and the eastern branch of the university, for coloured students, at Princess Anne. The State board of agriculture and the State horticultural department are also connected with the university. Johns Hopkins university (q.v.), Baltimore, which was established from a fund of nearly $7,000,000 left by Johns Hopkins,

MARYLAND

4.

upon his death in 1873, for the purpose of founding a university follows: oysters, 4,252,860 bu., valued at $3,255,507; crabs, hard and a hospital, is one of the leading educational institutions of the and soft, 9,646,361 lb. valued at $567,783; shad, 1,260,152 1b., United States. Other institutions of higher learning in the State, valued at $264,388; striped bass, 1,413,999 lb., valued at $240,388. Garrett, Allegany and western Washington counties furnish with the names of such religious bodies as were originally responsible for them, are: St. John’s college, at Annapolis; Wash- the home for the wild turkey, white-tailed deer and the ruffed ington college, at Chestertown; Western Maryland college (Metho- grouse. Bob-white quail, cottontail rabbit and the gray squirrel dist Protestant), at Westminster; Blue Ridge College (Church are found in every county. On the Chesapeake bay and its tribuof the Brethren), at New Windsor; Mount St. Joseph’s and Mount taries practically every species of wild duck that migrates east St. Mary’s college (Roman Catholic), at Emmitsburg; St. Mary’s of the Mississippi river is to be found. Forests.—Maryland’s forest resources consist of 2,228,000 ac. seminary and Loyola college (Roman Catholic), at Baltimore; Hood college (Reformed Church), at Frederick; Goucher college of woodland, or nearly 35% of the total land area of the State. (Methodist), at Baltimore; the U.S. Naval academy, at Annapo- Less than 2% of this area is virgin forests,—practically all of the lis; Morgan college (coloured Methodist), at Baltimore; and woodlands having been cut over one or more times. The lumber several professional schools, mostly in Baltimore. Other institu- production for the year 1925, from the 723 mills, most of them of tions of an educative character in Baltimore are Peabody Con- the small portable type, was 129,138,000 board feet. servatory of Music (established in 1866); Maryland Institute for There are over 150 different species of trees, most of them of the Promotion of Fine and Mechanic Arts; and Enoch Pratt free commercial importance, embracing the yellow pine, cypress, cedar library (established 1886). and red gum in the south-western part of the State, and spruce, Public Health.—The State board of health of eight members white pine, hemlock, beech, birch and maple in the mountains. consists of the attorney general of the State, health commissioner The State maintains a forestry department, whose chief funcof Baltimore and six members appointed by the governor, with tions are to provide a system of forest protection; give assistance the consent of the senate. Of those appointed by the governor, to woodland owners in the management of their forest properties; four are physicians, one a civil engineer and one a certified phar- administer the six State forests (about 5,000 ac.) and the State macist. The governor designates one of the four physicians as forest nursery; and care for trees along all public highways. chairman who thereby becomes director of health. The gross Minerals.—Maryland ranked 13th among the States of the death rate for the State in 1927 was 13-51 per 1,000. Union in the total value of mineral products in 1926. In that year, Agriculture—Agriculture is an important industry in Mary- the product of all mines and quarries in the State was $24,067,000. land, and statistics show that the average yields of all the staple The principal products in the order of their value were coal, crops have increased. There has also been a tendency towards clay products, cement, sand, gravel and stone. The coal-producing smaller sized farms, cultivated more intensively for the produc- area is confined to the counties of Allegany and Garrett. There tion of food for human consumption, such as vegetables, fruits, are five or six workable seams of coal, the most important being dairy products, butter, eggs and meats. The soils and climate of the Big Vein which is correlated with the Pittsburgh coal of Maryland are well suited to this class of products, and there western Pennsylvania. are good transportation facilities for reaching the big centres of Maryland building stone, of which there is an abundance of population in the eastern States. good quality, consists chiefly of granites, limestones, slates, marble The land area of the State is 6,362,240 ac., of which 4,433,398 and sandstones, the greater part of which is quarried in the east is in farms. This is divided into 49,001 farms; 73-6% of these section of the Piedmont plateau though some limestones, including are operated by the owners. White farmers operated 42,280 farms those from which hydraulic cement is manufactured, and some and coloured farmers 6,721. The total value placed on all farm sandstones are obtained from the western part of the Piedmont property within the State in 1925 was $397,092,000, plateau and the east section of the Appalachian region. Brick, The following table presents some detailed figures concerning potter’s and tile clays are obtained most largely along the west the principal agricultural products for the year 1927: border of the coastal plain, and fire clay from the coal region Acreage

Wheat Indian Oats Hay

. corn. . . .

.

Tobacco . . Tomatoes (fresh)

i (commercial) Peas, canning Strawberries

.{|

Production

Value

525,000 9,188,000 bu, 515,000 | 22,660,000 ,, 51,000 1,708,000 ,, 446,000 728,000 tons

$11,669,000 18,128,000 922,000 TI,204,000 4,973,000 886,000

34,410 151,400 tons 8,000 II,200 ,, 12,780 | 28,666,000 at.

2,162,000 672,000 3,440,000

32,000 | 26,176,000 lb. 7,050 1,107,000 þu.

The value of all live stock on Jan. 1, 1928, was $37,000,000, dairy cattle being the most numerous. The total value of dairy

products ‘produced in 1924 was $13,408,598,

The live stock, wheat and Indian corn sections of the State are in the Piedmont plateau, the Hagerstown valley and the central portion of the eastern shore. Garrett county, in the extreme north-west, however, raises the largest number of sheep. Most of the tobacco is grown in the southern counties of the western shore. The great centre for vegetables and small fruit is in the counties bordering on the north-west shore of the Chesa-

of western Maryland. Materials for porcelain, including flint, feldspar and kaolin, are found in the east portion of the Piedmont plateau. Transportation.—There are 2,700 m. of modern roadway all of which are maintained in excellent condition throughout the year. In 1927, 106 m. of new construction was completed and in addition go m. of concrete shoulders were laid adjacent to existing roadway. Tidewater Maryland is afforded very unusual facilities of water transportation by thé Chesapeake bay, with its deep channel,

numerous deep inlets and navigable tributaries, together with the

Chesapeake and Delaware canal, which crosses the State of Delaware and connects the Chesapeake bay with the Delaware bay. Baltimore (q.v.), was the second foreign trade port of the United States in 1926. It also has a great inter-coastal traffic,

especially with the Pacific ports. Baltimore is the railway centre of the State, and it was here in Feb. 1827 that the Baltimore and Ohio, one of the first railroads in the United States, was projected. In 1927, in Maryland there were 1,518 m. of steam and 639 m. of electric railway.

Manufacturing.—Manufacturing is by far the State’s chief

industry and is constantly increasing in importance. The number peake, and in Howard, Frederick and Washington counties. of persons engaged in manufacturing in 1925 was 125,787, or Sea Foods and Game.—The conservation department has full 8-2% of the total population, The total value of manufactures supervision and control over all the natural resources of the in 1914 was $377,749,078, and in 1925 it was $926,251,640. Of State, including oysters, crabs, fish, clams and terrapin, as well the 1925 production, $678,947,199, or 73-3%, was the. product as wild fowl, birds and game. In 1925, 11,680 persons were of Baltimore plants alone. In the period 1914-25, the value of engaged in the fishing industry, using equipment valued at Maryland’s manufactures advanced 145.2%. The following table $3,431,591. The production in that year was 56,077,985 Ib., shows the value of the products of the leading industries in valued at $4,863,419, the chief products being distributed as 1925, with the two exceptions noted:

MARYLAND Products

Value

Men’sclothing . . . . |. , Iron and steel, steel works and roller mills . Slaughtering and meat packing .

Petroleum refining. . . . . . Canning and preserving fruit and vegetables

Fertilizers

er

Printing and publishing

i

s

a

u

$57,705,043

42,285,879"

, . S

Tinware . T N S de. eS Car and general shop construction and repairs, forsteamrailways . . . . . .,

38,425,638 34,844,903* 32,678,257 28,150,127 28,066,318 27,120,481

5

law, was composed entirely of the representatives of the freeman, and annual sessions as well as triennial elections were becoming usual. In 1670 the governor, Charles Calvert, sought to check growing opposition to his policy by disfranchising all freeman who did not have a freehold of 50 ac. or a visible estate of £40 sterling. This step caused impassioned complaints against him in

which it was alleged that he was interfering in elections and keeping the government in the hands of Roman Catholics, mostly

members of his own family. About this time also the northern and eastern boundaries of the province began to suffer from 26,407,348 the encroachments of William Penn. The territory now formFoundry and machine-shop products . 23,257,362 ing the State of Delaware was within the limits defined by the *1923 figures; corresponding figures for 1925 are not available. Maryland charter, but in 1682 it was transferred to Penn by the Baltimore’s industries are widely diversified with no single Duke of York, and in 1685 Lord Baltimore’s claim to it was line employing over 10% of the city’s industrial workers. There denied by an order in council on the ground that it had been inare 26 classifications, each of which employs over 1,000 men. habited by Christians before the Maryland grant was made. Later a controversy over the northern boundary arose. Although HISTORY Cecil Calvert’s patent specified the parallel of 40° N. as the In the year 1632 King Charles I. granted a charter to George northern boundary of his grant, Penn’s charter set forth that Calvert, first Lord Baltimore (c. 1580-1632), conveying to Pennsylvania should extend southward to the “beginning of the him almost unlimited territorial and governmental rights in a fortieth degree of Northern Latitude.” A difference of interpretract of land between the Potomac river and the goth parallel, tation of this expression led to much litigation which was not and styling him absolute lord and proprietor thereof. Subsequent settled until Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon, English matheclauses of the charter so circumscribed the proprietor’s power maticians, between 1763 and 1767, established the line, since that, in effect, it differed little from other colonial patents granted named after them, which followed the parallel 39° 43’ 26.3”. by Charles I. George Calvert died before the charter had passed While the proprietor was absent defending his claim against the Great Seal and, in the same year, the charter was issued to Penn, the English Revolution of 1688 occurred. Owing to the his oldest son, Cecil. In Nov. 1633, two vessels, the “Ark” and the death of a messenger, proclamation of the new monarchs in “Dove,” carrying at least 200 colonists under Leonard Calvert, a Maryland was long delayed and this, together with a rumour of brother of the proprietor, as governor, sailed from Gravesend. a Popish plot to slaughter Protestant colonists, caused the overThey arrived in Maryland late in March of the following year, throw of the proprietary government. In 1692 the Crown, in and the colonists established a settlement on a promontory be- the interests of trade, set up a royal government but permitted tween the Potomac river and the Chesapeake bay. For several the proprietor to retain his territorial rights. Under government years their relations with the Indians were friendly, but eventually by the Crown the Church of England was established. When a the colony suffered severely from Indian wars. More serious Protestant became heir to the proprietorship in 1715, proprietary was the hostility of William Claiborne (c. 1589-1676), secretary government was restored. Roman Catholics were disfranchised. of the Colony of Virginia, who, under a trader’s licence, had The first serious dispute between proprietor and colonists after purchased Kent island in the Chesapeake bay from the Indians the restoration of 1715 concerned the extension of the English and had in 1631 established a settlement there. As a result of statutes to Maryland. The popular chamber of the assembly conClaiborne’s refusal to recognize the jurisdiction of Lord Balti- tended that all such statutes except those expressly excluded exmore over Kent island, in which he was supported by the council tended to the province, and the lord proprietor insisted that of Virginia, an enmity developed between him and Leonard only those in which the dominions were expressly mentioned were Calvert which resulted in a long feud between the Maryland in force there. Other disputes followed; and when France and settlers and Claiborne’s men, marked by continual attacks and England joined in a final struggle for territory in America, a deadreprisals. The Colony enjoyed peace from 1660 until 1688. lock between the two houses of the assembly prevented Maryland The province of Maryland presented an early and successful from responding to urgent appeals from England for help in the example of tolerance toward the religious beliefs of its inhabitants. closing stage of the war. Lord Baltimore was a Roman Catholic, and probably it was his In the years immediately preceding the Declaration of Indeintention that Maryland should be an asylum for persecuted pendence, the practice of self-government became so intensely an members of that body. He deIR ideal of the people of Maryland that on occasion they offered sired Protestant colonists also, La Ae resistance not only to the proprietary, the royal governor, parliahowever, and to this end promte ment and the king, but also to what they considered the unwarised and, so far as he could, rantable encroachments of the Continental Congress. Maryland established and enforced rewas not, however, actually invaded or physically oppressed by ligious toleration in its full the British, and probably for that reason the instructions to her sense. With the growth of a delegates to the Continental Congress, bidding them not to vote Puritan party in the province, for independence, were left unchanged until the Colony found fearing that he would soon itself almost alone in holding back. The new Constitution drawn lose control of affairs, he pro- BY COURTESY OF MARKEN & BIELFELD, INC. and adopted in 1776 to replace the royal charter was far from posed to the assembly the famous OLD HOUSE IN FREDERICK, MD., democratic in character. By its provisions the property qualificaact concerning religion which was LOCALLY KNOWN AS WASHING- tion for suffrage was a freehold of 50 ac. or £30 current money; passed in 1649. It extended TON’S HEADQUARTERS the property qualifications for delegates £500, for senators £1,000, tolerance and protection only to bodies professing trinitarian and for governor £5,000. Four delegates were chosen from each Christianity, and was thus somewhat less liberal than the policy county and two each from Annapolis and Baltimore. In 1802 which the proprietor had earlier pursued. negroes were enfranchised. In 1810 property qualifications for Although the charter reserved to the proprietor the right of suffrage were abolished. With the growth of the city of Balticalling an assembly of the freeman or their delegates when and more, the prevailing disproportionate representation began to be as he-should choose, the colonists obtained from him in 1638 attacked, but the slave-holding minority in the counties of souththe surrender of his claim to the sole right of initiating legislation. ern Maryland, fearing the attitude of the majority toward slavery, This is one of the most striking examples of the effort to secure prevented any change until 1837. In that year the enthusiasm local self-government shown in any of the 13 Colonies. By 1650 oyer internal improvements enabled the opposition to obtain the

the assembly had been divided into two houses. One of these, the consent of which was necessary before a bill might become

adoption of amendments which provided for the election of the governor and senators by direct vote of the people, a slight

6

MARYLEBONE—MARY

increase in the representation accorded the city of Baltimore and the larger counties, and a slight decrease in that of the less populous. Serious financial straits caused by debt incurred through the State’s promotion of internal improvements caused a demand for the limitation of the power of the assembly to contract debts. The result was the Constitution of 1851 which established proportional representation for the counties and increased the number of delegates from Baltimore. This was, however, an unsatisfactory compromise. When, during the Civil War, Maryland was

largely under Federal control and a demand arose for the abolition of slavery by the State, a constitutional convention held in 1864 framed a Constitution disfranchising all those who had given aid to the rebellion, and allowing only those possessing the suffrage under the proposed instrument to vote on its adoption. This was too ill-considered to endure, and in 1867 it was superseded by the present Constitution. In national affairs Maryland, at an early date, took a stand which had far-reaching consequences. Her delegates refused to sign the Articles of Confederation until the States claiming territory between the Allegheny mountains and the Mississippi and north of the Ohio—Virginia, New York, Massachusetts and Connecticut—should surrender their claims. Her opposition caused those States to yield, and strengthened the Union because it brought into the possession of the United States the first territory in which all the States had a common interest and out of which new States could be created. In the War of 1812 Havre de Grace and Frenchtown were burned by the British, but Baltimore was successfully defended at North Point against a formidable attack

by a British army, and a strong British fleet failed to reduce Fort McHenry after a bombardment of 24 hours. The latter event inspired Francis Scott Key, who was detained aboard a British vessel, to compose “The Star-Spangled Banner.” In 186r Maryland was divided on the question of secession, the southern and eastern parts generally favouring the cause of the seceding States; but the majority in the northern and western counties, as well as the fact that the State lay north of Washington and quickly came under the control of the Federal Government, kept the State from joining the Confederacy. Maryland was, however, opposed to coercing the seceded States. Maryland was twice invaded by Southern armies, but the only battle of importance fought on her soil was that of Antietam or Sharpsburg on Sept. 16 and 17, 1862. Since the Civil War, the State’s history is a record of quiet but steady progress. A boundary dispute of more than 200 years duration was settled in 1879 when Maryland and Virginia agreed to accept the award of a commission of arbitrators. Possibly the greatest disaster that ever befell the State occurred in Feb. 1904, when a fire destroyed the business district of Baltimore, burning more than 1,300 buildings in the heart of the city. But a new and modernized city soon appeared. The State was in the forefront of World War activities, from the time the United States declared war on April 6, 1917. The total contribution by the State to the military and naval forces of the United States was about 63,000: approximately 52,000 to the army, 10,000 to the navy and 1,200 to the marine corps. As between political parties, from 1820 to 1860 the Whigs were generally a trifle stronger; but from 1866 until the present the Democrats have always controlled the State, except for two administrations, although recently it has voted Republican occasionally on national issues. i BIBLIOGRAPHY .——One of the latest historical and biographical works dealing with Maryland'is The Tercentenary History of Maryland

(1925), by M. P. Andrews. .A concise history of the State is J. M. Gambrill’s Leading Events of Maryland History (revised r917). Other works dealing with history in general or with special topics are: F. S. Adams, Taxation in Maryland, Johns Hopkins University Studies (1900), an historical account of the sources of the State’s revenue and the administration of its taxing system; A. V. Bryan, History of State Banking in Maryland, Johns Hopkins University Studies (1899), a careful study of the State’s experience with banks from, 1790 to 1864; J.L. Bozman, History of Maryland from 1633 to 1660 (1837), a compilation of much of the more important material relating to the early history of the province; J. V. L. McMahon, An Historical View of the Government of Maryland from its Colonization to the Present: Day (1833), an able treatment of the subject by a learned jurist; J. T.

OF LORRAINE

Scharf, History of Maryland (1879), the most extensive general history of the State, but containing numerous errors and poorly arranged; W. H. Browne, Maryland: the History of a Palatinate (1884 and 1895), an excellent outline of the colonial history; N. D. Mereness, Maryland as a Proprietary Province (1901), a constitutional history of the province in the light of its industrial and social development, with a bibli-

ography; and B. C. Steiner, Maryland during the English Civil War (1906-07), one of the Johns Hopkins University Studies. Two able

articles with valuable critical essays on sources are found in the volumes of J. Winsor’s Narrative and Critical History of America; the first by W. T. Bantly, “The English in Maryland, 1632~1691” in vol. iii., and

the second by J. Winsor, “Maryland and Virginia” in vol. v. Source

material is found in the Archives of Maryland edit. by W. H. Browne (1883-87); in Revolutionary Records of Maryland by G. M. Brunbough and M. R. Hodges (1924); and in the Annual Reports and Publications of the Maryland Historical Society.

The best source of ready information respecting the State’s officials and governmental organization is The Maryland Manual, A Compendium of Legal, Historical and Statistical Information (yearly). Other sources are the Annotated Code of Public Civil Law; the Industrial Directory of the State board of labour and statistics; and the

reports of the State board of education, the treasurer and the public utility commission. The Fourteenth United States Census, the 1925

Census of Manufactures and the 1925 Census of Agriculture contain statistical information regarding the State. The physical features and economic sources are treated in the Publications of the Maryland Geological Survey (1897 et seq.). In the latter are also historical studies of the Baltimore-Penn controversy leading to the Mason & Dixon line. See also Old Maps and Map Makers and County Boundaries by E. B. Mathews. (A. C. R.)

MARYLEBONE, ST., commonly MARYLEBONE (méa’ribön), a north-western metropolitan borough of London, bounded north by Hampstead, east by St. Pancras and Holborn, south by the City of Westminster and west by Paddington. Pop. (1931) 97,620. The boundary runs along Oxford Street, on the south, crossing Regent Street at Oxford Circus, and Edgware Road on the west; Marylebone Road crosses from east to west. St. Marylebone was in the manor of Tyburn, which takes name from the Tyburn, a stream which flowed south to the Thames through the centre of the present borough. The church was called St. Mary at the Bourne. The name Tyburn (g.v.) was notorious chiefly as applied to the gallows which stood near the existing junction of Edgware Road and Oxford Street (Marble Arch). The manor at the Domesday Survey was in the possession of the nunnery at Barking, but the borough includes several estates, such as the manor of Lyllestone in the west, the name of which is preserved in Lisson Grove. From 1738 to 1776 Marylebone Gardens (which had existed under other names from the close of the 17th century) became one of the most favoured evening resorts in London. They extended east of High Street as far as Harley Street, but by 1778 the ground was being built over. The borough includes almost the whole of Regent’s Park, with a portion of Primrose Hill north of it. The park, originally Marylebone Park, was enclosed by James I., and received its modern name from the Prince Regent, afterwards George IV. It contains the Zoological Gardens. Here are also the gardens of the Royal Botanic Society, incorporated in 1839. The Toxophilite Society, founded in 1781, has also occupied grounds here since 1883. Another famous enclosure is Lord’s Cricket Ground, St. John’s Wood Road. Marylebone station is a terminus of the L.N.E.R. The borough returns one member to parliament. Area 1,473 acres.

MARY OF LORRAINE

(1515-1560), generally known as

Mary oF GUISE, queen of James V. and afterwards regent of Scotland, was born at Bar on Nov. 22, 1515. She was the eldest child of Claude of Guise and Antoinette of Bourbon, and married in 1534 Louis II. of Orleans, duke of Longueville, to whom in 1535

she bore a son, Francis (d. 1551). The duke died in 1537, and Mary was sought in marriage by James V., and by Henry VIII. after the death of Jane Seymour. Henry persisted in his offers

after her betrothal to James V. Mary, who was made by adoption a daughter of France, married James at St. Andrews.

Her two

sons, James (b. May 1540) and Robert or Arthur (b. April 1542), died within a few days of one another in April 1541, and her husband died in Dec. 1542, within a week of the birth of his heiress, Mary, Queen of Scots. The regency fell to the heir presumptive James, earl of Arran, who favoured England and the Protestant party, and who hoped to secure the infant princess for his son.

MARY

OF MODENA—MASACCIO

Mary of Lorraine was approached by the English commissioner, Sir Ralph Sadler, to induce her to further her daughter’s marriage contract with Edward VI. The marriage treaty between Mary, not then one year old, and Edward was signed in July at Greenwich, and guaranteed that Mary should be placed in Henry’s keeping when she was ten. (See Mary Queen oF Scots.) In 1550 Mary of Lorraine visited France and obtained from Henry II. the confirmation of the dukedom and revenues of

Chatelherault for the earl of Arran, in the hope of inducing him to resign the regency. Arran refused to relinquish the regency until 1554, when he resigned after receiving an assurance of his rights to the succession. Mary had now to deal with an empty exchequer and with a strong opposition to her daughter’s marriage with the dauphin. The first revolt against her authority arose from an attempt to establish a standing army. When she provoked a war with England in 1557 the nobles refused to cross the border. In matters of religion she tried to hold the balance between the Catholics and Protestants and allowed the Presbyterians the practice of their religion so long as they refrained from public preachings in Edinburgh and Leith, but the marriage of Francis II. and her daughter Mary in 1558 strengthened her position, and in 1559 she adopted the religious policy of her relatives, the Guises. She was reconciled with Archbishop Hamilton, and took up arms against the Protestants of Perth, who, incited by Knox, had destroyed the Charterhouse with the royal tombs. They submitted on condition that no foreign garrison was imposed on Perth and that the religious questions should be brought before the Scottish parliament. Mary of Lorraine broke the spirit of this agreement by garrisoning Perth with Scottish troops in the pay of France. The lords of the Congregation soon assembled in considerable force on Cupar Muir. Mary retreated to Edinburgh and thence to Dunbar, while Edinburgh opened its gates to the reformers, who issued

a proclamation (Oct. 21, 1559) claiming that the regent was deposed. The lords of the Congregation sought help from Elizabeth, while the regent had recourse to France. The strength of her opponents was increased by the defection of Chatelherault and his son Arran, and by the betrayal of her plans by her secretary Maitland to the lords of the Congregation. In Oct. 1559 they made an unsuccessful attack on Leith. Mary entered Edinburgh and conducted a campaign in Fife. When an English army under Lord Grey entered Scotland in March 1560, the regent received an asylum in Edinburgh castle, which was held strictly neutral by John Erskine. Before her death

(June 11, 1560) Mary sent for the lords of the Congregation, with whom she pleaded for the maintenance of the French alliance. She was buried in the church of the nunnery of St. Peter at Reims.

7

on June 28, 1692. When her husband died on Sept. 6, 1701, she induced King Louis to recognize her son as king of England, an act which precipitated the war of the Spanish Succession. Surviving her husband for 17 years, Mary lived at St. Germain or at Chaillot, in a house of the Visitation, where she eventually died on May 7, 1718. See Miss Strickland, Queens of England (vols. 9 and 1o, 1846) ; Campana di Cavelli, Les Derniers Stuarts à Saint-Germain en-Laye (London, 1871) ; and M. Haile Mary of Modena (1903).

MARYPORT,

a market town and seaport in Cumberland,

England, 25 m. W.S.W. of Carlisle, on the railway. Pop. of urban district '(1931) 10,182. It is built on the shore of the Irish sea, at the mouth of the river Ellen. Before the harbour was built there in 1750 Maryport consisted of a few huts. In 1892 Maryport became an independent port with Workington, Whitehaven and Millom subordinate to it. On the hili north of the town is the Roman fort of Uxellodunum.

MARYSVILLE,

a city of north-central California, U.S.A.,

on the Yuba river, near its confluence with the Feather, 47 m. N. of Sacramento; the county seat of Yuba county. It is served by the Sacramento Northern (electric), the Southern Pacific and the Western Pacific railways, and by auto-stage and motor-truck lines. Pop. 5,461 in 1920; in 1930, 5,763 by Federal census. A mile west is Yuba City (pop. in 1928 estimated at 3,400), the county seat of Sutter county. Marysville is the commercial, educational and social centre of a productive fruit-growing region, specializing in clingstone peaches, pears, prunes and grapes. Settlement dates from 1842, when Theodore Cordua leased from Gen. John A. Sutter the present site of Marysville and established a trading post. In the days of ’49 it became an important town, as it was at the head of river traffic to the mines and on the trail running north and south through the Sacramento valley. For several years 30 or 40 stages arrived and departed daily, and large pack trains carried supplies into the mountains. The present name was adopted in 1850, in honour of the wife of one of the settlers.

MARYVILLE, a city of north-western Missouri, U.S.A., on Federal highway 71, and served by the Burlington and the Wabash railways; the county seat and commercial centre of Nodaway county and the seat of the North-west Missouri State Teachers college.

Pop. 4,711 in 1920; and 5,217 in 1930.

The city was

settled in 1845 and incorporated in 1856. Since rọrọ it has had a cOmmission-manager form of government.

MASACCIO, properly Tomaso Gumi (1401-c. 1428) Floren-

tine painter, born on Dec. 21, 1401, at Castel S. Giovanni di Val d’Arno, near Florence, son of a notary of the family of the Scheggia, was nicknamed Masaccio (for Tomasaccio) on account of his The chief sources for her history are the Calendar of State Papers careless habits. In 1422 he was enrolled in the guild of Speziali, or for the reigns of Henry VIII. and Edward VI. in the Rolls Series; druggists, to which painters belonged, and in 1424 in the guild of A. Teulet, Papiers d'état . . . relatifs à Phistoire de ’Ecosse au XVI siècle (3 vols., 1851), for the Bannatyne club; Hamilton Papers, ed. St. Luke. He was one of the great pioneers of the Italian RenaisJ. Bain (2 vols., 1890-99); Calendar of State Papers relating to sance who did for painting what Donatello had done for sculpture Scotland and Mary Queen of Scots, 1547-1603 (2 vols., 1898-1900), and Brunelleschi for architecture. etc. The Life in Miss Strickland’s Queens of Scotland (vols. i-ii.) is With the work of Masaccio began the search for the rendering based on original documents. Miss M. Wood has edited The Foreign Correspondence with Marie de Lorraine, Queen of Scotland (2 vols., of three dimensional space and for the placing therein of figures 1923 and 1925) and Miss A. I. Cameron has edited The Scottish plastically conceived. The newly-discovered laws of perspective Correspondence of Mary of Lorraine (1927). were applied, the drawing of foreshortened parts was correct, the MARY OF MODENA [Marta Beatrice ANNE MARGARET anatomy of the human body was well understood. According to ISABEL DESTE] (1658-1718), queen of the English king James Vasari, Masaccio owed his artistic education to Masolino, but II., and daughter of Alphonso IV., duke of Modena, and the Masaccio, although he died 20 years before his master, carried the Duchess Laura, of the Roman family Martinozzi, was born at advance In naturalism further. Unfortunately much of his work Modena on Oct. 5, 1658. She was married by proxy to James, has been destroyed, and what remains is often in poor condition. then duke of York, on Sept. 30, 1673, and in November reached His earliest extant works are the “St. Anne, the Virgin and Child,” England where she was regarded as an agent of the pope. During removed from the Church of S. Ambrogio to the Uffizi; and a the Popish Plot, she went abroad with her husband. When her fresco of the “Virgin Enthroned Between Two Saints” in the Orason, James Francis Edward, was born on the roth of June (o.s.) torio of Montemarciano, near his birthplace. On Feb. 19, 1426, he 1688, it was said that the child was not really hers, and that a was commissioned to paint an altarpiece for the Church of the fraud had been perpetrated to secure a Roman Catholic heir. At Carmine at Pisa by the notary, Giuliano di Colino degli Scarzi. the outbreak of the revolution she made the disastrous mistake of This work had disappeared in 1750. It is described by Vasari, and consenting to escape to France (Dec. 10, 1688) with her son. She portions of it have recently been identified. The Berlin museum urged her husband to follow her when it was his manifest interest possesses three pieces of the predella, the “Epiphany,” the “Death to stay in England, and when he went to Ireland she pressed for of the Baptist,” and the “Crucifixion of St. Peter,” also “Four his return. Her daughter, Louisa Maria, was born at St. Germain Saints,” which formed part of the framework and were formerly in +

MASAI—MASARYK

8

the Butler Collection, London. The Museo Civico at Pisa has a tobacco and use snuff. Their weapons are spears (both broad- and “St. Paul,” and at Vienna there is a “St. Andrew,” the Naples mu- narrow-bladed), clubs and a peculiar sword. The Masai are divided into a number of patrilineal, exogamous seum has a “Crucifixion,” the central panel, representing a “Madonna and Child with Angels,” was said by Bereñson to be a pic- clans grouped into four endogamous sections, and inheritance is ture in the possession of Canon Sutton of Brant Broughton, Lin- normally to the eldest son who has to support his father’s wives coln, from whom it was bought for the National Gallery. Masac- and his own brothers and sisters. The system of initiation and age-grades (g.v.) is the basic cio’s once much admired fresco of the Trinity is to be seen in a very damaged condition on the entrance wall of S. Maria Novella feature of Masai social life and has produced a most effective military organization. The tribe is divided at Florence. Originally painted over the altar of St. Ignatius, it into young men or boys and groups of iniwas for a long time covered over with a painting of Vasari, and then brought to light again. The artist’s standard work is in the tiated men who pass through successive Brancacci chapel in the Carmine at Florence. Here Masolino had stages as warriors and elders, differenleft unfinished a series of frescoes which Masaccio was asked to tiated by duties, privileges and details of continue. Six paintings can be ascribed to him with certainty. costume. The centre of political gravity is They represent the “Expulsion from Eden,” an expressive painting with the warrior class and there are no where Eve cries aloud in anguish while Adam covers his face; chiefs. The elders, whose ranks are replen“Peter and the Tribute-Money,” a large and harmonious compoished by time-expired warriors, act as adsition; “Peter and John Healing the Sick”; “Peter Almsgiving”’ visers and with the tribal magician form and “Peter Baptizing”; the “Raising of the King’s Son,” in which the judicial and legislative authority, but the saint and the group on the left are in part by him, the rethe executive authority remains with the mainder being by Filippino Lippi. These frescoes created a sensaJ warriors. The magician (ol-oiboni), a tion; they became the training school of Florentine painters of the hereditary office, is the chief adviser. succeeding generations, of Michelangelo with the rest. Masaccio Religion is a mixture of ancestor-worship did not complete the decoration of the chapel. In 1428 he left for #! and the worship of Emgai, the “sky.” Rome, and was reported dead soon afterwards. (Other members of the group have substi-

BIBLIOGRAPSY.—G, Vasari, Le Vite de put eccellenti Pittori (edit. G. Milanesi; 2nd ed., Florence, 1868; trans. by A. B. Hinds in the Everyman Library, 1927); B. Berenson, The Florentine Painters of the Renaissance (1896; 3rd ed., rev. and enlarged, 1909) ; J. A. Crowe and G. B. Cavacaselle, A History of Painting in Italy, 6 vol. (edit. L. Douglas, etc.; 2nd ed., 1903-14) ; A. H. Lanyard, Tke Brancacci Chapel and Masolino, Masaccio, and Filippino Lippi, published by the Arundel Society (1868) ; A. Schmarsow, Masaccio, der Begründer des klassischen Stils der italienischen Malerei, 5 pts. (Kassel, 1895-1900) ; W. Suida, L’altare di Masaccio gia nel Carmine a Pisa, in PArte, vol. ii. (1906);

E. Somaré, Masaccio (with bibl. and plates, Milan, 1924). (I. A. R.)

MASAI,

The most important members of the Nilo-Hamitic

group are the Masai, Nandi, Keyo, Suk, Turkana, Iteso, Karamojong, Dodoth, Didinga, Topotha and Ajie. While they are, generally speaking, homogeneous the following distinctions have to be noted: x. The Suk and the tribes to the south and east, the Masai, the Nandi and their neighbours, practise circumcision and clitoridectomy, while the tribes north of the Suk do not. 2. The Masai, Turkana and Ajie are nomadic; the Nandi, Keyo and Iteso are sedentary and have adopted agriculture in addition to the pastoral life; the rest are semi-nomadic. The Masai are a tall, well-built, slender people with good features and well-defined noses. The two lower incisors are removed, The heads of the women are shaved, as are the heads of married and of uninitiated men. The warriors wear their hair plaited into queues hanging down the back and over the forehead. The women are scrupulously clothed from girlhood to old-age

with dressed skins and leather petticoats. ||! Beads, metal armlets, necklets and bracelets, are popular with both sexes. BY Their

dwellings

are

of

a peculiar

type,

COURTESY

MUSEUM

OF

OF

THE

NATURAL

AMERICAN HISTORY

long, continuous houses (not more than A GIRL OF THE MERU.

zæ tuted different natural phenomena for ma Engai. The Nandi, for instance, worship :

0:

| Asis, the “sun”:

the Suk, Torotut, the

WUSEUM OfNATURAYAN “thunder”: the Didinga, Tamukujen, the THE SON OF A MERU “rain.’’?) The ancestor cult is associated CHIEF WITH HUNTING with certain trees, notably the fig, and with WEAPONS a reverence for snakes, the python and cobra predominating. These are considered tutelary beings, and at marriage a man is careful to introduce his bride to his tutelary snake. Brstiocrapay.—A. C. Hollis, Tke Masai (1905); M. Merker, Die Masai (1904). (J. H. D.)

MASANIELLO,

an abbreviation

of Tommaso

ANIELLO

(1622-1647), an Amalfi fisherman, who became leader of the revolt against Spanish rule in Naples in 1647. A revolt broke out at Palermo in May 1647, and the people of Naples followed the example of the Sicilians. The immediate occasion of the latter rising was a new tax on fruit, the ordinary food of the poor, and the chief instigator of the movement was Masaniello, who led the malcontents. On July 7, 1647 there was a riot at the city gates between the fruit-vendors of the environs and the customs officers, and the customs office was burnt. The rioters then poured into Naples and forced their way into the palace of the viceroy, the hated Count d’Arcos, who fled. Masaniello was elected “captain-general”; and the revolt was even spreading to the provinces. On July 13, through the mediation of Cardinal Filomarino, archbishop of Naples, a convention was signed between D’Arcos and Masaniello as “leader of the most faithful people of Naples,” by which the rebels were pardoned, the more oppressive taxes removed, and the citizens granted certain rights, including that of remaining in arms until the treaty should have been ratified by the king of Spain. Masaniello was murdered while haranguing a mob in the market-place on July 16, 1647. Masaniello’s insurrection formed the subject of several operas, of which the most famous is Auber’s La Muette de Portici (1828).

6ft. in height) which are built round MASAI TRIBE, IN EAST the inside of a circular thorn fence, AFRICA See Saavedra, Insurreccion de Napoli en 1647 (2 vols. Madrid, They are flat roofed and are divided into separate compartments 1849); A. von Reumont, Die Caraffa von Maddaloni (2 vols., Berlin, for families, each with a door. During their period of service the 1849); Capasso, La Casa e famiglia di Masaniello (Naples, 1893); Spinazzola, Masaniello e la sua famiglia, secondo un codice bolognese warriors, who may not yet marry, live in separate barracks or vil- V. del sec. xvi. (in the review Flegrea, 1900); A. G. Masaniello lages, where they are visited by the unmarried girls, The Masai (in' German) ; E. Bourg, Masaniello (in French); Meissner, F. Palermo, Docu-

keep cattle (of the humped Zebu type), sheep and goats, donkeys and dogs, and the cattle cult is a feature of their culture. Domestic animals are branded with the brand of their owner’s clan. Women and old men eat flour and vegetables in addition to the milk, blood and meat which form the staple diet of the tribe. An intoxicating honey mead is drunk by old men, and all except the warriors smoke g

menti diversi sulle novità accadute in Napoli Panno x647 (in the Archivio storico italiano, 1st series, vol. ix.).

MASARYK, THOMAS GARRIGUE (18s50__), first president of Czechoslovakia, was born on March 7, 1850, in the Moravian border-town Hodonin. His father was a coachman employed on one of the Austrian Imperial estates, a native of Kop-

MASARYK

9

éany in Slovakia (Slovakia then being a part of Hungary); his mother came from a semi-Germanized Czech family of Hustopec, in the Moravian plains. In his boyhood Masaryk was taught Czech and a smattering of German, and was educated at a Czech school in Cejkovice. His parents sent him for two years to the lower German Realschule of Hustopet, with the intention of making him a teacher.

aggressive policy in the Balkans, especially as manifested in the annexation of Bosnia-Hercegovina. In the notorious “high treason” trial of Agram (1909), by which the Austrian foreign

apprentice in Vienna, then a blacksmith at Cejé. In 1865 his former schoolmaster induced his parents to resume their first idea of making him a teacher, and in that year Masaryk passed the entrance examination to the second grade of the “gymnasium,”’ and began studying at Brno. He supported himself, as did many poor students, by tutoring. He developed a rebellious disposition, disagreed with some of the dogmas of the Roman Catholic Church and refused to go to confession. As a result he had to leave the gymnasium, and he continued his studies in Vienna, where he graduated first from the gymnasium with honours, then from the university, where in 1879 he became a lecturer in philosophy. He spent a year in Leipzig, where he met his future wife, Charlotte Garrigue, daughter of the president of the Germania Insurance Company of New York. In 1881 he published in German his first great sociological work, Suicide as a Phenomenon of Modern Civilisation. In 1882, when the University of Prague was divided into two parts, the one Czech, the other German, he was appointed to one of the Czech professorships. In 1885 he published his larger work on Concrete Logic. The Forged Mss. and “Realism.”—In 1883 Masaryk founded a critical monthly review The Athenaeum, which soon sprang into prominence by becoming the battle ground on which the famous mss. of Krldové Hradec and Zelen4 (Koeniginhof and Gruenberg) were attacked and proved to be forgeries, manufactured in the early 19th century by two well-meaning men, whose object was to provide texts to prove that in the Middle Ages there had been a high standard of literary culture in Bohemia. The authenticity of the mss. had before been doubted by Slav philologists, but it was not until 1886, when Masaryk invited the great Czech. philologist Gebauer to analyse the mss. philologically, himself analysing them sociologically, that they were conclusively proved to be forgeries. The fight over the mss. was the real beginning of the so-called “realist” revolution in Czech politics, literature and philosophy, the guiding principle of which was the application of the scientific method to letters and politics. While at Prague university, Masaryk founded in 1893 a monthly review Naše Doba (Our Epoch). He became a member and instructor of the “Sokols.” He started lecturing in Prague clubs and societies on unconventional subjects and published unpopular books. His sociological work led him to a study of Marxism, whose historical materialism he criticised in The Social Question (1898, in Czech and in German), Masaryk’s political career started in the early ’eighties. In 1887 his friends founded a fortnightly paper Cas (“Time”), which two years later he took over and transformed into a political weekly. At that time the so-called Old Czech (Conservative) party was losing ground, and Masaryk, invited by the Young Czech (Liberal) party to be a candidate, was elected to parliament in 1891. He soon resigned his seat (1893) to devote himself to a crusade of moral education among the Czech people. ‘Although his opinions on nationalist questions were unpopular —an unpopularity which increased when in 1899 he fearlessly withstood a popular anti-Semitic superstition as manifested in the so-called “ritual murder trial” of a Jew named Hilsner—his ideas made a deep impression. They became the rallying cry of the younger generation not only of the Czechs, but of the Yugoslavs and other Slavs who flocked to Prague. Political Leadership.—tIn 1900 his followers founded a political party which was officially named the “Progressive party,” but which continued popularly to be known as the Realist party. The programme was founded on the principles enunciated in Masaryk’s books. As a candidate of the Realist party he was re-

closures in the Austrian Reichsrat (May 1909) and in the AustroHungarian delegations (1910) forced the proceedings in the Agram trial to be quashed, compelled Friedjung to retract his accusations against the Serbs, and unmasked the methods of Austro-Hungarian diplomacy. Masaryk incurred the intense displeasure of the official and court circles in Vienna, but made a reputation abroad.

The object being abandoned, he became first a locksmith’s

elected to parliament in 1907. In parliament he soon began to criticize Austria’s passive subjection to Germany and her own

minister, Count Aehrenthal, tried to justify his annexation policy, and in the Friedjung trial (1909) which followed, Masaryk played a decisive part. He proved, on the basis of his private investigations, that the case for the Crown rested on documents forged at the Austro-Hungarian Legation in Belgrade. His fearless dis-

Propaganda.—During the World War he developed his case

against Austria-Hungary in detail, and at the end, in his work, Te New Europe, characterized it as a corrupt, imperialist, militarist, pretentious and senseless relic of the middle ages. When the war broke out he was still a member of the Austrian parliament. In

Dec. 1914 he escaped from Austria, and in the following four years conducted a political and propagandist campaign in Switzerland, France, England, Italy, Russia and the United States on behalf of Czechoslovak liberation from Habsburg rule. He founded the propagandist journals La Nation Tchéque, which was

edited in Paris by Ernest Denis, and Ceskoslovenska Samostat-

nost (Czechoslovak Independence), which was produced in the small town of Annemasse in Savoy, and he was one of the original board of Dr. R. W. Seton-Watson’s The New Europe, which was founded in London in 1916. Masaryk’s stand against Austria was publicly proclaimed in his Hus anniversary speech made in Geneva in July 1915, and reaffirmed in his revolutionary manifesto, issued by him with the sanction of the Czech political leaders at home, on Nov. 14, I915. The signatories of that manifesto, who included representatives of Czech residents in France, Great Britain, America and Russia, formed a central revolutionary committee called the Czechoslovak National Council, of which Masaryk acted as president and Benes as secretary. Finding his work in Switzerland hampered by enemy spies, he settled in London, where, at the invitation of Ronald Burrows, principal of King’s college, he joined the staff of that college. Here he worked for two years combating, with the help of his friends, Wickham Steed and R. W. Seton-Watson, the German-Magyar propaganda, and familiarizing Western opinion with Czechoslovak aspirations. The Russian revolution of 1917 enabled him to go to Russia. Several thousand Czech soldiers—prisoners of war—had gone over to the Russians, and wanted to organize themselves into active military units. After some difficulty Masaryk induced the revolutionary Russian Government to agree to the formation and equipment of an independent Czechoslovak army (92,000), whose

exploits as they marched eastwards from Siberia to Vladivostok were one of the impressive later episodes of the war. He transferred some of them to the western front. President.—He went to the United States in May 1918. The result was the Lansing declaration (May 29, 1918) of sympathy with the cause of Czechoslovak and Yugoslav independence. The Allied Governments associated themselves with that declaration on June 3, 1918. The ice being thus broken, the Allied Powers and America recognized Masaryk’s national council as the de facto Government of the future Czechoslovak State. Masaryk was elected first president of the Czechoslovak republic on Nov. 14, 1918, and re-elected on May 27, 1920. He had been sentenced to death in contumaciam, and in 1923 occurred the death of his wife, largely the result of persecution to which the Government had subjected his family. He was elected president for a second term of seven years on May 1, 1927. For his work as president of the Republic from 1918 onwards see CZECHOSLOVAKIA, Masaryk ranks equally high as a philosopher and as a statesman. His philosophical treatises were the result of his study of Czech history. His pronounced realism was a reaction both against

the Teutonic idealism which developed moral speculation with-

IO

MASAYA—MASEFIELD

out reference to the practical affairs of life and against the Tolstoyan Slav philosophy of non-resistance to evil. Masaryk, as

It was laid in ruins by the French under Marshal Clausel and the duke of Orleans in 1835, the amir retreating south. Being re-

occupied by Abd-el-Kader in 1838, Mascara was again captured spiritual and religious take their place with the intellectual and in 1841 by Marshal Bugeaud. the political as aspects of an integral whole. The following are MASCARENE ISLANDS (occasionally Mascarenhas), the the chief of his many philosophical, sociological and political collective title, derived from their discoverer, a Portuguese naviworks:—O Hypnotismu, On Hypnotism (1880); Sebevrazda, Sui- gator Mascarenhas, of a group in the Indian ocean east of Madacide and Modern Civilization (1881, also in German); Theorie gascar, viz., Mauritius, Réunion and Rodriguez (g.v.). Pravdépodobnosti a Humeova Skepse, the Theory of Probability MASCARON, JULES (1634-1703), French preacher, was and Hume’s Scepticism (1882, Ger. trans. 1884); Blaise Pascal the son of a barrister at Aix. Born at Marseilles in 1634, he (1883); Theorie dézin dle zásad T. H. Buckle, the Theory of His- early entered the French Oratory, and obtained a great. reputation tory according to T. H. Buckle (1884); Zakladové Konkretin as a preacher. Paris confirmed the judgment of the provinces; Logiky, Essay on Concrete Logic (1885, Ger. trans. 1886); Slav- in 1666 he was asked to preach before the court, and became a janofilism I. S. Kirejevskeho (1889); Ceská Otázka, the Czech great favourite with Louis XIV., who said that his eloquence was Question (1895); Karel Havlíček (1896); Otázka sociální, flo- one of the few things that never grew old. In 1671 he was apsofické a sociální základy marxismu, The Philosophical and Soci- pointed bishop of Tulle; and in 1679 bishop of Agen. He still ological Foundation of Marxism (1898, also in German); Jan continued, however, to preach regularly at court, being especially Hus (1899); Rusko a Evropa, Russia and Europe (1913, Eng. in request for funeral orations. A panegyric on Turenne, delivered trans. The Spirit of Russia, 19109, etc.); The Problem of the Small in 1675, is considered his masterpiece. Six of his most famous sermons were edited, with a biographical Nations in the European crisis (1916); The New Europe (1918, philosopher, stands for a unified conception of life, in which the

French trans. 1918, Czech 1919, German 1922); Světová Revoluce (1925, German trans. by C. Hoffmann, 1927, Eng. trans., The Making of a State: Memories and Observations 1914-18 [1927]). BrsriocraPHy.—Herben, Sychrava Cisaf, etc., Masaryk Osvoboditel (Prague, 1919); Anon, Thomas G. Masaryk: A Biographical Sketch (1923); Anon, President T. G. Masaryk: His Work as a Constructive Statesman (1923); Edvard Beneš and others, T. G. Masaryk (Prague, 1925); Herben, Hartl, Blaha, T. G. Masaryk: Sa Vie, Sa Politique, Sa Philosophie (Prague, 1923); T. G. Masaryk, The Making of a State; Memoirs and Observations, 1914-18 (Eng. version with introd. by H. W. Steed, 1927). (G. G.)

MASAYA,

an important interior town of Nicaragua, capital

sketch of their author, by the Oratorian Borde in 1704.

MASCART, ELEUTHERE ELIE NICOLAS

(:837~

1908), French physicist, was born on Feb. 20, 1837, near Valenciennes. He was educated at Paris and held the post of professor of physics in the lycées of Metz, Paris and Versailles. In 1872 he succeeded Regnault as professor of physics at the Collége de France, he also became director of the Central Bureau of Meteorology in 1878. Mascart retired in 1907 and died at Paris on Aug. 26, 1908.

His early investigations were on optics; he constructed a quartz

spectrograph and applied photography to the mapping of spectra. Mascart investigated a number of spectra further into the ultra

of the department of the same name. Pop. (1928) about 20,000. Masaya is on the main line of the Pacific railway, 13 m. west violet. He also made determinations of standard wave-lengths. of Granada, and 106 m. from Corinto. Lake Masaya, a crater His memoir on the effect of the proper motion of the earth on lake on whose shore has risen the intermittently active volcano of optical phenomena was awarded the Grand Prix des Sciences the same name, adjoins the town, and round about it is a fertile Mathématiques in 1874. Mascart made a number of determinaregion producing tobacco, beans, rice, maize, sugar and in the tions of electrical units and determined the electro-chemical equivhills, coffee. A branch line of the railway, 27 m. long, connects alent of silver. Mascart was interested in the teaching of pracat Masaya, the terminus being “Los Pueblos,” an important tical electricity and in its application to industry; he acted as adcoffee section. Masaya has a large Indian population. viser to the Government in many matters. He was created a MASCAGNI, PIETRO (1863__), Italian operatic com- Grand Officer of the Legion of Honour, a foreign member of the poser, was born at Leghorn, the son of a baker, and educated for Royal Society, and was awarded many honours. He wrote Eléthe law; but he neglected his legal studies for music, taking secret ments de mécanique (1866), Traité d'électricité statique (1896), lessons at the Instituto Luigi Cherubini. There a symphony by Traité d’optique (vols. i-iv., 1889-93), Legons sur Vélectricité him was performed in 1879, and a kindly uncle helped him to et le magnétisme (with Joubert, 1889), Traité de magnétisme study at the Milan Conservatoire. But Mascagni chafed at the terrestre (1900). discipline, and went off with a touring operatic company. After See obituary notice by Janet in Revue générale de Science, xx. (1909). much hardship he suddenly leapt into fame by the production MASCHERONI, LORENZO (1750-1800), Italian geomat Rome in 18go of his one-act opera Cavalleria Rusticana, to a libretto based on a peasant story by Giovanni Verga (g.v.) con- eter, was professor of mathematics at the University of Pavia. He taining a tuneful “intermezzo,” which became widely popular. published a variety of mathematical works, the best known of which is his Geometria del compasso (Pavia, 1797), a collection Cavalleria Rusticana was performed everywhere. of geometrical constructions in which he uses the compass only, MASCARA, chief town of an arrondissement in the depart- many of the solutions being most ingenious. ment of Oran, Algeria, 60 m. S.E. of Oran. It lies 1,800 ft. above There is a French translation by A. M. Carette (1798), who also the sea, on the southern slope of the mountains of Beni-Chougran, wrote a biography of Mascheroni. See Poggendorff, Biog. Lit. Handand occupies two small hills separated by the Wad Tudman. wörterbuch. Mascara is a town of the French colonial type, few vestiges of the MASCOT, the term for any person, animal or thing supMoorish period remaining. Among the public buildings are two posed to bring luck (Fr. slang: perhaps from Port. mascotto, mosques, in one of which Abd-el-Kader preached the jihad. The “witchcraft”). The word was first popularized by Edmond Auprincipal industry is the making of wine, the white wines of dran through his comic opera La Mascotte (1880), but it had Mascara being held in high repute. There is also a considerable been common in France long before among gamblers. It has trade in grains and oil. A branch railway eight miles long con- been traced back to a dialectic use in Provence and Gascony, nects Mascara with the line from the seaport of Arzew to Ain where it meant something which brought luck to a household. Sefra. Access is also gained by this line to Oran, Algiers, etc. MASDEU, JUAN FRANCISCO DE (1744-1817), SpanThe population is 28,033 of whom 12,822 are Europeans. ish historian and Jesuit. His Historia critica de Espana y de la Mascara (z.¢., “mother of soldiers”) was the capital of a Turkish cultura espanola (1783-1805) is written in a critical spirit and beylik during the Spanish occupation of Oran from the 16th to with a regard for accuracy rare in his time, but its author is more the close of the 18th century; but for the most of that period it concerned with small details than with the philosophy of history. occupied a site about two miles distant from the present position. MASEFIEL _), British poet and novelOn the removal of the bey to Oran its importance rapidly declined; ist, was born inD, JOHN (1878Ledbury and spent his early years in many counand it was an insignificant place when in 1832 Abd-el-Kader, who tries and occupations, serving before the mast at sea, and earning was born in the neighbourhood, chose

it as the seat of his power.

a living as best he could in America. The activity of these years

+

MASKS

MODERN BY

PLATE I

MASKS

WLADYSLAW

T. BENDA

At the top is a naturalistic mask with headdress attached. That at the centre and that to the right are realistic, though representing different types of humanity. The death’s-head mask is typical of the grotesque sort, the treatment of the eye,

In which

a small

glass

globe

is suspended

on

wire

so as

to

allow

it movement

when

the

head

to side, being of special interest. In the lower mask, which is a caricature, the face Is made smaller wearer, necessitating the introduction of eye-holes above the actual eyes. See text-cut figure two

is turned

than

from

that

side

of the

MASERU—MASKS was reflected in his work from the first, as Salt-Water Ballads

(1902) or Ballads (1903) show.

His early novels, Jim Davis

(1911), Captain Margaret (1908) and Multitude and Solitude (1909), were excellent tales of action and spirit, but he found his natural expression in narrative poetry and drama. The Everlasting Mercy made something of a sensation in 191z; it was followed quickly by The Widow in the Bye Sireet (1912); Dauber (1913); and The Daffodil Fields (1913), all narrative poems in a key of stern realism. Meantime Masefield had written two plays, The Tragedy of Nan (1909) and Pompey the Great (1910), the first allied in subject and setting to his long poems of village life,

the second historical in theme.

Lollingdon Downs

(1917) in-

cluded a noteworthy sonnet sequence, and Reynard the Fox (1919) proved one of the most successful of his verse narratives. Here the country life that he knows so well is reflected faithfully and vividly, without the somewhat excessive gloom of Nan and the Everlasting Mercy. The gradual awakening of the village on the morning of the meet, followed by the gathering of the hunt, the stir and movement of horses and hounds, make a picture among the best things he has ever done. Right Royal (1920), a similar poem, is less successful. Later work includes A King’s Daughter, a verse tragedy (1923); Sard Harker, a novel (1924);

The Trial of Jesus, a play (1925); Odtaa (1926) and The Haw-

bucks (1929), novels. He published some able prose War sketches in Gallipoli (1916) and The Old Front Line (1917). He was made poet laureate in May, 1930, as successor of Robert Bridges.

MASERU,

town, the capital of Basutoland and the head-

quarters of the Government, 29° 21’ S., 27° 31’ E., altitude 4,942 feet. Pop. (1921) 399 Europeans, 1,890 natives and 30 other coloured persons.’ It is situated near the Caledon River, most of the houses being built of the local, cream coloured sandstone. It is connected by railway with the South African system. There are several churches, an industrial school, a hospital and a

number of stores. (See BASUTOLAND.) MASHAM, ABIGAIL, Lavy (d. 1734), favourite of Anne,

queen of England, was the daughter of a London merchant, and cousin of Sarah Jennings, duchess of Marlborough, who procured her an appointment in the queen’s household about 1704. The queen’s presence at Abigail’s private marriage to a gentleman of the royal household named Samuel Masham, first led the duchess to suspect that Abigail was supplanting her in the queen’s favour. This suspicion was confirmed in 1710 when the queen compelled Marlborough to give an important command to Colonel John Hill, Abigail’s brother; and when Sunderland, Godolphin, and the other Whig ministers were dismissed from office. In the following year the duchess was also dismissed from her appointment at court, and Abigail became keeper of the privy purse, shortly before her husband was created a peer. Finally, in July 1714, Anne, influenced by Lady Masham, dismissed Oxford from his office of lord high treasurer, and gave the staff to the duke of Shrewsbury. When the queen died on Aug. 1, Lady Masham retired into private life. She died on Dec. 6, 1734. (See ANNE, QUEEN; MARLBOROUGH.)

MASHAM, SAMUEL CUNLIFFE LISTER, ist Baron, cr. 1891 (1815-1906), English inventor, born at Calverley Hall, near Bradford, on Jan. 1, 1815, was the fourth son of Ellis Cunliffe (1774-1853), who successively took the names of Lister and Lister-Kay, and who was the first member of parliament elected for Bradford after the Reform Act of 1832. In 1838 Samuel and his elder brother John started as worsted spinners and manufacturers at Manningham, and he turned his attention to the problem of mechanical wool-combing. Two years of hard work spent in modifying and improving existing devices enabled him to produce a machine which worked well; and he consolidated his position by buying up rival patents, as well as by

II

a pound, though produced from raw material costing only 6d. or is. a pound. Another important and lucrative invention in connection with silk manufacture was his velvet loom for piled fabrics. In 1886 an Albert medal was awarded him for his inventions. He died at Swinton Park on Feb. 2, 1906.

MASHONA: see Karanca. MASKELYNE, NEVIL (1732-1811), English astronomer royal, was born in London, on Oct. 6, 1732. He was educated at Westminster school and Trinity college, Cambridge, where he graduated as seventh wrangler in 1754. He was ordained in 1755, but his interest in astronomy had been aroused by the eclipse of July 25, 1748, and in 1761, on Bradley’s recommendation, he was deputed by the Royal Society to observe the transit of Venus in St. Helena. During the voyage he experimented upon the determination of longitude by the method of “lunars,” and introduced this method into navigation by publishing in 1763 the British Mariner’s Guide. In 1765 he succeeded Bliss as astronomer royal. Maskelyne’s chief aim was the practical improvement of the art of navigation and in 1766 he published the first volume of the Nautical Almanac. He continued the superintendence of this, his greatest work, until his death on Feb. 9, 1811. Maskelyne’s first contribution to astronomical literature was “A Proposal for Discovering the Annual Parallax of Sirius,” published in 1760 (Phil. Trans., li. 889). Subsequent volumes of the same series contained his observations of the transits of Venus (1761 and 1769), on the tides at St. Helena (1762), and on various astronomical phenomena at St. Helena (1764), and at Barbados (1764). In 1772 he suggested to the Royal Society the famous Schehallion experiment for the determination of the earth’s density and carried out his plan in 1774 (Phil. Trans., 1. 495). From Maskelyne’s observations Chas. Hutton deduced a density for the earth 4-5 times that of water (Ib. lxviii. 782). See The Royal Observatory,

account of his life and ‘work.

MASKS,

Greenwich

(1900),

which

gives an

coverings for the face, taking various forms, used

either as a protective screen or as a disguise. In the latter sense masks are mostly associated with the artificial faces worn by actors in dramatic representations (see Drama) or assumed in savage rites for exciting terror. The mask was primarily a ceremonial and religious object, its secular and festival employment being secondary. Man made gods in his own image, but their early, if not their first, dwellings were the bodies of human creatures. Auto-suggestion and drugs were used to secure divine possession and the appearance of the destined individual was made inviting.

Clothes, adornments and,

above all, facial masks were used for this purpose, the latter bearing a special significance in that the countenance was regarded as the most definite symbol of divine intelligence. Masks were employed also to perpetuate the appearance of the living after death and placed upon the mummy, as among the Egyptians, to aid in its revivification. Our own culture is not directly and deeply rooted in primitive conditions, nor was that of the Greeks and Romans from whom we derive the great mass of our literary and artistic traditions. We know the mask as they knew it—as an appliance of the theatre, and as a festal object. As such it exists in Tibet, China, Japan, Burma, Siam, Ceylon and Java, identified with dances and dramatic performances comparable to the miracle plays of mediaeval Europe.

Greece.—Among the Greeks the origin of the mask is looked for in the grotesque jocularities of the Dionysian worship. The drama adopted masks of painted canvas. Owing to the large size

of the Greek theatre, acoustical and optical means had to be applied to convey the words and gestures of the actors to the more distant rows of spectators. One of the latter was the apparent increase of the actor’s size by means of the cothurnus and high masks. The development of the mask into a covering, not only of the face but of the whole head, with side and front hair attached to it, was ascribed to Aeschylus. Openings were left for the mouth and eyes, the latter not being larger than the pupil of

taking out additional ones of his own. In 1855 he was sent a sample of silk waste (the refuse left in reeling silk from the cocoons) and asked whether he could find a way of utilizing the fibre it contained. The task occupied his time for many years and brought him to the verge of bankruptcy, the eye and the former only just wide enough to afford egress to but at last he succeeded in perfecting silk-combing appliances the voice. This was the case at least in tragedy. Comic masks, which enabled him to make yarn that in one year sold for 23s. on the other hand, showed distorted features, and a mouth widely:

MASKS

I2

opened, the lips serving as a kind of speaking trumpet. Several of the manuscripts of the plays of Terence contain illustrations of the masks used by actors. In all cases the mouth appears to be fashioned in the form of a large bivalve shell for the sake of resonance. They were attached to a sort of cap which covered the head. i Among the remains of the Greeks and Romans is a very large and constantly increasing series of artistic representations drawn

inspired by Buddhist priests of the Zen sect and the pleasureloving Shogun Yoshimasa (see NO Drama). One of the oldest masked dances, is the sambasso, said to have originated in a religious performance which took place at N ara in 807 to stop the progress of fissures which suddenly opened in the earth. Masked dances imported from China existed in the Japanese

court from early times under the general name of Bu-gaku, or court dances.

They were executed in the palace or temples; the

performers were court nobles. The music, imported from China, was highly complicated and the masks of very large size. These

dances, which were revived at the beginning of the roth century,

may be regarded as the progenitors of the NO. There are some 250 NO plays, the same masks, of which there are over 100 named varieties, often being used in a number of different plays. Human beings, men and women, gods, demons and animals are represented,

The more ancient, dating from the 12th and 13th centuries, have

FIGS. 1-4.—DIAGRAM SHOWING SIZE IN THE FACES OF MASKS

1. 2. 3. 4.

Mask face Mask face Mask face Horizontal

SOME

OF THE

POSSIBLE

VARIATIONS

OF

slightly larger than that of wearer considerably smaller than wearer’s, vision aperture in hair considerably larger than that of wearer section showing mask with narrower face than that of wearer

from the stage and exhibiting, especially in the comic and satyric

line, every conceivable variety of character.

In some cases these

characters are the same as may be seen in our day, e.g., the punchinello. It would not be fair to the ancients, particularly the Greeks, if we judged their notions of the effect of a mask by our standards. Apart from their employment in the drama, the foremost usage of masks about which there is some certainty is sepulchral. In the tombs opened by Schliemann at Mycenae he found gold masks over the faces of the dead. These could not have been portraits unless they were intended to represent the deceased persons as they looked when dead, for there is a deathlike expression on them and on all other masks hitherto discovered on or beside the faces of the dead in Roman and Greek tombs, Murray suggests they were made with some resemblance to cover the face during the interval between death and interment when relatives and friends were admitted to see the body, or in the case of the Romans when the body was publicly conveyed to the market place previous to combustion. This conjecture is still more applicable in those cases where masks, always with a deathlike expression, are attached to helmets in such a way as to cover the head entirely. The terra-cotta masks occasionally discovered in Creek tombs, which vary in scale and hardly ever attain life size, appear to have been hung up against the walls in the interior of the tomb. Most of them represent a female face which has been taken as intended for Persephone, the goddess of the lower world, and in that case the mask may have been meant to propitiate her, Japan.—Masks are said to have been introduced into Japan from China about the 7th or 8th century, probably in connect ion with Buddhism, and exist there in a greater variety of definite forms than in any other country in the world. The best known and largest number are used in the No, a form of drama which originated in Japan at the beginning of the 14th century and was

hard, strong features and remarkably large noses. Only the principal performers are masked. The actors are all professional, and as there are no women among them the female parts are taken by men. The material of the Nō masks is wood, with a coating of plaster which is lacquered and gilded. The name is generally written inside, often in red. Many bear the name of the carver and fine old specimens are highly valued. In addition to the Nō masks and others of a ritual character, there are a variety of masks used as toys by children, some of the latter, like the fox mask, emanating from shrines where they are sold at festivals. A defensive mask of wrought iron was attached to the helmet. This served not only as a defence, like the visor on the European helmet, but was made fierce in aspect in order to terrify the enemy. Such use of masks, as for example the Gorgon or Medusa’s head, occurs in classical antiquity. Masks were used for this purpose in the decoration of shields, such as the Chinese basket-shield bearing the head of a red-faced monster with long, gleaming teeth, a device which has been traced from China to the Dyaks in Borneo. Tibet.—In Tibet were the sacred dramas illustrating the

former births of Buddha, and similar events are performed by lay actors; a mystery play with manifestations of gods and demons by awe-inspiring masks is performed exclusively by the priests or Lamas at fixed seasons of the year. This play appears to have been a devil-dancing cult for exorcising malignant demons which was given a Buddhistic dress and is still called the “Dance of the Red Tiger Devil,” a deity of the Bon or pre-Buddhistic religions of Tibet. The masks used in this play in Tibet are made of papier mâché and cloth and occasionally of gilt copper. In Sikhim and Bhotan, where wood is abundant and the damp climate destructive, they are carved of durable wood, in all cases fantastically painted, and provided with a wig of yak-tail of different colours. Waddell classes them in five groups: (xr) the king of the ogres, with a hideous mask of huge size with projecting tusks and three eyes; (2) the ten awful ogres and ten ogresses, with a variety of animal masks, bull, tiger, lion, roc or garuda, monkey, stag and yak; (3) the ghouls with skull masks and clothes representing skeletons; (4) the earth-master-demons with large hideous masks but only one pair of eyes, as representing their subordinate position; (5) the teachers who represented the early Indian priests who brought Buddhism to Tibet, the buffoons or

jesters of the play. They wear small cloth masks of ordinary size

and of white clay or black colour. With them are included a personator of Hiuen Tsang, the famous Chinese Buddhist monk

of the 8th century, who wears a huge silly-looking mask. The sacred dramas, based upon the Jatakas or former births of Buddha, and performed by professional lay actors and actresses, are very popular. The buffoons who wear blue masks adorned

with cowls are usually the so-called hunters, but sometimes, as in the old Hindu dramas, are Brahmins, China.—Masks usually made of papier mâché are employed in the Chinese theatre, but for the greater part the actors make up their faces like masks with cosmetics and paint. These painted masks are of different colours, used singly or in combination, and

have a traditional significance.

For example, a corrupt ruler is

given a white mask, a just man a red, and a violent and brutal

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MASKS war mask. 9. Elephant mask. Belgian Congo. 10. Carneo mask. Liberia. 11. Mask from Nigeria. 12. Clown mask. Zuñi Indians. 13. Long horn

mask. Zufii Indians. 14. Mask of Wupamu. Hopi Indians, New Mex. 15. Tobodzistsini, Navajo War God, mask. 16. Mask of the Apache Indian

MASKS man, a black mask. There are no special theatre buildings, but almost every temple has a stage erected in a convenient part devoted to the performance of theatrical representations. In addition to the secular and historical dramas, which are extremely popular, there are plays and other performances in which masks are used all more or less bound up with Buddhism. Masks are also used in various ways by children in traditional observances. In Tibet, China, Japan and other adjacent countries to which Buddhism extended, the so-called lion dance is popular. In Tibet the head and shoulders of the lion are formed by a framework which one man manipulates from the interior while another man occupies its hind quarters. A harlequin mummer with a variety of rough and tumble antics introduces the beast, which enters with leaps and bounds and goes through a variety of manoeuvres. In China, where this sport is common, a ball in imitation of an immense pearl is carried by some one who runs in front of the beast or darts across its path. The lion is believed to be extremely fond of playing with the ball. A similar amusement is practised in China and Japan by itinerant players who carry a red mask of a lion on a pole, their bodies being concealed by a dependent red cloth. The mask and cloth are manipulated violently as if the animal was in pursuit, to the taps of a small drum. The lower jaw of this mask is movable and is made to emit a loud continuous

I3

so-called Judas play are conspicuous, frequently bore branching stag horns, and are reminiscent of an earlier, heathen period, as are the masks used in the May dances by the peasants in other parts of Europe. Little or no information exists concerning the use of masks in Europe after the decline of the classic drama until they reappear in the mediaeval mystery plays, and their use evolved through the mimes and Italian popular comedy into pantomime. The masquerade came from Italy where the domino, a loose cloak with a half mask, was introduced from Venice. America.—Whatever may be the status of the mask in the culture of the Old World, it is surpassed in America where it was a fundamental object in the religious life of many aboriginal tribes. As such it culminated in the ancient civilization of Mexico where it not only distinguished the personalities of the gods but supplied the foundation of the system of picture writing in which the individual characters consist for the most part of grotesque masks of different divinities. While all but a very few of the old masks have perished, they may be studied in the minutest detail from the pictures in the manuscripts and from sculpture and pottery. Sculptured stone masks with holes at the upper

corners

for attachment

or suspension are

common

among Mexican antiquities, and while their use is not fully clacking by means of a string. The same mechanism is used in the understood, actual masks of carved wood entirely encrusted goat mask found in the Tyrol and among the Slavs and again in with turquoise are preserved in museum collections. the giant masks of the Zuni Indian, shalako. The primitive culture of the Americas appears to belong to Ceylon and Java.—In Ceylon masks are used in plays, an earlier and fresher stratum than that of the oldest historic masquerades and devil-dancing. Those representing various dis- civilizations; it exhibits processes of growth and development eases are employed by dancers in exorcising the spirits who are that are elsewhere lacking. This is especially true of the mask, believed to cause them. The masks used in these performances are for which we find a direct explanation which, while it may not of carved wood, painted in brilliant colours, yellow and red pre- apply to all masks, reveals materials and conditions out of which ponderating. Some, like that of the great demon of fatal diseases, the thing came into being. all of which are attributed to the derangement of the three While the use of the mask among the American Indian’ was humours, wind, phlegm and bile, are composite and of enormous widespread, the Eskimo, the tribes of the north-west Pacific size. The demon of cattle, who causes cattle sickness, is repre- coast and the village dwellers of the south-western United States sented with horns and tusks and is clothed in a garment of leaves. are now our chief sources of information. Idols or images of The Gara is a demon who possesses newly-built houses, and before the gods are inconspicuous in the religious life of the existing a house can be fully occupied a ceremony is generally performed. Indian who himself personates his deities. He identifies himself The masks are not intended to drive the devils away but rather with the divinity by painting himself, or by his costume, the to attach them to the spot. essential feature of which among the Indians of the South-west In Java wooden masks, tupeng, are used in certain of the is the mask. Much the same kilts, girdles and other accessories theatrical performances that are extremely popular. These plays, are worn with different masks. The Eskimos believe that in developed from the shadow puppet plays of the 18th century, are early days all animated beings had a dual existence, assuming performed not only as amusements but to safeguard the people at will either human or animal form. When an animal wished from all kinds of calamities. The stories are in part derived from to become human it raised its forearm or wing and pushed up ancient Sanskrit literature, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, its muzzle or beak as if it were a mask, the creature becoming although the Javanese are now Mohammedans. This use of masks instantly manlike in form and features. The manlike form thus is exceptional, for masks, being forbidden under the prohibition appearing is supposed to represent the thinking part of the of images, are practically unknown in the Mohammedan East. creature and at death becomes its shade. The masks of the Melanesia.—Masks of bark and carved wood play an impor- Pacific coast with double faces illustrate this belief, the muzzle tant part among the Papuans where they are worn by members or beak of the animal fitting over and concealing the face of a of the native secret societies. There societies such as the Quatu of man and being so constructed as to swing open and symbolize New Hebrides, the Tamate of the Banks islands, the Malambala the transformation at a certain place in the ceremony. of Florida, the Dukduk of New Britain, etc., are characteristic The primal and dominant type of mask employed by the of Melanesia and are accessible only to men. Indians of the south-western United States is a cylinder, closed Africa.—Carved wooden masks are used by the natives of at the top, that fits over the head and rests on the shoulders. the Congo and by the adjacent tribes on the west coast of It suggests and is comparable to the top of a carved post. AnAfrica. They may be divided into three principal classes: war other mask, a section of the foregoing, covers only the face. masks, dance masks and masks of the féticheur,—that curious These are worn alike by the Zuni, the Hopi, the Keres, Tewa and personage who combines the attributes of high priest, magis- other Pueblo tribes. To-day they are made of leather, of old trate and physician. Whatever their use, they are more or less saddles, or of raw hide, and are humanized and adorned by a connected directly with the medicine man and are religious variety of adjuncts, The eyes are represented by round or rather than festal. The face or head of carved wood is usually square incisions or by two buckskin balls filled with deer hair painted and supplemented by an enormous fringe of fibre at- and tied with deer sinew which passes through holes. The nose tached at the base of the mask and hanging over the shoulders. is commonly of buckskin rolled up and tied in place with sinew, In their expression the African carved wood masks have an or of a corn-cob or a corn-cob dart or a miniature dart directed at a ring which forms the mouth. The mouth is a little hole with artistic distinction above those of any living people. Eastern Europe.—Masks survive among the Slav peasants a ring of buckskin or is indicated by a braided corn husk simuof eastern Europe in connection with heathen festivals con- lating teeth. Not infrequently it has a projecting wooden cylinder nected with the winter solstice that have been transferred to for a bill, or the stem of a gourd cut with teeth for a snout. Ears Christmas and Easter. The carved and painted wooden masks consist of a hemispheric disc of wood perforated for earrings’ of the peasants of the Austrian Tyrol, among which those of the and attached with sinew or buckskin strings, or flowers of the

14

MASKS

colour-vision producing datura made of wool or cotton yarn of Masks are less common among the South American Indians diferent colours, or datura flower buds of wood, on one or both than in North America, although archaeological remains indicate sides. On others painted discs representing datura flowers with that they had an important part in the old culture of Ecuador and segments of different colours are substituted. Horns are at- Peru. Masks are used by the tribes of Guiana and on the Amazon, tached to some masks. Others are surmounted by wooden rain- and in Tierra del Fuego bark and seal hide dance masks repre-

bows or rectangular tablets. A feather plume is frequently senting fish, suggesting the New Mexican Pueblo Indian masks, affixed at the top. Wooden arrows, lightning sticks and cloud are used by the Yaghan. Actual masks are extremely rare among Peruvian remains, although terra cotta masks have been found in terraces are among the other adjuncts. These masks are painted in colours: blue, green, white, black, graves and Gigilioli reports two masks made from the facia] pink, red, yellow, brown, purple and grey, and are adorned with portion of human skulls as having been discovered in an ancient plumes and beads. All have sex, masculine or feminine, which is cemetery near Lima. These objects, which appear to be true not determined by the beard. In graphic representations the masks and used as such, are analogous to the skull masks of New round heads are masculine and the square, feminine. The masks Britain, the only other locality outside of ancient Mexico in which are collected by a head man at his house before each dance and such masks are known to be employed. It was the custom of certain of the old Peruvians like the decorated for the occasion. After the dances they are dismantled and taken, each to its owner’s home where they are kept in a ancient Egyptians to place above or before the envelopes of. their back room tied in a cloth. The same mask may be used in dead, destined to a natural and not an artificial mummification, a different dances, painted and adorned in accordance with their rough image of the deceased when living. This was a wooden requirements. Masks are regarded as sacred and the spirit of face, fixed with a peg on the upper part of the envelope in which the divinity they represent is thought to reside in them. Altars the corpse was bound up, usually painted and adorned with a wig formed of them set in a row are sprinkled with sacred meal. of human hair and a more or less complicated head-dress. (See Men invoked their masks, thanking them for services rendered. THEATRE; DANCE; PANTOMIME; DRAMA.) The wearer of the mask believes he is transformed into the BrsriocrapHy.—V. F. Weber, Ko-ji Héd-ten (1823); Guhl and mythic creature it represents. When he removes it he feels Kohner, The Life of the Greeks and Romans (1878) ; Wiliam H. Dall, obliged to wash and purify himself. Among the Hopi a ceremony Masks and Labrets, Third Annual Report, Bureau of Ethnology, Washis performed to make this removal effective, through fear that ington, D.C. (1884) ; Albert Griinwedel, “Sinhalesische Masken,” Internationales Archiv. für Ethnographie, vi. p. 7x (Leiden, 1893); L. Austhe spirit may remain and disturb its possessor. tine Waddell, The Buddhism of Thibet (1895); F. W. K. Miiller, Masks and masked dances were articles of traffic between T’oung Pao (Japanese Masks) (1897) ; L. Frobenius, Die Masken und individuals and different Indian tribes. The Veibichai dance of the Geheimbunde Afrikas (Halle, 1898); Matilda Coxe Stevenson, The Zuni Indians, 23rd Annual Report of the Bureau of American EthNavajo is closely inter-related to the shalako dance of the Zuni Washington (1904); Henri L. Joly, Legend in Japanese Art Indians in which tall giants appear. In the shalako, the person- nology, (list of NG masks) (1908) ; Kenneth Macgowan, Masks and Demons ators carry the masks upon poles, their heads and bodies being

coveréd with a huge crinoline, painted to simulate feathers, through which holes are cut for their eyes. The masks used by the Navajo in the Yeibichai, as the night chant is called, are copies of the cylinder and face masks of the Pueblos, but are made of soft buckskin, great care being taken in their manufacture which is attended with elaborate ceremonies. Among the Pueblo Indians who have remained more or Jess under Christian influences, their old masked ceremonies are celebrated in a much modified form on the days of Christian church festivals and such is the custom generally among the Indian tribes in Mexico, who for the most part are Catholics. No traces of masks are found among the remains in the Cliff Dwellings and it may be presumed that their existence among the Pueblos dates from a comparatively recent time and that they were introduced from old Mexico, their original source, at or about the time of the conquest. The gods they represent were originally bird-tree-gods, and the masks sections of trees. Made now of leather they were originally of hollow wood. Bird-treegods, personifications of the Four Directions, play a dominant part in the mythology of the native people of Mexico and Central America.

(S. Cv.)

(1923).

MODERN MASKS AND THEIR USES Our civilized world has neglected and forgotten the use of masks and it is only in this century that the interest in them has revived. We are here concerned solely with modern masks as the products of artists’ imagination, taste and skill—masks that have quality which makes them different from and superior to all trivial products of manufacture and all banalities of the sort popularly called “false faces.”

Early Significance.—Although the ritual and religious sig-

nificance that prevailed in antiquity and exists now among primitive and barbaric people is unknown to us, there remains the mystery that envelops the mask, the same mystery that is at the bottom of all the supernatural meanings with which the ancients and the modern primitive people surrounded the masks and gave them such prominent part in their religious ceremonies; for when a person, no matter how sophisticated or naive, confronts a masked man, that person will be mystified. The mask may or may not fascinate, it may or may not terrify, it may appeal to the sense of humour or fail to do so, but it will never fail to mystify. Among the tribes of the north-west coast two kinds of masks Psychological Effects—This strange mystifying quality of are distinguished: dancing masks and masks attached to house- the mask, the way it deceives and impresses us, the way we refronts and heraldic columns. All masks of the latter kind are clan act to its inscrutable charm, when we see it worn by someone, masks, usually three to five feet high, and have reference to and the way the wearer of a mask is influenced by the mask the crest of the house or post owner. The dancing masks are those he is wearing, constitute a strange psychological phenomenon. used at the Potlatch, the festival at which property is given away, The moment a person puts on a mask he changes into another and the masks of the mimical performances in winter when dances being; his whole body seems to change its appearance, its prorepresenting the traditions of the clan are acted. Some have portion and character, and the onlooker immediately forgets his human and others animal faces, bear, wolf, dog, beaver, crane, teal features, even if the masked person is an old friend. puffin and killer whale, represented in their mythology. They are As various masks are put on the same person his figure will commonly made of cedar wood, many are elaborately carved. seem to alter. Its proportions and character become in the eyes Carved wooden masks survive in use among Iroquois Indians of the spectator in New York State and in Ontario, Canada, and archaeological most convincin the figure belonging to the mask, and this is g when the figure is nude. An ugly face makes remains indicate their use among the Indians of the eastern the whole figure appear ungainly, just as a beautiful physiognomy United States. Being perishable, the older masks of the aboriginal will bring to our consciousness its beauty and grace. inhabitants of America have for the most part disappeared, but a There are of course certain obvious and simple facts which suggestion that they may have existed widely is found in the every art student knows and which are dominant in this decep‘carved and painted wooden masks discovered by Cushing at tion. One of them is the proportion of the size of the head to Marco, Florida. the height of the body: a large face dwarfs the figure and a

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MASKS small head makes the figure appear taller.

15

More exactly, if the | of utmost grotesqueness, besides the infinite possibilities of colour,

length of the head is less than one-eighth of the whole figure | are at his disposal. This variety may be divided irto three disthe figure will appear very tall. This can be done, because, para- tinct categories: (1) Masks representing in a more or less realdoxical as it may seem, it is possible to fit a mask with a smaller istic manner types of men and women. (2) Grotesque masks, face over a larger face as the diagram shows in fig. 3. demons, gargoyles and fantastic representations of animal charA mask in action seems to change its expression. This is a acteristics (see Plate III.). (3) Caricature. strange delusion which can be explained in the first place by the The masks of the first category may portray single individuals

A MASK MAY BE SMALL, COVERING ONLY THE FACE OF THE WEARER.

OR MEDIUM COVERING THE FACE AND THE TOP OF THE HEAD, .

or generalized types, and these last based on synthetic studies of human characteristics are the most interesting problems for the creator. There is therefore no excuse for indulging in meaningless creations, thoughtless imitations or other such banalities that would bring the standard of the modern mask back to the trivialities of recent products of manufacture that degrade it. Each mask should be the result of a thrilling inspiration and long and careful meditation based on accumulated knowledge. It must be impressive and full of significance; it must be more impressive and interesting than a human face,—all of which means that it must be a.work of art. A modern maker of masks should get well acquainted with the wonderful masks of the ancients, and those of the barbaric peoples and primitive tribes, not to imitate them but to try to emulate their excellent qualities, their vigour and significance. Imagination and the ability to model and paint could not go far in creating masks without the support of the knowledge of anatomy, zoology and anthropology, an understanding of racial differences, of the psychology of the human physiognomy and

of humanity as a whole. The mask must be convincing to be effective; therefore it must be based on the study of nature. This

OR A TALL MASK

WORN LIKE A HELMET

FITTING AROUND THE HEAD OF THE WEARER

D FIG. 5.—VARIOUS .THE HEAD

TYPES OF MASKS

'OR IT MAY BE A HEAD-MASK

COVERING THE HEAD ENTIRELY.

COVERING

THE WHOLE

OR PART OF

fact that the so-called facial expressions are not due to the contraction of the facial muscles, but are brought about by the movement and position of the head and the neck in relation to the rest of the body. This may be seen in Plate V., fig. 1, 2, 3 and 7, 8 and 9. Thus when the masked actor changes the position of his head we are under the impression that something has changed in the expression of the mask. A frowning man when his head is up looks aggressive, proud, pugnacious and commanding; but that same frown will give him an expression of sorrow and suffering if the head is lowered. All this constitutes the effect that masks have on the onlooker. The wearer of masks is subject to another strange influence: as soon as he puts on a mask and starts to interpret its character through the action of his body, he will find his face unconsciously imitating the expression of the mask and he will find it difficult to stop this wasted mimicry. It would be amusing to see the rugged or stern masculine face of the wearer endeavouring to conform itself to the delicate and alluring femininity of the mask that covers it; or twisting itself into the snarling fierceness of an ape, if that happens to be the mask he is wearing. But it is natural that the face must co-ordinaté itself with the action of the body, and, moreover, the expression of the mask is reflected in the faces of the spectators and back to the wearer. For instance, a man wearing the mask, with the supercilious expression shown in Plate V. would find that people looking at

him were all grinning in response and he in his turn would grin at them even though his face was hidden. DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION The creator of masks finds a great thrill and constant stimulus

in the wide scope before him; in the limitless variety of types and expressions; in the degree of realism or fantastic exaggeration; in all shades of tragedy, comedy and burlesque. All the long gamut from noble countenances and alluring feminine beauty to terrifying demons, hobgoblins and all sorts’ of fantastic beings

FiG.

6.—SECTIONS

OF A GROTESQUE

MASK

does not mean that it should always be naturalistic and realistic but even the most fantastic exaggerations in the grotesque masks should be based on that knowledge. Their structure, no matter how bizarre, should be evolved from real forms that exist in nature, human or animal. We must feel the bone construction of the face, the tenseness or relaxation of the facial muscles and

the quality of the skin. And all this does not mean that there is

16

MASOLINO

DA PANICALE

veness of need of infinitesimal details. On the contrary, the effecti tion of elimina by cation mystifi the on largely a mask depends hing everyt of ent statem ic unimportant details and on the emphat that is essential in the type and expression. e— Materials.—A mask to be practical should be: (z) durabl (2) waterstretch; or melt warp, tear, crack, break, not should it

should proof; (3) light in weight; (4) adjustable. Furthermore, itcases, a have openings for the eyes and for breathing, and, in all surface that can be cleaned and washed.

be chosen, To make a mask strong a durable material must

painting are now obvious, and cutting, filling undesired depressions and polishing will be necessary to- obtain the desired surface. The sharp incisions will have to be improved if they are clogged by varnish and paint. Then the mask will be ready for final

;

painting.

An easier but less direct and less interesting way of making castmasks is to begin by modelling the head in clay or plasteline, mould, the into paper of ing the result, and pressing small pieces and glueing them securely. This must be done slowly and the paper must be kept as dry as possible to avoid shrinking and

warping. Then the rest of the work is the same reinforcing, varnishing, painting, cutting, filling and polishing as in the preceding method. freedo Modern Uses.—Since the time when the ancient Greek actors f ls. materia e papier mAché are possibl masked in the tragedy the use of the masks on the stage appeared is It masks. such for Papier mâchê is the poorest material with a few exceptions, forgotten in Europe and the been, has finish. weak and perishable and does not yield itself to refined can be enand then the mask so constructed that the durability

allow sured. This durable material should have other qualities that m of execution. Metals, wood, paper, rubber, silk, linen and

edges. It is impossible to work into it delicate details or sharp world. the of parts all in used been has that l materia the is Wood Sea Japanese, American Indians, African tribes and South Islanders carved masks out of wood. Although some of the most ck beautiful masks have been made of this material, it has a drawba in that the mask must be thick to prevent splitting, and consequently is not easily adjustable. That happens often—the beautiful Japanese Nd masks often split. Wood, however, remains one of the best mediums. Tough paper tightly glued in layers and

covered outside and inside with waterproof varnish and oilpaint is better and stronger than wood; it canmot split, and the masks made of it can be thin and adjustable. Modelling.—It is hardly possible to make a life-size mask that

would fit well any size and shape of head, yet it should be made

so that it can be worn on most heads, and this is not an easy

thing to achieve. A mask may be made to cover only the face of the wearer (fig. s-A), to cover the face and the top of the head

(B), or it may be a headmask, covering the entire head (C)

as well as at times including the neck and worn like a helmet with

the visor down, the neck of the mask fitting around the head of the wearer (D).

The wearer of the mask must be able to breathe and to see. Consequently, the eyes and nostril orifices should be as wide as it is possible to make them without sacrificing the appearance of the mask. There are, as we see, many practical materials and consequently many ways of making masks, and as modern maskmaking is so new it is still in an experimental stage and therefore there is no uniform method. One successful method, developed by the author, is as follows: After the drawings are completed the

whole surface of the proposed mask is divided in a number of definite planes which of course will be of various shapes. These planes are then carefully drawn and cut out of Bristol-board or, preferably, the trunkmaker’s fibre-board. The diagram (fig. 6) will explain this. The pieces are then glued together with small strips of rough paper or linen on the outside and on the inside. The whole mask thus constructed is then covered with additional layers of paper glued as lightly as possible and subsequently the inside and outside surface is given several coats of varnish and finally, when thoroughly dry, painted with oil colours. Smaller and more realistic masks may be constructed of small pieces of tough paper glued tightly together, starting with stiffer paper and building at first as a foundation a few of the most essential planes of the construction of the head, as for instance forming the forehead of a number of long strips, then the shape of the lower jaws, and a narrow strip, definite and firm, representing the profile,

drama of our civilized world had no place for it. Only recently,

within the 2oth century, has the interest in masks on the stage revived. Much has been written lately on that subject, but mostly

about the desirability, or, as some more impulsive reformers of the theatre have put it, the necessity of the use of masks in dramatic performances. Edward Gordon Craig, the most enthu-

siastic promoter of this innovation, in his The Theatre Advancing,

repeatedly expresses his conviction that masks must come back and he goes as far as to say: “Masks, that paramount means of dramatic expression without which acting was bound to degenerate!” Much has been said about the importance of reviving the use of masks on the stage, but the question of how that could be successfully accomplished has been neglected. Attempts at masking one or several actors in a drama for some particular reason or under some special pretext, have been frequent; yet, plays that are deliberately and entirely masked, without special reasons, are still a thing of the future. In the spoken drama there is the difficulty that the mask muffles the sound and in other ways interferes with the speech; conversely, the speech spoils the effect of the mask, as one expects the words to be accompanied by the motion of the lips and other facial mobility which are absent inthe mask. This difficulty did not exist in the ancient Greek drama where large masks together with the cothurnt were intended to enhance and magnify the impressiveness of the actor who on the open-air stage was a considerable distance from his audience. The large mask was not enclosing his face, but was affixed about two inches away from it and spoke or rather chanted through a funnel which connected his mouth with the wide-open mouth o the mask. The masked pantomime is different from all other pantomimes. The immobility of the mask demands greater poise and extreme restraint of motion. The acting must be limited to the most essential and significant, and there must be a rigorous elimination of all meaningless gestures or even the slightest unnecessary movements to harmonize with the mask in which nothing but the essential and significant is expressed. There must be more repose than in any other kind of acting, and all movements, all gestures, must be much slower. The value of this slow tempo is

seen as soon as the mask is put on. Then the acting, the costumes, and the stage settings must be as strange and unnatural as the masks are themselves.

(See also DRAMA; ACTING; PANTOMIME.)

MASOLINO

DA

PANICALE

(W. T. B.)

(1383-1447),

Florentine

painter, born at Panicale di Valdelsa, near Florence, is assumed to attached to the middle of the forehead and meeting the jaws at be identical with Tommaso, son of Aristoforo Fini. He was one the chin. Around these fundamental planes the rest of the mask of the most distinguished representatives of the Early Renaiscan be formed, taking care all the time that every bit of paper is sance. There is nothing to confirm Vasari’s statement that he tightly glued. Additional layers of the same material will im- was a pupil of Lorenzo Ghiberti, but the statement that he studied prove the details and will give the mask the desired firmness. under Gherardo Starnina, a later Giottesque master, of whom Any further improvement of the modelling can be done by cutting little is known, is not unlikely. In 1423 he was admitted to the off with a razor blade any undesired protuberances and filling guild of speziali or druggists, to which painters belonged. The with more layers of tiny pieces of paper the cavities that are not only authenticated works by Masolino were recovered from a wanted. The whole mask is then varnished and painted with oil coating of whitewash in 1843 at Castiglione d’Olona, near Varese, colours, After it is perfectly dry its surface is still far from being They consist of two series of frescoes, which he executed for satisfactory. All the defects that could not be seen before the Cardinal Branda Castiglione. The earlier work, in the choir

MODERN

MASKS

BY

BENDA

Three masks by W. T. Benda showing the changes of expression which occur as the head is seen at different inclinations and from various sides

PLaTE VI

BY COURTESY OF (1) STAATLICHE

M ASKS

: PORZELLAN

x

‘

Dam MANUFAKTUR,

CO ot aE

Ray

as

gg BT Bh

wii a

(2, 5) EMIL PIRCHAN,

punt?

edd Mare

a

a

MODERN 1. Modern mask designed and made by Professo r Max Esser 2, 5. Masks made by Emil Pirchan for the Ballet “Die Nachtlichen’’ s

kepee eee

A e

(3, 4, 6) THE DEPARTMENT

PE

OF FINE ARTS,

AR

BN S E aa Sa a aia e geFO See Geet rt antt “aoe A We ey, ae AE sonREPS Tt eR gate ate gle

ye BROOKLYN

MUSEUM

MASKS and also used by Harold Kreutzberg in a dance in a Berlin Opera 3, 4, 6. Modern masks designed by Richard Teschner of Vienna

MASON

17

vaulting of the church, represents scenes from the life of the of the gradual abolition of slavery. He objected to the large and Virgin. It is signed “Masolinus de Florentia pinxit,” and was indefinite powers given by the completed Constitution to Conprobably painted about 1423, when he was 40 years of age. gress, sO he joined with Patrick Henry in opposing its ratifThe later work, in a small baptistery adjoining the church, is cation in the Virginian convention (1788). Failing in this, he dated 1435. These frescoes are adapted to the architecture suggested amendments, the substance of several of which was of the interior. The serene conception, the light and harmonious afterwards embodied in the present Bill of Rights. Declining colour scheme, the graceful movement and expression of the an appointment as a U.S. senator from Virginia, he retired to his figures are essentially the result of the master’s trecentist training, home, Gunston Hall (built by him and named after the family while the attempt, however primitive, to represent three-dimen- home in Staffordshire, England). A radical republican, he besional space by applying the newly discovered laws of perspective, lieved that local government should be kept strong and central the study of the nude, and the individual character of the heads government weak; his democratic theories had much influence in are inspired by the incoming Renaissance. The paintings are well Virginia and other southern and western States. He died on preserved and constitute one of the finest monuments of Floren- Oct. 7, 1792 at Gunston Hall. | a aa Mason Rowland, Life and Writings of George Mason tine Art of that time. 1892). Between 1424 and 1426 he worked in the Brancacci chapel, in the church of the Carmine at Florence. As Masaccio and, someMASON, JAMES MURRAY (1798-1871), American what later, Filippino Lippi also painted in this chapel, the dis- lawyer and political leader, was born in Fairfax county (Va.), cussion as to what particular share was done by each still con- on Nov. 3, 1798, the grandson of George Mason (1725-92). tinues, but the following paintings may, with a considerable Educated at the University of Pennsylvania and the College of degree of certainty, be attributed to Masolino: The “Preaching William and Mary, he was admitted to the bar in 1820. He was of St. Peter,” the “Healing of the Cripple,” the “Raising of a member of the Virginia house of delegates (1826—32) of the Tabitha,” and the “Fall of Adam and Eve.” State constitutional convention of 1829, of the national House He later painted frescoes representing the “Crucifixion” and of Representatives (1837~39) and of the U.S. Senate from 1847 scenes from the Legends of St. Catherine and of St. Ambrogio, until the outbreak of the Civil War when he resigned to take in the church of San Clemente at Rome, for the same Cardinal part in the Virginia secession convention. He was a staunch Branda, for whose Lombard home at Castiglione d’Olona he Democrat, upholding States’ rights and slavery; the author of executed the works described above. The works at San Clemente the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850. show the influence of Masaccio, to whom they are sometimes He was appointed in Aug. 1861 commissioner of the Conascribed. Among the few panel pictures which may be attributed federate States to Great Britain. The British ship “Trent,” upon to Masolino we must mention the two well preserved pictures in which he and John Slidell, the commissioner to France, sailed, the museum at Naples, the “Madonna and Christ in Glory” and was intercepted by a U.S. ship-of-war, and the two commissioners the “Founding of S. Maria Maggiore.” were seized and carried as prisoners to Boston but were released Masolino’s art shows a constant search after truthful repre- two months later, through the demands of Great Britain. The sentation. Starting from the Giottesque tradition, he took part incident is well known as the “Trent affair.” Arriving at Lonin the great naturalistic movement emanating from Florence. don Mason was unable to secure official recognition, and his comHe probably learned much from his brilliant young pupil, mission to Great Britain was withdrawn late in 1863. Masaccio, whom he outlived by 20 years. But, while Masaccio He died at Alexandria, Va., on April 28, 1871. belongs entirely to the Renaissance, Masolino never quite freed See Virginia Mason (his daughter), The Public Life and Diplomatic rc ai of James M. Mason, with some Personal History himself from the traditions of the preceding age. See A. H. Layard, The Brancacci Chapel (Arundel Society, 1868); P. Toesca, Masolino da Panicale (1907); Crowe and Cavalcaselle, edit. by L. Douglas, History of Painting in Italy (1910). (I. A. R.)

MASON, GEORGE

(1725-1792), American statesman, was

born in Fairfax county, Va., in 1725. His colonial ancestors held official positions in the civil and military service of Virginia. Mason was a near neighbour and a lifelong friend of George Washington. His large estates and high social standing, together with his personal ability, gave Mason great influence among the Virginia planters, and he became identified with many enterprises, such as the organization of the Ohio company and the founding

of Alexandria (1749). He became a member of the Virginia house of burgesses in 1759. In 1769 he drew up a series of non-importation resolutions, which were presented by Washington and adopted by the Virginia legislature. In July 1774 he wrote for a convention in Fairfax county a series of resolutions known as the Fairfax Re-

solves, in which he advocated a congress of the colonies and suggested non-intercourse with Great Britain, a policy adopted by Virginia and later by the Continental Congress. He was a member of the Virginia committee of safety from Aug. to Dec. 1775, and of the Virginia convention in 1775 and 1776. In 1776 he drew up the Virginia Constitution and the famous Bill of Rights, a radically democratic document which had great influence on American political institutions. The Federal Government laid claim to the hinterland; z7.¢., to territory north and north-west of the Ohio river, which Virginia conceded in 1780

on the basis of a plan worked out by Mason. He was a member of the Virginia house of delegates (1776~88). He took an active part in the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia in 1787. Particularly notable was, his opposition to the compromises in regard to slavery and the slave-trade. Indeed, like most of the prominent Virginians of the time, Mason was strongly in favour

1903).

MASON, SIR JOHN (1503-1566), English diplomatist, was born of humble parentage at Abingdon, and was educated at Oxford, where he became Fellow of All Souls in 152r. Ordained before 1531, he was employed on the continent in collecting information for four successive Tudor sovereigns, and in 1537 became secretary to the English ambassador at Madrid. Under Mary he was appointed in 1553 ambassador at the court of the emperor Charles V., of whose abdication in 1555 he wrote a vivid account. Under Elizabeth, he influenced foreign policy until his death, on April 20, 1566. See J. A. Froude, History of England (12 vols., 1836-70); C. Wriothesley, Chronicle of England during the Reigns of the Tudors, ed. W. D. Hamilton (Camden Soc., 2 vols., 1875).

MASON, JOHN

(1586-1635), founder of New Hampshire,

was born in King’s Lynn, Norfolk, England. He was governor of the English colony in Newfoundland (1615-21) and published the first map of that region. In 1622 he obtained from the council for New England a grant of the territory (Mariana) between the Salem and Merrimac rivers, and he and Sir Fedinando Gorges received a grant of the region between the Merrimac and Kennebec

rivers and extending 60 m. inland (Province of Maine).

In 1629 Mason and Gorges agreed upon -a division of the territory held jointly, and Mason received a separate grant of the tract between the Merrimac and the Piscataqua, which he named New Hampshire. With Gorges and a few associates, he also secured a grant of the region named Laconia, including Lake

Champlain, and in 1631 the Pescataway grant, bordering on the Piscataqua river. He was vice-president: of the council for New England in 1632, and in 1635 was appointed vice-admiral for New England, but died in London in Dec. 1635, before crossing the Atlantic. He was buried in Westminster Abbey. See Captain John Mason, the Founder

of New

Hampshire

(1887,

MASON—-MASONRY

18 published py the Prince Society).

MASON, JOHN YOUNG

re

(1799-1859), American political

leader and diplomatist, was born in Greensville county (Va.) on April 18, 1799. He served in the Virginia house of delegates

(1823-27), in the State constitutional convention (1829-30), the national house of representatives (1831-37), and as judge of the U.S. district court for Virginia (1837-44). From 1844-49 he was a member of the cabinet of both President Tyler and President Polk, as secretary of the navy, serving for an interval as attorneygeneral. He was president of the Virginia constitutional convention of 1850, and from 1853, was minister to France. He joined with James Buchanan and Pierre Soulé, ministers to Great Britain and Spain respectively, in drawing up (Oct. 1854) the famous

Ostend manifesto (g.v.). He died at Paris Oct. 3, 1859. MASON, MAX (1877— _—+), American educationalist and inventor, was born at Madison (Wis.), on Oct. 26, 1877. He graduated from the University of Wisconsin in 1898, continuing

his studies at the University of Gottingen. After being instructor in mathematics at the Massachusetts institute of technology 1903—04, he became assistant professor of mathematics at the

Sheffield scientific school, Yale university, in 1904. He was appointed professor of mathematical physics at the University of Wisconsin in 1908. He also lectured at Harvard university, 1911-12. During the World War he was a member of the staff of the Naval experimental station, New London (Conn.), and also on the submarine committee of the National research council, 1917-19. He invented several devices for the detection of submarines. He was president of the University of Chicago, 1925-28; he then became director of natural sciences and in 1929 president of the Rockefeller Foundation.

MASON,

WILLIAM

(1725-1797), English poet, son of

William Mason, vicar of Holy Trinity, Hull, was born on Feb. 12, 1725, was educated at St. John’s college, Cambridge, and took holy orders. In 1744 he wrote Musaeus, a lament for Pope in imitation of Lycidas, and in 1749 through the influence of Thomas Gray he was elected a fellow of Pembroke college. He became a devoted friend and admirer of Gray, who addressed him as “Skroddles,” and corrected the worst solecisms in his verses. In 1748 he published Jsts, a poem directed against the supposed Jacobitism of the University of Oxford, which provoked Thomas Warton’s Triumph of Isis. Mason wrote two plays in a pseudoclassical style: Elfrida (1752) and Caractacus (1759), produced with some alterations at Covent Garden in 1772 and 1776 respectively. Horace Walpole described Caractacus as “laboured, uninteresting, and no more resembling the manners of Britons than of Japanese”; while Gray declared he had read the manuscript “not with pleasure only, but with emotion.” Mason received many preferments, including a canonry of York and a prebend of Driffield. When Gray died in 1771 he made Mason his literary executor. In the preparation of the Life and Letters of Gray, which appeared in 1774, he had much help from Horace Walpole, with whom he corresponded regularly until 1784, when Mason opposed Fox’s India Bill, and offended Walpole by thrusting on him political advice unasked. The correspondence was not renewed until 1795. Mason died at Aston on April 7, 1797. His poems were collected in 1764 and 1774, and an edition of his Works appeared in 1811. His poems with a Life are included in Alexander Chalmers’s English Poets. His correspondence with Walpole was edited by J. Mitford in 1851; and his correspondence with Gray by the same editor in 1853.

of the southern boundary of Pennsylvania mainly as the parallel marking the “beginning of the goth degree of northerne latitude,”

after the northern boundary of Maryland had been defined as a line “which lieth under the 4oth degree of north latitude from the equinoctial.” The eastern part of the line as far as Sideling hill in the western part of the present Washington county, was originally marked with milestones brought from England, every fifth one of which bore on one side the arms of Baltimore and on the other those of Penn; but the difficulties in transporting them to the westward were so great that many were not set up.

The use of the term “Mason and Dixon Line” to designate the boundary between the free and the slave states (and in general between the North and the South) dates from the debates in Congress over the Missouri Compromise in 1819-20. As so used, it may be defined as not only the Mason and Dixon Line proper, but also the line formed by the Ohio river from its intersection with the Pennsylvania boundary to its mouth, thence the eastern, northern and western boundaries of Missouri, and thence westward the parallel 36° 30’—-the line established by the Missouri Compromise to separate free and slave territory in the “Louisiana

Purchase,” except as regards Missouri.

MASON

(S. Le.)

BEE, the name given to bees of the sub-family

Osmiinae (fam. Megachilidae), which construct earthen cells, sometimes mixed with sand, pebbles or wood, each cell containing a single egg, together with honey and pollen as food for the larva. Ten to 20 cells are usually found together. In Europe the commonest genus is Chalicodoma, in the United States, Osmia. (See BEE, HYMENOPTERA.) See J. H. Fabre, Insect Life (1901).

MASON CITY, a city of northern Iowa, U.S.A., on Lime

creek, at an altitude of 1,124 ft.; the county seat of Cerro Gordo ' county. It is on Federal highways 18 and 65, and is served by the Chicago and North Western, the Chicago Great Western, the Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific, the Minneapolis

and St. Louis, the Rock Island and electric railways. Pop. (1920) was 20,065 (85% native white), and was 23,304 in 1930 by Federal census. It is the commercial centre of a rich farming, dairying and stock-raising region. There are valuable deposits of fireclay and sandstone near by, and the city is noted for its hollow building tile and large output of Portland cement (2,000 bbl. daily). Other important industries are pork-packing and the manufacture of beet-sugar (30,000,000 lb. annually). The aggregate factory product in 1925 was valued at $23,965,371. There are 40 wholesale and jobbing houses. Mason City owes

its name to the fact that it was settled (1853) by a group of members of the Masonic fraternity. It was incorporated as a town in 1870 and as a city in 1881. Since 1927 it has had a council-manager form of government.

MASONRY, the art of building in stone. The English word

“mason” is from the French, which appears in the two forms, machun and masson

(from the last comes the modern French

form magon, which means indifferently a bricklayer or mason). The earliest remains of masonry (apart from the primitive work in rude stone—see STONE MoNUMENTS; ARCHAEOLOGY, etc.) are those of the ancient temples of India and Egypt. Many of these early works were constructed of stones of huge size, and it

still remains a mystery how the ancients were able to quarry and raise to a considerable height above the ground blocks 700 or 800 tons in weight. Many of the early buildings of the middle ages MASON AND DIXON LINE, in America, the boundary were entirely constructed of masses of concrete, often faced with line (lat. 39° 43’ 26-3” N.) between Maryland and Pennsylvania, a species of rough cast. The early masonry seems to have been United States; popularly the line separating “free” and “slave” for the most part worked with the axe and not with the chisel. States before the Civil War, and also distinguishing in popular The methods of working and setting stone were much the same parlance the “North” from the “South,” east of the Ohio river. as at present, except that owing to difficulties of conveyance the The line derives its name from Charles Mason (1730-87) and stones were used in much smaller sizes. Jeremiah Dixon, two English. astronomers, whose survey of it Mason’s Tools.—The mason’s tools may be grouped under five to a point about 244m. west of the Delaware between 1763 and heads—hamm ers and mallets, saws, chisels, setting-out and set1767 marked the close of: the protracted boundary dispute (arising ting tools, and hoisting appliances. upon the grant of Pennsylvania to William Penn in 1681) between There are several different kinds of iron hammers used by the the Baltimores and Penns, proprietors respectively of Maryland stone worker; the mash hammer has a short handle and heavy and Pennsylvania. head for use with chisels; the iron hammer, used in carving, in The dispute arose from the designation, in the grant. to Penn, shape resembles a carpenter’s mallet but is smaller; the waller’s

MASONRY hammer is used for roughly shaping stones in rubble work; the spalling hammer for roughly dressing stones in the quarry; the scabbling hammer, for the same purpose, has one end pointed for use on hard stone; the pick has a long head pointed at both ends, weighs from 14 to 20 lb., and is used for rough dressing and splitting; the axe bas a double wedge-shaped

head and is

used to bring stones to a fairly level face preparatory to their being worked smooth; the patent axe, or patent hammer, is formed with a number of plates with sharpened edges bolted together to form a head; the mallet of hard wood is used for

finishing the chisel work and carving; and the dummy is of similar shape but smaller.

A hand saw similar to that’ used by the carpenter is used for cutting small soft stones. Larger blocks are cut with the twohanded saw worked by two men. For the largest blocks the frame saw is used, and is slung by a rope and pulleys fitted with balance weights to relieve the operator of its weight. The blade is of plain steel, the cutting action being supplied by sand with water as a lubricant constantly applied. There are, perhaps, even more varieties of chisels than of hammers. The point and the punch have very small cutting edges, a quarter of an inch or less in width. The former is used on the harder and the latter on the softer varieties of stone after the rough hammer dressing. The pitching tool has a wide thick edge and is used in rough dressing. Jumpers are shafts of steel having a widened edge, and are used for boring holes in hard stone. Chisels are made with edges from a quarter-inch to one and a half inches wide; those that exceed this width are termed boasters. The claw chisel has a number of teeth from one-eighth to threeeighths wide, and is used on the surface of hard stones after the point has been used. The drag is a semicircular steel plate, the straight edge having teeth cut in it. It is used to level down the surfaces of soft stones. Cockscombs are used for the same purpose on mouldings and are shaped to various curves. The implements for setting out the work are similar to those used by the bricklayer and other tradesmen, comprising the rule, square, set square, the bevel capable of being set to any required angle, compasses, spirit level, plumb-rule and bob and mortar trowels. Gauges and moulds are required in sinking moulds to the proper section. Hoisting Appliances.—The mnippers (fig. 1), or scissors, as they are sometimes termed, have two hooked arms fitting into notches in the opposite sides of the block to be lifted, These arms are riveted together in the same way as a pair of Scissors, the upper ends having rings attached for the insertion of a rope or chain which when pulled tight Lewis BOLT in the operation of lifting causes NIPPERS the hooked ends to grip the FIG. 2 FIG. 1 stone. Lewitses (fig. 2) are wedgeshaped pieces of steel which are fitted into a dovetailed mortise in the stone to be hoisted. They are also used for setting blocks too large to be set by hand, and are made in several forms. Scaffolding.—For rubble walls, single scaffolds, resting partly on the walls, similar to those used for brickwork (q.v.), are employed: for ashlar and other gauged stonework (see below) selfsupporting scaffolds are used with a second set of standards and ledgers erected close to the wall, the whole standing entirely independent. The reason for the use of this double scaffold is that otherwise holes for the putlogs to rest in would have to be left in the wall, and obviously in an ashlar stone wall it would be impossible properly to make these good on the removal of the scaffold (see further SCAFFOLD). Seasoning.—Stone freshly quarried is full of sap, and thus admits of being easily worked. On being exposed to the air the

sap dries out, and the stone becomes much harder in consequence.

For this reason, and because carriage charges are lessened by

the smaller bulk of the worked stone as compared with the rough block, the stone for a building is often specified to be quarryworked. In the erection of St. Paul’s cathedral, Sir Christopher

Wren

19 required that the stone after being quarried should be

exposed for three years on the sea-beach before use.

Setting.—All beds and joints should be truly worked and perfectly level. If the surface be convex it will give rise to wide unsightly joints; if concave the weight thrown on the stone will rest on the edges and probably cause them to “flush” or break off and disfigure the work. Large stones are placed in position with the aid of hoisting appliances and should be tried in position before being finally set. Great care should be taken to avoid fracturing or chipping the stone in the process of handling, as it is impossible to make good such damage. All stratified stones—and this includes by far the largest proportion of building stones— when set in a level position should be laid on their natural bed, i.e. with their laminae horizontal. The greatest strength of a stone is obtained when the laminae lie at right angles to the pressure placed upon it. In the case of arches these layers should be parallel with the centre line of the voussoirs and at right angles to the face of the arch. For cornices (except the corner-stones) and work of a like nature, the stone is set with the laminae on edge and perpendicular to the face of the work. With many stones it is easy to determine the bed by moistening with water, when the laminae will become apparent. Some stones, however, it is impossible to read in this way, and it is therefore advisable to have them marked in the quarry. For the shafts of columns especially it is necessary to have the layers horizontally placed, and a stone should be selected from a quarry with a bed of the required depth. Of whatever quality the stone may be of which a wall is built, it should consist as much of stone and as little of mortar as possible. Only fine mortar is admissible if we are to obtain as thin joints as possible. The joints should be well raked out and pointed in Portland cement mortar. This applies only to some sandstones, as marbles and many limestones are stained by the use of Portland cement. For these a special cement must be employed, composed of plaster of Paris, lime and marble or stone-dust. Bond is of not less importance in stone walling than in brickwork. In ashlar-work the work is bonded uniformly, the joints being kept perpendicularly one over the other; but in rubblework, instead of making the joints recur one over the other in alternate courses they should be carefully made to lock, so as to give the strength of two or three courses or layers between a joint in one course and the joint that next occurs vertically above it in another course. In the through or transverse bonding of a wall a good proportion of header stones running about two-thirds of the distance through the width of the wall should be provided to bind the whole structure together. The use of through stones, i.e., stones running through the whole thickness of the wall from front to back, is not to be recommended. Such stones are liable to fracture and convey damp to the internal face. As with brickwork so in masonry great care must be exercised to prevent the different parts of a building settling unequally. When two portions of a building differing considerably in height come together, it is usual to employ a slip or housed joint instead of bonding the walls into each other. This arrangement allows the heavier work to settle to a greater extent than the low portion without causing any defect in the stones. The footings of stone walls should consist of large stones of even thickness proportionate to their length; if possible they should be the full breadth in one piece. Each course should be well bedded and levelled. ! Rubble and Ashiar.—tThere are, broadly speaking, two classes of stone walling: rubble and ashlar. Rubble walls are built of stones more or less irregular in shape and size and coarsely jointed. Asblar walls are constructed of carefully worked blocks of regular dimensions and set with fine joints. Random rubble (fig. 3) is the roughest form of stonework. It is built with irregular pieces of stone usually less than gin. thick, loosely packed without much regard to courses, the interstices between the large stones being occupied by small ones, the remain-

ing crevices filled up with mortar. Bond stones or headers should be used frequently in every course. This form of walling is much

used in stone districts for boundary walls and is often set dry

MASONRY

20

the interior. without mortar. For this work the mason uses no tool but the mission of wet by capillary attraction to All work of this description must be executed in Portland ce. trowel to lay on the mortar, the scabbling hammer to break off the most repulsive irregularities from the stone, and the plumb- ment, mortar of good strength, to avoid as much as possible the unequal settlement of the deep courses of stone facing and the rule to keep his work perpendicular. narrower courses of the brick or rough stone backing. If the Coursed rubble (fig. 4) is levelled up in courses 12 or r8in. deep, the depth varying in different courses according to the sizes of backing is of brick it should never be less than gin. thick, and whether of stone or brick it should be levelled up in courses of the same thickness as the ashlar. Walling.—There are many different sorts of walling, or modes of structure, arising from the nature of the materials available in various localities. That is, perhaps, of most frequent occurrence in which either squared, broken or round flints are used. This, when executed with care, has a distinctly decorative appearance. To give stability to the structure, lacing courses of tiles, bricks or dressed stones are introduced, and brick or stone piers are built at intervals, thus forming a flint panelled wall. The ELEVATION quoins, too, in this type of wall are formed in dressed stone or FiG. 4 FIG. 3 brickwork. Uncoursed rubble built with irregular blocks of ragstone, as FIG. 3.—RANDOM RUBBLE WALLING FIG. 4.—COURSED

RUBBLE WALLING

the stones. The stones are dressed by the workman before he begins building, to obtain a level bed and perpendicular face. Irregularly coursed squared rubble is a development of uncoursed random rubble, the stones in this case being squared with the hammer and roughly faced up with the axe. The courses jump from one level to another as the sizes of the blocks demand; the interstices are filled in with small pieces of stone called “snecks.” For coursed squared rubble the stone is faced in a similar manner and set in courses, the depth of each course being made up of one or more stones. In regular coursed rubble all the stones in one course are of the same height. Block-in-course is the name applied to a form of stone walling that has some of the characteristics of ashlar but the execution of which is much rougher. The courses are usually less than r2in. high. It is much used by engineers for waterside and railway work where a good appearance is desired. The angles or quoins of rubble-work are always carefully and precisely worked and serve as a gauge for the rest of the walling. Frequently the quoins and jambs are executed in ashlar, which gives a neat and finished appearance and adds strength to the work. The name ashlar is given, without regard to the finish of the face of the stone, to walling composed of stones carefully dressed, from 12 to 18in. deep, the mortar joints being about an eighth of an inch or less in thickness. No stone except the hardest should exceed in length three times its depth when required to resist a heavy load and its breadth should be from one and a half to three times its depth. The hardest stone may have a length equal to four or perhaps five times its depth and a width three times its depth. The face of ashlar-work may be plain and level, or have rebated, chamfered or moulded joints. Backing to Stonework.—The great cost of this form of stonework renders the employment of a backing of an inferior nature very general. This backing varies according to the district in which the building operations are being carried on, being rubble stonework in stone districts and brick or concrete elsewhere, the whole being thoroughly tied together both transversely and longitudinally with bondstones. In England a stone much used for backing ashlar and Kentish rag rubble-work is a soft sandstone

unstratified rock quarried in Kent, is in great favour for facing the external walls of churches and similar works. Pointing.—As with brickwork this is generally done when the work is completed and before the scaffolding is removed. Suitable weather should be chosen, for if the weather be either frosty or too hot the pointing will suffer. The joints are raked out to a depth of half an inch or more, well wetted, and then refilled with a fine mortar composed specially to resist the action of the weather. This is finished flat or compressed with a special tool to a shaped joint, the usual forms

of which are shown in fig. 5. To give a uniform appearance

to the stonework and preserve the finished face until a hardTHREE FORMS oF KEYED Joints VJowt | ened skin has formed, it is usual = to coat the surface of exposed FIG. 5 masonry with a protective compound of ordinary limewhite with a little size mixed in it, or a special mixture of stone-dust, lime, salt, whiting and size with a little ochre to tone it down. After six months or more the work is cleaned down with water and stiff bristle or wire brushes. Sometimes muriatic acid much diluted with water is used. Technical Terms.—Of the following technical terms, many will be found embodied in the drawing of a gable wall (fig. 6), which shows the manner and position in which many different members are used.

Apex Stone-—The topmost stone of a gable forming a finial for the two sloping sides; it is also termed a “saddle” (fig. 6). Blocking Course, a heavy course of stone above a cornice to form a parapet and weigh down the back of the cornice (fig. 7). Bed.—The bed surface upon which a stone is set or bedded should be worked truly level in every part. Many workmen to form a neat thin joint with a minimum amount of labour hollow

the bed and thus when the stone is set all weight is thrown upon the edges with the frequent result that these are crushed. Coping——-The coping or capping stones are placed on the top of walls not covered by a roof, spanning their entire width and throwing off the rain and snow, thus keeping the interior of the wall dry. The fewer the number of joints the better the security,

and for this reason it is well to form copings with as long stones as possible. To throw water off clear, and prevent it from running down the face of the wall, the coping should project an inch or two on each side and have a throat worked on the underside of work must not be all of one thickness, but should vary in order the projections (fig. 6). that effective bond with the backing may be obtained. If the work Cornice, a projecting course of moulded stone crowning a 1s In courses of uneven depth the narrow courses are made of the structure, forming a cap or finish and serving to throw any wet greater thickness and the deep courses are narrow. It is sometimes clear of the walls. A deep drip should always be worked in the necessary to secure the stone facing back with iron ties, but this upper members of a cornice to prevent the rain trickling down should be avoided wherever possible, as they are liable to rust and disfiguring the moulding and the wall (fig. 7). and split the stonework. When it is necessary to use them they Corbel, a stone built into a wall and projecting to form a cantishould be covered with some protective coating. The use of a lever, supporting a load beyond the face of the wall. backing to a stone wall, besides lessening the cost, gives a more Skew Corbel, a stone placed at the base of the sloping side of equable temperature inside the building and prevents the trans- a gable wall to resist any sliding tendency of the sloping coping.

called “hassock.” In the districts where it is quarried it is much cheaper than brickwork, (For brickbacking see BRICKWORK.) Ashlar facing usually varies from 4 to gin. in thickness. The

MASONRY Stones placed for a similar purpose at intervals along the sloping side, tailing into the wall, are termed “kneelers” and have the section of the coping worked upon them. Corbel Table, a line of small corbels placed at short distances apart supporting a parapet or arcade. This forms an ornamental feature which was much employed in early Gothic times. It probably originates from the machicolations of ancient fortresses. Dressings, the finished stones of window and door jambs and quoins. For example, a “brick building with stone dressings”

MASON'S MITRES

~ fbf

4f a

A f

|

STONE

a ae |

T

i

Templates, slabs of hard stone set in a wall to take the ends of a beam or girder so as to distribute the load over a larger area of the wall. Throat, a groove worked on the underside of projecting external members to intercept rain-water and cause it to drop off

E

the member clear of the work beneath (fig. 7).

ELEVAT ION

Par

nf he w

FROM JAGGARD “ARCHITECTURAL UNIVERSITY PRESS)

ey a

AND

In modern work, long and

Spalls, small pieces chipped off whilst working a stone.

PES

A

an example of their use in old work.

short work, also termed “block and start,” is little used (fig. 6). Parapet, a fence wall at the top of a wall at the eaves of the roof. The gutter lies behind, and waterways are formed through the parapet wall for the escape of the rain-water. Plinth, a projecting base to a wall serving to give an appearance of stability to the work. Quoin, the angle at the junction of two walls. Quoins are often executed in dressed stone. Rag-bolt, the end of an iron bolt when required to be let into stone is roughed or ragged. A dovetailed mortise is prepared in the stone and the ragged end of the bolt placed in this, and the mortise filled in with molten lead or sand and sulphur (fig. 8). Sill, the stone which forms a finish to the wall at the bottom of an opening. Sills should always be weathered, slightly in the case of door sills, more sharply for windows, and throated on the underside to throw off the wet. The weathering is not carried

through the whole length of the sill, but a stool is left on at each end to form a square end for building in (fig. 6). String Courses (q.v.) are horizontal bands of stone, either projecting beyond or flush with the face of the wall. Scontions are the dressed stones forming the inside angles of the jamb of a window or door opening.

C]

4” HOOD OR LABEL MOULD ifJET= SHOULDER

2I

BUILDING

CONSTRUCTION

PLATES”

(CAMBRIDGE

FIG. 6

would have brick walls with stone door and window jambs, heads

Weathering~—The surface of an exposed stone is weathered when it is worked to a slope so as to throw off the water. Cornices, copings, sills and string courses should all be so weathered. Methods of Finishing Face of Stones-—The self face or quarry face is the natural surface formed when the stone is detached from the mass in the quarry or when a stone is split. Saw-face, the surface formed by sawing.

Hammer-dressed,

Rock-faced

or Pitch-faced—This

face is

used for ashlar-work, usually with a chisel-draughted margin around each block. It gives a very massive and solid appearance, and is, therefore, the cheapest face to adopt for ashlar-work (fig.

and sills, and perhaps also stone quoins. Diaper, a square pattern formed on the face of the stonework by means of stones of different colours and varieties or by patterns ONNZ carved on the surface. Broached and Pointed Work.—This face is also generally used Finial, a finishing ornament applied usually to a gable end. with a chisel-draughted margin. The stone as left from the Gablet, small gable-shaped carved panels frequently used in Gothic stonework for apex stones, and in spires, etc. Gargoyle, a detail, not often met with in modern work, which consists of a waterspout projecting so as to throw the rain-water from the gutters clear of the walls. In early work it was often carved into grotesque shapes of animal and other forms. Galleting—The joints of rubble are sometimes enriched by having small pebbles or chips of flint pressed into the mortar

BLOCKING COURSE

SADDLE THROATING

whilst green. The joints are then said to be “galleted.” Jamb.—Window and door jambs should always be of dressed stone, both on account of the extra strength thus gained and in order to give a finish to the work. The stones are laid alternately as stretchers and headers; the former are called outbands, the latter inbands (fig. 6). Label Moulding, a projecting course of stone running round an arch. When not very large it is sometimes cut on the voussoirs, but is usually made a separate course of stone. Often, and especially in the case of door openings, a small sinking is worked on the top surface of the moulding to form a gutter which leads to the sides any water that trickles down the face of the wall. Lacing Stone.—This is placed as a voussoir in brick arches of

wide span, and serves to bond or lace several courses together. Lacing Course, a course of dressed stone, bricks or tiles, run at intervals in a wall of rubble or flint masonry to impart strength and tie the whole together (fig. 6). Long and Short Work, a typical Saxon method of arranging quoin stones, flat slabs and long narrow vertical stones being placed alternately.

Earls Barton church in Northamptonshire is

SECTION

FIG. 7

scabbling hammer at the quarry has its rocky face worked down to an approximate level by the point. In broached work the grooves made by the tool are continuous, often. running obliquely across the face of the block. In pointed work the lines are not continuous; the surface is rough or fine pointed according as the point is used over every inch or half-inch of the stone. The

point is used more upon hard stones than soft ones (fig. 6). Tooth-chiselled Work—The cheapest method of dressing soft

MASONRY

22

oD

ES-j

-

7,

JOINT IN STONE-WorK

ts

DE ot

eap é

JOINT IN STONES LONGITUDINAL SECTION THROUGH CENTRE OF METAL CRAMP

SECTION THROUGH CENTRE OF SLATE

CRAMP up Q

aB ==z

=

£

u

LEAD JOGGLE

FIGS.

stones is by the toothed chisel which gives a surface very much like the pointed work of hard stones. Droved Work.—This surface is obtained with a chisel about two and a half inches wide, no attempt being made to keep the cuts in continuous lines. Tooled Work is somewhat similar to droved work and is done with a flat chisel, the edge of which is about four inches wide, care being taken to make the cuts in continuous lines across the width of the stone.

Combed or. Dragged Work.—For soft stones the steel comb or

drag is often employed to remove all irregularities from the face

and thus form a fine surface.’ These tools are specially use-

ful for moulded work, as they are formed to fit a variety of curves. Rubbed Work.—For this finish the surface of the stone is previously brought with the chisel to a level and approximately smooth face, and then the surface is rubbed until it is quite smooth with a piece of gritstone aided by fine sand and water as a lubricant. Marbles are polished by being rubbed with gritstone, then with pumice, and lastly with emery powder. Besides these, the most usual methods of finishing the faces of stonework, there are several kinds of surface formed with hammers or axes of various descriptions. The toothed axe has its edges divided into teeth, fine or coarse, according to the work to be done. It is used to reduce the face of limestones and sandstones to a condition ready for the chisel. The bush hammer has a heavy square-shaped doublefaced head, upon which are cut projecting pyramidal points. It is used to form a surface full of little holes, and with it the face of sand and limestones may be brought to a somewhat orname ntal finish. The patent hammer is used on granite and ‘other hard rocks, which have been first dressed to a medium surface with the point. The fineness of the result is determined by the number in the hammer, and the work is said to be “six-,” “eight- of blades ,” or “tencut” work according to the number of blades inserte d or bolted in the hammer head. The crandall has an iron handle slotted at one end with a hole gin. wide and 3in. long. In this slot are fixed by a key ten or 11 double-headed points of tin. square steel about gin. long. It is used for finishing sandsto ne and soft stones after the surface has been levelled down with the axe or chisel. It gives a fine pebbly sparkling appeara nce. Vermiculated Work.—This is formed by carvin g a number of curling worm-like lines over the face of the block, sinking in be-

tween the worms to a depth of a fourth of an inch. The surface of the strings is worked smooth, and the sinkin gs are pock-marked with a pointed tool. Furrowed Work.—tIn this face the stone is cut with a chisel

FOUR FORMS OF JOINTING USED IN STEEPLE WORK

JOGGLED JOINT TO FLAT ARCH

8—16

into a number of small parallel grooves or furrows (fig. 6). Reticulated Face is a finish somewhat similar to vermiculated work, but the divisions are more nearly square. Face Joints of Ashlar—The face joints of ashlar stonework are often sunk or rebated to form what are termed rusticated joints; sometimes the angles of each block are moulded or chamfered to give relief to the surface or to show a massive effect. Joints in Stonewotk.—The joints between one block of stone and another are formed in many ways by cramps, dowels and joggles of various descriptions, several of the most common of which are illustrated in figs. 8-16. Cramps and Dowels.—The stones of copings, cornices and works of a similar nature, are often tied together with metal cramps to check any tendency of the stones to Separate under the force of the wind (figs. 9 and 10). Cramps are made of iron (plain or galvanized), copper or gun-metal, of varying sections and lengths to suit the work. A typical cramp would be about gin. long, x or r4in. wide, and from $ to din. thick, and turned down about rhin. at each end. A dovetailed mortise is formed at a suitable point in each of the stones to be joined and connected by a chase. The cramp is placed in this channel with its turned-down ends in the mortises, and it is then fixed with molten lead, sulphur and sand, or Portland cement. Lead shrinks on cooling, and if used at all should be well caulked when cold. Double dovetailed slate cramps bedded in Portland cement are occasionally used (fig. 10). Dowels are used for connecting stones where the use of cramps would be impracticable, as in the joints of window mullions, the shafts of small columns, and in similar ,works.

Joggles—There are many ways of making a joggle joint. The

joggle may be worked on one of the stones so as to fit into a

groove in the adjoining stone, or grooves may be cut in both the

stones and an independent joggle of slate, pebbles, or Portland cement fitted, the joggle being really a kind of dowel. The pebble

joggle joint is formed with the aid of pebbles as small dowels

fitted into mortises in the jointing faces of two stones and set with Portland cement; but joggles of slate have generally taken the place of pebbles. Portland cement joggles are formed by pouring cement grout into a vertical or oblique mortise formed

by cutting a groove in each of the joining surfaces of the stones. What is known as a he-and-she joggle, worked on the edges of the stones themselves, is shown in fig. 12. Plugs or dowels of lead are formed by pouring molten lead through a channel into dovetailed mortises in each stone (figs. 13 and 14). When cold the metal is caulked to compres s it tightly into the holes. The saddle joint is used for cornices, and is formed when a

MASPERO—MASS portion of the stone next, the joint is left raised so as to guide rain-water away from the joint (fig. 7). Two forms of rebated joints for stone copings and roofs are common. In one form (shown in fig. 6) the stones forming the coping are thicker at their lower and rebated edge than at the top plain edge, giving a stepped surface. The other form has a level surface and the stone is of the same thickness throughout and worked to a rebate on top and bottom edges. In laying stone roofs the joints are usually lapped over with an upper slab.

Joints in Spires.—Four forms of jointing for the battering

stonework of spires are shown in fig. 15. A is a plain horizontal joint. B is a similar joint formed at right angles to the face of the work. This is the most economical form of joint, the stone being cut with its sides square with each other; but if the mortar in the joint decay, moisture is allowed to penetrate. With these forms dowelling is frequently necessary for greater stability. The joints C and D are more elaborate and much more expensive on account of the extra labour involved in working and fitting. Where a concentrated weight is carried by piers or columns the bed joints are in many cases formed without the use of mortar, a thin sheet of milled lead being placed between the blocks of stone to fill up any slight inequalities. Moulded Work.—The working of mouldings in stone is an important part of the mason’s craft, and forms a costly item in the erection of a stone structure. Much skill and care is required to retain the arrises sharp and the curved members of accurate and proportionate outline. As in the case of wood mouldings, machinery now plays an important part in the preparation of stone moulded work. The process of working a stone by hand labour is ‘as follows: The profile of the moulding is marked on to a zinc template on opposite ends of the stone to be worked; a short portion, an inch or two in length, termed a “draught,” is at each end worked to the required section. The remaining portion is then proceeded with, the craftsman continually checking the accuracy of his work with a straight-edge and zinc templates. A stone to be moulded by machinery is fixed to a moving table placed under a shaped tool which is fixed in an immovable portion of the machine, and is so adjusted as to cut or chip off a small layer of stone. Each time the stone passes under the cutter it is automatically moved a trifle nearer, and thus it gradually reduces the stone until the required shape is attained. Iron in Stonework.—The use of iron dowels or cramps in stonework, unless entirely and permanently protected from oxidation, is attended by the gravest risks; for upon the expansion of the iron by rusting the stone may split, and perhaps bring about a more or less serious failure in that portion of the building. A case in point is that of the church of St. Mary-le-Strand, London, where the ashlar facing was secured to the backing with iron cramps; these were inefficiently protected from damp and many of the blocks have been split from rusting. Smeaton in his Eddystone lighthouse used dowels of Purbeck marble. Stone Arches.—Stone arches are very frequently used both in stone and brick buildings. (See ArcH; for general definitions and terms see BRICKWORK.) Stone Tracery; Carving.—The designs of Gothic and other tracery stonework are almost infinite, and there are many methods, ingenious and otherwise, of setting out such work. Nearly all diagrams of construction are planned on the principle of geometrical intersections, and the jointing is a matter which must be carefully considered in order to avoid any waste of stone

or labour. Ordinarily in stone tracery the joints should be “mason’s joints”; that is to say, the moulding is stopped and returned, the joint being at right angles to a member when it occurs in a straight part ofa member and, when it occurs in a curved member, being a continuation of the radius or the mean of the continuation of the two radii. In stone-work the joints are not “scribed” or “mitred” as in joinery. All the upper construction of windows and doors and of aisle arches should be protected from superincumbent pressure by strong relieving arches above the labels, which should be worked with the ordinary masonry, and so set that the weight above should avoid pressure on the fair work, which

23

would be liable to flush the joints of the tracery.

Stone carving is a craft quite apart from the work of the ordinary stonemason, and like carving in wood needs an artistic feeling and special training. Carving-stone should be of fine grain and sufficiently soft to admit of easy working. The Bath stones in England and the Caen stone of France are largely used for internal work, but if for the exterior they should be treated with some chemical preservative. Carving is frequently done after the stone is built into position, the face being left rough— “poasted”——and projecting sufficiently for the intended design. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—E. Viollet-le-Duc, Dictionnaire raisonné de Parchitecture Francaise (1869); W. R. Purchase, Practical Masonry (1904) ; M. A. Howe, Symmetrical Masonry Arches (1906), Masonry (1915) ; C. F. Mitchell, Brickwork and Masonry (2nd ed. 1908); I. O. Baker, A Treatise on Masonry Construction (roth ed. 1909); Building Construction, “The Architect’s Library” (edit. F. M. Simpson, 1910-13); C. C. Wiliams, Tke Design of Masonry Structures and Foundations (1922); F. P. Spalding, A. L. Hyde and E. F. Robinson, Masonry Structures (1926). (J. Br.)

MASPERO,

GASTON

CAMILLE

CHARLES

(1846-

1916), French Egyptologist, was born in Paris on June 23, 1846, his parents being of Lombard origin. He was in his second year at

the Ecole Normale in 1867 when he met Mariette, who was then in Paris as commissioner for the Egyptian section of the exhibition. Mariette encouraged his studies, and in 1869 he became a

teacher (répétiteur) of Egyptian language and archaeology at the Ecole des Hautes Etudes; in 1874 he was appointed to the chair of Champollion at the Collége de France. In Nov. 1880 Professor Maspero went to Egypt as head of an official archaeological mission, which ultimately developed into the well-equipped Institut Français de l’Archéologie Orientale. Maspero then succeeded as director-general of excavations and of the antiquities of Egypt. He held this post till June 1886; in these five years he had organized the mission, and had discovered the great cache of royal mummies at Deir el-Bahri in July 1881. Maspero now resumed his professorial duties in Paris until 1899, when he returned to Egypt in his old capacity as director-general of the

department of antiquities. He found the collections in the Cairo museum enormously increased, and he superintended their removal from Gizeh to the new quarters at Kasr en-Nil in 1902. The vast catalogue of the collections made rapid progress under Maspero’s direction. Twenty-four volumes or sections were already published in 1909. The repairs and clearances at the temple of Karnak led to the most remarkable discoveries in later years (see KarNAK). He died in Paris on June 30, 1916. Among his best-known publications are: Histoire ancienne des peuples de l’Orient classique (3 vols., Paris, 1895-97), displaying the history of the whole of the nearer East from the beginnings to the conquest by Alexander; a smaller Histoire des peuples de l'Orient, I vol., of the same scope, which has passed through six editions from 1875 to 1904; Études de mythologie et d'archéologie égyptiennes (1893, etc.), a collection of reviews and essays originally published in various journals, and especially important as contributions to the study of Egyptian religion; L’Archéologie égyptienna (latest ed., 1907), of which several editions have been published in English. Maspero also wrote: Les Inscriptions des pyramides de Saqqarah (Paris, 1894); Les Momies royales de Deir el-Bahari (1889); Les

Contes populaires de FÉgypte ancienne

(3rd ed., 1906); Causeries

d'Égypte (1907), translated by Elizabeth Lee as New Light on Ancient Egypt (1908).

- MASQUERADE, a form of entertainment or a costume ball where the personages are masked or disguised. The abbreviated form of the word, “masque” or “mask” (g.v.), applies more particularly to certain varieties of drama which flourished during Elizabethan times. See Drama, - MASS, a name for the Christian eucharistic service, practically confined since the Reformation to that of the Roman Catholic Church. (Eccl. Lat. Missa.) The various orders for the celebration of Mass are dealt with under Liturcy; a detailed account of the Roman order is given under Missax; and the general development of the eucharistic service, including the mass, is described in the article Eucnarist. In the 4th century Pilgrimage of Etheria

(Silvia) the word missa is used indiscriminately of the Eucharist, other services, and the ceremony of dismissal.

(Herzog-Hauck,

Realencyklop.

F. Kattenbusch

s.v. ‘“Messe”) ingeniously, . but

with little evidence, suggests that the word may have had a double

24

MASS

origiù and meaning: (x) in the sense of dimissio, “dismissal”;

the Palestrina style to its proper position in liturgical music,

(2) in that of commissio “commission,” “official duty,” i.e., the | But the trouble with modern settings of the Mass is not the exact Latin equivalent of the Greek \ecrovpyia (see Liturcy), and hence the conflicting use of the term. It is, however, far more probable that it was a general term that gradually became crystallized as applying to that service in which the dismissal represented a more solemn function. In the narrower sense of “Mass” it is first found in St. Ambrose (Ep. 20, 4, ed. Ballerini) where the Missa is identified with the sacrifice. It continued, however, to be used loosely, though its tendency to become proper only to the principal Christian service is clear from a passage in the 12th homily of

Caesarius, bishop of Arles (d. 542). (See also Isadore of Seville, Etym. V. 19.) Whatever its origin, the word Mass had by the time of the Reformation been long applied only to the Eucharist; and, though in itself a perfectly colourless term, and used as such during the earlier stages of the 16th century controversies concerning the Eucharist, it soon became identified with that sacrificial aspect of the sacrament of the altar which it was the chief object of the reformers to overthrow. In England, so late as the first Prayer

decadence of an old art but a fundamental incompatibility between

the modern orchestra and a good liturgical style. The 16th century Mass was often written for a definite day, and when the composer bases its theme on those of his setting of an appropriate motet (g.v.) for that day, the whole musical Themes of Victoria’s Missa: O quam gloriosum est regnum. The words quoted above each theme are those of the motet of the same name. See illustration to MOTET

I Kyrie (“In quo cum Christi”)

Book of Edward VI. it remained one of the official designations of the Eucharist, which is there described as “The Supper of the Lorde and holy Communion, commonly called the Masse.” Bishops

Also recogni-

Ridley and Latimer denounced “the Mass” with unmeasured vio-

zable

lence; Latimer said of “Mistress Missa” that “the devil hath brought her in again”; Ridley said “I do not take the Mass as it is at this day for the communion of the Church, but for a popish

device,” etc. (Works, ed. Parker Soc. pp. 120, seg.). Clearly the word mass had ceased to be a colourless term generally applicable to the eucharistic service; it was, in fact, not only proscribed officially, but in the common language of English people it passed entirely out of use except in the sense in which it is defined in Johnsons Dictionary, i.e., that of the “Service of the Romish Church at the celebration of the Eucharist.” In connection with the Catholic reaction in the Church of England, which had its origin in the “Oxford Movement” of the roth century, efforts have been made by some of the clergy to reintroduce the term “Mass” for the Holy Communion in the English church.

See Du Cange, Glossarium, s.v. “Missa”; F. Kattenbusch in HerzogHauck, Realencyklopadie (ed. 1903) s.v. “Messe, dogmengeschichtlich.” Fortesque, Catholic Encyclopaedia. vol. ix. s.v. “Mass.” For the facts as to the use of the word “mass” at the time of the Reformation see the article by J. H. Round in the Nineteenth Century for May, 1897. (See ART, MUSIC.) (A. N, J. W.)

MASS IN MUSIC Musical settings of the Mass are of central importance in the history of music during the rsth and 16th centuries. 1. Polyphonic Masses.—As an art-form the musical Mass is governed by the structure of its text. The supremely important parts of the Mass are those which have the smallest number of words, namely the opening Kyrie; the Sanctus and Benedictus, embodying the central acts and ideas of the service; and the concluding Agnus Dei. A 16th century composer could best write highly developed music when words were few and such as would gain rather than lose by repetition. Now the texts of the Gloria and Credo were more voluminous than any others which 16th century composers attempted to handle in a continuous scheme. The practical limits of the Church service made it impossible to

break them up by setting each clause to a separate movement,

a method by which Josquin and Lasso contrived to fill a whole hour with a penitential psalm. Accordingly the great masters evolved for the Gloria and Credo a style midway between that of

the elaborate motet (adopted in the Sanctus) and the homo-

phonic reciting style of the Litany.

This gave the Mass a range of style which made it to the

16th century composer what the symphony is to the great instrumental classics. Moreover, as being inseparably associated with the highest act of worship, it severely tested the composer’s depth and truthfulness of expression. The story of archaic and decadent corruptions in polyphonic Masses is touched upon elsewhere. (See Music, section 3, and PALESTRINA.) In the 2oth

century a decree of Pius X. again inculcated the restoration of

in the

. Gloria at “in gloria Dei Patris’’;in the Credo at “et vitam venturi saeculi”

and

in the Agnus - Dei at “Qui tollis peccason

ta

mundi”

service becomes a single tissue of significant themes. Thus, Victoria wrote for All Saints’ Day a motet O quam gloriosum est regnum, and a Mass with the same title and on the same themes. The motet is given as an illustration to the article on that sub-

ject; and the accompanying example shows the relation between the themes of the Mass and those of the motet. 2. Instrumental Masses in the Neapolitan Style.—The

Neapolitan composers who created classical tonality and instrumental art-forms (see Music, sec. 5) created a style of Church music best known (but not always best represented) in the Masses of Mozart and Haydn.

By this time the resources of

music were such that a reasonably expressive setting of the

Gloria and Credo would overbalance the scheme. Only a very small proportion of Mozart’s and Haydn’s Mass music may be

said to represent ideas of religious music at all, though Haydn defended himself by saying that the thought of God always made him feel irrepressibly cheerful, and he hoped God would not be angry with him for worshipping Him accordingly. The best (and least operatic) features of such unabashed music are those which develop the polyphonic aspect of the N eapolitan style. Thus Mozart’s most perfect example is his extremely terse Mass in F, written at the age of 17, and scored for four-part chorus and solo voices accompanied by the organ and two violins mostly in independent real parts. This scheme, with the addition of a pair of trumpets and drums, and occasionally oboes, forms the normal orchestra of 18th century Masses. Trombones often

played with the three lower voices. i _ 3. Symphonic Masses.—The enormous dramatic development in the symphonic music of Beethoven made the problem of. the

Mass with orchestral accompaniment liturgically insoluble. Yet Beethoven’s second Mass (in D, op. 123) is not only the most dramatic ever penned, but is, perhaps, the last classical Mass that is thoughtfully based upon the liturgy. It was intended for the installation of the archduke Rudolph as archbishop of Olmiitz;

and, though not ready until two years after that occasion, it shotws much thought for the meaning of a church service, unique in fits occasion and therefore exceptionally long. Immense as wras Beethoven’s dramatic ferce, it was equalled by his power lof

MASS sublime repose; and he was accordingly able once more to put the supreme moment of the music where the service requires it

to be, viz., in the Sanctus and Benedictus. In the Agnus Dez he writes as one who has lived in a beleaguered city. Beethoven read the final prayer of the Mass as a “prayer for inward and outward peace,” and, giving it that title, organized it on the basis of a contrast between terrible martial sounds and the triumph of peaceful themes. Schubert’s Masses show rather the influence of Beethoven’s not very impressive first Mass, which they easily surpass in interest, though Schubert did not take pains, like Beethoven, to get his Latin text correct. The last two are later than Beethoven’s Mass in D and contain many splendid passages, besides a dramatic (though not realistic) treatment of the Agnus Dei.

25

sanctum,” in which five dogmatic clauses are enshrined like relics in a casket, furnishes a beautiful decorative design, as a point of repose. Then comes a voluminous ecclesiastical fugue, “Confiteor unum baptisma,” leading, as through the door and world-wide spaces of the Catholic Church, to that veil which is not all darkness to the eye of faith. At the words “Et exspecto resurrectionem mortuorum” the music plunges suddenly into sublime and mys-

UI Kyrie (“sequuntur Agnum”) . Alsoin the Gloria at “tu solus sanctus’? and in Agnus Dei at €€ miserere ~ nobis.”

Weber’s two Masses (G and E flat) are excellent works; the larger one (in E flat) achieving an ecclesiastical style as good as |` Cherubini’s and much less dry. Otherwise the five Masses and two Requiems of Cherubini (g.v.) are the most important works

of their period. Those that were written within Beethoven’s lifetime made him regard Cherubini as the greatest master of the day. Since Schubert’s time the Viennese tradition of Mass music has been worthily represented by Bruckner (g.v.). .Dame terious modulations in a slow tempo, until it breaks out as Ethel Smyth’s Mass (1890) owes nothing to tradition, but is suddenly into a vivace e allegro of broad but terse design, which undoubtedly a work inspired by its text. comes to its climax rapidly and ends as abruptly as possible, the 4. Lutheran Masses.—Music with Latin words is not excluded last chord being carefully written as a short note without a pause. from the Lutheran Church, and the Kyrie and Gloria are fre- This gives finality to the whole Credo and contrasts admirably quently sung in succession and entitled a Mass. Thus the four with the coldly formal instrumental end of the Resurrexit three Short Masses of Bach are called short, not because they are on movements further back. Now, such subtleties might be thought a small scale (which they are not), but because they consist only beyond the power of conscious planning. But Bach’s vivace e of the Kyrie and Gloria. Bach treats each clause of his text as allegro is an arrangement of the second chorus of a church cantata, Gott man lobet dich in der Stille; and in the cantata the IT Christe (“quocumque ierit”) IV Gloria

Chris- te

|

“amicti stolis albis” 9

P

| -

chorus has introductory and final symphonies and a middle section with a da capo! Until fairly late in the roth century the Sing-Akademie of Berlin (and perhaps other choral societies in Germany) main-

tained a laudable tradition according to which its director glorified his office in a Lutheran Mass (Kyrie and Gloria) for 16-part unaccompanied chorus, Some of these works (notably that of C. F. C. Fasch) are very fine.

5. The Requiem.—The Missa pro defunctis or Requiem Mass

in the Gloria

has tended to produce special musical forms for each individual

at

“Filius Patris”

V Hosanna (variation of “quocumque ierit” in bass and tenor) a

yp

a

VP Pat Cao

a separate movement, alternating choruses with groups of arias; a method independently adopted by Mozart in a few early works and in the great unfinished Mass in C minor. This method,

3 Ai

Ho-san-na in

Dro

el

He

5-

“&-

ex-cel

-

oe]

ATE e wa

carried throughout an entire Mass, will fit into no liturgy; and Bach’s B minor Mass must be regarded as an oratorio. The most interesting case is the setting of the words:

“Et exspecto resurrectionem mortuorum et vitam venturi saeculi— Amen.” The greatest difficulty in any elaborate instrumental setting of the Credo is the inevitable anti-climax after the Resurrexit.

Bach contrives to give this anti-climax a definite

artistic value; all the more from the fact that his Crucifixus and Resurrexit, and the contrast between them, show him at the height of his power. To the end of his Resurrexit chorus he appends an orchestral ritornello, formally summing up the material of the chorus and thereby destroying all sense of finality as a member of a large group. After this the aria “Et in spiritum

case. The text of the Dies Irae imperatively demands either a dramatic elaboration or none at all. Even in the 16th century it could not possibly be set to continuous music on the lines of the Gloria and Credo. Fortunately, its Gregorian canto fermo is very beautiful and formal; and the 16th century masters either, like Palestrina, left it to be sung as plain-chant, or set it in versicles

(like their settings of the Magnificat and other canticles) for two groups of voices alternatively, or for the choir in alternation with the plain chant of the priests. A Dies Irae with orchestral accompaniment cannot avoid illus-

MASSA—MASSACHUSETTS

26

trating its tremendous text regardless of ecclesiastical style. But

it is a sour view that denies the title of great Church musi¢ to

the sublime unfinished Reguiem of Mozart (the Italian antecedents of which would be an interesting subject) and the two important works by Cherubini. These latter, however, tend to Le be funereal rather than uplifting. Of later settings, Schumann’s belongs to the days of his failing power; Henschel’s is a work of great sincerity and reticent beauty; while the three other outstanding masterpieces renounce all ecclesiastical style. Berlioz seizes his opportunity like amusical E. A. Poe; Dvořák is eclectic; and Verdi towers above both in flaming sincerity, no more able to repress his theatrical idioms than Haydn could repress his cheerfulness. Brahms’s Deutsches requiem has nothing to do with the Mass for the dead, being simply a large choral work on a text compiled

from the Bible by the composer.

MASSA,

and the extreme

south-eastern portion is low-lying

f NEW í

HAMPSHIRE

and sandy,

, an

a

-Jf o

(D.E. T.; X.)

a town of Tuscany, Italy, the joint capital with

Carrara of the province of Massa and Carrara, and sharing with it the episcopal see, 20 m. S.E. of Spezia by rail, 246 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1921) 22,599 (town); 34,166 (commune). The Palazzo Ducale (now the prefecture) was erected in the 16th century by the Cybo-Malaspina family, who also built the old castle above the town. Marble from the hills round the town is shipped at the Marina di Massa. MASSACHUSET, the Algonkin tribe formerly about Boston, from whom the bay and state of Massachusetts were named. They may once have numbered 3,000, but were reduced by pestilence before the colonial settlement began, continued to decrease, although they avoided conflict with the whites, became Christians and soon lost their tribal identity.

MASSACHUSETTS,

cut a few well-known hills rise to a marked height above the gen-

eral level, such as Mt. Tom (1,214ft.), Mt. Holyoke (954ft.), and Mt. Toby (1,275ft.). West of this, in what is known locally as more particularly the Berkshire region, we find such peaks as Mt, Williams (3,040ft.) and Greylock (3,535ft.). From the Connecticut valley eastward the elevations steadily decrease to the coast

popularly known as the “Bay State,”

is one of the New England group of the United States of America. The name Massachusetts was derived from that of an Indian tribe. It was one of the earliest English colonies in America and one of the original 13 States forming the American Union. Until 1819 it included what is now the State of Maine but as since constituted it is bounded on the north by Vermont and New Hampshire, on the east by the Atlantic ocean, on the south by the ocean, Rhode Island and Connecticut, and on the west by New York. Owing to its peculiar form, these boundaries are only approximate in the east. Its main portion forms a parallelogram about 130m. from east to west and 46m. from north to south, its straight southern boundary being almost coincident with the parallel of 42 N. In the east, the State spreads out, extending considerably south and somewhat north of the lines of the parallelogram, the counties of Plymouth and Barnstable forming the peculiar “pot-hook” of Cape Cod. The State extends approximately from 69° 57’ to 73° 30° W. Boston, the capital and principal city, is in about the same latitude as Rome. The total area is 8,266sq. M., Of which about 227 are water. Physical Features.—These can be understood in their full significance only byaslight reference to those of New England as a whole. The Appalachian mountain barrier which extends from south-west to north-east parallel to most of the eastern coast-line of the United States continues through western New England in the Berkshire hills and the Green and White mountains. From the base of these ranges a gently sloping upland descends south and eastward to Long Island sound and the Atlantic ocean. The only large river, navigable for any considerable portion, is the Connecticut, which flows southward from the Green mountains of Vermont to the Sound. As Massachusetts in form is a long narrow strip extending westward from the ocean, it runs at right angles, so to speak, to these principal New England features of mountains and river. Its eastern two-thirds is mostly made up of the sloping upland. West of that the State is divided by the Connecticut valley, the best portion and maritime outlet of which is in Connecticut, and west of that again lie the mountainous western counties. There are several small ranges, each with local names, in the

Berkshires. The more eastern is that known as the Hoosac hills which have an elevation of only 1,200 to 1,600ft. and divide the

valley of the Connecticut river from that of the smaller but more picturesque Housatonic. Bordering the lowlands of the Connecti-

1 Pittsfield 2 3 4 5

Holyoke Spangfield Worcester Haverhill

6 Lawrence 7 Lowell

8 9 10 11 12 13

Lynn Cambridge Brockton Taunton Fall River New Bedford

10 MAP

OF MAIN

10

ROADS

20

30 MILES

IN MASSACHUSETTS

There are a few exceptions, such as Mt. Lincoln (1,246ft.), Mt. Wachusett (2,108ft.).and the Blue hills. These, like those mentioned in the western section, appear to be residual peaks of an original mountain range which covered the entire State in the geological era before the whole had been levelled to the plain which was then, by the secondary process already noted, carved into its present features. The existence of this original mountain range is also indicated by the structure and extremely complicated disorder of the gneiss and crystalline schist of the uplands. On the other hand, the valley of the now much shrunken Connecticut river is composed mainly of shale and soft sandstone. The evidences of the glacial period occur everywhere, the entire State having been covered by the ice-sheet, with resultant glaciation of the rocks,

as far as the Cape Cod peninsula where we find traces of the terminal moraine. The eastern part of the State can be described almost wholly in terms of the junction of sea and land, though there is one small river, the Merrimack, which is important not on account of its very short navigable portion but for the water-power it provides by its fall. The coast-line, owing to its peculiar form, extends for about 250m., with a number of good harbours. The enormous water area included between the two points of Cape Ann and Cape Cod is known as Massachusetts bay, with the designation Cape Cod bay for its southern portion. Among the harbours, all of which are excellent, may be mentioned those of Salem, Gloucester, Marblehead, Boston and Provincetown on the east, and Buzzard’s Bay, a popular yachting resort, on the south. The northern part of the eastern shore is somewhat rocky and picturesque, whereas the long “pot-hook,” or encircling arm of Cape Cod peninsula (Barnstable county), is low and sandy. Almost the entire coast is lined with summer resorts, those gathered north of Boston giving to that section the nickname of the “Gold Coast,” owing to the great wealth concentrated there, whereas Cape Cod is as yet somewhat simpler, attracting the more conservative old families and the intellectual and aesthetic, including a somewhat noted artistic and literary colony at Provincetown. At Wood's Hole on Buzzard’s bay is the U.S. Bureau of Fisheries station with a marine biological laboratory. Leaving the mainland, there are several islands to the south, two of them, Martha’s Vineyard and Nantucket, being of considerable size and importance. Martha’s Vineyard, a little the larger (about 9 by 20m.), has a good harbour which, aside from summer yachting, is resorted tu by storm-bound vessels avoiding the dangerous shoals which lie to the south-east of the State. The physical features thus briefly described, have had a marked effect upon the history of Massachusetts at every period. In the colonial days, when waterways provided the only means of travel, the absence of any large river leading to the interior retarded development of the sections lying back of the coast, prevented the

MASSACHUSETTS development of the fur trade and led the people to look to fisheries and commerce for their livelihood, an influence which was strengthened by the rather poor soil of most of the State. This latter fact also determined that Massachusetts farms should be mostly small, and prevented, as did the climate, the growth of large estates and a slave economy as in the South. The broken character of the eastern upland has had a marked effect also, the ricber

valleys having afforded moderate ease and comfort, which resulted in conservative politics, whereas the “hill towns” were poorer, radical in politics, and largely abandoned when a changed economic situation and western expansion opened new opportunities for their dwellers. The fact that the Connecticut river merely ran

through the State, flowing thence into another, led the inhabitants of this richest of‘all sections to ally themselves rather with their neighbours to the south in Connecticut than with their own fellowcitizens to the east. To the west of this, the mountainous and somewhat rugged land gave special character to its inhabitants who have always shown themselves more democratic and radical than those in the mercantile towns of the seaboard. As a whole, the mountain barrier to the west long tended to isolate New England from the rest of the country, to preserve the New England type, and to produce a certain provinciality of outlook in which Massachusetts shared. Although railways overcame this isolation to some extent, the great traffic from the west goes to New York rather than Boston, and both commerce and manufactures are declining relatively to those in competing States. On the other hand, the beautiful scenery and charm of summer life are attracting more and more people and the motor car is bringing unexpected prosperity to villages which two decades ago seemed doomed. Climate.—The winters are long and extremely severe, passing through a very short spring abruptly into summer, a winter which Henry Adams said is “always the effort to live” and a summer which is “‘tropical licence.” The autumn is apt to be fine, and the air, especially in the Berkshire hills, dry, cool and bracing. Although varying in different parts of the State, the annual extremes of temperature are about 20° below zero to 100° or more above, with a mean average at Boston of 48 degrees. The mean summer average throughout the State is 70° and the winter (at Williamstown) 23 degrees. The lowest recorded temperature is —28° in the Connecticut valley. The annual precipitation varies from 38 to 48in., evenly distributed through the year. There is much fog along the coast. Nantucket and portions of Cape Cod are Jocated in a somewhat different climatic belt in which the temperatures are milder with a larger proportion of sunshine in the year. Fauna and Flora.—There is little that is distinctive in either as differentiated from New England as a whole. The State is a meeting place, however, for many southern and northern species of which it forms respectively, the northern and southern Jimits. It is, for example, the northern limit of such trees as the holly and Tupelo, the latter occasionally found in southern New Hampshire also. There is a small colony of prickly pear cactus in Nantucket. It is also the northern limit of many insects, notably the 17-year locust. Among the birds likewise limited are the seaside sparrow, blue-winged warbler, prairie warbler and quail. On Martha’s Vineyard there is a rapidly dwindling colony of the almost extinct heath hen. The most remarkable feature of the State from the standpoint of its fauna and flora is the influence of Cape Cod which stretches out to sea and deflects the current of the Gulf stream. To the south of the Cape are found many southern fishes and other marine creatures, including the Portuguese manof-war. In the cold waters on the north side of the Cape the fish and invertebrates are entirely different so that it is said that no

other barrier makes so sharp a dividing line in ocean faunas.

Population.—On April r, 1930, the population was 4,249,614, or 528-6 persons per sq.m., the density having steadily increased from 278-5 in 1890. It is the second most densely populated State in the Union. In 1925 90-2% of the population lived in communities numbering 5,000 and above, and 66-5% in places of 25,000 and above, 1,808,845 being in what is known as the Metropolitan area of Boston. In the year 1930 populations of the ten

largest cities were respectively: Boston (proper), 781,388; Wor4

27

cester, 195,311; Springfield, 149,900; Fall River, 115,274; Cambridge, 113,643; New Bedford, 112,597; Somerville, 103,908; Lynn, 102,320; Lowell, 100,234; Lawrence, 85,068. The increase in population between 1910 and 1920 was irregularly distributed but every county showed an increase, the most notable being Middlesex where the increase was from 778.352 to 934,924, Norfolk from 219,081 to 299,426 and Suffolk from

835,522 to 879,536.

In 1920 98-7% of the population was white, 1- 2% negro, and -1% Indian and all others. Of the white population 31-9% was of INHABITANTS

GRAPH SHOWING THE GROWTH OF POPULATION IN MASSACHUSETTS FROM

1765 TO 1920, WITH THE NUMBER OF FOREIGN BORN native-born parentage, 28-4% of foreign parentage, 10-4% of mixed, and 28% foreign-born. Owing to their tendency to congregate in cities, the largest percentage of foreign-born, from 25 to 35%, is found in the counties of Essex, Middlesex, Bristol,

Worcester and Hampden.

The State (1920) contained 183,171

foreign-born Irish, 117,007 Italians, 92,034 Russians, 69,157 Poles, 153,330 Canadians (to which should be added 108,691 French-

Canadians), 38,012 Swedes, 86,895 English, 28,474 Scotch, 28,315 Portuguese, 22,113 Germans, 20,441 Greeks, 20,789 Lithuanians, 14,570 Finns, 8,640 Armenians, 7,120 French, and smaller numbers of many other races. The preponderance of females over males is greater than in any other State in the Union, there being (1920) 1,890,014 males and 1,962,342 females. At 65 years or over, 91% of the population are or have been married; 301,245 families own their own homes, of which 126,312 are free of mortgage; 1,225,163 males are engaged in gainful occupations, of whom over one-half, 668,645, are engaged in manufacturing, and only 55,759 in agriculture, forestry and animal husbandry. Until nearly the end of the 18th century the population was unusually homogeneous. In 1794 some apprehension was expressed over the numbers of Irish arriving but the great wave of Irish immigration did not occur until the decade 1830-40. The great increase in the Italian population has mainly taken place since 1885. By 1850 the native population had largely been driven out of manufacturing by the influx of foreigners who underbid them on wages. Owing to immigration the population has become overwhelmingly Roman Catholic. Government.—The first government, other than that of the Plymouth settlement, was based upon the charter of 1629 which was intended to be merely the charter for a commercial company, but which was twisted by the colonists into a political constitution. The system of “towns” created became the most characteristic feature of the New England system. The word meant a “township,” an area of considerable extent which might include several settlements, villages, etc. Each township had the right of sending deputies to represent it in the General court, as the legislature was styled. The affairs of the towns, including election of officers and representatives, were conducted in town meetings, at which all citizens had the right to speak although the franchise was for long limited by religious requirements.

The town:meeting

was a political school of prime importance and although thesystem has less significance now it. has been abandoned slowhy!dnd

with reluctance even in the larger places, Boston; for: exaniple,

MASSACHUSETTS

28

refusing incorporation as a city until 1822 when it had a population of 47,000. Representative government dates from 1634 and the General court was divided into two chambers in 1644. The old charter was annulled in 1684 and a royal one, with a governor appointed by the Crown, substituted in 1691. The government functioned under this until the Revolutionary period when, first, committees and, next, a provincial congress took over the duties. The present constitution, adopted in 1780, is the oldest of all State constitutions still in force. There have been 70 amendments to it up to 1927. Townships ceased to be represented as such after 1856, The franchise is enjoyed by all citizens, male and female, over 21 years old (insane, etc., being excluded). The last religious test even for office-holders was abandoned 1821 and the last remnant of a property qualification 1891, and sex distinction 1924. A slight educational test can still be enforced. Massachusetts was the first State to adopt the blanket ballot in which the names of candidates are arranged alphabetically without party columns. A relic of colonial times is the council, a body elected to represent divisions of the State to assist the governor in executive functions. In 1916 the jurisdiction of district or municipal courts was ex` tended to run throughout the State. Massachusetts has been a leader in the creation of boards and commissions whose functions extend to almost every department, such as the board of education (1837); of agriculture (1852); of railroad commissioners (1869); of health (1869); of statistics of labour, fisheries, game and charity (1879); the dairy bureau (1891); and of insanity (1898). Others have to do with prisons, highways, insurance, banking, ballot-laws, voting machines, gas and electric companies, conciliation and arbitration in labour disputes, registration in dentistry, medicine, pharmacy, inspection of food and drugs, etc. Almost all State employees are under civil service regulations, even in the smaller political subdivisions. There are rigid laws to prevent stock-watering in all corporations of a semi-public sort. The Torrens system of land registration was adopted in 1898 and a court created for its administration. The death penalty has been carried out by electrocution since 1898. Municipal ownership of public utilities, particularly gas and electric light works is permitted and has grown steadily. As elsewhere, the State is gradually encroaching on the functions of municipalities and has done notable work for them in such matters as docks, parks and water supply. In a few cases, such as Boston

in sinking funds, leaving a net debt of $64,631,454. Although all of the debt is a direct obligation of the State, it is divided into two parts, one part of which has been incurred for the benefit of the entire State (amounting to $14,479,704 net), and another part has been incurred for the benefit of 40 cities and towns in the vicinity of and including Boston, called “the Metropolitan Dis. trict.” This has been incurred for water, sewer and park systems. On Oct. 30, 1926, the assets of the 154 national banks were $1,465,195,000, and those in the State institutions under supervision of the State banking department $3,710,983,924.

In the

year of the entry of the United States into the World War, 1917,

the latter stood at $2,054,551,710. There were 196 savings banks with assets of $1,879,332,985, which show an increase of $6735,000,000 in deposits in the eight years succeeding the war, the average deposit being $594.96. Important changes were made in 1926 in the Jaw regarding the nature of savings bank investments. There has been a rapid increase in recent years in the growth of co-

operative banks, the assets

of which

in 1926 totalled

over

$42 5,000,000. Education.—In the colonial period, Massachusetts took the lead in popular education, and was the first colony to found a college, but at no time in that period could Harvard compare with such other New World universities as those, e.g., at Mexico or Lima. The quality of New England colonial education has been greatly over-estimated. The real beginning of the State’s modern system dates from about 1840, when the extremely bad situation everywhere in the schools of the country had aroused great criticism. At that time 29 of the richest towns in the State maintained no schools at all as they should have in accordance with the law. The school board was organized in 1837 and under the leadership of Horace Mann conditions improved rapidly. The present system is conducted under the general laws relating to education passed in 1920, with some amendments. There is a department of education “under the supervision and control of a commissioner of education, and an advisory board of education of six members, of whom at least two shall be women and one shall be a school teacher.” The commissioner is appointed by the governor and council. The system includes common, high and normal schools, and all have a high reputation. Manual training since 1894 has

been part of the curriculum in all municipalities of over 20,000

population. There are also textile schools at Fall River, New Bedford and Lowell, a nautical school, and a State Agricultural college at Amherst. The first Normal school in the country was that founded at Lexington and there were in 1928 seven others, including one for art at Boston. There are many private schools of high standing, such as Phillips

Andover, Groton and Mt. Hermon. The Boston Latin school founded in the 17th century is one of the oldest in the country. Of the higher institutions of learning, besides Harvard (1636), may be mentioned Williams college (1793) at Williamstown, Amherst (1821) near Northampton, Boston university (Methodist Episcopal) at Boston (1867), Tufts college (1852) at Medford, and Clark university (1889) at Worcester. For women only there are Mount Holyoke (1837) at South Hadley, Smith college (1875) at Northampton, Wellesley college (1875) near Boston,

Simmons college (1899) in Boston, and Radcliffe college (1879)

in connection with Harvard. Technical instruction is given at Worcester Polytechnic institute, Worcester, and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston (both 1865). In 1925 the total number of pupils enrolled in the public schools BY COURTESY OF THE CHAMBER OF COMMERCE, PLYMOUTH, MASS. was 747,938 and the amount expended $75,385,000. In 1920 the TOWN SQUARE, PLYMOUTH, SHOWING THE CHURCH OF THE PILGRIMS, TO THE RIGHT, AND THE TOWN HOUSE (1749) , TO THE LEFT school attendance for both sexes rose from 37% at five years of age to 97-4% at 11 and fell steadily to 10.2% at 20. At the last and Fall River, the city police departments are in the hands of age 16.2% of those of native parentage were still being educated, State Commissioners. In 1920 a State constabulary was organ- and 10-8% of the foreign-born, whereas those of foreign-born ized. The influence of war-time conditions was reflected in legis- parents fell to 7-6%. lative measures, such as that directing that emergency legislati on ; Membership for teachers is compulsory in the retirement pen: should take effect immediately and that providing for absentee sion fund system, as is retirement after 70. Under some condivoting. In 1920 over 100 State departments were reorgani zed under tions provision is made for it at 60. In 1920 there were 19,085 20 heads. teachers in public schools. Of the total number, 10,127 were of Finance and Banking.—The total bonded debt of the State foreignborn parents and 2,757 themselves foreign-born. There on Nov. 30, 1927 was $126,455,150 of which $61,82 3,696 was held are several sub-boards, each with a director and varying number ee

MASSACHUSETTS

29

of advisors, serving without pay, such as the division on libraries, that on immigration and Americanization, and for the blind. Pupils of 14-16 years of age must have completed the sixth grade before being certified for employment.

leading State in growing small fruits. There were in 1925, 33,454 farms, with a total acreage of 2,500,000 (nearly one-half the State). Value of all farm property was over $250,000,000, or about $7,500 per farm. Average value of all farm property, inLibraries and Museums.—The State is better supplied with cluding buildings, equipment and live stock, was $107.50 per acre. important libraries than any other in the Union. Moreover there Transportation facilities are excellent and farms are in close touch is a free public library in every city and town, 419 to 355 cities with markets. The refrigerator car has enabled the West and South and towns. The annual circulation of books is 21,000,000 or five to compete in some products but not the perishable ones during per capita. The Boston Public Library (the first city public li- the season. The value of some of these was (1925): milk, $30,brary to be entirely supported by taxation) is one of the three 408,000; vegetables, $15,348,069 (1920); hay (tame and wild) great scholarly libraries of the country open to the public and is $14,222,000; fruits, $9,510,000; eggs, $5,570,000; tobacco, the largest municipal free library in the world, containing 1,388,- $2,527,000. Hay makes up 76% of the total crop acreage, most of 439 volumes, and specialising in Shakespeare, Americana and it being fed to dairy cattle, Worcester county taking the lead. Live Spanish literature. Among other libraries are: the Massachusetts stock (1924) included 43,537 horses, 192,131 cattle (145,631 Historical Society, rich in Americana mss.; the State Library dairy cows), and 63,810 swine. The value of all crops in 1925 was (470,000 vols.) with one of the finest collections in the world $36,305,000 compared with $31,509,000 in 1924. of the laws of all foreign countries; the Boston Athenaeum Farming has long been a depressed industry but is gradually (304,502 vols.) including Washington’s library; the New England recovering. Every effort is being made to improve conditions and Historical Genealogical Society (60,000 vols. and nearly as many the commissioner of agriculture stated in 1926 that more young pamphlets) mainly devoted to family history; various libraries people at last appeared to be going from the cities to the farms connected with Harvard university, totalling 2,497,200 vols.; Essex than in the reverse direction. The New England Council has done Institute, Salem (500,000 vols.) mainly on New England history noteworthy work, and in 1926 organized a New England marketand maritime commerce; American Antiquarian Society, Worces- ing conference as a result of which a law was enacted establishing ter (165,000 vols.; 270,000 pamphlets, 100,000 manuscripts, and grades and standards for produce. An important law was also 12,350 vols. of bound newspapers, in which last, as well as in other passed (1927) regulating the sale of seeds. respects, it ranks first in the U.S.; it also contains the Mather Manufactures.—There was little manufacturing in Massachulibrary). There are other important technical libraries and many setts before the American Revolution. The State has always been general ones of 100,000 or more volumes scattered throughout the the leader in the textile industry as well as others of importance. State. In Boston there is the Museum of Natural History (1830), The first cotton mill was established at Beverly in 1788 and the and the Museum of Fine Arts (1870) in which latter the collec- first woollen mill at Byfield 1794. The first power loom was set tions of Chinese, Japanese and East Indian exhibits rank first in up in 1814 at Waltham. With the improvement in machinery and the country, as does also its Print collection and, in point of qual- the development of water power, the great centres of Lowell, Lawity, its Egyptian and clessical collections. rence and Fall River arose in the 1830s. Charities and Houses of Cortection.—The State is well supIn the last decade there have been vast changes in the indusplied with charitable and reformatory institutions. Those under try of the State owing mainly to the transfer of much of the texthe Department of Public Welfare include a State infirmary at tile business to the South. Whole villages and towns, dependent on Tewksbury for dependents (1866); the Lyman School for Boys at this one industry, have been almost wiped out, and for a while Westboro, a reformatory school for boys under 15 years of age great pessimism prevailed as to the future of the State. It is probwho are under the care of the trustees until they are 21, with a able that this pessimism has been carried too far, and a much farm for younger boys at Berlin; an industrial school for boys more hopeful feeling prevails (1928) and appears to be justified. over 15 at Shirley; a similar one for girls at Lancaster; and the Various organizations, such as the Associated Industries of MassaMassachusetts Hospital school at Canton for the care and educa- chusetts and the New England Council have been studying condition of crippled and deformed children. tions scientifically. This spirit of hopefulness is shown by the fact Under the department of health are four hospitals for consump- that in 1926 $29,000,000 was expended in Massachusetts in the tives at Rutland, Westfield, North Reading and Lakeville. Under extension of manufacturing plants, a new high figure for such the department of mental diseases are State hospitals for the in- expenditures. Manufactures in Cambridge have increased 300% sane at Worcester, Taunton, Northampton, Danvers, Westboro, in the last decade. Although the total of products manufactured Boston, Grafton, Medfield, Gardner, Foxborough; a hospital for in 1925, $3,426,000,000, showed a decline from 1919 (really a war epileptics at Monson, and schools for the feeble-minded at Waver- year) it is again increasing rapidly. Cotton goods in 1925 amountley, Wrentham and Belchertown. ed to $345,864,000 as compared with $296,831,000 in 1924; knit The department of correction supervises the Reformatory for goods increased about $8,000,000; silks over $9,000,000; dye and Women at Sherborn, a State reformatory at Concord for men, a finishing products $42,000,000; worsted and woollens $29,000,000. State prison at Charlestown, and a prison camp and hospital at Minerals.—Granite and basalt or trap rock are by far the Rutland; also a State farm for petty criminals, defective delin- chief products of the quarries. The principal granite quarries were quents and insane criminals at Bridgewater. Many private chari- in Worcester, Essex, Norfolk and Berkshire counties. The best table corporations (about 1,000 in 1927), report to the State De- known is the “Quincy granite” which is found about rım. southpartment of Public Welfare, and 131 infirmaries, caring for over east of Boston. 9,000 persons in 1926, are subject to visitation by an inspector Commerce.—The cod-fisheries have always been of prime imfrom that department. The Perkins Institute for the Blind is portance in the economics of the State and formed one of the bases memorable for its association with Samuel Howe Gridley. of the earliest commerce to Europe. Until 1785, when trade was The total net cost of public poor relief for the year ending opened with China, and 1788 when trading began with the AmeriMarch 31, 1926, was $9,561,690. This includes aid given by the can north-west coast, trade was mainly with Europe, Africa and State to 117,646 persons. The total expenditures of the four de- the West Indies and American coast ports. Ship-building was alpartments mentioned above for the year ending Nov. 30, 1926 ways an important industry and with the rise of the clipper ships were: Mental Diseases, $8,173,279; Public Welfare, $4,831,726; and the rich trade to the Orient, merchants of Salem and Boston Public Health, $1,944,121; Correction, $1,593,381; or $16,542,507, grew rapidly in wealth. Owing to great changes in the United equal to 33-6% of the total State expenses for that year. States and in transportation facilities to the interior, MassachuAgriculture.—Conditions of soil and climate are favourable setts has fallen behind many other States in foreign commerce. for the raising of apples, small fruits, berries, potatoes, onions, In 1925 it handled 2,684,349 tons (2,240 Jb.) as compared with market-garden vegetables and some kinds of tobacco. For pota- 1,591,068 in New York, 4,472,784 in Maryland, and 5,064,140 in toes, onions, oats and tobacco the average yield is much above the Louisiana. The effects of the Panama canal are only beginning to

average for the U.S. as a whole.

In 1925 Massachusetts was a

be felt and will be very favouzable to Boston.

In some respects,

MASSACHUSETTS

30

as wool, Boston has never lost its primacy, and is still the leading market in America and the second in the world. In 1922 190,951,655 Ib. of domestic and 242,856,040 of foreign wool passed through the port. The following table gives the total value of all commodities for the years named: IQOI

Imports. $ 61,452,000

Exports. $143,708,000

1925

321,567,000

47,494,000

1926 1927

305,879,000 288,499,000

41,283,000 42,181,000

Boston is now the only Massachusetts port of importance in foreign trade although Fall River still maintains a fair trade. Total imports and exports in tons, 1926: Beverly, 28,579; Bos-

ton, 2,862,709; Fall River, 336,161; Gloucester, 9,300; New Bedford, 18,750; Onset, 220; Plymouth, 17,592; Salem, 10,500; Vineyard Haven, 630; Weymouth, 942. With the new spirit of optimistic aggressiveness coming to prevail in New England and with a better understanding of the great possibilities of the Panama canal, Massachusetts should make rapid gains in commerce.

Transportation.—The State in 1925 was served by 2,071m.

of steam railway as compared with 2,131m. in 1915. The electric railway mileage also decreased during the same period from 3,056, to 2,571. The road mileage in the State highway system on Dec. 31, 1926, was 1,564, and of this total 1,551 were surfaced. There were 691,646 motor vehicles registered in 1926.

HISTORY Early Settlements.—It is uncertain when Massachusetts was first visited by Europeans. In spite of conjecture there is no proof of anyone having been there before Bartholomew Gosnold in 1602, who visited Massachusetts bay and named Cape Cod. Two years later Champlain explored the coast and in 1614 Jobn Smith also did so, naming many of the points along it.

After that, visits became more frequent but it was not until many years after other settlements had been made in America that a permanent colony was planted there. This was at Plymouth, in 1620. Certain religious enthusiasts had fled from England to Holland some years before and from there decided to migrate to the New World. After considering Guiana and other places, they determined to try the territory owned by the Virginia company, and financial assistance was received from colonizing-speculators in London. The London promoters provided the money and when the Mayflower sailed, of its 102 passengers only 35 came from the Leyden religious group, and 67 from London. The leaders before landing drew up the famous “Mayflower Compact” to serve as the basis of government. There was no intention of making a new departure in the direction of a democratic constitution, and the short document was merely a modification of the customary form of church covenant to meet the temporary crisis in an unfamiliar situation. As, owing to mere stress of weather or some other unknown cause, the colonists landed in Massachusetts instead of Virginia, they had no other government than this formed by themselves, and the pure democracy thus inaugurated and later modified, was accidental. It became, however, the precursor of innumerable other written covenants In New England forming the basis of town and church government there. The troubles of the first winter were severe and half the colony died, including Governor Carver, whose place was taken by William Bradford. Fortunately for the colonists the Indian tribes had been decimated by illness a few years earlier and the settlement had little trouble on that score. The contract with the London promoters had called for ownership of property in common, but this was soon modified by stress of circumstances in favour of individual property. The colony, al-

though it managed to survive its initial difficulties, was never

financially successful and eventually all connection with the English company was terminated. After the adjustment of accounts with ‘its financial sponsors, the colony succeeded in getting grants defining its territorial boundaries, and gradually the village of Plymouth threw off other little settlements, such as Scituate (1636) and Duxbury (1637), but:was finally absorbed into the larger and more powerful colony of Massachusetts Bay in 1691.

Soon after the Plymouth settlement was made others were established along the coast, mostly by individuals, a number of whom from 1625 onward settled around Boston Harbor. A small fishing company tried to establish a foothold and business on Cape Ann which was the forerunner of a much more important colon-

izing movement than any yet made in North America. In England it was a time of much change and unrest, quite as much political and economical as religious. The Puritans were drawn to a great extent from country gentlemen and middle-class business men, all of whom were feeling the stress of the times severely. There was a great migration of the discontented to the New World, a migration by no means confined to New England. Between 1620 and 1642, for example, 18,600 persons went to Barbadoes as compared with only “PROCEEDINGS,” MASSACHUSETTS HISFROM 14,000 to Massachusetts, and TORICAL SOCIETY 18,000 to other West India THE GREAT SEAL OF MASSACHUSETTS DURING THE REIGN oF [Islands as compared with less GEORGE II. than 4,000 to the rest of New England. The Massachusetts settlement was thus merely an episode in a much broader movement.

Certain Puritans in England

became interested in an attempt to revive the defunct fishing company at Cape Ann, and in 1628 a patent was received from the Council for New England and a number of settlers were sent out under John Endicott as governor. Meanwhile the number in England -interested in a Massachusetts venture had increased, and in 1629 a rather strong group, including John Winthrop, obtained a charter as “The Governor and Company of the Massachusetts Bay in New England.” The grant was similar to that of the Virginia Company in 1609, the patentees being joint proprietors, with rights of ownership and government. The intention of the Crown was evidently to create merely a commercial company with what, in modern parlance, we would call stockholders, officers and directors, but by a shrewd and legally questionable move, the patentees decided to transfer the entire management and the charter itself to Massachusetts, thus paving the way for not only making the management local, but also for the unwarranted assumption, pregnant with most important consequences, that the charter for a commercial company was in reality a political constitution for a new government with only indefinable dependence upon the imperial one at home. The religious motive was but one among others inducing even the leaders to emigrate to America. It was undoubtedly important, but even it looked merely to the establishment of a community in which the emigrants would be free to worship as they themselves wished, not to establish in any way a refuge for those who might wish to worship differently. Indeed, throughout the

whole colonial period, the leaders of the colony fought religious liberty with every weapon in their power, The economic motives were also strong (as Winthrop clearly indicated in writing in his own case), the sudden increase in the cost of living in England with consequent unsettlement of established habits and social position, being a leading factor. In the summer of 1630 a fleet of ships carried over nearly 1,000 emigrants, including Winthrop as governor and Thomas Dudley as deputy governor, to Massachusetts bay, where they settled the towns of Boston, Charlestown, Dorchester, Medford,; Watertown, Roxbury and Lynn. Such leaders as Winthrop, Dudley, Endicott and the Rev. John Cotton were strongly opposed to democracy, were zealous to prevent any independence in religious views, and Lad no trust in the people at large. Opposition showed itself now and then in the case of individuals, the General court or even a town (as Watertown). The first of the more noted cases was that of Roger Williams who was banished from the colony and settled in Rhode Island (1636). Almost simultaneously occurred the Antinomian Controversy in which Ann Hutchinson and Harry Vane the younger were the protagonists, and which ended‘in the banish-

MASSACHUSETTS

31

ment of Mrs. Hutchinson and the return of Vane to England. |ritory it added the province of Maine and the former colony of There was much criticism in England, even among the friends of | Plymouth. Although the new charter provided for a royal goverthe colony, of the policy of repression adopted by the leaders, |nor and in other ways greatly diminished the power of the old lay and clerical, but they pursued their course until halted by | theocratic party it was a more reasonable governmental instruroyal authority a generation later. The harshness of rule, narrow- ment than the anomalous commercial charter which the colony

mindedness and self-satisfaction which became characteristic of the Massachusetts colony cannot be ascribed wholly to Puritanism. As has been said, it was a period of great Puritan emigration and all the colonies both on the American mainland and in the West Indies were strongly Puritan in tone at first. In the South and on the islands, differing climatic and other conditions induced modifications jn cultural life and thought, but even in New England both Rhode Island and Connecticut were far more liberal than Massachusetts. Extension of settlements brought on troubles with the Indians and in 1637 there occurred the war with the Pequots, in which that race was practically annihilated. In the same year a synod of the clergy was held at Boston which listed 82 blasphemous, erroneous or unsafe opinions held in the colony. In 1643 a loose confederation of the four colonies of Massachusetts, Connecticut,

had for so long tried to twist into a political constitution. The first royal governor was a New England man, Sir William Phips, who had led an unsuccessful attack on Quebec in 1690. Massachusetts had carried out an easy raid upon Acadia which had inspired hopes of a larger conquest of French territory, with the sole result of almost bankrupting the colony by a debt of £200,ooo. The last decade of the 17th century was also marked by the witchcraft delusion, mainly in Salem village, during 1691-02. In all about 32 persons were executed, one by the horrible mediaeval penalty of being pressed to death under heavy weights. After the end of that delusion, the life of Massachusetts takes on a more modern tinge. Connecticut had shown the way to civil and Rhode Island to religious liberty. If the far more powerful colony of Massachusetts cannot lay claim to have been a leader in either of these directions, its founders had established the Plymouth and New Haven, was effected under the title of the strongest colony in North America, had made creditable beginUnited Colonies of New England. It performed some useful nings in public education, had developed the system of town work but its policies were largely dominated by Massachusetts government, and laid the foundation for the Congregational and it gradually lost influence. Church. Although the results of the intellectual repression of its In 1644 laws were passed against the Baptists and several of first century were long to be felt, with the opening of the new them were cruelly dealt with. The Quakers also were persecuted, century the colony swung more and more into the growing liberalmore particularly from 1656 to 1662, four being put to death and ism of thought of the r8th century. many others whipped, imprisoned, branded or banished. Finally, It also shared more in the larger life of the empire. Several owing partly to a revulsion of public feeling and largely to action times, notably in the unfortunate expeditions against Jamaica by the English Crown, a stop was put to the worst forms of perse- (1702), against Canada (1709-11) and Cartagena (1740), Massacution. During the Civil War and Cromwellian period in England, chusetts troops played an honourable part, and to that colony the colonies had for the most part been left to go their own way must be given the main credit for the capture of Louisburg from and Massachusetts had arrogated to herself an almost complete the French in 1745. In the French and Indian war her soldiers independence of the home government. It was obvious according also took part in the expedition against Oswego, took the chief to the ideas of the time that if the colony were to remain part part in the capture of Acadia, and also shared in the Crown Point of the empire a closer dependence would be essential, and after and second Louisburg attacks. Meanwhile, the colony had been the Restoration it was decided to send out a Royal Commission making rapid strides in wealth and was becoming markedly selfto investigate conditions. In 1665 the Commission visited New conscious politically. There had been serious trouble with the England, and the following year the king sent a circular letter to currency earlier in the century, owing to the colonists’ insistence, all the colonies, expressing dissatisfaction with Massachusetts perhaps necessary, upon the use of too large amounts of. paper only. There was, indeed, a considerable and respectable party in money, in which it was opposed by the English government. This the colony itself which was opposed to the extreme pretensions of trouble culminated in a crisis, including rioting, under Governor the local government. That government, however, trusting to Belcher in 1740 but the repayment to the colony by England distance and the preoccupation of England with the European of about £183,000 in sterling to cover its expenses in the capture war, pursued its course. of Louisburg (1745) enabled it to retire about £2,000,000 of its In 1675 there occurred a second and much more serious Indian depreciated bills and establish itself on a firm money basis, a fact war, known as King Philip’s War, due to the grasping land policy of great importance in its subsequent commercial development. of the colonies and the desperation of the savages at seeing them- Fortunes were accumulating, business operations were. growing selves more and more hemmed in by the whites. It was an in- much larger in scale, Harvard had become liberal in thought, evitable conflict and although the whites were victorious they and Connecticut, not Massachusetts, had now become the last suffered severely. It was said that one man in every 16 of mili- stand of the old religious ideas. tary age was killed and it was long before the frontier recovered. During the war there had been much smuggling and trading Meanwhile the case of Massachusetts was again taken up by the with the enemy, and the British government became more strin- English government. The colony adopted the method of evasion gent in trying to enforce trade regulations. In 1756 it introduced and delay in meeting charges and complying with orders. This a system of general search warrants, such as Massachusetts itself policy resulted in the annulment of the charter in 1684, in had had in force for eight years. Merchants who saw their profits leaving the colony defenceless against the king, and with few or endangered protested, and in 176r James Otis made his famous no friends in England to defend the course it had taken. In some and impassioned attack in court upon these Writs of Assistance, respects, such as the end of the exclusion of non-church members the strict legality of which was hardly open to question. Followfrom the franchise, the cause of liberty gained by the change. In ing the peace of 1763 and the need for readjusting the cost of 1686 a royal government was inaugurated by the arrival of Joseph maintaining and defending the empire, came the fatal attempts to Dudley, a native Massachusetts man, as president of a provisional solve the problem. In 1765 Massachusetts was prominent among government until a new one could be devised. He was soon sup- the colonies which resisted the Stamp Act. Samuel Adams of planted by Sir Edmund Andros, whose government extended over Boston, one of the ablest agitators and propagandists whom any all New England and New York. Although he was by no means country has produced, set himself to keep alive the flames of disthe “tyrant” whom the earlier patriotic historians painted, he was content, having made up his mind that the colonies should be

lacking in tact and in the qualities of wise statesmanship, and

his situation was an extremely difficult one. When word came that the Stuart dynasty had been overthrown in England in favour of

William of Orange, a mild revolution occurred in Boston, and Andros and most of his government were imprisoned. Finally a new charter was procured for Massachusetts, 1691, to whose ter-

wholly independent of England.

In his skilful manipulation of

public opinion and emotion, and in his organization of the Committees of Correspondence, he probably did more than any other man to arouse the opposition of certain elements against England and to prevent the possibility of any reconciliation. In 1768 royal troops were stationed in Boston and on March 5, 174%0,'a clash 4,

MASSACHUSETTS

32

occurred between them and some citizens of whom five were killed. The soldiers had been constantly subjected to taunts and abuse and on the whole had behaved well. In this incident a small mob, led by a half-breed negro, had been the aggressors. Officers and men at once surrendered to the civil authorities and upon trial by the local court were acquitted, except two who received slight penalties for technical homicide. Samuel Adams and his party made the most possible of the “atrocity” and dubbed it “the Boston massacre.” In 1773 occurred the “Boston tea party” in which a band of citizens disguised as Indians boarded the ships carrying the tea and threw it overboard. In retaliation for this wanton destruction of private property (not considered necessary in any other colony), Parliament passed the Boston Port bill, closing the port to commerce. The increasing agitation and violence of the mobs during this decade presaged more serious armed conflict. Gen. Gage was made governor and in April 1775 sent an armed force to Lexington and Concord to destroy military stores gathered at those places by the Opposition. The force was attacked and completely routed by the country people, and Gage was practically besieged in Boston. In an effort to release himself the battle of Bunker Hill was fought June 17, resulting in a costly

but psychologically complete victory for the Americans. The British loss was exceedingly heavy. In July Washington arrived at Cambridge to take command of all the troops, and soon after the scene of war shifted from Massachusetts and no important military action occurred within it for the rest of the struggle.

During the whole of it Massachusetts contributed more liberally than any other colony in men and money though military leadership, except for Generals Henry Knox and Benjamin Lincoln, passed to other hands. Two years of prosperity following the signing of peace in 1783 soon gave place to serious financial difficulty, particularly among the poor and heavily taxed farming class. Violence occurred in most counties and became especially serious in the western ones. Owing largely to the failure of the legislature either to suppress the insurrection or to redress grievances, the revolt gained headway. Many ex-Revolutionary soldiers and officers took part in it, among others Capt. Daniel Shays, and owing to his leadership the movement became known as Shays’s rebellion. It was finally put down by aid of heavy forces under Gen. Lincoln. The inci-

dent was important as frightening the moneyed classes into accepting more readily the new Federal constitution. This was ratified by only a very small majority in Massachusetts which was considered a “pivotal state.” After its adoption the State became strongly Federalist in politics. A group of its leading politicians, known as the “Essex Junto” and including such men as Fisher Ames, George Cabot, Timothy Pickering, John Lowell and others (all opponents of democracy and strongly reactionary) long dominated the politics of the State. They were utterly out of sympathy with the principles of the party in national power after 1800 and with the policy of war against England in 1812, On the whole, the part played by the State in that war was inglorious. As a commercial community it had suffered heavily from the embargo measures preceding it, but it is difficult to Justify the extreme sectionalism and anti-nationalism displayed when the nation was actually at war. Although New England held most of the specie of the country it refused, in the main, to subscribe to the war loans and Boston took only $75,000 of that of 1813 as compared with $7,000,000 subscribed in Pennsylvania. Although great numbers of its citizens supported the Government, the policy of the State as a whole was distinctly obstructionist and disloyal. Rumours of secession, which had been heard at intervals from 1800, seemed to find confirmation with the convening of the Hartford Convention, mainly dominated by Massachusetts, In 1814. The more sober element prevailed, however, and the convention adjourned doing but little harm except to the reputations of those who had attended. The State also opposed the Mexican War as it had the policy leading to it. The period 1830-40 witnessed great social changes, among others the rise of the factory system and the substitution to a great extent of imported foreign for native American labour. It was a period of intellectual ferment and of social experiment. Utopian comè

munities, such as Brook Farm, were undertaken, and although they all ended in failure, they left their mark on the thought and idealism of the times. Under the lead of Wm. Lloyd Garrison and Wendell Phillips, Massachusetts was in the van of the Aboli-

tionist movement. Such citizens as C. F. Adams and Charles’ Sumner took leading parts in the formation of the Free Soil Party, and when at last the Civil War came, the State entered the contest whole-heartedly, rallying to the support of the Federal Government in a spirit utterly different from that which had marked the two preceding ones. It has been stated that of the

159,165 men (including re-enlistments) whom the State sent to the war less than 7,000 were drafted. In the Spanish-American War of 1898 the State also took an honourable part in spite of the lack of sympathy of notable leaders with the war and the imperialism following it. From the Civil War onward the state has always been strongly Republican in politics and devoted to protection and high tariffs. During the World War 198,863 citi-

zens were credited with military or naval service. Of these 83,220 were drafted, the State showing a larger proportion of voluntary enlistments than any other except Oregon and Rhode Island. Owing to the extraordinary number of able men, the influence

of Massachusetts in the intellectual life of the nation has been out of all proportion to its size and population. The roll of historians has been notable, including John Winthrop and William Bradford in the settlement period, Thomas Hutchinson in the revolutionary one, and culminating with Bancroft, Sparks, Prescott, Motley, Parkman, Thayer and Rhodes, though the last was not born in the State. In poetry we have R. H. Dana, Bryant, Longfellow, Whittier, Lowell, Holmes and Amy Lowell; in philosophy and theology, Jonathan Edwards, Channing, Emerson, Parker and William James; in fiction, Mrs. Stowe and Haw-

thorne; in education, Horace Mann and Charles W. Eliot; in oratory and statesmanship, James Otis, John Adams, John Quincy Adams, Webster, Choate, Everett, Sumner, and Wendell Phillips; in law, Story, Parsons and Shaw. BretrocrapHy.——Topography.—W. M. Davis, Physical Geography of Southern New England (1896); U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin 116, H. Gannett, “Geographic Dictionary of Massachusetts”; M. Keir, “Some Influences of the Sea upon the Industries of New England,” American Geographical Review, vol. v. Minerals —U.S. Census Re-

ports, and U.S. Geological Survey annual volumes on, Mineral Resources. Agriculture —U.S. and Mass. State Census Reports; reports and other publications of the State board of agriculture, the Agricul- . tural college, and of the Experiment Station at Amherst; and P. W. Bidwell, “The Agricultural Revolution in New England,” American Historical Review, vol. xxvi. Manufactures-—U.S. Census Reports; annual reports of the State Bureau of Statistics of Labour; M. T. Copeland, The Cotton Manufactures in the U.S. (1912); V. S. Clark, History of Manufactures in the U.S. (1916); E. B. Hazard, Organization of the Boot and Skoe Industry in Mass. before 1875 (1921); pamphlets and reports issued by the New England Council. Fisheries.— R. McFarland, A History of the New England Fisheries (1911). Commerce, Communications, etc-—U.S. Census, Reports; Reports of the State Railway Commission: E. Stanwood, American Tariff Controversics in the roth Century (1904) ; F. W. Taussig, Tariff History of the U.S. (1914); E. R. Johnson, History of Domestic and Foreign Commerce of the U.S., (1915); S. E. Morison, The Maritime History of Massachusetts (1921). Population—U.S. and Massachusetts State Census Reports; publications of the State bureaux of labour and health. Government—G. H. Haynes, Representation and Suffrage in Massachusetts, 1620~1691, Johns Hopkins Studies, xii; H. A. Cushing, History of the Transition from Provincial to Commonwealth Government in. Massachusetts (1896); R. H. Whitten, Public Administration in Massachusetts (1898); A. E. McKinley, The Suffrage Franchise in the 13 English Colonies in America (1905); L. A. Frothingham, Brief History of the Constitution and Government of Massachusetts (1916) 3

S. E. Morison, “The Struggle over the Adoption of the Constitution of Massachusetts, 1780,” Mass. Hist. Soc., Proceedings, (1917); Public Documents of Massachusetts, annual. Finance.—J. B. Felt, An Historical Account of Massachusetts Currency (1839); A. M. Davis, Currency and Banking in Massachusetts Bay (1900); C. J. Bullock, Historical Sketch of the Finances and Financial Policy of Massachusetts (1907) ; Reports of the Commissioners of Banking: Education.—

Annual Reports of the U.S. Commissioner of Education and of the Massachusetts Board of Education; J. Quincy, History of Harvard ree} G. G. Bush, History of Higher Education in Massachusetts 1801). History—Lengthy and important bibliographies are to be found in Winsor’s Memorial History of Boston (1880-81), and in his Narrative and Critical History of the United States (1887-89), both new

MASS.

INSTITUTE

OF TECHNOLOGY—MASSAGE

somewhat antiquated as to date but not in scholarship. J. T. Adams, History of New England (1927) (originally published separately with distinct titles), contains footnote references to several thousand works on New England, largely Massachusetts. J. G. Palfrey, History of New England (1858-90) is now out of date and belongs to the old “filio-pietistic” school. Other works are: Wm. Bradford, History of Plymouth Plantation (var. edits.) ; J. Winthrop, History oj New England, 1630-1649 (in journal form); S. E. Sewall, Diary (Mass. Hist.

Soc.), gives an intimate picture of Boston life from 1674 to 1729; T. Hutchinson, History of Massachusetts (1764-1828), the publications of the Prince society, notably the Hutchinson Papers (1865), the Andros Tracts (1868-74), and the Randolph Papers (1898-1909); Young, Chronicles of the Pilgrim Fathers (1844); Young, Chronicles of Massachusetts (1846) ; C. W. Upham, Witchcraft in Salem; Henry Adams, Documents relating to New England Federalism (1877); R. P. Hallowell, The Quaker Invasion of Massachusetts (1887); W. B. Weeden, Economic and Social History of New England (1890) : C. F. Adams, Three Episodes in Massachusetts History (1892) ; ibid., Massachusetts: its Historians and its History (1893); W. Walker, Creeds and Platforms of Congregationalism (1893); Ellis and Morris, King Philip’s War (1906) ; F. H. Foster, A Genetic History of the New England Theology (1907); L. K. Mathews, Expansion of New England

(1909); A. E. Morse, The Federalist Party in Massachusetts (1909); W. A. Robinson, Jeffersonian Democracy in New England (1916); A. M. Schlesinger, The Colonial Merchants and the American Revolution (1918) ; R. G. Usher, Tke Pilgrims and their Story (1918): A. B. Darling, Political Changes in Massachusetts 1824—1848 (1925); Diary of Cotton Mather, Mass. Hist. Soc., Collections, Ser. vii, vol. vii=viii.: the publications of the various learned societies are particularly important, notably the Proceedings and Collections of the Mass. Hist. Soc.; the Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society; the Publications of the Col. Soc. of Mass.; and the Register of the N. E. Gen. and Hist. Society. Many of the town histories are excellent. The biographies and collected writings of many of the State’s leaders, such as Samuel and John Adams, Daniel Webster, Elbridge Gerry, Charles Sumner, and later ones, are of importance for general history. (J. T. A.)

MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, THE, an institution of higher education in Cambridge, Mass., was incorporated in 1861. It owes its origin to William

Barton Rogers, its first president, a scientist of high rank and president of the National Academy of Science. He urged the establishment of an institute in which scientific pursuits should predominate. Owing to the outbreak of the Civil War it was not until 1865 that it was possible to make an actual beginning. The courses were especially designed to prepare men for mechanical and civil engineering and for the professions of the architect and chemist. In 1866, the institute moved into its first building on Boylston street, Boston, provided chemical laboratories and three years later physical laboratories. During 187076 the mining and metallurgy, mechanical engineering and meAAAA

NES Ne ee _ pe we

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33

is vested in a corporation consisting of five ex-officio members, 35 life members and 15 members elected for terms of five years from a group of candidates nominated by the alumni. The instructing staff in 1928 consisted of 487 members of whom 215 were of professorial grade. These professors constitute the faculty, which has the immediate supervision of all matters relating to the courses of instruction and to the admission and conduct of students. Exclusive of the summer school, the number of students in 1928 was 2,868. There were only 60 women, although women are admitted to any of the courses. The regular course of undergraduate study leads to the degree of B.Sc. in any one of the following 17 branches: civil engineering (including railroad operation), mechanical engineering, mining engineering and metallurgy, architecture, chemistry, electrical engineering, biology and public health, physics, general science, general engineering and mathematics, chemical engineering, sanitary and municipal engineering, geology and geological engineering, naval architecture and marine engineering, electrochemical engineering, engineering administration, aeronautical engineering, building construction. In each of these courses a large proportion of work of a literary and scientific character is insisted upon, and a serious effort is made to break down the barriers between professional and cultural studies. Opportunities are also afforded for study and research leading to the advanced degrees of master of science, master in architecture, doctor of philosophy, doctor of science, doctor of public health. (S. W.S.)

MASSACRE, a wholesale indiscriminate killing of persons.

The meaning and the old form mececle seem to point to a corruption of the Lat. macellum, butcher’s shop or shambles, though it may be derived from Old Low Ger. matsken, to cut in pieces.

MASS ACTION, LAW OF: see CHEMICAL Action. MASSAGE, a method of treating stiffness or other physical conditions by manipulating the muscles and joints, practised from time immemorial in all parts of the world and employed extensively for medical purposes at the present time. Massage, as now practised, includes several processes, some passive, others active. The former are carried out by an operator, and consist of rubbing and kneading the skin and deeper tissues with the hands and exercising the joints by bending the patient’s limbs. The active movements consist of a special form of gymnastics, designed to exercise particular muscles or groups of muscles. In “Swedish massage” the operator moves the limbs while the patient resists, thus bringing the opposing muscles into play. Sometimes the word “massage” is restricted to the rub-

bing processes, “manipulation” being used to cover all the move-

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great importance is attached to the application of a particular process in a particular way. Oils and other lubricants may or may not be used. But, however applied, the treatment acts essentially by increasing circulation and improving nutrition. It was shown by Lauder Brunton that more blood actually flows through the tissues during and after rubbing. The number of red corpuscles, and, to some extent, their haemoglobin value, are said to be increased (Mitchell). At the same time the movement of the lymph stream is accelerated. In order to assist the flow of blood and lymph, stroking is applied centripetally, i.e., upwards along the limbs and the lower part of the body, downwards from the head. The effects of the increased physiological activity set up are numerous. Functional ability is restored to exhausted muscles by the removal of fatigue products and the induction of a fresh blood supply; congestion is relieved; collections of serous fluid are dispersed; secretion and excretion

chanic arts laboratories and three new courses, mining, physics and biology were established. By rt900 the number of students had increased to 1,200 and the number of the instructing staff to 153. are stimulated; local and general nutrition are improved. These Three more large buildings had been erected and four new courses effects indicate the conditions in which massage may be useestablished—in electrical, chemical and sanitary engineering and fully applied. Such are various forms of paralysis and muscular naval architecture. The magnificent new buildings of the Massa- wasting, chronic and subacute affections of the joints, muscular chusetts Institute of Technology built some ten years Jater in rheumatism, sciatica and other neuralgias, local venous conCambridge on the banks of the Charles river gave the institute gestions, convalescent fractures of bones, sprains, contractions, unexcelled facilities for engineering education and research. obesity and chronic constipation. In certain other conditions The institute is one of the land grant colleges. The government Massage gives relief, probably in large measure by suggestion

MASSAGETAE—MASSÉNA

34

(g.v.). Such are insomnia, some forms of headache, hysteria and neurasthemia, disorders of the female organs, melancholia and other forms of insanity and morphinism. The therapeutic value of massage when judiciously used is undoubted, but it is not appropriate for fevers, pregnancy, collections of pus, acute inflammation of the joints, inflamed veins, fragile arteries, wounds of the skin, and generally speaking, those conditions in which it is not desirable to increase the circulation, or the patient cannot bear handling. Massage of the face and neck forms the basis of most systems of modern beauty culture. By stimulating circulation and the flow of lymph, by clearing the tissues of accumulated wastes and increasing their nutrition, massage has the effect of clearing and refining the skin and making the contours of the face and neck smooth and firm. The revival of massage in Europe and America has called into existence a considerable number of professional operators, both male and female, who may be regarded as forming a branch of the nursing profession. Several things are required for a good operator. One 1s physical strength. Deep massage is very laborious work and cannot be carried on for even half an hour without unusual muscular power. A second important requirement is tactile and muscular sensibility. A person not endowed with a fine sense of touch and resistance is liable to exert too great or too little pressure; the one hurts the patient, the other is ineffective. Then skill and knowledge, which can only be acquired by a course of instruction, are necessary. Finally, the standard of personal character necessary is that required for the nursing profession in general. Massage should always be carried out under medical direction and in proper surroundings. BrsriocraPHy.—J. Arvedoon, Medical Gymnastics and Massage in General Practice (London, 1926) ; I. C. Shires and D. Wood, Advanced Methods of Massage and Medical Gymnastics (London, 1927); J. B. Mennell, Massage, its Principles and Practice (London, 1920); B. M. Goodall-Copestake, The Theory and Practice of Massage (London, 1927; bibl}; E. A. G. Kleen, Massage and Medical Gymnastics (London, 1918).

MASSAGETAE tus

(i. 204-16;

(mias-sig’é-ti), people described by Herodo-

iv. 11, 172) as dwelling beyond

the Araxes

(Oxus) in what is now Balkh and Bokhara. It was against their queen Tomyris that Cyrus undertook the expedition in which according to one story he met his end. In their usages some tribes were nomads like the people of Scythia (g.v.), others with their community of wives and habit of killing and eating their parents recalled the Issedones (g.v.); while the dwellers in the islands of the river were fish-eating savages. Probably the name included all the barbarous north-eastern neighbours of the Per-

sians. Herodotus says they only used gold and copper (or bronze), not silver or iron.

MASSA MARITTIMA,

a town and episcopal see of the

province of Grosseto, Tuscany, Italy, 24 m. N.N.W. of Grosseto

direct and 16 m. by rail N.E. of Follonica

(28 m. N.W. of

Grosseto on the main coast railway), 1,444 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1921) (town) 9,410; (commune) 15,484. The Romanesque cathedral (13th century) has a fine font (1267, with a cover of

1447) and a Gothic reliquary (1324) of the patron saint Cerbone. The battlemented municipal palace and other buildings of the 13th

century are picturesque. Above the old town is a fortress built

by the Sienese in 1337. MASSASOIT (1580-1661), chief of the Wampanoag Indians, was born in the present limits of Massachusetts about 1580. His tribe of several thousand had been almost destroyed by an epidemic, supposed to be yellow fever, just before the arrival of the Mayflower. In March 1621, an Indian, Samoset, appeared at Plymouth and to the surprise of the Pilgrims spoke to them in English. He arranged for a meeting between his chief, Massasoit, and Governor Bradford. Massasoit appeared a week later, and signed a treaty of peace with the white men which remained inviolate for 54 years. In 1623, when he had been very ill, Edward

Winslow visited him and effected a cure. In return for this kindness Massasoit revealed the plot of a neighbouring tribe to destroy a ie men. See A. G. Weeks, Massasoit of the Wampanoags I919).

MASSAWA or Massowam, a town on the African coast of the Red sea, chief port of the Italian colony of Eritrea, in 15° 36 N. and 39° 28’ E. Pop. (1923) 12,275 including 137 Europeans. The town stands at the north end of the bay of Massawa and js

built partly on a small coral island of the same name—where was the original settlement—and partly on the islets of Tautlub and

Sheik Said, and the neighbouring mainland. The harbour is formed by the channel between the island and the mainland. It affords good anchorage in from 5 to 9 fathoms. The town possesses several good public buildings, chiefly built of coral, as are the

houses of the principal European and Arab merchants. Since 1912 a railway has connected Massawa with Asmara, the capital of the colony.

Massawa is the port for northern Abyssinia

(of which

Eritrea was formerly a part) but commerce is hampered by the lack of rapid means of communication. The trade consists mainly in exporting hides, butter, cotton, coffee and civet, and importing European and Indian cotton goods and silks. Fully 80% of the oversea trade of the colony passes through the port (see ERITREA). The island of Massawa appears to have formed part of the Abyssinian dominions for many centuries. It was at Massawa (Matzua, as it is called by the Portuguese chroniclers) that Christopher da Gama and his comrades landed in July 1541 on their way to aid the Abyssinians against the Mohammedan invaders.

Captured by the Turks in 1557, the island remained a

Turkish possession over two hundred years, although James Bruce found in 1769 that the governor was paying half the customs receipts to the negus of Abyssinia in return for the protection of that monarch. At the close of the 18th century Massawa was held by the sherif of Mecca, and it afterwards passed to Mohammed Ali of Egypt. The Turks were reinstated about 1850, but in 1865 they handed the island back to Egypt for an annual tribute of 2} million piastres. In Feb. 1885 Massawa was occupied by an Italian force, the Egyptian garrison stationed there being withdrawn in the November following. The port was the capital of the Italian colony until 1900 when the seat of administration was removed to Asmara.

MASSENA,

ANDRE,

duke of Rivoli, prince of Essling

(1756-1817), the greatest of Napoleon’s marshals, son of a small wine merchant, it is said of Jewish origin, was born at Nice on May 6, 1756. He began life as a cabin boy, but in 1775 enlisted in the Royal-Italien regiment. He quickly rose to be under-officeradjutant; but he left the army in 1789, retired to his native city, and married. He left Italy, and joined the 3rd battalion of the volunteers of the Var in 1791, and by February 1792 was a lieutenant-colonel. He served in the army which occupied Nice, and in the advance to the Apennines which followed, his knowledge of the country and of the people was so useful that in December 1793 he was already a general of division. He won the battle of Saorgio in August 1794, and after many successes, on Nov. 23, 1795, he had the greatest share in the victory of Loano, won by Schérer over the Austrians and Sardinians. In Bonaparte’s great campaign of 1796-97 Masséna was his most trusted general of division and won the crowning victory of Rivoli. During this campaign Bonaparte gave him the title of enfant gâté de la victoire, which he was to justify till he met the English in 1810. In 1798 he commanded the army of Rome for a short time, but was displaced by the intrigues of Berthier. Masséna’s next important service was in command of the army in Switzerland, which united the army in Germany under Moreau, and that in Italy under Joubert. The archduke Charles and Suvórov, who had each been successful in Germany and in Italy, now turned upon him. He held his ground well against the archduke, and then suddenly, leaving Soult to face the Austrians, he transported his army to Zürich, where, on Sept. 26, 1799, he entirely defeated Korsakov. This campaign and battle placed his reputation on a level with that ọf his compatriot Bonaparte, and he might have made the revolution of Brumaire, but he was sincerely attached to the republic, and had no ambition. Bonaparte, now First Consul, sent him to command the débris of the army of Italy, and he defended Genoa from February to June to the very last extremity, giving time for Bonaparte to strike his great blow at Marengo. He now

went to Paris, where he sat- in the Corps Législatif in 1803, and

MASSENA— MASSEY actually defended Moreau without drawing upon himself the illwill of Napoleon, who well knew his honesty. Marshal of France.—In 1804 he was made one of the first marshals of France of the new régime, and in 1805 was decorated with the Grand Eagle of the Legion of Honour. In that year

Napoleon chose Masséna to keep in check the archduke Charles in Italy, while he advanced through Germany

with the grand

army. Masséna kept the archduke occupied till he received news of the surrender of Ulm, and then on Oct. 30, defeated him in the battle of Caldiero. After the peace of Pressburg, Masséna was ordered to take possession of the kingdom of Naples, and to place Joseph Bonaparte on the throne. He then distinguished himself in Poland. In 1808 he was made duke of Rivoli. In the campaign in 1809 at the battle of Aspern-Essling his magnificent leadership made what might have been an appalling disaster into a mere reverse of which the enemy could make no use. At Wagram Masséna, too ill to ride, directed from his carriage the movements of the right wing. He was created prince of Essling, and given the castle of Thouars.

Campaign in Spain.—Masséna was then ordered to Spain to

“drive the English into the sea.” (For campaigns of 1810 and 1811, the advance to and the retreat from Torres Vedras see PENINSULAR WAR.) Masséna himself, with some justice, ascribed his failure to the frequent disobedience of his subordinates Ney, Reynier and Junot. Though unsuccessful Masséna kept his army for five weary months close up to Wellington’s impregnable position before retiring. His retreat through a devastated country was terrible, but his force of character kept his men together, and Ney showed his best side in brilliant rear-guard actions, until dismissed for a new act of insubordination. Soon Masséna was again ready to try his fortune, and he nearly defeated Wellington at Fuentes d’Oñoro, though much hampered by Bessières. His recall soon followed this and he returned home to find his prestige gone. The old marshal felt he had a right to complain of Ney and of Napoleon himself, and, it is said, opened communications with Fouché and the remnant of the republican party. Napoleon gave his greatest marshal no more employment in the field, but made him a territorial commandant at Marseilles. Louis XVIII. confirmed him in this command. When Napoleon returned from Elba, Masséna, probably by the advice of Fouché, kept Marseilles quiet to await events, the greatest service he could do the royalists, but afterwards imputed to him as a fault. After the second restoration Masséna was summoned to sit on the courtmartial which tried Marshal Ney, but refused. He died on April 4, 1817, and was buried in Pére-la-Chaise, with only the word “Masséna” upon his tombstone.

35

original outline.” In 1805 came threats of the war with Napoleon, which Massenbach had strongly opposed. He was made quartermaster-general

(chief of staff) to Prince Hohenlohe, over whom he soon obtained a fatal ascendancy. War was averted for a moment by the result of the battle of Austerlitz, but it broke out in earnest in October 1806. Massenbach’s influence clouded all the Prussian operations. The battles of Jena and Auerstadt were lost, and the capitulation of Prince Hohenlohe’s army was negotiated. Even suggestions of disloyalty were not wanting. He retired to his estate in the Posen province, and occupied himself in writing pamphlets, memoirs, etc. When his estates passed into the grand duchy of Warsaw, he chose to remain a Prussian subject, and on the outbreak of the war of liberation he asked in vain for a post on the Prussian staff. After the fall of Napoleon he took part in Wiirttemberg politics, was expelled from Stuttgart and Heidelberg, and soon afterwards arrested at Frankfurt, delivered over to the Prussian authorities and condemned to fourteen years’ fortress imprisonment for his alleged publication of state secrets in his memoirs. He was released in 1826. He died on Nov. 21, 1827, at his estate of Bialokoscz, Posen. See a life by L. G. von Knesebeck (1924).

MASSENET, JULES EMILE FREDERIC

French composer, was born at Montaud, on studied at the Paris Conservatoire, where he Prix de Rome in 1863 with the cantata David operas include Hérodiade, five acts (Brussels,

(1842-1912),

May 12, 1842. He obtained the Grand Rizzio. Massenet’s 1881); Manon, five

acts, opéra comique (1884); Le Cid, four acts, opéra (1885); Esclarmonde, four acts, opéra comique (1889); Le Mage, five acts, opéra (1891); Werther, four acts (Vienna, 1892); Thais, three acts, opéra (1894); Le Portrait de Manon, one act, opéra comique (1894); La Navarraise, two acts (Covent Garden, 1894); Sapho, opéra comique (1897); Le Jongleur de Notre Dame (Mentone, 1902). Massenet also wrote oratorios, orchestral suites, and songs. He was professor of composition at the Conservatoire from 1878 to 1896. His opera Panurge was written just before his death in Paris on Aug. 13, 1912. A full bibliography of his works is given in Séré, Musiciens français @aujour@hui (2nd ed. 1921). See also, J. E. F. Massenet, My Recollections (Boston, 1919); R. Brancour, Massenet (1922) ; L. Schneider, Massenet 1842—1912 (1926).

MASSEY, SIR EDWARD

(c. 1619-74/5) English soldier,

was born at Coddington, Cheshire. In 1639 he was a captain of pioneers in the army of Charles L, but soon after the outbreak of Civil War he went over to the parliamentarians. As lieutenantcolonel under the earl of Stamford he became, in 1643, governor See Thiébault’s Éloge funèbre, and Koch’s Mémoires de Masséna of Gloucester, which he defended against the Royalists. In 1644 (4 vols., 1849), a valuable work, carefully compiled. In more modern he was made general of the forces of the Western Association, times E. Gachot has produced several important works dealing with and until 1645 played an important part in the war in the surMasséna’s campaigns. rounding district. He became M.P. for Gloucester in 1646 and MASSENA, a village of St. Lawrence county, New York, was one of the generals impeached by the army on the ground U.S.A., on the Grass river, 3 m. from the St. Lawrence. It is that they were attempting to revive the Civil War in the Presserved by the Grand Trunk and the New York Central railways. byterian interests. Massey fled from England in June 1647, and The population was 5,993 in 1920; 10,637 in 1930. It is surrounded though he resumed his seat in the house in 1648 he was again by a farming and dairying region and has various manufacturing excluded by Pride’s Purge, and after a short imprisonment escaped industries. Flour, paper and paper products, mica and aluminum to Holland. Thence, openly taking the side of the king, he acware are some of the leading products. The village was incor- companied Charles II. to Scotland. He fought at the bridge of Stirling and Inverkeithing, and commanded the advanced guard porated in 1886. MASSENBACH, CHRISTIAN KARL AUGUST of the Royalists in the invasion of England in 1651. Near WorLUDWIG VON (x 758-1827), Prussian soldier, was born at cester he fell into the hands of his former comrades and was Schmalkalden (1758), and educated at Heilbronn and Stuttgart, lodged in the Tower. He again escaped to Holland, and on devoting himself chiefly to mathematics. He became an officer Charles’s return, was knighted and given a grant of £3,000. He is of the Wiirttemberg army in 1778, and left this for the service of said to have died in Ireland. MASSEY, GERALD (1828-1907), English poet, was born Frederick the Great in 1782. After serving through the campaigns of 1793 and 1794 as a staff officer he published a number of near Tring, Hertfordshire, on May 29, 1828. As a child he was memoirs on the military history of these years. He was chiefly sent to work in a silk factory, and afterwards at straw-plaiting. occupied however with schemes for the reorganization of the He struggled manfully against the distress and deprivations of then neglected general staff of the Prussian army, and many his early years, and educated himself in his spare time. He threw of his proposals were accepted. Bronsart von Schellendorf in his himself into the movement known as Christian Socialism Duties of the General Staff says that “the organization which he (g.v.), becoming associated with Maurice and Kingsley, He first proposed and in the main carried out survived even the catastro- became known as editor of the Spirit of Freedom, and at the age phes of 1806-1807, and exists even at the present moment in its of 22 published his first volume of poems, Voices of Freedom and

MASSEY—MASSINGER

36

Lyrics of Love. Massey’s poetry has a certain rough and vigorous element of sincerity and strength which accounts for its popularity at that time. He also wrote several popular books on Egypt including The Book of the Beginnings, followed by The Natural Genesis; but his most important work is Ancient Egypt: The Light of the World, published shortly before his death. He died on Oct. 29, 1907. The best of his poems were collected by him in My Lyrical Life (2 vols., 1889); he also published works dealing with spiritualism, the study of Shakespeare’s sonnets, and theological speculation. See J. Churton Collins’ article, Contemporary Review (May 1904).

MASSEY,

WILLIAM

FERGUSON

(1856-1925), New

Zealand statesman, was born at Limavady, Co. Derry, Ireland,

on March 26, 1856. His parents emigrated to New Zealand when he was six, and eight years later he joined them at Tamaki. After an elementary education, he went on the land, and 20 years later, as president of the Auckland Agricultural and Pastoral Society, began to play a prominent part in public life. He entered parliament in 1894 as member for Waitemata, and in 1903 became leader of the Conservative opposition to Seddon and Sir Joseph

Ward. In 1912 he defeated the ministry and formed a cabinet. Thereafter he played a dominating part in the Dominion’s affairs. His strong personality, sterling honesty of purpose and administrative ability commanded universal respect, and during the World War, at the head of a strong Coalition ministry, which included his lifelong opponent, Ward, Massey led New Zealand with conspicuous ability and foresight. And, just as he had not hesitated to introduce conscription without reference to the people, so he had the courage, when peace came, to enforce unpopular economies. He was a member of the Imperial War cabinet in 1917~18 and in 1919 was the representative of New Zealand at the Peace Conference in Paris. Shortly after the Imperial Conference of 1923 his health gave way, and he died on May to, 1925.

the credit of vigorous denunciation, Massillon that of gentle per. suasiveness. Besides the Petit Caréme, a sermon which he de. livered before the young king Louis XV. in 1718, his sermons on

the Prodigal Son, on Christmas Day, and perhaps cited as his XIV. is remembered grand.”

the small number of the elect, on death, for for the Fourth Sunday in Advent, may be masterpieces. His funeral oration on Louis for the opening sentence: “Dieu seul est ;

The first edition of Massillon’s complete works was published by his nephew, also an Oratorian (Paris, 1745-48), and upon this, in the absence of mss., succeeding reprints were based. The best modern

edition z that of the Abbé Blampignon (Paris, 1865—68, 4 vols.; new

ed. 1886).

See Abbé

Blampignon,

Massillon,

d’aprés des documents

inédits

(Paris, 1879); and L’Episcopat de Massillon d’aprés des documents

inédits, suivi de sa correspondance (Paris, 1884) ; F. Brunetiére “L’Elo-

quence de Massillon” in Etudes critiques (Paris, 1882) ; Père Ingold,

L’Oratoire

et le jansénisme

au temps

de Massillon

(Paris, 1880);

Pauthe, Massillon, sa prédication sous Louis XIV. et Louis XV. (1908).

MASSILLON, a city of Stark county, Ohio, U.S.A., on the Tuscarawas river, at an altitude of r,000 ft., 8 m. W. of Canton. It is on Federal highways 21 and 30 (the Lincoln) and is served by the Baltimore and Ohio, the Pennsylvania and the Wheeling and Lake Erie railways, inter-urban trolleys, and motor-bus lines. Pop. 17,428 in 1920 (86% native white); in 1930 (after annexations of territory) it had grown to 26,400. It is a manufacturing centre with diversified industries, and a distributing point for bituminous coal from Ohio and West Virginia. The manufactures include alloy and cold-drawn steels, aluminum and enamelled ware, marine engineering and shipping equipment. A State hospital for the insane is located here. Massillon was founded in 1826, incorporated as a village in 1853 and as a city in 1868. It was named after Jean Baptiste Massillon.

MASSIMO or MASSIMI, a Roman princely family of great

antiquity, said to be descended from the ancient Maximi of MASSICUS, MONS, a mountain ridge of ancient Italy, in republican Rome. The name is first mentioned in 1or2 in the the territory of the Aurunci. It projects in a south-westerly person of Leo de Maximis, and the family played a considerable direction from the volcanic system of Rocca Monfina as far as part in the history of the city in the middle ages. The brothers the sea, and separates the lower course of the Liris from the Pietro and Francesco Massimi protected the German printer plain of Campania. It consists of limestone, with a superstratum Ulrich Hahn, who came to Rome in 1467. In the 16th century the of pliocenic and volcanic masses, and was once an island; its high- Massimi were the richest of the Roman nobles. A marquisate was est point is 2,661 ft. above sea-level. It is now traversed by a conferred on them in 1544, and the lordship of Arsoli in 1574. long tunnel of the new direct railway to Naples. To-day there are two branches of the Massimi, viz., the Principi It was very famous for its wine in ancient times. There was Massimo, descended from Camillo Massimiliano (1770~-1840), just room along the coast for the road to pass through; the pass and the dukes of Rignano, descended from Francesco Massimo was guarded by the Auruncan town of Vescia, which ceased to (1773-1844). The Palazzo Massimo, one of the finest Renaissance exist in 314 B.c. after the defeat of the Ausones. Its successor, buildings in Rome, was built by Baldassare Peruzzi by order of sinuessa, on. the coast, a station on the Via Appia, was constructed Pietro Massimo, on the ruins of an earlier palace destroyed in In 312 B.c. Domitian considerably increased its importance by the sack of Rome in 1527. the construction of the Via Domitiana, which left the Via Appia See F. Gregorovius, Geschichte der Stadt Rom (1880); A. von here and ran to Cumae and Puteoli. The town was destroyed by Reumont, Geschichte der Stadt Rom (1868); Almanach de Gotha; the Saracens, but ruins are still visible two miles north-west of J. H. Douglas, The Principal Noble Families of Rome (1905). the modern Mondragone. MASSINGER, PHILIP (1583-1640), English dramatist, MASSIF, a French term, adopted in geomorphology for a son of Arthur Massinger or Messanger, was baptized at St. mountainous mass of connected heights, whether isolated or form- Thomas’s, Salisbury, on Nov. 24, 1583. He entered St. Alban ing part of a larger system. A “massif” is usually clearly marked hall, Oxford, in 1602. His father was attached to the household off by valleys. of the 2nd Earl of Pembroke, but on the succession of William MASSILLON, JEAN BAPTISTE (1663-1742), French Herbert in 1601 it has been suggested that the patronage ceased. bishop and preacher, was born at Hyéres on June 24, 1663, his On the other hand, 4 Wood says that he went to Oxford at Lord father being a royal notary of that town. At the age of eighteen Pembroke’s expense. Massinger left Oxford without a degree in he joined the Congregation of the Oratory and taught for a time 1606. His father had died in 1603, and he was perhaps dependent in the colleges of his order at Pézenas, and Montbrison and at on his own exertions. He went to London to work as a dramathe Seminary of Vienne. In 1693 he was placed at the head of tist, but his name cannot be definitely affixed to any play until the famous seminary of Saint Magloire. He soon gained a wide fifteen years later, when The Virgin Martyr (ent. at Stationers’ reputation as a preacher and was selected to be the Advent hall, Dec. 7, 1621) appeared as the work of Massinger and Dekker. preacher at the court of Versailles in 1699. He was made bishop During these years he worked in collaboration with other dramaof Clermont in 1717, and two years later was elected a member tists. From 1613 Massinger apparently worked regularly with of the French Academy. The last years of his life were spent in John Fletcher, although in editions of Beaumont and Fletcher’s the faithful discharge of his episcopal duties; his death took works his co-operation is usually unrecognized. place at Clermont on Sept. 18, 1742. Massillon enjoyed in the Sir Aston Cokayne, Massinger’s constant friend and patron, Irth century a reputation equal to that of Bossuet and of refers in explicit terms to this collaboration in a sonnet addressed Bourdaloue, and has been much praised by Voltaire, D’Alembert to Humphrey Moseley on the publication of his folio edition of and kindred spirits among the Encyclopaedists. He has usually Beaumont and Fletcher (Small Poems of Divers Sorts, 1658), and been contrasted with his predecessor Bourdaloue, the latter having in an epitaph on the two poets he says:— l

MASSINGHAM—MASSINISSA Plays they did write together, were great friends, And now one grave includes them in their ends.

After Philip Henslowe’s death in 1616 Massinger and Fletcher began to write for the King’s Men. Between 1623 and 1626 Massinger produced unaided for the Lady Elizabeth’s Men then playing at the Cockpit three pieces, The Parliament of Love, The Bondman and The Renegado. With the exception of these plays and The Great Duke of Florence, produced in 1627 by the Queen’s servants, Massinger continued to write regularly for the

King’s Men until his death. S. R. Gardiner, in an essay on “The

37

a Tragedy (c. 1618, pr. 1623 and 1638); The Unnatural Combat, a Tragedy (c. 1619, pr. 1639); The Bondman, an Antient Storie (licensed 1623, pr. 1624) ; The Renegado, a Tragaecomedie (lic. 1624, pr. 1630); The Parliament of Love (lic. 1624; ascribed, no doubt erroneously, in the Stationers’ Register, 1660, to W. Rowley; first printed by Gifford from an imperfect ms. in 1805); A New Way to Pay Old Debts, a Comoedie (c. 1625, pr. 1632); The Roman Actor,

A Tragaedie (lic. 1626, pr. 1629); The Maid of Honour (dating per-

haps from 1621, pr. 1632); The Picture, a Tragecomedie (lic. 1629, pr. 1630); The Great Duke of Florence, a Comicall Historie (lic. 1627, pr. 1635); The Emperor of the East, a Tragaecomoedie (lic. and pr. 1631), founded on the story of Theodosius the Younger; Believe as You List (rejected by the censor in January, but licensed in May, 1631; pr. 1848-49 for the Percy Society); The City Madam, a Comedie (lic. 1632, pr. 1658), which Mr. Fleay (Biog. Chron. of the

Political Element in Massinger” (Contemp. Review, Aug. 1876), maintained that Massinger’s dramas are before all else political. In 1631 Sir Henry Herbert, the master of the revels, refused Eng. Drama, i. 226), however, considers to be a rifactamento of an to license an unnamed play by Massinger because of “dangerous older play, probably by Jonson; The Guardian (lic. 1633, pr. 1655) ; The Bashful Lover (lic. 1636, pr. 1655). A Very Woman, or The matter as the deposing of Sebastian, King of Portugal,” calculated and Prince of Tarent, licensed in 1634 as the work of Massinger alone, is presumably to endanger good relations between England and generally referred to his collaboration with Fletcher. Spain. There is little doubt that this was the same piece as Twelve plays of Massinger are said to be lost, but the titles of Believe as You List, in which time and place are changed, Anti- some of these may be duplicates of those of existing plays. Five of these lost plays were mss. used by John Warburton’s cook for pieochus being substituted for Sebastian, and Rome for Spain. covers. The numerous plays in which Massinger’s co-operation with Massinger seems to have supported the democratic views John Fletcher is generally assumed are dealt with under Beaumont of his patron, the Earl of Montgomery, who was an enemy of and FLETCHER. But it may be here noted that Mr. R. Boyle bas Buckingham. In The Bondman, dealing with the history of constructed an ingenious case for the joint authorship by Fletcher Timoleon, Buckingham is satirized as Gisco. The servility towards and Massinger of the two “Shakespearian” plays, Henry VIII, and Two Noble Kinsmen. (See the New Shakspere Society’s Transacthe Crown displayed in Beaumont and Fletcher’s plays reflected tions, 1884 and 1882.) the temper of the court of James I. The attitude of Massinger’s Massinger’s independent works were collected by Coxeter (4 vols., heroes and heroines towards kings is very different. Camiola’s 1789, revised edition with introduction by Thomas Davies, 1779), remarks on the limitations of the royal prerogative (Maid of by J. Monck Mason (4 vols. 1779), by William Gifford (4 vols., 1805, 1813), by Hartley Coleridge (1840), by Lieut.-Colonel CunningHonour, act Iv., sc. v.) could hardly be acceptable at court. ham (1867), and selections by Mr. Arthur Symons in the M ermaid Massinger died suddenly at his house near the Globe theatre, Series (1887-89). Gifford’s remains the standard edition, and ‘formed and was buried in the churchyard of St. Saviour’s, Southwark, on the basis of Cunningham’s text. It contains “An Essay on the Dramatic aus Writings of Massinger” by Dr. John Ferriar. March 18, 1640. Massinger has been the object of a good deal of criticism. A The supposition that Massinger was a Roman Catholic rests examination of the plays in which Massinger was concerned upon three of his plays, The Virgin Martyr (licensed 1620), The metrical is given in Englische Studien (Halle, v. 74, vil. 66, vili. 39, Ix. 209

Renegado (licensed 1624) and The Maid of Honour (c. 1621). The Virgin Martyr, which deals with the martyrdom of Doro-

thea in the time of Diocletian, cannot be relied on. It is not entirely his work, and the story is early Christian, not Roman Catholic. In The Renegado, however, the action is dominated by the beneficent influence of a Jesuit priest, Francisco, and the doctrine of baptismal regeneration is enforced. In The Maid of Honour a complicated situation is solved by the decision of the heroine, Camiola, to take the veil. His plays have generally an obvious moral intention. He sets himself to work out a series of ethical problems through a succession of ingenious and effective plots. In the art of construction he has, indeed, few rivals. But the virtue of his heroes and heroines is rather morbid than natural, and often singularly divorced from common-sense. His dramatis personae are in general types rather than living persons, and their actions do not appear to spring inevitably from their characters, but rather from the exigencies of the plot. The heroes are too good, and the villains too wicked to be quite convincing. Moreover their respective goodness and villainy are too often represented as extraneous to themselves. This defect of characterization shows that English drama had already begun to decline. He contributed, however, at least one great and popular character to the English stage. Sir Giles Overreach, in A New Way to Pay Old Debts, is a sort of commercial Richard IIL, a compound of the lion and the fox, and the part provides many opportunities for a great actor. He made another considerable contribution to the comedy of manners in The City Madam. In Massinger’s own judgment The Roman Actor was “the most perfect birth of his Minerva.” It is a study of the tyrant Domitian, and of the results of despotic rule on the despot himself and his court. Massinger was a student and follower of Shakespeare. The form of his verse, especially in the number of run-on lines, approximates in some respects to Shakespeare’s later manner. He is rhetorical and picturesque, but rarely rises to extraordinary felicity. His verse is never mean, but it sometimes comes perilously near to prose, and in dealing with passionate situations it lacks fire and directness. The plays attributed to Massinger alone are: The Duke of Milan,

and x. 383), by Mr. R. Boyle, who also contributed the life of the poet in the Dictionary of National Biography. The sources of his plays are dealt with by E. Koeppel in Quellen Studien zu den Dramen Chapman’s, Massinger’s und Ford’s (Strassburg, 1897). For detailed criticism, beside the introductions to the editions quoted, see A. W. Ward, Hist. of Eng. Dram. Lit. (1899), iii. 1-47; F. G. Fleay, Biog. Chron. of the Eng. Drama (1891), under Fletcher; and Koeppel in Cambridge History of English Literature, vol. vi.; a general estimate

of Massinger, dealing especially with his moral standpoint, is given in Sir Leslie Stephen’s Hours in a Library (3rd series, 1879) ; Swinburne, in the Fortnightly Review (July 1889), while acknowledging the justice of Sir L. Stephen’s main strictures, found much to say in praise of the poet. Full discussion of the disputed plays will be found in A. H. Cruickshank, Philip Massinger (Oxford, 1928); see also the list which will be found at the end of ch. 5, Cambridge History of English Literature, vol. vi. (1910).

(1860-1924), WILLIAM HENRY MASSINGHAM, He comNorfolk. Catton, Old at born was journalist, British menced journalism at the age of 17, and, after serving on various

newspapers, he began, in 1907, a long association with The Nation,

which he edited till the end of 1923. He was a severe critic of the World War and the Peace Treaty of 1919 and advocated co-operation between the Liberal and Labour parties. An early member of the Fabian Society, Massingham ultimately joined the Labour party, though on ethical, rather than economic, grounds, and his last journalistic work was done for The New Statesman. He died at Tintagel, Cornwall, on Aug. 28, 1924. One of the best all-round journalists of his day, he was a trenchant

writer on politics and a discerning critic of literature and the drama. He published in 1892 The London Daily Press, and contributed an introduction to the memorial edition of the works of Mark Rutherford (1923). H.W.M. A Selection from the Writings of H. W. Massingham, ed. by H. J. Massingham (1925), contains highly appreciative estimates by G. Bernard Shaw and various eminent associates.

MASSINISSA

(c. 238~149 B.c.), king of Massylian or east-

ern Numidia, was educated at Carthage. His kingdom, though nominally independent of Carthage, was imbued to a very con-

siderable extent with Carthaginian civilization; Massinissa, though a barbarian at heart, had a varnish of culture, and the craft and cunning in which Carthaginian statesmen were supposed to`

MASSON—MASS

38

PRODUCTION

excel. While yet a young man (212) he forced his neighbour Syphax, prince of western Numidia, who had recently entered into an alliance with Rome, to fly to the Moors in the extreme

the university of Melbourne. Among his other publications are Essays, Biographical and Critical

west of Africa. Soon afterwards he appeared in Spain, fighting for Carthage with a large force of Numidian cavalry against the

(1873) and Edinburgh Sketches (1892).

Romans under the two Scipios. The defeat of the Carthaginian army in 206 led him to cast in his lot with Rome. Scipio Africanus is said to have cultivated his friendship. Massinissa now quitted Spain for a while for Africa, and was again engaged

in a war with Syphax in which he was decidedly worsted, but after Scipio’s arrival in Africa in 204 Massinissa crushed his old enemy Syphax, and captured his capital Cirta (Constantine).

(1856, reprinted with additions, 3 vols., 1874), British Novelists and

their Styles (1859), Drummond of Hawthornden

(1873), Chatterton

MASSON, FRÉDÉRIC (1847-1923), French historian and academician was born in Paris on March 8, 1847. His father, Francis Masson, a solicitor, was killed on June 23, 1848, while serving as an officer in the garde nationale. Young Masson was

educated at the college of Sainte Barbe, and at the lycée Louis-leGrand, and then travelled in Germany and in England; from 1869

Here occurs the romantic story of Sophonisba, daughter of the Carthaginian Hasdrubal, who had been promised in marriage to Massinissa, but had subsequently become the wife of Syphax. Massinissa, according to the story, married Sophonisba immediately after his victory, but was required by Scipio to dismiss her as a Carthaginian, and consequently an enemy to Rome. To save her from such humiliation he sent her poison, with which she destroyed herself. Massinissa was now confirmed by Scipio

to 1880 he was librarian at the Foreign Office. He is best known for his books connected with Napoleon. In Napoléon inconny (1895), Masson, with M. Guido Biagi, brought out the unpublished writings (1786-1793) of the future emperor. These were notes, extracts from historical, philosophical and literary books, and personal reflections. His other works include several books on Josephine; Napoléon et sa famille (9 vols., 1897-1907): Napoléon et son fils (1904); and Autour de P’fle d’Elbe (1908). Masson died in Paris on Feb. 19, 1923.

in the possession of his kingdom. In the battle of Zama (202) (see Punic Wars), he commanded the cavalry on Scipio’s right

under an assumed name, has been published by G. Vicaire

wing. For his services he received the kingdom of Syphax, and thus under Roman protection he became master of the whole of Numidia, and his dominions completely enclosed the Carthaginian territories. It would seem that he had thoughts of annexing Carthage itself with the connivance of Rome. In a war which soon followed he was successful; the remonstrances of Carthage with Rome on the behaviour of her ally were answered by the appointment of Scipio as arbitrator; but, as though intentionally on the part of Rome, no definite settlement was arrived at. Rome, it is certain, deliberately favoured her ally’s unjust claims with the view of keeping Carthage weak, and it was Massinissa’s policy, as soon as Carthage seemed to be recovering herself, to excite the fears of Rome, till at last the Third Punic War (149) ended in the final overthrow of Carthage. The king died soon after its commencement. Massinissa converted a plundering tribe into a settled and civilized population. To his sons he bequeathed a well-stored treasury, a formidable army, and even a fleet. Cirta (q.v.), his capital, became a famous centre of Phoenician civilization. In fact Massinissa changed for the better the whole aspect of a great part of northern Africa, His fidelity to Rome was merely that of temporary expediency. See Livy xxiv. 49, Xxvili. 11, 35, 42, XXix. 27, XXX. 3, I2, 28, 37, xlii. 23, 29, xlili. 3; Polybius iii. 5 ix. 42, xiv. 1, xxxli. 2, xxxvii. 3; Appian, Hisp. 37, Punica, 11, 27, 105; Justin xxxiii, 1; A. H. J. Greenidge, Hist. of Rome (1904).

MASSON, DAVID (1822~1907), Scottish man of letters, was born at Aberdeen on Dec. 2, 1822, and educated at the grammar

school there and at Marischal College. He studied theology at Edinburgh university, under Dr. Chalmers. He gave up his intention

to

enter

the

ministry,

and

became

editor

of the

Banner, a weekly paper which advocated Free Church principles. After two years he returned to Edinburgh, where he became a frequent contributor to Fraser's Magazine, Dublin University Magazine (in which appeared his essays on Chatterton), and other periodicals. In 1847 he went to London, where he became secretary (1851-2) of the “Society of the Friends of Italy.” In 1852 he was appointed professor of English literature at University college, London, and from 1858 to 1865 he edited the newly established Macmillan’s Magazine. From 1865-93 he occupied the chair of rhetoric and English literature at Edinburgh, and promoted the movement for the university education of women. In 1879 he became editor of the Register of the Scottish Privy Council, and in 1893 was appointed Historiographer Royal for Scotland. His magnum opus is his Life of Milton in Connexion with the History of His Own Time (6 vols. 1858-80). He also edited the library edition of Milton’s Poetical Works (3 vols., 1874), and De Quincey’s Collected Works (14 vols., 1889~90). He died on Oct. 6, 1907. Professor Masson had married Rosaline

Orme, His son Orme Masson became professor of chemistry in

A bibliography of his works, including anonymous

ones and those

de amateur des livres du XIXe siècle, tome, V., 1904).

MASS PRODUCTION.

(Manuel

The term mass production is used

to describe the modern method by which great quantities of a single standardized commodity are manufactured. As commonly employed it is made to refer to the quantity produced, but its primary reference is to method. In several particulars the term is unsatisfactory. Mass production is not merely quantity production, for this may be had with none of the requisites of mass production. Nor is it merely machine production, which also may exist without any resemblance to mass production. Mass production is the focussing upon a manufacturing project of the principles of power, accuracy, economy, system, continuity and speed. The interpretation of these principles, through studies of operation and machine development and their co-ordination, is the conspicuous task of management. And the normal result is a productive organisation that delivers in quantities a useful commodity of standard material, workmanship and design at minimum cost. The necessary, precedent condition of mass production is a capacity, latent or developed, of mass consumption, the ability to absorb large production. The two go together, and in the latter may be traced the reasons for the former. I. THE ORIGINS

OF MASS PRODUCTION

In origin mass production is American and recent; its earliest notable appearance falls within the first decade of the zoth century. The mere massing of men and materials is a procedure as old as the pyramids. Basic industries, like weaving, domestic baking, house construction and wooden ship building, are carried on, with only superficial changes, much as they were in ancient Egypt. Cottage manufactures and handicrafts moulded the practices of industry until the invention of the steam-engine. With the coming of power machines the seat of industry was removed from the homes of the people and a new work centre, the factory, was established. Much harsh criticism has been uttered against “the factory system,” but it is perhaps fair to say that its first effect was to emancipate the home from being a mere adjunct to the loom or bench, and its later effect was to provide the home with means to develop the dignified status which it has now attained. The Factory System Giving Way.—The early factory system was uneconomical. Its beginning brought greater risk and loss of capital than had been known before, lower wages and more precarious outlook for the workers, and a decrease in quality of goods. More hours, more workers, more machines did not improve conditions; every increase did but enlarge the scale of fallacies built into business. Mere massing of men and tools was not enough; the profit motive, which dominated enterprise, was not

enough. There remained the scientific motive which grew eventu-

ally into what is called mass production. The new method came after the failure of the mercantile and

MASS

PRODUCTION

financial emphasis in manufacture. The advent and progress of financial control of industry were marked by two developments, the corporation and the labour revolt. Artificial combination of industrial plants into vast corporations for financial purposes was the first movement toward mass in industry. It proceeded on the theory that complete financial control would automatically bring complete profit advantage. The theory ignored many vital principles of business and its fallacy became apparent, but not before serious social hostility had been incurred. However, it was out of the social strife thus engendered that the idea began to emerge that possibly the difficulty lay in the neglect of scientific manufacturing principles. Industry was conceded to be necessary and useful; the service it rendered was regarded as of sufficient value to afford fair compensation for all engaged in it; it was therefore urged that the attention of management should be more directly focussed on the actual labour processes that were employed. This led to what was known early in the 20th century as the “efficiency movement” with its accompaniments of time-study and similar methods, although its roots were laid in the experiences of sound industrial observers as early as 1878. It cannot be said, however, that the efficiency experts did more than direct attention to the problem, by showing, in selected instances, how the then current methods were wasteful of men’s earning power, and how their correction and improvement could lead to greater production, hence higher wages, and therefore a general betterment of labour relations. They emphasized a more intelligent management of methods than was then in use; they did not see that a wholly new method was possible which would simply abolish the problems of which the old method, under the most intelligent management, was inevitably prolific. For example they dealt with methods which enabled labourers whose task was to load 124 tons of pig-iron a day, to load 474 long tons a day for an increase in the day’s pay from $1.15 to $1.85. They did not see that another and better method might be devised which would make it unnecessary for a working-man to carry 106,400 Ib. of pig-iron to earn $1.85. Mass production was not in their view, but only the alleviation of the worst errors of competitive factory practice. The Motor Industry Leads the Way.—To the motor industry is given the credit of bringing mass production to experimental success, and by general consent the Ford Motor Company is regarded as having pioneered in the largest development of the method under a single management and for a single purpose. It may, therefore, simplify the history of mass production and the description of its principles if the experience of this company is taken as a basis. It has been already suggested that mass production is possible only through the ability of the public to absorb large quantities of the commodity thus produced. These commodities are necessarily limited to necessities and conveniences. The greatest development of mass production methods has occurred in the production of conveniences. The motor vehicle represents a basic and continuous convenience-transportation. Mass production begins, then, in the conception of a public need of which the public may not as yet be conscious and proceeds on the principle that use-convenience must be matched by priceconvenience. Under this principle the element of service remains uppermost; profit and expansion are trusted to emerge as consequences. As to which precedes the other, consumption or production, experiences will differ. But granted that the vision of the public need is correct, and the commodity adapted to meet it, the impulse to increased production may “come in anticipation of demand, or in response to demand, but the resulting consumption is always utilized to obtain such increase of quality, or such decrease of cost, or both, as shall secure still greater use-convenience and price-convenience. As these increase, consumption increases, making possible still greater production advantages, and so on to a fulfilment that is not yet in view. The commodities that conduce to civilized living are thus far enjoyed by only a small fraction of the world’s inhabitants. The experience of the Ford Motor Company has been that mass production precedes mass consumption and makes it possible, by reducing costs and thus permitting both greater use-convenience

39

and price-convenience. If the production is increased, costs can be reduced. If production is increased 500% costs may be cut 50%, and this decrease in cost, with its accompanying decrease in selling price, will probably multiply by ro the number of people who can conveniently buy the product. IL THE PRINCIPLES

OF MASS

PRODUCTION

As to shop detail, the keyword to mass production is simplicity. Three plain principles underlie it: (a) the planned orderly progression of the commodity through the shop; (b) the delivery of work instead of leaving it to the workman’s initiative to find it; (c) an analysis of operations into their constituent parts. These are distinct but not separate steps; all are involved in the first one. To plan the progress of material from the initial manufacturing operation until its emergence as a finished product involves shop planning on a large scale and the manufacture and delivery of material, tools and parts at various points along the line. To do this successfully with a progressing piece of work means a careful breaking up of the work into its “operations” in sequence. All three fundamentals are involved in the original act of planning a moving line of production. This system is practised, not only on the final assembly line, but throughout the various arts and trades involved in the completed product. The motor car assembly line offers an impressive spectacle of hundreds of parts being quickly put together into a going vehicle, but flowing into that are other assembly lines on which each of the hundreds of parts have been fashioned. It may be far down the final assembly line that the springs, for example, appear, and they may seem to be a negligible part of the whole operation. Formerly one artisan would cut, harden, bend and build a spring. In 1928 the making of one leaf of a spring is an operation of apparent complexity, yet is really the ultimate reduction to simplicity of operation. A Typical Operation Described.—For its illustrative value let us trace the course of a spring leaf after it has progressed from iron ore through ingot, bloom and billet stages, and is rolled into

strips. (1) Beginning as a strip of steel prepared by the steelmill, it is placed in a punch press for cutting and piercing. The workman puts the strip into press until it hits a stop, then trips the press. The cut-off and pierced piece falls on a belt conveyor which runs along the loading end of a series of heat-treating ovens. (2) A second workman takes the pieces from belt conveyor and places them on conveyor which passes through the furnace (in which temperature is automatically controlled); thence they are deposited at a certain temperature by this conveyor at the unloading end of the furnace. (3) The heated piece is lifted with tongs by a third operator and placed in a bending machine which gives the leaf its proper curve and plunges it in oil, the temperature of which is maintained at a definite degree by apparatus beyond the operator’s control. (4) As the bending machine emerges from the oil bath, the same operator takes out the leaf and sets it aside to aircool. (5) The leaf is then drawn by a fourth operator through molten nitrate kept at a regulated temperature. (6) A fifth workman inspects it. As a set of springs on the Ford car requires on an average 17 leaves, and 25,000 springs are an average day’s output, this operation must be visualised as employing a great battery of lines similar to the one briefly described. As all the leaves in a spring are of different length and curve, from the bottom or master leaf to the top leaf, this operation must be visualised as one of many carried on simultaneously by different batteries of machines, each battery working on its own special size. All of these lines, with their various machines and operations, are converging on the point where the leaves are assembled into springs. The leaf whose progress has been described is the simplest one. The operation proceeds as follows: (7) A sixth workman removes the leaf from the conveyor which carries it from the molten,

nitrate, and inserts a bolt through this and the other leaves required in the spring. (8) A seventh workman puts the nut on the bolt and tightens it. (9) An eighth workman puts on the right and left hand clips and grinds off the burrs. (10) A ninth workman inspects it. (11) He hangs the spring on a conveyor. (12) The

4.0

MASS

PRODUCTION

spring passes the tenth workman, who sprays it with paint, and the conveyor carries the spring above the ovens where it was originally heated, and the radiated heat “force dries” the paint. (13) The conveyor continues to the loading dock, where the eleventh workman removes it.

tact and understanding. Manufacturing has been reduced to greater singleness of purpose. (2) The effect of mass production on the product has been to give it the highest standard of quality ever attained in output of

great quantities. Conditions of mass production require material

of the best quality to pass successfully through the operations. utmost accuracy must control all these operations. Every his The but spring, complete a through all these phases, or even make design for which it production would be limited. Where large quantities of the same part must be produced to fit at once into the The presence of fitters. no are there production mass In made. the is involve may operation article are to be made, the simplest for immewhole time of one man. A one-minute operation will require one fitters indicates that the parts have been produced unfit this luxury and art of works In design. the in placement diate Now pieces. 480 on it accomplish to hours man a full day of eight To introthis simple part, a spring leaf, must be identical in strength, finish accuracy is achieved at the cost of careful handiwork. production and curve with millions of others designed to fulfil the same pur- duce hand methods of obtaining accuracy into mass to reference any with impossible production mass render would repose, and this becomes a complicated and delicate procedure is guaranproduct the of quality standard The nce. price-convenie demeasuring of accurate most the machinery, automatic quiring of vices, pyrometer controls, “go” and “no go” gauges—in fact, the teed by the fact that machines are so constructed that a piece specibest facilities that can be provided by modern management. The work cannot go through them unless it exactly accords with leaf described, which is a minor matter when compared with the fications. If the work goes through the tools, it must be right. whole great process, becomes a major matter when considered by It will thus be seen that the burden of creation is on management by itself; it must have its own supply of material delivered in suff- in designing and selecting the material which is to be produced cient quantities at indicated places—for example, steel at 1; heat the multiple processes utilised in mass production. (3) The effect of mass production on mechanical science has at 2; power and oil at 3; molten nitrate at 5; bolts at 7; nuts at 8; clips at 9; paint at 12. In this process the secrets of many arts been to create a wide variety of single-purpose machines which not only group similar operations and perform them in quantity, and trades are employed. but also reproduce skill of hand to a marvellous degree. It is not orderly by meant is The story of this minor part illustrates what progression of the article through the shop. It goes to meet other so much the discovery of new principles as the new combination parts of the motor-car which have come from other parts of the and application of old ones that mark this development. Under plant by similar processes. The story illustrates also what is meant mass production the industry of machine making has increased by delivering the work to the workman: every workman’s task is out of all comparison with its previous history, and the constant prepared for him by some other workman, and delivered to his designing of new machines is a part of the productive work of hand. The third principle also is illustrated—the analysis of a every great manufacturing institution. (4) The effect of mass production on employees has been varisingle job into its constituent operations. The simplicity of the part here described should not be permitted to exclude from view ously appraised. Whether the modern corporation is the destructhe multitude of other operations, ranging from the heaviest forg- tion or salvation of arts and crafts, whether it narrows or broadens ings to the lightest manipulations in bench assembly of delicate opportunity, whether it assists or retards the personal developelectrical instruments. Some gauge inspections involve measure- ment of the worker, must be determined by observable facts. A cardinal principle of mass production is that hard work, in the old ments to the ten-millionth part of an inch. The economies arising from this method are obvious. The ma- physical sense of laborious burden-bearing, is wasteful. ‘The physichinery is constantly in use. It would be economically impossible cal load is lifted off men and placed on machines. The recurrent to maintain all this equipment for the service of men occupied in mental load is shifted from men in production to men in designing. the entire operation of making springs. Presses, furnaces, bending As to the contention that machines thus become the masters of machines, oil baths would be idle while the workman progressed men, it may be said the machines have increased men’s mastery from operation to operation. Under mass production it is the work of their environment, and that a generation which is ceaselessly that progresses from operation to operation. Use-convenience in scrapping its machines exhibits few indications of mechanical subthe commodity would be lessened, while price-convenience would jection. The need for skilled artisans and creative genius is greater be destroyed. Economy in machine hours is, however, only one element; there is also economy in time and material and labour. Mass under mass production than without it. In entering the shops of production justifies itself only by an economy whose benefits may the Ford Motor Company, for example, one passes through great departments of skilled mechanics who are not engaged in producbe transmitted to the purchaser. tion, but in the construction and maintenance of the machinery’ II. THE EFFECTS OF MASS PRODUCTION of production. Details of from 5,000 to 10,000 highly skilled artiBut it is not the history and principle of mass production which sans at strategic points throughout the shops were not commonly provoke the widest discussions; the effects of it have been placed witnessed in the days preceding mass production. It has been deunder scrutiny. What have been the effects of mass production bated whether there is less or more skill as a consequence of mass production. The present writer’s opinion is that there is more. on society? (t) Beginning with management, where unquestionably mass The common work of the world has always been done by unproduction methods take their rise, there is a notable increase in skilled labour, but the common work of the world in modern times industrial control, as distinguished from financial control. The is not as common as it was formerly. In almost every field of engineer’s point of view has gained the ascendancy and this trend labour more knowledge and responsibility are required than a genwill undoubtedly continue until finance becomes the handmaid eration or two ago.

One workman

under the old system could attend the leat

instead of the mistress of productive industry. Industrial control

Some Criticisms Answered.—Mass production has also been

has been marked by a continuous refinement of standardization,

studied with reference to what has been called the monotony of repetitive work. This monotony does not exist as much in the shops as in the minds of theorists and bookish reformers. ‘There is

which means the instant adoption of the better method to the exclusion of the old, in the interests of production. Financial control was not, in its heyday, marked by a tendency to make costly changes in the interests of the product. The economy of scrapping the old equipment immediately upon the invention of the better equipment was not so well understood. It was engineering control, entrenched in mass production methods, that brought in this new readiness to advance. In this way management has been kept close to the shop and has reduced the office to a clearing house for the shop. Managers and men have been brought into closer con-

no form of work without its hardness; but needless hardship has no place in the modern industrial scheme. Mass production lightens work, but increases its repetitive quality. In this it is the opposite of the mediaeval ideal of craftsmanship where the artisan performed every operation, from the preparation of the material to its final form. It is doubtful, however, if the mass of mediaeval toil was as devoid of monotony as has sometimes been pictured, but it is absolutely certain that it was less satisfactory in its re-

MASTABA—MASTER sults to the worker. In well-managed modern factories the tendency to monotony is combated by frequent changes of task. The criticism of mass production as a means of reducing employ-

ment has long since been out of court. The experience of the Ford Motor Company is that wherever the number of men has been reduced on manufacturing operations, more jobs have been created. A continuous programme of labour reduction has been paralleled by a continuous increase in employment. As to the effect of mass production on wages and the relations between managers and men, there is little need to speak. It is perhaps the most widely understood fact about mass production that it has resulted in higher wages than any other method of industry. The reason is at hand. The methods of mass production enable the worker to earn more and thus to have more. Moreover, the methods of mass production have thrown so much responsibility on the craftsmanship of management, that the old method of financial adjustment by reduc-

AND

SERVANT

4I

the chief officer of the archbishop of Canterbury in his court of faculties. His duties are concerned with the appointment of notaries and the granting of special licences of marriage. The duties are performed ex oficio by the judge of the provincial courts of Canterbury and York, who is also dean of Arches, in accordance with s. 7 of the Public Worship Regulation Act 1874. The “master of the Temple” is the title of the priest-incharge of the Temple church in London. It was formerly the title of the grand master of the Knights Templars. The priestin-charge of the Templars’ church was properly styled the custos, and this was preserved by the Knights Hospitallers when they were granted the property of the Templars at the dissolution of that order. The Act of 1540 (32 Henry VIII.), which dissolved the order of the Hospitallers, wrongly styled the custos master of the Temple, and the mistake has been continued. The proper title of a bencher of the Inns of Court is “master of the Bench” (see INNS oF Court). The title of “Master-General of the Ordnance” was revived in 1904 for the head of the Ordnance Department in the British military administration. “Master” is the ordinary word for a teacher, very generally used in the compound “schoolmaster.” The word also is used in a sense transferred from this to express the relation between the founder of a school of religion, philosophy, science, art, etc.,

tion of wages has been abandoned by scientific manufacturers. A business that must finance by drafts out of the wage envelopes of its employees is not scientifically based. It is the problem of management so to organise production that it will pay the public, the workmen and the concern itself. Management that fails in any of these is poor management. Disturbed labour conditions, poor wages, uncertain profits indicate lapses in management. The craftsmanship of management absorbs the energies of many thou- and his disciples. It is partly in this sense and partly in that of sands of men who, without mass production methods, would have one whose work serves as a model or type of superlative excellence no creative opportunity. Here the modern method broadens that such terms as “old masters” are used. In mediaeval universities magister was particularly applied to one who had been instead of narrows individual opportunity. (5) As to the effects of mass production on society, the increas- granted a degree carrying with it the licentia docendi, the licence ing supply of human needs and the development of new standards to teach. In English usage this survives in the faculty of arts. of living are the elements to be estimated. The enlargement of The degree is that of artium magister, master of arts, abbreviated leisure, the increase of human contacts, the extension of indi- M.A. In the other faculties the corresponding degree is doctor. Some British universities give a master’s degree in surgery, vidual range, are all the result of mass production. (H. Fo.) See H. Ford, My Life and Work (1924), and To-day and Tomorrow magister chirurgiae, C.M. or M.Ch., and also in science, magister (1926); E. G. Filene, The Way Out (1924); and Articles in the scientiae, M.Sc. American Economic Review. Master was the usual prefix of address to a man’s name, though MASTABA, in Egyptian architecture, a rectangular cut stone originally confined to people of some social standing. Probably tomb, with raking sides and a flat roof, usually containing three under the influence of “mistress,” it was corrupted in sound to chambers. In the first the walls were sometimes richly decorated “mister,” and was abbreviated to “Mr.” In the case of the puisne with paintings and had a low bench of stone on which incense was judges of the High Court “Mr. Justice”? is still used as the burnt. The second, containing the serdab, or image of the de- proper official form of written address. The Speaker of the House ceased, was either closed, with holes pierced in the wall separat- of Commons and the Speaker of the House of Representatives ing it from the first chamber, or entered through a narrow pass- at Washington and also the Speakers in the State Legislatures age through which the fumes of the incense passed. A vertical are formally addressed as Mr. Speaker. The President of the well-hole descended to the third in which the mummy was laid. United States is always addressed as Mr. President.

MASTER,

one holding a position of authority, disposition

MASTER AND SERVANT.

This comprehensive term in-

cludes all forms of occupation in which a person for valuable consideration hires out his services in a subordinate capacity to another for the purpose of helping that other in the performance of some duty or object for which assistance is either necessary or desirable. The contract need not be reduced into writing unless by the terms of the bargain the employment is to extend beyond a year, in which case, a written agreement is necessary, under s. 4 of the Statute of Frauds (Dollar v. Parkington, 1901, 84 L.J. 470). Consequently, a contract of service for a period of more than one year, terminable at any time by six months’ notice, is unenforceable unless there be a memorandum in writing (Hanau v. Erlich, 1912, A.C. 39). Nor will part performance take the case out of the statute. It seems, however, that a contract of hiring for a year certain need not be evidenced by writing unless it is to commence at a future date which would extend the term of employment beyond the year. Where the agreement is in writing, the consideration for the servant’s promise to remain in the master’s employ should appear on the face of the document and also the period during which the hiring is to continue and the length of notice necessary for its termination. But in a general hiring by parol the nature of the employment is a factor to be considered in determining alike the duration of the engagement and the length of notice. In the case of a domestic or menial servant a general hiring will be construed as a hiring for a year terminable by a month’s notice or by payment of a month’s wages (with nothing additional for board and lodging) on the part of the master, and MASTER OF THE ROLLS, p. 43). The “master of the faculties” is by a month’s notice on the part of the servant. There is, how-

or control over persons or things. As a title of the holder of an office, the use of the Lat. magister is very ancient. Magister equitum, master of the horse, goes back to the early history of the Roman Republic (see Dicrator). The British office is termed MASTER OF THE Horse. In mediaeval times the title was of great frequency. In the British royal household most of the offices bearing this title are now obsolete. Of the greater offices, that of master of the buckhounds was abolished by the Civil List Act 1901. The master of the household, master of the ceremonies, master of the king’s music still survive. Since 1870 the office of master of the mint has been held by the chancellor of the exchequer. A deputy performs administrative and other duties. At sea, a “master” is more properly styled “master mariner.” In the merchant service he is the commander of a ship, and is by courtesy known as the captain. In the British navy he was the officer entrusted with the navigation under the captain. He had no royal commission, but a warrant from the Navy Board. Very often he had been a merchant captain. His duties are now performed by the staff commander or navigating lieutenant. The master-at-arms is the head of the internal police of a ship; the same title is born by a senior gymnastic instructor in the army. In the United States navy, the master is a commissioned officer below the rank of lieutenant. “Master” appears as the title of many legal functionaries (for the masters of the supreme court see CHANCERY; and Kinc’s BENCH, Court oF; for masters in lunacy see Insanity: Law; see also

42

MASTER

OF THE

ever, no right of set off by a master for accidental breakage of domestic utensils by a servant. A custom in domestic service that either party may determine it at the end of the first month by notice given at any time during the first fortnight has been held reasonable (George v. Davis, 1911, 2 K.B. 445). Judicial de-

ROLLS—MASTODON It was William Marion Reedy, of St. Louis, who, in 1914, advised Masters to deal with the people of his own day, with human nature as he had seen it revealed in the court-room and

the attorney’s office. Masters produced a series of post-mortems

spoken by the erstwhile inhabitants of a Middle-Western village cisions show that the rule as to a month’s notice is not applicable from beyond the grave. He entitled his work The Spoon River in the case of an editor, a governess, a farm bailiff, a steward, the Anthology. It remains Masters’s greatest effort. Two of Masters’s best short poems are to be found in Songs house-keeper of a large hotel or a servant in husbandry. But it and Satires (1916); other volumes of his poetry are: The Great has been held to apply to a gardener and a huntsman. Where the relation of master and servant clearly exists, the em- Valley (1916); Toward the Gulf (1918); Starved Rock (1919); ployer is responsible for injury occasioned by the negligent con- Domesday Book (1920); and The New Spoon River (1924). duct of the servant in carrying out his orders. And this rule is so But the content of these books is most uneven in quality. Masters extensive as to make the master liable for the careless, reckless has also essayed the novel. His novels of boyhood, as Mitch Miller

and wanton conduct of his servant, provided it be within the scope

(1920), are his best. His novels of maturity, such as The Nuptial

of his employment. But this responsibility does not prevent the servant from also being liable. A master is not, however, responsible for a wilful fraud outside the course of the servant’s employment, or for an act inconsistent with the nature of his duties. If a servant wilfully disobey any lawful order of his master or unlawfully absent himself from his work, or if he be guilty of moral misconduct, or take a concealed commission, or prove grossly incompetent in some particular service for which he was engaged, he may be discharged without notice before the expiration of the period for which he was hired. Nor, in such case, is he entitled to any wages from the date of his discharge, if they had not then accrued due. There is no legal obligation on the part of the master to give a “character” to a domestic or menial servant, but it is common law misdemeanour for any one to give a false character either verbally or in writing. A master need not, when dismissing a servant, allege any particular act on the part of the latter as the ground for his discharge, it being sufficient for such cause actually to exist.

Flight (1923), Mirage (1924), are uneven in workmanship, though

The obligations entailed upon a master towards his servant are further enhanced by the provisions of the National Health Insurance Act 1924. The consideration for the benefits under this Act, in the cases to which it applies, being a compulsory weekly payment by the master and the servant of the amounts set out in the second schedule to the act. See EMPLOYER'S LIABILITY;

LABOUR Law. (W. W! P.) MASTER OF THE ROLLS, in England, originally chief of

they contain some striking ideas. Lee (1926) is a long dramatic

poem; Jack Kelso (1928), in which the central figure is a poet, a wanderer and a friend of Lincoln, is a poem having the proportions of an epic. Masters has been the opponent of hypocrisy

and is often an ironist of great power. See “Edgar Lee Masters: Critic of Life” in Llewellyn Jones's First Impressions (1925); “Robert Herrick and Edgar Lee Masters, Interpreters of our Modern World,” in Harry Hansen’s Mid-West Portraits (1923); Amy Lowell on Masters in Tendencies in Modern American Poetry (x917) and Louis Untermeyer’s comments in

American Poetry since 1900 (1923).

MASTIC

W. R. BE.)

or Masrrcs, a resinous exudation obtained from

the lentisk, Pistacia Lentiscus, an evergreen shrub of the family Anacardiaceae. The lentisk or mastic plant is indigenous to the Mediterranean coast region from Syria to Spain, but grows also in Portugal, Morocco and the Canaries. The production of the substance has been, since the time of Dioscorides, almost exclusively confined to the island of Chios. The shrubs are about 6 ft. high. The resin is contained in the bark and not in the wood, and in order to collect it numerous vertical incisions are made, during June, July and August, in the stem and chief branches. The resin speedily exudes and hardens into oval tears, which are

collected every fifteen days. The collection is repeated several times between June and September, a fine tree being found to yield about 8 or ro lb. of mastic during the season. Mastic occurs in commerce in the form of roundish tears about the size of peas. They are transparent, with a glassy fracture, of a pale yellow or faint greenish tinge, which darkens slowly with age. Its use in medicine is obsolete, and it is employed for making varnish. Pistacia Khinjuk and P. cabulica, trees growing throughout Sindh, Baluchistan and Cabul, yield a kind of mastic. In Algeria P. atlantica yields a solid resin. Cape mastic is the produce of Euryops multifidus, the resin bush, or harpuis bosch of the Boers —a plant of the Compositae family. Dammar resin is sometimes sold under the name of mastic. The West Indian mastic tree is the Bursera gummifera and the. Peruvian mastic is Schinus Molle. The name mastic tree is also applied to a timber tree, Sideroxylon Mastichodendron, family Sapotaceae, which grows in the West Indies and on the coast of Florida.

the 12 clerks or masters in chancery and as such keeper of the rolls, especially of the register of original writs, and of all patents and grants under the great seal. He was first called master of the rolls in the statute 11 Hen. VIII. ch. 18. Before and after this date he is sometimes called vice-chancellor, since with the development of the chancery as a court, he was called upon to sit at first with the justices or with two or more masters; later, in the absence of the chancellor, by himself for judicial business. In fact he became the deputy of the chancellor. Meanwhile he had long ceased to be keeper of the records, but by the Public Record Office Act, 1838, their custody was restored to him, and he is now also chairman of the State Papers and Historical Manuscripts Commissions. Under the Judicature Act, 1875, and the Appellate Jurisdiction Act, MASTIGOPHORA, an alternative name for the group 1876, he now always sits with the lords justices in the court of appeal (which usually sits in two divisions of three judges, the Flagellata (q.v.) of the Protozoa. master of the rolls presiding over one division), whose decisions |. MASTODON, a name given by Cuvier to those early forecan be questioned only in the House of Lords. The master of the runners of the elephants (g.v.) which have nipple-like promirolls was formerly eligible to a seat in the House of Commons. nences on the molar teeth. The generic term is now restricted Sir John Romilly, appointed in 1851, was the last to enjoy this by H. F. Osborn to a single species, Mastodon americanus, the privilege, which was abolished by the Judicature Act, 1873. The American mastodon, but it is used familiarly to include a very large number of forms chiefly of Miocene and Pliocene age. For salary is £6,000; the holder is sworn to the Privy Council. See Holdsworth, Hist. Eng. Law, vol. i. ch. y. (H. H. L. B.) general account of these animals see the article PROBOSCIDEA. The American mastodon is a large elephant which lived during MASTER OSCILLATOR, as applied to radio, is an oscillator of comparatively low power so arranged as to control the fre- Pleistocene times in the forests of eastern North America. It possesses molar teeth in which the ridges are placed transversely quency of the output of an amplifier.

MASTERS, EDGAR LEE (1869-

), American poet and

novelist, was born at Garnett, Kan., on Aug. 23, 1869. He entered Knox college in Galesburg, Ill., and was admitted to the bar in 1891. ‘A small book of verses appeared in 1898; followed

by Maximilian, a drama in blank verse (1902); The New Star Chamber and Other Essays (1904); Blood of the Prophets (1905); Althea, a play (1907); and The Trifler, a play (1908).

and are almost straight, the valleys between them not being blocked by intermediate cusps. The anterior molar possesses only three ridges. The upper tusks are large, devoid of enamel and upwardly directed, whilst the lower tusks are present only in the young animal as short, straight and forwardly directed spikes. The ancestry of the American mastodon is unknown, but forms which are apparently closely allied have been discovered in China,

MASTOID—MASURIAN whilst a series of European animals, culminating in Mastodon borsoni are usually regarded as related. This association is, however, denied by H. F. Osborn. Skeletons of the mastodon have

LAKES I. THE SUMMER

i

43 BATTLE

Ludendorff was not long in deciding what was to be done after the destruction of Samsonov. Even before the fighting at Tannen-

been found'in Ohio and in the Hudson valley; all over the United | berg was over, on Aug. 29, 1914, he had commenced moving troops States, its remains have been recorded, but it is rare in the Middle northwards to meet Rennenkampf. He was strongly urged to move West and South. It is usually found in the deposits laid down in southwards to the support of the sorely tried Austrians, but this a swamp or small pool, and it seems certain that the animal was a

forest form, living upon trees. (See also ELEPHANT, MAMMOTH.) (D. M.S. W.)

MASTOID: see Ear, ANatomy OF; Ear, NosE AND THROAT, DISEASES OF.

MASUDI

(Ast-t Hasan ‘ALÌ IBN HUSAIN IBN ‘ALĪ UL-

Mas‘tpi) (d. c. 956), Arabian historian, was born at Baghdad towards the close of the gth century. After he had been in Persia and Kerman, he visited Istakhr in 915, and went in the following year to Mūltān and Manşūra, thence to Cambay, Saimur and Ceylon, to Madagascar and back to Oman. He visited Tiberias in Palestine, and described the relics of the Christian church there. In 943 he was in Antioch, and two years later in Damascus. The last ten years of his life he spent in Syria and Egypt. Himself a Mo‘tazilite (see MowamMepaNn Institutions), he took his information, when necessary, from Persians, Jews, Indians, and even the chronicle of a Christian bishop. His most extensive work was the Kitéb akhbar uz-Zamén or Annals, in 30 volumes with a supplement, the Kitab ul-Ausat, a chronological sketch of general history. The substance of the two parts was united by him in the Murij udh-Dhahab wa Ma‘ddin ul-Jawdhir (“Meadows of Gold and Mines of Precious Stones”), completed in 947 (French translation 9 vols. Paris 1861~77). In 956 he finished a second edition of this. Another work of Mas‘idi, written in the last year of his life, is the Kitab ui-Tanbih wal Ishrāf (the “Book of Indication and

would have meant leaving a strong and undefeated enemy directly in his rear, whilst attempting to traverse the self-same desert area

which had tried Samsonov so greatly. From the German point of view it was more important tọ free East Prussia from the invader at once, and the Austrians must therefore wait their turn. Position Before the Action.—All the German divisions had received their first reinforcements and were flushed with victory and full confidence in their leaders. Two fresh corps had arrived from the west. Rennenkampf did not appear to be on the move and was evidently commencing the blockade of Königsberg. Lotzen, the little fortress holding the main gap in the centre of the line of lakes, was still in German hands. Everything therefore seemed favourable for a German offensive. Ludendorff’s plan for his advance was in outline as follows: (1) Goltz with 24 divisions was to check any advance on the part of the Russian II. Army from Poland; (2) Francois with three divisions and a cavalry brigade was to move round the southern end of the lakes at Johannisburg with the primary object of turning Rennenkampf’s left, and at the same time dealing with any Russian forces assembling to the south of the lakes; (3) Mackensen with two divisions and two cavalry divisions was to

cross the Lötzen gap and join with François in the attack against Rennenkampf’s left; (4) the main body of eight divisions was to move direct on the Insterburg gap; (5) the Königsberg garriRevision”), in which he summarizes the work of his life and corrects son was to make a demonstration against the blockading troops. and completes his former writings. It has been edited by M. J. de Rennenkampf had commenced withdrawing on Aug. 30, and Goeje (Leiden, 1894). on Sept. 2 he issued orders for a position to be taken up for An account of Mas‘tidi’s works is to be found in de Sacy’s memoir and in Goeje’s preface to his edition of the Tanbih, and of the works defensive action from the sea near Libau to Angerburg at the extant in C. Brockelmann’s Gesch. der Arabischen Litteratur, ì. 144- northern end of the lakes. This position offered many advantages 145 (Weimar, 1898). C. Field’s Tales of the Caliphs (1909) is based on from a defensive point of view, running as it did behind the Mas‘idi. rivers Deime, Alle and Omet, but it was too extensive for the MASULIPATAM or Banpar, a seaport of British India, force of 12 divisions which Rennenkampf had at his disposal, the administrative headquarters of the Kistna district of Madras, distance from flank to flank being 60 miles. Moreover, the left on one of the mouths of the river Kistna, 215 m. N. of Madras flank was exposed to attacks coming from the Lotzen gap and city. Pop. (1921), 43,940. Masulipatam was the earliest English the southern end of the lakes. But it was chiefly in the manner settlement on the Coromandel coast, its importance being due to in which he proceeded to occupy this position that he erred. He the fact that it was the bandar or port of Golconda. An agency was had no idea where the Germans were or what they had been doing established there in 1611. During the wars of the Carnatic, the in the interval since Tannenberg. He only had persistent rumours English were temporarily expelled the town, which was held by the that the Germans were sending billeting parties to Königsberg. French for some years. In 1759 the town and fort were carried Instead of maintaining strong forces in front of his chosen posiby storm by Colonel Forde, an achievement followed by the tion, in order to discover the enemy’s intentions, Rennenkampf acquisition of the Northern Circars (g.v.). In 1864 a great storm- committed his troops at once to a linear defence of the line. He wave swept over the entire town and is said to have destroyed placed four of his divisions along the Deime on a front of 18 30,000 lives. In former days the chintzes of Masulipatam had a m., while keeping seven divisions to hold the remainder of his great reputation, but the weaving industry has declined. There line of 42 miles. A single division was placed opposite the Lötzen are cotton ginning and pressing factories and rice mills, and Ma- gap to the east of the lakes. It will thus be seen that from the very start of their manoeuvre sulipatam has a college and training schools. The port is only a roadstead, where vessels anchor 5 m. out. There is a branch line the Germans had succeeded in out-generalling Rennenkampf. On from Bezwada on the Madras and Southern Mahratta railway. the left of their line they were containing four Russian divisions The chief educational institution is the Noble college of the with garrison troops, equivalent to about a division. In the centre they were opposing eight divisions to seven Russian divisions. On Church Missionary Society. MASURIAN LAKES, BATTLES OF THE, 1914 AND the right they were advancing with no less than five divisions tors. (See TANNENBERG.) It was the lake barrier which had and two cavalry divisions against a single Russian division. German Attack.—Goltz attacked and took Miawa on Sept. 4, proved the undoing of the Russians in their advance into East Prussia, and twice again was it to bring about their defeat and thereafter kept in check any of the units of the Russian IT. when the Germans in their turn assumed the offensive. Jilinsky Army which attempted to advance. By the night of Sept. 5 had failed to combine the action of his two armies, urging one Francois was approaching the southern end of the lakes. By the forward to intercept what he thought to be a beaten enemy and 6th he had taken Johannisburg and Nikolaiken, driving back the dispatching the other on a subsidiary objective. The disaster to few Russian troops opposing him. By the 7th he was through the II. Army had come to him as a crushing surprise, and in the lakes and had captured Bialla and Arys. The Russian troops his fear that Rennenkampf would share the fate of Samsonov, opposing him had been hurried up without proper artillery suphe ordered the I. Army to halt and act on the defensive until fresh port and were dispersed in disorder. Eleven Russian battalions troops could be brought up from the centre of Russia. All chance were thus dissipated without result. On the 8th Francois turned of catching the Germans at a disadvantage during their tempo- northwards against the Russian flank. Sept. 9 was to be a fateful rary disorganization after the fighting at Tannenberg was thus day for the Germans. Mackensen had commenced his crossing lost. : at Lotzen during the 8th, but he could not enlarge the bridge-head.

44

MASURIUM—MATABELE

His troops attacked at 5 A.M., 12 noon and 8 p.m. on this day without success and that evening he reported no progress to

attention of the Russians to this quarter. The main attack was

then to come from the north on the 8th. Conditions were very different from those of the advance in Sept. of the year before.

François.

Francois’ attack against Soltmahnen on the morning of the oth came as a complete surprise to the left flank of the Russians opposing Mackensen. By noon the Russians were in hopeless rout, leaving 5,000 prisoners and 60 guns in the hands of François. The German enveloping movement had met with complete success. Rennenkampf’s left flank division had been destroyed and about 8,000 men of the Russian X. Army concentrating about August6éwo and Osowiec had been placed out of action. The left flank of Rennenkampf’s army now lay open to the attack of five German divisions. A second Tannenberg seemed more than probable. Ludendorff had employed the sth, 6th and 7th in bringing his eight divisions in line facing the Insterburg gap and, on the 8th, contact was gained with Rennenkampf’s outposts. On the gth, coinciding with Frangois’ attack, the Germans moved forward along the whole front. Little progress was made anywhere, and on the right the Russians made a determined counter-attack which completely held up the German advance. This check seems to have paralyzed Ludendorff temporarily, for he ordered his right under Francois and Mackensen to hold fast and even to close in to the centre for fear of disaster. But Rennenkampf had taken fright at the menace to his left and had decided to withdraw. That night he ordered a general retreat. He had been just too quick for the Germans. When Ludendorff allowed his right to move forward again, nothing further than cutting off the streams of disorganized transport and breaking up the Russian rear-guards was possible. Rennenkampf had pushed his retreat with desperation. Two of his corps had covered 58 m. in 60 hours. By the 13th he was safe from annihilation, and by the r4th his exhausted troops had crossed the East Prussian frontier between the forest

of Rominten and the river Niemen. Although the Russian I. Army had not been surrounded, it had suffered almost as much as the II. Army. Casualties since Sept. 6 had amounted to 125,000 men and 150 guns. Two corps had been destroyed and the whole army was out of action as a mobile force through lack of transport. The chief credit for this success must lie with Francois. In his march round the southern end of the lakes his men had covered 77 m. in the four critical days Sept. 6-9, and there had been severe fighting on two of those days. Had Ludendorff been quicker to realise that Rennenkampf’s counter-attack on the gth was made in order to disengage himself, and had his orders to Francois for the roth and rith not been

so cautious, there can be no doubt that Rennenkampf’s would haye been all but destroyed. II. THE WINTER

army

BATTLE

During their 28 days’ invasion of East Prussia the Russians had lost some 310,000 men from the flower of their army and 650 guns. Their offensive had been completely defeated and they had been thrown on the defensive. It was not till late in the winter of r914—15 that they began to show signs of activity once more. From the German point of view it was important to prevent another Russian invasion of East Prussia and it was therefore decided to upset the Russian plans by a strong offensive. German Dispositions.—In Jan. 1915 the German VIII. Army, under Below, was holding a line from the frontier south of Lake Spirding, to the river Memel. Some 100,000 Germans were facing 200,000 men of the Russian X. Army under Siewers. To the south there were signs of a Russian XII. Army being assembled between Modlin and Thorn. Four fresh corps had been allotted for the offensive, making a total of some 2 50,000

men. In outline the German plan was as follows: (1) The X. Army (eight divisions and one cavalry division), under Eichhorn, was to envelop the Russian right, moving southwards from the Insterburg gap. (2) The right wing of the VIII. Army (three divisions), under Litzmann, was to envelop the Russian left by moving round the southern end of the lakes. (3) The remainder of the VIII. Army (four divisions} was to hold the centre.

| Orders for the advance were issued on Jan. 28. The attack in

the south was to commence on Feb. 7, with a view to drawing the

The weather was bitterly cold and the whole country was deep in snow. Large numbers of sleighs had been collected and the scale of clothing and food greatly increased. The German administration left nothing undone which could be thought out beforehand,

German Line Advanced.—Litzmann’s advance found the marshy country in front of Johannisburg almost impassable, and the attack of the 7th came to little. Many of the units had to force their way through blinding snow storms, and it was not till the 8th that the Russian positions on the Pisseck were reached and taken, and by the goth the end of the lakes was passed. This diversion served its purpose well, for the attack of the German X. Army in the north came as a complete surprise to the Russians in their winter quarters, leisurely thinking of an advance in the spring. They were given no time in which to readjust their line, and reserves had to be thrown in piece-meal to save the situation. On the roth, a determined stand was made by four Russian divisions on either side of Eydtkuhnen, but by evening their resistance

had been broken.

Everywhere the effect of the German heavy

artillery was decisive. Despite the difficulty of bringing forward the heavy wheeled vehicles, which broke through the frozen crust of the ground, the Germans never failed to support their infantry at the decisive point. By the 12th, Below’s army had reached a line stretching from the forest of Rominten to Ludwinow. Meanwhile, the German centre had moved forward to keep in touch with the southern wing. Russian resistance in the south seemed to centre round the town of Lyck, and Litzmann was reinforced by a fourth division for its capture. From the roth to the 13th the fighting round Lyck was desperate. Often the Opposing sides could not distinguish each other in the blizzards which swept over them, and owing to the difficulty of ammunition supply the infantry were unsupported by artillery fire of any sort, and fierce hand to hand fighting ensued. Casualties on both sides were therefore heavy and the Russians also lost over 8,000 prisoners and 14 guns. By,the night of the 13th the Russians had been forced back and the town was in German hands. Position After the Battle—By the 14th, the German line ran from Rajgród in the south, through Suwalki, to Sztabinki in the north, in a semi-circle round Augustdéwo, at a distance of from 9 to 10 m., from the town. The wooded and close nature of the country made concerted attacks very difficult, but everywhere the superior individual training of the German soldier triumphed over the more ignorant Russian. The Russians fought with desperation to maintain their positions and it was not till the 17th that Siewers finally gave the order to abandon Augustéwo. He succeeded in escaping envelopment by abandoning most of his transport and ammunition columns and retiring in disorder on Grodno. By the 2oth the Germans were no longer in touch with the retreating Russians. In the winter battle the Russians lost 110,000 prisoners and 300 guns, and the X. Army, like the I. and II. Armies, was placed hors de combat. They had been caught unawares in winter quarters, without proper protection and with an inferior intelligence service. Had the Germans been able to bring up the whole of their guns and ammunition on Feb. 14 they might have succeeded in surrounding Augustów, but the weather prevented this. BIsLioGRaPHY.—H. von Redern, Winterschlacht in Masuren (1918) ; P. von Hindenburg, Out of My Life (1920); E. Ludendorff, My War Memories (1922) ; Hoffmann, The War of Lost Opportunities, London, 1924. Camon, Ludendorf sur le Front Russe, rorq-r5, Paris, 1926.

(See also Wor~tp War: Bibliography.)

MASURIUM

or EKA-MANGANESE,

(W. E. I.)

a chemical ele-

ment, atomic number 43, the existence of which has only been demonstrated spectroscopically (see [Frl.] J. Tacke, Zeit. angew. Chemie, 1925).

MATABELE

(“vanishing” or “hidden” people, so called

from their appearance in battle, hidden behind enormous oxhide shields), a people of Zulu origin, who under the chief Mosilikatze were driven out of the Transvaal by the Boers in 1837. In their new territories the Matabele absorbed many members of the conquered Mashona tribes. The Matabele are now herdsmen and

MATACAN—MATCH agriculturists. The sororate is practised and a man may marry all

45

Cuban independence executed here by the Spaniards. A drive | leads also to the ancient Castillo de San Severino (built in 1694 MATACAN, an independent linguistic stock of South Ameri- and rebuilt in 1773), to two more modern forts and to the Yumuri can Indians, so ‘called from the Matacos, its best-known tribe. valley and the Caves of Bellamar, famous resorts. In the Yumuri The Matacan tribes occupied a considerable area in the Bolivian valley is the Hermitage of Monteserrata, on La Cumbre, a hill and Argentine Chaco, along the Pilcomayo and Vermejo rivers, crowning the valley. The history of Matanzas antedates the from the foothills of the Andes eastward to the Paraguay. Many founding of the city, which took place in 1693, for prior to that of the tribes belonging to the stock are now extinct. The Mata- its harbour was the resort of pirates. The town received the right cos to-day are found south of the Vermejo in the western Chaco. to lecal government in 1694, and in 1815 was made capital of its The Chorotes (g.v.), one of the tribes of this stock, have recently department. Gabriel de la Concepción Valdés, a mulatto poet been carefully studied by Nordenskiold. As described by the known as El Plácido (1809-1844), was born in Matanzas and older writers, the Matacos (Mataguayes) and their affiliated executed there for participation in the negro conspiracy of r844. tribes were an ugly, dark-skinned people, living mainly by huntMATARO (anc. JJuro), a seaport of north-eastern Spain, in ing and fishing. They wore a kilt of skins, and lived in temporary the province of Barcelona, on the Mediterranean Sea and the small grass-thatched huts with very small, low doorways like Barcelona-Perpignan railway. Pop. (1920), 24,125. The wine of those of the Chiquitos (g.v.). Their weapons were the bow, the neighbourhood, which resembles port, is shipped in large quanspear and club. They appear to have had no chiefs or leaders of tities from Barcelona; and the district furnishes fine roses and authority. Monogamy was the rule. They performed elaborately strawberries for the Barcelona market. The industries include the costumed dances, but had no religious structures or images. manufacture of linen and cotton goods, especially canvas and tarSee D. G. Brinton, “Linguistic Cartography of the Chaco Region” paulin, and of soap, paper, and chemicals. The railway opened in (Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc., vol. xxxvii.); J. Cardus, Las Missiones 1848 was the first constructed in Spain. Outside the town is the ae en el territorio de la Republica de Bolivia (Barcelona, much-frequented carbonated mineral spring of Argentona. 1886 MATCH. A piece of inflammable material, such as wood, MATACHINES, bands of mummers or itinerant players in cardboard or waxed thread, provided with a tip which ignites by Mexico, especially popular around the Rio Grande, who wander friction. From the very earliest ages some means of bringing from village to village during Lent, playing in rough-and-ready fire into existence has been of primary importance. During the style a set drama based on the history of Montezuma. Dressed in evolution of fire-producers, other methods than that of friction— fantastic Indian costumes and carrying rattles as their orchestra, both chemical and mechanical—have been employed but the and with the help of a chorus of dancers they portray the deser- most successful agency for obtaining fire has been the friction tion of his people by Montezuma, the luring of him back by the match. Discovery of Phosphorus.—In 1670 the alchemist Brand, of wiles and smiles of Malinche, the final reunion of king and people, and the killing of Zl Toro (the bull), the author of all the mischief. Hamburg, discovered phosphorus, which is present in urine in the form of alkaline and organic phosphates. Brand was preparing MATADOR: see Butt-FIcHTING. MATAGALPA, the metropolis of the coffee region of Nica- a liquid from urine which was supposed to possess the power of ragua, a highland town with a number of foreign residents. The transmuting silver into gold, and hit upon phosphorus by accitown lies about 3,000 ft. above the sea, has a population (1928) dent. Phosphorus unites with oxygen with such facility that of about 12,000, and during the dry season is reached in a few spontaneous ignition ensues on exposure to air; and the enigma, hours from Managua by motor car (distance, 103 m.) and in the to which early efforts to utilize this material in a practical form wet season, from Managua and León (120 m.) by mule or horse- were directed, was the control of this property. The earliest back, a two-day journey at its best. The coffee is shipped via known method consisted in the rubbing of a small particle of Corinto. Matagalpa is a base for the mining and timber-cutting phosphorus between two pieces of brown paper, and in the igniting of a “Spunk” or splinter of wood, previously tipped with areas. MATAMOROS, a town and port of the State of Tamaulipas, sulphur. The risk of injury from burns by this process is apparent, Mexico, on the south bank of the Rio Grande, 28 m. from its and probably for this reason the employment of phosphorus for mouth, opposite Brownsville, Texas. Pop. (1910) 7,390. Mata- the purpose of ignition remained dormant for more than 100 moros ‘stands in an open plain, the commercial centre for a large years afterwards. Then the use of the phosphoric taper was district, but its import trade is prejudiced by the bar at the mouth suggested. This device consisted of a sealed glass tube conof the Rio Grande, which permits the entrance of small vessels taining a small portion of phosphorus, and a srhall length of waxed only. The exports include hides, wool and live stock. The im- thread; ignition occurring upon contact with the atmosphere. The Phosphorus Bottle of Cagniard de Latour (1810) conportance of the town is due to Brownsville, Texas, across the border, and its rail connection southward into Mexico. Matamoros tained partially oxidized phosphorus used in conjunction with was founded early in the roth century, and was named in honour a sulphur tipped splint and ignited by friction. In 1816 Francois of the Mexican patriot Mariano Matamoros (c. 1770-1814). In Derosne is stated to have manufactured friction matches conthe war between the United States and Mexico, Matamoros was taining phosphorus. Lucifers.—The year 1827 saw the first really useful friction easily taken by the Americans on May 18, 1846, following Gen. Zachary Taylor’s victories at Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma. match, made by an Englishman—John Walker, a druggist of Matamoros was occupied by the Mexican imperialists under Mejia Stockton-on-Tees. Walker’s matches contained no phosphorus, but were made of chlorate-of-potash, sugar and gum arabic. The in 1864, and by the French in 1866. MATANZAS, an important city, port and centre of the method of striking to obtain fire was to draw the splinter of wood, sugar industry of Cuba, located on the northern coast of the tipped with this composition, rapidly and under considerable island, 58 m. E. of Havana. Pop. (1925) 63,412. It is reached by pressure, through a piece of folded sandpaper. Imitations of rail, electric line, and by the new Central highway, from Havana Walker’s match were sold by Samuel Jones of London, and also and is connected by rail and highway with Santiago (481 m. S.E.). by G. F. Watts under the name of “Lucifers.” None of these The harbour is in an open bay, 2 m. wide. Three rivers flow into so-called “Lucifers” were easy of ignition. Attempts were made to the bay. Of these rivers the Yumuri is famous for the beauty provide special striking surfaces on the box; one of the first being of its valley, back of the city. Matanzas is divided into three sec- composed of chlorate-of-potash, antimony sulpbide, oxide of lead, tions by the Yumuri and the San Juan rivers. Wooded hills rise sulphur and gum arabic, sold under the name of “Congreves.” Sauria’s Invention.—Notwithstanding these experiments, an above the sloping plain on which the city is built, and above them the conical Pan (or loaf) de Matanzas (1,277 ft. high) which is easily inflammable friction match was not achieved until a satisa notable landmark. The Paseo de Marti, skirting the harbour, factory method of embodying phosphorus in a suitable mixture is a famous drive, marked at one end by a statue of Ferdinand was invented. This seems to have been successfully accomplished VII. of Spain and on the other by a monument to the heroes of by Dr. Charles Sauria of St. Lothair in 1831. Sauria neglected

his wife's sisters.

(See Africa, vol. i., no. 4 [1928].)

na Eere ae egian a aa eaa netted Per ton amaa t e eA o ee ae ae e n E a E maoe A m E a a EEE EE A EE EEEE R E i e E a E a E ss Benere

46

MATCH

to acquire a patent, and as a consequence matches were manufactured according to his formula in many places, notably in Vienna and Darmstadt. The Early Dangerous Trade.—The early strike-anywhere matches consisted mostly of a mixture of glue and the inflammable element in large quantities, but as manufacture progressed it was found that a very much smaller quantity of phosphorus was required to arrive at a satisfactory result, and that about 5% in a mixture with chlorate-of-potash and certain inert diluents was sufficient. Unfortunately the use of yellow phosphorus was accompanied by an insidious disease, known as Phosphorus Necrosis, or caries of the upper or lower jaw, which attacked workers in the industry, particularly those who were unhealthy. Sesquisulphide of phosphorus can be used without any deleterious effects and has now supplanted the poisonous phosphorus throughout the civilized world; an international convention at Berne in 1906 agreed to prohibit the use of yellow phosphorus. The Safety Match.—A history of the evolution of the friction match would not be complete without some reference to the safety match, which is manufactured on a somewhat different principle. In this match the oxidizing agent, chlorate-of-potash, is separated from the inflammable portions of the composition, the former being on the head of the match, while the latter, consisting chiefly of amorphous phosphorus, is affixed to the box side. Match Manufacture.—Since about 1900, the methods of match manufacture have undergone a complete change. From an industry in which practically every operation was conducted and completed by manual labour, it has become one of the most highly mechanized forms of industry. At the time of the introduction of Walker’s Match, “Spunks” or splinters of wood were chopped off

the same route as the preparation of the splints, but with certain

differences. The shaving is cut thinner, being only about 1/30” thick, and the veneering machine for this purpose is fitted with scoring knives, which serve to mark the shaving in the exact place for the convenience of subsequent folding. The assembled veneer

is then submitted to the chopper and sliced into its necessary

widths. A complete box is composed of three distinct pieces of wood: (a) The rim of the inside, (b) The bottom of the inside, (c) The outer case. There are two machines for the preparation of the box, the inner machine and the outer; both are automatic. A machine for making the outsides can turn out 8,000 to 10,000 boxes per hour, while the inside machine can make 6,000 to 7,000 per hour. The Continuous Match Machine.—On being assembled, the boxes are then carried forward to the continuous match machine. There are types, with varying capacity, but in round figures 74 millions of matches can be paraffined, dipped, dried and put into their final resting-place in the space of ro hours by one of these wonderful machines, with the assistance of about four attendants. In area, one type occupies a space of about 53 ft. long by ro ft. wide by 9 ft. high. It weighs over 20 tons. For the purpose of obtaining a good mental picture of one of these machines, an endless perforated steel plate of considerable length can be readily imagined, at the beginning of which the splints contained in a suitable hopper are inserted by a joggling mechanism and a plunger into the plate, are carried forward over and dipped into the heated paraffin, and thence forward to a container with the striking composition, where they receive the ignitive head. A further advance carries them over and under a series of planes, during which the drying is completed, which process occupies the wood-block in single units, and were dipped in the same man- about one hour of time, until they arrive almost at the point from ner. This procedure has now given place to specialized machinery which they started, when they are ejected into the boxes, the inner adapted to each and every stage of the manufacture. Modern of which has been previously placed into the outer by an apparatus matches are prepared from two species of wood: viz.:—American specially designed for this purpose. The continuous machine then opens the empty box bya self-acting plunger, and closing it again pine and aspen. Probably the earliest effort to provide a speedier means of in a similar manner, delivers it ready for the wrapping operation. (W. H. Dr.) dipping the matches consisted in assembling the splints in serried rows in a frame, in which each unit was separated. After dipping UNITED STATES the matches were then dried, assembled from the frame, and put The process of matchmaking in the United States differs into the boxes by female labour. The boxes were prepared by cutting a thin shaving from a piece of timber, previously sawn radically from that common in England. The planks for the to the correct size and stamped by means of a die folding; then matches are sawed 2 in. thick, seasoned for two years, and then sawed into match blocks, of which those free from knots and finally fastened down with flour paste, and paper. Match Machines.—In the modern match factory, ingenious with a straight grain are selected to be cured and fed into the mechanical devices are adapted to each process; in many instances match machine. At the head of the match machine, which is the operations are combined on a single machine, notably on the about 50 or 60 ft. long and 20 ft. high, is a frame which holds so-called continuous match machine. There are’two preparatory rows of hollow dies, which descend vertically and cut out splints and essential requisites in the manufacture of matches, viz.:— from the match blocks. Some machines cut so splints at each (a) The preparation of the match splint. (b) The putting together revolution, and, with a speed of over 300 revolutions a minute, of the boxes. In order to prepare the splint, a log with the bark have produced 10,000,000 matches in a working day. Square still attached, about 8 ft. or more in length by about 10” or more stick matches are not popular in America and their manufacture in diameter, is crosscut to obtain convenient lengths for sub- is virtually discontinued. Of all wood matches made in the United sequent handling. A machine of a simple type is next brought into States 974% are of round grooved splint type—both strike-anyoperation for the purpose of debarking the log. A vertically rotat- where safety and strike-on-box safety types. These splints are ing disc, furnished on its face with several knives set slightly in automatically forced out of the dies into the perforations of a advance, serves.to expose the wood and leaves it free for cast-iron plate. This forms part of an endless chain on which the further treatment, which consists in slitting the log into a thin splints are passed through a chemical solution, containing monoveneer about 54,” diameter. In this process in England the log ammonium phosphate, which impregnates the wood and prevents is fixed between two dogs, or clutches, of the machine, which an afterglow when the match is burned. After drying to evaporate seize it. at each end and hold it firmly enough to prevent its slip- the water from this chemical bath, the machine carries the splints ping, while the shaving or veneer is being discharged. A revolving through a bath of paraffin wax, or similar material, so that they motion is then imparted to it, during which the log is incessantly will catch fire readily when the match is lighted, the wax taking pressed against a stationary knife. By this means the veneer is the place of the sulphur formerly used. The machine then carries the splints through two dips to put the formed in one long shaving, suitable for further treatment in a crosscutter, which descends upon the assembled veneer. The out- head on the match. The first dip gives the match the bulb, which put of this splint cutting contrivance approaches 2 millions per is inert to ordinary friction and protects the tip of the match. The second dip forms the eye of the match, which is much smaller hour. Impregnation of the splints in a chemical solution to prevent than the bulb and ignites when the match is struck. The modern a glowing ember comes next, and for this purpose boric acid can match head contains a large number of chemicals and other inbe used. Splints are then dried and finally cleaned and straightened gredients, such as phosphorus, chlorate, potash, zinc oxide, glue and forms of gums, ground glass, quartz, whiting, etc., which for presentation to the continuous match machine. Box-making.—-The making of the boxes follows up to a point must be thoroughly compounded for several hours in large mills

MATCH-LOCK—MATERIAL

CULTURE

4-7

by means of special machines and under expert supervision. After : sea-level. Pop. (1921) 17,906. Part of it is built on a level being tipped the matches travel through blasts of air where they | plateau and part in deep valleys adjoining. The western facade are dried. On their return to the head of the machine, punches of the cathedral is plain and the south front facing the piazza drive the sticks out of the plates into a mechanism that packs richly decorated. The campanile is 175 ft. high. In the vicinity the matches in cardboard boxes in two layers, with the heads in are caves with 13th-century frescoes. The district was well poputhe opposite direction. Strips of cardboard are put over the lated in the palaeolithic and neolithic periods, and important matches and the covers sealed on the boxes—all by machinery. discoveries have been made by Domenico Ridola. The book matches, which are supplied to smokers to be carried MATERIAL CULTURE. Even under civilized conditions in the pocket, are safety matches, and are also made automatically a great part of man’s material culture is directly associated with by a machine which slits and dips the cardboard, puts the com- his primary need, that of procuring food, and his progress in many position on the cover, and binds and cuts apart the books. other directions depends upon the measure of his success in this.

MATCH-LOCKE: see Gun. MATE or Paracuay Tza, the dried leaves of Ilex paraguari-

ensis (and some other species), an evergreen shrub or small tree belonging to the same genus as the common holly. The leaves are from 6 to 8 in. long, shortly stalked, with a somewhat acute tip and finely toothed at the margin. The small white flowers

grow in forked clusters in the axils of the leaves; the sepals, petals and stamens are four in number, or occasionally five: and the berry is 4-seeded. The plant grows abundantly in Para-

guay, and the south of Brazil, forming woods called yerbales. Although maté appears to have been used from time immemorial by the Indians, the Jesuits were the first to attempt its cultivation. This was begun at their branch missions in Paraguay and the province of Rio Grande de San Pedro, where some plantations still exist, and yield the best tea that is made. From this circumstance the names Jesuits’ tea, tea of the Missions, St. Bartholomew’s tea, etc., are sometimes applied to maté. Under cultivation the quality of the tea improves, but the plant remains a small shrub with numerous stems, instead of forming, as in the wild state, a tree with a rounded head. From cultivated plants the leaves are gathered every two or three years, that interval being necessary for restoration to vigorous growth.

The collection of maté is chiefly effected by Indians employed for that purpose by merchants, who pay a money consideration to the government for the privilege. The Indians usually travel in companies of about twenty-five in number, build wigwams and settle down to the work for about six months. Their first operation is to prepare an open space, called a tatacua, about 6 ft. square, in which the surface of the soil is beaten hard and smooth with mallets. The leafy branches of the maté are then cut down and placed on the tatacua, where they undergo a preliminary roasting from a fire kindled around it. An arch of poles, or of hurdles, is then erected above it, on which the maté is placed, a fire being lighted underneath. After drying, the leaves are reduced to coarse powder in mortars formed of pits in the earth well rammed. Maté so prepared is called caa gazu or yerva do polos, and is chiefly used in Brazil. In Paraguay and the vicinity of Parana in the Argentine Republic, the leaves are deprived of the midrib before roasting; this is called caa-miri. A very superior quality, or caa-cuys, is also prepared in Paraguay from the scarcely expanded buds. Another method of drying maté has been adopted, the leaves being heated in large cast-iron pans set in brickwork, in the same way that tea is dried in China. The tea is prepared in a small silver-mounted calabash, the tapering end of which serves for a handle. In the top, there is a hole and the tea is sucked by means of a bombilla. This instrument consists of a small tube 6 or 7 in. long, formed either of metal or a reed, which has at one end a bulb made either of extremely fine basketwork or of metal perforated with minute holes, so as to prevent the particles of the tea-leaves from being drawn up into the mouth. Some sugar and a little hot water are first placed in the gourd, the yerba is then added, and finally the vessel is filled to the brim with boiling water, or milk previously heated by a spirit lamp. A little burnt sugar or lemon juice is sometimes added instead of milk. Maté, like tea and coffee, contains caffeine, but in less quantity. It is also less astringent. Maté retains its flavour against exposure to the air and damp. See Kew Bulletin (1892), p. 132.

MATERA, a city of Basilicata, Italy, capital of the province

of Matera, 17 m. S. of Altamura (which is 30 m. W. of Bari) by rail; the line goes on to Miglionico, 18 m. S.W., 1,312 ft. above

The

old classification

of peoples

or

communities

as hunters,

herders or tillers of the soil, is therefore not without value, though it lays undue stress upon this aspect of human life, and more than one question is begged when it is assumed that the higher cultures must have passed through the lower stages to reach their present level. It is quite probable that the first men to begin the cultivation of plants were neither hunters nor herders in @ specialized sense, but food-gatherers who, from depending upon such plant and animal produce as they could collect, were led to discover that roots and shoots and seeds could be made productive under control. Apart from those existing backward peoples who live by collecting, hunting and fishing alone, hunting may be a more or less essential activity in higher grades of culture, its importance decreasing with the extension of plant and animal cultivation, until in the higher civilizations it degenerates into a sport. The domestication of animals is, as is well known, often associated with agriculture, though in its intensive form it may have had its first big developments amongst nomadic peoples. The three categories may be regarded as specializations which arose out of the food-gathering that was in the beginning the compulsory occupation of the human stock, as it is of the existing apes. Specialization in, and dependence upon, hunting or the rearing of animal stock, involved a mode of life less likely to lead to and foster plant-growing than would a more settled existence In an area where vegetable food was plentiful, and where the phenomena of growth could be observed under similar conditions year after year. As is generally recognized, a settled life

would also provide favourable conditions and incentives for the

initiation of other peaceful arts, such as basket- and potterymaking, spinning and weaving; but it was only when plant cultivation established itself as cereal culture—the growing of grain such as barley and wheat, which could be stored for winter consumption—that the first civilizations became possible. If food is the primary need of man, clothing and shelter, however they first arose, assumed the form of needs partly under stress of climate. Means of travel and transportation, especially over water, were accessory to the more immediate material aims, since they played an important part in opening up new food-areas, and provided new natural products and new environmental stimuli. Arts and Crafts—A close study of the means of procuring food leads to the consideration of the innumerable weapons and devices for hunting and fishing; of methods and appliances used in plant cultivation and the tending of domesticated animals; and of the great variety of methods, implements and utensils for carrying, storing and preparing food. With clothing are associated skin-dressing, bark-cloth making, spinning and weaving, whilst in shelter and in travel and transport are involved the building of wind-screens and dwellings, and the construction of carrying devices and water-craft. To the implements and appliances needed for the carrying out of operations connected with all these activities there must be added—with considerable overlap—the tools and mechanisms used in the treatment of materials, and in the construction of artefacts of all kinds. Many artefacts have their main significance outside the limits of material culture, as, for example, in the case of personal, ornaments, instruments for measuring time and weight, musical instruments, religious buildings and images of gods; but as artefacts or inventions these claim consideration from the same point of view as others serving more material ends. Their nature is, indeed, determined by the state of culture with which they are associated,

and in their development they may react conspicuously upon the

48

MATERIAL

technique or constructional principles upon which they depend. It is clear that man, even savage man, has aspirations besides those of preserving his life and making himself comfortable, and these carry him far beyond the limits to which he is pushed by necessity. The ethnologist, in his studies of the culture of an alien people, finds the investigation of the material side of their life less difficult, and more reliable in its results, than is that of the social and religious aspects. There is less risk of error in describing a canoe or a method of making pottery, than in giving an account of a social or religious custom or belief. In the material object or the method the greater part of the truth is on the surface, and is easily grasped. The custom or belief may present features which are utterly foreign to the mode of thought of the investigator, and its real significance exists in the minds of men who may be incapable of explaining it clearly, or who may not desire to do so. Material culture is in fact a study of greater certainty because the evidences are stable and material, and can often be collected for detailed and leisured study. The fact that many artefacts are capable of preservation for hundreds or thousands of years adds to the scope of a study which thus ranges not only wide in space but deep in time. Upon our accumulated knowledge of the material activities of peoples of all grades of culture a science of comparative technology has been built up which deals in detailed fashion with the

technique of arts and crafts. Basket-work (see BASKET), pottery (g.v.), dwellings, weapons, weaving (g.v.) and other subjects are treated from this point of view elsewhere in this section, and only a few general considerations need be touched upon here. Impiements.—Even with some knowledge of natural materials, processes and forces, man can do little with his hands

CULTURE cultivation, again, much could be done with the hoe, or even with the simple digging-stick, but the evolution of the plough and of other accessory appliances, was essential to the growth of agriculture to its full usefulness. In modern spinning and weaving complex machinery does rapidly and surely what for some thousands of years was done slowly but adequately—as it is still done in some parts of the world—by means of spindles and simple looms

made of a few sticks and wooden slats.

Theories of Development.—Since evolution became a domi-

nant motive in scientific studies, the descriptive and comparative methods of treatment have been extended for reconstructive pur-

poses. In anthropology this tendency has been encouraged by the stimulus afforded by the discoveries of the archaeologist, which give us clues not only as to the general course of evolution of material culture, and of individual appliances, but as to the relationships between ancient peoples. That there have been since early days in the history of man, innumerable instances of contact, migration and conquest, and that such relationships have led to transmissions of culture, or of cultural elements, from place to place and from people to people, is generally agreed. The attempts to ascertain how far an existing culture in any part of the world can be resolved into its historical elements—how far stratification can be detected, and transmissions be traced to their sources—have necessarily been based on analyses which take into account not material culture alone, but linguistic, religious, social and physical characters. Reconstructive work of this kind,

though sometimes one sided, is the only approach to a scientific history of mankind, as distinct from literary histories of nations and peoples,

The attempted reconstructions are based on views which in

their most definite form are regarded as characterizing the alone; but very much more can be achieved with the aid of a historical or diffusionist school of anthropologists. In controsmooth pebble, a pointed stick and a sharp flint (see Fiints). It versial opposition are those to whom the term “evolutionists” has was in the working of hard materials such as stone, wood and unaccountably become.attached. Whilst the extreme diffusionist bone, that the hands had to admit their primary incapacity, though regards the independent origin and development of similar or there were other things they could not do unaided. In some cases, identical methods, artefacts, beliefs and customs, as having been however, an elaboration of tools and appliances can only increase so infrequent as to be of negligible significance, the extreme evospeed and precision, though even a simple appliance like the lutionist is supposed to postulate independent evolution as an primitive plough may produce results which are out of all pro- ever-ready explanation of such similarities. It is not probable, portion to its own structural complexity. In the development of however, that there is any evolutionist who denies the occurrence most arts and crafts*there has necessarily been constant inter- of diffusion, and there is certainly no diffusionist who denies the action between materials, methods and appliances, but there is occurrence of evolution. There is, too, the belief that the whole no common formula to express the degree of interdependence. controversy is futile. Seeds may be sown, and clay may be shaped with little or no The test question is that of the cultures of the Indians of assistance from artefacts, but for breaking and crushing hard America. There are some anthropologists who are prepared to

materials, for cutting, piercing, abrading and similar operations, regard diffusion as an acceptable and far-reaching explanationtools are essential. Simple devices involving the application of within the limits of the Old World and the New, respectively, but leverage, the elasticity of wood and especially rotary motion—as who look upon the culture of the American Indians as to all inin the drill, the wheel and the rotary quern—pointed the way to tents and purposes indigenous. This view involves the acceptance the development of machinery as we know it; progress in this of a great number of difficult cases of independent origin and direction was, however, dependent not only upon increased knowl- parallel or converging development. edge of natural forces and mechanical principles, but upon the Directional Invention.—In this enquiry much depends on production of iron in large quantities, and upon the evolution of whether we regard man’s inventive powers as originative in charmethods of working and shaping the metal. acter, based upon a far-seeing anticipation of ways and means as That there are conspicuous differences in the parts played by well as ends, or as an opportunism which ranges from the methods and appliances, respectively, in various arts and crafts, casual to the persistent according to circumstances. Under modern needs little demonstration, and in some’cases there has been a civilized conditions there is a constant striving, on the part of a great development in appliances without an equivalent improve- small number of individuals, after discovery and invention. Even ment in the products. Basket-work, which reaches its highest when the unexpected happens and is seized upon, there is some level amongst uncivilized peoples, requires the simplest of tools, end in view, though it may be different from that eventually or even none at all, and the forms and fabrics are such as to achieved, The world-wide literature of science, modern knowledge preclude the use of mechanisms or machines; development has of the properties of materials, and of chemical and physical resulted from change and improvement in technique, and not from forces, combined with the possession of a great variety of tools the invention of artificial aids for the craftsman. Similarly, and machines, are apt to lead us to conceive of the inventor as a though not equally, pottery-making was for long an art in which creator rather than an adapter and improviser. Giant strides are the hand was the only important tool employed in shaping the apparently made, but they are in reality due to the summation of clay, and the early potter’s wheel did not bring about a funda- a number of much smaller steps; judgment is often confused,

mental change in this respect——discoveries of new kinds of clay, and of better methods of preparing them, and of firmg the pots,

have been the most important factors in the evolution of pottery,

Appliances have, however, played a greater part in the advances

that have been made, than in the case of basket-making. In plant

also, by the fact that a simple discovery may have important results, the discovery being judged by its consequences, and not by its own intrinsic simplicity, The fact that, as is the case with most modern advances, it could not have been made without elaborate apparatus or refined technique, may be of historical

MATERIAL CULTURE

49

interest, but this does not take it out of the category of the discoveries that man has been making since his career began. In short, the existing social and material conditions enable the civilized inventor to place himself in the way of receiving suggestions that can only reach him by way of methods and appliances that are themselves the end-results of a prolonged process of gradual evolution. Civilized man has, moreover, become convinced that nearly all things are possible, and that the unknown is not only a territory to be explored without fear, but with hope of great reward. He is an opportunist, pursuing discovery and invention by way of experiment to the furthering of directional aims, and his advantages over his early predecessors are due to his social and material heritage, and not to intellectual superiority., We can scarcely doubt that under conditions that favoured the accumulation of knowledge, and that provided opportunities and incentives to the discoverer and inventor, there have been in all the higher human cultures, individuals, relatively few in number, who have adopted such directional methods as their knowledge and material equipment allowed. But the ancient civilizations were themselves based upon the prior evolution of a grade of culture that rendered their foundation possible, and only when these had become well established were the conditions for the emergence of directional invention fulfilled. Even then the limitations of knowledge and the inhibitions of habit, prejudice and superstition, made progress incomparably slower than it is in our own times. Amongst uncivilized peoples, perceptible advance has probably been made only when racial contacts and impacts, great changes in environment, or discoveries which opened up new possibilities—such as those which led to agriculture and metal-working respectively—raised men out of the stagnation due to unchanging environment and a static condition of knowledge. There was new material to work upon, and attempts to

of invention, which had previously been outside his environment. Certain discoveries and inventions contained great possibilities, others had their chief value in their immediate utility, and were destined to advance but little. The pestle and mortar are much as they have always been, except in diversity of material, but the pick or the hoe led to the modern plough, and the canoe now figures as a battle-ship. In all the developments, each step has depended upon its predecessors, except in cases in which an appliance or method has reached its highest level only to be superseded by a rival which had evolved along different lines, and which contained greater potentialities. Thus, the spear-thrower gave place to the bow, and this to the gun, the push-quern to the rotary quern, stone-working to metal-working, though where the newer knowledge never penetrated, or met with opposition, the older ways survived. Method of Variation.—If we take a closer view of the manner in which inventions develop, we find that two chief factors can be distinguished. In the one case, there is the method of variation, in which the individual changes are small in amount and unimportant in their effects, or, if not so small, they are such as could have been produced by the summation of a number of such changes. It is obvious that form and size may easily change as the result of the selection of variations, whether the selection is made with a clear consciousness of possibilities or not. By variation the bronze dagger was lengthened to become a sword, the flanged celt became a palstave, and such artefacts as wooden clubs, stone celts and arrow-heads, pots and a multitude of others developed into a variety of forms without the intervention of what is often called the inventive faculty, though not necessarily without imitation coming into play. Mutations.—In addition to these variational changes, there are others which can only occur each as a single step of a decisive

part of the material or appliances used. Chance Discoveries——If we regard directional invention as characteristic of peoples living under civilized conditions, it is necessary to enquire how progress was made before civilization was established. If it could be said in 1927 that “most discoveries in physics arise from some experimental fact discovered more or less accidentally” (Presidential address [by Sir James B. Henderson] to the engineering section of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, 1927), it is not unreasonable to ascribe to chance the discoveries of early man. It can hardly be supposed that he experimented with stones in order to produce fire, before he had observed the production of sparks by a chance

tion of series, for example, between the werked stone held in the hand, and one fixed in a wooden haft; between the spear with a fixed point, and a harpoon with a detaching point; between a plain bow and a crossbow; between a simple wooden drill and a bow-drill. In all these cases the second appliance arose by an abrupt change, of an inventive character, and we may borrow a biological term and speak of such steps as mutations.

apply the old methods were met by unexpected reactions on the

percussion; or that he took to testing the germinating power of seeds, because he felt the need of a more reliable food-supply;

nor did he invent the blow-tube because he wanted something with which to shoot pellets or datts. He discovered accidentally that certain results followed certain actions, and in many cases the means came to hand and the end was achieved before the need was réalized. There must have been innumerable instances

of failure to recognize that a useful discovery was within reach,

character.

There can be no true intermediate stages, no summa-

Two kinds of mutations may be distinguished.

On the one

hand there are improvements made as a result of discoveries arising during the manufacture or utilization of the artefact itself. These we may call free-mutations, and they are strictly com-

parable with the applied discoveries of the potentialities of natural objects. If we assume that the harpoon arose from a spear which had a bone point or blade tied to the shaft, we may regard the occasional breaking away of the point as the determining accident in the evolution of the new appliance. The tying cord might easily retain its connection with the shaft and become entangled with the point, in such a way that the essential feature of the harpoon presented itself ready-made. The observation that there were certain advantages in this looser mode of attachment might lead to its permanent adoption for spearing fish or aquatic mammals, and the free-mutation established itself. It is not possible to do more than speculate as to the mode of origin of most ancient inventions. In this case, as no doubt in many others, accident may well have played the predominant part. It is in the second kind of mutations, which may be called crossmutations, that the inventive faculty has its main opportunity.

and the means and the end and the need alike remained unknown. Clay may have hardened in the fire, and copper melted, many times in vain. It may be säid that a manner of progress such as this, may account for the primary discoveries of man, and for their application in simplé methods and appliances, but that he must have soon got beyond this dependence upon environmental suggestion; and indeed there was a gradually increasing change in the con- Here not only is the end pre-conceived, but a possible means is ditions determining the nature of his discoveries and inventions. foreseen. Most modern inventions (the single steps, not comBut the change was one of scope rather than of character, and plexes such as aeroplanes and loud-speakers) are cross-mutawas due to the extension of his environment by the addition to it tions, and they involve the adaptational transfer of a device or of his own accumulating knowledge and equipment. Thus, the feature from otie appliance to another, or the application of a ore of a metal was at first merely one kind of rock or stone device or feature that has become well-known through its utilizaamongst many others, but with increasing discoveries of its po- tion in other artefacts. The more highly developed the state of tentialities, man’s environment was enlarged no less than it would material culture, the more numerous are the opportunities for have been if the ore had fallen from the skies, with instructions cross-mutation, though progress is still made step by step. Early for use. Similarly, when he discovered that he could make a man, and even early civilized man, had relatively few such oppornew kind of weapon or tool by thrusting a blade of stone into a tunities, but occasionally he hit upon a new method or device that bend or a cleft or a hole in a stick, he opened up a new field contained exténsive possibilities of transfer and adaptation. The

5O

MATERIALISM—MATERIALS,

STRENGTH

OF

idea of hafting, and the several methods of hafting (by means of

this school belong Drs. Maudsley and Mercier. The highest form

lashings, tangs, sockets, etc.) were in origin based on free-mutation and variation; but they could be transferred as cross-mutations. Similarly, devices for utilizing and controlling rotary motion were

of the doctrine is scientific materialism, meaning the doctrine commonly adopted by the physicist, zoologist and biologist.

capable of transfer. We must suppose that such transfer only took place to an artefact which had reached a stage of development at which the application of the mutation was a more or less obvious step to take; nevertheless it is clear that in cross-mutation there was a greater foresight and awareness than in the case of free-mutation, which only involved an appreciation of the immediate possibilities of a chance discovery. A free-mutation is a new discovery directly applied to the construction or improvement of an artefact, whilst a cross-mutation is the result of the extension of the utility of a known device. Any true inventive step is a mutation, and the term may be restricted in its use to the evolution of artefacts. This “opportunist” view of the manner in which man’s methods and artefacts have been evolved, emphasizes the extreme gradualness of the process. The simplest tool and method that are based on the most superficial phenomena, may have been arrived at over and over again. Such knowledge was probably part of the equipment of Homo sapiens at the time of his first dispersal. It is evident that the greater the number of determining variations and mutations involved, the less probable is it that the same result will have been reached independently in different parts of the world. The fact that in modern times two investigators occasionally make the same discovery or invent a similar device, has no bearing upon the question, since they work in reality in collaboration, starting from the same point, using similar apparatus, and drawing upon the records of the same predecessors. A consideration of modern inventive progress, in spite of its directional aims, strongly supports the opportunist view of the development of material culture.

necessary methodological postulate of natural-scientific inquiry,

Bretrocrapay.—O. T. Mason, The Origins of Invention (London, 1895); G. Elliot Smith, The Migrations of Culture (1917); R. H. Lowie, Culture and Ethnology (New York, 1917); Erland Nordenskidld, An Ethno-Geographicai Analysis of the Material Culture of Two Indian Tribes of the Gran Chaco (Goteborg, 1920); Clark

Wissler, Man and Culture (1923); L. H. Dudley Buxton, Primitive Labour (London, 1924); Roland B. Dixon, The Building of Culture (New York and London, 1928). (H. S. H.

MATERIALISM in philosophy, the theory which regards all

the facts of the universe as explainable in terms of matter and motion, and in particular explains all psychical processes by physical and chemical changes in the nervous system (from Lat.

materia, matter). It is thus opposed both to natural realism and to idealism. For the natural realist stands upon the common-sense

position that minds and material objects have equally effective existence; while the idealist explains matter by mind and denies that mind can be explained by matter. The various forms into which materialism may be classified correspond to the various causes which induce men to take up materialistic views. Naive materialism is due to a cause which still, perhaps, has no small power, the natural difficulty which persons who have had no philoSophic training experience in observing and appreciating the importance of the immaterial facts of consciousness. The pre-Socratics may be classed as naive materialists in this sense; though, as at that early period the contrast between matter and spirit had not been fully realized and matter was credited with properties that belong to life, it is usual to apply the term hylozoism (q.v.) to the earliest stage of Greek metaphysical theory. Cosmological materialism is that form of the doctrine in which the dominant motive is the formation of a comprehensive world-scheme: the Stoics and Epicureans were cosmological materialists. In antireligious materialism the motive is hostility to established dogmas which are connected, in the Christian system especially, with certain forms of spiritual doctrine. Such a motive weighed much with Hobbes and with the French materialists of the 18th century, such as La Mettrie and d’Holbach. The cause of medical materialism is the natural bias of physicians towards explaining the health and disease of mind by the health and disease of body. It has received its greatest support from the study of insanity, which is now fully recognized as conditioned by disease of the brain. To

It may perhaps be fairly said that materialism is at present a

The business of the scientist is to explain everything by the physical causes which are comparatively well understood and to ex-

clude the interference of spiritual causes. It was the great work of Descartes to exclude rigorously from science all explanations which were not scientifically verifiable; and the prevalence of materialism at certain epochs, as in the enlightenment of the r&th century and in the German philosophy of the middle 19th, were occasioned by special need to vindicate the scientific position, in the former case against the Church, in the latter case against the

pseudo-science of the Hegelian dialectic. The chief definite pe-

riods of materialism are the pre-Socratic and the post-Aristotelian in Greece, the 18th century in France, and in Germany the roth century from about 1850 to 1880. In England materialism has been endemic, so to speak, from Hobbes to the present time, and English materialism is more important perhaps than that of any other country. But, from the national distrust of system, it has not been elaborated into a consistent metaphysic, but is rather traceable as a tendency harmonizing with the spirit of natural science. Hobbes, Locke, Hume, Mill and Herbert Spencer are not systematic materialists, but show tendencies towards materialism. Largely through the influence of Bergson, Alexander and Lloyd Morgan contemporary science is tending away from materialism and mechanism towards the recognition of other than mechanical factors in the phenomena, even the physical phenomena, of Nature.

See EMERGENCE, IpEatism; Materialism (Eng. Tr. 1926).

MATERIALS,

and F. A. Lange’s History of

STRENGTH

OF, is a branch of applied

mechanics which deals with the effects produced by forces in the materials of architectural and engineering construction. Its aims (in so far as these are practical) are to discover rules whereby the strength of a given part may be assessed, and on these to base general principles of design, whereby each member of a structure or machine may be given the material and proportions best suited to its function. Thus, to take a fairly simple example, the choice of suitable material and proportions for a locomotive coupling rod is a problem which falls within the province of our subject. The rod is required to transmit from one wheel to the next a force which will depend upon the speed and on the tractive effort of the locomotive, and which will fluctuate during each revolution of the wheels. In addition, it will be subjected to bending actions, due to its own up-and-down motion, which will depend not only upon the speed of the locomotive but also upon the mass of the rod itself. When the material and proportions have been (provisionally) determined, the magnitudes of these different forces can be estimated: the question then presents itself, whether the strength of the rod will be adequate to its task. At the outset it is evident that two factors are involved. Whatever be the material, a member will break or bend if its crosssection is too small: whatever be its ‘size, certain properties (such as hardness or rigidity) are required of the material. So, following our subject, two investigations must be pursued. First, we must be able to predict the state of stress (that is, of internal action) which results when specified forces are applied to a body of specified form; secondly, we must be able to decide whether these internal actions can be brought into existence without detri-

ment to a specified material. The first line of investigation is the

province of the theory of elasticity; the second, that of metallur gy

and the testing of materials: our problem is to combine, for the guidance of the architect or engineer, the knowledge which these different sciences afford.

THEORY OF ELASTICITY 2. For a full account of the methods and results of mathematical enquiry the special article ELASTICITY should be consult ed. Much of the theory is concerned with probiems of ‘physic al rather

STRESS]

MATERIALS,

than engineering interest, and methods of more restricted range can be employed to obtain those few and relatively simple solutions which form the basis of practical design. The essentials of the theory are: (1) a quantitative analysis of stress, or internal action; (2) a quantitative analysis of strain, or distortion; (3) postulates (based on experiment) regarding the relation of stress to strain. These, in conjunction with the accepted principles of mechanics, it employs to derive equations which govern the displacement at every part of a loaded body. The solution of those equations is a purely mathematical problem, which may present considerable difficulties. Continuity.—3. The whole theory, as at present developed, rests on a fundamental assumption regarding the nature of materials. These are treated as “continuous,” in the sense that they can

(in imagination) be subdivided to any extent without losing any property which they exhibit in bulk. In other words, the theory contemplates a material having the nature of a structureless jelly, which would have exactly the same appearance when viewed through a microscope of any imaginable magnification. The assumption must be recognized and its implications weighed, for it does not accord with our knowledge of real materials. These in all cases exhibit a definite structure, even when examined under low magnifications: brass, for example, is revealed as a conglomerate of small crystals of copper and of zinc. Small pieces cut from different parts would therefore not exhibit similar properties; and if we were to subdivide them further, down to molecular or atomic dimensions, we should ultimately reach a stage at which all resemblance to a continuous substance had disappeared. We shall have to consider later how far it is permissible to apply to real materials results which are based on the assumption of continuity. For the moment we are concerned to develop, in accordance with this assumption, precise notions of stress and strain. ANALYSIS OF STRESS

The Notion of Stress.—4. Let us imagine, in the first place, that a heavy cube (A) of the structureless material rests with its bottom face horizontal and in contact with a similar cube (B). To maintain equilibrium, an action must be exerted at the surface of contact, whereby B pushes upwards against the weight of A, whilst A pushes down on B with equal force. Mutual action of this kind is termed a stress: when, as in this example, its direction is at right angles to the surface at which it acts, it is termed “normal stress.”

Action of the same kind (although different in amount) must evidently be exerted at any horizontal surface which divides either cube into two parts: the material below the surface must push upwards on that above, and the material above the surface must push downwards on that below. So the idea of stress can be extended from mutual actions between two bodies to mutual actions between different parts of the same body; the reality of the surface across which a stress is transmitted is a matter of indifference. Again, we may conceive the total action across a surface to be made up of contributions from every part of that surface. In this way we arrive at the notion of superficial intensity of stress. If a portion of area S makes a contribution P to the total action, then the ratio P/S measures the average intensity of stress on that area. If S (and therefore P) is indefinitely small, sọ that the area is effectively concentrated at a point, the average intensity of stress may be identifed with the actual local intensity at that point. We employ the symbol p to denote this local intensity of stress. If equal contributions to the total action are made by equal areas, p will have a constant value over the surface considered; in such cases we say that the intensity of stress is uniform, or that the stress is “uniformly distributed.” More generaly, p will vary from point to point.

STRENGTH

OF

ȘI

subjected to a horizontal force F which tends to slide it off B, and that sliding is resisted by friction at the surface of contact. Evidently there is a mutual action between A and B, at this surface, of a kind to which we have given the term stress; and further, action of the same sense and total amount must be exerted across any imaginary horizontal surface, lying below the point of application of F, which divides A into two parts. It would not be legitimate to say that this last action has its origin in friction; but we see the necessity for the concept of stresses, which may or may not be “uniformly distributed,” having directions parallel to the surfaces at which they act. Such stresses are termed żangential, or “shearing” stresses. Resolution of Stress.—5. In the general case, the action at a surface may have any inclination to that surface. Thus a stress, like a force, may be resolved into components having any three specified directions; and conversely normal and tangential stresses

may be superposed, or “compounded.” Simple Longitudinal Stress—Normal stress of the type already considered will be brought into existence when uniform pressures (that is, distributed normal forces of uniform intensity, acting inwards) are applied to the top and bottom faces of a cube. If the directions of the applied forces are reversed (fig. 1A), the stress across a horizontal surface will have the same direction

and magnitude as before, but it will now be opposite in sense. We term it a tensile stress, because the applied forces tend to stretch the cube: stress of the former type is termed compressive. Thus we see that normal stress may be of two kinds,—viz., tensile or compressive——which differ only in respect of sense; compressive stress may be regarded as tensile stress of negative intensity. This convention will be adopted in what follows: we shall use the symbol p to denote tensile stress, and we shall represent compressive stresses by giving a negative sign to p. Tangential stress will frequently be represented by the symbol g. When a long rod of uniform cross-section is stretched by means of a suspended weight, a practically uniform tensile stress will act on horizontal surfaces, and vertical surfaces will be free from stress. The material is then said to be subjected to “simple longitudinal stress.” When a short pillar or block is compressed by opposite forces applied at its ends, we have, to a somewhat less close approximation, a state of

simple longitudinal

compressive

stress.

ie

Compound

Stress.—If

the

rod or block is subjected in addition to forces acting onits sides, a more complex state of stress

is presented.

We may regard it `

as a combination of two or more simple longitudinal stresses, and we describe it as a compound stress. In fg. r, the first block c D (A) is subjected to simple longiFIG. 1.—-SIMPLE AND COMPOUND tudinal stress (tensile) in the diSTRESSES rection ox; block B is subjected to simple longitudinal compressive stress in the perpendicular direction oy. When the two systems of applied force are combined, as in block C, we have a state of compound stress made up of two simple longitudinal components. In block D, three simple longitudinal components go to make up the state of stress. Principal Stresses——6. That part of the theory of elasticity which is called analysis of stress deals with the combination of simple stresses and, conversely, with the resolution of compound stresses into their “simple” components. The most important

theorem in the subject may be stated as follows:—At any point in a material, however complicated may be the state of stress at that point, three planes can be found, each perpendicular to the other

two, Which have the property that the stresses transmitted across

them are purely normal. These planes are termed principal planes of stress for the point considered, and the corresponding stresses Normal and Tangential Stress.—The action at a given sur- are termed principal stresses. face will not necessarily be directed at right angles to that surface. We may imagine that a very small rectangular block of mateLet us imagine that the cube A, in the case already considered, is rial, containing the point in question, has its faces parallel to the

MATERIALS, STRENGTH OF

52

three principal planes. The theorem states that only normal stresses will act upon those faces, as shown in case D of fig. 1, which accordingly represents the most general state of compound stress that can occur. The three normal stresses fı, pe, pa will in general all be different, and one or more may assume negative values (representing compressive stresses, as explained on p. 51). Stress Equations of Motion or Equilibrium.—7. The directions of the principal stresses will in general vary from point to point, and cannot be determined until we have calculated the state of stress. For this purpose we form, in the first place, the equations of motion or of equilibrium for a small réctangular block of the material having edges parallel to three fixed axes Ox, Oy, Oz: hence, imagining the dimensions of the block to be made indefinitely small, we derive three equations of which the following is typical: OX,

OX,

OX:

[STRESS

Xe , OXy + F Ox

dy

CX =p

fz,

which (since we have assumed that Xz is zero) is the same as (1), 9. Asecond equation may be obtained by considering motion

in the direction Oy, and a third by considering the tendency of the block to turn about an axis parallel to Oz. The resultant

moment on the block is given by (Yz dy) dx—(Xy

ôx) ôy,

plus terms which become relatively negligible when ôx and dy are indefinitely reduced. So we have, ultimately, the condition

Y,=Xy,

(2)

which is typical of three that can be obtained in the general case. Thus in general six (not nine) components are required to

(x) specify the state of stress at a point, namely,

a

Ae F aS a, TPX = pfz

In this equation, x, y and z are the components of a point referred to the fixed axes; Xz is the normal component of the stress

on a plane through (x,y,z) which is perpendicular to Ox; and Xy, Xz aré the tangential components, parallel to Ox, of the stresses on planes through (x,y,z) which are perpendicular to Oy and Og

respectively. X is the “body force” per unit mass (due, e.g., to gravitation or electrical attractions), p the density of thè material, = fz the acceleration in the direction Ox, at the point

(x, y, 2).

Two-Dimensional Stress-Systems.—8. The derivation of these equations, and a proof of the theorem stated in § 6, will be found in the article ELasticrty. We shall here confine attention to the special case in which there is no stress on planes perpendicular to Oz. Fig. 2 shows a rectangular block of dimensions 5x, dy, 1, in the directions of Ox, Oy, Oz respectively. The point A has co-ordinates %, y, and the stress on the face AD has a normal component which we denote (as above) by Xz; similarly, the stress on the face

AB has a normal component which we denote by Yy. The tangential stress on AB has a component in the direction of Ox which we

denote (as above) by Xz; and similarly, the tangential stress on

Xz, Yy, Zz, Ye, Ze, Xy;

(3)

and these six components are related by three equations of the type (1). to. To illustrate the theorem of § 6, we shall again assume that planes perpendicular to Oz are free from stress. We shall consider the triangular block shown in fig. 3, and we shall imagine that the sides of this block are indefinitely small; then the effects of body-force and of acceleration may be neglected in comparison with those of stress. In accordance with (2), we denote by X, the tangential ; stress on both of the faces FIG, 3.~-TRANSFORMATION

STRESS COMPONENTS: PORRE GASE

OF

TWO-DIMEN-

AC, CB.

Let pand g be the (unknown) normal and tangential compo-

nents of stress on the inclined face AB. Then for equilibrium in the direction of p we have the condition 2 AB=(X, AC)sind+(Y¥, CB)cosé —X,(AC cosé6+CB sind), and for equilibrium in the direction of g we have similarly

gx AB=(Y,XCB) sin6—(X,xAC) cosd +-X,(CB.cos@~AC.sin§).

But AC=ABsiné and CB=ACcos@. Hence, dividing out both equations by AB, we obtain the expressions p=X,zsin’?6+Y,cos?6~— Xysin 26, FIG. 2.—DERIVATION DIMENSIONAL CASE

OF

THE

STRESS

EQUATIONS

OF

MOTION:

AD has a component in the direction of Oy which we represent by

q= nzi sin 20-+Xycos 26,

TWO-

YT

On the face BC, as on AD, there will be component stresses Xz, Yz; but their values will in general be different, because the

whence ~ and g can be found when Xs, Yy, Xe are known.

The stress on AB will be purely normal if g is zero, and the second of (4) shows that this will happen if tan 20 =

state of stress will vary from point to point. We may represent them, as in the diagram, by (x,+ xs . ôx) and (YF; + ne - 6%

ney: and the stresses on DC may be represented simiarly. i Remembering that the total action on any face is given by th

stress on that face multiplied by its area, we see that the resultant force tending to accelerate the block in the direction Ox is

(= ôx) dy+ (> by ) dutpxX dx dy, where X is the body-force. This resultant may be equated to the product of mass and acceleration—that is, to (p dx dy) fy. Then, if we cancel out the common factor (ôx ôy), we obtain the equation

(4)

2Xy Xe =

Y; 3

(5)

—an equation which gives two values of 6, differing by a right angle. Thus, in our simplified case, the theorem is proved. The first of (4) may be written in the form

p

_Xat¥,

o

Yy—

Xz cos 20~X, sin 26,

and hence # will have a stationary value if o= st = (X,—Y,) sin 29—2X, cos 20.

Comparing this condition with (5), we see that the normal stress will have stationary (i.e., maximum or minimum) values on those planes for which the tangential stress is zero. This theorem holds in the general case.

MATERIALS, STRENGTH OF

STRAIN]

53

Mohtr’s Circle Diagram for Compound Stress.—tr1.

If, in | Ox, Oy, Oz coinciding with three edges of the cube, as shown, fig. 3, the rectangular faces are principal planes of stress, X, will |it is clear that this state of strain will occur when every particle

be zero. Writing ġı and pz, in (4), for Yy and Xz respectively,

we have for this case:

|

(6)

b=3(d1+2)+3 (p1— po) cos 26, g=3(p1— po) sin 28. It is clear that p and g will be given, in terms of fy, pz, by a circular diagram constructed as shown in fig. 4. If CA is drawn, at an angle 20 to OCN, to meet the circle at 4, the co-ordinates ON, AN of A will represent p and g respectively. Again, it is clear that the stress on AB (fig. 3) will not be affected by the addition of a third principal stress #3, acting on , the triangular faces of the prism; FIG. 4.—MOHR'S CIRCLE DIAGRAM

so, In the

general

case,

the FOR COMPOUND STRESS

circle BAX still gives the stresses on planes which are parallel to the direction of ps. In the same way, if OE (fig. 4) represents fz, points on a circle having EB as diameter will relate the normal and tangential components of stress for all planes parallel to fu, and points on a circle having ZX as diameter will relate these components for all planes parallel to pp. On planes which are inclined to all three of the principal planes, the stresses, in the general case, will depend upon all three of pı, pe, p3. But it may be proved that points taken, in fig. 4, to relate the normal and tangential components of stress on such planes will in all cases lie within the shaded area of the diagram. Thus, if the normal stress on a plane is specified by OWN, the intensity of the tangential stress lies between limits given by AN and A’N. Case of Two Equal and Opposite Principal Stresses.—12. If, in equations (6), we make 2 equal and opposite to pı, the stress on planes which are equally inclined to the principal planes of stress (28 =g0°) will be given by Í =0,

q= p 1-

V=O0,

WO,

(Strained length) — (Original length) _ ug —up (Original length) — ra rp a e(xo— xp) i Xo

IP

= ¢.

We say that the material undergoes a simple extension, of amount e, in the direction Ox: any line in the material, initially parallel to this direction, is extended by the same fractional amount.

Simple Shearing Strain.—z5, Another simple type of distor-

tion can be imagined in which the shape of two faces is changed. Its nature is illustrated in fig. 6, and it will evidently occur when every particle undergoes a displacement confined to the direction Ox and of magnitude proportional to its distance from the face OCEF, for then we shall have

V=0, Wo, and all lines originally parallel to OZ will u= "2,

FIG. 6.-——DIAGRAM ILLUS. TRATING SIMPLE STRESS

rotate through the same angle (the angle

BCP’ of the figure). If BB’ is small, this

angle will be represented sufficiently closely (in circular measure) by the ratio

BE SCE a BCT BO Y We say that the material undergoes “simple shearing strain” (or, more briefly, “simple shear”) in the (z, ¥) plane; the mag-

nitude of the strain is y, the reduction in the angle between lines

which were originally parallel to Oz and Ox.

Composition of Simple Strains: Principle of Superposi-

OF STRAIN

Displacements.—13. In the analysis of strain, or distortion, the assumption of continuity is again fundamental. Disregarding all questions of molecular structure, we imagine our ideal material to occupy every point within a certain continuous surface (or within a volume contained by continuous surfaces, when the

body considered is hollow)—the “boundary” of the solid body considered. When the material is distorted by the application of force, this boundary surface will assume a different form; but |,

so long as the material is unbroken, it will remain a continuous surface. In the unstrained body there will be, at any point defined by co-ordinates v, y, z, a |o certain “particle” of material. When the Fic. 5,—DIAGRAM ILLUSbody is distorted, this particular particle TRATING SIMPLE EXTEN-

will in general occupy a different position, S!O%

which we may define by co-ordinates x-+-u, y+, z+w,; u, v, w are termed the component displacements of the particle in question. It is clear that, if we know the component displacements of any

two particles P and Q, we can calculate the increase, due to strain, in the distance PQ; and further that, if we know the component displacements of a third point R, we can calculate the change, due to strain, in the angle POR. Simple Extension.—14. Let us imagine, for example, that a cube of the material is distorted in the manner which is in-

dicated by fig. 5, so that four of its edges are lengthened by the same amount, whilst the other eight edges retain their original lengths and all the faces remain rectangular.

U=C%,

where e is constant, and the fractional extension of any line PQ having the direction Ox will be given by

(7)

Hence we see that a state of stress represented by equal and opposite principal stresses of intensity p and —p is equivalent to a state of simple shearing stress, of intensity p, on planes inclined at 45° to the principal planes of stress. ANALYSIS

undergoes a displacement confined to the direction of Ox and of magnitude proportional to its original distance from the face OABC ; then we shall have

If we choose axes

tion.—16, Suppose that the top face ABHG, after moving to the position A’B’H’G’, undergoes a further displacement in its own plane, this time in the direction Oy. We may imagine that the edges OA, CB, EH, FG, and any line of particles which was originally parallel to them, again remain straight and parallel; they now rotate through another angle y; which is the reduction (in circular measure) in the (originally right) angle AOC. We say that a second simple shearing strain has been superposéd on the first.

Evidently, only the top and bottom faces of the cube will remain rectangular after this second strain is imposed, and these

can have their angles changed by the imposition of shear. In its final state, the body will be bounded lelograms, and opposite faces will be similar; that cube has distorted into a parallelopiped. Since the

a third simple by six paralis to say, the lengths of its edges are unaltered by the distortion, three quantities (namely, ee angles of shear yy, Ye, Ys) are required to specify its final

shape, Lastly, we may Imagine that the material undergoes three successive simple extensions in the three perpendicular directions Ox, Oy, Qz, Denoting these extensions by e1, é2, é3, defined as above, we see that the three sets of parallel edges ọf the parallelopiped will be increased in the ratios (1 -++ e), (3+ e2) and (1+e:). These expressions are not strictly correct, but they are sufficiently accurate if e1, e2, és are small; for on this understanding the final shape would have been the same if the extensions had been imposed first and the shearing strains last, This is the principle of superposition for small strains.

Homogeneoys

Strain.—z7. In these examples

of simple

MATERIALS, STRENGTH OF

54

strain, the same description and diagrams would evidently apply to any cubical portion of the material, however small. In such circumstances the strain is said to be “homogeneous,” or uniform.

It is a fundamental principle in the analysis of strain that i the immediate neighbourhood of any point, whatever may be the nature of the distortion, the strain is sensibly homogeneous; in

other words, whilst we can imagine types of distortion in which the

faces and edges of a cube become curved, and in which opposite faces are unequally strained, it is permissible, when the dimensions of the cube are indefinitely diminished, to neglect these effects and to assume that the strained cube is a parallelopiped. This implies, according to the preceding investigation, that the most general type of strain at any point in a material may be described by specifying values of three extensions and three angles of shear. These six quantities are termed the “components of strain.” Strains Expressed in Terms of Displacement.—z8. On the assumption that the displacements u, v, w are everywhere small, it may be shown (see article ELasticity) that the extension in the direction Ox will be given by

[STRAIN

directions, and the extension which corresponds to each!: the ea tensions are called “principal extensions,” and the directiong “principal axes of strain.” In the two-dimensional example just considered, the diagonals AC, BD are the principal axes of strain. THE RELATION

OF STRESS

TO STRAIN

21. We have seen (§ 9) that séx independent quantities (the

“‘stress-components”)

are required, in general, to specify a state

of stress; and further ($7), that ¢hree relations between them (the “stress equations” of motion or equilibrium) can be obtained by an application of dynamical principles. These relations are '

not

sufficient to determine

the stress-distribution

produced by

specified loads; to take a simple example, we cannot, by statica] considerations alone, determine the load on each leg of a when all four are in contact with the ground. We need tional relations, and an obvious solution of the difficulty relate, by any arbitrary assumption, the six components of

with the six components of strain.

table addiis tg stres

For we have seen (§ 13)

that the latter can all be expressed in terms of three independent

quantities—the

“a Bx”

of displacement;

so, by this pro.

(8) unknown quantities—that is, with information sufficient (ie, in

and the “shear” in the (z, x) plane by Ezg =

components

cedure, we shall be left with three equations relating only three

theory) for a solution. Hooke’s Law.—22. The simplest relation that we can assume is direct proportionality—in other words, a “linear” law. The

ðw ðu To ðz

Similar expressions hold for the other four components of strain. Thus the six components of strain are not really independent: they can all be expressed in terms of three component displacements u, v, w, when these are given as functions of x, Y, Z, the co-ordinates of a particle in the unstrained material.

most general state of stress is defined by six independent con. ponents of stress, and the most general state of strain is defined

by six independent components of strain: we assume that each

one of the components of stress may be expressed in terms of the

six components of strain by a formula of the type

Transformation of the Components of Strain.—19. Given

the values of u, v, w, we can evidently calculate the component displacements, w, v’, w’, in any other three perpendicular directions Ox’, Oy’, Oz’, and hence we can dex= ——s duce expressions, e.g., for the extension in 7

P= 0161 +0262

0363+ A4164+ O5e5+ ae,

(10)

where p stands for the stress-component, ¢, . . . és for the components of strain, and a, ... ds are constants. On this as.

sumption, the stress equations remain linear when transformed,

2l cos (45°- z) = 42-1 (1+ X) ; very nearly, since y is small.

first into relations between the coefficients of strain, and thence into relations between u, v and w, the three components of displacement. Hence, if we obtain a solution—that is to say, er pressions for u, v, w, at any point in a specified body, in terms of the applied forces—these relations will still be satisfied when we multiply u, v, w, together with the applied forces, by an constant factor. So we deduce from our assumption, that the displacements at every point, and hence the strains, will be proportional to the “load.” Robert Hooke, in 1660, discovered by experiment that this is in fact a property of real materials. He published his discovery (1676) under the form of an anagram, ceiiinosssttuu and did not until two years later disclose the solution—“ut tensio 'sic us Cvis)”; that is, “the Power of any spring is in the same proportion with the Tension thereof.” (De Potentia restitutiva, London, 1678.) A more accurate statement of the experimental evidence is that, within certain definite limits of strain (see § 38): |

That is to say, the fractional extension of BD is

same

the direction Ox’ and (z’, x’) plane. This “transformation of the general formulae

for the shear in the is the problem of strain-components”: will be found in the

a J

ol

a article ELasticiry, and it will suffice here B c to give a relatively simple example. FIG. 7.—DIAGRAM ILLUS-

Consider a square block ABCD which TRATING TRANSFORMA undergoes a simple shearing strain of mag- TION OF STRAIN COMPO-

nitude y, as shown in fig. 7. The diagonals NENTS

AC, BD will evidently remain perpendicular to one another, and

the angle A’BD’ will be (45°— L); to the first order of small

quantities, the sides AB, BC, CD, DA will retain their original length 7. Hence, the strained length BD’ will be given by

(x) when the load is increased, the measured strain increases in the

|

so Y

sin ae

i

Y.

ratio,

ig

(2) when the load is diminished, the measured strain diminishes in

(9)

The fractional extension of AC may be shown in the same way to be —ġy. So we see that a state of strain represented by equal and opposite extensions of amounts e and —e in two directions at right angles implies a simple shearing strain of amount ze in an element whose sides are equally inclined to these directions. Principal Strains.—20. The fundamental theorem in the

analysis of strain may now be stated:—Through any point in the material, however complicated may be the state of strain at that point, three lines can be found, each perpendicular to the other two, which were also perpendicular to one another initially, when the material was unstrained. In other words, a very small rectangular block of material, whose edges were originally parallel to these lines, will remain rectangular after strain. The most

general type of distortion may be specified by fixing these three

the same ratio. (3) when the load is reduced to zero, no measurable strain persists

Tt will be realized that the assumption represented by (10), whilst it is consistent with these results, is more precise and ‘vf wider scope than any experiments that can be made. No methtd has been devised for measuring either the strain or the stres in the interior of an elastic body: all that can be done is torelate

particular displacements with the resultant applied load. This the six expressions of type (10) are to be regarded as postulates of the mathematical theory, and the justification for applyiie this theory to real materials must be found in an increasing ‘e+ cumulation of observations in which its predictions are verified. Acolotropic

and Isotropic Materials.—23.

Since six Cer,

efficients (of type a1, 2, . . . etc.) are involved in each of the’ a expressions of type (10), our generalized statement of Hoökês, It will be noticed that six quantities are still involved in a

description.

Oe,

STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONS]

MATERIALS, STRENGTH OF

55

law involves altogether 36 coefficients—the “elastic constants” of' very nearly, if e1, €&2 and ez are small quantities.

the material. An argument based on thermodynamical considera-

tions indicates that only 21 of the elastic constants are to be re-

Therefore the

increase in volume due to strain is

h-hh A, garded as independent; and on a certain hypothesis concerning , the structure of real materials it may be shown that their elastic : and the fractional increase is A, very nearly. behaviour will be reproduced in an ideal material for which the i Let us now suppose that our material is strained by hydronumber is further reduced to 131. But a much more drastic re-' static pressure. Then the relation (13) will hold, both p and A

duction can be eifected 1f we assume that our ideal material has | being negative. the same

elastic properties in all directions:

this property is

Intensity of Pressure

termed isotropy. Isotropy is not a property of wood, which is well known to

have its greatest strength “along the grain”; nor is it found, in experiment, to be a property of crystals: to represent such materials, we must assume this ideal material to be aeolotropic— that is, to have elastic constants which vary with direction. Wrought metals, on the other hand, behave as isotropic substances, in the sense that specimens cut from the same material, but in different directions, behave similarly under tests. Thus the assumption of isotropy, which greatly simplifies our calculations, is legitimate for most practical applications of the theory. We shall not discuss aeolotropic materials further in this article.

Stress-strain Relations in Isotropic Material—24.

For

isotropic materials we may show that the number of independent constants cannot exceed two. For we have seen, in the analysis of stress (§6), that a small rectangular block can be found, at any point in the material, whose faces are subjected to purely normal stresses; and in the analysis of strain (§ 20), that a small rectangular block can be found whose faces remain rectangular after strain. The stresses on the faces, in the first case, are termed “principal stresses,” and the extensions of the edges, in the second case, are termed “principal extensions, or strains.” Now it is clear that, in material which has no directional property, the directions of the principal stresses and of the principal strains must coincide; for there is no reason why a symmetrical system of purely normal stresses should produce asymmetrical distortion, as would be the case if the block ceased to be rectangular. Therefore, in the most general statement of Hooke’s law for isotropic materials, we have to relate three principal stresses with three principal strains; and our formulae will thus be three of the type

bi = ae: +be2-+ces,

(rr)

where a, b, c are elastic constants. But considerations of symmetry demand further, in the absence of directional properties, that the coefficients b and ¢ shall be

equal; for it is evident that ez and ez, which both have directions perpendicular to pı, can be interchanged without altering the magnitude of pı. So the formula (11) becomes

pı=aertbet e3), and this may conveniently be written in the equivalent form pi=A+2ye1, (12) where A denotes the quantity (e1+e:+e3), and X and u are two elastic constants of the material which, unless related by some additional hypothesis, will be independent. Modulus of Compression.—25. Adding the three equations of type (12), we see that

Consequent reduction in volume’ we

have

The quantity k is termed the modulus of the material. Modulus of Rigidity.—26. e, are equal in magnitude and zero. Then A will be zero, and

(12):

A=

2 REI,

p2™ 2 ues,

, by (13).

R

modulus of compression or bulk Let us next suppose that e; and opposite in sign, and that e is we have as relations of the type

tsothat ġı= — po,

P3= O.

The state of stress is that considered in § 12, and the state of strain is that considered in § 19. It will be seen that the stress may be regarded as a simple shearing stress of intensity pı, and the strain as a simple shear of amount 2e,. Therefore _ fr _ Intensity of shearing stress ;

ee

Consequent shear

(15)

3

The quantity p is termed the “modulus of rigidity,” or “shear modulus” of the material. From the physical standpoint, k and u are to be regarded as the fundamental elastic constants: k measures the resistance to change of volume unaccompanied by change of form, whilst u measures the resistance to change of

form unaccompanied by change of volume. Young’s Modulus and Poisson’s Ratio.—27. The conditions in a simple tensile test are such that, very approximately, p2 =

p3 =

0,

so that é1, €z, e3 will all be proportional to #1, the longitudinal tension.

Considerations of symmetry require that ez and e; shall be equal, but we may not assert that they are zero: in tests on actual

materials it is found that ez and e; are finite and opposite in sign to e1. If then we write

e= l3= — Oe}, the relations of type (12) become

fi={M1—20)+2y} A, ` and we deduce that

o=)(1— 20) — 2u0,

ee

"=

Atp’

(16)

di= 2u(t+c)a.

The ratio

so that, if pi—pfo=p3=p (say), we have

(x3)

Now A may be interpreted as the fractional increase in volume which results from the distortion considered. For if the sides of our rectangular block were l, ls, ls before strain, they will be (1+e)h, (1+el, (1+2) after strain, and hence the strained volume will be gıven by l

h > l> l3 +e) (i-e) (1+es), = ,

A

n

k=

pit pot ps=(3+2y)A, 3p = (3A+2u)A

If we write k for the ratio

pi Longitudinal stress e Consequent longitudinal extension is termed Young’s Modulus for the material, and is generally denoted by the symbol E. We see from (r6) that

E=2(14+0)u = partan ° The ratio

h: h: dz: (1+e+e:+es),

tcf. A. E. H. Love, Mathematical Theory of Elasticity (1927), § 66. The relations which effect this reduction in the number of the elastic constants are known as “Cauchy’s relations.”

(17) ,

I

Lateral contraction i

is termed

Potssan’s Ratio.

eee

panay

À

MATERIALS, STRENGTH OF

56

We observe that the three equations of type (12) are equiva-

p=

lent to three of the type

= z [2—0 (+ 2:)].

(18)

Relations Between the Elastic Constants.

involved: therefore any three of the foregoing elastic constants can be related. Thus we have expressed E, in (17), in terms of 2.

A

Ito

2

E

3(t—20) °

EI

M = -5

(23)

p= ae

(24)

Hence we have also

These results apply, strictly, to a beam which is bent by forces

(9) applied in a particular way (i.e., so as to produce the foregoing

= whence

(22)

and the total bending action M (which is resisted by this distri-

A and y; similarly, from (14) and the first of (16) we have

b=u(5+ 7) ~ 33-20

E

T

bution of stress) will be given by

Conditions for

Stability.—28. However we express the stress-strain relations, only two independent constants (namely à and p) are really

[STRESS-DISTRIBUTIONS

g = 3 -; oa

(20) and

_ 9HR 3k+p Now it is an observed property of real materials (and an evident condition of their persistence) that the elastic constants E, u, k, shall all be positive. It follows from (17) that o cannot be negative and numerically greater than r; for otherwise the ratio E/u

would be negative. And since (1+¢) is thus shown to be positive, it follows from (19) that o cannot be positive and greater than 3;

for otherwise the ratio k/ would be negative. Thus we have as the condition for a stable material,

-r1

TEER

wa

Oe

ein

mameri

my (OS o

EN

ms

OO

LALEA

—_—

kasian

AR SOENE

apeshilndU

“a

i

Strain Beyond the Elastic Limit; Influence of Time.—

ed

RE

yai

ER lili

E

an

n

=. ai

ae =

E

st. Within the region of “plastic” distortion (z.e., where the stress and strain are not directly proportional) it is found that the behaviour of a metal is largely influenced by thé rate at which the load is increased; the full strain corresponding to a given load is reached only after a perceptible time. Fig. 16 gives some results obtained by Ewing (J. A. Ewing, Strength of Materials, P. 42, 1914), from tensile tests of soft iron wire. The “fast” loadINCH SQUARE PER TONS IN LOAD ing caused rupture in 4 minutes: the “slow” loading took 5,0Q0 10 15 20 EXTENSION, PER CENT times as long. When a tensile ~

FIG. 14.—SINGLE-LEVER

TESTING

MACHINE

made for subjecting a specimen either to simple tension, simple compression, bending or torsion. Figs. 13 and 14 show a form of single-lever testing machine designed by J. H. Wicksteed (Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng., 1882); the machine shown exerts a maximum force of 30 tons, but roo tons or more are exerted by similar machines in common use. AA is the lever, on which there is a graduated scale, The stress on the Test-piece is measured by a weight W which can be moved through

load, of amount exceeding the

FROM Jj. H. EWING, “STRENGTH OF MATERIALS” (UNIVERSITY PRESS, CAMBRIDGE)

elastic limit, is applied and then Fic, 16.—INFLUENCE OF RATE OF

kept constant, the specimen is ob- LOADING served to extend at first rapidly and then more slowly. In general it appears that the slow extension comes ultimately to an end; but when the applied load is nearly equal to that which would imme-

diately break the specimen, the extension, after slowing down,

quickens again and continues until rupture occurs. If, ọn the other hand, the specimen is subjected to an extensiqn which is maintained constant, it is found that the load required to maintain a measured distance along AA by a handwheel H connected with that extension gradually diminishes. “Yield.”—-52, Special interest attaches, for materials such as _18849-56 have been based, by permission, on the article written b Sir J, A. Ewing for the rrth edition of this Encyclopedia.

wrought iron and mild steel, to that part of the stress-strain dia-

TESTING]

MATERIALS, STRENGTH OF

gram which lies just outside the elastic range.

Gx

Reference to ' when the load, instead of being removed and replaced, is main-

Kirkaldy’s diagrams (fig. 11) shows that a point (called by A. B. | tained constant for some hours. When loading is resumed, the W. Kennedy the “yield-point”) is reached, soon after the mate- |yield-point is found to be raised very considerably. Fig. 19 exriai has ceased to be elastic, at which the extension increases |hibits experiments of this kind, made by J. A. Ewing on speci-

without any corresponding increase of stress. Somewhat later, |mens of annealed iron wire: ab shows the result of continuing the extension becomes less rapid and the stress rises at a fairly to load after an interval of 5 minutes, and acd after an interval regular but gradually decreasing rate. If a lever type of machine of 454 hours. (J. A. Ewing, Proc. R.S., 1880.) Annealing.—s4. This hardening effect of plastic strain is of is employed, the beam drops when the yield point is reached. Meanwhile the specimen is seen to undergreat practical importance. When a hole is punched ina plate, go aconsiderable change: if scale previously the material round its edge is severely distorted by shear, and adhered to its surface, this is observed to the consequent hardening of this material is accompanied by a flake off, in lines inclined at roughly 45° to serious decrease in ductility. Consequently, if the plate is strained by tension, concentration of stress, resulting in the formation of the direction of pull; if the surface is polished, lines appear on it, having the same direction, which can be recognized by touch as steps or ridges. These lines are known

as Liiders’ lines (W. Liiders, Dingler’s Polytech. Journ., vol. 155 [1860], p. 18): their occurrence may be used to determine, without the use of an extensometer, the yield point of a material. Researches by A. Robertson and G. Cook (Proc. R.S. [A], vol. 88, 1913) have shown that the phenomenon of “yield,” thus revealed by early diagrams, is much more complex than those diagrams would suggest, and of the first importance from FROM “PROCEEDINGS OF THE the practical standpoint. Realizing that its povat socierr effects would be masked by the inertia of Fic. 17.—APPARATUS EMthe testing machine as ordinarily employed, PLOYED BY ROBERTSON

these investigators employed the device AND COOK which is illustrated by fig. 17. Two long rods DD were arranged in parallel with the specimen, so as to share in taking any load applied to the end yokes, YY. The loads taken by these rods could be deduced (from a previous calibration) by measuring the elastic strains to which they were subjected: thus, when the total load applied to the yokes was known, the load in the specimen could be deduced. Yield of the specimen merely shifted a greater part of the total load on to thé rods; and since these, on account of their length, remained elastic, there was no sudden increase in their total extension, and consequently no drop of the beam. Accurately central loading of the specimen was ensured by applying the load through hard steel balls, CC, with the aid of special shackles 4, B. The specimens were of ordinary mild steel, annealed (see § 54) to remove any stresses which might have been induced in course of manufacture. The results showed that the stress, on the occurrence of “yield,” does not merely remain constant, but actually drops, by an amount which may be as high as 36%. The prac tical importance of this effect is evident, for it means that the material, within the region of “plastic” strain, can adjust itself

cracks, may occur at the edge of the hole. This bad effect of punching disappears when a narrow ring of material, immediately surrounding the hole, is removed by a cutting tool. The hardening effect can also be removed by the process of annealing, that is, by heating to redness and cooling slowly. This process is very generally employed in practice, for relieving intethal stresses caused by the processes of manufacture.

Recovery of Elasticity.—ss. Although the yield point may be raised by overstrain, as described above, the elasticity of the material is found to be impaired. Only within narrow limits, if at all, is stress proportional to strain during the process of reloading. But a sufficiently long rest will restore the elasticity, and after weeks or months the metal is found to be elastic up to a point which may be much higher than the original elastic limit. Experiments by J. Muir (Phil. Trans. R.S., vol. 193, 1900) have shown that temperature has an important influence on the rate of this “recovery of elasticity.” In iron and steel, complete recovery can be produced in a few minutes by dipping the overstrained specimen into boiling water. When a piece of iron or steel, after being overstrained in tension, is subjected to a compressive load, the strain is not found to be proportional to stress unless recovery has been effected by rest or heating. After recovery, the elastic limit for compression is lower than it would be in the normal state; but Muir’s experiments show that the reduction is less than the amount by which the elastic limit for tension has been raised. That is to say, the general effect of strain-hardening followed by recovery is to widen the total range of stress within which stress and strain are proportional.

in such a manner as to relieve any intense concentration of stress which may have occurred within the elastic range. This property, which is of great value in constructional work, is known as ductility. Intermittent Loading: Hardening Effect of Permanent

Set.—s3. Time has another effect of a different and remarkable

kind. If, at some point a (fig. 18) in the region of plastic strain, the load is removed, a part of the strain disappears. This part is accordingly termed the “elastic strain”: to a close approximation, it is related with the stress by a linear law, the ratio of stress to elastic strain being, so far as can be ascertained, the .ordinary elastic constant of the material. If the load is immediately replaced and then increased in the ordinary way, a new yield-point b is found at or near the stress previously reached. The full line bc in fig. 18 shows the subsequent behaviour of the specimen. If on the other hand, some hours are allowed to elapse before the load is replaced, the new yield point appears, not at b, but at a higher stress d. Fracture occurs (at é, fig. 18} under a higher

load than before, and at a smaller total extension: we say that a process of hardening has been going on during the interval of rést.

A similar and even more marked hardening is found to occur

LOAD TONS SQUARE PER INCH IN

EXTENSION, PER CENT

EXTENSION, PER CENT

FIG.I8

FIGS.

18 AND

19.—HARDENING

Fig.I9

EFFECT

OF

PERMANENT

SET

Hysteresis.—56. We may summarize this account of the behaviour of metals within the range of “plastic” strain by saying that thé strain in this range is no longer (as in Hooke’s law) uniquely determined by the stress, but depends upon the previous “stress-history.” This phenomenon is termed “hysteresis.” When the stress on a specimen fluctuates in a régular manner between two fixed limits, the stress-strain diagram assumes the form of a closed figure, which is called a “hysteresis loop.” Fig. 20 shows hysteresis loops for a steel specimen exposed to three different cycles of stress; the sequence of operations is

62

MATERIALS,

STRENGTH

OF

[TESTING

i Results from tensile test ‘

Material

Young’s Modulus } Poisson’s (tons per}

sq. in.)

Mild steel

,

(o-02% carbon)

13,400

Medium carbon steel . . (o-37% carbon), annealed Ditto., quenched and tempered Nickel-chrome

tempered

.

steel,

.

ratio

.

quenched

.

,

Fati Drope;

Limit

of _ | Stress at | Stress at fonality aan ee

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tons per

tons per}

sq. in.) | sq. in.)

a

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area,

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End ndurance

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Fao

sq. in.)

3

702

8-5

19

48+3

76

do

do

16-3

16-9

31°3

32

49

13

130

do

do

20

30°8

47

22

56

205

22-8

—

125°5

69

+11°6

and

do

do

97:8

Steel casting (0-32% carbon)

do

do

8-9

Drawn copper.

—

0°35

—

about

0°33

—

ý

Hard-drawn brass .

7.5

31.5

510

48-7

34

26

34

I4I

13-5

—

18:3

26

48

—

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—

26-8

40

73

—

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ïe

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5:000

8-9

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4,900

_

-

—

22°8

20

47

IOO

Ditto, annealed

E 54

4,800

—

—

—

II'2

25

61

50

+t 4:8

indicated by the arrows. It will be seen that the area of the loop increases with the range of stress. This area may be interpreted as measuring the work done in performing the cycle of operations: if the strain had been wholly elastic, the area of the loop would have been nil, because the work done in stretching would have been recovered during the process of unloading, but in the plastic range more work is done in stretching than is subsequently recovered. The difference, of course, is absorbed by the specimen or transformed into heat. Elongation and Reduction

of Area.—57. Useful information in regard to ductility is

afforded by the elongation of a specimen tested in tension—that is, the total extension of the specimen at the instant of fracture. Barba (fem. Soc. des Ing.

Rupture

TONS PER SQ. INCH

Civ., 1880) has shown that this

Another quantity which serves as a convenient measure of ductility is the reduction of area—that is, the decrease in the cross-sectional area of the specimen after fracture, express ed a percentage of the original area. This quantity is less depende as nt than elongation on the geometrical form of the specimen but it

Fracture

by Tension.—

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EDUCATION,

HARMONIC

SCIENCE

MUSEUM,

ANALYSER,

cat

LONDON

HARMONIC

INTEGRATOR

i Harmonic Analyser tor Il. Henrici’s Pe bie for obtainin g mechanical i ly the simple i | hareae

-

9 ponents ok

Eercule curve.

Model made by Corad: in 1894

Kelvin's Tide Predicting Machine, 1876, for predicting, a year or years in advance, the depth of water for any port at every instant

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PREDICTING

and Stratton’s Harmonic Int ically the resultant of a large sober

1504 Model

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MATHEMATICAL by Coradi of Zürich. Several polar integraphs have also been designed by Prof. Pascal. (See his Z Miei Integraji, Naples, 1914.)

INSTRUMENTS

74

respectively, and at the other end carries a weight representing the marker. The centre of each pulley can thus describe a circle An integraph has been developed recently by V. Bush, F. D. of adjustable radius, which circular motion is equivalent to the Gage and H. R. Stewart which plots continuously a curve repre- sum of two simple harmonic motions, one vertical and the other senting the product of two functions introduced into the machine horizontal. The horizontal component of the circular motion leads in the form of curves. It evaluates F(x) against (x) from the ex- to a slight motion of the cord out of its vertical position. If the radius of the circle described by the centre of each pulley is a pression F(x) = f filx) foxdx, where f, and f: are known functions, small fraction of the distance between the upper and lower pulformal or empirical. A full account of this machine is given by leys, Kelvin considered that the error introduced was practically V. Bush and others in the Journal of the Franklin Institute (Jan. negligible. The hanging weight will therefore perform a complex harmonic motion, which is the sum of the constituent vertical and Nov. 1927). Harmonic Analysets.—In many scientific investigations the harmonic motions of the pulleys. Pl. II., fig. 2 shows the first complete working machine made results of observations when plotted on paper take the form of an irregular curve which repeats itself at approximately regular on the lines of the above model. There are ten wheels, one for intervals—z.e., the curve, is periodic. Such a curve may be con- each simple harmonic constituent obtained by means of the harsidered to be the sum ofa series of simple harmonic curves, and monic analyser, and the curve representing a year’s tide for any it is the first object of harmonic analysis to find these simple port can be drawn in about four hours. The machine was concomponent curves, which together build up a given periodic curve. structed by A. Légé, under the superintendence of E. Roberts, The various arithmetical or graphical methods which have been who was also responsible for the design of later machines of devised for this purpose are somewhat laborious, and Lord Kelvin larger capacity. In these machines the horizontal component was in 1876 was the first to invent an instrument for performing the eliminated, the portions of the flexible wire between the upper operation mechanically. This instrument was an adaptation of and lower pulleys remaining always vertical. In the Liverpool the disc-sphere-cylinder planimeter invented by his brother, James machine made in 1924, there are 26 constituents; in the latest American machine (constructed 1896-1910) there are 37 constituThomson, in 1876. The first completed instrument designed by Kelvin, and used ents, and the tidal curves for 7 years can be run off in 12 hours. A. E. Donkin in 1873 designed and constructed a harmonic for the harmonic analysis of tidal observations, is shown in Pl. I., fig. g. It embodies rz sets of the disc-sphere-cylinder combination, integrator for compounding two simple harmonic motions. The one for each harmonic. The curve to be analysed is wound on a curves are drawn by a pen on a paper secured round the surface central cylinder, and the simple harmonic angular motions of the of a cylinder. By means of two eccentrics simple harmonic moproper periods are communicated to the disc by suitable gearing. tions are given to the pen and the cylinder respectively, the relaThe bar to which the tracer is attached has a series of pairs of tive number of vibrations being variable by means of change projections which embrace the spheres. In actual use, the tracer wheels. Since both pen and cylinder move at once, the curve is made to follow the curve, and the readings on the different inte- drawn shows the combination of the two motions. The machine shown in PI. II., fig. 3 was designed by Michelson grating cylinders give the required coefficients. Other harmonic analysers have been invented in 1894 by Henrici and Stratton in 1898. The principle adopted is that of the addition and Sharp, by Yule in 1895, Michelson and Stratton in 1898, of the elastic forces of spiral springs. In 1897 a machine of this Mader in 1909 and Boucherot in 1913. An example of Henrici’s type with 20 elements was made, and in the following year one instrument, made by Coradi in 1894 is shown in PI. II, fig. 1. A with 80 elements, as in the example shown. An element confull description is given by Henrici in Phil. Mag. for July 1894; sists of an eccentric (near the base of the machine) which, by means of an eccentric rod, communicates a simple harmonic and in Ency. Brit., roth ed., art. “Mathematical Instruments.” A different type of harmonic analyser, in which the principle motion to the end of a horizontal lever, curved to a radius equal of action is based on Clifford’s graphic method of harmonic to the length of a long rod, the foot of which may be clamped in analysis, was invented by O. Mader in 1909. An ordinary polar any position along the lever. The top end of this rod actuates planimeter forms part of the instrument, and the tracer can be a lever whose end is attached to a small spring. Each of the 80 adjusted on its arm so as to suit any length of base from 20 mm. elements is similarly constructed, and the amplitude of the harto 360 mm. Previous harmonic analysers could only be applied monic motion transmitted to the end of each spring is proportional to curves of a fixed base; thus curves to any other base required to the distance of the foot of the corresponding long rod from the redrawing to the given base before being analysed. In using the middle of the curved lever; for setting these distances accuinstrument, the guide ruler is placed parallel to the base line of rately a special gauge is provided. The lower end of each of the the curve to be analysed, and the tracer of the planimeter is small springs is attached to one end of a wide balance lever placed in one of the two holes of a toothed disc. These discs are (made as a hollow cylinder on axial knife-edges), and the sum of their efforts is balanced by the action of a single powerful easily interchanged. counter-spring. The motion of the lower end of the large spring For finding the coefficient A, of the term An cos (n a is accordingly proportional to the algebraic sum of the motions a the toothed disc marked is put in position and the tracer of the of the upper ends of the small springs, and this resultant motion planimeter is put in the hole marked c. For the coefficient of is magnified mechanically and conveyed to a pen, which registers the corresponding sine-term the tracer is put in the hole marked s. the motion on a paper carried by a travelling plate driven by hand through the mechanism which rotates eccentrics. Toothed discs are provided for values of n—=1, 2, 3,--- 19. By means of suitable toothed wheels forming a cone, the Harmonic Integrators.—When the component harmonic curves are known, or have been obtained by means of harmonic eccentrics are given periods increasing in regular succession; the analysis the value of y for different values of @ in Fourier’s for- eccentric nearest the hand wheel revolving 80 times while that mula can be found by computation. A great saving of labour at the opposite end revolves once. Turning the hand wheel produces at the upper ends of the small springs motions correspondis effected by performing this operation mechanically by means of “harmonic integrators,” which are designed to draw a curve ing to cos#, cos20, cos3@, etc., up to cos808, with amplitudes depending on the setting of the long rods. representing the value of y for all values of 0. The motions of the elements may be changed’ from those for Tide-predicting Machine.—The method adopted by Kelvin is represented by the original model of his tide-predicting ma- cosine to those of sine by disengaging the cone and turning all chine, made in 1872, and preserved in the Science Museum. In the eccentrics through 90°, for which purpose a long pinion is this model, eight pulleys are carried on axes at the ends of eight provided. The machine is used as an analyser for finding the cranks of adjustable length, four on the upper side and four on coefficients in a Fourier’s series for agiven periodic function. the lower side of a rectangular wooden frame. A cord fixed at one BrsriocrapHy.—J. Amsler, “Uber das Polar Planimeter,” Dingler’s end passes alternately under and over the lower and upper pulleys Polytechnisches Journal (vol. cxl., 1856, pp. 321-327; vol. cxli.,

MATHEMATICAL

72

1856, Dp. 326-329); H, S. Hele Shaw, “Mechanical Integrators,” Min.

Proc. of Civil Engineers (1885, p. 75) and “The Theory of Continuous Calculating Machines and of the Mechanism of this Class on a New Principle,” Phil. Trans. R.S. (1885, vol. clxxvi., part ii., 367); W. Dyck, Katalog mathematischer und mathematisch-physikalischen—

Modelle

(Munich,

1893, pp. 180-224;

also Supplement,

1893, and

article “Mechanical Integration” in it by A. Amsler); O. Henrici, “Report on Planimeters,” Annual Report of the British Association (1894); L. Jacob, Le Calcul Mécanique (1911, pp. 201-392); H. Morin, Les Appareils d’ Integration (1913); E. M. Horsburgh (Editor), Handbook of the Exhibition at the Napier Tercentenary

Celebration (Edinburgh, 1914), republished in London under the title Modern Instruments of Calculation. See articles by C. Tweedie on “Integraphs,” by G. A. Carse and J. Urquhart on “Integrometers,” “Planimeters” and “Harmonic Analysis,” and by A. M. Robb on “The Use of Mechanical Integrating Machines in Naval Architecture”; H. Levy, “Mechanical Methods of Integration,” in Glazebrook’s Dictionary of Applied Physics (1923, vol. iii, pp. 450-457); D. Baxandall, Mathematics. I.—Calculating Machines and Instruments (1926. H.M. Stationery Office. A Catalogue of the calculating machines and instruments, exhibited in the Science Museum, South KenSington, with descriptive and historical notes and paren ‘

MATHEMATICAL MODELS. The child’s box of bricks is probably mankind’s earliest acquaintance or contact with mathematical conceptions. The concrete forms of the cube which go to make up the puzzle pictures of the nursery, or the more complete selection of geometrical solids comprising cubes, prisms and cylinders which make up the “Building Sets” of the same

period, must, however, in some measure, appeal to the latent mathematical faculty of the child mind, just as the abacus or

MODELS

This statement could be varied by saying that for a given volume enclosed by four planes the surface is a minimum when the planes form a regular tetrahedron. From these examples it will be remarked that regularity of shape is clearly connected with economy of bulk or volume, and where such regular forms occur in nature as in, say, crystal formations, we may naturally look for some explanation of maximum and minimum properties.

An important application of this style of model can be made by drawing out in the first place a regular hexagon of say, one inch edge. Set out upon each edge a further series of similar

hexagons.

Cut out with a sharp knife the first or inner hexagon

and round the 18 lines of the outer edge of the figure, ie., the boundary lines. Next cut along and through one only of the radial lines; then cut halfway through, and fold back or crease the remaining radials common to each hexagon. The paper may

now be folded and provides a medium for the illustration of some interesting problems. First fold over one hexagon upon another when the “space” becomes pentagonal. Folding two we get the square; three, the triangle; the four fold giving a mathematical

“solid of no depth.” If a number of such developed surfaces be cut out of different colours and made up permanently by gumming

the folds, practically the whole series of semi-regular polyhedra

may be worked up in effective manner. Of particular interest in its physical application is the “two-fold,” z.¢., that giving a square and four hexagonal faces. Two of these units suitably connected at the joints by adhesive paper give the solid decatetrahedron of the Catalan Collection by Delagrave (1877); Pl I. fig. 1 shows a polyhedron of 14 faces (6 square, 8 hexagon) which may be looked upon as a transition form between the cube and octahedron

“counting bead frame” may have stirred some little impulse in the arithmetical complex. At an early stage in the child’s career it is instructed that the cube, prism, etc., have many special properties which may, when and which ten years or so later (1889) Lord Kelvin recognised used in right proportions, render them amongst the most pleasing as a shape providing minimum partitional area for cells of given forms of architecture. The simple doubled cube for example volume, naming it the tetrakaidecahedron. (See Sorms: Geoprovides an exquisite form of pedestal and cross and the inherent metric.) Pl. I. fig. 2 shows a somewhat similar construction of the beauties of the rectangular prism furnish a valuable architectural “development” for the dodecahedron. theme; also by means of models, it is possible to illustrate to Mathematical models need not be accurate representations of the practical man a conception which may be perfectly clear to a function in the same way, as, say, logarithmic tables or scales. a gifted or trained mathematical mind. They are not to be considered in the same category as graphs or A knowledge of plane geometry acquired without any reference nomograms. (See Nomocrapuy.) But they need to be constructed to models may be said to flatten out the mind and to engender with reasonable care, and of suitable materials. It is sufficient if habits of thought which make it difficult at a later stage of they enable the student to visualise the problem and follow the mathematical education to explore space of three dimensions. algebraic analysis involved. Mathematical models serve not to Plane Geometry.—Some early editions of Euclid had diagrams prove propositions but to demonstrate problems.

intended to be cut and folded, and a work by Cowley of 1752,

New and Methodical explanations of the Elements of Geometry, included pieces of cardboard for the building up of various models. So talented a thinker and philosopher as Herbert Spencer appreciated the advantage of a model, for, writing to his father in January 1839, and speaking of his self-set task of regular, daily and systematic study of mathematics, he says “I have found out the grand principle of the projection of shadows and I feel almost certain of its correctness. To make myself still more satisfied I have made a model in pasteboard and I find that the real shadow is as exactly as possible what I had made it by projection.” Intuitive Geometry.—A valuable aid to the training of the young mathematical mind is to cut out, in cardboard, a number of equilateral triangles of the same size; the single triangle representing the plane figure; several piled one on top of the other

with corresponding edges coplanar and corresponding corners

collinear illustrate the solid figure of the triangular prism, while

four of them placed together with pairs of edges coinciding, one

of them being used as a base, gives the first of the regular solids, viz., the tetrahedron. The student may thus, by inductive process,

quickly arrive at the historical selection of the five regular solids. Simple models of this nature may be used to demonstrate common practical problems involving important principles relating to regularity and maximum and minimum values: as for example :—

1) Three straight lines of given total length enclose the greatest area when the lines form an equilateral triangle.

2) Four planes of a given total area enclose the greatest volume when the planes form a regular tetrahedron.

Materials for Models——A mathematically plane surface has

for example no counterpart in practice, but thin sheet metal or

cardboard suffices for many purposes although in certain cases

transparent celluloid or glass is to be preferred, whilst in others,

strings, elastic, silk or cotton cords—which may be of different

colours,—arranged closely together and parallel may be employed as where, for instance, it may be desired to demonstrate and

variably warp or deform a surface; or to illustrate the con-

tinuously intersecting planes of descriptive geometry or the discriminant surfaces involved in algebraic equations of the 4th or 5th degree, etc.

Descriptive Geometry.—For the study of descriptive geom-

etry (g.u.), perspective (g.v.), etc., a useful device is found in a pair of planes hinged together and possibly provided with a third plane of reference. Such folding planes if perforated allow of the setting up of problems in situ and the elucidation of the problems of orthogonal projection. The models introduced by Prof. Osborne Reynolds and G. Cussons of Manchester (1876) (Pl. x fig. 3) and the more recent developments by Mr. Andrew H. Miller of Glasgow University (Pl, I. fig. 4), are interesting examples of this class.

In the former type the problems are permanently drawn out, in the latter they may be built up before the eyes of the student, pre-

caution being taken in the design to avoid distracting the students’

attention from the mathematics to the mechanism thus enabling the solution of the problems to be demonstrated in proper sequence step by step. In this class may be included the design (FI. I., fig. 5), of Mr. H. G. Green of Nottingham University College

and described in the Mathematical Gazette (London) No. 174, as A Model for Figures in Three Dimensions, which is partic-

MATHEMATICAL ularly useful for three dimensional and trigonometrical studies. Posts may readily be fixed in the holes of the double base of the apparatus and cords as “Lines of vision,” etc., serve to illustrate questions of the man and flagstaff type, subtended angles, etc.

Models of Wood.—Solid models of wood may be sectioned elucidate many problems, an impressive example being shown Plate I. fig. 6, a cube is cut into four different tetrahedra equal volume, without making new corners. One face common

to in

MODELS

73

the faces of the various complements being obtained from the complete plan of the face of the polyhedron.

Technical Construction.—Symmeirical Solids and surfaces

of revolution can be turned in a lathe, a templet representing a plane section containing the axis being applied to the work from time to time until the whole solid of revolution is worked up.

of

to all four is that of half of the face of the cube; the sides being a face diagonal and two edges of the cube, the combination elucidating the problems relating to square root, etc. A further example is the well known model of the Binomial

Cube, i.e., a cube built up of small cubes and prisms whose length of edge is represented by arbitrary value of a and b, and an

entirely new and of course larger cube (a+-5)* being formable by a combination of blocks equalling a*-++-3a7b-+-3ab?+ 6%. The study of conic sections so frequently treated analytically,

is much simplified by the use of a model, such as the right circular cone, in which plane sections are made 1) parallel to the base; 2) parallel to a generating line of the cone;

3) inclined to the axis at an angle greater than the semi-vertical

angle of the cone; 4) inclined to the axis at an angle less than the semi-vertical angle of the cone, giving respectively the circle, parabola, ellipse, and hyperbola (one branch), while a combination of solid, wire and plane model allows demonstration (as in fig. 1) of such solutions as the determination of the slope of a line by the method of inscribed spheres. Problems concerned with the toroid (anchor ring) and cylinder, and interpenetration generally, can be most satisfactorily illustrated by wooden models since the common element is produced in the course of manufacture and its shape may be separately examined (Pl. I., fig. 7). An interesting series of models is presented by the development of the higher species from the forms of the regular solids by cutting off corners and edges and/or producing the faces until they meet again. Kepler (1619) appears to have discussed the species and it is known that they received attention at the hands of Meister (1771) although definite records are lost; but they were rediscovered by Poinsot in 1809 and have since been widely treated in particular by Cauchy, Bertrand, Cayley and Wiener. Since in the tetrahedron the faces already cut one another, it will be evident that it cannot have any higher species. Producing the faces of the cube we get a group of three intersecting square prisms, the faces of which may intersect again at infinity. The second species of the octahedron consists of two intetsecting tetrahedra, whose surfaces when produced to the third species will be found to consist of six intersecting rhombic prisms having infinite volume. Developing the solids in the systematic order thus defined, viz., the formation of succeeding

solids by producing the faces

of the first till they meet again, then producing the faces of the

second to form the third, etc., etc., we arrive at four regular species for the dodecahedron and FIG. 1.—CONE WITH INSCRIBED SPHERES AND SECTION PLANE eight for the icosahedron. The four species of the dodecahedron are all regular-faced polygons, the and the the

first and third being ordinary pentagons, those of the second fourth being pentagons of the second series or pentacles. Of eight species of icosahedron, derived in systematic order, only first and seventh are regular, their faces being equilateral

triangles. (See Sots: Geometric.) In making up such models it is generally convenient to start with a model of the first species and build up or convert it into

the second species by adding to each face the appropriate complement by dowelling it to the intersecting corner, the forms of

FIG. 2A.—MOVABLE ROD MODEL OF ONE SHEET; HYPERBOLOID SHOWING BOUNDARY ELLIPSE HYPERBOLE FIG. 2B.—-MODEL OF TYPE SIMILAR TO PLATE I. FIG. 12, BUT ARRANGED TO SHOW IT REVERSED

Surfaces which are non-symmetrical round the axis may also be turned or formed in a suitable lathe having a chuck capable of eccentric motion. Such models may attain a bigh order of accuracy since micrometer measurements may be applied to the work in the machine. It is of course easy to represent many of the surfaces by means of fixed wires shaped and assembled to represent their principal axes (Pl. I. figs. 8, 9, 10), but a more intriguing series of flexible models can be made up of rods or strips, pin jointed or hinged at their extremities since such provide a mechanism whereby ruled surfaces of the hyperboloids, etc., may be demonstrated and allow of conversion or “reversal” into their confocal surfaces. (See figs. 2a and 2b.)

Thread Models.—Ruled surfaces, ż.e., surfaces generated by the motion of a straight line, fall naturally into a class for easy modelling, since the generating line can be represented by successive stretched threads. (See Surrace.} Thread models can, therefore, illustrate a wide variety of combinations as in Plate I. fig. 12, which consists of two circular discs drilled with equidistant holes closely together, supported as shown and threaded with weighted cords so that the cords may slide through the lower holes. . We have in this model a demonstration of 1) a cylinder—when the discs and cords hang freely, 2) a hyperboloid of revolution—when one or other disc is rotated slightly relatively to the other, 3) the limiting position of a pair of cones upon further rotation, thus providing an interésting example of maximum and minimum values since the cylinder represents the maximum volume for a given perimeter and the cone

the minimum,

the circular ends

being of constant value. Threads stretched as generators across the bars of a jointed quadrilateral of which the sides are movable in pairs may be used to illustrate the changes from a plane

through all forms of paraboloid to double plane.

Pl. I. fig. rz

shows an example; the hyperbolic paraboloid generated by a single system of right lines. It comprises two bars pierced with equidistant holes, one bar being fixed, the other capable of swingi round an axis which can also be inclined at different angles to t fixed bar.

With the bars placed parallel, the strings indicate a plane. inclined to one another yet in the same plane they still illu a plane but when the bars are not in the same plane the § assume the surface of a twisted plane; viz., the hyperbo boloid, a natural surface for the maximum cleavage pro

MATHEMATICAL

74

a ploughshare. It may be observed from the model that no two strings lie in the same plane and therefore no part of the surface is truly plane. Such a surface cannot be made by simply twisting a plane sheet of metal which would show malformation on opposite sides of the axis. Space Curves.—There remain, however, still further types of example wherein space curves of the 3rd order are represented by the developable surfaces of their tangents. Such a series would comprise models showing :— with their I) the curves asymptotes,

2) the surface,

different sized wire circles are loosely jointed together across a

diameter by a special form of hinge—Wiener’s limited joint— which allows at once an extraordinary freedom and restraint. The figure shows the limiting positions of circle and sphere and the formation of prolate and oblate ellipsoids. Similar models may be readily made ito illustrate the elliptic paraboloid, and

paraboloids of one sheet or of two sheets, and of double cones, etc., the method of construction with its property of semi-transparency enabling a clear idea to be obtained of the constant rela-

WAS

tionship of the asymptotic cone d $A]Ms and that the lengths of all segWY ments of generating lines remain D TH LDS unaltered. HE Surface Models.—The method of representing the surfaces of the znd order by thin sheet circles arranged in parallel planes suggests the means of producing FIG. 5.—EQUIPOTENTIAL LINES what is probably the most generally useful of all types, viz., surface models of wood, clay or plaster. A model of a cubic surface for example may be considered as built up of a number of parallel horizontal sections each of which is a plane cubic curve. In order to produce such models it is in the first place essential to prepare templets, which embody the particular function to be no

developable

3) the curves as partial sec4) the two dual generations of the curves, their developable surface, etc. An example shown in PL I. fig. 13, illustrates the involute of the planes which touch two conic

possessing

DOR

Feed

tangent

tions of cones and cylinders,

sections

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tangent. FIG. 3.—CUBIC SPACE CURVES These models would demonTangent surface of cubic ellipse strate the cases of singularity which can arise in a position of a space curve according as the point or flexion plane is a progressive or regressive element and also the relation of the position to infinite distance. Examples of the problems connected with the theory of cubic space curves—cubic ellipses, hyperbolas, parabolas, etc.—are shown in fig. 3, viz., the tangent surface of the cubic ellipse, the surface which separates the points of the first case from those of the third, and in fig. 4 the horopter.—a symmetrical cubic ellipse lying on a circular cylinder both of them of special application in physiological optics. A physical-science application is given in fig. 5 which illustrates the form of equipotential lines and lines of force corresponding to two electric conductors charged to the same sign. Helical Surfaces.—Helical surfaces may best be demonstrated by either shaped wires or small surfaces of tinplate hinged together, the former providing the cheaper but a less flexible medium. Typical examples are the helical surfaces of Pl. I. fig. 14, where generators and principal tangent curves are picked out in different colours to render them distinguishable, and in Pl. I. fig. 15, that of a model composed of small hinged sections, we have an illustration of the same problem solved by the application of the idea of polyhedra to the theory of the bending of surfaces. The same modél also exempliHes the Voss surface demon- FIG. 4.—THE HOROPTER, A SYMstrated by finite plane elements METRICAL CUBIC ELLIPSE LYING ON xf surface hinged together to en- A CIRCULAR CYLINDER

illustrated. If then a series of such be erected in the appropriate

coordinate planes, a surface will ultimately emerge which may be definitely outlined by narrow strips of thin muslin or fabric fixed into position by a plastic medium such as claywash, wax or plasticene, from which subsequently a plaster cast may be taken. On the permanent surface may be marked appropriate axial and geodetic lines and to it tangent planes of say transparent celluloid, etc., may readily be applied. Surface models may alternatively be made up of thin layers of wood suitably shaped, the smooth contour being filled in by wax, or they may be evolved by applying templets after the manner employed in shaping a model ship’s hull. Such a model may of course represent a function of pure mathematics, e.g., f(x, y, 2) =o or some physical function say of the pressure volume and temperature of a gas, as in the case of Prof. James Thomson’s model of 1871, made to illustrate the data obtained by Prof. Andrews in his classic experiments on the relation between temperature, pressure and volume of a constant mass of carbonic anhydride when the values were plotted, with temperature as the v, pressure as the y, and volume as the z coordinates respectively. A somewhat later application of the method was made by Maxwell who as the outcome of a suggestion by Prof. Willard Gibbs used the quantities volume, energy and entropy in making his famous thermodynamic surface model in which the properties of a substance in its solid, liquid and gaseous or any conditions in which these states co-existed are indicated by the geometrical properties of the surface. Maxwell showed how isothermal and isopiestic lines could be drawn upon it and that there is one position of the tangent plane in which it touches the surface in three points which represent the

solid, liquid and gaseous states of the substance when the tempera-

ture and pressure are such that the three states can exist together. Plaster Models.—Plaster casts can obviously be produced at less cost than the original mould, so that wherever feasible the method affords a convenient means of reproducing surface models ible them to be bent in two conjugate systems of geodetic lines. of either constantly varying functions as in surfaces of revolution Cardboard Models.—In Pl. II. fig. 1 is illustrated an example or of irregular or non-continuous form. f model made up of thin sheets, e.g., cardboard circles of regThe former case is typically represented by Pl. IT. fig. 4, the surlarly varying diameters set equally apart in parallel vertical face of rotation of the tractrix about its asymptote, upon which jlanes, whereby it is possible to evolve the whole series of sur- may easily be scribed after moulding the body, the geodetic lines aces of the second order (ellipsoid, hyperboloid, paraboloid, etc.). and principal tangent curves, or such surfaces of constant mean A further advantage of this type of model is that the sections curvature shown in Pl. II. fig. 5 which illustrates (left to right) 1ay be interlocked across an axis and thereby deformed at will, a (x) onduloid, (2) nodoid, (3) ring of the nodoid arising by rotaeature which may be reached in another way as in the deform- tion of the loop, and (4) the catenoid, a minimum surface whose ble circles of figs. 2 and 3 of Pl. II. In this type a number of constant mean curvature is null. Pen a |

MATHEMATICAL

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the model - Folding planes for use in the study of descriptive geometry WU A - Model for geometrical study. Planes and solids may be built up in the classroom by changing adjustment of shelf and threads 5 - A model for figures of three dimensions. A recent developme nt, useful in three-dimensional and trigonometrical studies 6 « Wood model: a cube of four different tetrahedra of equal volume

7 - The torus

(anchor ring) and cylinder, showing

8. Wire models for the demonstration

interpenetration

of ellipsoid figures

9 » Wire models showing two sheet and one sheet hyperbol oid

AND

OTHER

MATHEMATICAL

FIGURES

10. Wire figures of the elliptic and hyperbolic parabolo ids ll. Bar and thread model; to illustrate changes from the

plane through all forms of paraboloid to double plane, the threads acting as generators

12. Disc and thread model for demonstrating of revolution;

(c) limiting

position

(a) cylinder, (b) hyperboloid of a pair of cones

13. Space curve model illustrating the involut e of the planes which touch two conic sections

possessing a common tangent. Curves and supports are of wire; threads serve to indicate sides of cones

14. Shaped wires on an upright support

demonstrating helical surfaces: generators and principal tangent curves are of different colours 15. Helical surfaces: mode! made of small hinged sections with a vertical support; polyhedra applied to theory of the bendin

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MATHEMATICAL

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Surfaces of rotation having a constant negative measure

AND

PERIODICALS

75

of | has been developed by Prof. Arnold Emch at the University of has also produced a cinematograph film of the

curvature as in Pl. IT. fig. 6, that on the left being of the cone . Illinois, who

type and bearing geodetic and asymptotic lines, that on the right | Poncelet polygon, że., showing the succeeding positions or conillustrating the hyperboloid type and being marked with parallel tinuous movement of a triangle remaining inscribed and circumgeodetic lines and geodetic circles. Pl. II. fig. 7 illustrates a surface of the third order showing four real conical node points and the principal tangent curves. A form of Kummer surface (singularity surface of a complex

of.the second degree) is shown in Pl. II. fig. 8. It is of the fourth order of the fourth class and has sixteen real node points and the same number of double tangential planes. A further example of a surface of the fourth order, four planes making contact along circles, is the so-called Roman surface due to Steiner and shown in Pl. II. fig. 9. It has three intersecting double straight lines and is of the third class. The asymptote lines are indicated. An interesting example of a model illustrating a minimum surface is shown in Pl. II. fig. ro. It contains a system of real parabolas the planes of which make a constant angle with a fixed plane

of the space.

|

Fundamental examples in connection with the function theory are shown in Pl. II. fig. rz, where is shown: (1) (at top) Simply connected Riemann surface (two leaf) which contains in its interior one point of double inflexion of the first order. (2) (bottom left) A simply connected Riemann surface (three leaf) with an interior point of double inflexion of the second order. (3) (bottom right) A triply connected Riemann surface with a boundary line turning back upon itself. Fig. 6 illustrates the function W+=1—Z+4, and the course of the elliptic functions p(n) and p'() in the Weierstrassian series is shown in fig. 7.

Linkages and Kinematical Models.—Linkages may be defined mathematically as systems of bars connected by pin joints

or hinges, to allow deformability without sliding motion. All algebraic curves may be generated by such articulated linkages, Kempe, Darboux, etc., having analysed the position very fully, and numerous attempts have been made to solve by linkage systems the mathematically indeterminate trisection of an angle. These devices fall, however, into the classification of instruments rather than models, and space shortage forbids their treatment here, a qualification which applies also to a treatment of kinematical models dealing with related motion. Stereoscopic and Optical Methods.—Another series of models has been developed to a limited extent by producing a solid

effect from plane figures by means either of viewing bi-coloured

scribed to two fixed circles respectively. A novel method of treatment is that devised by Prof. Papperitz of Freiberg, viz., kinodiaphragmatic projection. The device consists essentially of a variable speed gear box capable of imparting rotatory motion to a transparent diaphragm placed parallel to and immediately in front of the condenser of an optical lantern. Upon the diaphragm may be fixed any combination of thin polished wires which will reflect narrow beams of light into the focussing lens. Beyond and in front of the lens is placed a second rotating axis which may be vertical or inclined, and carry a surface model—say, a sphere, cylinder, etc. —built up of wires, spaced apart. Shadowgraphs are thus projected on to a distant screen, the forms being continuously changed or dissolved into one another according to their relative axial speeds, and by the rotation of

stereomatical bodies and simultaneous projection it is possible to produce three-dimensional images in space. (G. W. Cv.) MATHEMATICAL SOCIETIES AND PERIODI-

CALS. The number of mathematical societies, clubs, and circles

organized since the early one at Hamburg in 1690 is exceedingly large, but the number of mathematical periodicals since the seventeenth century is very much larger. Important mathematical work of a country is often given in publications of its academies or societies. Hence any listing of mathematical periodicals must take account of these. Space limitations require that a selection only be made from the vast amount of available material regarding societies and periodicals. That each country’s contribution in this regard might be clearly set forth, the material has been arranged alphabetically according to countries. The great national mathematical societies were established in their countries in the following order: Russia, Great Britain, France, Italy, United States and Germany. ARGENTINA.—The Sociedad Matematica Argentina was organized at Buenos Aires in 1921 and in 1924 adopted Revista de Matemdticas y Fisicas Elementales (1919-24), as its official organ, the name being then changed to Revista Matemdtica (1924+). These periodicals were continuations of Revista de Matemáticas, Buenos Aires (1916-18). Material of more importance has appeared in Universidad Nacional de la Plata, Facultad de Ciencias Fisicas, Matemdticas y Astronomicas (1901

+), and Boletin del Seminario Matemático Argentino AUSTRALASIA.—There are some mathematical papers Society of New South Wales, Journal and Proceedings Sydney; and Royal Society of Victoria, Proceedings Melbourne. Austria.—M onatshefte fiir Mathematik und Physik

(1928+). in Royal (1867+), (1854+), (1890+)

has been issued by the Mathematical Seminary of the University of Vienna. The Anzeiger and Denkschriften and Sitzungsberichte, mathematisch-phystkalische Klasse (1848+-), of the K. Akademie der Wissenschaften, are of importance for the mathematician. BeLcrum.—The Société Mathématique de Belgique, founded at Brussels in 1921, adopted Mathesis, recueil mathématique à FIG. 6.—ILLUSTRATING TION W4==L—z*

THE FUNC-

FIG. FACE

7.—-WEIERSTRASSIAN

SUR-

diagrams through absorption screens or the more common method of displaced image. Examples of the first method are the plastographs or anaglyps by Mr. H. Richard of Chartres, and in England by Mr. G. F. Smith, who have produced examples illustrating the interpenetration of prisms, sections of a helicoid, etc. The second method is represented by the series designed by Sir George Greenhill to illustrate gyroscopic movements, e.g., the locus of the axis of a spinning top or Maxwell gyroscope. Quite recently a series of lantern slides illustrating certain algebraic curves, viz., the dual singularities, etc., involved in the theory of cubics and the construction of hyperelliptic and quartic curves

Pusage des Écoles Spéciales, Ghent (1881-4, suspended 191620) as its official organ. But the chief sources for research material in mathematics are: Académie Royale des Sciences, des Lettres et des Beaux-Arts, Brussels, Bulletin (1832+), and Mémoires (1840-+-); and Société Scientifique de Bruxelles, Annales (1875+; suspended 1914-19), Louvain. Another publication of this Société, Revue des Questions Scientifiques (18774), contains interesting material, especially for the, history of mathematics. Correspondance Mathématique et Physique (Quetelet) published at Ghent and Brussels (1825-39) was of more importance than Nouvelle Correspondance Mathématique, Brussels (1875-80). A recent Flemish publication at Ghent is Wis-en Natuurkundig Tijdschrift (1921+). Isis (1913), a journal devoted to the history of science was founded, and is still conducted, by Sarton. After one and a half volumes had been issued the publication was continued in the United States: (see

MATHEMATICAL

76

SOCIETIES

there). CzecHOSLOVAKIA.—The Spolku pro Volné Přednášky z Mathematiky a Fysiky (society for free lectures on mathematics and

physics) was founded in 1862 and flourished till the organization in 186ọ of Jednota Ceských Mathematiků, called Jednota Cesko-

slovenských Mathematiků a Fysiků since 1921, with over 2,000 members. It is the most affluent mathematical society in the world, owning its own press and building where it does an extensive business in the publication of texts used in elementary schools throughout the country. Among its mathematical publications are: Casopis pro Péstovdni Mathematiky a Fysiky (1872 +), Archiv Mathematiky a Fysiky (1875-79), Rozhledy Mate-

maticko-Prirodovédecké

(1893-1921; as a Separate publication

1922+), and a score of treatises on topics in the fields of mathematics and physics. See V. Posejpal, Dějepis Jednoty Ceských Mathematiků, Prague, 1912. Publications de la Faculté des Sciences de PUniversité Masaryk (1921-+-) Briinn, contain a number of mathematical monographs. DENMARK.—The important mathematical work is published in K. Danske Videnskabernes Selskab, Copenhagen, MathematiskFysiske Meddelelser (1917+); Oversigt (1814+); and Selskabs

Skrifter, Naturvidenskabelig og Mathematisk Afdeling (1824+). For more elementary mathematics were Tidsskrift for Mathematik (1859-89) Copenhagen, and Maanedsskrift for den Elementaere Mathematik (1886-89), continued as NytTidsskrift for Mathematik, A [elementary], B [advanced] (1890—1919), which were continued by the Matematik Forening i Kgbenhavn, founded. in 1905, as Matematisk Tidsskrift, A, B (1919+). For at least a dozen years previously this society had published a Medlemsblad. DoMINION OF CaNADA.—Some mathematical papers are to be found in Proceedings and Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada (1882+). FINLAND.—Mathematical papers of importance are to be found in: Finska. Vetenskaps-Societeten, Acta, Societatia Scientiarum Fennicae (1842+) and Commeniationes Physico-Mathematicae (1922+); and in Suomen Tiedeakatemia, Toimituksia, A (Finnish Academy of Sciences, Annales, A, t909-+). The papers of the latter are entirely in English, French and German. France.—The Société Mathématique de France, founded at Paris in 1872, has about 415 members and publishes a Bulletin

(1873+). The other most important periodicals for mathematics are: Annales Scientifiques de VEcole Normale Supérieure (1864 +); Journal de VEcole Polytechnique (1795+): Journal de

AND

PERIODICALS

300 members, and has published a Sttzungsberichte

(1902+).

The Gesellschaft für angewandte Mathematik und Mechanik, which was founded at Leipzig in 1922, has approximately 320 members. Four of the most important periodicals in the world are; Mathematische Annalen (18694+-), Mathematische Zeitschrift (1918+), and Journal für die reine und angewandte Mathematik (Crelle, 1826+), and Jahrbuch über die Fortschritte der Mathematik (1871-+-) an annual survey of mathematical literature since 1868. Other publications of special value for the mathe-

matician are: Nachrichten, mathematisch-physikalische Klasse, of the Gesellschaft

Preussische Akademie

(1710+);

der Wissenschaften

(1845+),

Gottingen:

der Wissenschaften, various publications

Bayerische Akademie

der Wissenschaften, Sitsungs-

berichte (1860+) and Abhandlungen (1829+); Sächsische Gesellschaft (Akademie) der Wissenschaften, Berichte (1846+)

and Abhandlungen (1849+); Heidelberg, Akademie der Wissenschaften, Sitzungsberichte (1910+-). Among others are: Archiy der Mathematik und Physik (1841-1920); Zeitschrift fiir Mathematik und Physik (1856-1917) to which Abhandlungen zur Geschichte der mathematischen Wissenschaften (1877—1913) was a supplement (1877-1900); Mathematisch-naturwissenschaftliche Mitteilungen, Tiibingen and Stuttgart (1884-1922; no numbers

1893-98; title extended, 1899+, by: im Auftrag des mathema-

tisch-naturwissenschaftlichen Vereins in Wirttemberg), which in

1891-92 had the title Mitteilungen des mathematisch-naturwissenschaftlichen Vereins in Württemberg; University of Hamburg, Abhandlungen aus dem mathematischen Seminar (1922+); Zeitschrift für angewandte Mathematik und Mechanik (1921+); and Zeitschrift für mathematischen und naturwissenschaftlichen Unterricht (x870+). Of historical interest are: Acta Eruditorum and Supplementa (1682-1734); Nova Acta Eruditorum and Supplementa (1732-76); Mitteilungen sur Geschichte der Medizin und der Naturwissenschaften (1902+); and Archiv fiir die Ge-

schichte der Naturwissenschaften und der Technik (1909-22), continued as Archiv fiir Geschichte der Mathematik, der Natur-

wissenschaften und der Technik (1927+).

GREAT Britain.—Among various early mathematical organi-

zations is The Mathematical Society, founded by mathematicians of Spitalfields in 17127. It continued in existence till its absorp-

tion in 1845 by the Astronomical Society.

(See History of the

Royal Astronomical Society 1820-1920, London,

1923, Pp. 99-

104; A. DeMorgan, Budget of Paradoxes, second ed., Chicago, 1915, vol. 1, pp. 374-383; The Articles of the Mathematical

Mathématiques Pures et Appliquées (1836+), continuation of Society meeting .. . in Brown’s Lane, Spitalfields . . . (A CataAnnales de Mathématiques Pures et Appliquées (1810-32): An- logue of the books belonging to the Society), London, 1784 and nales de la Faculté des Sciences de VUniversité de Toulouse pour 1821.) The London Mathematical Society, founded in 1865, les Sciences Mathématiques et les Sciences Physiques (1887-4); has about 400 members. Its publications are Proceedings (1866 L'Institut de France, L’Académie des Sciences, Comptes Rendus -+) and Journal (1926-++-). The Edinburgh Mathematical Society (1835-+); Société Philomathique de Paris, Bulletin (1789+); and (about 275 members) was founded in 1883, and has published Association Française pour VAvancement des Sciences, Compte Proceedings (1884+) and Mathematical Notes Rendu (18724). There is much of mathematical interest in Mathematical Association (about 1,160 members)(1909+). The was founded Revue du Mots (1906-20) (Borel) and Revue de M étaphysique et in 1871 as The Association for the Improvement of Geometrical de Morale (1893+), Paris. Teaching, and took its present name in 1897. It has published Other periodicals are: Nouvelles Annales de Mathématiques Reports (1871-93) and Mathemaiical Gazette (1894+). (1842-1927)

; L’Intermédiuire des Mathématiciens (1894-1925)

of value for bibliography and history; Revue de M athématiques Spéciales (1890+-) for secondary schools; and Journal de Mathé-

matiques Elémentaires champs). GeRMANY.—The

et Spéciales

(1877-1901)

(de Long-

oldest mathematical society in existence is

the Mathematische Gesellschaft in Hamburg, founded in 1690 as “Kunstrechnungsliebende Societat,” and continued, 1790-1876,

as “Gesellschaft zyr Verbreitung der mathematischen Wissenschaften.” It has about roo members and has published Mitteil-

ungen (1873-1880, mimeographed; 1881+, printed) and at least

80

issues

of

Jahresbriefe

or

Jahres-Berichte

or

Berichte

(1723-1878). What constitutes a complete set is unknown. The national society, Deutsche Mathematiker Vereinigung, was founded in 1891 and has about 1,t0c0 members. It has. published Jahresbericht (1892+), with Ergdngungsbinde (1906-14). The Berliner Mathematische Gesellschaft, founded in rgor, has about

Material of importance for the mathematician is to be found in Royal Society of London, Transactions (1665+); Cambridge Philosophical Society, Proceedings (1843+-) and Transactions (1820+-); Royal Society of Edinburgh, Proceedings (1832+) and Transactions (1783+); Cambridge Mathematical Journal and

Cambridge and Dublin Mathematical Journal (1837-54), con-

tinued as The Quarterly Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics

(1857+); Messenger of Mathematics (1871-4), continuation of Oxford, Cambridge and Dublin Messenger of Mathematics (186271); London, Edinburgh and Dublin Philosophical M agazine

(1798+) and British Association for the Advancement o f Science, Reports (1836+). In Nature (1869-+) there is much of interest.

Among many minor serials are: Mathematical Questions and

Solutions from “The Educational Times’ with many Papers and

Solutions (1864-1916), continued with a slight change in title

till 1918; The Mathematician (1843-50) (Davies); Mathematical Repository (1795-1804, 1806-35) (Leybourn). If The Lady’s

MATHEMATICAL

SOCIETIES

AND

PERIODICALS

77

Diary continued as The Lady’s and Gentleman’s Diary be regarded

matiche (1850-57) which may possibly be regarded as a development of Raccolta di Lettere ed altri Scritti intorno alla Fisica ed alle Matematiche (1845-49); R. Accademia dei Lincei, Rome, being published for 168 consecutive years, 1704-1871. GrREECE.—The ‘EAXAqvey? Maéqpariny ‘Erarpea (Greek Math- Rendiconti (1884+), Memorie (1876+); and Prince Boncomematical Society), with about 160 members, was founded at pagni’s Bullettino di Bibliografia e di Storia delle Scienze MateAthens in 1918 and Bulletin de la Société Mathématique de Gréce, matiche e Fisiche (1868-87), Rome. Among many other periodiAerriov ‘EXAnvuxns Madnuaricno ‘Eracpecas, in Greek, has been cals are: R. Accademia delle Scienze dell’ Istituto di Bologna, Memorie (1850+) and Rendiconto (1820+); Giornale di Matepublished at Athens since 1919. Hoitianp.—The oldest existing national mathematical society, matiche (1863+) (Battaglini); R. Accademia delle Scienze FiWiskundig Genootschap (about 243 members), was founded at siche e Matematiche, Naples, Rendiconti (1862+) and Atti Amsterdam in 1778. Associated with its name on its various publi- (1864); R. Accademia della Scienze di Torino, Atti (1865+) and cations, and as a part of the title, is the motto: “Een onvermoeide Memoire (1759+); University of Rome, Facoltà di Scienze, Semiarbeid komt alles te boven” (“Unwearying toil conquers every- nario Matematico, Rendiconti (19144); Archivio di Storia della thing”). The Society’s chief recent publications are: Wiskundige Scienza (19194); Bollettino di Bibliografia e Storia delle Scienze Opgaven met de Oplossingen (1855-+-); Nieuw Archief voor Wis- Matematiche (1898-1922) (Loria) continued as a supplement to kunde (1875+) which was a continuation of Archief (1856-74), the secondary school journal Z? Bollettino di Matematica which continues the society’s Verslagen van het Verhandelde op de (1902+); Periodico di Matematiche, various titles (1886+) Wetenschappelijke Vergaderingen (1844—1852) ; and Revue Semes- organ of Societa Italiana “Mathesis”; Istituto G. Ferraris, Rastrielle des Publications Mathématiques (1893+). Of at least segna di Matematica e Fisica (1920-4-), Rome; and Giornale di eleven other earlier periodicals of the Society the earliest is Kunst- Matematica Finanziaria (1922+-). Scientia (1907+) contains Oeffeningen over verscheide nuttige Onderwerpen der Wiskunde popular articles of value, Japan.—The Physico-Mathematical Society of Japan (Nippon (1782-88). See M. Van Haeften, Het Wiskundig Genootschap zijn oudste Geschiedenis, zijn Werkzaamheden en zijn Beteekenis Sigaku-Buturigakkwat) founded in 1884, has published proceedings (Kizi, 1884+), the first two volumes (1884-1887) being in voor het Vezekeringswezen (Groningen, 1923). There is important mathematical work in publications of the Japanese, and the rest mainly in English. The Tohoku MatheAmsterdam Academy of Sciences, Afdeeling Natuurkunde: (a) matical Journal (1911+) is now published by the Imperial UniVerhandelingen (1854+); (b) Verslagen (1853+); and (c) Pro- versity at Sendai. Under the auspices of the National Research Council of Japan have already been published (1924-28) five ceedings (1898+) mainly translated from the Verslagen. Among elementary periodicals, which are very numerous, are; volumes of The Japanese Journal of Mathematics, Transactions Tijdschrift voor Wiskunde (1874—77), Deventer; Nieuw Tijd- and Abstracts. Two other English periodicals containing some schrift voor Wiskunde (1913+), Groningen; Bijvoegsel van het advanced mathematical work are: Science Reports, First series, Nieuw Tijdschrift voor Wiskunde (1924—27) continued as Eu- Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry (1912+) also published by the clides, Tijdschrift voor de Didactiek der Exacte Vakken (1927+); Imperial University at Sendai; and Journal of the Faculty of Christiaan Huygens (1921+); and Wiskundig Tijdschrift Science, Imperial University of Tokyo, Section r, Mathematics, Astronomy, Physics, Chemistry (1925+). The latter is the con(1904—21), Haarlem. Huncary.—The chief older mathematical publications are of tinuation of Journal of the College of Science, Imperial University the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (Magyar Tudomanyos Akadé- at Tokyo (1887-1925). There is also Journal of The Mathematical Association of Japan mia) at Budapest. They are: Mathematikai és Phystkat Lapok (1892+), Mathematikai és Természettudomdny Ertesité (1882 for Secondary Education, in Japanese (title excepted) (1919+). Norway.—The Norsk Matematick Forening, founded at Oslo +), and Mathematische und naturwissenschafiliche Berichte aus Ungarn (1882+). A series of mathematical memoirs, Értekezések in 1918, has as its official organ, Norsk Matematisk Tidsskrift a Mathematikai Tudomanyok Kérébél, (1867-1894), is another (1919+). The Society is publishing also Norsk Matematisk Forvaluable publication of the Akadémia. A recent important publi- enings Skrifter (1921+), and Sophus Lie Gesemmelte Abhandcation of the University of Szeged is Acta Litterarum ac Scien- lungen (1922+). Archiv för Mathematik og Naturvidenskab tiarum, Sectio Scientiarum Mathematicarum (1922+). Intended (1876+), Oslo, and Norske Videnskabs-akademie i Oslo, Mathefor the secondary schools the periodical Középiskolai Mathema- matisk-naturvidenskabelig Klasse, Skrifter (1894+) contain some tikai Lapok, Budapest (1893-1914), has been continued as Közé- valuable mathematical material. PoLtanp.—The Polskie Towarzystwo Matematyczne (Société peskolai Mathematikai és Fizikai Lapok (1925+). Inpr4.—The Calcutta Mathematical Society, founded in 1908 Polonaise de Mathématique) was founded at Çracow in I9I9, for the promotion of mathematical research, publishes a Bulletin and one volume of Rozprawy (1921), in Polish, was published, (1909+). Since 1919 the University of Calcutta has published an This was continued by annual volumes (1922+) of Roczntk annual volume, Journal of the Department of Science, which is (Annales) in French. A Polish supplement (Dodatek) is also devoted to original contributions in mathematics, chemistry, issued (1922+). Among the older periodicals are two published physiology, and botany. The Indian Mathematical Club (formerly in Warsaw: Prace Matematycenofizycene (1888+) and WaiadThe Analytic Club) was founded at Madras in 1907 and the first mości Matematyczne (1897+). A new Warsaw periodical of printed Progress Report, no. 7, appeared in 1908. This publication much importance, devoted entirely to the theory of aggregates, was followed by The Journal of the Indian Mathematical Club is Fundamenta Mathematicé (1920-+). Another publication valu(1909-10), continued as The Journal of the Indian Mathematical able for its mathematical material is Akademija umigjetnoSct, Bulletin International, Cracow (1889-1900), in French and GerSociety (1911+). as a mathematical serial, it is the longest lived of all such serials

IraLy.—The Circolo Matematico di Palermo, founded in 1884, has been both a national and an international ọrganization, and now has about 584 members. Its chief publication has been its Rendiconti (1887-+-). The Unione Matematica Italiana was established as a national organization in 1922 and now has about 373 members. Its official organ is a Bollettino (1922+). The Circolo Matematico di Catania, of the University of Catania, was founded in 1921, and published Note e Memorie (1921-22), Esercitazioni Matematiche (1921-26), continued as Note ed „Esercitazioni Matematiche (1927+). The most important periodicals for mathematics, and among the most important in the world, are: Annali di Matematica Pura ed Applicata (1858+) a continuation of Annali di Scienze Mate-

man; Bulletin International, Classe des Sciences Mathématiques et Naturelles, Série A (1991+); and Memoires, Classe des Sciences Mathématiques et Naturelles, Série A (1928+). PortuGaL.—Jornal de Sciencias Mathematicas e Astronomicas (1877-1902), Coimbra, of the Academia Polytechnica do Porto, was continued as the Academia’s Annaes Scientificos (1905-21),

and then as Anais da Faculdade de Sciéncias do Porto (1927+). Under the auspices of the Accademia Real das Sciéncias de Lisboa, has been published Jornal de Sciencias Mathematicas, Physicas e Naturaes (1866-+). RumMANtA—The Societatea “Gazeta Matematica,” with about 110 members, was founded at Bucharest in 1909, and Gazeta Mate-

matica foae lunara de Matematici elementare si speciale pentry

78

MATHEMATICAL

TABLES

ugul Scoalelor secundare, speciale și superioare (1 895+), became | umes have already appeared (1911+). Other sources where ma. its official organ Among numerous minor mathematical serials terial of interest, some of high order, may be found, are: Viertel. of Rumania is the monthly Revista Matematică din Timişoara johrschrift der naturforschenden Geselischaft in Ziirich (18 56+): (1921+), published at Timişoara. Some advanced mathematical Mitteilungen der naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Bern (1843--) work has been published in Bulletin Mathématique de la Société Verhandlungen der naturforschenden Gesellschaft im Basel Roumaine des Sciences, Bucharest (1892+); and Académie Rou- (1852+); and Bulletin de la Société Vaudoise des Sciences Naty. maine, Bucharest, Annales (1867+), and Section Scientifique, relles (1842+), Lausanne.

Bulletin (1912+). Russta.—At Moscow in 1864 was organized a Circle of lovers

Unitep States.—The New York Mathematical Society, founded in 1888, developed into the American Mathematical of mathematics which in 1867 developed into the important Society (1894) which now has about 1,800 members, and is dediMoscow Mathematical Society (Moskovskoe Matematicheskoe cated to promoting mathematical research. The Bulletin of the Obshchestvo). This organization founded and carried on M ate- New York Mathematical Society (1891-94) was continued as maticheskit Sbornik (1866+). Another important society is Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society (1894+). The Khar’kovskoe Matematicheskoe Obshchestvo, founded in 1879. Transactions of the American Mathematical Society was estabIts Communications (Soobshchenitaz) (1879—1918) were continued lished in 1900, and in 1927 the Society acquired an important as Annales Scientifiques des Institutions Savants de l’Ukraine, share in editorial control of the American Journal of Mathematics section mathématique (1924-28) which were continued as Com- (1878+), established by The Johns Hopkins University under munications dé la Société mathématique de Kharkow (1927+). Sylvester’s direction. The Society has also published volumes A third society is at the University of Kazan, Fiziko-Matema- on important topics of modern mathematics. The Mathematica]. ticheskoe Obshchestvo, about 106 members, whose Bulletin Association of America, founded in 1915, and now having over (Jzviestiiz) (t891-++) was the continuation of the physics-mathe- 2,000 members, aspires particularly to serve the colleges of the matics section (1880-90) of the society of naturalists of the Uni- country by awakening and sustaining interest in mathematics versity. Bibliographia Mathematica Rossica (1896—1900) was a and by fostering the beginnings of mathematical research. Its supplement to IJsviestiza. A fourth society is Leningradskoe official organ (1916+) is The American Mathematical Monthly Fiziko-Matematiceskoe Obshchestvo, founded in 1892, and with (1894+) founded and published for many years by B. F. Finkel about 80 members. The first volume of Journal de la Société Bibliotheca Mathematica (see under Sweden) was revived by Physico-Mathématique de Léningrade appeared in 1927. Much the Association in 1929. of mathematical importance appears in the various publications Other important mathematical publications are: Annals of of the Academy of Sciences, Leningrad (1726+). Mathematics (1884+), a continuation of The Analyst (1874-83), Fiztko-matematicheskiza nauki v ikh nastoiashchem +t proshed- published by the University of Virginia 1884-99, by Harvard shem (1885-1905), edited and conducted by Bobynin was im- University till 1912, and since then by Princeton University; and portant for its bibliographical and historical articles and supple- Journal of Mathematics and Physics (1921+-) published by the ments. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Brief announcements of SouTH AFRIcA—Some mathematical papers are to be found m new results are to be found in National Academy of Sciences, Royal Society of South Africa, Transactions (1908+), Cape Proceedings (1915+). Some valuable mathematical work is to Town; and in South African Journal of Science (1903+) of the be found in University of California, Publications in Mathematics South African Association for the Advancement of Science. (1912+); Rice Institute Pamphlets (1915+), Houston, Texas; SPAIN.—The Sociedad Matematica Espafiola founded at Ma- American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Proceedings ( 1846+), drid in 1910 published a Revista (1911-1917). This was contin- National Academy of Science, Memoirs (1866+), and in Isis ued (1919+) as Revista Matematica Hispano-Americana, pub- (1913+; not published between 1914 and 1919) the official organ lished under the auspices of the Sociedad and of the Laboratorio of the History of Science Society. (See under Belgium.) y Seminario Matematico of the University. This Seminario has Mathematics Teacher (1908+-) is the official journal (1921+) also issued some Publicaciones (1916+). The R. Academia of the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, organized Espanola, Memorias (1870+-), Madrid, contains mathematical in 1920, and now having about 5,000 members. It publishes also material. a Yearbook (1926+). . SWEDEN.—Acia Mathematica (1882+), founded by MittagBrsriocrapHy.—Current journals grouped under countries of publiLeffler, one of the most important mathematical periodicals in cation are listed in International Catalogue of Scientific Literature, the world, is edited by mathematicians of Sweden, N orway, Den- List of Journals, 1903, and Supplementary List of Journals, 1904. But from the bibliographic point of view the great Union List of Serials in mark and Finland, and is published by the Mathematical Insti- Libraries of the United States and Canada, New York, 1927, supersedes tute, at Djursholm, of the Royal Academy of Sciences (K. everything else of the kind. (R. C. A.) Svenska Vetenskabsakademien), Stockholm. The Academy’s MATHEMATICAL TABLES. The primary purpose of Arkiv för Matematik, Astronomi och Fysik (1903-}+) is also of mathematical tables is to render the work of the professional importance to the mathematician, as well as considerable mathe- computer in mathematics, engineering, matical material in its Handlingar, Bihang til Handlingar, Ärsbok, less laborious than it would otherwise astronomy, statistics, etc., be. The arrangement and and Öfversigt. Svenska Aktuarieföreningens Tidskrift, Upsala typography must be such that the minimum strain is imposed on (1914-17), and Skandinavisk Aktuarietidskrift, Upsala (1918-++) the computer’s eyes, for he may be called upon to use the table contain mathematical material of value. for hours at a stretch. The results tabulated are the “tabular reTo Sweden must also be credited Bibliotheca Mathematica sults”; and the corresponding numbers, by which the table is en(1884-1915) founded and edited by Enestrém and, from 1888 tered, are the “arguments.” A table is one of single or double entry, on, the outstanding journal of its time for the history of mathe- according as it has one or two arguments. A table of logarithms matics. (See below under United States.) of numbers is a table of single entry, the numbers being the SWITZERLAND.—The Société Mathématique Suisse was founded “arguments” and the logarithms the “tabular results”; a simple in 1909 to promote mathematical research. _The Société Suisse multiplication table is one of double entry, giving the product des Professeurs de Mathématiques, otherwise named earlier, and xy as the “tabular result” corresponding to the “arguments” founded in 1900, is primarily for professors in the secondary x and y. schools. The activities of both organizations are set forth in the The invention of logarithms in 1614 came as a great boon to country’s only separate mathematical periodical, L’Enseignement computers (astronomers particularly), for it made calculations Mathématique, méthodologie et organization de Venseignement, involving multiplica tions comparatively easy work. Since that time philosophie et histoire des mathématiques, chronique scientifique, the majority of tables of special functions were, until quite» mélanges bibliographie (1899+-), Paris and Geneva. In addition recently, published giving the logarıthmic instead of the natural to its serials the Schweizerische Naturforschende Gesellschaft values, but owing to the increasing utility of calculating machines, (founded 1815) publishes Euler’s Opera Omnia of which 22 volthere is now a tendency to publish the natural values.

MATHEMATICAL Notation.—In the description of tables the following contrac-

TABLES

79

1658), where the logarithms of numbers to 100,000 are given.

tion for the interval of the argument will be used. Instead of The usual arrangement of 7-place tables is due to this Newton, writing, for example, that “the logarithmic sines are given for every 10 seconds up to 45°, or from o° to 45° at intervals of 10 seconds,” the writer will use the contraction “logarithmic sines are given for o° (x0”) 45°.”

In general n-place table means

one, in which the tabular results are exhibited to 2 decimal places. Common or Briggsian Logarithms of Numbers.—This system of logarithms is used for most practical purposes. The fundamental work which contains the results of the original calculations is that of Briggs’s Arithmetica Logarithmica (London, 1624); it gives the logarithms of the integers 1 to 20,000 and 90,000 to 100,000 to 14 decimal places with interscript differences. Briggs intended to publish the logarithms of the numbers 20,000-

go,000 to 14 places, but before he completed this part of the table he was forestalled by De Decker in his Tweede Deel der

Nieuwe Telkonst (Gouda, 1627) and Vlacq in his so-called Editio Secunda of Briggs’s Arithmetica (Gouda, 1628), who gave the ro—decimal

logarithms

of integers

1—100,000

with differences.

The tables of De Decker and Vlacq are identical, for the men were really partners in the speculation. For the majority of succeeding tables of logarithms of numbers, either the tables of Briggs or De Decker-Vlacq have been the sources, directly or indirectly. Very few recalculations have been made and for nearly 300 years the De Decker-Vlacq table, with its errors corrected, was the best Ioplace table of the logarithms of numbers. In 1794 Vega published a reprint of Vlacq’s table; this 1o-place table, of which the arrangement is not so good as Vlacq’s, is very useful and is still in general use. Although Vega bestowed great care on the detection of errors, there are a number of last figure errors. The title

is Thesaurus Logarithmorum Completus (Leipzig). Three photographic reprints have been published, two at Florence by the Istituto Geografico Militare in 1889, 1896, and‘ the third by Stechert of New York in 1923. In the last one the reproduction is very poor and all the errors of the original appear. Duffield’s to-place table (Washington, 1897) cannot be trusted, for, although he claims to have made a recalculation, practically all Vega’s last figure errors appear. Peters in Zehnstellige Logarithmentafel: Erster Band. (Berlin, 1922) gives the r1o-place logarithms of all numbers to 100,000 with first differences and an

viz., the first four figures of the argument are shown in the left hand margin, while the fifth figure is shown at the head of successive columns. The only other 8-place tables have been published since 1890; the Service Géographique de l’Armée (France) published an abridgement of the Tables du Cadastre (the famous French manuscript tables) under the title Tables des Logarithmes àù hûit décimales des nombres de r È 120,000 (Paris, 1891), and in the same year Mendizábal Tamborrel published Tables des Logarithmes è hûit décimales des nombres de r à 125,000 (Paris). Bauschinger and Peters, as a result of an entirely new calculation to 12 places, published Logarithmisch-trigonometrische Tajeln mit acht Dezimalstellen (Leipzig, 1910). It has appeared with English title and preface. The logarithms to 8 decimals of all numbers to 200,000 may be taken from this directly. It is sometimes necessary to use logarithms to a greater number of figures than 10, but owing to the great expense of publishing extensive tables to a large number of figures, several methods have been devised by mathematicians which enable a computer, with the help of a comparatively small table, to calculate the logarithm to the required number of figures. For example, Gray in Tables for the Formation of Logarithms and Anti-Logarithms to twentyfour or any less number of places (London, 1876), explains a method by which the logarithm and antilogarithm can be found to any number of places not greater than 24. Similar tables and methods have been published by Borgen, Steinhauser, Guillemin, Mansion-Namur, Pineto, Andoyer and Ellis. At present there is in progress an extensive table to 20-decimals, the calculations being carried out by Thompson. The first part appeared in 1924 to commemorate the Tercentenary of Briggs’s publication of Arithmetica Logarithmica under the title Logarithmetica Britannica, being a Standard Table of Logarithms to Twenty Decimal Places (Cambridge University Press, 1924). This part gives the logarithms of numbers 90,000 to 100,000; two more parts have been published since 1924. Logarithmic Trigonometrical Functions.—The original and fundamental tables of the logarithmic trigonometrical func-

tions are (1) Vlacq’s Trigonometria Artificialis (Gouda, 1633), which exhibits log sines and tangents to every ten seconds of the auxiliary table, which shows corrections for second differences. quadrant to ro decimal places with differences. (2) Briggs’s Trigonometria Britannica (London, 1633), which gives the natural The table is the result of a new calculation. In many problems ro-figure accuracy is not required, but in sines to 15 places, tangents and secants to ro places, log sines to the above such tables have been described for they are the funda- 14 places and tangents to ro places at intervals of o-oor degree mental tables. A large number of tables exhibiting 4, 5, 6-place from o° to 45° with interscript differences. In Vlacq’s earlier work logarithms have been published. A good 6-place table is Brem- of 1628 there are given, in addition to the logarithms of numbers, iker’s Logarithmorum VI. Decimalium Nova Tabula. (Berlin, the log sines, tangents and secants for every minute of the 1852.) Several editions appeared with title page in German and quadrant to 10 places with differences. The majority of the logaEnglish (1875). 7-place logarithms are frequently required and rithmic-trigonometrical tables published since 1633 have been there are a considerable number of accurate and well-arranged calculated from, or are abridged forms of the tables of Briggs and tables, including those of Bremiker, Bruhns, Dupuis, Lalande, Vlacq. It is to be noted that Vlacq used the sexagesimal division Sang, Schrén and Shortrede. Schr6n’s table Szebenstellige Ge- of the degree, while Briggs used the centesimal division. This step meine Logarithmen—(Braunschweig, 1860) is typical. There of Briggs was important and it is probable that, if Vlacq’s table have been editions in German, English and French. The arrange- had not been published in the same year, tables published subment is the best for a 7-place table and the modern editions are sequently might have used the latter division, and thus ensured a accurate. The figures of the logarithms are grouped 3, 4, the first saving of work in interpolations, multiplications, etc. The French group being printed only once. When a change occurs in the mathematicians at the end of the 18th century divided the right final figure of this leading group in the course of a row it is shown angle centesimally, but there is no real advantage in doing this. by an asterisk prefixed to all the groups affected in the row. This Michael Taylor in Tables of Logarithms (London, 1792) made a method of attracting the attention of the computer is very suc- big advance by giving log sines and tangents to every second of cessful. In 1871 Sang published A New Table of Seven-place the quadrant to 7 places. This table was calculated by interLogarithms of Numbers from 20,000 to 200,000 (London). polation from Vlacq’s Trigonomeiria to 10 places and then cut There is a distinct advantage in choosing this range in place of down to 7, so that the table should be accurate to the last figure. 10,000 to 100,000. For the latter range the differences at the This table is in inconvenient arrangement. Bagay’s Nouvelles commencement of the table change so rapidly that the propor- Tables Astronomiques et Hydrographiques (Paris, 1829) has tional parts are so numerous that they are either very crowded always been preferred. This also gives a complete logarithmic or some of them are omitted; by making the table start from trigonometrical canon to every second. Many collections of tables give the logarithmic trigonometrical 20,000 the differences are halved in magnitude and there are one-fourth as many on a page. This table, unlike most 7-figure canon to 7 places (e.g., Schrén, Bruhns, etc.) for every sexagesimal tables, is mainly the result of a new calculation. There are very minute, or for every 10 sexagesimal seconds, or for every centesifew 8-place tables; until quite recent times there was only one mal minute, or for every 10 centesimal seconds. Bauschinger and such table—John Newton’s Trigonometria Britannica (London, Peters (Leipzig, 1911) in Logarithmisch-trigonometrische Tafeln

So

MATHEMATICAL

give the logarithmic trigonometrical functions for every sexagesimal second to 8 places, while Peters in another work (Leipzig, 1911) gives a similar table to 7 places. In 1g91z Andoyer at Paris published a table as a result of an original calculation giving these functions to 14 decimals with differences for every 10 sexagesimal seconds; Nouvelles Tables Trigonométriques Fondamentales. In the second volume of his Zehnstellige Logarithmentafel, Peters

gives an extended canon to ro decimal places. For the centesimal division of the quadrant Hobert and Ideler, Nouvelles Tables Trigonométriques (Berlin, 1799) and Borda and Delambre, Tables Trigonométriques Décimales (Paris, 1801), give the canon to 7 places for every centesimal minute (10* quadrant). Mendizábal Tamborrel in his tables, already mentioned, gives an 8-place canon for every 10 gone (about 1-3 sexagesimal seconds) (A gone= 360°). Becker and Van Orstrand, Smithsonian Mathematical Tables (Washington, 1909) give these functions to 5 places for every 0-cor radian in the first quadrant. Natural Trigonometrical Functions.—The greatest computer of pure trigonometrical tables was Rheticus, whose work has never really been superseded. His celebrated 10-decimal canon, the Opus Palatinum was published at Neustadt in 1596 and in 1613 his rs-decimal tables of sines by Pitiscus at Frankfort with title Thesaurus Mathematicus. This wonderful achievement was overshadowed by the invention of logarithms by Napier in 1614, for the natural trigonometrical functions gave way to the logarithmic. The Opus Palatinum contains the ro-decimal trigonometrical functions for every 10 seconds with differences. The Thesaurus gives the sines to 15 places with differences to the third. These tables are the fundamental tables for practically all natural trigonometrical tables up to the present day. The number of tables of natural trigonometrical functions published since Rheticus is not large. Natural sines and tangents to 8-places for every sexagesimal second have been published by Gifford, Natural Sines (Manchester, 1914) and Natural Tongents (Manchester, 1920).

Briggs in his Trigonometria gives natural sines to 15 places, tangents and secants to 10 places for every o-or degree. Hobert Ideler in work already quoted gives a 7-decimal canon for every centesimal minute. Becker and Van Orstrand have published an interesting table with interval of argument o-cor radian, while Burrau (Berlin, 1907) gives a 6-place table for interval oor radian. Andoyer, Nouvelles Tables, Trigonométriques Fondamentales contenant les valeurs naturelles (Paris, Hermann, 1915-18) published tables of the natural functions to 15 places for every ro seconds, which he had calculated de wove during the years EQI0-14; the tables occupy three large volumes. He also gives tables for the centesimal division of the quadrant to 20 decimals. Antilogarithms—aA table of antilogarithms gives as the tabular results the number whose logarithm is equal to the argument. By inverse entry and interpolation, tables of logarithms can be used as tables of antilogarithms, so that few antilogarithmic tables have been published. The methods mentioned above for the determination of logarithms to a large number of places can, in general, be applied inversely for antilogarithms. The largest and earliest usable table of antilogarithms is Dodson’s Antilogarithmic Canon (London, 1742), giving 11-figure numbers corresponding to the logarithms 0-o0000(0-00001 )0-99999 with differences. In 1849 Filipowski in A Table of Antilogarithms (London) and Shortrede in Logarithmic Tables (Edinburgh) give 7-figure antilogarithms for 0-o0000(0-00001 )o-99999. Dietrichkeit (Berlin, 1906) gives a'similar table. In 1908 Bérgen published a table and method for calculating logarithms to 11 or 10 places in Logarithmisch-trigonomeirische Tafel (Leipzig, Engelmann, 1908) and his main table gives 11-figure antilogarithms for logarithms 0-co0a (o-0001)o-9999. A similar table is given by Guillemin, Tables de Logarithmes (Paris, 1912) to 13 figures for 0-0000(0-0001 )o-7000 and to 12 figures for 0-7001 (0-0001 )0-9999. Nafierian Logarithms in their original form have passed completely out of use and are only of historic interest. (See NAPIER.)

TABLES

lichen Logarithmen der Zahlen (Vienna, 1850) ; it gives the 7-place logarithms of 1(1)1000 and 1ooo(o-1)10,500. Barlow in New Mathematical Tables (London, 1814) gives the 8-place logarithms

of all integers to 10,000.

Schulze in his Neue und erweiterte

Sammlung logarithmischer Tafeln (Berlin, 1778) includes a table of hyperbolic logarithms to 48 places of all integers to 2,200 and of the primes and some other numbers to 10,000. This table was

calculated by Wolfram, who was not able to complete the work. The incomplete table was given by Schulze, but Vega in the Thesaurus (1794) completed it. An 8-figure abridgment of it was included in Vega’s collection of tables (1797) and later editions. Barlow used Wolfram’s table in his calculations. Thiele in Tafel der Wolframschen Hyperbolischen 48-steligen Logarithmen (Dessau, 1908) extended the table to all numbers to 5,000

and the primes to 10,000.

Salomon, Logarithmische

Tafeln

(Vienna, 1827) gives 10-place logarithms to 1,000 and of primes to 10,333; Callet, 48-place logarithms to roo and primes to 1,097: Hutton, 7-place to 1,200, also Willich (1852); Rees’s Cyclopaedia (1819)

art. “Hyperbolic Logarithms,”

1(1)10,000

Vega in Tabulae Logarithmico-irigonometricae

to 8-places.

(Leipzig, 1797)

and Köhler in Logarithmisch-trigonometrisches Handbuch (Leipzig, 1848) give 8-place logarithms to 1,000 and primes to 10,000. Gaussian or Addition and Subtraction Logarithms—In certain problems in astronomy and other subjects it is sometimes

necessary to calculate the logarithm of (2+) and (a—b) from: log a and log b where a knowledge of the actual values of a and 4 is not required.’ Gaussian tables are intended to be used for this purpose. Leonelli in a very rare book, Supplément Logarithmique (Bordeaux, 1802-03), was the originator of a table which would simplify the calculations. A specimen table is given where, with

log # as argument 0-00000(0-00001)0-00104, log (s+) and log (r+-x) are given to 14 places. Gauss, who took up the idea, constructed the first complete table of addition logarithms. It first appeared in Zach’s Monatliche Correspondeng (vol. xxvi., 1812) and gives § places only in the tabular results. Three columns are headed A, B and C. The argument log x in column A is o(0-oor)

2:00(0-01)3-4(o-1) 5-0; columns B and C give log («+ =) and log (1+7) respectively to 5 places. By this table log(a-+5b) can be obtained by direct or inverse use of the table. Gauss’s table has

been reprinted in several collections of tables. There are several

good tables to 6 and 7 places, but there are variations of the arrangement. Gray, Tables and Formulae (London, 1870) gives

6-place values of log(1+x) for log x=0-0000(0-0001)2 and log (r—x) for log x= 3-00(0-001)1-00(0-0001) 1-899 with proportional parts; Cohn, Tafelu der Additions- und Subtraktions-logarithmen (Leipzig, 1909) gives a convenient table; log («+ =) is given to ó x

places for log #==0-0000(0-0001) 1-500 (0-001 )3-00(0-01) 5-0(0-1)6 with differences and log (zih -*) for log x= 0.3000 (0-0001) 1:500

(o-00r)3-00(0-01)5-0. Similar tables are given by Bremiker, Gundelfinger and Jones. Seven-place tables are given by Matthiessen, Wittstein and Zech. The first of these is “nearly useless” (Gauss); the others tabulate in convenient form and for the greater part of the range the interval is ocoor. Wittstein makes one table suffice for both addition and subtraction, while Zech has two. “Wittstein’s table answers the purpose Gauss had in view the

best of all’ (Glaisher).

By Zech’s tables log (1+ =) and log

(«/I— =) are tabulated with log x as argument. In 1922 in the Bulletin Astronomique, Deuxiéme Série (Paris, 1922), pp. 5-32, Andoyer has published ‘‘Tables Fondamentales pour les logarithmes d’addition et de soustraction.” These are to be regarded

Hyperbolic Logarithms.—The first publication of a table as basic tables for the future compilation of a table of Gaussian

which can be interpreted as a hyperbolic logarithm table in the modern sense is New Logarithmes (1619) by J. Speidell. The most extensive table was computed by Dase, Tafel der natür-

logarithms to

places when # water at 398” Fahr.

144= aPika oera water as

Tapae2 -

Russia :

pe {231 cubic inches=8-3380 Ib. av.

32 gallons.

assia

Gran . . Gramme (gr.)

‘

-4

Tents te N. Born

See Kati. Qi... Go. . .

Grao

Itay. Rome. Turkey

. United States .

=

Gramo

am 3-937 inches=o-r metre.

.

>

i.

f

5°83 grains (silver weight).

Russ}

Camii

= To litre = 0-176 pint.

=1,000C.c.=61-024 cu.in. =100 sq. cm.=

|

ie

0-504

|)

.

.

12448 gallons.

1 metre. (Old el= 27-08 inches.) 4 Sa I yard. 0-537 metre.

See Stab.

. =2,400squaresagènes=2-7acres. l =

0

Livre

aegrains,

1-038 acre (Masri)

lenna

. l

.

|

Witzerlanq

18 inches.

Greece

|... wtstisit

:

gramme.

.

+ . OD

-

=.

Sermany

x quart.

27 inches. ı er

wi

.

Foute, or Pied

Catan

. .

.

i unit ka T$ a ~

As unit length =360 shaku.

. 18 inches. . 18 inches approximately.

. .

`

Founte, or Funt

. .

Egypt . .

.

72 in. (linear); 12} in. (building).

18 to 21 inches.

.

. . .

psa sq.feet (Treaty). 5 tolas, or goo grains.

. %00. Spain. . .

-

Canada" n

.

:

.

154324 grains.

I gramme (gold weight). =57:871 grains. See Ock.

; 4°077 stere.

;

China

ırkilogramme.

.

.

, `

.

.

ws

Aea

a .

Madras

.

=.

Fon: SS Foglietto

Gallon

. Russia . .

.

.

E M via Le

Ortugal Spaij PeneSua.

14 tb. av. (Treaty). x21 sq.feet (Treaty).

LOIS sq.teet

.

ugal (old).

FS

Foot

oms.

.

Suis

-

3'906 grammes.

ee Nets

Witz oland Port

.

Yhectare. So-686 grain. l96 doli= rt zolotnick.

Se centimetre.

i preat Bai

shine gallon. 1236 metre. 066 metre.

.

Oto

usually.

3°0884 grammes (Cairo). I centimetre.

I

ĉtherlands

Fjerdingkar .

. .

. |. 2g

re, square

.

=13+2 conte of Revenue.

=I4"

:

I : aly p

50 kilogrammes=rro-231 Ib. av. 50 o enia 110°231 fb. 66 feet. 0-33 pic.

.

F Kong.

Shanghai

es .

Drachma

Duim.

.

China . : Siam. . N. Borneo.

. Peking

.

|

I$ tb. av.

+

.

.

Dito Djerib

.

Dolfa, or Dola

|Ducat

139

“8¥ypt

T pokey Sypt

2:675 Î. av., ot Jy hap.

.

Russia

.

,

pence 200 mg.; for diamonds= Teo OZ. troy.

Sana : 0°I55 square inch.

.

Chih

E

\ Egypt

, Dirhem. :

"394 inch =rtp M. O -o6r cubic inch, or 1 c.c.

. .

i

.

or Pic

403-7 tb. av. 124-7 tb. av. (old weight). xrarroba.

=xt0 Sim. =O-154 grain.

.

.

560 fb. av.

74°77r Ib. av. 0-58 gallon.

.

Diraa, or Drâa)

=yzo0 litre=o-o7 gill.

Chetverte Chih

gills imperial measure.

Drachmé (Royal). . °322 acre. 3 Sse Of ‘}100 fb. av. (As in Great Britain.) |De ee Oke,

.

Russia

me

%

x

.

Centimetre sds, oh Centimetre, cubic (c.c.) ; Centimetre, squar Centner. : . Austria Denmark a aa Chain . . . Canada Cyprus

.

x0 pots, or 4 gallons, r quart 3 | Diraa

13 tb. av. See Tael.

Borneo.

:

.

. .

E S

Siam.

Centigramme

.

. . .

China

Centilitre

Chang 8 . Chapah.

.

. . .

Italy a Persia

ee ee ;

.

.

Madras Turkey Spain.

N.

Cawnie. Cental .

.

7

I millimetre.,

>-

I gramme.

°

2757 grain. : o-768 grain; also measure o-18 in.

`

. India. pods . » pogal i Maan

=0065 gramme. 36 inches. 27 inches.

33 inches, Government Survey.

;

14.0

MEASURES

Guz, or Gudge

Persia

Arabia

Immi

Joch Kaima Kan

.

te .

Switzerland

rs litre.

Austria-Hun-

1'422 acre.

Sweden . Netherlands Hong Kong Germany . Sweden Egypt

Kanne or Kanna. Kantar,

or

Can-

Libra, or Arratel . Portugal . 24 to 44 inches. A guz of 40°95 Light Year (astronomy) Paris. inches (Guz, aAzerbdijdn) is Line or Ligne Russia . Government stand- Linia . common. Greece ard guz = 363 inches. Thereisa Litra (Royal) Cyprus . . wuz for retail trade of 25 inches. Litre 25 inches to 37 inches (Bassorah). Litre (metric) Spain. Litro i Italy . 18 inches. Russia Livre (1b.) 18 inches, or cubit. = 100 ares, OF 2°47I acres. Belgium LOO Qrm. =3°53 OZ. av. Livre-poids . France 109 litres= 2-7 bushels. Loket Czechoslovakia. = 109°36 yards. 5.797°198 grains. 1325 Ib. av. Germany . Loth 63 gallons (dry measure). 123 gallons, nearly. 11-48 litres.

gary

.

Switzerland Vienna Maass

© 576 gallon, r litre. 14 th. av. t litre, or formerly 1-762 pint. o- 576 pint.

99°0492 Ib. av.=100 rotls (Customs). 45 kilogrammes of cotton. 44°5 kilogrammes other produce.

taro

Karwar. Persia 100 batman. Kassabah Egypt oer 3°8824 yards (Customs). ras Catty . | Settlements ina, Straits } Kati, or Gin 1% tb. av.

Keddah. Keila, or Pishi Ken . . Keråt

Egypt. Zanzibar . Japan Turkey

Kette, or Chain . Keu . . Khat (New). Kie . , Killow . Kilogramme, Kilometre

Germany . Siam. . Turkey Cyprus Turkey T ee

Kin

Japan, China

;

Klafter .

Koku Kon . . Korn-tonde . Korn-top Maal Korel. . Kotyle (Royal) Kouza . . Koyan . Krina Kung Kup . . . Kwan or Kuwan. Kwarta. . Kyat

Japan Corea. Norway Sweden Norway . Netherlands Greece. Cyprus . Straits Setts. Bulgaria . China Siam. Japan Poland Burma

Lakt . Last.

Bulgaria . Netherlands

A

Lato

i pma

.

Czechoslovakia. u

Li.

Liag

Libba.

China

.

.

š

.

China

.

Italy .

Libbra (nuova) . Italy . Libra

.

.

14-994 ellen, or 10:936 yards. 40 inches. x centimetre.

S . .

Libes (Castilian).

.

Argentina

Spain, Mexico

Maatze . Mace

Mahud . Marc, or Mark Marco

Austria Switzerland Netherlands Chi hina N. Borneo. Arabia Burmah France Sweden Vienna .

Portugal Spain, India .

.

Maund .

.

1 litre=zoo mystra. 2$ quarts.

=1-7508 pint.

t litre.

0:90282 tb. av.

Apoth. livre=

II*5204 OZ. troy.

Kilogramme. 048905 kilogramme.

o-593 metre (Prague) ;0-594 metre

(Moravia); 0-579 metre (Silesia). New loth=1 decagramme. Old loth, nearly $ oz. av. 15-625 grammes. 270-1 grains. Postal loth, 257-2 grains.

1°245 quart.

2:64 gallons. x decilitre. 584 grains. 933 Ib. av. 2:04 tb. av. 3 maik =cubit = 103 inches. 0:2448 kilogramme (old weight). 04645 ib. av. 4,331°37 grains= 24 karato. =8 oncas= 229-5 grammes.

3,550°54 grains.

82-286 İb. av., Government. 424 tb. (old bazaar). 7467 tb. av., factory.

a5 tb. nearly, Madras.

37 to 44 1b., Juggerat. Local maunds vary on either side of 80 ib.

Megametre (astronomy)

1,000,000 metres. United States . 39°37 inches.

Metre (m.)

Metre, cubic. Metre, square

Great Britain . -

39°370113 inches=z m.

=1,000 c.d.= 35-315 cubic feet. = 100 square decimetres = 10-764 square feet.

8 gallons. i o-97 bushel, Metro Cie : x metre. = 1,000 grm.= 2-2046223 Ib. av. =o6214 mile. Metz . . Austria 1-691 bushel. o-6o01 kilogramme= 1-325 tb. Micron (u) . Austria ; !=y7e7 millimetre. = 2:0740 yards. Micron (1u). Czechoslovakia. | 10 metre. 1-9685 yard. r nautical mile= 6,080 feet. Miglio . . Rome. . 0:025 mile. 1-67 gallon. Mijle . Netherlands I kilometre. 1 hectolitre. Old koilon=33-16 Mi, or Mill . Turkey 1,000 archins (new mil). litra, Denmark . 4:680 miles. = 39:7033 gal. = 4-9629 bushels. Great Britain . ro“? inch. I$ tb. av. Mile ae ` `} Nautical mile= 1,852 metres. 138-97 litres. 3°821 bushels. Mile (postal) Austria 4°714 miles. 160 litres. Miha . . Portugal . 1-296 mile. 1 decigramme. Mille 1:949 kilometre. rı decilitre. Milligramme } = 05y litre. gramme =0'0r5 grain. France =r0b0 9 quarts. Millilitre

5:3334 D. av.

Millimetre Miscal . Mkono . Mna Momme

r2°8 litres.

78-96 inches (Treaty). ro inches.

8-281 ib. = kg. I litre. 100 kyats =3-652 tb. av. ,

.

1-or2 tb. av.

9°4627X 10” kilometres. yy point, or 0-089 inch. or inch. 1 archine= 280 liniias,

28 ib. nearly, Bombay.

2-0625 litres. Measure of 6 fb. av. of rice. 5:9653 ft., 1-31 metre. r$ inch measure (old). 3°09 grains weight (old).

Austria . Switzerland Great Britain . Arabia Greece

Knot . Köddi . . Koilon (Royal}

WEIGHTS

The guz, gueza or zer varies from

a

Hat’h,or Moolum, |Bengal or Cubit Bombay Hectare. S ok He Hectogramme Hectolitre Hectometre . SER Hiyaka-me . Japan Hiyak-kin Japan oe. Hogshead Great Britain Hoon. See Takil. Hu. . . China Hulmit . Latvia

AND

:

Morgen .

o-650 metre. 30 hectolitres.

1-917 metres, 583% grains (silver weight).

229-83 sq.metres. About § mile=360 pu.

Mou

.

7

7I grains. 45°72 centimetres.

China.

S Commonly 806-65 sq.yd. Varies

Greece. 1% kilogramme= 1-172 oka. Japan . Foy Kwan. Denmark... Norway . .? 0-631 acre. Prussia . : Netherlands (Old) . 8,1244346 square metres. South Africa 8,550 square metres.

locally. Shanghai=6,600 sq-ft.

Varies

with length of ch’ih. A small weight 0-583 grain. 13 0z. 16 liang=1 chin=1x} db. av. ©7477 Ib. av. 1 kilogramme. I-o127 lb. av. rorg b.

=003937 inch = gyro mM.

Persia East Africa

(Municipal Council). By Cus: toms Treaty= 920-417 sq.yds.,

Mud . . Myriagramme

Netherlands ie. g

based on ch’ih of 14:1 inches. t hectolitre. = ro kilogrammes= 22-046 fb. av.

Ngoma. Nin.

East Africa Siam .

74 keilas. 4% inch

MEASURES Turkey

Spain. Portugal Bulgaria

Octavillo Oitavo

.

Oke

kantar=10 batmans kilogramme. 0-20 litre.

. .

Portugal France Rome. Netherlands U. States .

Packen .

.

;

Pam Palmo

.

;

Palamé (Royal) . .

.

Russia Greece Holland Portugal

Spain.

.

N. Borneo. Ceylon Parasang. See Pers akh. Parmak. See Archin. Parsec (astronomy) Para Parah

. .

: .

Passeree

Pé.

‘i’

Pecheus (Royal) . Pecul . Perche .

.

f

Bengal Portugal . Greece China France \ Persia

:

Estonia

.

Germany . Latvia Prussia Switzerland Vienna

Ratel

8-346 inches. 90 Ib. av. 5°59 pints.

Ri.

Greece China Rome.

United States

.

. .

a

o a, i

Pishi. See Keila. Poide de Marc Polegada

Pond

.

Pot.

Pouce

Poud, or Pood

France

Portugal

France Russia Russia

o-9905 tbh. av. (Customs). o-9805 tb. av. (Govt.).

Cairo .

2:206 fb. great rottolo. o-715 fb. less rottolo. 2-124 tb. great rottolo. Rottolo mina =% oka. 2°513 pints (old measure). 1-or2 quarter (dry measure).

Alexandria

Rottol . Rubbio .

Turkey Spain. Russia

Netherlands Switzerland

Japan

India .

7 feet. so litres, formerly 14°56 metzen (Prussia). 1 decalitre. 3 litre, formerly orr gallon. 0-375 litre. 118-615 square yards (-9918 are). Government seer = 23% Ib. av. Bengal, 80 tolas weight of rice (heaped measure), about 60 cubic inches (struck measure). Southern India=weight of 24 current rupees.

1333 Ib. av.

12°79 inches. o-3248 metre. See Diraa 0-8325 imperial pint. I litre. 0-931 litre.

534 litres (Oporto). 105 to 126 gallons.

.

0° 2448 kilo =8 onces. 27-77 millimetres.

Denmark . Switzerland

2-118

Egypt

2 feet.

.

Netherlands

Belgium Norway

3°762 metres. 1 dekametre.

Se . Seer

500 litres (officially).

Gibraltar

I litre. 1-014 lb. av. 1-02 th. av., nearly (dry measure). 17-219 lb. av. weight.

Denmark Netherlands

500 grammes= 16 unze. Apoth. pf.=375 grammes. Piund =s560:06 grammes.

11°13 inches. rr:8r inches= ro pounces. .

See Bushel. 2-024 bushels. 3°46 litres. too libras (Castilian) =1or-4 Ib. 58-752 kilogrammes, or 129% fb. av. 100 libras, or 101-27 Ib. av. = 100 kilogrammes= 1-968 cwt. 1 metric quintal.

2-440 miles (itinerary). miles (natural).

Germany

420 litres (Lisbon).

PIDE

Rotl, or Rottolo .

25 gallons (dry measure).

Italy .

Portugal

. .

11°73 inches.

Spain. Belgium

France

Rode Roede

.

Japan

Schepel . Schoppen

water. 0-648 metre.

Pipa

.

Argentina . France Italy .

Germany .

Picki

Turkey

Spain

Portugal

Sagéne . Scheffel .

A measure of 180 tb. weight of

Canada Paris .

United States Rome Portugal .

430 grammes. ik =16 unzen=32 lo . I'or to 1-23 Íb.ot old weight. Zoll. pfund (1872) = soo grammes. 419 grammes. Old zoll fb.=1-1023 fh. av.

Pharoagh. See Archin. Cyprus Japan. i. ws Straits Settlements, Hong Kong . . North Borneo .

Pied de Roi . Pike . : Pint Pinta Pinte

.

Zoll. pfund (1871) =500 grammes.

Pic. Picul

Pies or x Pie de Burgos Pied . .

Spain. Denmark Norway Sweden

Persia Persia Rattel, or Rottle . Arabia

0-22 metre.

3°084X 1013 km. 5 seers. 3 metre (old). 1 metre=1-543 old pecheuse. 1333 lb. av. ie square pieds de roi. In Quebec 18 French feet. Probably 3:88 miles =6,000 guz.

Canada| `

Persakh, or Parasang Pfund .

.

fb. (Alexandria). 2-80 Ib. = 1-282 kilogramme. 1°32 litre. I'r5r8 pint. 2-834 fb. av. (old | | Quart weight). | Quarto . 28-688 grammes. 30°59 grammes (old). Quintal . 436-165 grains. 1 hectogramme. ro onzen=pond. Av. ounce = 437°5 grains, Quintal (metric) . Quintale 1,083°382 Ib. av. 1 decimetre. Ralte 1 decimetre.

Turkey

.

Pulgada.

to

2-805 ; Pun d

Standard troy fb.=5,760 grains. Avoir. ļb. = 7,000 grains. 090282 tb. av. (œ4095 kilogramme). 7,561 grains=16 oz. Jersey=1r livre. 705 inches=5 ch’ih. 2°89 pints. roo cubic inches= Government puddee. 0-927 inch. 1°1023 Ib. av., or 500 grammes. o4981 kilogramme. 6,560 grains. Varies locally. 3,500°5 grains (apoth.).

Russia

|

China Madras

1-282 kilogramme (old).

21751 ib. av. (Customs).

.

Jersey

2% fb. av.=400 drams (Cyprus).

Greece

.

ock=1

I41

United States

1-730 litre. 1-28 litre (for liquids).

Cyprus Egypt

Onça Once Oncia Onze Ounce

WEIGHTS

1 decigramme. |Pound . Legal ock (1881) = 100 drachmas. New batman=1o ocks, and |

Greece

Obolos . Ok -

AND

1 kilogramme. Apothecaries, pond =375 grammes. 1-7 pint=4 paegle. 2-64 pints or 1-5 litre. r4 litre (dry). $ litre (liquid). 0-965 litre. 1-066 inch (old measure). I inch. o-016122 ton= 36 fb.

Seidel Sen. Ser. Shaku

z

Sheng . Sbih . Shô cae Skaal-pund .

Skeppe . Skjeppe. Stab

Stadron (Royal) . Stere (metric) Stero Stopa

Streepe .

Madras, 25 Ib. nearly. Juggerat, weight of 40 local rupees. Bombay, old seer, about 28 fb. Measure of 1°86 pint. Ceylon 16 miscals, or 1,136 grains weight Persia (Sihr). Note-——In India the seer, like the maund, varies considerably; usually 40 seers go to a maund. 0-6224 pint. Austria 44:4 miles, nearly. Siam . t litre (Indian Law, 1871). India . 42 m., also 9-18273 square deciJapan metres; also 18-039 cubic centimetres (z4z shd). 1°813 pint. China 160 Ib. China 1804 litre. Japan 435-076 grammes, or 0-959 Ib. av. Sweden o-498r kilogramme, or officially Norway $ kilogramme. 17°39 litres. Denmark . 17°37 litres. Norway r metre, or 33 old fuss, but varied. Germany . I kilometre. Greece I cubic metre. I metric stere. Italy . o-288 metre. Poland 1 millimetre. Holland

Stremma

Greece

Strich

Germany .

1 metric are. 238-1 square pecheus (Constantinople).

r millimetre.

MEASURES

142

AND

WEIGHTS,

Striche . Stunde .

Switzerland Germany .

33 strich=1 millimetze. Old een measure, 2-3 tO 3°4 miles. 4'8 kilometres. Stunder=5 stunden, or 24 kilometres.

Stunde .

Switzerland

Sultchek

Turkey

Cubic measure (1881) whose sides equal a parmak (decimetre).

Sung Tael

Corea Siam.

4 Ib. av., nearly. 936ł grains.

Tahil

. Hong Kong 1} OZ. av. hina : Silver weight, 13 oz. av. Japan . . ro momme. (No current coin of the tael.) Straits Settle- 14 0z. av.=10 chee=100 hoon.

Tam Tan Tang Tang-sun Tank

Hong Kong ; China Burma China Bombay

Teng

Burma

ments

Thanan . Thangsat . To.

Burmese measures of capacity depend on the teng or basket. Officially a basket is 2,218-2 cubic inches, but the teng varies

Siam . Siam . Japan

Toise Tola Tomand Ton

Ténde

133% lb. av. = 25 gallons. Also 133% Ib. weight. 2 miles, nearly. About 34 miles = ro li. I7; grains, or 72 tanks= 30 pice.

France India . Arabia . . United States .

.

Denmark .

aS Tonne, or Millier.

Tonne (metric) Tonnelada Tonos Tou Tovar Tsun . . Tu.

ad

. .

Vara

Vat

Vedro . Verchok Versta, or Verst . Vierkanteroede Viertel .

Viss Wa. . Wigtje . Wisse Yard.

|

locally :-— Akyab= 23 fb. of rice. Bassein= 51 fb. of rice. Moulmein= 48 bb. of rice. Rangoon = 48 to 50 tb. of rice. 1 litre. 4:688 gallons. 18-0391 litres=3-9703 gal.= 1-98 pecks. 2°1315 yards. 180 grains. Legal weight of rupee. 187-17 tb. av. of rice. 2,240 lb. av., also a net ton of 2,000 fb. 131-302 litres (liquid measure). 139'121 litres (dry measure).

3)1,000 kilogr

Boe

a .

1,000 kilogrammes =o0-9842 ton. 793°15 kilogrammes. 29°526 cwt. 18 pints approximately. 128-2 kilogrammes. t-41 inch (Treaty measure). 100'142 miles=25 li, based on the

Peru. . Spain, . Argentina. . Portugal . Holland

33 Inches. 2-782 feet. 2-841 feet. I-11 metre. t hectolitre. 768 mingelen. i mingelen=1-20 to 1:237 litre. 2-7056 gallons=xo schtofis, or

ee Portugal Greece China Bulgaria China China

Russia Bulgaria . Russia Russia Holland Denmark . Switzerland Rangoon . Siam. . Netherlands Netherlands

ch’ib of 14-1 inches.

12-3 litres. 12-8 litres. 1°75 inch. o+66288 mile. 1 metric are. 1-7 gallon. 15 litres. 3x25 tb. av.

2 metres. I gramme. x metric stere. 36 inches. 838 centimetres. t hectolitre. I metre.

ANCIENT

Standards Yearbook contains a summary various national and of Standard Weights

(U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington) of the current work of the C.I.P.M. and of the international standardizing associations. History and Measures of the United States by Louis A,

Fisher (Miscellaneous Publications of the Bureau of Standards no. 64). (H. J. Ca.; O. Wo.)

The hisMEASURES AND WEIGHTS, ANCIENT. tory of weights has been greatly extended, by (1) the discrimina-

tion of the ages of Egyptian weights by their forms; (2) the study of 3,400 weights and many capacity measures from Egypt; (3) the finding of the names and marks of four standards in Palestine, which confirms their independent position; (4) increased knowledge of prehistoric weights. Such material supersedes most of the fragmentary and vague statements of ancient authors, upon which we were formerly dependent. The English standards of inches and grains are the most familiar, and are here placed on the left side of the column, while the

equivalents in millimetres and grammes are inset on the right side. Only the values actually found are here described, without any theoretical amounts, or assumed connections. There is nothing easier than to frame systems of plausible relations between measures, but the exact amounts must be ascertained and

the historic probability of descent, before such theories can be valued. LINEAL MEASURES. The units derived from 20-62 inches This standard of the cubit was used in Egypt from the time of the predynastic royal tombs 59 4 onwards. The first accurate example yet published is in the size of the pyramid of Snefru (3rd dyn.), at 20-66, but still more exactly 20-62 in the pyramid of Khufu. The pure system of it was: n, "206

too=meh cubit, 20°62

roo=khet 2062 inches

But it was mixed with other systems as: zebo, digit ‘737

4=shep, palm 2'947

7=meh, cubit 20°62

r00=khet, reel 2062

r20=ater or skhoinos 3°9 miles.

This was termed the “royal cubit” throughout history. The Babylonian 20:89 of Gudea may be another form, and probably the origin, of this. It appears in Asia Minor as 20-55 to 20-94; in tombs at Jerusalem as 20°57; in six English stone circles as 20:55. The eastern system was: uban,

s=qat,

“695

6=ammat,

3475

20°85

6=qanu, 125°

60=sos,

7506

30=parasang, 225,180

2=kaspu

450,360

The same cubit of 2068 appears in stone buildings of New Mexico. 12-45 This foot is of the cubit of 2075. It is 316 found in Athens as 12-44, Aigina 12-40, Miletos 12:51, Olympia 12-62, Etruria 12-45, mediaeval England 12°47.

The system was: foot,

1o=akaina,

ro=plethron,

12°45 124 5 1245 From the foot was formed a cubit of 18-7, foot,

12°45

ig-g

14=cubit,

187

4=orguia,

747

6=stadion

7470

474 roo=stadion

7470

Another foot was formed of 3 of the cubit, adopted

by Philetairos

of Pergamon

ggo

as a

standard.

17°72 This was the short cubit of Egypt, actually 4x found as a measuring rod and having 6 palms i United States . it was directly connected as $ of the 20-67 cubit. As 17-6 1t1s Mexico recognized as the early Jewish cubit. Zac. . . . Netherlands The digit and derived measures. Zar (metric). . Persia Zer (Persia). See Guz. inches This digit was ṣẹ of the diagonal of the mm. Zol . . . Switzerland 3% zoll=x decimetre. Old zoll nearly one inch. (See also -729 20°62 cubit. The diagonal of the cubit, 40 18:51 Pfund.) digits, is found as a wand of the middle prehistoric age, 29-1 long. Zolotnik Russia 65-8306 grains, or 96 doli. Another multiple was the half of this, 20 digits, called the remen, Brsriocrapuy.—In addition to the references in the text see British used as a basis of land measure. By having two systems, one the Weights and Measures, by Col. Sir C. M. Watson (1910) for the diagonal of the other, it was possible to denote one square half history thereof; and the Travaux et Mémoires of the C.1I.P.M. for methods used for the comparison of standards. A long list of foreign the area of another.

er

weights and measures is given in vol. x of the International Critical Tables (1926) to which reference has already been made. The

digit, "729

r0oo=orguia, 72'9

ro=amma, 729

ro=stadion: itinerary 7290

MEASURES inches

ae

AND

,

WEIGHTS,

143

ANCIENT

mm.

, There are very few evidences of this measure. n T Divisions on a wall at Abydos give 25-13. The p 309 contents of the brazen sea of Solomon, taking which was a decimal system. the bath as 2380 c.c., would imply a cubit of 23:0 if cylindrical, or 26-2 if hemispherical. ro=akaina, This at least proves a cubit much foot, ro=plethron: agrarian IrIS 27s I2I5 longer than the Egyptian. Oppert concluded that Assyria had a This measure is rare in comparison with the 12-45 foot. It has cubit one-sixth longer than 21-6, 7.¢., 25-2. Measurcsof buildings been supposed to have been used for the Parthenon, but the 11-69 point to 25-28 in Palestine, and 25-34 in Persia, where the guerze foot agrees more closely with that. The 2 of 25 digits, being a is 25 inches. There are not included here some suggestive but debatable fractional amount, was inconvenient, and the foot of re-1 5 was divided binarily into 16 digits, of 96 to the orguia, or -7s9 inch. evidences of various units, such as the course heights of the Such seems to have been the original connection of the different pyramid of Khufu (Anc. Eg. 1925,89), and the subsidiary marks of units on the standard cubits. Greek systems, but much more dated material is needed. It may be noted how usually a stadium or furlong measure 11-618 From the digit of -729, on which the Greek 294-9 has been established; there are seven named above, 7258, 7290, measures were based, as for the Parthenon 11-69, the Italic foot of 16 digits was formed of 11-66, or as it 7470, 7506, 7704, 7776 and 7920 inches. These may result from convenient lengths for the plough furrow. It is easy to find was later at Rome 11-613; the series was coincidences with so many values to choose from. digitus, 4=palmus, 4=pes, § 5=passus, 8=milliare I25=stadium, Areas are passed by, as they involve very uncertain factors of -726 2°90 III 58:06 58,060 7258 methods of cultivation, length of furrow, influence of measures This was widely spread by Roman influence, varying up to 11-8. of seed, and varying ability of ploughing due to soil.

18-23 25 digits =Greek cubit of 18-23 is 2 of 18-23 is the Greek foot of 12-15, from

It has an earlier history, being used for the Parthenon and perhaps the Theselon as 11-69, and as an Etruscan measure (11-59),

also in prehistoric times at Stonehenge (11-68), and probably in

CAPACITY MEASURES

The approximate values of Egyptian capacities are anciently

stated by the odd quantities that certain vases held; but as systems of great extent, from which have been derived many these were probably measured to some unknown point below the brim, the result cannot be exactly defined. The standard units. vessels, here described, intended for gauging, give better deter13-3 This widespread measure is first found in 338 minations than have been known before. Egypt, as wooden cubit rods of 26-5 to 26-74, The amount of the Egyptian hen by five of the 12th dynasty: later, a very accurate standard slab of this : cubic regular measures (of metal or stone) averages c.c. unit, divided in 7 palms, reaches 26-80. In Asia Minor it is inches ; ə9.4 292=®-5cu. in., from ten bronze vessels 29:0-= 477 found as 13-35 in buildings, in Greece 13-36, at Lachish 13-18 .3, from eight marked vases 29-2 =-6. Sọ 29-1 (goo B.c.), in Syria (A.D. 620) as 13-22, carried on as the Stambuli cubit of 26-6. Hultsch takes it as 13-1, and connects it with may best be adopted. If it held 5 debens of water the deben the Drusian foot of 2 digits longer than the Roman foot, or 13-10. weight would be 1,470 grains, which is nearly a middle value. This was the Belgic foot which Drusus had to adopt as a northern The multiples are 8=then, “4= hennu, standard for the border settlements of the Agri Decumates. 25=82 29I 116-4 1164 4656 3°64 116,400 Hence it connects with the base of English land measure, 20-8 There is a double grouping of the Syrian S44 6=fathom, foot, ro=chain, ro=furlong, ro=old mile 21-6 kotyle, on 20°8 and on 21-6. This is supported 854 79°2 13°2 792, 7920 92 79,200 by the literary difference between the old It was the commonest building foot in mediaeval England (18-2), Syrian 21 and Seleucidan 22 cu. in. (Hultsch). The cause for this and its age is seen by its use as the measure for Silbury hill (13-0). change may have been that the old unit of 20-8 belonged to 25 It was also the basis for French architecture, the canne of 78-24, beqa of water, and later it was raised so as to fall within the or six feet of 13-04. Unfortunately this old equivalent for the limit of 25 sela of water. The change would be caused by the metre has now disappeared. sela superseding the beqa as a usual weight standard. In Egypt 19-2 This unit is found in Persepolis (19-2), and 488 this was the commonest measure, of which there is a series of modern Persia (219-3), also the cubit of the 3rd dynasty, and a stone cylinder standard from the 4th, of Gudea and of the tower of Babylon (19-5); in the west in Asia 20°8. The series of early and late values is: Minor (19-3) and as the Pythic foot (9-75, 419-5). Two-thirds kotyle, 2=xestes, 18=sabitha or saton, 3=bath, artaba of this, a foot of 12-83, seems to be a unit of buildings at Knossos. 20°8 41-6 7488 22, 216 43°2 7776 23,328 The great U of 39-96 (Oppert) is possibly a variant of the preceding, found in some Assy- Sar There was also the metretes of 5 saton, 37,440 to 38,380. rian buildings as 19-97. 33.2 The Syrian log was not unusual in Egypt. p44 other stone circles and hill figures (11-60).

Such are the linked

ro =apt,

ro,

91.4

By the recorded circuit of Khorsabad the U is 10-806, hence the series of multiples on the tablets is:

4=tama,

549

Nearly in the midst of the values for it, there is a bronze cylinder measure with names of Amenhetep III., of 33-26. If this log were to agree with 5o necef, the most usual Syrian weight, it would not be over 32-6 in early times, and susi, 20=palm, 3=U, 6=qanu, 2=sa, 6o=us, 30=kasbu "18 36 108 64:8 1296 7716 233,280 would only reach 33-2 in the r8th dynasty. The Phoenician, In Phrygia this was 21-8 at Ushak; in Italy it was 21-86 in Babylonian and Jewish systems vary as follows, the Egyptian Lucania, and half of 21-7 or 21-9 as the Oscan foot. It may amounts being placed to the latter series. 4=kab, 6=saton 30xkor occur in square prehistoric earthworks in England. In Egypt P. iog, 3I I23 740 22,200 P there are late cubits of 21-11, 21-16, 21-33 which may be the . log, =skapitha, 18 =epha, ro= homer, = e same.

In Persia it was likewise a smaller form, as: vitasti, 10°7

22.9

;

2=arasni, 2I°4

360=asparsa, 7704

30=parathanha, 231,120

2=gayv.

462,249

This important unit was used in Phoenicia, at Byblos 11-10, for the Erechtheion 11-09, and

m Punic colonies, Carthage, Sardinia, and the Hauran, 11-0811-17, The double of 11-30 is the commonest unit of tombs at Jerusalem.

: as

j

J. log,

4=kab,

E. 33°2

17-4

ee

132°8

2380

3=hin,

398°4

2=seah

7968

3=ephah,

2391

23,800

142,800

1ro=homer

23,910

The Attic kotyle is found in the size of six similar bronze bowls of late form in Egypt, from 4 to 2 kotyles. The mean is 17-15. This amount is too small for an Attic weight, for if the khous were 8 minae of water, the largest bowl size would only agree with the lowest mina. But if the kotyle of water weighed half the mina of Chios

t44

MEASURES

AND

WEIGHTS,

ANCIENT

x Persia (khoirine system), this would place it at 16-6 to 17-5. | to the deben, or between 115 and 126 grains. n this dilemma the Persian kapetis has some influence. Accord- were: ng to Herodotus (1,192) the Attic kotyle: kapetis : : 12 : 51, or I0=?7 > ro=noshem,

t:17.

n

The kapetis is shown by two bowls mentioned below, to

4=peyem,

120

30

1200

The multiples

4=s

48,000 grains.

12,000

3E 74:5 Or 75-3, therefore the kotyle would be 17°53 or 17°72. If we take 17-4 that would leave the 51 of Herodotus the nearest The noshem was 1225 grains according to a triply inscribed whole number, and the small difference would thus be divided weight; the shekel or peyem being 122'5.

grains

among the three factors. The series is for: kyathos,

29

zi=soxybaphon,

435

Liquids 4=kotvle, s2z=khous,

17°4

1!12=metretes

208°8

25,056

Solids kyathos,

6=kotyle,

29

4=khoinix,

174

696

8=hekteos,

5568

6=medimnos

33.408

cu. in. Two bowls of Persian age, from Egypt, are of c.c. 745 74-5 and 75-26, clearly the Persian kapetis. 1221 Their relation to the kotyle value is stated above. The multiples were: kapetis,

48=artaba,

745

3576

maris, 1987

40=

akhane

qa= Í 143,040

A system found at Gythion (Rev. Arch., 1872) oe is based upon 58-5 cu. in., and seems to belong to the Egyptian hen, double of which is 58-2. 8-

+

s

958

the eastern immigration of Gerzean age; these centre on 125-5 The early weight of Dungi is of 125-9. A maneh of so shekels at 126-0 was used in Syria and Knidos.

4=hemihekton, 234

4=khous, 936

was to shekels of 128-65. The coinage under the Persians (from which is taken the name Daric) was of 129-2, and some coins reach 131. The heavy standard at Knossos is 131-8, 132-9. This daric standard spread over Asia Minor and across the Euxine, also westward to Corinth, the Adriatic isles, South Italy, and

even to Ireland (gold work 128-0). The series is:

1701

The most important Roman system is far 27870 from being established. The data are but few and discrepant. amphora sextarius If amphora=cube ft .... 1569 cu. in. 327 cu. in. 2 r575 32° Amphora 8o lib. ‘water. š 7275 334 By Farnese congius.....

1654

34°4

St. Genevieve congius... Naples Measures. ...4..

1700 I70I 1703

35°4 35°44 {35°48

Pompeian standard.....

1732

36I

Caervoran standard.....

1824

38-0

amphora 25,709 C.C. 25.60 {35-007 27,302 27:856 27,072 re

sextarius 536 C.C. 53 (Ess 563 Bee §SI {S81

28,377

59I

29,888

623

There does not seem any course better than to accept the two accurately made measures in the Naples Museum of 709-7 and 283-5 cu.in. as being 20 and 8 sextaria; this would give 1702 for the amphora, agreeing with the St. Geneviéve congius. The Naples vessels are only measured by lineal gauging, but that cannot be far in error. The system was: apertan,

4=sextarius, 35°44

6= > > Argentina . oy Oe oe ae added to brawns if desired. SL) (J. A. SAUCE. See also COOKERY; GRAVIES; of Leinster, || Uruguay - +: ince prov the in nd, Irela of 2 county south-east by Dublin, south by bounded east by the Irish sea, n Westmeath, north-west by Cava Kildare and Co. Offaly, west by 320 ac., 579, Area h. Lout by st and Monaghan, and north-ea 6) 62,909. or about gos sq. miles. Pop. (192 of Silurian rocks with much try coun en Tn the north is a brok raneous, partly intrusive, near igneous material, partly contempo ches from the Boyne valley stret e ston lime s Slane. Carboniferou flat plain especially suitable a to to the Dublin border, giving rise oniferous strata occur on for grazing. Outliers of higher Carb all been removed by dehave ures the surface; but the Coal Meas t 10 m., but there is no harbour nudation. The coast extends abou l seaside resort, 5 mM. S.E. of smal a is of importance. Laytown the county at its south-western Drogheda. The Boyne enters to Drogheda. At Navan it reextremity, and flows north-east south-west from Cavan. Both flows ceives the Blackwater, which trout, and salmon are taken in these rivers are noted for their barges as far as Navan whence for e the Boyne, which is navigabl Royal canal passes along the a canal is carried to Trim. The in. Dubl southern boundary from present

Total a

pee ons

Tons

,

be

MEATH,

Mutton

and lamb

Beef pa ee

127,901

27,146

100,845

ons

738,749 : ess

7 dry ee

beef in 1927. Canada exports Brazil exported 24,183 tons of ed States and in 1927 also sent live cattle and sheep to the Unit To Great Britain in the same try. 22,979 tons of beef to that coun e and 260 tons of frozen meat. year she sent 8.263 head of cattl rt trade in beef and in 1927 expo an ng South Africa is developi Italy. The quantity in that year shipped 6,044 tons, mostly to ght; in 1926 it reached 15,184 drou of t effec was reduced by the in 1927

mutton and lamb and tons. Patagonia is an exporter of

shipped 27,760 tons. chilled meat exported from The total quantity of frozen and at 1,256,900 tons. Of this quanall sources in 1927 1S calculated in the British dominions and uced prod tity about one-fifth was h America. Sout practically all the remainder in Great Britain and Ireland in into rted impo The total quantity 300,000 tons, for all other t abou 1927 was 949,304 tons, leaving importing countries. appears on the face of it, English Meat Production.—It meat imported into Great of ity anomalous that while the quant in Great Britain is unuced prod ity quant Britain is known, the ated. The reason, estim y atel known, and can only be approxim agricultural returns give the Cavan, however, is obvious. The annual but into a number of cattle and sheep in the country on a given day, of e cours the in d htere Ard Ri there are no returns of the number slaug thus produced,

including the A district known as Meath (Midhe), , with parts of ford Long and h meat West county as well as by Tuathal (c. 130) Kildare and Co. Offaly was formed onal estate of the pers or land al mens as kingdom to serve h reigned until 1173, Meat of s King or over-king of Ireland. cen-

title as late as the 15th and their descendants claimed the d in the lordship of the irme conf was Lacy tury, but Hugh de was declared a county in h Meat country by Henry II. But though

er

Ca

which was the year, or of the quantity of meat for slaughter off farms in sold als anim of ers numb age The aver le 1,285,000, calves 834,000, 1926-27 were estimated as:—catt the meat produced as—beef and sheep and lambs 5,588,000;

a

a

nn an ae

int

ion in total consumptrespe wing table showsfor theth estimated and respec19 7, Westmeathas | The follo and 19027, 1543 In 1922 ed. defin nag years ly the clear for es dari late bouny apart from that of Meath, but as nd Irela and aitscount and ued subd a was created some, who in- Pa ded as a province by 1598 Meath was still regar 1927 1922 East Meath, Longf ord and a cluded in it the counties Westmeath, was at last established as it Tons ry Tons Cavan. Early in the 17th centu as a fifth province of Ireland. a county, and no longer considered s, the one at Kells and the tower d roun There are two ancient ghmore, near Navan. By the other in the churchyard of Dona ent purial-place called

anci river Boyne near Slane there isthean large st of which is that of ds, moun l buria 20 with h, Brug circular chamber. The a e abov lus tumu d dome New Grange, a , and the whole

a stone circle mound is surrounded by remains of extant erections of its kind. le rkab rema most the of forms one e referred to by Thomas palac royal a of Tara (q.v.) is the seat are those of Duleek, ruins Moore. The more important monastic ing in Ireland of build ical siast eccle first said to have been the ve abbey; and Becti of ns remai stone and mortar; the extensive

Beef Home-grown .

Imported

Mutton and lamb à cant porge

767,300

819,900

556,229

673,336

asters

30333

een ieee 2,072,504 1,870,507 23,859 44,597

'

Deduct re-exports

1,825,970 | 2,048,045 of the beef and 474% of the It will be seen that in 1927, 45% rted. impo

on and lamb consumed were in 1927 into a famous mutt and dral cathe a were orts—The total imports ofs meat also e Imp wher ish Brit those of Clonard, le imported catt of an g carcasse of Trim still presents Great Britain and Ireland, includin college. Of the old fortresses, the castle ived from rece es titi quan The . tons alive, amounted to 949,304 imposing appearance. :-— w belo n l, show grave on limestone of supply are The soil is principally a rich deep loam light sandy gravel. each of the main sources to a loam y claye g Mutton stron a from s varie but Total crops. Cattle, sheep and lamb Oats, potatoes and turnips are the principal almost the sole indusand poultry are increasing. Agriculture islooms, and there are a a Pa try, but coarse linen is woven by hands of the Great Southern i og few woollen manufactories. The main line a branch line north " eee 3.301 with ary, a bound ; ern south the skirts railway (Co. Cavan). From Kil- || Brazil . So 13,815 13,815 from Clonsilla to Navan and Kingscourt (Patagonia) 153,409 136,866 and Athboy. From || Chili Zeala Trim s serve h branc a line this nd on n New messa of the Great Northern railway see ane Drogheda (Co. Louth) a branch to Old- aoe aa nen

Navan and Kells crosees the county from east to westofbyMeat h returns three memy count tive istra admin castle, The

po

DE Bonn

O

l

The principal meat-exporting countries are TRADE. Zealand and Uruguay. The total New Argentina, Australia,

Sa

Other countries

15,863

45 Sir

276,168

Toa46,776

1,248

en 70,608

1,751

MEAT

149

TRADE

Of the total imports of beef 77% is “chilled” and the remainder frozen, while all mutton and lamb comes in a frozen state.

During the World War there was, especially in Europe, a serious depletion of the stock of food animals. Exporting countries, It should be added that there is a considerable importation of such as Argentina, were heavily drawn upon to meet the enormous tinned or canned beef and mutton. This is distinct from what is requirements of the Allied armies while the central Powers used commonly termed the “meat trade” and is subject to different up a large proportion of their flocks and herds as well as making commercial conditions. In 1927 the imports of tinned or canned heavy purchases from such neutral countries as were accessible. beef amounted to 52,025 tons and tinned or canned mutton and But since the war successful efforts have been made to repair the lamb to 2,535 tons. losses and replenish the stock. The International Agricultural The International Meat Trade—The development of the Institute published statistics showing that the number of cattle vast commercial organization by which some 14 million tons in 1926 exceeded the number in 1913 by 12-2%, the comparative of meat are collected, transported across the sea, and distributed, figures, by continents, being as follows in thousands:— has taken place in little more than fifty years. The American people were first confronted with their own con1913 1926

tinental problem and from the solution of this came the development of a meat export trade. In the development of the in-

ternal trade there were three stages. During the early settlement of the United States and down to about 1850 conditions were similar, all over the country, to those prevailing to-day in Great

Britain where meat is produced near the centres of population. As the eastern States became more thickly populated cattle-raising moved west and droving to market became general, as in Great

Europe . . .. N. and Central America . S. America i Asia . Africa . Oceania

137,861

74,336

139:477 81,467

86,662 142,087 33:174 13,856

154,356 47:926

487,976

547,366

TOI,O51

23,080

Britain. When the railway system rapidly developed the trade In addition to this increase of 6o millions in the number of was organized and centralized at a few great collecting and dis- cattle there was also in the same period an increase of 124 millions tributing centres, of which Chicago was chief. The “packing in- in the number of sheep. dustry” originated in America long previously when pork was There is no reason to suppose that South America has yet come “packed” in barrels for the West Indies. The term “packing-house within measurable distance of the limits of its capacity for meat products” or “packed products” thus came into use and was production. Vast areas of land suitable for carrying cattle and applied to all dressed meat. At first the industry was carried on sheep still await development. The improvement of the native only in the winter months but the artificial creation of winter con- stock proceeds continuously and, in Argentina especially, the reditions in the packing-houses during the hot summer months en- sults of the importation of high-class bulls from Great Britain abled them to continue operations without interruption through- are widely evident. The process is necessarily slow but, apart from out the year. increased numbers, there is a steady increase in the output of Refrigeration Systems.—Refrigeration, in the modern sense, meat per animal, as a more economic type replaces the old was invented in 1861 but it was some years before it became “scrub.” satisfactory and reliable for purposes of transportation. The geographical potentialities of Australia for rearing more The successful transportation, under refrigerated conditions, of cattle and sheep are immense but they are at present restricted by dressed meat from the packing-houses in the middle west to the physical difficulties. There can be no doubt that these difficulties eastern seaboard paved the way for shipment across the ocean. will in time be largely overcome and Australia’s contribution to In 1874 frozen beef “as hard as stone” was sent to Smithfield the world’s supplies will be indefinitely increased. In South market in boxes, but the consignment was small and the financial Africa the production and export of meat have been only very result unsatisfactory. The first shipment of “chilled” beef was recently taken up with vigour, but there is little doubt that within made from New York on Oct. 1, 1875. It arrived in good con- the next two or three decades it will become an important condition and with this consignment the trade in chilled beef was tributor to the total supply. established. By 1880 all the steamship lines running across the BrsriocrapHy.—J. T. Critchett and J. Raymond, A History of the Atlantic were equipped with cold storage plants. The refrigerating Frozen Meat trade (1912); G. E. Putman, Supplying Britain’s Meat equipment was at first somewhat crude, usually consisting of an (1923) ; Report on the trade in refrigerated beef, mution & lamb, Min-

istry of Agriculture and Fisheries (1925) ; Annual review of the chilled ice box and fans to circulate the cold air. Another device was to and frozen meat trade, pub. by W. Weddel and Co. Ltd. iG 2 be pump a freezing mixture—salt and ice—along pipes between the hanging carcasses. IN THE UNITED STATES Argentina and Australia followed closely on the United States. Measured by the value of its output, the meat packing industry In 1878 frozen meat was first brought from South America and

in 1879 the first shipment was made from Sydney. There were of course many difficulties to be surmounted and much experimental work was done before the methods of refrigeration were perfected. The creation of “freezing-works” soon followed and the meat is now all frozen or chilled before being placed in the cold chambers of the vessels for the voyage. But for about forty years the trade has been organized on its present lines and its magnitude and importance have steadily increased

throughout the meat-producing countries of the world.

World’s Future Meat Supplies—One of the most marked results of the World War was to increase the demand for meat on the Continent. There are no statistics of any value on the point but there are indications that while the number of meat-consumers increases steadily, the average consumption per head tends to de-

crease. It is accepted as a sociological truism that as the standard

of comfort rises dietary becomes more varied. The consumption of meat in working-class houses in England, for example, was

probably greater in the middle of the roth century than in the zoth century when, there is a larger variety of food available.

Nevertheless the total world demand for meat is almost certainly

greater than at any previous period and increases annually.

was the third largest industry in the United States, according to

the latest census figures available (1925). The plant value of the products of this industry in 1925 was $3,050,286,291. Fresh meat products, consisting of beef, veal, mutton, lamb and pork represented by far the greatest proportion of this total. The value of the cured meat products also was large, exceeding three-fourths of a billion dollars. These values, although somewhat smaller than in 1919 when prices were at a peak, probably are fairly representative of the annual volume of business of the meat packing industry. Illinois leads all the States in the value of products of the meat packing industry, with a volume valued in 1925 at $680,591,940. Kansas is second with products valued at the plant at $248,939,792. New York is third, with products valued at the plant at $233,901,277.

Other States in which the plant value of the products of the meat packing industry exceeds $100,000,000 in value are Iowa, Missouri, Nebraska, Minnesota, Ohio, Pennsylvania and California. The average consumption per caput of meat in the United States in 1927 was 139:3 pounds. This was divided among the different meats as follows: beef, 58; veal, 7-4; lamb, 5-4; pork, 68-5. In addition, consumption per caput of lard averaged 13-8 pounds.

T50

MEAUX—MECCA

This represents a daily consumption per caput of approximately 24 oz. of beef; 4 oz. of veal; 4 oz. of lamb, and 3 oz. of pork, or a total of slightly more than 6 oz. A census of distribution, taken in 1927 in 11 cities, showed that the amount of money expended for meat and poultry (not including meat and poultry consumed in hotels and restaurants} averaged $27.18 per capui. The consumption of meat fluctuates somewhat from year to year, varying of course with the supply available and the export demand. Consumption per caput of meats and lard in 1927, which was 153-1 lb., compared closely with the average annual consumption per caput for the preceding 20 years, which was approximately 152 pounds. The total production of meat in the United States in 1927 was 16,872,000,000 pounds. Of this amount approximately 350,000,000 Ib. were exported and the remainder consumed in the United States. Lard production in 1927 amounted to 2,356,000,000 pounds, of which 717,000,000 pounds, or 30%, were exported. Millions of head of live stock are required to provide this enormous quantity of meat. According to estimates of the United States department of agriculture, the number of live stock on farms and ranges in the United States on Jan. 1, 1928, was as follows: Cattle . 55,696,000

for shipment. Motor truck routes are handled similarly. Many retailers obtain their meat supplies by truck from wholesale

markets at plants or branch houses adjacent to their places of business. The number of retailers who handle meat probably exceeds 200,000. According to the occupational census of 1920, 122,105 persons were employed as butchers and meat dealers. In addition, many grocers and delicatessen dealers sell meat. (W. Ha.)

MEAUX, a town of northern France, capital of an arrondisse-

ment in the department of Seine-et-Marne, and chief town of the agricultural region of Brie, 28 m. E.N.E. of Paris by rail. Pop. (1926) 12,307. In the Roman period Meaux was the capital of the Meldi, a small Gallic tribe, and in the middle ages of the Brie. It formed part of the kingdom of Austrasia, and afterwards belonged to the counts of Vermandois and Champagne, the latter of whom established important markets on the left

bank of the Marne.

Its communal charter, received from them,

is dated 1179. The town suffered much during the Jacquerie, the peasants receiving a severe check there in 1358; during the Hundred

Years’ War;

and also during the Religious Wars, in

which it was an important Protestant centre. In September 1567 Meaux was the scene of an attempt made by the Protestants

to seize the French king Charles IX., and his mother Catherine de’ Medici. ‘This doubtless had some share in influencing Charles Hogs - 58,969,000 to assent to the massacre of St. Bartholomew. It was the first Sheep - 44,545,000 town which opened its gates to Henry IV. in 1594. On the highLive stock producers receive for their meat animals an average of about $7,000,000 daily. The United States, the greatest live road for invaders marching on Paris from the east of France, Lorraine in 1652, stock producing and meat consuming nation, has about 13% of Meaux saw its environs ravaged by the army of 1815 and 1870. 1814, in requisitions heavy under laid was and the world’s cattle; 7% of the world’s sheep, and probably more than 25% of the world’s hogs. In addition to its commercial Not far from Meaux the two battles of the Marne took place in importance, the live stock and meat industry is of peculiar eco- Sept. 1924 and in July 1918. The town proper stands on the of nomic significance. The reason for this is that live stock utilizes right bank of the Marne; on the left bank lies the old suburb 16th a century bridge. by Marché, united with was Le which it a large amount of grass, hay, etc., not suitable for consumption by man, and transform it into meat. Live stock also provides the The cathedral of St. Stephen dates from the 12th to the 16th cenoutlet for a large proportion of the grain crops. Approximately turies, and was restored in the roth century. The pulpit where 85% of the corn crop (maize), for example, is used for the feed- Bossuet used to preach has been reconstructed. The episcopal palace (17th century) is built over a 13th century building, and ing of live stock. Imports of meat into the United States are relatively small, is now used as a museum. North of the Cathedral is the Vieux representing ordinarily less than 1% of the total supply. The Chapitre, a 13th century building. Meaux has a considerable trade in agricultural products. The export trade in meat products of the United States always has been important. Meat exports from the United States consist Canal de l’Ourcq, which surrounds the town, and the Marne almost entirely of pork products. Although exports in 1928 were furnish the means of transport. Meaux is the seat of a bishopric considerably lower than they were during the World War, in 1927 dating from the 4th century, and has a sub-prefecture, and tribu they exceeded 1,170,000,000 Ib. in quantity and $172,500,000 in nals of first instance and of commerce. MECCA (Arab, Makkah), the chief town of the Hejaz in value. Among meat products, lard is the most important. Exports during 1927 approximated 700,000,000 Ib., worth $92,000,000. Arabia and the great holy city of Islam. It is situated about Hams, shoulders and bacon also are important articles of export. 45 m. due E. of Jidda, its Red Sea port, and about half way beSystem of Distribution.—The bulk of the supply of live tween the Gulf of Akaba and Bab-el-Mandeb. The city lies in a stock in the United States is produced west of the Mississippi hollow among the hills which form part of the uptilted western river, and the bulk of the meat is consumed in the territory east edge of the ancient Arabian plateau. To the west the land falls of that river. This situation makes necessary an elaborate and steeply to the low coastal strip bordering the Red sea. The basin efficient system of distribution. As the first step in this system, in which the city lies is about 2 m. long and 4 m. broad, and forms which distributes more than 50,000,000 Ib. of meat daily, animals part of a north to south valley. The high lands around include are shipped by rail or hauled by motor truck from farms to stock- Jebel Kada, Jebel Laala, Jebel Gaygadn, Jebel Kuda and Jebel yards where packing plants are situated. These plants, of which Khandama. These vary in height, but are all over 1,500 feet. there are several hundred, varying greatly in size, are located in all Jebel Khandama is the highest, being about 3,000 ft. above seaparts of the country, but are most numerous in such centres as level. Minor heights, the lower spurs of the former, actually Chicago, St. Louis, Kansas City, Omaha, St. Paul, St. Joseph, overlook the city. It is said in the Koran (Sur. xiv. 40) that Missouri, Milwaukee, Indianapolis, Cleveland, Detroit, Cincin- Mecca lies in a sterile valley, and the old geographers observe nati, Pittsburgh, Philadelphia, Baltimore and New York. From that the whole Haram or sanctuary around the city is almost the packing plants the meat is distributed to all parts of the nation without cultivation or date palms, while fruit trees, springs, wells, and of the world. This is accomplished through branch plants, gardens and green valleys are found immediately beyond. But branch selling houses, and “car routes” and by trucks. Goods are Mecca owed its early importance to the fact that it was a great not’ sold directly to the consumer, but are sold to retailers. Branch focus of routes for the caravan trade of the desert. It was selling houses sometimes do a limited amount of manufacturing, probably a station on the great incense route, and thus Ptolemy coniming their operations largely to sausage-making and to the may have learned the name, which he writes Makoraba. At all events, long before Mohammed we find Mecca established ing of hams and bacon. * Car routes are operated in regions where the trade cannot con- in the twofold quality of a commercial centre and a privileged veniently or adequately be supplied from a plant or from branch holy place, surrounded by an inviolable territory (the Haram), hotises. Ordinarily, car route orders are obtained by a salesman which was not the sanctuary of a single tribe but a place of from dealers in a number of villages or cities in a given territory, pilgrimage, where religious observances were associated with a

afterwhich the goods are packed at the plant in a refrigerator car

series of annual fairs at different points in the vicinity. Indeed,

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transferred the supremacy to the Ottoman sultans (1517), who treated Mecca with much favour, and during the 16th century of the sacred truce which prohibited war for four months of the executed great works in the sanctuary and temple. The Ottoman year, three of these being the month of pilgrimage, with those power, however, became gradually almost nominal, and that of immediately preceding and following. The first of the series of the amirs or sherifs increased in proportion, culminating under fairs in which the Meccans had an interest was at Okaz, on the Ghalib, whose accession dates from 1786. Then followed the easier road between Mecca and Taif, where there was also a wars of the Wahhabis (see Arasia and WanHApis) and the sanctuary, and from it the visitors moved on to points still nearer restoration of Turkish rule by the troops of Mehemet ‘Ali. By Mecca (Majanna, and finally Dhul-Majaz, on the flank of Jebel him the dignity of sherif was deprived of much of its weight, Kabkab behind Arafa) where further fairs were held, culminating and in 1827 a change of dynasty was effected by the appointment in the special religious ceremonies of the great feast at Arafa, of Ibn ‘Aun. Afterwards Turkish authority again decayed. When

in a city with the nomad hordes without, commerce was possible only under the sanction of religion, and through the provisions

Quzah (Mozdalifa), and Mecca itself. The system of intercalation

in the lunar calendar of the early Arabs was designed to secure that the feast should always fall at the time when the hides, fruits and other merchandise

were ready for market, and the

Meccans, who knew how to attract the Bedouins by hospitality, bought up these wares in exchange for imported goods, and so became the leaders of the international trade of Arabia. Their caravans traversed the length and breadth of the peninsula. Syria,

the great Mohammedan sultanates had become too much occupied in internecine wars to maintain order in the distant Hejaz, those branches of the Hassanids which, from the beginning of Islam, had retained rural property in Arabia usurped power in the holy cities and the adjacent Bedouin territories. About A.D. 960 they established a sort of kingdom with Mecca as capital. The influence

of the princes of Mecca has varied from time to time, according to the strength of the foreign protectorate in the Hejaz or in and especially Gaza, was their chief goal. The Syrian caravan consequence of feuds among the branches of the house, until intercepted, on its return, at Badr. (See Monammep.) The great about 1882 it was for most purposes much greater than that of desert market had received merchants from many lands, while in the Turks. During the last quarter of the roth century Turkish the ancient Ka‘ba were installed deities representative, possibly, influence became preponderant in western Arabia, and the railof the various groups of visiting merchants. It is said that at way from Syria to the Hejaz tended to consolidate the sultan’s the time of the Prophet the Ka‘ba contained, among others, an supremacy. Difficult times for the Turkish power arose with image of the Virgin and the Child Jesus. As so often happens the revival of the Wahhabis movement after r912. The revolt in great marts, ideas as well as merchandise were exchanged, and of King Husayn of the Hejaz during the World War of r914-18 with time there grew up the idea that these minor deities had completed the overthrow of the Turks. The period 1919-1925 much in common: the universal overcame the local. To this saw the rapid rise to power of Ibn Sa‘ud and the Wahhabis and ancient and sacred mart came Mohammed, with his vision of the overthrow of the Hashimite Government. After a fight at the unity of God, learnt, it seems, from the Hebrew prophets, Hadda in the Taif mountains, Ibn Sa‘ud occupied Mecca, without and here the vision took shape, to be carried to the ends of the bloodshed, in Oct. 1924. The City.—The hills east and west of Mecca, which are partly earth by the swords of his followers. The victory of Mohammedanism made a vast change in the built over and rise several hundred feet above the valley, so position of Mecca. The merchant aristocracy became satraps or enclose the city that the ancient walls only barred the valley at pensioners of a great empire; but the seat of dominion was re- three points, where three gates led into the town. In the time of moved beyond the desert, and though Mecca and the Hejaz Ibn Jubair the gates still stood though the walls were ruined, but strove for a time to maintain political as well as religious pre- now the gates have only left their names to quarters of the town. dominance, the struggle was vain, and terminated on the death At the northern or upper end was the Bab el Ma‘la, or gate of the of Ibn Zubair, the Meccan pretendant to the caliphate, when upper quarter, whence the road continues up the valley towards the city’ was taken by Hajjaj (4.p. 692). The sanctuary and feast Mina and Arafa as well as towards Zeima and the Nejd. Beyond of Mecca received, however, a new prestige from the victory of the gate, in a place called the Hajiin, is the chief cemetery, comIslim. Purged of elements obviously pre-Islamic, the new re- monly called el Ma‘la, and said to be the resting-place of many of ligion became grafted on the life of the city, the Katba became the companions of Mohammed. Here a cross-road, running over the holiest site, and the pilgrimage the most sacred ritual ob- the hill to join the main Medina road from the western gate, turns servance of Mohammedanism, drawing worshippers from so wide off to the west by the pass of Kadi, the point from which the a circle that the confluence of the petty traders of the desert was troops of the Prophet stormed the city (a.m. 8). The lower or southern gate, at the Masfala quarter, opened on the Yemen no longer the main feature of the holy season. In the middle ages this trade was much more important than road, where the rain-water from Mecca flows off into an open it is now. Ibn Jubair (ed. Wright, p. 118 seg.) in the rath valley. Beyond, there are mountains on both sides; on that to century describes the mart of Mecca in the eight days following the east, commanding the town, is the great castle, a fortress the feast as full of gems, unguents, precious drugs, and all rare of considerable strength. The third or western gate, Bab elmerchandise, from India, ‘Iraq, Khorasan, and every part of the Omra (formerly also Bab el-Zahir, from a village of that name), Muslim world. Since the fall of Ibn Jubair the political position lay almost opposite the great mosque, and opened on a road of Mecca has always been dependent on the movements of the leading westwards round the southern spurs of the Red moungreater Mohammedan world. In the splendid times of the caliphs tain. This is the way to Wadi Fatima and Medina, the Jedda Immense sums were lavished upon the pilgrimage and the holy road branching off from it to the left. Considerable suburbs city; and conversely the decay of the central authority of Islam now lie outside the quarter named after this gate; in the middle brought with it a long period of faction, wars and misery, in ages a road led for some miles through partly cultivated land with which the most notable episode was the sack of Mecca by the good wells, as far as the boundary of the sacred territory and Carmathians at the pilgrimage season of A.D. 930. The victors gathering place of the pilgrims at Tanim. The length of the sinuous main axis of the city from the carried off the “black stone,” which was not restored for 22 years, and then only for a great ransom, when it was plain that farthest suburbs on the Medina road to the suburbs in the even the loss of its palladium could not destroy the sacred extreme north, now frequented by Bedouins, is, according to character of the city. Under the Fatimites Egyptian influence Burckhardt, 3,500 paces. About the middle of this line the began to be strong in Mecca; it was opposed by the sultans of longitudinal thoroughfares are pushed aside by the vast courtYemen, while native princes claiming descent from the Prophet yard and colonnades which compose the great mosque. The —the Hashimite amirs of Mecca, and after them the amirs of the mosque is enclosed by houses with windows opening on the

house of Qatdda (since 1202)—attained to great authority and arcades and commanding a view of the Kaba. Immediately be-

aimed at independence; but soon after the final fall of the Abbasids the Egyptian overlordship was definitely established by sultan Bibars (a.D. 1269). The Turkish conquest of Egypt

yond these, on the side facing Jebel Abu Kobais, a broad street runs south-east and north-west across the valley. This is the Masʻā (sacred course) between the eminences of Safa and Marwa,

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and has been from very early times one of the most lively bazaars and the centre of Meccan life. The other chief bazaars are also near the mosque in smaller streets. The houses of ancient Mecca pressed close upon the Ka'ba,

within it are called the graves of Ishmael and Hagar, and are places of acceptable prayer. Even the golden or gilded mizgj

(water-spout) that projects into the Hijr marks a place where prayer is heard, and another such place is the part of the west the noblest families, who traced their descent from Kosai, the wall close to the Yemen corner. reputed founder of the city, having their dwellings immediately The feeling of religious conservatism which has preserved the round the sanctuary. To the north of the Ka‘ba was the Dar el- structural rudeness of the Ka‘ba did not prohibit costly surface Nadwa, or place of assembly of the Koreish. The multiplication decoration. In Mohammed’s time the outer walls were covereg of pilgrims after Islam soon made it necessary to clear away the by a veil (or kiswa) of striped Yemen cloth. The caliphs substinearest dwellings and enlarge the place of prayer around the tuted a covering of figured brocade, and the Egyptian Government Ancient House. Omar, Othman and Ibn Jubair had all a share still sends with each pilgrim caravan from Cairo a new kiswa of in this work. The city is fortunate in having a good supply of black brocade, adorned with a broad band embroidered with water, and water works were laid down by Sultan Selim II. in golden inscriptions from the Koran, as well as a richer curtain for 1571. Heavy rains or cloudbursts on the hills around have the the door. The door of two leaves, with its posts and lintel, is of effect of seriously flooding the city, and in spite of the building silver gilt. Ibn Jubair describes the floor and wails as overlaid with of various dams it is no uncommon sight to see the Sak es-Saglir, richly variegated marbles, and the upper half of the walls as one of the main streets, a real water course. Many of the houses plated with silver, thickly gilt, while the roof was veiled with in Mecca are built of a fine dark grey granite, which is obtained coloured silk. Modern writers describe the place as windowless, near Jebel Umar. During the period before the World War of but Ibn Jubair mentions five windows of rich stained glass from 1914-18 the Turks did much to improve the streets and the ‘Iraq. Between the three pillars of teak hung 13 silver lamps, A general condition of the city and its population, and prosperity chest in the corner to the left of one entering contained Korans, greatly increased. To the eastward of the Haram, in a small and at the ‘Iraq corner a space was cut off enclosing the stair that depression known as Jiyad, was the Turkish residential area and leads to the roof. The door to this stair (called the door of it still remains a good quarter of the city. The population of mercy—Bab el-Rahma) was plated with silver by the caliph

the city at present (1929) is estimated between 50,000 and 60,000. The only architectural feature is the great mosque (see below), which is at the same time the university hall, where, between two pilgrim seasons, lectures are delivered on Mohammedan law, doctrine and connected branches of science. A poorly provided public library is open to the use of students. The madrassehs or buildings around the mosque, originally intended as lodgings for students and professors, have long been let out to rich pilgrims. There are baths, ribats or hospices for poor pilgrims from India, Java, etc., a hospital and a public kitchen for the poor. The Great Mosque and the Ka‘*ba.—Long before Mohammed the chief sanctuary of Mecca was the Ka'ba, a rude stone building without windows, and having a door 7ft. from the ground. The Ka‘ba has been rebuilt more than once since Mohammed purged it of idols and adopted it as the chief sanctuary of Islam, but the old form has been preserved, except in secondary details. It is essentially a pre-Islamic temple, adapted to the worship of Islam on the basis of the story that it was built by Abraham and Ishmael by divine revelation as a temple of pure monotheism, and that it was only temporarily perverted to idol worship from the time when ‘Amr ibn Lohai introduced the statue of Hobal from Syria till the victory of Islim. The chief object of veneration is the black stone, which is fixed in the external angle facing sefa in the south-east comer. Its technical name is the black corer, the others being named the Yemen (south-west), Syrian (north-west), and ‘Iraq (north-east) corners, from the lands to which they approximately point. The black stone is a small dark mass with an aspect suggesting volcanic or meteoric origin, fixed at such a height that it can be conveniently kissed. The history of this heavenly stone, given by Gabriel to Abraham, does not conceal the fact that it was originally the most venerated of a multitude of idols and sacred stones which stood all round the

sanctuary in the time of Mohammed.

The Prophet destroyed

the idols, but he left the characteristic form of worship—the żawāf, or sevenfold circuit of the sanctuary, the worshipper kissing or touching the objects of his veneration—and besides the black stone he recognized the so-called “southern” stone, the same pre-

sumably as that which is still touched in the tawaf at the Yemen

corner (Muh. in Med., pp. 336, 425). The ceremony of the tawaf and the worship of stone was common to Mecca with other ancient Arabian sanctuaries. It is still the first duty of one who has returned to the city or arrived there as a pilgrim. dslam associated legends with those spots within the Ka‘ba previously sacred to older cults; such are the M ultazam, on the east side, between the black and ‘Iraq corners, where prayer should be offered; the Mejan (“kneading place”) where Abraham is said to have stood to build the Ka‘ba, and the Hijr on the north-side which is included in the tawaf, and two slabs of verde antico

Motawakkil.

Here, in the time of Ibn Jubair, the Magam or

standing stone of Abraham was usually placed for better security, but brought out on great occasions. The great founder of the mosque in its present form, with its

spacious area and deep colonnades, was the caliph Mahdi, who

spent enormous sums in bringing costly pillars from Egypt and

Syria. The work was still incomplete at his death in A.D. 785, and was finished in less sumptuous style by his successor. Subsequent

repairs and additions, extending down to Turkish times, have left

little of Mahdi’s work untouched, though a few of the pillars probably date from his days. After the Ka'ba the principal points of interest in the mosque

are the well Zamzam and the Maqām Ibrahim.

The former is

a deep shaft enclosed in a massive vaulted building paved with marble, and, according to Mohammedan tradition, is the source (corresponding to the Beer-lahai-roi of Gen. xvi. 14) from which Hagar drew water for her son Ishmael. The legend tells that the

well was long covered up and rediscovered by ‘Abd al-Mottalib, the grandfather of the Prophet. Sacred wells are familiar features of Semitic sanctuaries. The Maqim Ibrahim is also connected with a relic of pre-Islamic tradition, the ancient holy stone which once stood on the Ma‘jan, and is said to bear the prints of the patriarch’s feet. The legend seems to have arisen from a misconception, the Maqam Ibrahim in the Koran meaning the sanctuary itself; but the stone itself is certainly very ancient. Safa and Marwa.—In religious importance these two points or “hills,” connected by the Mas‘4, stand second only to the Ka'ba. Saia is an elevated platform surmounted by a triple arch, and approached by a flight of steps. It lies south-east of the Ka'ba, facing the black corner, and 76 paces from the “Gate of Safi,”

which is architecturally the chief gate of the mosque.

Marwa is

a similar platform, formerly covered with a single arch, on the

opposite side of the valley. It stands on a spur of the Red mountain called Jebel Kuaykian. The course between these two sacred

points is 493 paces long, and the religious ceremony called the “sa'y” consists in traversing it seven times, beginning and ending

at Safa. The lowest part of the course, between the so-called

green milestones, is done at a run. This ceremony is part of the

omra and is generally said to be performed in memory of Hagar, who ran to and fro between the two eminences, vainly seeking water for her son. The observance, however, is certainly of

pre-Islamic origin; and at one time there were idols on both the

so-called hills. (See especially Azraqi, pp. 74, 78.) The Ceremonies and the Pilgrimage,—Before Islam the

Ka'ba was the local sanctuary of the Meccans, where they prayed

and did sacrifice, where oaths were administered and hard cases submitted to divine sentence according to the immemorial custom

of Semitic shrines. But, besides this, Mecca was already a place

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153

of pilgrimage. The custom had already such a hold on the Arabs, | descends from Mount Kara. The lofty and rugged mountains of that Mohammed could not afford to sacrifice it to an abstract pur- the Hodheyl tower over the plain on the north side and overity of religion, and thus the old usages were transplanted into Is-

Jam in the double form of the omra or vow of pilgrimage to Mecca, which can be discharged at any time, and the hajj or pilgrimage at

shadow the little Hill of Mercy, which is one of those bosses of weathered granite so common in the Hejaz. Arafa lay quite near Dhul-Majaz, where, according to Arabian tradition, a great fair

the great annual feast. The latter closes with a visit to the Ka‘ba, but its essential ceremonies lie outside Mecca, at the neighbouring

was held from the ist to the 8th of the pilgrimage month; and the ceremonies from which the hajj was derived were originally an appendix to this fair. Now, on the contrary, the pilgrim is shrines where the old Arabs gathered before the Meccan fair. The omra begins at some point outside the Haram (or holy ter- expected to follow as closely as may be the movements of the ritory), generally at Tanim, both for convenience sake and because prophet at his “farewell pilgrimage” in the year 10 of the Hegira Ayesha began the omra there in the year 10 of the Hegira. The (A.D. 632). He therefore leaves Mecca in pilgrim garb on the 8th pilgrim enters the Haram in the antique and scanty pilgrimage of Dhu'l Hijja, called the day of tarwiya (an obscure and predress (ihram), consisting of two cloths wound round his person Islamic name), and, strictly speaking, should spend the night at in a way prescribed by ritual. His devotion is expressed in shouts Mina. It is now, however, customary to go right on and encamp of “Labbeyka” (a word of obscure origin and meaning); he enters at once at Arafa. The night should be spent in devotion, but the the great mosque, performs the tawaf and the saty and then has cofee booths do a lively trade, and songs are as common as his head shaved and resumes his common dress. This ceremony prayers. In-the afternoon of the next day the essential ceremony is now generally combined with the hajj, or is performed by every begins; it consists simply in “standing” on Arafa shouting “‘Labstranger or traveller when he enters Mecca, and the ihram (which beyka” and reciting prayers and texts till sunset. After the sun involves the acts of abstinence already referred to) is assumed at is down the vast assemblage breaks up, and a rush (technically a considerable distance from the city. But it is also proper during ifdda, daf*, nafr) is made to Mozdalifa, where the night prayer is one’s residence in the holy city to perform at least one omra from Tanim in connection with a visit to the mosque of Ayesha there. The triviality of these rites is ill concealed by the legends of the saty of Hagar and of the tawaf being first performed by Adam in imitation of the circuit of the angels about the throne of God. There is a tradition that the Ka‘ba was a temple of Saturn (Shahrastani, p. 431); perhaps the most distinctive feature of the shrine may be sought in the sacred doves which still enjoy the protection of the sanctuary. These recall the sacred doves of Ascalon (Philo vi. 200 of Richter’s ed.), and suggests Venus-

said and the night spent. Before sunrise next morning (the roth) a second ‘‘stand” like that on Arafa is made for a short time by torchlight round the mosque of Mozdalifa, but before the sun is

limited, round a small isolated hill called the Hill of Mercy, a little way outside the holy territory, on the road from Mecca to Taif. The road is first northwards along the Mecca valley and then turns eastward. It leads through the straggling village of

and descriptions of Mecca published by Wùstenfeld (Chroniken der Stadt Mekka, 3 vols., 1857-49, with an abstract in German, 1861), the most valuable is that of Azraqi. It has passed through the hands of several editors, but the oldest part goes back to the beginning of the gth Christian century. Kutbeddin’s history (vol. iii. of the Chroniken)

fairly up all must be in motion in the second éféde towards Mina. The day thus begun is the “day of sacrifice,” and has four ceremonies—(1) to pelt with seven stones a cairn (jamraz al ‘agaba) at the eastern end of W. Mina, (2) to slay a victim at Mina and hold a sacrificial meal, part of the flesh being also dried and so preserved, or given to the poor, (3) to be shaved and so terminate the ikraém, (4) to make the third zfdda, i.e., go to Mecca and perworship as at least one element (cf. Herod i. 131, iii. 8; Ephr. form the tawaf and sa‘y (‘omrat al-ifada), returning thereafter to Mina. The sacrifice and visit to Mecca may, however, be delayed Syr., Op. Syr. ii. 457). To the ordinary pilgrim the omra has become so much an epi- till the 11th, rath or 13th. These are the days of Mina, a fair sode of the þajj that it is described by some European pilgrims and joyous feast, with no special ceremony except that each day as a mere visit to the mosque of Ayesha; a better conception of the pilgrim is expected to throw seven stones at the jamrat al its original significance is got from the Meccan feast of the seventh “aqaba, and also at each of two similar cairns in the valley. The month (Rajab), described by Ibn Jubair from his observations in stones are thrown in the name of Allah, and are generally thought A.D. 1184. Rajab was one of the ancient sacred months, and the to be directed at the devil. This is, however, a custom older than feast, which extended through the whole month and was a joyful Islam, and a tradition in Azraqi, p. 412, represents it as an act of season of hospitality and thanksgiving, no doubt represents the worship to idols at Mina. As the stones are thrown on the days ancient feasts of Mecca more exactly than the ceremonies of the of the fair, it is not unlikely that they have something to do with hajj, in which old usage has been overlaid by traditions and the old Arab mode of closing a sale by the purchaser throwing a glosses of Islam. The omra was performed by crowds from day to stone (Biriini, p. 328). The pilgrims leave Mina on the 12th or day, especially at new and full moon. The new moon celebration 13th, and the hajj is then over. (See further Istam.) The statistics of the pilgrimage cannot be given with certainty was nocturnal; the road to Tanim, the Mas‘aé, and the mosque were brilliantly illuminated; and the appearing of the moon was and vary much from year to year. For a fatwa or judicial degreeted with noisy music. An Arab market was held, where the cision may be obtained that it is not obligatory for the Muslim Bedouins of the Yemen mountains came in thousands to barter to journey to Mecca when the routes are in the hands of hostile their cattle and fruits for clothing, and deemed that to absént forces. Estimates of the crowd vary from 50,000 to 70,000. In themselves would bring drought and cattle plague in their homes. these vast assemblies, with little sanitary accommodation, Though ignorant of the legal ritual and prayers, they performed infectious diseases spread rapidly. the tawaf with enthusiasm, throwing themselves against the Ka‘ba BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Besides the Arabic geographers and cosmographers, and clinging to its curtains. They also entered the Ka‘ba. The we have Ibn ‘Abd Rabbih’s description of the mosque, early in the roth century (‘Ikd Farid, Cairo ed., iii. 362 sgq.), but above all the admir29th of the month was the feast day of the Meccan women. The central and essential ceremonies of the hajj or greater pil- able record of Ibn Jubair (A.D. 1184), by far the best account extant of Mecca and the pilgrimage. It has been much pillaged by Ibn Batita. grimage are those of the day of Arafa, the oth of the “pilgrimage The Arabic historians are largely occupied with fabulous matter as to month” (Dhul Hijja), the last of the Arab year; and every Mecca before Islam; for these legends the reader may refer to C. de Muslim who is his own master, and can command the necessary Perceval’s Essaz. How little confidence can be placed in the pre-Islamic means, is bound to join in these once in his life, or to have them history appears very clearly from the distorted accounts of Abraba’s against the Hejaiz, which fell but a few years before the birth fulfilled by a substitute on his behalf and at his expense. Neglect excursion of the Prophet, and is the first event in Meccan history which has conof many other parts of the pilgrim ceremonial may be compen- firmation from other sources. See Nöldeke’s version of Tabari, p. 204 sated by offerings, but to miss the “stand” (wog#f) at Arafa is sqq. For the period of the Prophet, Ibn Hisham and Wakidi are valuto miss the pilgrimage. Arafa or Arafat is a space, artificially able sources in topography as well as history. Of the special histories

Mina, occupying a long narrow valley (Wādi Mina), two to three hours from Mecca, and thence by the mosque of Mozdalifa over a narrow pass opening out into the plain of Arafa, which is an

expansion of the great Wadi Naman, through which the Taif road

goes down with the additions of his nephew to ap. 1592.

For European descriptions of Mecca from personal observation see Burckhardt’s Travels in Arabia (cited above from the 8vo ed., 1829}. Tke Travels of Aly Bey (Badia, London, 1816) describe a visit in 1807; Burton’s Pilgrimage (3rd ed., 1879) often supplements Burckhardt;

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MECHANICAL

DRAWING—MECHANICAL

Von Maltazan’s Walljahri nack Mekka (1865) is lively but very slight. ‘Abd el-Razzaq’s report to the Government of India on the pilgrimage of 1858 is specially directed to sanitary questions; C. Snouck-Hurgronje, Mekka 1888-89), gives lic and private sojourn in the

(2 vols., and a collection of photographs, The Hague, a description of the Meccan sanctuary and of the publife of the Meccans as observed by the author during a holy city in 1884-85 and a political history of Mecca

from native sources from the Hegira till 1884. Eldon Rutter, The Holy

Cities of Arabia, vol. i. (1928), is the most recent work. For the pilgrimage see also Snouck-Hurgronje, Het Mekkaansche Feest (1880).

MECHANICAL DRAWING: see Drawinc, ENGINEERING. MECHANICAL ENGINEER. By the beginning of the

roth century the development of the steam engine had resulted in a large increase in the size and number of machines in operation and the factory system was beginning to appear. The millwright and smith were not competent to devise and construct the new machines and consequently the profession of mechanical engineer came into being. The name of mechanical engineer became common about the middle of the century. The British Institution of Mechanical Engineers was founded in 1847. About 1890 the field of mechanical engineering was restricted by the separation of the important field of electrical engineering. The field of the mechani-

cal engineer comprises (x) power generation and transmission, (2) transportation of both men and goods, including railway, marine, automobile and aeronautic, as well as hoisting, conveying and pumping and (3) production, which includes machine tools as well as the final products of manufacture. Functionally considered, the work of the mechanical engineer may be classified as design, construction, operation, research and investigation, maintenance and sales. ‘The great majority of mechanical engineers are employees of organizations engaged in production or transportation; a, small percentage only is engaged in the private practice of their profession as consultants. In the United States, the education of the mechanical engineer is normally by a four-year undergraduate course in a degree-granting college or university. On completion of the course, a large percentage of the students enter the employment of industrial organizations as apprentices for a period of one or two years; in most of the larger companies this work is organized so as to give opportunities for gaining experience in various departments, with about three months spent in each. In Great Britain, there are only 14 universities which grant degrees in engineering and only a small fraction of the engineers are trained in them. The normal preparation for the profession is by a fiveyear apprenticeship. Theoretical instruction is obtained by evening work at local technical institutions, of which there are about 150. These institutions usually grant diplomas on the completion of a prescribed course. In Scotland the university instruction occupies about six months of the year and it is customary for the

students to alternate between study and work during the apprenticeship. In England, this alternation is not usual, and apprenticeship follows the completion of the university work. In Germany the conditions are in general similar to those in Great Britain. (L. S. Ma.)

MECHANICAL

HANDLING.

HANDLING

in a comparatively small but uniform and uninterrupted stream, while the latter convey larger units in intermittent succession. Continuous devices are subdivided into appliances for lifting material, z.e., bucket elevators and appliances for moving materia] horizontally, z.e., conveyors. Bucket Elevators.—Bucket elevators, though always included under continuous devices, are not absolutely continuous on account of the almost imperceptible hiatus between the small successive loads. They consist esA

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sentially of an endless belt, chain, or chains, which pass over an upper and lower terminal, and to which suitably shaped buckets are attached in close succession. Such devices may be used verti-

cally, running at a high speed, for relatively light material, such as grain. For minerals a slower

speed is necessary and the upper or delivery end of the elevator must therefore be disposed at an incline in order to ensure clean delivery, ż.e., without spilling. If the inclined disposition is not suitable for the site a jockey pulley can be used to attain the same end, as shown in fig. 1. But for this purpose twọ endless chains are necessary, which support the buckets between them.

In the following brief descripFIG. 1.—VERTICAL ELEVATOR, FROM WHICH CLEAN DELIVERY IS ENSURED BY TWO ALTERNATE APPLICATIONS OF A JOCKEY PULLEY

tions of continuous handling devices no reference is made to the inclines up or down which they may negotiate. (For this information see diagram, fig. 9.)

TYPES OF CONVEYORS One of the oldest conveyor devices is the worm or screw conveyor. It consists of a stationary trough of wood or steel plates, in which a helix rotates and pushes the’ material fed into it from end to end. Its capacity is relatively small, it is apt to injure friable materials, and its driving power is high; on the other hand, where mixing of the material is essential, as in the handling of poultry food, flour, etc., the worm is quite good; it has the further advantage that material can be fed on from any number of points and can likewise be withdrawn at any alternative point

Before mechanical han-

dling became an important operation in all industries a variety of appellations were assigned to machmes for such purposes. At first the designation most favoured was “labour saving devices,” because it was applicable both to the mechanical and to the economical aspect; this designation has now been practically superseded by the one which heads this article. The term was coined in America about the year 1900, but since 1920 it has been replaced there

by the term “materials-handling.” ‘The mechanical plant of a modern factory consists generally of two classes of machinery in addition to the power plant; that for manufacturing a certain commodity, usually by a complex series of operations; and the handling machinery which brings the raw

FIG. 2.—-PORTION OF A PADDLE INTERMEDIATE BEARING, ,

WORM,

SHOWING

STEEL

TROUGH

AND

material to the factory, moves it automatically from process to or points, through openings in the base of the trough, which can process, and finally conveys the finished commodity to the wate-

ouse or forwarding depdét. Fhe manufacturing ‘process increases fie intrinsic value of the goods; but the mechanical ‘handling operations do not add to the value of the product and such work must therefore be performed at a minimum of expense. Mechanical handling devices are divided into two main sections, viz., continuous and intermittent. The former convey the material

be closed by sliding gates when not required. There are a number of types of the worm conveyor, one of which is shown in fig. 2. The pushplate, scraper or drag conveyor is similar in principle to the foregoing, but the material is pushed along by an endless running chain or chains, to which are attached dragging or

pushing plates. This device may be used for handling larger quan-

tities than the worm conveyor, but it shares its advantages as well

MECHANICAL as disadvantages, so far as power consumption and possible to the material is concerned. It is fed similarly to the in and out at any number of points, when the idle return the chain passes over the top of the working run. In fig. 3

injury worm, run of this is

illustrated diagrammatically.

The U-link conveyor is an obvious modification of this type, in which the chain itself is so formed that it will drag the material

i

Q

155

off” or tripper gear is necessary. Such a throw-off device is shown diagrammatically in fig. 5. The full lines denote the machine in action, the band passing over idlers A! and B+; as shown in dotted lines, idlers A and B are out of action when the band with its load passes by. The Shuttle Conveyor is an important application of the band conveyor. Its use can best be visualized by an example. For

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HANDLING

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FIG.

3.—SIMPLE

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TYPE

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CONVEYOR

along without any other attachment. The links are in the form of the letter U. The De Brouwer or push-bar conveyor is widely employed in

gas works for handling incandescent coke. This always runs in a trough filled with water. The trough is made with a renewable cast-iron base and the two chains, one on either side, which sup-

port the pushing bars, are protected in recesses, and thus do not come in contact with the coke. All types of these conveyors, including those yet to be described, are fitted with power-driven sprockets at their delivery ends, and at their other ends with similar terminal sprockets arranged with tension take-ups for keeping the chains taut. Band ot Belt Conveyors.—Types of conveyors will now be

considered where the material is carried on top of the conveying device, which method is more gentle. The foremost of these is the band or belt conveyor, illustrated diagrammatically in fig. 4. This device consists essentially of two terminal drums over which an endless band travels, supported on its carrying as well as on its return run by idler rollers, pitched closely on the loaded run and two or three times the distance apart on the return run. Such idlers are ordinary small diameter rollers of steel in some instances, as, for example, for handling goods in packing cases; or more frequently a combination of three or more shorter rollers which give the band a trough-like shape when bulk material such as grain or coal is handled in large quantities. The idlers for the conveying strand may be as close as 2 to 3 ft. apart, or even up to a distance of 6 feet. The belt or band itself can be made of various materials, that being chosen which will best suit the goods handled. Compound cotton-duck-and-rubber belting is most frequently employed. The pulley side has a rubber coating of about ;4, in., while on the edges and working side are thicker layers of rubber, finally the whole is vulcanized. For light work, cotton belting of the Gandy type may suffice, and the idlers are sometimes replaced by a board of

hard wood.

Balata belting is also used, as well as woven wire

FIG. 4.—DIAGRAM SHOWING GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF BAND CONVEYOR FIG. 5.—ACTION OF A THROW-OFF CARRIAGE, SHOWN DIAGRAMMATICALLY and even Swedish charcoal steel bands, which are quite as flexible aS any of the foregoing. The only disadvantage of the band conveyor is that while it can be fed at any number of points by making adequate provision, the withdrawal of the material en route is somewhat complicated.

It is true that, with an oblique plough, material can be scraped off at intermediate points if the band speed is low, but even then it is a makeshift and shortens the life of any but a steel band, for which such ploughs are therefore ordinary standard practice.

For all textile and textile-rubber bands what is known as a “throw-

FIG. 6.—PORTION

OF APRON

CONVEYOR WITH

STEEL SLATS

Instance, in a very long boiler house, where it is essential that the coal be delivered in a central position, an elevator or a skip hoist is installed to lift the coal to a level above the bunkers. Instead of providing two band conveyors, one on the right and the other on the left, for distributing purposes, only one length is installed, reaching from the elevator or skip hoist to the bunker most remote from the central position. This is mounted on rails and is made reversible so that it can be run either to the right or to the left. With regard to the speed at which band conveyors may run, this may be said, broadly, to be 600 ft. per minute when handling maize, etc., while when handling lump coal it should not be more than 150 to 250 ft. per minute. Articulated Band Conveyors.—A number of conveyors are in use on the same principle as the band conveyor, but where endless chains replace the band and to which are attached a variety of carrying elements. These may be likened to, and in fact are, articulated band conveyors. These all run at relatively slow speeds. The type most frequently used is the slat or apron conveyor. It has the usual two sprocket terminals. Every link or every other lnk of the chains is provided with slats of iron, or of wood, furnished at their ends with small supporting rollers. (See fig. 6.)

BY COURTESY

OF

BABCOCK

& WILCOX

FIG. 7.—DIAGRAM SHOWING MAIN FEATURES OF TIPPING-TRAY CONVEYOR For handling small coal, etc., conveyors with steel slats, bent up at the sides, are employed. They are called continuous trough conveyors and form articulated troughs. A modification is introduced for the purpose of effecting intermittent delivery. It is known as the Tipping-Tray Conveyor and is illustrated in fig..7.

Reciprocating Conveyors—(Seg¢ fig. 8.) These are essen-

tially steel troughs motion, so that with the trough, while the the material, which stream.

which are set into frequent reciprocating the forward stroke the material travels with trough returns to its initial position without travels forward in an almost continuous

156

MECHANICAL

Coal Face Conveyors.—All the foregoing types are employed in collieries, but their construction is somewhat different on account of the confined head-room in the coal seams. They are generally from 100 to 180 yd. long to reach from gate to gate, and are so built that they can be readily taken down as the coal face recedes and be re-erected elsewhere. When inclines have to be negotiated in favour of the load, what is known as a retarding conveyor is employed, similar in principle to that last described, but with wire ropes instead of chains to which cast-iron discs are clamped at regular intervals. Such devices need no driving power, but rather a brake, if the | incline is steep enough. All types of chain conveyors so far discussed employ endless chains running on vertical sprockets, so that the two CIPROCATING TROUGH CONVEYOR strands are disposed one above the other. In another type, known as general purpose conveyors, the chains run over horizontal sprockets, so that the two strands are side by side, or by the addition of guide idlers they may run over a more complex path on an essentially horizontal plane. Gravity Roller Conveyorts.—Gravity roller conveyors consist of benches, the upper surface of which is provided with light rollers of two to three inches in diameter, placed close together

would remain so at any angle to about 67-5°, when it would merge, stage by stage, into a bucket, tray, push-plate, slat, apron or band conveyor, the latter on the datum line. All devices above the datum line must, obviously, be power. driven, the actual power expenditure depending upon the height to which the material has to be raised, plus power necessary to overcome friction. If it be assumed that all the devices shown on the diagram are of the same capacity, i.e., carry the same load in

a urit of time, the driving power needed will decrease gradually

until the conveyor parallel with the datum line is reached, where

only frictional resistance has to be overcome. Below the datum line gravity enters into the calculation, so that at a downward

gradient of about 74° gravity alone is sufficient to overcome frictional resistance and the conveyor will run by itself. Finally, there

are positions which would need a retarding conveyor or inverse elevator. As the down gradient increases, gravity assists further,

pro rata, and if suitable gear is applied to one of the conveyor terminals energy may be collected to actuate other machines, to

be converted into heat by a brake, or to be dissipated. The usual type of conveyor for moving material both horizontally and vertically is known as the bucket conveyor. It resembles the bucket elevator very closely, but the buckets are rather different. Another type is the V-bucket conveyor, the buckets of which

are V-shaped and attached to two endless chains, one at each side. The portion of such a conveyor which runs horizontally,

constitutes a scraper conveyor, and that which runs vertically, a bucket elevator. At the junction of the horizontal and vertical runs the material drops automatically into the buckets. The path of the conveyor may be L-shaped or in the form of an oblong, but the machine must always discharge on a horizontal run if ever so short. If the buckets are not rigidly connected to the chains but supported on trunnions and above their centre of gravity they constitute what is known as the gravity bucket conveyor. Devices of this kind are generally so disposed in power-houses that the lower horizontal run passes along the basement floor, ascends at one

BUCKET ELEVATORS

A CONVEYOR

HANDLING

PAN OR

CONTINUOUS T ROUGH CONVEYORS

PUSH-PLATE

OR SCRAPER CONVEYOR

end of the building, traverses the top floor above the bunkers and descends at the other end, thus forming an oblong. Owing to their method of suspension the buckets always remain in a perpendicuCONVEYO RUNNING WITHOUT lar position, except when they are tipped and thus emptied by POWER EXPENDITURE coming in contact with a tripping device at the various points of CONVEYORS PRODUCING POWER discharge. They are filled in the basement by a rather complex feeding device while the chain of buckets is under way. Gravity bucket conveyors were at one time largely used in power-houses, AT TRIS INCLINE MATERIAL WILL where they sometimes handled coal on the ascending and upper CONVEY ON A PLAIN SHOOT horizontal run, discharging the coal into the bunkers, while the RETARDING ELEVATORS lower run collected the ashes. They are slow-running, rather expensive machines, but very reliable. As, however, they are now but rarely installed, no further comment is necessary. Pneumatic handling is dealt with in a separate article. (See PNEUMATIC CONVEVING.) FIG. 9.—DIAGRAM SHOWING THE INCLINES AT WHICH VARIOUS TYPES Intermittent Handling Devices.—The following types are OF CONTINUOUS CONVEYORS ARE APPLICABLE | the most important under this heading: ropeways and aerial cableand running in ball bearings disposed at a downward gradient of ways; mono-rails and telphers; finger-tray elevators; and skip 2% to 5%, so that any object with a flat base, such as a packing hoists. The last two devices only are dealt with here, the others case, can run down by gravity. form the subjects of separate articles. A great variety of types of continuous handling machinery are Finger- or Swing-Tray Elevator—This device serves the same employed in modern factories. Sometimes when conveying mate- purpose as a-bucket elevator, but handles larger intermittent loads rial from one point to another it is exceedingly difficult to deter- such as packages, cases, baskets, sacks, barrels, etc. It can remine which of the many devices obtainable is best suited for the ceive goods on any one floor and set them down on any other. specific purpose in hand. The accompanying diagram, fig. 9, will The loads are picked up on the ascending strand and set down on be helpful in such a case. On the left hand side it shows a hopper the descending one. The device consists of one or two endless A, containing a material which will run down an incline of 45°, chains with corresponding upper and lower sprocket terminals. and which will therefore convey itself by gravity to any one of The Skip Hoist-—This device may be likened to a bucket elethe conveying devices represented by radial lines in the diagram. vator having only one bucket, which, instead of running continThe circles to the left of the datum line represent the receiving uously in the same direction as the former, works intermittently terminals of all types of conveyors or elevators. The devices up and down a vertical or steeply inclined rail-track. With a twin shown by circles in a variety of positions may be what are usually installation one skip is in the loading position while the other is known as bucket elevators, bucket conveyors, etc., according to discharging; usually the discharge is over the top, like a “monkeythe incline at which they work. At an angle of 90° to the datum on-a-stick.” line, and above, such a device would be a bucket elevator, and The size of the skip is determined by the tonnage to be handled RECIPROCATING CONVEYORS

MECHANICAL

MAN-—-MECHANICS

157

and the depth of the pit. The skip may be of either the top or bottom discharge type. In the former instance the skip is provided with a bail, to the base of which it is hinged. At its upper end are

has been stated above, our first requirement is a body free from the action of force; but no such body is available for test, because any body to which we can have access is subject to the earth’s

trod wheels, which follow at the discharge point along an approxi-

attraction. Therefore we must arrange that the attraction, since it

with maximum handling capacity of 500 tons per hour and skips

cannot be eliminated, shall be neutralized, and this is attempted in what is known as “Attwood’s machine”: the body under test is connected, by a light string passing over a freely-running pulley, with a second body of equal weight; and under these conditions it is found that, started with any initial velocity, it retains that velocity almost unchanged. However quite apart from the fact that a small reduction in velocity (which may reasonably be attributed to friction) is always observed in any actual experiment, there are difficulties in accepting this result as a proof of the “law” in question. We have found that a body moves with (substantially) uniform speed and direction; but it is mo¢ a body on which no force is acting, and without recourse to the principles of dynamics (themselves dependent on the law) we have no grounds for asserting that the forces which act upon it do in fact neutralize one another.

holding 6 cu. yds. (See Mass Propuction.) See H. H, Broughton, Electrical Handling of Materials (1921-23);

are avoided if we adopt the alternative standpoint, according to

mately horizontal path, whereby the skip is tipped and emptied. As a rule there are also a pair of trod wheels which guide the

lower end. With bottom-discharge skips, as the name implies, a door is provided at the base of the skip, which at the same time

forms a shoot, and which is kept closed during travel, generally by means of a pair of wheels which engage in a certain way. At

the discharging of the contents In operation increasing to a

point these rails are interrupted, when the weight forces open the door and thereby effects discharge. the initial speed of travel of a skip hoist is slow, maximum of 5 ft. per sec.; decreasing when ap-

proaching upper delivery point. The speed may be controlled by

‘the form of the drum on which the wire rope is wound, this being lemon-shaped; or in large installations by automatic speed varia-

tion of the motor.

Skip hoists are in use for twin installations,

H. V, Hetzel, Belt Conveyors and Belt Elevators (1922, 2nd ed., 1926) ; G. F. Zimmer, Mechanical Handling and Storing of Material (1916,

3rd ed., 1922).

(G.F. Z)

MECHANICAL

IMPROVEMENT:

see Power Trans-

MISSION.

MECHANICAL MAN: see Rozot; Automatic MAcHINES. MECHANICAL REFRIGERATION: see REFRIGERATION AND ICE MANUFACTURE. MECHANICS. This branch of applied mathematics deals with the motions of bodies; with the forces by which those motions are conditioned, and with the balance of forces on a body at rest. The word implies a connection with machinery (Gr. unxávn); but this and other practical applications are to-day more commonly included under the heading of “applied mechanics,” which covers such subjects as elasticity and the strength of materials, hydromechanics and aerodynamics, mechanism, ballistics, etc. (gg.v.). Theoretical mechanics, the foundation

of all these subjects,

may be divided into two closely related parts: dynamics, which is concerned with moving bodies, and statics, which treats of equilibrium, or rest. Dynamics—so-called because one aspect of the interaction between bodies, by which their motions are conditioned, is the occurrence of what we recognize as force (Gr.

divauts)—may again be subdivided into kinematics, which deals with motion from the standpoint of measurement and precise description, and dynamics proper, which is concerned with causes, or “laws” of motion. Statics, the theory of balanced forces, can be established on foundations of its own, as an independent science; but it is now customary to base it on the laws of dynamics, of

which science it thus becomes a special branch. This procedure

will be followed in this article, which attempts to present the essential features of the Newtonian scheme. Speaking broadly, two standpoints are possible. The first presents dynamics as a science which has been constructed, by induction, on a basis of experiment. Corresponding with the axioms of Euclidean geometry (which “neither require, nor are capable of proof”) we have, in dynamics, “laws of motion,” e.g, a body which is not disturbed by force continues to move with uniform

speed in a straight line. These “Jaws,” it is claimed, can be put

to the test of experiment; and on them, step by step (as in the successive propositions of Euclid), is developed a system not only embracing in its scope all motions which occur in the material

universe, but which has been proved by actual trial to maintain contact with that universe at every stage.

Difficulties in Verification of Laws.—It is recognized, of course, that practical limitations prevent an exact verification of any theoretical “law”; but a far more serious objection can

be advanced against this presentation of dynamics, in that it

Involves an “argument in a circle”: with whatever refinement the experiment is made, it cannot be interpreted without recourse to ideas which are themselves an essential part of the theory under

examination.

For example, if we seek to verify the “law” which È

Dynamics as an Abstract Science.—Difficulties of this kind

which dynamics, as a purely abstract science, may legitimately

be founded upon any set of initial assumptions (or “laws of motion”) which is convenient and not self-contradictory. In constructing this theoretical system, we are under no obligation to verify that contact with the actual universe is maintained at every stage; for the system is concerned with the motions of

purely ideal bodies whose properties are postulated in its fundamental assumptions, and provided that it is developed by logical processes, according with the accepted principles of mathematics, its conclusions will be valid consequences of those assumptions. Whether it will lead to results having any correspondence with the observed motions of actual bodies is an entirely separate question, which must be decided a posteriori, by comparing these results with experiment. But the available tests apply only to the

system as a whole: we cannot devise an experiment which will

verify any one of its assumptions apart from the rest. It follows that any special importance which these assumptions may have, in relation to the actual universe, arises solely from

the fact that they constitute the simplest possible description. To describe the motions of the bodies which form our solar system, we may either, as in the Ptolemaic system, specify the motions of those bodies relative to the earth, or, as in the Copernican system, specify their motions relative to the sun. Either description (provided that its details are correct) is equally valid, and the superior merit of the Copernican system consists solely in the fact

that its description is simpler. It remained for Newton to discover a still more simple description, by inventing a compre-

hensive theory of dynamics which follows logically from three fundamental assumptions, or “laws.” However his theory is still description, it does not explain; for whilst, like the axioms of geometry, his laws are incapable of proof, they cannot by any stretch of imagination be regarded as self-evident and therefore needing no proof.

Newton’s assumptions are incapable of proof, Że., of direct veri-

fication by experiment, for reasons which have been indicated already; but, from the standpoint now considered, such verifi-

cation is in no way essential to the development of his theoretical system, and the appeal to experiment, by which that system is related with the actual universe, can equally well be made when the system is complete. Whatever view be taken of the philosophical question, it must be admitted that the real evidence for his “laws,” as an expression of the facts of nature, is to be found, not in laboratory experiments aimed at direct verification, but in the close accord with experience of every conclusion which has been based upon them. KINEMATICS Speed:—z. The notion of speed, e.g., of a car or railway train, is familiar in every-day experience. When we say that a train is travelling with a speed of 60 miles per hour, we mean that it is moving at a rate which, maintained constant, would take it 60 miles along its route in one hour, one mile in every minute, or 88

MECHANICS

158

feet in every second. We do not mean that this rate is in fact constant: a train which is travelling at 60 miles per hour may, during the next few minutes, increase its speed, stop, or even retrace its path. What we mean is that the actual distance travelled will be 38 ft., very nearly, in the next second, 8-8 ft., almost exactly, in the next tenth of a second, and so on: given the in-

stantaneous value of the speed, we can foretell the distance more closely, the shorter the interval of time. Kinematics gives precision tention on an interval which distance of the train from its elapsed since the start; then,

to this idea of speed by fixing atjs indefinitely short. Let s be the starting point, ¢ the time which has as the train moves, s will increase

be s is not known as a mathematical function of ż, the speed can methods. l estimated by graphica Distance Represented by Area Under Curve-—3. Mathemati-

cally, the formula (3) implies that

s= Sdt;

i.e., the distance s may be found by integrating the speed S with

fig. r, respect to time ¢. Let S and ¢ be related, after the manner of

in a speed-time diagram (fig. 2): the graphical interpretation of (4) is that the area under the portion PQ of the speed-time dia-

gram measures (on an appropriate scale) the distance travelled in the interval represented by DM.

with £. If the speed is constant from the start (say S miles per hour), and if s is measured in miles and # in hours, then evidently s and ¢ will be connected by the relation s=St,

To establish this rule independently, we have only to notice, (1)

(1)

and in a further interval of / hours the inerease in s will be y miles, where

S=Sť.

(2)

When the speed s is variable, (1) will no longer hold; but the relation (2) will still be satisfied, provided that / (and therefore s’) is indefinitely small. On this understanding we have

S rA

(4)

FIG. 2

that it would be obviously true

if the speed were uniform—in which case PQ would be a horizontal straight line, and the area would be proportional to (speed) x (length of interval); (2) that it would be true if the speed changed

suddenly at the ends of finite but short intervals, and remained constant during those intervals, so that the speed-time curve con-

sisted of a number of small steps, as indicated in fig. 2; and (3) that the conditions contemplated in (2) will be indistinguishable

from the actual conditions, and the stepped diagram indistinguish-

Sa

able from the actual curve, if the intervals are sufficiently short. Acceleration.—4. When the speed varies, we use the term i.e., in the notation of the calculus, acceleration to denote the rate at which it increases. Thus, if the ds of a train changes from 6 to ro ft. per second in an interval Sa (3) speed the total increase in speed duting this interval is seconds, of 2 10—6=4 ft. per second, and hence the average rate of increase, so the speed S may be found by differentiating the distance s with i.e., the average acceleration of the train, is ¢=2 ft. per second per respect to the time #. second. In symbols, if the speed increases by S’ in an interval of 2. Almost all cars, and occasionally trains, carry an instrument time ”, then the average acceleration is measured by which records the distance travelled. If we take simultaneous S r readings of this instrument and of a clock, we can plot, in accordwhich ance with the principles of grapbical representation, points relate corresponding values of s and ¢; and if a large number of To obtain an accurate measure of varying acceleration, we make such points are plotted and connected by a continuous curve, this the time interval ¢, as before, indefinitely small. Corresponding curve may be taken to represent the relation between s and ¢ over to (3) we have, as an expression for the instantaneous accelerathe whole period of the observations. A curve of this nature is tion f, called a distance-time or s-t diagram: if P (fig. 1) is a point on as the curve, we know that the car

f= a

or train was, at a time represented (on the time-scale) by the length OL, at a distance from the starting-point, which is represented (on the distance scale) by the length OH. Now let Q be another point on

(5)

and corresponding to (4) we have

S=[f dt.

(6)

Thus the acceleration f may be found by differentiating the speed S, and the speed by integrating the acceleration, with respect to the time ¢. Similarly, in relation to graphical methods, we may say that:

Meci

the curve, Then we know that the

distance from the starting-point, at a time represented by the (a) in a speed-time diagram, the acceleration corresponding to length OM, is the distance represented by the length OK; and it a point P is measured (on an appropriate scale) by the slope of follows that a distance represented by the length HX was travelled the tangent at P; in an interval of time represented by the length LM. This means (b) The area under a portion PQ of the acceleration-time that the average speed during that interval of time is given by diagram measures (on an appropriate scale) the increase of speed in the corresponding interval of time. distance represented by HK, or QN

time represented by LM, or PN

Velocity.—s. In this discussion of speed and acceleration, Wwe have not been concerned to know the route of our train. Dis

°

i.e., it ìs measured by the stope of the line PQ. Speed

Represented

by Slope

of Tangent—If

the

speed

were in fact constant, this slope would be constant for all intervals ef time; so we see that the s-t diagram for motion at constant’ speed is a straight line. In general the speed will vary during the interval considered; but its variation may be neglected if the interval be sufficiently small; #e¢., if Q be sufficiently near to P. Ultimately, when the interval is infinitesimal, PQ is the tangent at P. We thus obtain a graphical interpretation of the formula (3): in a distance-time diagram, the speed at a time corresponding to P is measured (on an appropriate scale) by the slope of the tangent at P. Even when the formula (3) cannot be used, because

tance (s) has meant distance measured, from some arbitrary starting point, along the route; and in this sense a train can be

said to be distant s from the starting point, although it may be,

if the route is circuitous, much nearer “as the crow flies.” Speed and acceleration have been‘ understood, similarly, as measured

along the route. Direction has had no meaning, except in the

sense that the train may be travelling forwards or back, t.e., with

l positive or negative speed. These ideas were sufficient, because we were concerned with

motion in some definite path, or route

If, instead of the train,

our concern had been with a ship, we should have had to consider the direction, as well as the speed, of its motion at every instant.

MECHANICS Whereas the position of the train could be specified by means of |

one quantity (the distance s), two quantities are required to fix the position of the ship: thus, if O (fig. 3) is a fixed point on the

earth's surface, and ON, QE are lines through O in a northerly and easterly direction, the position P can be specified by assigning values to the distances PK, PL.

Let QPR be the path of the ship.

159

Composition and Resolution of Accelerations.—7. Similar relations hold for accelerations; że., a resultant or total acceleration F may be resolved into two components (e.g., an eastward acceleration fx combined with a northward acceleration f,} which are related with F by the parallelogram law. Corresponding to

equation (5), we shall bave

d

Then, as the ship moves from P

Jz ==

in the direction of R, the dis-

tances PK, PL, 2.e., the lengths OL and OK, will increase. Let x

a*x

d a

(7)

Similarly, the speed v with which the ship is travelling north will

be given by

dy = dt

(8)

The actual direction of motion, when the ship is at P, is along the tangent at P to the path QPR; the speed along the path has, at this instant, some definite value S. We say that the ship has a velocity S in the direction of the tangent. Thus velocity is a quantity which has the nature of a speed, but which also possesses direction; in equations (7) and (8), we may say that w is the eastward and v the northward velocity of the ship. Composition and Resolution of Velocities—6, We have seen that the actual velocity S of the ship at P may be regarded as a combination of the two velocities u and v: when u and v are both known, it must evidently be determinate, both in magnitude and direction. To find the required relations between S, u and v, we have only to imagine that the ship, on reaching P, maintains its velocity unchanged. The path then becomes a straight line PT (fig. 3), and in an interval ¢ the ship will go to T, where PT =St,

— dt

PM =ut;

(x0)

hence, dividing corresponding sides of (9) and (10), we deduce that u PM a cos@,

and similarly,

(rr) v-

MT

5 = PT

d?y

Tdr KINEMATICS

.

= sing.

’ by (8).

OF THREE

DIMENSIONS

The Vector Law.—8. Two coordinates x, y suffice to define the position of a ship, because this is (practically speaking) a body moving in one plane. To define the position of an aeroplane, we require a third coordinate; viz., the height z above some standard level. Corresponding to (7) and (8), we have the expression dz w

for the vertical component (12) the expression

a ai

=

(13)

of velocity; dw

and corresponding

dz

f= TI T p

to

(14)

for the vertical component of acceleration. The parallelogram law has an obvious extension in three dimensions. If OP, the diagonal of a parallelopiped (fg. 6), represents a velocity or acceleration in direction and magnitude, this may be resolved into components represented in direction and magnitude by OA, OB, OC, the sides of the parallelopiped. Speaking generally, we say that velocities and

(9)

asin (1). Also, since u is the eastward velocity, and LH (or PM) the eastward distance covered in the interval ¢, we have

(12)

fy _ 22

FIG. 3

speed u with which the ship is travelling east will be the rate at which % increases; 7.¢., we shall have, as in equation (3)

5 = PT

by (7),

and

convention) denote these distances, or coordinates. Then the

=

=

= Ge’

and y (according to the usual

“=

di 3

FIG.

6

accelerations

and compounded according to the vector law.

may

_

be resolved

Motion of a Projectile in Vacuo.—g. A simple example will

serve to explain the application of these kinematical principles. We may assume (as a deduction from experiment) that a body moving i” vacuo near the surface of the earth has a constant total acceleration g directed vertically downwards: making this assumption, we proceed to calculate its path, or trajectory. To define the position of the moving body (or projectile), we take axes Ox, Oy, Oz, fixed in relation to the earth. We take Oz to be directed vertically upwards; 7.¢., in the line of the resultant acceleration. Then the acceleration has no component along Ox or Oy, and we have from (12) and (14), d =

= f,=0, whence “=const.,

dv a = fy=o, whence

Fics. 4-3

in direction and magnitude by the sides and diagonal, respectively,

dw a

v=const.,

(15)

fz=—g, whence w= (const.) — gi.

Now let Oy be taken horizontal and perpendicular, at some definite instant (f=0), to the direction of motion; then, at this instant, 1S a rectangle; but the same result can be established when (as in there is no component velocity in the direction Oy; i.e., v=o. fig. 5) the directions of u and v (i.¢., the directions of the coordi- Hence, according to the second of equations (15), v will be zero hates v and y) are not perpendicular. The total velocity 5 may be always; z.e., the trajectory lies wholly in the plane zOx. regarded as made up of two velocities, u, v, represented in direcThe problem is now two-dimensional. If 2, wo are the initial tion and magnitude by PM and PN, the sides of any parallelogram components of velocity (viz., at time =o), we have from (7) of which PT is a diagonal. and (15),

of a parallelogram.

In this particular instance the parallelogram

MECHANICS

160 dx

“7; = uo, whence x= (uol-r const.), j — pi, whence z= (wg— het +const.). = = wg

essary; but it is con ' cal standpoint the notion of force is unnec confine attention to a to y) theor | venient, since it enables us (in really em just discussed, we are (16) | single body. Thus, in the probl es, the projectile bodi two of on moti tive rela concerned with the

n to the projectile, once |and the earth; but we can confine attentio is equivalent, the earth with ion ract inte its that ed we have postulat on of a force siti instant impo to the so far as its own motion is concerned,acce Finally, let O (fig. 7) be the position of the particle at the g. tion lera rd write nwa may we dow and tant vanish. cons will a (16) it in which gives (¢=0), Then the constants Newton’s ; “laws of motion” are The “Laws of Motion.”—13. \ =X, Hm (17) postulated relations between forces and their effects. If we were | Li n iy

and

s=uol—let= Se

concerned merely to formulate an abstract scheme of dynamics,

ee x? |

a

G

j

path is a The form of this relation between 2 and x shows that the again and O), point the at (i.e. x=o0 parabola; s vanishes when when

(18)

by erthey lead to deductions which are confirmed

ly, as ready, we are quite at liberty to postulate them arbitrari leave to and scheme, al dynamic fundamental azioms of an abstract does scheme this whether n questio the ation investig ent subsequ for .” “reality with in fact correspond Newton’s First Law.—14. The first question which presents

gives the

range OP of a projectile, on any | inclined plane Ox, in terms of the circumstances of projection. Ii OT be the tangent to the trajectory at O, and if OT represents

itself is, what is the behaviour of a body which is not affected by force? Newton’s answer to this question is contained in his first law: “Every body remains ina state of rest or of uniform motion

the velocity at this point, then

ON, OM (fig. 7) will and wo. according to ogram law. Hence g=

represent to the parallelwe see that ug- we? + 2uoWoCosa,

cerned to “explain” (ae., to describe) the observed motions of the heavenly bodies, and the special significance of his relations lies in

the fact that (18) perimen t. This fact, however, does not compel us to appeal to direct experiment for a justification of his “laws”: as stated al-

ta aR: 1o. Equation

having no necessary relation to the material universe, we could was conpostulate any relations that are self-consistent. Newton

FIG. 7

= (uo— wo)?+ 2uowo(cosæ-t I),

(19)

in a straight line, unless it is compelled by impressed forces to change that state.” This law, sometimes called the “law of inertia,” had been propounded by Galileo in 1638, nearly fifty years before the appearance of Newton’s Principia. To give precision to the foregoing statement, we must explain

what we mean by “a state of rest.” The position of a body in specifying the values of three cofixed, R space can be defined (§ 8) by by (18), where R is the range. Clearly, if g and a are of pro- ordinates x, y, z, relative to axes Ox, Oy, Oz, When 4, y ands on (not varying with time), we may say that will be greatest when o= Wo; Èe., when OT, the directi range for have constant values um maxim The Oz. and Ox to d incline y jection, is equall the body is at rest in relation to Ox, Oy, O2; if these axes are the plane Ox is moving in space, the body will move with them: if they are fixedin 2 space, the body may be said to be in a state of absolute rest. The ERE: SERAN (20) Rmx = difficulty in this description (if we keep in mind the question of an g(r -+ cosa) '

= (ug—wo)*-+ gR(cosa+t),

to experiment) is to state what we mean by “axes Rmax ultimate appeal and all points on Ox whose distance from O is less than in space.” From a logical standpoint, this is a serious diffixed will be within range of a projectile started with velocity g. an scheme. For practical purposes however a culty in the Newtoni 11. Now suppose that g is fixed but æ varied; then we have may be content with the assertion, that we are at liberty to we Writing different value of the maximum range for every slope. postulate the existence of some fixed system of axes, when we (20) from have we a, to onding corresp value the , r for Rmax formulate our abstract scheme of dynamics; and that we shall be in no sensible error, when we come to a comparison with (21) involved 4=1-+cosa, where l= z the real universe, if we assume that these axes are at rest in relation to the “fixed” stars. By “uniform motion in a straight line” e Equation (21) holds of all points which are just within range of Newton means, in our language, “velocity constant in magnitud definite: is : question first our to answer with the So .” started direction le and projecti a O, for the motion of a body not affected by force may be described, in velocity g: its form shows that accordance with the kinematical principles of §§ 5—8, as a motion, such points lie on a parabola at focus its referred to a system of axes fixed in space, in which the component (APO, fig. 8), having yelocities u, v, w do not vary with time. Q and vertex at A, where OA= Newton’s Second Law.—15. It follows from this discussion g?/ag. The (parabolic) trajectory if u, v, w vary with time (że., if the body has acceleration that, which goes through P is shown by FIG. 8 direcoriginal to the fixed axes), then forces must be assumed to act. its relation in line; a dotted

tion OT bisects the angles AQP, and it touches the parabola APQ.

The next question is, how do forces affect the motion of a body?

are within range of O. It is called the “parabola of safety.” (See also the special article on KINEMATICS.)

tion,” in our language, may be taken to mean acceleration: We deduce that the possession by a given body of an acceleration F in any direction implies that a force P, proportional to F, must be acting in that direction; 2.¢., .

some Newton’s second law states: “Change of motion is proportional Every direction of projection gives a maximum range for by to the impressed force, and takes place in the direction of the point some at touched be will APQ plane; hence the parabola it straight line in which that force is impressed.” “Change of meevery trajectory having initial velocity g, and all points inside

DYNAMICS 12. The general problem of dynamics is to investigate the motions of two or more bodies, as affected by interaction. Such interaction may be caused by collision, as of two billiard balls, or it may be due to mutual attraction, as of the earth and the sun. Following Newton, we shall describe it as operating by the exertion

P=MfF, where M has some constant value.

(22) l

16. Let F be equivalent to (or the resultant of) three compe nent accelerations fz, fy, fa in the directions of the fixed axes Os,

Oy, Oz. Then the possession by the given body of an acceleratios fx alone would imply the existence of a force X, parallel to Ox and logistrictly a From A. a force on B, and that B exerts a force on of force; when two bodies A and B interact, we say that A exerts

MECHANICS

161

will be another fundamental (and therefore arbitrary) unit. It must be defined as the mass of some particular piece of matter; e.g., the standard pound or kilogram., When we have specified the fundamental units of length, mass similarly, its possession of accelerations f, and f,, alone, would ‘and time, we may deduce, according to (22), the corresponding imply the existence of forces F and Z respectively, where unit of force. If, for example, we adopt the “C.G.S. system,” in Y= Myy, which the fundamental units are the centimetre, gram and second, Z=Mi.. ‘ the unit force will be that force which produces an acceleration of We postulate that two or more forces acting simultaneously I cm. per sec. per sec. when it acts on a mass of 1 gram: this produce an acceleration which is a combination (ż.e., the resultant ) unit is termed the dyne. If we adopt as units the foot, pound and of the accelerations which they would produce when acting sep- second, the unit force will be that which produces an acceleration arately; and since F is the resultant of the accelerations fz, fy, Jas of x ft. per sec. per sec. when it acts on a mass of 1 pound: this we deduce that the forces X, F and Z, acting together, produce unit is termed the poundal. A unit of force derived in this way from (22) is termed an the same effect as the single force P. So P may be regarded as. absolute unit, since it is the same in all places and at all times. these since and Z; Y, Y, forces the resultant of three component four forces are proportional to the accelerations F, fs, fy, Jz, it Now consider the case of a body of unit mass falling freely under follows that forces, like accelerations, can be resolved or com- the influence of the earth’s attraction. In (22) if g is the measured acceleration, we have pounded by the vector law. Inertia.—17. This last result will be made the basis of the M=1, F=g; science of statics (§ 37). If now we imagine the body to be | hence the attractive force, łe., the “weight” of the body, consists changed, it is clear that, whilst Newton's second law will still hold, | of g absolute units. Measured in centimetres per second per sec| differbe may (22) the constant of proportionality Jf in equation ond, g is 981, nearly; so the weight of 1 gram is a force of 98x ent. We must regard M as a quantity associated with a given | dynes, and conversely, the unit of force in the C.G.S. system body: it is termed inertia (i.e., sluggishness), because, according | (i.e., 1 dyne) is about 3, of a gram weight. Measured in feet to equation (22), the acceleration produced by a given force will per second per second, g is 32-2 nearly; so the weight of r pound be less, the greater the value of M. Inertia, regarded as a measis a force of 32-2 poundals, and conversely, the poundal is a force | urable quantity, is commonly designated by the term mass, and defined as the quantity of matter in the body. |of about gs lb. weight, że., roughly equal to the weight of When the mass of a body is specified, and the magnitude and | half an ounce. direction of the force which acts upon it, the acceleration F can | For scientific purposes, great advantages are possessed by an be deduced, and we are left with a problem in kinematics; e.g., | absolute system of measurement, and the C.G.S. system is now if we know that the earth exerts on any body a constant down- almost universally employed (see Units, PuysicaL), but in ward force, we may conclude that it gives to the body a constant practical applications of mechanics (e.g., engineering) it is cusdownward acceleration, denoted by the symbol g; so the prob- tomary to take as the unit of force the weight of one pound; t.e., lem of a projectile in vacuo may be treated as an example in a force of g poundals. This change of units will evidently involve a change in the form of (22). A force which in poundals is measkinematics (§§ 9-11). Newton’s “Third Law.”—18. As we have stated above, force ured by MF will be measured in pounds weight by 4/F/g, where is to be regarded merely as one aspect of a mutual action between g=32-2 approximately: hence we have the expression two bodies. If a body A experiences a force P in consequence of paE 2 i (23) interaction with another body B, then B will also be subjected to force. This principle is propounded in Newton’s third law of motion: “Action and reaction are equal and opposite;” ż.e., we for the accelerating force measured in pounds weight, when M, the postulate that the force experienced by B will be a force equal in mass accelerated, is measured in pounds, and F, the acteleration, magnitude but opposite in direction to the force P, and having the is measured in feet per second per second. The same expression will hold for the accelerating force meassame line of action. On the basis of these three laws, with a further postulate regard- ured in grams weight, when M is the mass in grams and F the ing the mutual attraction of two bodies at a distance (3.¢., the “law acceleration in centimetres per second per second, provided that of gravitation”), Newton erected the whole structure of his dynam- g is given the appropriate value 981. From a scientific standpoint, ical scheme. That structure, as we have already inferred, is the use of gravitational units of force, such as is contemplated purely mathematical, concerned to work out, according to the laws here, is open to the objection that the value of g varies to a slight of kinematics, the consequences of accelerations which are postu- extent with position on the earth’s surface, and hence the weight lated in the so-called “laws of motion.” Force and mass are secon- of one pound or gram is not, strictly speaking, a constant quantity. dary notions, not really essential to the scheme, but they simplify In what follows, we shall assume that absolute units are emits presentation, and for this reason it is convenient to retain ployed, so that the relation between force, mass and acceleration them, and even to introduce further dynamical concepts which may is expressed by (22). be based upon the fundamental relation (22). These concepts we DEDUCTIONS FROM THE LAWS OF MOTION

of magnitude

X = MIr;

aumm

3

now proceed to develop. We shall show that the laws of motion, applied to a single mass, lead to relations which hold in respect of any system of masses, and form the basis of general equations

Impuise and Momentum.—20. We have now given precise meaning to (22), and we proceed to deduce some consequences

Units of Measurement.—19. Before we can employ equation (22) to deduce exact numerical results, we must define the units

which follow from this equation, in virtue of kinematical relations which have been shown to hold between acceleration, velocity and “distance.” Let us confine attention, in the first place, to motion

in which force, mass and acceleration are to be measured. The unit of acceleration will be that which involves a unit increase of velocity in a unit of time; and the unit of velocity will be the

is the force in this direction, Jf the mass of the body considered, and f=- the acceleration produced, we have as in (22)

unit of time. Thus, in the first place, we have to fix the fundamental units of length and time: if, for example, we choose the foot and the second, the unit of velocity will be x ft. per sec. and

P=M fz. du Also, by the first of (12), fe = 7

(see Dynamics).

velocity of a point which moves through a unit of distance in a

the unit of acceleration will be 1 ft. per sec. per sec. Inertia being defined (§ 17) as a constant quantity associated with a given , independent of its velocity or acceleration, the unit of mass

in a straight line, which we may take to be parallel to Ox. If P

Hence we may write

du

P=M I

(24)

MECHANICS

162 i

‘

d

or (since M is constant)

P= T (Mu).

(25)

The quantity Mu, i.e., the product of the mass and velocity, is termed the momentum of the body considered. We may express equation (25) in the statement that P, the force acting on a body, is equal to the rate of change of momentum.

Suppose now that P is maintained constant for an interval of time T. Then from (25), by integration, we deduce that T

f Pdi=PT=(Mu)h—(Mu)o, 0

by interactions between the masses which compose it; this is the principle of linear momenium.

We observe that momentum, like velocity, is a quantity which

can be resolved and compounded according to the vector law. If u, v, w are the components of a total velocity g, the total mo-

mentum of the body is measured by Mg, and Mu is the resolved part of this total momentum in the direction of Ox. “Centre of Mass” of a System.—23. These results can be er. pressed in another way. According to our definition, the re.

solved part of the total momentum, in the direction Ox, of ą

(26) system of masses Mu, Mg, Mo, > etc. is given by

where (Mu)o and (Mu), denote the values of the momentum at the beginning and end, respectively, of the interval T. The product PT, viz., the product of the force and the time for which it acts, is termed the “time-effect,” or impulse. We may express equation (26) in the statement that change of momentum is equal to the impulse of the applied force. When, on the other hand, P varies during the interval considered, this statement will still hold,

T provided that the term ‘impulse’ is applied to the integral J Pdi,

Maua +tMgugn t Mouect '':', =Ma

dxa

dt

dxp

+Mep di

+Me

dxe die

,

di

+

, by

d

(7),

(32)

=, (Mata t+Maret Meret vee],

since the masses Mu, Mz, Mc,- etc. are severally constant, Let M be the total mass of the system, so that

M =Ms+Mpt+Mc+ etc., i.e., to the sum of the “time effects” of the applied force for all parts of that interval. and let % be defined by the equation 21. The significance of these ideas is apparent when we come (33) Mu=Maxat+Mepxat+Mexet --- ete. to consider the behaviour of bodies which interact. According to the third law of motion (§ 18), if a force P is exerted at any Then, according to (32), the total momentum of the system in instant upon one of two interacting bodies (A), then a force —P the direction Ox may be expressed in the form is exerted at the same instant upon the other interacting body Gs mn. (B). Let 47, and «#4 denote the mass and velocity of A: then we di (Mx), have, as in (25), or, since M is constant, as d P= Er (Maua).

(27)

Similarly, if Ms and “g denote the mass and velocity of B, we have -

d

—P= 7; (M pup).

(28)

(34)

We conclude that (Mä), and therefore @, will be unaffected by interactions between A, B, C, + > » etc.; so that @, the velocity of the point defined by %, will be constant if no external forces will be equal to the change in (Ma).

d

ae? (Maus) + 7 (Msus),

Hence, by differentiation,

we obtain the relation

KatXatXet

and hence, by integration,

Maua + Mpgug= const.;

=M ü (say).

act on the system. When external forces Xa, Xp, Xe, °°: ete. act on Mu, Mz, Mc,:--, their total impulse in any interval

By addition of (27) and (28), we deduce that d

d%

M-

d

i=

= 7 (Mü)

(29)

i.e., the total momentum of two bodies is not affected by interaction. If external forces act in addition, these will produce effects

(35) If Y4, Yg, Yc,’ +- etc. and Za, ZB, Zo, * +> etc. are component

which are represented by (26). If Pa is the external force on A, forces in the directions of y and z respectively, we find in the and Pg the external force on B, we deduce from this equation that same way that

Od a Ya+Ye+ Yot = aau,

S (Pat Pejdi= (Maus +Mpgus)— (Maua + Mpgus)o; i.e., the total impulse of the externally applied forces is equal to the change produced in the total momentum of a system of two masses (A and B). It is not difficult to see that this statement may be generalized for a system containing any number of masses. 22. Next, instead of motion in a straight line, let us consider motion of the most general type. The resultant force P on the body can be resolved, at any instant, into three component forces

X, Y, Z, and (§ 16) we may write du A=Mf,=M

af 7

(30)

a relation similar to (24). As in § 20, we may deduce that

J Xdt=(Mu),—(Mu)o;

(31)

LatZatZot

. ey

oe

M

at

adi

dö

dz

r =

(36)

M Tp

where 7, 2, 3, © are defined by equations similar to (33) and (34). Now (35) and (36) are precisely the equations which we should obtain for the motion of the point whose co-ordinates are %, }, 5,

if we imagined the whole mass M of the system to be concentrated

at this point, and to be acted upon by the resultant of all the given external forces, i.e., by a force whose components are

(XatXetXet---), (VatVstVot:-:), (ZatZatZet:)If these components are severally zero, we shall have from (35) and (36)

i.e., the impulse of the component force X, which acts in the direction Ox, is equal to the change in (Mu), the momentum in that direction. Again, we can prove as before, for any system of masses, that i.e., the point z, F, Z, will move with constant velocity in a straight ist the total impulse of the externally applied forces in any direction, line. The point %, ¥, Z, defined as above, is termed the centre of mast is equal to the total change of momentum in that direction; ze.,

the'total momentum of a systemn, in any direction, is unaffected

(or “mass-centre”) of the system. We shall find that it has adds

MECHANICS

162

to consider the science of | placement from 4 to B; and if dx, dy, dz are the components of this very small displacement, and X, FY, Z the components of P, Work and Energy.—24. According to the rules of differentia- ; in the directions Ox, Oy, Oz, respectively, it may be shown that tion, we may write the first of equations (12) in the form X dx+Y dy+Z dzs=PAN=PAB cos? (40) According to the vector law, AN is the resolved part of the dis-

tonal significance when we come statics (sec. 47)-

_ du _ dude,

7 and then, by (7), we have

dt

dxdt

du x dlu®) jae dx 2 dx

placement

(37)

So we may write equation (30) in the alternative form

:

A = 4] X=iM

d(u*) Tn

?

of P.

We

take

the product

may assert, generally that in any displacement of a body, the work done by the applied force is equal to the increase in kinetic

Integrating, we have the equation

f Xis= [gate],—[3344], 1

(38)

0

in which the suffixes o and 1 relate to the beginning and end, respectively, of the displacement considered. If X has a constant value throughout the displacement, the

integral on the left of (38) is equivalent to X(%:—%o), i.e., to the

product of the force and of the distance through which it acts. We call this quantity the spece-efect of X, or the work done by X, in the displacement considered: if the displacement had been opposite in sense to the force, so that this product had had a negative value, we should have said that work was done against the force. When X varies during the displacement, we may say that the total work done by X is the sum of its space-effects for all parts of that displacement; 7.e., the total work will still be represented by the integral in (38). 25. If we confine attention, in the first place, to motion in a straight line parallel to Ox, the quantity 4 Mu? is one-half the product of the mass and of the square of its resultant velocity. This quantity is termed the kinetic energy of the moving mass. Accordingly, in this case, we may express equation (38) by saying that the work done by the applied force is equal to the increase of kinetic energy. 26. In the general case of motion in three dimensions, we have,

corresponding to (38), the additional equations

J Ydy= [4Meh- [iM], 1

and 1

f Zdz= [4Mwh— [4Mw], 6

when Ox, Oy, Oz are a rectangular system of axes. Then #, v, w are the three perpendicular components of a resultant velocity g (say), and it follows from the vector law for velocities (§ 6) that

=g.

Hence, by addition of the foregoing equations with (8), we deduce that, in a displacement of the mass M from the point

(xo, Yo, Zo) to (£1, Yn 21),

ff(Xae+¥ay+2ae)= Me — MCh,

(39)

and [4Mq’| is now, by our definition, the kinetic energy of the moving mass.

in the direction

done in the displacement from (xo, yo, 20) to (x1, ¥1, 21); SO we

d ; i ae (431712), since M is constant.

++

AB

(P-AN) to be a measure of the work done by P in the displacement AB; i.e., we now take as our generalized definition of “work” (cf. § 24) the product of the force and of the resolved part of the displacement in the direction of the force. With this definition, according to (40), the integral on the left of FIG. 9 equation (39) measures the total work

Equation (39) may be expressed by the same formula as (38), if we make a suitable extension (to cover motion in three dimensions) to our definition of “work.” In general the displacement of a body will not be along the line of action of the force which acts upon it. Suppose then that the displacement is from A toB (fig. 9), and that AB is inclined at an angle @ to the line of action of the resultant force P; let BN be perpendicular to this ime of action. If AB is indefinitely small, we may take P to remain constant, both in magnitude and direction, during the. dis-

energy. 27. Now let us imagine that the force on a mass My is due tointeraction with a second mass Mfg. Thenif X is the component force on Mu, there will be, at the same instant, a force —X acting on Mg.

Let dxa be the displacement of Ma in a very

small interval of time, and dxg the displacement of Mg in the same interval. According to § 24, we shall have X dx4=change, during this interval, in the quantity $44 u,?, — X dxg= change, during this interval, in the quantity 34/2 u,’,

and hence, by addition, X(dx4—dxg)=change,

during the interval, (41) in the quantity 4(Mf4ua4?+M pup’) x Suppose, in the first place, that the motion of both masses is confined to the direction Ox. Then if M4 and My move through the same distance (so that dx,=dxg), equation (41) may be expressed in the statement that interaction does not affect the total kinetic energy of the two masses; and it is evident that this conclusion may be generalized for a system containing any number of masses. The total kinetic energy however will be altered by interaction if the distance between A and B does not remain constant during the displacement: e.g., if a bullet be fired into a block of wood, the forward pressure on the wood is equal to the backward pressure on the bullet; but, since the bullet penetrates the wood, its forward displacement in any interval of time is less than that of the wood; so less work is done by the forward pressure than is done against the backward pressure, and the total kinetic energy of the wood and bullet is decreased as a consequence of the interaction. Particles, and “Rigid Dynamics.”—28. A similar conclusion holds for motion in general. The total kinetic energy of a system of masses will in general be changed as a result of interaction; but the total kinetic energy will not change, if the distance between any two masses remains constant, and if the forces due to their interaction act along the Ene which joins them. We are here thinking of bodies so small that their masses may be imagined as concentrated in points. Such bodies are termed particles, and bodies of finite size are commonly treated, in dynamics, as made up of large numbers of particles (cf. § 53). We see from the foregoing discussion that special simplification will be possible if we assume that the distance between any two of the particles composing a body is invariable, że., that the body is rigid; for then we can say that its kinetic energy, like its momentum, is unaffected by interaction between the constituent particles. This is the basic assumption of rigid dynamics. Moment of Momentum.—-29. We have defined the momentum of a body (§ 20) as the product of its mass and velocity.

Let M be the mass of a particle at A (fig. 10), and let q, the resultant velocity, be along a line AB in the plane of the diagram. Let O be another point in the same plane, and let $ denote: the

distance of O from the line AB. Then the quantity Mqp, £#., ithe product of the momentum of the particle and the distance of its line of action from QO, is termed the moment of momentun, of: the

MECHANICS

164

particle about O. It is usual to consider moment of momentum | (as we here assume to be the case) no other force is operative,

as positive when (as in fig. 10) the point O would be on the left | Now in the case of two particles situated at points A and B, the mass centre lies in the line AB, że., on the line of action of th hand of a man moving with the particle. Let perpendicular axes Ox, Oy be taken through O, and let forces of attraction. So to investigate the motion of either parx(=AM) and v(=AN) be the coordinates of A, and w, v the ticle in relation to the mass centre, we need not consider the components of the resultant velocity q, relative to these axes. other particle; the first problem for discussion is the motion of a | single particle A about a point O, where it is attracted to O with Then it will be seen (fig. 10) that

a force depending upon the distance OA. We call O the centre of attraction.

AM(xv— yu) = Mf{g(xsin8— ycos 8),

(42)

= Ifo(ML— MK),

= Mop. The moment of momentum of the particle about O is accordingly measured by 3f(xv—yu), and hence its rate of change (since M is constant) is measured by

32. An argument similar to that of § 9 shows that the orbit

will be confined to a single plane through O. Let v be the resultan velocity of the particle when its distance from the centre of attraction is r, and let b

be the distance of O from AT (fig. 11), the instantaneous direction of this velocity, Then, since the force on the particle always

d _ dv, dx\ (du, dy “i (0— yu)=aE} vai +05) OF ee a

acts through O, we know (§ 29) that the moment of momentum of the partick about O will not change; ż.e., since the mass is constant, we may write

(43)

= M (xfy—yfz),

by (7), (8) and (12).

pu = cons = ht. (say).

However (§ 15) the existence of component accelerations fz, fy implies the existence of component forces X, FY, where X=Mfrs,

from 4 to A’ (fig. 11), if the distance from

F=Mfy.

Hence, according to (43), the rate of change of moment momentum is measured by (xY —yX). If x¥ —yX =o

(45)

33. Again, in a very small displacement

of

O is increased by a small quantity A'N (=dr), and if P is the force of attraction, then (§ 24) work of amount (Pdr) is FIG. 11 done against P, and the increase in kinetic energy during this displacement is accordingly given by (—Fé),

(44)

this rate of change is zero. Now (44) will be satisfied, not only when no force is acting on the particle (so that X= ¥=o0), but also when

If m is the mass of the particle, it follows that in passing by any

path from a point distant ro to a point distant r from Q, the velocity will change from vo to v, where

Y F’

r

i.e., (according to the vector law), when the resultant force on the particle acts along the line OA. Hence, if a particle is subjected to forces whose resultant always acts through a fixed point O, its moment of momentum about O will remain unchanged. 30. In the general case we can FIG. 10 show, as in (42), that (xY¥—yX) = P#’, where P is the resultant force on the particle, and 9’ is the distance of O from the line of action of P. The product Pp is termed the moment about O of the resultant applied force P. Thus we may express (43) by saying that the moment of the applied force about any point is equal to the rate of change of moment of momentum about that point. Again, if the force P on a body A is due to interaction with a second body B, then by the third law of motion (§ 18) there must act, simultaneously, an equal and opposite force (—/?) on B. Asin § 21, we may show that the total moment of momentum of two bodies is not affected by interaction, and we may generalize this result for any system of bodies: the resultant (or total) moment about any point of the external forces which act on a system is equal to the rate of change of the total moment of momentum of that system, about the same point; this is the principle of angular momentum. ORBITS DESCRIBED

ABOUT

A CENTRE

OF FORCE

31. The problem confronting Newton, for which he developed his system of dynamics, was to explain the motion of the heavenly bodies— the paths, or orbits, which they describe in relation to the earth. His explanation is based on the assumption of “universal gravitation”; $e., of mutual attraction between any two bodies,

depending in intensity upon their masses and upon their distance If an attractive force of this kind acts between two bodies A and B, it will affect the motion of both. We have seen however {§ 23) that their mass centre will move with constant velocity in a straight line, notwithstanding the interaction between them, if

gm? —zmw = — | Fdr. 7o

(46)

The force F depends, by assumption, solely on the distancer. So we may write

F=md¢(r), where ¢(r) is some function of 7. written in the form

(47)

Equation (46) may then he

Y—V = -2 f d(r)dr,

r

|: or

2+2

£

(48)

ġ(r)dr =const.,

where $(r) is to be interpreted, from (47), as the acceleration imposed upon the particle, by the force of attraction.

This

relation, when ¢(r) is known, gives v in terms of v: like (45), it

must be satisfied at all points in the orbit. 34. Combining (45) and (48) we have 2

r

n+2f o(r)dy=const.,

(49)

a relation between p and r which is independent of dynamical quantities, and serves to determine the skape of the orbit. Wher @(r) is known, the integral can be evaluated, and then (49) gives the equation of the orbit in the tangential-polar form.

The Orbit for the “Inverse Square” Law.—35. Thus, if we take (r) to be given by Newton’s inverse square law of attrtion; viz.,

d(r) = a where yu is constant,

(5 )

equation (49) takes the form k

-o

op

Te

(s1)

This may be recognized as the tangential-polar equation of & conic with respect to a focus as origin. The three forms of conie are the ellipse, the parabola and the hyperbola: for the elip% the equation is l

1605

MECHANICS oa

momentum as his own explanation of the law indicates.

Por and for the hyperbola

a

2, £ a

I

r+ a;

plains this law as follows:

He ex-

“If a force generate any motion, a

i double force will generate a double motion, a triple force, a triple motion, whether they be applied simultaneously and at once, or gradually and successively. This motion, if the body were already ‘moving. is either added to the previous motion, if in the same

where, in each case, ? denotes the semi-latus rectum and a the ' direction, or subtracted from it. if directly opposed, or comlength of the semi-axis containing the focus in question; in the pounded with it if the two motions are inclined at an angle.” parabola, @ is infinitely great, and we have the equation 37. According to Newton's second law of motion, the possession by a mass M of an acceleration F in any direction implies that a b_? ? force P, given by for P=MF, Comparing these equations with (51), we see that there is exact is acting in that direction. As a deduction from this law, it was correspondence provided that shown (§ 16) that forces can be resolved or compounded according to the vector Jaw. Combining these results, we observe h? l=, a= FT (52) that a body can remain at rest (that is, it can have zero acceleration), either because it is entirely free from the action of force Hence the orbit will be an ellipse, parabola or hyperbola accord- (§ 14), or because the forces which act upon it have no resultant, ing as C, in (51) is negative, zero. or positive. In any case the i.e., neutralize one another when combined by the vector law. semi-latus rectum of the orbit will be given by the first of (52). The former condition cannot be contemplated in a universe charA positive value of C implies a positive value of the constant on acterized by universal gravitation: the second is the concern of the right of (48), and hence, if we substitute from (50), a value statics—the science of forces in balance, or equilibrium. TAA aR Soar a o ain aa aim renane rt R mr

of v? greater than a Thus, if at any point in an orbit

EQUILIBRIUM

OF A PARTICLE

Polygon of Forces.—38. We start by considering a particle, v=V(2u/r) = V(say), (53) ie., a body of infinitesimal size. that orbit is a parabola; if vV it is Suppose first that two forces are a hyperbola. We see that V is the velocity which must be possessed acting, represented in direction by the particle in order that its orbit may go to an infinite disand magnitude by lines OP:, OP2 tance from the centre of attraction; it is termed the critical (fig. 12) passing through O, the velocity corresponding to the distance r. particle. According to the vector Newton’s Law of Gravitation—36. We have assumed in law, their resultant will be reprethe preceding paragraph that the attractive force on the particle sented by OR, the diagonal of varies inversely as the square of its distance from the centre of the parallelogram of which OP,, attraction. When the force is due to the attraction of a second OP» are the sides: it follows that FIG. 12 particle, this is equivalent to assuming that the attraction varies the point R; could have been inversely as the square of the distance between the two particles. found by drawing OP; to represent the first force and P,R: to Newton’s “law of universal gravitation” asserts that a mutual represent the second. attraction, satisfying this relation, is exerted between every pair If a third force acts in addition, represented by OP3, the resultof particles in the material universe. If two particles have masses ant of the three forces is the resultant of OP; and OR:. By the m, m’, it asserts that the force of their mutual attraction, when same argument, it will be represented by OR2, where RiR2 is their distance apart is r, will be drawn (parallel and equal to OP;) to represent the third force. The process can be repeated for any number of forces: we obtain ymm 72

?

where y is a universal constant, called the constant of gravitation. That branch of mechanics known as the “theory of attractions”

is concerned with the consequences of this law in regard to the attractions of bodies of finite extent; 7.e., bodies composed of a large number of particles. One result may be stated here: a spher-

ical body (either solid or hollow), of which the density is the same for all points at the same distance from its centre, exerts the same attraction on any particle or body outside it as would be exerted by a particle of the same total mass, situated at its centre. Thus in calculating, e.g., the motion of a planet under the attraction of the sun, we may replace each body by a particle of equal mass. The investigation of § 35 relates directly to this problem, if we assume (as is very nearly true) that the sun’s mass Is so large, in relation to that of the planet, that the centre of the sun

can be identified with the mass-centre of the two, ż.e., with the centre of attraction. More elaborate investigations, by Newton and his successors, have taken account of the attractions of the planets on the sum and on one another: they have abundantly confirmed the accuracy of the inverse square law, by showing that it is able to explain the actual motions of the planets in

minute detail, STATICS

Statics treats of forces at rest and therefore in equilibrium. The second law of motion is: “Change of motion is proportional to the moving force impressed and takes place in the direction in which the force acts.” By change of motion, Newton meant ckange in

points such as R3, Rs, . . . etc., and the successive resultants will

be represented by OR:, OR2, OR3 . . . etc. It is however a condition of equilibrium that the resultant of all the forces shall be zero; so we see that the last of the points obtained in this way must coincide with O. That is to say, if OPi, PaRi, Riko, ... etc. are drawn to represent all the forces which act on a particle in equilibrium, these must be sides of a closed polygon, which is called the polygon of forces. The order in which the forces are taken is evidently immaterial, and the polygon is not necessarily confined to one plane. In the special case of two forces, we see that R, must coincide with O, if the forces are to be in equilibrium. Clearly, this can only occur when the forces are equal and opposite, with the same line of action.

Triangle of Forces.—39.

If

the particle is in equilibrium under three forces, represented by OP:, OP2, OPs, the same argument shows that OP; must be FIG. 13 equal and opposite to OR:. In words, the three forces must be represented by the sides of a

triangle (OP1R1) taken in order. Lamy’s Theorem.—4o.

Fig. 13 illustrates this case. We have,

as just stated,

Pi

Ps

Pa

OP,

Pik:

RO

MECHANICS

166 But, by a property of the triangle,

OP,

finally, with forces P and Ọ acting through O in a direction parallj

to the original lines of action of P and Q; and it follows that 0C

P:R, ees

ee

G

Hence we deduce that each force is proportional to the size of the angle between the other two forces. This theorem is due to B. Lamy (1679). BODIES

OF FINITE

are opposite in sense, and C lies outside AB, on the side of the

greater force P. In either case we have

SIZE

Transmissibility of Force1. Forces imposed upon the same particle are necessarily concurrent; i.e., their lines of action must intersect at a common point. The same is not true of forces which act upon a body of finite size: to specify any such force completely, we must state not only its line of action, magnitude and sense, but also its point of application. It will be realized that actual bodies distort when forces are applied, and that definite particles, in consequence, alter their relative positions.

On the other hand, the distor-

is the line of action of the required resultant. Two cases demand examination, shown in diagrams (A) and (B), respectively, of fig. 15. In the first case, P and Q have the same sense, and C lies between A and B: in the second, P and

FIG, 14

tion is generally small, and for many purposes it may be neglected. Statics commonly treats of bodies as rigid, and it makes use of an assumption which can be regarded as intuitive, viz., that any point in a body, lying on the line of action of a force, may be regarded indifferently as the point of application. This is the principle of transmissibility of force ; It enables us, in effect, to concentrate upon forces, without particular reference to the body upon which they act.

42. Thus, if three forces combine to maintain equilibrium in

a body of any size, we may assert, quite generally, that they must be concurrent. This theorem will be seen to follow directl the condition for two forces which was stated at the end y from of § 38: the third force must be equal and opposite to the resultant of the other two, and therefore it must act through their point of intersection. As fig. 14 indicates, the point at which three forces intersect will not necessarily fall within the body upon which they act. Parallel Forces.—43. The principle of transmissibility of force can be employed to find the resultant of two parallel forces ——a case which does not fall directly within the scope of the vector law. It is evident that the effect of a given syste m not be altered by the addition of two equal and of forces will having the same line of action. If then P and Q opposite forces (fig. 15) are the two parallel forces whose resultant is requir ed, pose two equal and opposite forces of magni we may supertude S, acting, as

SSO

CB

ee

OC OC S zn 5 (by the vector law), P

(54)

Q.

F

The magnitude of the resultant force is evidently in the first case and (P—Q) in the second; its sense is (P+(Q) in both cases

that of P;, i.e., the greater of the forces P and Q. Thus one problem is solved, except in the Special case in which P and

Q are equal in magnitude and opposite in case, according to (54), the point C is an infinite sense. In this distance from A and B, and the magnitude of the resultant is zero: in

effect, we cannot find a single force which will replace a pair of equal and opposite parallel forces whose lines of action are A pair of forces of this nature is said to constitute not coincident, a couple. Moments.—44. Equation (54) admits of interpretation in accordance with the concept, moment of a force, which was introduced in § 30. If we draw a line EF throu gh C, perpendicular to the lines of action of P and Q, we have at once, from the figure, CE CA _Q

This equation may be written in the form

PCE=QCF,

(55)

and in this form it may be expressed in the statement, that the moments of P and Q about C, according to the definition of § 30, are equal and opposite; ie., the resultant moment of P and0 about C is zero. The forces P and Q evidently have the same moments about any other point H in OC, the line of action of their resultant. Conversely, if the resultant moment of two parallel forces about any two points is zero, their resultant must act along a line which passes through those two points, and is therefore definite. We

might, in fact, have determined the resultant of P and Q in this way. 45. Now consider the moment

of the resultant force about any other point K in the plane of the

FIG, 16

forces. When the forces

P and Q have the same sense (diagram A), their resultan t is a force of magnitude (P+-Q), and its moment about K is given by

(P+0O)KH = P(KL+LH)+0O(KM —HM) =PKL+QKM, (56) by (55), since LH=EC and HM=CF. When P and Q are opposite in sense (diagram B), their FIG. 15 resultant is a force of magnitude (P—Q), and its momen shown, along a line AB which cuts the lne t about K is of action of P and Q; given by and we may combine, according to the vector law, one of these forces with P and the other with Q. (P—Q)KH=P(KL—HL)-Q(Ku—Hy), (on The resultant of P and S is a force Ri, and the resul tant of =PEL—QKM, by (sc) again. Qand S is a force Re. In general, the lines of action will i 46. In both cases we see that the sum of the moment , aS shown, at some point O, and accorof Ri and Re s of P ding to the and Q about K (taken with principie of transmissibility this point due regard to sign) is equal to the may be regar ded as the moment ‘point of application both of R, and R:. If we now feplace R, by theorem of their resultant about the same point. The same forces P and S, and R, is true of two forc by forces Ọ and

which intersect (fig.

16). The S, acting through O as moment of P ‘Shown, the two forces S will again neutralize t K is PKL, i.e., it is measured by twice the . So we are left, area of the trianabou gle KOP ; and similarly, the es

moments of Q and R

167

MECHANICS

perpendicular to C4 and CB respectively. Hence, when the position of G in AB is known, we have only to draw lines OA, OG, OB in three known directions, and to place AB so that it is divided by these lines into segments which have a definite ratio: when this KOR; i.e., the sum of the moments of P and Q about K is equal condition is satisfied, AB has the required slope. Catenaries.—49. Again, we may employ the theorem to calto the moment of their resultant R about the same point. This theorem can be extended to any number of forces, whether culate the curve in which a heavy chain AB (fig. 19) will hang in equilibrium under gravity, and parallel or intersecting. In the case of two parallel forces conthe tensions which will be brought stituting a couple (§ 43), the total moment about any point in into play. Since the chain is flextheir plane has a constant value, given by the product of either ible, the tension at every point force with the distance between their lines of action. will act along the tangent to the Centre of Gravity.—47. The total weight of a body (ż.e., the curve. Let T be the tension at force exerted upon it by the attraction of the earth) is the reany point P, and A the tension at sultant of forces exerted upon all the lowest point O. The portion the particles which go to form FIG. 19 of the chain which extends bethat body. When its dimensions are small in comparison with tween O and P may be regarded as held in equilibrium by three those of the earth, the force on forces: viz., the tensions T and Æ, acting in the directions CP, CO, each particle is proportional to as indicated, and the resultant weight of the portion OP. Since its mass, and all the forces may these three forces must be concurrent, the centre of gravity of the FIG. 17 be taken as parallel: under these portion OP must lie in the vertical line through C; the triangle conditions we may show that the weight of a rigid body acts PCN (fg. 19) will be the triangle of forces (§ 39); and if W is the weight of the portion OP, we have always through a point fixed in relation to the body.

are measured by twice the areas of the triangles KOQ and KOR respectively. Since, however, QR=OP, the triangle KOP is equal in area to the sum of the triangle OOR and KQR: therefore the sum of the triangles KOP, KOO is equal in area to the triangle

Let Ox, Oy, Oz be three perpendicular axes fixed in relation to the body, and consider the components in the direction Oz of the forces which act upon three particles A, B, C, of mass

Ma, Mg, Me. Whatever be the direction of the resultant forces on the particles, these components also will be proportional to the respective masses; so we may take them to be given by Za=kMa,

Zp=kMp,

—

ne

SR

(59)

e

Let Ox, Oy be drawn horizontally and vertically through O, and let s denote the length of the curve measured from O. Then we

have, from (59),

T

Zo=kMe.

W=Htany

~A7wZ = H F

where & is a constant; and if x4, 2g, x¢ are the distances of

A, B, C from the plane yOz, the moments of Za, Zg, Ze about the axis Oy will be Za x4, Ze xB, Zc xc. Therefore the resultant moment about Oy will be

dW

and hence

d’y

in

Gs

dw i : ; s (58) Now Tr the rate at which the total weight W increases with

k(Maxa+Mpgxrg+ Moxe).

By a generalization of the theorems stated above, the resultant of Z4, Zz, Zc Will be a parallel force of magnitude

the horizontal distance ON, is the weight of the chain per unit horizontal run. If w is the weight of the chain per unit length

(Zat+Zet+Ze) =k(Mat+Met+Mo),

(this quantity may of course vary along the length of the chain) we have

and its moment about Oy must be equal to (58). Therefore the distance from yOz of its line of action will be x, where

dW 2 dx

k(Mat+Mst+Me) t=h(Maest+MaretM exe). Generalizing this result for any number of particles consti-

(Xz, Yy, Zz) which in that article was termed the mass centre of the system. In its present significance it is termed the centre of gravity of the system, ż.e., of the

body which the particles compose. Equilibrium Under Grav-

ity.—48. The motion of centre of gravity—as a point, fixed in rewhich its weight may be taken to act—enables us to bring many problems within range of the

theorem

stated

in § 42.

S VEE

i

dy

2 a”

dx? SS ee

5

dy

en

2

(60)

\ ae a which the form of the curve may from equation as a differential be deduced when w and H are specified. When the curve has been found, the tension T at any point can be found from (59); for we have ds T = Hsecy = H Ta

so. When the weight per unit horizontal run is uniform—as will be very approximately true of a uniform wire stretched in a flat curve—the centre of gravity of OP must lie above the middle point of OH. Hence we shall have

lation to any given body, through

CN =i,

For

example, suppose that we require to know the slope at which

dx

So we have, finally, the relation

tuting a total mass M, we obtain the formula (33) of § 23; and applying the same argument to moments about the axes Oz and Ox, we find that the resultant of all the forces on all the particles, ie., the total weight, will in every case pass through a point

sads_

FIG. 18

a heavy rod AB (fig. 18) can rest in equilibrium with its ends

on two smooth plane surfaces CA, CB. Since the effect of gravi-

tation may be represented by a single force through G, the centre of gravity of the rod, this is in effect a problem of equilibrium under three forces. We know that R4 and Rg, the forces exerted by the plane surfaces, must intersect in a point vertically above

or, by (59)

Hy=™ x.

Since W is now proportional to x, we see that y will be propor| tional to x2; i.¢., the chain will hang in a parabola.

Solid Friction.—s1. Reverting to the problem discussed in

§ 48, we observe that the forces exerted on the rod by the sur-

faces CA, CB will not necessarily have directions perpendicula

1 G; moreover, since these surfaces are smooth, R4 and R g must be to those surfaces, unless the possibility of frictional forces

168

MECHANICVILLE—MECHANISM

expressly excluded. Allowance for friction is commonly made on | and three of the type the basis of the empirical law propounded by C. A. Coulomb D(xmý— ym) =2(xY —yX), (625 (1821). according to which the force exerted between two surfaces may be inclined to their common normal at any angle which in which 2 denotes a summation embracing all the particles of does not exceed some definite value À; this limiting angle A termed the system. In these equations m denotes the mass of a typical the angle of friction, depends upon the nature of the surfaces in particle, and x, y, z its coordinates referred to any rectangular contact, but is independent of the intensity of the reaction between system of axes, so that mx, my, mg are the components of the them. On the basis of this law we may say, in the problem con- effective force on m; X, Y, Z are the components of the external force on this particle. Equation (6r) is obtained by resolving sidered, that the rod can rest in parallel to Ox, and (62) by taking moments about Oz. any position (as shown, e.g., in Writing (61) and (62) in the equivalent forms fig. 20), provided that a point D can be found. vertically above d G, such that neither of the angles DBO, DAO exceeds A, where AO, BO are perpendicular to CA, CB sL(xmy— ym) =Z(xY —yX) (64) respectively. 52. Coulomb’s law of friction may be stated in another way. we see that they express the principles of linear and angular moIf R is the normal pressure bementum, which are thus shown to be derivable from either of tween two surfaces in contact, the two fundamental assumptions just stated. It will be observed the resultant action is found by that neither principle is restricted to rigid bodies: the importance FIG. 20 combining R with a tangential of assuming rigidity lies in the component S (due to friction); it will thus be inclined at an angle fact that it renders the six equa@to the normal direction, where tions of types (63) and (64) sufficient in number to determine tang = 3, the motion of a body. 56. An obviously equivalent Hence, if @ cannot exceed the angle of friction A, it follows that statement of d’Alembert’s printhe ratio S/R cannot exceed a definite limit, tan, which is called ciple is that the system of exterthe coefficient of friction, and is commonly denoted by the symnal forces is in equilibrium with bol ». Thus, according to Coulomb’s law, a tangential force will the system of effective forces rebe exerted between two rough surfaces in contact, which cannot versed. This concept enables us exceed a definite fraction uw of the normal pressure between them, to treat problems in dynamics by but will assume, within these limits, any magnitude and direction FIG. 2! the methods of statics. For that may be required to maintain equilibrium. As was shown example, in the problem of the conical pendulum (fig. 21) we have by the preceding example, the exact nature of the forces which a mass M attached to a fixed point O by an inextensible string, act to maintain equilibrium in a given position will generally and describing a circular path about a vertical axis through 0. be indeterminate. The circular motion can be shown to involve an acceleration of the mass along the radius MN, and if this acceleration has a conDYNAMICS OF CONTINUOUS SYSTEMS stant value f we may take account of the motion by assuming 53. The purpose of this article is to explain, to a reader not a reversed effective force, of magnitude M-f, to act as shown. previously conversant with mechanics, those basic concepts and Then we have, in effect, a problem in statics, since the reversed principles of the science which he will require when reading effective force must be in equilibrium with the external forces on other articles in this encyclopaedia, and in particular the article M, viz., its weight M-g acting vertically and the force T imposed DYNAMICS. upon it by the tension of the string. (R. V. S.) 54. Natural bodies, with which the general theory has to deal, BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Text-books dealing with the elementary notions of are continuous or apparently continuous distributions of matter, mechanics, as outlined in this article, are very numerous: the reader either solid, fluid or gaseous. One way in which they may be may be referred to A. E. H. Love’s Theoretical Mechanics, or to H. treated is to conceive them as an aggregate of particles—large Lamb’s Statics, Dynamics and Higher Mechanics. The last of these but finite in number, and separated by small but finite intervals— treatises deals with higher developments of the subject as outlined in the article Dynamics; E. T. Whittaker’s Treatise on Analytical which act on one another with forces of direct attraction or repul- Dynamics may also be consulted. Philosophical aspects are treated sion. This is commonly known as Boscovich’s hypothesis (R. G. in the first part of J. Ward’s Naturalism and Agnosticism. For a short Boscovich, a Treatise on Natural Philosophy, Venice, 1788): it account of Newton’s researches cf. S. Brodetsky, Sir Isaac Newton. enables us to formulate after the manner of §§ 22, 30, the princiMECHANICVILLE, a city of Saratoga county, New York, ples of linear and angular momentum. U.S.A., on the State Barge canal and the west bank of the Principle of d’Alembert.—55. Another method of treatment Hudson river, near the mouth of the Hoosick, 20 m. above is to assume a principle first stated by d’Alembert (J. le R. Albany. It is served by the Boston and Maine (which has a large d'Alembert, Traité de dynamique, 1743). According to Newton’s freight-classification yard here) and the Delaware and Hudson second law (§ 15) the possession of an acceleration F, in any railways. Pop. (1920), 8,166; 7,924 in 1930. The city has direction, by a particle of mass M implies that a force of magniabundant water-power, and manufactures brick, paper, paper tude MF acts upon it in that direction. This force, which we boxes, shirts, knit goods, gloves and other articles. A dam promay call the effective force, is the resultant of all the forces vides power for the General Electric Company at Schenectady. which act on the particle. When the particle forms part of a The first settlement was made about 1680. The village was charmaterial “system,” the latter forces may be divided into two tered by the county court in 1859, incorporated in 1870 and classes: (1) the external forces acting from outside the system, and (2) the internal forces due to the reaction of other particles became a city in Igr5. MECHANISM is the general name for a theory which holds in the system. D’Alembert’s principle assumes that the internal forces constitute by themselves a system in equilibrium, and that natural phenomena can be and should be explained by hence, that the effective forces constitute a system which as a reference to matter and motion and their laws. The term, however, is used in rather different senses in different contexts, acwhole is statically equivalent to the system of external forces. cording to the nature of the other view which it is intended Accordingly we have, for any system, three equations of the type to contradict. The principal antitheses are these: Mechanism

&,3(mi) =3(X)

2(mi) =2(X),

(63)

(61) versus Super-naturalism; Mechanism versus Teleology; Mech-

MECHITHARISTS—MECKLENBURG

169

anism versus Vitalism; Mechanism versus Emergence. The | The Nature of Man (1903, Eng. trs. 1904). In later years he enumeration follows more or less the historical order of the con- made a special study of the bacteria infesting the alimentary canal troversies which each pair of antithetic terms suggests. In the of man. In 1908 he was awarded the Nobel Prize for medicine. He ryth century a great deal was written in favour of the “me- died in Paris July 16, 1916. chanical philosophy.” “The tenets of mechanical philosophy,” See Life by his wife, Olga Mechnikov (1920 Eng. trans. 1921). as Robert Boyle conceived it, consisted in explaining the physical phenomena of nature by means of “little bodies variously figured and moved.” What the upholders of the “mechanical philosophy” were most concerned about was the elimination

from science of such notions as “substantial

forms,” “occult

qualities,” “hypostatical principles,” etc., which had long obstructed the path of natural knowledge. Boyle himself did not see any inconsistency in combining “mechanical’’ with teleologi-

cal explanations or with the assumption that Nature has “designs.”

Spinoza,

on the other hand, regarded

the mechanical

method of explanation as incompatible with the teleological and the supernatural.

In view of the once prevalent proneness

to

explain natural phenomena teleologically, and teleologically only (which Voltaire still found it necessary to ridicule) the supporters of a mechanical, anti-teleological attitude in science no doubt rendered an important service.

But the subsequent development

of the biological sciences tended to show the inadequacy of a merely mechanical explanation of vital phenomena, While admitting the need of pursuing mechanical modes of explanation as far as possible, it has been felt with increasing urgency that something more is required to account for the facts of life than the laws of matter and motion. The opposition ta biological

MECKLENBURG,

aterritory in northern Germany, on

the Baltic sea, divided into the republics of Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Mecklenburg-Strelitz.

Mecklenburg-Schwerin is bounded N. by the Baltic sea, W.

by Ratzeburg and Schleswig-Holstein, S. by Brandenburg and Hanover, and E. by Pomerania and Mecklenburg-Strelitz, and possesses three small exclaves. It became a republic in 1918 and by the constitution of 1920 it is governed by a Landtag of 64 members. The state sends one member to the Reichsrat of the German Republic. For administrative purposes it is divided into 17 divisions, in addition

to the four cities of Rostock,

Schwerin, Wismar (the capital) and Giistrow. Its area is 5,068 sq.m. Pop. (1925) 674,045, about 9596 of whom are Protestant,

Mecklenburg-Strelitz consists of two detached parts, the former duchy of Strelitz on the East of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, and the former principality of Ratzeburg on the West. The first is bounded by Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Pomerania and Brandenburg, the second by Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Lauenburg, and the territory of the free town of Liibeck. Their joint area is 1,131 sq.m.

Pop. (1925) 110,269.

The state was declared a republic

in 1938 and by the constitution of 1923 it is now governed by the

mechanism, or mechanical biology, first took the form of what is 35 members of the Landtag who choose an executive of two. It known as Vitalism or the assumption that there is in each living is represented in the Reichsrat by one member. The capital is organism a kind of entelechy (g.v.) or directive vital principle. Neéu-Strelitz. This kind of vitalism was especially vindicated by H. Driesch. Industries.—Mecklenburg lies wholly within the great NorthMore recently Lloyd Morgan and others have advocated a theory European plain, and its flat surface is interrupted only by a low of emergence (g.v.) in opposition not only to biological mecha- range of morainic hills, which form the watershed between the nism, but to the theory of exclusive mechanism even in chemistry Baltic sea and the Elbe. Its highest point, the Helpter Berg, is and other physical sciences. In its application to biology, the 587 ft. above sea-level. The coast-line is for the most part covdoctrine of emergence has been called emergent vitalism in con- ered with dunes. The rivers are numerous and some are navitrast to the vitalism of Driesch which is called substantial vitalism. gable, and the facilities for inland water traffic are increased by See EMERGENCE; EVOLUTION AND MIND. canals. As a result of glaciation lakes are numerous (about 400). See also C. D. Broad, The Mind and its Place in Nature (1923); C. The temperature varies from a January average of 32° F toa Lloyd Morgan, Emergent Evolution (1926). (A. Wo.) July average of 64° F and the annual rainfall is about 23 in. MECHITHARISTS, a congregation of Armenian monks in Although there are long stretches of marshy moorland along the communion with the Church of Rome. The founder, Mechithar, coast, the soil is on the whole productive, about half the area was born at Sebaste in Armenia, 1676. He formally joined the being cultivated, while one-fifth is forested. Agriculture is by Latin Church, and in 1701, with sixteen companions, he formed far the most important industry, and the chief crops are rye, a definitely religious institute of which he became the superior. wheat, potatoes and hay. Smaller areas are devoted to maize, Their Uniat propaganda encountered the opposition of the Arme- sugar beet, pease, rape, hemp, flax, hops and tobacco. The pasnians and they were compelled to move to the Morea, at that time tures support herds of sheep, cattle and horses. Red deer, wild Venetian territory, and there built a monastery, 1706. On the out- swine and various other game are found in the forests. The inbreak of hostilities between the Turks and Venetians they mi- dustrial establishments include a few iron-foundries, wool-spinning grated to Venice, and the island of St. Lazzaro was bestowed on mills, machine factories, dye-works, tanneries, brick-fields, soap-

gation, and here Mechithar died in 1749, leaving his institute

works, breweries, limekilns and tar-boiling works, tobacco factories and mills of various kinds. Rostock, Warnemiinde and

firmly established. The Mechitharists are numbered among the lesser orders affliated to the Benedictines.

Wismar are the principal commercial centres. The chief exports are grain and other agricultural produce, live stock and wood;

BrBLroGRAPHY.—See Vita del servo dz Dio Mechitar (Venice, 1901); E. Boré, Saint-Lazare (1835) ; Max Heimbucher, Orden u. Kongregationen (1907) I. § 37; and the articles in Wetzer u. Welte, Kirchenlexicon (ed. 2) Herzog, Realencyklopädie (ed. 3), and the Catkolic Encyclopaedia. (E. C. B.)

the chief imports are colonial produce, iron and coal. Fishing is carried on extensively in the numerous inland lakes. The peasantry of Mecklenburg retain traces of their Slavonic

them, 1717. This has since been the headquarters of the congre-

origin, especially in speech, but their peculiarities have been much

modified by amalgamation with German colonists. The townsborn at Ivanovka, in Kharkov on May 15, 1845. At the age of people and nobility are almost wholly of Saxon strain. The slow17 he entered the Kharkov university and two years later went ness of the increase in population is chiefly accounted for by to Germany. Returning to Russia in 1867, he became a dozent emigration. HISTORY In Zoology both at St. Petersburg and at Odessa, where in 1870 he was made professor of zoology and comparative anatomy. The Teutonic peoples, who in the time of Tacitus occupied In 1882 he went to Messina and there began his studies on the the region now known as Mecklenburg, were succeeded in the nature and habits of microbes. Henceforth he devoted himself 6th century by some Slavonic tribes, one of these being the to pathological study and in 1888 went to Pasteur in Paris, who Obotrites, whose chief fortress was Michilenburg, the modern gave him a laboratory in the Ecole Normale. By 1892 his views Mecklenburg, near Wismar; hence the name of the country. On the essential importance of phagocytosis were firmly estab- Though partly subdued by Charlemagne towards the close of the lished. In that year he published The Comparative Pathology of 8th century, they soon regained their independence, and the effec-

MECHNIKOV, ILYA (1845-1916), Russian biologist, was

Inflammation, followed in 1901 by his chief work, Immunity in tive subjugation of Mecklenburg was made by Henry the Lion, Infectious Diseases (Eng. trs. 1905), and a more popular treatise,

duke of Saxony. The Obotrite prince Niklot was killed in battle

MECKLENBURG DECLARATION-MEDFORD in n 6o whilst resisting the Saxons, but his son Pri bislaus (d. 11 78) s ubmi t ted to Henry the Lion, married his daughter to the son of the duke, embraced Christianity, and was permitted to retain his office. His descendants and successors, the later grand dukes of Mecklenburg, were the only ruling princes of Slavonic origin in Germany. In 1 I 70 the emperor Frederick I. made Pribislaus a prince of the empire . In I 348 the em peror Charles IV. raised Mecklenburg to the rank of a duchy, and in I4I8 t he university of Rostock was founded. In 1549 L utheranism was recognized as the State religion; a little later the churches and schools were reformed and most of the monasteries were s uppr essed. In I6II, by a partition, Duke Adolphus Frederick I. (d. I658) received Schwerin, and John Albert II. (d. 1636) received Giistrow. The town of Rostock, "with its university and high court of justice," was declared to be common property, while the diet or la11dtag also retained its joint character, its meetings being held alternately at Sternberg and at Malchin. In I70I, by the treaty of Hamburg, a new divi­ sion of the country was made. Mecklenburg was divided int o two parts, which were later represented by the duchies of Meck­ lenburg-Schwerin and Mecklenburg-Strelitz. At the same time the principle of primogeniture was again asserted, and the right of summoning the joint la11dtag was reserved to the ruler of Mccklenburg-Schwerin. Under Duke Christian Louis of Mecklcnburg-Schwerin there was signed, in April I755. the convention of Rostock by which a new constitution was framed for the duchy. By this instrument all power was in the hands of the duke, the nobles, and the upper classes generally, the lower classes being entirely unrepresented. In the early years of the French revolutionary wars Duke Freder­ ick Francis I. ( 1756-183 7) remained neutral, but in 1806 his land was overrun by the French and in 1808 he joined the Con­ federation of the Rhine. He was the first member of the confed­ eration to abandon Napoleon, to whose armies he had sent a contingent, and in ·1813-14 he fought against France. In 1815 he joined the Germanic Confederation (Bund) and took the title of grand duke. In 1819 s erfdom was abolished in his dominions. During t.he movement of 1848 the duchy wi tnessed a considerable agitation in favour of a more liberal constitution, but in the sub­ sequent reaction all the concessions which had been made to the democracy were withdrawn and further restrictive measures were introdured in 1851 and 1852. Mecklenburg-Strelitz adopted the c ons titution of the s ister duchy by an act of Sept. 1755. Having been a member of the alliance against Napoleon, its duke, Charles, joined the Germanic Confederation in I 8 I 5 and assumed the title of grand duke. In 1866 both the grand dukes of Mecklenburg joined the North German Confedera tion and in 1871 the two grand duchies became states of the Germ an empire. The power of both grand ducal lines was ended by the German revolution of I9I8. Su F. A. Rudloff, Pragmatisches Handbuch drr mrcklcnburgischen Geschichte (Schwerin, 178o-x822); C. C. F. von Liitzow, Versuch l'iner pragmatischen Geschichte von Mecklenburg ( B erlin, J8Z7-.H); Jahrbucher drs Vrreins fur mrcklcnburgische Grschichte und Alter­ tumskunde (Schwerin, 1836, fol.); C. Hegel, Gcschirlitr der mcckltn­ ll!lrgisrhm Landstiindc his 15!i5 (Rostock, 1856); Mrcklrnburgisches l'rkundrnlmrh (Schwerin, 1873-1903); A. Mayer, Geschichte des Grossherzogtums Mecklcnburg-Strelitz 1816-1890 (New Strel i tz, 1890); von Hirschfield, Friedrich Franz II., Grossher�og t•on Mecklenburg­ Scllwrrin und srinc l'orgiingrr (Leipzig, 1891); Volz, Frirdrich Franz 11. (Wismar, 1893) ; Bartold. Friedrich Wilhelm, Grossher:og von Mrrklrnhurg-Strrlitr; und Augusta Carolina (New Strelitz, 189.�); W. Raab e, Mrcklrnburgischr l'aterlandskunde (Wismar, 1894--96); C. Schrod!'r, Frirdrirh Fra11: Ill. (Schwerin, 189!1); Tolzien, Die Grouherziige von M t'cklrnburg-Schwrrin (Wismar, 1904).

MECKLENBURG DECLARATION OF INDEPEND­ ENCE, a document containing five resolutions embodying a

declaration of independem:e from England, adopted, it is claimed, at a meeting on May 20, I i7 5, of the citizens of Mecklenburg county, North Carolina. The declara t i on was first p rinted in the Raleig/1 Re�:ister for April 30, 1819, fr om a draft written from memory in x8oo by john M. Alexander, recording clerk of the meeting. No contemporary draft has ever been discovered and the question of the document's a uthenticity has given rise to a large

body of controversial literature. The best reasoned attack is W. H. Hoy t, The Mecklenburg Declaration of Independence (1907 ) , and the best reasone d reply is J. H. Moore, Defence of the Meck­ lenburg Declaration of Independence (zgo8). MEDALLION, in a rchi tec ture and the decorative arts, any o rnamental form with an oval or circular outline, differentiated from cartouche by the fact that its frame is extremely simple. MEDALS AND COINS: see NuMISMATics. MEDEA, a fam ous sorceress, daughter of Aeetes, king of Colchis (Gr. M�aE"£). She fell in love with jason the Argonaut, and exacted a terr ible revenge for his f aithlessness (see ARGO­ NAUTS and jASON). After the murder of jason's second wife and the dea th of her own children, she fled from Corinth in her car drawn by dragons, the gift of Helios, to Athens, where she mar­ ried king Aegeus, by whom she had a son, Medus. But the dis­ covery of an a t tempt on the life of Theseus, the son of Aegeus, forced her to leave Athens (Apollodorus i. 9, 28; Pausanias ii. 3, 6-u; D iod. Sic. iv. 45, 46, 54-56). Accompanied by her son she returned to Colchis, and restored her father to the throne, of which he had been deprived by his own brother Perses. Medus was regarded as the eponymous hero and progenitor of the Medes. Medea was honoured as a goddess at Corinth, and was said to have become the wife of Achilles in the Elysian fields. The chief seat of her cult, however, was Thessaly, which was always regard­ ed as the home of magic. The popularity of the story of Jason and Medea in antiquity is shown by the large amount of literature on the subject. To name extant works only, she figures largely in

Pindar (Fourth Pythian Ode), Euripides' Apollonius of Rhodes' Ovid (Heroidcs a1Jd Metamorplwnes), Seneca (Medea), Valerius Flaccus and several prose authors; her story was already known to some at least of the Cyclic poets. She is also a common subject in ancient art. Beginning as a heroine of fairy-tales, she acquires a more human and also more formidable character especially in Euripides. Srt the articles in Darembcrg and S agl i o 's Dictionnaire drs antiqui­ tes and Roscher's Lr.xikon dcr Mytlwlogic. MEDELLIN, a city of Colombia and capital of the depart­ ment of Antioquia, 150m. N.W. of Bogota, on a plateau of the Central Cordillera, 4,823 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (I918) 79.I46. Medellin, the foundation of which dates from 1674, stands in t.he valley o f the Porce, a tributary of the Cauca, and is reputed to be o ne of the heal thiest as well as one of the most attractive cities of the republic. It has a university, national college, school of mines and other e d uca tional institutions, assaying and refining l ab ­ oratories, a public library and a mint. The principal industry of the surrounding country is mining, and gold and silver arc ex­ ported i n considerable quantities.. Coffee and hides are also ex­ ported, but the trade of the cit y has bee n greatly impeded by diffi­ culties of transportation. A railwa y now connects Medellin with Puerto Berrio on the Magdalena, but due to the high mountain of La Quie bra it is divi ded into two sections: that of Del Nus, that runs from Puerto Berrio to Lim6n; and that of Del Porce, from Santiago to Medellin. A tunnel is in project to unite the two sections, now j oined by a motor road nine miles long. MEDENINE, a small town in southern Tunisia, 46 m. S.E. of Gabes. The military camp is the most important French post on the frontier of Tripoli, and Medenine is the chief pl ace of the southern territories of Tunisia. The Ksar (a fortified village), consists of an agglomeration of rhorfas-lon g , low-vaulted cham­ bers, piled one above the other four or five storeys high, and reached from the interior b y steps, while on the external side they form a continuous defensive wall, pierce d only by thr small w indows . MEDFORD, a city of Middlesex county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., on the Mystic river, 5 m. N. by "'· of Boston. It is served by the Boston and Maine railroad. The population was 39,038 in 1920 (22% foreign-born white), 47,627 in 1 92 5 (state census). and was estimated locally at ss,ooo in 1 928. The city occupies 8 sq .m. , N. of Somerville, between Everett on the east and Arlington on t he west. On its north-west border are the Mystic lakes, skirted by br oa d parkways of the Metro politan Park sys­ tem; and part of the Middlesex Fells reservation and most of the

Note: This page from 1929 edition.

MEDFORD-MEDIA �1ystic River reservation fall within its limits. On "the hill," partly in Medford and partly in Somerville, is the So ac. campus of Tufts college (founded by Universalists in 1S52), which has an endowment of about $7,500,000 and an enrollment of 2,194 in 1 926- 27, including 1,266 at the medical and dental schools con­ ducted in Boston. Medford has some of the oldest and most in­ teresting examples of domestic colonial architecture in New Eng­ land, i ncluding the so-called "Cradock hou!le" (1677-So), t he "Wellington house" (1657), and the "Royall house," part of which is o lder than either of the others. The publi c library is housed in the reconstructed residence of Thatcher Magoun (famous as a shipbuilder from 1So2 ) , and the Medford Historical society occu­ pies the house where Lydia Maria Child was born in 1 S0 2 . The city is largely a residential suburb of Boston, hut it bas a number of manufacturing industries, with an output in 1925 valued at $i ,014.465. The assessed valuation for 19�8 was $i s.s 18.5oo. The pla ntation of Mathew Cradock, first governor of the Massa­ rhusetts Hay Colony, covered a large part of the present area of M ed for d . In 1630 he sent out agents to settle his lands, and Governor W in throp 's "Te� Hills farm" (partly within thr city's present limits) was occupied soon afterwards. The manufacture of brick and tile was an i mport a nt industry in the lith century; shipbuilding in the 18th and first half of the 19th; and the dis­ tilling of rum throughout the 18th and 19th. The last keel was laid in 1873 and the last distillery was discont inued in 1905. Many of the famous privateers of the War of 181 2 were built here. Over the Cradock bridge across the Mystic (built in 1638) ran the principal thoroughfare from Boston to the north for 150 years . The course of Paul Revere's ride lay through Medford �quare, and wi thin half an hour after he had passed the Medford minute men were on their way to Lexing ton and Concord. After the battle of Saratoga many of Burgoyne's officers were quartered here for the winter. The Middlesex canal was opened through M edford in 1So3 and the first r ailro ad in 183 1. Medford was chartered as a city in 1 S92 . MEDFORD, a city of south-western Oregon, U.S.A.; the county seat of j ackson county and the metropolis of the Rogue river valley. It is on the Pacific highway; is a station on the Pacific coast air-mail route and has daily air passenger service to Portland and San Francisco ; and is served by the Southern Pa­ dfic railroad, a logging railway and motor-coach lines. Pop. (1920) 5,756 (94% native white); 1928 estimate u,soo. The c ounty has vast undeveloped natural resources, including 772,000 ar. of uncut timber a n d deposit s o f precious metals and many other minerals. About t o f its total land area is under cultiva­ tion, of which 40,000 ac. are irrigated. Fruit-growing, lumb ering, ,::eneral agricultur e , stock-raising and market-gardening arc the principa l industries. The region is famous for its pears, .which hrought a return of $4,000,000 for the season of 1927-2S. Med­ ford is a dist ributing point for these products, and has large fruit-packing and canning plants, cold-storage houses, a catsup fa ctory, lumber and planing mills, flour and grist mills, creameries, iron works and machine shops. The assessed valuation of prop­ erty in 1 92 S was $12,soo,ooo. Crater Lake Nationl!l Park is So m. N.E., and th e city is h eadquarters for the park service and for the Crater National Forest service. Medford was founded in 18i2, inco rporated as a town in 1884 and as a city in 1905, and became the county seat in 1927. MEDHURST, WALTER HENRY (1796-1857), English C ongregationalist missionary to China, was born in London and C' du ca ted at St. Paul's s chool. He was a missionary for the London M issiona ry Society at Shanghai from 1S42 to 1 856. He was a me m ber of a commi ttee of delega tes for the revision of existing Chinese versions of the Bible. The resul t was a ver sion in High Wen-Ii. With John Stronach he also transl at ed the New Testa­ ment into the Manda rin dialect of Nanking. Medhurst died in London on Jan. 24, 1S57. MEDIA, the ancient name of the north-western part of Iran, the country of the Medes, corresponding to the modern provinces ?f Azerbaijan, Ardelan, Irak Ajemi, and parts of Kurdistan. It �� sep arated from Armenia and the lowlands on the Tigris (As­ syria) by the mighty ranges of the Zagrus (mounta ins of Kurdis_

tan; in the northern part s probably called Choatras, Plin., v. 98), and in the north by tht' valley of the Araxes (Aras) . In the east it extends towards the Caspian sea; but the high chains of moun­ tains which surround the Caspian sea (the Parachoathras of the ancients and the Elbrus) separate it from the coast, and the narrow plains on the bordc.>r of the sea (Gilan, the country of the Gelac and Amardi, and Mazandaran, in ancient· times inhabit e d by the Tapuri ) cannot be reckoned as part of Media proper. The great er part of Media is a m ountai nous plateau, ahout 3.ooo­ s.oooft. above the sea; but it contains some fertile plain,s.. The climate is temperate, with cold winters, in strong contrast to the damp and unwholesome air of the shores of the Caspian. where the mountuins are covered with a rich vegetation. Media contains only one river , which reaches the sea, the Sefid Rud (Amardus) , which flows into the Caspian; hut a great. many streams are ex­ ha uste d after a short coursl', and in the north-west is a large lake, thc.> la ke of Urumiah or U rmia .1 From the mountains in the west spring some great tributaries of t he Tigris, viz. the Diyala (Gyn­ des) and the Kerkheh (Choaspe�). Towar ds the south-cast Media passes into the great central desert of Iran, which, eastwards of Rhagae (mod. Rai, near Tehera n) , in the region of the "Caspian �tates." reaches to the foot of the Elbrus chain. On a tract of about 150m. the western part of Iran is ronnected with the t•ast. {Khorasan, l'arthyaea) o n ly hy a narrow district (Choarene and Comisene) , where human dwellings and small villages can exist.. The people of ;the Mada, Medcs (the Greek form Mijoot is I on ia n for Mii&n) appear in history f1rst in 836 n.c., wh en the Assyrian conqul·ror Sha lmancscr II. in his wars against the tril)($ of -the Zagr us receh·cd -the tribute of the Amadai ( t his form. with pros t he tic a-, which occurs only here, has many unalogk"S in the names of Iranian tribes). His surct$Sors umfl>rtook many expe­ ditions against the Medes (Madai). Sargon in 715 B.C. subjertrcl them ''to thl� far mountain Bikn i" ; i.e., t.he Elbrus (Dt�mavcnd) and the borders of the desert, and received lhl� tr ibute of 28, and in 7 1 3 of 46 chieftains; from their names we lt·arn that they were an I ranian tribe and that they had already adopted the religion of Zor oaster. In spite of different. all cmpts of some chie ftain s I o shake off the Assyrian yoke, in connec tion with the northern bar­ barism, the Cimmcrians and the Ashguza ( per hnps the Sc ythia n s ), who had in va ded Armenia and Asia Minor, Media re mained trib­ utary t.o Assyria under Sargon's surcrssors, Sennacherib, Esar­ haddon an d A ssur-banipal. Herodotus, i. tor, gives a list. of six Median tr:bes ('ytvfa), among them the P aract ac cni , the inhabit ant s of the mountainous highlan d of Paractacene, the district of Is f ahan , and t.he Magi; i.e., the M agians, the he redi tary caste of the pri ests, who in Media took the 11lace of the "firc-kindlcrs" (atllra·vnn) of the Zoroas­ trian religi on , and who spread from Media to Persia and to the west. But the Iranian Ml•des we re not. the only inhabitants of the country. The names in the Assyrian inscriptions prove that the tribes in the Zagrus and .the northern parts of Media were not Iranians nor Indo-Europeans, hut an aboriginal population, like the early inhabitants of Armenia, perhaps connected with the numerous tribes of the Caucasus. We can sec how the Iranian element gradually became dominant: princes with Iranian names occasionally occur as rulers of these tribes. But the Gelae, Tapuri, Cadusii, Amardi, Utii and other tribes in Northern Media and on the shores of the Caspian were not Iranians. In the secon d half of the 7th century the Me dians gained their independence and were united by a dynasty, which, if we may trust Herodotus, derived its origin from Dcioces (q.v.) a Median chieftain in the Zagrus, who was, with his kinsmen, transported by Sargon to Hamath (Hamah) in Syria in 715 B.C. The origin and history of the Median Empire is quite obscure, as we possess only very scanty c ontempor ary information, and not a single in­ scription from Media itself. Our principal source is Herodotus. who wrongly makes Deioces the first king and unitcr of tht· whole nati on, and dates their in d ependc.>nce from c. 71o--i.c. from the time when the Assyrian supremacy was at its height. But his account contains real historical elements. whe reas the story which Ctesias gave (a list of nine kings, beginning with Arbaces, who is 'Anc. Mantiane, Strabo, xi. 529; Martianc, Ptol., vi. 2, 5·

Note: This page from 1929 edition.

172

MEDIA

said to have destroyed Nineveh about 880 B.C., preserved inDiod., ii. 32, seq. and copied by many later authors) has no historical value whatever, although some of his names may be derived from local traditions. According to Herodotus, Phraortes, the son of Deioces, was the first who attacked Nineveh, but was defeated and slain; and when his son Cyaxares renewed the attack, his progress was interrupted by an invasion of the Scythians, who founded an empire in western Asia, which lasted 28 years. This invasion of Asia by the Scythians appears to have greatly shaken the Assyrian empire; from Jeremiah and Zephaniah we know that a great invasion of Syria and Palestine by northern barbarians really took place in 626 s.c. Some stories in Herodotus show the Scythian warriors in connection with Cyaxares and the Medes; so the probable explanation is that the Babylonian annals generally give the title “King of the hosts of the Manda” to the Median kings; Manda is an old word for the nomadic tribes of the north, which is also applied to the Cimmerian chieftains. Until 1923 we knew practically nothing about the fall of the Assyrian empire. But in this year, a chronicle was discovered by

Gadd (the “Fall of Nineveh”) in the British Museum, which gives us the exact dates. From it we learn that Nabopolassar of Babylon and Cyaxares (Uvakishtar) of Media began the war against the Assyrians (who were supported by the Egyptians) in 616 B.c. In 612 the allies began the siege of Nineveh, which was stormed and destroyed. The last king, Siusharishkun, the Saracus of Berossus probably sought his death in the flames of his palace;

was united with the Alarodians and Saspirians in eastern Armenią, and formed the 18th satrapy (Herod., iii. 94; cf. v. 49, 52, vii, 72). When the empire decayed and the Carduchi and other moun. tainous tribes made themselves independent, eastern Armenią became a special satrapy, while Assyria seems to have been united with Media; therefore Xenophon in the Anabasis, ii. 4, 27; vi

5, 153 vii. 8, 25; cf. ili, 4, 8 sqq. always designates Assyria by the

name of Media. Alexander occupied Media in the summer of 330; in 328 he

appointed as satrap Atropates, a former general of Darius (Ar. rian, iii. 8, 4, iv. 18, 3, vi. 29, 3), whose daughter was married to Perdiccas in 324 (Arrian, vii. 4, 5). In the partition of his em. pire southern Media was given to the Macedonian Peithon; but the north, which lay far off and was of little importance for the generals who fought for the inheritance of Alexander, was left to Atropates. While southern Media with Ecbatana passed to the rule of Antigonus, and afterwards (about 310) to Seleucus I, Atropates maintained himself in his satrapy and succeeded in founding an independent kingdom. Thus the partition of the country, which the Persian had introduced, became lasting; the

north was named Atropatene after the founder of the dynasty, a name which is preserved in the modern Azerbaijan. The capital was Gazaca in the central plain, and the strong castle Phraaspa (Dio Cass., xlix. 26; Plut., Anton., 38; Ptol, vi. 2, 10) or Vera

(Strabo, xi. 523), probably identical with the great ruin Takhti Suleiman, with remains of Sassanid fire-altars and of a later but an offspring of this dynasty, Ashuruballit, still maintained palace. The kings had a strong and warlike army, especially the fragments of his kingdom for some years in Harran (Carr- cavalry (Polyb., v. 55; Strabo, xi. 253). Nevertheless, King Artahae), until this town also was taken by the Medes. bazanes was forced by Antiochus the Great in 220 to conclude The victors divided the provinces between themselves. Syria a disadvantageous treaty (Polyb., v. 55), and in later times the with Palestine and the south of Mesopotamia fell to the Chal- rulers became in turn dependent on the Parthians, on Tigranes of daean empire of Babylon; the Median king ruled over the great- Armenia and then Rome. Pompey defeated their King Darius est part of Iran, Assyria and northern Mesopotamia, Armenia and (Appian, Mithr. 108), Antonius invaded Atropatene,—Augustus Cappadocia. His power was very dangerous to their neighbours, received the homage of their kings. In the time of Strabo (an. and the exiled Jews expected the destruction of Babylonia by the 17), the dynasty existed still (p. 523); in later times the country Medes (Isa. xii., xiv., xxi.; Jerem. 1. li.), and Nebuchadrezzar seems to have become a Parthian province, tried to secure his kingdom by great fortifications, canals and Southern Media remained a province of the Seleucid empire walls against the menace from the north. He succeeded in estab- for a century and a half, and Hellenism was introduced everylishing a state of equilibrium for half a century, further secured where. “Media is surrounded everywhere by Greek towns, in by an intermarriage between the dynasties. When Cyaxares at- pursuance of the plan of Alexander, which protect it against the tacked Lydia, the kings of Cilicia and Babylon intervened and neighbouring barbarians,” says Polybius (x. 27). Only Ecbatana negotiated a peace in 585, by which the Halys was established as retained its old character. But Rhagae became a Greek town, the boundary. Europus; and with it Strabo (xi. 524) names Laodicea, Apamea, About the internal organization of the Median Empire we know Heraclea or Achais (cf. Plin., vi. 48). Most of them were founded only that the Greeks derive a great part of the ceremonial of the by Seleucus I. and his son Antiochus I. In 221, the satrap Molon Persian court, the costume of the king, etc., from Media, But it tried to make himself independent (there exist bronze coins with is certain that the national union of the Median clans was the his name and the royal title), together with his brother Alexander, work of their kings; and probably the capital Ecbatana (g.v.) satrap of Persis, but they were defeated and killed by Antiochus was created by them. the Great. In the same way, in 161, the Median satrap Timarchus By the rebellion of Cyrus, king of Persia, against his suzerain took the diadem and conquered Babylonia; on his coins he calls Astyages, the son of Cyaxares, in 553, and his victory in 550, the himself “the great King Timarchus”; but this time again the Medes were subjected to the Persians. In the new empire they legitimate king, Demetrius I., succeeded in subduing the rebellion, retained a prominent position; in honour and war they stood next and Timarchus was slain. But with Demetrius I. the dissolution to the Persians; the ceremonial of their court was adopted by the of the Seleucid empire begins, which was brought on chiefly by new sovereigns who in the summer months resided in Ecbatana, the intrigues of the Romans, and shortly afterwards, about 150, and many noble Medes were employed as officials, satraps and the Parthian king, Mithridates I. (g.v.), conquered Media (Jusgenerals. After the assassination of the usurper Smerdis, a Mede tin, xli. 6). From this time Media remained subject to the Fravartish (Phraortes), who pretended to be of the race of Cyax- Arsacids, who changed the name of Rhagae, or Europus, into ares, tried to restore the Median kingdom, but was defeated by Arsacia (Strabo, xi. 524), and divided the country into five small the Persian generals and executed in Ecbatana (Darius in the provinces (Isidorus Charac,). From the Arsacids or Parthians, Behistun imscr.). Another rebellion, in 409, against Darius II. it passed in A.D. 226 to the Sassanids, together with Atropatene. (Xenophon, Hellen., i. 2, 19) was of short duration. But the non- By this time the old tribes of Aryan Iran had lost their character Aryan tribes of the north, especially the Cadusians, were always and had been amalgamated into the one nation of the Iranians. troublesome; many abortive expeditions of the later kings against The revival of Zoroastrianism, whıch was enforced everywhere them are mentioned. by the Sassanids, completed this development. It was only then Under the Persian rule the country was divided into two sat- that Atropatene became a principal seat of fire-worship, with rapies. The south, with Ecbatana and Rhagae (Rai), Media many fire-altars. Rhagae now became the most sacred city of the proper, or “Great Media,” as it is often called, formed in Darius’ empire and the seat of the head of the Zoroastrian hierarchy; the organization the eleventh satrapy (Herodotus, iii. 92), together Sassanid Avesta and the tradition of the Parsees therefore con with the Paricanians and Orthocorybantians; the north, the dis- sider Rhagae as the home of the family of the Prophet. Hencetrict of Matiane (see above), together with the mountainous forth the name of Media is used only as a geographical term and districts of the Zagros, and Assyria proper (east of the Tigris) begins to disappear from the living language: in Persian traditions

MEDIA—MEDICAL it occurs under the modern form Mék

AND

SURGICAL

SOCIETIES

173

(Armen. Mai; in Syriac

Paris, concluded in the same year, stipulated that “if there should the old name Madaz is preserved; cf. Marquart, Eranshahr, 18, arise between the Sublime Porte and one or more of the other geq.). Powers any misunderstanding which might endanger | signing For Mohammedan history see CALIPHATE; for'later history the maintenance of their relations, the Porte and each of such SeLJuKS and PERSIA. (Ep. M.) Powers, before having recourse to the use of force, shall afford MEDIA, a borough of Pennsylvania, U.S.A., county seat of | the other contracting parties the opportunity of preventing such Delaware county, 8 m. W. of Philadelphia, on the Pennsylvania | an extremity by means of mediation.” These precedents (in which railway and Federal highway 1. It has a municipal airport. Pop. | it will be seen that “good offices” and “mediation” are used inter(1920) 4,109 (80% native white); and 5,372 in 1930. Media | changeably) were followed in the general act agreed to at the was founded by the Friends in 1682. There is still a large ; Conference held at Berlin in 1884-85, the object of which was to Quaker element in the population. The borough was incor- secure religious and commercial liberty and to limit warlike porated in 1850. operations in the Congo basin. MEDIAN, the point on a statistical scale of the distribution A special form of mediation was adopted by The Hague Peace of cases, above which and below which lie exactly so% of the Conferences of 1899 and 1907. It was provided that, before an cases. The median is thus a measure of “central tendency.” It appeal to arms or during hostilities, a Power not a party to the has the advantage over the arithmetical mean or “average” that dispute shall be entitled to offer good offices or mediation to the it is not affected by unusually high or low values of the variable. States at variance, and that the exercise of this right shall not For instance, given the values 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 100, the median is 6, be regarded by either of the parties in dispute as an unfriendly and the arithmetic mean is rọ. For some purposes the median act. (M. H. C.; H. H. L. B.) value better describes the central tendency of such a series. MEDIATIZATION, the process by which at the beginning In a triangle, a line drawn from any vertex to the mid-point of the roth century, a number of German princes, hitherto soverof the opposite side. The three medians of a triangle meet in a eign as holding immediately of the emperor, were deprived of point which is two-thirds of the distance from each vertex to the their sovereignty and mediatized by being placed under that of mid-point of the. opposite side. This point is the centroid of the other sovereigns. triangle, and is its centre of gravity. See August Wilhelm Heffter Die Sonderrechte der Souverinen und seam eatmems Ante

MEDIANT, a term in music signifying the note occupying the third degree of the diatonic scale (e.g., E in the key of C),

fe 7ediaiisirten,

vormals

reichsstindischen

Häuser

Deutschlands

Io7I}.

the name being derived from the fact that the note in question

MEDICAL AND SURGICAL SOCIETIES. The first meeting of the Congrés Médical International was held at Paris in nant (the fifth). (See Harmony.) 1867; a Bulletin has been issued annually since 1868, and the first MEDIATION, in international law the intervention of a Surgical Congress was held in Paris in 1885. The first Congrés third Power, on the invitation or with the consent of two other Périodique Internat. d’Ophthalmoiogie took place at Brussels in Powers, for the purpose of arranging differences before an appeal 1857. The Royal Colleges of Physicians and of Surgeons of to arms or after war has broken out. In either case the mediating London, Edinburgh and Dublin do not come within our scope. Power negotiates on behalf of the parties who invoke or accept The Medical Society of London (1773) is the oldest in the its aid, but does not go further. Unlike an arbitrating Power the metropolis; it has issued Memoirs (1787-1805), Transactions mediator limits his intervention to suggestion and advice. His (1810, etc.), and Proceedings (1872, etc.). The Royal Society of action is liable to be arrested at any time at the will of either party Medicine was formed, by Royal charter, in 1907 by the amalgaunless otherwise agreed, in which case to arrest it prematurely mation of the following societies: Roy. Med. and Chir. Soc. would be a breach of good faith. (1805), Pathological Soc. (1846), Epidemiological Soc. (1850), Of successful mediation in the strict sense there have been Odontol. Soc. of Gt. Britain (1856), Obstetrical Soc. (1858), many instances: that of Great Britain, in 1825, between Portu- Clinical Soc. (1867), Dermatological Soc. of London (1882), gal and Brazil; of France, in 1849—50, when differences arose British Gynaecological Soc. (1884), Neurolog. Soc. (1886), Britbetween Great Britain and Greece; of the Great Powers, in 1868— ish Laryngol. Rhinol. and Otological Assoc. (1888), Laryngol. Soc. 69, when the relations of Greece and Turkey were strained to (1893), Soc. of Anaesthetists (1893), Dermatol. Soc. of Gt. Brit. breaking-point by reason of the insurrection in Crete;-of Pope and Ireland (1894), Otological Soc. (1899), Soc. for Study of Leo XIII., in 1885, between Germany and Spain in the matter Diseases in Children (1900), British Electro-therapeutic Soc. of the Caroline islands. In these cases mediation averted war. (rg01) and the Therapeutical Soc. (1902). Most of these societies stands mid-way between the tonic (the first note) and the domi-

The Austro-Prussian War of 1866, the war between Chile and Peru in 4882, that between Greece and Turkey in 1897, and that between Russia and Japan in 1905 are instances of wars brought to a close through the mediation of neutral Powers. Mediation has also been occasionally employed where differences have arisen as to the interpretation of treaties or as to the mode

in which they ought to be carried out; as when Great Britain mediated between France and the United States with regard to the Treaty of Paris of July 4, 1830. In one case at least mediation has been successful after a proposal for arbitration had failed. In 1844, when war between Spain and Morocco was threatened by reason of the frequent raids by the inhabitants of the Rif on the Spanish settlement of Ceuta, Spain declined arbitration on the ground that her rights were too clear for argument.

But

both she and Morocco subsequently accepted joint mediation at the hands of Great Britain and France. The cause of mediation was considerably advanced by the Declaration of Paris of 1856. The plenipotentiaries of Great Britain, France, Austria, Russia, Sardinia and Turkey recorded in a protocol, at the instance of Lord Clarendon, their joint wish that

“States between which any misunderstanding might arise should, before appealing to arms, have recourse so far as circumstances might allow (en tant que les circonstances Vadmettraient) to the good offices of a friendly Power.”

Article 8 of the Treaty of

had separate Transactions or Proceedings which are now incorporated in the Proc. Roy. Soc. Med. Other British or London societies (past and present) include the Abernethian Society (1795), which issues Proceedings; Anatomical Soc. of Gt. Brit. and Ireland (1887); British Dental Association (1880), with a Journal (1880, etc.); British Homoeopathic Association (1859),

with Annals (1860, etc.); British Medical Association

(1832),

which has more than forty home and colonial branches, and pub-

lishes British Medical Journal (1857, etc.); Hahnemann Publishing Society (1852), Materia Medica (1852, etc.); Harveian Society (1831); Hunterian Society (1819), Trans.; Lister Institute (incorp. 1891); Meditco-Legal Soc. of London, Trans.; MedicoPsycholog. Assn. of Gt. Britain and Ireland (1841, incorp. 1895); New Sydenham Society (1858), which published Biennial Retrospect (1867, etc.), and translations and reprints of books and papers

of value, succeeded

the old Sydenham Society

(1844-

1858), which issued 40 vols.; Ophthalmological Society (1880), Trans.; Pathological Society of Gt. Brit. and Ireland, Jour. of Pathology and Bacteriology; Pharmaceutical Society (1841), with museum, Pharmaceutical Journal (1842, etc.); Physiological Association (1876), Journ. of Physiology (1878, etc.); Brit. Psycholog. Soc., Brit. In. Med. Psychol. ; Soc. for Study of Inebriety (1884), Brit. Jn. of Inebriety; Med. Of. Health Assn. (1884), Jn. of School Hygiene; Roy. Med. Psychol. Assn. (1926), Jn. of M ensal

174

MEDICAL

AND

SOCIETIES

SURGICAL

Sci.; Roy. Soc. of Med. and Hyg., Trans.; Assn. Physicians Gt. Brit. and Ireland, Quarterly Jn. Med.; Röntgen Soc. now merged into the Institute of Radiology, Journal; Royal Institute of Public Health (1886, incorp. 1892), Journ. Royal Sanitary Institute (1876, incorp. 1888), the council of which appoints examiners, directs Parkes Museum, founded in 1876 in memory of Dr. E. A. Parkes: Society of Medical Officers of Health (1856), Trams. and Public Health: Soc. of Public Analysts, Analyst. The provincial societies are very numerous and include: Bradford, Med. Cher. Soc. (1863); Bristol, Med. Chir. Soc.; Cardiff, Med. Soc. (1870) ; Liverpool, Sch. of Tropical Med. (1898, incorp. 1905), Memoirs; Manchester, Med. Soc. (1848); Newcastle-upon-Tyne, North. and

Durham Med. Soc. (1848). Dublin, Roy. Acad. of Med. in Ireland (1882), Trans. (1883, etc.); Pharmac. Soc. of Ireland (1875). Edinburgh, Roy. Med. Soc. (1737; charter 1778); Harveian Soc. (1752); Medico-Chirurg. Soc. (1821), Trans. (1824, etc.); and Obstetrical Soc. (1840). Aberdeen, Med. Chir. Soc. (1789). Glasgow, Medico-Chirurg. Soc. (1866), based upon Med. Soc. and

Med.-Chirurg. Soc. (both 1814), joined by Path. Soc. in 1907. AUSTRALIA: Melbourne, Med. Soc. of Victoria, Austr. Med. Journ, (1856, etc.). CANADA: Montreal, Union Méd. du Canada, Revue (1872, etc.); Canada Med. Assoc., Trans. (1877, etc.). Inpta: Bombay, Med. and Physical Soc., Trans. (1838, etc.). Calcutta, Med. Soc., Trans. (1883, etc.).

(1844), Bull.; Assoc. Int. de VInst. Marey (1898) (for examining

Rouen,

and apparatus), Bull., Travaux.

physiological methods

Soc. de Méd. (1821), Union Méd. (1861, etc.); Soc. Libre des Pharmaciens (1802), Bull. Toulouse, Soc. de Méd. (x801), Bull and Revue (1867, etc.). Tours, Soc. Méd. (1801). GERMANY and AUSTRIA-HUNGARY: Deutscher Arztevereinsbund (1872), Ver.

kandl.; Central Ver. d. Zahnärzte (1859), Mittheil.; D. Veterinär. rath (1874); D. Apotheker-Ver. (1820), Archiv (1822, etc),

Berlin, Ver. f. Heilkunde (1832), Magazin (1835, etc.); Ges. }

Geburtshilfe u. Gynaekologie (1876), Ztschr. (1877, etc.); Ges. f, Heilkunde

(1853); Berl. Med.

Ges.

(1860),

Verhandl.

(1865,

etc.); Physiolog. Ges. (1875), Verhandl. (1877, etc.); D. Ver.f Med.

Statistik

(1868);

Ver. Homöop.

Ärzte

(1871), Ztschr,

(1882, etc.); D. Ges. f. Chirurgie (1872), Verhandl. Bonn, Ver. band der Ärztl. Vereine (1865). Breslau, Ver. f. Physiolog. Hei-

kunde (1848), Ztschr. (1850, etc.); Verband d. Schles. Arzte-Ver, (1878). Cologne, Rhein. Med.-Chirurg. Ver. (1848), Organ (1852, etc.). Darmstadt, Arztl. Kreisver. (1844). Dresden, Ges. f. Natur- u. Heil-Kunde (1818), Jahresber. (1848, etc.). Erlangen Physik.-Med. Soc. (1808), Sitzungsber. (1870, etc.). Frankfort, Arztl. Ver. (1845), Jahresber. (1857, etc.). Hamburg, Arztl. Ver, (1816); Deutsche Ges. fiir Gesch. der Medizin (1901), Mitteil, Hanover, Ver. Analyt. Chemiker (1878). Heidelberg, Ophthal,

Ges. (1857).

Jena, Med.-naturwissenschaftliche

Ges. (1854),

Zeitschr. (1874, etc.). Königsberg, Ver. f. wiss. Heilkunde (1851), etc.): Amer. Dental Assoc., Trans. (1860, etc.); and Amer. Inst. Leipzig, Med. Ges. (1829); Ges. f. Geburtschülfe (1854), Mittof Homoeop., Trans. (1878, etc.). The headquarters of the Amerz- keil.; Homöop. Central-Ver. (1829); Magdeburg, D. Chirurgencan Medical Association (1847) are at Chicago; it publishes a Ver. (1844), Ztschr. (1847, etc.). Munich, Arztl. Ver. (1833), Journal. The American Surgical Association (1880) unites at Int.-Blatt (1854, etc.). Strasburg, Soc. de Méd. (1842), Mém, Washington every third year with the Congress of American Phy- (1850, etc.); Soc. Vétérin. (1864); Medizinisch.-Naturwissersicians and Surgeons. The State medical associations include those schafilicher Ver. (1873). Stuttgart, Wirttemb. Arztl. Ver. (1831), of Alabama, Trans. (1869, etc.); Georgia, Trans. (1873, etc.); Corr.-Blatt (1832, etc.); Hahnemannia (1868), Mittheil. (1873, Maine, Trans. (1853, etc.); Missouri, Trans. (1851, etc.); and etc.); Apotheker-Ver. (1822), Pharm. Wochenblati (1861, etc.). South Carolina, Trans. The State medical societies include those Vienna, K. k. Ges. der Arzte, Ztschr. (1844, etc.); Ges. fiir innere of Arkansas, Trans. (1877, etc.); California, Trans. (1870, etc.); Medizin u. Kinderheilkunde, Med. Wochenschrift. Weimar, MedIllinois, Trens. (1851, etc.); Kansas, Trans. (1867, etc.); Michi- naturwiss. Ver. (1863). Wirzburg, Physikal.-med. Ges. (1849), gam Trens. (1869, etc.); Minnesota, Trans. (1874, etc.); Ne- Verhandl. (1850, etc.). SWITZERLAND: Geneva, Soc. Méd. Zitich, braska, Trans. (1869, etc.); New Jersey, Trans. (1859, etc.); Soc. de Méd.; Schweiz. Apotheker-Ver. Iraty: Bologna, Soe. Pennsylvania, Trams. (1851, etc.); Rhode Island, Trans. (1877, Med.-chirurg. Genoa, Accad. Med.-chirurg. Milan, Soc. Ital. @ Unirep States: Amer. Pub. Health Assoc., Reports (1873,

etc.); Texas, Trans. (1874); and Wisconsin, Trans. (1880, etc.). To these have to be added the following town associations. Albany, Med. Soc., Journal (1807, etc.)}. Baltimore, Med. and Chirurg. Faculty of Maryland, Trans. (1856, etc.). Boston, Amer. Gynascolog. Soc., Trans. (1876, etc.); Mass. Medico-Legal Soc., Trans. (1878, etc.). Denver, Acad. of Med. (1903). New York, Acad, of Med., Trans. (1847, etc.) and Bull. (1860, etc.); Med. Soc., Trans. (1815, etc.); Medico-Chirurg. Soc., Trans. (1878, ete.); Amer. Surg. Assoc., Trans. (1883, etc.);Medico-Legal Sac., Sanitarian (1873, etc.); Amer. Ophthalmolog. Soc., Trans. (1865, etc.); Path. Soc. (1844), Trams. (1875-1879), Proc. (1888, etc.). Philadelphia, Med. Soc., Trans. (1850, etc.); Obstet. Soc., Trans. (1869, etc.); Amer. Pharm. Assoc., Proc.; Patholog. Soc. (1857), Trans, (1897, etc.); Coll. of Physicians (1787); Amer. Soc. of

Igiena. Modena, Soc. Med.-chirurg. Naples, Real Accad. Medchirurg. Palermo, R. Accad. delle Sc. Med. (1649), Atti (1889, etc.). Rome, R. Istit. Fisico-patologico. Turin, Accad. Real Med.-

Tropical Med. (1903). Richmond, Med. Soc., Trans. (1871, etc.). France: Besançon, Soc. de Méd. (1845), Bull. (1845, etc.). Bordeaux, Soc. de Méd. (1798), Journ. (1829, etc.); Soc. de Pharm. (1834), Bull. (1860, etc.); Soc. de Méd. et de Chirurg.; Soc. @’Anat. et de Physiol. (1879), Bull. (1880). Caen, Soc. de Méd. (1799; known by its present name since 1875), Journal (1829), Mém. (1869). Chambéry, Soc. de Méd. (1848), Comptes rend, (1848, etc.) and Bull. (2859, etc.). Grenoble, Soc. de Méd. Havre, Soc. de Pharm. (1858), Mém. Lille, Soc. de Méd. (1843), Buil. (1845, etc.) Lyons, Soc. Nat. de Méd. (1789), Le Lyon

macie. Batavia (Java), Geneeskundige Vereeniging.

méd. (1869, etc.). Marseilles, Soc. de Méd. (1800), Comptes

chirurg. Breucrum: Antwerp, Soc. de Méd. (1839), Annales. Brussels, Acad. Roy. de Méd. (1841), Bull. (1841, etc.) and Mém. (1843, etc.); Soc. Roy. de Pharm. (1845), Bull.; Soc. d Anat. Patholog. (1846), Annales; Soc. Belge de Méd. Homoeop.; Soe. Roy. des Sc. Méd. et Nat. (1822), Journal (1842, etc.), Annales (1892, etc.), Bulletin (1843, etc.) ; Inst. Soluay de Physiol. (1894), with electro-physiological, chemical, embryological and _ other

laboratories, and lecture hall. Annales.

Liége,

Soc.

Ghent, Soc. de Méd. (1834),

Méd.-chirurg.

Horztanp:

Amsterdam,

Genootschap ter Bevordering der Genees- en Heel-Kunde, Verhandel. (1841, etc.); Nederl. Maatschappij ter Bevord. der PharCopenhagen,

K. Med.

Selskab;

Veterinaer

Selskab.

DENMARK: NORWAY:

Oslo, Med. Selskab, Magazin (1840, etc.). SwepEn: Stockholm, Farmaceutiska Inst.; Svenska Läkaresällskapet (1808),

Handl.

(1813, etc.). Upsala, Lakareférenig, Foérhandl. (186s,

etc.). Spain: Madrid, R. Acad. Med. (1732). Porruca: Lisbox, Soc. de Sc. Med. (1838), Jornal (1835, etc.); Soc, Pharm.

Lusitana.

Russıa:

Läkaresällskapet

Dorpat, Pharm. Soc.

(1835), Handl.

(1841).

Soc. Riga, Soc. of Practical Physicians. Practical Physicians; Imp. Pharm. Soc.

Helsingfors, Finska

Moscow, Phys.-med.

Leningrad, Soc. of

Vilna, Imp. Med. Soe.

rend. (1826—1853) and Le Mars. méd. (1869, etc.); Soc. Méd.- (1805), Protokoly. Warsaw, Med.-Chirurg. Soc. Tomsk (Siberia), Chsrurg. (1872). Paris, Soc. de Méd. Pratique (1808), Bull. ; Soc. of Naturalists and Physicians (1889), Protocol, RUMANIA: Asad. Nat. de Méd. (1820); Soc. Nat. de Chirurg. (1843, reor- Jassy, Soc. of Naturalists and Physicians (1830), Buletimul, ganized 1859), Mém. (1847, etc.) and Bull. (1851, etc.); Soc. GreEEcE: Athens, Soc. Méd. Turxey: Constantinople, Soc. Imh. Amat. (1803), Bull. (1826, etc.); Soc. Clinique, Bull. (1877, etc.); de Méd.; Soc. de Pharm. Centray and SourH AMERICA: Buengs Sac. Méd. des Hôpitaux, Bull. (1849, etc.); Soc. Méd. Légale; Aires, Asoc. Med. Caracas, Escuela Med. Guadalajara (Mexico), Sec. de Pharm. (1803), Journ. (1815, etc.); Soc. de Thérapeu- Soc. Med. Merida' (Mexico), Soc. Med. Mexico, Acad. de Med.} Wane; Soc. Fran, de Hygiene; Soc. Centr. de Méd. Vétérinaire Soc. Med. Monte Video, Soc. de Med. Rio de Janeiro, Institut

MEDICAL

ARTICLES

175

Oswaldo Crus, formerly Instituto de M anguinhos (for the promo- | macological action and its uses. In many instances a bibliography

tion of experimental pathology); Soc. Med. e Cirurgia, Santiago,

Soc. y

Tokyo, Soc. for Adv. of Med. Sc., Trans.

1885, etc.).

i New York Academy of Medicine.—This is an American association which was founded in 1847 to advance medical education, to aid the scientifc development of its members and to make progress in all matters relating to public health. It has (1928) 1,690 fellows and 38 honorary fellows. The library is one of the largest in the United States and contains 150.256 volumes, 104,564 octavo pamphlets, 9,720 quarto pamphlets and subscribes to 1,570 current serials. It is open to the public daily as well as

to its fellows

(except Dec. 25 and July 4). The Bureau of

Clinical Information, maintained by the Committee on Medical Education, offers detailed information regarding all medical activities in New York and other cities of the United States, Canada and in European centres. The Committee on Public Health Relations gathers and publishes pertinent information with regard to health activities of the municipal and voluntary social service

agencies. The stated meetings of the academy and those of its various sections are open to physicians and medical students as

well as to its fellows.

MEDICAL

ARTICLES.

Under the general subject of

Medicine several subdivisions are included, viz., Anatomy, Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Pathology, Midwifery and Diseases of Women, Surgery, Medicine, Public Health, Tropical Medicine, Veterinary Medicine. In each instance a general article is given in which the scope of the subject is presented, but in addition so many special articles are included that they must be indicated in separate paragraphs.

Anatomical Articles.—In a general article on ANATOMY the subject is reviewed particularly from the superficial and artistic points of view and also in respect of the modifications introduced by X-ray examination during recent years. In addition to numerous smaller articles which are included on special subjects, the ALIMENTARY CANAL, ARTERIES, Brain, CONNECTIVE TISSUES, DucTLess GLANDS, Ear, Eve, Heart, Jornts, Liver, LymuPHATIC SYSTEM, MUSCULAR SYSTEM, NERVE, Nervous SysTEM, REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM, RESPIRATORY SYSTEM, SKELETON, SKIN AND EXOSKELETON, SKULL, SPINAL CoRD, TEETH, URINARY SYSTEM and VEINS receive extended notice. Numerous illustrations are included and though the subjects are treated primarily from the human point of view subsections deal with the comparative anatomical and embryological aspects. Adequate bibliographies are given at the end of most of the articles. Bacteriological Articles.—The main subject is treated under the headings of BACTERIA AND DISEASE, and in the articles on Bacteriology: FILTER PASSING VIRUSES, IMMUNITY, PHAGOCYTOSIS, SERUM THERAPY, VACCINE THERAPY. In addition all diseases of known or suspected dependence upon bacterial infection, e.g., diphtheria, measles, food poisoning, carry some reference to the bacterial factor inculpated. In INFLAMMATION AND ITS SEQUELS a broad survey is given of the response of the body to bacterial and non-bacterial irritants and the points of similarity and of diference are contrasted. Closely akin to this group is that on Parasıtıc DISEASES in which are described the characters and effects of various naked-eye and microscopic animal parasites

of recent work on the particular subject is appended. Pathological Articles——Some indication of the known or suspected pathology is given in the case of all diseases, but special articles of a pathological kind are contained in PATHOLOGY, ANAPHYLAXIS, ÅTROPHY, HYPERTROPHY, BLOOD TRANSFUSION, CANCER RESEARCH, HAEMORRHAGE, INFLAMMATION AND ITS SEQUELS, MoNSTER, NEUROPATHOLOGY, PAIN (SIGNIFICANCE OF),

SHOCK AND COLLAPSE, Tumours. In this connection a knowledge of the normal appearances is necessary and reference must be made to the various anatomical articles (see ANATOMICAL ARTICLES) as well as to those which deal with EprrHerium, ENDOTHELIUM, CONNECTIVE TISSUES, MUSCLE (STRUCTURE OF), GLANDS, etc. Shorter articles deal with ABSCESS, ALCOHOL (PATHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF), ANKYLOSIS, AUTOPSY, BEDSORE,

BLisTER, BuNIoN, CaLcuLr (with colour plate), CAaRBUNCLE, Corn, Drzatation, Empyesra, Frostsirr, Narvus, NECROSIS, GANGRENE, ULCER, etc. Midwifery and Diseases of Women.—tThe chief articles in this subsection are ABORTION, BIRTH CONTROL, EMBRYO, GYNAEcoLocy, MENSTRUATION, ÛBSTETRICS, PLACENTA, PUERPERAL Fever. Shorter articles are on CAESAREAN SECTION, MENOPAUSE, OVARIOTOMY, TWILIGHT SLEEP. Surgery.—Principle articles are on ABDOMEN (SURGERY OF), APPENDICITIS, BONES (DISEASES OF), BRAIN (SURGERY OF), CANCER, DENTISTRY, EAR, NOSE AND THROAT (DISEASES OF), HEART AND LUNG (SURGERY OF), HERNIA, INTESTINAL OBSTRUCTION, JOINTS (DISEASES AND INJURIES OF), MAMMARY GLAND (DISEASES OF), OPHTHALMOLOGY, ORTHOPAEDIC SURGERY, PERITONITIS, SEPSIS, SKULL (SURGERY OF), SPINAL COLUMN AND Corp (suRGERY OF), UroLocy, VENEREAL Diseases. Important shorter articles are on Boop Lettinc, BURNS AND SCALDS, CLEFT PALATE AND Harr Lip, CLus-Foot, FistuLa, FRACTURES, HAEMORRHODS, PHLEBITIS, REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM (SURGERY OF), BLADDER AND PROSTATE (DISEASES OF), STOMACH (DISEASES OF), TETANUS, VARICOSE VEINS, WounpD. In addition numerous small articles of about a quarter page are given on subjects of surgical interest. Medicine.—In this subsection is included the greater number of subjects contained in a single subsection. Besides important articles on MEDICINE (HISTORY OF), MEDICINE (GENERAL), MEDICAL EDUCATION, MEDICAL LEGISLATION, MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE, MrepicaL RESEARCH, authoritative articles are presented on ALIMENTARY SYSTEM (DISEASES OF), ANAEMIA, CHILDREN (DISEASES OF), DIABETES, DIAGNOSIS, DIPHTHERIA, ENCEPHALitis LetHarcicA, Epitepsy, Epreptic Fit, Gour, HEART (DISEASES OF), HypropHosiA, INFLUENZA, INSANITY, KIDNEY (DISEASES OF), LIVER AND GALL-BLADDER (DISEASES OF), MEASLES, METABOLIC DISEASES, PARALYSIS, PARANOIA, PARATYPHOID FEVERS,

PNEUMONIA,

PsycHosis,

PSYCHIATRY,

RESPIRATORY

SYSTEM (DISEASES OF), RHEUMATISM, SCARLET FEVER, SKIN DISEASES, SMALLPOX, TusBeRrcuULosIs, TYPHOID FEVER, TYPHUS FEveR. Shorter but also authoritative articles cover most of the diseases affecting man, e.g., ANGINA PEctroris, APOPLEXxY, BLINDNESS (CAUSES OF), BRONCHITIS, CONVULSIONS, DEAF-MUTISM, Dropsy, Dyspepsia, GASTRIC AND DUODENAL ULCER, GOITRE, Hook Worm, Insect Stincs anp BITES, JAUNDICE, LARYNGITIS,

Locomotor Ataxia, MIGRAINE, NEURASTHENIA, RIcKETs, St. affecting man and lower animals. An adequate bibliography is Vitus’ DANCE, TONSILLITIS, WHOOPING COUCH. placed at the end of each article. Public Health.—Articles are presented on ABATTOIR, SLAUGHPharmacological Articles.—General articles are those on TER-HOUSE, ADULTERATION, AMBULANCE, CREMATION, DROWNING PHARMACY, PHARMACOLOGY and PHARMACOPOEIA. In addition to AND LIFE-SAVING, ENToMoLOcY (MEDIcAL), EpmemzoLocy, Foop shorter notices on the great majority of drugs found in the most (PURE), HOSPITALS, VACCINATION in addition to general articles on important pharmacopoeias there are special articles of greater PREVENTIVE MEDICINE and Pusirc HEALTH. length on ANAESTHESIA AND ANAESTHETICS, ANTISEPTICS AND Tropical Medicine.—Longer articles are on CHOLERA, DysENASEPSIS, BALNEOTHERAPEUTICS, ELECTROTHERAPY, POISONS, TERY, Leprosy, MaLaria, PLAGUE, SLEEPING SICKNESS and YELRADIOTHERAPY, RapiumM THERAPY and SUNLIGHT TREATMENT. LOW Fever. Shorter articles include those on BERI-BERI, Important drugs like CALABAR BEAN, DIGITALIS, BELLA-DONNA, BILHARZIOSIS, BLACKWATER FEveR, DENGUE, Kata-Azar, CINCHONA BARK, ALKALOIDS OF, OPIUM and the BARBITURIC ACID MALTA FEVER, SANDFLY FEVER, SPRUE, SUNSTROKE AND HEATand SULPHONAL Group receive greater notice, The general princi- STROKE, YAWS. ple is to indicate the botanical origin of a drug with a description Veterinary Medicine.—The articles included in this subof the special plant or its varieties from which the drug is obtained section are on ANTHRAX, DISTEMPER, Foot AND MoutuH Diseases, and this is followed by its chemistry so far as is known, its phar- GLANDERS OR Farcy, Asortron, ContTacious, PLEURO-PNEU-

176

MEDICAL

EDUCATION

MONIA, RINDER PEST, SWINE FEVER. Miscellaneous Medical Articles—Some 40 articles differing in length are given to subjects not easy to place in one of the foregoing sections and subsections, Such are those on ADOLESCENCE, AVIATION (MEDICAL ASPECTS OF), BLOODLESS SURGERY, CLIMATE IN THE TREATMENT OF DISEASE, DIET AND DIETETICS, DEUNKENNESS,

HOMOEOPATHY,

HYPNOTISM,

INFANCY,

INFANT

CARE, MANIPULATIVE SURGERY, MINERAL WATERS, NURSING, PHorocrkAPHY Ix Mepicixe, PHRENOLOGY, PuysIcs Ix MEDICINE, QUACKERY, Rep Cross, REJUVENATION, SEA-SICKNESS, SOMNAMBULISM, STAMMERING, STARVATION, VEGETARIANISM, VIVISECTION, ANIMAL EXPERIMENT, MEDICAL SERVICE, ARMY, MEDICAL SERVICE, Navy, VITAMINS. In most instances a recent

bibliography is appended to the articles and cross-references are numerous.

MEDICAL

EDUCATION.

taught in the most practical way. It must be made a part of the

practitioner’s outfit, which he can never afford to lose. His knowl.

edge of the anatomy of the living body must enable him to see its organs in their relation to one another as clearly as if it were transparent. In some degree, dissecting room work has given way

to surface anatomy and the study of models and frozen sections:

although training in the use of scalpel and forceps is still the only means of acquiring dexterity in the surgeon’s craft. In physiology, during the first year, the student is in most schools given mote practical work than formerly.

The greatest changes have been introduced in the third and fourth years of the curriculum. Physiology has been extended

into pharmacology, an ever-growing body of exact knowledge derived from the study, with instruments of precision, of the

effects produced upon guinea-pigs and rabbits by chemical com.

A sound general education is pounds of which some, like caffeine and morphine, are vegetable

necessary for the medical as for all other learned professions.

I. IN GREAT BRITAIN In Great Britain before admission to a course of training a boy or girl is required to show in an examination of matriculation, character and standard that he or she has acquired a respectable knowledge of English, a language other than English, mathematics and some other school subjects of the candidate’s own selection. Latin is no longer exacted by the General Medical Council (G.M.C.) although in certain universities it is compulsory for students who desire to obtain a medical degree. The General Council of Medical Education and Registration does not determine directly the requirements of the various licensing bodies, but exercises a measure of control over the doctor's training by deciding the conditions precedent to registration, first as a medical student and finally as a qualifed practitioner.

Since 1922 the G.M.C. has required an examination in physics and chemistry be passed by him before registration. The gain is two-fold. His school work more efficiently prepares the boy for his profession, and more time is made available in the brief five

years, which is the most that can be exacted as a minimum between registration as a student and registration as a qualified practitioner. The council also allows the student to pass the examination in biology immediately after registration. The curriculum recognized as medical carries the student through a succession of stages which merge insensibly one into the other, until his accumulated knowledge and steadily increasing skill justify the conferring upon him of a degree or diploma which admits him to all the responsibilities of medical practice. It is impossible to

over-emphasize the statement that the several steps “merge.”

They are not stepping stones. No subject is left behind when the passing of an examination qualifies a student to approach the next. The examination tests his fitness to approach subject B whilst still carrying forward subject A. Stages of the Education.—These stages may be defined as (z) The study of the structure of the body and of its behaviour im health, anatomy (q.v.) and physiology (g.v.}, to which two

years are assigned. (2) The study of the behaviour of the body when perturbed by abnormal conditions, by malformations, by injury (see Parnotocy), by the invasion of parasites (see ParaSITOLOGY) ranging from ultra-microscopic “germs” (see FILTERPassinG Viruses) to intestinal worms, an extension of physiology into the domain of disease. (3) The study of physiological changes which result from the administration of various chemical substances, “drugs,” already anticipated by the study of the “drugs” which, in health, various organs pour into the circulation, internal secretions (see Enpocrrnotocy). (4) The study of the pessibilities of modifying the behaviour of the body, when diseased, in a beneficial way by administration of drugs. (5) The proper management of the body in health, preventive medicine . (6) The care of the sick and of women in childbirth. The Object of Medical Training. With the exception of the changes already referred to, developments in medica l educa-

tion are rather in the manner of presenting knowledge than in the stlection

of subjects to be studied. When so much of be omitted, every subject included in the curriculum value must should be

products, whilst others, such as phenacetin, have been prepared synthetically in the laboratory for the express purpose of modi

fying the behaviour of the body. When used to correct disorders,

these various chemical substances, with the apparatus which has been designed for the purpose of studying their effects, belong to

the sphere of therapeutics (g.v.). At about this stage in the student’s training, bacteriology (g.2.), a science which is growing so rapidly as to be for the most part relatively new, claims his attention. The micro-organisms which cause disease present biological problems of the highest interest. Every medical man needs to be expert in the methods of making preparations for identification with the microscope (see Microscopy), of using the various culture media and of cultivating the various organisms i vitro. And since the effects upon the fluids of the body which they induce can be recognized chemically, a

new name, “biochemistry” (q.v.), is usually applied to the depart-

ment of science in which ascertained facts are grouped together. To the physiologist and physician have been opened up the two provinces of serum and vaccine therapy and immunology (see Immunity). Provision is made for teaching the principles of various kinds of drugless therapeutics, such as treatment with ultra-violet light (see HetiorHerapy) with radium and X-rays, or by massage, and the demonstration of the results obtained in special clinics. Clinical Units—The most notable modification in medical education made during recent years is the organization of clinical units. Physicians and surgeons still go round their wards at stated hours—usually in the early afternoon—followed by troops of students to whom they point out the features of each case, expound the nature of the malady and explain the reasons for the treatment adopted. But no longer, as formerly, is the student dependent upon “walking the wards,” attending lectures and reading about the illnesses of which the cases he has seen are illustrations. The clinical unit is a far more efficient training centre. Its staff consists of a director and three or four assistants. Either the director himself or one of his assistants is a wholetime officer of the university. To the unit are assigned a number of beds—usually

60 or 7o—in

suitable wards

with

adequate

laboratory accommodation in their near vicinity and an ample

supply of apparatus for the examination of the patients and for

testing their reactions. An out-patient department is included in the unit. Students examine chemically and microscopically the blood and excreta. They make every kind of measurement, and as the wards are open throughout the day they have the opportunity of seeing how patients should be treated, nursed, and cared for in

every respect. As the teachers of physiology, bacteriology, phar-

macology and other subjects visit the clinic from time to time, the student learns under ideal conditions how all that he has been

taught combines to fit him for his life-work, the care of the sick and their restoration as speedily as possible to health. New and Old Systems Contrasted.—Until compar atively recent times students were required to attend a certain amount of hospital practice during their first two years, usually six

months. This was a relic of the apprenticeship through which

aspirants for admission to medical, as to legal and other profes-

MEDICAL SE fe

EDUCATION

177

sional guilds, were required to pass. In Britain, this tradition is vidual States which, with a few exceptions, have established obsolete at last. No longer is a student required, or even allowed, no regulations, in either State Constitutions or laws. The lack to listen to bedside disquisitions on maladies of which even the of legal safeguards over the chartering of medical schools made names may be unfamiliar, in terms which carry little meaning to it easy for any group of individuals to open them and to grant his mind, or to watch the physical examination of organs of which degrees whether or not they possessed the essential teachers, he knows but vaguely the form and situation, and to hear of their buildings, hospitals and other equipment. The result was a rapid perturbations before he knows how they function normally. Not multiplication of medical schools. The first medical school in the until he knows how the body works in health is he shown how United States was organized in 1765 as the Medical school of the disease may disturb its harmony, or taught the remedial measures College of Philadelphia. In 1800, there were five medical schools which should be adopted with a view to aiding nature to set it in the United States for a population of 5,500,000 people. Thereright. Too early contact with patients inevitably led to confused after, they increased much more rapidly than the population, thinking and false inferences which had to be corrected by sub- reaching 162 in 1906, when there was one medical school to each sequent reading and observation and, it may be added, developed half million people. The course of instruction consisted at first in the tyro a conviction that medical practice consists in “spotting” of two annual sessions of six months each, probably ample for the the disease and administering the drug which will “cure” it. The knowledge of medicine of that time. The student’s best instrucprogressive opening-out of knowledge with the synchronous revela- tion, perhaps, was obtained by assisting his physician-preceptor in tion of ignorance, which is the aim of the modern curriculum, the care of patients and listening to his explanations. At first, some of the university medical schools required a bacavoids loss of time and secures the highest degree of qualification calaureate degree for admission but, through competition with the which the limited period of training allows. Post-graduate and Specialist Work.—As a result of the increasing number of schools, the requirement was reduced to a careful allocation of his time the modern student finds that he has high school education. Nevertheless, the better schools attracted less opportunity than his forerunners of paying special attention many students possessing a college training. Of the graduates of to any branch which may attract him. Diseases of the eye, of the Harvard Medical school up to and including 1840, for example, throat, of the ear, of the nervous and other organs, are treated 65% also held baccalaureate degrees. The medical schools, with with sufficient fullness for the equipment of general practitioners, some notable exceptions, were scantily equipped, had no hospitals, but not with the thoroughness necessary to make specialists. The and few, if any, expert teachers. In the better schools, however, student who proposes to specialize must continue his studies after there were teachers who gained great repute because of their graduation. An increasing number of graduates who do not pro- knowledge and skill, as well as their teaching ability, and a large pose to devote themselves to a single specialty, but wish to make proportion of students were attracted to these schools. Demands themselves proficient in particular branches of their work, such for improvement in medical education, however, were not lacking. as gynaecology for example, defer going into practice, or return With no legal supervision of the medical schools, that function from time to time to a medical school in order to keep abreast was voluntarily assumed by the national organization of physiwith advances in knowledge and technique. Post-graduation cians. The American Medical association was established in 1847, courses are more numerous and better organized than they were its chief object being the “improvement of medical education in in former days, but they are not yet, in Britain, as complete or as the United States.” Investigations made on several occasions resulted in improvements by the better medical schools. In 1877, intensive as they might be. a medical practice law was enacted in Illinois creating a State Ii. IN OTHER COUNTRIES board of health. Information was collected regarding all medical Other Countries.—In most other countries, progress has fol- schools in the United States and Canada, and a list made of low lowed much the same lines as in Britain. The arrangement of grade medical schools from which recognition was withdrawn, a logical sequence of studies and their integration in the curriculum forcing most of them to close. Under this board, also, in 1892 have been the reformer’s aim. the medical course was increased from two to three, and in 1896 In Japan the sequence of studies is much the same as in Brit- to four annual sessions of seven months each. Entrance requireain; but the minimal length of the purely medical curriculum is ments were raised, nominally, to a high school education. The refour years, following on a course in the preliminary sciences. ports of the Illinois State board of health contain the only reliIn China through a subsidiary board of the Rockefeller Foun- able information regarding medical education during the 20 years dation of New York, there has been established a modern medical prior to 1900. school. The Rockefeller Foundation has furnished funds amountA change of administration in Illinois in 1892, however, brought ing to $8,000,000 to build and equip the Peking Union Medical sweeping changes in the personnel of the board of health which college, and in addition it was in 1921 supporting the institution resulted in a relaxation of the supervision over medical education on the basis of a budget for the year amounting to $500,000. The and practice and in the adoption of several retrogressive measures. China Medical Board also aids four other medical schools in With the relaxation of the efficient supervision of medical educaChina carried on by other organizations. , tion in Illinois, the numbers of inferior medical schools again inIn Belgium the University of Brussels in 1921 planned a com- creased until, in 1906, the United States had over half of the plete reorganization of its medical department. The city, the world’s supply. Educationally, also, its medical schools suffered State and the university co-operated in maturing plans for a by comparison with those of other countries. In 1904, however, modern teaching hospital, and new, well-equipped laboratories on the American Medical association created a permanent committee a single site. whose duty was the improvement of medical education. Besides In France the medical schools still adhere to the system which collecting and publishing statistics, two educational standards were they regard as “natural.” Their students are encouraged to attend prepared; one for immediate adoption suggesting a high school clinics from the date of their inscription in the faculty, and the education, and another “ideal standard” requiring one and later relegation of all lectures and laboratory work to the afternoons two years of college work for admission, with a further requirealmost compels them to devote the mornings to attendance in the ment after graduation of a year’s internship in a hospital. An wards and out-patient departments. annual conference was held to which representatives of universiBreriocrarpy.—For detailed information concerning the existing ties, licensing boards, colleges and others were invited for the dissystem of medical education in Great Britain consult Recent Advances in Medical Education in England, a memorandum addressed to the cussion of problems of medical education. Following an inspecMinister of Health by Sir George Newman, Chief Medical Officer; tion, the medical schools were graded in classes A, B and C acand Medical Education, a Comparative Study, by Abraham fae cording to their degrees of excellence and a classification was published in rgro. Il. IN THE UNITED STATES With so many medical schools and with educational requireThe U.S. Constitution provided no supervision over either ments lower than those abroad, the need was for fewer but better medical education or medical practice but left this to the indi- medical schools. During the inspections, therefore, two or more

178

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JURISPRUDENCE

form one medical schools in any city were urged to unite and better equipped institution. Thus, the number of medical schools g decreased from 162 in 1906, to 80 in 1923; but those requirin college work for admission increased from two to 74, and the to graduates of these higher grade schools increased from 268 of 3.798. In 1910, the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement Teaching published its report following a second inspection of

medical schools made jointly by representatives of the Foundation d and the American Medical association. This report attracte and ements improv of schools, attention to the need in medical financial support. The Foundation established no standards and

for the plaintiff or for the defendant.

Medical writers themselves

hold this ideal up to the profession although in practice it is not

always adhered to. Many medical men on graduation take, and all reputable medical men consider themselves bound by, the Hip-

pocratic oath, the relevant part of which is as follows: “What. soever in connection with my professional practice or even outside of it I see or hear in the life of men which ought not to be spoken of I willnot divulge.” The italics are important. It is clear

that it is required of medical men, as it is required of bankers, that

they shall not gossip. When however the law requires it, it is clearly proper to divulge such matters; indeed it will be contempt

of court to refuse to do so. On the other hand, it will not be no classifications, those being continued as a function of the Medito divulge certain matters under any other circumstances, proper for d require cal association. In 1914, one year of college work was to the executive, who have not the authority, though example, for 1918, Since years. two to ed increas was 1918 in admission, which it, of the judiciary. (See CONSTITUTIONAL assume often they d obtaine have therefore, all students in class A medical schools LAw.) two or more years of college education, before entering medical The notification of Infectious Diseases Act 1889 and many schools, and over 65% of all graduates now obtain both baccashow that medical privilege is no more recognized by others laureate and medical degrees. These higher qualifications are eslaw than it is by the common law. The list of acts of statute l technica highly present the sential if students are to master which affect medical men is a long and formidable parliament medical curriculum. of these, however, are considered as forming the all Not one. inhave schools medical nts, requireme Besides higher entrance of medical jurisprudence, the majority of them matter subject better es, creased endowments, new buildings, better laboratori belong rather to the domain of public health to ooo trained teachers, better dispensaries and hospitals and more eff- are (g.v.). bestudent every cient methods of instruction. Now, practically The precision required for elucidation of medico-legal problems fore graduation has been drilled in the examination and treatment sometimes exceed and sometimes fall short of that required will as year l additiona an of patients. Over 90% of graduates spend that is to say, the law will at times be content with science; by interns in hospitals. Physicians must have a better training than rough and ready methods, while at others it is seem may what medical of increase great the was necessary before 1900. With between the diametrically opposed views of decide to necessary reknowledge the discovery of the germ origin of diseases has eminence. Obviously the law, by its very equal of experts medical treatof methods technical highly of sulted in the development lag a little behind contemporary science, must , conservative nature but s, ment of great value if employed by well-trained physician require not theories nor even hypothjustice of interests the for in mostly used formerly Surgery, hands. dangerous in unskilled relations are rather with mediroutine law’s The facts. but eses , antitoxins emergencies, is now commonly employed. Serums, science. This fact is apt to be a as medicine than vaccines and the X-ray, wisely used, are saving thousands of lives, cine as an art is extolled at the expense expert so-called the when of sight lost of Because . employed but may have serious results if carelessly denotes that he deals name very whose practitioner general the of these highly technical methods, hospitals have become more essenFor this reason theories. with than rather life of realities the with numbers in both increased have tial in the care of the sick and eyes of the the in equality certain a enjoy s practitioner medical and size. Through the lack of legal control over hospitals, a in France where a panel obtains as system any we have (nor law . profession medical the by assumed been has voluntary supervision experts, called médecins légistes and consisting of pathologists, To be approved hospitals are required to possess staffs of compe- of , gynaecologists and alienists, is drawn up every year toxicologists an and t equipmen essential the s, physician tent and reputable The certificate under the Lunacy Acts may be court). the by efficient routine for the care of sick and injured people. medical practitioner, although one of the registered signed by any BIBLIOGRAPHY —lIllinois State Board of Health, Reports (1880-94) 5 by s. 5(3) of the Mental Treatrequired certificates medical two (1903-28 year each August Journal AJ4.A., Educational numbers, incl}; U.S. Commission of Education, Chapters on medical education (N. P. C.) (1912-28).

ment Act 1930 in cases of “temporary treatment without certification” [sic] may be signed only by a practitioner of five years

deals with the relation- standing approved by the Board of Control. The coroner (q.v.) of practitioner is one will in difficult cases of course prefer to have the services d medical registere A ships of law and medicine. readwhose men of is, that toxicologist, a of or pathologist a Medical whose name appears on the register kept by the General specially qualify them for the determination Council established under the Medical Acts of 1858 to 1886 ing and practice but no such persons are known to the death, of causes the : register a keep to set up standards of professional knowledge, to of men and women who reach this standard and to deprive of aw. It is difñcult. to arrange in logical order the subjects falling their qualifications those whom the council finds guilty of “inof forensic medicine; but a more or less famous conduct in a professional respect.” This body is not to within the purview be made according to the nature of the may nt arrangeme orderly voluntary a on, Associati Medical be confounded with the British it. First in date and interest, if not in before case the and court on association comprising 64% of the medical men and women , peculiar to the English-speaking peoinstitution the is , importance the register. of the court of the coroner (q.v.) law), common the (under ples curricThe elements of medical jurisprudence form part of the all deaths of which the cause is into enquire ulum of every examining body approved by the General Medical whose duty it is to l or criminal) or in cir(accidenta violence from deaths unknown, doctor the of Council. The introductory part of this study treats asylums, etc., or from lunatic prisons, in suspicion of as witness, a medical man being in the nature of things often cumstances and not a trial: enquiry an strictly is It diseases. notifiable certain as testify to as well as opinion asked in a court of Jaw to give his is—how and question The parties. no are there and suit no to facts. (See Evipence.)} At the threshold of this subject stands there is MEDICAL

JURISPRUDENCE

great majority of the question of so-called medical privilege. (See PRIVILEGE.) Is by what manner X came by his death. In the causes, and the innatural to due be to found be will death a doctor bound to disclose in a court of law communications made cases physician in attendance is to him by his patient? The law recognizes no such thing as medi- vestigation of those cases in which the forms the routine certificate death a give to unable or the unwilling is nor cal privilege in the sense that there is legal privilege, acute haemotreason far to seek. A medical man is consulted about questions work of the pathologist. Some diseases, such as ante mortet. diagnosed never almost are s, pancreatiti rhagic does patient a law; the which are or ought to be unconnected with will be chary physician the death, mot ask a doctor to undertake his defence in a case before the Then again, in cases of sudden attending been not has he that case a in certificate a giving of any in never should such as geurts. A medical witness appearing sud sense be an advocate and must not take sides, whether he be called regularly. Although the coroner enquires into all cases of

MEDICAL den death, he is not always bound to have an autopsy.

JURISPRUDENCE

Some | tions has worked out certain rules which allow of an approxima-

writers, Taylor among them, urge that there should always be

an autopsy. Some go further and say that all autopsies should be done by pathologists and not by an “ordinary” medical man. Before 1927 where a certificate was refused and there were no circumstances of suspicion, the publicity of an inquest seemed unnecessarily painful to relatives and not perhaps required by the interests of justice. A useful compromise is found in s. 21 the Coroners Amendment Act 1926 whereby, if there are no circumstances of suspicion and he is not otherwise bound to hold

an inquest the coroner may, upon the report of a medical man whom he has instructed to make an autopsy, dispense with an

inquest if he thinks fit.

Next in order of frequency will be fatal vehicle accidents which since 1927 must be taken with a jury. It might be thought that in some of these the actual physical cause of death was obvi-

ous, aS where a man is decapitated by a train. But suppose a man had a stroke and fell under a train: only an autopsy could reveal this and avoid, say, a wrong verdict of suicide, the next commonest case before the coroner. Last in order of frequency, but of great interest for forensic

medicine, will be deaths in respect of which a crime (murder, infanticide, abortion, manslaughter)

179

will be imputed to someone.

The duplication of procedure which existed before 1927 has been wisely done away with by the act of 1926 and the coroner, when he learns that someone has been charged with a crime in respect of a body lying within his jurisdiction, adjourns his

inquest until after the finding of the criminal court. It is upon the criminal courts that the weapons of forensic medicine have

been whetted.

The study of murder (q.v.) has a peculiar fascination for many (not necessarily morbid) minds and a vast quantity of material has been collected on this subject. A medical man will usually be one of the first persons on the scene in such cases and it is his duty to note, not only the condition of the body, but also any surrounding circumstances that may be of use in elucidating the crime; for although it is no part of a doctor’s business to play the detective, society expects him to take at least as much interest as any other of its members in the suppression of crime. Is an apparent case of suicide, for instance, really one of murder? Did a man found hanging in reality hang himself or was he in fact strangled and then hanged by his assailant? Louis, a French medical jurist of the Eighteenth century, taught us how to distinguish such cases. A man is found shot or with his throat cut, and a razor or revolver, by him or actually in his hand; was it murder or suicide? These and a host of similar questions are answered in any standard work on forensic medicine. Reading, however, does not make the medicolegal expert. Most of the serious contributions to legal medicine have been made by men who have combined knowledge and experience with the ability to apply both these to an emergency. Some methods, however, have been worked out in the quiet of the laboratory. Of these the most striking is the precipitin test for blood. Blood may be detected by chemical, spectroscopic, microscopic and immunological methods. The first three detect blood but not necessarily human blood, nor was the chemical test (since improved) free from fallacies. The second has no biological specificity while the third enables one to distinguish the blood of the mammalia. The fourth, a veritable triumph of science, enables one to say definitely that the extract of bloodstains examined contains human blood. The stain is extracted with salt solution and added to the serum of a rabbit which has been injected at intervals with human blood: a precipitate will form if the blood is human but not otherwise. The test is done after it has been established by one of the other methods that the stain is blood. In the strictly biological sense the test is generic

rather than specific and is given (in a less marked degree) by the anthropoid apes.

tion of a fair degree of accuracy.

The average rate of cooling

of the body is about one degree per hour, depending, however, somewhat on surrounding temperature and moisture, and even, at times, on the mode of death. Post-mortem rigidity comes on three to six'hours after death, and lasts, on an average, 16 to 24 hours, while decomposition usually begins on the third day. These are some of the data that are relied on, but they are interpreted in practice with great caution. If poisoning is suspected, the examiner, under direction of the coroner, sends the stomach and contents and pieces of the solid viscera in sealed jars to the analyst. The study of poisons and their detection is called toxicology. Needless to say the methods have been elaborated with great care, as they must be susceptible of the closest scrutiny. The crime of infanticide (g.v.) is only seven years old in English law. Before that wilful killing of an infant as of any other human being was murder, but the unwillingness of juries to convict led to the Infanticide Act of 1922, whereby the killing of a

newly-born child by its mother is made equivalent to manslaughter. Enquiries into the death of infants born alive are not infrequent. The questions for the opinion of the police surgeon, who usually performs the autopsy, will be: Was the child born alive? How long did it live? Was death due to violence, neglect or natural causes? The answers to these questions can be given with precision only by those who have experience of such cases and are acquainted with the fairly comprehensive body of knowledge already acquired—a body of knowledge elaborated, it must be remembered, under the jealous scrutiny of the courts of law when infanticide was murder. Abortion in law means unlawful abortion, a criminal act, the penalty for which is provided by ss. 55, 58 and 509 of the Offences Against the Persons Act 1861. Abortion, however, means to medical men any artificial termination of pregnancy. There are several indications for the lawful termination of pregnancy and their common factor is the danger to the mother’s life through the continuance of pregnancy; if the foetus is viable its life will, if possible, be preserved. In criminal abortion on the other hand, it is the mother’s convenience that is studied and the act is aimed against and is intended to destroy the ovum or foetus. Lawful abortion will be marked by deliberation, consultation with professional brethren, and the asepsis of the operating theatre. Criminal abortion will be hurried, secret and often septic and unskilful. Space does not allow the consideration of the numerous other offences against the person which are comprised in legal medicine. The various kinds of manslaughter need not detain us, but mention must be made of the increase in the number of convictions in recent years, due to the enormous development of motor transport. Where, e.g., the driver was “drunk in charge” of a vehicle, criminal negligence will be hard to rebut. The criteria of drunkenness are a subject which is not purely medical. In this condition akin to insanity (g.v.) the factor of conduct looms so large that others besides medical men claim to be able to give an opinion. In the navy, e.g., the criterion is: “Is the man fit for duty?” and it is the officer of the watch who applies it, unless the man asks to see the surgeon. Turning now to civil causes, medical evidence will be required in inquisitions upon lunacy, sometimes in actions upon wills, in actions under Lord Campbell’s Act, under the Workmen’s Compensation Acts and in matrimonial causes. In connection with workmen’s compensation the question of malingering has sometimes to be considered, a subject more familiar to medical men in countries which have adopted conscription. In divorce and in legitimacy cases the period of gestation will sometimes be an issue. After much learned argument there is now pretty general agreement that the period can, in exceptional cases, be as much as 300 days, which happens to be the figure fixed by the

The time that has elapsed since death in any given case is XII. Tables. (See Roman Law.) ai Important question to which, in the absence of evidence, the The fact that a medical man may be compelled to disclose in

answer cannot in the present state of our knowledge be given with scientific precision. Vet the careful observation of genera-

a court of law information obtained from a patient who has consulted him on the faith of the secrecy promised by the Venereal

MEDICAL

180

LEGISLATION

Diseases Act would seem to make it desirable that medical privi-

lege should be accorded, not indeed with regard to this particular matter alone but in all cases which concern neither fraud nor crime nor otherwise the public interest. (F. T. G.) UNITED STATES

Medical Jurisprudence deals with the reciprocal relations of law and medicine, using the latter term in its broadest sense. The application of medical knowledge in legal trials is designated forensic medicine. In the United States, the practice of medicine is restricted to licensed physicians, the issuing of licences, as also the regulation of practice, being in the main the function of the individual States. Exceptions include particular Federal laws, such as the act regulating the use of narcotics, popularly known as the Harrison Act, and the act restricting the medicinal use of alcoholic medicinals, known as the Volstead Act. Closely allied is the Food and Drugs Act of 1906, legalizing drug standards. In presenting evidence of service to a patient, the elements to be established are: the employment, the performance of the service and the value of the service. An original entry of the

actual transactions is generally receivable in evidence and is a valuable record. The calling on or of a physician is generally accepted as evidence of employment. Unless there are definite circumstances indicating a contrary relation, the person treated and not the person calling the physician is liable. By statutes differing in the various States, workmen receive compensation from employers when injured in the pursuit of their employment. The Workmen’s Compensation Law of the State of New York provides that the employer must furnish the medical, surgical or other treatment which “the nature of the injury or the process of recovery may require.” The employee is not entitled to recover from the employer for expenditures for such services unless, after request, the employer has refused or failed to provide promptly such treatment; nor is a claim of any

attending physician valid unless within 20 days from the first treatment he furnish to the employer and to the industrial commissioner, on a prescribed form, a report of the injuries and treatment. The delay may be excused by the board. All fees are subject to regulation by the board and are limited to such charges as prevail in the community for similar treatment of injured persons of a like standard of living. Under this law a large portion of the cases treated is by physicians specializing in compensation work and in clinics of the insurance carriers. Physicians not on the preferred lists of the insurance companies continually experience difficulties over their bills. The treatment of a patient obliges the physician to possess the ordinary knowledge of his profession and to exercise the ordinary skill. Failure to do so, including wilful neglect, renders him Hable for malpractice. A mistake in judgment does not render him Hable. Failure to take an X-ray, where the usual practice is to do so, has been construed by the courts as negligence. Wilful unlawful acts towards a patient constitute a second division of malpractice. A third includes acts forbidden by statute, such as the production of criminal abortion or the treatment of a patient while the physician is intoxicated. Under the Hippocratic oath, physicians regard communications from patients as privileged. Under the English rule of law, the

courts do not so recognize them, but in the United States communications are made privileged by statutes in the following States: Group I., in which the patient’s consent is necessary for a disclosure: California, Colorado, Idaho, Iowa, Minnesota, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New York, North Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, South Dakota, Utah, Washington, Wyoming. Group II., in which the patient waives privilege, if he offers himself or his physician as a witness: Colorado, Kansas, Oklahoma, Oregon. Group IIL, im which the presiding judge of a superior court may compel disclosure if he deems it necessary to a proper administration of justice: North Carolina. Group IV., in which the statutes are silent on the subject of waiver: Indiana, Kansas, Michigan, Wisconsin, In the Federal courts, in trials at common Jaw the laws of the respective States apply, except where otherwise provided; m a criminal prosecution the privilege secured by State statutes

does not avail, When a physician is called upon as a witness in court merely

to relate facts which he has observed, including inferences and

deductions which all men are accustomed to make, he is governed by the rules applicable to an ordinary witness. When called upon

to explain or interpret facts by reason of his special knowledge,

he becomes an expert witness. As an ordinary witness he is subject to subpoena. If the issue concerns a charity patient, the subpoena must be issued by the judge of the court, in some jurisdictions. It is optional with the physician whether he act as an expert witness. In the latter capacity, by reason of his employment by a particular litigant, he is confronted with the possibility of bias which should be avoided. There is criticism of the choice of experts by litigants and resulting conflicting views. To an extent such conflict is due to the relative stability of law with its consequent lagging behind contemporary medical knowledge; experts, especially alienists, thus frequently testifying from different points of view. General medicine, surgery, pathology and toxicology afford less basis for intelligent differences of opinion.

There is no right of property in a dead human body, but duties are imposed upon public officers and next of kin to protect the body from violation and to see that it and subsequently protected. They may the extent of ascertaining the cause of other officer is authorized by statutory

is properly authorize a death. The enactments,

disposed necropsy coroner varying

of to

or in

detail in the different States, to order a necropsy and such further

examination as may be required when, in the discharge of his official duties, it is deemed necessary in cases of sudden death or where there is suspicion that a crime has been committed. Ifa person dies in one locality and the body is transported to another, the officers where the body is located have jurisdiction. (E. E. Sm.)

MEDICAL LEGISLATION, though of great antiquity, has only recently taken a prominent place in the statute books of civilized countries, In the last 20 years, statutes have been passed in many countries creating or reorganizing the central public health authority. The Ministry of Health for England and Wales created by the Act of 1919 took the place of the Local Government Board with all its powers and duties and, as regards public health, also those previously exercised by the Board of Education and other departments. Power was further created to transfer from the ministry duties which were not incidental to health. Ministries of Health have also been established in Canada (1919), the Union of South Africa (1919), Poland (1919), New Zealand (1920), France (1920) and Rumania (1923). A Department of Public Health for the Commonwealth of Australia was created in 1921, and a General Directorate of Public Health in Spain, by a royal decree of 1922.

Zymotic Diseases.—In Australia, New Zealand and the Union of South Africa comprehensive regulations regarding the notification and control of infectious diseases were included; similar regulations were issued in Austria (1913), the Straits Settlements

(1915), Peru (1916), Chile (1918), Sweden (1919), Brazil (1921)

and Venezuela (1921). A Polish law of 1920 created the office of special commissioner for dealing with epidemics, and a French decree of 1920 instituted a mobile unit equipped with laboratories. Vaccination.—By a law of 1914, vaccination against smallpox (q.v.) becomes compulsory in Siam whenever the health ad-

ministrator deems it necessary; in the Straits Settlements (1915) it is compulsory, and re-vaccination also can be made compulsory in the face of danger; in France (1915) vaccination and re-vac-

cination can be made compulsory by decree, but (1918) vaccination is compulsory for state officials. Chile (1918) has compulsory vaccination in the first, roth and 20th years of age; in Venezuela (1921) there is infant vaccination and re-vaccination every seven years, failure to comply barring from a large number of employments. In Poland (1919) there is compulsory vaccination for infants, and again at seven years. In Tunis (1922) vaccination against smallpox is compulsory, and also against typhoid, cholera and plague, if there is danger of an epidemic. Uruguay (1923) has compulsory vaccination in the first six months, and again in the roth and 20th years. A Polish law of 1920 makes vaccination

MEDICAL

LEGISLATION

181

against typhoid fever and cholera compulsory for doctors, nurses, , unhealthy dwellings; a revising law of 192i gave power to ex~propriate such houses and sites as are required. Similar powers employees at waterworks and for various others. Tuberculosis.—Anti-tuberculosis legislation has been put into were granted to authorities in France by a law of 1915. A law of force in various directions. Tuberculosis schemes and the legis- | 1922 codifies the laws relating to working-class dwellings. Infant Welfare.—The British Notification of Births (Extenlation involved are discussed in the article TvBerctLosis. The Milk and Dairies (Consolidation) Act, 1915, of Great Britain, sion) Act, 1915, extended the act to areas in which it had not provided, jnter alia, for the registration of dairies and the inspec- been adopted. A Belgian law of 1919 instituted the national work tion of dairies and herds; and prohibits the sale for human con- for infant welfare. In France a law of 1917 provided financial sumption of milk from a cow with tuberculosis or other specified help for necessitous women in connection with child-birth, and diseases of the udder. The Milk (Special Designation) Order, when the mother nurses the child assistance continues for a period 1922, of the British Ministry of Health instituted the licensing of of 12 months. In Germany (1922) help is given to women in the classes of milk, namely certified, Grade A (tuberculin tested), same circumstances, insured and uninsured. An English Act of Grade A (non-tuberculin tested) and pasteurized; and prohibited 1920 regulates the employment of children, young persons and the sale of milk under a designation to which it is not entitled. women in industrial occupations; and a Peruvian law of the same The British Public Health Act, 1925, section 62, authorizes a court of summary jurisdiction to order the removal to a suitable

hospital or institution, of any person suffering from pulmonary

tuberculosis in an infectious stage, when a source of danger to others, either from lack of proper accommodation or from failure

to observe sanitary precautions.

In Denmark, laws of 1912, 1918

year Is a similar measure. Food.—The English Public Health (Milk and Cream) Regulations, 1912, prohibited the addition of any preservatives to milk intended for sale for human consumption, any thickening to cream or preserved cream or any preservatives to cream with less than 35% of milk fat; the only permissible preservatives in

and 1919 made compulsory the notification of pulmonary and cream intended for human consumption were boric acid, borax, a |} mixture of these, or hydrogen peroxide. By an order (1917) no laryngeal tuberculosis by the doctor in attendance. A Japanese law of 1919 gives power to examine any person more than 0-4% of boric acid might be added and the cream must whose calling might make him a source of transmission, to forbid the exercise of a particular calling by such, and to forbid or restrict

trading in old clothes, old books and other articles which might carry infection. In Denmark, compulsory isolation of infectious cases is also empowered with certain limitations; and laws of 1918 and 1919 provided for the use of public funds to support hospitals for tuberculosis, sanatoria and convalescent establishments. A French law of 1916 instituted public dispensaries for treatment and

for giving instruction in anti-tuberculosis measures. A decree of 1920 laid down regulations for the establishment, working and supervision of sanatoria. An Italian royal decree, 1919, instituted a central anti-tuberculosis committee, and a Swedish royal decree, 1912, regulated subventions to hospitals for treating tuberculosis. Yenereal Diseases—The English Venereal Diseases Act

(1917) prohibits treatment by unqualified persons in areas to

be sold as preserved cream and labelled as unsuitable for infants and invalids. In 1925 the addition of boric acid was prohibited altogether. Public Health regulations, 1923, fixed the minimum percentage of milk fat in dried milk of various descriptions, and that of milk fat and total solids in condensed milks. Containers must declare the contents, and skimmed milk be labelled as unfit for babies. Drugs.—Most countries have legislated to restrict the use of opium, cocaine and related substances. The English Therapeutic Substances Act, 1925, regulates the manufacture, sale and importation of serums, vaccines, salvarsan, insulin, etc. Other countries have legislated similarly. (R. Sc.) UNITED

STATES

;

US. Public Health Service.—This Federal activity originated in 1798, by an act providing medical relief to merchant seamen. The service was then known as the U.S. Marine Hospital Service. Legislation reorganizing the service and authorizing the appoint-

which it is applied, when gratuitous treatment has been provided and approved, and prohibits all kinds of advertisements of quack remedies for such diseases. In Sweden (1912) an affected person is obliged to obtain and complete medical treatment; the same ment of a surgeon general was passed In 1870. In 1889 and in applies to the Union of South Africa (1919), where it is also an 1902 laws were passed effecting further reorganization and in the offence for an infected person to follow certain employments, or latter year the hygienic laboratory, established in 1887, was to engage such a person in employment; and to Czechoslovakia, placed on a more effective basis and the name of the service where an infectious person may also be removed compulsorily to changed to the U.S. Public Health and Marie Hospital Service. hospital if necessary, and an examination by a doctor can be en- The service was further enlarged in 1912 and the name changed forced where there is reason to suppose that a person is infected to the U.S. Public Health Service. State Health Departments.—The health department of the with such a disease. In the state of Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil, by a decree of 1921, a special service for the prevention of venereal District of Columbia was established in 1822. The establishment diseases was created, and provision was made for action against of State health departments was in the following chronological charlatans and for diffusing information regarding modern meth- order: Louisiana (1855); Massachusetts (1869); California ods of avoiding the contagion. In Italy, a royal decree (1923), (1870); Minnesota and Virginia (1872); Michigan (1873); approved of regulations for the prevention of venereal diseases, Maryland (1874); Alabama (1875); Wisconsin (1876); Illinois, including the examination and treatment of prostitutes. A Danish Mississippi, New Jersey, North Carolina and Tennessee (1877); law of 1922 obliges a person suffering from venereal disease, In a Connecticut, Kentucky, Rhode Island and South Carolina (1878); stage when it may be communicated or transmitted, to inform Delaware (1879); Iowa and New York (1880); Arkansas, Inthe other party to a proposed contract of marriage, and this party diana, New Hampshire and West Virginia (1881); Missouri must be instructed by a doctor before contracting. The parties (1883); Kansas, Maine and Pennsylvania (1885); Ohio and Vermust make a declaration of freedom from such disease. The same mont (1886); Florida and North Dakota (1889); Oklahoma procedure must be adopted if one of the parties suffers from (1890); Nebraska and Washington (1891); Colorado and Nevada (1893); South Dakota (1895); Utah (1898); Montana and epilepsy. Housing.—The British Housing Act, 1925, inter alia, makes Wyoming (1901); Arizona, Georgia, Oregon and New Mexico it a duty of the local authority and the medical officer of health (1903); Idaho (1907); Texas (1909). Notifiable Diseases——Michigan was the first State to pass to Inspect houses, prohibits the erection of back-to-back houses, and gives power to close and demolish houses deemed unfit for legislation providing for a comprehensive system for notification

human habitation. The Public Health Act, 1925, gives a local

authority power to cleanse, disinfect or destroy articles infested with vermin in dwellings, and to oblige a landlord or tenant to

Cleanse the dwelling; powers are granted for cleansing of the

person also. A Belgian law of rgrọ instituted the National Society for Housing, amongst its powers being that of destroying

of diseases (1883). Massachusetts followed in 1884. Modern legislation in the several States either specifies the diseases to be reported, designates that certain classes of diseases shall be reported, as “all contagious diseases,” or confers on State health departments the right to promulgate regulations covering the

subject. Requirements vary as to whom the report is to be made,

182

MEDICAL

RESEARCH

Vital Statistics.—Virginia, in 1632, passed a law requiring trict hospitals or sanatoria have been established (Kent burials and christenings to be reported annually by a minister or Louisiana, Missouri, Ohio and Oklahoma). Some other types warden from every parish. The Massachusetts Bay Colony, in of legislation adopted have relation to spitting, examination g 1639, adopted a requirement for recording births and deaths, and sputum of suspects, tuberculosis nurses, sanitation of premi Massachusetts, in 1692, passed a law putting the registration of segregation of recalcitrant patients, establishing of clinics, educa. births and deaths on a definite basis. All States have such legisla- tional measures, State commissions and safeguarding milk suplation. With respect to births, the usual requirement is that the plies. Eugenical Sterilization.—These laws seek to prevent de attending physician, the midwife, or in their absence, the parents or head of the household shall report to a designated official generate offspring by asexualizing certain socially unft potential information regarding the child and its parents. With respect parents, They apply only to designated inmates of certain State to deaths, the usual requirement is that a certificate giving cause institutions and have no application to the public at large. Indi of death and certain other information shall be filed with a desig- in 1907, was first to enact this type of legislation, the law, how. nated official and this filing is generally made a condition prece- ever, being later declared unconstitutional. Twenty States have since passed such laws, the constitutionality of which has either dent to the issuance of a burial permit. Venereal Diseases.—These diseases are made reportable in been upheld or untested (California, Connecticut, Delaware, every State. With the exception of Maine, Massachusetts and Idaho, Iowa, Kansas, Maine, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi Nevada, in all States compulsory examination and quarantine of Montana, Nebraska, New Hampshire, North Dakota, Oregon, suspects are authorized. The advertising of cures for gonorrhea, South Dakota, Utah, Virginia, Washington and Wisconsin). Other syphilis and chancroid is prohibited in 28 States (Alabama, Cali- States are likely to follow this example. Medical Practice Acts.—Virginia, in 1639, passed the firs fornia, Colorado, Idaho, Iowa, Kentucky, Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New York, law regulating the practice of medicine. Massachusetts followed North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, South in 1649 and New York and New Jersey, in 1665. All States have Dakota, Texas, Utah, Vermont, Virginia, Washington, West Vir- since enacted this type of legislation. Modern medical practice ginia, Wisconsin and Wyoming). The sale of such cures, except acts provide for a system of licensing physicians, prescribe certain on a physician’s prescription, is prohibited in 18 States (Alabama, academic and professional qualifications and specify causes and Arizona, Colorado, Kentucky, Louisiana, Michigan, Missouri, means for the revocation of a licence. Pure Foods and Drugs.—lIn 1906 the Federal Pure Food and Montana, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New York, North Carolina, Oklahoma, Oregon, South Carolina, Utah, Wisconsin and Wyo- Drugs Act was passed, a date marking the beginning of the ming). The right of venereally infected persons to marry is for- general enactment and enforcement of such laws by the several bidden or restricted in 20 States (Alabama, Indiana, Louisiana, States. Legislation prior to this date was uncertain of value or Maine [syphilis only], Michigan, Nebraska, New Hampshire enforcement. The Federal act, which serves as a pattern for [syphilis only], New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, North State legislation, makes it unlawful to ship in interstate com Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Utah, Vermont, Vir- merce, to import or export, or to sell or manufacture in the Ds trict of Columbia “any article of food or drugs which is adulterginia, Wisconsin and Wyoming). Vaccination Against Smallpox.—aA Federal act (1902) pro- ated or misbranded” within the meaning of the act. Narcotics.—Federal control legislation dates from 1909, wher vides for the purity of vaccines, serums and analogous products. U.S. quarantine regulations require vaccination of persons enter- an act was passed prohibiting the importation and use of opium ing the country from localities in foreign countries where small- for other than medicinal purposes. This act was later amended to regulate imports and exports of opium, coca leaves, cocaine or any pox prevails and of subordinates at quarantine stations. Compulsory general vaccination is authorized in 13 States (Ala- salt, derivative or preparation of such drugs (1922). In 1914, the bama, Connecticut, Georgia, Kansas, Kentucky, Massachusetts, Harrison Narcotic Act was passed by Congress which by a sys Mississippi, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, tem of registering specified classes of legitimate users seeks to conTennessee, Virginia, Wyoming) and the District of Columbia. trol the distribution and consumption of narcotic drugs. In 1929 Vaccination of school children may be required in 18 states an act was passed establishing two federal narcotic farms for the (Arkansas, Connecticut, Georgia, Kentucky, Maryland, Mass- confinement and treatment of certain addicts. Anti-narcotic State legislation dates from 1877 (Nevada). achusetts, New Jersey, New Hampshire, New Mexico, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Every State has since adopted regulatory laws. The followmg Carolina, Virginia, West Virginia) and the District of Columbia. of the more familiar narcotics are subject to the provisions of During the prevalence of smallpox, unvaccinated children may be such laws: coca leaves, in 18 States; cocain, in 37; eucain, in 27; excluded from school in ten other States (Iowa, Kansas, Louisi- novocain, in 4; opium, in 47; morphin, in 36; heroin, in 30; ana, Maine, Minnesota, Montana, Nebraska, North Dakota, codein, in 18; laudanum, in 1; cannabis sativa, in 10; cannabis indica, in 13; chloral hydrate, in 16. Washington and Wisconsin). Child Hygiene——In 1912 the Children’s Bureau was created Tuberculosis.—Michigan, by State board of health regulation, was the first State to require tuberculosis to be reported (1893). by an act of Congress as a part of the Department of Labor. The The disease is now reportable in every State. Massachusetts date of establishment of the State agencies engaged in chié(1895) established the first State tuberculosis sanatorium. New health work follow: Louisiana (1910); New York (1914); Kare York and Ohio (1909) passed first county sanatoria laws. In 31 sas, Massachusetts and New Jersey (1915); Ohio (1916); I States, State hospitals or sanitoria have been established nois, Indiana, Montana, Pennsylvania and Utah (1917); Florida, (Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Idaho, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky and Virginia (1918); Alabama, Arizona, California, Kansas, Kentucky, Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Colorado, Connecticut, Georgia, Idaho, Michigan, Missouri, North Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Carolina, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Texas, West Virginia York, North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon, and Wisconsin (1919); Maine and Mississippi (1920); District Rhode Island, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Utah and Ver- of Columbia, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Mexico and Oremont). In 28 States, county hospitals or sanitoria have been gon (1921); Maryland, Minnesota (1922); Delaware, Lowa, esiablished (Alabama, California, Arizona, Florida, Illinois, In- North Dakota, South Dakota, Tennessee, Washington and Wyo (J. W. Ho.) : diana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minne- ming (1923). MEDICAL RESEARCH. Progress in medical research seta, Mississippi, Missouri, Nevada, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, South Dakota, since 1911 can be subdivided according to the branch of medical Lennessee,‘Texas, Vermont, Virginia, Washington and Wisconsin). science into which it falls most naturally. An arbitrary classificé In nine States municipal hospitals or sanatoria have been estab- tion, however, has the drawback that many subjects might be dilished (Alabama, Georgia, Illinois, Iowa, Kentucky, New York, cussed equally well under other headings than those in whi® New Jersey, North Carolina and Tennessee). In five States dis- they are presented. i

MEDICAL ANATOMY

RESEARCH

183

occur in simple watery solutions because of the existence of weak

First place in this section must be given to the collections of , basic salts of carbonic and phosphoric acid, especially in the red specimens illustrating war injuries and diseases that have been corpuscles: and numerous investigations upon the action of insuformed by certain museums. notably that of the Royal College lin upon blood sugar and other constituents of the body as well as

of Surgeons of England.

Extending to many thousand specimens

upon the interaction of insulin and other endocrine secretions.

these collections present a picture of the medical and surgical’ Energy Expenditure. Of more general interest is a research effects of war, in the widest sense, that has never been equalled. | carried out upon the energy expenditure in sewing with a machine Other anatomical researches of note were upon the distribution | and hemming by hand.. Careful measurements were made by of the absorbents from the lower intestine and upon the caeco- | means of the respiration calorimeter, but one most instructive colic sphincter tract. The former offers explanation of many pe- | result is that influenza exerts a depressant influence on energy culiarities of disease in this region and is of value surgically: the ; output during rest when the patient has apparently recovered latter is a new conception, likens the tract in question to the stom- completely. In the case of the woman made the subject of measach and supports this contention by numerous references to several urement for five weeks after her apparent complete recovery, species of lower animals. , with the body weight returned to normal, energy expenditure was 4°¢ lower than before the illness.

PHYSIOLOGY Tissue Culture (q.v.). Minute portions of chick and duck emHormones.—Bier found reason to believe that a chemical ! bryo heart have been cultivated in special glass cells. Under suitstimulus (hormone) secreted by the retina initiates the formation , able conditions these portions of tissue live, grow and beat rhyth-

of the lens in the larva of the newt (Molge), and that a hormone |mically in the culture medium for prolonged periods. If two

formed from bone-marrow underlies repair of bone. From this | Portions of heart from the same species are placed in the same he argued that repair in general is dependent upon special hor- |culture cell, each beats rhythmically at an independent rate until

mones formed at the seat of the injury according to the type of the masses fuse by growth, when the beats become synchronous,

tissue needing repair. If in the experiment the two portions are chick and duck, fusion Shock and Blood Transfusion.—A large amount of work has | by growth may occur but independence of rhythmic contraction been done upon shock and allied conditions. Shock is of great | persists.

complexity but sudden removal of large quantities of fuid E (blood) with the resulting disturbance of the circulation is a feroie EAEMIST EY tile cause. (See SHOCK AND COLLAPSE.) In correspondence with | Insulin.—Much of the research falling into this category is this, treatment by transfusion (see BLoop TRansFusion) is of the | concerned with the minute physical chemistry of the cell and greatest value and the methods of transfusion as well as the sub- | therefore is of a fundamental character though hardly suitable stances to be used were made the subject of numerous enquiries. | for analysis in this place. An important practical result of laboraBroadly speaking, for surgical shock and loss of blood by haem- | tory work consisted in a simplification of the method of preparing orrhage, injection of solutions of gum arabic are of great value, | insulin (g.v.) whereby a larger amount of the material of a particularly if a small amount of glucose be added. Volume of| higher potency was prepared from a given amount of raw mateinjected fluid and rapidity of action are fundamental considera- | rial in less time and at smaller cost. Insulin forms a picrate tions, composition of the injected fluid is a matter upon which | when freshly ground pancreas is mixed with solid picric acid. The some latitude can be allowed, and use of blood is by no means | insulin picrate is extracted by acetone. By this discovery the cost obligatory. On the other hand, where transfusion is performed for | of insulin treatment of diabetics has been reduced to one-third or anaemia (g.v.) due to disease, the character of the injected fluid | less. is of frst importance. Here, use of human blood is indicated and Vitamins.—Perhaps the most striking subject upon which bioit is necessary, by careful examination of patient’s blood and | chemical investigations have been conducted during recent years donor’s blood, to ensure that they belong to blood groups not | has been that associated with accessory food factors (vitamins, mutually antagonistic. g.v.) and food deficiency diseases. Investigation of beri-beri Muscle Tone.—Physiological research of unusual importance | (g.v.) a nutritional disease associated with various nervous and was carried out (Sherrington, Magnus and others) upon muscle | paralytic symptoms, which occurs in man and can be induced in tone in the decerebrated animal by means of which tendon and| pigeons by feeding exclusively on polished rice, showed that addiother reflexes received a clearer explanation and information was | tion of a minute quantity of the milling was sufficient to prevent afforded upon many reflex postural responses to stimuli that | onset of the disease or cure it if in existence. Then followed inappear to be voluntary. This line of research supplements ex- | vestigations into the causation, prevention and cure of scurvy and perimental psychology, a branch of investigation that has made | enquiries into the factors underlying growth of the body general

strides during the past two decades (see PsycHoLocy). or of special systems (e.g., bone in rickets). It cannot be said Respiration.—In the province of respiration, the relation of | with certainty that rickets depends exclusively upon absence of

lactic acid and muscular exercise to the respiratory quotient has | a special vitamin, for other factors, such as a sufficiency of calcium been investigated. Under exercise a lactic acid maximum of 0-3% | and phosphorus, are necessary. Moreover, sunlight, particularly in the muscles can be reached in about 30 sec., and this, or | the ultra-violet portion of the spectrum, is no less essential than

rather less, is the longest time that maximal exertions can be kept | due provision of the requisite vitamins for production of that up. For these short maximal efforts there is reason to believe that | normal growth of the body of which normal growth of bones is carbohydrate alone is used by the muscles. Regulation of rhyth- | but a part. As a result of the entire series of investigations upon mic respiration, from experiments carried out on cats, appears to | accessory food factors, it may be said that at the present time depend upon the action of an inspiratory mechanism, the apneustic | fat-soluble vitamin A and water-soluble vitamin B are regarded centre, at the level of the striae acusticae, an expiratory | as being bound up with processes of growth and in addition mechanism just below it, both of these centres being controlled | there are anti-scorbutic and anti-beri-beri vitamins and one that is by the pneumotaxic centre which is situated in the upper half of | necessary for fertility (see Diet anp Dietetics). These vitamins the pons. The actual stimulating agent is carbon dioxide. have been found in a great variety of animal and vegetable subOther Discoveries.—Very many subjects of enquiry must be | stances and the amounts present vary within wide limits. Their passed over here, ¢.g., discovery of rhythmic contractions of | nature is mknown, and the most certain points in connection with

capillaries discovered by a special modification of the microscope; | them are the minuteness of quantity in which they are present and the behaviour of the spleen in poisoning by carbon monoxide; the | the potency of their activity. As to their origin the suggestion action of lead upon red blood corpuscles; researches on bilirubin | has been put forward on experimental grounds that they are comand urobilin and other pigments in relation to jaundice; on “buf- | pounds of high energy content produced by the influence of ultrafering” of blood whereby the addition of a given amount of acid | violet light, but this hypothesis cannot be regarded as proved ex-

to blood is represented by a smaller change in reaction than would | cept in the case of vitamin D (anti-rachitic).

MEDICAL

184 DIAGNOSTICS

Radiology

(see Rapiotocy;

RADIOTHERAPY;

RADIUMTHER-

APY).—On its diagnostic side, quite apart from the use of contrast meals and injections opaque to the rays, it is now possible to pro-

RESEARCH tion of type cultures at the Lister Institute. Begun in 1920 jt now contains more than 2,000 living strains of bacteria, protozoa and fungi, available for workers in widely

different lines of

research. i es Experiments upon the conditions under which bacilli, particy-

duce far better radiographs with exposures measured in fractions of a second than were possible at the beginning of the century with exposures lasting minutes. This is largely due to the employment of X-ray tubes in which the anticathode is a mass of tungSten, heated by an independent current. For treatment, in order to approximate the wave-length of rays emitted by the X-ray tube to the wave-length of the gamma rays of radium, apparatus has been produced with a voltage in the region of 200 kilovolts. So far this type of apparatus is employed chiefly in the treatment of cancer. During the routine examination of large numbers of cases various anatomical peculiarities have been observed and

larly the sporing anaerobes of tetanus and gas gangrene, exert pathogenic activity showed that, if washed clear of toxin and inoculated without contaminating substances, they remained inert. Multiplication, followed by manifestation of the ordinary disease phenomena, occurred only if they were injected along with toxin (not necessarily their specific toxin) or with some solid particles such as lime or silica. In other experiments the presence of silica exerted an important influence on the multiplication of tubercle bacilli in the tissues.

some hitherto unknown morbid processes in bone have been de-

countries upon the so-called Schick test as a means of diagnosing

Diphtheria.—Important observations were conducted in many

scribed. Radiology has also proved useful in study of the physi- susceptibility to diphtheria (see InFecTIous Fevers). If a minute ology and pathology of the heart and great blood-vessels, in pul- quantity of diphtheria toxin, highly diluted, be injected intrader. monary conditions, notably tuberculosis and bronchiectasis, in mally in man, there occurs a patch of redness locally about 2 cm. diagnosis of renal and biliary calculi, and it has been suggested in diameter in certain persons, whereas in others the injection is as a means of diagnosis when perforation of a gastric or intestinal without effect. Heating of the toxin destroys its power of produculcer is suspected. The intentional injection of oxygen or air ing this effect. Further search indicated that in those persons into the peritoneal cavity as an aid to radio-diagnosis has been who are negative, diphtheria antitoxin is present in the blood employed somewhat extensively; it is stated to be devoid of risk serum, whether naturally, or as the result of having passed through

and renders diagnosis of fluid or solid masses relatively easy. The

use of radium (see Cancer; Rapium) is confined chiefly to the

treatment of cancer. Therapentic Use. Other forms of radiant energy, sunlight (heliotherapy), mercury-vapour quartz lamp, carbon arc, radiant heat, all of which depend upon the presence of ultra-violet light in the first instance and warmth in the second, are employed therapeutically to an increasing extent. A disadvantage under which X-ray and ultra-violet forms of treatment labour is the absence of a satisfactory standard of dose. Sabouraud’s pastille is only

an attack of diphtheria, or of gradual immunization owing to the fact that the person is a diphtheria carrier. In Schick-positive persons there is absence of antitoxin and therefore the injected toxin is not neutralized and produces its pathological effect. Sub-

sequent examination on a large scale showed that the reliability

of the test was of a high order. The natural corollary is that during an epidemic all Schick-positive persons should receive a prophylactic treatment with diphtheria, antitoxin. Later work showed that diphtheria “anatoxin,” z.e., toxin detoxicated by addition of formaldehyde and exposure to a temperature of 37° C reliable for “soft” radiation. The “skin erythema dose” is un- for a few weeks, was equally efficacious in producing immunity. satisfactory because as used in France it is two and a half times Scarlatina.—By a similar process of reasoning the two Dicks as great as the “Hauterythemdosis” of the Germans. Even in in America introduced an intradermal diagnostic test for scarlaGerman institutions the erythema dose varies between 285 R tina, the toxin being derived from broth cultures of a variety of „units and 1,120 R units (Martius). haemolytic streptococcus found in the throats of scarlatina patients Effects of Radiciion. Numerous researches have been made on and believed by some to be the cause of the disease. So far the the effects of radiation, particularly the gamma rays of radium, Dick test is not on such firm ground as the Schick test. Nevertheupon cells and tissues of the animal body, plants, seeds, bacteria, less some authors have expressed their view that the test is of protozoa. Ti has been shown that the cell in division is more much value in determining susceptibility or insusceptibility to vulnerable than the cell at rest and that there exists a wide scarlatina and that an anti-scarlatinal serum prepared by means of range of radiosensibility amongst animal cells and_ tissues. the haemolytic streptococci is in many instances efficacious in Amongst the most radiosensitive are the lymphocytes. So far as immunizing the Dick-positive individual and rendering him negcomposite tissues are concerned the intestinal mucosa is highly ative on subsequent intradermal tests. A further extension of the radiosensitive, exposure of the abdomen to unduly heavy dosage principle has been applied in the case of tuberculosis (g.v.), but Jeading to excessive formation of mucus, mucoid degeneration, the work is still in its earlier stages and the time is not ripe for intestinal haemorrhage, paralysis of intestinal muscle, desquama- dogmatic statement. tion of large tracts of mucosa and death from toxic absorption. New Diseases.—A hitherto unrecognized disease was described While there is universal agreement that, directly or indirectly, by McCoy in 1912 when investigating ground squirrels in Tulare rays produce injurious effects upon cells there is doubt whether county, Calif., that had been attacked by a plague-like disease smaller doses do not stimulate the activity of cells. not caused by B. pestis. Since that time it has been found widely in the United States and was definitely recognized as affecting PATHOLOGY man in 1914. Since 1914 tularaemia has occurred in at least Histology.—Morbid histology has been in some measure at a nine laboratory workers engaged on investigations with B. tulastandstill, although during the World War it was employed ex- rense. The micro-organism is an exceedingly minute cocco-bacill us tensively in striving to unravel the pathology of trench nephritis, and ìt is believed that infection in man oceurs by inhalation or by gas gangrene, gas poisoning and, indeed, of any novel pathological a blood-sucking fly. Transmission from rabbit to rabbit occurs condition. Its most striking success was in reference te the mode by the rabbit louse and the rabbit tick, neither of which bites man. of extension of gas gangrene from the seat of infection. The During the war there occurred in Flanders amongst the men im action of the toxin secreted by the infecting bacilli extends along the trenches a severe form of disease associated the muscle bundles far in advance of the bacilli themselves, pro- and haemorrhage which was traced to a spirochaete with jaundice similar to or duces glassy changes of the muscle fibres correlated with a loss identical with Sp. icterahaema ef contractility that can be demonstrated on the operation. table tats, and is transmitted by themrrhagica, which in Japan infects to man. The same organism was and is a necessary precursor to advance of the bacilli themselves found in the rats infesting the trenches. by multiplication. These observations were the prelude to a radDental Caries—A bacillus (B. acidophilus odontolyticus) has ical modification of the surgery of the condition and a definite im- been isolated from carious teeth and in pure culture forms suffiprovement in results. cient acid to dissolve the enamel. Undecayed teeth placed in such Bacteriology.—in bacteriology (¢.v.) a useful step was taken pure cultures for a period of weeks show loss of enamel at spots by the Medical Research Council in forming the national collec- and local growth of the bacilli along the dental tubules. Micro-

MEDICAL scopically the appearance of this artificial caries is identical with

that of natural caries.

Botulism.—Numerous papers have been published upon botulism, a form of severe food poisoning (g.v.) dependent upon an

anaerobic bacillus (B. botulinus).

The nervous system is pro-

foundly attacked by the toxin, difficulty of vision, dilated pupils, ptosis and paralysis

being among

the earliest symptoms.

The

toxin differs from other toxins in being pathogenic when administered orally; it is absorbed in the stomach and upper duodenum. An antitoxic serum has been prepared and is useful in treatment. This form of food poisoning was originally associated with sausages but occurs in connection with a great variety of foods. Most of the recorded cases have occurred in America.

Syphilis.——In syphilis (see VENEREAL Diseases), Brown and Pearce succeeded in transmitting the disease to rabbits by intratesticular inoculation and showed the close resemblance of the

pathological and clinical manifestations to those met with in man. By a prolonged series of experiments on rabbits Pearce answered in the negative the long debated question whether yaws and

syphilis are manifestations of a single disease. Much work has been done on the Wassermann reaction. All doubts are not set

at rest nor is the behaviour of the reaction completely understood, but it has stood the test of time and is considered

of great

diagnostic value. In the investigation of spirochaetal diseases caution in deduction from experiment is shown by the fact that spirochaete-like bodies are to be found in the lateral ventricles of normal monkeys, rabbits and guinea-pigs. Only after animals that had been injected

long previously with material from disseminated sclerosis (which

is regarded by most authorities as of syphilitic origin) had been found to present these bodies in their lateral ventricles, was their existence in normal animals also discovered. Typhus.—In

typhus and trench fevers minute parasites were

discovered belonging to the group now named Rickettsia. For a short time the relation of the Rickettsia to the disease was in doubt, but largely owing to the work of Bacot, an eminent entomologist who contracted typhus during his investigations and died therefrom, it is now recognized that both diseases depend upon the presence of varieties of Rickettsia, and that these parasites are conveyed from patient to patient by body lice. One of the most delicate manipulative operations ever attempted, and actually carried out with brilliant success by Bacot, was the filling of the rectum and intestine of lice with Rickettsia-infected blood by means of a fine capillary glass tube. Bacteriophage.—An interesting phenomenon called after D’Herelle, its discoverer, has attracted much attention. When working with certain cultures of intestinal bacteria D’Herelle observed that on occasions culture apparently failed, the broth remaining quite clear. Subsequently he found that addition of a minute quantity of one of these clear fluids to a culture tube, cloudy with growth, was followed by clarification of the latter; as little as one part in a million was sufficient. He considered that he had obtained evidence of a filter-passing “microbe bactériophage” and obtained the phenomenon by successive culture from intestinal contents, sewage, soil extracts. This clarifying power is a property of leucocytes, tears, nasal mucus, eggwhite and other substances.

From the first the filter-passing microbial explanation met with opposition, many authorities regarding the phenomenon as being due to the action of an autolytic enzyme, or a catalyst causing the micro-organisms to produce autolytic ferments. Later, Fleming described a somewhat similar phenomenon by means of a special micro-organism that he isolated (M. lysodeikticus). This organism In thick suspension is in a few minutes completely dissolved by tears in a 1~-9,000 dilution and using it as an indicator he found evidence of the lytic principle in nearly all tissues of the

RESEARCH

185

teria are sensitive to lysozyme action and others not, thus raising

the speculation whether the pathogenicity of bacteria may be determined by the absence of lysozyme. Filter-passing Viruses.—Since 1905 papers have appeared from time to time in medical literature on the “filter passer” or “filterable virus” (see Fritter-passinc Viruses). A series of morbid conditions is now recognized with more or less certainty as being due to a virus so minute that it passes through the pores of a porcelain filter, or in some cases is beyond the lowest limits of microscopic vision. Of these diseases rabies, vaccinia and per-

haps variola, are the best known. In lethargic encephalitis and herpes, evidence is tending in that direction but is not conclusive owing to the discovery that laboratory animals mainly used for this type of work (monkeys, rabbits) may under normal conditions present appearances in their brains that have been regarded as evidence of experimental transmission from man. Dengue has been added to the list, while the so-called mosaic disease of the tobacco and tomato plants (see Prants: Plant Pathology) is stated to be due to a filterable virus, and distemper in dogs may showa like origin. In addition a transmissible filterpassing virus has been recognized in the rabbit; at first this virus was thought to be the cause of varicella but it is now recognized to be the cause of a naturally occurring infection of the rabbit. Gye and Barnard have described and photographed by means of ultra-violet light, respectively, a filterable virus derived from certain malignant tumours, following in this direction the pioneer work of Rous on chicken sarcoma. (See CANCER RESEARCH.) Finally, in the opinion of some authorities the cause of influenza

(see INFLUENZza) is not Pfeiffer’s B. influenza, this being merely a usual concomitant, but is in reality a filter-passing virus that has not yet been determined with certainty. OBSTETRICS AND

GYNAECOLOGY

Eclampsia.—The exact pathology of eclampsia has not yet been solved. Obata, as the result of injecting mice with extracts of human eclamptic placenta, considers that it is an intoxication by placental poisons made possible by a weakening in its normal capacity of neutralization on the part of the maternal blood. Treatment of the condition on conservative lines has recently gained ground against more radical measures, and control of con-

vulsions by hypnotics with venesection and administration of oxygen have replaced operative procedures.

Under these conditions

mortality has been reduced by more than 50%. Fibroids.—The chief direction in which change of view is taking place among gynaecologists is that of the treatment of uterine fibroids. The old method of curetting has given place in large measure to hysterectomy, which in turn may be destined to give place to radiological treatment in a large proportion of cases. In several important gynaecological clinics on the Continent surgical treatment of uterine fibroids is the exception in an uncomplicated case. MEDICINE

Anaemia.—In

pernicious anaemia (g.v.) it has been shown

that one of the cardinal features is an increase in the mean diameter of the red cells which is independent of the degree of the anaemia and persists through the course of the disease. On the other hand anisocytosis increases with the anaemia. In the remissions which occur naturally or after splenectomy, though the haemoglobin may rise there is little change in the diameter of the

red cells. In treatment transfusion has been found of little value,

but benefit has resulted in some cases from removal of a portion of the bone marrow from the tibia. Apparently removal of some of the bone marrow acts as a stimulus to regeneration of marrow and therewith of the blood cells that are needed by the body. Recently great success has followed administration of liver or of a body, but not in urine, cerebrospinal fluid or sweat. In the vege- non-protein substance derived from liver (see ANarMia). Purtable kingdom he found it in the turnip alone. It is doubtful pura is described as being of two varieties (1) that which is dewhether there is a single lytic substance or more than one. The pendent upon destruction of blood platelets; (2) that which occurs essential difference between this and D’Herelle’s phenomenon is in anaphylactic conditions and is due to direct injury of blood vesthat the former cannot be transmitted in series. Fleming there- sels. In the platelet variety a blood platelet antiserum has been fore speaks of it as a “lysozyme,” and points out that some bac- prepared and is of therapeutic value.

186

MEDICAL

SERVICE,

Heart Diseases.—Diseases of the heart and great blood-vessels have been studied by the electrocardiograph, and numerous conditions, particularly heart block and those in which the nervous mechanism of the heart beat is concerned, have been investigated.

ARMY

of the organisms killed in vivo by chemical means is neutralized by an antiserum. The experimental work was carried out in Den. mark and has been confirmed and extended in England. Careful selection of cases must be made when applying sanocrysin to man as the reaction in pulmonary tuberculosis may be very severe, but

Systematic examination of recruits in whom cardiac symptoms developed during early training resulted in a clearer perception of with due precautions great benefit may accrue. Diabetes.—In the case of diseases of endocrine origin the outthose abnormalities of heart action which were transient and of little importance as distinguished from those which were signifi- standing example of advance is afforded by the insulin (¢.v,) cant of disease. treatment of diabetes (g.v.). The pathology of the condition was Cerebrospinal Meningitis—Cerebrospinal meningitis (q.v.) fairly well known, but the great achievement of Banting and his and lethargic encephalitis (g.v.} have received much attention. collaborators was that they succeeded in isolating the materia] In cerebrospinal meningitis it has been shown that three, possibly in sufficient quantity for therapeutic purposes. Numerous refour, different types of meningococcus occur and that antiserum searches have been undertaken in the endeavour to simplify the treatment to be successful must be homologous. Epidemics could treatment, but it still remains necessary for insulin to be injected usually be traced to a carrier and the chance of their occurrence intravenously and repeatedly in severe diabetes. Goitre.—The relation of iodine to endemic and to exophthalwas greater where men were confined in a relatively narrow space, e.g., barracks. A special method of treating carriers by means of mic goitre (g.v.) has been investigated. A close relation between inhaling chloramine-T was instituted with some success. In the the cellular condition of the thyroid and the amount of iodine has case of lethargic encephalitis, it appears probable that the cause been demonstrated, and it is held that relative or absolute defiwill be found to be a filter-passing virus. ciency of iodine is the immediate cause of simple goitre however Herpes.—iIn the case of herpes in rabbits and herpes in man, this deficiency may be occasioned. Treatment by internal adminincluding herpes zoster, it has been found possible to transmit istration of iodine has met with much success. Success has also keratitis and some other special conditions from animal to animal been claimed for radiological treatment and for surgery in cases in and man to animal by means ofa filter-passing virus. When this which iodine and other medical treatment has failed. Paratyphoid.—Description has been given of a paratyphoid has occurred microscopical appearances are found in the nervous system apparently identical with those met with in lethargic en- epizootic in a flock of sheep with a consequent human epidemic cephalitis, The whole question, therefore, is in an unsettled con- of paratyphoid (40-50 severe cases with four deaths) that dition. occurred in the Essen district. B. paratyphosus B. was isolated Liver Cirrhosis.—An interesting observation is that a form of from the sheep’s flesh and from the patients’ stools. It was not progressive degeneration of the lenticular nucleus occurs which here a case of mutton from healthy sheep being contaminated, but is associated with hepatic cirrhosis. Since its first description by the sheep suffered during life from the same disease as the human Wilson in 1912 over 70 cases have been described but the patho- beings. logical agent remains completely unknown, though there are indiA peculiar disease developed in July 1924 among the fisher folk cations that the liver is the seat of the primary pathological proc- of the Frisches Haff, the great freshwater lagoon of East Prussia. ess. Clinically the symptoms are chiefly cerebral and the hepatic Many suggestions were put forward as to its aetiology, but finally cirrhosis which is so constantly found at autopsy is usually latent. it was traced to arsenic freely contained in the waste water of two General Paralysis of the Insane.—In the case of general cellulose factories which was pouring into the Haff in large paralysis of the insane, a form of treatment that has been advo- quantities. cated is inoculation with benign tertian malaria which is then Racial Blood Indices.—On the basis of observed peculiarities treated with quinine. Maniacal and early cases have been found of group II. and group ITI. red blood cells, another research would to respond to this treatment best. Intelligence, articulation, writ- group mankind according to their racial blood index (see Races ing and equilibrium improve markedly, but defects of character oF MANKIND). Analysis of the large amount of material accumuand manners remain. Some cases may even be able to return to lated since 1919 suggests that so far as blood groups are conresponsible duties. Advanced cases merely remain stationary. The cerned races fall into six divisions strikingly different in type. idea underlying this treatment is that the malarial parasites stimu- These six divisions are European, Intermediate, Hunan, Indolate the body to the formation of spirochaetal anti-substances. Manchurian, Afro-South-Asiatic and Pacific-American. No better Respiratory Diseases—In the province of respiratory dis- indication could be given, than this last example, of the wide eases, gas poisoning necessitated urgent investigation from the range covered by medical research. , commencement of 1915. An intense oedema was produced which Yellow Fever.—In concluding this article, a warning must be blocked the finer air passages and in its minor degrees led to a given that owing to the fluidity of knowledge, statements which widespread bronchopneumonia. Variations were met with as the appear to be fully justified at one time may seem doubtful alittle nature of the gas used was changed, but from the respiratory point later. An example of this is the case of yellow fever (g.v.). The of view at least the phenomena were fairly constant. In pneu- cause of this disease was, on apparently adequate grounds, remonia, experimental work on monkeys showed that four types of garded as leptospira, but very recently grave doubt has been poeumoceccus occur and do not protect against one another. thrown on the point and it is suggested that the patients, from Asthma. Work on asthma has shown that in a large proportion whom the original deduction was made, were subjects of a dual of cases, if not in all, the disease is of an anaphylactic nature, an affection. From this it is argued that the leptospira, known to be imtense reaction being produced in the bronchial mucous mem- the cause of the second, unsuspected disease, does not account for

brane of a person sensitized to some particular substance of protem origin. Determination of the particular substance in any

individual case may be lengthy, but if it be determined there is a possibility of successfinl treatment by gradual immunization, Tuberculosis, In tuberculosis (¢.v.) two important methods

of treatment have been suggested. In one, an endeavour has been miede to increase the antagonizing cells in the body by repeated irradiation of the spleen. This organ is a storehouse for lymphocytes andit is known that the lymphocytic content of the. blood can be'raised by repeated small doses of X-rays. The method has not as yeta great following. The other method is by administra-

tion of å gold salt [Au (S.0,)sNa.] named “sanocrysin” by M , originator of the method. The underlying idea is not parely chemotherapeutical for it is held-that the poisonous action

the yellow fever itself, the cause of which would therefore still remain unknown. (W. S. L.-B.)

MEDICAL SERVICE, ARMY.

An Army Medical Service

(Fr., service de santé ; Ger., Sanititsdienst; It., servizio sanitario; Jap., eiset kimmu) is an indispensable technical branch of the military organisation. On its efficiency the man-power of an army to a great extent depends. Its duties include the care of sick and wounded, the prevention of disease and the preservation of health, the medical examination of recruits, the invaliding of men unfit for further service, the supply of medical and surgical material, the administration of military hospitals and the command, education and training of a personnel for all these purposes. In time of war the collection, evacuation and distribution of battle casualties and the strategical and tactical employment of a variety of medical

MEDICAL

SERVICE, ARMY

187

units for these duties are additional functions of an army medical |general controls not only the medical, dental, nursing, medical administrative and sanitary corps, but also the veterinary corps. service. Advisory Boards are composed of military and civil members Administration.—The army medical service of the British forces is administered by a director-general in the adjutant- and are associated with the British Army medical administration. general's branch of the War Office, with a staff for personnel and | They meet from time to time at the War Office for consideration mobilisation services, for preparation of statistical reports and of general professional policy, questions of hygiene and of pathoconsideration of professional questions, and for the supply of logical research, nursing services and the co-operation of voluntary medical and surgical material, together with two new directorates aid in war. Personnel.—The estimated peace establishment of the Royal AMBULANCE Army Medical Corps is approximately 850 officers and 3,800 other 3RD. DIVISION 2ND. DIVISION {sT. DIVISION TRANSPORT ranks. They serve in all stations at home and overseas where there 0000 0000 O0000|0000 0000 0000|0000 0000 0000 REGTL

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are British troops, including India. Their work there is supplemented by assistant-surgeons of the Indian Medical Dept., formerly the Indian subordinate medical department, and by natives of an Indian Hospital Corps, formerly the army hospital corps and army bearer corps, who with soldiers trained for hospital duties from combatant regiments formed the subordinate staff of British military hospitals in India before the War. A separate body of officers, the Indian medical service and sub-assistant-surgeons of the Indian Medical Dept. served until the World War with Indian regiments and in regimental hospitals under much the same conditions as the British regimental medical services of earlier days. Since the World War, station hospitals for Indian troops have been instituted. The Army Dental Corps, with an establishment of 144 Dental officers is estimated to provide one dental officer for every 600 recruits and one for every 3,000 trained troops. It is a joint service for the Army and the Royal Air Force. (See DENTISTRY.)

STRETCHER BEARERS

FIELD AMB. STRETCHER BEARERS FIELD AMB. TRANSPORT (AMB. WAGONS AND Cars.) LIGHT

RAILWAYS

MOTOR AMBULANCE CONvoYs LIGHT RAILWAYS

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Queen Alexandra’s Imperial Military Nursing Service (Q.A. I.M.N.S.) has an establishment of 582 nurses. They serve in the larger military and families hospitals at home and overseas. Territorial Army Royal Army Medical Corps.—The personnel is organised in peace to provide a regimental service, one field ambulance for each division of the Territorial Army, three

AREA ARMY o |

general hospitals and fifteen Field Hygiene Sections organised for peace training into four Field Hygiene Companies. These are field service units and form a cadre for the training of the R.A.M.C. (T.A.). Previous to the World War the Territorial Force had three field ambulances, one casualty clearing station and one sanitary section for each division, together with 23 general hospitals. The reduction therefore in Territorial Army R.A.M.C, units since the War has been considerable. An establishment of 2,000 other ranks is organised to provide trained personnel to staff military hospitals in England on the outbreak of war when the

AMBULANCE TRAINS

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trict of Columbia. It consists of the Walter Reed general hospital

CONVALESCENT DEPOT.

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BRIGADE OF FOUR BATTALIONS.

SERVICES

FROM

regular Royal Army Medical Corps personnel is withdrawn, and to furnish reinforcements for an expeditionary force. The number of medical officers (1924) was 939, of dentists 155, of nurses 675 and of veterinary officers 124. In continental armies with conscript service the fixed establishments for medical services cannot be computed for purpose of comparison on the same basis as those of the British and American voluntary armies. Training.—Officers of the R.A.M.C. attend preliminary and post-graduate courses at the Royal Army Medical College, and military training with the men at the R.A.M.C. Depdt at Aldershot, where there is also an army school of hygiene. In America, an army medical centre was opened in 1923, at Washington, Dis-

A

CORPS FRONT OF THREE DIVISIONS TO A SEA BASE

of hygiene and pathology which were instituted after the World War in consequence of the lessons of the War and of the scientific

advances in the domain of medical research. The director-general also administers the nursing services and the Army Dental Corps,

the former through a matron-in-chief and the latter through an Assistant-Director-General (for the Dental Service), at the War

and schools for the training of the medical, dental, nursing and veterinary corps. There is also a medical field service school at Carlisle, Pennsylvania, and a school of aviation medicine at San Antonio, Texas. In Italy, there is an army medical school at Florence, and in France, at Lyons, in addition to the post-graduate school at the Val-de-Grâce, for student candidates. In the British Army, military hospitals and small depôt hospitals are established in all commands. In America and its insular possessions there are garrison hospitals and seven large general hospitals, similar to some of the larger military hospitals in England. In continental armies there are also garrison hospitals, but

Office. He is represented in commands at home and overseas by

in France, military sections of the civil hospitals take their place to a great extent. In some continental armies most of the medical

directors for hygiene and pathology. A similar form of administra-

and surgical material is or was prepared in army medical laboratories and factories. In Great Britain and America it is distributed

deputy directors and assistant directors with deputy assistant

tion exists in other armies.

In the United States the surgeon-

188

MEDICAL

SERVICE,

NAVY

from army medical stores, that for the British Army being at |July 6, 10,112 arrived in hospital ships at Southampton and Dover, The mobile laboratories and advanced depdts of medical stores War Organisation.—A regimental medical service, field am- |are usually placed with or near the casualty clearing stations. For bulances, casualty clearing stations, general hospitals, convalescent sanitary duties a Field Hygiene section, of one officer and 27 men, depéts, advanced and base depéts of medical stores, motor ambu- is allotted to each division and base, and sanitary squads of five lance convoys, ambulance trains, hospital ships, field hygiene men each to small posts, such as railheads. Their influence and sections and mobile hygiene, bacteriological, X-ray and dental that of medical research had remarkable results during the World laboratories come into being for service with a British Expedition- War in preventing disease. Enteric and typhus fever, the scourge ary Force on the outbreak of war; there are equivalent units in of armies in past wars, became negligible quantities in the British other armies under different names and organisations. To complete and American forces, and fatal gangrene of wounds and trench their personnel on mobilisation the medical and nursing reserves fever, for long a cause of much inefficiency, were brought under are called up. For this purpose there is a regular reserve of control. Indeed, the two outstanding features of the army medical R.A.M.C. retired officers and men liable to be recalled to service, service of the present day are its power of controlling disease and a supplementary reserve of officers, a military hospital reserve of its power of systematically, rapidly and effectually bringing battle the St. John Ambulance Brigade, the Territorial Army R.A.M.C. casualties under life-saving surgical and hospital treatment. In and the Voluntary Aid Detachments (under T.A. County Assn.) this beneficent work it is assisted by voluntary aid organisations. of the British Red Cross Society, the St. John and the St. Andrew Amongst all civilised nations there are national Red Cross socieAmbulance Associations. There are also important reserves of ties (see Rep Cross) organised as auxiliaries of their army medical Queen Alexandra’s Imperial Military Nursing Service and the services in time of war. They are of special value in distributing Territorial Army Nursing Service. But in a great war, practically voluntary gifts and comforts, such as are not supplied through the whole of the country’s medical resources may be enrolled official sources, to the various hospitals in the home territory and within the limits of age. In the World War, the peace establish- in the war zone, in organising auxiliary hospitals and in various ment of the R.A.M.C. thus expanded to 15,000 officers and 120,000 other activities. Those recognised by their governments, together ranks; while in the United States Army the medical service (vet- with the whole of the personnel and units of the medical services erinary excluded) expanded to 38,140 officers and 264,181 other of armies, are protected and become the recipients of special ranks. A similar vast expansion occurred in nursing personnel privileges under the Geneva Convention of 1906, should they fall (W. G. Ma.) (21,480 nurses, U.S.A.), and in the number of medical units. into the power of the enemy during war. MEDICAL SERVICE, NAVY. In the British navy, mediMilitary hospital beds, for example, reached a total of 637,746 Woolwich.

for the British forces and 407,914 for those of the United States. The various units are distributed in the war zone, from front to base, in divisional, corps, army, and lines of communication areas of command, according to the nature of the functions for which they are organised. The regimental medical service consists

of an officer of the R.A.M.C. with 21 men of the regiment as stretcher bearers and 16 as sanitary detachment. In battle, a regimental aid post (Fr., poste de secours; Ger., Truppenverbandpiatz; It., posto di medicazione), to which they collect the wounded, is established. Each division has three field ambulances (the equivalent of the medical regiment of a U.S.A. division, the groupe sanitaire divistonnasre of the French, and the Sanitätsbattalion of the German organisations). A field ambulance is composed of a headquarters and two companies, the headquarters being destined to form a main dressing station and each company an advanced dressing station. With a cavalry division there are two Cavalry Field Ambulances, each consisting of a headquarters and one company. In battle, the Field Ambulance opens an advanced dressing station at a point to which its wheeled ambulance transport can be brought, and a main dressing station further back. The company removes the wounded from the regimental aid posts to the advanced dressing station, and the transport brings them from there to the main dressing station. The motor ambulance convoys (Fr., section sanitaire auto), composed of 75 motor ambulance cars each and with one convoy to each corps, bring the wounded from the main dressing stations to the casualty clearing stations (U.S.A., evacuation hospital; Fr., Aépiial d'évacuation; Ger., Kriegslazarett), which are established in the proportion of one to each division, at or near railways and at the head of the lines of communication. From there, when fit to travel, the sick and wounded are taken in ambulance trains to the general hospitals, which are units of 1,000 or less beds placed at sea bases or other convenient centres. Hospital ships transfer the patients to home ports, whence they are distributed to hospitals throughout the country. Such is the normal system of collection, evacuation and distribution of sick and wounded in a war zone. It is liable to modification according to circumstances and the nature of the

terrain, especially as regards methods of transport by road, rail,

river, Canal or air. It worked well in the World War, where the test was severe. During the battles of the Somme, for example, the British field ambulances collected 316,073 wounded between

July 1 and Nov. 30, 1916, including 26,675 in the first 24 hours; 304,285 were transferred to the base hospitals, and on one day,

cal requirements at the present day are provided for by a special department of the Admiralty which is placed under the administration of the medical director general,—an officer selected from the list of surgeon rear-admirals. As head of his department, he is responsible to the Board of Admiralty for the efficiency both in regard to the personnel and material of all medical details; he superintends the professional and administrative details of naval medical establishments and the practice of medical officers, and further advises the Board on all questions of ‘‘disability assessments” arising from invaliding and claims for compensation. Conditions of Service——Until the outbreak of the World War, officers of the Royal Naval Medical Service were entered by competitive examination, but since the conclusion of peace— owing to the lack of applicants—these examinations have not been resumed, and for the time being medical officers are entered for temporary service, engaging for three years, with the option of turning over to the permanent service if they are considered suitable, but it is anticipated that the recently innovated facilities for post-graduate study, together with the extra pay for officers who specialize, will attract a sufficiently large number of young medical men to enable entry by examination to be resunied. Par-

ticulars concerning the conditions of service, etc., are published in the official Navy List or can be obtained by application to the medical department of the Admiralty. Since 1919 the ranks held by medical officers have been approximated to those held by the executive branch, and are:—on entry, surgeon lieutenant; after six years satisfactory service, surgeon

lieutenant-commander; and after a further period of six years surgeon commander, provided the necessary professional examination has been passed. The more senior rariks of surgeon captain and surgeon rear-admiral are reached by selection. | Except the smallest, all British men-o’-war carry a medical off-

cer, battleships and certain cruisers having two. Apart from his purely medical and surgical duties, it is regarded as an important function of the medical officer to protect the health of the ship’s company, and to suggest to his commanding officer any measures

considered necessary for this purpose.

He must make himself

acquainted with the conditions of health prevailing in the ports which his ship is likely to visit, and veto the introduction into the ship of any water or food which could possibly carry disease. It is also his duty to give instruction in “first aid” and “personal

hygiene,” especially in regard to the dangers arising from venereal disease and the abuse of alcohol.

Equipment

and Hospitals—The

special accommodation

MEDICI

189

which is allocated for the sick in all H.M. ships is termed the sick ! navy life may be studied. Medical officers showing aptitude for bay. This place—in spite of the fact that all serious cases are, . specialties in medicine are given graduate instruction in their for their own comfort transferred to hospital on the earliest specialties at appropriate medical schools. occasion—is fully equipped for the comfort of patients and for all | The health and hygiene of the navy personnel are entrusted to medical and surgical contingencies. For the general safety of the medical and dental officers of the service. Fully equipped hoswounded in action, spaces are reserved in the most protected parts |pital ‘ships with an efficient personnel and skilled medical officers, of the ship, these spaces are designated “medical distributing sta- | including specialists, accompany all large fleets. The Medical tions.” Each of the principal naval ports has a naval hospital. |Corps of the naval reserve force is composed of officers taken These establishments conform in every way to the most modern :from civilian life and from ex-naval medical officers, appointed and scientifically conceived requirements of medicine, surgery and | and promoted pursuant to law and in accordance with regulations. hygiene. They may receive a certain amount of training each year and are Afloat, the nursing is carried out by the sick berth nursing subject to call in an emergency so declared by the president.

staff, a highly trained and efficient body of men. They also carry out nursing duties in the naval hospitals, but in addition in these establishments there are lady nurses belonging to Queen Alexandra’s Royal Naval Nursing Service.

The Royal Naval Dental Service was inaugurated in 1920 and is supervised by a dental officer of surgeon captain’s rank, attached to the staff of the medical director general. The World War.—Except under abnormal climatic conditions, and during the epidemics of influenza, the health of the navy was remarkably good during the World War. This satisfactory state of affairs can be attributed to: (a) The careful supervision of the personnel by the medical officers and the strict quarantine precautions enforced. (b) The care exercised concerning food, water and victualling arrangements, both in ships and establish-

ments. (c) Preventive inoculation against enteric fever. (d£) The comparative isolation of the fleets lessening the chance of venereal infection and the abuse of alcohol. (e) Lectures given to the men on personal hygiene. (f) Measures taken to lessen the monotony of ship life in war time. As compared with land warfare, the number of men killed outright in action was striking, and this, combined with the number of deaths from immersion, made the ratio of kiled to wounded

far higher in the British Navy than in the Army. For instance, at

Jutland, out of 6,688 casualties there were 6,014 either killed or drowned. The higher proportion of fatal wounds was due to the condition of modern naval warfare—explosion of large shells in closed compartments. In comparison with the wounds m the trenches, where the clothing and skin were ingrained with filth, wounds in the Navy were less disposed to become septic.

Other Navies.—The organization in other navies is similar to

that in the British. Medical Officers of the French Navy—instead of being selected from candidates qualified in the ordinary way, as is the practice in the British, Italian and Japanese navies—are professionally educated at special naval medical colleges, and subsequently hold purely professional titles of rank. Italian naval medical officers, in common with other non-executive officers of that navy, hold military, in contradistinction to naval rank. The medical organization in the Japanese navy is almost identical with the British. The medical and dental officers are admitted to the corps after passing satisfactory examinations and as vacancies occur. Above the rank of lieutenant-commander, promotion is by selection and exam-

ination. (G. L. B.) United States.—In July 1928 the Medical Service of the U.S. havy consisted of: the Medical Corps; Dental Corps; Hospital Corps; and Nurse Corps (female). The Medical Corps was composed of 4 rear-admirals, 82 captains, 91 commanders, 268 lieutenant

commanders,

218 lieutenants

and

168 junior grade

lieutenants. Medical officers appointed immediately following graduation are given one year’s rotating internship, upon the completion of which they are subject to detail to posts of duty afloat or ashore. The Dental Corps consisted of 14 commanders,

68 lieutenant commanders, 66 lieutenants and 20 lieutenants (junior grade). Medical and dental officers are admitted to the corps after passing satisfactory examinations and as vacancies occur. Above the rank of lieutenant commander promotion to

The Hospital Corps consists of chief pharmacists

(commis-

sioned officers), pharmacists (warrant officers), chief pharmacist’s mates, pharmacist’s mates, first, second and third class (petty officers) and hospital apprentices (non-rated enlisted men). Vacancies are filled by promotion from lower ratings. Chief pharmacists and pharmacists are concerned largely with administration of naval hospitals and dispensaries. Many of these officers become expert chemists, accountants, X-ray technicians, etc. The enlisted men are trained as male nurses, and several each year are

given special instruction for qualification as technicians in the following branches: bacteriology, pathology, medical zoology, chemistry, X-ray, electrocardiography, dentistry, aviation medicine and embalming. The Nurse Corps (female) consists of the superintendent of the Nurse Corps (female), chief nurses and nurses. The members of the Nurse Corps are employed principally at naval hospitals, naval dispensaries and on board hospital ships. The surgical instruments, dressings, medicines and laboratory equipment are supplied in great part from the navy medical supply depot in Brooklyn, N.Y., and from the medical supply depots in Mare island, Calif., and Canacao, P.I. Naval medical service is provided for officers and enlisted men, active or retired, afloat or ashore. Of the commissioned officers of the Medical .Corps of the U.S. navy 3,093 served in the World War, together with

24,587 enlisted men in the Hospital Corps. The entire U.S. naval medical service is directed by the surgeon general of the U.S. navy, who is appointed by the president, from the Naval Medical Corps, for a term of four years, after which he may be reappointed. This duty carries with it the rank of rear-admiral, “upper nine,” which corresponds to that of major-general, U.S. army. (J. C. Pr.)

MEDICI, the name of a famous Italian family. Legend declared that the house was founded by Perseus, and that Benvenuto Cellini’s bronze Perseus holding on high the head of Medusa was executed and placed in the Loggia dei Lanzi at Florence to symbolize the victory of the Medici over the republic. The name appears in Florentine chronicles as early as the close of the 12th century.

Early Bearers of the Name.—The first of the family to be a distinct figure in history was Salvestro dei Medici, who, in 1378, was the real leader in the revolt of the Ciompi (wool-carders). The lesser gilds had gained some ground by this riot, and Salvestro dei Medici the great popularity at which he had aimed. Giovanni.—Giovanni, son of Averardo Bicci dei Medici (1360-1429), may be considered the actual founder of Medicean greatness. He realized an immense fortune by trade—establishing banks in Italy and abroad, which in his successor’s hands became the most efficient engines of political power. The Council of Constance (1414-1418) enabled Giovanni dei Medici ta realize enormous profits. Like his ancestor Salvestro, he was a constant supporter of the lesser gilds in Florence. Historians record his frequent resistance to the Albizzi when they sought to oppress the people with heavier taxation, and his endeavours to cause the chief weight to fall upon the rich. For this he gained a great reputation. Giovanni dei Medici died in 1429 leaving two sons, Cosimo

(1389-1464) and Lorenzo (1395-1440). From the former proceeded the branch that ruled for many generations over the to officers of the Medical and Dental Corps to take “refresher” nominal republic of Florence, and gave to Italy the popes Leo X. courses from time to time at the Naval Medical school, where and Clement VII. On the extinction of this elder line in the 16th problems concernmg submarines, aviation and other aspects of century, the younger branch derived from Lorenzo, Cosimo’s

each grade is by selection and examination. Opportunity is given

Igo

MEDICI

brother, for two centuries supplied grand-dukes to Tuscany. Cosimo.-—-Cosimo, surnamed Cosimo the Elder, and honoured

after his death by the title of pater patriae, first succeeded in solving the problem of becoming absolute ruler of a republic keenly jealous of its liberty, without holding any fixed office, without suppressing any previous form of government, and always preserving the appearance and demeanour of a private citizen. Born in 1380, he was forty when his father died. He showed much taste and an earnest love both for letters and art. But he was devoted to business to the day of his death, and like his forefathers gained wealth through his friendly relations with the papal court. He inherited the leadership of the opposition to the then dominant party of the greater gilds headed by Rinaldo degli Albizzi, Palla Strozzi and Niccolò da Uzzano. Cosimo was generous in lending and even giving money when it suited his political ends. He is said to have fomented the war witb Lucca, and to have made money out of it. When the fortune of war turned against Florence, Cosimo turned on the Albizzi and their friends who were mainly responsible for its conduct. The Albizzi vowed revenge. A general assembly of the people was convoked and a balia chosen, which changed the government and sent Cosimo into exile at Padua. Finally, on Sept. 1, 1434, a signory was elected in Florence

composed of his friends, and his recall was decreed.

Rinaldo

degli Albizzi determined to oppose it by force, but his attempt failed, and he left Florence never to return. For three centuries, dating from that moment, the whole history of Florence was connected with that of the house of Medici. Cosimo secured himself by exiling the most powerful citizens to all parts of Italy. It was impossible for Cosimo openly to assume the position of tyrant of Florence, nor was it worth his while to become gonfalonier, since the term of office lasted only two months. He attained his object by securing the control of the magistracy, whose members were appointed for a five year term. Cosimo’s Patronage of Art.—Without the title of prince, this merchant showed royal generosity in his expenditure for the promotion of letters and the fine arts. Besides his palace in the city, he constructed noble villas at Careggi, Fiesole and other places. He built the basilica of Fiesole, and that of St. Lorenzo in Florence, and enlarged the church awd monastery of St. Mark. Even in distant Jerusalem he endowed a hospice for the use of pilgrims. He was the patron of Donatello, Brunelleschi, Ghiberti, Luca della Robbia, and many others. Cosimo purchased many Greek and Latin manuscripts; he opened the first public library at St. Mark’s at his own expense, and founded another in the abbey of Fiesole. The Greek refugees from Constantinople found a constant welcome in his palace. During the Council of Florence (1439-1442), Gemistus Pletho spoke to him with enthusiasm of the Platonic philosophy. Cosimo was so deeply attracted by the

theme that he decided to have the young Marsilio Ficino (g.v.)

trained in philosophy and Greek learning in order to make a Latin translation of the complete works of Plato. Through Ficino he founded that Platonic academy which led to such important results in the history of Italian philosophy and letters. On Aug. 1,

1464, Cosimo died at the age of seventy-five, while engaged in listening to one of Plato’s dialogues. Cosimo was succeeded by his son Piero “the Gouty,” who quelled a plot against his leadership, and maintained his authority for five years, mainly through the prestige inherited from Cosimo. He died on Dec. 3, 1469, leaving two sons, Lorenzo (1449-1492) and Giuliano (1453-1478). Lorenzo.—The younger, the gentler and less ambitious of the two, was quickly removed from the world. Lorenzo seized the reins of state with a firm grasp. In literary talent he was superior to Cosimo, but as a financier was inferior. In politics he had nobler conceptions and higher ambitions, but he was more easily carried away by his passions, less prudent in his revenge, and more disposed to tyranny. Lorenzo’s policy, although prosecuted with less caution, was still the old astute policy initiated by Cosimo. l „ Among his worst enemies were the powerful clan of the Pazzi. ey were, om the point of inheriting the large property of

Giovanni Borromeo when Lorenzo hurriedly caused a law to þe passed that altered the right of succession. The hatred of the Pazzi was thereby exasperated to fury. There ensued a desperate

quarrel with Pope Sixtus IV. Consequently the Pazzi and Arch-

bishop Salviati, another enemy of Lorenzo, aided by the nephews of the pontiff, determined to destroy the Medici. On April 26, 1478, while Giuliano and Lorenzo were attending high mass in the cathedral of Florence, the former was mortally stabbed by con-

spirators, but the latter was able to beat back his assailants and escape into the sacristy. Lorenzo wreaked cruel vengeance upon his foes. Several of the Pazzi and their followers were

hanged from the palace windows; others were hacked to pieces, dragged through the streets, and cast into the Arno, while others were condemned to death or sent into exile. The pope had excommunicated Lorenzo, put Florence under an interdict, and, with the help of the Neapolitan king, made war against the republic. Lorenzo went to Naples, to the court of King Ferdinand of Aragon, and secured an honourable peace, which soon led to a reconciliation with Sixtus. i Thus at last Lorenzo found himself complete master of Florence. But, as the balia changed every five years, it was always requisite to secure a new magistracy favourable to his aims. In 1480 Lorenzo compassed the institution of a new council of seventy, which was practically a permanent balia with extended powers, which not only elected the chief magistrates, but had also the administration of numerous state affairs. This permanent

council of devoted adherents once formed, his security was firmly established. By this means, the chroniclers tell us, “liberty was buried,” but the chief affairs of the state were always conducted by intelligent and experienced men, who promoted the public prosperity. Florence was still called a republic; the old institutions were still preserved, if only in name. Lorenzo was absolute lord of all, and virtually a tyrant.

His immorality was scandalous; he kept an army of spies; he frequently meddled in the citizens’ most private affairs, and exalted men of the lowest condition to important offices of the state. Yet, as Guicciardini remarks, “If Florence was to have a tyrant, she could never have found a better or more pleasant one.” In fact allandustry, commerce and public works made enormous progress. The civil equality of modern states, which was quite unknown to the middle ages, was more developed in Florence than in any other city of the world. Even the condition of the peasantry was far more prosperous than elsewhere. Lorenzo's authority was very great throughout the whole of Italy. He was on the friendliest terms with Pope Innocent VIII., from whom he obtained the exaltation of his son Giovanni to the cardinalate at the age of fourteen. This boy-cardinal was afterwards Pope Leo X. From the moment of the decease of Sixtus IV., the union of Florence and Rome became the basis of Lorenzo’s foreign policy. The palace of Lorenzo was the school and resort of illustrious

men. Within its walls were trained the two young Medici afterwards known to the world as Leo X. and Clement VII. Ficino, Poliziano, Pico della Mirandola and all members of the Platonic academy were its constant habitués. It was here that Pulci gave

readings of his Morgante, and Michelangelo essayed the first strokes of his chisel. Lorenzo’s intellectual powers were of exceptional strength and versatility. He could speak with equal fluency on painting, sculpture, music, philosophy and poetry. But his crowning superiority over every other Maecenas known to history lay in his active participation in the intellectual labours

that he promoted. He was an elegant prose writer, and a poet of

real originality.

It is Lorenzo’s lasting glory to have been the

initiator of the movement for the revival of the national literature in the mother tongue. He died on April 8, 1492. Pietro.—Lorenzo left three sons—Pietro (1471-1503), Giovanni (1475-1521) and Giuliano (1479-1516). He was succeeded by Pietro, whose rule lasted but for two years. He

fomented the hatred between Lodovico Sforza and Ferdinand of

Naples, which hastened the coming of the French under Charles VIII., and the renewal of foreign invasions. When the French approached the frontiers of Tuscany, Pietro, crazed with fear,

MEDICI

IQI

accepted terms equally humiliating to himself and the state. The | sandro was chosen as the new ruler of Florence. enraged citizens decreed his deposition, and he fled to Venice.,

He was drowned at Garigliano in 1503.

Cardinal Giovanni

eee

By imperial patent Duke Alessandro (he was duke of Citta di

| Penna) was nominated head of the republic. No previous ruler

(Leo X.), Giuliano, Lorenzo.—A |of the city had enjoyed hereditary power confirmed by imperial

republican government was maintained in Florence from 1494 to |patent, and such power was incompatible with the existence of a

1512, and the city remained faithful to its alliance with the ' republic.

A new council was formed of two hundred citizens

French, who were all-powerful in Italy Cardinal Giovanni, the :elected for life, forty-eight of which number were to constitute a head of the family, resided in Rome, playing the patron to a circle | senate. Alessandro, as duke of the republic, filled the post of of litterati, artists and friends, and waiting for better days. The | gonfalonier, and carried on the government with the assistance battle of Ravenna wrought the downfall of the fortunes of France |of three senators, changed every three months, who took the place in Italy, and led to the rise of those of Spain, whose troops | of the suppressed signory. The duke’s chief advisers and the entered Florence to destroy the republic and reinstate the Medici. | contrivers of all these arrangements were Baccio Valori, Francesco Pietro had left a young son, Lorenzo (1492-1519), who was after- Vettori and above all Francesco Guicciardini—men, especially the wards duke of Urbino. In 1513 Cardinal Giovanni was elected latter two, of lofty political gifts and extensive influence. When pope, and assumed the name of Leo X. (g.v.). Meanwhile his the leading Florentine families realized not only that the republic kinsmen continued to govern Florence by means of a balia. And |was destroyed, but that they were reduced to equality with those

thus, being masters of the whole of central Italy, the Medici en- | whom they had hitherto regarded as their inferiors and subjects, joyed great authority throughout the country. This was the| their rage was indescribable, and hardly a day passed without the moment when Niccolo Machiavelli (g.v.), in his treatise The | departure of influential citizens who were resolved to overthrow Prince, counselled them to accomplish the unity of Italy their new ruler. They found a leader in Cardinal Ippolito dei Giuliano dei Medici had died during Leo’s reign, in 1516, with- | Medici, who was then in Rome. Cardinal Ippolito.—In 1534 the principal Florentine exiles out having ever done anything worthy of record. He was the hus-

band of Philiberta of Savoy, was duke of Nemours, and left a | were despatched to Charles V. with complaints of Alessandro’s natural son, Ippolito dei Medici (1511-1535), who afterwards be- tyranny. Ippolito represented his own willingness to carry on came a cardinal. Lorenzo was invested by his kinsman, Leo X., the government of Florence in a more equitable manner, and with the duchy of Urbino, after expelling on false pretences its |promised the emperor a large sum of money. He set out to meet legitimate lord, Francesco Maria della Rovere. This prince, how- | Charles in Tunis, but on Aug. 10, 1535, died suddenly at Itri, ever, soon returned to Urbino, where he was joyously welcomed by| poisoned, it is supposed, by order of Alessandro. On the emperor’s his subjects, and Lorenzo regained possession only by a war of | retum from Africa, the exiles presented themselves to him in several months, in which he was wounded. In 1519 he also died, ; Naples. Duke Alessandro, being cited to appear, came to Naples worn out by disease and excess. By his marriage with Madeleine de |accompanied by Francesco Guicciardini, who by speaking in his la Tour d’Auvergne, he had one daughter, Caterina dei Medici | defence, tarnished his illustrious name. Alessandro rose higher (1519-1589) (see CATHERINE DE’ Mepicr), married in 1533 to | than before in the imperial favour, married Margaret of Austria, Henry, duke of Orleans, afterwards king of France. Lorenzo also the natural daughter of Charles, and returned to Florence with left a natural son named Alessandro. Thus the only three surviv- increased power. Alessandro now indulged unchecked in the lowing representatives of the chief branch of the Medici, Cardinal est excesses of tyranny, and gave way to increased libertinism. Lorenzino.—His constant associate in this disgraceful routine Giulio, Ippolito and Alessandro were all of illegitimate birth, was his distant kinsman Lorenzo, generally known as Lorenzino and left no legitimate heirs.

Cardinal

Giulio

(Clement

VII.).—Cardinal

Giulio

(see

CLEMENT VII.), who had laboured successfully for the reinstatement of his family in Florence in 1512, had been long attached to the person of Leo X. as his trusted factotum and companion.

When Giuliano and Lorenzo died, the pope appointed the cardinal to the government of Florence. When, after the death of Leo X. and the very brief pontificate of Adrian VI., he was elected pope (1523) under the name of Clement VII., he entrusted the government of Florence to Cardinal Silvio Passerini conjointly with Alessandro and Ippolito, who were still young. Giovanni delle Bande Nere.—The younger branch of the Medici, descended from Lorenzo, brother to Cosimo the elder, now emerged from obscurity. In fact the most valiant captain of the papal forces was Giovanni dei Medici, afterwards known by the name of Giovanni delle Bande Nere. His father was Giovanni, son of Pier Francesco, who was the son of Lorenzo, the brother of Cosimo dei Medici. The youthful Giovanni was the only leader who opposed a determined resistance to the imperial forces. He was seriously wounded at Pavia when fighting on the French side. On his recovery he joined the army of the League. When the imperial troops were struggling through the marshes of Mantua, surrounded on every side, and without stores or ammunition, Giovanni attacked them with a small body of men. One of the first shots fired by the enemy injured him so fatally that he died a few days after. He was married to Maria Salviati, by whom he had one son, Cosimo (1519-1574), who

became the first grand duke of Tuscany, and indeed the founder of the grand duchy and the new dynasty.

Duke Alessandro. Meanwhile the imperial army had sacked

Rome, and Clement VII. had signed a treaty of alliance with the emperor (1529), who sent an army to besiege Florence and restore

the Medici, whom the people had expelled in 1527 on the reestablishment of the republic.

After an heroic defence, the city

was forced to surrender (1530). Ippolito being a cardinal, Ales-

dei Medici. On Jan. 5, 1537, Lorenzino led the duke to his own lodging, and left him there, promising shortly to return with the wife of Leonardo Ginori. Alessandro fell asleep on the couch while awaiting Lorenzino’s return. Before long the latter came accompanied by a desperado known as the Scoronconcolo, who aided him in murdering the sleeper. They placed the body in a bed, hid it beneath the clothes, and, Lorenzino having attached a paper to it bearing the words, Vincit amor patriae, laudumque immensa cupido, they both fled to Venice. In that city Lorenzino was assassinated some ten years later, in 1548, at the age of thirtytwo, by order of Alessandro’s successor. He wrote an Apologia, in which he defended himself with great skill and eloquence, saying that he had been urged to the deed solely by love of liberty. By Alessandro’s death the elder branch of the Medici became extinct. Cosimo I.—Cardinal Cybo convoked the council of forty-eight to decide upon a successor. Guicciardini and other leading citizens favoured the choice of Cosimo, the son of Giovanni delle Bande Nere. He was already in Florence, was aged seventeen, was keenwitted and aspiring, strong and handsome in person, heir to the enormous wealth of the Medici, and, by the terms of the imperial patent, was Alessandro’s lawful successor. Charles V. approved the nomination of Cosimo, who without delay seized the reins of government with a firm grasp. Meanwhile the exiles assembled their forces at Mirandola. They had about four thousand infantry and three hundred horse; among them were members of all the principal Florentine families; and their leaders were Bernardo Salviati and Piero Strozzi. They entered Tuscany towards the end of July 1537. Cosimo ordered Alessandro Vitelli to collect the best German, Spanish and Italian infantry at his disposal, and attack the enemy. Alessandro Vitelli re-entered Florence with his victorious army and his fettered | captives. Cosimo had achieved his first triumph. On four mornings in succession four of the prisoners, all mem-

192

MEDICI

bers of great families, were beheaded. Then the duke saw fit to stay the executions. Baccio Valori, however, and his son and nephew were beheaded on Aug. 20 in the courtyard of the Bargello. Filippo Strozzi still survived, but, later, on Dec. 18, he was found dead in his prison, with a blood-stained sword by

his side, and a slip of paper bearing these words: Exoriare aliquis nosiris ex ossibus ultor. The voung prince's cold-blooded massacre of his captives cast

from Maximilian EI. the title of grand-duke, for which Cosimo had never been. able to win the imperial sanction, but he forfeited all independence. Towards Philip II. he showed even greater submissiveness, supplying him with large sums of money wrung from his overtaxed people. His love of science and letters was the

only Medicean virtue that he possessed. He had an absolute passion for chemistry, and passed much of his time in his laboratory. Francesco was a slave to his passions, and was led by them to scandalous excesses and deeds of bloodshed. In 1576 Isabella dei Medici, Francesco’s sister, was strangled in her nuptial bed by her husband, Paolo Giordano Orsini, whom

an enduring shadow upon his reign and dynasty. But it was henceforward plain to all that he was a man of stern resolve, who went straight to his end without scruples. He was regarded by many as the incarnation of Machiavelli's Prince. Guicciardini, she had betrayed. Piero dei Medici, Francesco’s brother, murwho still pretended to act as mentor, withdrew from public life dered his wife Eleonora of Toledo from the same motive. Stil} and when he died in 1540, it was immediately rumoured that the louder scandal was caused by the duke’s passion for the famous duke had caused him to be poisoned. This shows the estimation Bianca Cappello, a Venetian of noble birth, who had eloped with in which Cosimo was now held. He punished with death all who and married a young Florentine named Pietro Buonaventuri, dared to resist his will. By 1540 sentence of death had been pro- Francesco nominated her husband to a post at court. Upon this, nounced against 430 contumacious fugitives, and during his reign Buonaventuri behaved with so much insolence, even to the nobil140 men and six women actually ascended the scaffold, without ity, that one evening he was found murdered in the street. After counting those who perished in foreign lands by the daggers of the death of the grand-duchess in 1578 he married Bianca. The his assassins. grand-duke died at his villa of Poggio a Caiano on Oct. 18, 1587, Cosimo bore a special grudge against the neighbouring republics and the next day Bianca also expired. Rumour asserted that she of Siena and Lucca. Siena was an old and formidable foe to bad prepared a poisoned tart for the cardinal, and that, when he Florence, and had always given protection to the Florentine suspiciously insisted on the grand-duke tasting it first, Bianca exiles. It was now very reluctantly submitting to the presence desperately swallowed a slice and followed her husband to the of a Spanish garrison, and, being stimulated by promises of tomb. prompt and efficacious assistance from France, rose in rebellion Such was the life of Francesco dei Medici, and all that can be and expelled the Spaniards in 1552. Cosimo instantly wrote to said in his praise is that he gave liberal encouragement to a few the emperor, asking leave to attack Siena, and begged for troops. artists, including Giovanni Bologna (g.v.}. He was the founder He then began negotiations with Henry II. of France, and, by of the Uffizi gallery, of the Medici theatre, and the villa of thus arousing the imperial jealousy, obtained a contingent of Pratolino; and during his reign the Della Cruscan academy was German and Spanish infantry. Siena was besieged for fifteen instituted. months, and its inhabitants made a most heroic resistance, even Ferdinand I.—Ferdinand I. was thirty-eight years of age

women and children helping on the walls. But finally the Sienese were obliged to capitulate on honourable terms that were shamelessly violated. In 1559 Cosimo also captured Montalcino, and thus formed the grand-duchy of Tuscany, but he continued to govern the new state—t.e. Siena and its territories—separately from the old. His rule was intelligent, skilful and despotic; but his enormous expenses drove him to excessive exactions in money. Hence, notwithstanding the genius of its founder, the grand-duchy held from the first the elements of its future decay. Cosimo preferred to confer office upon men of humble origin in order to have pliable tools, but he alsa liked to be surrounded by a courtier aristocracy on the Spanish and French pattern. Cosimo was no Maecenas; nevertheless he restored the Pisan university, enlarged that of Siena, had the public records classified, and executed public

works like the Santa Trinita bridge. During the great inundations

af 1557 he turned his whole energy to the relief of the sufferers. In 1539 he had married Eleonora of Toledo, daughter of the viceroy of Naples, by whom he had several children. Two died in 1562, and their mother died shortly afterwards. It was said that one of these boys, Don Garcia, had murdered the other, and then been killed by the enraged father. Indeed, Cosimo was further accused of having put his own wife to death but neither rumour had any foundation. Worn by the cares of state and selfindulgence, Cosimo, in 1564, resigned the government to his eldest son, who was to act as his lieutenant, since he wished toa have power to resume the sceptre on any emergency. In 1570, by the advice of Pope Pius V., he married Camilla Martelli, a young lady of whom he had been long enamoured. In 1574 he died, at the age of 54 years and ten months, after a reign of 37 years, leaving three sons and one daughter besides natural children. These sons were Francesco, his successor, who was already at the head of the government, Cardinal Ferdinand, and Piero. Francesco L—Francesco L, bom in 1541, began to govern as

his father’s lieutenant in 1564, and was married in 1 565 to the archduchess Giovanna of Austria. He was suspicious, false and despotic. Holding every one aloof, he catried on the government

with the assistance of a few devoted ministers. He cast himself like a vassal at Austria’s feet. He reaped his reward by obtaining

when, in 1587, he succeeded his brother on the throne. A cardinal from the age of fourteen, he had never taken holy orders. He

was the founder of the Villa Medici at Rome, and the purchaser

of many priceless works of art, such as the Niobe group and many other statues afterwards transported by him to Florence. After his accession he retained the cardinal’s purple until the time of his marriage. He re-established the administration of justice, and sedulously attended to the business of the state. Tuscany revived under his rule, and regained the independence and political dignity that his brother had sacrificed to love of ease and personal indulgence. He ensured the prosperity of Leghorn, by an edict enjoining toleration towards Jews and heretics, which led to the settlement of many foreigners in that city. He improved the harbour and established canal communication with Pisa, and carried out many works of public utility in the duchy. He retained the reprehensible custom of trading on his own account, keeping banks in many cities of Europe. In foreign policy he sought emancipation from Spain. During this grand-duke’s reign the Tuscan navy was notably increased, and did itself much honour on the Mediterranean. The war-galleys of the knights of St. Stephen were despatched to the coast of Barbary to attack Bona, the headquarters of the corsairs, and they captured the town with much dash and bravery. In the following year (1608) the same galleys achieved their most brillant victory in the archipelago over the stronger fleet of the Turks, by taking nine of their vessels, seven hundred prisoners, and jewels of the value of 2,000,000 ducats. Cosimo II.—Ferdinand I. died in 160ọ, leaving four sons, of whom the eldest, Cosimo II., succeeded to the throne at the age of nineteen. Like his predecessors, Cosimo II. studied to promote the prosperity of Leghorn, and he deserves honour for abandoning all commerce on his own account. He was fond of luxury, spent freely on public festivities and detested trouble.

Tuscany was

apparently tranquil and prosperous; but the decay of which the seeds were sown under Cosimo F. and Ferdinand I. became before long beyond all hope of remedy. Cosimo II, protected Galileo Galilei. He recalled him to Florence in 1610, and nominated him court mathematician and philosopher. Cosimo died in February

MEDICI GENEALOGICAL

193

TABLE OF THE MEDICI

Giovanni d’Averardo, known as Giovanni di Bicci, 1360-1429 =Piccarda Buen

Cosimo the Elder, Rita jeee eer Piero, 1416-69

=Lucrezia sta a

Lorenzo il

Magnifico, 1449-02.

=Clance Orsini, Ls ie

N Pietro,

1471-1503 =Alfonsina Orsini,

Clarice, {r528

1492-1519

Strozzi

Pier Francesco, 71467 , ~Laudomia Acciaioli

i

Nannina

. Lucrezia

=Giacomo Salviati

|

Maria (nat.)

§ =Bernardo Rucellai

Giovanni, 1467-98 =Çaterina Sforza Riario,

=Lionetto de’ Rossi

| Maddalena

=Franceschetto Cybo

i” Contessina

= Philiberta of Savoy | Ippolito

1503 . =Semiramide Appian

Giovanni delle Bande Nere, 1498-1526 = Maria Salviati,

Pier Francesco, $1525 = Maria Soderini j

r543 |

= Piero Ridolfi

Cosrmuo I., 1519-74,

Giovanni Salviati,

|

ca

En

1541-87

Maria =Giovanni

cardinal

I 510789

=Henry

king of France

IL.,

Cappello,

cardinal

>

ES

5

aT 88

7

Q FERDINAND L, A

Paida

=Piero

TS ee O

Strozzi

Feto,

1549-1609

T5$4-1004

=

=Cristinaof

=Eleonora

F A

$1637

+1576

-~

Lorraine,

of Toledo,

S

l. Maria, T1642

Lorenzo Cybo

Caterina Cybo,

Malaspina, princess of Massa

Camerino

=Ricciar

|

FERDINAND IT.,

1610-70 =Vittoria della RER T1694

Francesco,

Cosmo III., 1642-1723 =Marguerite Tonne of Orleans, 172f

71634

duchess of

Mattia,

1667

Leopoldo,

epee 1542

= Paolo

Giordano

Orsini

cardinal, t1675

Maddalena Fx631

rlo,

cardinal, 71663

Beziers

2

rpms,

TO

=

4§

duke of

as

= S

Modena

= Francesco, +1614

of Austria,

Carlo, carinal,

$1666

Anna

| Margherita

of Austrian

Farnese,

=Ferdinand

Cesare

d'Este,

-

Cosmo II, Isgo-162r = Maria

France

Giovanni,

bishop of

Strozzi

8

=Henry IV, king of

Giuliano

§ =Roberto

T1587

—

Innocenzo Cybo,

Ferdinand, 1663-1713 =Violante of Bavaria, {1731

t1578; 2. Bianca

Appiani

Nere

|

Caterina,

of Austria,

Elena =Jacopo V.

delle Bande

“3

r562 2. Camilla Martelli

(nat.),

15II-35

I

=1. Eleonora of Toledo,

Niccolò Ridolf, cardinal

cardinal,

Lorenzo,

Tr509

=1. Joanna

d’Auvergne, T1529

t1537

duke of Nemours, 1479-1516

= Filippo

= Madeleine de la Tour

(nat.),

Giuliano,

(Leo X.), 1475-1521

j Lorenzo, duke of

Alessandro

é

Bianca

=Guglielmo dei Pazzi

Giulio (Clement VIIL.) 1478-1534

Trg§z0

Urbino

gs

1453-78

E Giovanni

Lorenzo, 1395-1440_ = Ginevra Cavalcanti

Giovanni, 1424-6 =Ginevra degli Tove Alessandri

1482

Giuliano,

aie

de’ Bardi

=0doardo

Tyrol

duke of

Lorenzo, tr648

Caterina= Ferdinand Gonzaga,

duke of

Mantua

|

Claudia =1.Federigo della Rovere,

hereditary

prince of Urbino;

2. Leopold of Austrian ol Vittori

della Row ella

Rovere

Parma

Francesco Maria, 1660-1711 (cardinal until 1709) =Eleonora Gonzaga

bee GIOVAN GASTONE, 1671-173 =Anna Maria of Saxe-Lauenburg, fr741

1621. His mother, Cristina of Lorraine, and his wife, Maddalena of Austria, had been nominated regents and guardians to his eldest son Ferdinand II., a boy of ten. Ferdinand II.—In 1627 Ferdinand II., then aged seventeen, chose to assume the government; but he decided on sharing his power with the regents and his brothers. When Florence and Tuscany were ravaged by the plague in 1630, he showed admirable courage and carried out many useful measures. But he was

entirely subservient to Rome. On the death in 1631 of the last duke of Urbino, the pope was allowed to seize the duchy without the slightest opposition on the part of Tuscany. Ecclesiastics usurped the functions of the state; and the ancient laws of the republic, together with the regulations decreed by Cosimo I. as a check upon similar abuses, were allowed to become obsolete. On the extinction of the line of the Gonzagas at Mantua in 1627, war broke out between France on the one side and Spain, Germany

and Savoy on the other. The grand duke, uncertain of his policy, trimmed his sails according to events. Fortunately peace was reestablished in 1631. Mantua and Monferrato fell to the duke of Nevers, as France had always desired. But Europe was again in arms for the Thirty Years’ War. Urban VIII. wished to aggran-

dize his nephews, the Barberini, by wresting Castro and Ronciglione from Odoardo Farnese, duke of Parma and brother-in-law to Ferdinand. Farnese marched his army through Tuscany into

the territories of the pope. The grand-duke was drawn into the war to defend his own state and his kinsman. By means of the French intervention, peace was made in 1644. But the pope resigned none of his ecclesiastical pretensions in Tuscany. The Septuagenarian Galileo was obliged to appear before the Inquisi-

Anna Maria Luisa, 1667-1743 =John William of the Palatinate

tion in Rome, which treated him with infamous cruelty. Like his predecessors, Ferdinand II. gave liberal patronage to science and letters. His brother Leopold, who had been trained by Galileo Galilei was one of the founders of the celebrated academy Del Cimento, which took for its motto the words Provando e riprovando, and followed the experimental method of Galileo. Formed in 1657, it was dissolved in 1667. Cosimo ITI.—Cosimo ITI. succeeded his father in 1670. He was weak, vain, bigoted and hypocritical. His wife, Louise of Orléans, niece of Louis XIV., being enamoured of duke Charles of Lorraine, was very reluctant to come to Italy. After the birth of her third child, Giovan Gastone, her hatred for her husband increased almost to madness and she returned to France. In Cosimo’s reign the wretchedness of the people increased, and the insufficient revenues of the state were spent on clerical endowments. Cosimo’s eldest son Ferdinand died childless In 1713. The pleasure-loving Giovan Gastone was married to Anna Maria of Saxe-Lauenburg, widow of a German prince, a wealthy, coarse woman wholly immersed in domestic occupations. After living with her for some time in a Bohemian village, Giovan Gastone withdrew to France, and ruined his health by his excesses. After a brief return to Bohemia he finally separated from his wife, by whom he had no family. Thus the dynasty was doomed to extinction. Cosimo had a passing idea of reconstituting the Florentine republic, but, this design being discountenanced by the European

powers, he determined to transfer the succession, after the death of Giovan Gastone, to his sister Anna Maria Louisa, who in fact survived him.* For this purpose he proposed to annul the patent of Charles V., but the powers objected to this arrangement also, and

194

MEDICINE—MEDICINE,

GENERAL

by the treaty of 1718 the quadruple alliance of Germany, France,

tongues.

Its range is co-terminous

energetic but fruitless protests. Giovan Gastone.—Cosimo III. had passed his eightieth year at the time of his decease in October 1723, and was succeeded by his son Giovan Gastone, then aged fifty-three. The new sovereign was in bad health. worn out by dissipation, and had neither ambition nor aptitude for rule. His throne was already at the disposal of foreign powers, and his only thought’ on ascending it was to regain strength enough to pass the remainder of his days in enjoyment. And when, after prolonged opposition, he had resigned himself to accept Don Carlos as his successor, the latter led a Spanish army to the conquest of Naples, an event afterwards leading to the peace of 1735, by which the Tuscan succession was transferred to Francesco II., duke of Lorraine, and husband of Maria Theresa. Giovan Gastone was obliged to submit. Spain withdrew her garrisons from Tuscany, and Austrian soldiers took their place and swore fealty to the grand-duke on Feb. 5, 1737. He expired on July 9 of the same year. Such was the end of the younger branch of the Medici, which had found Tuscany a prosperous country, where art, letters, commerce, industry and agriculture flourished, and left her poor and decayed in all ways, drained by taxation, and oppressed by laws contrary to every principle of sound economy, downtrodden by the clergy, and burdened by a weak and vicious aristocracy.

cine has been much influenced by the four years of the war, which, while interfering with steady research, brought with it urgent problems, caused diseases previously rare or unrecognised to become

England and Holland decided that Parma and Tuscany should, life. MEDICINE, GENERAL. descend to the Spanish Infante Don Carlos. The grand-duke made

Brsriocraray.—A. Fabroni, Laurentii Medicei magnifici vita (2 vols. Pisa, 1784) and Magni Cosimi Medicei vita (2 vols., Pisa, 1789) ; J. Galluzzi, Storia del granducato di Toscana sotio il governo di casa Medici (5 vols., Florence, 1787); W. Roscoe, Life of Leo X. (1846) and Life of Lorenzo de Medici (new ed. 1872); A. von Reumont, Geschichte Toscanas seit der Ende des florent. frezestaats (2 vols. Gotha, 1876); G. Capponi, Storia della republica di Firenze (Florence, 1875); B. Buser, Lorenzo de Medici als italienischer Staatsmann (Leipzig, 1879) and Die Besiekhungen der Mediceer zu Frankreich (1879) ; P. Villari, Storia dt Savonarola (Florence, 1887) and Machiavel (1878-83); F. T. Perrens, Histoire de Florence (1888); E. Armstrong, Lorenso de Medici (1896); E. Robiony, Gi ultimi Medici (Florence, 1905); E. L. S. Horsburgb, Lorenzo tke Magnificent (1908); J. Ross, Lives of tke Medici from their Letters (1910); S.

with

human and animal CW. S. L.-B.)

Since 1910 the progress of medi-

matters of common knowledge, and produced epidemics on an enormous scale, thereby calling forth much investigation and new knowledge. Influence of the World War.—Trench fever and a special form of kidney affection, called trench nephritis, were practically new diseases; and the serious condition of epidemic (lethargic) encephalitis (q.v.), though it may have existed previously, for the first time became common and was recognised during the war. Certain industrial forms of poisoning, namely of trinitrotoluene among munition workers, and of tetrachlorethane among aeroplane makers, were temporarily in evidence, and an impetus was

given to research into the conditions modifying efficient perform-

ance of labour. Deficient diet caused scurvy, especially in ‘Iraq, and other “deficiency diseases” came into evidence, especially in central Europe. Cerebrospinal (“spotted”) fever became for the

first time epidemic in Great Britain (see SPINAL MENINGITIS); as a result of the depressing conditions and the lowered bodily resist-

ance, influenza (g.v.) became pandemic all over the world in r91819; and a fatal form of infective heart disease (endocarditis lenta) became much more frequent in discharged soldiers.

A form of

infective jaundice (spirochaetosis icterohaemorrhagica), formerly known as Weil’s disease, became prevalent in Flanders, and its true nature, namely, an infection with an animal microbe, akin to that of yellow fever (qg.v.) (Leptospira icteroides), was found in Europe to be identical with that described in Japan in 1914. Paratyphoid fevers (see ParatypHom Fevers) A and B, though of course known before, became much more familiar during and after the war, and it may be noted that the distinction between the

forms of enteric fever known as typhoid and paratyphoid was not recognised in the Boer War (1899-1902), when the disease exacted a relatively heavier toll than in the World War, when the troops were eventually extensively protected by T.A.B. vaccination. DysBrinton, Golden Age of the Medicis (1927). See also FLrorence and entery (g.v.), as in past wars, became prominent, as did malaria ‘TUSCANY. (P. V.; X.) (g.v.) in the eastern areas of the campaign. The influence of a MEDICINE (see also MEDICINE, GENERAL; MepIcaL Re- Sanitary Corps in the prevention of disease among the Allied SEARCH), the department of knowledge and practice dealing with Armies was a noticeable feature (see MEDICAL SERVICE, ARMY). disease and its treatment in man and domestic animals. In a Much progress has also been made in the prevention of tropical more limited sense it implies that branch of the whole which diseases. (See THERAPEUTICS and TROPICAL MEDICINE.) is contrasted with surgery. Medicine regards the normal in health Mental Diseases.—The war provided a tremendous field for the as a base line against which disease can be evaluated and its observation of the mental perturbations commonly designated as Standard of attainment in all its branches in any age bears a “shell shock,” due to the physical effects of long-continued bomclose relation to the general mental development of the nation bardment, mental strain and anxiety, repression or the active forproducing its practitioners. Medical knowledge, therefore, moves getting of terrifying experiences, and of fear. Incidentally it gave on parallel lines with the development of education. But this is an opportunity for testing the opinion of the more advanced folnot all, The history of medicine teaches that, measured by lowers of Sigmund Freud of Vienna, who, on the assumption that modern standards, in many ancient states medical knowledge was the sexual instinct is stronger than those of self-preservation and bimited and inexact at a time when civilization, art and letters of the herd, have increasingly tended to refer mental symptoms were at their highest. It was not until about the middle of the akin to those of shell shock to the conflict resulting when some roth century, when there occurred in Europe a notable awakening sexual experience had, in obedience to the conventional influences, of interest in all branches of Natural Science, that Medicine can been repressed and thus removed out of the zone of consciousness. be said to have attained any like degree of development, since The value of Freud’s contribution to morbid psychology (see when its development has steadily continued until to-day it has PSYCHOANALYSIS) in the conception of mental conflict resulting grown so extensive that its ramifications are manifestly beyond from the active forgetting or repression of unpleasant experiences the powers of any single individual to grasp. It covers medicine is undoubted, but to refer them mainly to sexual causes was shown in the limited sense, surgery, midwifery, and numerous sub- by war experience to be too narrow a view, and the treatment by divisions in these main groups. It includes pathology, which deals psychoanalysis and interpretation of dreams, and the patient’s with the “how” and “why” of disease; pharmacology, which is “associations” aroused much opposition. On the other hand curaconcerned with the action of drugs; physiology, which deals with tive measures on psycho-therapeutic lines, such as sympathetic normal processes in normal animals; and anatomy, which inves- analysis, re-education and occupational therapy, met with success tigates their structure and organization as revealed alike to the and approval. (See PSYCHIATRY, PSYCHOSES, PSYCHOTHERAPY.) naked eye and by microscopic examination, It has links with Orthopaedic Surgery (¢.v.) also made great advances as the biology, chemistry, physics, meteorology, geology, ethnology; in- result of the numerous cases of injury during the war, and deed, it draws where it can from all branches of knowledge. remedial gymnastics and exercises have thus been of great use in Even its terminology is constructed—unhappily, not always on furthering recovery in such cases. Mameless lines—from the classical languages, and in its acquirePreventive Medicine (g.v.).—The prolongation of life and ment of information it needs to be conversant with most written diminution of infant mortality in Great Britain have both im-

MEDICINE, proved by about 50% in the last half century, and in the United

GENERAL

195

in 1855 to 58 years at the present time. This has coincided with

treatment of tuberculosis and other infections, the beneficial influence on bodily resistance induced by sunlight (heliotherapy) and ultra-violet rays has been utilised. Heliotherapy (g.v.), practised

lated active measures in the prevention of disease—the ideal of

adopted in Great Britain. Sunlight prevents and cures rickets, and

Great Britain was a far-seeing advance for the improvement of the national health and the prevention of disease (see THERApeutics). In America regular periodic examination of healthy, or

edge, possibly of potential importance in connection with other “deficiency diseases.” Ultra-violet rays act on a complex alcohol, cholesterol, present widely in the body and skin, in such a way as to confer on it the anti-rachitic action of the vitamin; they also raise the amount of calcium, iron, iodine and phosphorus in the

States of America the average age at death has advanced from 40 improved conditions of hygiene and environment, and has stimu-

for 20 years at Leysin by Rollier in surgical tuberculosis, has been

medicine. The establishment in 1919 of the Ministry of Health in its relation to the anti-rachitic vitamin D is an addition to knowl-

supposedly healthy, persons has been begun, and the statistical

experience of life-assurance companies has already proved that

this practice exerts a beneficial effect on the mortality of those

adopting this course. The prevention of disease has been greatly assisted by the Rockefeller Foundation in New York, which has

undertaken a world-wide campaign with this object on very broad lines through its International Health Board, its Division of Medi-

cal Education and its China Medical Board. In 1913 the Rockefeller Sanitary Commission, founded in 1909 for the eradication

of hookworm disease (g.v.), was incorporated as the International Health Commission (called the International Health Board after 1916) of the then recently established Rockefeller Foundation, and since then has carried out campaigns against yellow fever (g.v.) in South America, which have practically exterminated it and incidentally led to Noguchi’s discovery of the cause (Leptospira icter-

oides) of the disease, against malaria (q¢.v.) and tuberculosis (q.v.) (see also THERAPEUTICS). In connection with the National Insurance Act (1911) the Medical Research Committee (now Council) was created, and research workers have been financed and an enormous impetus given to the advancement of medicine and so to the diminution of disease, The special conditions bearing on health in factories and industries, particularly the dangerous trades, have attracted specialised attention, particularly in America, where a School of Industrial Medicine has been instituted in connection with Harvard Uni-

versity.

Insanity ——The prevention of insanity by early treatment in psychiatric clinics, usually attached to general hospitals and often part of the neurological department, has been an important step in the prevention of mental disorder (see Psycutatry). It is connected with the social service and after-care movements. In 1908 the American Council of Mental Hygiene was founded, in 1918 a similar council was started in Canada, in 1920 the French League of Mental Hygiene was inaugurated and in 1922 the British National Council for Mental Hygiene was established. Evidence of the awakening interest in health of the public at large since the war is also shown by the Society for the Prevention of Venereal Disease, the League of Health and the British Empire Cancer Campaign. Comparative Medicine.—The increase of experimental research has been followed by the study of comparative medicine and pathology, whereby human and veterinary medicine may mutually help and benefit each other; an institute for research in the pathology of animal diseases and a professorship were established at Cambridge in 1923, and the study of experimental epidemics has been undertaken in laboratories at the Rockefeller Institute, New York, and at Manchester.

Statistical Methods—Biological, anthropological and statistical methods are now ,being more formally utilized in medicine than in the past, and exact measurements and skilled calculations are being employed. An individual’s constitution, or “the aggregate of hereditary characters, influenced more or less by environment, which determines his reaction to the stress of environment” (G. Draper), was present to the mind of Hippocrates and others, but the rise of bacteriology diverted attention from the internal to the external factors of disease.

Applied Physiology.—Applied physiology was extensively developed and utilised during the war, for example in aviation,

the transfusion treatment of surgical shock and haemorrhage, and the relief of gassing, and has advantageously been continued since oa other lines, such as ventilation, the effects of sunlight and ultraviolet rays on bacteria, infections, general health and rickets (see

HeattH). Following on the established value of open-air

blood, increase its bactericidal power and accelerate the healing of

wounds. The tungsten-arc and mercuric-vapour arc lamps are employed to provide artificial ultra-violet rays. Diathermy or the application of a special form of intensive heat has been employed

in cancer, pneumonia and other infections. APY; SUNLIGHT TREATMENT; VITAMINS.)

(See ELECTROTHER-

Biochemistry.—Closely associated with applied physiology, of

which it is really a part, biochemistry (g.v.) has developed out of

physiological chemistry and has risen rapidly to an authoritative position. At Cambridge the Sir William Dunn trustees have built and equipped a fine institute and endowed the professorship held by Sir Gowland Hopkins, who has 40 advanced students carrying out research under his direction. The Rockefeller Foundation, New York, has provided similar laboratories at Oxford and University College, London. Metabolism—Biochemistry is specially concerned with the changes always going on in the body and described by the name metabolism. The basal metabolism means the average minimal chemical changes compatible with life taking place in the body during complete rest and when food is not being digested and absorbed, and corresponds with the minimal heat-production 18 hours after a meal of a mixed dietary—the working expenses, so to speak, of the resting body. This is estimated directly by measuring by respiratory calorimeters the heat evolved, or indirectly, and more easily in practice, by chemical analysis of the respiratory exchange, and has been shown to be remarkably constant in normal conditions. In disease the metabolic rate may be altered; for example, in myxoedema it is lowered and all the vital processes are on a lower plane; whereas in fever and exophthalmic goitre it is accelerated. In the last-named disease the condition of the patient can be judged by the degree of increase in the metabolic rate. Vitamins.—The recognition of the accessory food factors or vitamins (g.v.) has opened a new chapter in nutrition and in the causation and prevention of disease. They are present in food in minute quantities, which greatly contrast with their power, and are essential for health, growth, especially of bone and teeth, and in other ways. New knowledge of the effects of their absence and of the (deficiency) diseases thus caused has accumulated, but more may be anticipated. The vitamins each have their special actions; one prevents scurvy (anti-scorbutic), others rickets (anti-rachitic or vitamin D), beri-beri or polyneuritis (anti-neuritic), and recently, it would appear, one is essential for normal reproduction, the absence of which, at least in female rats, produces sterility. Starvation, partial or complete, and an unbalanced diet entail a corresponding degree of avitaminosis and deficiency disease; war or famine oedema, which resembles the “wet” form of beri-beri, has been ascribed to a diet largely composed of cereal and deficient in protein food. Blood-chemistry.—With improved technique, chemical examination of the blood for non-protein nitrogen (in kidney disease), sugar and gases, cholesterol, calcium, phosphates, chlorides and bilirubin has become a method of clinical laboratory routine and essential for correct diagnosis and treatment. Much work has been done on the hydrogen ion concentration of the blood and the conditions of (1) acidosis, or diminution in the alkali reserve of the blood, which occurs in two forms, ketosis, as in diabetes mellitus, and another due to retention of phosphates, as in renal disease, and (2) of alkalosis or alkalaemia in which the alkalinity of the blood is increased, as in forced breathing when carbonic acid gas is removed in unusually large quantities from the lungs. Alkalosis has, like a fall in the calcium salts and the poisonous effect of

196

MEDICINE,

GENERAL

of the skull, showing the condition of the sella guanidine, been thought to cause a convulsive state—tetany, which | of the teeth and the detection of focal sepsis and of pitujfacilitated have turcica, children. in seen forms part of the condition called spasmophilia The improvement of technique has made Bacteriology (g.v.) has revealed the organism responsible for tary disease respectively. By intensive X-ray exposures,

treatment possible, a number of diseases and so opened the way to specific treatment advances in Erlangen practice, the remedial therapy of deep. the following fever scarlet of case the In infection. the of n preventio and the growths has been pursued. The radium treat. malignant seated cci, streptoco c haemolyti to (see INFECTIOUS FEVERS), ascribed where the radium (g.v.) can be brought positions in cancer of ment G. F. and G. H. Dick have elaborated a test (the Dick test), analogrowth, is now carried out with inthe with contact close into to le susceptib those whereby a, gous to the Schick test in diphtheri work in this treatment of cancer team and frequency, creasing it the disease can be detected and so artificially protected against

by an antitoxin. The recognition of tularaemia (due to a coccobacillus}, a disease of rodents and transmitted to man by the bite

of the horse fly, and of melioidosis also a disease of rodents and due to the Bacterium whitmori, in which the exact method of its transmission to man is uncertain, bear on the desirability of the closer correlation of the human with veterinary medicine. Invisible viruses or ultra-microscopic organisms, also called filter-passers (see FILTER-PASSING ViRUSES), because they are so minute that they pass through the fine pores of a Chamberland or other filter, have attracted much attention and many diseases in man and animals are with a fair degree of certainty or probability ascribed to their agency. Bacteriophage —D’Hérelle described a phenomenon, previously noted by Twort in 1915, often known by D’Herelle’s name, which he interpreted as the existence of an ultra-microscopic virus which lives as a parasite upon living bacteria and leads to their destruction and solution. The general opinion about the active substance responsible for these changes in bacterial cultures, and called by D’Hérelle the microbe bacteriophage, is that it is not an ultra-microscopic virus, but an enzyme or ferment produced by the undoubted bacteria themselves. Protozoan infections (see Prorozoa) are the cause of a number of diseases, such as yellow fever (Leptospira icteroides), a form of infective jaundice (Spirochaeta itcterohaemorrhagica), rat-bite fever (Spirochaeta morsus-muris), and seven-day fever in Japan (Leptospira hebdomadis), and probably sandfly fever (g.v.) (a Leptospira resembling that of yellow fever). Thus their prevention and the employment of curative antitoxins has been rendered possible. Immunity (q.v.).—After a fever the individual usually becomes immune and protected against another attack; this is acquired immunity; the blood of such a person contains antibodies which antagonise the cause of that disease, and advantage has been taken of this to inject the blood serum of patients convalescent from measles into persons who have not had the disease so as to render them immune. Anaphylaxis (q.v.)—-The reverse of immunity is hypersensitiveness (anaphylaxis, allergy) which is shown by idiosyncrasies and forms the underlying factor in asthma and other diseases spoken of as “toxic idiopathies;” the substances responsible for the symptoms can be detected by skin tests and the appropriate treatment thus employed. Protein shock therapy is also employed for asthma and chronic arthritis. The importance of “focal infection” such as dental disease (see DENTISTRY), is now much

of the uterus has been adopted in a number of hospitals. Side by

side with advances in treatment the effect of X-rays on the tissue cells has been investigated experimentally; the results have a very definite bearing on the methods and dosage employed in treat.

ment, for the destructive changes induced in the cells may give rise

to grave symptoms and even death. It appears that X-rays and the gamma rays of radium may set up secondary radiations in the

tissues and so cause severe changes. Diseases of Function.—Functional disorder and the investigation of the early stages of disease, before the physical signs of gross structural changes appear, have attracted increasing attention and are intimately wrapped up with the prevention of disease, The first manifestation of disease is commonly disorder of func-

tion, which shows itself by symptoms

unaccompanied by any

structural change. Clinical observation was specially directed to the detection of the earliest signs of disease by the late Sir James Mackenzie, who in 1919 started team work in this direction at the

St. Andrews Institute for Clinical Research, where laboratory tests were fully utilised as an aid to the careful analysis of the patient’s symptoms in an intense search for a real understanding of the familiar manifestations of undue fatigue, malaise, shortness of breath on exertion and pain. Tests for disorder of function— some physical, as in disorders of the circulatory and respiratory organs, others chemical, such as examination of the blood and the ability of the organ to excrete coloured dyes, for example, phenol-sulphone-phthalein, as in disease of the kidney and the liver, others psychological, as in nervous disorder—have recently been much elaborated and multiplied, and bid fair to facilitate more accurate and early diagnosis and treatment on scientific lines. Psychology (g.v.).—Experimental psychology, once regarded as an academic pursuit, has been the means of great economic saving in industry, and the results of research work and tests have led to the introduction of rest pauses and other modifications, with the result of an increased output of work on the one hand and benefit to the worker on the other. The Industrial Fatigue Research Board was set up during the war, and The National Institute of Industrial Psychology, established in Great Britain after the war, ensures continued practical guidance for employers and employed. (See INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY.) Endocrinology (q.v.). Ductless Glands—The part played by the ductless or endocrine glands in the production of disease has attracted increasing discussion, especially on the questions (1) of the endocrine balance, meaning thereby that when one gland

is disordered the equilibrium which normally exists between them more fully recognized. (See THERAPEUTICS.) Exact studies upon the chemical activities of bacteria now in as a whole is upset, and (2) of the effects of disease of more than progress are beginning to throw light on the actions of toxins and one of these glands—pluriglandular disorder. This last problem has on the one hand, from the difficulty of positive proof, aroused the chemical factors involved in immunity reactions. Radiology (q.v.).—In radiology there has been a steady ad- scepticism as to its existence, and on the other hand stimulated vance in the methods of diagnosis and treatment; technique has exploitation of commercial preparations of combined glandular been elaborated and special methods have been introduced. Sub- extracts, the activity of which, as regards some of the constituents, stances opaque to X-rays have been employed in various direc- is open to serious doubt. The outstanding advance in the medictions; thus lipiodol has been injected into the bronchial tubes to inal use of endocrine preparations, and indeed in therapeutics demonstrate dilatation of their lumen, into the spinal column to generally, is the introduction of insulin (qg.v.) for the treatment show the position of tumours, and even into the uterus to detect of diabetes mellitus (g.v.). (See THERAPEUTICS.) The use of the endocrine preparations proved to be active is pregnancy. The condition of the gall bladder and the presence of gall stones can be made evident by organic compounds of iodine passing out of the qualitative stage into the further one in which and bromine (tetra-iodo-phenol-phthalein and tetra-brom-phenol- they are being so standardised that the proper dose can be adphthalein)}, which after being taken by the mouth are excreted in ministered; this has been done for insulin, adrenalin, thyroid and the bile and show up under X-rays (cholecystography). Injection parathyroid extracts. The interstitial cells of the testis (““amterof air into the peritoneal cavity enables a clearer X-ray picture stitial gland”) have attracted much research in connection wl of the abdominal viscera to be obtained. The skiagrams of the their influence on the secondary sex characters and in insanity. Exjaws, showing the presence or absence of infection of the apices perimental ligature of the duct of the testis (vasectomy) increases

MEDICINE,

ANCIENT]

HISTORY

OF

197

the prominence of the interstitial gland and is followed by re- | liver, like the heart and other organs, has a great reserve, so that juvenation (Steinach), and with this object the operation has been it can, although much damaged, discharge its functions so well often performed on men, as has grafting of testes of men or that tests do not reveal any failure of the compensated condichimpanzees (Voronoff). (See REJUVENATION.) tion; this is especially true in chronic disease. By means of a Cardiology and Circulatory Organs.—The work of the late Sir blood test—the Hijmans van den Bergh reaction—obstructive James Mackenzie and Sir Thomas Lewis has so revolutionised Jaundice can be distinguished from other forms. our knowledge of the heart that there is a new cardiology (see Neurology.—The physiology and pathology of the nervous Heart, DIsEASES OF). By the electrocardiograph, which is spe- system has steadily progressed; the researches into the factors cially valuable in showing the condition of the heart muscle, presiding over equilibrium and posture have yielded valuable Lewis showed that the extreme irregularity of the heart in cardiac information; disease of the extra-pyramidal system has attracted failure, called by Mackenzie nodal rhythm, is due to auricular attention; acute infections of the nervous system, acute poliofibrillation, a circus movement instead of the normal contraction; myelitis, encephalitis epidemica (“sleeping sickness”) and cerebroit is in this condition that digitalis is of value. By means of the spinal fever were more prominent in the conditions of war than

graphic methods the irregularities of the heart have been classified. Angina Pectoris——Cardiac murmurs have been shown not necessarily to be of grave importance, and much work has been done on angina pectoris.

The

symptoms—status

anginosa—of

sudden obstruction of the coronary arteries which supply the heart have been defined, and the cause of angina pectoris has been referred to the failure of the heart muscle (Mackenzie), and to disease of the first part of the aorta (Allbutt); in accordance with the last view operative division or removal of its nerves has

been practised and found to relieve the pain, but not otherwise to affect the disease.

Bullets embedded in the heart-wall have been

removed, and a contracted (mitral) valve has been remedied by

surgical measures.

(See HEART AND LUNG SURGERY.)

Blood-pressure.—The existence of high blood-pressure without kidney disease or hyperpiesia (Albutt) has been established, and

before; much valuable scientific research into the methods of actions of poisons on the nervous system has been carried out.

Other Changes. Panel Practice—TFhe conditions of medical

practice in Great Britain were profoundly modified by the introduction, as the result of Mr. Lloyd George’s National Insurance Act (1911r), of the “Panel system,” whereby 15,000,000 insured persons are now looked after by practitioners paid at a yearly rate of a sum which has averaged about ten shillings a year, paid partly by insurance contributions and partly by the state; this enormous undertaking is part of National Insurance and is under the control of the Ministry of Health. No one medical man is now allowed to have more than 3,500 persons on bis panel. At the time of its initiation the panel system met with great opposition from the medical profession, but this collapsed, and on the whole the system works well, and is certainly an improvement on the old system of clubs. (See NATIONAL INSURANCE, HEALTH.)

it has been suggested that table salt and, probably with more reason, guanidine raise, and that hepatic extract lowers bloodDiplomas in Special Subjects.—The enormous advances in pressure. The state of the capillaries—microscopic vessels—their medicine have made specialism necessary and inevitable, and as power to contract, and their influence on blood-pressure have evidence of the general recognition of this need diplomas in these been investigated and much new knowledge has been acquired. special subjects are granted by the universities and licensing The prevention of rheumatic heart disease and the responsibility bodies. The General Medical Council in 1922 revised the reguof tonsils and other sites of focal infection have received consid- lations for one of the oldest diplomas, that of Public Health erable attention both in Great Britain and in America. (D.P.H.), and ordained that two years, instead of one year as New Methods.—Numérous advances and improvements in formerly, must elapse from the date of a candidate’s obtaining a technique have taken place, such as the following: registrable qualification in medicine, surgery and midwifery Bronchoscopy.—In diseases of the lungs the trial of new meth- before his admission to Part II. of the examination for diplomas ods of treatment has gone on, such as specific or chemical reme- in sanitary science, public health or state medicine. There are dies, and the production of artificial pneumothorax (g.v.) (see diplomas in psychological medicine, in tropical medicine and THERAPEUTICS). As the presence of adhesions inside the chest hygiene, in ophthalmic medicine and surgery and in laryngology interferes with the production of a curative pneumothorax, they and otology, and since the war the universities of Cambridge have been divided by a cautery, the process being watched and Liverpool have given diplomas in radiology. (See MEDICAL through a hollow tube, illuminated by electric light, passed into EDUCATION. } . the chest (Jacobaeus’ thoracoscopy). Bronchoscopy for the detecGroup Medicine.—The specialization of medicine and the tion and removal of foreign hedies from the air-passages has, in elaboration of technique prevent any one man from being master the hands of Chevalier Jackson, become a fine art; the impor- of the whole field of medicine, and accordingly there has been a tance of an early removal of these bodies before they have set up tendency for men to combine in team work or group medicine, destructive changes in the lungs, which in the past have proved especially in America. A group of men expert in their own lines obscurely fatal, has now been fully recognized. In the abdomen may work together or under a general physician or surgeon who, a method, laparoscopy or coelioscopy, by which the contents can in consultation with them, correlates the collected evidence and be seen by an arrangement similar to that of thoracoscopy, has comes to a final decision on the whole matter. These diagnostic been employed; but neither of these difficult methods is likely to clinics, which are exemplified by the Mayo Clinic, Rochester, come into general use. Minn., are commoner in America than in Great Britain. They Fractional Test Meals.—The adoption of fractional test meals should have the advantage, from the patient’s point of view, of as a more exact method of determining the constitution and varia- providing for a fixed inclusive fee all the special examinations tions of the constituents of the gastric contents has, thanks to that may be necessary at a lower cost than in ordinary practice Rehfuss, superseded the single examination made one hour after would be required for such a number of tests. a test meal. Absence of hydrochloric acid, a normal constituent BIBLIOGRAPHY.—See bibliographies to the articles referred to in

of the gastric juice, has been shown to favour the onset of per-

Micious anaemia (see ANAEMIA). Aspiration of the bile by a duodenal tube, after Oddi’s sphincter, which closes the lower end of

the common bile duct, has been relaxed by a spray of magnesium

sulphate, enables a microscopical, chemical and bacteriological

examination of the bile to be made, and also does good by drain-

age in cases of infection and inflammation of the biliary tract.

Tests for Hepatic Efficiency.—The search for tests to estimate the functional capacity, or the way the liver is doing its work, bas been carried on with energy, and a number of tests for the individual functions have been introduced; but no one test for as a whole is satisfactory, and another difficulty is thatthe

the text; also Sir T. C. Allbutt and Sir H. D. Rolleston (editors), 4 System of Medicine, 9 vol., various dates. (H. R.)

MEDICINE, HISTORY OF. This subject falls naturally into two divisions: I. Ancient Medicine; II. Modern Medicine. I. ANCIENT MEDICINE The first records of a rational or scientific medical system are Greek. Greek Medicine—Greek medicine was exhibited in its pure form from about 500 B.C. till the rise of the Roman empire. Its chief development was on the Mediterranean littoral of Asia Minor. Other important centres were Athens and the Greek

198

MEDICINE,

colonies in Sicily and Italy. This Greek system of medicine had various roots.

(1) The submerged civilization of the conquered Minoan folk. It is probable that the cult of the serpent constantly associated with Aesculapius was of Minoan origin. It is also probable that certain ideas of the Greeks on sanitation were derived from the Minoans.

(2) From Mesopotamia the Greeks drew some of their more superstitious beliefs, as well as some, at least, of their scientific method. The Mesopotamian peoples had for ages laid up a great treasury of observation, notably of astronomical data often applied to astrological ends, and of anatomy derived from the entrails of animals used in divination. Working on these records, the Greeks erected a scientific method which appears as a prominent feature in their intellectual life. Moreover, there was in Mesopotamia a standardization of medical procedure which the Greeks were quick to adopt. From Mesopotamia, too, came the demoniac theories important in later Greek medicine, as in the New Testament.

(3) From Egypt came many drugs used by the Greek phySicians. The basis of Greek medical ethics can be traced to Egypt. Some practical devices of Greek medicine, such as the forms of certain surgical instruments, were Egyptian. The Egyptians deified an historic physician Imhotep exactly as the Greeks deified the historic Asklepios, #.e., Aesculapius. (4) Persian and Indian sources contributed something to Greek

medicine. As to the amount and the character of these contribu-

tions, we are not yet in a position to speak with definiteness. The Hippocratic Collection.—The Greeks of western Asia Minor, thus drawing material from many sources, developed near the end of the 7th century s.c., a philosophical system out of which the whole of their science was a natural growth. Factors in this development were the medical schools of Cos, where Hippocrates

was born, and of the opposite peninsula, Cnidus. These were in active operation by the 6th century B.c. By the middle of the 5th century they were important elements in Greek life. Much of the Hippocratic Collection, which contains the earliest as well as the best Greek medical writings that have survived, was put together in the 4th century s.c., though its final recension is much later. To the question: “Which of these works is by Hippocrates?” no definite answer can be given. There is no work which we can state with confidence to be by the Father of Medicine. The books of the Collection, of which there are about 100, are by a number of authors of different schools, holding various and often contradictory views, living in widely separate parts of the Greek world and writing at dates separated, in extreme cases, by perhaps five or six centuries. Of the finest books of this collection we can only say that they contain nothing inconsistent with a Hippocratic origin, that their ethical standard accords with the Hippocratic ideal, and that they are the work of physicians of great intellectual power and experience. If we ask what is known about Hippocrates himself, and seek information rather than oo our answer will be almost as meagre. (See HrppoCRATES.

HISTORY

OF

[ANCIENT

nor will I counsel such, and especially I will not aid a woman to pro-

cure abortion. Whatsoever house I enter, there will I go for the bene.

fit of the sick, refraining from all wrongdoing or corruption, and espe.

cially from any act of seduction, of male or female, of bond or free, Whatsoever things I see or hear concerning the life of men, in m

attendance on the sick or even apart therefrom, which ought not to be noised abroad, I will keep silence thereon, counting such things to be as sacred secrets.

The treatise of the Hippocratic Collection On wounds of the

head has always drawn attention as bespeaking especial ingenuity and experience. The description of trephining is of peculiar Interest, because the practice was known in prehistoric times, and

is still found

among

savage

and

semi-civilized

peoples.

(See

MEDICINE: Prescientific.) The process recommended for cases of

fracture of the skull and injury to the underlying structures Tesembles, in many details, the modern surgical procedure. Another

important surgical treatise of the Collection is that On Fractures and Dislocations.

In the Hippocratic Collection the physician attends cases of every type. He is no “specialist.” But the mass of his practice lay with cases to which instrumental treatment was inapplicable, In these he tended to adopt the “expectant” line of treatment. Realizing that the tendency of the body is to recover, he con-

tented himself with “waiting on nature.”

This does not imply

that he was helpless, for much could be done by nursing, regimen

and diet to aid the patient in that conflict which he alone must

fight. For the conduct of that great battle wise and useful directions are recorded. But believing in the healing power of nature—

the phrase is characteristically Hippocratic—the physician was not eager to administer drugs.

The Hippocratic Writings—The Aphorisms is the most famous book with which the name of Hippocrates is linked, and it is as likely as any of the Collection to be by Hippocrates himself. It consists of a series of very brief generalizations. Many have been confirmed by the experience of later ages. Some have become popular proverbs. The style suggests an aged physician

reflecting on the experience of a lifetime. give a good idea of the book.

A few extracts will

Life is short and Art is long; the Crisis is fleeting, Experiment risky,

Decision difficult. Not only must the physician be ready to do his duty, but the patient, the attendants, and external circumstances must conduce to the cure.

Old persons bear fasting most easily, next adults, and young people yet less; least of all children, and of these least ‘again those who are particularly lively. When sleep puts an end to delirium, it is a good sign. Weariness without cause indicates disease. To eat heartily after a long illness without putting on flesh is a bad

portent.

Food or drink slightly inferior in itself, but more pleasant, should be preferred to that better itself, but less pleasant. The old have fewer illmesses than the young, but if any become chronic with them, they generally carry it with them to the grave. Convulsions supervening on a wound are deadly. Phthisis comes on mostly from 18 to 35 years of age. Apoplexy is commonest between the ages of 40 and 60. _ If you give the same nutrient to a patient in a fever and to a person in health, the patient’s disease is aggravated by what adds strength to the healthy man.

The Hippocratic Oath.—No part of the H: sppocratic Collecżon is more impressive than the famous passage known as the

The chief clinical achievement of the Hippocratic Collection lies in the descriptions of actual cases. These are not only without Hippocratic Oath. The recension that has come down to us is parallel during nearly 2,000 years, but are models of what succinct much later than Hippocrates, though passages in it may be even clinical records should be. They are clear and short, give all the earlier. There is perhaps some suggestion of the oath inEgyptian leading features and yet show no attempt to prejudge the impapyri of the second millennium s.c. The late date of the ọath portance of any particular feature. It is a reflex of the spirit of by no means removes its interest as an ethical monument. No honesty in which the Hippocratic physicians worked that in the passage better reflects the spirit of the Hippocratic physicians: majority of the cases they record that death ensued. + y Uan We call this Cz, so that

C= 2h(ġuot urt ut < e e Hunt Fun). Generally, suppose that ż is a factor of m. Then we write Cp= phut

tpt urp t

As

Hump titm);

MENSURATION this being the chordal area when we only take o, xp, ieee

‘nto account. The “rules” we are considering are obtained by combining the C’s in various ways.

The following are the most important rules of this type.

In

each case, as stated in §0, the rule is made up of repetitions of a

section is S;, the volume is $H(So+45:+5:2), where H is the total

formula. The “formula” and the “rule” are both given; “A”

breadth. This is called the prismoidal formula; it applies not only to prismoids but also to the cone, the sphere and the ellipsoid. 14. The Euler-Maclaurin Theorem.—For further progress, (4) we have to use the Euler-Ma claurin theorem, discovered in(4A) dependently by Euler and by Maclaurin. The principle of this important theorem is that the difference between the trapezoidal area $h(2%-+u:) and the true area of the strip o to uı can be (4B) expressed as the difference of the values, for “= and “=, of a function which only involves derivatives of u ; i.e., that

denoting the area given by the “‘rule.”

(a) m a multiple of 2 (Simpson’s rule). Area(uo to ue) =ZAluo+t-4u +u) A=4(4C1— C)

= $h(upt+4uit2uetaustout --a ars +4Umatum).

(b) ma multiple of 3 (Simpson’s second rule).

Area(uo to us) = $k(uot 3u1+3%2-+u5)

(5)

A=4(9C:— Cr)

= ghlut3um 3u u+ 3u t

multiple

- --

lx) = —

y5yh (ot Sut uot+6ustustsustus)

A= po(t5Ci—6Co+ C3).

(7)

A= $(2C:—C2) +3'5(8C3— Cy).

(8)

12, A Method of Construction——The formulae given in the preceding section are not all obtained in the same way. They

could all be found by a modification of the method mentioned

later in §16. But the first three were originally obtained by making certain suppositions as to the upper boundary. For (a) two strips were taken together, and the top was supposed to be a parabola passing through the tops of three ordinates; for (b)

three strips were taken, and the curve was supposed to be of the third degree; and for (c) four strips were taken, and the curve was supposed to be of the fourth degree. For detailed consideration, (a) will be sufficient. We can use fig. 2; KA, MC, LB being the three ordinates Uo, U1, Ua. The curve being a parabola, the tangent RCT is parallel to the chord AB. The area of the trapezium AKLB is h{up+ue); and that of RKLT is 2hu. The true area AKLBCA exceeds the former by the segment ACB, and falls short of the latter by the small pieces (spandrils) RAC and CBT. But we know that, for a parabola, the former difference is double the latter. We must

therefore take a weighted mean of the two expressions, in the ratio of 1: 2; ie., the area is

Falot u) +2- hits = Zh (uy+4u+-u2). We could, of course, have obtained this result analytically, Ifu=p+¢x-+rx2, the area is P(%2—2Xo) +3 (x9?— x09) +47 (x8 — x); and this can be reduced to the above form by using the relations Me™ P-qxotre?, m= etc., u= etc., h=}(x2—4). The general formula, when x is a polynomial in x of degree &, is: Area (u to Uy) = h( gotlo+ g1tli + gotle +

ee + gxtx),

(9)

ité—1) - - - @—r+1)(t—r—1) +

- - - (1—k)dt.

_ ._Go)

This is, in effect, the Newton-Cotes formula. 13. The Prismoidal Formula.—An important application of

quadrature-formulae is to finding the volume of a solid figure in

of the areas of parallel cross-sections,

hou + saaheaghturii—

n

Applying this theorem to the successive strips, we get

Area (u to tm) =Cy+ E (x)

In particular, sup-

pose that a solid is bounded by two parallel planes, and that the area of the section by a plane parallel to these, at distance x

e ;

(13)

which is the Euler-Maclaurin theorem.

An important feature of the theorem is that the terms in (x)

involve #?, ht, kë - --, so that by increasing the number of the strips we make a much greater decrease in the magnitude of the corrective terms. Another important point, which does not directly concern us here, is that we can transpose the terms so as to give a general formula for expressing a sum in terms of an integral (cf. CALCULUS OF DIFFERENCES). To make the theorem applicable to quadrature, when z is not given explicitly in terms of x, we have to convert the derivatives hu’, hbu’’, - - - , into the equivalent expressions involving central differences. If we only know wp, 1, tio, - - - , um we do not know the central differences of mu and Um; in this case two courses are open to us. We can express the derivatives in terms of the advancing differences of w and the receding differences of t,— Gregory’s formula— or we can still use the central-difference formulae if we continue the series of differences forwards and backwards at the extremities. 15. Type (iii.) : Trapezoidal with Corrections.—Expressing

the derivatives in (12) in terms of central differences, we get

A=C —youd +h| eguitu ebtbgudut eM

A

A

LS

g

l

ar | VUCI

me ieÑNS ANN OS pFS 5 Epania

i Na

e}

iai

Ren

a

ama Me oo eae acess cee

ee Bs

eM

Hae

ee

| |ate C E A E Aa

| TSI || ss wl ha Swivel ean i

g

pA NPr

N

itr h

rat

Saz

an ey We

BY COURTESY OF THE GENERAL ELECTRIC COMPANY FIG. 1.—ARRANGEMENT FOR MERCURY-YAPOUR EQUIPMENT, SIDE ELEVATION

BOILER

AND

TURBINE

signed for the following results: Full-load output of mercury turbine, 10,000 kw.; coal burned per hour, 14,500 Ib.; steam produced per hour, 350 Ib. gauge, 700° F, 125,000 pounds. The fuel is burned in the furnace, as in a steam boiler, and the products of combustion pass successively through a mercury boiler, a mer-

cury liquid heater, a steam superheater, a feed water heating economizer and an air preheater. The first two of these give heat to the mercury. the furnace.

The others give it to the steam or return it to

The mercury vapour made in the boiler passes first through a turbine driving at 10,000 kw. generator at 720 r.p.m. and then exhausts into a pair of surface condensers. The tubes of these condensers contain water, so that the heat delivered to them by the condensation of the exhaust mercury vapour causes them to make steam which collects in drums above the tubes at which

mes

:

BASEMENT FLOOR EI Te ee eee Le OTE

Manh

a mp apt

aee

point it is available for use. In the equipment being described,

this steam passes from these drums through the superheater mentioned. The condensed mercury is drained through a cleaning sump and then runs by gravity through the liquid heater and into

BY COURTESY OF THE GENERAL ELECTRIC COMPANY FIG. 2.—ARRANGEMENT FOR MERCURY-VAPOUR EQUIPMENT.

END

ELEVATION

BOILER

AND

TURBINE

MERCY—MERCY-ARGENTEAU

274

and per hour, 10,000 kw. are generated by the mercury boiler and pressure gauge Ib. 350 at ed generat are 125,000 Ib. of steam

with a temperature of 700° F (264° F superheat). What this amount of steam can accomplish in combination with the mercury turbine in existing power plants is shown by the table below: Fuel Rates in B.T.U. per Kilowatt Hour Steam alone

Steam with

Per cent

mercury

14,000 17,000

9,400 10,500

22,000

11,600

35,000

13,800

Case A represents the best development of modern plants with 350 Ib. pressure, high superheat and the most effective auxiliary and feed heating arrangements. Case B represents a station that was considered very good a short time ago with about 200 Ib. steam pressure, less perfect firing and auxiliary arrangements and less superheat. Case C represents a station in which conditions of size, load factor or efficiency are even less favourable. Case D represents what might be done in a good non-condensing station. The ratios here shown are not much affected by the usual causes of relative inefficiency such as load factor, turbine efficiency or condensing facilities. The mercury cycle lends itself particularly to the increasing of station capacity of existing plants. By burning approximately 20% more fuel, the same amount of steam as before can be produced, the power from the mercury turbine will be almost equal that produced by the steam turbines, the fuel rate of the mercury turbine will be at approximately 4,000 B.T.U. per kilowatt hour, and the fuel rate of the steam turbine will remain as before. If this rate was 17,000 B,.T.U. per kilowatt hour, the combined rate would be at about 10,500 B.T.U.—a gain of 38%.

1636 and 1637 took part in further campaigns on the Rhine ang Doubs.

In September 1638 he was made master-general of ord.

nance in the army of Bavaria, then the second largest army jy Germany. In the next campaign he was practically commander-p. chief of the Bavarians, and at times also of an allied army of Imperialists and Bavarians. He was made general field marshal

in 1643, when he won his great victory over the French marshal Rantzau at Tuttlingen (Nov. 24—25), capturing the marshal and seven thousand men. In the following year Mercy opposed the French armies, now under Enghien (afterwards the great Condé)

and Turenne. He fought, and in the end lost, the desperate battle

of Freiburg, but revenged himself next year by inflicting upon Turenne the defeat of Mergentheim (Marienthal). Later in 1645

fighting once more against Enghien and Turenne, Mercy was killed at the battle of Nördlingen (or Allerheim) as the crisis of the engagement, which, even without Mercy’s guiding hand, was

almost a drawn battle. He died on Aug. 3, 1645. On the spot

where he fell, Enghien erected a memorial, with the inscription Sta viator, heroem calcas.

CLAUDIUS FLORIMOND, COUNT MERCY DE VILLETS (1666-1734), Imperial field marshal, was born in Lorraine, and entered the

Austrian army as a volunteer in 1682. After seven years of service in Hungary and five years in Italy, he displayed great daring in the first campaigns of the Spanish Succession War in Italy,

twice fell into the hands of the enemy in fights at close quarters and for his conduct at the surprise of Cremona (Jan. 3r, 1702)

received the emperor’s thanks. With this he took part in the Rhine campaign of 1703, and the battle of Friedlingen, and his success as an intrepid leader of raids and forays became well

known to friend and foe. He was on that account selected early

in 1704 to harry the elector of Bavaria’s dominions. His resolute leadership was conspicuous at the battle of Peterwardein (1716) and he was soon afterwards made commander of the Banat of Temesvár. At the battle of Belgrade (1717) he led the second Heating Plants.—From the figures that have been given, it line of left wing cavalry in a brilliant and decisive charge which will be seen that the gain in economy is incident to the production drove the Turks to their trenches. After the peace he resumed of steam by a method which gives a valuable by-product in the the administration of the Banat, which after more than 150 years form of power. A very striking case of profitable use is found in of Turkish rule needed a humane and capable governor. But he a city heating plant. If, in such a plant, this unit were used in was called away to southern Italy, where he fought the battle of connection with a suitable steam turbine unit which would take Francavilla (June 20, 1719), took Messina and besieged Palermo. steam at 350 Ib. gauge pressure, superheated and exhausted into For eleven years more he administered the Banat, reorganizing the street mains at 100 Ib. per square inch and saturated, the the country as a prosperous and civilized community. In 173 results with the best coal burned efficiently would be about as fol- he was made a field marshal, but on June 29, was killed at the lows: Fuel burned per hour, 14,500 lb.; steam delivered per hour, battle of Parma while personally leading his troops. He left no 125,000 lb.; power produced by mercury turbine, 10,000 kw.; children, and his name passed to the Mercy-Argenteau family. MERCY, compassion, pardon, pity, or forgiveness. The Latin power produced by steam, 3,400 kw.; total power produced, 13,400 kilowatts. From these figures it will be seen that the word merces was used in the early Christian ages for the reward power is produced at a rate of about 16,000 B.T.U. in fuel per that is given in heaven to those who have shown kindness without kilowatt hour, which is comparable with very good condensing hope of return. In the mediaeval Church there were seven “corsteam stations, and that all this 100 Ib. heating steam is produced poreal” and seven “spiritual works of mercy” (opera misericordiae). The order of the Sisters of Mercy is a religious sisterin addition. A careful investigation in regard to the probable mercury supply hood of the Roman Church, founded in 1827. MERCY-ARGENTEAU, FLORIMOND CLAUDE, of the world indicates that it is sufficient to take care of this process for practically an indefinite time. The present mercury ComTE DE (1727-1794), Austrian diplomatist, son of Antoine, mines in operation could easily double their output which would comte de Mercy-Argenteau, entered the diplomatic service of take care of 1,000,000 kw. per year, in addition to the present Austria, going to Paris in the train of Prince Kaumitz. He be came Austrian minister at Turin, at St. Petersburg, and in 176 uses of mercury. at Paris, where his first work was to strengthen the alliance beBreviocrarry—W. L. R. Emmet, “Power from Mercury Vapor,” in Proceedings Am. Inst. of Mech. Eng. vol. xxxii. (1913), “The Emmet tween France and Austria, which was cemented in 1770 by the Mercury Vapor Process” with appendix (“Properties of Mercury marriage of the dauphin, afterwards Louis XVI., with Marie Ar Vapor”)

by L. A. Sheldon, in Proceedings Am. Inst. of Mech. Eng.

(1924), “Mercury Vapor Process” in Journal of the Franklin institute in (Feb. 1925) and “Economies of the Emmet Mercury Process” (E. Be.) General Electric Review (July, 1927).

MERCY, FRANZ, FREIHERR von, lord of Mandre and Col-

lenburg (d. 1645), German general in the Thirty Years’ War, who came of a noble family of Ļorraine, was born at Longwy between 1590 and 1598. From 1606 to 1630 he was engaged in the imperial service. After distinguishing himself at the first battle

toinette, daughter of the empress Maria Theresa, Mercy-Arger

teau was in Paris during the years which heralded the Revolutios,

and supported first Loménie de Brienne, and then Necker. In 1792 he became Austrian governor-general of the Belgian provinces. In July 1794 he was appointed Austrian ambassador t8

Great Britain, but he died a few days after his arrival in London

See T. Juste, Le Comte de Mercy-Argenteau (Brussels, 1863); A. von Arneth and A. Geoffroy, Correspondances secrétes de Mom

of Breitenfeld (1631) he commanded a regiment of foot on the Thérèse avec le comte de Mercy (1874); and A. von Ameth Flammermont, Correspondance secréte de Mercy avec Joseph Bt. Rhine and defended Rheinfelden against the Swedes with the J. et Kaunitz (1889-91). Mercy-Argenteau’s Correspondances secret utmost bravery, surrendering only after enduring a five-months’ de M arie Thérèse has been condensed and translated into English by siege He now became a general officer, of. cavalry, and in 1635, Lilian Smythe as A Guardian of Marie Antoinette (2 vols., 1902)-

MER

DE GLACE—MEREDITH

MER DE GLACE. A glacier 16 sq.m. in area on the northern slope of Mt. Blanc, near Chamonix. During the summer months the rate of flow is estimated at two feet a day. It is a favourite

tourist resort. MERE. (1) An adjective primarily indicating something pure and unmixed (Lat. merus, pure). (2) An arm of the sea, or estuary; a lake or any shallow stretch

of inland water. In the Fen countries “mere” is applied to marshland, cf. Lat. mare, Fr. mer, Ger. meer. (3) A landmark or boundary; an object indicating the extent of a property without actually enclosing it; a road which forms

a dividing line between two places (O.E. maere, Lat. murus, a wall). A “meresman” is an official appointed by parochial authorities to ascertain the boundaries of a parish and to report upon the roads, bridges, waterways, etc. In the mining districts of Derbyshire a mere is a certain measurement of land in which lead-ore is found.

MEREDITH, GEORGE (1828-1909), British novelist and poet, was born at Portsmouth, Hants., on Feb. 12, 1828. About his early life little is recorded, but there is a good deal of quasiautobiography, derived apparently from early associations and possibly antipathies, in some of his own novels, notably Evan Horrington and Harry Richmond. He had, as he said, both Welsh

(from his father) and Irish blood (from ‘his mother) in his veins. His father, Augustus Armstrong Meredith, was a naval outfitter at

Portsmouth (mentioned as such in Marryat’s Peter Simple); and his grandfather, Melchisedek Meredith, clearly suggested the “Old Mel” of Evan Harrington. Melchisedek was 35 when, in 1796, he was initiated as a freemason at Portsmouth; and he appears to have been known locally as “the count,” because of a romantic story as to an adventure at Bath; the was church warden in 1801 and 1804; and some of the church plate bears his name. Meredith’s mother died when he was three years old, and he was made a ward in chancery. He was sent to school at Neuwied on the Rhine, and remained in Germany till he was 16. During these impressionable years he imbibed a good deal of the German spirit; and German influence, especially through the media of poetry and music, can often be traced in the cast of his thought and sentiment, as well as in some of the intricacies of his literary style. Returning to England he was at first articled to a solicitor in London, but he had little inclination for the law, and soon abandoned it for the more congenial sphere of letters, of which he had become an eager student. At the age of 21 he began to contribute poetry to the magazines, and he eked out a livelihood for some years by journalism, on the Daily News and other London papers, and for the Ipswich Journal, for which he wrote leaders; a certain number of his more characteristic fugitive writings are collected in the memorial edition of his works (1909-11). In London he became one of the leading spirits in the group of young philosophical and positivistic Radicals, among whom were John

(afterwards Lord) Morley, Frederic Harrison, Cotter Morison and

Admiral Maxse. But during the years when he was producing his finest novels he was practically unknown to the public. In 1849 he married Mrs. Nicholls, daughter of Thomas Love Peacock, the novelist, a widow, eight years his senior, whose husband had been accidentally drowned a few months after her first marriage (1844), and who had one child, a daughter; but their

275

reputation for being not only eminently wise in his selection of the books to be published, but both critical and encouraging to authors of promise whose works he found himself obliged to reject. Thomas Hardy and George Gissing were among those who expressed their grateful sense of his assistance. He was indeed one of the last of the old school of ‘publishers’ readers.” In his early married life he lived near Weybridge, and later at Copsham

between Esher and Leatherhead, while soon after his

second marriage he settled at Flint cottage, Mickleham, Dorking, where he remained for the rest of his life. EARLY

near

WORK

Meredith’s first appearance in print was in the character of a poet, and his first published poem “Chillian Wallah,” may be found in Chambers’s Journal for July 7, 1849. Two years later he put forth a small volume of Poems (1851), which was at least fortunate in eliciting the praise of two judges whose opinion was of the first importance to a beginner. Tennyson was at once struck by the individual flavour of the verse, and declared of one poem, “Love in the Valley,” that he could not get the lines out of his head. Charles Kingsley’s eulogy was at once more public and more particular. In Fraser’s Magazine he subjected the volume to careful consideration, praising it for richness and quaintness of tone that reminded him of Herrick, for completeness and coherence in each separate poem, and for the animating sweetness and health of the general atmosphere. At the same time he censured the laxity of rhythm, the occasional lack of polish, and the tendency to overload the description with objective details to the confusion of the principal effect. No doubt as a result of Kingsley’s introduction, two poems by Meredith appeared in Frasers Magazine shortly afterwards; but apart from these, and a sonnet in the Leader, he published nothing for five years. In the meanwhile he was busy upon his first essay in prose

fiction. It was on Dec. 19, 1855, that the Shaving of Shagpat, a work of singular imagination, humour and romance, made its appearance. Modelled upon the stories of the Arabian Nights, it catches with wonderful ardour the magical atmosphere of Orientalism, and in this genre it remains a unique triumph in modern letters. Though unappreciated by the multitude, its genlus was at once recognized by such contemporaries as George Eliot and Dante Gabriel Rossetti, the latter of whom was one of

Meredith’s intimate friends. For his next story it occurred to Meredith to turn his familiarity with the life and legendary tradition of the Rhinelander into a sort of imitation of the grotesquerie of the German romanticists, and in 1857 he put forth Farina, a Legend of Cologne, which sought to transfer to English sympathies the spirit of German romance in the same way that Shegpat had handled oriental fairy-lore. The result was less successful. The plot of Farina lacks fibre, its motive is insufficient, and the diverse elements of humour, serious narrative, and romance scarcely stand in proportion to one another. But the Ordeal of Richard Feverel, which followed in 1859, transferred Meredith at once to a new sphere and to the altitude of his accomplishment. With this novel Meredith deserted the realm of fancy for that of the philosophical and psychological study of human nature,

and Richard Feverel was the first, as it is perhaps the favourite, of those wonderful studies of motive and action which placed him married life was broken by separation; she died in 1861, and in among the literary demigods. It depicts the abortive attempt of an 1864 Meredith married Miss Vulliamy, by whom he had a son opinionated father to bring up his son to a perfect state of manand daughter. His second wife died in 1885. Up to that time hood through a “system” which controls his circumstances and there is little to record in the incidents of his life; he had not represses the natural instincts of adolescence. The love scenes in been “discovered” except by an “honourable minority” of read- Richard Feverel are gloriously natural and the book marked a ers and critics. It must suffice to note that during the Austro- revolution in the English treatment of manly passion. Certain Italian War of 1866 he acted as special correspondent for the chapters were omitted from later editions. In the following year M orning Post; and though he saw no actual fighting, he enjoyed, Meredith contributed to Once a Week, and published in America particularly at Venice, opportunities for a study of the Italian (1860; 1st English edition 1861) as a book the second of his people which he turned to account in several of his novels. To- novels of modern life, Evan Harrington, originally with the subwards the close of 1867, when his friend John Morley paid a title “He Would be a Gentleman”—in allusion to the hero being visit to America, Meredith undertook in his absence the editor- the son of “Old Mel,” the tailor—which contains a. richly Ship of the Fortnightly Review for Messrs. Chapman and Hall. humorous—in its unrevised form, splendidly farcical—plot,, with They were not only the publishers of his books, but he acted for some magnificent studies of character. Afterwards revised, a cermany years as their literary adviser, in which capacity. he left a tain amount of the farcical element was cut out, with :the result

276

MEREDITH

that. considered as comedy. it has weak spots; but the countess |tragedy and comedy, in the poem of “The Empty Purse” (182) de Saldar remains a genuine creation. In 1862 he produced his and in Lord Ormont and His Aminta (1894). In The Amazing finest volume of poems. entitled Modern Love, and Poems of the Marriage (1895) he seemed to catch an afterglow of genius. In English Roadside, with Poems and Ballads. An attack upon the 1898 appeared his Odes in Contribution to the Song of French dramatic poem which gives the volume its title appeared in the History, consisting of one ode (“France, Dec. 1870”) reprinted Spectator, and is memorable for the fact that Meredith’s friend, from Ballads and Poems (1871), and three other previously unthe poet Swinburne. with one of his characteristically generous

published; a fine example of his lofty thought, and magnificent—if

later appeared The Adventures of Harry Richmond in the pages of Cornhill (1870-71). Its successor was Beauchamp’s Career (Fortnightly Review, 1874-75), the novel which Meredith usually described as his own favourite. Its hero’s character is supposed to have been founded upon that of Admiral Maxse. Sandra Belloni, Rhoda Fleming, Vittoria and Beauchamp are all masterpieces of his finest period, rich in incident, character and workmanship. “The House on the Beach” and “The Case of General

he was presented with a congratulatory address by 30 prominent

impulses, replied (Spectator, June 7, 1862), in a spirit of fervent often dificult—and individual diction. In 1901 another volume of eulogy. Some of the “sonnets” (of 16 lines) into which Modern verse, A Reading of Life, appeared. In later years, too, he conLove is divided rank with the most subtle and intense poetic work tributed occasional poems to newspapers and reviews and similar publications, which were collected after his death (Last Poems of the 19th century. Returning to fiction. Meredith next published Emilia in Eng- 1910). His comedy, The Sentimentalists, was performed on land (1864), afterwards renamed Sandra Belloni (1886). His March 1, 1910; his early but unfinished novel, Celt and Saxon, was powerful story Rhoda Fleming (1865) followed soon afterwards. also posthumously published in that summer. Now famous, Meredith was chosen to succeed Tennyson as Vittoria, published in the Fortnightly Review in 1866, and in book form in 1867. is a sequel to Emilia in England. Four years president of the Authors’ Society; on his 7oth birthday (1898)

Opie and Lady Camper” (New Quarterly Magazine, 1877) were slight but glittering exercises in comedy; the next important novel was The Egoist (1879), which shows an increase in Meredith’s twistedness of literary style and is admittedly hard to read for those who merely want a “story,” but which for concentrated analysis and the real drama of the human spirit is an astounding production. In an interesting series of lectures which Meredith delivered at the London Institution in 1877, his main thesis was that a man without a sense of comedy is dead to the finer issues of the spirit, and the conception of Sir Willoughby Patterne, the central figure of The Egoist, is an embodiment of

this idea in the flesh. The Tragic Comedians (1880), the next of Meredith’s novels, slighter in texture than his others, combines the spirits of comedy and tragedy in the story of the life of Ferdinand Lassalle, the German Socialist. The appearance of Diana of the Crossways (1885), a brilliant book, full of his ripest character-drawing, though here and there tormenting the casual reader by the novelist’s mannerisms of expression, marks an epoch in Meredith’s career, since it was the first of his stories to strike the general public. Its heroine was popularly identified with Sheridan’s granddaughter, Mrs. Norton, and the use made in it of the contemporary story of that lady’s communication to The Times of the cabinet secret of Peel’s conversion to Free Trade had the effect of producing explicit evidence of its inaccuracy from Lord Dufferin and others. As a matter of historical fact it was Lord Aberdeen who himself gave Delane the information. Meanwhile further instalments of poems—Poems and Lyrics of the Joy of Earth (1883)—had struck anew the full, rich note of natural realism which is Meredith’s chief poetic characteristic. “Yhe Woods of Westermain,” in particular, has that sense of the mysterious communion of man with nature which is found in

men of letters; he received the Order of Merit; and new editions of his books (both prose and verse), for which there had long been but scanty demand, were called for. One of the results was that Meredith, with very doubtful wisdom, recast some of his earlier novels; and in the sumptuous ‘authorized edition” of

1897 (published by the firm of Constable, of which his son, Wil-

liam Maxse Meredith, was a member) very large alterations are made in some of them. It meant the excision in old age of some of the most virile passages of books that were written in the full glow and vigour of this prime. In Constable’s memorial edition

(1910) of his complete works the excisions were published

separately. HIS STYLE

AND

PHILOSOPHY

Meredith’s literary quality must always be considered in the light of the Celtic side of his temperament and the peculiarities of his mental equipment. His nature was intuitive rather than

ratiocinative; his mental processes were abrupt and far-reaching; and the suppression of connecting associations frequently gives his language, as it gave Browning’s, but even to a greater extent, the air of an impenetrably nebulous obscurity. This criticism applies mainly to his verse, but is also true of his prose in many places, though there is much exaggeration about the difficulties of his novels. When once, however, his manner has been properly understood, it is seen to be inseparable from his method of intellection, and to add to the narrative of description both vividness of delineation and intensity of realization. But when Meredith is at his best he is only involved with the involution of his subject; the aphorisms that decorate his style are simple when the idea they convey is simple, elaborate only in its elaboration. Pregnant, vividly graphic, capable of infinite shades and gradations, his style is a much finer and subtler instrument than at first appears, and must be judged finally by what it conveys to the mind, and not by its superficial sound upon the conventional ear. It owes something to Jean Paul Richter; something, too, to

Carlyle, with whose methods of narrative and indebtedness to the

apparatus of German metaphysics it has a good deal in common.

To the novelist Richardson, too, a careful reader will find that Meredith, both in manner and matter (notably in The Egoist and in Richard Feverel), owes a good deal; in “Mrs. Grandison” in the poetry of Wordsworth and Shelley. Ballads and Poems of Richard Feverel he even recalls “Sir Charles Grandison” by Fragic Life (1887) and A Reading of Earth (1888) gave further name; and nobody can doubt that Sir Willoughby Patterne, both evidence of the wealth of thought and vigour of expression which in idea and often in expression, was modelled on Richardson's Meredith brought to the making of verse. His readers, of the creation. Careful students of the early roth century English novel verse even more than of the prose, must be prepared to meet him will find curious echoes again in Meredith of Bulwer-Lytton's on a common intellectual footing. When once that is granted, (Baron Lytton’s) literary manner and romantic outlook. however, the music and magic of such poems as ‘Seed-time,” The philosophy which represents Meredith’s “criticism of life,” “Hard Weather,” “The Thrush in February,” “The South- is broadly speaking a belief in the rightness and wholesome: Wester,” “The Lark Ascending,” “Love in the Valley,” “Melam- ness of Nature, when Nature—‘Sacred Reality”—is lovingly

pus,” “A Faith on Trial,” are very real, amid all their occasional obscurities of diction.

Meredith had now completed his 6oth year, and with his advancing years the angles of his individuality began to grow sharper, while the difficulties of his style became accentuated. The increase in mannerism was marked in One of Our Conquerors {1891}, otherwise a magnificent rendering of a theme full of both

and faithfully and trustfully sought and known by the pure use of reason. Man must be “obedient to Nature, not her slave”

Mystical as this philosophy occasionally becomes, it is yet am inspiring one, clean, austere and practical; and it is always dom

nated by the categorical imperative of self-knowledge and the striving after honesty of purpose and thought,

A strong vein

political Radicalism runs through Meredith’s creed.

It is, how

MERES—MERGUI

4]/

=

kee

ever, a Radicalism allied to that of the French philosophes, rather i amun excavations, The Birth of the Gods (Eng. trans. 1925), than to the contemporary developments of British party politics, followed by Akhnaton (Eng. trans. 1927). though in later life he gave his open support to the Liberal Party. | About 1900-02 Merezhkovsky evolved a mystic, neo-Christian In spite of his German upbringing Meredith was always strongly |or apocalyptic teaching, based on the equal sanctity of flesh and French in his sympathies, and his appreciation of French character | spirit as opposed to the cult of the flesh as represented by paganat its best and at its worst is finely shown in his Napoleon odes. ism, and the cult of the spirit as revealed by ecclesiastical Meredith died at Flint cottage, Box hill, Surrey, on May Christianity. The influence of Sienkiewicz can be traced in many 18, 1909. A strong feeling existed that he should be buried in of Merezhkovsky’s writings, which include critical studies such Westminster Abbey, and a petition to that effect. which was as Tolstoï and Dostotevsky (2 vols., 1901-02). He also wrote approved by the prime minister, H. H. Asquith, was signed by a on religious, political and social questions, and published several large number of men of letters. But this was not to be. A plays, including Pani I. (1908) and Carewicz Aleksy (Warsaw, memorial service was held in the abbey, but Meredith’s own re- 1921). a tragedy in five acts. After the revolution he left Russia mains, after cremation, were interred at Dorking by the grave of and went to live in Paris, where he continued to write. his second wife. He died just after his old friend Swinburne. (H. C.) BIBLIOGRAPHY.—TLhe first edition of Meredith’s collected works was

published by Messrs. Chapman and Hall (1885-95) ; other editions are the edition de luxe (39 vols., 1896-1912), the library edition (18 vols.,

1897-1910),

the memorial

edition

(27 vols.

1909-11),

and the

standard edition (1914, etc.), all published by Messrs. Constable. The Poetical Works of George Meredith were published with notes by G. M. Trevelyan (1912). See M. B. Forman, Bibliography of the Writings in Prose and Verse

of George

Meredith

(1922)

and Meredithians

(1924). The Letters of George Meredith have been collected and edited by his son, W. M. Meredith (2 vols., 1912) ; see also Letters to Edward

Clodd Horne (Cape 1924); 1923).

and Clement K. Shorter (1913); Letters to Rickard Henry (Cape Town, 1919); Letters to Swinburne and Watts-Dunton

Town, 1922); Letters to Letters to Alice Mevynell, For biography and criticism dith: Some Characteristics (1890),

Various Correspondents (Pretoria, . . . 1896-1907 (Nonesuch Press, see R. Le Gallienne, George Merewhich includes a bibliography by

John Lane; M. Sturge Henderson, George Meredith, Novelist, Poet,

Reformer (1907); G. M. Trevelyan, The Poetry and Philosophy of George Meredith (1912); C. Photiades, George Meredith sa vie (rgro, Eng. trans. 1913) ; Lady Alice M. Butcher, Memories of George Meredith (1919); R. Galland, George Meredith and British Criticism (1923); J. B. Priestly, George Meredith (1926); Robert E. Sencourt, The Life ef George Meredith (1929).

Merezhkovsky’s collected works were published in 24 vols. in 1914. See also J. Chuzeville, Dmitri Merezhkovusky (1922).

MERGANSER,

the name applied to a group of fish-eating

ducks forming the subfamily Merginae of the Anatidae. Mergansers have long, narrow beaks, with a small hook at the tip and the edges beset with denticulations. There is a crest on the head, and the legs are set far back on the body. The birds have great diving power. | The largest species is the goosander (Mergus merganser), | found throughout the northern parts of the world. In breeding plumage the male is a very beautiful bird. M. serrator, the redbreasted merganser, has the same range as the last but is smaller. In both the bill and feet are orange. M. albellus, the smew, is smaller still and confned to the old world. The feet are dull grey and the breeding plumage predominantly white. M. cucullatus, intermediate in size between the last two, is the hooded merganser of N. America. Other species inhabit S. America and the Antarctic. Differing in possessing spiny tails and spurred wings are the

S. American torrent-ducks (Merganetta).

MERGENTHEIM, a town of Germany, in the republic of

MERES, FRANCIS (1565-1647), English divine and author, Württemberg, situated in the valley of the Tauber, 7 m. S. from was born at Kirton in the Holland division of Lincolnshire in Lauda by rail. Pop. (1925) 5,430. Mergentheim (Mariae domus) 1565. He was educated at Pembroke college, Cambridge, His is mentioned in chronicles as early as 1058, as the residence of kinsman, John Meres, was high sheriff of Lincolnshire in 1596, and apparently helped him in the early part of his career. In 1602 he became rector of Wing in Rutland, where he -had a school. He died on Jan. 29, 1647. Meres rendered immense service to the history of Elizabethan literature by the publication of his Palladis Tamia, Wits Treasury (1598). The Palladis Tamia contained moral and critical reflections borrowed from various sources, and embraced sections on books, on philosophy, on music and painting, and a famous “Comparative Discourse of our English poets with the Greeke, Latin and Italian poets.” This chapter enumerates . the English poets from Chaucer to Meres’s own day, and in each casea comparison with some classical author is instituted. The book was issued in 1634 as a school book, and has been partially reprinted in the Ancient Critical Essays (1811-15) of Joseph Haslewood, Prof. E. Arber’s English Garner, and Gregory Smith’s Elizabethan Critical Essays (1904). MEREZHKOVSKY, DMITRI SERGEIEVICH (1865), Russian novelist and critic, was born in St. Petersburg (Leningrad) on Aug. 2, 1865, the son of a court official, and graduated from St. Petersburg university. He married Zinaida Hippius, the poet (qg.v.). His first volume of poetry, published in 1888, was followed by more poetry, Vera, Sakya Muni, Avakum, Black Angel, etc., by translations from Euripides and other Greek classics, by literary essays on Russian and foreign writers, Eternal Companions (1897), and by a trilogy of historical romances collectively entitled Christ and Antichrist and consisting

the counts of Hohenlohe, who early in the 13th century assigned the greater part of their estates in and around Mergentheim to the Teutonic Order. On the secularization of the Order in Prussia in 1525, Mergentheim became the residence of the grand master, and remained so until the final dissolution of the Order in 18009. The town contains a castle with a natural history collection and the archives of the Teutonic Order. The industries include tanning, the manufacture of agricultural machinery and brewing.

MERGER, in law, the sinking or “drowning” of a lesser estate in a greater, when the two coalesce In one and the same person without any intervening estate, as, e.g., when the tenant for life

becomes owner of the absolute freehold. The term is also used for the extinguishment of any right, contract, etc., by absorption in another, e.g., the acceptance of a higher security for a lower, or the embodying of a simple contract in a deed. Merger in Industry.—The term merger is one that is usedin the United States to denote the large industrial or commercial concern which results from a “merging” of previously independent and probably competing concerns in the same line of business. It corresponds almost exactly with the British term “combine” and, like “combine,” enjoys the peculiarity of being a term in widespread use which Is seldom, if ever, found in the registered title of the type of organization to which it is applied. Prominent among the objects for which firms are “merged” is the suppression of competition between them and its replacement by a unified control which, in cases where the merger gathers into of Smert Bogov (1895, Eng. trans. The Death of the Gods, 1901, one consolidated interest the bulk of the output of an industry, popular ed. 1926), the central figure of which is Julian the becomes a control over the price at which the product shall be Apostate; Voskresenie Bogi (1902, Eng. trans. The Forerunner, sold. The merger is one of the several forms of monopolistic or1902; repr. 1924), which described the life and times of Leonardo ganization which has come into being as the result of the perda Vinci; and Antikhrist: Pëtr i Aleksyey (1905, Eng. trans. sistent movement from competition to combination. (See AMALPeter and Alexis, 1905), based on the story of the relations be- GAMATION; COMBINATION; Fusion; Monoproty; Trusts and tween Peter the Great and his son. After the “trilogy” came the CARTEL.) novels Alexander I. (1911, French trans. sth ed. 1922), December MERGUI, the southernmost district of Burma, in the Tenas14 (1920, Eng, trans, 1923), and in connection with the Tutankh- serim division, bounded on the west by the Andaman sea of the

278

MERGUI

ARCHIPELAGO—MERIDEN

Bay of Bengal and on the east by Siam. Area 9,789 sq.m. Two principal ranges cross the district from north to south, running almost parallel to each other for a considerable distance, with

series Theatrum Europaeum.

the Tenasserim river winding between them till it turns south and flows through a narrow rocky gorge in the westernmost range to

Yucatan, 23 m. by rail S. of Progreso, its port on the Gulf of

the sea. The whole district, from the water's edge to the loftiest mountain on the eastern boundary, may be regarded as almost unbroken forest. The timber trees found towards the interior, and on the higher elevations, are of great size and beauty, the

most valuable being the teak (Tectona grandis) of the drier, sheltered valleys only, thin-gan (Hopea odorata), ka-gnyeng (Diptero-

carpus laevis), etc. The coast-line of the district, off which lies an archipelago of two hundred and seven islands, is much broken, and for several miles inland is very little raised above sea-level, and is drained by numerous muddy tidal creeks. Southwards of Mergui town it consists chiefly of low mangrove swamps alternating with small fertile rice plains. After passing the mangrove limits, the ground to the east gradually rises till it becomes mountainous, even to the banks of the rivers, and finally culminates in the grand natural barrier dividing Burma from Siam. The four principal rivers are the Tenasserim, Le-nya, Pakchan and Palauk, the first three being navigable for a considerable distance. Coal is found on the banks of the Tenasserim and its tributaries, but is little worked. Gold, copper, iron and manganese are also found in various parts of the district, and there are tin mines at Maliwun and elsewhere, but the tin mines are less important than in the Tavey district to the north. From the notices of early travellers it appears that Mergui, when under Siamese rule, before it passed to the Burmese, was a rich and densely peopled country. On its occupation by the British in 1824-1825 it was found to be almost depopulated— the result of border warfare and of the cruelties exercised by the Burmese conquerors. At that time the entire inhabitants numbered only 10,000. Pop. (1921), 135,465, showing an increase

See Life by H. Eckardt

MERIDA,

(Basle, 1887).

a city of Mexico and capital of the State of

Mexico. Pop. (1921) 79,225, the Maya element being predomi. nant. Mérida is the centre of an isolated railway system, con. nected with the ports of Progreso and Campeche, and having short lines (chiefly narrow gauge, private lines) radiating in all direc. tions to Peto, Valladolid and Izamal. It stands on a broad plain situated near the northern border of the peninsula, where the thin loose soil covering a limestone foundation permits the rapid per. colation of the rainfall, and as a natural consequence supports a comparatively scanty vegetation. It is highly favourable tg maguey cultivation, however, and Mérida is the centre of the henequén, or sisal fibre industry. There is an imposing 16th century cathedral facing upon the principal plaza, a Franciscan convent, dating from 1547, and also an old university, with schools of law, medicine and pharmacy, an episcopal seminary and a number of other educational institutions. The exports are sisal, hides, sugar, rum, chicle and indigo. Mérida was founded in 1542 by the younger Francisco de Montejo on the site of a native city called Tihoo, or Thé, whose stone pyramids furnished building material in abundance for the invaders.

MERIDA

(anc. Augusta Emerita, capital of Lusitania), a

town of western Spain, in the province of Badajoz, on the right bank of the river Guadiana, 30 m. E. of Badajoz. Pop. (1920) 15,502. Mérida is an important railway junction, for here the Madrid-Badajoz railway meets the lines from Seville, Huelva and Caceres. Augusta Emerita was founded in 25 B.c. As the capital of Lusitania it soon became one of the most splendid cities in Iberia, and was large enough to contain a garrison of 90,000 men. In 1129 its archbishopric was formally transferred to Santiago de Compostela, and in 1228, when Alphonso IX. of Leon expelled the Moors, Mérida was entrusted to the order of Santiago, of 24,091 in the decade and giving a density of 14 inhabitants to in whose keeping it soon sank into decadence. Chief among the the square mile. Mergui carries on a flourishing trade with Ran- Roman remains is the bridge, constructed of granite under Trajan, goon and the Straits Settlements. The chief exports consist of or Augustus, and restored by the Visigoths in 686 and by Philip rubber, tin ore, rice, rattans, dried fish, areca-nuts and edible birds’ III. in 1610. It comprised 8r arches, 17 of which were destroyed nests. The staple imports are piece goods, tobacco, cotton, during the siege of Badajoz (1812), and measured 2,575 ft. m earthenware, tea and sugar. The climate is remarkably healthy, length. There are.a few remnants of Roman temples and of the the beat due to its tropical situation being moderated by land’ colossal wall which encircled the city, besides a Roman triumphal and sea breezes. The rainfall is very heavy and usually exceeds arch, commonly called the Arco de Santiago, and a second Roman 15o inches, the dry season is short, so that these two factors bridge, by which the road to Salamanca was carried across the combined have led to the development of rubber planting. small river Albarregas (Alba Regia). The Moorish alcázar or Mergui town has risen into prominence in recent years as the citadel was originally the chief Roman fort. From the Lago de centre of the rubber and tin ore exporting trade, which has Proserpina, or Charca de la Albuera, a large Roman reservoir, 3 eclipsed its earlier importance as the centre of the pearling trade m. N., water was conveyed to Mérida by an aqueduct, of which in the neighbouring archipelago. Pop. (1921), 17,297. there are extensive remains. The massive Roman theatre is in.

MERGUI

ARCHIPELAGO,

a cluster of islands in the good preservation; there are also a few vestiges of an amphi-

Andaman sea, near the southern coast of Lower Burma. They are chiefly noted for their picturesque beauty, some of them rising to 3,000 feet. They are only sparsely inhabited by the island race of Selungs and by Burmans. MERIAN, MATTHEW (1593-1650}, Swiss engraver, was bern in Basle on Sept. 25, 1593. In 1609 he was placed under Dietrich Meyer, a painter and engraver of Zürich, and in 1613 went to Nancy, where he worked at copper-engraving. After studying in Paris, Stutigart (1616), and the Low Countries, he came to Frankfurt, where in 1618 he married the eldest daughter of J. T. de Bry, publisher, bookseller, and engraver. After work-

ing for some time with his father-in-law at Oppenheim, Merian

returned to Basle, but came back to Frankfurt after Bry’s death

theatre and of a circus which measured 485 yd. by 120. Other Roman remains are exhibited in the archaeological museum.

MERIDEN, a city of New Haven county, Connecticut, U.S.A,

midway between New Haven and Hartford, on Federal highway

5 and the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad. The population was 29,867 in 1920 (26% foreign-born white) and was 38,481 In 1930 by the Federal census. The city occupies 164 sq.m. and is traversed by the Quinnipiac river and Harbor Brook. West Peak State Park, with hills 700 ft. above sea-level, is 08 its north-west border. It is the seat of the Connecticut school for boys and of a State tuberculosis sanatorium. The assessed valua-

tion in 1927 was $48,931,165.

Meriden has a great variety of

manufacturing industries, with an output in 1925 valued at (1623), to take ever his business. This remained in his family till $37,627,656, and is especially noted for its silverware, both ster2726, when a great fire wiped it out of existence. In 1625 Merian ling and plated. Samuel Yale began the manufacture of pewter became & burgher of Frankfurt, then the great centre of the book and Britannia ware here in 1794. In 1847 the Rogers Brothers iypde in Germany. He lived there till his death on June-22, 1650. Invented a process of depositing silver on other metals by elecHe published a series of Topographia, with text by Martin Zeiller, tricity; and shortly afterward united with the Meriden Britannia an Austrian; and copper-plate illustrations furnished chiefly by Company to found the house which still operates under their Merian. The first volume, dealing with Switzerland, the Grisons, name. The town of Meriden was separated from Wallingford and and the Valais contains the earliest known view of the glaciers incorporated in 1806; the city was chartered in 1867; and @ of Grindelwald. He published a series of illustrations te the’ Bible 1922 town and city were consolidated: The oldest building in the 43625-30), and a Dance of Death (1649); and began (1635) the city is the Goffe House (1711)..

MERIDIAN—MERIMEE MERIDIAN, a city of eastern Mississippi, U.S.A., county seat of Lauderdale county; 140 m. S.W. of Birmingham (Alabama). It is on Federal highways 11, 45 and 80, and is served by the Gulf, Mobile and Northern, the Illinois Central, the Mo-

pile and Ohio and the Southern railways. In 1920 it was the largest city of the State; population then was 23.399 (36% negroes); in 1930 It was 31,954 by Federal census.

The city lies

in a valley of wooded hills, streams and lakes, in a lumbering and agricultural region of diversified products, including cotton, bright-leaf tobacco, corn, oats, strawberries, peaches, grapes, figs, hogs, dairy cattle and poultry. It has 15 wholesale houses, the only stock-yards in the State, and a retail trade territory with a 75 m. radius. There are large railway shops, cotton gins and compresses,

cottonseed-oil mills, lumber mills, brick plants, canneries and knitting mills. The factory output in 1925 was valued at $8,630-

636. Hydro-electric power is available. The city has an assessed valuation of $22,836,623 (1927). Meridian was laid out in 1854, and chartered as a city in 1860. On Feb. 14, 1864, General Sherman entered the city and within a week destroyed most of it. The “Meridian riot” of 1871 was a prominent episode of the Reconstruction period. On March 2, 1906, a cyclone caused great loss of life and property. A commission form of government was adopted In 1913. ME LAN, in general a direction towards the south or towards the position of the sun at mid-day. Geographical meridians are the great circles drawn on the earth’s surface which pass through the Poles, and thus pass through all places having the same longitude. The meridian of Greenwich (the great circle passing

279

scholar, and the Russian poet Pushkin, but, as Mérimée declares, a few words of Illyrian and a book or two of travels and topography were the author’s only materials. In the next year appeared a short dramatic romance, La Jacquerie, in which is visible Meérimée's faculty of local and historical colour. This was fol-

lowed by the Chronique de Charles IX. (1829). He had already obtained a considerable position in the civil service, and after the revolution of July he was chef de cabinet to two different ministers. He was then appointed to the more congenial post of inspector-general of historical monuments. He did not, however, neglect novel writing during this period, and numerous short tales appeared, chiefly in the Revue de Paris. The best of all, Colomba, a Corsican story of extraordinary power, appeared in 1840. He travelled a good deal; and in one of his journeys to Spain, about the middle of Louis Philippe’s reign, he made an acquaintance destined to influence his future life not a

little—that of Mme. de Montijo, mother of the future empress Eugénie. Mérimée, though in manner and language the most cynical of men, was a devoted friend, and shortly before the accession of Napoleon IIT. he had occasion to show this. His friend, Libri Carucci dalla Sommaja, was accused of having stolen valuable

manuscripts and books from French libraries, and Mérimée took his part so warmly that he was actually sentenced too, and underwent fine and imprisonment. Between 1840 and 1850 he wrote more tales, the chief of which were Arséne Guillot and Carmen (1847), this last, on a Spanish subject, hardly ranking below Colomba. The marriage of Napoleon III. with the daughter of Mme. de through Greenwich Observatory and the two Poles) is the zero from which terrestrial longitudes are reckoned. In astronomy the Montijo at once enlisted what was always strongest with Mérimée meridian is the great circle through the Pole and the zenith; it —the sympathy of personal friendship—on the emperor’s side. He was made a senator, but his most important rôle was that of intersects the horizon in the north and south points. MERIDIAN HIGHWAY, an American highway which, as a constant and valued private friend of both the “master and its name implies, extends north and south from Canada to Mexico mistress of the house,” as he calls the emperor and empress in his about midway between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. It is letters. He was occasionally charged with a kind of irregular gravelled, hard or paved its entire length of 1,769 miles. Winni- diplomacy, and once, in the matter of the emperor’s Caesar, he peg, Canada, is its northern terminus, whence it passes through had to give literary assistance to Napoleon. Fargo, N.D., Watertown, S.D., Norfolk, Neb., Wichita, Kan., At this time he wrote the letters which have been published Chickasha, Okla. and Fort Worth and Austin to Laredo, Tex. as Letires è une inconnue, and also the letters addressed to Sir MERIKANTO, OSKAR (1868-1924), Finnish composer, Anthony Panizzi, librarian of the British Museum. After various was born at Helsingfors on Aug. 5, 1868. He received his musical conjectures it seems that the inconnue just mentioned was a cereducation in Leipzig and Berlin. Returning to Finland he began tain Mile. Jenny Daqin of Boulogne. The acquaintance extended to write operas, drawing his subjects from the legends of his over many years. country. In rgz1 he was appointed conductor of the opera at Both series, and others since published, abound in gossip, in Helsingfors. Outside Finland he is best known for his very beauti- amusing anecdotes, in sharp literary criticism, while both contain ful Finnish songs. Besides the three operas, Daughter of Pohja, evidences of a cynical and Rabelaisian or Swiftian humour which The death of Elina, Queen of Emmeritz, he wrote organ music and was very strong in Mérimée. This characteristic is said to be so some choral works. He died at Helsingfors on Feb. 17, 1924. prominent in a correspondence with another friend, which now MERIMEE, PROSPER (1803-1870), French novelist, lies in the library at Avignon, that there is but little chance of archaeologist, essayist, and in all these capacities one of the its ever being printed. A fourth collection of letters, of much greatest masters of French style during the roth century, was inferior extent and interest, has been printed by Blaze de Bury born at Paris on Sept. 28, 1803. His grandfather, of Norman under the title of Lettres à une autre inconnue (1873), and others extraction, had been a lawyer and steward to the maréchal de still by d’Haussonville (1888), and in the Revue des Deux Mondes

Broglie. His father, Jean François Léonor Mérimée (1757-1836),

(1896).

was a painter of repute. Mérimée had English blood in his veins on the mother’s side, and had English proclivities in many ways. He was educated for the bar, but entered the public service instead. A young man at the time of the Romantic movement, he

much from ill-health. He died at Cannes September 23, 1870. Meérimée’s character was a peculiar and in some respects an

felt its influence strongly, though his peculiar temperament prevented him from joining any of the coteries of the period. Nothing Was more prominent

among

the romantics

than the fancy, as

Mérimée himself puts it, for “local colour,’ the more unfamiliar

the better. He exhibited this in an unusual way. In 1825 he pubished what purported to be the dramatic works of a Spanish lady, Clara Gazul, with a preface stating circumstantially how the supposed translator, one Joseph L’Estrange, had met the gifted

poetess at Gibraltar. This was followed by a still more audacious and still more successful supercherie. In 1827 appeared a small

book entitled Ja Guzla (the anagram of Gazul), and giving itself out as translated from the Illyrian of Hyacinthe Maglanovich. _ This book, which has greater formal merit than Clara Gazul, % said to have taken in Sir John Bowring, a competent Slav

In the latter years of his life Mérimée suffered very

unfortunate one, but by no means unintelligible. Partly by temperament, partly it is said owing to some childish experience, when he discovered that he had been duped and determined never to be so again, not least owing to the example of Henri Beyle

(Stendhal), who was a friend of his family, Mérimée appears at

an early age to have imposed upon himself as a duty the maintenance of an attitude of sceptical indifference and sarcastic criticism. All his literary work has the Renaissance character. It ‘is tolerably extensive, amounting to some seventeen or eighteen volumes, but its bulk is not great for a life which was not short, and which was occupied, at least nominally, in little else. About a third of it consists of the letters already mentioned. Rather more than another third consists of the official work which has been already alluded to—reports, essays, short historical sketches,

the chief of which latter is a history of Pedro the Cruel (1843),

280

MERINO—MERIONETH

and another of the curious pretender known in Russian story as the false Demetrius (1852). Some of the literary essays, such as

those on Beyle, on Turgeniev, etc., where a personal element enters, are excellent.

Against others and against the larger his-

torical sketches—admirable as they are—Taine’s criticism that they want life has some force. In purely archaeological matters his Description des petntures de Saint-Savin is noteworthy.

It is, however, in the remaining third of his work, consisting entirely of tales either in narrative or in dramatic form, and especially in the former, that his full power is perceived. He translated a certain number of things (chiefly from the Russian); but his fame does not rest on these, on his already-mentioned youthful superchéries, or on his later semi-dramatic works. There remain about a score of tales, extending in point of composition over exactly forty years and in length from that of Colomba, the longest, which fills about one hundred and fifty pages, to that of PEnlévement de la redoute (1829), which fills just half a dozen. They are unquestionably the best things of their kind written during the century, the only nouvelles that can challenge comparison with them being the very best of Gautier, and one or two of Balzac. ‘The motives are sufficiently different. In Colomba and Mateo Falcone (1829), the Corsican point of honour is drawn on; in Carmen (written apparently after reading Borrow’s Spanish books), the gipsy character; in le Venus d'Ille (1837) and Lokis (two of the finest of all), certain grisly superstitions.

Arsène Guillot is a singular satire, full of sarcastic pathos, on

popular morality and religion; le Chambre bleue, an 18th-century come, worthy of C. P. J. Crébillon for grace and wit, and superior to him in delicacy; The Capture of the Redoubt just mentioned is a perfect piece of description; ?Abbé Aubain is again satirical:

it was brought by the Moors to Spain and thence spread over Europe, especially to Austria-Hungary, Germany and France. The

best-known breeds are the Rambouillet, a large merino named

after the village near Paris to which it was imported towards the end of the 18th century, and the Negretti, which stands in closer relationship to the old Spanish stock and has shorter wool but

a more wrinkled fleece. Importations to America began about the beginning of the roth century. The so-called American merino, the Delaine, the Vermont and the Rambouillet, are well-known breeds in the United States.

The term “merino” is widely employed in the textile industries with very varied meanings. Originally it was restricted to denote the wool of the merino sheep reared in Spain, but owing to the superiority of the wools grown on merino sheep and shipped from Botany bay the name as applied to wool was replaced by the term “botany.” In the dress-goods and knitting trades the term “merino” still implies an article made from the very best soft wool. The term “cashmere,” however, is frequently confused with it, although cashmere goods should be made from true cashmere and not, as is often the case, from the finest botany wool. In the hosiery and re-manufactured materials trades the term “merino” is applied to fibre-mixtures of cotton and wool in contradistinction to “all wool” goods.

MERIONETH

(Welsh Meirionydd),

a county of North

Wales bounded north by Carnarvon and Denbigh, east by Denbigh and Montgomery, south-east by Montgomery, south by the Dovey estuary, dividing it from Cardigan, and west by Cardigan bay. It is nearly triangular, its greatest length from north-east to south

west being about 45 m., and its greatest breadth about 30 miles, Area, 422,372 acres. Pop. (1931), 43,198 (administrative county). la Double méprise (the authorship of which raised objections to Geology.—The outstanding geological feature is the Harlech Mérimée when he was elected to the Academy) is an exercise in dome—a mountain tract about 15 m. from north to south by to analysis strongly impregnated with the spirit of Stendhal, but m. from east to west, from the coast inland. It is roughly better written than anything of that writer’s. These stories, with oval, with Barmouth and Dolgelly, Harlech and Maentwrog his letters, assure Mérimée’s place in literature at the very head around its edges. It is of Cambrian age and composed of grits, of the French prose writers of the century. He had undertaken quartzites and slates, forming a large anticline. Its central poran edition of Brantôme for the Bibliothèque Elzévirienne, but it tion is occupied mainly by Harlech grits and Menevian beds, was never completed. Around the dome on the north, east and south, from Towyn (G. Sa.) BrsrrocrapHy—Oeuvres Compléies (ed. P. Trahard and E. Cham- around to Carnarvonshire, great volcanic masses, mostly greenpion, 1927, etc.); See also a selected edition published by Nelson (1927); the collections of MM, Charpentier and Calmann Lévy; M. stone, stand out in a sweeping curve. The igneous material is Tourneux, Prosper Mérimée: sa bibliographie (1876), and Prosper intruded into Lingula, Tremadoc and Arenig beds. This belt of Mérimée: ses portraits, sa bibliothéque (1879) ; L. Pinvert, Sur Méri- high ground surrounding the dome includes Rhobell Fawr (2,313

ft.), composed of andesitic rock, while in the Arenig beds (interstratified with and overlaid by accumulations of volcanic ashes, felspathic traps or lava flows) are the rugged heights of Cader Idris (g.v.), Aran Fawddwy (2,970 ft.) and Arenig Fawr (2,600 ft.). The rough grits of the Harlech dome are separated from the {1900}; V. M. Jovanovic, “Za Gusla” de Prosper Mérimée. Étude grits and lavas further east by the valley of the Eden and d'histoire romantique (1911); E. Falcke, Die romantischen. Elemente in Prosper Mérimées Roman und Novellen, Romantische Arbeiten, No. 6 Mawddach. The Ordovician volcanic rocks are, in turn, overlaid (x915); P. Trahard, Prosper Mérimée eż Part de Ia nouvelle (1923), by the Llandeilo and Bala beds, the latter including the Bala

mée. Notes bibliographiques et critiques (1908). For reviews and criticisms, See Chronique de Charles IX. (trans. by G. Saintsbury, with an introduction, 1889}, and the essay, containing a review of Mérimée’s entire work, prefixed by the same writer to an American translation: A. Filon, M érimée et ses amis (1894) ; Walter Pater, “Prosper Mérimée” in Studies in European Literature. Taylorian Lectures 1889-1899

and La Jeunesse de Prosper Mérimée 2 vol. (1923).

MERINO. The Spanish name for a breed of sheep, and hence applied to a woollen fabric. The merino is a white, short-wool

sheep, the male having spiral horns, the ewes being generally hornjess, It is bred chiefly for its wool, because, though an excellent

limestone. South of Rhobell Fawr the great ring of volcanic mountains is broken across by the deep straight Bala cleft—one of the sharpest geological fault lines in Britain. The line of depression marking the fault runs from the sea near Towyn through the Jong and narrow Dysynni valley to Tal-y-llyn, and over the low hump of the Cross Foxes to the elongated Bala lake, the souree of the Dee. The great fault line has many branches; the Mawddach estuary line, with its beautiful sands, represents a section which has sunk seawards. Here and there along the eastern boundary of the county, Llandovery and Wenlock strata are included. The structure of the Silurian tract is synclinal; in the Berwyn mountains the Ordovician rọcks again appear with associated andesitic and felsitic lavas and tuffs. West of Llangar, near Corwen, is a small patch of Carboniferous limestone. Glacial drift with boulder clay is 3 prominent feature in the valleys and on the mountain sides, while a good deal of blown sand fringes the coast north and south of Harlech. The southern section of the county is bordered in some parts

grazer and very adaptable, it matures slowly and its mutton is not of the best quality. The wool is close and wavy in staple, reaching four inches in length, and surpasses that of all other sheep im fineness; it is so abundant that little but the muzzle, which should be of an orange tint, and .heofs are left uncovered. The best wool is produced on light, sandy soils. The merino is little known in Great Britain, the climatic morsture of which does not favour the growth of the finest wools, but it predominates in all regions where sheep are bred for their wool rathey than their mutton, as in the western United States, Cape Caleny, Australia, New Zealand and Argentina. In Australasia, especially in New Zealand, the mering has been crossed with Lincolns, Letoesters, Shropshires and other breeds, with the result of improving the quality of the mutton while sacrificing to some by the river Dyfi (Dovey), which rises in a small Jake near extent that of the wool. Aran Fawddwy, passes Machynlleth and expands into an estuary ‘Fhe merino sheep appears to have originated in Africa, whence on Cardigan bay, the origin of which is probably associated with

MERISTEM—MERLIN

281

the Llyfnant fault zone of northern Cardiganshire and southern Montgomeryshire. History and Early Settlement—The Ardudwy coast between Barmouth and Harlech seems to have been important in Megalithic times, while finds of flat axes of bronze to the northeast of Bala lake indicate early attempts to reach the coast from England by way of the Bala cleft. The finds of gold and Late

of developing new forms of tissue, such as the cambium from which new wood is developed or the tissue at the apex which is responsible for the growth in length of the stem or root.

Saxon; Scandinavian or early Norman influence. In this respect

and Family Memorials, by Anna W. Merivale (1884).

It is partly in the diocese of St. Asaph, partly in Bangor.

MERISTEM, a botanical term for tissue which has the power

MERIVALE,

CHARLES

(1808-1893), English historian

and dean of Ely, the second son of John Herman Merivale was Bronze age hoards on the north-west coast near Harlech indicate born on March 8, 1808. He was at Harrow (1818-24) and St. contact with Ireland. The upper Dee valley, as well as other John’s college, Cambridge (1826), where he was elected fellow in strategic sites in the county have hilltop camps of Romano- 1833. He declined the professorship of modern history at CamBritish age. A Roman trackway ran from the military site at bridge in 1869, but in the same year accepted from Gladstone the Pennal, in the south of the county, northwards to Tomen y Mur deanery of Ely, which he held until his death on Dec. 27, 1893. His and hence to Segontium and Kanovium in the north. Some- principal work was A History of the Romans under the Empire (7 where to the east of Dolgelly this trackway was met by another vols., 1850-62); but he wrote several smaller historical works, and following the Bala cleft from Caergai. In the post-Roman cen- published sermons, lectures and Latin verses. turies, the remoteness and isolation of the county became more See Autobiography of Dean Merivale, with selections from his pronounced. Shut off by hills on all sides, it experienced little correspondence, edited by his daughter, Judith A. Merivale (1899); it bears a striking contrast to the neighbouring county of Montgomery, which had easier connections with England.

In Saxon

times the county was under the princes of Gwynedd, although

MERKARA: see MERcARA. MERLE, a name sometimes applied to the European blackbird (Turdus merula), especially in association with the word

some parts of what later became Merionethshire were under the mavis in Scottish poetry. See BLACKBIRD.

MERLIN, ANTOINE CHRISTOPHE (1762-1833), French revolutionary, called “of Thionville,” was born at Thionville on Sept. 13, 1762. After studying theology, he devoted himentrance to the county via the Bala cleft. Here Owain Gwynedd self to law. In 1790 he was sent by the department of Moselle was posted to repel Henry II:, and hither Owain Glyn Dwr retired to the Legislative assembly. On Oct. 23, 1791 he moved and carbefore Henry IV. The remoteness of the region made it a ried the institution of a committee of surveillance, and it was he gathering ground of the Welsh resistance to the English, and in who proposed the law sequestrating the property of the émigrés. the county and over its borders, at Dolgelly and Machynlleth, He was elected deputy to the Convention, and pressed for the there are traditions of Owain Glyn Dwr’s parliaments. In this execution of Louis XVI. He took part in the reaction which folsheep-rearing county the Cistercian abbey of Cymmer (Y Fan- lowed the fall of Robespierre, sat in the council of the Five Hunner), near Dolgelly, was founded about 1200. It was dissolved dred, and at the coup d'état of the 18th Fructidor (Sept. 4, 1797) by Henry VIII., though some interesting ruins remain. The demanded the deportation of certain republican members. In 1798 county was still inaccessible in Elizabethan times, and its re- he was appointed director-general of posts, being sent subsequently moteness is mentioned by Churchyard (1587). About this time to organize the army of Italy. He lived in retirement under the may be traced the beginnings of the slate industry, though it consulate and the empire. He died in Paris on Sept. 14, 1833. See J. Reynaud, Vie et correspondance de Merlin de Thionville did not come into prominence until the 18th century. There were quarries in the roth century at Festiniog, Corris, Aberlle- (Paris, 1860). MERLIN, PHILIPPE ANTOINE, Count (1754-1838), feni, Pennal, Abergynolwyn and Arthog, though the depression in the slate industry since 1914 has seriously diminished the output. French politician and lawyer, known as Merlin “of Douai,” was There are records of gold mines in the Mawddach valley from born at Arleux (Nord) on Oct. 30, 1754, and was called to the early times, and copper has been mined in the Ardudwy, and Flemish bar in 1775. As deputy for Douai in the Constituent kad in the Dyfi valleys. The flannel and woollen industries Assembly he carried important legislation abolishing the feudal were Important in the county until recently. In the 18th century and seignorial rights. On the dissolution of the Assembly he beDolgelly was famous for its production of a Welsh tweed cloth, came judge of the criminal court at Douai. As a member of the and Bala made stockings and woollen caps. The coming of steam- council of legislation he presented to the Convention on Sept. 17, driven machinery seriously diminished these trades and the county 1793 the law permitting the detention of suspects. He was closely is now almost entirely a region of pastoral farming, exporting allied with his namesake Merlin “of Thionville,” and, after the counter-revolution which brought about the fall of Robespierre, young men and women to the large cities. Of recent years, however, with the advent of better roads he became president of the Convention and a member of the and the motor car, the coastal towns, particularly Aberdovey, Committee of Public Safety. He persuaded the Committee of Barmouth and Harlech, have many summer visitors. Safety to close the Jacobin club. He recommended the readmisCommunications, Travel and Government.—The climate sion of the survivors of the Girondin party to the Convention, and varies much with the elevation. Grain crops cover a small area drew up a Jaw limiting the right of insurrection. With Cambacérés only; barley and oats are the most important crops. Potatoes, he had been commissioned in April 1794 to report on the civil turnips and swedes are also grown, but there is very little culti- and criminal legislation of France, and produced his Rapport et vation of fruit. While the soil is generally thin, there are fertile projet de code des délits et des peines (10 Vendémiaire, an. IV.). tracts in the valleys, and there is some reclaimed land. The small Merlin’s code abolished confiscation, branding and imprisonment hardy ponies (known as of Llanbedr, Conway valley) are now for life. He was made minister of justice (Oct. 30, 1795) under almost restricted to this county and Montgomeryshire. The Great the Directory. After the coup d'état of the 18th Fructidor he Western railway skirts the coast from Portmadoc to Aberdyfi. became (Sept. 5, 1797) one of the five directors, and, being accused At Barmouth junction a branch crosses to Dolgelly. Bala and of the various failures of the government, retired into private life Festiniog are also united by the G.W. railway, and Festiniog is on June 18, 1799. Under the consulate he became procureurfurther joined with Llandudno junction by the L.M.S. railway, général in the court of cassation, and did more than any other and with Portmadoc by a narrow-gauge line. The coast is almost lawyer to fix the interpretation of the Napoleonic Code. He beunnavigable, owing to sand-banks, and the only havens are Bar- came a member of the council of state, count of the empire, and mouth and Aberdyfi. grand officer of the Legion of Honour; but was banished on the The county returns one member to parliament, and has neither second restoration. The years of his exile were devoted to his parliamentary nor municipal borough. The urban districts are: Répertoire de jurisprudence (5th ed., 18 vols., 1827—1828) and to Bala, Barmouth, Dolgelly, Festiniog, Mallwyd and Towyn. The his Recueil alphabétique des questions de droit (4th ed., 8 vols., shire is in the north-west circuit, and assizes are held at Dolgelly. 1827—28). At the revolution of 1830 he returned to France, and princes of Powys. A Norman attempt to enter the county was repulsed in 1096. During the next 300 years there were many fights in the neighbourhood of Corwen, which commanded the

MERLIN— MEROE

282 re-entered the Institute of France.

He died in Paris on Dec.

26, 1838. See M Mignet, Portraits et notices kistoriques (1852), vol i.

MERLIN, the famous bard of Welsh tradition, enchanter

and counsellor of Arthurian romance. The personality of Merlin, on one side of demoniac, on the other of human, parentage, 1s now generally recognized as a combination of diverse traditions. Geoffrey of Monmouth, to whom we owe the conception of the romantic Merlin, probably knew more than one tradition, Nennius’ story of the boy Ambrosius, “child without a father,” who revealed to Vortigern the secret of the insecure foundations of his tower, being the starting point of bis combination. Into this framework were introduced elements derived from the much older story of the demon Asmodeus (Aschmedai), who acted as familiar spirit to Solomon—zthe feats of divination with which the boy astonishes the messengers of the king, derive directly from this source. Later on a Vite Merlini, long attributed to Geoffrey—an attribution on which modern scholarship has thrown doubts—incorporated features from the Scotch tradition of a certain Lailoken, a “wild man of the woods,” gifted with powers of divination. This led to the idea that there had been two Merlins, Merlin-Ambrosius and Merlin-Sylvestris, a view now very generally rejected, The second part of Robert de Borron’s trilogy, which was the starting point of the Arthurian cyclic development, dealt with the birth of the seer and his relations with Uther Pendragon. This, originally in verse form, was later worked over in prose, and expanded, first with additions dealing with the wars incident to the opening of Arthur’s reign, then with a medley of romantic incidents connected with Arthur’s court. The two elements are combined in a unique ms., No. 337 (Fonds Frangais) of the Bibliothéque Nationale. Finally, a fantastic romance, entitled Les Prophécies de Merlin, belonging to a late period of Arthurian evolution, completed the cycle. Merlin is a strange and interesting personality, and his story may quite possibly have

been inspired by popular tradition connected with an actual

Hunt’s Popular Romances of the West of England, 1871.) (e) “A mermaid has some one under her protection and for wr done to her ward exacts a terrible penalty.” (See the “Mermaid's Vengeance” in Hunt’s book already quoted.) (d) “A mermaid falk in love with a human being, lives with him as his lawful wife for a time, and then, some compact being unwittingly or intentionally

broken by him, departs to her true home in the sea.” Here the

typical legend is that of Mélusine (q.v.), made the subject of a romance by Jean d'Arras. (e) “A mermaid falls in love with a

man, and entices him to go to live with her below the sea: or a

merman wins the affection or captures the person of an earthbom maiden.” This form of legend is very common, and has been a favourite with poets. Danish ballads are full of the theme: as “Agnete and the Merman,” an antecedent of Matthew Arnold's

“Forsaken Daughter”;

Merman”;

the “Deceitful

and the story of Rosmer

Merman, Hafmand

or Marstig’s (No. 4g in

Grimm). The mermaid has generally to be bribed or compelled to utter her prophecy or bestow her gifts, and whether as wife or paramour brings disaster in her train. The fish-tail is really of secondary importance, for the true Teutonic mermaid—probably a remnant of the great cult of the Vanir—had no fish-tail. The Tritons, the Sirens of classical antiquity, the Phoenician

Dagon, and the Chaldaean Oannes are well-known examples. (Seg also Jones, Traditions of the North American Indians, 1830;

Dennis, Folklore of China, 1875.)

Quasi-historical instances of the appearance or capture of mermaids are common enough, and serve, with the frequent use of

the figure on signboards and coat of arms, to show how thoroughly the myth had taken hold of the popular imagination. The best account of the mermaid-myth is in Baring-Gould’s Myths of the Middle Ages. See also Pontoppidan, who has collected much matter to prove the existence of mermaids; Maillet, Telliamed (Hague, 1755); Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie, i. 404, and Altdén. Heldentlieder (811); Waldron’s Description of the Isle of Man.

MEROBAUDES,

FLAVIUS

(sth century ap.), Latin

rhetorician and poet, probably a native of Baetica in Spain. He BIBLIOGRAPHY,.—For the life of Merlin see Geoffrey of Monmouth’s was the official laureate of Valentinian III. and Aëtius. Till the Historia and the Vita Merlini (ed. J. J, Parry, University of Illinois, beginning of the roth century he was known only from the Studies in Language and Literature, vol. x. 1925). For the romantic notice of him in the Chronicle (year 443) of his contemporary Merlin see Merlin, ed. H. O. Sommer (1894) and vol. ii. of Sommer’s Idacius, where he is praised as a poet and orator, and mention Vulgate Version of the Arthurian Romances (1908-16); Merlin, ed. G. Paris and J. Ulrich (Société des anc. textes fr. 1886), an edition is made of statues set up in his honour. In 1813 the base of a of the unique Huth ms., the version contained in which was utilized statue was discovered at Rome, with a long inscription belonging by Malory; Les Propkécies de Merlin, ed. L. A. Paton (1926-27). to the year 435 (C.I.L. vi. 1724) upon Flavius Merobaudes, See alo F. Lot, Annales de Bretagne, vol. xv. For the Oriental celebrating his merits as warrior and poet. Ten years later, Niesee M. Gaster, Tke Exempla of tke Rabbis (1925) and E. ymour, Tales of King Solomon (1925). J. D. Bruce, The Evolution buhr discovered some Latin verses on a palimpsest in the monof Arthurian Romance, vol. ii. (1923), gives a bibliography of the astery of St. Gall, the authorship of which was traced to Meroscattered Merlin studies. baudes, owing to the great similarity of the language in the (J. L. W.) MERLIN, the name given to members of a group of small prose preface to that of the inscription. His “Panegyric” and minor poems have been edited by B. G. falcons (Felco) and especially to the European merlin (F. gesalon}. Tbis is a bold little bird, steel-blue aboye and red- Niebuhr (1824) ; by I. Bekker in the Bonn Corpus scriptorum hist. Bys. (1836); his “De Christo” in T. Birt’s Claudian (1892), where the brown below in the male, the female being brown. It nests on the authorship of Merobaudes is upheld; see also A. Ebert, Geschichte der ground, usually in heather. Scarcely to be distinguished is the Literatur des Mittelalters im Abendlande (1889). N. American pigeon-hawk (F. columbanus), while other larger MEROE, the southern capital of the Ethiopian kings of species óccur in India and Africa. See FALCON. Napata, 700-300 B.C., becoming eventually the sole capital of the , MERLINO COCCAJA: see FoLENGO, TELEOFILO. Meroitic kingdom which lasted till about A.D. 350; now an exter-

Welsh bard and sooth sayer.

:

N, the raised, solid portion of a battlement parapet,

sometimes pierced by loop-holes (see BATTLEMENT).

MERMAIDS AND

s ìn the folk-lore of England

abd Scotland, semi-human beings who dwell in the sea, but can Hive on land and enter into social relations with humans. ‘The typical mermaid has the head and body of a lovely woman, but below the waist is fashioned like a fish, with scales and fins.

Por a time a mermaid may become to all appearance an ordinary Tatian being; an Irish legend (“The Overflowing of Lough Neagh wind Liban the Mermaid,” in Joyce’s Old Celtic Romances) repre-

“THE mermaid legends of all countries may be lows: (a) “A mermaid or’ mermaids either Bi

as fol-

sive field of ruins, found on the east bank of the Nile near

Kabushia railway station in the Egyptian Sudan, lat. 15° 30 N.

The whole site was surveyed by Lepsius in 1844. A quarter of mile from the river is an enclosure containing royal palaces and other important buildings, reaching back to Aspaluta, c. 590 B.C,

in the lower levels. Here was found a bronze head of Augustus now in the British Museum, and many remnants of building and sculpture of Netekaman, c. A.D. 100, who built a temple of Ammon

outside, backed against the east face of the enclosure. Baths were attached to the later palaces. Northwards from the er closure was a little temple of Isis (temp. Akinirar, etc.); eastwards was another, rather earlier, of the lion god Apiremak with

stelae down to Taqeriramane, ap. 250, and a kilometre beyond compulsion reveal things that are about io happen.” Thus in the Nibelungenlied. (See also K ong Predericks den andens Krénike, a larger temple of the sun (?), containing a monument of Aspaluta but mostly built by Teriteqas, Candace and Akinirar, a trið „Copenhagen, 1680, p. 302.) (b) “A mermaid imparts supernatural of c. 30 B.c, All the above temples face the east; but southwards “powers a aoe under

to a human being.” (See “The Old Man of Cury,” in about 2m. was a shrine facing westwards, with great stelae at the

MEROITIC

LANGUAGE

AND

entrance of Candace and Akinirar containing a reference to Augustus. The nearest necropolis eastwards is Meroitic at the north end, post-Meroitic towards the south end, the latter part with burials on wooden beds and remarkable pottery. Our knowl-

edge up to this point is due to Garstang’s excavations, 1909-14; the more distant cemeteries and the pyramids were

completely

excavated by Reisner in 1921-23. On the hills about 2m. away are two groups of pyramids. In the southern group were buried three kings of the early part of the 3rd century B.c. surrounded by various tombs of the 8th to the 3rd century; the northern group was almost entirely royal with pyramids of 30 later kings and queens, the earliest being that of Ergamenes in the early part of the 3rd century B.c. Westwards of these and about 1m. from the city was a great cemetery of nobles and others of the Ethiopian and Meroitic periods. A fragment of the Greek inscription

of a heathen invader from Axum was picked up by Sayce, and an Axumite graffito exists in one of the pyramid shrines. See J. Garstang, Meroé

(1911), and reports in “Annals of Archae-

t 1

WRITING—MERRIAM

iii. I0, I; Ovid., Fasti, iv. 175).

MEROVINGIANS, the name given to |which reigned over the kingdom of the Franks.

283

the first dynasty

The name is taken from Merovech, an early king of the Salian Franks, who succeeded

| 4

to Clodio in the middle of the sth century, and soon became a

legendary figure. At the great battle of Mauriac (the Catalaunian fields), in which Aetius checked the invasion of the Huns (451), there were present in the Roman army a number of Frankish foederati, and a later authority states that Merovech (Merovaeus) was their leader. Merovech was the father of Childeric I. (457— 481), and grandfather of Clovis (481-511). See France: History. BwLrrocrarasy.—G. Richter, Annalen des fränkischen Reichs im Zeitalter der Merowinger (Halle, 1873); F. Dahn, Die Könige der Germanen, vii. (Leipzig, 1894); Urgeschichte der germanischen und romanischen Völker, iii. (1883); W. Schultze, Deutsche Geschichte von der Urseit bis zu den Karolingern, ii. (Stuttgart, 1896). For the Merovingian legend see G. Kurth, Hist. poét. des Mérovingiens (1893).

MERRIAM,

CLINTON

HART

(1855-

), American

biologist, born in New York on Dec. 5, 1855, was educated at Reisner, articles in “Boston Museum of Fine Arts Bulletin” xx., xxi., Yale and Columbia universities. In 1872 he accompanied the Hayxiii, and “The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology,” "r aa G) den surveys in Utah, Idaho, Montana and Wyoming as naturalist; . Lr. G. in 1875 he was assistant to the U.S. fish commission at Woods MEROITIC LANGUAGE AND WRITING. The Ethi- Hole, Mass.; in 1876 he collected marine invertebrates in the opian kings of Napata, and afterwards of Meroe, employed the Bay of Fundy; in 1881 he visited the Bermudas: in 1881 and Egyptian language in hieroglyphic writing for their formal in- 1882 he studied the life of the St. Lawrence river; and in 1883 he scriptions and presumably for other records; but dating from the sailed to the Arctic seal fisheries as surgeon on the ship “Proteus.” first century B.C. to near the end of the third century a. there In 1885 he took charge of the newly-established division of orniare found in Nubia monumental records, tombstones, funerary thology and mammalogy in the U.S. Department of Agriculture, altars, and graffiti inscribed in a native language and in a special later called the U.S. biological survey in 1896. He had charge of script which is called Meroitic, since Nubia was then ruled from the Death Valley expedition in 1890-91 and served as Bering sea Meroe. The same writing is found also on potsherds, and the commissioner to investigate seal fisheries off the Pribilof islands use of it on prepared skins and writing tablets of wood can be in 1891. In rg1o he became a research associate of the Smithcertified from small fragments. For the decoration of temples, sonian institution and conducted biological and ethnological invesetc., there were employed the original hieroglyphic (pictorial) tigations under the E. H. Harriman trust fund. He was also chairforms of the Meroitic writing symbols, but debased hieroglyphic man of the U.S. geographic board, 1917~25. In later years he Egyptian was also used for the same purpose. devoted himself to the distribution, linguistics and mythology of The symbols of Meroitic writing were modelled on debased Pacific coast Indians. He first described many genera and species Egyptian, but were employed on an entirely different system. of North American mammals and plants and has published over Like Egyptian, the Meroitic writing was from right to left; the 400 scientific papers. signs, unlike Egyptian, face backwards. The elaborate Egyptian Among his books are: Birds of Connecticut (1877); Mammals writing does not express vowels, whereas the simple Meroitic of the Adirondacks (1882-84); Biological Survey of San Francisco Mountain Region and Desert of the Little Colorado, Arizona (1890); system aimed at recording syllables each consisting of a conso- Biological Reconnaissance of Idaho (1891) ; Geographic Distribution of nant followed by a vowel. The Meroitic alphabet consisted of Life in North America (1892) ; Distribution of Trees and Shrubs in the seventeen consonantal signs and four rather vague vowel signs Deserts and Desert Ranges (1893) ; Laws of Temperate Controls of the together with two syllabics że and tē or tō, making twenty-three Geographic Distribution of Terrestrial Animals and Plants (1894); characters in all. Besides the alphabet there were special symbols Monographic Revision of the Pocket Gophers (1898) ; Revision of the American Shrews (1895); Life Zones and Crop Zones of the United for numerals and perhaps in rare cases resort could be had to States (1898) ; Biological Survey of Mt. Shasta (1899) ; Indian Popuspecial picture signs to symbolize special words. The words were lation of California (1905) ; Totemism in California (1908); The Dawn usually separated by double points so that the writing was ad- of the World (1910); Review of the Grizzly and Brown Bears of mirably clear except in regard to the distinction of vowel sounds America (1917); Baird the Naturalist (1924); William Healey Dail and the probability that a certain kind of vowel (a?) was not (1927). MERRIAM, JOHN CAMPBELL (1869), Amerimarked and had to be surmised from the context. Meroitic writing was deciphered in ro10 after the discovery can palaeontologist, was born in Hopkinton, Ia., on Oct. 20, 1869. of a large number of new inscriptions in Lower Nubia and at Educated at Lenox College, Ia., the university of California, and Meroe; the language, however, is still almost entirely a sealed Munich, he taught palaeontology and historical geology at the book, though names of persons, deities and places, also certain University of California. He was chairman of the National Retitles borrowed from Egyptian and Meroitic titles which occur in search Council, and has been president of the Carnegie InstituEgyptian demotic, are readily found. It can only be stated as yet tion of Washington, Washington, D.C., since 1920. He is the that the Meroitic language shows agglutinative formation, ab- author of the following: The Thalattosauria, a Group of Marine Reptiles from the Triassic of California (1905); Cave Explorasence of gender, and some degree of connection with Nubian.

ology and Anthropology,” vols. iii~vii. (Liverpool, 1910-14); G. A.

See F. LL Griffith, Karandg, The Meroitic Inscriptions of Shablil axd Karandg (University of Pennsylvania, Eckley B. Coxe, Jr.,

tion (1905); Triassic Ichthyosauria (with special reference to the American forms, 1908); The Occurrence of Twisted Horned An-

Expedition to Nubia, vol. vi., rgrz) and articles in The Journal of telopes in the Tertiary of Northwestern Nevada (1909); The Eeyptian Archaeology, vols. ii., iv. and xi. (F. Lr. G.) Fauna of Rancho La Brea, Part 1, Occurrence (1911); Discovery

MEROPE, name of: (1) The daughter of Cypselus, king of Human Remains in an Asphalt Deposit at Rancho La Breg Cres- (1914); Extinct Faunas of the Mojave Desert (their significance phontes and two of his sons were murdered and the throne seized in a study of the origin and evolution of life in America, 1915); of Arcadia, and wife of Cresphontes, ruler of Messenia.

by Polyphontes, who forced Merope to marry him. A third son,

Aepytus escaped; he returned later, killed Polyphontes and recovered the kingdom. (Apollodorus ii. 180; Pausanias iv. 3, 6.) (2) The daughter of Atlas and wife of Sisyphus. She was one

of the seven Pleiades, but remained invisible, hiding her light for € at having become the wife of a mortal (Apollodorus i. 85;

Relationships of Pliocene Mammalian Faunas from the Pacific Coast and Great Basin Provinces of North America (1917); The Function of Educational Institutions in Development of Research. (1920); Earth Sciences as the Background of History (1920); Common Aims of Culture and Research in the University (1922); also numerous other papers.

284 MERRICK, LEONARD (1864-

MERRICK—MERSENNE ), English novelist and ' History).

Merriman was now head of the Afrikander Bond

dramatist, was born on Feb. 21, 1864, in London, the son of | party, renamed the South African party. He was a member of William Miller, and was educated at Brighton. He changed his the national convention which hammered out the new constitution, name to Merrick by deed poll. A collected edition of his works He supported the unitary as against the federal principle in South African policy. It was expected in some quarters that Merriman was issued in 1918. His numerous novels include:—Conrad in Quest of his Youth would be the first prime minister of the Union. The position fell (1903); When Love Flies out of the Window (1906); The Quaint to Botha. Merriman remained outside the ministry, though he Companions (1903); The House of Lynch (1907); While Paris gave the government steady support. He opposed the disruptive Laughed (1918). His plays are The Free Pardon (with F. C. policy of Hertzog as strongly as he had formerly supported the Philips); When the Lamps are Lighted; My Innocent Boy; The independence of the Boer republics. He died Aug. 2, 1926, MERRITT, WESLEY (1836-1910), American soldier, was Elixir of Youth; A Woman in the Case (with G. R. Sims). MERRILL, a city of north-central Wisconsin, U.S.A., on the born in New York city on June 16, 1836, graduating at West Wisconsin river, at an altitude of 1,270 ft., 185 m. N.W. of Mil- Point. He won distinction in the Virginian campaigns of 1864-65 waukee: the county seat of Lincoln county. It is on Federal high- and in Sheridan’s Shenandoah valley campaign, and in 1895, he way 51 and is served by the Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and became major-general. He was superintendent at West Point Pacific railroad. Pop. (1920) 8,068, and in 1930, 8.458. In the (1882-87), and commanded the military department of Missouri picturesque environs, brook trout and game of various kinds (1887-95) and that of the Atlantic (1897-98). In May 1898 he (including deer) still abound. Lumber is the leading industry. commanded the U.S. forces sent to the Philippines after Admiral Merrill was settled in 1875, incorporated as a village in 1880, and Dewey’s victory; stormed Manila on Aug. 13, and was military governor of the islands until Aug. 30. At Paris, he was on the chartered as a city ° 1883.

MERRIMAC, a river uf the United States, rising in the White

peace commission. He died at Natural Bridge (Va.) on Dec. 3,

Mountains of New Hampshire, and flowing through Massachusetts into the Atlantic ocean. With its largest branch it has an extreme length of about 183m. and drains a region 4,553 sq.m. in extent. The Merrimac proper is formed at Franklin (N.H.), by the junction of the Pemigewasset and Winnepesaukee rivers. The river falls 269ft. in 110m. from Franklin, yielding water-power to Lowell and Lawrence in Massachusetts, and Manchester and Concord in New Hampshire. For 174 miles (including Newburyport and Haverhill) the river is navigable.

ecclesiastic and diplomat, was born on Oct. 10, 1865 in London, where his father was secretary to the Spanish legation. Educated at Baylis House, near Slough, and at Ushaw college, near Durham he took up diplomacy at the Vatican and in 1892 became Master of the Robes and acting private chamberlain to Pope Leo XIII, of whom he was a great favourite. In 1897 he was sent to Canada

MERRIMAN, HENRY

SETON (d. 1903), the pen-name

of Hugh Stowell Scott, English novelist. He was a member of the firm of Henry Scott and Sons, and was for some years an underwriter at Lloyd’s. His literary career began in 1889 with The

Phantom Future, and be made his first decided hit with his Russian story, The Sowers (1896), which was followed by many other

well-constructed novels. He was an enthusiastic traveller, many of his journeys being undertaken with his friend Stanley Weyman. He was about 40 when he died near Ipswich, on Nov. 19, 1903.

IQIO.

MERRY

DEL VAL, RAPHAEL

(1865-1930), Spanish

to report on the difficult Manitoba schools question, and in 1900 he became archbishop of Nicea. He was secretary of the Sacred College of Cardinals during the election of Pius X. (July 1903) under whom he became cardinal and secretary of state. On Jan. 12, 1913 he succeeded Cardinal Rampolla as archpriest of the Vatican Basilica; in the following October he was appointed secretary of the Holy Office, and in Dec. 1920 he became camarlengo of the Holy Roman Church. Cardinal Merry del Val died in Vatican City on Feb. 26, 1930.

MERSEBURG, in Saxony, on the river Saale. Pop. (1925)

Among his most successful books were Raden’s Corner (1898)3 25,703. From 968 until the Reformation, it was the seat of a The Isle of Unrest (1899) ; Im Kedar’s Tents (1897) ; The Velvet Glove bishop, also the residence of the margraves of Meissen, and a (1901); The Vultures (1902); Barlasch of the Guard (1903); and favourite residence of the German kings. Fifteen diets were held The Last Hope (1904). here, when its fairs enjoyed an importance anticipating Leipzig.

MERRIMAN,

JOHN

XAVIER

(1841-1926),

South

African statesman, was born on March 15, 1841 at Street, Somerset, England, the son of a clergyman who afterwards became

bishop of Grahamstown, South Africa. His family moved to South Africa in 1849, and he was educated at the Diocesan College, Rondebosch, and later at Radley College, England, returning to the Cape in 1861. He entered politics in 1869. In 1875 he joined the Molteno Ministry as commissioner of public works, and was virtually Secretary for War during the Galeka war of 1877. In the Scanlen Ministry (1881-4) he was commissioner of

From 1657 to 1738 it was the residence of the dukes of SaxeMerseburg. It consists of an irregularly built old town, a new quarter and two suburbs, Altenburg and Neumarkt. The cathe-

dral, restored in 1884-86, has a choir, a crypt and two towers of the Irth, a transept of the 13th and a late Gothic nave of the 16th century. It contains a great organ dating from the 17th century. The Gothic palace, formerly the residence of the bishops of Merseburg, is now used as public offices. The industries include machinery and paper, metal founding, tanning and brewing.

MERSEN

(Meerssen), TREATY

OF, concluded on Aug.

public works. The Afrikander Bond caused the fall of the Scanlen administration because the Ministry opposed the attempt of the Transvaal Boers to seize Bechuanaland; and when Rhodes

8, 870 at Mersen, in Holland, between Charles the Bald and his half-brother, Louis the German, by which the kingdom of

formed a Ministry in 1890 Merriman, alienated by the extreme policy of the Bond, joined it as treasurer-general. Meanwhile the Bond had adopted a constitutional programme, and 1890 saw a drawing together of the Dutch and British elements at the Cape. But the Uitlander troubles in the Transvaal became acute, and in

Charles received a portion of the kingdom of Lothair, afterwards called Lorraine, extending from the mouths of the Rhine to

1893 Merriman resigned. He was chairman of the Cape parliamentary committee which inquired into the Jameson raid of 1895, and drew up its report. The general election in Cape Colony in 4898 gave the Bond a very narrow victory, and W. P. Schreiner became Prime Minister, with Merriman treasurer-general again, though he was not a member of the Bond. Merriman was among the ministers who in 1900 opposed the measure to disfranchise the Cape rebels, causing the cabinet to resign. At the general election of 1904 Merriman was defeated, but was returned shortly after-

wands at a by-election.

In Jan. 1908 he succeeded Dr. Jameson

as Prime Minister and itreasurer-general (see SoutH AFRICA:

their nephew, Lothair II. (d. 869) was divided between them.

Toul, together with the town of Besancon, the Lyonnais, the

Viennais, the Vivarais and the Uzége, while Louis had the cities of Cologne, Trier and Metz, together with Alsace, the Escuens and the Varais, z.e., the greater part of the diocese of Besangon. boundary between the two realms was marked approximately by the valleys of the Meuse and Moselle and by the Jura.

MERSENNE,

MARIN

(1588-1648), mathematician, was

born of peasant parents near Oizé (Sarthe) on Sept. 8, 1538,

and died in Paris on Sept. 1, 1648. He was educated at the Jesut college of La Fléche, where he was a fellow-pupil of Descartes. In 1611 he joined the Minim Friars, and in 1620 he settled in Pans

at the convent of L’Annonciade. In 1623 he published Quaestsones celeberrimae in Genesim; L’Impiété des déistes (1624); La Vérie des sciences (1624). Submitting Descartes’ Meditations to Joht. AC eA rT RR ECE iE SPE I Ny pep ng epee neers peerage Ne NN a

MERSEY—MERV

285

Locke (g.v.), he defended him with enthusiasm against clerical | low cowslip of Europe. MERTHYR TYDFIL or MERTHYR TYDVIL, municcritics. In later life he turned to scientific research, especially in mathematics, physics and astronomy. His Harmonie universelle ipal, county and parliamentary borough, of Glamorganshire, S. (1636) deals with the theory of music and musical instruments. Wales, situated on the river Taff and the Glamorganshire Canal, See Hilarion de Coste, La vie du rév. père Marin Mersenne (1649) ; and served by the G.W.R. and L.M.S.R., 2 m. N.W. of Cardiff. new ed. with unpublished letters, by B. T. de Larroque (1892); M. Pop. (1931) 71,099. It is said to have derived its name from the Frischeisen-Kohbler in Arch. fiir Gesch. der Philos., vol. xv. (1902). martyrdom of St. Tydfil, daughter of Brychan, put to death by

MERSEY, JOHN CHARLES BIGHAM, ist Viscount

(1840-1929), was born on Aug. 3, 1840, and educated at the Liverpool institute, and in Berlin and Paris.

He was called to

the bar in 1870, and became Q.C. in 1883. In 1895 he was elected Unionist M.P. for a division of Liverpool, and kept his seat until

1897, serving on the South African committee of the House of Commons in 1896-97.

In 1897 he was made judge of the king’s

bench division of the High Court of Justice and in 190q—10 was president of the probate

divorce

and admiralty

division.

He

served on several Government commissions and from 1904 to igio was chief judge in bankruptcy. He was made a privy councillor in 1909, received a barony in rgio, and a viscountcy

in 1916. He died in Sussex on Sept. 3, 1929. MERSEY, a river in Cheshire, England, 70 miles long, formed

by the Goyt which rises in Axe Edge, south-west of Buxton, and the Etherow between Penistone and Glossop, watering the narrow

Longdendale in which are reservoirs for Manchester. The Mersey drains a large part of the Peak district of Derbyshire.

At Stock-

port the river Tame joins from the north. The Bollin joins from the south-east near Heatley, and the main river expands into an

estuary which narrows to less than $m. at Liverpool and forms an important harbour. (See Liverpool and BIRKENHEAD.) The Manchester Ship canal (g.v.) joins the estuary through Eastham locks, skirts its southern shore up to Runcorn, and crosses the river several times.

MERSINA,

Saxons in the sth century. Three miles to the north on a limestone rock rising 470 ft. are the ruins of Morlais Castle, built about 1286 by Gilbert de Clare on the northern limits of his lordship of Glamorgan. The town is irregularly built and owed its early industrial prosperity to the abundant ironstone of the district. Four great iron works were established here between 1759 and 1782. With the earliest, that of Dowlais, the Guest family were associated. In 1765, Cyfarthfa was started by Anthony Bacon and sold in 1794 to Richard Crawshay. The Plymouth works were started soon after Cyfarthfa, by Wilkinson and Guest. They were closed down in 1882, but the collieries belonging to them continued to be worked. The fourth great ironworks were those of Pen-y-darran which were carried on from 1782 to 1859.

It was at Dowlais (in 1856) that Bessemer steel was first rolled into rails, but the use of puddled iron was not wholly abandoned at the works till 1882. The use of the local coal for smelting gave a great impetus to the iron industry. The Dowlais Company work

collieries and have since 1891 a branch steel and iron works on the coast near Cardiff. Industrial depression after the World War seriously affected the coal, iron and steel trades. Cyfarthfa was converted into steel works in 1883. The iron ore used latterly has been mainly imported from Spain. Merthyr Vale is mainly dependent on coal-mining. In 1850, the town had a local board of health; in 1894, an urban district council; in 1905, a corporation; in 1898, a county borough. In 1832, it was given one member and

a seaport of Asia Minor, and in the vilayet of a second in 1867.

Adana. Pop. (1927) 46,831. Its existence began with the silting up of Tarsus and Pompeiopolis, east and west, in the early middle ages; but it grew with the Egyptian occupation of Cilicia (1832). It is the busiest port on the south coast, being the terminus of the railway from Adana and Tarsus, by which (but still more by road) the produce of the rich “Aleian” plain comes down. The anchorage is good, but the bay shoals for a long way out, and is exposed to swell from south-west and south. The low coastal section has a bad summer climate.

MERV, MERU or MAUR, an ancient and once famous oasis

ing habit, with brightly coloured usually blue or white flowers. Vell known representatives are the sea lungwort and the

of the Aryan families of mankind, and so of the human race.

and town of Asiatic Russia in the Turkmen S.S.R. The oasis has an area of 134,400 sq.km., and a population (1926) of 253,049, mainly Turkmens of the Tekke tribe. The great chain of mountains which, under the names of Paropamisus and Hindu-Kush, extends from the Caspian to the Pamirs, is interrupted some 180 m. S. of Merv. Through or near this gap flow northwards in parallel courses the rivers Heri-rud (Tejend) and Murghab, until they lose themselves in the desert of Kara-kum, and the loess MERSWIN, RULMAN (1307-1382), German mystic, was oasis of Merv depends on irrigation from the Murghab for its born at Strasbourg in 1307, and became a banker. At the age of 40, life. In 1895 the Russians completed further irrigation works he came into touch with Tauler and the group of 14th century bringing 436 sq.m. under cultivation, and in 1927 the Soviet mystics known as the Friends of God. In Merswin’s Story of the Government began the construction of an electric power station. First Four Years of a New Life, he writes: “Of all the wonderful Cereals, cotton, fruits and vine are cultivated; cotton production works which God had wrought in me I was not allowed to tell is markedly increasing to supply the textile industry of European a single word to anybody until the time when it should please Russia. The railway from Krasnovodsk on the Caspian, linking God to reveal to a man in the Oberland to come to me, When with the Orenburg-Tashkent lines, passes through the town of he came to me God gave me the power to tell him everything.” Merv, from which there is a branch line southwards to Russia. Merswin claimed that certain books were written by this “Friend The town of Merv, population (1926) 19,099, has cotton and wool of God,” who has been identified with various people by different cleaning factories, a flaur-milling and brewing industry. The horses scholars, and that other books were written by himself. As all are famous throughout central Asia. the writings bear the marks of a single authorship it has been After the 1917 revolution, a period of disorder set in which assumed, especially by Denifle, that “the Friend of God” is a markedly diminished cultivation and stock-raising, and resulted literary creation of Merswin just as William Langland in England in the disorganization of the irrigation system. In 1926 new laws about the same time drew the figure of Piers Plowman. regulating the distribution of water were enforced, extensive Karl Rieder (Der Gottesfreund von Oberland, Innsbruck, repairs were carried out, and production has now almost reached 1905) attributes the authorship to Merswin’s secretary and the 1913 level, while as regards cotton production, it has markedly associate Nicholas of Lowen, head of the House of St. John at surpassed it. Native crafts include silver work, the making of arGriinenwérth. ) mour, carpet weaving and the making of felt and woollen goods. See besides the works cited Karl Schmidt, Nicolaus von Basel Summer heat is oppressive, 97° F, and the least wind raises clouds (Vienna, 1866) ; Denifle, Der Gottesfreund im Oberland und Nikolaus vom Basel (1870); Rufus M. Jones, Studies in Mystical Religion, ch. of dust which darken the air and make respiration difficult. In winter the temperature is 19° F, but snow rarely falls and never mi, (1909). MERTENSIA, a genus of perennial herbs of the family lies; the rainfall is about 5 in. per annum, June to October being Boraginaceae (g.v.) comprising about 40 species found in cool usually rainless months. History.—In the Hindu (the Puranas), Parsi, and Arab regons of the northern hemisphere and especially abundant in western North America. Many are very smooth plants, of pleas- tradition Merv is looked upon as the ancient Paradise, the cradle

Under the name of Mouru this place is mentioned with Bakhdi Virginia cowslip (g.v.), which is not to be confused with the yel- (Balkh) in the geography of the Zend-Avesta (Vendidad, ed.

MERX—MERYON

286

Spiegel, 1852-63). which dates probably from at least 1200 B.c. Under the name of Margu it occurs in the cuneiform (Behistun) inscriptions of the Persian monarch Darius Hystaspis, where it is referred to as forming part of one of the satrapies of the ancient Persian empire. It afterwards became a province (Margiana) of the Graeco-Syrian, Parthian, and Persian kingdoms. On the Margus—the Epardus of Arrian and now the Murghab—stood the

capital of the district, Antiochia Margiana, so called after Antiochus Soter, who rebuilt the city founded by Alexander the Great. About the sth century, during the rule of the Persian Sassanian dynasty, Merv was the seat of a Christian archbishopric of the Nestorian Church. The town was occupied (a.D. 646) by the heutenants of the caliph Othman, and was constituted the capital of Khorasan. From this city as their base the Arabs, under Kotaiba (Qotaiba) ibn Moslim, early in the 8th century brought under subjection Balkh, Bokhara, Ferghana, and Kashgaria, and penetrated into China as far as the province of Kan-suh. In the latter part of the 8th century Merv became obnoxious to Islam as the centre of heretical propaganda preached by Mokanna (g.v.). In 874 Arab rule in Central Asia came to an end. During their dominion Merv, like Samarkand and Bokhara, was one of the great schools of learning, and the celebrated historian Yaqut studied in its libraries. In 1o40 the Seljuk Turks crossed the Oxus from the north, and having defeated Masud, sultan of Ghazni, raised Toghrul Beg, grandson of Seljuk, to the throne of Persia, founding the Seljukian dynasty, with its capital at Nishapur. A younger brother of Toghrul, Daud, took possession of Merv and Herat (g.v.). Toghrul was succeeded by his nephew Alp Arslan (the Great Lion), who was buried at Merv. It was about that time that Merv reached the zenith of her glory. During the reign of Sultan Sanjar or Sinjar of the same house, in the middle of the 11th century, Merv was overrun by the Turkish tribes of the Ghuzz from beyond the Oxus. It eventually

passed under the sway of the rulers of Khwarizm (Khiva). Merv was conquered in 1221 by Tule (see Moncozs), most of the inhabitants were massacred, and from that time the city began to decay.’ It was the seat of a Christian Archbishopric in

the early 14th century and in 1380 was included in the possessions of Timur (¢.v.). In 1505 the city was invested by the Usbegs. who were expelled (1510) by Ismail Khan of Persia. It remained im Persian hands until 1787 when the Emir of Bokhara captured it. In 1794 the Bokharians burned it to the ground and made the whole district a waste. When Sir Alexander Burnes traversed the country In 1832, the Khivans were the rulers of Merv. About this time the Tekke Turkomans, then living on the Heri-rud, were forced by the Persians to migrate northward. The Khivans contested the advance of the Tekkes, but ultimately, about 1856, the latter became the sovereign power in the country, and remained so until the Russians occupied the oasis in 1883. New Mery, the present chief town of the oasis, founded in the first quarter of the roth century, is on the Transcaspian railway, 380m. by rail south-west from Samarkand. It stands on both banks of the Murghab, 820ft. above the Caspian. In 1926 the population was about 12,000, including Russians, Armenians, Yurkomans, Persians, and Jews. It has a meteorological observatery. Com, raw cotton, hides, wool, nuts, and dried fruit are exported. See C. Marvin, Merv (1880); E. O'Donovan, Tke Merv Oasis (2882); and H. Lansdell, The Russians at Merv and Herat (1883). (See TURKESTAN.)}

MERX, ADALBERT (1338-1909), German theologian and orientalist, was born at Bleicherode, Prussian Saxony, on Nov. %, 1838, and became (1875) professor of theology of Heidelberg.

entered the French navy, and in the corvette “Le Rhin” made the voyage round the world. He was already a draughtsman, fo, on the coast of New Zealand he made pencil drawings which he was able to employ, years afterwards, as studies for etchings of the landscape of those regions. Méryon left the navy asa liey. tenant. Finding that he was colour-blind, he determined to devote

himself to etching.

He entered the work studio of one Bléry

from whom he learnt something of technical matters, and to whom he always remained grateful. Méryon was by this time

poor. It is understood that he might have had assistance from his kindred, but he was too proud to ask it, and had to earn his living by irksome mechanical work. For the sake of practice he made some studies after the Dutch etchers, such as Zeeman

and Adrian van de Velde. He then began the series of etchings called “Eaux-fortes sur Paris.” These plates, executed from 1850

to 1854, are never to be met with as a set; neither were they published as such; but to Méryon they constituted a series. Besides

these twenty-two

etchings “sur Paris,” Méryon did

seventy-two others, all of them being catalogued in Wedmore’s

Méryon and Méryon’s Paris. This list includes, however, the

works of his apprenticeship and of his decline, adroit copies and more or less dull portraits. Among the dozen outside his professed series which are worthy of special mention are three or four beautiful etchings of Paris and two or three of Bourges. Although

a master of his craft, he was appreciated only by a few artists, critics and connoisseurs, and when he sold his etchings, it was for a few pence only. Disappointment told upon him, and, frugal as was his way of life, his poverty must have depressed him. He became subject to hallucinations, and a few years after the completion of his Paris series he was lodged in the madhouse of Charenton. A partial cure was effected, but in 1867 he returned to the asylum, where he died in 1868. Of the twenty-two pieces in the Eaux-fortes sur Paris, ten were destined as headpiece, tailpiece, or running commentary on some more important plate. But each has its value, and certain of the smaller pieces throw great light on the aim of the entire set. Thus, one little plate—not a picture at all—consists of verses by Méryon describing the darker side of Paris life. His etchings are spoken of as views of Paris but they are likewise the visions of a poet and the compositions of an artist who had set himself to create an epic of the city. The Abside de Notre Dame, a general favourite, is commonly held to be Méryon’s masterpiece. Light and shade play wonderfully over the great fabric of the church, as seen over the spaces of the river. Méryon was at home with every style of architecture, and in this respect it is interesting to contrast him with Turner, who, in drawing Gothic, often drew it with want of appreciation. It is evident that architecture must enter largely into any representation of a city, however much such representation may be a vision and not merely a chronicle. Generally speaking, Méryon’s figures are those of a landscape painter; but some-

times, as in the case of La Morgue, it is they who tell the story of

the picture, or, in the case of La Rue des Mauvais Garçons, with the two passing women conversing secretly, at least suggest it.

In L’Arche du Pont Notre Dame, again, it is the figures which

give vitality and animation to the scene. Méryon was little called upon by the character of his subjects

to deal with Nature. He drew trees and foliage badly, both in detail and in mass. But it was necessary that he should know how

to portray a certain kind of water—river-water, mostly sluggish—

and a certain kind of sky—the grey, obscured and lowering sky that broods over a world of roof and chimney. Of such water and

such skies Méryon was past master.

Sir Seymour Haden has called Méryon a great original engraver rather than an etcher, and certainly he does not display those He elucidated the Sinaitic palimpsest discovered in 1892 by Mrs. virtues of the etcher defined by Hamerton—‘selection” and Agnes Smith Lewis (see Bere), the results being embodied in “abstraction.” But he was an excellent draughtsman. Dis vier kanonischen Evangelien nach ihrem ältesten bekannten BrsiioerAPny.—Philippe Burty, Gazette des beaux arts (1865); Texts (1897-1905). He died at Heidelberg on Aug. 6, 1909.

MERYON,

CHARLES

(1821-1868), French etcher, was

bom iu Paris on. Nev. 24, 1821. His father was an English physician, his mother a French dancer. Méryon’s childhood was spent

with his mother, but she died when he was still young, and he

Descriptive Catalogue of the Works of M éryon (London, Aglatis Bouvenne, Notes et souvenirs sur Charles Méryon; 1879}; Hamerton, Etching and Etchers (1868); F. Seymour Haden, PNotes on Etching; H. Béraldi, Les Peintres graveurs du dix-neuvième siecle; Baudelaire, Lettres de Baudelaire (1907) ; L. Delteil, Charles Méryon (x907); Frederick Wedmore, Méryon and Méryon’s Paris, with à

MESA—MESMER

287

des riptive catalogue of the artist's work (1879; 2nd ed., 1892); Fine | of the Imam Prints (1896; 2nd ed., 1905); W. A. Bradley, Méryon and Baudelaire © (1912); Lořs Delteil, Catalogue Raisonée of the Etchings of Charles

Méryon, ed. by H. J. L. Wright (1924); Loj's Delteil, Méryon, trans.

by G. J. Remer (1928).

MESA, in geomorphology, a high table-land capped with harder rock, being the remnant of a plateau (Span. mesa, from

Lat. mensa, a table), built up of horizontal or very gently inclined strata.

During denudation the hard rock acts as a flat

protective cap for those portions situated between places, such ag stream valleys, where erosion is especially active. This results in Jand-forms resembling “table-mountains” or “fortress-hills.” Many examples are found in the Colorado regions of North America. The term “butte” is generally employed for a “mesa” of small extent.

(See also MARSH.)

MESATICEPHALIC or MESOCEPHALIC,

a term ap-

plied by anthropologists to those skulls which exhibit a cephalic index intermediate between the dolichocephalic and brachycephalic crania (see CRANIOMETRY). Taking the longer diameter of a skull, ¿.e., from front to back, as 100, mesocephalic skulls are those of which the transverse diameter varies between 75 to 8o.

MESDAG,

HENDRIK

WILLEM

(1831-1915), Dutch

marine painter, was born at Groningen on Feb. 23, 1831. He entered the family banking firm of Mesdag, but about 1866, owing to the influence of Josef Israels, took up the study of art. His

sea pieces became famous and earned him the gold medal of the

Paris Salon, among them being “Effet du soir à Scheveningen” (1872); “Apres l'Orage” (1895); “Rentrée des bateaux de pêche” (1900) and “Une Soirée sur la plage de Scheveningen” (r911). He presented his fine collection of pictures and objets d'art to the nation, and they are housed in the Mesdag museum at The Hague. He died at The Hague on July 7, 1915.

MESEMBRIA,

a town of Bulgaria, situated on a narrow

promontory in the Black sea, connected by a causeway with the

land, 20 m. N. of Burgas (g.v.). Coasting steamers from Varna and Burgas touch here, and there is a motor-bus service by land to Anhialo. Mesembria was founded as a colony of Megara in the 7th century B.c., and remained Greek ever after till 1925, when it was settled with Bulgarians under the exchange of populations. In the early middle ages it was very rich, and frequently visited by the Byzantine emperors, and the remains of over 40 Byzantine churches can be traced in its small area, showing examples of every style of Bulgarian ecclesiastical architecture. A few of these (St. John of the Sea, the new cathedral, St. John) are still in fair repair. The whole forms a collection of unique interest. Fine works of Greek art have been discovered here.

Riza and has supplanted Tus, the ancient capital, now in ruins, about 15 m. to the north-west. It is visited annually by some 100,000 pilgrims. Riza (770-819) was the eighth of the twelve Imams in line of succession after Mohammed’s cousin and son-in-law Ali, whose particular followers—as Shiahs— the Persians are.

To the Shiahs, Imam Riza is a martyr, being

believed to have been poisoned by the Caliph Mamun. The buildings of the shrine—‘“the Glory of the Shiah World’”—together with a space extending to about one hundred yards beyond the gates of the shrine on each side, is bast, z.e., sanctuary. Meshed is very important politically as well as commercially and the British and Russian Governments maintain consulatesgeneral there. The transit trade of Meshed to Central Asia is not so great as before the construction of the Trans-Caspian railway. It is the centre of the northern wool trade and of an important rug industry. It is a nucleus of trunk roads, being joined with Tehran (566 m.) by a partly metalled road passable for carts at all times and by light motors in summer. It is joined also with Ashgabad on the Trans-Caspian railway by a good carriage road; and southward there is at Duzdab (600 m.) the road to railhead of the Indian system, which was made passable by motor cars during the World War. The total value of the trade passing through Meshed in 1925-6 was 38,339,080 krans (£ St.=45 krans) exports about balancing imports. The chief items of export were carpets (5,669,-

965 krans), hides and skins (5,550,213 krans), opium (4,351,600 krans), timber, and cotton tissues; the imports were sugar, skins and hides, cotton stuffs, carpets, minerals and metals. BreriocrapHy.—E. B. Eastwick, Journal of a diplomat’s three years’ residence in Persia (1864); G. N. Curzon, Persia and the Persian Question (1892); C. E. Yate, Khurasan and Sistan (1900); Earl of Ronaldshay and E. Penton, “A journey from Quetta to Meshed,” Geogr. J., 1902, XX.; P. M. Sykes, “Historical notes on Khurasan,” J.R.AS., 1910, pp. 1129-48; P. M. Sykes and K. B. Ahmad Din, The Glory of the Shia World (1910) ; Ella C. Sykes, Persia and its people (1910); H. H, Schweinitz, Orientaliscke Wanderungen in Turkestan und im nordöstlichen Persien (x910); A. V. Williams Jackson, From Constantinople to the home of Omar Khayyam (1911); H. R. d’Allemagne, Du Kkorassan au pays des Backhtiaris. Trois mois de voyage en Perse (1911); H. S. Massy, “An Englishman in the shrine of Imam Riza at Mashad,” Nineteenth Cent., 1913, No. 435 zc)

MESHREBIYA

(drinking places), the Arabic term given to

projecting oriel windows enclosed with lattice-work, so-called from the small semicircular bows, in which porous water-bottles are placed to cool. MESMER, FRIEDRICH (or Franz) ANTON (17331815), Austrian doctor, from whose name the word “Mesmerism” MESHCHERYAKS or Mesucuers, a people inhabiting was coined (see Hypnotism), was born at Weil, near Constance, eastern Russia. Some of the Mordvinians (of Finnish origin) on May 23, 1733. He studied medicine at Vienna. Interested in call themselves Meshchers. The town Meshchersk, now Mesh- astrology, he imagined that the stars exerted an influence on chovsk, has maintained their name. After the conquest of the beings living on the earth. He identified the supposed force first Kazan empire by Russia, part of them migrated north-eastwards. with electricity, and then with magnetism; and it was but a short The western branch became Russified, and the eastern branch has step to suppose that stroking diseased bodies with magnets might effect a cure. He published his first work (De planetarum influxu) fused with the Bashkirs. MESHED (properly Mash-had, the place of martyrdom), in 1766. Ten years later, on meeting with J. J. Gassner in Switzercapital of Khurasan in Persia, is situated at an elevation of 3,197 land, he observed that the priest effected cures by manipulation it., in the valley of the Ab-i-Meshed or Kashaf Rud, a tributary alone. This led Mesmer to discard the magnets, and to suppose of the Hari Rud. The town, in 37° 16’ N., 59° 36’ E. is 460 m. that some kind of occult force resided in himself by which he crowfly from Tehran (566 m. by road), 200 m. from Herat, and could influence others. He held that this force permeated the 472 m. by road from Duzdab near the frontier of India. The universe, and more especially affected the nervous systems of population is estimated at 60,000-80,000 of which about 10,000 men. He began to hold séances in Vienna, but the police interare pilgrims. Meshed Jews number about 4,000 and inhabit a fered and ordered him to leave the city within 48 hours. He then quarter near one of the gates. The climate is fairly healthy with went to Spa. He removed to Paris in 1778, and in a short time an average maximum temperature of go-9° Fahr. in July and Mesmer’s consultations became the fashion. The medical faculty minimum of 22-3° in January. The average rainfall over a period of Paris stigmatized him as a charlatan; still the people crowded of 17 years was 9-37 inches. The town, irregular of shape, is to him. The government appointed a commission of physicians about 6 m. in circumference and surrounded by a mud wall with and members of the academy of sciences to investigate the phetowers. In the north-west stands the Ark, or citadel, which serves nomena observed in the séances. Franklin and Baillie were memalso as the residence of the Governor, and in front of this is the bers of this commission, and drew up an elaborate report admitmaidan, an open square about + m. in extent. There are unusually ting many of the facts, but contesting Mesmer’s theory that there large numbers of caravanserais. The city has five gates from was an agent called animal magnetism, and attributing the effects oe of which, the Bala Khiaban gate, the main street forms a fine to physiological causes. Mesmer himself was undoubtedly a mysavenue planted with plane and mulberry trees and having a stream tic; and, although the excitement of the time Jed him to indulge running down the centre. Meshed has grown up around the tomb in mummery, he was honest in his beliefs. However he was

288

MESNE— MESOPOTAMIA

denounced as an imposter. He left Paris and died at Meersburg in Switzerland on March 5, 1815. The most distinguished of his disciples was the marquis de Puységur.

MESNE, middle or intermediate, an adjective used in several

legal phrases. A mesne lord is one who has tenants holding under him, while himself holding of a superior lord. Mesne process was such process as intervened between the beginning and end of a suit (see Process), Mesne profits are profits derived from land whilst in wrongful possession, and may be claimed in damages for trespass in a separate action or joined with an action for the recovery of the land. The plaintiff must prove that he is entitled to re-enter into possession, his title during the period

few, and the denudation has been of the desert type, contributing

but little to the plain. The history of this condition seems to be as follows. The earliest direct information on the geological history of upper Mesopotamia is found at Ana on the Euphrates where upper . wane

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possession during that period, and the amount of the mesne profits. The amount recovered as mesne profits need not be limited to the rental value of the land but may cover deterioration or reasonable cosis of getting possession, etc.

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MESOLITHIC: see Arcmarorocy: Iron Age. MESOMEDES of Crete, Greek lyric poet, who lived during

tbe 2nd century a.D. He was a freedman of the emperor Hadrian, on whose favourite Antinous he is said to have written a panegyric. Two epigrams by him in the Greek anthology (Anthol. pal. xiv., xvi.) and a hymn to Nemesis are extant. The hymn is of special interest as preserving the ancient musical notation written over the text. Two other hymns—to the muse Calliope and to the sun—formerly assigned to Dionysius of Alexandria, have also been attributed to him. See J. F. Bellermann, Die Hymnen des Dionysius und Mesomedes (1840); C. de Jan, Musici scriptores graeci (1899); S. Reinach in Revue des études grecques, ix. (1896); Suidas, s.v.

MESONERO ROMANOS, RAMÓN DE (1803-1882), Spanish prose-writer, who was born in Madrid and died there, wrote the Panorama mairitense (1835-36), a collection of interesting pen-pictures of old-time Madrid, and an autobiography,

Memorias de un setentén, natural y vecino de Madrid (1880). MESOPOTAMIA. Although the boundaries of the modern

kingdom of ‘Iraq, which occupies the land of ancient Mesopotamia, have recently been clearly defined the term Mesopotamia has been loosely used. In this article the area included is the great depression shut in between the escarpment of the Arabian desert and the mountains, which form the western boundary of the plateau of Iran on the west and east respectively, and bounded on the north by the mountains of Armenia and Asia Minor, and on the south by the Persian gulf. In the north there is a belt of stony country varying between 40 and 100 miles broad which extends as far as Hit, which stands on the site of the old coast line before the formation of the alluvial plain of the twin rivers, the Tigris and the Euphrates. This alluvial plain extends southwards, falling nearly roo feet between Baghdad and Basra, and forms the fertile basin in which grew up the ancient civilizations of Sumer and Akkad. The plain is everywhere extremely flat and has a transverse slope away from the rivers and from the Persian hills to the Tigris. This flatness and the form of the slope combined to allow perennial irrigation on a large scale and so made the ancient civilizations possible. The alluvial plain itself is of comparatively small extent, about 35 thousand square miles, rather over a sixth of the whole area ofMesopotamia. Geology.—South of the Eurasiatic massif there are three great plateaux, the remains of a tropical continent. Between these plateaux, India, Arabia and Africa south of the Atlas there are a series of basins, Mesopotamia itself forming the basin between the plateau of Arabia and the fold mountains of Persia. The latter parallel ranges, which bound it ọn the east are of many diferen t ages.

The south-western boundary is the Archaean rocks of the Arabian plateau. This contrast between the eastern and western boundar ies is enhanced by the difference of climates. The rainfall of the Persian mountains has been accompanied by rapid rock

decay and numerous canyons have carried down to the rich and fertile alluvium, but the valley bottom lacking theplain a rainTall of the Indo-Gangetic plain, to which it corresponds physiographically, has not been able to support the dense popula of the latter area. On the west the plateau is arid, streamstion are

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Cretaceous limestones were formed at a time when upper Mesopotamia ‘was all submerged. A volcanic period in Oman seems to

have occurred at the beginning of Cenozoic times, when most of Arabia and Persia were dry land, and coal seams were forming

in Mesopotamia. The lower Eocene sea covered parts of the Persian gulf, and during the middle Eocene there was another

advance of the sea. At this time there was a deposition of a hummulitic limestone, which is succeeded in upper Mesopotamia by beds which contain fish teeth and marine shells of the Upper

MESOPOTAMIA

289

Eocene. This period is not widely developed, and in the succeed-

itself but as he also found marine shells it is possible that the

ing Oligocene there was a land period of which at present only a

fresh water shells were used for food. Sir A. T. Wilson suggests

few fossil remains have been discovered. During the Miocene the , that in ancient times there was a.great lake or chain of lakes, all

sea extended from northwest India to Asia Minor. A further ad- | of which except that fed by the Jarrahi poured their waters as at vance appears to have followed which resulted in the deposition of | present through the Shatt-al-Arab. He believes that at the bered clays, which are interbedded with rocksalt, oil beds and gyp- ; ginning of the Christian era the coast coincided from Bubiyan

sum. The deposition of these beds was interrupted by an uplift |island with the present shore, curving thence inwards to somewhich eventually converted the whole area into a continuous land | where near Abadan, and joining the present coast near Qubban. surface. This uplift was associated with foldings of the greatest | He suggests further that 90% of the silt deposited in the lakes significance. Previous foldings had already built the ranges Í$ and therefore never reached the gulf. The size of Bubiyan island of northern Persia and to a certain extent the Zagros range, but i shows that in prehistoric times the Euphrates carried great dethe main folding, which built up the mountain boundary to the i posits of silt, while the Tigris was less active. Under these circumnortheast of Mesopotamia is probably Pliocene. stances the rapid extension of land at Fao, according to Rawlinson As a result of this folding a weak belt was formed along the as much as 53 metres per annum between the years 1793 and 1833 outer edge of the folded zone. This belt formed the Mesopotamian is no indication of a stable coast line. There does not appear depression. It has been estimated that the displacement on the to be any reason to think that the coast east of Bahmishir has Persian side was as much as 9,000 feet, due to the combination advanced since the Karun abandoned it, nor that the coast at of faulting and monoclinal folding. On the west the displacement Bubiyan has advanced at all in the past twenty centuries, that is since the Euphrates left that channel. Wilson’s conclusions are due to simple faulting alone was slight. Upper Mesopotamia (Jezirah) contrasts strongly in formation that the coast line at the mouth of the Shatt-al-Arab advanced with the lower alluvial valley. The mountain border of the Jezirah slowly till the Karun found its way into that channel at the end begins with the gently folded beds of sandstones, gypsum and con- of the 18th century. Islands then began to form at the mouth of glomerates of Jebel Hamr. There are hills of a similar composition the Shatt-al-Arab as that stream began to enlarge its bed and to near Mosul on the southwest bank of the Tigris. At this point cut the great bend between Mohammerah and Abadan. Wilson the river flows along the fault plane between lower Miocene on suggests that the lacustrine region was formed by silt, sand and the southwest and Pliocene Conglomerate on the northwest. Far- gravels brought down from the Arabian plateau during a period of ther to the northwest the range of hills is capped by basalt. Its high rainfall in the glacial age by the Batin, at a time when the continuation Jebel Sinjar also consists of basalt, overlying Mio- mouths of the Euphrates and the Tigris were near Hit and Sacene rocks, and the basalts have further a wide extension along marra respectively. This heavy material, together with lighter silt the Tigris to the northeast of the Sinjar hills. Further to the from the Karkhah and Karun have formed the barrier, and the west lies the Jebel Abd al-Aziz and still further north of a line intervening region has only succeeded in becoming more or less drawn from Mardin to Urfah the land rises into the foothills of filled up in the last few generations. Climate.—The climate of Mesopotamia is continental in type the Taurus which is composed chiefly of Cretaceous, Eocene and Miocene beds, although there are some basaltic lavas from the old with great extremes, and Mesopotamia and the Persian gulf are valcano Qara Dagh. In the northwesterly corner of the Mesopo- among the hottest places on the face of the globe. The mean tamian depression between Diarbekr and Mardin gault ammonites annual range is nearly 44° F in Baghdad, where the hottest month have been found but most of the country near Diarbekr consists August has a mean temperature of 92-5°, a temperature as high of volcanic rocks through which the Tigris has cut a 300-ft. can- as 123° having been recorded. The coldest month is January with yon. The Cretaceous beds to the northwest of Ana are Senonian a mean temperature of 48-8, the lowest recorded temperature F

but below this town they are partly Turonian. Above this belt of Cretaceous rocks along the great western bend of the Euphrates past Birijik and near Samsat there are Miocene beds. To the north they are succeeded by volcanic rocks, through which on both sides of the Taurus the Euphrates has cut a magnificent gorge. Although lower Mesopotamia consists mainly of alluvium there are extensive outcrops of older formations. There are conglomerates at Beled on the Tigris, 84 miles from Baghdad by river, and a few miles above Beled at Qadisiyeh and also from Zobeir near Basra to the Euphrates at Suq esh Shuyukh. At Beled the conglomerates rest on a bed of clay.

ancient texts. Campbell Thompson however in his excavations

being 19°. Except near the Persian gulf the humidity is low, making the extreme heat of summer less oppressive. The rainfall is usually under ten inches, falling mostly during the winter months, June to October inclusive being practically rainless, although on the hills there is a larger precipitation. On the plain irrigation is absolutely necessary for the crops, rain only falling on an average of 26 days in the year. In this hot dry land the winds are of importance, both for the relief they bring to the intense heat and for the dust storms they cause. The prevailing north-west wind, the Shamal, blows both summer and winter, sometimes blowing with great strength during the heat of the day. There is no exact information ERSKINE, FROM MRS. S. “THE VANISHED at present about the climate of CITIES OF ARABIA® A CARAVAN HALT IN THE DESERT Mesopotamia in ancient times. ON THE PILGRIMS’ ROUTE TO MECCA Such evidence as there is suggests that, within historic times at least, there has been no great change, such variations in the siting of cities and so on being rather due to an alteration in the direction of the rivers than to an actual change in climate. It is certain that in palaeolithic times the region was much wetter and no doubt at this time the dry wadis which lead down from the Arabian plateau carried water. The tributaries of the Tigris may have changed slightly (see Trcrts) but insufficiently to warrant the suggestion that the desiccation is not of great antiquity, at least as far back as the Neolithic age.

there is no reason to doubt that Eridu was on the edge of the

forms part of the region called by P. A. Buxton the “Palearctic

sea” that sea was a fresh water lake and not the actual gulf

Desert” there are considerable differences in the flora and fauna

Conglomerate is however exceptional on the great flood plain and in most of the region the tracts of marshy alluvium are only interrupted by areas of sandy and stony desert. These ptobably are found where Miocene beds outcrop as low plateaux of gypsiferous marls and are of great interest to students of human history as they probably formed ancient islands, which may have been inhabited in pre-Sumerian times. One of these plateaux forms a ridge about a mile wide between Museyib and Baghdad. Miocene outcrops also occur west of Basra. The most interesting question however in the geology of the alluvial plain, in relation both to the ancient history of Mesopotamia and certain modern problems, is the growth of the deltaic

region. While it seems probable that the old shore line was in

glacial times near Hit the position of the sea coast in Sumerian

times is open to considerable conjecture. Langdon in his map in the Cambridge Ancient History puts the site of ancient Eridu

actually at the head of the gulf (Eridu lies a few miles south-

east of Ur), a position fully justified by the explicit statements of on this site found fresh water mussels, and suggests that although

Flora and Fauna.—While it may be said that Mesopotamia

290

MESOPOTAMIA

of the different parts. Northern Mesopotamia, the region through which the rivers flowed previous to the accumulation of the deltaic region, has a Mediterranean flora and fauna. It seems probable that wheat and barley are here close to their original wild home.

been disputed. There is no doubt that in upper palaeolithic times the Syrian desert was sufficiently humid for permanent settlement and Buxton found numerous traces of palaeolithic implements jy districts now only inhabited by wandering Bedouins. There were even some traces of Neolithic peoples. In Mesopotamia itself wa

On the whole the region is treeless, although there are trees on some of the hills. In southern Mesopotamia other conditions have no evidence before Sumerian times, since when most Writers prevail. The rainfall is not really insufficient to support a consider- maintain that there is no evidence of any change of climate. Sir able amount of vegetation but owing to the physical qualities of William Willcocks thinks the ancient canals were not in use at the ihe soil, a very fine silt, combined with a high temperature and same time and that the presence of all these waterways is not strong winds the evaporation is excessive. Under these circum- therefore evidence of a progressive desiccation. In the neighbourstances the regions between the rivers often approach to more hood of Babylon and Kish where canals are particularly numerous truly desert conditions than the north Syrian desert. As an a study of levels shows that there at least Willcocks’ statement example the unirrigated regions near Kish are in places absolutely is abundantly justified. Thus'the change in the siting of ancient devoid of vegetation and at one point in an area of about a square cities was not due to a change in climate. Secondly there can be no mile the only living plant found was a bush of Christ’s thorn. reasonable doubt regarding the change in the position of the rivers, Where however irrigation is practised and the water is allowed to for both the Tigris and Euphrates have shifted their course since drain off so that an excess of salts is not accumulated the soil ancient times. All the cities of Sumer have therefore been left produces good crops and after the crops abundant weeds of culti- without water. Apart from Borsippa the only ancient city of vation and a thorny flora of various species of a wide distribution Sumer on the river is Babylon, itself a relatively modern town in the palaearctic desert region. These weeds are extensively used which took the place of Kish, 15 miles away when a change in the for fire wood, a clear indication of the meagre floral resources of river made that site no longer usable. It may seem difficult to

the country. The country is practically treeless, the only timber being supplied by the stems of the date palm, which grows along the rivers. There are also low beds of poplar. The vegetation along the rivers amounts to an extended oasis, although in places even the river banks are extraordinarily desolate. One of the characteristics of Mesopotamian vegetation as a whole is the comparatively few number of species which occur, a great contrast to the flora of the American desert. Secondly in common with all

understand how, if there has been no change in the climate, re.

deserts the Mesopotamian vegetation shows a convergence of form between different species so that plants only distantly related are superficially similar. Thirdly, and this feature is also common to most deserts, the line which divides the green fertile land and the desert is very sharply marked, and the introduction of water by irrigation rapidly produces a marked change in the vegetation. The fauna has as yet been imperfectly studied. Among large mammals the cheetah is not uncommon on the desert, the only other mammals of any size being various species of gazelles and antelopes. The lion so prominently figured on Assyrian bas-reliefs is said to exist, but recent records are uncertain. The wild ass is rare, Among the carnivora other than those mentioned the hyaena and species of wolves have been reported. The jackal is not uncommon and in certain regions wild pig abound. The desert hare is very common and where caves exist there are bats. Small mammals are extremely common, especially jerboas and their allies. Among the birds the ostrich reported as quite common by Xenophon is practically if not entirely extinct. The birds of prey are well represented, including the vulture, raven, owl and various species of hawks. In the steppe region the buzzard is very common, there are various species of sandgrouse and, where there is open water, ducks and geese; the black partridge is abundant near water. Among the reptiles one of the commonest and most interesting is the little lizard Agama. The details of the smaller animals are not yet worked out. P. A. Buxton has noted the fact that whereas in the stony desert the pebbles shelter a host ofwoodlice, millipedes, centipedes, spiders, scorpions, earwigs, cockroaches, crickets, beetles, bugs and ants and lice in southern Mesopotamia

a similar fauna is found in the leaf-bases of the palm trees. Apart from technical lists the most interesting account of plant and animal life in Mesopotamia is found in P. A. Buxton, Animal Life at Deserts, London 1923. Ancient Geography.—In most countries there is little change

im the position of inhabited sites, which continue over long periods on the same spot or on one nearby. In Mesopotamia on the ether hand much of the desert is strewn with the ruins of aicient cities where mow only an occasional shepherd is to be fod.. The reason for these changes is not always apparent but wsually three causes appear to have operated. There may have

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CaSiO;4+CO:z is an important one in rock stage of intense crushing and pulverization is the production of metamorphism. Under high uniform pressure the left side of the finty crush rocks or pseudotachylytes, in which mylonization is equation represents the stable assemblage, and calcite and quartz accompanied by an incipient fusion of the rock mass, due to are found together. On the other hand, at high temperatures the generation of great heat by friction. Analogous effects are the reaction proceeds with the formation of wollastonite. The sometimes obtained in rock drills, where the cores are found to approximate equilibrium curve for this reaction has been calcucontain slag-like masses, produced by the heat of friction. In these Jated on the basis of the Nernst cases it is shown that the temperature attained may approximate heat theorem. From the standt,100° C, sufficient to fuse arkoses or felspathic sandstones. Flinty point of the phase rule, a mixture crush rocks have now been recognized from a number of areas a of calcium carbonate and silica iu from the north-west Highlands of Scotland, the Outer Hebrides, w represents a three-component i T and the Vredefort area of the Southern Transvaal. The trap shotQa system and therefore under the n © ten gneisses of southern India are similar rocks. In Eriskay and conditions of metamorphism only Z South Uist (Outer Hebrides), the flinty crush rocks are extensively < three phases are possible. Below =z developed along great thrust planes in the Archaean gneiss, while the transformation curve the posul = in the Vredefort area rocks of this character occur on a grander = sible three phase assemblages n th scale than elsewhere. ut are §$i02,—-CaCO;—CO2 and æ in areas of regional metamorphism, whole complexes consisting a 5i02—CaCOs—CaSiO3s. Above of intermixed sediments, tuffs and igneous extrusions and intruthe transformation curve the assions may be converted into a great series of schists and gneisses. 500°C + 1000°C 1500°C semblages are CaSiO;— CaCO; —

Although recrystallization may be complete the original masses

still retain their identity in their new state, though their structural relations may be rendered excessively complex by intense folding and overthrusting. The effects of stress in regionally meta-

morphosed rocks are revealed in their foliated or schistose textures.

This consists in a definite arrangement of the minerals, so that

‘h as are platy, prismatic or fibrous (e.g., mica hornblende or

sllimanite) have their longest axes arranged parallel to one anether. For that reason many of these rocks split readily in one

on. Contortion or crumpling of the foliation is by no means ’Mcommon, and the splitting faces are then undulose or puckered. lization under the influence of stress gives rise to the

TEMPERATURE

CO: and CaSiO3— SiO. — CO. (fig.

FIG. 3

3). The occurrence together of

calcite and quartz might therefore be used to indicate that the rock assemblage had not been heated above the transformation

temperature, and in this way the mimeral constitution of such a rock might be used as a geological thermometer. The effects of shearing stress are of a different order if the vapour phase is allowed to escape, for the reaction is driven in one definite direction leading to the production of wollastonite. In the choice of transition points adapted for the purposes of a geological thermometer it is clear that much care is necessary and the conditions of metamorphism realized. i

METAMORPHISM

328

The effects of temperature on reversible reactions are usually of a different order of magnitude from those of pressure. A large increase of pressure may be less effective in displacing equilibrium than a small increase of temperature. Nevertheless the effects of pressure are by no means negligible. In such reactions increase of pressure tends to displace the equilibrium in the direction in which the reaction is accompanied by decrease of volume. Thus, in a reacting system, high pressure favours the production of phases of greater density. This well known law of Le Chatelier (1835) was first applied to metamorphic processes by Lepsius (1893), but its importance was first clearly enunciated by Becke, whence it is frequently referred to as Becke’s volume law. The knowledge of the specific volumes of minerals is largely gleaned from observations at ordinary temperatures, and under the conditions of reaction the change in volume is not necessarily the same in magnitude, nor even in sign; moreover some of the reactions to which the law is applied are not definitely known to be reversible. Its application to mineralogical systems requires the exercise of considerable caution. Undoubtedly it is in the rocks of higher grades of metamorphism where enormous pressures are involved that the volume law is operative. Such minerals as jadeite, pyrope, almandine, grossular, kyanite and staurolite are dense minerals represented only in rocks formed at high pressures, and arise under the operation of the volume law. The combination wollastonite-anorthite appearing in limestone xenoliths at volcanic centres, under the conditions of contact metamorphism or deepseated alteration, appears as a grossular-quartz assemblage: 2 CaSiO3+ Ca Al-Si:Og —

C2;Al. (Si0O,) st SiO».

In dry melts, a system of the bulk composition of grossular con-

solidates as a mixture of the phases anorthite, wollastonite and gehlenite. Regarded as a reversible action: 2Ca,Al.(Si0,) 2—>CaAl,Si,Os-+ Ca,Al,Si0;-++3 CaSi Oz

Grossular anorthite gehlenite wollastonite the formation of grossular is accompanied by a large decrease of volume. The sum of the molecular volumes of the phases of the right hand side of the equation is 310, the molecular volume of grossular 260. Clearly, pressure favours the formation of the garnet mineral. Again glaucophane or jadeite appears in place of nepheline and

albite under high pressure: NaAlSiO.w+ Na AlSi;0,

=

2NaAlSiOs ernie”

molec. vol. = 156 molec. vol.= 123. Similarly, olivine and anorthite are represented by garnet: MezSiO.-+ Ca Al SiO

—

CaMg2Al,(SiOz)s,

the formation of garnet being accompanied by a diminution in volume of 17%.

In the more deep-seated regions metamorphism is effected under the influence of widespread magmatic activity. An intimate commingling of igneous and metamorphic rock is therefore charac-

teristic of these regions. Injection gneisses are produced by the lit par lti intrusion of igneous magma between the foliation planes of metamorphic rocks. The process is not always limited to a mechanical injection of material, but may be accompanied by an

intense metasomatic action, in which solutions emanating from the magma react with the country rock to produce metasomatic schists and gneisses. Recrystallization processes in metamorphic rocks take place in an essentially solid environment, and in distinction from igneous rocks no definite sequence or order of separation of crystals is to be traced. The characteristic structures and textures of metamorphic rocks have, therefore, a distinct significance. The term “structure” is used to express the genetic relationship of the component minerals, while “texture” refers more explicitly to their stereometric arrangement. The typical structure produced by the growth of crystals in a solid environment is known as the crystalloblastic structure (Gr. Bħaoråvew, to sprout). Since each grain grows in intimate contact with its neighbours, the form-development of the individual crystals tends in general to be poor. Rounded crystals are thus very common. Different minerals,

however, possess varying crystallization force, and some are able to assert their proper crystalline form against the resistance of their solid environment. The experiments of Becke and Day on the growth of crystals of alum under load, show that the force of crystallization may be very great, and indicate that the internal stresses set up during growth are of the same order of magnitude

as the crushing strength of crystals themselves, and, indeed, as the forces brought into play during orogenic movements. For the common metamorphic minerals the series is as follows: Titanite, rutile, hematite, ilmenite, garnet, tourmaline, staurolite kyanite, epidote, zoisite, pyroxene, hornblende, dolomite, albite, mica, chlorite, talc-calcite-quartz, plagioclase, orthoclase, micro.

cline. In general, this order is one of increasing molecular volume

and decreasing density. Any particular member of this series is able to assert its own crystal form against that of any other member following it in the series. Where crystal form is developed,

only facies with simple crystallographic indices are developed, and these are commonly cleavage facies. Hornblendes have promi-

nent development of (110) faces, garnet (110), kyanite (109) and (oro). Crystals showing a well developed form are know as idioblasis, and those characterized by absence of crystal form— xenoblasts. Where the stresses developed by the growth of crystals in a solid rock are not offset by stresses imposed from without,

being in random directions they tend to be neutralized by mutual

compensation. The directionless hornfels structure of contact rocks is produced in this way, but the various schistose and foliated structures are the result of the imposition of shearing stress from without by which the internal stresses are reduced. It is to be expected, therefore, that those minerals which occur as idioblasts in metamorphic rocks are members high in the crystalloblastic series—as rutile, garnet, etc. They are know as strong minerals, in contradistinction to weak minerals, such as quartz and the potash felspars. The structures given by inclu. sions, relative form, development and size of crystals, have thus no direct analogy with the apparently similar features observed

in igneous rocks. Whereas, in the latter, inclusions are older and tend to have better crystal shape than their host, in metamorphic rocks both host and inclusion may be developed simultaneously, and not infrequently inclusions are xenoblastic and the host idioblastic. The porphyritic crystals of igneous rocks are an early generation, but in metamorphic rocks the corresponding large crystals are pseudo-porphyritic. They are known as porphyrobiasts. Frequently they are strong minerals, as garnet, ilmenite, hornblende, etc., and though formed at the same time as the ground mass minerals, they are not infrequently aligned across the common schistosity or foliation planes. Many porphyroblasts are characterized by multiple twinning (kyanite, chloritoid, cor-

dierite), or show the typical sieve structure, being crowded with the ground-mass constituents (cordierite, chloritoid, staurolite, chiastolite); again, many of them are unrepresented among the ground-mass minerals. The large size of porphyroblasts is, doubtless, in large measure to be accounted for by their relatively greater crystallization force and crystallization velocity. Indeed, it Is not improbable that many of them grow rapidly from supersaturated solutions; their twinning inclusions and orientation point to rapid growth. While for the elements of the ground-mass, nuclei are usually originally present, with porphyroblasts it is frequently otherwise; garnet, staurolite and chloritoid are new phases developing in a medium free from the crystal nuclei of these minerals. In the absence of the latter, spontaneous crystal-

lization from supersaturated solutions is rendered possible. Ín the highest grades of metamorphism porphyroblast structure 3 less in evidence than in medium grades, owing to a tendency to wards equalization of the size maxima of different minerals undet

very high temperatures and pressures.

structures tend to be abolished.

At the same time sieve

Where the structures of the

original rocks are incompletely effaced during metamorphism, they

are known as relict or palimpsest structures. Some amphibolites may thus preserve the porphyritic or ophitic structures of the

dolerites from which they are derived, conglomerate-schists # quartzites the psephitic or psammitic structures of sediments. These relict features are usually referred to by prefixing the term

METAMORPHISM “blasto” to the specific structure, as blastophitic, blastopsephitic, CLASSIFICATION

OF METAMORPHIC

ROCKS

Metamorphism being the response to change of condition in respect of temperature and pressure, the diversity in mineral composition of metamorphic rocks can be regarded as the resultant of two independent variables, viz., (a) the ultimate composition

of the rocks, and (b) the physical conditions operating during metamorphism. These two variables may well form the basis of a classification of the products of metamorphism. In Grubenmann’s well known classification of the crystalline schists these two variables occupy the dominant positions, and

are the foundation upon which the classification is erected. The composition variable is expressed in the 12 groups recognized, six of which correspond to sedimentary types, these being the shales, sandstones, limestones, marls and the weathering residuals represented by laterites and bauxites, and six corresponding to igneous rocks, granites, diorites, gabbros, ultrabasic and alkali rocks, the latter including the syenites, nepheline syenites, theralites, lamprophyres, etc. The physical factors of pressure and temperature are recognized as a threefold division into zones,

epi, meso and kata. In a general way the factors temperature and

pressure are a function of depth and the divisions epi, meso and kata thus correspond to bathymetric zones, each with its distinc-

tive types of mineral paragenesis. In the uppermost or epi zone, temperatures are low, hydro-

static pressure is low, while shearing stress may be high. The mineral products of this zone are those rich in H,O, OH or H, and are characteristically those of low density, such as chlorite, zoisite, sericite, hornblende, chloritoid, etc. The rock products are those of mechanical deformation with little recrystallization, cataclastic rocks of all types and the rocks of a low grade metamorphism such as phyllites, chlorite and talc schist, epidote schists, etc. In the second or meso zone the temperatures are higher, while stress probably reaches the maximum value. Owing to the increase of temperature the imposition of shearing stress results in recrystallization without mechanical rupture. Hydroxyl-containing minerals are now less prominent. The type minerals are kyanite, staurolite, almandine, anthophyllite, muscovite, biotite, etc., while the assemblages appear in such rocks as biotite, garnet, staurolite, kyanite and actinolite schists, marbles and quartzites. In the deepest, or kata zone, the high stress of the meso zone under the influence of the very high temperature, is replaced by high uniform pressure. Reactions take place pre-eminently in response to the volume law leading to the generation of anhydrous minerals of high density. Pyroxenes, olivine, pyrope, sillimanite, spinel, anorthite, jadeite, potash felspar, etc., are the type minerals, while the resulting rocks are gneisses, granulites, eclogites, etc., characterized by these minerals. _ it is not to be concluded that natural assemblages can be fitted into such a simple scheme without serious difficulties. The factors of temperature and pressure are not dependent simply on depth below the surface, but may be subject to wide variation locally.

These physical factors include among themselves at least two

mdependent variables: the intrusion of igneous magma brings into play the factor of high temperature without the incidence

of pressure and local intense orogenic movement, the factor of

high stress without necessarily the incidence of temperature. Thus in this system we find no well-defined place for assemblages of contact metamorphic origin. The range of possibilities thus opened up is, however, to a large extent diminished by the fact that the Maximum value of shearing stress is a function of the temperature, and the possible range of stress is therefore decreased as the temperature rises. Where metamorphism is of the regional type, it may be expected that stresses are maintained close to their maximum value, and to this degree the changes effected are in response to a single variable. The ease with which the rock assemblages originating under higher temperatures can be fitted into the meso and kata zones, finds its explanation in this dependent relationship between maximum stress and temperature. In rocks

of the epi zone, the great variety of rock products is a direct

reflection of the widely variable stress maxima of different ma-

329

terials. The peripheral areas of a mountain tract that has undergone metamorphism are usually of a low grade of metamorphism, and as zones of weakness are prone to be cut off from observation by subsequent dislocation, or covered by the overlap of later sediments, Frequently, therefore, the metamorphism over a wide tract may be of nearly uniform (but high) intensity. In some areas of regional metamorphism, however, these marginal zones are preserved for observation, and a continuous passage from unaltered sediments to schists and gneisses of high metamorphic grade can be traced. Such areas are of paramount importance in metamorphic studles, for the gradational changes in structure, texture and mineral composition which their rocks spatially display are the resultant of the imposition of continuously varying temperatures and pressures. Two such model metamorphic regions are the Highlands of Scotland and the Caledonian mountain chain of southern Norway. : The detailed examination of such regions reveals a progression of metamorphism in which—selecting one particular sedimentary type—a series of zones can be mapped out according to the entry of new-formed metamorphic minerals. Successive zones are thus characterized by special index minerals. Study along these lines was first carried out by Barrow (1893) in the south-east highlands of Scotland. Argillaceous rocks, owing to their ubiquity, are the foremost types in which such zones can be recognized. In them, successive zones of increasing metamorphism are characterized by the index minerals, chlorite, biotite, almandine, staurolite, kyanite and sillimanite. The boundary surfaces of these zones are at once isothermals and isodynamics, and as referred to the grade of metamorphism imposed, their intersections with the earth’s surface have been termed isograds. Other sediments show corresponding zones, limestones for example have as index, minerals, zoisite, tremolite, diopside and wollastonite.

A complete study of such a metamorphic region would include the laying down upon the map of all the zones distinguishable among the varied sediments, and it is clear that from studies of this kind the data for the development of an ideal classification should be realized. In place of the three depth zones of Grubenmann’s classification, we should recognize many zones. In this sense the facies classification suggested by Eskola is a refinement of the existing classificatory scheme. A facies is defined to designate a group of rocks characterized by a definite set of minerals which, under the conditions obtaining during their formation, were in perfect equilibrium with each other. The quantitative and qualitative mineral composition in the rocks of a given facies varies gradually in correspondence with variation in the chemical composition of the rocks. The number of facies expresses the variable physical environment under which rocks have been formed and any given facies may include assemblages (isofaciel) of widely different bulk composition. A distinctive facies is the hornfels facies characteristic of the inner zones of thermal aureoles, Other facies are recognized by the name of some important constituent assemblage, as green schist, amphibolite, eclogite or sanidinite facies. The number of facies is not limited by a priori considerations, and may be increased as advancement of knowledge may require. The elucidation of the different zones in a region of progressive metamorphism is clearly

a first step towards the determination of the facies of métamorphic rocks, and thus a guide—apart altogether from experimental study —to the goal of deeper understanding of metamorphic processes. BreriocrarHy.—The subject of metamorphism is treated in most

elementary text books of petrology.

(See Perroztocy: Bibliography.)

The principal detailed treatises are C. R. Van Hise, A Treatise on

Metamorphism, Monograph U.S. Geol. Survey, No. 47 Grubenmann, Die Kristallinen Schiefer (2nd ed., 1910); and W. J. Mead, Metamorphic Geology (1918). The advances are incorporated in U. Grubenmann and P.

(1904): U. C. K. Leith more recent Niggli, Die Gesteinsmetamorphose, vol. i. (1924). Reference may also be made to R. A. Daly, ‘“Metamorphism and its Phases,” Bull. Geol. Soc., America, vol. xxviii. (1917); A. Harker, Presid. Address Geol. Soc., London, vol. Ixxiv. (1918). On the classification of metamorphic rocks see U. Grubenmann, Fortschritte der Mineralogie . . ., vol. iii.

(1913);

P. Eskola, “The Mineral Facies of Rocks,” Norsk. Geol.

Tidskr. vol. vi. (1920). On the structure and texture of metamorphic rocks see especially F. Becke, “Mineralbestand und Struktur der

339

METAMORPHOSIS

Kristallinen Schiefer,” Denkschrift d. Wiener Akad. d. Wiss. (1903)3 and for a summary of the more recent advances, F. Becke, Struktur und Klijtung, Forischritte der Mineralogie . . .„ vol. ix. erio er)

METAMORPHOSIS,

shape, is applied in zoology.

much the same way. The best examples are the flatfishes (Hetero. somata), in which the adult swims lying on one side. The eye

belonging to this side is twisted on to the upper side; and the

a Greek word meaning change of mouth is distorted towards the lower side, for the fish feeds on (See INVERTEBRATE EMBRYOLOGY.)

All animals begin their existence as undifferentiated cells and attain their characteristic features by growth which entails changes of shape. If we were to magnify the model of a baby to the size of a man we should discover how striking are the changes in the proportions of the human figure as manhood is attained and yet these changes are not regarded as metamorphosis. The best definition of metamorphosis is “a conspicuous change in shape and mode of life in an animal occurring in a comparatively short time without any Increase in size or even with a decrease in size.” In the common English frog, the tadpole stage lasts from two to four months, during which the animal increases very much in size but retains the same general appearance and proportions. The rudiments of the hind limbs gradually increase in length whilst the fore-limbs break through the skin of the breast region. The creature then ceases to feed and begins to crawl out of the water, though it remains within reach and takes to it if alarmed. In about four days the tail is reduced to a vestige and finally disappears and the young frog takes up land life. The froglet is smaller than the completely grown tadpole and requires four years to attain sexual ripeness and full size. In the development of the butterfly, the caterpillar, like the tadpole, requires about two months to grow to full size. Then in a day or so it constructs its cocoon and changes into a chrysalis or pupa. The pupal stage may last as long as the entire growth of the caterpillar, or longer, for a whole winter may be passed in this state, but the emergence of the perfect insect from the pupal skin only occupies an hour or two. The adult life may last only about three weeks. The term metamorphosis is not applied to embryos, only to larvae. Since the change in shape is accomplished without increase

in size, it always involves the casting off or absorption of certain larval tissues. In the case of the tadpole’s tail, wandering cells (phagocytes) carried by the blood-stream attack and devour the contained muscles, nerve-cord and notochord, the skin is thrown into internal folds and these folds in turn are attacked by phagocytes and so the whole skin area shrinks in size, till the tail is reduced to a stump. ‘ Metamorphosis is found only in those life-histories where the larva and the adult have very different habits. Among vertebrates it only occurs in Cyclostomes in certain groups of fish and in Amphibia (frogs, toads and newts). Below the level of verte-

brates, however, it is found in every great division of the animal kingdom. The newt is especially interesting. This creature differs

the animals (worms and molluscs) which burrow in the sand and

mud beneath it. The young fry swim upright in the water and the eyes are on opposite sides of the head. When they have reached a certain size they fall to the bottom and rest on one side. Darwin, quoting Malm, says that they make violent effort to twist the lower eye on to the upper side and that as the skull is soft these efforts meet with considerable success. In a com. paratively short time both eyes are on the upper side and the metamorphosis has been accomplished.

The lamprey (q.v.) (Petromyzon), is separated by such a deep gap from all fish that it is placed in a different class, Cyclostomata (q.v.). No true jaws exist; the mouth is surrounded by a circular cartilage and the animal lives by attaching itself by suctional action to a larger animal and then rasping a hole in its victim’s flesh by means of horny teeth which are developed on a piston like tongue. The larval form, known as ammocoetes, lives

in a totally different manner. The mouth is overhung by a hoodlike upper lip separated by a lateral cleft from a small straight underlip. The gill-sacs open directly into the oesophagus instead of into a special tube as in the adult. But the greatest peculiarity of the ammocoetes is that the organ from which the lamprey’s thyroid gland is later developed is a sac-like structure with a permanent opening into the throat, through which the mucous secretion escapes in the form of a cord. This entangles any minute organisms in the water which the animal swallows. The mucus with its contained food is passed back into the oesophagus whilst the surplus water escapes through the gill openings. After living like this for two or three years the ammocoetes undergoes a rapid transformation into the adult form. In 1912 the writer received a consignment of “young lampreys” from the Severn. They were about six in. long and half of them were full grown ammocoetes larvae and half young fully metamorphosed lampreys. They were equal in size. The animals known as Tunicata (g.v.) are also primitive members of the phylum Vertebrata. The egg develops into a tadpole-like larva with a hollow spinal cord expanding into a brain-vesicle in front. There is a notochord in the tail and the alimentary canal consists of a pharynx, opening above by a mouth in front of the brain, and at the side by a pair of gill pouches. The pharynx is succeeded by a loop of intestine leading

to an anus high up on the left side. This larva after swimming for some hours attaches itself to the substratum by three adhesive papillae on the chin beneath the mouth. Metamorphosis occurs within a few minutes. The tail and notochord are cast off. The spinal cord shrivels and the brain vesicle is replaced by a little solid ganglion, whilst the mouth by the elongation of the chin is elevated above the substratum.

from a frog in having the fore- and hind-limbs of approximately equal size and in retaining the tail throughout life. The larva differs from the tadpole in retaining during the whole of its aquatic existence the external feather-like gills which the tadpole When we descend to Invertebrata, we find the classical examat first possesses but later casts off when they have been covered ple of metamorphosis in the life-histories of the Echinodermata. by the growth of the gill cover. This cover in the tadpole hides In this phylum the larva and the adult are so unlike each other the fore-limbs which are only revealed a short time before the that the change from one stage to the other was formerly suplittle frog leaves the water, but in the newt larva this cover is posed to be an alternation of generations. To render our ideas rudimentary and the fore-limbs appear in development first, to more definite consider the case of the common British sea-urchin be followed later by the hind-limbs so that in the older larvae Echinus miliaris. The larva is a beautiful transparent free-swimall four limbs are obvious and fully formed. Now in certain ming form with outwardly perfect bilateral symmetry. It has a species of newt such as the Mexican axolotl the habit has been scoop-like mouth leading into a narrow gullet. This is followed by acquired of spending the whole life in water. In normal circum- a globular stomach from which a short straight intestine leads stances the larvae of these newts never metamorphose but de- back towards the mouth to end in the anus. The alimentary canal velop their genital organs and eventually lay eggs. For reasons forms a loop in the median plane. The skin is drawn out inte discussed below it is possible to induce metamorphosis in these four symmetrical pairs of long arms supported by transparent newts by feeding them with thyroid gland. No more startling calcareous rods. These arms are covered by cilia—are in fact phenomenon can be witnessed than this. In a week or two in the prolongations of a lobed, ciliated band which crosses in front writer's laboratory a large fat axolotl lost its gills, closed up its of the mouth, passes down the sides and then crosses on the

gill slits, lost the blade-like fin on its tail, darkened in colour, Shrunk considerably in size and emerged from the water as a rather small black newt.

under-surface in. front of the anus. Behind the ciliated band the larva has a circle of four crescents carrying powerful cilia.

This general form characterizes larval life for six weeks, grat

_ Among fishes metamorphosis is comparatively rare, because ually increasing in elaboration as the larva grows older. The eth young and adult swim in the water and get their food in | arms are at first four, then six, and finally eight, and the ciliated

METAMORPHOSIS

331

crescents are cut off from the ciliated band. Then the larva sinks | ever, increase of dose has no further effect. The rapidity of thyroid-induced as of normal metamorphosis is also affected by ex-

to the bottom and extends from its left side the ‘first adult tentacles or “tube-feet” which have been formed under a screen

of skin. As soon as the larva has thus come to anchor a mar-

yellous and rapid change supervenes, which, in the case of another

ies, the writer has The long ciliated arms the skin covering them backwards off the spines

seen completed in about half an hour. literally melt away, the protoplasm of seems to gather up into drops and flow into the body. A large part of the fluid

in the primary body-cavity is expelled by osmosis into the stomach, and the globular body of the larva becomes compressed

into a flat disc which then crawls away as the young sea-urchin. The mouth becomes cut off from the gullet, shallows out and

disappears and a new mouth is formed on the left side in the middle of the circle of tentacles. Similar rapid changes accompanied by shrinkage in size and loss of larval tissues characterize the life-histories of other echinoderms, but in no case are these changes accomplished in so short a time as in the case of the sea-urchin. Consider, for example, the life history of the common starfish Asterias rubens. Its larva shows a general similarity te the larva of the sea-urchin. But this larva, the bipinnaria, differs from the sea-urchin larva in two important points: first, its paired arms are more numerous and are unsupported by calcareous rods, and secondly it possesses a long forehead or preoral lobe in front of the mouth, over which a loop of the ciliated band bends back. When its free-swimming life terminates it attaches

ternal factors. A protein-rich diet accelerates it, one rich in fat slows it down. Heat hastens, while cold may actually inhibit it. Further experiment showed that larvae whose thyroids were removed never metamorphosed, but continued to grow as tadpoles. It is now certain that the secretion of the animal’s own thyroid is the main agency in producing normal metamorphosis. As the thyroid secretion is exceptionally rich in iodine, the natural supply of this element must constitute a limiting factor, and in waters exceptionally poor in iodine, we should expect a retardation or suppression of metamorphosis. There are certain lakes where newts never metamorphose: it is probable that these will be found to lack iodine. Iodine will also induce precocious metamorphosis, but only in frog and toad tadpoles, not in those of tailed Amphibia. The metamorphosis due to iodine is much more gradual than that induced by thyroid since what is provided is not so much ready-made metamorphosis-producing substance, but raw material which enables the animal’s own thyroid to grow more quickly. Iodine even causes thyroidless frog tadpoles to metamorphose, but much more slowly than unoperated animals. Some at least of the body-cells of frog tadpoles must thus have some power of synthesizing the metamorphosis-producing substance.

bis was due to a hormone (y.v:) circulating in the blood, which would explain the synchronization of all the numerous es which occur together at metamorphosis. Since then a umber of important facts have been elicited. All Amphibia which hommally metamorphose can be made to do so precociously by the

In tailless amphibia (Anura) the thyroid is passing secretion into the blood throughout larval life. In tailed amphibians (Urodela), the thyroid appears to be entirely devoted to storage during larval life; when a certain stage of development is reached, the gland suddenly begins secreting its stored substance into the blood, so inducing metamorphosis. It would be of great physiological interest to discover what is the “releasing factor” which brings about this change in the thyroid. This difference between anuran and urodele is correlated with another. The growth of limbs is not affected by thyroid in urodele tadpoles, but is in Anura. In frog tadpoles whose thyroids have been removed, limb-growth, though not absent, is very slow; in thyroid-treated specimens it is more rapid than normal, the rapidity varying with the dose. This introduces us to an important general principle—the specific reactivity of tissues to hormones. Thyroid from any vertebrate will act upon Amphibia; but corresponding tissues in frog and newt will react differently to the same thyroid. The same is true of the tail; in Anura thyroid causes its total resorption, in Urodela only that of its fin-membrane. The tail of Amphibia also illustrates the principle of differential susceptibility. The limbs of frog tadpoles begin excess growth when the least trace of thyroid extract is to be found in the blood: the tail is not resorbed until a considerable threshold-concentration is attained. Specific reactivity is also illustrated by the neotenous Amphibia, i.e., those which normally live their whole lives and reproduce while retaining larval form and aquatic habit. Most of these cannot be artificially metamorphosed even by the heaviest doses of thyroid: their tissues no longer react to the hormone. In Amblystoma matters are different. Most species metamorphose normally. The well-known axolotl of Old Mexico, however, is neotenous. It has now been shown that thyroid will always metamorphose axolotls. There is, however, a threshold dose below which only minor, reversible changes occur. A dose just near the threshold causes metamorphosis to advance rather more than half-way and then stop, leaving the animal neither aquatic nor terrestrial. Metamorphosis is thus not an “all-or-nothing” phenomenon. Neoteny here is apparently due to three co-operating factors: (1) failure of the thyroid’s “release mechanism,” (2) reduced thyroid-size, (3) reduced tissue-sensitivity. The thyroid, however, is not the only ductless gland concerned in metamorphosis. The pituitary also plays an important, if secondary, role. Its secretion is indeed necessary for the development of the thyroid; tadpoles with pituitary removed never meta-

* Seater the dose, the more rapid and abrupt the metamorMosis; after a certain threshold value has been reached, how-

own secretion can also produce metamorphosis, in axolotls as well as tadpoles, even in animals deprived of their own thyroid and pituitary. However, the hormone is not so potent as that of

itself to the substratum not by the adult tentacles but by a sucker which is developed at the apex of this preoral lobe. This lobe is thus converted into a stalk and this attached stage lasts a week or ten days, during which the adult organs are developing at the hinder end of the larva, and the stalk is reduced to a mere

knob. The starfish then wrenches itself loose and walks away. The larva of Asterias must find firm rock or at any rate seaweed to which to attach itself, but there is another British starfsh, Astropecten, which habitually lives on sandy ground. When

the bipinnaria of this starfish reaches the age at which it should

attach itself, this is impossible; so it continues to swim until the locomotor organs of the future starfish are so far developed that they are capable of functioning. Then the great ciliated preoral lobe is suddenly amputated; the hinder part of the body falls to the bottom and crawls away as the young starfish. The comparison of the development of Asterias and Astropecten gives the clue to the meaning of metamorphosis; it is always a period of rapid change of structure during which the animal does not feed, which bridges over the transition from one set of habits to another. Always this involves the casting off of organs required by the earlier set of habits—and this casting off is the principal element in the change of structure. For in most cases the structures required for the second set of habits have already begun to form whilst the first set of habits persists, but these new structures are, as it were, sketched out in embryonic tissue and packed away under a fold. Metamorphosis is therefore a secondary

jalsification of the ancestral record embedded in a life-history. See INVERTEBRATE EMBRYOLOGY. (E. W. MacB.)

EXPERIMENTAL WORK The crisis of metamorphosis, by which an organism wholly changes its structure and mode of life, is not only of great interest

as a phenomenon of general biology, but offers the most interesting opportunities of research in the field of developmental

Physiology. Gudernatsch in Iọrı demonstrated that tadpoles

could be caused to metamorphose precociously by feeding them

with thyroid gland. He thus showed that amphibian metamor-

of any vertebrate, whether fresh or dried, given as or jected. The effect is a quantitative one up to a point.

morphose, and their thyroid-size is less than 4, of normal. Its

METAPHOR— METAPHYSICS

334

The

inquiry which are commonly known as philosophical studies or

posterior lobe produces a hormone which if injected in sufficient quantity will antagonize small doses of thyroid or moderate doses

sciences (Ethics, Logic, etc.). (See PurLosormy.) Few systems of philosophy do even justice to both departments of Metaphysics With rare exceptions, like Plato, the Sceptics, Descartes ang

the thyroid. These effecis are all due to the anterior lobe.

of anterior pituitary, and so prevent metamorphosis. We must briefly mention some points concerning the time-relations of metamorphosis. The common European frog, Rana temporaria, normally takes about four months to metamorphose; some toads only four to six weeks; the American leopard-frog over a year; and several bull-frogs over two years. The thyroid of leopard-frog or bull-frog tadpoles contains the metamorphosis-

hormone, since if engrafted into tadpoles of other species it induces rapid metamorphosis. Apparently the prolongation of larval life in these animals is due to an alteration in the relative rates of thyroid-growth and body-growth. A definite concentration of thyroid hormone in the blood must be reached before metamorphosis can occur. If the thyroid grows relatively more slowly, metamorphosis will be postponed. The same postponement could equally well be effected by diminished sensitivity of the tissues to thyroid. Thus the relative rate of thyroid-growth and the absolute degree of tissue sensitivity between them decide the date of metamorphosis.

The compensatory reactions of the thyroid are interesting. At high temperatures, a tadpole’s thyroid diminishes in size and activity, at low temperatures it increases. Similarly, after a small dose of thyroid, the animal’s own gland is not called upon, and shrinks. Interesting results have been obtained by utilizing these facts. If tadpoles are kept at high temperatures till halfgrown, and then placed at low temperature, they fail to metamorphose. This is because their thyroids, first much reduced by heat, are unable to respond to the extreme demands made on them by cold, and can only react by forming a goitre which vainly tries to compensate by quantity of tissue for lack of quality of secretion. Again, if half-grown normal tadpoles are put at very low and very high temperatures after receiving a small dose of thyroid, those at high temperature will metamorphose in under 48 hours, but those at low will proceed half-way with metamorphosis, and remain thus even if put at medium temperature. The dose of thyroid was sufficient to cause their own thyroid to shut down its activity, but not sufficient to counteract the cold. It should be mentioned that Romeis claims to have achieved

a definite influence on the date of metamorphosis by immersing frog eggs or sperm in thyroid solutions. Little work has been done on metamorphosis in other animals. In caterpillars the brain produces some chemical substance neces-

sary for pupation (Kopec). Certain treatments will cause the meal-worm beetle to develop large wing-rudiments while still in the grub stage; apparently the relative growth-rate of the wings has been altered. In sea-urchins J. S. Huxley has secured precocious

metamorphosis

by immersing

moderately-advanced

larvae in very dilute poisons for some hours. The larval tissues are much more affected by the poison, undergo dedifferentiation (g.v.} and can then be absorbed by the urchin-rudiment. Here X is probable that no hormone is concerned with metamorphosis. Ascidian larvae metamorphose precociously under thyroid treatment (Weiss), but lamprey larvae do not, Metamorphosis is thus accomplished in different ways in different animals. (J. S. H.) METAPHOR, a figure of speech, which consists in the transference to one object of an attribute or name which strictly and

literally is not applicable to it, but only analogy. It is thus in essence an emphatic expressed formally is a “simile”; thus it is of a ship ploughing her way through the when it takes the form of “the ship, like a

METAPHYSICS.

figuratively and by comparison, which if a metaphor to speak waves, but a simile plough, moves,” etc.

The systematic study of the fundamental

problems relating to the ultimate nature of reality and of human knowledge. It naturally falls into two divisions, namely, Ontology or the systematic study of the ultimate problems of Being or Reality, and Epistemology, or Theory of Knowledge, the systematic study of the ultimate problems of human knowledge. These constitute between them the principal departments of Philesophy, which, however, also includes certain other branches of

Locke, philosophers before the time of Kant’s Critique of Pure

Reason (1781) were mainly interested in ontology. Since the time of Kant, however, metaphysical interest has shifted to a very large extent

to Epistemology.

For

sceptics

and

agnostics of

course, there can be no such thing as ontology, and even Kant and his school are essentially agnostic in relation to ontology, except as a matter of faith based on moral postulates. These facts may help to explain the vacillating use of the term Metaphysics, Some writers use it as synonymous with Ontology, others make it synonymous with Epistemology. But if due regard is paid tg the whole history of the subject there can be no reasonable doubt that the correct use of the term is to make it include both Ontology and Epistemology, or Theory of Being and Theory of

Knowledge, as its two intimately related branches. Metaphysical speculations are the outcome of what is called sometimes a “te. ligious impulse” and sometimes a “metaphysical craving” to find

something permanent behind or beyond the changing appearances of daily observation, and to acquire a knowledge that shall be better founded than the shifting opinions usually encountered.

The first introduction of the term Metaphysics was a mere accident. When the writings of Aristotle were first collected and

arranged by Andronicus of Rhodes (in Rome, about 7o 3.c.), or possibly by some earlier Peripatetic already, the treatises on what Aristotle had called “First Philosophy” (also “Theology”) were placed after the treatises on physics, and so came to be known as “‘the treatises after the physical treatises” (rduera& ré vouwt), In course of time this designation was applied to the subject matter of these treatises, and so the Scholastics used the term transphysica for studies which come after the ordinary physical studies of natural phenomena. The term Metaphysica occurs already in Boetius (A.D. 480-525). To some people the tem “metaphysical” rather suggests the “supernatural.” This is partly responsible for the growing unpopularity of the term, and for the increasing tendency to use the wider terms “philosophy” and “philosophical” in place of “metaphysics” and “metaphysical.” As the principal types of epistemological theory are dealt with in the article on KNOWLEDGE, THEORY OF, it is only necessary to set out here the main types of ontological theory (see ONTOLOGY). Briefly, these are:— (1) One of the first questions, probably the first question, raised in the history of Western philosophy was, Is there anything permanent at the basis of the changing phenomena of Nature? The earliest Greek philosophers (Thales, Anaximander, etc.) assumed that there is; so did many subsequent philosophers (the Eclectics, Plato, Aristotle, Spinoza, etc.). On the other hand, Heraclitus, among the ancients, and Bergson and James, among the moderns, maintain that there is nothing permanent, that the “ever rolling stream” of changing phenomena or of experiences is the only and ultimate reality. We may call a philosophy of the former type Ontological Substantivalism; one of the latter type

Ontological Phenomenalism. The latter view implies epistemelogical phenomenalism, but is not necessarily implied by it. (2) The second question is as old as the first, and may be put

in this way. Is there only one ultimate reality or more than one? The possible answers to this are obvious. They may be expressed by the familiar terms, Monism and Pluralism, corresponding tt

spectively to the views that ultimate reality is just one, or more than one. Thales, the Eclectics, Plato, Spinoza may be classed as Monists. Democritus and the Atomists, Descartes and Leibnis

may be classed as Pluralists. To avoid confusion with the other

uses of these terms, it may be advisable to call these views Sub stantival Monism, and Substantival Pluralism respectively. : (3) The third problem, also old, is whether ultimate reality B all of one Rind only or of more kinds than one. Here, too, th possible answers are obvious.

Moreover,

Substantival Monism

clearly implies the former alternative. On the other hand, Sub

Stantival Pluralism may or may not adopt the same alternative.

Leibniz, e.g., was a pluralist, but the monads in which he beli

METAPONTUM—METASOMATISM

333

were all supposed by him to be of the same (spiritual) kind, only | (Spinoza, for example) essentially a denial of Tychism and a diferent in degree. Similarly with the Atomists. On the other ' defence of the prevalence of law and order throughout the hand, Descartes (if one can really be sure about his views) be- |universe, without, however, denying the reality of freedom

as

lieved in a plurality of material substances, and a plurality of ,self-determination. Such “Necessitarianism” must be distinguished

souls or mental substances entirely different from the material sub- | from Mechanism and its offspring, Determinism. stances, and in God besides. To name these distinctions suitably; (6) Lastly, there is the question whether there is anything in

is not easy.

Since they affect Pluralism only, one might dis- | the universe which may be called divine. Atheism gives a negative

tinguish between uniform pluralism (like that of Leibniz) and i answer to this question. The principal forms which the affirmative mulliform

pluralism

(like

that

of

Descartes);

Substantival | amswers

Yonism being necessarily uniform.

assume

are known

as Theism,

Deism

| respectively; there are also less articulate forms.

and Pantheism

Thetsm is the

(4) The fourth question relates to the number of fundamental | belief in a personal God, the Creator in some sense of Nature

or irreducible attributes which pertain to the real or reals. To | and Man, distinct from both yet in some ways in or near them. this question likewise the answer may be “one,” or it may be | Deism and Pantheism endeavour to avoid the anthropomorphic “more than one.” If “one,” we have Attributive Monism (Leibniz, |tendencies of Theism by conceiving God as impersonal or, more on the one hand, the Materialists, on the other, also the Volun- | correctly, as supra-personal. But whereas Deism, like Theism, tarists); if “more than one” then we have either Attributive |separates God from the world, Pantheism identifies them-—‘“the Pluralism (Spinoza, for instance) which recognizes a multiplicity ; One and All” is at once God and the universe. All the historic or even an infinity of such attributes, or Attributive Dualism or | churches are theistic; many of the so-called freethinkers of the Natural Realism (like that of Descartes and of some modern 17th and 18th centuries were deisis; the leading Stoics, in ancient realists) which recognizes only two such attributes, and may times, and Spinoza, in modern times, are among the classical associate each of them with a diferent kind of substance. At- pantheists. Materialism is usually associated with Atheism. Other tributive Monism is known as Materialism, if materiality or forms of Monism usually tend towards Pantheism. Idealistic extension or some form of physical energy is the only irreducible Pluralism is usually associated with Theism. Other forms of character admitted; it is called Ontological Idealism or Intellec- Pluralism may be either theistic or deistic, but as a matter of fact tualism or Spiritualism if thought or reason or some sort of in- are mostly theistic.

telligence is the only irreducible attribute that is acknowledged; it is called Voluntarism if the irreducible attribute is identified with will (e.g., Schopenhauer and Nietzsche}; it is known as Neutral Monism if the ultimate attribute is regarded as different from both mentality and materiality, but as the source of the emergence of both (e.g., W. James, B. Rtssell and some of the New Realists}. E. von Hartmann’s philosophy of the unconscious

BIBLIOGRAPHY.—See the articles on the subjects and the philosophers mentioned above. Also the Introduction to Philosophy by O. Kiilpe

(1901, etc.), W. Jerusalem

(1927), W. Windelband Constructive Philosophy physics (1903).

METAPONTUM,

(1917), F. Paulsen

(1898), B. Russell

(1923) and J. S. Mackenzie, Elements of (19173; A. E. Taylor, Elements of Meta(A. Wo.)

ancient city, Magna Graecia (Gr. Meza

xévriov, mod. Metaponto), on the Gulf of Tarentum, near the must probably be classed as a form of Attributive Dualism be- mouth of the river Bradanus, about 24 m. from Tarentum and 13 cause the “Unconscious” is conceived by him apparently as a m. from Heraclea. It was founded by an Achaean colony from combination of will and unconscious or subconscious cognition. Sybaris and Croton about 700 B.C. At Metapontum Pythagorus Materialism usually regards mentality (or consciousness in the died in 497 B.c. His tomb was still shown in the time of Cicero. Its support of the Athenian expedition to Sicily (415 B.c) was widest sense of the term) as a mere epiphenomenon or by-product of matter or physical energy; and Ontological Idealism as com- trifling. In 332 B.c. it allied itself with Alexander of Epirus. After monly treats so-called material objects and events as mere ap- the battle of Cannae (216 B.c.) it declared in favour of Hannibal, pearances to, or creative images of, some consciousness or other. and became his headquarters. After the defeat of Hasdrubal at It should be remarked, however, that there is a very modern type the Metaurus (207 B.c.), the inhabitants of Metapontum followed of Idealism which is not primarily epistemological nor ontological, him in his retreat. From this time the city sank; Pausanias says but axiological, maintaining simply that it is the “ideal” or rational that a theatre and the walls alone remained. Metapontum has the remains of two temples, both of 510~480 part of reality which is the most valuable. Such a view is, of course, compatible with most ontological theories. B.c. One of them, which was probably dedicated to Apollo Lycius, (5) The next ontological problem concerns the mode of inter- was a peripteros, decorated with finely painted terra-cottas, measrelation between the various parts or modes or units of reality. uring 186 by or? ft., of which only the foundations are left. The Is each in turn absolutely determined by the others, or is there capitals were 34 ft. in diameter. Of the other temple, the so-called room in this universe for a measure of what is variously called Tavole Paladine, outside the area of the ancient city, a peripteros spontaneity, novelty, originality, freedom or self-determination? with 6 columns, 34 ft. in diameter, in front, and 12 at the sides; The Mechanistic theory, or simply “Mechanism,” is the view that 15 columns are standing, with the lower portion of the epistyle. the world is a “block-universe,” in which everything is once for It measured ros ft. by 49 ft. without the steps. There are also all causally predetermined, so that a sufficiently clever demon traces of the town walls. An archaic treasure-house dedicated at could accurately read the future and the past from the present Olympia by the people of Metapontum has been discovered there. condition of things. Such a view is usually linked with Material- The railway station is the junction of the Hne from Battipaglia ism, though it may also be found in conjunction with other onto- (and Naples) with that from Taranto to Reggio. logical theories. The opposed views are variously named accordMETASOMATISM, in petrology a process of alteration of ing to the different points which are especially stressed. The rocks which invołves enrichment of the rock by new substances philosophy of Creative Evolution (Bergson) and the theory of introduced from without (werd, change, côpa, body). SubEmergence (Lloyd Morgan and Alexander) lay stress on the stances originally present are partly or wholly removed in soluoriginality of natural events and on the utter impossibility of tion, the newly introduced material entering as gas or in aqueous anticipating the character of most results from a mere knowl- solution. Usually the enrichment takes place by definite chemical edge of the laws of matter and motion—especially so in the case reactions, but this is not always so; the conversion of limestone of vital phenomena and the higher activities of human beings. into siliceous chert though recognized as a metasomatic process Teleology vindicates the reality of purposiveness in Nature—the is not directly governed by any definite chemical reaction. Predirection of processes to the realization of certain ends in front cipitation of material may result from changes in solution renof them, as distinguished from their determination entirely by dering insoluble a substance foreign to the mineral acted upon. mechanical forces behind them, and Libertarianism is the view Replacement may be partial or complete, with or without preserwhich vindicates more particularly the freedom of man’s will. vation of original structures and textures. Metasomatic processes An extreme form of anti-Mechanism is known as T'ychism, accord- take place over a wide range of temperatures and pressures and lg to which everything just happens by chance. The view which may be accompanied by a volume change; in general they obey wholds “Necessity” in Nature is in one of its forms at least the law of mass action, and in order to effect replacement the

METASTASIO—METAURUS

334 introduced

solutions

must

attain

a minimum

concentration. ' with the greatest composers of the day—with Porpora, from whom

This minimum concentration of solutions or minimum vapour | he took lessons in music; with Hasse, Pergolese, Scarlatti, Vinci,

pressure in the case of gas reactions varies both with different | Leo, Durante, Marcello, all of whom were destined in the future tp reactions and the temperatures and pressures at which the re- set his plays to melody. Here too he studied the art of singing ang placement is effected. Among the common examples of metaso- won the friendship of the great singer Carlo Broschi (see Fapy. matism may be noted the dolomitization and conversion into NELLI). His plays, while beautiful in themselves, judged merely siderite of iron oxides of limestones. Phosphatization of lime- as works of literary art, became masterpieces as soon as their stones is a further example. These replacements probably take words were set to music which justified the conventionality of place at low temperatures, as do also the metasomatic changes his plots, the absurdities of his situations, the violence he does ig in salt deposits, such as the conversion of anhydrite into glau- history in the persons of some leading characters and his “damna. berite or polyphalite (see PNEUMATOLYSIS). ble iteration” of the theme of love in all its phases. Afetasomatism is widespread in silicate rocks and is especially Metastasio resided with La Romanina and her husband in characteristic of contact zones of igneous intrusions. These re- Rome. The generous woman took the whole Trapassi family— placements affect, however, not only the intruded rocks but also father, mother, brother, sisters—into her own house. She fostered the crystallized magma from which the emanations are derived.

Metasomatism involving addition of alkalis is represented by such processes as albitization, analcitization and the formation of felspar in certain contact zones of injected rocks. The production of tourmaline, topaz and lithra-mica as seen

in tourmaline and topaz-hornfelses, greisens, etc., is a metasomatic process involving enrichment of the rocks in boron, fluorine and lithium. Similarly the formation of chloride-marialite (scapolite) at the expense of felspars, serpentine from olivine, sericitization of felspars and felspathoid minerals are common examples of metasomatism occurring around igneous intrusions. Many ore deposits and the regions in their vicinity show evidences of widespread chemical replacement leading to enrichment, as in sulphide deposits. Limestones are particularly prone to metasomatic alteration. Their conversion to dolomite, siderite and iron oxide has already been referred to. Around igneous contacts they are not infrequently locally changed to andradite garnet or hedenbergite rocks, processes involving great enrichment in iron and silica. These garnet and pyroxene rocks are known as “skarns.” Probably iron

is introduced in the gaseous form as fluoride or chloride. Valuable ore deposits are frequently associated with rocks of this character. In many parts of western North America (Nevada, Arizona, etc.), great deposits of copper, lead and silver ores are worked in crystalline limestones and are often clearly replacement products of the limestones themselves. The constant

the poet’s genius and pampered his caprices. Under her influence he wrote from 172r onwards in rapid succession the Didone abbandonata Catone in Utica, Ezto, Alessandro nell’ Indie, Semirgmide riconosciuta, Siroe and Artaserse. But she was growing older; she had ceased to sing in public; and the poet felt himself more and more dependent in an irksome sense upon her kindness. He gained 300 scudi (about £60) for each opera; this pay, though good, was precarious, and in Sept. 1729 he accepted the offer of

the post of court poet to the theatre at Vienna, with a stipend of

3000 florins. La Romanina took charge of his family in Rome, and in the summer of 1730 Metastasio settled at Vienna ip

the house of a Spanish Neapolitan, Niccolò Martinez, where he resided until his death. Between the years 1730 and 1740 his finest dramas, Adriano, Demeirio, Issipile, Demofoonte, Olimpi-

ade, Clemenza di Tito, Achille in Sciro, Temistocle and Attilio Regolo, which he himself considered his masterpiece, were produced for the imperial theatre. Poet, composer, musical copyist and singer did their work together in frantic haste. Metastasio understood the technique of his peculiar art in its minutest details. Metastasio’s aisom with the Countess Althann, sister-inlaw of his old patroness the Princess Belmonte Pignatelli, became so close that it was even believed they had been privately married. In 1734 La Romanina asked Metastasio to get her an engagement

at the court theatre, but he did not want her in Vienna. The tone of his letters alarmed and irritated her. It is probable that she set out from Rome, but died suddenly upon the road. She left presence of igneous rocks in their vicinity indicates that they are him her fortune after her husband’s life interest in it had expired, connected with the introduction of the metals, and the deposits but Metastasio renounced the legacy. are often of such a kind as to show that post-volcanic discharges Metastasio’s later cantatas and the canzonet Ecco quel fere or magmatic gases and water were the mineralizing agents. istante, which he sent to his friend Farinelli, rank among his (C. E. T.) popular productions. In 1755 the Countess Althann died, and METASTASIO (1698-1782). Pietro Trapassi, Italian poet, Metastasio was more than ever reduced to the society which gathbetter known by his assumed name of Metastasio, was born in ered round him in the bourgeois house of the Martinez. He died Rome on Jan. 13, 1698. His father, Felice Trapassi, a native of on April 12, 1782. During the long period of 40 years in which Assisi, who had served in the Corsican regiment of the papal Metastasio outlived his originality and creative powers his fame forces, kept a grocer’s shop in the Via dei Cappellari. went on increasing. In his library he counted as many as 40 In 1709, Gian Vincenzo Gravina and Lorenzini, a critic of some editions of his own works. They had been translated into Frenck, note, heard the boy improvising verse to a crowd in the street. English, German, Spanish, even into modern Greek. But with the Gravina adopted him, hellenized his name into Metastasio; and changes effected by Gluck and Mozart, with the development of

gave him a good education. Metastasio soon found himself com-

peting with the most celebrated improvvisatori of his time in Italy, and almost wrecked his health. Gravina had the good sense to place the boy in a quiet seaside place in Calabria. At the age of twelve Metastasio translated the Iliad into octave stanzas; and two years later he composed a tragedy in the manner of Seneca upon a subject chosen from Trissino’s Italia liberata—

Gravina’s favourite epic. In 1718 Gravina died leaving his pro-

tégé a fortune. Metastasio was now twenty and an abbé. In two years, having spent his money, he apprenticed himself to a lawyer in Naples. He composed an epithalamium, and his first musical serenade, Endimsone, on the occasion (1721) of the marriage of his patroness the Princess Pinelli di Sangro to the Marchese Belmonte Pignatelli. In 1722 the viceroy asked Metastasio to compose a serenata for the empress’s birthday. He produced Gli orii espertds. It was set to music by Porpora, and the great Roman prima donna, Marianna Bulgarelli, called La Romanina from her birthplace, played the part of Venus. La Romanina forthwith took possession of Metastasio, and in her house he became acquainted

orchestration and the rapid growth of the German manner, a new type of libretto came into request. Metastasio’s plays fell into udeserved neglect. Farinelli, whom he styled “twin-brother,” was the true exponent of his poetry; and, with the disappearance of the school to which Farinelli belonged, Metastasio’s libretti suffered

eclipse. Collected editions of Metastasio’s works published at Genoa (1802) and Padua (1811) will probably be found most use

ful by the general student. An edition of the letters, by Carducei,

was published at Bologna in 1883. Metastasio’s life was written by

Aluigi (Assisi, 1783); by Charles Burney (1796); and by others; but the most vivid sketch is in Vernon Lee’s Studies of the 18th Century in Italy (1880). METAURUS (Mod. Metauro), a river of Italy which flows into the Adriatic a little south-east of Fanum Fortunae (mod.

Fano). In 207 B.C. (see Punic Wars and Hannesar) Hasdrubal had marched from Placentia to the aid of his brother Hannibal, and, on reaching the Cesano, the next stream south of the Me

taurus, halted and encamped. The forces of Livius Salinator aå the praetor Porcius Licinus, the latter of whom had previously

METAXAS—METELLUS

335

heen watching his movements, were encamped near Sena Gallica

usually coincide. there are provinces where the contrary is the «mod. Sinigaglia) only about half a mile away from him (no fact, as it is also in Italy. Indeed, Lombardy is a triumphant vindoubt on the opposite bank of the Cesano). He was about to at- dication of metayage in the abstract. The contras‘s may be extack them, when he discovered that the other consul, Nero, who |plained. Metayage, to be a success, must be a genuine partnerhad been watching Hannibal’s movements at Canusium had ship, one in which there is no sleeping partner, but in the affairs brought his army to swell the Roman forces, having, as a fact, in- of which the landlord, as well as the tenant, takes an active part. In France there is also a system termed metayage par groupes, tercepted Hasdrubal’s message to Hannibal that he would meet him “in Umbria” i.e. at this very place—for the name Umbria ex- which consists in letting a considerable farm, not to one metayer, tended to the coast before the time of Augustus. Hasdrubal then but to an association of several, who work together for the general attempted to retreat to the Metaurus and cross it, but his guides |good, under the supervision either of the landlord himself, or of deserted him, and he was unable to hit on the ford without them; | his bailiff. This arrangement avoids the difficulty of finding tenants he then marched up the tortuous stream to find another, but had |possessed of capital enough for any but very small farms.

only reached the hills of Sant Angelo, some two or three miles ' See further Lanp TENURE and the section Agriculiure in the articles

from the coast, where he tried to pitch his camp, when he found | France, GREECE, Itary, etc.; and consult J. Cruveilhier, Etude sur le the Romans, who had started their pursuit at dawn, too close on metayage (Paris, 1894).

his heels, and was obliged to halt and give battle. His left wing

METAZOA,

a zoological term, the equivalent of the old

was protected by the terrain, but there was room for fighting on | Enterozoa (q.v.) for all animals other than Protozoa (g.v.). The the right, where he drew up his Spanish troops in deep formation, sponges are also sometimes separated from this group and termed with his ten elephants in front of them, taking position himself in Parazoa. Metazoa are multicellular animals with at least two the centre. He then attacked the advancing Romans and the clash cell-layers and one or more body-cavities. (See ZooLocy). was a violent one; but the fighting was indecisive, until Nero, who METCALF, WILLARD LEROY (1858-1925), American

at first remained inactive on the right wing, with a deep stream-

bed in front of him, decided to pass behind Livius’ position and

advance on his left, thus taking the enemy on their right flank; the distance he had to traverse was less than a mile, and the move was a decisive one. Hasdrubal, who had seen that he must win or perish, sought and found the death of a hero. Livy’s statement that 56,000 of his army fell and only 5,400 prisoners were taken, is probably an exaggeration; and if we reckon his whole force very roughly at 30,000, we may accept Polybius’ figure of 10,000 killed, and assume 10,000 prisoners; while the other third of the

army, the Gauls and Ligurians, who had either taken no part in the battle or escaped, was allowed to make off undisturbed. defeat ended Hannibal’s hopes of success in Italy.

The

See Kromayer, Antike Schlachtfelder iii. 1. (1912) 424 sqq. for an authoritative treatment of the whole question. (T. A)

METAXAS,

ANDREAS

(1786-1860),

Greek politician,

was born in the island of Cephalonia. When Capo d’Istria was murdered in 1831 Metaxas, who had been war minister, became a member of the provisional government which held office till the accession of King Otho in 1833. He subsequently represented Greece at Madrid, Lisbon and Constantinople, with an interval (1843-44) in which he was premier. He died at Athens on Sept. 19, 1860.

METAYAGE SYSTEM.

The cultivation of land for a pro-

artist, was born in Lowell (Mass.), on July 1, 1858. He was a pupil of the Boston Normal Art school, of the Boston Art Museum school, and of the Académie Julien, Paris. After early figure painting and illustration, he became prominent as a landscape painter. He was one of the “Ten American Painters” who in 1897 seceded from the Society of American Artists. For some years he was an instructor in the Woman’s Art school, Cooper Union, New York, and in the Art Students’ League, New York. He died in New York city on March g, 1925. METCALFE, CHARLES THEOPHILUS MET-

CALFE, Baron (1785-1846), Indian and colonial administrator,

was born at Calcutta on Jan. 30,1785. Having been educated at Eton, in 1800 he sailed for India as a writer in the service of the East India Company. Four years later, he was appointed political assistant to General Lake, who was conducting the final campaign of the Mahratta war against Holkar. In 1808 he became envoy to the court of Ranjit Singh at Lahore, where in April 1809, he concluded the treaty securing the independence of the Sikh states between the Sutlej and the Jumna. Four years afterwards he was made resident at Delhi, and in 1819 appointed secretary in the secret and political department. In 1822 he succeeded his brother in the baronetcy, and in 1827 obtained a seat in the supreme council. In March 1835, after he had acted as the first governor of the proposed new presidency of Agra, he provisionally succeeded Lord William Bentinck in the governor-generalship. His liberation of the press so complicated his relations with the directors that he resigned the service of the Company in 1838. In the

prietor by one who receives a proportion of the produce. The system has never existed in England and has no English name, but in certain provinces of Italy and France it was once almost universal, and is still very common. It is also practised in the following year he became governor of Jamaica, where the diffiUnited States, in Portugal, in Greece, and in the countries border- culties created by the recent passing of the Negro Emancipation ing on the Danube. In Italy and France, respectively, it is called -Act called for tact. Ill health compelled him to return to England mezzeria and metayage, or halving—the halving, that is, of the in 1842, but six months afterwards he was appointed governorproduce of the soil between landowner and landholder. These general of Canada. He was raised to the peerage in 1845. He expressions merely signify that the produce is divisible in cer- died at Malshanger, near Basingstoke, on Sept. 5, 1846. tain definite proportions, which must obviously vary with the see J. W. Kaye, Life and Correspondence of Charles Lord Metcalfe varying fertility of the soil and other circumstances.

Sometimes

the landlord supplies all the stock, and sometimes only part—the cattle and seed perhaps, while the farmer provides the implements; or perhaps only half the seed and half the cattle, the farmer finding the other halves—taxes too being paid wholly by one or the other, or jointly by both.

English writers were unanimous, until J. S. Mill adopted a diferent tone, in condemning the metayer system. They judged it by France where under the ancien régime all direct taxes were

paid by the metayer, the noble landowner being exempt, which taxes, being assessed according to the visible produce of the soil, operated as penalties upon all endeavours to increase output. Also, there was no fixity of tenure without which metayage can-

(1854), and Selections from Lord Metcalfe’s Papers (1855); also Wakefield’s paper, Sir Charles Metcalfe in Canada, reprinted in E. M. Wrong’s Charles Butler and Responszble Government (Oxford 1926).

METCHNIKOV, ILYA: see Mecunrxov, Itya. METELLUS, the name of a distinguished family of the Caecilian (plebeian) gens at Rome. The most important individuals are given separate notices below. For their history see M. Wende, De Caecilis Metellis (Bonn, 1875); P. Gröbe’s edition of Drumann’s Geschichte Roms, ii.; and the article ‘“‘Caecilius” in Pauly-Wissowa’s Realencyklopddie. METELLUS, LUCIUS CAECILIUS, general during the first Punic War. Consul in 251 B.c., he was sent to Sicily, and gained a decisive victory over Hasdrubal, who had the larger force. Metellus’s victory was in great measure due to a panic caused amongst the Carthaginian elephants by his clever manoeuvring.

et prosper. French metayers in Arthur Young’s time were “removable at pleasure, and obliged to conform in all things to the will of their landlords,” and so in general they are still. Yet A number of them figured in his triumph, and from this time the even in France, although metayage and extreme rural poverty elephant frequently occurs on the coins of the Metelli, The story

336

METELLUS—METEMPSYCHOsIS

that in 241 he rescued the Palladium from a fire in the temple of | torius, who pressed him hard till the arrival of Pompey in 4 Vesta at the cost of his eyesight is not to be found in the extract Next year Metellus defeated Sertorius’s lieutenant Hirtuleius » Italica and Segovia, and joining Pompey rescued him from th from his funeral oration in Pliny (Net. Hist. vii. 43 [45]). METELLUS, QUINTUS CAECILIUS, son of Lucius consequences of a check at Sucro. In yr Metellus returned tẹ Caecilius Metellus, became consul in 206 B.C. as a reward for his Rome and triumphed. He became pontifex maximus, and dig services at the Metaurus. In 205 he was dictator for holding the probably at the end of 64. METELLUS PIUS SCIPIO, QUINTUS. CAECILIŲ comitia; in zor one of the commissioners for dividing the public land in Samnium and Apulia amongst the Roman veterans; in 186 he conducted an embassy to Macedonia, afterwards proceeding to Peloponnesus to investigate the quarrel between Sparta and the Achaeans. He is the Metellus who caused the poet Naevius (q.v.) to be imprisoned and exiled for having attacked him on the stage. METELLUS CELER, QUINTUS CAECILIUS, legate of Pompey in Asia 6s B.C., praetor 63, was despatched to cut off the retreat of Catiline to the north by blocking the passes, and in 62 went into the province of Cisalpine Gaul with the title of proconsul, although he did not become consul till 6o. A supporter of the optimates and an enemy of Pompey, he successfully opposed the agrarian law that was to provide for Pompey’s veterans. He also tried, though fruitlessly, to obstruct Caesar’s agrarian law in 59. He died suddenly in the same year—it was usually supposed from poison administered by his wife Clodia. METELLUS CRETICUS, QUINTUS CAECILIUS, Roman general. Consul in 69 B.C., he was appointed to the command of the war against Crete, the headquarters of the pirates of the Mediterranean. In 67 Pompey demanded the control of the campaign under the Gabinian Law. The Cretans offered to surrender to Pompey, who instructed Metellus to cease operations. Metellus refused, and himself annexed the island. His triumph was delayed by Pompey’s partisans, and he joined the opposition in the Senate and helped to defeat the ratification of Pompey’s Asiatic settlement. He was one of a commission of three sent (60) to in-

vestigate the state of affairs in Gaul where disturbances were apprehended. He appears to have been alive in 54. METELLUS MACEDONICUS, QUINTUS CAECIL-

TUS (d. 115 3.c.), praetor 148 B.C., defeated the usurper Andriscus (g.v.) in Macedonia and forced him to surrender. Under his superintendence the country was made a Roman province. In 146, he attacked the Achaeans to avenge an insult offered to a Roman embassy at Corinth, He was superseded during a successful campaign by L. Mummius. On his return to Italy he received a triumph and the title of Macedonicus. Consul in 143, he subdued the Celtiberians in northern Spain. In 131, when censor with Q. Pompeius (they were the first two plebeian censors), he proposed that all citizens should be compelled to marry. He was an opponent of the Gracchi, although not averse from moderate reform. He built a colonnade in the Campus Martius, and two temples dedicated to Iuppiter Stator and Juno.

son of P. Scipio Nasica, was adopted by Metellus Celer. He wa accused of bribery in 60 B.c., and defended by Cicero, In August

52, he became consul through the influence of Pompey, who had married his daughter Cornelia. In 49 he proposed that Caesay should disband his army within a definite time, under pain of being

declared an enemy of the state. His first command during the

civil war was the province of Syria. He commanded the centre at Pharsalus, and afterwards went to Africa, where by Cato’ influence he received the command. In 46 he was defeated a Thapsus; while endeavouring to escape to Spain he fell into the hands of P. Sittius, and put himself to death. METEMPSYCHOSIS. The theory of the transmigraticg of souls is usually associated with the ancient Egyptians, who are said to have practised embalming to prevent or delay rein. carnation; with the teaching of Pythagoras and the Buddha (g.v.); and was also held by a sect of early Christian heretics spoken of by Jeremy Collier as ‘““Metempsychi.” The idea, how.

ever, much older than any of these creeds, exists throughout th world.

Where the passage of the soul, or the vital essence, into

some particular form is associated, as by the Garos of Assam, with ideas of retribution for the sins or accidents of this life, the

influence of Buddhism or Hinduism has probably been at work The primitive idea, independent of moral teaching, is bound up with the conception of an objective soul, and often with ideas as to a plurality of souls in a single individual, one of which is separable and able to go in and out through the mouth or nostrik. Thus the Poso-Alfures of Celebes believe in three souls, the inosa or vital principle, the angga, or intellectual, and the ¢ancena

or divine element which leaves during sleep, and which is of the same nature in many plants and animals. This separable soul is clearly a conception based on the phenomena of dreams taken to be actual experiences undergone during sleep, and postulating some sort of embodiment able to roam while the body sleep. This soul must be small enough to leave: by the mouth, and $ appears as a manikin in India and in Celebes, as a snake, a weasel or a mouse, in Germany, or as an insect in further India. Thus the soul is commonly spoken of as “flying” in Greek, and represented as a butterfly, as, indeed, all over Europe, from Ireland to Lithuania, in China, Assam, Burma, Japan, and the Pacific. So, too, the soul appears as a bird—in Europe the dove is the commonest and poles bearing pigeons were erected over

METELLUS NUMIDICUS, QUINTUS CAECILIU S, | Lombard graves; but the soul also appears in the form of ducks, consul 109 B.c, and commander in the Jugurthine War, defeated ravens, owls or hawks, and as a hawk again it appears in Egypt Jugurtha (g.v.) by the river Muthul, and after a difficult march and in Assam. This belief in a separable soul with an insect or other form through the desert took his stronghold, Thala. Marius had him superseded, and himself received the command for the next year. must obviously influence beliefs in the eschatology of the soul Metellus received a triumph and the title of Numidicus. Satur- We find accordingly that the soul is believed to pass into a ninus, whom as a censor he tried to remove from the senate, passed insect on the decease of the body. Thus the Angami Naga credits in roo B.C. an agrarian law, inserting a provision that all senators the soul with a number of subsequent existences in insect form, should swear to it within five days. All complied but Metellus, while the Chang holds that the sduls of those who can sing becom who tetired to Asia. After Saturninus was killed he returned, and cicadas, but the souls of others dung beetles. Thus the Bakongs died (probably in 91). He was one of the chief leaders of the of Borneo believe that their dead are reincarnated in the bear cats which frequent their raised coffins; wood-boring wasps aristocratic party. Cicero speaks highly of him as an orator. METELLUS PIUS, QUINTUS CAECILIUS, son of hornets take up their abode in the wooden soul figures put upby Numiditus, was one of the commanders in the Social War, and some tribes of Assam, and we find Nagas and Lusheis regarding defeated Q. Pompaedius Silo, the Marsian leader (88 B.c.). Sulla, wasps and hornets (among other insects) as souls. If the soul can leave an individual during sleep and re-entet on his departure for Asia, gave him proconsular command over south Italy. When Marius returned to Italy and joined Cinna, him, it should be able to enter and be reborn in another individual the soldiers wished Metellus to take command, but he refused. In Germany, a dying man’s heart passes into his brother, whose The soldiers deserted in large numbers, and Metellus retired to courage is doubled; in the Garo hills the soul, after a sojowa Africa and afterwards to Liguria, resuming his proconsular com- in the abode of the dead, returns for another incarnation. mand on Sulla’s return. In the war against Marius he gained range of this conception of reincarnation is indicated by th

several important successes, and after his victory over C. Norbanus at Faventia (82) he subdued the whole of upper Italy. Consul in 80 with Sulla, he went to Spain next year against Ser-

frequency of tabu on giving children names already borne W living members of the family. (See Names.) The notion is thal identity of name implies identity of personality and that ont

METEOR the two bearers would die. Hence the Lhotas, for instance, never give the child the name of a living relative. A belief in reincarna-

337

the number of souls was fixed; birth therefore is never the creation

af a soul, but only a transmigration from one bady to another. Plato’s acceptance of the doctrine is characteristic of his sympathy with popular beliefs and desire to incorporate them in a in the reincarnation of human souls is indicated by such rites as purified form into his system. Aristotle, a far less emotional and those of the Akikuyu women of East Africa, who, in order to sympathetic mind, has a doctrine of immortality totally mcanhave children, worship at a ficus tree inhabited by the souls of the sistent with it. In later Greek literature the deactrine appears dead, or of the Konyak Nagas of Assam, who perform ceremonies from time to time; it is mentioned in a fragment of Menander over phallic cists containing skulls of deceased persons, in order (the Inspired WFoman) and satirized by Lucian (Gallus § 18 seq.). to secure a birth of corresponding sex to that of the skull. In Roman literature it is found as early as Ennius, who in his Reincarnation is not confined to animal forms. The stories Calabrian home must have been familiar with the Greek teachings of trees that grow up from the graves of lovers, such as Tristram which had descended to his times from the cities of Magna and Iseult, and twine themselves together are familiar in Europe; Graecia. In a lost passage of his Annals, a Roman history in and the human soul also reappears in a flower growing on the verse, Ennius told how he had seen Homer in a dream, who had grave. In the case of flowers springing from drops of blood, assured him that the same soul which had animated both the poets as from that of Ajax, the soul is possibly regarded as located had once belonged to a peacock, Persius in ọne of his satires actually in the blood itself. In further Asia and elsewhere the (vi. 9) laughs at Ennius for this: it is referred to alse by Lucretius soul goes into the crops, and by preserving the corpse, which is (i. 124) and by Horace (Epist. I. i. 52). Virgil works the idea smoke-dried, funeral ceremonies are accommodated to the agri- into his account of the Underworld in the sixth beok af the cultural year, so as to afford the crop the full benefit of the soul Aeneid (vv. 724 sqq.). It persists in antiquity down to the latest matter from those who have died recently; and in the case of classic thinkers, Plotinus and the other Neoplatonists. the Karens of Burma a specific theary is evolved of a cycle of life Attempts have been made with little success ta find metemon these lines. (See Heap-Huntine.) The Lushei theory that psychosis in early Jewish literature. But there are traces of it in the soul takes the form of dew and is reincarnated in the body Philo, and it is definitely adopted in the Kabbala. Within the on which it descends, may be a version of the Karen theory. Christian Church it was held during the first centuries by isolated The idea of transmigration has been influenced and inevitably Gnostic sects, and by the Manichaeans in the 4th and 5th cenconfused by ideas as to the external soul, generally associated turies, but was invariably repudiated by orthodox theologians. In with magicians, where the vital principle depends on a soul kept the middle ages these traditions were continued by the numerous in an animal in the forest, or in an egg below the sea, etc., which sects known collectively as Cathari, At the Renaissance we find has to be secured before the magician can be killed, by ideas the doctrine in Giordano Bruno, and in the ryth century in the 2s to totemism and lycanthropy (¢q.v.), and beliefs in the rein- theosophist van Helmont. A modifed form of it was adopted by carnation of the soul in predatory forms such as tigers (India Swedenborg. During the classical period of German literature and Sumatra), sharks (Melanesia), or alligators (Africa), have metempsyçhosis attracted much attention: Goethe played with perhaps arisen in connection with those ideas. the idea, and it was taken up mare seriously by Lessing, who BrstiograPHy.—Stallybrass, Grimm’s Teutonic Mythology (1888); borrowed it from Charles Bonnet, and by Herder. Jt bas been

tion within the family would naturally be strengthened by the recurrence of marked family resemblances. In any case a belief

Sir J. G. Frazer, Tke Belief in Immortality (1920-23).

HISTORICAL

(J. H. H.)

ASPECT

mentioned with respect hy Hume and by Schopenhauer, Modern theosophy, which draws its inspiration from India, has taken

metempsychosis as a cardinal tenet; it is, says a recent theoMetempsychosis is alsa important to philosophic thought, sophical writer, “the master-key to modern problems,” and among Apparently, Greece did not borrow the doctrine from Egypt or them to the problem of heredity, (H. St.) India but used savage ideas for religious and philosophic purposes; BrariocrapHy.—A. Bertholet, The Transmigration of Sows (trans. The Orphic religion, which held it, first appeared in Thrace upon irom the German by H. J. Chaytor) ; E. Rohde, Psyche. the semi-harbarous north-eastern frontier. Orpheus, its legendary METEOR, a term used by the Greeks to denote atmospheric founder, is said to have taught that “soul and body are united phenomena in general, such as clouds, halos, rainbows, etc., as by @ compact unequally binding on either; the soul is divine, well as shooting stars (Gr. weréwpa, literally “things in the air,” immortal and aspires to freedom, while the body holds it in from pera, beyond, and delpev, to lift up). This usage survived fetters as a prisoner, Death dissolves this compact, but only to even into older English literature. To-day the term meteor is re-imprison the liberated soul after a short time; for the wheel restricted to those cosmical bodies which, entering the earth’s atof birth revolves inexorably. Thus the soul continues its journey, mosphere from without and shooting across the sky, give the ap-

alternating between a separate unrestrained existence and fresh reincarnation, round the wide circle of necessity, as the com-

panion of many bodies of men and animals.

pearance of a star in rapid motion, often leaving a bright train behind. (See METEORITE.)

To these unfor-

As indicated by the name, in ancient times meteors were considered to be atmospheric in origin and hence not cosmical bodies. It is true that accounts of the fall of stones from the sky Dionysus in particular, and calls them to turn to God by ascetic are found in Chinese and classical literature, running back 2,600 piety of life and self-purification: the purer their lives the higher years. The Chinese also recorded single brilliant meteors as well will be their next reincarnation, until the soul has completed the as showers of shooting stars, In Europe many of these latter have spiral ascent of destiny to live for ever as God from whom it also been recorded for the past 1,500 or more years. But not until comes.” Such teaching appeared in Greece about the 6th century 1803 were contemporary scientists convinced that meteorites came B.C., organized itself into mysteries at Eleusis and elsewhere, and from space, and not until 1833 was it proved that ordinary meteors or shooting stars also had a cosmical origin. From then on produced a copious literature, The earliest Greek thinker with whom metempsychosis is con- they have heen considered true astronomical bodies, In ancient nected is Pherecydes; but Pythagoras, who is said to have been and mediaeval times the passage of a brilliant fireball or fall of >` his pupil, is its first famous philosophic exponent. Pythagoras a meteorite was considered an omen, and viewed with supersti-

tunate prisoners Orpheus proclaims the message of liberation, that they stand in need of the grace of redeeming gods and of

probably made his reputation by bringing Orphic doctrine from tious dread, Great meteoric showers filled mankind with terrible North-eastern Hellas to Magna Graecia. fear, and in 1833 it is certain that the ignorant thought the end wmportance of metempsychosis is due to Plata. In the of the world had come, To-day such phenomena are viewed with eschatological myth which closes the Republic he tells the story

keen delight and every effort is made to observe them in the

the twelfth day after death and recounted the secrets of the other World. There are theories to the same effect in other dialogues,

Beginning of Systematic Study.—The study of meteors started in 1833. On Nov, 13 of that year there occurred 4 meteoric shower of the greatest brilliance that was seen from all parts of

Er, the son of Armenius, miraculously returned to life on interest of science.

tba Phaedrus, Meno, Phaedo, Timaeus and Laws, In Plato’s view

METEOR

33

eastern North America. It was estimated that more than 200,000 shooting stars were seen at one place between midnight and dawn. Many of the meteors were very bright, leaving persistent trains, yet there was no record of one of them having reached the earth. Several men who observed this shower noted that the meteors seemed all to shoot out or radiate from a certain fixed point, that happened to be in the constellation Leo. This point is known as the radiant, and the meteors as Leonids. It was soon proved that the radiant was merely the direction in space from which the Leonids came, and, as this radiant was in the same position as seen from many widely separated places, the Leonids must come from without our atmosphere. The radiant is an effect of perspective, due to the meteors actually moving in practically parallel straight lines when they meet the earth. An excellent illustration is the effect when the sun’s rays are seen shining through spaces between clouds. The rays are parallel, yet they appear to radiate.

on too far to disturb appreciably these meteors, so they appeared in considerable numbers. Indeed a few Leonids are met every November, so some must be scattered all around their orbit, by

the dense part that can give us a really fine shower is condensed into a relatively small part of the whole circumference.

That the Leonids are not yet uniformly distributed, but are mostly included in a small group, seems to prove that they were comparatively recently turned into their present orbit. Uranys has been credited with having accomplished this in A.D. 126. It js impossible as yet to predict the chances for another great shower in 1932~34. Biela’s Comet suddenly divided into two parts in 1845. On its

next return in 1852 the two parts were seen to be about equally

bright and were a million miles apart. The comet was not found

at the predicted return of 1859 or 1866, but on Nov. 27, 1872, a

splendid display of meteors was seen.

Calculation showed that

Early Theories.—These discoveries were the foundation of these Andromedes, as they are now called, followed the same

meteoric astronomy. It was later found that the Leonids revolved around the sun in a period of 33 years, and a search of ancient documents showed records of brilliant showers coming in October or November extending back to a.p. go2. In 1866 the further notable discovery was made that the orbit of the Leonids was practically coincident with that of Tempel’s Comet. A similar connection between the Perseid meteors, which come to a maximum in every August, and Tuttle’s Comet had just been shown. One case might be a coincidence, two could hardly be. The intimate connection between comets and meteor streams was thus established. Soon after similar connections were found between the Lyrids of April and Comet 186r I, and the Andromedes of late November and Biela’s Comet. In recent years a few more have been found, the most notable being those between Halley’s Comet and the May Aquarids, and Pons-Winnecke’s Comet and a shower that came to a maximum late in June, 1916. For many years the discovery of these intimate connections

orbit as the lost comet which had had a period of 6% years. Another fine display, notable in that during it a piece of meteoric iron fell at Mazapil in Mexico, occurred on Nov. 27, 1885, and another lesser one on Nov. 23, 1892. On Nov. 24, 1899, a fair shower was seen, but, from then on, the earth has never encountered any considerable number of these meteors. Nor has Biela’s

Comet reappeared.

Older records show showers that were prob-

ably due to this group on Dec. 6, 1741, Dec. 7, 1798 and Dec. 7,

1838. The main groups have either been broken up or switched

so far from the earth’s orbit that we no longer meet them. Lyrids, Perseids and Others.—There is an annual shower of Lyrids, with a radiant near the star Vega, which in most years

is inconspicuous, but occasionally abundant. For instance, on April 20, 1803, it furnished a very brilliant display, and a fair one on April 21, 1922. Ancient annals give us nine other great showers on corresponding dates, the earliest being in 687 B.c. The best known stream that is practically sure to give us a good annual led astronomers to believe that most, if not all, meteors were display is the Perseid. These meteors, which are seen late in merely the débris of comets, and hence originated in our Solar July and through the first half of August, have been extensively System. Strong evidence has, however, been accumulating that observed for the past hundred years. Their maximum comes on this view is only partially correct, and that a very large percentage Aug. Ir or 12, when as many as 120 per hour sometimes may be of all classes of meteors must come to us from the depths of counted. Definite daily motion of a radiant point was first proved space and hence have originated elsewhere. It has been proved for the Perseids. Many of these meteors leave persistent trains, that a body, falling from rest at an infinite distance from the sun and owing to their appearing in the summer for northern observtowards it, would move with a velocity of 26m. per second as it ers, they may be specially recommended to the amateur. passed the earth’s orbit. This is called the parabolic velocity. The Orionids which appear during the last half of every OctoYn general if a meteor has a heliocentric velocity of less than this ber, and the Geminids which appear the first half of every Devalue, then it originated in our system; if a greater, then in some cember, complete the list of really conspicuous meteor streams. other stellar system. The observing of such velocities, with a The Orionids have been the subject of much controversy as to

tgh degree of accuracy, is a most difficult problem, and the whole future of meteoric astronomy must rest largely upon its successful solution. The difficulty is due to the visible life of the average meteor lasting much less than one second. Velocities in our atmosphere as low as 8m. per second and as high as som. per second have been observed.

The Leonids.—The Leonids being the best known of all me-

teor streams, their history will be briefly traced.

The following

table gives the dates of appearances of bright showers: go2 Oct. 13

rror Oct. 17 t202 Oct. 19 1366 Oct. 23

1533 Oct. 24

1602 Oct. 27 1698 Nov. 9 1799 Nov. 12

1833 Nov. Nov.

1832 Nov. 13 tgor Nov.

It is apparent that while the showers certainly come at intervals of about 33 years, still there are long gaps. These may be

explained in two ways; first that no record survives due to mere chance, second that the meteor stream missed the earth in these years, A fine return was hoped for in 1899, but very few Leonids

were seen. It was, however, proved that the main group of Leonids, which normally would have met the earth in November 1899,

had passed near the giant planet Jupiter en route towards us,

and so had been switched aside somewhat by its attraction. This caused them to miss the earth. By the time the part of the stream that met us in rg0r passed Jupiter’s orbit, the planet had passed

whether their radiant was in motion or stationary.

The prepo-

derance of evidence now points to daily motion. For the Geminids motion of the radiant has been generally conceded. At the maxima of both of these streams from 20 to 40 meteors per hour may be expected when conditions are favourable. Others worthy of mention are the Quadrantids, Jan. 1-3; the Eta Aquarids, May I-11; and the Delta Aquarids, July 27-31. The Eta Aquarids, connected as they are with Halley’s Comet, are the most important of the three. Orbits and Perturbations.—Meteor showers cannot be ex pected to return an indefinite number of times. From their very nature they are not permanent, and we have already noted the case of the Andromedes, which, after furnishing several fine showers, seem to have died out, as it were. There are several know reasons for this; the most obvious that the stream misses the

earth entirely, owing to its having been pulled aside by the attraction of some planet, the second that being at best a very loos aggregation of solid particles, their mutual gravitation is Hence when a group passes near a planet those nearest are more

pulled aside by its attraction than those farther off, and as this

must continually recur, eventually the group is widely scattered

Meteor Radiants—The possibility of a radiant remaining fixed in the same apparent place in the heavens has been seriously investigated. The existence of numerous so-called “stationary radiants” has been insisted upon by several experienced observers, and as firmly denied by many others. The reason why 4

METEOR

339

ant should shift daily is, that even if all meteors from it for | No. | Begin- |Ending. | many days or weeks are moving in practically parallel paths, t the earth in its orbital motion around the Sun changes its direction about 1° daily. The position of the apparent radiant depends upon the directions of motion of both earth and meteors. Hence if either changes, in general the radiant must shift. It has

heen proved, indeed, that a radiant, which lies near the ecliptic, can remain nearly stationary for some weeks. The Numbers of Meteors.—It is hence impossible at present to give even an approximate estimate of how many meteor

streams have so far been observed, more than to say that the number is large. Better data can be given as to hourly or monthly numbers of all meteors visible to the eye. It is found that nearly

twice as many are seen per hour during the second half of the

night as in the first half. Also meteors are twice as numerous

from July to January as from January to July. The second phenomenon is due simply to the earth meeting more meteor streams

in that part of its orbit; the first to the fact that in the evening hours the meteors must overtake the earth to become visible,

while in the morning hours the meteors meet the earth head-on. Of necessity, therefore, we see more after midnight than before. From January to July, for the whole night, an hourly average of six or seven should be seen by one observer with a clear, moonless

sky; from July to January an average of 12 to 15. Excluding

1o9 121 war uw a

213

|

67-4m! 86-1

147

57

Notes.

536m!

Magns. 1-5 fi Large meteors and 30-9 || meteorites 37:4 | Fireballs

r6 49

D 71-4

39 78

69°8 96-3

107

73°6

If it is asked the Perseids, it nearly head-on. hence they can phere.

19°3 | Detonating meteors

13:7 | Meteorites 54°7. | Perseids by Weiss Authority: von Niessl 56-0 | Perseids in 1863 60:7 | Leonids in 1863 Authority: Newton

45-3 | Misc. meteors and fireballs

Authority: Denning (1896)

why the Leonids is due to the fact This gives them begin to glow in

appear at higher altitudes than that they strike the earth more a greater relative velocity and a less dense part of our atmos-

Luminosity, Mass and Size.—lIt is obviously impossible that

dust, gas or solid particles could continue to glow, merely from having been heated, in the intensely cold upper air for periods of many minutes. The part of a meteor’s path that seems to give long enduring trains is from 60 to som. above the earth’s sur-

face. Study with the telescope has shown them to be tubular in shape. Suggested explanations are that the trains are due to phosphorescence, possibly connected with electric discharges; or Fireballs and Bolides.—These bodies, which are merely that part of the energy being stored up in the molecules is later super-meteors, owing to their larger mass, are able to penetrate released as a gradual emission of light. All reliable calculations of the masses and diameters of melower before destruction. Also when they overtake the earth before midnight with low velocity, they sometimes have paths teors lead to surprisingly small values. Meteors of the first and many hundred miles long in our atmosphere, which often do not second magnitude are thought to be not more than one- or twomake large angles with its surface. These circumstances permit tenths of an inch in diameter, nor weigh more than a few millithem a relatively longer survival. Such bodies may give every grams. All such bodies undoubtedly appear larger owing to the variety of phenomenon mentioned above. When they come quite envelope of heated and glowing gas that surrounds them in their near the earth’s surface their passage is frequently accompanied by flight, as well as to irradiation. There appears no sound reason very loud sounds, which are sometimes said to be like explosions for thinking small meteors different in constitution from their but more properly may be compared to the “shock-wave” of a larger brothers, the meteorites. Analyses of the latter give us the great projectile. Many compare them also to distant thunder. usual elements, iron and nickel being very prominent in the meSuch fireballs of very long paths may actually cross from horizon tallic ones. But many are wholly composed of stone. We may safely infer that smaller meteors have a similar constitution and to horizon for one observer and pass far beyond. The most remarkable example of this type of phenomenon is are merely smaller fragments. That different elements predomifurnished by the “Meteoric Procession” of Feb. 9, 1913. This nate in individual meteors is further proved by their different wonderful group of bright meteors or fireballs was first seen over colours. In a few cases the spectra of meteors have been photoCanada, and having travelled about 5,700 miles was last seen graphed. These spectra also show familiar elements, such as over the Atlantic, but still going towards the south-east. It con- hydrogen, calcium, magnesium, carbon, helium and sodium, but sisted of four or five groups of 40 to 60 members each. Along this analysis gives no conclusive evidence as to their source. Meteor Observing.—The actual observation of meteors forms the observed part of their path their height was only about 35 miles. At many of the Canadian stations their passage produced one of the branches of astronomy best suited to amateurs. The sounds like thunder, and at eight stations even houses were only equipment needed is a star chart on which to plot the paths, shaken. A similar phenomenon was seen at Cairo, in 1029 A.D., a notebook and watch. Observations are made by noting carefully the points among the stars at which the meteor begins and although unhappily the record is brief. The brightness of most fireballs will vary greatly, generally ends, and plotting this path upon the map. Records of the time, increasing towards the end of their path. Minor explosions are colour, magnitude, etc., are made in the notebook at the same often seen before the great final outburst that ends the career of time. Societies for this work, largely composed of amateurs, now so many of them. It is not unusual for such objects to have an exist in several countries. Such work is of real scientific value apparent diameter equal to that of the moon, and to give about and is the basis for advances in meteoric astronomy. For more than 30 years attempts have been made to apply phoas much light as that body. Occasionally one has been reported as making the night as bright as day, but we may well consider tography, but progress has been slow. It has been proved, howthis an exaggeration. As such bodies are never expected, all ever, that only short-focus instruments of considerable lightgathering power are of real service. Lenses four to six inches observers suffer the serious disadvantage of surprise. Heights and Velocities.—The heights of meteors in the at- in diameter with a focal ratio of about 1:4 have been most used. mosphere may be determined by observation and calculation, Even with these only bright or very slow-moving meteors regisfollowing well-known rules. The same object must have the co- ter themselves, and as no great shower has come of late the total ordination of its end points observed from at least two places number of trains photographed has not exceeded a few hundred. whose distance apart is known. How a meteor is actually ob- In some cases enough have been photographed on one night to served is described later. With the data mentioned it is relatively give a radiant, but most are isolated. Attempts to obtain heights a simple matter to calculate the heights at which it began and and velocities by photography have met with some success, but

telescopic meteors, of which there must be tens of millions, it is estimated that 20 million meteors enter our atmosphere daily, and a minimum of one meteorite per day reaches the earth’s surface.

progress has been painfully slow. Nevertheless this method holds out great promise for the future. Some of the few radiants so derived were found with gratifying exactness. to eye naked the to observable meteor smallest the varying from Theories of Origin.—The question of the origin of meteors the largest fireballs. The following table gives the average results:

as well as its length of path. During the last century and a quarter this has been done for many hundred such objects,

340

METEORA—METEORITE

carries us inevitably to that of the origin not only of our Solar |speed and eventually bursts into fragments. As a consequence System, but to that of other similar systems in space. It has been partly of this shattering, but mainly of the sudden explosive shock shown that there is an intimate connection between orbits of and rise of temperature given to the air by the rapid passage of comets and some meteor streams, and it is inferred on sound the meteorite, a short time after the disappearance of the fireball, grounds that the nuclei of comets consist of solid masses—+.e., me- loud detonations like thunder are heard, and these are generally followed by weird sounds which have been likened to the bellowteors of various sizes. Accepting the Planetesimal Hypothesis, or some modification ing of oxen, the roaring of a fire in a chimney, the tearing of of it, as the true one, we may look upon all meteoric bodies as the calico, etc. Owing to the rapid reduction in speed of the meteorite, débris of evolution—as fragments left over, or as parts of plane- the fragments reach the ground like ordinary falling bodies with tesimals that were destroyed before achieving full growth. But velocities not greater than a few hundred feet a second. They, a study of the orbits and velocities of numerous fireballs and me- therefore, penetrate the soil to a depth of only a few feet, and in teorites proves that they originated outside the Solar System. one particular fall, which took place in 1869 at Hessle in Sweden, Analyses of some such meteorites prove beyond controversy that stones which fell upon ice only a few inches thick rebounded from they once formed part of larger solid bodies of planetary dimen- the surface. Moreover, in spite of the fact that the original mass sions. Hence we must infer an origin for these similar to those had been rendered incandescent, the time of flight is too short for we know originated here. This brings us to one of the most any real penetration of heat beneath the surface. Accordingly, the important results of recent meteoric astronomy: if a catastrophic stones, when they reach the ground, are generally only slightly origin must be assumed for our Solar System, similar origins warm to the touch, and the sole evidence of the intense heat to must be assumed for innumerable others, and hence we must which they had been subjected is a black fused crust which covers admit that many other stars have systems of planets which were them (occasionally only partially), but is rarely more than a millimetre thick. The characteristic feature of most stony meteorites evolved in a manner similar to our own. BIBIJOGRAPRY.—0O. C. Farrington, Meteorites (1915), Chas. P. is this black crust, contrasting so remarkably with the white to Olivier, Meteors (1925). (C. P. O.) grey interior scattered through which can usually be seen bright

METEORA,

a group of monasteries in Thessaly, north of

the Peneius valley, near the village of Kalabaka (the ancient Aeginium, mediaeval Stagus or Stagoi), not quite 20 m. N.E. of Trikkala. From the Cambunian hills two masses of rock project southward into the plain, eroded into isolated columns 8s to 300 ft. high, “some like gigantic tusks, some like sugarloaves, and some like vast stalagmites,” all of iron-grey or reddish-brown conglomerate of gneiss, mica-slate, syenite and greenstone. The monasteries stand on the summit of these pinnacles;

accessible only by rope and net worked by a windlass from the top, or by a series of almost perpendicular ladders. The peak on which St. Stephen’s is built does not rise higher than the ground behind, and the deep, narrow chasm is spanned by a drawbridge. Owing to the confined area, the buildings are closely packed, but each monastery contains beside the monks’ cells and water-cisterns, at least one church and a refectory, and some also a library. At one time they were 14 in number, but now not more than four (the Great Monastery, Holy Trinity, St. Barlaam’s and St.

Stephen’s) are inhabited by more than two or three monks.

The

present church of the Great Monastery was erected, according to Leake’s reading of the local inscription, in 1388 (Bjérnstahl, the Swedish traveller, had given 1371), and it is one of the largest, and handsomest in Greece. A number of the mss. from these

specks of metallic iron and often curious rounded bodies known as chondrules.

In these respects meteoric stones are very different

from the rounded nodules of sulphide of iron which weather out of the chalk on the S.E. coast of England and are often called “thunderbolts” and mistaken for meteorites. The term “thunder-

bolt” indeed as applied to meteorites is a misnomer since they

have no connection with thunderstorms, and reports of the fall of “thunderbolts” during storms really refer to lightning-strokes.

It is only under favourable conditions that such phenomena have been observed in their entirety. At the actual place of fall often only detonations have been heard, although the fireball may have been seen at places miles away, and when on March 9, 1923, a small stone of about 3 lb. fell a few yards from a labourer at

Ashdon, Essex, only the whizzing of its flight was heard. Occurrence of Falls.—That the advent of these bodies is an event of somewhat rare occurrence is evident from the fact that the number of falls of which specimens have been preserved is only about 1,000, and that of these no more than 15 have taken place in the British Isles. The number of new falls recorded for the whole world in any one year is generally less than ten, though

doubtless others occur in sparsely populated regions and escape

human observation. One of the earliest falls to be recorded took place about 644 B.c., strange to say, in China, for until quite

monasteries are now in the National Library at Athens. Aeginium recently no meteorite in that country appears to have been preis described by Livy as a strong place and Stagus appears in served. Other ancient falls of stones, some of which were made objects of worship, are recorded by Plutarch and Pliny. The Byzantine writers. See W. M, Leake, Northern Greece (4 vols., 1835); Prof. Kriegk in stone referred to in the Acts as the image of Diana of the EpheZeitschr. f. allg, Erdk. (1858); H. F. Tozer, Researckes in the High- sians “which fell down from Jupiter” was probably a meteoric lands of Turkey (1869); L. Heuzey and H. Daumet, Mission arché- stone, as is also doubtless the sacred stone built into the Kaaba at ologique de Macédoine (1876), where there is a map of the monasteries Mecca. The earliest known meteoric stone still preserved and of and their surroundings; Guide-Joanne; Gréce, vol. ii. (x891). which details were placed on record is that weighing about 260 lb. METEORITE, a mass of matter from outer space, which has which, after a loud crash like thunder, fell at Ensisheim in Alsace fallen upon the earth’s surface, These masses are made up usually about noon on Nov. 16, 1492, and was seen by a child to strike of stony matter with varying amounts of metallic iron containing the ground, where it buried itself to a depth of 5 ft. In later years nickel; more rarely of nickeliferous iron alone; and much more several other falls were as definitely recorded, including that of a 56 lb. stone (now in the Natural History Museum) which fell rarely of stony matter with little or no metal, Before coming in contact with the earth, these bodies have been within 10 yd. of a labourer at Wold Cottage in Yorkshire m travelling through space with planetary velocities of many miles 1795. Nevertheless it was not until after the publication of the a second, It is not surprising, therefore, that their arrival in the detailed report made by the French physicist Biot on the marvel earth’s atmosphere is heralded by very startling phenomena of lous fall of about 2,000 stones which took place at L’Aigle m ght and sound. Owing to the resistance of the air, the meteorite France on April 26, 1803, that the fact of solid bodies falling Incandescent and is then seen as a scintillating ball of from outer space was finally accepted by scientists. fire, sometimes with an apparent diameter greater than that of the Many years before this, however, the German philosopher moon, The fireball leaves behind it a trail of luminous matter, Chladni had collected all the evidence for such events then availlike a gigantic shooling-star of which the duration of flight has able, and had laid particular stress, curiously enough, upon the been much prolonged. The period of incandescence, however, occurrence in various parts of the world of masses of iron whi js still only a matter of seconds for, as a result probably of the had not actually been seen to fall but had been found in places sudden condensation of the air in front of the moving mass and where their presence could not be accounted for except on the the accumulating pressure, the meteorite soon loses its planetary supposition of an extra-terrestrial origin. One of these masse

METEORITE

341

weighing over 1,500 Ib. was found on the top of a mountain 145 | Benares, Kilbourn, Pillistfer, etc-——have struck buildings or fallen m. south of Krasnoyarsk in Siberia and was seen by the traveller | through roofs. Of these occurrences the most startling, perhaps,

Pallas in 1772; While other masses, of which one weighing 1,400 |was the fall of a mass of iron at Braunau, Bohemia on July 14,

ib. is now in the Natural History Museum, had been found in the | 1847, which penetrated the roof of a house and covered with desert of the Gran Chaco, Argentina. Since Chladni’s time, many debris the bed in which three children were sleeping; one of the other masses of iron meteorites, some of enormous size, have |most recent is the crashing through the roof of a house of one of heen recorded from different localities. One of the largest is the the four stones which fell on Dec. 3, 1917, in the Strathmore 364 ton mass brought from Cape York, Greenland to New York district, Scotland. by the Arctic Explorer R. E. Peary and now in the American ‘fuseum of Natural History. It is the largest meteorite preserved

Composition.—As these bodies come from beyond the skies,

it is naturally of interest to see how far they resemble and in in a Museum, though in size it may perhaps be rivalled by the what respects they differ from the rocks which compose the mass about 13 ft. long which is still lying where it fell on the farm earth's crust. Stony meteorites certainly have the character of El Ranchito near Bacubirito in Mexico, and also by a mass found igneous and not of sedimentary rocks, and as they consist largely in 1921 near Cinquetti in the desert of Adrar, Mauretania, al- of pyroxene and olivine they approach in mineral composition though the original statement that it measured too metres in basaltic rocks and more particularly, since felspar is in sublength still lacks confirmation. All these masses, however, would ordinate amount, the ultra-basic group of peridotites and pyroxfall into insignificance beside the mass the impact of which it has enites. As compared with terrestrial rocks, however, they differ been maintained by some must have given rise to that curious in various ways, suggesting that they were formed under concrater-like depression near Cañon Diablo in Arizona known as ditions of lower oxidation than obtain on the earth’s surface. Coon Butte which is 4,000 ft. across and some 550 ft. deep, with Thus, whereas native iron is of the rarest occurrence in terrestrial walls of limestone and sandstone rising over 100 ft. above the rocks, it is an almost invariable constituent of meteorites. Both plain. Several tons of meteoric iron have been found in the neigh- iron and stony meteorites also contain occasionally minerals such bourhood of the “‘crater,”’ but borings have failed hitherto to locate as the sulphide of calcium, oldhamite, and the phosphide of any large mass within it. The largest mass of meteoric iron in the iron and nickel, schreibersite, which are unknown as minerals of the earth’s crust since they could not exist for long in the British Natural History Museum is the 34 ton mass which wa presence of oxygen and moisture. i found in 1854 at Cranbourne near Melbourne, Australia. No new element has been found up to the present in meAlthough specimens of iron meteorites bulk largely in museum collections and have resulted from as many as about 250 distinct teorites, and, on the other hand, some common elements, includfalls, of only about 20 has the fall been actually witnessed. On the ing the strongly radioactive ones, have not yet been detected other hand, the great majority of stony meteorites (some 600) in them. The elements of which they are mainly composed are have been seen to fall, for if not recovered soon after they reach those of low atomic weight such as occur commonly in the earth’s the ground they are more liable to suffer disintegration and escape crust, viz.:—in approximately their order of abundance (accordnotice than large masses of iron. Of these no specimens compare ing to W. A. Wahl) iron, oxygen, silicon, magnesium, aluminium, in size with the iron meteorites. The largest mass known was a calcium, nickel, sodium and sulphur. In smaller amounts occur 1.200 Ib. stone found in fragments at Long Island, Kansas. The potassium, cobalt, phosphorus, carbon, hydrogen, chlorine, chromlargest unbroken stone preserved in a museum (the Natural His- ium, manganese, titanium, nitrogen, platinum metals and copper; tory Museum, Vienna) is one weighing 645 lb. which fell at while traces of iodine, bromine, argon, helium and radium, and Knyahinya in Czechoslovakia and is said to have made a hole in doubtfully gold, tin and vanadium have been recorded. Carbon the ground rr ft. deep. This was the largest stone of a shower of in meteorites is mostly in the form of graphite, but from the about 1,000 which fell near that place on June 9, 1866. The Cafion Diablo iron and the Novo-Urei stone chips having the number of stones which fall at any one time and place is usually hardness of diamond are recorded to have been isolated, and in small and occasionally, as in 12 of the 15 falls recorded in the the Youndegin iron was found a cubic form of graphite which British Isles, only a single stone is recovered. In some falls, how- has been called cliftonite. A few meteoric stones, including those ever, as in that of Knyahinya and that of L’Aigle already referred of the small shower which fell at Cold Bokkeveld, South Africa, to there are showers of hundreds and thousands of stones. Be- on October 13, 1838, are remarkable as containing small amounts sides these two showers, the most remarkable are the fall of some of solid hydrocarbons which can be extracted from them by 100,000 stones near Pultusk, Poland, on Jan. 30, 1868, of 3,000 alcohol and ether. According to the relative amounts of nickelat Mocs, Transylvania, on Feb. 3, 1882, of 500 at Hessle, Sweden, iferous iron and stony matter, meteorites have been grouped on Jan. 1, 1869, roo near Homestead, Iowa, on Feb. 12, 1875, and into three main divisions, viz:—meteoric irons or siderites, con14,000 near Holbrook, Arizona, on July 19, 1912. The stones of sisting almost wholly of nickeliferous iron; meteoric stomy-irons such showers are distributed over elliptic areas up to 16 m. in or stderolites, of metal and stony matter in about equal amounts; length and the largest stones of greatest momentum travel the and meteoric stones or aerolites, of stony matter, usually with farthest before reaching the ground. In the Holbrook shower nickeliferous iron scattered through it in small grains. The metallic constituent of meteorites (both irons and stones) thousands of the individuals were very small, some not much larger than grape seeds, but each one was covered with the is not uniform in composition, for the percentage of nickel in it varies widely (from about 3 to 40) in different falls. In by characteristic thin black fused crust. General Appearance.—Besides the crust, which is usually far the greatest number of meteoric irons, however, the perdull black but in stones containing little metal often glossy, other centage of nickel lies between about 7 and 15. These irons are distinguishing features of meteoric stones are lines of flow, on the made up mainly of two different alloys of iron and nickel, and crust, of molten material which was directed from the front to the are characterized by a peculiar structure which is revealed upon back of the stone as it flew through the air; and also curious pit- polished surfaces by the etchifig action of dilute nitric acid or tings, up to r in. in diameter, which have been likened to “thumb- bromine water. These structures, which are known as Widmanmarks.” In shape meteorites are generally irregular, indicating that statten figures from their discoverer, consist of bands of a nickelthey are only fragments of the larger masses from which they poor allay, called kamacite and containing about 7% of nickel, have been torn. A roughly pointed conical form is the most bordered by narrower and more brilliantly reflecting bands of common. One of the large iron masses, that weighing about 1,500 another alloy called taenite which is much richer in nickel (from b. found at Tucson in Arizona and now preserved in the National 14% to nearly 50%) and less soluble than kamacite. These bands Museum in Washington, is remarkable as being ring-shaped, while are the edges of plates which are arranged parallel to the faces jaw-shaped masses like that found at Kokstad in South Africa are of an octahedron. Hence these irons are known as Ociahedrites and where the bands are “medium” and “fine,” there is usually Supposed to be parts of original ring-shaped masses. There are few if any really authentic records of death or injury a third material called plessite which is probably an intimate to man being inflicted by meteoric stones, but several—as at mixture of the same two alloys.

342

METEORITE Classification of Meteorites

I

Group—>

2

3

4 Mo

Fe: Ni=8—2. , s and over. Fe: Ni=13—8. | , Fe: Ni=13 Nickel-iron—> Enstatite (and Clino- Bronzite (and Clino-| Hypersthene (and Clino-| Pyroxene (mostly mono.| bronzite) and Olivine.| hypersthene) and| clinic) and Olivine. enstatite). s : 4] ng 20 : FeO very high MgO: FeO over 4. silicates Magnesium Olivine. MgO: FeO less than 2, | MgO: FeO=4—2. | to œ. ! Oligoclase. Oligoclase. Anorthite. Oligociase. | Felspar—>

Class |

tr pares

| SIDERITES— Mainly nickel-iron. $ aee

| Stony-Irons

Nickel-poor Ataxites. Hexahedrites. Coarsest Octahedrites. Coarse Octahedrites.

2

3

Nickel-iron peels

i

Y

large

in

CHONDRITES—> Nickel-iron generally in decreasing amount! from left to right. ACHONDRITES—

(Non-chondritic stones.)

a i (Aerolites) 4

Enstatite-chondrites.

Daniel’s Kuil type.

(Hvittis)

Enstatite-achondriies.

Aubrites.

Medium Octahedrites} Nickel-rich Ataxites. to Finest Octahedrites.

|

Most Pallasites. Siderophyre. Lodranite. Mesosiderites.*

A few Pallasites.

Bronzite-olivinechondrites. Cronstad type.

Hypersthene-olivinechondrites. Baroti and Soko-Banja types.

Clinobronzite-olivineachondrites. Ureilites.

Calctum-rich Hypersthene-oltvineachondrites. (dites).| Achondrites. Amphoterites (& Ro-| Angrite, Nakhlite. Hypersthene-achondrites.| vee (Shalka,|

Bishopville, Nickel-iron in small | (Aubres, and Bustee.) amount or absent.

Eucrites, Sherghottite, Howardites.

etc.).

Olivine-achondrites. Chassignite.

*As regards the felspar and the pyroxene, mesosiderites conform to Group 4.

Meteoric irons often contain nodules and minerals scattered through them. Of most is froilite, the monosulphide of iron similar with, the terrestrial pyrrhotite. Frequently

crystals of various common occurrence to, if not identical associated with the

troilite nodules are inclusions of schreibersite and of graphite. Other minerals less frequently found in irons are daubreelite, a sulphide of iron and chromium, the sulphur analogue of chromite; cohenite, a carbide of iron and nickel similar to the cemenoite of steel; and moissanite, a silicide of carbon similar to the artificial carborundum. Chromite is present in small amount in most irons, while in some the presence of the deliquescent chloride of iron called lawrencite 1s the cause of their liability to quick rusting and disintegration. Gases included in small amount in meteorites have been found to consist mainly of hydrogen, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen and marsh gas; carbon dioxide predominating in the

stones, and hydrogen and carbon monoxide in the irons. The stony-irons, of which about 30 are known, form a dis-

tinct group and are only intermediate between irons and stones as regards the amount of nickel-iron. In many of them (fallasites) the stony matter consists of olivine alone as rounded or fragmental crystals. In most of the other stony-irons (mesosiderites) the stony matter consists mainly of pyroxene with fragmental anorthite-felspar and only little olivine. Of exceptional composition is the stony-iron which was found at Steinbach in Saxony in which the stony matter consists of bronzite and tridymite (asmanite}, for it is the only meteorite known

containing an appreciable amount of free silica.

The great majority (about 90%) of meteoric stones are known as chondrites since they consist largely of curious rounded bodies (chondrules) which are embedded in a fragmental groundmass made up of irregular grains of pyroxene and olivine with scattered particles of nickel-iron and troilite. Chondrules are mostly of the size of millet seeds though occasionally as large as a walnut. They are formed of the same minerals, pyroxene and olivine with sometimes felspar and glass, as the rest of the stone. Some

are of pyroxene alone in fibrous form, with the fibres often radiating from the edge and not from the centre. -Fhe above tabular classification gives the names and mineral composition ef the different kinds of meteorites. This classifica. on is based on the hypothesis that meteorites have been derived froma single magma which has passed through successive stages ef progressive oxidation.

The following is a list of the meteorites known to have fallen in the British Isles:— Place

Date

England Wold Cottage, Yorkshire Launton, Oxfordshire . Aldsworth, Glos. . Rowton, Shropshire Middlesboro, Yorks. Appley Bridge, Lancs. . Ashdon, Essex ; Scotland

High Possil, Glasgow Perth

.

.

.

.

.

Strathmore, Perthshire

Ireland Mooresfort, Tipperary Limerick (Adare) .

Killeter, Tyrone

Dundrum, Tipperary Crumlin, Antrim .

.

Weight

Dec. 13, 1795 | One stone 56 Ib. Feb. 15, 1830 z „ 241b. Aug. 4, 1835 5 » lb. April 20, 1876 j|_ ,, » 72 tb. March 14, 1881! ,, » 331b. Oct. 13, 1914 z » 33 ib. March 9, 1923 |° 5, „ 2% lb.

April 5, 1804

»

p

Ioh

May 17,1830 | ,, 4, 7% in. in diameter, mostly lost. Dec. 3, 1917. | Four stones of 224, 2%, 2%, 2% lb.

Aug., 1810 One stone of 7j bb. Sep. 10, 1813. | A small shower of i stones, the largest 65 Ib. | April 29, 1844 | A small shower off stones, only a few fragments preserved. Aug. 12, 1865 | One stone of 5 lb. of of lb. 32 Sep. 13, 1902 | »

Origin.—Little can be said of a definite character concerning

this. The prevailing and orthodox view which dates from the time of Chladni is that the detonating meteoritic fireball and the ordinary shooting star or meteor (g.v.) are only variations of one phenomenon. According to this theory meteorites art large enough to survive their fiery transit through the air, meteors are not; and moreover, since the orbits of some comets have been shown to be the same as those of some star-showers, me teorites are supposed to be identical with the material of comets

and in that case to be moving through space in swarms having definite orbits. It-has been objected to this theory that meteorites,

with one exception, have not been known to fall during displays of star-showers

and do not fall most

frequently during

period of the year when shooting stars are prevalent. The get eral similarity of meteorites in chemical composition, and

METEOROLOGICAL

SOCIETIES—METEOROLOGY

evidence they afford of consanguinity or derivation by progressive oxidation from a common type, certainly indicate that they

belonged originally to a single celestial body. Such a body may

have suffered some catastrophic disruption, and if so, it has been

argued, this must have taken place in fairly recent geological

343

fected the thermometer and hygrometer, and showed that damp air is lighter than dry air at the same temperature and pressure. The true nature of atmospheric air was established by Lavoisier

in 1783, and the laws of pressure of water-vapour in air were given by Dalton in 1800. Dalton also wrote an epoch-making

time since, with the one exception of a meteoric iron found in Pliocene gravels in Klondike, “fossil” meteorites are unknown. No meteorite which has been seen to fall approaches in chem-

paper on the effects of rarefaction and condensation. which laid the foundation of modern physical meteorology.

ical composition the acid granitic rocks which occur so plenti-

—The Chevalier de Lamarck (1774-1829) working with Laplace, Lavoisier, and others established a-réseau of observing stations, and published a series of Annuaires Météorologiques from 1800 to 1815. In 1820 Brandes produced a series of daily weather charts, one for each day of the year 1783, and later published charts of the great storms of 1820, 1821 and 1823. He explained these storms as due to barometric depressions advancing from west to east over the earth’s surface. In America, Espy (1785~-1860) carried out similar researches, and published a book Philosophy

fully on the earth's surface. In various parts of the world, however, namely in Bohemia and Moravia, the East Indies and Australia, have been found peculiar small glassy bodies resembling obsidian and containing as high a percentage of silica. As these curious bodies, which have been called tektites, occur in

no obvious connection with recent volcanoes or with ancient volcanic rock, a meteoritic origin has been suggested. The most important collections of meteorites are in the Natural History Museums of Chicago, London, Vienna and Paris.

The number of falls represented in the British Museum (Natural

The First Weather Charts and Systematic Observations.

of Storms (Boston 1841). Espy established a service of daily

synchronous observations and studied in detail the behaviour of History} collection is about 710, and the weight of the specimens depressions. The work of Lamarck, Brandes, Espy, Loomis, and amounts to just over 6 tons. others led to the establishment of networks of stations in several BIBLIOGRAPHY. —E. F. F. Chladni, Ueber Feuer-Meteore, und über countries within the years 1850-56, the Meteorological Office in die mit denselben herabgefallenen Massen (Vienna, 1819) ; G. Tschermak, Die Mikroskopische Beschaffenheit der Meteoriten (Stuttgart, London being established in 1854. International co-operation was 1883-85); A. Brezina u. E. Cohen, Die Structure und die Zusammen- first established by an international conference held in Brussels setsung der Meteortten (Stuttgart, 1886-87); E. Cohen, Meteoritenin 1853, and was put on a sound basis by an international congress kunde (Stuttgart, 1894-1903); E. A. Wulfing, Die Meteoriten in in Vienna in 1873. The exchange of information was at first by Sammlungen und ihre Literatur (Tübingen, 1897); L. Fletcher, An Introduction to the Study of Meteorites, rx ed. (1914); O. C. Far- telegraph, later by wireless telegraphy. The Study of the Upper Air.—A classification of clouds was rington, Meteorites (Chicago, 1915) and Catalogue of the Meteorites of N. America (Washington, 1915) ; G. P. Merril, Handbook and made by Luke Howard in 1803. Temperatures in the upper air

Descriptive Catalogue of ithe Meteorite Collections in the United States National Museum (Washington, 1916); G. T. Prior, Catalogue of Meteorites (1923) and Appendix (1927), and Guide to the Collection

were first measured by Dr. Alexander Wilson at Glasgow in 1749,

logical Society in 1921. The Österreiche Gesellschaft für Meteorologie of Vienna, and the Deutsche M eteorologische Gesellschaft

1822-23.

by means of thermometers sent up on kites. Later observations of Meteorites in the British Museum (10926). in manned balloons by Jeffries and Blanchard in 1784, Roberts (G. T. P.) METEOROLOGICAL SOCIETIES. The Royal Mete- in 1803~4, Biot and Gay-Lussac in 1804, and by John Welsh at orological Society of London, founded in 1850, incorporated in Vauxhall in 1852, the last of these attaining a height of 23,000 1866, publishes a Quarterly Journal (1873 etc.). The Scottish feet. Self-recording thermometers were first used on kites by Meteorological Society was incorporated with the Royal Meteoro- Rev. George Fisher and Sir Edward Parry in the Arctic in

of Munich issue a joint journal, the M eteorologische Zeitschrift

(1866 etc. Vienna). Paris, Société M étéorologique de France publishes Annuaire Météorologique de France (1849, etc.) and La Météorologie (1926 etc.). Turin, Societé Meteorologica Italiona—Bolletino Bimensile (1865 etc.). Madrid—Sociedad Esparole de Meteorologia,—Anales (1927 etc.). Tokio,—Mezeorological Society of Japan—Journal (1903 etc.). Worcester, Mass., —American Meteorological Society—Bulletin (1920 etc.). Brussels —Société Belge d’Astronomie, de Météorologie et de Physique du Globe;—Ciel et Terre.

METEOROLOGY, the science of the atmosphere (Gr. heréwpa and éyos, the science of things in the air). In its widest sense the term includes the study of weather, climate, optical

phenomena in the atmosphere and atmospheric electricity. HISTORY

The beginnings of the study of weather are lost in antiquity.

Some of the earliest writings extant contain fragmentary references to weather phenomena, but the earliest known effort at systematic discussion was the Meteorologica of Aristotle (384-322 B.c.). Theophrastus, a pupil of Aristotle, wrote treatises on winds

and on weather signs. ‘Then for two thousand years meteorology stood still.

The Beginning of Meteorology as an Exact Science.—Ad-

vances were made with the invention of the thermometer (see Hear) by Galileo in 1607, the invention of the barometer (g.v.)

by Torricelli in 1643, the discovery of Boyle’s law (q.v.) in 16509,

and the invention of the wheel barometer by Hooke about 1670.

Halley (1656-1 742) attempted to explain the trade winds as a direct consequence of the distribution of solar radiation over the » but the true explanation was given by George Hadley in 1735, M a paper in which for the first time allowance was made

for the effect of the rotation of the earth. In 1742 Celsius invented

a Centigrade thermometer.

Later de Saussure (1740-1799) per-

.

Small free rubber balloons carrying self recording instruments (Sounding balloons) were first used by Hermite and Besançon in 1893, and in 1899-1902 Teisserenc de Bort and Assmann established the fact that above a height varying from 18 km. at the Equator to about 11 km. in latitude 50°, and to 6 km. or less at the poles, the temperature remained sensibly constant with height. (See section on Vertical Distribution of Meteorological Elements.) Upper air temperatures and humidities are now obtained daily from wet and dry bulb thermometers placed on the wing struts of aeroplanes. THE COMPOSITION AND SOME PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF THE ATMOSPHERE

General Composition.—The atmosphere is a simple mixture

of gases, of which nitrogen and oxygen account for a little more

than 99%. The proportions of the usual constituents of dry air are given in a table in the article ATMOSPHERE. Constitution at High Altitudes.—tIn view of its bearing on theories of the origin of aurorae, magnetic storms and other phenomena, considerable interest attaches to the constitution of the atmosphere at higher levels, say from 20 km. to 200 km. Computation of the constitution of the atmosphere at these levels is based on the effects of diffusion, the convective mixing which is effective in producing constancy of composition in the lower layers having no effect at the higher levels. Each constituent is assumed to follow its own law of variation of density independently of the others, in accordance with Dalton’s law. (See CHEM-

ISTRY: Physical.) The lighter constituents will therefore tend to predominate more and more with increasing height. Hence it is of the utmost importance to ascertain what are the normal constituents of the atmosphere. If hydrogen is assumed to form a normal constituent of the atmosphere, then at great heights hydrogen will be the predominating constituent of the atmosphere. In Wegener’s scheme nitrogen ceases to be measurable at about 100 km. and beyond this level the composition of air by volume is

METEOROLOGY

344

about 5% helium, and 95% hydrogen and geocoronium. Chapman and Milne (0./.R. Met. Soc. vol. xlvi.) regard the hydrogen

observed at low levels as accidental, so that the lightest normal constituent of the atmosphere is helium. Experimental data are

perature will be found in Bjerknes’ Dynamical Meteorology and

Hydrography, vol. ii. (Smithsonian Institution), Absorption

and Radiation.—In

discussing meteorological

processes we have to take account of (a) radiation from the sun,

and of (b) radiation from the insufficient to decide between the different schemes of constitu- of relatively short wave-length, atmosphere itself, of longer wavethe of portions and earth (Q./.R. Dobson to According atmosphere. level high the of tion at about ro u. (a) The Met. Soc., 1923) meteors indicate that oxygen and nitrogen are length, having a maximum intensity radiation by “dry air” solar wave short of absorption the chief constituents up to about 160 km. McLennan attributes amount of is sọ slight as to be almost negligible, but there is an appreciable AU. A=5577-35 wave-length the green auroral line, of to Abbot and (5.57735 X10 em., or -557735 H) to atomic Oxygen. These re- absorption by water vapour, sufficient according in its passage one-tenth by beam solar the of diminish to assumption, Fowle the from derived those with sults appear to conflict through the atmosphere. (b) Long wave radiation is not abDalton's law. Aqueous Vapour in the Atmosphere. Humidity—The sorbed by oxygen or nitrogen, which, according to Burmeister absorption bands at amount of aqueous vapour present in unit volume of air varies (Berlin Verh. Phys. Ges. 1913) have no shows absorption dioxide Carbon m. xı in than time longer to time wave-lengths from and place, to place from limits wide within to 16 u; and 12-5 at and M 4-5 to 42 at p, 3-0 to of 2-4 550 2: at to 0 bands from anything a given place. It may account for in the dioxide carbon of the weight of a specimen of air. The saturation vapour pressure Schlaefer concluded that the amount within absorption complete produce to indeis sufficient and was air, atmosphere the of of air depends only on the temperature wave radiation pendent of the total pressure. If e is the saturation vapour pres- the bands mentioned. Water vapour absorbs long range of considerable a through distributed are which represent bands to in possible be should it then C, sure at temperature é° abvapour water of study exhaustive most discovThe wave-length. è as a function of ¿. No general formula bas ever been found who 1905), Phys. d. (Ann. been Hettner of have that is sorption formulae empirical of number large a ered, though and 8 p and proposed by various writers. (See T. Preston Theory of Heat, V., that there is very marked absorption between 4-4 u within which above 12 u, while there is a band from 8 u to rz mw 3rd ed. 1919.) from Radiation vapour. water by absorption deslight only is normally are there The relative humidity, vapour pressure, etc., intensity at termined by observations of wet and dry bulb thermometers. If the earth at normal temperatures has a maximum trans¢ and ? are the readings of the dry and wet bulb thermometers about ro u, and so the existence of the band of relative The respectively, p the pressure, e’ the saturation vapour pressure at parency from 8 w to 1r pis of fundamental importance. temperathe temperature of the wet bulb 7’, and e is the vapour pressure elementary gases absorb no radiation at atmospheric

of the air under observation, these quantities are related by the

tures.

formula

perature of a mass of dry air is defined as the temperature which it would attain by adiabatic expansion or compression to a stand-

e—e’=Ap (t-2).

Thermodynamical Constants for Aitr—The potential tem-

where A is a constant. The value of A depends upon the degree ard pressure, usually taken as 1,000 millibars, The concept of potential temperature is particularly useful in of ventilation of the thermometers, and care must be exercised dealing with conditions of vertical stability in the atmosphere. to use the value of A appropriate to the conditions. Akad, 1888). Tables will be found in Jelinek’s Psycrometer Tafeln, in the It was first introduced by von Bezold (Sitz. Ber. in the article found be will entropy of n Tables definitio Humidity the y—A in and Entrop Tables, Smithsonian Meteorological is communidQ heat of amount THERMODYNAMICS. If a small published by the Meteorological Office, London (M.Q. 265). ure) at a temperat the changing conair without dry of (i.e., denstty ally Air——The isotherm for cated Constants Physical de Collège taining no CO», as determined by Regnault at the temperature J to a mass of air, then the ratio dQ represents @ France, is 1-209321 kg. per cubic metre, at o° C and at a pressure of 760 mm. At a pressure of 1,000 millibars and ọ° CÇ, the small change of entropy, and is denoted by dẹ ($ being the symbol corresponding figure is 1-27590. Dry atmospheric air at a tem- for entropy). Thus, in an isothermal process, the gain or loss of perature of o° C and 1,000 mb. has a density of 1.27617. The heat is represented by Tdo. Entropy remains constant for any ratio of the density of water vapour to that of dry air at the adiabatic changes (i¢., changes where heat is neither lost nor same temperature and pressure is 0-6221, approximately 2.

absorbed by the system). If we take zero of @ as corresponding

The Gas Constant, R—The equation of condition for gases is to a potential temperature of 100° on the absolute scale, pu=Rf,

where p is the pressure, v the volume of unit mass, T the abso-

lute temperature, and R is a constant. If the pressure is expressed in millibars, and v is in cubic metres per kilogram the value of R for dry air is 2-8703.

The Density of Damp Air. Virtual Temperature—For damp air at a total pressure p and vapour pressure ¢, the total density îs the sum of the densities of the dry air and water vapour. The density is therefore Ey

RTÉ

0.6225

dtr

eo

0-348309

r

(p—0-378e)

= 2.34539 (p—#e) approximately, This is equal to the density of dry air at the same pressure p and

a temperature T”, where T” is defined by

Pa ts

ae

8$

T Sc called the “virtual temperature.”

Tables of virtual tem-

G d= 2-30X 10! Xlogi Te ergs per degree per gram = 2,300 logio 2 joules per degree per kilogram. Geopotential.—It

has been suggested that the height of a

point above the surface of the earth should be defined by the geopotential, or the potential energy of unit mass at that height

due to its elevation above the surface of the geoid. Surfaces of equal geopotential are “level surfaces” and are horizontal in the technical sense.

The geopotential being the potential energy of unit mass, has

the dimensions of (velocity)?. On the c.g.s. system the unit 15 1 cm.?/sec.2 A convenient unit for ordinary working purposes ® the dynamic metre, equal to ro* cm.?/sec.2 The approximate rela-

tion of the dynamic metre to the metre for Jatitude 50° is I dynamic metre=1-0209 metre. Tables of geopotential are given in Bjerknes, Dynamical Meteorology and Hydrography.

INSTRUMENTAL OBSERVATIONS For full details of the types of instrument which are in normal use in meteorological observations, reference should be made to the Meteorological Observers Handbook of the Meteorological

METEOROLOGY Office, or any standard textbook on the subject.

ROMETRY, THERMOMETRY, etc.)

345

(See also BA- | metres above sea level, and (c) for Eiffel tower, 335 metres above sea level, both for the month of July. The low-level station

Air temperature does not readily permit of accurate determina- | has a mean diurnal variation of over 9° C, while the higher

tion. Difficulties arise through the necessity for ventilation of | station has a mean diurnal variation of a little over 5° C. There

the instruments, combined with adequate protection from direct is a further noteworthy feature, that the time of maximum is radiation from the sun or surrounding objects, combined with the | about 2 hours later at the top of the tower. It is probable that variability of temperature between adjacent masses of air. The accuracy of determination of air temperature is therefore much | inferior to the accuracy of the determination of the temperature |

is eee eet efor ae ea elie ee cs H a SEO 128

of a liquid in the laboratory. This is but one example of the very | real difficulties of accurate meteorological observation, and the |

existence of these difficulties must be borne in mind in what |

46

6

7

8

9 10 7 12

13 14 15 16 17 18 29 26 21 223 25 %4

follows.

The methods which have hitherto been developed for upper air|

observations are only applicable in relatively fine weather, and so | little is known from actual observation of the conditions at high | levels above cyclones. This is probably the main reason for the slow advance made in meteorology during the last half-century.,

oO n tal

w

f

oe

m

Q

GEOGRAPHICAL

DISTRIBUTION OF METEOROLOGICAL FACTORS

The standard observations carried out at any meteorological station consist of measurements of: (1) Pressure at the time of observation, and the change in pressure during the past three hours if a barograph is available. (2) Temperature of dry bulb and wet bulb thermometers, so that both temperature and humid-

ity can be derived from the readings.

(3) Wind direction and

velocity, the latter being estimated on the Beaufort scale, or read from an instrument in some convenient unit such as metres per

second, miles per hour, or feet per second.

(4) Weather and

state of sky; 7.e., number of tenths of the sky clouded, and nature of the cloud; whether rain or snow, hail, etc., is falling or not, whether there is fog, or mist present. (5) Visibility, usually

given a numerical value by noting the most distant object visible among a number of previously selected standard objects at known distances from the observing point. (6) Maximum day temperature noted in the evening, and minimum night temperature noted in the morning. (7) Amount of precipitation since previous time

of observation. (8) Amount of bright sunshine during the day. (9) Motion of cloud. All these observations are carried out at most meteorological stations reporting by telegraph, telephone or wireless to a central meteorological office. For details of the use of such data for forecasting, see the standard textbooks on the subject. In addition to the above observations, some or all of the following observations are made at a restricted number of stations

in practically all countries of the world: (10) Upper wind measured by means of pilot balloons. (11) Upper air temperatures and humidities observed by means of instruments suspended on wing struts of aeroplanes. (12) Upper air*temperatures and humidities at different heights by means of self-recording instruments carried by free balloons. (13) Amount of atmospheric pollution. (14) Electric potential gradient in the atmosphere. (15) Various magnetic factors. When observations are made on

board ship, to these are added: (16) Temperature of the sea surface, and state of the sea. Diurnal Variations.—The most fundamental cycles in the

atmosphere are those associated with the differences between day and night, and the differences between summer and winter.

We shall consider these only briefly, dealing first with the former. Temperature —The factor which is most obviously related to solar radiation is the temperature of the air. In fig. 1, (a) gives

the curve for diurnal variation of temperature at Aberdeen for August. This curve is typical of the curves obtained over the

whole world at levels not much above mean sea level. This curve

is definitely only the average over the month, and any one indi-

vidual interval of 24 houts may give widely differing forms for

curve of temperature, since the phenomenon may be complicated by changes in wind direction, bringing up supplies of air

from widely varying altitudes.

The effect of height upon the form of the variation of tem-

perature is shown by curves (b) for Pare St. Maur, Paris, so

i

° ial ond: at

| Le pt tT tt

Pe okt al cle alsyale le A ee ee TEYt Le parcsrimaual | ot NI

v

n

| Rt tele

PA

A AT iP

oe

er

te

FIG. 1.—DIURNAL

VARIATIONS

pp et

dle

fo

~ bel

OF TEMPERATURE

at still greater heights the diurnal variation of temperature rapidly diminishes. (Hergesell, Lindenberg Publications, vol. xiv.) The temperature of air over the sea is subject to no considerable diurnal variation except possibly over shallow water, Observations made on board the Challenger indicated a diurnal range

of about 1° C, and this value has been confirmed (0./.R. Met. Soc., 1927) by observations made in the Mediterranean sea by N. K. Johnson. The changes of temperature are so slight that it is not possible to say with certainty how far they are vitiated by the changes of wind direction. The diurnal variation of the temperature of the surface of the sea is probably very slight, but the difficulty of obtaining a fair sample of the surface water of the sea makes any accurate estimate of the true surface temperature impossible. Lapse-rate of Temperature—tiIn overcast weather there is little or no variation of the lapse rate between day and night. In clear weather, however, for the lowest layers, there is a pronounced maximum in the middle of the afternoon, its value exceeding many times the dry adiabatic lapse rate. The lapse rate diminishes rapidly in the evening, giving place to a pronounced inversion. Over the sea there is no appreciable diurnal variation of the lapse rate.

Pressure—In fig. 2, (a), (b) and (c) give for July the diurnal

variations of pressure

(from data in Manual

of Meteorology,

vol. ii.) at Aberdeen, Batavia and in the Arctic, the times being Greenwich mean time in (a) and local times in (b) and (c). It will be noted that within the tropics there is a very strongly marked pressure wave of 12 hours’ duration, with maxima at 9 AM. and 9 P.M., superposed on a 24 hourly wave. Some further details of these diurnal variations are given later in the section Dynamical Aspects. Curve (d) in the same figure shows the diurnal variation for July on Ben Nevis, 1343 metres above mean sea level, a single ill-defined maximum at 2 P.M. Wind—The surface wind velocity shows a maximum about 2 P.M. and a minimum in the early morning. The direction shows a corresponding change, the wind backing as it diminishes. At the top of the Eiffel tower the diurnal variation of wind velocity is the reverse of that observed at the ground, the maximum velocity occurring during the early morning and the minimum during the afternoon. At intermediate heights the nature of the diurnai

variation is to some extent dependent on the strength of the wind. Hellmann (Met. Zeit, Jan. 1915) set up three anemometers at

METEOROLOGY

34.6

heights of 2, 16 and 32 metres above the ground, in a flat meadow at Nauen. He found that when strong winds were blowing, all three anemometers yielded maxima during the day, and minimum during the night. With light winds the anemometer at 2 metres

showed a day maximum and a night minimum, but those at 16 metres and 32 metres showed two maxima, one about mid-day, and the other about midnight. At 16 metres the maxima were 2 3 war d

© Bin m i=

in the Rhine valley. At Batavia, 6° S. of the equator, cloudiness

attains its maximum in the evening or early night, and its min-

mum about 4 A.M. local time (Observations, Batavia, xxxviii.), At Helwan cloudiness attains its maximum during the afternoon, and its minimum during the evening. Thunderstorms.:—The "observations made by the “Challenger” showed that the frequency of thunderstorms at sea had a pro-

2 =

a well-marked tendency for the amount of cloud to diminish in the evening. Similar results were derived for a number of stations

0

12

32346

67

3

9

10

11

1213 14 16 16 17 18

opel oe ee hat mc ho ee eee

E

=

ATEA

nounced maximum between 2 A.M. and 4 a.m., while the occurrence of “lightning only” showed a maximum between 8 p.m. and

Mapua!

Ses a

10 P.M. Over the land, heat thunderstorms occur most frequently

during the afternoons, but certain types of thunderstorms, associated with the line of separation between warm and cold air currents, show no special preference for any hour of day or night, Electric Potential Gradient.—The typical variation of potential gradient has a minimum in the early morning, and a maximum in Jate afternoon, the maximum being about twice the minimum; but at many stations there is a subsidiary maximum about 8 am, and a minimum in early afternoon. Seasonal Variation of Meteorological Elements.—While

tal pe wt 19 tes]

it is possible to consider the diurnal variation of the meteorolog(b) SCALE MB IN FOR

FiG. 2.—DIURNAL VARIATIONS OF PRESSURE; TAVIA, (C} ARCTIC REGIONS, (D) BEN NEVIS

(A) ABERDEEN,

(B)

BA-

approximately equal in winter, but in summer the day maximum was Slightly the greater. At 32 metres the night maximum was the greater in winter and summer. With light winds the height

at which the night maximum becomes equal to the day maximum is thus about 16 metres in winter, and between 16 and 32 metres, in summer. With strong winds this height exceeds 32 metres. Durward (14.0. Professional Notes, No. 15) investigated the diurnal variation of winds at 1,000 to 6,000 ft. by an examination of 1,736 pilot balloon ascents, made by the meteorological service with the British Armies in France during March 1917~Sept. 1918. The winds at 1,000 ft. showed a maximum about midnight, and a well marked minimum between 9 A.M. and Io AM. in reasonably good agreement with the Eiffel tower observations. The variation at 2,000 ft. and 3,000 ft. was of the same general character, but when all wind directions were taken together no appreciable diurnal variation was found at 4,000 and 6,000 feet. At sea, the diurnal variation of wind is much less marked. Galle' (K. Ned. Met. Inst., No. 102) states that from May to October the maximum velocity of the south-east trade-winds of the Indian ocean occurs during the night-hours. No detailed observations at one place are available, and it is not at present possible to give any definite statement of the variation of winds over the sea. Land and Sea Breezes—At places on a coast there is usually a pronounced tendency for a wind to blow from the sea to the land in the morning, and from the land to the sea in the evening. In some places, this wind follows the sun in the course of the day. For example, at Aberdeen, the sea breeze sets in suddenly in the morning as a wind from sea to land at right-angles to the coastline, but during the day it veers until it blows parallel to the coast. | Vapour Pressure and Humidity.—The vapour pressure remains stbstantially constant during the 24 hours, at land stations. At Kew observatory, England, there is no appreciable diurnal variatien of vapour pressure during any month of the year, and the same holds at nearly all stations for which data are available. Since temperature normally varies considerably between day and

wight, it follows that relative humidity varies in the opposite sense to temperature. . Clomliness-—Ne simple rule can be stated for the diurnal variation of cloudiness. The wind-direction is of considerable importance in this respect, and different types of cloud vary in dif-

ferent waysı The diurnal variation of cloudiness at Kew observa-

ical elements separately, it is not possible to treat the seasonal variations in the same way. As is shown later, the whole of the circulation of the atmosphere and the distribution of pressure

over the surface of the earth, with which this circulation is closely

associated, are both subject to changes on a large scale during the course of the year. A noteworthy point which emerges from the discussion of the diurnal variations is the difference in the phenomena over land and sea, the former showing the greater variability. The same is true of seasonal variations. The land heats up more rapidly than the sea in the summer, and cools more rapidly than the sea in winter. Hence the marked distinction between continental and oceanic climates, the former being subject to extremes of heat and cold, and the latter being relatively equable. The centres of large land masses are associated with excessive heat in summer and excessive cold in winter, the lowest temperatures in the northern hemisphere occurring in northeast Siberia. In this region the seasonal change of tempera-

ture exceeds 60° C, while over the major part of the Eurasian

continent and North America the seasonal variation exceeds 30° C. In the tropics the seasonal variation of temperature becomes relatively small, with the result that the change of temperature with latitude is greater in winter than in summer. All phenomena which are in any way related to or dependent on the horizontal gradient of temperature are therefore accentuated in winter. Along the seaboard of a continent, the nature of the seasonal variations will depend upon the direction of the prevailing wind, since winds from the interior of the continent and winds from the ocean will carty with them the characteristics of their region of origin. Rainfall again depends largely upon the interaction of different currents of air and on the form of the land, and it is not possible to give any general rules as to the nature of the seasonal

variations of rainfall over the whole globe, except such as will arise in the course of the following brief discussion of the general

circulation of the atmosphere. The general question of seasonal

variation of meteorological factors is closely bound up with climatology, and a large amount of information on this topic

will be found in any standard text book on the latter; e.g., Kemdrew’s Climates of the Continents, contains numerous tables giving seasonal variations of temperature, pressure and rainfall.

f THE GENERAL CIRCULATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE The Distribution of Temperature over the Earth.—The distribution of temperature over the earth is usually repre

by two charts, one of the mean temperature for January and one of the mean temperature for July. These two months represent the extremes of winter and summer, the other m

being intermediate between them. (See any physical atlas.) We shall consider first the chart for January. It will be see Nos. r and 14), who showed that with allwind directions there is that in the southern hemisphere the isotherms, or lines of equs! temperature, run across the chart in a regular manner, indicating a) Bide Wiso Arbdeites Preuss. Aeronout. Obs.. Lindenberg, BA. XIN.

i

e

a a

a

EEEE

‘tony has ‘Been investigated by Brunt (24.0. Professional Notes,

METEOROLOGY

347

approximate symmetry of distribution of temperature about the | erly winds on the poleward sides of the sub-tropical anticyclones

poles, except that over South America, South Africa and Australia, the isotherms sweep downward over the land, indicating that the land is warmer than the sea in the same latitude. In the northern hemisphere there are two centres of extreme cold, one in northeast Siberia and one over Greenland. If in middle latitudes we restrict our attention to any one parallel of latitude, we note that the temperature is higher over the western coast of a continent than over the eastern coast of the same continent. This dif-

are not regions of steady winds. Here the depressions of middle latitudes produce intermittent variations of conditions, yielding considerable local variations of wind, temperature and rainfall. The July chart of mean pressure shows no fundamental difference from the conditions which prevail in January, so far as the southern hemisphere is concerned. In the northern hemisphere, however, the distribution of pressure has changed fundamentally. The Asiatic anticyclone has disappeared, and its function as the chief controller of conditions over Asia has been taken by a depression centred to the north of India. There is a continuous

The chart for July shows again in the southern hemisphere an approximately symmetrical distribution of temperature about the South Pole. In the northern hemisphere there are centres

increase of pressure southward from the centre of the depression

ference is associated with the fact that prevailing westerly winds bring with them the conditions of their region of origin.

as far as the sub-tropical anticyclonic belt of the southern hemisphere. As a result, there is over the whole Indian ocean a broad

of high temperature over North Africa, over the southern portion of North America, and to the north of India, but the run of the isotherms is irregular. The land is, however, distinctly

current of air which blows into the southern edge of the depression as a south-west wind, known as the south-west monsoon of India (Simpson, “The South West Monsoon,” 0.J.R. Met. Soc.).

warmer than the sea, the difference being especially well marked over the north Pacific ocean and the contiguous continents. The Distribution of Surface Pressure over the Earth.— Charts giving the distribution of pressure show in the southern hemisphere a belt of high pressure encircling the earth about latitude 30°, with somewhat higher pressures over the oceans than

This current, having passed over warm ocean during a journey some thousands of miles in length, reaches India as a warm and very damp current. On reaching India it is forced by the configuration of the land to rise over the coastal ranges of moun-

over the continents. These belts are known as the “sub-tropical anticyclones” or the “sub-tropical high pressure belts.” Over the

northern hemisphere the extensive land masses complicate the phenomena.

The January chart shows the sub-tropical anticy-

clonic belts over the north Atlantic and north Pacific oceans, but in addition to these there is an intense anticyclone centred over

Asia, and another over North America. Over the northern portion of the North Pacific, and also just south of Greenland, there are centres of low pressure.

In July, the anticyclonic centres over the north Atlantic and north Pacific persist, and extend somewhat further north. A shallow centre of low pressure is situated over north-east Canada, and a much deeper centre of low pressure is centred to the northwest of India, extending over the whole of Asia, and even over a part of north-east Africa. The subtropical anticyclonic belt is no longer traceable over southern Asia.

The Distribution of Winds over the Globe.—There is a simple relation between the direction of the wind and the distribution of pressure, which is known as Buys Ballot’s law, after the Dutch meteorologist who first enunciated it. It may be stated as follows: “In the northern hemisphere an observer who stands with his back to the wind will have lower pressure to his left than

to his right. In the southern hemisphere the reverse holds.” In terms of isobars on a chart, this amounts to saying that the wind tends to blow round the isobars keeping low pressure to the left in the northern hemisphere, and to the right in the southern hemisphere. In practice the wind at the surface is found to blow

slightly across the isobars into low pressure, at an angle of 20° to 30°.

Keeping this law in mind, we can interpret the pressure charts

for January and July in terms of the prevailing winds. We shall frst consider the chart for January. The equator is marked by a shallow belt of low pressure, to each side of which the pressure increases with distance towards the pole. The region on the equatorial side of the subtropical anticyclonic belts is therefore marked by easterly winds having a component towards the

equator. These winds known as the trade winds are north-easterly m the northern hemisphere and south-easterly in the southern hemisphere. Between them is the equatorial belt of low pressure,

known as the doldrums, with calms or light variable winds. It is situated slightly north of the equator in the northern winter, and moves slightly further north in the northern summer.

The centres

of the sub-tropical anticyclonic belts are regions of light winds.

On the poleward sides of the anticyclonic belts the winds are

tains, and so gives rise to copious rainfall, which is known as the monsoon rainfall. It may be noted in passing that the word monsoon denotes seasonal, so that it might be applied to any seasonal changes of wind. The winds which blow around the south-eastern edge of the Asiatic anticyclone in winter are known as the northeast monsoon. An examination of charts of mean pressure month by month shows that the Asiatic anticyclone begins to diminish rapidly in intensity in April, and by early June the depression is formed. The monsoon winds, with the associated rainfall, develop during June, and usually persist until late September. No verbal description of the distribution of temperature, pressure and wind over the earth’s surface can take the place of an examination of the charts. The reader who desires fuller information is referred to Sir Napier Shaw, Manual of Meteorology, vol. ii., where maps are given showing the distribution of these elements, and some others, for each month of the year. Rainfall.—In many respects rainfall (which for our present purposes will be taken to include all forms of precipitation, snow, hail, etc.) is the most important of all the meteorological elements. It is at the same time the most difficult of these elements to treat in a satisfactory manner, on account of its extreme variability with place, and the fact that an hour of torrential rain associated with a thunderstorm may affect in a marked manner the representation of both the mean diurnal and mean seasonal variations. What is known as the “normal” seasonal variation of any element is the average form of the annual cycle of that element taken over a number of years, but it is only over very restricted areas of the globe that the variation of rainfall in any one year will resemble at all closely the “normal” variation. The outstanding case where this is possible is that of the Indian peninsula, whose heavy rainfall in June to September is associated with the monsoon winds. The maximum rainfall in any year will occur within the period of the monsoons, and never outside it. Even in the British Isles averages taken over many years point to a definite maximum of rainfall in a particular month of the year. This month is October at Greenwich, December at Aberdeen

and July at Edinburgh, but it would be extremely

hazardous to apply this result to forecast the rainfall of any particular year.

Within the tropics rainfall usually has a well marked maximum and occasionally two maxima. ’ World Weather.—Under this title may be grouped a number of very extensive statistical investigations of the correlation between meteorological factors over different parts of the world. Among the most notable of these are two papers by G. T. Walker in the Indian Meteorological Memoirs (1923 and 1924) one by

westerly, especially in the southern hemisphere, where there is Walker and Bliss in the Memoirs of the Royal-Met. Soc. vol..ii only slight disturbance by land masses. Over the north Atlantic theprevailing winds are westerly. The circulation over Asia is

tlockwise round the centre of high pressure, and over the China

seas the winds are north-easterly. The regions of prevailing west-

No. 17, several papers by Exner in the Sitzungsber. Akad.. Wiss,

Wien (1913, 1924 and 1926); and a valuable general discussion of the work of other writers by Defant in the Meteorologische Zest-

schrift (1926). Results of considerable value have been derived

348

METEOROLOGY

by these writers, and an idea of the type of result obtained may be gathered from the following extract from a paper by Walker in the indian Meteorological Memoirs, vol. xxiv. part 4: “We can best sum up the situation by saying that there is a swaying of pressure on a big scale backwards and forwards between the Pacific ocean and the Indian ocean, and that there are swayings, on a much smaller scale, between the Azores and Iceland, and between the areas of high and low pressure in the north Pacific: further, there is a marked tendency for the highs of the last two swayings to be accentuated when pressure in the Pacific is raised and that in the Indian ocean lowered.”

DISTRIBUTION OF THE METEOROLOGICAL ELEMENTS Temperature.—The rate of change of temperature with height is of fundamental importance in determining the processes of weather. The observations of Teisserenc de Bort showed that up to considerable heights the temperature decreases steadily with height, at an average rate of about 6° C per km., or 3° F per 1,000 ft., but that a limit is eventually reached beyond which

(in the northern hemisphere). ground, the wind

first. The lower region in which the temperature decreases with height is known as the troposphere, the upper region of vertically uniform temperature is known as the stratosphere, and the surface separating the two is known as the ¢ropopause. Observations have now been obtained from a sufficient number of stations

distributed over the earth to show that the tropopause is higher at the equator than at the poles, being on the average about 18

km. high at the equator, 6 km. high at the pole in summer, and

coming down nearly to the earth’s surface in winter. In intermediate latitudes, the height has intermediate values, the average height over southern Europe being given as ro-5 to 11 km. by W. H. Dines “The Characteristics of the Free Atmosphere,” M.O. Geophysical Memoirs, No. 13.

A considerable amount of statistical work has been carried out by Dines (M.O. Geophysical Memoirs, No. 13), Schedler (Betirdge Pkys. fr. Aimos, Bd. vii.) and others, into the relations which exist between the temperature at different heights, the pressures at different heights, the height of the tropopause, the temperature of the stratosphere, the total water-vapour-content of the atmosphere, and various other factors. Diurnal Variation of Temperature in the Upper Air.—

Reference has already been made to the diurnal changes of temperature on the Eiffel tower. Numerous observations have been made at greater heights, particularly a long series of kite soundby Assmann in Berlin from Oct. 1, 1902, to Dec. 31, 1903, and of kite balloon ascents at Lindenberg. (See Lindenberg Publications, vol. xiv., 1922.) Temperature is far more variable at a height of 6 or 7 km. than it is at the ground, but we can draw no conclusion as to diurnal variations at different heights from this

result. (See also W. H. Dines, Q.J.R. Met. Soc., 1919; and K. Mag. en Met. Obs. Batavia, Verhand No. 4, 1916.)

Water Vapour.—Since temperature decreases with height, the saturation pressure of water vapour also decreases with height, and there is a finite limit to the amount of water vapour which the atmosphere can contain. The saturation pressure is independent of pressure, but on account of the rapid decrease of the density of dry air with decreasing pressure, we find that in saturated air the proportion of water to air is greater in the free air than it would be at the ground when at the same temperature. The Variation of Wind with Height.—The variation of

rapidly, while the direction

changes slowly, but at greater heights the increase of wind be. comes slower, while the direction changes rapidly. The variations of wind in the lowest 2,000 ft. are nearly always in the sense in. dicated above.

At greater heights the nature of the changes of

wind depends upon the horizontal distribution of temperature, and upon the wind direction. The variation of wind with height in the lowest layers can

be represented with considerable accuracy by a formula V=g+5 log (4-+-c), where # is height and

VERTICAL

the temperature remains constant, or even increases slightly at

In the lowest layers, next to the

speed increases

a, b and c are constants (E. H. Chapman,

5 10 15 2 2 3 VELOCITY IN METRES PER SECOND

FIG. 3.—DIAGRAM SHOWING VARIATION OF WIND WITH HEIGHT

M.O. Professional

Notes No. 6). Fig. 3 (Dobson Q.J.R. Met. Soc., 1920), shows the variation of wind with height in the upper part of the tropo-

sphere and the lower stratosphere. The heights are relative to the base of the stratosphere, and the data are classified according to

the wind velocity in the highest two kilometres of the troposphere, the groupings being (a) less than 13 metres per sec., (b) 13 to 19 metres per sec., (c) greater than 19 metres per second. The direction of the winds considered above showed no marked changes within the troposphere apart from the usual changes at the ground, and no appreciable change of direction was usually noted on passing into the stratosphere. The most noteworthy

feature of fig. 3 is the steady increase of winds within the troposphere and the equally steady and rapid decrease within the lower stratosphere. The rapid falling off of wind in the strato-

sphere denotes that the stratosphere is warmer over low than over high pressure. The general distribution of wind at different heights can be most readily summarized by reference to the distribution of pressure at different heights. Shaw (Manual of Meteorology, vol. ii., figs. 164-172) gives diagrams of isobars at the surface, and at heights of 4 km. and 8 km. Further details of the variation of wind with height in different regions will be found in Manual of Meteorology vol. il, 6. See also: van Bemmelen Proc. K. Akad. Wet. Amst., (1918), Harwood, “The Free Atmosphere in India,” Memoirs Indian. Met.

Dept. (1924); Arbeiten Preuss. Obs. Lindenberg, especially vol. xili; Cave, Structure of the Atmosphere in Clear Weather (1912); Alfred de Quervain, Schweizerische Gronlande Expedttion rora—13 (Zurich, 1920); E. Gold, “Barometric Gradient and Wind Force,” M.O. 190, and “The International Kite and Balloon Ascents,” Geophysical Memoirs, No. 5, M.O. 210. STATICAL

RELATIONS

The Fundamental Gas Equation.—The pressure $, the temperature T, the density p or the specific volume v, are connected by the relations: p=RKpT, or pu=RT,

where R is a constant. If the pressure is in millibars, the temperature on the absolute centigrade scale, and the density m

grams per cubic centimetre, or the specific volume in cubic

centimetres per gram, the constant R is equal to 2-8703 X10. wind with height depends upon’ the horizontal distribution of When the air contains water vapour, but not sufficient to saturate realize that this variation

temperature. It is therefore easy to cannot be summarized in a few words for the whole of the atmosphere. It is found that to a reasonable degree of approximation the motion of air is such as to produce a balance of the forces galled into play, and this involves the motion of the air along the isobars, at all heights removed from the effects of surface friction. Near the ground the effect of friction is to diminish the velocity of the wind, causing the air to drift across the isobars from high

te low pressure. It follows that in the lower layers the wind speed increases with height above the ground, while its direction veers

it, an equation of the same form may be used with a sli different value of R: but this equation must then be used only at temperatures which are sufficiently high to ensure that t air is not saturated. The Variation of Pressure with Height—The variation of pres sure in the vertical is given by 4 =—gp.

This equation is readily

derived by the consideration of the vertical forces acting on a cube,

two of whose faces are horizontal. It may be written in the form

METEOROLOGY 9p __ 8b Oz

349

Adiabatic Changes in Moist but Unsaturated Air—The argument used above is applicable to moist unsaturated air, pro-

RT

vided we give to R and cp the appropriate values. The adiabatic

This equation cannot be integrated unless we know the manner

in which temperature is related to height. If the temperature is lapse rate is given by aa where c’p is now interpreted as the spe-

constant the equation can be seen to yield on integration

Pe=— logs

A pp?

Or

cific heat of the mixture of air and water vapour; but since the water vapour only accounts for a small fraction of the constitu-

p==; poe6kT,

tion of normal air, c’p cannot differ by an appreciable amount

from cy, and the lapse rate for unsaturated air is only slightly

or

RT

eo

less than that of dry air. Adiabatic Changes in Saturated Air.—When saturated air rises through its environment the cooling produced by expansion

(logdo—logp),

giving the height at which the pressure p is attained. If the relation of pressure to height is given by T=T — sz, so that

1 op aen ge T pa Rpa?

causes condensation, and the latent heat so liberated becomes

available for maintaining the temperature of the air. Let the air be composed of x kg. of water vapour to r kg. of dry air.

g To aPa O87foee T pRa ET p ;

When (1-+-x) kg. of the mixture rises from a height z to height

S--ds, a quantity dx of water vapour condenses, and an amount rdx of latent heat is liberated, and used in heating the mixture

These equations form the basis of barometric altimetry.

and the resulting water-drops, It will be assumed that the heat-

The Reduction of Pressure to Mean Sea Level.—When the pressure is measured at a station z metres above mean sea level, it is reduced to mean sea level by the addition of an amount

ing of the water-drops may be neglected. In practice most of the condensed water is eliminated, and the neglect of the heating of water-drops is in any case justified.

equivalent to the weight of a column of air extending from the level of observation down to mean sea level; it being assumed that the mean vapour pressure through this column is equal to the

Near the ground ZT has the value of o-56° C per r100 metres.

vapour pressure at the point of observation, and that the mean | The saturated adiabatic lapse rate increases slowly with height,

and at very low temperatures at which x has become very small, it approaches asymptotically the value of the dry adiabatic lapse

temperature can be computed from the temperature at the level of observation, together with a lapse rate of o-5° C per 100 metres. Moreover it is found that if the height of the station does not exceed 500 metres results well within the assigned limit of accuracy are obtained when we ignore the humidity of the air, and the variations of gravity with latitude and height, and adopt the dry bulb reading at the time of observation as the mean temperature of the column.

rate. The values of the adiabatic lapse rate for saturated and unsaturated air are of fundamental importance in meteorology. The mean lapse rate observed in the atmosphere is slightly greater than the saturated lapse rate, indicating stability for dry air, but instability for saturated air. In these conditions any mass of

For fuller details of

saturated air which rises becomes increasingly warmer than its

these methods see Computer’s Handbook, Section I. Adiabatic

Changes

in Ascending

or Descending

environment at the successive levels which it attains. Further, saturated air which is caused to descend immediately ceases to be saturated, and its temperature rises at the unsaturated or dry adiabatic lapse rate. Thus damp winds which rise

Dry

Air—tLet the state of the atmosphere be specified by the variables Ż, p, T, at height z, and let p’, p’, J’ denote the state of any displaced mass when it is at height z. The accented letters

over mountain ranges descend on the other side as very warm dry

will therefore refer to air which has been displaced from its normal environment. We denote specific heat of air at constant

winds (fékn winds), The physical process involved in the consideration of the saturated adiabatic lapse rate is not in reality an adiabatic process, since, as we have seen, it is not reversible.

volume by cy and at constant pressure by cp. Let v= = = specific

For this reason it is frequently referred to as a pseudo-adiabatic

volume of the moving air. In moving from height z to height

process.

2--dz, the loss of heat is equal to the work done by the moving mass in expanding against the action of the pressure due to the environment: Crd]! = —~apd’,

DYNAMICAL

The Equations of Motion in Three Dimensions.—The mo-

tion of an element of mass situated in latitude ¢, longitude A, at a distance r from the centre of the earth, may be represented

where a is the reciprocal of the mechanical equivalent of heat

T dz

by the following equations:

ur, & T

Thus the rate of decrease of temperature of air ascending adiabatically is proportional to the ratio of the temperatures of the | moving air and of the environment

practical problems, this ratio may ag

mame gee ep ee

at the same level.

In all

be taken as unity.

Then

=0-986° C/roo metres, or almost exactly 1° C per

100 metres.

Stability of Dry Air.— If a small mass of air originally at

level z be displaced vertically to height z+dz, its temperature

will change to T+dT’, where dT’=—~2dz, In its displaced posi; « ° ’ * tion it= will be lighter or heavier than Cpits environ ment accordi7ng S is less or greater than

ee according as Oi pete

E dz dz s f P Hence the airPar"is stable or unstable according as the lapse rate is less or greater than the adiabatic lapse rate of 1° C per roo metres, It can be readily verified that the condition for stability |

% that the potential temperature shall increase with height.

ASPECTS

—rcos¢h— 2A — w) (Feos —rsinġ $) =X ro+ 2rb + rcospsingh (A~ 2) =F

#—ro?—rcos pA —2w) =Z —g,

(1)

(2) (3)

where w is the angular velocity of the earth, g is the acceleration | due to gravity, and X, F, Z, are the components of the external

forces resolved along axes drawn to east, to north, and vertically, respectively, but not rotating with the eartb. In practice it is frequently more convenient to use cartesian co-ordinates referred to axes drawn as above, but rotating with the earth. The appropriate equations are:

Z — 2wesing+ 2nweosp=X av

;

(4)

I +-2wusing

=Y

(5)

= — 2WUCOBH

=Z.

(6)

METEOROLOGY

359

The derivation of these equations will be found in any standard | where the radius of curvature is r, the accelerations relative to 72 7 AVF textbook on dynamics; e.g., Routh’s Rigid Dynamics, vol. 1. p. 205. Equation (1) can be immediately integrated for the case of the earth are = normal to the path, and nots along the tangent “no forces.” Putting X =o, it may be written to the path. Observational evidence points to the second of these terms being small by comparison with the other (Durward, Pro. fessional Note No. 24, M.O. London, and Shaw and Lempfert (rco? —u]) =0, rcos@ di Life History of Surface Air Currents), and it is usually left out = constant. whence r cosso —w) (7) of further consideration. Equations (10) and (xr) then state

s d

This equation simply states that when there are no forces the angular momentum about the axis of the earth is constant. If therefore we know the east to west component of velocity of a

moving mass when in one latitude, we can compute the east to west component of velocity of that mass when it has moved to any other latitude. Care is needed in the use of this equation, since it represents only one aspect of the motion of the mass in question. By its use some highly questionable results have been derived in meteorology. When there is no vertical velocity, there are only two equations

du

hed

dv

:

Written p az Steady Motion.—The

terms x oP ls above, represent the total acceleration of a

di

dt

given element of mass, or £ is differentiation “following the

fluid.” In terms of the velocity at a given point, the equations become Ou

a

Ou

tan

Ou

Te ae

;

2wusing = X,

(xo)

Os Ov Oo ‘ cy +u ae +p ay +2wusind = F.

(rr)

In the special case of steady motion, = = = =o; and the terms, Ow on ðv On 4# ae +eay u a H

pressure gradient density AOSD

: : represent the centrifugal acceleration,

plus the tangential acceleration, The deviating acceleration to the earth’s rotation is always at right angles to the path, therefore cannot produce any change of velocity, but can fluence the direction of motion. Any particle projected on

xvoe

(12)

The upper sign is used if the concave side of the isobar has low pressure, and the lower sign in the opposite case. These two cases correspond to cyclonic and anticyclonic curvatures of isobars. It is convenient to represent the pressure gradient symbolically

by 2wpGsing, where p is the density of the air. Equation (12) then becomes

20Gsing = 20 Vsind+ = .

(x3)

The solution of equation (13) is called the gradient wind, and equation (13) is generally referred to as the gradient wind eqution. The gradient wind is the wind which, blowing around the isobars, calls into play a centrifugal force and a deviating force exactly sufficient to balance the pressure gradient. When the 2

1%

Equations of Horizontal Motion.

di

which balances the two, must act along the same line, and the

(9)

The effect of the rotation of the earth is therefore allowed for by including in the statement of accelerations a term 2wsing Xvelocity, and it is readily seen that this acceleration is at rightangles to the direction of motion. This is known as the “deviating force due to the earth’s rotation.” The complete set of equations (4), (5), and (6) includes in addition an acceleration along the east-west line, which is positive to east when the motion is downward, and a vertical component of acceleration proportional to the east-west component of velocity. Equations (8) and (g) hold for any rectangular axes in the horizontal plane. The forces X, Y, Z include all forces other than gravitation, such as viscous or frictional forces, or the components of the gradient of pressure. The part of these forces due to the pressure distribution may be

p oy :

of friction and turbulence which are considered later. The cen. trifugal acceleration which acts at right angles to the path must then balance (a) and (b) above. Since however the centrifugal acceleration is along the same line as (b), it follows that (a),

(8) equation of motion then becomes

J; +-2wusing= Y.

p Ox

sure gradient, which acts at right angles to the isobar, and is dìrected towards low pressure; (b) the deviating acceleration awVsing at right angles to the path; and (c) the viscous or turbulent resistance. In the first consideration of the problem, we neglect the effect

motion under balanced forces must be along the isobars. The

FF —2wvsing =X

2 ob 19h

that the centrifugal acceleration balances the sum of (a) the pres.

due and inthe

earth’s surface, free from friction, will execute a circle, if we neglect variations of latitude. This circle is known as the circle of inertia. Its radius is proportional to the velocity of projection. _ Horizontal Motion Under Balanced Forces. The Gradi-

ent Wind.—Equations (10) and (11) above form an algebraic statement of the balance between the accelerations relative to ihe earth and the deviating force, together with any other im"pressed forces. If V be the total velocity in the path, at a point

isobars are not much curved, the term é is small by comparisos r with 2wVsinġ, and may therefore be neglected, and V =G. This particular solution is known as the geostrophic wind. Equation

(13) may also be written

using(V—G) =+ 2»

(ua

2

in which the upper sign is taken when the curvature of the isobars is anticyclonic, the lower sign when the curvature is cyclonic. It is readily seen from this that the geostrophic wind is an underestimate of the gradient wind in an anticyclone, and an overestimate in a cyclone. The Solution of the Gradient Wind Equation.—For anticyclonic motion the solution of the quadratic equation (13) becomes

V =rwsing

I +/(: i

F

(zs)

t

Expansion of the radical gives V =rwsing iI F(x ~

G rwsing

—i

G? ——__

aatsintg

—

etc, ?}+- (16

etc.)

i

The upper sign gives a solution which is continuous near straigh isobars, where V=G, while the second solution would deman

indefinitely high velocities near straight isobars. Thus the onl physically appropriate solution of (16) is

Verasing {:—V/(1 —22- t

(r;

The corresponding solution for cyclonic motion is obtained!

METEOROLOGY changing the sign of the radius of curvature 7, and is therefore veresing {/(r+

ae )=xf.

(18)

351

fact that the motion of air is not steady motion is clearly shown by any anemometer

chart on which the instantaneous velocity

or direction of the wind differs considerably from the mean value TOSIN® over an interval of time. Since eddies formed in an air current Equation (17) gives a system of winds blowing clockwise are of finite size they must cause mixing of adjacent layers of round a centre of high pressure, but everywhere with a veloc- air, and they therefore act as agents in diffusing momentum, heat, ity less than rwsing. The anticyclone therefore has a slower water vapour, dust, carbon dioxide, and other properties or rate of rotation than the earth beneath it, and is therefore a constituents of the atmosphere. G. I. Taylor (Phil. Trans. A, 1915) showed that the power of counterclockwise circulation in space. Equation (18) gives a system of winds blowing counterclockwise round a centre of low eddies for diffusing momentum, heat, or other constituents, may pressure, both when considered relative to the earth and as be represented by a constant K, the eddy diffusivity, which is motion in space. Thus both cyclone and anticyclone have in roughly proportional to 4wd where w is the mean vertical comspace the same direction of rotation as the earth beneath them. ponent of velocity in the eddies, and d the mean diameter of the It can be readily verified that the second solution shown in equa- eddies. The value of K on any particular occasion will depend upon a number of factors, notably the nature of the surface of tion (15) is a clockwise rotation in space, for both cyclone and the ground and the lapse rate of temperature. Values of K have anticyclone. Large scale systems conforming to this solution do been estimated varying from 310? c.g.s. units in inversions over not occur in nature, and the solution is to be regarded as an algebraic accident rather than as having a physical meaning. the Great Banks of Newfoundland, to rof over Paris. The theory elaborated by Taylor gives the flow of heat, etc. Some evidence has been adduced by Brunt (Proc. Roy. Soc., A.. across unit area of a horizontal plane, moving with the mean 1924) to show that such systems would be unstable if they could motion of the air. This mean motion will depend upon the size be produced momentarily. of the area over which the mean is taken, since in the atmosphere The geostrophic wind is readily evaluated by the use of a scale of reciprocals to measure the distance apart of consecutive isobars. there are eddies of widely varying sizes. The value of K which we adopt in a particular problem should therefore be a function The scale is graduated for standard density, and the small correction required for deviations from standard density is readily of the size of the parcel of air with which we are concerned. Taylor has approached the problem from a different standpoint made. A detailed comparison of observed winds with winds comin a paper in Proceedings London Mathematical Society 192r. puted from synoptic charts was carried out by E. Gold (BarometRichardson (Phil. Mag., 1925) has discussed the relation which ric Gradient and Wind Force, M.O. 190), and it was found that must subsist between the vertical gradients of temperature and the geostrophic wind gives a close approximation to the wind wind if turbulence is to increase. Richardson has also given a observed at a height of 2,000 to 3,000 feet. more general treatment of the question of turbulence, allowing for The computation of the gradient wind requires the solution of the possibility of K varying with height (Proc. Roy. Soc. A, equation (13), which demands the evaluation of the curvature of 1919). In this connection see also a paper by Jeffreys in Proc. the isobars, denoted by 7. The gradient wind is therefore an inCamb. Phil. Soc., 1929. An extension of these ideas to the general convenient quantity to use, and the geostrophic wind is adopted circulation, treating the cyclones and anticyclones as eddies, has as the most useful first approximation to the actual wind. The been given by Defant Geografiska Annaler, 1921. A useful sumnature of this approximation is here emphasised because the major mary of the work of Richardson, Taylor and others is given by part of modern dynamical meteorology assumes the geostrophic C. G. Rossby (Monthly Weather Review, 1927). The effect of wind as equivalent to the actual wind. turbulence upon evaporation from large sheets of water has been In low latitudes, where 2wsing is small, the term 2/y usually discussed by Giblett (Proc. Roy. Soc., 1921) and Ångström exceeds 2wVsing@. Equation (13) then becomes meaningless for (Archiv. för Mat. Astr. och Fysik, 1921). anticyclonic curvature, z.e. with the negative sign on the right The Variation of Wind with Height in the Lowest Layhand side, showing that closed anticyclonic isobars are not physiers.—Íf in fg. 4, O G represents the geostrophic wind G in magcally possible as a steady state in low latitudes. nitude and direction, and O P the wind at height z in magnitude Effect of Changing Pressure Distribution.—The use of the and direction, then P sweeps out gradient wind equation is, strictly speaking, restricted to regions an equiangular spiral, and the where the pressure distribution is not changing. ' Brunt and line OS, representing the surface. Douglas (Memoirs R. Met. Soc. No. 22, 1928) have shown that wind, is a tangent to this spiral. in a region where the pressure distribution is changing the wind is The spiral summarizes the distriapproximately made up of the geostrophic wind with an added bution of wind with height in a component blowing across the isallobars into the isallobaric low, convenient form. It attains the and of intensity proportional to the gradient of isallobars. The geostrophic velocity at a lower magnitude of this component is readily evaluated from the chart height than the geostrophic wind of isallobars by the use of the geostrophic wind scale. FIG. 4 direction, and as was shown by The hydrodynamical equation of continuity may be written G.I. Taylor (0./.R. Met. Soc., 1914), this fits the observed facts with reasonable accuracy. The geostrophic wind should give a ð ð ð ð ata Ati O+ 3, (Pe) =O. (19) good approximation to the actual conditions at a height of about 1 km. It follows that the effect of turbulence due to the ground If the effect of changing density be neglected it can be shown that only extends to heights of 500~1,000 metres. systems of steady geostrophic winds satisfy the equation of conTaylor’s treatment of turbulence in terms of a coefficient K tmuity with no vertical velocity w. There can therefore be no which is assumed to be independent of height thus enables us convergence, and consequently no rainfall, in a system of geo- to account for the general nature of the variations of wind and strophic winds. The isallobaric components of winds discussed by temperature in the lower layers of the atmosphere, though the Brunt and Douglas give convergence into regions of low values uncertainty as to the contribution of direct radiation and ab-

and divergence from regions of high values on the isallobaric

sorption

charts, and so explain the rainfall associated with the low values,

estimate of K from the temperature variations alone. The use of Taylor’s coefficient K has led to a clearer physical understanding of the processes associated with turbulence in the atmosphere, yet it is certain that no theory at present available is capable of explaining all the facts. In this connection see also papers by L. F. Richardson in Memoirs R. Met. Soc. vol. i. No. 1, and Proc. Roy Soc. A, 1926.

and fine weather associated with the high values. _The Nature of Wind. Turbulence—On account of fricfon at the surface of the earth the air is always in turbulent moton, eddies being formed in much the same way as in a stream of water moving over an uneven bed. The pattern of the eddies

is made visible by smoke from a chimney or other fire, but the

to

the

temperature

changes,

renders

uncertain

any

METEOROLOGY

354

A theoretical discussion of the form of clouds of smoke emitted from point and line sources, based on an extension of Taylor’s method of treatment, has been given by O. F. T. Roberts in Proc. Ray. Soc. A, 1923. The subject of turbulent motion in the atmosphere has been discussed by Schmidt in a number of papers published in the Sitsungberichte d. Wiener Akad. d, Wiss, from 1917 onwards, by Sverdrup in papers in the publications of the Geophysical Institute, Leipzig, and elsewhere, and by Hesselberg in Geofisiske Publi. vol. iii. A discussion of this and many kindred subjects, together with full references to the work of English and Continental writers will be found in Weather Prediction by Numerical Process by L. F. Richardson, 1922. Variation of Wind with Height in the Upper Layers,— The turbulence produced at the ground only affects the wind distribution in the lowest kilometre or so. Beyond these heights the variations of wind with height are to be ascribed to the horizontal distribution of temperature. For the wind at any level beyond the reach of turbulence will approximate to the geostrophic wind computed from the isobars at that level, and the distribution of pressure at any level depends not only on the distribution of pressure at mean sea level, but also on the distribution of the temperature in the intervening layers. Assuming the wind to be geostrophic mathematical analysis seems to indicate that when

| of the remainder of the fluid, and unaffected by impacts with the surrounding portions. It could only be unaffected by the effect of

at the lower level in proportion to the absolute temperature, and then adding to it a component blowing around the isobars of mean temperature in the intervening layer, keeping low temperature to its left, just as the geostrophic wind blows round the isobars, keeping low pressure to its left. The Computer’s Handbook Section ii., Subsection 3, finds the magnitude of the horizontal temperature gradients corresponding to a given distribution of velocity. The Transformation of Energy in the Atmosphere by Tuarbulence.—The effect of the vertical transfer of horizontal momentum by eddies can be represented as a virtual frictional force. Brunt has shown (Pil. Mag., 1926) that the loss of energy of the winds due to turbulence is roughly equal to 510% kw. per square metre, amounting therefore to the equivalent of a little over 2% of the incoming solar radiation. In the same paper it is shown, with certain assumptions, that if there were no incoming solar energy, the effect of turbulence would reduce the winds to one-tenth their original value in six days. No such annihilation of the atmospheric circulation occurs, and the average conditions persist year after year. The loss of kinetic energy by turbulence is therefore continually compensated by the transformation of roughly 2% of the energy of the incoming solar radiation into kinetic energy. The compensation is not however to be regarded as a process which is always adjusted with precision. It probably proceeds by a kind of trial and error method, and this lack of smoothness must, in part at least, account for the variability of terrestrial weather.

portional to the gradient of pressure and to the secant of the latitude. Jeffreys calls such winds “Geostrophic,” following Sir Napier Shaw.

may be taken to be comparable with 80 km., and in which the wind velocities may attain 70 metres per second, the accelerational terms are not negligible, so that the tropical storm is not geostrophic. Since the time of revolution of the tropical storm is only a few hours, while the storm might last for several days, the

ferred to three axes x, y, g, of which z is vertical, and x and y in the horizontal plane, drawn to east and north respectively, the equations of motion may be written in the forms

effect of friction must be relatively small, and the tropical storm, and a fortiori the tornado, must be Eulerian in character. Jeffreys’ detailed analysis of land and sea breezes, and of mountain breezes, show that they are mainly antitriptic.

impacts if the free path of a molecule were great when compared

with the horizontal displacement of the fluid, a condition which

is never satisfied in the portions of the atmosphere accessible to

observation of any kind. It can readily be shown that the left-hand side of equation (3) is usually negligible, and is always small by comparison with

gravity. The acceleration m » even in thunderstorms, in which it probably attains its maximum value, never exceeds 5% of the gravitational acceleration. Equation (3) will therefore be re. placed by p Oz

(4)

and in equation (1) the term involving the vertical velocity w will be neglected. Since the pressure term is always important, at least one of the other terms must be comparable in magnitude with it. Jeffreys distinguishes three cases, Eulerian Winds.—Case (1). The rotational and frictional terms are here small by comparison with the accelerational term.

The winds satisfying these conditions are called “Eulerian,” after there is no horizontal gradient of temperature the wind is at all Euler, who first found their equations. heights proportional to the absolute temperature, When there is Geostrophic Winds.—Case (2), The rotational terms far exceed a horizontal gradient of temperature the wind at a level zo can both the accelerational and frictional terms. be derived from the wind at level zı by first reducing the wind The winds are everywhere along the isobars, with a velocity pro-

The Classification of Winds,—If the motion of air be re-

Gu i dy

cost + zwwcoso = 2wrsing = .

Ji +2wusing

dw

z 722rb

1 OP HK Sa Pe A Iı Op

= — A Oy r ĝ

ree = g.

On

J

Antitriptic Winds —Case (3). The frictional terms exceed the rotational and accelerational terms, and the wind is driven by the pressure gradient, but its velocity is limited by friction, provided the journey is sufficiently long. Jeffreys calls these winds “anti-

triptic” (Gr. tpiyis =friction).

In applying this classification Jeffreys reaches the general conclusions that: (a) world-wide phenomena, including the general circulation and its seasonal variation, (b) phenomena on a continental scale, including the disturbance of the general circulation in the interior of continents, and (c) phenomena on ascale comparable with the British Isles, including the moving cyclone of temperate latitudes, all satisfy the condition that the rotational terms exceed the accelerational terms, so that they belong te

classes (2) or (3) above. To distinguish between the two possible alternatives, Jeffreys appeals to observations of winds, which do not deviate more than four points from the isobar at the surface, and which at a height of a kilometre and above follow closely the direction of the isobars. These winds are thus at least approxmately geostrophic. In tropical storms, whose average diameter

The General Circulation.—The main features of the dis

(x)

tribution of pressure and winds over the earth are best shown by maps. (See section on Distribution of Winds over the Globe.)

When we come to consider the theoretical explanation of the (2) main features of the earth’s circulation, we find that no satisfactory theory has been advanced to explain these phenomena. Two papers by Jeffreys in the Q.J, of tke R, Met. Soc., Jan, 1926 and

(3) Oct. 1927, indicate the most hopeful lines of future attack upoo

the problem. Jeffreys shows that no circulation which is comJeffreys (QJR. Met. Soc., 1924) has given a classification of pletely symmetrical about the poles could maintain itself against winds based on the relative magnitude of the different terms in friction, and concludes that the cyclones of middle latitudes are to these equations. He points out that the pressure terms must be regarded as essential features of the general circulation rather

: . aways be important, since the contrary would mean that each portion of the fluid was free to pursue its own path independently

than as disturbances superposed upon the general circulation,

Surfaces of Discontinyity—The possibility of having two

METEOROLOGY currents of different densities flowing side by side with different yelocities, separated by a definite surface of discontinuity, was frst demonstrated by von Helmholtz. The slope of the surface of discontinuity to the surface of the earth can be derived from

353

mass of air has no inviolable boundary, and as it rises through its environment the turbulent motion set up at its boundaries causes a partial mixing with the environment, with the result that an

separated by a clearly defined surface of negligible thickness. In the atmosphere, however, this condition is never accurately

increasing mass of air has its temperature raised above that of its immediate environment. This process is called the “‘eviction” of air. The Polar Front Theory.—Dove developed in some detail the idea that a cyclone could be regarded as a region of opposition of warm and cold currents, and a

placed by a layer of transition in which both the velocity and

number of later writers sup| ported this same view. The work

the equations (4), (5), (6) of the section Dynamical Aspects. The lines of the discussion would follow those laid down by Helmholtz and Margules.

The two currents are assumed to be

reproduced, and the mathematical surface of separation is re-

temperature change over gradually from one set of conditions to the other. Pilot balloon observations frequently display this layer of transition, whose thickness is usually of the order of

soo metres.

It is not probable that the slope of the layer of

transition differs much from the computed slope of the mathematical surface of discontinuity. The chief limitation met in the

application of the formulae consists rather in the fact that the motions of the two currents are not always parallel to the surface

line of separation, so that the warm current climbs up over the cold current. THE ORIGIN OF CYCLONES

OF MIDDLE

LATITUDES

The Convection Theory.—The so-called convection theory of the origin of cyclones supposes that thermal causes produce

a strongly localized ascending current in one place, and that the convergence of air from the surrounding regions to take the

place of the air removed by the ascending current brings into

existence a circulation of winds round the centre, in the counter-

clockwise direction. The resulting cyclone is effectively to be regarded as a disc of revolving fluid. The nature of the circulations produced when fluid is removed from a disc of fluid revolving with a constant angular velocity ¢, was first given by Rayleigh (Proc. Roy. Soc. A., vol. xcii.) who showed that the resulting transverse velocity v at distance r from the centre is given by the equation v=

r+ = ’

where B is proportional to the amount of fluid removed. It was shown by Brunt (Proc. Roy. Soc. A., vol. xcix.) that the original velocity of rotation ¢ might be merely the rotation of the air with the earth, in which case the subsequent motion relative to the earth became ae Bw sing : r

Thus intense localized convection in air originally still should give rise to a cyclonic circulation, provided it is possible for the air which rises to be carried away from, the region in question,

of Shaw and Lempfert (Shaw, Forecasting Weather, chap. 7) in the Life History of Surface Air Currents led them to the view | that the air currents in a cyclone could be represented diagramby fig. 5, and that the matically FIG. 5 rain which fell in the cyclone could be explained by the forced ascent due to convergence, or by the ascent of warm air over cold air. w-OR COLD Sea

Later V. Bjerknes combined this picture of the cyclone with the ideas of Helmholtz. The latter had shown that it was possible for two currents of different temperatures and different velocities to flow side by side, separated by a surface of discontinuity, the arrangement being entirely stable. Bjerknes (“The Dynamics of the circular vortex,” etc., Geofysiske Publikationer, Oslo, vol. ii. No. 4 and “The Structure of the Atmosphere When Rain Is Falling,” Q.J.R. Met. Soc., 1920) suggested that the cyclone should be visualized as a wave on the surface of separation between cold easterly currents of polar origin, and warm westerly currents of equatorial origin. The

cold air of polar origin is called “polar air,” and the warm air of equatorial origin “equatorial air,” while the surface of separation is known as the “polar front.” The theory put forward by Bjerknes, the “polar front” theory, has not yet been fully developed. To begin with, the development of waves in an inclined surface of separation has not been treated with mathematical precision. The whole question of the exact processes involved in the production of cyclones at a polar front bristles with theoretical difficulties. The polar front is only inclined at a very small angle (4° to 1°) to the horizontal plane.

Bjerknes regards the waves which form at the polar front as gravitational waves, and. he suggests that the effect of the earth’s roso as to provide for the diminution of pressure at the centre. tation will be to increase the extent of the The most obvious method of removal of the ascended air is horizontal deviations, so that they become by means of a strong current in the upper air. It is readily seen enormously greater (instead of much less) that unless there is somewhere in the upper air a current suffthan the vertical displacements. The ciently strong to carry the ascended air quickly away from the waves increase in amplitude, and a cyclone region of ascent, there is no possibility of forming a cyclone. sometimes forms at the northern crest of For if air is removed vertically from the lower layers, there is a wave. This theory is strongly reminisa converging flow of air from the surrounding region to take cent of Emden’s theory of sun spots the place of the air removed, and the net result will be to increase (Gaskugeln, 1907). As put forward by the pressure over the region. This in turn will set up a pressure Bjerknes it presents numerous gaps, and gradient opposing the inward motion, and must rapidly check the argument is of a general character. FIG. 6.—LIFE CYCLE OF the motion of convergence. The process of formation of a cyclone CYCLONES On this theory the cyclone consists of a column, or rather according to this theory can be most of a disc of revolving fluid, rotating about the centre of lowest readily explained by reference to the diagrams of figure 6, Pressure, and having a system of circular isobars. If the con- where in a the broken line represents a portion of the undisvection is set up in a moving current, the cyclone has the general turbed polar front. The actual surface separating the warm motion of the current (Shaw, Geophysical Memoir No. 12 and and cold air is inclined to the horizontal at an angle of the order Proc. Roy. Soc. A., 1917). This theory and some of its conse- of 4°, with the warm air above the cold. The first step is a bulge quences have been discussed in some detail by Sir Napier Shaw of the warm air into the cold air, as shown at b. This stage is m The Air and its Ways. marked by a fall of pressure at the tip of the tongue of warm Shaw describes the cyclone as originating in the ascent of a air, and the bulge and the newly formed cyclone both travel with mass of air which is lighter than its surroundings. The ascending the warm current, This stage of the development is represented

METEOROLOGY

354

in greater detail in figure 7, central portion, where the arrows represent the air currents, and the main rain areas are shaded. The association of rain with the ascent of air is clearly indicated in this diagram, there being an extensive area of precipitation in advance of the warm front. Heavy continuous rain does not occur in the warm sector. The lower diagram in figure 7 represents a vertical section from west to east across the warm sector.

ARM AIR Soe

ae

e Hindenburg in his memoirs added: “It was plain that this Situation could not last... . Moreover the pressure which the

lege, Oxford, of which he was scholar and fellow. When the Civil

War broke out in 1642 he joined the Royalist army. He was taken prisoner at Naseby; but was released, and in 1648 sought refuge in Holland.

He became friendly with Charles I.’s secretary, 5

MEX BOROUGH—MEXICO Edward Nicholas, and made two journeys to Scotland in the king’s

service in 1653. Before this Mews had been ordained. Regaining

his fellowship at Oxford after the Restoration, he received many preferments. In 1667, when at Breda arranging peace between England and Holland, be was chosen president of St. John’s col-

Oxford, in succession to his father-in-law, Dr. Richard Baylie,

and afterwards became vice-chancellor of the university and dean of Rochester. Appointed bishop of Bath and Wells in 1672, Mews

resigned his presidency in 1673, and in 1684 was elected bishop of

377

ranges deflected towards the south-east. Remains of transverse chains are to be seen in the isolated ridges and peaks, rising above the level of the table-land, and, in some cases, forming welldefined basins. Two such depressions are particularly conspicuous, the Bolsén de Mapimi, in which the resemblance to the

American Basin ranges is quite evident, and the Valley of Mexico, formerly provided with large bodies of water, now replaced by small lakes and marshy lagoons. The Mexican high plateau has a general elevation of about

Winchester, a position which he filled until his death on Nov. 9,

8,000 ft. in the States of Mexico and Puebla. Its southward slope 1706. Mews lent his carriage horses to pull the cannon at a Critical | is abrupt, while the one to the north is gradual, being about 44 moment during the battle of Sedgemoor. He was, however, in sym- ft. to the mile, as shown by the elevation at Ciudad Juarez, oppathy with the seven bishops, and as visitor of Magdalen college, posite El Paso, which is only 3,600 feet. In a general way the Oxford. he supported the fellows in their resistance to James II. plateau slopes from south to north and from west to east.

He took the oaths to William and Mary in 1680.

See S. H. Cassan, Lives of the Bishops of Winchester (1827); and

the Nicholas Papers, ed. G. F. Warner (1886-97).

MEXBOROUGH,

an urban district in the West Riding of

Yorkshire, England, rr m. N.E. of Sheffield, on the L.N.E. railway. Pop. (1931), 15,856. Situated on the river Don, which affords water communication with the Humber. The castle hill is crowned with some fine earth works of uncertain date. The large industrial population is mainly employed in glass, pottery and iron works and in the neighbouring stone quarries,

MEXICO, a Federal republic of North America, though be-

longing partly to Central America, in the geographical sense, and extending from the United States southward to Guatemala and British Honduras. Its northern boundary-line follows the Rio Grande del Norte (Rio Bravo) from its mouth northwestward to lat. 31° 47’ N., thence on that parallel westwards for 100 m,, thence south to lat. 31° 20’ N., thence due west to the 111th meridian, thence in a straight line, nearly west-north-west,

Mountains.—The marginal ranges limiting the high tableland on both sides have been called by the Spaniards Sierra Madre Occidental and Sierra Madre Oriental, but such names are more picturesque than scientific and may easily be a cause of confusion since there are other sierras madres, not only in South America, but in Mexico itself. Anyway, such names can only be considered as having a general signification, and Mexicans give a different one to the various ranges forming the sierras madres. The northern part of the Sierra Madre Occidental consists of several parallel ranges, the most eastern of which are the Sierra Tarahumare and the Sierra de Durango, while the most western are the Sierra del Nazareno, the Sierra Yaqui and the Sierra

Fuerte, all of them converging to form the Sierra del Nayarit.

The total length of the former ranges is 900 miles. The altitude

of this part of the Sierra Madre Occidental rises constantly from north to south, as shown by the height of the culminating peaks,

the Alamos, in the north, 5,874 ft.; the Frailecitos, in the centre,

to a point on the Colorado river 20 m, below the mouth of the Gila river, thence northward to the mouth of the Gila, and thence

6,840 ft.; and the Cerro del Pimal, in the Sierra del Nayarit, 11,319 feet. At about 20° of latitude, corresponding to the geographical position of the Nevado de Colima, 14,363 ft., and of

the southernmost point of San Diego bay, this line having a

more or less closely as far as the isthmus of Tehuantepec, and the

the Volcan de Colima, 12,750 ft., the great chain again divides, fornia, to a point on the Pacific coast one marine league south of the western part, or Sierra Madre del Sur, following the shore

nearly due west along the old line between upper and lower Cali-

total of 1,8z0 miles, The boundary-line with Guatemala and eastern branch crossing the plateau in a south by east direction. The Sierra Madre Oriental is narrower and lower, except in British Honduras is even more arbitrary, beginning at the mouth of the Suchiate river, on the Pacific coast, and following that its southern part. It rises southwest of Tampico, reaching high stream to its source, thence determined by the peaks of altitudes along the western frontier of Veracruz with the Cofre Tacana, Buenavista and Ixbul, from there following a parallel to de Perote, or Naucampatepetl, 13,419 ft., and the magnificent the Chixoy river, which is really the Upper Usumacinta, to a point snow-capped cone of Orizaba, or Citlaltepetl, 13,209 feet. Crossing the highest part of the Mexican plateau is a broken on the Usumacinta itself about 16 miles S, of Tenosique (Ta-

and chaotic series of ranges, uniting the two sierras madres, part of which iş sometimes called Cordillera de Anáhuac, where rise between British Honduras and Guatemala, thence north to the the Malinche, or Malintzin, 14,636 ft., the gigantic snow-clad cone Hondo river which it skirts to Chetumal bay. The length of this of the Popocatepetl, 19,888 ft., the Ixtaccihuatl, 17,323 ft., and further west, the Nevado de Toluca, 15,168 feet. border line is not known accurately. The Sierra Madre del Sur, or Sierra de Oaxaca, of which the Physical Geography.—Nowhere does the official boundary between Mexico and neighbouring countries coincide with any only high peak is the Zempoaltepet! (meaning 20 peaks), 11,139 real barrier between different regions, nor is it a line of demarca- ft., decreases in height from north to south until it reaches the lowtion between different tongues, since the Spanish language is lying isthmus of Tehuantepec, the lowest altitude (portillo) of still the natural vernacular of thousands of people north of the which is 787 ft. (Böse), and the highest point, reached by the American border, Mexico is essentially a region of transition trans-isthmian railway, 852 feet, After this interruption the chain, through which one passes gradually from North America into now known as Cordillera de Chiapas, or de Soconusco, is seen to rise again, its summits reaching 7,872 ft., with the cone Soconusco, Central America, Mexico consists largely of an elevated plateau, open in the and 14,000 ft. with the Tacaná. direction of the United States, limited on its two maritime sides The great peninsula of Lower California, the “fleshless arm of

basco), thence due east to the San Pedro Martir river, thence

north to lat, 17° 40” N., which it follows eastward to the border

by a double chain of mountains, themselves a continuation of Mexico” (el brazo descarnado de México), as the Mexicans call American ranges, which meet one another at La Junta, south-east

of Puebla. To this plateau must be added a fringe of lowlands extending on hath sides between the mountains and the sea; a region in the south-east which forms part of the Central

it, is a rugged region, evidently the continuation of the coast range of the United States, the Gulf of California corresponding to

the San Joaquin-Sacramento valley. Its frame is made of four

successive chains with an especially noticeable break in the mid-

American plateau; and two peninsulas, one, that of Lower Cali-

dle, where the extinct volcanic group of Tres Virgenes is found.

range, and the other one, Yucatan, made almost entirely of a low

10,122 feet. These coastal ranges can be linked with the Sierra Madre del Sur, through the Tres Marias isles and Cape Corrientes, on the mainland (Gabb, Aguilera, Ordóñez, Suess). Volcanoes and Earthquakes.—Starting almost at the border between the United States and Mexico, we find the beginning of a chain of volcanoes that is practically unbroken until it reaches

fornia, which is evidently a continuation of the American coast The highest recorded peak is the Calamahue, or Santa Catalina,

calcareous plain.

Heilprin has shown that the great plateau of Mexico is what

Femains of a folded region, partly eroded, and covered with deposits of volcanic and detritic origin, and that the chains that are

left sre undoubtedly the continuation of the American Basin

MEXICO

378

the southern end of South America. The Pifiacate, of Sonora, 1.656 ft., is the only one, north of the Lerma river, that shows any activity, but south of that river we find the Ceboruco, 7,100 ft., which was still active in 1875, and the Colima volcanic group, of which the Fuego, 14,200 ft., has had frequent eruptions, the latest being the one of 1909. East of Colima rise the Tancitaro, 12,000 ft., and the famous Jorullo, 4,262 ft., whose first eruption took place in 1759; while north-east of this group we find the Nevado de Toluca or Xinantecatl, 15,000 ft., now quiescent, but whose former eruptions must have been formidable. South-east of the Nevado de Toluca is the Popocatepetl, 17,888 ft., not entirely extinct, whose crater is soo ft. deep and 24 m. in circumference, the craterless (although of volcanic origin) Ixtaccihuatl, 17,323 it., the above mentioned Malinche, Cofre de Perote, and, finally, the Orizaba, the highest of all, 18,209 ft., probably the most perfect and beautiful of all volcanoes, and comparable to the Peruvian Misti and the Japanese Fuji. South-east of Veracruz is an isolated volcanic group of which the Tuxtla, 4,900 ft., had a terrific eruption in 1793 but is now quiescent. On the Pacific coast the Soconusco, 7,872 ft., smokes occasionally and, right on the border itself, the Tacaná, 14,000 fr., is still active. Earthquakes, of which there were terrific ones in 1474, according to Aztec traditions, are particularly frequent in the Pacific region of Mexico, especially from San Blas to the Guatemalan border, the town of Chilpancingo being generally the spot most affected. In 1909 it was reduced to a mass of ruins, while Acapulco was almost as badly treated, partly on account of a tidal wave that followed the shock. The city of Tehuantepec is another place that has been frequently shaken. The Gulf region is rarely affected. Coastal Region.—The low land, or tierra caliente region, which lies between the sierras and the coast, consists of sandy and marshy deposits near the sea, but some sections of the coastal lands, where débris from neighbouring mountains have accumulated, may reach an altitude as great as 3,000 feet, while on the Pacific coast mountain spurs may extend down to the littoral

{Cape Corrientes, Cerro del León).

In Tabasco and in south-

west Campeche the low lands cover a much vaster extension and are made of the alluvial deposits of the Usumacinta and Grijalva net of rivers. The Yucatán peninsula, north of the Petén lagoon, Is formed entirely of a white limestone of very low altitude, the geological age of which is quite recent (Sapper, Heilprin, Engerrand).

The difference between the aspect of the Atlantic (Gulf of Mexico) coast and that of the Pacific is as great in Mexico as it is in the United States. The former, 1,080 m. long, is generally lew and sandy, and shows no bay of commercial importance except the shallow Tamiahua lagoon, the relatively deep Laguna del Carmen (the only one that has a natural harbour owing to the protection afforded by the islands of Carmen and Puerto Real), and those on the eastern coast of Yucatan, of which almost no use is made because the region itself is stil! undeveloped. The general lack of secondary articulations, characteristic of the Gulf coast, and the fact that all the rivers which have their mouths there are obstructed by sand-bars, explain why the good ports on the Gulf of Mexico are artificial; and it must also be remembered that this coast is by far the most important in respect to international communications. The leading ports are Tampico and Veracruz; the former, which is a river port, has

Been considerably improved by the building of breakwaters or jetties, while the latter is almost entirely man-made. Puerto México

(Coatzacoalcos}, on the river of the same name—a

pert whose future on account of its situation could hardly be dewbted—has been improved in the same way as Tampico. Large

bests can go as far up ihe river as Minatitlan, 26 m. from the coast. Progreso, the henequén (Sisal hemp) port, has taken the

the head of a small, artificial harbour, is almost entirely silted

The Pacific coast, 2,860 m. long, rugged and much better articulated, has excellent bays, one of which, that of Acapulco

is truly magnificent, though they are all cut off from the interior by the rough and abrupt ranges of the Sierra Madre Occidental

The only important ports are those connected with the interior by railway; viz., Guaymas, Topolobampo, Mazatlan, San Blas Manzanillo and Salina Cruz. Lower California has some a cellent natural bays, such as those of Ensenada de Todos Santos La Magdalena, on the Pacific coast, and Santa Inés and La Paz on the Gulf of California. There are no islands of great importance belonging to Mexico,

El Carmen, with the port of the same name, on the Gulf of Mexico, Isla Mujeres and Cozumel on the east coast of Yucatán, are the only ones worthy of mention on the Atlantic coast, and

the Tres Marías in the Pacific near San Blas, are used as a penal colony. Rivers.—One would hardly expect that a country consisting mostly of a high denuded plateau and enjoying but a scanty rain.

fall would be provided with important rivers. It was, in fact, on that account that Mexico

efficient net of railways.

found it necessary to develop an

On the Gulf side, where rivers are af

obstructed with bars, we find frst the Rio Grande del Norte or Rie

Bravo, a river that is much more American than Mexican if we take into consideration the official boundary and the fact that

its 1,800 m. of length is mainly in American territory. Ending in a small delta it has lost all the commercial importance it formerly possessed. Its leading branch on the Mexican side is the Conchos. Further south the Soto la Marina river hardly deserves mention because of the undeveloped region it traverses. The Panuco river is one of the relatively important streams of Merike

owing to its numerous branches and to the fact that its mouth, thanks to a system of jetties, has been much improved, in order to facilitate the considerable commerce of Tampico. It now drains the lakes of the Valley of Mexico. The Papaloapam, whose head waters are in the mountains of Oaxaca, and the San Jum, which flows through one of the richest regions of the żierra caliente, finally unite in the lagoon of Alvarado. The Coatzacoalcos, im the isthmus region, owes its importance to the works that have been constructed to improve its entrance, as a means of improv ing in turn the port of Puerto México (Coatzacoalcos). It is navigable as far as Minatitlan, where there is a large oil refinery. The Grijalva and the Usumacinta unite in a common delia

but nothing has been done to prevent the forming of a bar and, as a result, the port of Frontera has not developed as much as one might have expected bearing in mind the splendid regica the two rivers and their many branches pass through. Th Grijalva, called Chiapas in its upper course, rises in the State of Chiapas and is navigable for 90 m., its total length being 350 miles. The Usumacinta, which rises in the Altos region of Guatemala, and is navigable as far as Tenosique, is a powerful rive of majestic aspect, gathering in the waters of two important branches, one of which, the Río de la Pasión, has its headwaters in British Honduras. Its total length is said to be 330 miles. The Yucatán peninsula has no superficial streams, the whole

country being made of a porous limestone through which the rain penetrates and forms subterranean rivers opening either into the coastal lagoon or into the Gulf itself, sometimes at quite 2

distance from the littoral. As a consequence, all the important villages are near some of the holes, or natural wells, called cenotes or rather tzonotes, through which one can reach the subterranean

water, sometimes at a depth of as much as 400 feet. However,

the south-eastern part of the peninsula, the geological constitetion of which is somewhat different, has a relatively important

river whose source lies in Petén and whose sluggish course has been chosen as the border between Mexico and British Honduras. place of old'Sisal, but can accommodate small vessels only and is On the Pacific coast rivers are, with two exceptions, ever Jess losing depth om account of the slow rising of that part of Yucatan, important on account of the narrower coast. The Rio de bs Tinpan, notwithstanding its growing importance in connection Balsas, or Mexcala, which rises in the southern part of the plateat Mi the ‘oi business, has net been much improved. Frontera, (State of Tlaxcala) might be termed a torrent during part ofits spite of its favourable location at the entrance of a large course, then it runs some distance underground, after which #

yas almost uselessen account of a bar, while Campeche, at comes to the surface to cross a relatively large extension of tiarra

MEXICO

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PHOTOGRAPHS,

(1, 2, 4-11) HUGO BREHME,

(3) THOMAS LEE

MEXICAN

SCENES

IN CITY AND

l. View of the Merced Market in the Native Ghetto of Mexico City

2. Palm forests near the Tamasopo, in the state of San Luis Potosi 3. The chinampas, or floating gardens of Lake Xochimilco, south

of

Mexico City. The gardens were originally planted on mats of inter-

laced twigs covered with dirt, and were rowed out on the lake 4. A banana grove in Atoyac, Verac ruz S. Mount Popocatepetl in eruption. The volcano has a height of 17,888

ft., and is one of the highest peaks in the republic of Mexico 6. Part Of the court and stairway of the Palacio del Conde de Santiago.

This palace, which dates from the years following the Conquest, is among

the oldest

buildings of the Colonial

period

in Mexico

COUNTRY

7. El

City

Palacio Nacional, the national palace of Mexico City. Many government offices are housed in this building which occupies a large city block. Its fagade extends along the east side of the Plaza Mayor S. A native home of tropical Mexico. The straw thatched roof is characteristic of this part of the country 9. View overlooking Guanajuato City, capita! of the state of Guanajuato. The city is situated In a narrow mountain gorge high above the great plateau and is one of the oldest places in Mexico 10. The ancient Spanish aqueduct of Los Remedios 11. Tamasopo river near Veracruz

MEXICO

379

caliente, and finally ends in a broad estuary at about the 18th : lower formations of which are so finely developed in Texas, has rallel. The Lerma, Rio Bravo, Rio Grande or Santiago, also |not been discovered in Mexico, but the Campanian exists in begins on the plateau, near the Nevado de Toluca, from which it Central Mexico, while beds of the Laramie type are known in reaches Lake Chapala, then leaves it and forms a fall so ft. high Nuevo León. The Cenozoic era is represented by extensive deand 430 ft. wide at Juanacatlan not far from Guadalajara, after | posits in the two low coastal regions, especially in the States of which it runs through deep canyons till it reaches the Pacific Tabasco, Chiapas, Campeche and Yucatán, but there is no doubt ocean, north of San Blas. Other rivers are the Mezquital, the that many eruptive rocks and detritic formations of the high Fuerte, Yaqui and Sonora. table-land are of that age. The Nummulitic is known in Chiapas; Lakes—Mexico has no great lakes, the Chapala being the the Oligocene in Veracruz and Chiapas, while Miocene faunas largest, with a length of 80 m. and a width of 35. In Michoacan have been found in the isthmus by Böse and in Chiapas by Urare, among others, the superb little lakes of Patzcuaro and Cuitzeo, bina and Engerrand. The Pliocene and the Pleistocene are hard to but the most interesting of all the Mexican lakes, on account of distinguish, especially on the high plateau. We know enough, Shnt PAP ee Ay

their historical meaning, are those‘of the Valley of Mexico, Xalco, Xochimilco, Zumpango, Xaltocan, S. Cristébal and Tex-

however, to be able to state that faunas of mastodons, horses, camelidae and glyptodons lived in Mexico at the end of Tertiary times. Most of the Yucatán peninsula is made of Pliocene and

whose waters are no more than a few inches deep, would have been transformed into a salty plain years ago, had it not been for its constant reception of the overflow from the higher lakes, For centuries the City of Mexico was again and again flooded during the rainy season by its dangerous neighbours util a system of drainage was established through which the excess of water is sent to a branch of the Panuco river, together with the sewage of the capital. Lacustrine depressions of great interest are found in other parts of the country, such as the Guzman and the Sta. Maria, in the State of Chihuahua, the lagoons of the Bolsón de Mapimi, the Tlahualila lagoon which receives the Nazas river (370 m.) and the Laguna del Muerto, fed by the Rio Aguanaval during that part of the year when it reaches that body of water. In the Yucatan peninsula the brackish lagoon

taceous or at the beginning of the Tertiary era. Many geologists think that the high plateau is a folded region on which enormous quantities of eruptive rocks accumulated, in the first instance andesitic lava; later, after valleys had been cut through it, new eruptions have originated the formation of thick layers of rhyolites and dacites; and, still further, one more period of volcanic activity resulted in the formation of basaltic tables found above all the other rocks. Climate.——Two causes contribute to make the climate of Mexico among the most varied on earth: one, the great longitudinal extension of the country, which stretches through 17 parallels of latitude, with the tropic of Cancer crossing it about midway, and the other, the fact that the larger part of the country consists of a very high plateau. In order to give an accurate account of the climate of Mexico, we have to resort to the old

coco, the latter being the only one whose level is lower (by 4 to 6 ft.) than that of the City of Mexico, and whose shallow waters Pleistocene formations. No proof has been found as yet of the are brackish. All these lakes are evidently the remains of a existence of man in Mexico before the Holocene. former body of water of much greater area. The Xochimilco, Volcanic activity must have begun some time during the Cre-

of Chichankhanab is a fine example of a greatly varying body of water. Geology.—The dominant topographic feature in Mexico, as

we have seen, is its high plateau, which is made of Cretaceous formations and of detritic and volcanic rocks, the latter being by far the most important. The lowlands on both sides are largely made of recent beds, while folded Cretaceous and Tertiary layers, interspersed with eruptive formations, make the bulk of the region south of the isthmus of Tehuantepec. Yucatán is an immense slab of limestone of recent age. Strangely enough, nowhere im Mexico, with perhaps the exception of the Carboniferous of Chiapas, do we find Primary formations of clearly established age. Some of the oldest eruptive rocks must be of Precambrian and Paleozoic ages, but, so far, it has been impossible to classify them with certainty—this being true even of the so-called gneiss of Oaxaca. The Silurian, Devonian and Carboniferous of Sonora, Chihuahua, and other northern States, are termed doubtful by the best authorities. Mesozoic formations other than Cretaceous are represented in Mexico but the extension covered by them is not considerable. Black schists, greyish clays and greenish sandsones containing ammonites belonging to the Sirenites, Proirachyceras, Clionites and Anatomites genera, together with pelecypods, such as Palaeoneilo and Aviculidae, have been found by Burckhardt near Zacatecas and are of Triassic age. The Jurassic, well Studied by the same geologist, is represented in northern Mexico, in the states of Veracruz, Zacatecas and San Luis Potosí,

showing sometimes an interesting mixture of Russian and Medi-

lerranean species (Sierra de Mazapil, Zacatecas).

The Upper

Oolitic of Cerro de Titania (Tlaxiaco) contains an essentially

mnte fauna with Gryphaea and Exogyra, quite similar to the more northerly Jurassic of the Malone mountains (Texas).

the

Cretaceous, for knowledge of which we are indebted to

Felix,Lenk, Aguilera and especially Base, is enormously developed

m Mexico, the lower one being found little folded near the can border, while it is deeply folded towards the centre

of the country. In the Tlaxiaco and Tehuacán regions it shows

Mediterranean and Texan affinities. The Middle Cretaceous of

the type found in Texas extends as far south-west as the State ofMichoacán, but it is also represented in the States of Mexico, » Morelos and Querétaro. The Upper Cretaceous, the

division into three (even four) vertical zones, tierra caliente,

tierra templada and tierra fria, which, although applicable to other countries, such as Guatemala and Colombia, finds its best possible application in Mexico. The tzerra caliente rises from sea-level to an altitude of about 3,280 ft. and includes the coastal zone, 30 to 40 m. wide, the Yucatan peninsula, all of Tabasco, part of Chiapas, the isthmus of Tehuantepec and a relatively small part of Oaxaca, its mean temperature ranging from 77 to 82° F, rarely falling to less than 60°, but reaching ro5°, rr0° and even higher on many points of

the Pacific coast, especially Guaymas (max. 119° F), Mazatlan,

Manzanillo and Acapulco though on the Atlantic coast, even in Yucatan, regular breezes make the heat somewhat less oppressive. The maxima, observed anywhere in Mexico, are not higher, however, than those recorded in some parts of Texas and Arizona. The zzerra templada, or subtropical zone, rises to an elevation of from 5,500 to 6,000 ft. and comprises “the greatest portion of Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, San Luis Potosi, nearly half of Tamaulipas, a small part of Veracruz, nearly the whole of Chiapas and Oaxaca, and a large portion of Guerrero, Jalisco, Sinaloa and Sonora.” Its mean annual temperature is 75° F and it has justly been called the best of the three zones, even to Europeans, on account of its lacking the anaemiating influences that are found at higher altitudes. Orizaba and Jalapa, in the State of Veracruz, are typical stations. The so-called terra fria, which ranges from about 5,500 to 9,000 ft., is made of all the higher parts of the plateau, and its average temperature is about 63° F. At such altitudes there is never any real heat, nor are winters cold, although a slight frost during the night is a frequent occurrence. Once in ten years a few snow flakes may be seen falling on the City of Mexico; but during the winter there is a great difference in temperature in the same house between the rooms exposed to the sum and the others less favourably situated, and foreigners find it impossible to stay in the latter without artificial heat. Its climate may be compared to that of Tuscany, but the maxima of heat and cold that can be observed in Florence are never experienced on the Mexican high plateau. In Mexico City the coldest months are December and

January while the warmest are April and May.

380

MEXICO

Some climatologists consider a fourth zone, the tierra helada, or frozen land. It is found above the third one and is made of all the mountains and peaks above the high plateau. The term is exaggerated when applied to its lower parts where forests are

found and where cereals are cultivated, but it is evident that at a very high altitude polar conditions are encountered. Such zones are, of course, uninhabited except in rare cases, the ranch of Tlamecas on the Popocatepet!, the altitude of which is 12,500 ft.

has allowed the pine trees of the higher altitudes to invade rela

tively warmer regions. In ascending the slopes of the mouw. tains, one finds an intermediate zone where different varieties of oaks (Quercus crassifolia, Q. reticulata, etc.) are found, together with a pine tree of high altitude (Pinus oocarpa), the ocote pi long and short leaved pines and the oyamel

„ym

around the Valley of Mexice forests can be seen of the superb ahuehuete (Taxodium diy.

and which is inhabited the whole year round, being one of them. The succession of climates represented by these different zones can be experienced in a few hours by going on the train from Veracruz to Mexico City. Where the plateau is cut by deep valleys, one can admire the marvelous spectacle offered by the three zones in succession with their wheat-fields, maize, coffee trees, light green patches of sugar-cane and finally the banana tree in its finest development. Rainfail— As has been mentioned in another part of this article, the annual rainfall is very heavy in the tierra caliente, south of the tropic of Cancer, while near the border on the west side, there is almost none. In certain parts of southern Campeche, in Tabasco and in Veracruz the annual rainfall reaches 80, ga and even roo in. (Huatusco district). In most of Mexico it is the absence or the presence of the rain that marks the changing seasons. As is the case with many countries of South America, Mexico has only two such seasons, the dry and the rainy. These

tichum). The extreme upward limit of trees seems to be be

tween 12,500 and 13,500 ft., but

Juniper bushes occur as high as

Fliora.—The immense diversity that Mexico offers in environ-

ment and climate is the natural explanation of its remarkable variety in plant life, from the desert flora of the north to the luxuriant tropical one. Although three leading divisions would be expected, corresponding to the different climatic areas, it is more accurate to adopt four—one for the plateau and the arid coastal zones, another for the tierra templada and the tierra fria, a third for the trerra kelade and the fourth for the humid tierra caliente. No fixed limit can be set, however, between one flora and another, since local conditions, determined by a varying amount of sun radiation, wind and humidity, may bring about deviations from the general rule. The arid regions, especially the desert zones of the north, have their peculiar vegetation, such as yucca trees, hundreds of species of cacti, and many types of agave and mesquite bushes. A few

drops of rain change the whole aspect of the country for some

days, the whole desert being almost suddenly covered with flowers

of the most brilliant colors. Among the cacti the most interest-

ing, perhaps, are the gigantic piiakaya, which bears excellent fruits, the strange órganos (Cactus hexagonus) and the commoner yarieties, yielding the ever present tuna whose alternate green, yellow and red colours correspond to the successive sea-

sons. Less numerous but economically more important are the agaves, of which the Agave americana, from which the pulque is extracted, is the most popular, while other varieties give different types of mescal. Some plants of the Agave americana are said to yield 2,000 pounds of sap in six months. Most vegetable

fibres used In Mexico come from some kind of agave, the ixtle

fibre being produced var. elongata yields particularly valuable peninsula and in the

by Agave uninvitata, while the Agave rigida the famous henequén or Sisal hemp. This variety of agave is grown in the Yucatan State of Tamaulipas only.

On the central and southern parts of the high plateau, or tierra

fria, where there is a greater degree of humidity, relatively abundant trees are found on the slopes of the mountains, cereals

of Eurasian origin can be cultivated, and all kinds of fruit trees may be grown, together with the local maize, It is hard to say where the exact limit between the tierra fria and the tierra helada

may be determined because the deforestation of the high plateau

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It is only gradu.

ally that one passes from the for. mer to the latter and it is only in the presence of the banana, coffes and orange trees that one can feel

seasons come at slightly different times according to latitude and altitude. In Mexico City the former which, despite the fact that it is called summer, is characterized by colder weather, dur-

ing a few months, begins in October and ends in June. The latter corresponds to the rest of the year. Each season shows some short changes for a few days, on regular dates, in connection with astronomical phenomena. The annual rainfall for the whole republic is 59 in.; it is less than 25 in. in the Valley of Mexico.

(Abies religiosa)

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TAPPING A ZAPOTE CHICO TREE FOR CHICLE, THE BASIS OF CHEWING GUM

addition of magnolias, acacias, myrtles, mimosas and bamboo. There are still cacti when the level is reached where the frst

palm trees appear, but it is only when the latter is found in abundance that one is in the real tierra caliente. The vegetation of the tierra caliente is of such variety as to bewilder the stranger. Trees of hundreds of species, themselves half-buried among palms and ferns of all kinds, form the frame on which hang closely interwoven curtains of lianes and epiphytes, while saprophytic and parasitic plants of infinite diversity are

found at the foot and on the trunks of the trees, or on the decaying vegetable matter that litters the soil of the forests. To open a way through such an entangled mass, even with a machete, sa slow and painful process, more especially, perhaps, because of the oppressive semi-darkness that surrounds the explorer. In the

forests of Chiapas are found more than 50 species of cabineiwood, including the ebony, the mahogany, the rosewood and the Spanish cedar. Other valuable trees of the tierra caliente are the log-wood (Hematoxylon campechianum), the dividivi træ (Caesalpinia coriaria), the zapote chico (Achras sapota), erploited in Campeche and Chiapas for chicle, as well as rubber

trees. There are not less than 17 oil-bearing plants in Mexico

and a much larger number of medicinal ones, yielding jalap, armotto, ginger, licorice, sarsaparilla, ipecac and various gums,

Among the many plants of economic value that America has

given to the world, several might with some right claim Meno

as their country of origin. It is perhaps true of the cacao tree, of the maize, probably derived through mutation from the teosinte (Euchloena mexicana), or from a hybrid of the teosinte and of

some cultivated grass of the sorghum tribe (Andropogonag), of the tomato and also of the aguacate, or alligator pear, Most these plants bear either Aztec names or those of Aztec origit Moreover, many plants of economic value, the origin of whichs to be found in the Old World, have encountered conditions favour

able to their acclimatization in Mexico; such is the case of the citrus and practically all the temperate fruits and vegetables Europe. Mexico has 50 varieties of beans, several dozens of greta and red pepper; and it grows the potato, sweet potato, yam, sugatcane, cotton, indigọ, coffee, vanilla and banana.

À

Fauna.—Since Pliocene times—that is to say, since the twa

Americas were united—the

two faunas have merged, and the

|

MEXICO

381

Mexican fauna of to-day is made of animals of South and North |

America, with predominance of the latter. The high plateau | attracted the North American fauna (Sonorian fauna: wolf, |

Area in i!

States

Square miles

coyote, buffalo, bear, beaver, etc.) while the low lands, on both|

_ five species of monkeys, etc.) toward and into the United | Campeche Chiapas . States. Besides the above-mentioned, the Mexican fauna includes | Chihuahua the ocelotl, a typical Aztec name, the lynx, badger, otter, rac- | Coahuila . coon, tapir, two species of peccary, the skunk, several species | Colima

of opossum, the sloth, two species of ant-bears, the armadillo, í | Durango . at least three species of deer, the Mexican big horn (still found | || Guanajuato Guerrero . in Chihuahua and Lower California), the fur-bearing seal and ! | Hidalgo many different kinds of small rodents. Bats are numerous, among | Jalisco 4

them the dangerous vampire, which makes it so difficult to keep | || México ' Michoacán horses in some parts of Chiapas and Campeche. ! Morelos Mexican birds are extremely numerous, and comprise many | Nayarit beautiful species, while a few (notably the zenzontle or mocking- |; Nuevo León bird) are songsters, the latter being identified with the cold and Oaxaca Puebla . temperate zones. In the warm zone, on the other hand, as well as Querétaro. . in the temperate, are found many varieties of parrots, parrakeets San Luis Potosf and macaws besides toucans, spoon-bills, boat-bills, ducks, peliSinaloa À cans, cormorants, sandpipers, curlews, grackles, ever-abundant Sonora Tabasco chachalacas (Ortalina polycephala), wood peckers, jays, cuckoos, Tamaulipas turkeys, partridges, quail and doves (sometimes seen in immense Tlaxcala . bevies), buzzards, especially the black zopilote which is protected ‘eracruz , by the Mexican laws as the scavenger of the country, and many Yucatan humming-birds (chupaflor, chupamiel). The gorgeous quefzal Zacatecas. . Distrito Federal (Trogon resplendens) has almost disappeared from Mexico and Baja California is now rarely found even in Guatemala where its love of freedom

amphibians are also to be found, as, for example, the remarkable tree-climbing frogs and toads and the famous axolotl.

Notwithstanding the great abundance of marine fishes of many varieties which may be had for the effort, there is no real fishing industry in Mexico. Some of the coast lagoons, for example Rio Lagartos, in Yucatan, have enormous quantities of fish on which

feast numerous alligators and flamingoes. In the tropical parts of Mexico man’s greatest and most dangerous enemies are the insects, especially the many varieties of gerrapatas, or ticks, niguas or chigoe (Oestrus humanus), jején or

gnat, mosquitoes and fleas, the first of these having in some in-

stances wiped out cattle and horses from certain districts. Numerous species of ants are also found, the most famous being the leaf-

cutting variety. The most destructive type of insect, however, is the so-called white ant or termite. Population. —A comparison of the results of the census of 1921 (including some data extending it to 1924) with those of the 1900 Census, as well as the density per square mile in each State

i Quintana Roo.

Republic .

The most important cities of the Republic are Mexico City, 633,000 inhabitants, Guadalajara, 119,468, Puebla, 96,121, Mon-

lerrey, 85,000, San Luis Potosi, 85,000, Tampico 80,000 (estimated),

On, 80,000 (estimated) and Veracruz, 48,633. The number of

foreigners residing in Mexico is relatively small, their proportion

to the total population being only 1.41%, more than half of whom

Popula-

tion 1921

|

|

|

19,672

|

| | . | . | . ; |

38,067 296,938 2,010 | 65,115 | 47,692 | 370,294] 11,808 | 1,061,724

24,888 8,064

|

|

| 31,152,

102,416] 86,542 |

1,917

70,087

3°57

2310 4°24

531,565 627,991

6-80 45°05 710 72°87 21-36 77-88

1,153,892 | 1,191,957

37°94

479,205 605,051

879,846} 106-49 935,654 | 4033

54°00

336,412

13°38

13,126 | 1,021,133 | 1,023,428 4,433 232,340 220,231 24,418 575,432 445,681 22,588 296,701 341,265 70,483 221,682 275,127

77°96 49°68 18-26 15-1 3°-O1

25,136

160,115 |

394,341 | 91,749 338,511 860,364

43°06

103,510

10,445

|

107,581}

360,799] 422,683] 327.784 | 401,622

| 8,263 | 934,403} - | 23,199 | 935,803) =

mile 1921

Ce

2,499

. | 18307 . | 94,830

| Density

| per square

| 150,098 | 327,037

157,003

36,37

948,633 | 949,978

9,783 30,735

159,834 | 178,389 218,948 | 287,957

1,555 275759 14,867 28,125 572 55,619 19,357

. 1 751,743

172,315 178,570 | 981,030 | 1,165,104 300,652 358,221 462,190 | 379,329 541,516 | 906,063 47,6024 62,831 10,966

15°04

26-12

18-24 9°38

114-84 41°98 24" 10 13-48 15°85 IeI4 0°57

|13,607,210 |14,234,799 | 189

English. Most Guatemalans are of the peon class and live in the frontier State of Chiapas. There is a considerable emigration of Mexicans, chiefly unskilled labourers, to the United States, although this is shown by the Mexican official statistics in an indirect way only, 2,392 Mexicans being given as residing in foreign countries, of whom 1,753 are in the United States: on the other hand 33,376 are said to live abroad, without specification of the country of their residence, which is evidently the United States. The total figures for emigration and immigration, between IITA ie IQII and 1923, are 752,338 for the former f1} AY) and 1,041,975 for the latter, but they are H somewhat open to question and could ‘t| hardly, therefore, lead to any kind of conclusion. ii Of the Mexican population, the mixed element, partly Indian, partly white, seems to be numerically in the lead, its proportion having passed from 22%, according to the 1810 census, to 40% (1900) and 43% (1921); but the value of such figures must not be put too high. The Indian

and in the whole republic, is afforded by the table in next

column, showing the distribution by States.

| On 1900 |

sides, and to the South, forced the South American fauna (jaguar, | Aguascalientes .

has made it the emblem of the country. The turkey is the only important domestic animal of Mexican (and American) origin that was added to the European farm-yard. Reptiles of all denominations can be found anywhere in Mexico. All tropical rivers and lagoons abound in alligators, while the sea gives abode to enormous turtles and the swamps to tortoises and iguanas. One species of iguana, the black one, is largely arboreal. Lizards of many varieties are found everywhere: snakes are equally abundant, some, like the palanca (fer de lance of Martinique), the naoyaca and 13 out of the 1g species of American rattlesnakes being much dreaded. Many interesting varieties of

| Eases

MEXICAN PEON

| element has fallen from 62% to 38%, while the white has changed little, mounting from 18% to 19%. Any other racial element is entirely negligible in Mexico. Economic conditions in the republic are not favourable to the settling of large numbers

of white workmen or farmers, while the

Indian element, being the most ignorant (death rate of Indian children at least 50%) and the least adaptable, has little chance of displacing the more modern and more active mestizo. Non-Spanish Europeans rarely reached Mexico, since there was a law against their settling there, with a temporary exception

for the Portuguese. However, it is known that some Flemish, French and Italians lived in Mexico during colonial times, two or three of whom even played an important rôle, but they had

are of Spanish tongue. According to the last census the Spaniards, 26,675, are the most numerous and then come Americans, 21,740, Guatemalans 27,473, Chinese, 14,813, about 3,500 Germans, 3,500 French, 3,500 English and 3,000 Italians. Most foreigners live

hispanified their names and were supposed to have come from the peninsula. Only men migrated, and, as they were young and

Americans, 1,652 French, 1,223 Germans, 803 Cubans and 610

intended to stay, they invariably married local women, while the converse could not, of course, take place. The modern half-breed

in the large cities, Mexico City having 12,063 Spaniards, 2,382

|

MEXICO

382

is therefore a product of this type of crossing. During the colonial régime the name mexicano was applied to the Indian only, the creole, or mestizo, being called americano. The white man, even when born in Mexico, was always called espanol, though another name gachupin (he who wears shoes) was also applied by the other inhabitants. It is easy to understand, on account of the conditions explained above, that few of those españoles were of pure white blood, and that the 70,000 who were supposed to be in Mexico in 1811 were simply individuals whose complexions approximated to whiteness. Indians were, from the beginning, classified on

the basis of

their speech. According to Orozco | y Berra there are 192 languages and dialects in Mexico, besides 62 that have become extinct since the conquest. Francisco Belmar reduced this number to a much smaller figure, while, ac- FIGURES FROM THE STATESMAN'S YEAR BOOK, 1927 cording to Cyrus Thomas and COMPOSITION OF THE POPULATION John R. Swanton, whose work is OF MEXICO IN 192i the most recent on the subject, The The small Sonal -seotlon: section belweer between |Indian and

the modern Mexicans speak sq

White includes

10 ,958

tongues divided into 20 families, 2"4 44-775 not classified

“foreigners”

The leading family, by far, is the Nahuatlan, of which the Aztec or Mexican, is a dialect. The latter is spoken by about 650,000 individuals, which means about one-fourth of the Mexican population of Indian tongue, and it is found in the States of Sonora, Chihuahua, Durango, Sinaloa, Zacatecas, part of San Luis Potosi, Nayarit, Jalisco, Guerrero, Morelos, part of México, Puebla, Vera Cruz, Tabasco, Chiapas and extends into Central America as far as Chiriqui. The second group in importance is that of the Maya, spoken by at least. 400,000 individuals, if we include the Huastecos in the group, it covers part of Veracruz, Tamaulipas and San

Luis Potosi (Huastecas), most of Tabasco and Chiapas and all of Yucatan and Quintana Roo, besides the larger part of Guate-

is vested in a Congress, consisting of a Chamber of Deputies,

elected for two years, on the basis of one for each 60,000 inhabi.

tants, or fraction of more than 20,000, and of a Senate of s8

members, two for each State and the Federal District, half of

which number must be renewed every other year. The president is

elected for four years (six years, 1928) and is not eligible for immediate re-election. He appoints a cabinet composed of seven secretaries. He must be a Mexican by birth, as well as son of a

Mexican by birth, and he shall not have taken part, directly or indirectly, in any military uprising, riot or coup. Each State has

but one representative body which is called Cámara de Diputados, The new Constitution contains a large number of provisions

touching education, religion and the exploitation of the mineral resources of the country—matters that will be treated elsewhere. There are some laws protecting workmen against undue exploitation; for example, no man can be forced to work more than eight

hours in daytime or seven at night; he may claim a share in the

profits of his employer and he has the right to strike. The number of clerks, or officers, employed by the Federal Government was 38,212 in 1924, instead of 32,693 in 1923. Public expenses have been, however, reduced a great deal, largely through a diminutio of military expenditure, as shown by the total amount paid for salaries to Government employees and soldiers, which in 1918, 1922 and 1926, respectively, was $137,889,386, $199,730,670 and $154,734,772 Mexican pesos. (The peso is worth about so US, cents.) The judicial power is exercised by district and circu courts, and a Supreme Court composed of 11 judges elected for life.

Educational System.—Education is supposed to have bees compulsory since 1867 but in spite of efforts to enforce the lay, only a small percentage of children have attended schools until recent years. In 1892 and 1896 laws were enacted which vested in the Government the direct control of education in the temitories and Federal District, and established a High Board of Education to supervise primary education in the States and te provide a uniform programme. The different States remained ia

mala, British Honduras and a small part of Spanish Honduras. The Zapotecan, found in Oaxaca and parts of the neighbouring States, 1s the language of some 350,000 Indians; while the Otomian, which one hears in the States of San Luis Potosí, Guanajuato, Querétaro, Hidalgo and México, is spoken by about the same number. Other important tongues are the Totonacan, of Veracruz (75,000), and the Tarascan of Michoacán and surrounding States (40,000). Some dialects are now spoken by only a few individuals and the number of the extinct tongues is constantly increasing. According to R. Bonaparte, more than one-half of Mexico is entirely Mispanified, while the States of Nayarit, Guerrero, Oaxaca, Chiapas, Campeche and Yucatan are still largely Indian, if we take into consideration the use of aboriginal languages. Five of these linguistic groups of Mexican Indians had civilizations of their own at the time of the conquest. One may still find abundant remains of these, such as more or less well-preserved monuments of all kinds. The Mayas reached the highest degree of culture, not only in Mexico, but in America; while the Aztecs, who built up a militaristic empire, came next, to be followed by the Zapotecs, the Tarascos and the Totonacs. In physical characteristics the Mexican Indians differ a great deal, though they all have, with the only exception of the wavy-haired Huauchinangos of Puebla, black, coarse and stiff hair.

Political Organization.—aAccording to the new Mexican constitution, promulgated on Feb. 5, 1917, Mexico is a federated vepublic of 28 States, each with a considerable degree of home rule, having its own governor, a legislature and judiciary, elected

s TEAS

~

Rs N WPBy 7

SS

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eee

es

IS

K Wee

Phí iN Wh A

H

eRe

ANCIENT PYRAMID AT CHOLULA, A RELIC OF TOLTEC CIVILIZATION Constructed of sun-dried bricks and earth, this pyramid is the largest of lt

kind in the world, being 177 feet high and covering an area of 45 acres. ft summit, now surmounted with a chapel dedicated to the Holy Virgin, wat at the time of the Spanish conquest crowned with an imposing temple te the god Quetzalcoatl

charge of secondary and higher education. Much more attentiea has been given to the school system in recent years, and progres Is evident everywhere. Education is free and compulsory from6 to 16 years of age and is under Federal control, each State appr

Dy. popular vote. Besides the States, there are two territories priating for schools as much as it deems proper or possible and one Federal District, the administration of which is in the hands of the central Government. The States are generally sub- the Federal Government adding subventions when necessaly. divided into distritos or partidos, and these into municipios, but

seme have adopted special divisions with other names. The State P$ Nuevo León has municipios only. The Federal legislative power

3,

a

f

fen

Considerable attention is also given to vocational jnstruction, &

pecially in agriculture, and much further development along this line may be expected in the future. According to the new tution, no religious corporation, or minister of any religious

MEXICO

383

shall establish or direct schools of primary education. The total ' can-born, may not participate in politics. There are several Protnumber of public primary schools in Mexico was 9,299 in 1924 |estant missions in Mexico, but their growth has been slow. Finance.—The Mexican monetary unit is the gold peso, and and the total number of children who attended them was given as 727,227—actually only one-fourth of the children of school age in the country. On the average it may be said that there is

one for every 300 registered children.

Of these schools 8,388

were partly supported by the Federal Government.

Besides these

coins are made of 2-5, 5, 10, 20 and 50 pesos, respectively. Gold or silver the peso is theoretically worth so (American) cents, although the silver standard varies slightly in accordance with the market value of that metal. The amount of gold coined by the Government in 1923 totalled $15,644,619. Of the 34 char-

tered banks existing in Mexico in 1908, 29 had the right of issuing bank-notes, the total value of which amounted to $97,787,878

at that time. Since the Constitution of 1917 was promulgated banks have no longer been allowed to issue notes, this right being reserved to one “State Bank” (Banco Unico) and they have accordingly become only institutions of discount and deposit. In 1925 the Banco de México was founded by the Government and in 1926 the Banco

de Crédito Agricola.

The

exchange

value

of

the old notes varied (1926) between 24 and 22} cents of peso (14 to 114 cents of dollar) per nominal peso, according to the metallic reserves of the bank that had issued them. As a demonstration of the confidence of the Mexican people in their Government, the fact may be mentioned that deposits in the banks

passed from $45,951,487 (pesos) in 1925 to $134,672,272 in 1926. The assets of all the Mexican banks were said to be

$738,386,696.

The five clusters of buildings at Oaxaca, known as Mitia, are believed to have been a centre of Zapotecan culture until a short time before the Spanish conguest

schools there are 460 public schools for workmen, 46 kindergartens and 1,822 private primary schools. The total number of teachers in 1925 was 18,499, of which 4,104 had graduated from some normal school. There are two universities in the republic, at Mérida, Yucatan, and Mexico City, respectively, the latter having been founded in 1553 and reorganized in 1910. The University of Mexico City holds a summer session that is attracting a large number of American students every year. Several scientific institutions, some attaining world reputation, are located in the capital, such

as the National observatory (Tacubaya), the Geological Institute,

the National Museum of Archaeology, Ethnology and History and the School of Mines. To these must be added the National Con-

servatory of Music, the School of Aviation, the Military academy

(Chapultepec) and a number of other establishments doing research along many lines of human knowledge. The Escuela Preparatoria can be compared to the best European secondary schools. In Mexico City one also finds the headquarters of the leading learned societies, the best known ones being the Society of Geography and Statistics, the Antonio Alzate Scientific Society,

the Academy of Medicine, the Academy of Law and Jurisprudence,

the Mexican Geological Society and the Society of Natural History. The National library has 400,000 volumes.

Religion.—The number of Protestants in the Republic, most of whom are not Mexicans, is so small that the Catholic is prac-

Heally the only church. Mexico has been Catholic since the Conquest, although many Indians have still a very pagan conception of Christianity. The church is administered by three archbishops and 23 suffragan bishops. The first official bishopric, which was that of the capital, was created in 1530 and was occupied by the famous Fray Juan de Zumárraga.

Fifteen years later

itwas elevated to the rank of archbishopric and in 1863 it was

divided into the three archdioceses of México, Guadalajara and

choacán. In the 19th century the church grew immensely wealthy until in 1859 it owned practically one-third of the republic. Juárez, the great Indian president, inspired the laws of La

forma, which nationalized its property, deprived it of State

Support and forbade it any participation in political affairs. The tution of 1917 and the interpretation given it by President further restricted the power of the church. Places of public worship must be at all times under governmental supervision. ‘The

ch can not own property, and priests, who must all be Mexi-

In 1923 Federal revenues amounted to $256,259,123, while in 1925 they rose to $309,306,o11. State revenues passed from $53,155.299 to $64,849,218, and municipal from $47,281,836 to $46,037,877. Taxes per capita amounted to $21.36 in 1926 (Great Britain $177.55). The following figures show the variations in revenues and expenditures for a certain number of years: Revenues

$1314,286,122

98,775,521

TII,142,402

237,876,206

315,000,000 334,000,000

Expenditures

$ 85,076,641

92,967,393 100,913,924 240,837,134

305,000,000

327,000,000

*Estimated.

The total Mexican external debt amounted to $500,000,000 plus $200,000,000 for interest in arrears in 1922. According to an agreement, signed on June 16, 1922, by Adolfo de la Huerta and the International Committee of Bankers, a payment of $15,000,000 was made on Dec. 8, 1923, for the year 1923, but owing to a revolutionary outbreak no other payment was made. In 1925 the Lamont-Pani Agreement was signed which excluded the National Railways from Mexico’s external debt.

Defence.—The

revolution has thoroughly

changed the de-

fensive organization of the country. Military education (including defensive exercises) is compulsory for all citizens. Besides this emergency force there is a regular army, nominally numbering 50,000 men and commanded by officers, who in many cases have received their military training at the Escuela Militar de Aspirantes (Military academy) located in the Chapultepec castle. Five gunboats and a few smaller vessels protect the long coast and there is a naval academy at Veracruz. There is also an aviation school at Mexico City. Mineral Wealth.—Merxico is one of the richest countries in the world, if not the richest, in metals of many different kinds. From 1521 to 1922 Mexico yielded 155,000 metric tons of silver of a total value of $3,000,000,000. This was then two-thirds of the world’s production and the output is still (1927) one-third. The total American capital invested in Mexican mines amounts to $500,000,000. It is highly probable that if Mexico ever drops to a low rank among the petroleum-producing nations, it will still be one of the leading ones in mining. Metals make twothirds of the Mexican export trade. There are more than 75,000 property-titles, covering a mining territory of 520,000 hectares and 80,000 men are engaged in the mining and ore-smelting industries. Gold is especially abundant in Lower California, Chihuahua, Durango, Michoacan, Puebla, Sinaloa and Sonora, the total production having varied between 20 and 24 tons between 1919 and

384

MEXICO

1926, one-third of which was exported and the rest coined in the | part only of the country has been explored by the oil geologists

capital. Silver is mined in Guanajuato, Zacatecas, San Luis | there are indications that no other oil-fields of importance may Potosi, etc., and gold is frequently found with it. The annual | be found outside of the Gulf coast regions. Mexican oil is production of silver is generally between 2,500 and 3,000 tons, of | duced in considerable quantities in the State of Veracruz, in which six-sevenths are exported while the rest is left to be | those portions of Tamaulipas and San Luis Potosi which are near

coined in Mexico. Lead is next in importance and is found in | Tampico and, in small quantities, in some regions of Tabasco the States of Hidalgo, Oaxaca, Querétaro, Jalisco, Puebla, etc., | and Chiapas. Much of it is heavy oil, suitable for fuel, but some

of the lighter variety is found in Tabasco (Macuspana) and in

the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. The following figures give, in Merican pesos, the amount of foreign and Mexican capital invested

in the Mexican oil-fields:

United States, $614,487,263; Great

Britain, $356,776,199; Netherlands, $75,758,960; Mexico, $rz,

oe >

582,405; other countries, $6,943,253; total, $1,065,548. 110, The history of the oil production in Mexico has been most te. markable, not only with regard to the annual output, but also on account of the enormous and prolonged yield of certain wells,

wa

Annual Mexican oil production is as follows :— Number of barrels

10,345 12,553,798 193,398,587 149,585,856 139,878,204

115,515,700 90,421,073

64,200,000

ee oo z

$365,873,625

285,920,299

232,084,563

299,268,632

225,122,242

The total production from 1901 to 1927 was 1,400,927,297 bbl. valued at $2,469,924,580. The striking decrease in production, noticeable in recent years —a phenomenon which brought Mexico down from second to

bot =n or ‘,

elias

Value

og

fourth place among oil-producing countries (thus following the

ENTRANCE TO GUANAJUATO, CENTRE OF SILVER MINING INDUSTRY Guanajuato, founded

in 1554, is composed

grouped about the central town. in Mexico

of many

hillside mining hamlets

The silver deposits are among the richest

United States, Russia and Venezuela)—is by some associated with disturbed political conditions which have discouraged exploitation by foreign companies, while others contend, on the

its output having passed from 5,703 tons in 1915 to 60,513 in 1921, II0,455 In 1922, 164,140 In 1924 and 171,767 in 1925. Copper, mined in Michoacan, México, Guerrero, Lower California, Sonora, etc., yielded 205 tons in rors, 70,223 in 1918, 26,978 in 1922, 49,112 in 1924 and 51,336 in 1925. Zinc mines gave 5,806 tons In 1915, 45,000 in 1917, 6,142 in 1922, 18,937 in 1924, 45,770 in 1925 and 106,367 in 1926, the great variations in the amount of the output being due to political conditions of the country. Other mining products of importance are graphite, arsenic, mercury, antimony, tin, tungsten and molybdenum. Mexico has very little anthracite but much low-grade coal in the northern part of the country, the supply of which is estimated at 300,000,000 tons, the annual output varying between 739,980 tons in 1924 and 1,335,780 in 1925. The value of the metals mined during the first semester of 1924 is given in the following table, in Mexican pesos:

Silver . Lead .

Exportation

$59,628,586

$45,075,031

16,756,506 14,363,124

14,363,124

28,602,451

Gold . Copper | Zinc. Arsenic

| Graphite

Production

1,967,425

415,886

28,602,451

5,587,622

1,967,425

415,886

388,487 388,487 57:364 57,364 25,969 25,969 9:977 9:977 | Molybdenum See al 9:359 9,369 Iron is found everywhere in Mexico, the Cerro del Mercado, in Durango, being assumed to be entirely made of that metal | Mercury Antimony | Tin

. .

(500,000,000 tons). The total value of the iron smelted by the Compañía Fundidora de Fierro y Acero de Monterrey and others is estimated at $11,433,038 in 1925 against $8,273,236 in 1921. More than anything else, the production of petroleum in Mexico has called the world’s attention to that country. Despite

ke spectacular aspect of that production and although a small

GRAPH 1927

SHOWING

Production this scale,

MEXICO'S

before 1906

PRODUCTION

OF

(beginning in 1901)

Total for the 5 years 1901-05

CRUDE

PETROLEUM,

1906-

is foo small to be shown on

was 502,000

barrels.

Total from

1901 through 1928 was 1,465,127,000 barrels, 9.3% of the world production

other hand, that the richest fields are, to all appearance, becoming exhausted. Many wells in the Tepetate pool and in the Pánuco

field were affected by salt water in 1919 and 1920. At all events

the average production of the new wells is much smaller—a fact easily proved by comparing the average daily production of 10 bbl. for the wells drilled between 1923-26 to that of 40 bbl. corresponding to the wells drilled between 1920-1922. The output of the Naranjos field in 1920, 90,000,000 barrels, is the largest in the history of the World.

Agriculture.—The proportion of Mexican land that can be

MEXICO

385

cultivated under present conditions, according to modern methods, | ample, cigars, cigarettes, sugar,

beer, broadcloth,

cassimeres,

is relatively small. On the high plateau nothing can be done with- | blankets, underwear, hosiery, percales, calicoes, matches, out expensive irrigation; for the best soil elements have been | plosives, paper, furniture, metallurgical products, etc.

washed down in a few valleys where fertility is remarkable. At}

ex-

Besides the iron and steel works (at Monterey) and the to-

least one-fifth of Mexico is unfit for agriculture. At present, in- | bacco factories, the cotton mills may be considered among the deed, no more than 30,000,000 ac, are under cultivation, 20,000,- | most important agencies of production. In 1923 there were 109 coo of which require irrigation. Outside the plateau there are | of these with a working personnel of 39,629 and provided with only grazing lands and forested areas, all of which would require 29,668 looms, having 802,363 spindles; altogether they consumed yast expenditure of capital if they were to be adapted to agricul- 23,343,701 kilos of cotton yielding 28,567,596 kilos of products

tural purposes. Moreover, in many parts of the country, the lack | sold for $97,562,594. In 1925 the figures were 130 mills, 43,199 of adequate transportatio n is a serious drawback.

However, in

workmen,

30,800 looms, 831,524 spindles, 40,996,834

kilos of

recent years, a great effort has been made in order to improve | cotton consumed and 33,576,583 kilos of products worth conditions. Important irrigation works, whose total cost will be $108,395,604, 60,000,000 pesos have been begun in different parts af the RepubCommerce.—According to official Government statistics forlic, and the sum of 22,000,000 pesos is being spent in building eign trade in pesos was as follows for the years 1921—25 :— modern highways. According to a law enacted in 1923 every Mexican citizen, Imports | l Exports

over 18 years of age, is entitled to a plot of land of no more than 25 ha. of irrigable land, or a maximum of too ha. of dry land, or up to 500 ha. of grazing land; but the sale of such a plot to a foreigner or to a Mexican owning as much is prohibited. A serious effort is being made to teach modern methods to the Mexican farmer and there is no doubt that, assuming a state of domestic peace, the output of Mexican agriculture, which is not very

large now, could be considerably increased. As a proof of the interest shown in agricultural work by the people of Mexico let the fact be mentioned that in 1925 farm implements to the value of

$4,178,000 were bought in the United States, as against $843,742 in 1909. In 1925 the increase in the cultivated area was 47-66% for cotton, 876-60% for alfalfa, 258% for rice, 70% for potatoes, 159% for bananas, 88% for wheat, 26% for Indian corn and 1848% for oranges. Indian corn is one of the most important agricultural products of Mexico, though the crop is still inadequate as some has to be imported year after year. Production in metric tons for the leading crops is given in the following table: — TS

Indian com ;

Sugarcane

Wheat Sisal hemp

Coffee

r

. .

page

.

ae

258,177 113,088

138,508 115,684

371,684 123,184

267,916

36,510

Xi

86,318

160,344

3

oe 106,601 4,249

35:789 2

reia 7 .

6

34,424 8,

eae 29,776 8,646

39,986

ance. 31,963 2,024

$756,823,607 643,549,695 568,471,114 614,712,515 682,484,332

691,769,739

The increase in 1926, compared with the figures for the pre-

revolutionary years is about 115-65%, although, of course, the decreased purchasing power of the peso has to be considered. The leading articles of exportation, as might be expected, were minerals such as oil, silver, gold, copper, zinc; the vegetable ones, sisal hemp, coffee, rubber, chicle, cabinet woods, tobacco, sugar, cattle and hides. Imports consist largely of manufactured ar-

ticles, such as machinery and tools, textiles, cotton, grain, automobiles, drugs, furniture, coal, etc. Trade with the United States

was as fallows in millions of pesos:—

States |Exports

oP

. | 2,200,794 | 2,185,365 | 2,769,960 | 3,879,626 ;

381,263,640

United ee

f

. | 2,059,242 | 1,550,000 | 2,573,682 176,069 71,034 18,685

oo a

Cotton Rice. Cacao

ES

$493,161,741 308,499,612 315,108,526 321,371,605 399,996,172

;

.

1923

1924

1925

235

2322

2745

493°5

516-9

471 aren

With Great Britain it was:—

48,206 ?

. | 210,456 Oranges 11,435 The Laguna district (Coahuila, Durango) used to be the leading coiton-producing area, but since 1922 Lower California has out-

ranked it. The value of the cotton crop for 1923 was $57,791,064. Yucatan produces seven-eighths of the Sisal hemp of the world; the value of the 1925 crop was more than $47,000,000. Indian

. ° . . Germany, France and Spain following in order of importance. Although the commercial balance seems to be in favour of Mexico, it must not be forgotten that most of the companies, exploiting Mexican wealth, are foreign and that their profits are of relatively small advantage to the republic. Here are some compara-

tive data, in pesos, on the exportation of Mexican products for the years 1921 and 1925:——

IQ3I

com is grown everywhere in Mexico and the value of the crop is

$

generally around $200,000,000. Veracruz is the leading State

m sugar production, its output being more than double that of

Sinaloa, the next ranking State. The total value of the lumber, including precious woods, from || Beans.

.

the forests in 1925 was about $1,800,000. The chicle production || Fresh fruits

passed from 2,110 tons in 1927 to 4,412 tons in 1925, the market || Chick-pea* -

value of the latter being $7,895,516. Manufactures.—Considering the possibilities of the country,

especially its abundance of raw materials, its water power, and cheap labour, Mexico is far from being industrially developed. Nevertheless a large proportion of the needs of the country can already be met by existing local manufactures. Some of these wares, such as pottery, some forms of tobacco, saddles, candles,

9,116

ee

1925 $ 1,687,410

; 996,785

Cbs Bab 10,206,843

3868, 280 24,428,722

498,350

3:147,120

102,936

2;379,937

2 30a83.

Seok cae

1,107,983 1,166,384

6,406,845 13,703,048

*Exported to Spain.

The importance still attached to alimentary products brought

Conquest or in the first years of the Spanish occupation.

from foreign countries is an evident proof that agriculture is not yet sufficiently developed in Mexico. For the year 1925 Mexico paid $5,379,333 for Indian corn, $5,261,008 for wheat, $3,621,827 for flour, $4,571,084 for preserves of all kinds, $2,224,015 for eggs,

articles the mode of manufacture is quite up-to-date, as for ex-

manufactured products. In 1923 Mexico bought 9,363 automo-

Soap, chocolate and others, are still fashioned as they were before

. such as zarapes, rebozos, glass and shoes, are made accord- etc. It was also necessary to import lumber to the value of about ng to more or less modern methods. For other categories of $9,000,000; but the bulk of the imports, as said above, is made of

MEXICO

386

death or disability of a viceroy, the audiencia at Mexico City biles. worth $7,801,822, in 1924, 9,124, worth $11,892,131 and in | assumed administrative powers on 14 different occasions. : ,032. $25,935 worth 23,501, 1925, New Spain: Extent.—New Spain was one of the four vic. Communications and Transportation.—In 1925 Mexico highest had 20,972 m. of railways (19,729 in Igo )—the second to the ate inadequ very still though , America Latin in mileage of ment develop The rivers. le navigab few needs of a country of so

the Mexican railways is due almost entirely to the statesmanship

line of Porfirio Diaz. The first railroad, built in 1854, was the connecting Mexico City with its suburb, Guadalupe. In 1909 most lines were put under direct Federal control under the name of National Railways of Mexico (National, Inter-oceanic, International,

Veracruz-Pacific,

Central

and

some

others, totalling

about 14,000 m.). Other lines are the Northern Mexico, Kansas City-Mexico & Orient, United Railways of Yucatan, etc. Freight carried by the different lines, with returns, amounted to: Metric tons

Returns

6,719,236 6,664,855

$103,206, 704

7,291,893

117,864,842

121,567,600

The total revenues derived from these lines was $118,429,234 in 1923, as against $150,622,239 in 1922. More railways are necessary, the Yucatan peninsula, among other regions, being without

railway connection with the rest of the country. Modern tramway lines are found in all the important cities. The tramways

of Mexico City carried 48,553,048 passengers in 1924 and earned

$5,247,397-

;

Airmail service between San Antonio, Dallas, Laredo and Fort Worth, Texas, in the United States, and cities in the interior of ee Mexico was inaugurated Oct. 1, 1928. in Mexico. automobiles 53,554 were there 1925 of At the end

royalties comprising the over-seas possessions of the Crown of

Spain known as the Kingdom of the Indies. As modified sopp after its establishment in 1535, the viceroyalty of New Spain

included and stretched northward from Central America above

present Panama. It also included the Spanish West Indies, Veng. zuela for a number of years, and the Philippines from 1565 to

1584. The north-eastern boundary of New Spain, byatreaty with England in 1670, was fixed just south of Charlestown, S.C.: at

the same time its most northern occupied outpost was Taos, New Mexico. Later, New Spain was delimited in the east by the English occupation of Georgia, and, further west, between 1609 and 1763, by the French occupation of Louisiana. New Spain ex.

panded greatly when Western Louisiana was ceded in 1763 by

France to Spain, who held it until its retrocession to France in 1800. On the other hand New Spain suffered territorial loss in the east when Spain ceded Florida to England in 1763. Twenty years later Spain acquired West Florida and regained East Florida from England; both provinces were acquired by the United States be. tween 1810 and 1819. In the west, California was occupied between 1769 and 1776.

New Spain was delimited on the north in 1776 when the provinces from Texas to California were erected into a military and political jurisdiction known as the Comandancia General de las Provincias Internas, administered by a commandant general, Many changes in organization were subsequently made.

Government and Organization.—The chief administrative subdivisions of the viceroyalty of New Spain at the close of the 18th century were the captaincies-general of Guatemala and Havana. The former included all of the present Mexican State of

Chiapas and all of Central America north of Panama; the latter included the Spanish West Indies, Louisiana and Florida, Over the captains-general the viceroy exercised only general supervisadded 20,706 m. of wire to the former. 5,698,026 telegrams went ory and administrative authority. The viceroyalty proper and the over the lines in 1924. There are 24 radio-telegraphic stations in captaincies-general were sub-divided for local administrative pu-

Telegraph and telephone lines, under Federal control, totalled

55,394 m. of wire in 1921, while the State-owned and private lines

the republic, through which 250,392 communications were sent in 1924. Mexico City has 24,500 telephones and there are 50,360 in the whole country. BIBLIOGRAPHY. —AÀAlexander von Humboldt, Voyage aux régions équinoxisles du nouveau coniinent (1809); A. Garcia Cubas, Cuadro geoerdfico de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos (Mexico, 1889) ; E. von Hesse

poses into provinces. They were administered by governors, who were appointed by the king and were responsible to him through either the viceroy or the captains-general. The only institution of self-government in New Spain was the town council (aysnte-

Wartegg, Mexico, Land und Leute (Vienna 1890) ; Elisée Reclus, The Earth and its Inkabitants, vol. xvii. (1891); Berghaus, Physikalischer Atlas (Gotha, 1892) ; E. Seler, Mexico und Guatemala (1896) ; Roland

Bonaparte and others, Le Mexique au début du XXe stècle (1898) ; F.

Starr, Indians of Southern Mextco (Chicago 1899); R. de Zayas Enriquez, Los Estados Unidos M exicanos (Mexico 1899) ; Carl Lumholtz, Unknown Mexico (1902); Justo Sierra and others, Mexico; its Social Evolution (Mexico 1904); J. G. Aguilera, “Aperçu sur la géologie du Mexique pour servir d'explication à la carte géologique de PAmérique du Nord,” Compie-Rendu du Congrés géologique international (Xe session, 1906); R. de Zayas Enriquez, El Estado de Yucatán (New York, 1908) ; Auguste Genin, Notes sur le Mexique (Mexico 1908-10) ; T. Philip Terry, Mexico (Guide) (Boston 1909); R. F. Martin, Mexico in the zoth Century (1907); H. Gadow, Travels in Southern y Santillán, Bibliografia geológica y minera ilar Mexico (1908); R.

de la República Mexicana (1908); G. Buschan, IHustrierte Völkerkunde, vol. iii, (Stuttgart, 1922); Max. Sorre, Mexique et Amérique Centrale (Paris, 1928); see also official publications on Mexican (G. C. E.)

statistics.

COLONIAL PERIOD. 1519-1821

Fox ancient Mexico before the Spanish Conquest see the articles CENTRAL AMERICA, Archaeology, Ethnology; and NORTH AMERICA, Antkropology. The overthrow of the Aztec empire by a Spanish force under Hernando Cortés between 1519 and 1521, the execution of the last Aztec emperor, Cuauhtemoc, and the rapid extension of the

Spanish conquest from Mexico City as a base, introduced the

colonial period of Mexican history. Beginning in 1523 and continuing until the forced resignation of the last viceroy in 1821,

ONE OF THE AQUEDUCTS CONSTRUCTED IN MEXICO BY THE EARLY SPAR IARDS AND STILL IN A STATE OF GOOD PRESERVATION miento, or cabildo), composed of municipal judges (alcaldes ordinarios) and councilmen (regidores).

Aside from its administrative organization, New Spain was divided into four judicial districts, at the head of each of was an audiencia. Such a body functioned primarily as a cout of appeals, but it also exercised extensive administrative powes.

New Spain was administered by royal governors until Dec. 1528;

The seats of the audiencias were Mexico City, Guatemala, Domingo (moved to Puerto Principe, Cuba, after 1793)

>y audiencias from 1528 to 1535; and by viceroys and audiencias ‘Tter 1535. In all, 61 individuals were appointed viceroys of New ‘Pain, one of whom served a second term. Because of either the

council, although the viceroy was not obliged to follow its advie® The viceroy could preside over the judicial sessions of the

Guadalajara. At Mexico City the audiencia served as a vicereg

MEXICO encia but did not have a vote in judicial matters.

387

Similar rela- | only 30.000 were literate. On the other hand the church estab-

tions existed between the audiencia and the captains-general at | lished a number of higher institutions of learning, the underlying

Guatemala. The audiencia of Santo Domingo exercised adminis- aims of which were to equip young men of the upper classes for trative authority over all of the Spanish W est Indies until 1784, } the priesthood and the practice of law. The most noted of these when it lost that authority over the captaincy-general of Havana; institutions was the Royal and Pontifical University of Mexico which was inaugurated in 1553. The Church also had charge of © charitable institutions, as hospitals and orphanages. Three distinct races were represented in New Spain—the Euinto possession of the entire island of Española (Haiti). This audiencia also exercised administrative authority over Venezuela ropean, the Indian and the negro. The most important of these jor many years. The judicial authority of the audiencia of Santo races was the European, with Spaniards overwhelmingly predomDomingo extended over all of the Spanish West Indies, Florida, inating. They were divided into two classes—gachupines, or Louisiana after 1763, and Venezuela until 1786. The audiencia of European-born Spaniards, and creoles, or American-born SpanGuadalajara, in addition to exercising judicial jurisdiction over iards. For the gachupines were reserved most of the political, western and north-western New Spain, including the Provincias commercial and social preferments. The total number of EuroInternas after 1776, exercised administrative authority in the peans in New Spain in 1800 probably was about 885,000, of which province of Nueva Galicia. number approximately 15,000 were gachupines. The native race On the military side the viceroy of New Spain was captain- remained the most numerous. In 1800, in New Spain proper, the general of the entire viceroyalty. In practice, however, he exer- Indians probably numbered 3,000,000, or approximately 50% of cised merely supervisory military authority in the captaincies-gen- the total population. Negroes were early brought to New Spain eral of Guatemala and Havana. In the audiencia districts of to work as slaves on the coastal agricultural lands. Prior to 1575 Mexico and Guadalajara he exercised direct military authority. they probably outnumbered the whites, but by 182r they had The powers of the subordinate or local captain-general were ex- largely been absorbed or else had bought their freedom and had ercised by some provincial governors. At first the viceroy was in disappeared. Few Spanish women came to America at first, and at charge of the fiscal administration of New Spain. In 1786, how- the close of the colonial period they probably did not total more ever, a separate fiscal administration, dependent upon the viceroy, than one-tenth of the European-born Spaniards. As a result, there was introduced with the establishment of the intendancy system. were many classes of mixed blood, the most important being the Under this system the viceroyalty proper was divided into twelve mestizo (Indian and European); the sambos (negro and Inintendancies and three provinces. Each intendant was ruled by a dian), and the mulattoes (negro and white). The number of pergovernor-intendant, who assisted in the collection of revenues sons of mixed race in 1800 was approximately 2,000,000. A few and, in addition, was charged with certain administrative, judicial Chinese and Malays were settled on the Pacific coast. and military authority in his intendancy. On the theory that the Indians were its wards, the Crown felt The Church and the People.—The regular and secular clergy, obliged to protect, convert and civilize them, and justified in particularly the former, supplemented the work of the conquerors. utilizing their labour. The chief means by which it was hoped to The Franciscans were the first regulars to enter New Spain with attain these ends was the encomienda system. Allotments (repartipapal sanction, three of them arriving in May 1522. The mem- mientos) were made to conquerors, to whom the Indians living bers of this order were noted for their charitable work among thereon were given in trust (encomienda). Such a grantee (en„the Indians and for their missionary work on the northern frontier comendero) was obligated to protect his Indians and to provide from Florida to California. Regulars of many other orders fol- missionaries and teachers for them; he was also empowered to lowed the Franciscans to New Spain, notably the Augustinians, exact tribute of them. Not all Indians were given in encomienda, the Dominicans and the Jesuits. The last-named were transferred those living on royal lands being under overseers, appointed by in 1572 from Florida to western New Spain where they were the king, known as corregidores and alcaldes mayores. These ofactively engaged until 1767 in missionary and educational work ficials after 1786 were replaced by assistants of the governorsand in advancing and holding the frontier. Each of the orders had intendant known as sub-delegates. While the theory of the enits own Organization, the principal unit of which was the province, comienda system was benevolent, it resulted, in practice, in the which was administered by a provincial. The various orders in abject enslavement of many of the natives. The system was intro1805 were maintaining 254 convents in New Spain proper. Secu- duced in New Spain by Cortés. Steps looking toward its correclar organization began with the nominal creation of the bishopric tion and final abolition were taken in 1542 but it was not finally of Yucatan in 1519; actually it began with the creation of the abolished until the 18th century. It should be recorded that bishopric of Tlaxcala in 1526. Juan de Zumárraga arrived as the first church council in Mexico protested against the abuse frst bishop of Mexico City in 1528; in 1547 Mexico City became of power over the Indians. This was an early subject of difference the seat of an archbishopric. In 1805 there were in present Mexico between church and State. one archbishop, eight bishops and 1,703 parishes. The Council of Expansion of the State.—The most continuous development the Indies, a joint body of clergy and laity, exercised sovereign au- in New Spain—one of dramatic interest and international imthority. Through special concessions of the papacy the king of portance alike—was the northward advance of the frontier of Spain became virtually the administrative head of the colonial settlement. For the first decade after the capture of Mexico church. As such, the Crown appointed to all ecclesiastical hold- City, the Spaniards, except for the founding of Panuco (Tampico) mgs, supervised the conduct of the clergy, and controlled ecclesi- in 1522, confined their activities to the regions south and west of astical revenues. The liberal policy of the Crown was such that the capital. The creation of royal provinces in Central America the church became immensely wealthy and early attained pre- between 1525 and 1527 cut off opportunities for expansion there. ponderant power and influence. Alamán states that its wealth in The heroic age of exploration followed, being ushered in by the 1821 included not less than one-half of the real property and cap- journey of Cabeza de Vaca from the Florida and Texas coasts to ital of the country. Its power may be judged from the petition the Gulf of California between 1528 and 1536. Soon afterward of the city council of Mexico to Philip IV. in 1644 to stop the the Coronado and De Soto expeditions made known northern foundation of religious houses, to suspend ordinations because Mexico and the southern half of the present United States; the were more than 6,000 unemployed clerics and to suppress Cabrillo-Ferrelo expedition coasted as far north as Oregon; and feast days because there were at least two each week. To assist the Villalobos expedition from New Spain to the Philippines gave the church a tribunal of the Inquisition was established in Mexico Spain title to those islands. ™ 1571. By the Crown the church was delegated almost exclusive For nearly two decades following the founding of Culiacán, Control over education, but this it was unable to diffuse widely, Sinaloa, in 1531, the frontier of settlement in New Spain extended it continued to exercise administrative authority over the rest of

the Spanish West Indies until 1793, at which time France came

+

though Humboldt said that in certain respects Mexico surpassed

in an irregular semi-circle, with the base resting on Guadalajara

Gen of

and Mexico City, from Culiacán, on the Gulf of California, to Pánuco, on the Gulf of Mexico, Led by wealthy mimers and

:

. According to authoritative estimates, out of a popula-

| 6,000,000 at the beginning of Mexican independence,

388

MEXICO

cattle barons and by humble missionaries, the northernmost outposts in both the east and the west by 1590 advanced still farther north, while the arc of the circle, in large measure, was filled in. In that year the frontier stretched from Cerralvo, on the lower Rio Grande, by way of Saltillo and San Bartolomé, to San Felipe at the mouth of the Sinaloa river. Meanwhile, Florida had been ‘ permanently settled in 1565 by a large expedition from Spain under Menéndez de Avilés. The purpose was to hold Florida

conflict reached a crisis and merged into one between church and State during the viceregal administration of the Marqués de Gelves, 1621-24. This energetic reformer favoured the appoin.. ment of regulars to deal with the natives, and in so doing came into conflict with Archbishop Serna of Mexico, who Placed the

city under an interdict, excommunicated the viceroy, and con. strained him to hide from a mob. During the reign of Viceroy Albuquerque (1702-11), which against the French Huguenots who had attempted to colonize it, coincided with the war of the Spanish Succession, his chief coIn 1598 the frontier of New Spain proper moved across 600 m. of cern was the defence of the coasts from British attacks and the desert north of the line of 1590 and halted in the upper valley of fighting of pirates. By the Treaty of Utrecht (1713) England the Rio Grande The objects were to make New Mexico a base secured commercial privileges which proved in practice to he ay from which to anticipate other nations in the discovery of a entering wedge for much illicit commerce. Friction that resulted supposed strait (North-west Passage) and to exploit the sedentary therefrom finally culminated in a commercial war which soon Pueblo Indians. New Mexico was thus permanently occupied save merged into the war of Austrian Succession. During the latter for the period of the Pueblo Rebellion (1680-92). war the raids of Admiral Anson in the Pacific struck a hard blog Spanish advances in the later 17th and 18th centuries were at the commerce between New Spain and the Philippines. Spain occasioned almost altogether by the fear of foreign aggression. entered the Seven Years’ War in 1761, only to lose Havana ang The short-lived French settlement in Texas under La Salle (1684- Manila to the British. Florida was given to England in eg 87), although it failed, prompted Spain to occupy temporarily for them at the close of the war. During the war of the American east Texas (1690-93); English aggressions westward from South Revolution, Spain declared war against England (1779) but de Carolina prompted Spain to found Pensacola, Fla., in 1698. The clined to make an alliance with the American Colonies. Of egg. founding and expansion of French Louisiana, beginning in 1699, siderable aid to the colonists as early as 1776 was the anti made necessary the permanent occupation of Texas in 1716, title English policy pursued by Don Bernardo Galvez, Spanish govto which France never disputed with Spain after 1722. The ernor at New Orleans. After Spain entered the war he directed boundary between French Louisiana and Spanish Texas came to offensive operations against the British in the territory north of be regarded as the Arroyo Hondo, midway between Los Adaes, the Ohio river and personally waged successful campaigns against the capital of Texas, and Nachitoches, the westernmost French the British in West and East Florida, thereby obtaining them fcr outpost on the Red river, E. of Los Adaes. In north-western New Spain at the close of the war, Spain between 1591 and 1767 the Jesuits were chiefly responsible Viceroy Casafuerte’s reign (1722—34) was made notable by the for the advance of the frontier from the line of settlement of publication of the Gaceta de México—published intermittently

1590 into southern Arizona, and, beginning in 1697, into Lower at first—and the Mercurio de México. A formidable negro rebel. California. The most noteworthy advances of the Spanish frontier lion in Veracruz and a terrible epidemic among the natives were were made after 1763. Western Louisiana having been acquired notable events of 1735 and 1736, Viceroy Ahumada (1755-63) from France, it was necessary for the Spaniards to advance to the is noted for his many administrative reforms. A few years later, Mississippi and hold at that stream the Anglo-Americans all the a speçial royal visitor, clothed with supreme power, José de way from New Orleans to and beyond St. Louis. From the acqui- Galvez, instituted many important administrative, economic, com, sition of the Floridas by treaty in 1783, until the retrocession of mercial and fiscal reforms. Not the least result of these was an Louisiana to France in 1800 the frontier of settlement of Spain in increase from $6,0oaq,009 to $20,000,000 in the annual royal reveAmerica extended from St. Augustine, Florida, to New Orleans, nues from New Spain—an accomplishment that was effected with thence north to St. Louis, and thence west, by way of Santa Fe, out increasing taxes. It was at Gdlvez’s suggestion that the Ce to San Francisco. The leading events of the colonial period in New Spain proper

mandancia General de las Provincias Internas and the system ol intendancies were established. One of the notable events of the can be given only in bare outline here. The first two viceroys, later 18th century was the expulsion of the Jesuits from New Mendoza and Velasco, are extremely important because by them Spain, as from all of the Spanish Dominions, in 1767, under orders the course of viceregal administration in New Spain was definitely of Charles I]I.—these being carried out in New Spain by Galver marked out. Mendoza’s administration (1535-50), was made not- on the night of June 26, The Jesuits were arrested en masse, their able by his encouragement of exploration, an attempt to suppress property, which some authorities have estimated as high as the encomienda system, the Mixton Indian uprising, the definite 10,000,000 pesos, was sequestrated, and they were expelled, their incentive to northward expansion through the development of place in the north-west being taken by the Franciscans. Tk mining north of the line of settlement of 1531, and by a violent second Count of Revilla Gigedo (1789-94), of all the viceroys of epidemic among the natives. Viceroy Velasco ranks high as a that century, ranks as the greatest reformer, statesman and peohumanitarian and an expansionist.

By freeing 150,000 male In-

dian slaves and a large number of women and children, he earned the tithes of “Liberator” and “Father of his Country.” The inordinate vanity of Martin Cortés, son of the Conqueror,

and the fear of the encomenderos that they would lose their

moter of industry and commerce. The Independence of Mexico.—The European situation be

tween the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789 and te wave of liberalism that swept over the Mediterranean States 1820 profoundly influenced the movement for the independence

rights, culminated in an abortive and disastrous attempt in 1566 of New Spain. At the same time the introduction of the revol to set up Cortés as king—the only separatist movement prior to tionary doctrines of “liberty, equality and fraternity” spread te the roth century. In the latter half of the 16th century Hawkins, Latin America and inspired hope among the creoles, who weit Drake, Cavendish, and other Protestant freebooters, inspired by ambitious to enjoy commercial, political and social preferments hatred of Catholicism and patriotic motives alike, engaged in lu- on an equal footing with the gachupines. crative smuggling of goods into Spanish America and in eyen more The greatest impetus to the independentist movement came lucrative preying upon Spanish commerce and coast towns. The when Napoleon deposed the rightful king of Spain in 1808 establishment of regular galleon service between Acapulco and placed his own brother Joseph upon the throne, At once a Manila after 1571 made possible the development of an extensive politically ambitious minority in New Spain, acting on the theory commerce between Spain and the Far East across New Spain, This and the establishment of extensive woollen and cotton factories in the latter part of the 16th century redounded greatly

to the material advantage of New Spain. The regular and secular clergy had early come into conflict,

particularly over the tithes and the control of the Indians. The

that with the deposition of Ferdinand VII. sovereignty had +

verted to the people, demanded a share in the government of th

viceroyalty. For selfish reasons the viceroy, Iturrigaray, lent‘

willing ear to these suggestions and proposed the convocation o a national congress.

Thoroughly alarmed at such suggestions

fearful that they would lose to the creoles some of their privilesss

MEXICO through severance from Spain, the gachupines deposed Iturrigaray and took over the Government. Thus intrenched in power they

easily suppressed an abortive separatist movement initiated by the creoles in Michoacan in 1809.

When the viceroy, Venegas,

arrived in Sept. 1810, the hold of privileged autocracy on New Spain never appeared stronger.

While the jealous gachupines and the ambitious creoles thus

quarrelled in New Spain over the question of the extension of privileges a great socio-economic upheaval of the masses developed under the leadership of Father Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, a member of the lower clergy who had been profoundly influenced by the doctrines of the French Revolution. This movement had as its object the extension of human rights and privileges to the great mass of Indians and mestizos whose claim to such privileges was equally revolutionary to creoles, gachupines and the higher clergy. At the outset the uprising, which assumed the character of a race war under the patronage of the Virgin of Guadalupe, was led by Hidalgo and Allende, a captain of cavalry. Their greatest success

was the capture of the wealthy city of Guanajuato, after which

they threatened the capital.

But the revolutionists

were de-

cisively defeated at Calderén in 181z and soon afterward the leaders were executed. Another liberal member of the lower

clergy, Morelos, continued the movement. Although he met with serious reverses in the terrible siege of Cuautla in 1812 he rallied the south to his cause and in 1813 was able to convoke a congress which issued a declaration of independence and drafted a republican Constitution.

Morelos was captured and executed at Mexico

City in 1815. Thereupon, the revolutionary movement disintegrated into guerrilla warfare. The tide had already begun to turn when in 1820 the liberal Spanish Constitution of 1812 was proclaimed after a military uprising in Spain. Its promulgation in Mexico caused the high clergy and the gachupines to fear that a liberal Government in Spain would force upon them toleration and the loss of privileges, disestablishment and disendowment, all of which they had successfully opposed, first, in the period from 1808-10, when the ambitious creoles had demanded reforms, and second, in the period since 1810, when the social upheaval of the masses had largely caused the creoles and the gachupines temporarily to forget their differences. Accordingly the clerical and gachupine opponents of liberalism resolved upon the absolute separation from the Spanish monarchy as the only means of preserving their position. The first move of the conservatives was the selection of a suitable military leader in the person of Agustin de Iturbide, a creole ex-officer in the Spanish army. He easily induced the unsuspecting viceroy to send him into the field against the rebels. His real purpose, however, in case he could not defeat Guerrero, was to win him over to the separatist movement. This was finally accomplished when, without informing the viceroy, Iturbide signed with Guerrero on Feb. 24, 1821, the Plan de Iguala—a crude pronunciamiento which laid down as the bases of the new State the continuation of the Roman Catholic Church as the established church of Mexico, the establishment of an independent limited monarchy, and the equality of rights for Spaniards and native-born Mexicans. Thus the Plan de Iguala was, in theory, a compromise, but one which was destined to bid successfully for the support of the various classes in New Spain. In the interest of the proposed plan, Iturbide first sought the co-operation of the viceroy, Apodaca, who refused, but was powerless to stem the flood of spontaneous support given the plan. When Juan O’Donojt, the last viceroy, arrived in July he was unable to get beyond Veracruz,

and, accordingly, recognized the independence of Mexico in the

Treaty of Cérdoba.

on Sept. 27, 1821.

Iturbide triumphantly entered Mexico City

The following day a provisional governing

Junta, named by Iturbide, signed the “Act of Independence of

Mexican Empire,” and appointed a regency of five, with turbide as its president. These acts marked the beginning of the hattonal period of Mexican history. INDEPENDENT MEXICO

Mexico has had a turbulent existence since independence. In

1823 the monarchy was repudiated in favour of a republic. From

389

1823 until 1860 a bitter contest was waged between adherents of federalism and centralism. A Federal republic was definitely es|tablished in 18 57 but federalism was on the defensive for ten more years, first, in a three-year civil war and, second. during the period of the French intervention and the empire of Maximilian. Since 1867 there has been no organized opposition to federalism in Mexico, but during nearly one-half of that period the Diaz dictatorship prevailed in the guise of Federal institutions. Indecision concerning the form of government was accompanied by political instability. Between 1821 and the rise of Diaz in 1876, there were two regencies, two emperors, several dictators, and enough presidents and acting or provisional executives to make no fewer than 74 governments. Furthermore, the last 100 years have witnessed approximately that number of revolutions. Most of these,

however, have been political or personal in character. In fact, since 1810 there have been only three general upheavals in Mexico, each of which has been socio-economic in character and more or less beneficent in its results. The first, begun in 1810 by Hidalgo, substituted the creoles for the gachupines and resulted in greater power and wealth for the church, which in 1807 had been debarred from inheriting real estate. The second, begun in 1854,

disendowed and disestablished the church, but worked to the advantage of the great landowners The third, begun in 1910 and continuing down to the present time, was directed chiefly against the landed aristocracy and is strongly nationalistic. The Mexican empire was of short duration. In the first Mexican Constituent Congress, which met on Feb. 24, 1822, the republicans were in the majority and between them and Iturbide a conflict soon developed. This was terminated on May 18 by a military pronunciamiento in favour of Iturbide, and by his extra-legal election as emperor by a minority in Congress. Iturbide was crowned on July 21, 1822, but fresh conflicts broke out between him and the Congress which were only terminated by his forcible dissolution of that body. This arbitrary procedure reacted in favour of a republican armed movement, initiated by Santa Anna. Finally, convinced of the hopelessness of his position, Iturbide abdicated on March 19, 1823. The Congress deported him to Italy, and granted him a pension. He returned with political ambitions the following year, and on landing (having been previously outlawed) was arrested and executed (July 15, 1824). The Congress, left in absolute control after the abdication of Iturbide, created a provisional executive triumvirate; announced (June 12) the adoption of the federal form of government; and issued a decree (June 23) convoking a new Constituent Congress. This body drafted a Federal Constitution which was promulgated Oct. 4, 1824, and Guadalupe Victoria was inaugurated as first president. The First Federalist Régime, 1824-34.—Confronted by manifold difficulties, the Federalists were able to remain in power and to retain the federal form of government for only one decade after 1824. At the outset, Centralist and Federalist organizations as such disappeared, their places being taken by two Masonic organizations. The Conservatives, Monarchists and Centralists affiliated with lodges of Scottish-Rite Masons (Escoceses), and the Liberals, Republicans and Federalists, encouraged by the American minister Poinsett, organized rival lodges of York-Rite Masons (Yorkinos). Through boisterous professions of fraternal and political creeds members of the rival lodges kept the country profoundly agitated. An attempt at revolt by Vice President Bravo, the grand master of the Escoceses, was suppressed. The thoroughly discredited and demoralized Escoceses thereupon refrained from naming a presidential candidate in 1828 and instead threw their support to Gómez Pedraza, the Liberal contender for the presidency with Vicente Guerrero, the grand master of the Yorkinos. Gómez Pedraza was declared elected but as a result of an appeal to arms Guerrero was inaugurated for the second presidential term beginning April r, 1829. Shortly afterward Spain made a final attempt to reconquer Mexico, but the invaders were repelled at Tampico by Santa Anna (Sept. 1829). During the invasion, Vice President Anastasio Bustamante seized the opportunity to declare against President Guerrero and was joined by the bulk of the army. Guerrero was deposed, after having served as president less than nine months, and finally retired to Acapulco, where

390

MEXICO

he was treacherously seized, tried and executed (Jan. to Feb. 1831). The next year Santa Anna headed a successful revolution

the rebellion of the Texans was the centralization policy ing

rated by Santa Anna in 1835, culminating in the abolishment by

against Bustamante in behalf of Gémez Pedraza, thereby enabling

the Mexican Congress of the federal form of government. A pro

him to serve the last three months of the term for which he had

visional revolutionary government, which professed to be acting in defence of the Constitution of 1824, functioned in Texas from

been elected in 1328. In the deferred elections, held early in 1833, Santa Anna and Gémez Farias were elected president and vice president, respectively, for the term beginning April 1 of that year. During the greater part of the next 13 months Gomez

Farias, serving as acting president, was responsible for many liberal changes, including the laicization of education, the relaxation of monastic vows, the discontinuance by the State of the collection of tithes, and the right of the State to appoint church

officers. The Liberals were Whigs rather than Populists. Their dominant desire was to seize the privileges of the Conservatives, in the control of government, the ownership of land and the profits of foreign trade, which had been a Government monopoly. They were little concerned about the welfare of the masses. The liberal

measures aroused the opposition of the Clericals and Conservatives, and Santa Anna, taking advantage of the situation to act as their defender, assumed the presidency on April 24, 1834. The following month, as virtual dictator, he dissolved Congress and the State legislatures, and substituted creatures of his own for the governors of the States and mayors. By such action he undid the liberal reforms of Gomez Farias and reduced to a nullity the federal system of which he had been the chief original defender. The Conservatives and Clericals who thus came into power indirectly with Santa Anna retained control until 1846 under a centralized form of government. A new Congress discarded federalism (Oct. 3, 1835) and framed a centralist Constitution (Dec. 30, 1836), known as the Siete Leyes or Seven Laws. By it the States were converted into departments, ruled by governors ap-

pointed by the central authority, and popular representation was considerably reduced. Anastasio Bustamante became the first Ceniralist president. When he failed to satisfy questionable damage claims of French nationals in Mexico a French fleet in 1838 blockaded the coast. bombarded the fortress of San Juan de Ulua, and temporarily occupied Veracruz. This gave Santa Anna the longed-for opportunity to pose as the country’s defender which, in turn, reawakened his political ambitions. Full opportunity to realize them, however, was deferred until 1841, when

Nov. 3, 1835, until March 1, 1836; on the following day th unqualified declaration of Texan independence was issued. Santa Anna attempted to reduce Texas, showing great severity, but was eventually defeated and captured by Houston at the battle of San Jacinto.

There he signed an agreement pledging himself t

work for the recognition of Texan independence upon his return ty Mexico. The Mexican Government, however, repudiated Santa Anna, and a nominal state of war continued between Mexico ang Texas, whose independence was recognized by the United States,

Belgium, the Netherlands, France and England (1837-41). War with United States, 1846—-48.—The Texas question was

chiefly responsible for war between the United States and Mexico, Texas had applied for admission into the American Union in 1836 but annexation was delayed by those in the United States wh were opposed to acquiring more slave territory. Fearful of British and French influence in Texas, however, the U.S. Congress early in 1845 adopted a resolution providing for annexation. Tens agreed, and on Dec. 29, 1845, was formally admitted to the Unica,

The Mexican minister withdrew from Washington following the

adoption of the annexation resolution and the U.S. minister was recalled from Mexico. Nevertheless, President Polk was cow ciliatory, and late in 1845 sent Slidell to Mexico to attempt to settle all differences between the two countries—the chief ome arising from the disputed Texas boundary and the unsettled

damage claims of U.S. citizens against Mexico—and also to pwchase, if possible, California and New Mexico. Slidell’s missin might have been successful, in part, but for the triumph of th war party in Mexico under Paredes. It was not until President Polk was informed that Mexico desired war, that he ordered American troops into the disputed region between the Nueces and the Rio Grande rivers. Hostilities inevitably followed and a state of war with Mexico was declared by the U.S. in May 1846. The original plans of the U.S. general staff called for (1) an invasion by Gen. Taylor of northern Mexico, which it was hoped would overawe the Mexicans and induce them to come to terms, (2) the military occupation by Gen. Kearny of the territory from New Mexico to California, which was to be held as an indemnity; and (3) the blockade of both coasts of Mexico by the United States fleet. The two last-named plans materialized fully; i addition, Gen. Doniphan led a side expedition from Santa Fe, New Mexico, to Chihuahua and Monterrey. Gen. Taylor’s campaiga, however, won all military engagements but failed of its objec.

he joined a successful revolution against Bustamante. The Plan of Tacubaya (Sept. 28, 1841), put forward by the revolutionists, abolished all but the judicial provisions of the Siete Leyes, conferred upon Santa Anna power of reorganizing the administration, and provided for a new constituent assembly. When it met in June, 1842, the Federalists were in the majority, much to Santa Anna’s chagrin. Accordingly he retired, leaving the reins to Nicolás Bravo. He dissolved the Federalist assembly and convened a The Mexicans, instead of submitting as the American army at hand-picked one which adopted an ultra-centralist Constitution vanced, put up a vigorous defence, and at Buena Vista, on Feb (June 12, 1843). Santa Anna was inaugurated first president 22 and 23, 1847, Santa Anna opposed the Americans in the besunder it on Jan. 2, 1844, but because of his mal-administration, fought engagement of the war and the last one in the north. Whe extravagance and profligacy, was overthrown before the end of the spirit of the Mexicans was revealed, a campaign from Verthe year and exiled. José Joaquín Herrera, who succeeded him cruz to Mexico City under Gen. Scott was decided upon. Ver (Dec. 1844), was a constructive statesman and adopted concilia- cruz was captured after a three-weeks’ siege (March 7 to % tory foreign and internal policies but was overthrown (Jan. 1846) 1847), Santa Anna was decisively defeated at Cerro Gordo (Apd by Ultra-Centralists, Monarchists and anti-Americans led by Gen. 18) and Gen. Scott, with greatly superior forces fought his way Mariano Paredes. Seven months later, in order to solidify public into the Valley of Mexico, and entered Mexico City Sept. 13, 1847. opinion during the war with the United States the Federalist Con- Peace was formally re-established with the Treaty of G stitution of 1824 was restored (Aug. 5, 1846). Recalled from his Hidalgo, concluded on Feb. 2, 1848. By it the Rio Grande ws exile to oppose the foreign invaders, Santa Anna was elected presi- fixed as the southern boundary of Texas and the territory dent (Dec. 1846) under the Constitution which he had repudiated. of an irregular line extending from El Paso, by way of the ù The substitution of a central for a federal form of government river to the Pacific ocean, was ceded to the United States; ® was the occasion for uprisings in various parts of Mexico, all of return the United States paid Mexico $15,000,000 and a which were finally suppressed except that in Texas, which had all claims of her citizens against Mexico. Second Federalist Régime, 1846-53.—The Federalists, & been settled principally by colonists from the United States in consequence of contracts granted to immigration agents (empre- sponsible for the conduct of the war against the United State sarios} to introduce colonists. The first such contract was granted remained in power six more years after Santa Anna had beet te Moses Austin, in 1821, and was carried out by his son Stephen. defeated and left the country. President Herrera (1848-51) Because of the incompatibility of Mexican and American attempted to reorganize the Government, restore order and setilers m Texas and their mutual distrust, Texas gradually lish credit. This programme was realized only in part, due w drifted toward inevitable rebellion. Various specific grievances military and political disorders. However, when Arista suct

„developed after 1826 that widened the breach, but the pretext for Herrera, Mexico witnessed for the first time the peaceful

MEXICO

391

of executive authority from a constitutional president to his con-

capital. The latter were better organized and early inflicted seri-

In-

property (of the estimated value of more than $125,000,000, ex-

stalled as president on April 20, 1853, he surrounded himself with

clusive of churches, monasteries, schools, hospitals, libraries and art treasures), establishing civil marriage and registration, transferring the cemeteries to civil control—in short, disestablishing and disendowing the church. In 1859, each of the rival governments made transactions that were humiliating to Mexican soverelgnty or provocative of future trouble; they can only be explained by the desperate straits of each party. In return for promised aid, the Conservative president, Miramén, approved a treaty with Spain, which recognized unjust claims of Spanish nationals against Mexico. The same year Miramén, pressed for funds, made a transaction with Jecker, a Swiss banker settled in Mexico, whereby he was to lend Miramén $15,000,000 on such terms that the latter was liable for $16,800,000. Bonds to that amount were issued to Jecker who went into bankruptcy after he had delivered to Miramén only $1,470,000. Soon, however, he bribed French officials to press, in behalf of his French creditors, for the settlement of the bonds at their face value. Also Juarez, in the hope of securing a loan, and desirous of forestalling threatened European intervention, concluded with the United States a treaty which gave the latter, in virtual derogation of Mexican sovereignty, rights of transit by diverse routes across Mexico, and unusual guarantees for U.S. nationals residing there. This treaty was not ratifed by the U.S. Senate. Until 1860 the Constitutionalists were on the defensive. In March of that year, however, the U.S. Government gave Juarez, on the ground that his Government was de jure, both moral and material aid, and thereby frustrated the plans of the Conservatives to attack Veracruz. Henceforth, they were on the defensive. During the war both sides levied forced contributions on much foreign property, the Conservatives being the worst offenders. The United States withdrew recognition from their Government in 1858; the following year outrages on British subjects caused the British minister to break off diplomatic relations. Finally, on Nov. 17, 1860, Miramon, under the plea of necessity, seized $660,000 which had been left under seal at the British legation. Dec. 22 his forces were routed by the Juarist Gen. Ortega and his Government overthrown. European Intervention, 1861.—Juarez entered Mexico City on Jan. 11, 1861, and at once took under consideration Mexico’s internal problems. The Spanish minister, the papal legate and members of the episcopate were expelled. In return for British recognition Juarez acknowledged as valid British claims—including a new loan—totalling nearly $70,000,000. Steps were taken to enforce the decrees of 1859 disestablishing and disendowing the church. The financial difficulties, however, seemed insuper-

stitutionally elected successor. The experiment was not to be ous defeats upon the Constitutionalists. Juárez won a great moral repeated soon, for Arista, cognizant of his general unpopularity, | victory, however, when he was recognized by the United States ave Way (Jan. 18 53) before a movement promoted by Clericals (April, 1859); this allowed him to draw supplies of arms and and Conservatives, who favoured the convocation of a constituent volunteers thence. In July 1859, Juárez published decrees supsembly. After an interregnum (Jan.—March 1853) a group of pressing the religious orders, nationalizing ecclesiastical real militarists succeeded in effecting the recall of Santa Anna.

Conservatives. On Dec. 16, disregarding all restraints, he declared himself dictator, with the title of “most serene highness.” A few days later the sale of Mesilla valley (present Arizona, south of the Gila river) to the United States was negotiated, but the purchase money was soon dissipated. Santa Anna’s zero hour, however, had already arrived. While Federalist and Centralist office seekers and doctrinaries wrestled

for control

after

1824, the mestizo

and

Indian masses, in social and economic degradation and misery, were either ignored or used as pawns. In practice, haughty creoles

had merely usurped the places of haughtier gachupines.

The

church owned in 1854 a great part of all urban property, controlled or owned much of the rural property, had an annual income greater than that of the National Governmaent, and acted as unofficial banker for the people. The gaze of the land-hungry masses fell upon this great domain. Therefore, the recall of the faithless Santa Anna by the Conservatives, his seizure of dictatorial power, and his alienation of the national domain, were but pretexts and not fundamental causes for the revolution of Ayutla, which swept him into perpetual political exile, and provided a liberal Constitution. This revolution was initiated by the mestizo revolutionary patriot, Juan Alvarez, and was formally pro-

claimed on March 3, 1854. It was soon joined by a future galaxy of heroes, including Comonfort, Juarez and Diaz, and as it spread Santa Anna left the country in Aug. 1855. On Oct. 4, Alvarez was installed as provisional president. He soon resigned and was succeeded by Comonfort, who served as provisional president. The presidencies of Alvarez and Comonfort were signalized by the promulgation of two laws and the adoption of the Constitution of 1857. The enactment (Nov. 23, 1855) of the first law was secured by Juarez, the Zapotec Indian minister of justice in Alvarez’s cabinet, from whom it takes its name (Ley Juarez). By limiting the jurisdiction of ecclesiastical and military courts to offences of the clergy and military, the law for the first time provided for the legal equality of all citizens. Feeling that re-

ligion was being attacked, the Clericals opposed the law. Equally noteworthy was the Ley Lerdo (June 25, 1856), so called from its author, Miguel Lerdo de Tejada, minister of finance in Comonfort’s cabinet. This law prohibited religious and civil corporations from acquiring or owning rural or urban property not used for the specific object of the corporation, and obliged corporations then owning such property to sell the same to the tenants or usufructuaries on reasonable fixed terms, for the benefit, however, of the owners. In practice neither law accomplished its full object. Nevertheless, they were both incorporated substantially in the new Federal Constitution (promulgated Feb. 12, and effeclive Sept. 16, 1857) along with other clauses recognizing the natural and inalienable rights of man and providing for religious toleration and agrarian reform—all of which made the new Constitution appear extremely liberal in comparison with that of 1824. The Liberals, however, were still working for the interests

of the middle class, rather than of the masses. As the Constitution of 1857 went into effect, opposition increased. Comonfort was installed as constitutional president on

able. Mexico’s acknowledged indebtedness to Europe alone exceeded $82,000,000. In addition there were the indefensible Jecker claims which the French Government now backed up. Juarez, however, would recognize as valid only the cash actually received by Miramón from Jecker. Finally, the Congress decreed (July 17, 1861) the suspension for two years of interest payments on the external national debt. This was the occasion for

the French minister to ask for his passports and for the British

For the next three years Mexico was the prey of civil

minister to suspend diplomatic intercourse with the Juarez Government. These events fitted in with the ulterior designs of Napoleon ILI., who was influenced by his Spanish wife, by the great landowners and by the exiled Mexican Clericals to interest himself in the cause of centralized monarchy and the church; in addition, he was ambitious for political and commercial reasons to establish French hegemony in Spanish America. Finally a convention between Great Britain, France and Spain for joint intervention in Mexico was signed in London on Oct. 30, 1861. Juarez succeeded in negotiating a separate arrangement of the British

fracruz under Juárez, who, as chief justice of the Supreme

ance of the United States with a small loan, Mexican territory

bad succeeded Comonfort, and the Conservatives at the

being demanded as security, was also rejected. In mid-December

Dec. x, but within less than three weeks, vainly hoping to reconcile the two hostile political groups, accepted the Plan de Tacu-

baya (Dec. 17, 1857), which repudiated the new Constitution. He

was promptly made dictator by the Conservatives, who took steps to draft a new Constitution under his auspices. Having used Comonfort, the Conservatives soon deposed and exiled him (Jan.

21, 1858) and named as his successor a thorough Conservative,

War between two rival Governments—the Constitutionalists at claims but this was rejected by the Mexican Congress; the assist-

394

MEXICO

Veracruz was occupied by Spanish troops; the French fleet and troops arrived soon after, with instructions to seize and hold the Gulf ports until claims were satisfied by collection of duties; Great Britain sent ships, and landed yoo marines. In view of the unhealthiness of Veracruz, the convention of Soledad was concluded with the Mexican Government; it permitted the foreign troops to advance inland to more healthful sites pending a claims conference in April, and incidentally recognized the Juárez Government. But as the French harboured leaders of the Mexican Conservatives, pressed the Jecker claims and showed an unauthorized disposition to interfere in Mexican domestic politics, Great Britain and Spain withdrew their forces in April 1862. More troops were sent from France. Their advance was checked by Zaragoza and Diaz at Puebla on May 5 (Battle of Cinco de Mayo); and in Sept. 30,000 more French troops arrived under Gen. Forey. Wintering at Orizaba, they recommenced their advance (Feb. 17, 1863), reduced Puebla, and on June 7 entered Mexico City which had been abandoned by the Juarez Government. A provisional government of Mexican Conservatives, nominated by the French minister Saligny, adopted monarchy, offered the crown, at Napoleon’s instance, to Maximilian of Austria, brother of Emperor Francis Joseph, and, in case of his refusal, left its disposal to Napoleon III. Maximilian Emperor.—Maximilian, after being endorsed in a nominal Mexican plebiscite, renounced his Hapsburg rights of succession and accepted the Mexican crown. He reached Mexico City on June 12, 1864, where he found the greater part of the country already occupied by the French and reactionary troops, the Juárez Government finally being obliged to transfer to Paso del Norte on the Rio Grande. But the empire was unstable from the beginning and gradually Maximilian came to realize that he was little more than a pawn of a political faction sustained by foreign troops. Maximilian had liberal ideals and his efforts to conciliate the republican opposition and to form a coalition cabinet of Liberals and Monarchists, together with his refusal to restore the church property that had been nationalized by Juarez, cost him the support of his original backers; and, when pressed for funds, he could obtain loans only on the most disadvantageous terms. Nevertheless, Maximilian’s troops met with some notable successes. In the south Diaz was driven from Oaxaca in Feb. 1865 and in the north the condition of the Juarists became desperate. But no matter how hard pressed, Juarez was unyielding and the Republicans, defeated in open battle, resorted to guerrilla war. In desperation, Maximilian issued a decree on Oct. 3, 1865, which authorized the court-martial and summary execution of any rebel and the fining and imprisonment of anyone aiding the rebel cause, This decree was later made the basis for convicting Maximilian of murder and thus prepared his own fate. Maximilian’s rule was short but primarily for reasons disassociated with Mexican internal affairs. In view of the Monroe Doctrine, the realization of Napoleon’s dream and Maximilian’s tenure alike depended on the triumph of the Southern Confederacy. With the Union triumphant in 1865, the Secretary of State, Seward delivered an ultimatum to Napoleon that wrung from him early in 1866 a promise to withdraw his soldiers from Mexico. Other factors contributed to influence Napoleon to yield: the anticipated commercial returns from the Mexican venture had not materialized and the French tax-payers loudly protested against its cost; at the same time Bismarck’s aggressions against Austria caused Napoleon to desire to have his troops at home. In desperation Maximilian vainly attempted to placate estranged Clericals; then his wife, Charlotte of Belgium undertook to dissuade Napoleon from withdrawing his support. Finding Napoleon obdurate and the pope, to whom she appealed, unable to aid her, she became permanently insane, dying in 1927. With the last of the French troops withdrawn early in 1867, Maximilian’s downfall was hastened. Diaz pushed north to Mexico City while the forces of Juarez besieged Maximilian in Querétaro. There, betrayed +

of government in Mexico; notwithstanding, political stability wag longer deferred. Juárez was re-elected in 1867, but his proposa for an extra-legal amending of the Constitution met with popular disapproval; and his reduction of the army aroused discontent

among the soldiery. A crop of revolutions followed, but after a partial restoration of order, a general amnesty was decreed (Oct. 13, 1870). A claims convention was signed with the United States (July 4, 1868) and friendly relations were resumed with

some European nations.

When Juarez stood for re-election jy

1371, he was accused of seeking to make himself dictator, and when, after an indecisive election, Congress declared him preg.

dent, one of the defeated candidates, Diaz, appealed to arms. His revolution was unpopular and had been virtually suppressed whey

the sudden death of Juarez removed its chief raison d'être (July 18, 1872). Sebastian Lerdo de Tejada, as president ad interim, granted general amnesty and called a special presidential election, in which he overwhelmingly defeated Diaz. During his admin. istration,

commendable

progress

made, the Veracruz-Mexico

in suppressing

railroad was

banditry was

opened, the Juárez

measures disendowing the church and separating it from the State were incorporated in the Constitution, and diplomatic relations were renewed with France and Spain. Trouble developed in 1856

when the Lerdists laid plans to control the elections of that year,

Diaz again appealed to arms, declaring in the Plan de Palo Blancs for the sanctity of the Constitution and the principle of no reelection. Lerdo was declared re-elected, but was overthrown by Diaz, after a campaign of dramatic incidents that culminated in the battle of Tecoac (Nov. 16, 1876), and was forced into exile together with the dissenting president of the Supreme Court, Iglesias. After a short provisional term, Diaz was installed as president on May 5, 1877. The following year the Constitution was amended so as to prevent the re-election of executives.

Diaz President—Except for the term of Gonzalez (1880-84),

Diaz was president until 1911. He thus violated one of the funds mental bases of the Plan of Palo Blanco, but not without frst having the Constitution conveniently amended. With Diaz a new era was unconsciously ushered in. In addition to political instability, economic progress had been slow. The number of rural hold-

ings had only increased since 1810 from 14,382 to 19,500; there were only 430 m. of railroad in the country; financial conditions were deplorable. Social conditions had not been greatly changed. Eighty-five per cent of the population of 10,000,000 were Indian and Indian-like people. Only 350,000 children were in the public schools and fully 75% of the population was illiterate. In marked contrast to the political instability of the past, the history of Mexico from 1876 to 1910 was almost void of politicomilitary strife. Diaz’s policy was to keep down disorder; to cet tralize authority in his own hands; to foster railway development and economic progress—in large measure by attractive concessions to foreign capital; to develop native manufactures by pre tective tariffs; to introduce new industries; to promote forestry; to improve education—principally in urban centres; and, above all, to place the national credit on a sound basis. By 1910 most of these aims had been realized. Summary extra-legal executions of malefactors and political conspirators—notably a group of alleged conspirators in 1879—and the policing of the country by a unique and efficient rural gendarmerie contributed to the disappearance of the old revolutions. Also several formidable uprisings of Indians— as the Mayas in Yucatan and the Yaquis in Sonora—were Sup pressed with great severity. Centralization was effected by Diss

assuming the right to nominate either directly or indirectly, for a Federal, State and municipal offices; by his influence upon bi

while being drafted and considered in Congress; and by the def-

erence to his wishes of the members of the Supreme Court in all

cases affecting the Government or political matters. Railroad

mileage increased to more than 15,000 m. by rg1o. Textile iat tories in 1910 numbered 135 and employed 33,000 hands. Met ico’s foreign trade in 1910, totalling more than 450,000,000 De®

as he was attempting to flee, Maximilian was captured (May rs, was nearly ten times that of 1873; the modern harbour of Ver 1867). He was court-martialled and executed on June 19, 1867. cruz was finished in 1902; nearly a billion dollars of gold we Judrez President.—The downfall of Maxtmitian made pos- mined between 1870 and 1909; in 1910 Mexico ranked second® gible the definite establishment of a republican and federal form

the production of copper; the oil industry at the close of Diar’

MEXICO administration was a growing industry.

393

The number of children forth the aims of the revolution were chiefly socio-economic

wn the public schools by 1906 had increased to 615.134, and, for : not political in character.

and

Diaz attempted to suppress the revo-

lution by force, but failing resorted to promises and belated rement appropriated 7,000,000 pesos or 63% of its total budget, for | forms. These likewise were futile, and he resigned on May 25, education. In the realm of public finance notable progress was 1911, and soon left Mexico forever. After a short provisional presidency, Madero was inaugurated made. Foreign obligations were adjusted and refunded; the tariff was made protectionist; the monetary standard was changed from as constitutional president on Nov. 6, 1911. His administration silver to gold; the hated tax on sales (alcabala) was abolished; was characterized by weakness and blunders. When he made conthe budget was balanced, reserves created and new loans effected. cessions to the old Diaz party he lost the support of those who Finally, Diaz, through his conduct of foreign relations, had had rebelled to secure political reforms; when he did nothing to raised Mexico to a proud position among the nations. In 1877 achieve agrarian reforms, he aroused the active antagonism of the the year 1910, in addition to State support, the Federal Govern-

only six and in 1910 no fewer than 42 foreign Governments had representatives in Mexico. Early relations between Diaz and the United States were strained, due to the temporary refusal of the United States to accord recognition and to border disturbances.

These differences were satisfactorily adjusted and after 1888 disputes with the United States were transient. A crisis with Guate-

mala over the boundary was averted in 1895. The same year, in the difficulty between the United States and England over the Venezuelan boundary, Diaz expressed strong adherence to the Monroe Doctrine in principle, and suggested that its maintenance should be undertaken by all American Powers. In 1906 and 1907

Diaz co-operated with President Roosevelt in mediating successfully between Central American belligerents and took part in the establishment of the Central American Court of Justice. The second Pan American Congress met in Mexico City in Igor. Successful and beneficent as had been some of the policies of

Diaz, others had been reactionary and prejudicial to the best interests of the country. Particularly disastrous in their effect were

the land policies of Diaz. A presidential decree in 1890 expropriated and allotted in severalty the theretofore inalienable tillable lands of the villages known as ej7idos—or communal lands which had long constituted the principal means of independent support of the majority of the sedentary Mexican Indians. The reactionary land law of 1894 legalized the squandering within a few years of a vast national domain. The combined effect of the above-cited decree and law was highly favourable to the landed aristocracy and unfortunate to the masses. By 1910 a total of 969% of the rural heads of families owned no real property. Of that in the possession of the other 3.1% was owned by fewer than 1,000 powerful landholders whose estates varied in size up to 6,000,000 acres. Furthermore, approximately 10,000,000 Indians (probably three-fifths of the population), in addition to losing their communal lands, had become serfs. In short, the condition of the masses in 1910 was even more deplorable than it had ever been. Under such conditions Mexico’s third great socioeconomic upheaval was inevitable and at hand. Other errors of Diaz may be briefly described. Rural education was almost completely ignored. The reform laws were not observed. The church made a partial economic and political recovery, living a precarious existence by executive clemency. Foreign concessionaires were so favoured that national resentment was deeply stirred. An historic principle that had been followed continuously during the colonial and national periods down to 1884 was reversed and by the mining laws of that year, 1892, and 1909, surface owners were given the right, without governmental approval, to exploit subsoil deposits which formerly had belonged first to the king and later to the nation. Finally, the Diaz Government had become a closed political corporation, although there were many who were qualified for participation in governmental affairs.

_ Revolution of 1910.—Political discontent finally culminated

in armed rebellion, and this, in turn, was the occasion for a gen-

tral upheaval. Diaz’s announcement in 1908 that he would welcome opposition in the next campaign was the inspiration of Fran-

asco I. Madero to initiate a political crusade in which he con-

demned presidential succession and demanded effective suffrage. Madero was nominated by the anti-re-electionists, but was arrested

masses. Rebellions flared up, resulting in chaotic conditions by 1912. President Taft prohibited the shipment of arms to Madero’s opponents and advised Americans to leave Mexico.

A Conservative counter-revolution, headed by Victoriano Huerta, met with success in Feb. 1913. The forced resignations of President Madero and Vice President Suarez on Feb. 19, enabled Huerta to seize executive power through constitutional forms. | Three days later Madero and Suarez were executed. Huerta, however, faced insuperable obstacles. President Wilson refused to recognize him because of his usurpation of authority and because of holding him responsible for the political executions. From within he was opposed by the disappointed masses, led by Carranza, Villa and Zapata, who had joined the revolution to obtain social and agrarian reforms. They were aided indirectiy by the troubles of Huerta with the United States. At Tampico an affront to an American naval officer prompted an official demand that the United States flag be saluted. Huerta’s refusal was followed by the American seizure of Veracruz (April 21, 1914). Huerta had already been embarrassed by the mission of John Lind, who had been sent to Mexico by President Wilson to induce him to assent to his own elimination, and the seizure of Vera-

cruz led to the severance States. Argentina, Brazil which were accepted, but lowed failed to agree on nally forced to resign on

of diplomatic relations with the United and Chile proffered their good offices, the Niagara Falls Conference that fol-

a provisional president. Huerta was fi-

July 14, 1914. Carranza President.—Between the revolutionary leaders who

co-operated to overthrow Huerta, a dreary and sanguinary civil war developed which produced a flock of presidential pretenders and further delayed much-needed agrarian reforms. These came finally in a provisional decree issued by Carranza on Jan 6, rgr5. It provided, where practicable, for the restitution to villages of ejidos illegally alienated in the past and for the expropriation of lands necessary to endow with ejidos other villages in need of them. The effect of this, the first constructive act of the revolution, was the crystallization of revolutionary sentiment in support of Carranza which, in turn, won for him the recognition of the United States and eight associated Latin-American republics as de facto president of Mexico. This success piqued Villa, who, in a deliberate attempt to involve Carranza in international difficulties, perpetrated the massacre of 18 American miners at Santa Isabel (Jan. to, 1916) and the raid on Columbus, New Mexico (March 9), in which 17 Americans were killed. The Pershing punitive expedition of 12,000 troops immediately but ineffectually pursued Villa far into northern Mexico, much to the embarrassment of Carranza. The American expedition was finally withdrawn (Feb. 5, 1917) but not before it had been attacked by Carranza’s forces, at which time several Americans were killed and a score captured (June 21, 1916). Meanwhile, the success of Carranza made possible the crystallization of other revolutionary aims less urgent than those relating to agrarian reforms. Accordingly, when a constituent assembly at Querétaro drafted a new Constitution early in 1917, it not only incorporated substantially the Carranza provisional decree of 1915, but made provision for the realization of the less urgent revolutionary aims, namely, the

return to the national ownership of subsoil deposits, the limita-

lor sedition in June 1910. Escaping to Texas he issued a plan tion of the acquisition of agricultural property by foreigners, and Which, in addition to his original proposals for political reforms, the effecting of reforms similar in principle to the reform laws of ncluded a demand for agrarian reforms. The incorporation of Juarez and Lerdo de Tejada. his plank caught the ear of the downtrodden masses who promptly

ave Madero their support upon his return to Mexico. Hence-

Carranza’s administration as first president under the new Constitution was disappointing. Little was realized in the way of

394

MEXICO

effective agrarian reforms. Decrees, charged with being confiscatory in character, by which Carranza sought to enforce the constitutional provisions relating to the national ownership of subsoil deposits in which foreigners were interested, involved him in diplomatic controversies with foreign powers. In the United States intervention was loudly demanded, danger of which was

augmented prior to the close of the World War by Carranza’s anti-American and pro-German attitude. Finally, through threats of curtailing production, the petroleum companies forced Carranza (Jan. 1920) to suspend his objectionable decrees, but without prejudice to the final adjudication of the dispute. During 1919 Carranza’s hold on the country weakened. Rebel activities were wide-spread, corruption prevailed in the army and banditry was general. This situation, together with the non-enforcement of the Constitution and the avowed intention of Carranza, in conformity with his pledge, to impose a civilian, I. Bonillas, as his successor in the presidency, inspired an armed rebellion that was soon dominated by the so-called Sonora triumvirate, composed of De la Huerta, Obregón and Calles. The rebel movement got under way in Sonora early in April 1920 and on May 8 Obregon entered Mexico City on the heels of the fleeing Carranza who was assassinated 13 days later. Following De la Huerta’s provisional presidency, Obregon was installed Dec. 1, 1920.

qualified right of owners who were U.S. citizens, and had suffered losses or damage because of acts resulting in injustice in carrying

out the agrarian policy of the Mexican Government, to have re. course to a general claims commission. On the theory that the mining laws of the Diaz régime, through the reversal of an his. toric principle, had in reality conferred a gift of the subsoil on

surface owners, and on the argument that under Napoleonic and Mexican law a gift was not a gift until the donee had performed

some positive act indicative of his intention to accept the gift, the Mexican Government recognized the right to the subsoil of all surface owners who, before May 1, 1917, had performed some positive act indicating their intention to exploit the deposits be.

neath their surface lands. It refused, however, to do more thay grant preferential rights to the oil in the subsoil to surface owners who before May 1, 1917, had not performed the afore-described positive act. Nevertheless, because the U.S. Government refused

to admit the above distinction, the Mexican Government recog. nized the former’s right “to make any reservation of or in behalf

of its citizens.”

On the basis of the above understandings, as

mutually approved Obregón Government on Aug. 31, 1923. A signed on Sept. 10,

by Presidents Obregón and Coolidge, the was recognized by that of the United States special claims commission whose report was provided for the adjudication of all claims

Administration of Obregon, 1920-24.—The many aims of against Mexico of citizens of the United States suffered “through the revolution began effectively to be realized during Obregén’s revolutionary acts” between Nov. 20, 1910, and May 31, 1920 administration. The prompt application of the agrarian laws en- A general claims convention signed on Sept. 8, provided for the adabled the Government to re-establish peace throughout the coun- judication of all other claims of the citizens of either country that try. Supreme Court decisions upholding some of the contentions originated between July 4, 1868, and the date of the termination of the petroleum companies stimulated their activities and in 1921 of the commission. Obregón had the support of the Agrarians. production reached the record-breaking total of 193,397,587 barPresident Calles, who was a strong supporter of the programme rels. Efforts to refund the Mexican debt which were begun in of 1917, came into power pledged to maintain order, to practice 1g2I were successful in June 1922. Mexico assumed full obliga- economy, and to promote the economic and social welfare of the tion for the $500,000,000 principal of the debt, the $200,000,000 Mexican people. He was supported by the Labour Party. A of defaulted interest, and certain internal debts, and agreed to heavy hand was promptly laid on trouble makers, but the proresume service on the debt, beginning Jan. r, 1923. The debt gramme of economic and social development was impeded by the agreement was temporarily suspended on July 1, 1924. Educa- deplorable financial condition of the Government and by its tion was encouraged among the rural classes, largely Indians, for inability to obtain a loan. Accordingly, President Calles adopted whom 960 schools were built, many of them large, conspicuous a drastic policy of retrenchment, and in less than eight months an buildings. One of the outstanding events of 1923 was the expul- actual saving of over 60,000,000 pesos had been effected. In Oct. sion of the papal delegate, Mgr. Filippi, whose permission to con- 1925 the debt agreement of 1922 was modified to Mexico's adduct open air religious exercises, granted by the State authorities vantage—chiefly by the separation of the debt of the national of Guanajuato, was not recognized by the Federal Government. railways, which were returned to private ownership, from the The Vatican and Catholic organizations in general protested national debt—and arrangements were made for the resumption against this action. An exciting presidential campaign followed of interest payments beginning Jan. 1, 1926. Toward labo, late In 1923 and when Obregén threw his support to Calles, De la which had steadily grown more aggressive and radical, President Huerta and his followers rebelled. Their initial successes menaced Calles adopted a firm attitude. The railway service was federalthe Government and Obregón took the field and conducted a ized, thereby reducing the likelihood of strikes, and in the spring campaign on three fronts. Material and moral aid from the U.S. of 1925 presidential action prevented a national sympathetic enabled Obregón to triumph, after whicb Calles was elected strike called by the Tampico Federation of Labour Unions. Upon president and inaugurated on Dec. 1, 1924. the recommendation of President Calles the Mexican Congress, The agrarian and petroleum policies of the Obregón Govern- in Dec. 1925, passed the alien land and petroleum laws. The first ment were responsible for strained relations with the United was an enabling act designed to put into operation the theretofore States. Secretary of State Hughes, who was interested in the unfulfilled constitutional provisions relating to the limitation of general problem of protecting American property rights in Mex- the acquisition by foreigners of agricultural land in Mexico; the ico, first endeavoured to negotiate with Obregón a treaty of amity second law was designed to put into operation by legislative actio, and commerce that would adequately guarantee such protection. as opposed to presidential decrees, the constitutional provisions Failing in this, Charles B. Warren and Jobn B. Payne, as mem- relating to the national ownership of subsoil deposits. Early i bers of a joint commission, were sent to Mexico with instruc- Jan. 1926, just as a spirited diplomatic controversy with the United tions to secure the restoration or proper reparation for the taking States concerning these laws reached an apparent crisis, the Merof lands owned by Americans, to obtain satisfactory assurances ican Catholic episcopate took a positive stand against the thereagainst confiscation of subsoil interests owned by Americans prior tofore almost wholly unenforced religious and educational pro to the promulgation of the Constitution on May 1, 1917, and to visions of the Constitution and thus precipitated a conflict betwem negotiate appropriate claims conventions. Hughes wished also to church and State. An apostolic letter of Pope Pius XI. (Feb. 3 raise the question of religious liberty in Mexico; this issue was 1926) which voiced sympathy for the Mexican clergy because of dropped, by the wish of Mexico, as a purely domestic concern. the “wicked . . . regulations and laws . . . against the Catholic

The joint commission (in session from May 14 to Aug. r5, 1923) citizens of Mexico,” intensified the uncompromising attitude of reached satisfactory understandings on the most important ques- both the Government and the episcopate. The conflict reached a tions at issue. Under certain conditions American owners of lands crisis on July 31, at which time the clergy, in preference to sa PETF OTN apropriated by the Mexican Government for ejidos for villages mitting to an executive decree designed to enforce the religios were obligated to accept 20 year 5% bonds for a maximum of and educational provisions of the Constitution, which they ® MSS hectares and a just value, paid in cash, for any excess taken. garded as imposing impossible conditions for the practice of JAE the same time the Mexican Government recognized the un- ministry, withdrew from the churches, and thus suspended

MEXICO ‘ous exercises requiring the services of priests. The Government

maintained its position.

Churches, as well as all other church

property, which had been nationalized, were taken in charge by Government agents, but the churches in most cases were kept

open for individual worship. The Government expressed a willingness to transfer the custody of the churches to the clergy if they agreed to recognize the law. Opposition to the law resulted in several outbreaks, which were suppressed. In addition, many members of the episcopate were deported (since April 1927) on

the ground that they had encouraged the Catholic uprisings. Despite international and internal troubles the Calles Govern-

ment made notable progress in developing irrigation projects, in building roads and in promoting education, particularly among the

rural classes. In 1926 a total of 46,000,000 pesos was spent on education. This sum was equivalent to 84% of the Federal budget plus about 409@ of the total budgets of all the States. A politicomilitary rebellion late in 1927, headed by two presidential candidates, Generals Gomez and Serrano, was suppressed with rigour.

The alien land and petroleum laws were vigorously protested

against by the U.S. Government, chiefly because of their alleged retroactive and confiscatory character.

The controversy appar-

ently reached a crisis with the official promulgation of both laws early in 1926. The diplomatic exchanges yielded no agreements but the tension was relieved in March. At that time, Secretary of State Kellogg, in answer to various questions concerning the proposed application of specific provisions of the alien land law, received apparently satisfactory replies from the Mexican Government; at the same time Kellogg apparently indicated a willingness to be content with the petroleum law provided American owners who had performed an above-described positive act before

May 1, 1917, were confirmed in their rights to the subsoil. The second phase of the diplomatic controversy was opened by Kellogg on July 31, 1926. Vigorous complaints against specific provisions of both land and petroleum laws were made and when the Mexican replies showed that the two Governments differed fundamentally on all specific points raised by Kellogg, the United States in a virtual ultimatum (Oct. 30) warned Mexico not to deprive American owners in Mexico of any of their property rights. The Mexican Government countered by requesting that violations of recognized principles of international law be indicated. Since then neither law has been the subject of public diplomatic representations. The petroleum law in theory went into effect on Jan. 1, and the alien land law on Jan. 21, 1927. The latter, apparently, was quite generally accepted by aliens in Mexico. Articles 14 and 15 of the petroleum law, which were among those vigorously protested against by Kellogg, required owners of the surface who acquired their titles prior to May 1, 191 7, to exchange them for

“confirmatory concessions,” good for 50 years, and, under certain conditions, renewable. Property of owners not complying with the law before Jan. 1, 192 7, was to revert to the Mexican nation. On the latter date, however, the Mexican Government made no move to take over such property, and, instead, merely cancelled drilling permits of non-conforming companies on the ground that they

had not complied with articles 14 and 15. This made possible a test of the constitutionality of the two articles, and a decision of the Mexiean Supreme Court (Nov. 17, 1927) declared that they

Were unconstitutional. The decision was at once accepted by the

Mexican Government and before adjournment in December the Mexican Congress re-enacted the petroleum law with the two

controverted articles amended so as to conform with the Supreme

Court decision. Authorized executive regulations governing the

hew law promptly met with the approval of the United States

ent when they were issued on March 27, 1928. Thus

two, but only two, of the various provisions of the law that are objectionable to the American interests upheld by Kellogg have

eliminated by the Supreme Court decision. Relations between the United States and Mexico have shown marked improvement since the arrival (Oct. 1927) of Dwight W. Morrow as

United States Ambassador to Mexico. The mainsprings of his

have been respect for Mexican sovereignty and personal contacts designed to show interest in and respect for the Mexican and their Government.

395

On July 17, 1928, President-elect Obregén was assassinated by a fanatic, José de Leon Toral. At the special session of the Mexican Congress, on Sept. 1, President Calles declared that he | would not again seek election. The Congress elected Emilio Portes Gil, secretary of the interior, provisional president, who took office on Dec. 1, 1928. On Mar. 3, 1929 a concerted revolutionary coup a’ état broke out in Vera Cruz and in the northern States, engineered by military and civil leaders, professing themselves loyal to the memory of Obregon but not in sympathy with Calles or Portes Gil. Calles was immediately appointed Secretary of War and took control of operations. Within a week the revolt in Vera Cruz collapsed and, the rebel power was broken at the battles of Jimenez and La Reforma. Pascual Ortiz Rubio was elected President of Mexico in Nov. 1929; he visited the United States in December, and, returning to Mexico, was inaugurated on February s, 1930. BrsriocrapHy.—For English readers the standard work is still H. H. Bancroft, History of Mexico, 1516-1887 (San Francisco, 1883-88), and supplementary histories. The best one-volume history of Mexico in English is H. I. Priestley, The Mexican Nation, A History (New York, 31923). Standard Mexican authorities are: Lucas Alaman, Historia de Méjico (Mexico, 1849-32) I. Alvarez, Estudios sobre la historia general de México . . . (Zacatecas, 1875—77) ; V. Riva Palacio, ed., México á través de los siglos (Barcelona, 1888-89); N. de Zamacois, Historia de Méjico desde sus tiempos mas remotos .„ - - (Mexico, 1876-82). Important documents relating to the Colonial period, the struggle for independence and the French intervention are found in Documentos inéditos ó muy raros para la historia de México ... (Mexico, 1905-11), published under the editorship of Genaro García and Carlos Pereyra. A large and informative illustrated work, edited by Justo Sierra, sumptuously produced but inadequately translated, is Mexico, its Social Evolution (Barcelona, 1900-04). For colonial institutions and administration see G. Desdevises du Desert, L'Espagne de lAncien Régime: les Institutions (Paris, 1899); Juan de Solórzano y Pereyra, Politica Indiana (Madrid, 1629-39, 1776); L. S. Fisher, Viceregal Administration in the SpanishAmerican Colonies (Berkeley, 1926); and Alexander von Humboldt, Essai politique sur le rovaume de la Nouvelle Espagne (Paris, 1811; English trans., New York, 1811). H. G. Ward’s Mexico (London, 1829) is excellent for the history and description of Mexico during the first decade after independence. For Mexico just before the war with the United States, see Mme. Calderón de la Barca, Life in Mexico (Boston, 1843) ; and W. Thompson, Recollections of Mexico (New York, 1847). For the war with the United States the standard authority is J. H. Smith, The War with Mexico (New York, 1919). A valuable study of the liberal movement during its early stages is W. H. Callcott, Church and State in Mexico, 1822~ 1857 (Durham, 1926). For Maximilian, the Bluebooks on Mexican affairs contained in Accounts and Papers (presented to parliament), vol. Ixv. (1862) and vol. Ixiv. (1863) are valuable; E. de Kératry, La Créance Jecker; Vempereur Maximilien son élévation et sa chute (Eng. trans. by Venables); La Contre-guérilla française au Mexique, are especially noteworthy; Prince Felix Salm-Salm’s Diary gives valuable information as to Maximilian’s decline and fall. Also J. F. Domenech, L'Empire mexicain (Mexico, 1866), and Le Mexique tel qwil est | (Paris, 1867) ; Daran, El General Miguel Miramén (Rome, 1886). For a recent scholarly study see J. Musser, The Establishment of Maxi-

milian’s Empire in Mexico (Menasha, 1918). See also F. Bulnes, El verdadero Juárez (Mexico, 1904) and G. García, Juárez; refutación --.@ Bulnes (Mexico, 1904). For an impartial and well-written account of the Diaz régime see D. Hannay, Diaz (New York, 1917). For the background of the socio-economic upheaval that began in 1910 see H. Phipps, Some Aspects of the Agrarian Question in Mexico (Austin, 1925); G. M. McBride, The Land Systems of Mexico (New York, 1923); A. Molina Enriquez, Los grandes problemas nacionales (Mexico, 1909); F. Gonzalez Roa, Las cuestiones fundamentales de

actualidad en Mexico (Mexico, 1927). For events in Mexico since IQI0 the following works are useful: H. Baerlein, Mexico, the Land of Unrest (Philadelphia, 1913); M. Marques Sterling, Los últimos dias del Presidente Madero (Havana, 1917); E. L. Bell, The Political Shame of Mexico (New York, 1914); L. Gutiérrez de Lara and E. Pinch6n, The Mexican People; their Struggle for Freedom (Garden City, 1914); E. O'Shaughnessy, A Diplomat’s Wife in Mexico (New York, 1916) ; E. D. Trowbridge, Mexico To-day and To-morrow (New

York, 1919) ; S. G. Inman, Intervention in Mexico (New York, 1919) : G. H. Blakeslee, ed., Mexico and the Caribbean (New York, 1920); Wallace Thompson, The People of Mexico (New York, 1921); C. L. Jones, Mexico and its Reconstruction (New York, 1921); C. Beals, Mexico—an Interpretation (New York, 1923); E. A. Ross, The Social Revolution in Mexico (New York, 1923) ; M. Saenz and H. I. Priestley, Some Mexican Problems (Chicago, 1926). For the early Constitutions of the republic see I. A. Montiel y Duarte, Derecho público mexicano . . . (Mexico, 1871-82). A study of the Constitution of 1857 by B. Moses is in the Annals of the Ameri-

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can Academy of Political Science I1., i. (1891). An English translation of the Constitution of 1917 by H. N. Branch, published in parallel columns with that of 1857, is in a supplement to the Annals of the same academy, published in Philadelphia (May, 1917). For diplomatic relations between Mexico and the United States see W. R. Manning, Early Diplomatic Relations between the United States and Mexico (Baltimore, 1916); G. L. Rives, The United States and Mexico, r8211848 (New York, 1925); J. F. Rippy, The United States and Mexico (New York, 1926); C. W. Hackett, The Mexican Revolution and the United States, 1910-1926 (Boston, 1926; World Peace Foundation Pamphlet, vol. ix., no. 5); W. Lippman, “Vested Rights and Nationalism in Latin America,” Foreign Affairs (New York, April 1927); J. P. Bullington, “Problems of International Law in the Mexican Constitution of 1917,” American Journal of International Law (Oct. 1927) and “The Land and Petroleum Laws of Mexico,” (ibid., Jan. 1928) ; Ernest Gruening, Mexico and Its Heritage (1928). (C. W. H.)

MEXICO, a central plateau State of the Republic of Mexico.

Indians and half-breeds form more than one-half of the rural population being engaged in agriculture, gardening, manufacturi

and trade. The government of the district is exercised by the national executive in accordance with the organic law of 1903 though some measure of popular government is vested in municipal

councils (ayuntamientos) elected by popular vote for terms of four years. The administrative officers, who are appointed by

the national executive, consist of a governor of the Federal District, the director-general of public works and the president of the superior board of health. The governor represents the na.

tional Government, and has special charge of the fire and police departments, prisons, imposition of penalties for violation of ordinances, public diversions and festivities, civil registry, street traffic, inspection of weights and measures, and the sale of ip.

toxicating liquors. The director-general of public works has special

Pop. (1921) 884,617, largely Indian. Area, 8,262 sq. miles. Enclosed within its boundaries, except on the south, is the Federal District and capital city of Mexico with an area of 572-5 sq. m., which is not included in that of the State. The State is divided into two unequal parts by the Sierra de Ajusco and Montes de las Cruces, which form a wooded ridge across it from east to west, with a general elevation of about 10,000 ft. above sea-level, or about 2,500 above the plateau level. A considerable part of the northern section of the State consists of the Valley of Mexico, a nearly circular flat-floored basin, once the bed of a great lake but now covered with swamps, sodden meadows and small lakes. The surrounding country drains into this depression, but an artificial outlet has been

charge of the water supply, streets and roads, parks, monuments public lighting, drainage, street cleaning, public buildings not under Federal control, cemeteries, slaughter-houses and markets building operations and all municipal or communal property. The president of the superior board of health has charge of all sanitary works, general sanitary inspection, the sanitary administration of markets, slaughter-houses and cemeteries, and the introduction of meats from other localities. The government of the district is copied, in part, from that of the District of Columbia in the United States, but its citizens are not disfranchised. The principal towns of the district are merely suburbs of the

created by the opening of the Tequixquiac tunnel.

tepec, Santa Anita and the hot springs of El Peñón, which are

Beyond its

margin the plateau drains west to the Pacific through the Lerma, and north-east to the Gulf through the San Juan and Panuco. South of the Sierra de Ajusco the country is roughly mountainous and drains to the Pacific through tributaries of the Balsas. Within the depression of the north are the lakes of Zumpango, San Cristobal, Xaltocan, Chalco, Xochimilco and Texcoco, the last-named three lying partly or wholly in the Federal District. Texcoco has the lowest level and its water is brackish and undrinkable, though that of the streams flowing into it and of the other lakes is fresh. Lake Xochimilco is celebrated for its “floating gardens” or ckinampas (see MEXICO, FEDERAL DISTRICT OF). The principal industries of the State are mining and agriculture. The principal agricultural products are cereals, sugar, maguey (from which “pulque” is made), coffee and fruit. In recent years the mining of gold and silver has taken high rank, particularly in the district of El Oro in the western part of the State. Stockraising has also had a profitable development, owing to the proximity of the national capital. The manufacturing industries are im-

capital. Within the municipal limits of Mexico City are Chapul-

popular suburban resorts easily reached by the ordinary urban tramway service. Chapultepec (Grasshopper Hill) is an isolated rock nearly 200 ft. high surrounded by a beautiful park and sur-

mounted by a fortified structure called the “Castle,” containing the summer residence of the president. A finely graded road leads to the summit.

The park contains a grove of old cypress trees

(Taxodium distichum, called “ahuehuetes” by the natives), one

of which is 45 ft. in circumference and nearly 200 ft. high. The hill is nearly 3 m. south-west of the centre of the city and once commanded one of its principal causeway approaches. It was

assaulted and captured by the American forces under Gen. Winfield Scott on Sept. 13, 1847, after a stubborn resistance. A monu-

ment to the cadets of the military school who died in this battle stands in the park. The castle, which was planned by the viceroys, was built and decorated by the Emperor Maximilian, who planned for it the drive known as the Paseo de la Reforma. Guadalupe or Guadalupe-Hidalgo (pop. 11,473 in 1921), 24 m. north by east from the plaza of Mexico City, near the shore of Lake Texcoco, portant; among the manufactures are cotton and woollen fabrics, is chiefly known for its shrine to Our Lady of Guadalupe, whois flour, dairy products, glass-ware, pottery, bricks, wines and spirits. said to have appeared there to the Indian Juan Diego in 1531. The making of “pulque” is one of the chief industries of the State, The shrine stands on the principal plaza and is visited by many and the product is sent in large quantities to the national capital. thousands of pilgrims during the year, whose pious contributions The State is traversed by the Central, National, Mexican Interna- have so enriched the church that its sacred vessels, altar-rails, tional and Interoceanic railways, and by short lines from the na- candelabra and other accessories are estimated to contain sc tons tional capital to neighbouring towns. The capital is Toluca, and of silver. The treaty of peace between Mexico and the United other important towns are El Oro de Hidalgo (pop. 14,804 in States was signed here Feb. 2, 1848. Tacubaya (pop. 54,775 i 1921}; Amecameca de Juarez (pop. 6,974 in 1921); Zumpango 1921), about 5 m. west-south-west of the plaza, is noted for its old (pop. 5,405 in 1921), 30 m. N. of the national capital; and Ten- residences .and beautiful gardens. The National Astronomical ango del Valle (5,824 in 1921), 15 m. S.E. of Toluca. observatory occupies a modern edifice. At Popotla, now well MEXICO, FEDERAL DISTRICT OF, a territory set within the city of Mexico, is an aged tree under which, according apart for the independent and exclusive use of the Mexican to tradition, Cortés sat and wept after his terrible retreat from the Federal Government, occupying the south-eastern part of the Aztec capital on the noche triste. Farther south, on the lowest Valley of Mexico, and taken from and lying within the State of slopes of the mountain range are San Angel, Coyoacán and Thk Mexico, which forms its boundaries on all sides except the south pam, favourite country residences of the richer citizens. Xoch

where it touches the State of Morelos. Pop. (1921) 906,063, largely Indian; area, 572-5 sq. miles. The district is very irregular in outline, its greatest length (north-west to south-east)

being 30 m., and its greatest breadth 25 miles.

It is divided

Into 13 municipalities, México, Guadalupe-Hidalgo, Atzcapotzalco, Tacuba, Tacubaya, Mixcoac, Cuajimalpa, San Angel, Coyoacán, Tiaipam, Xochimilco, Milpa Alta, Ixtapalapa, General Anaya and Extalco; the first of these comprises the national capital and its immediate suburbs, and the other 12 the unequal divisions of

the district with a considerable number of towns and villages.

milco (field of flowers) (pop. 8,936 in 1921), on the west shore

of the lake of that name and ro m. south by east of the city, i

an Indian town dating long before the discovery of America.

MEXICO, a city of Missouri, U.S.A., rro m. N.W. of Sain

Louis; the county seat of Audrain county. It is on Federal high way 54, and is served by the Burlington Route, the Chicago and

Alton and the Wabash railways. Pop. 6,013 in 1920 (15% De

groes); 8,290, 1930 by Federal census. It is in the blue-grass region of the State, which produces especially horses and mules, grain, hay, cattle and hegs. The city has large deposits of high

MEXICO—MEXICO

CITY

397

grade fire-clay. It manufactures shoes, flour, fire-brick and stove- | centrated in a fine modern residential district in the south-west.

linings; and is the seat of Hardin college for girls (Baptist, 1873).

stands on a small plain occupying |partTheof citya large lacustrine depression known

the south-western as the Valley of rounded by the coasts of the United States and Mexico, and form- Mexico (El Valle de México), about 3 m. from the western ing the northern division of the extension westward of the west shore of Lake Texcoco, whose waters once covered a considerAtlantic trench (see ATLANTIC OcEAN). Its southern boundary is able part of the ground now occupied by the city. The valley, indefined by the partly submerged ridge which extends eastwards cluding the drainage basin of Lake Zumpango, has an area of from the peninsula of Yucatan, and on which the island of Cuba 2,219 sq.m. (1,627 sq.m. without that basin). The elevation of is situated; to the east it communicates directly with the the city above sea-level is 7.415 ft., only a few feet above the Atlantic by the Strait of Florida. On the western side of Yucatan level of Lake Texcoco. The general elevation of the valley is a southerly embayment is formed by the Gulf of Campeachy. about 7,500 ft., that of Lake Zumpango being 7.493 ft., and of The U. S. coast closely follows the parallel of 30° N., while the Lake Chalco 7,480 feet. The rim of the valley is formed by spurs parallel of 20° N. cuts across the Gulf of Campeachy; the great- of the cordillera on all sides—the Sierra de Guadalupe (650 to est length—Veracruz to Florida—is 1,120m., and greatest width 750 Ít. above the city) on the north, the Sierra Nevada, with its —Galveston to Campeachy—680 miles. The total area is approxi- snow-clad peaks of Popocatépetl and Ixtaccihuatl farther away to the south-east, the Sierra de Ajusco, and the Montes de las Cruces mately 716,0008q. miles. The deepest part of the Gulf of Mexico, the so-called Sigsbee bordering the depression on the south and west. Earthquake deep, lies below the line of 2,000 fathoms, between 23° and 254° shocks are of frequent occurrence, but the city rarely suffers any N., and 845° to 95° W. It is widest to the west, where the breadth material damage. The great earthquake shocks of July 30 and is about 120m., and narrows to 25m. at its greatest depth (2,119 31, 1909, however, caused considerable damage in the city, and fathoms) between 86° and 88° W., widening again to some 80m. a few lives were lost. Lake Texcoco is a shallow body of brackish water, with area of farther eastward. The continental shelf is for the most part narrow; its breadth is 6m. at Cape Florida, 120m. along the west about 114 sq.m., and is fed by a number of small streams from coast of Florida, rom. at the southern pass of the Mississippi, the neighbouring mountains, and by the overflow of the other 130m. near the boundary of Texas and Louisiana, and 15m. off lakes. Its shores are swampy and desolate and show considerable Veracruz. The shores are low, sandy, and marshy, the coast-line belts of saline incrustations with the fall of its level. The being frequently doubled by lagoons. There are no islands except Aztecs settled there because of the security afforded by its islands and shallow waters. the “Keys” of Florida and Yucatan, and Cuba. The Chalco and Xochimilco lakes, 8 or 9 m. to the southward, The tides in the Gulf of Mexico are of comparatively small range (springs rarely exceed 4ft. and neaps 24ft.), but a remark- which are separated by a narrow ridge of land, are connected able feature is the exaggeration of the diurnal inequality to such with the lower part of the city by an artificial canal called “La an extent as almost to extinguish the semi-diurnal tide in the inner Viga,” 16 m. long and 30 ft. wide, which serves as an outlet for parts of the gulf, giving high and low water only once daily. The the overflow of those lakes and as a waterway for the natives, mean level of the water in the Gulf of Mexico was formerly given who bring in flowers and vegetables for sale. Lake Xochimilco, as about 4oin. above that of mean sea-level at New York, but celebrated for its chinampas or “floating gardens” (see MExico, later reports on precise levellings from New York to Biloxi through FEDERAL District oF), is supplied largely by fresh-water springs St. Louis describe it vaguely as “somewhat higher.” The current opening within the lake itself. Lake Chalco is greatly reduced movement in the Gulf of Mexico consists of a rotational move- in size by railway fillings and irrigation works. Climate and Health.—tThe climate of the city is temperate, ment in the direction of the hands of a watch, the branch of the equatorial current which enters the Caribbean sea passing into dry and healthy, The temperature ranges from a minimum of the gulf by the Strait of Yuratan and issuing from it by the Strait of Florida as the Gulf Stream. From March to September the prevailing winds are the northeast trades; these undergo considerable modification on account of the configuration of the surrounding land, and the rains which accompany them are interrupted by spells of calm thick weather, and rarely by northerly winds known as Nortes del hueso colorado and Chocolateros. In the colder dry season, from October to April, the climatic situation is dominated by the relatively high temperature of the surface of the gulf, causing a cyclonic inflow of air which is associated with the strong northerly winds or “northers” prevailing on the western side, more particularly along the Mexican coast. The northers sometimes blow with terrific force and are at times accompanied by rain. The form and position of the Gulf of Mexico exercise a profound influence on the climate of the United States. (H. N. D.)

MEXICO, GULF

OF, a mediterranean gulf almost sur-

MEXICO CITY, capital and metropolis of the Republic of

Mexico, and chief town of the Federal District, near the southern margin of the great central plateau of Mexico, in lat. 19° 25’ 45”

N., long. 99° 7’ W. It is about 200 m. in a direct line W. by N. ofVeracruz, its nearest port on the Gulf of Mexico, with which

# Is connected by two railway lines, one of which is 264 m. long;

and about 18z m. in a direct line N.N.E. of Acapulco, its nearest port on the Pacific, with which it is connected partly by rail and

partly by a motor road. The city had a population of 615,367 at the census of 1921 (271,956 males and 343,411 females), of whom 23,668 were foreign-born; estimate for 1924, 880,000. The majority of the inhabitants is composed of Indians and mestizos, whom come the factory workers, labourers, servants, Porters and other wage-earners. The foreign population includes many capitalists and industrial managers, who are doing much to develop the country, the large American colony being con-

WEATHER GRAPH OF MEXICO CITY. THE THERMOMETER INDICATES THE ANNUAL MEAN TEMPERATURE. THE CURVE SHOWS THE MONTHLY MEAN TEMPERATURE, AND THE COLUMN, THE NORMAL MONTHLY PRECIPITATION

about 35° F in winter, to a maximum of 79° in summer.

The

nights are always cool, and there is a marked difference between sun and shade.

The year is divided into a wet and dry season,

the former from April to September, the latter from October to March. The rainfall, however, is light, about 20 to 25 in., but, with the assistance of irrigation, it serves to sustain a considerable degree of cultivation in the neighbourhood of the city. The health of the city, unfortunately, does not correspond with its

favourable climatic conditions. The death-rate has been notori-

ously high, though the completion of the valley drainage works in

398

MEXICO

1g00, supplemented by underground sewers in the better parts of the city, by a more adequate water supply, and by better sanitation, have improved matters. The annual death-rate per 1,000 was 54 for the Federal district in the year 1901, 50 in 1902, 48 in 1903, 46 in 1904, and 56 in 1905; the increase for the last-mentioned year being due to an epidemic of typhus fever. During the year 1915 a disastrous epidemic of typhoid fever, that caused an appalling number of deaths, developed in the city, due to the neglect of public services brought about by the revolutionary disturbances, and within the next few years frequent recurrences of influenza raised the death-rate. The mortality during 1924 reached 57-40 per 1,000. Streets and Plazas.—The city is laid out with almost unbroken regularity, and is compactly built. The newer and better residential sections are on the south-western side; the poorer districts are on the eastern side, nearer the swampy shores of Lake Texcoco. As the name of a street changes with almost every block, according to the old Spanish custom, a list of street names is sometimes mistakenly accepted as the number of continuous thoroughfares in the city, so that it has been said that Mexico has 600 to goo streets and alleys. Several new residential suburbs have been created by cutting up adjacent estates (haciendas) into building lots; many new modern streets have been cut, and old dirty squares have been transformed into neat flower-decked plazas. In 1923 the area of the city was about r5 sq.m., divided into eight sections (cuarteles or demarcaciones), and sub-divided into about 1,000 squares. There are over 200 m. of tramways, and tram service, furnished by an English company and managed by English and Canadians, is efficient. Outside the Indian districts of the eastern and southem outskirts the streets are paved with asphalt or stone, lighted with electricity and gas, and served with a good street railway service. The political and commercial centre of the city is the Plaza Mayor, or Plaza de la Constitución, on which face the cathedral, national palace, and municipal palace. Grouped about the Pleza de Santo Domingo are the old convent and church of Santo Domingo, the court of the Inquisition, now occupied by the School of Medicine, the offices of the Departamento

de Comunicaciones, and the old custom-house (aduana). Close by are the old church of the Jesuits and the school of mechanic arts (artes y oficios) with its large and well-equipped shops. Among other well-known plazas are: Loreto, on which faces the great enclosed market of the city; Guardiola, in the midst of handsome private residences; San Fernando, with its statue of Vincente Guerrero; and Morelos, with its marble statue of the national hero of that name. The Paseo de la Reforma, the finest avenue of the city, is a broad boulevard extending from the Avenida Juárez south-west to Chapultepec, a distance of nearly . 3 miles. At intervals are circular spaces, called glorietas, with statues (the famous bronze equestrian statue of Charles IV., the magnificent Independence column and the monuments to Columbus, Cuauhtemoc, the last of the Aztec emperors, and Juarez). Other notable avenues are Bucareli and Juárez, and the Avenida

de la Vige, which skirts the canal of that name. The principal business street runs westward from the Plaza Mayor toward the Alameda, and is known as the Avenida de Francisco I. Madera, for five squares, and as Avenida Judrez, along the south

CITY 675 ft. on the east of the Plaza, and covers a square of 47,849 sq.yd., or nearly ro acres. It contains the executive offices of

the Government, the Senate chamber, the general archives, na. tional

museum,

observatory

and

meteorological

bureau.

The

palace occupies the site of the residence of Montezuma, which was destroyed by the Spaniards, and that of Hernando Cortés which was also destroyed in 1692. It has three entrances on the Plaza, and over its main gateway hangs the “liberty bell” of

Mexico, first rung by the humble parish priest, Hidalgo, on the night of Sept. 16, 1810, to call the people of Dolores to arms, and now rung at midnight on each recurring anniversary by the

president himself. The national museum, which occupies the east side of the national palace, is rich in Mexican antiquities among which are the famous “calendar stone,” supposed to be of Toltec origin, and the “sacrificial stone” found in the ruins

of the great teocalli destroyed by Cortéz.

Near the cathedral js

the monte de piedad, or Government pawnshop, endowed in 1775 by Pedro Romero de Terreros (conde de Regla) with £75,000, and at one time carrying on a regular banking business, including

the issue of bank-notes. The national library, which has upwards of 225,000 volumes, occupies the old St. Augustine church. Other notable buildings are the general postoffice, begun in

1902 and finished in 1907; the Mineria, occupied by the schools of mining and engineering; the military school, occupying a part of the Castle of Chapultepec; the Iturbide palace, now occupied as a hotel; the Chamber of Deputies; the Palace of Justice; the old mint, dating from 1537; the penitentiary, completed in roo; the Panteón, with its bronze monuments to the most celebrated Mexicans; the general hospital; the Jockey Club on Plaza Guardiola, now an American restaurant; the National university and new school edifices of modern design. The magnificent National Theatre, begun in 1900, has been partially completed, 12,000,000 pesos having been spent on it up to 1922. Types of Construction.—The old Spanish edifices were very solidly constructed of stone, and private residences were pre vided with iron gates and window guards strong enough to with stand an ordinary assault. Private houses were also provided with flat roofs (azoteas) and battlements, which gave them great defensive strength, as well as a cool, secluded retreat for their inmates in the evening. The old Moorish style of building about an open court, or patio, still prevails. The better residences of the old style were commonly of two storeys—the ground-floor being occupied by shops, offices, stables and servants’ quarters, the living rooms of the family being on the second floor. The modem constructions, such as those of the Colonia Judrez and other new residential districts are more attractive.

Drainage and Water Supply.—Mexico was formerly one of the worst drained large cities of the New World, its subsoil being permanently saturated and its artificial drainage being through open ditches into the San Lazaro canal, which nominally discharged into Lake Texcoco. The difference in level between the city and the lake being less than 6 ft. and the lake having no nat-

ural outlet typhoid fever became a common epidemic in its lower and poorer sections. In 1629 the streets of the city were covered to a depth of 3 ft. and remained flooded until 1634. The earliest effort to correct this evil was by the Dutch engineer, Maartens (Span., Martinez), who planned a deep cutting through Nochistongo hill, north of the city, to carry the overflow of Lake Zum

side of the Alameda to its Junction with the Paseo. The Alameda, or public garden, 4 m. W. ef the Plaza Mayor, covers an area of pango to the river Tula, a tributary of the Panuco. The cutting 40 ac., and occupies the site of the old Indian market and place

of execution, where occurred the first auto-da-fé m 1574.

was 13 m. long and is known as the Tajo de Nochistongo. It was begun in 1607 but was not completed until 1789, and then it was found that the city was still subject to partial inundations, ab

Noteworthy Buildings.—The great cathedral stands on or near the site of the Aztec temple (¢eocali) destroyed by Cortés in though an enormous sum of money and 70,000 lives of Indian 1gzzr. The foundations were laid in' 1573 and the church was labourers had been expended upon it. During the year 1854 finished about 1811. Standing close beside the cathedral is the President Ignacio Comonfort invited tenders for drainage works

bighly ornamented facade of a smaller church, called El Sagrario Metropolkicno.

The city has about 6o church edifices, including

La Projesa, Loreto, Sania Teresa, Sento Domingo and San Hipólito, Ai the time of the secularization of Church properties there were about 120 religious edifices in the city—churches, convents,

conditional on the use of waste waters for irrigation purposes, the plan executed consists of a canal and tunnel 43 m. long, start-

ing from the east side and 44 ft. below the mean level of the city, and running north to Zumpango and thence eastward into a tume

over 6 m. long, which discharges into a small tributary of te Pánuco river, near the village of Tequixquiac. The greatest dept t; Ube national palace, also on the Plaza Mayor, has a frontage of of the tunnel is 308 ft. The works were completed in 1900. * « monasteries, etc., many of which were turried over to secular uses,

MEXICO For the water supply the Aztecs used the main causeway through

their city as a dam to separate the fresh water from the hills from the brackish water of Texcoco, and also obtained drinking water

4

1 I

CITY

399

the chief Pacific port of Mexico and the dépét for the rich Philippine trade. A Mexican extension of the (American) Southern Pacific has been completed from Nogales to Guadalajara. which

from a spring at the base of Chapultepec. The Spaniards added j gives the national capital direct communication with the thriving three other springs to the supply and constructed two long aque- |Ports of Mazatlan and Guaymas. In addition to these, the Mexican ducts to bring water into the city. Three other sources were ; Central and Mexican National, now consolidated, give communi-

added during the roth century, and in 1899-1900 steps were taken to secure 2 further supply from the Rio Hondo. Besides these there are 11 public and 1.375 private artesian wells in the city. All these sources are estimated to yield about 220 to 230 litres

per head per day. Educational

—

.

|cation with the northern capitals and the United States, and the |Mexican Southern runs southward, via Puebla, to the city of ;Oaxaca. These railways, with the shorter lines radiating from the | city, connect it with nearly all the State capitals and principal 1 1

Institutions.—Considerable

attention

has al-

t i

ports.

|

HISTORY

ways been given to education in Mexico, but in colonial times |

it was limited in scope, and confined to the dominant classes. The ,

The

Aztecs.—Mexico

City

dates,

traditionally,

from

the

year 1325 or 1327, when the Aztecs settled on an island in Lake

old University of Mexico, with its faculties of theology, law and || Texcoco. The Aztec name of the city was Tenochtitlan, derived 1551 and inaugurated 1553),Eceased to exist ; either from Tenoch, one of their priests and leaders, or from medicine (founded ;

in 1865 and was succeeded by schools of engineering, law and , tenuch, the Indian name for the “nopal,” which is associated with medicine, which have been signally successful. The university, i its foundation. The modern name is derived from Mezitli, one of however, was reopened in 1910. A summer school, in connection |1 the names of the Aztec god of war, Huitzilopochtli, which name with it, was established in 1922, designed especially to attract was later on applied also to the Aztecs themselves. The island foreign students for the study of Spanish. The Government settlement which was practically a lake-village built on islets— also maintains schools of agriculture, commerce, fine arts, music, some of them undoubtedly artificial—grew rapidly with the inpharmacy, technology and an admirable high school, besides a creasing power and civilization of its inhabitants, who had the large number of primary and secondary schools, for which modern remains of an earlier civilization to assist in their development. school buildings have been erected. Normal and industrial schools | About the middle of the 15th century their mud-and-rush for both sexes are maintained, the latter (artes y oficios) perform- dwellings were partly replaced by stone structures, grouped ing a very important service for the poorer classes. around the central enclosure of the great żeocalli and borderBy the Constitution of 1917 elementary education was made ing the causeways leading to the mainland. The town had reached free, compulsory to the age of 15 and secular, but pending the its highest development when the Spaniards appeared in 15109, provision of enough secular schools many of the old schools under when it is said to have had, including suburban towns, a total religious auspices continued to function. There are several good of 60,000 dwellings, representing about 300,000 inhabitants.

|

daily papers published in Mexico City. The World War increased

the interest of Mexicans in reading, and as a result a number of new periodicals, of a superior quality, were established in the city, which had the first printing press in the New World and the first

regularly issued newspaper. Industries.—Through lack of water-power and cheap fuel, Mexico has never been rated as a manufacturing city. However, the development of electric power, and the possibility of transmitting it for long distances, have worked a noteworthy change in this respect, and a large number of industries have been added in recent years. The largest of the electric-power plants is on the Necaxa and Tenango rivers, in the State of Puebla, 92 m. from the city, which furnishes 40,000 h.p. for industrial and lighting purposes. Another plant is in the suburb of San Lazaro, the current being distributed by over roo m. of underground mains in the city, and many miles of overhead wires in its outskirts and suburbs. Other plants are at San Ildefonso, 12 m. distant, and on the Churubusco river, 16 miles. Manufacturing, still relatively unimportant, was represented in 1925 by some 215 establishments, with an annual output valued at 10,000,000 pesos, and employing about 10,000 workers, most

of whom were Indians and half-breeds

(mestizos). Foundries

and iron-working shops add much to the prosperity of modern Mexico City. There are also large cotton mills and cigar and cigarette factories. In the suburbs, oils, chemicals, cigarettes and

bricks are made at Tacuba; cotton textiles at Contreras, San Angel and Tlalpam; paper and boots at Tacubaya, and bricks at Mixcoac and Coyoacán. A little farther away are the woollen mills

of San Ildefonso, the paper-mills of San Rafael, and important works for the manufacture of railway rolling stock. Railway Communications.—The railway connections include direct communication with one port on the Gulf coast and with

two on the Pacific, and indirect communication with two on the

Gulf. The Mexican and Inter-oceanic lines connect with Vera-

cruz, the Mexican Central with Manzanillo, via Guadalajara and Colima, and the Veracruz and Pacific (from Cérdoba) with the Tehuantepec line and the port of Salina Cruz. The last-mentioned

line also gives indirect connection with the port of Coatzacoalcos, ad the Mexican Central, via San Luis Potosi, with Tampico. A southern extension of the Mexican Central, via Cuernavaca, has

reached the Balsas river and will be extended to Acapulco, once

Allowance should be made for the habit of exaggeration among the Spanish adventurers of that time, and also for the diplomacy of Cortés in magnifying his exploits to win the favour of his king. The truth is, without doubt, that the dwellings of the lower classes were still built of reeds and mud, and covered the greater part of the city’s area, otherwise it is impossible to understand how a mere handful of Spanish soldiers, without tools and explosives, could so easily have levelled it to the ground. After its almost total destruction in Nov. 1521, Cortés employed some 400,000 natives in rebuilding the city on its former site. Since then the lake has decreased greatly in extent, its area being -reduced to 114 sq.m. and its shore-line being more than 3 m. distant from the city it once surrounded. During Spanish rule the only break in the ordinary course of events was the revolt of 1692, which resulted in the destruction of the municipal buildings. The city was not much disturbed by the struggle for independence. In the war between Mexico and the United States Mexico City was the chief point of attack. The American army, under Gen. Winfield Scott, arrived at Ayotla, 16 m. S.E. of the city on Aug. 10, 1847, moved around the capital on the south side to avoid its heavy fortifications, crossed the difficult terrain of the Pedregal, a field of broken lava, and succeeded in capturing point after point of the city’s outlying defences (including the hill of Chapultepec), thus forcing the surrender of the Mexicans on Sept. 13. The city was then occupied by the American army and held until the signing of the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo, May 1848. The French intervention of 1861 led to a second occupation by a foreign Power—a French military force under Gen. Forey taking possession in June 1863. Maximilian, archduke of Austria, was crowned emperor of Mexico in the cathedral in June 1864, and held possession of the capital until June 21, 1867, when it was captured by Gen. Porfirio Diaz. During the revolutionary movements beginning in rgro, Mexico City was taken and re-taken many times, never, however, suffering serious damage. On Sept. 29, 1927, a long distance telephone between Mexico City and Washington, D.C., was inaugurated, the event being celebrated by an exchange of greetings between the chief executives of the two nations. The total length of the Washington—Mexico City circuit is 3,357 miles. For further description see H. H. Bancroft, History of Mexico (San

Francisco, 1883) ; R. S. Barrett, Standard Guide to the City of Mexico

MEYER—MEYERBEER

400

and Vicinity (Mexico, 1900); T. A. Janvier, The Mexican Guide (sth | curve obtained presents a series of maxima and minima, the mog

electro-positive elements appearing at the peaks of the curve a ed., New York, 1890); D. Charnay, Ancient Cities of the New World (Eng. ver., New York, 1887); and the Plano de la ciudad de México, | the order of their atomic weights. His book on Die modernen in the Diccionario enciclopédico hispano-americano, xil. 740 (Barce- | Theorien der Chemie, which was first published in Breslau in lona, 1893).

MEYER, CONRAD

1864 and later translated into English, contains a discussion of FERDINAND, one of the greatest |relations between the atomic weights and the properties of the

of Swiss poets and novelists, was born at Ziirich on Oct. 11, 1825, and died on Nov. 28, 1896, at Kilchberg (near Ziirich), where he had settled in 1875. In his youth he studied law and pursued historical researches in Italy; but he began his career as author

comparatively late in life. As compared with Gottfried Keller

(g.v.), for example, Meyer is more of the cosmopolitan and patrician and less of the democrat. His style is singularly pure and polished, and he appeals strongly to readers of culture. His poems include Balladen (1867), Romansen und Bilder (1870), Huttens letzte Tage (1871), and Engelberg (1873)—the last two

elements. In 1882 he received from the Royal Society the Davy medal in recognition of his work on the Periodic Law. See Berichte d. Deutsch. Chem. Gess. vol. 28. p. 1103 and Journal of the Chem. Soc. (1896) p. 1403.

MEYER

[MARIE], PAUL HYACINTHE

(1840

)

French philologist, was born in Paris on Jan. 17, 1840. He was educated at the Ecole des Chartes, and in 1863 was attached to

the manuscript department of the Bibliothéque Nationale, fy 1876 he became professor of the languages and literatures of south.

powerful narrative poems. His Gedichte have been published in at least 20 editions. Of his novels, in which he shows a preference

ern Europe at the Collége de France. In 1882 he was made director of the Ecole des Chartes, and in 1883 became a member of the

(1885); A. Frey (1900); R. d’Harcourt (1913); M. Nussberger (x919); H. Maync (1925). See also L. Frey, C. F. Meyers Gedichte und Novellen (1892) ; K. E. Franzos, K. F. Meyer (1899); B. Meyer, C. F. Meyer (1903); A. Bettelheim, Louise von François und Conrad Ferdinand Meyer (1905); A. Langmesser, C. F. Meyer (1905) and Conrad Ferdinand Meyer und Julius Rodenberg (1918); E. Korrodi, C. F. Meyer; Studien (1912); W. Brecht, C. F. Meyer und das Kunstwerk seiner Gedichisammlung (1918); E. Brock, Die Landschaft in C. F. Meyers Novellen und Gedichten (1926).

at Berlin on Sept. 8, 1848. He studied at Heidelberg under R, W, Bunsen, H. F. M. Kopp, G. R. Kirchoff and H. L. F. Helmhotz

Academy of Inscriptions. He was one of the founders of the Revue Critique, and a founder and the chief contributor to Ry. mania (1872). Paul Meyer began with the study of old Provencal literature, but also ranks as a great modern authority on the (1887) was translated by Mrs. C. Bell (1890). His charming short French language. He edited many old French texts for the Société des anciens textes français, and independently. stories were collected in 1885 (206th ed., 1924). Brsirocraray.—Lives of Meyer have been written by A. Reitler ‘ MEYER, VICTOR (1848-1897), German chemist, was bom

for Renaissance subjects, the most popular are Jürg Jenaisch (1876: 312th ed., 1924) and Der Heilige (1880; 198th ed., 1924). The latter was translated into English by M. von Wendheim, as Thomas à Becket, the Saint (1885). Die Versuchung des Pescara

MEYER,

EDUARD

(1855-1930),

German historian, was

born at Hamburg on Jan. 25, 1855. He was educated at Bonn and Leipzig, where in 1879 he qualified in ancient history. He afterwards became professor of ancient history at Breslau (1885), Halle (1889) and Berlin (1902). Meyer realized the great importance of folklore, historical monuments and numismatics as aids to the study of ancient history, and the value of his original methods in treating the subject was recognized by the universities of Oxford, St. Andrews and Freiburg from which he received honorary degrees. Meyer’s principal works are: Geschichte des alten Aegypten (1887); Forschungen zur alien Geschichte (189299); Wirtschafiliche Entwicklung des Aliertums (1895); Dze Entstehung des Judentums (1896); Zur Theorie und Methodik der Geschichte (1902); Geschichte des Aliertums (3rd. ed. 1909); Caesars Monarchie und das Principat des Pompeius (2nd ed. 1919); Preussen und Athen (1919); Ursprung und Anfänge des Christentums (3 vol., 1921-23).

Meyer died August 31, 1930.

MEYER, HEINRICH AUGUST WILHELM (18001873), German Protestant divine, born at Gotha on Jan. 10, 1800, spent most of his life at Hanover where he held a pastoral charge and eventually became superintendent. He died there on June 21, 1873. He prepared, with other scholars, the well-known Kriiischexegetischer Kommentar Zum Neuen Testament (16 vols., 1832-59), since re-edited by later scholars. Meyer’s commentary was published in English in Clark’s series (20 vols., 1873-82). MEYER, JULIUS LOTHAR (1830-1895), German chemist, was born on Aug. 19, 1830, at Varel in Oldenburg. He studied medicine at Ziirich and Wiirzburg, and then turned to physiological chemistry at Heidelberg and finally to mathematical physics at Königsberg. After holding various positions as a lecturer he became, in 1876, professor of chemistry at Tiibingen, where he died on April 11, 1895. His earliest work was on the chemistry of the blood, but his name is best known for the share

be bad in the development of the periodic classification of the elements (see Pertopic Law). He noted, as did J. A. R. Newlands independently in England, that if they are arranged in the order of their atomic weights they fall into groups in which similar chemical and physical properties are repeated at periodic intervals; and in particular he showed that if the atomic weights are plotted as ordinates and the atomic volumes as abscissae, the

(qq.v.); he also worked under Baeyer (q.v.) in Berlin. In 1870 he was appointed extraordinary professor at Stuttgart polytechnic, and in 1872 succeeded J Wislicenus (q.v.) at Ziirich. In 1885 he obtained the chair of chemistry at Göttingen, and in r889 he swceeded Bunsen at Heidelberg. He was awarded the Davy medal in

1891. Meyer proved to be not only a great investigator but ako a stimulating teacher, with a wonderful command of language. He suffered from ill health and committed suicide on Aug. 8, 1897, Meyer’s first papers dealt with the composition of camphor, chloral hydrate and the structure of benzene

(g.v.).

In 187

he discovered the aliphatic nitro-compounds (q.v.), and this led him on to the study of nitroso-compounds and nitrols. In 188: he discovered the oximes (g.v.) and showed that they can exist in stereo-isomeric forms; he also investigated the chemistry of these compounds very thoroughly. In 1871 he devised a method for determining vapour densities (see CHEMISTRY: Physical), and this led him on to a series of pyro-chemical studies, in which the vapour densities of inorganic substances were determined at fairly high temperatures. The results of this work, with his brother, Carl Meyer, were collected in Pyrochemische Untersuchungen (1885). In the course of a lecture demonstration be made an observation which led him to the discovery of thiophene (g.v.) in 1883; he studied the substance and determined its strueture; the results are published in Die Thiophengruppe (1888). See C. Meyer, “Victor Meyer” in Ber. d. deutsch chem. Ges. (1908); B. Horowitz, “Victor Meyer His Life and Work,” Jul. Franklin Ins. (1916) ; T. E. Thorpe’s Essays in Historical Chemistry (3rd ed., 1911).

MEYERBEER, GIACOMO (1791-1863), German com poser, first known as Jakob Meyer Beer, was born at Berlin Sept. 6, 1791} His father, Herz Beer, was a banker; his mother, Amalie (née Wulf), was a woman of high intellectual culture; and two of his brothers distinguished themselves in astronomy and literature. He studied the pianoforte, first under Lauska, afterwards under Lauska’s master, Clementi. When seven years old he played Mozart’s Concerto in D Minor in public, and at

nine he was pronounced the best pianist in Berlin. For compe sition he was placed under Zelter, and then under Bernard Weber,

director of the Berlin opera, by whom he was introduced to th | | Abbé Vogler. Vogler received him into his house at D where he formed an intimate friendship with Weber. In 18! the grand duke appointed Meyerbeer court composer. His opera, Jeptha’s Geliibde, failed lamentably at Darmstadt in 181!

and his second, Wirth und Gast (Alimelek), at Vienna in 18% Bitter disappointment

over these failures drove him to Ttaly.

1Or, according to some accounts, 1794.

MEYERHOLD—MEYNELL

401

At Venice he was captivated by Rossini, and produced a success- tested two costly elections for parliament as a free trader, besion of seven Italian operas—Romida e Costanza, Semiramide | came very much a citizen of the world. After his marriage with

riconosciuta, Eduardo e Cristina, Emma di Resburgo, Margherita ' Christiana Jane Weller, a beautiful and accomplished girl to d'Anjou, L’Esule dt Granata and Il Crociato in Egitto—which all | whom her adoring friend Charles Dickens fitly introduced him,

achieved a success as brilliant as it was unexpected. Against this | he made his home much in Italy, devoting himself to the liberal

act of treason to German art Weber protested, and an invitation to | learning of the two daughters: Elizabeth, the elder, afterwards Paris in 1826 led him to review his position dispassionately. For | Lady Butler, famous as a war painter; and Alice, who early beseveral years he produced nothing in public; but, in concert with | gan to put her rhymed thoughts shyly upon paper.

Scribe, he planned his first French opera, Robert le Diable

(Grand Opéra, 1831). It was the first grand romantic opera, with

situations more theatrically effective than any that had been attempted either by Cherubini or Rossini, and with ballet music

such as had never yet been heard, even in Paris.

His next opera, Les Huguenots, was first performed in 1836. In gorgeous colouring, rhetorical force, consistency of dramatic treatment, and careful accentuation of individual types, it is at kast the equal of Robert le Diable. Meyerbeer then spent many vears in the preparation of his next greatest works—L’Africaine

and Le Prophète. The libretti of both these operas were furnished by Scribe; and both were subjected to countless changes. Meanwhile Meyerbeer accepted the appointment of kapellmeister to the king of Prussia, and spent some years at Berlin,

where he produced Ein Feldlager in Schlesien, a German opera, in which Jenny Lind made her first appearance in Prussia. Here also he composed, in 1846, the overture to his brother Michael’s drama, Struensee. But his chief care at this period was bestowed

upon the worthy presentation of the works of others: Weber’s

Euryonthe, and Rienst and Der fliegende Holländer, the first two operas of Richard Wagner, who, then in poverty and exile, would, but for him, have found it impossible to obtain a hearing in Berlin. With Jenny Lind as prima donna and Meyerbeer as con-

ductor, the opera flourished brilliantly in the Prussian capital. Meyerbeer produced Le Prophète at Paris in 1849. In 1854 he brought out L’Etoile du nord at the Opéra Comique, and in 1859 Ls Pardon de Ploërmel (Dinorah). His last great work, L’Africame, was in active preparation at the Académie when, on April 23, 1863, he was seized with a sudden illness, and died on May 2. See lives and studies by J. Weber (1898), J. Dauriac (1913), Hermann Abert (1918) and Julius Kapp (1920).

MEYERHOLD,

VSEVOLOD

EMILIEVICH

(1873-

), Russian theatrical producer, was born in Moscow and from 1898-1905 was well known as one of the most distinguished actors of the Moscow Art theatre. He then began to produce plays, adopting a new convention in opposition to the “true-to-life” ideas of Stanislavsky, in which the actor and the stage setting presented a complete harmony. After the Revolution he carried these methods to. an extreme, using no curtain and a bare stage with purely formal scenery. He managed the Revolutionary theatre, Moscow, and also acquired a theatre of his own, and in both produced political propaganda plays. His views are set forth in

his book, The Theatre (St. Petersburg, 1913).

MEYNELL,

ALICE

(1849-1922), British poet.

By her

marriage in 1877 Alice Thompson became Alice Meynell. She had the fortune to find herself in that mid-Victorian era which still held freshly to its heritage from Keats and Shelley, from Wordsworth and Coleridge. It felt its heart torn by the griefs of the Brontés, stirred by their glories, and almost clung to the

hand of Elizabeth Browning. Eagerly awaiting every recurring

sgn of Tennyson’s fertility, it yet respected the long pause of Patmore; and took for its own the volumes of Dante and Christina Rossetti, warm from the press. With these two women of song,

The volume of Preludes was issued (for the girl what an association) by Tennyson’s then publisher, Henry S. King, on the word of his “reader’——later his successor—C.

Kegan Paul,

who, not trusting his own judgment all the way, read some of them aloud to George Eliot, receiving her deciding approbation. The critics were mostly silent; and even those who praised hesitated. But the volume made its own quiet way, Ruskin in all ways first in his soaring praises: “The last verse of that perfectly heavenly ‘Letter of a Girl to her own Old Age, the whole of ‘San Lorenzo’s Mother’ and the end of the ‘Sonnet to a Daisy,’ are the finest things I have yet seen or felt in modern verse.” Rossetti, too, spread the news of the young poet’s advent, reciting “Renouncement” by heart to his friends, and saying that it was “one of the three finest sonnets ever written by women.” Browning, having read a brief quotation buried in a halting press appreciation, “conceived the desire to read the rest for myself,” and found its beauty “even beyond what the indifference of the reviewer should have prepared me for.” The volume brought her many a friend—and more. For the reviewer in The Pall Mall Gazette—a paper to which she was later to be a conspicuous contributor—quoted the sonnet “My Heart shall be thy Garden,” and found for it a reader whom it reached revealingly. A consequent introduction to the sonneteer by a common friend was followed by a marriage that fulfilled for him Crashaw’s “heavenon-earth” for 45 years.

On Mrs. Wilfred Meynell, as she then (1877) became, fell a long silence as a poet. The muse does not ordinarily leave cards on the happily and busily married; the domesticities and the “sweet sense of providing” are not the fashioners of those “sweetest songs” that breed from “saddest thoughts.” Eight children were born, one of whom died in infancy: a grief that put into poetry the dread reminder that the giver of life is also the giver of death: “and she who slays is she who bears, who bears.” A like sensitiveness to life’s cruelties put her, for all her reticence, on political platforms, and marched her in multitudinous processions, in favour of the granting of votes to women and the opening of long closed professional doors. Compassion was the companion of all her walks abroad, for the over-burdened man and animal; for the beggar-woman to whom she cried with her gift, in Portuguese fashion, “Have patience, little saint”; for the underfed in London slums which she at one time sedulously visited; and for the beast in the shambles, in shame for whose martyrdom she refused to eat meat until, after persuasion, she sought by more impersonal methods to further laggard reforms. Her married life matured her vigilance as a mistress of prose, In W. E. Henley of The Scots Observer and The Nattonal Observer, she encountered an editor who heartened her by his boisterous welcomes: ‘That woman’s taking her place at the steering wheel” was one of his recorded acclaims. Later, in The Pall Mali Gazette of Harry Cust’s editorship, she was accorded a weekly column which left her a large range in the choice of subjects. George Meredith, reading here her “princely jour-

nalism,” sought with her an acquaintance that soon became a

Elizabeth and Christina, Alice Meynell’s name is associated.

“dearest friendship.”

Was transfused into thy blood.” That girls alike with boys, inherit

tremor in them,” just as he had before said that Carinthia’s had the “throb beneath them.” Of her essays, he wrote: “The surprise coming on us from their combined grace of manner and

Mistress Anne Killigrew had been told by Dryden, “thy father

from fathers as from mothers, was the theme of a verse where

Alice Meynell, after the desolations of the World War, gave the comforting signal :—

The crippled world! Come, then, Fathers of women with your honour in trust.

Approve, accept, know them daughters of men, Now that your sons are dust.

Her own father, having left Cambridge and unsuccessfully con-

In a magazine—those were still the days

of the magazines—he spoke of her words as having the “living

sanity of thought is like one’s dream of what the recognition of a new truth would be. They leave a sense of stilled singing on the mind they fill. The writing is limpid in its depths.” Coventry Patmore, too, her yet warmer admirer, published, when Tennyson died, his unavailing plea for her succession to the laureateship. Her close friendship for such seniors coincided

MEYRIFAB—MEZZOTINT

4.02

with that for her contemporaries, and for her juniors, chief among ' death of Charles V. he was compelled to retire. He lived thence. forward in the convent of the Celestines in Paris, but continued sequence of poems Love in Dian’s Lap, of which, Patmore said, to exert an influence on public affairs. To this period of his life Beatrice or Laura might have been proud. Of the homage paid belong most of his writings. Two devotional treatises belong tg to her, another chosen friend, J. L. Garvin, has well said: “Alice 1386-1387. In 1389 he wrote his Songe du vieil pélerin, an elah. Meynell was in herself a person of her age, sure, as I think, of orate allegorical voyage in which he described the customs of perpetual remembrance, even if half a dozen of her shining con- Europe and the near East, and advocated peace with England temporaries had not competed in vain to spoil her with praise. and the pursuit of the Crusade. His Oratio tragedica, largely Tt was what no one could do: recognition only made her humble.” autobiographical, was written with similar aims. Mézières died ia And these contemporary praises notwithstanding, G. K. Chester- Paris on May 29, 1405. See A. Molinier, Manuel de bibliographie historique vol. iv. (1o04); ton predicts: “She was deservedly famous; but I will venture to

whom was Francis Thompson, who addressed to her his exquisite

prophesy that her fullest fame is yet to come.

The whole modern

worid must immeasurably enlarge itself before it comes near the measure of her mind.” She died in London on Nov. 27, 1922. Alice Meynell’s Preludes (1875), long out of print, re-appeared in a volume of Poems (1893) including new ones; and these, together with yet later verses separately issued as A Father of Women (1917) and Last Poems (1923), are all assembled in the complete volume of Poems (1923) now in circulation. Of her prose, several small volumes of essays in the ’90s—The Rhythm of Life (1893), The Colour of Life (1896) and The Spirit of Place (1899)—were followed by Ceres’ Runaway (1909), by Hearts of Controversy (1917), by The Second Person Singular (1921) and finally by the standard volume of selected Essays (1914)—the selection being her own. Other books were John Ruskin (1900), The Children of the Old Masters (1903), Mary, the Mother of Jesus (1912) and London Impressions (1898). Two anthologies give her choice among poems—The Flower of the Mind (1897) and The School of Poetry (1923), the first including Notes and the second Commentaries. She prefaced editions of The Sonnets from the Portuguese and Christina Rossetti’s Poems (1910), as well as a decade of volumes “The Red Letter Library”; she introduced in 1903 a volume of reproductions of Sargent’s Portraits; and she made for English readers a Selection

from the Poems of J. B. Tabb (1906).

(W. Me.)

See Viola Meynell, Alice Meynell (1929).

MEYRIFAB, a small semi-nomad tribe of Semitic stock, on

the east bank of the Nile near Berber who never marry slaves. MEZIERES, PHILIPPE DE (c. 1327-1405), French soldier and author, was born at the château of Mézières in Picardy. He belonged to the poorer nobility, and served under Lucchino Visconti in Lombardy, and subsequently under Andrew, king of Naples, who was assassinated in September 1345. He then set out for the East in the French army. After the battle of Smyrna in 1346 he was made a knight, and went to Jerusalem. He

planned a new order of knighthood, the first sketch of which was drawn up by him in hbis Nova religio passionis (1367-1368; revised and enlarged in 1386-and 1396). From Jerusalem he went

in 1347 to Cyprus to the court of Hugo IV., where he met the king’s son, Peter of Lusignan, then count of Tripoli; but he soon left Cyprus, and had resumed soldiering when the accession of Peter to the thrones of Cyprus and Jerusalem (Nov. 1358) induced Mézières to return to the island, probably in 1360, when he became chancellor. He came under the influence of the pious

legate Peter Thomas (d. 1366), whose friend and biographer he was to be, and Thomas, who became patriarch of Constanti-

nople in 1364, was one of the chief promoters of the crusade of 1365. In June 1366 Mézières was delegated to Venice, to

Avignon and to the princes of western Europe, to obtain help for Cyprus against the Saracens. His efforts were in vain; even

and especially the researches of N. Jorga, published in the Bibliothèque

de Pécole des hautes études vol. 11o (Paris, 1896); and the same writers Philippe de Mézières, et la croisade au xiv. siècle (1896), Jorga gives a list of his works and of the mss. in which they are preserved, and analyses many of them. On the Songe du vergier, se P. Paris, in Mémoires vol. xv. (1843) of the Academy of Inscriptions.

MÉZIÈRES, a town of northern France, capital of Ardennes department, 55 m. N.E. of Reims by rail. Pop. (1926) 8,418. Founded in the 9th century, Méziéres was a stronghold belong.

ing to the bishops of Reims, which afterwards became the prop.

erty of the counts of Rethel. The town was increased by successive immigrations of the people of Liége, flying first from the

emperor Otto, and afterwards from Charles the Bold; and ake by concessions from the counts of Rethel. Walls were built in

the 13th century, and in 1521 it was successfully defended against the Imperialists by the Chevalier Bayard. In 1815 the Germans were kept at bay for six weeks, and in 1871 the town only capitu. lated after heavy bombardment. Both Mézières and Charleville

were taken by the Germans in Aug. 1914. They made Charleville

the seat of their High Command in the West, and later the head. quarters of the German crown prince.

The town is situated on a peninsula formed by a loop of the Meuse. The river separates it from Arches and the town of Charleville on the north and from the suburb of Pierre on the south. Adjoining Pierre is Mohon, pop. (1926) 7,814, with metallurgical works. The fortifications of Mézières (dismaniled m 1886), as well as the citadel still dominating the town on the easi, were built under Vauban’s direction. Immediately to the east af the citadel runs a canal, which provides river-traffic with a sheet

cut across the isthmus. The parish church (16th cent.) contain inscriptions commemorating the raising of the siege of Mézières in 1521 and the marriage of Charles IX. with the daughter of the emperor Maximilian II. (1570). Mézières is the seat of a prefed and of a court of assizes, and there are manufactures of moter cars, bicycles, and iron and steel castings.

MEZÖTÚR, a town in Hungary near the right bank of the

Körös.

It is a market and fair town for the cereal and cattle-

rearing district in which it lies. It has also small flour mills and important potteries. Pop. (1920) c. 27,000. MEZZOFANTI, GIUSEPPE CASPAR (1774-1849); Italian cardinal and linguist, was born

on Sept. 17, 1774, @

Bologna, and educated there. He was ordained priest in 1797, aud

later became professor of Arabic in the university.

In 1833

succeeded Angelo Mai as chief keeper of the Vatican library, and

in 1838 was made cardinal and director of studies in the Congrgation. He died at Rome on March 15, 1849. He is said to bave spoken fluently some fifty or sixty languages. See Russell, Life of the Cardinal Mezzofanti (1857); A. Bellesheim, Giuseppe Cardinal Mezzofanti (Würzburg, 1880).

MEZZOTINT

or MEZZO

TINTO, as it was first called,

Pope Urban V. advised peace with the sultan. Mézières remained is a process of engraving whereby a copper, or steel, plate ¥ for some time at Avignon, seeking recruits for his order, and first prepared to produce uniformly black impressions on pape writiag his Via S. Petri Thomasii (Antwerp, 1659), which is This is done by pricking the plate with innumerable smalt hols invaluable for the history of the Alexandrian expedition. The which will hold ink. In connection with mezzotint, as with aa

and Epistola, which form the first draft of his work on

other forms of engraving, the ink used is a thick ink which das

not run. After the surface of the mezzotint plate has been pre projected order of ‘the Passion, were written at this time. | Wéciéres returned to Cyprus in 1368, but was still at Venice pared, the high lights in the portrait or picture to be pr when Peter was assassinated at Nicosia at the beginning of 13609, are obtained by scraping away and burnishing parts of the and he remained there until 1372, when he went to the court of plate, thus reducing, or obliterating, the small holes, accort the new pope Gregory XI. at Avignon. In 1373 he was in Paris, ing to the effect desired. The pricking of the plate, originally

gad he was thenceforward one of the trusted counsellors of done with a roulette or small wheel covered with sharp p was later done with an instrument called a cradle, or rocker.

‘Charles V. He was tutor to the future Charles VI., but after the

BY COURTESY

OF

THE

TRUSTEES

OF THE

BRITISH

MUSEUM

ENGLISH l. “Mrs. Carnac.” After Sir Joshua Reynolds (1752-1812)

2. “Mary Amelia, Countess of Salisbury.”

by Valentine Green (1739-1813)

MEZZOTINTS

by John Raphael

Smith

After Sir Joshua Reynolds

OF

THE

18TH

CENTURY

3. “Lady Hamilton” (“Nature”). Raphael Smith (1752-1812)

4. “Georgiana, Duchess of Bedford.”

William Reynolds (1794-1872)

After

George

Romney

by

John

After John Hoppner by Samuel

4.03

MEZZOTINT

ocess not only punctures the plate to hold ink, but, at the same | true, because Sir Joshua's paintings are in many cases deteriortime, produces a burr on the surface of the metal, which, cutting ating badly, whereas a mezzotint, carefully kept under a sunk into the paper when in the press, causes a deeper absorption of mount, is extremely long-lived. Richard Earlom (1743-1822) ink, and produces that velvety effect so characteristic of the fine used only the roulette where he wanted shadow. He engraved mezzotint engraving In an early impression. The surface of the the Liber Veritatis of Claude Lorrain, and by doing so he suggested punctured and roughened plate is left undisturbed where the the Liber Studiorum of J. M. W. Turner. The numerous mezzotints made by Valentine Green (1739t black is required, and by a graduated scraping of the

te, which removes both burrs and punctures so that ink is held in lesser degrees, middle and light tones are obtained when an impression is taken from it. Dots made with a sharp point on

a polished metal surface were long used as an adjunct to engrav-

ings. They show on silver plates engraved for Niello (g.v.) in the rath century. Prints on paper from line engravings cut on metal plates, probably copper, were first made about the middle

of the rsth century, but dotted, or pointille work does not seem

to have been much used for some time after that.

The 17th Century Dutch School.—About the middle of the ryth century, Ludwig von Siegen, a Dutch officer in the Hessian army, who was also an amateur artist, applied the old device of dotted work to a metal plate, by means of a small roulette, and succeeded in producing an excellent print entirely by its use. In 1654, von Siegen met Prince Rupert, count palatine of the Rhine

and grandson of James I., at Brussels.

Prince Rupert was a

skilled amateur artist, and he became deeply interested in von

Siegen’s invention, which he at once tried. In a short time he

produced a very fine piece of rouletting in a print of The Large Executioner, after Spagnoletto, a Spanish painter. The curving lines, made by unskilful use of a large roulette, show clearly in

the background. William Sherwin was a native of Hertfordshire,

and a well known line engraver. He was also a friend of Prince Rupert, who is said to have taught him the new art and presented him with a roulette. Sherwin made mezzotint portraits of Charles II. and of his queen in 1669, both of which were dedicated to Prince Rupert. The early meazzotinters were mostly Dutchmen, and they did not succeed particularly well. Curiously enough, most of their work was done in England. But eventually, a great Dutch artist, Abraham Blooteling, arrived in England in 1673, and was much attracted by the new art. Blooteling did much splendid work, perticularly after Van Dyck, Kneller and Lely. But he did much more for the art of the mezzotint than produce beautiful prints, because he radically changed and improved the technical part of the process. Instead of using only a roulette to produce dark space, he began by roughening the plate all over, so that if printed from, it would show simply a black space, and then he cut away the roughness with a scraper to make the light places as required. This plan produced most brilliant effects. Blooteling also invented a tool, now called a rocker, which is like a very small spade with a toothed edge, and with this powerful instrument a copper or soft steel plate can quickly be roughened all over, rendering the use of the old roulette obsolete. The early users of the rocker roughened their own plates, but now this can be prolessionally done by the dealers. The 18th Century English School.—After Blooteling, and

during the 18th century, a tinters became prominent, abroad the process became pre-eminence was due, not

remarkable school of English mezzoand did such distinguished work that known as La manière anglaise. This only to their remarkable skill and the

great beauty of their work, but also to the fact that there were

m England at that time, several portrait painters of the very frst rank for them to interpret.

We owe the existence of the

finest mezzotints ever done to the inspiration of men like Lely,

Reynolds, Lawrence, Romney, Hoppner, Constable and several others of lesser reputations. Early in the 18th century an Irishman, T. Frye, tried several

byways of art before he specialized in mezzotint, but he ended

by “scraping” a series of large portrait heads after drawings of his own. When in good condition, heads by Frye are extremely decorative. Another Irishman, J. MacArdell, became one of our

greatest mezzotinters. Sir Joshua Reynolds had so high an estimation of MacArdell’s work that he once declared he would be mmortalized by his engravings. This is now beginning to prove

1813) are all of the highest order of excellence. He was especially

successful in his rendering of the beautiful full length figures of ladies, painted by Sir Joshua Reynolds, and he frequently printed his engravings in brown ink. John Raphael Smith began his artistic career as a miniature painter, but eventually became one of the foremost mezzotint engravers. He worked mainly after Sir Joshua Reynolds, but was very happy in his interpretation of Romney’s graceful work.

Smith made several engravings after his own drawings. S. W. Reynolds made a series of 357 small mezzotints of portraits by Sir Joshua Reynolds. Mezzotints, however, are not satisfactory when done on a small scale. S. W. Reynolds was, in larger subjects, a highly skilful artist, and engraved many excellent plates after his own work. He did mezzotinting on some of the plates in Turner’s Liber Studiorum. William Say used etching as an adjunct to most of his fine mezzotints, but he was never satisfied with the small number of prints that could properly be made from a copper plate. He was the first mezzotinter to experiment with the use of steel instead, but he did not carry his ideas out successfully.

Shortly

afterwards, however, T. G. Lupton carried farther the experiments, with the use of steel instead of copper. Say seems to have tried with hard steel and Lupton used soft steel very successfully. Instead of being able to print only about 50 proofs of the highest excellence from copper, it was found possible to print about 1,500 from steel, without any appearance of deterioration. The dark places on a mezzotint are those to be looked for in worn prints. They ought to look like black or brown velvet. Steel engravings on mezzotint are often very delicate and charming, but they have a tendency to hardness. The method was also carried out by D. Lucas, but not so successfully as by Lupton. Now copper engravings can be steeled over several times and prints from such plates can never become rare. Samuel Cousins was an apprentice to S. W. Reynolds, and used etching and line engraving freely with his mezzotint, so much, indeed, that his method is known as the “mixed” style. But his work is effective and very popular. Cousins killed the art of line engraving in England by reason of his fine plate of Bolton Abbey, after Sir Edwin Landseer, published in 1837. This plate proved that such a picture could be produced much more easily and effectively by mezzotint than it could by line engraving. Among modern mezzotint engravers many are highly skilled, and most of them have chosen particular artists for their especial study. Sir Frank Short has been particularly successful in his interpretation of G. F. Watt’s powerful work; C. W. Campbell with the delicate fancies of Sir E. Burne Jones; J. D. Miller follows Lord Leighton; G. P. Robinson, Sir Frank Dicksee; Norman Hirst, W. Draper, and now the process of photogravure has reached such a high state of excellence that little room is left for the earlier art. (See also ETCHING; ENGRAVING.) BIBLIOGRAPHY.——A. Browne, Ars Pictoria (1669); J. Evelyn, Sculptura (1662), with the first mezzotint ever published in a book, a head of the Large Executioner, by Prince Rupert; J. C. Le Blon, Coloritto

(1737); H. D. Chelsum, A History of the Art of Engraving in Mezzotinto (Winchester, 1786); G. K. Nagler, Kainstler-Lextkon (Miinchen, 1835~52); L. de Laborde, Histoire de la Gravure en

manière noire (1839) ; J. Maberly, The Print Collector (1844); T. H. Fielding, The Art of Engraving

(1854); S. Redgrave, Dictionary of

Artists of the English School (1874); W. G. Rawlinson, Turner's Liber Studiorum (1878); P. G. Hamerton, The Graphic Arts (1882) ;

J. C. Smith, British Mezzotinto Portraits (1883); Sir F. Short, On the Making of Etchings (1888); Sir H. von Herkomer, Etching and

Mexzotint Engraving (1892) ; H. Paton, Etching, Drypoint, Mezzotint (1895); H. W. Singer and W. Strang, Etching, Engraving and other

Methods of Printing Pictures (1897); Sir F. Wedmore, Fine Prints

(1897); A. Whitman, Masters of Mezzotint (1898); J. Frankau, John Raphael Smith (1903) ; C. J. Davenport, Mezzotints CRD Da . Da.

404 MFUMBIRO

MFUMBIRO—MIAMI or KIRUNGA, general names for a chain of history which justifies its sobriquet “the magic city.” Founded ig

volcanic mountains extending across the central African riftvalley immediately north of Lake Kivu. The range completely blocks the valley at this point, forming a divide between the rivers flowing north to the Nile and the waters of Lake Kivu, connected through Tanganyika with the Congo system. The chain consists of two groups of mountains, surrounded by a vast lava field. The lavas belong to a nephelinite suite with leucite and melilite as frequent minerals. The western group lies directly north of Lake Kivu, and contains two active volcanoes, Kirunga-

cha-gongo, the nearest to the lake (11,194 ft.), and Kirunganamlagira (9,711 ft.}, 10 m. farther north. The eastern group

contains several higher peaks, Karissimbi (14,683 ft.), Mikeno (14.385 ft.) and Muhavuru (13.562 ft.). The latter is the mountain to which the names Mfumbiro and Kirunga were originally applied and its crater contains a lake. Some 6 m. W. of Muha-

vuru is Sabyino (Sabinjo), 11,881 ft. high. The eastern peaks are snowclad for a part of the year. North of these high mountains is a district, extending towards Lake Albert, containing hundreds of low peaks and extinct volcanoes. It is to this region that the name Umfumbira or Mfumbiro is said properly to belong. Mfumbiro, i.e., Muhavuru, was first seen by a white man in 1861, J. H. Speke obtaining a distant view of the cone, which was also seen by H. M. Stanley in 1876. Its true position was first ascertained by Franz Stuhlmann in 1891. In 1894 Count von Gétzen travelled through the region which was subsequently explored by E. S. Grogan, Maj. St. Hill Gibbons, Capt. Herrmann, Dr. R. Kandt, Sir Alfred Sharp (1912) and others, the chief heights being determined in 1903. In 1907-08 the range was geologically and topographically examined by the duke of Mecklenberg’s expedition. By the Anglo-German agreement of the ist of July 1890 “Mount Mfumbiro” was included in the British

sphere in East Africa. BreiocraPHy.—Count von Gédtzen, Durch Afrika von Ost nach West (1895) ; Captain Herrmann, Vulkangebiet des zentralafrikanischen Grabens (Berlin, 1904); Adolf Friedrich, duke of Mecklenburg, Ins Innerste Ajrika (Leipzig, 1909); Sir Alfred Sharpe, “The Kivu Country,” Geogr. Journ. (1916).

MHOW, 2 town of Central India, with British military canton-

1896, by 1927 it had an assessed valuation of $389,853,131: jts bank clearings in 1926 totalled $855,200,000; and in January

1928, it celebrated the completion of a programme of improve. ments costing $300,000,000.

The city (on latitude 25° 47’) has

a sub-tropical climate and vegetation. The average monthly mea, temperature ranges from 66-5° F in January to 81-4° in A

and the extremes on record are 27° and 97°. Facilities are at hand 120°

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WEATHER GRAPH OF MIAMI, FLORIDA, THE MERCURY INDICATES THE NORMAL ANNUAL MEAN TEMPERATURE, THE CENTRE CURVE SHOWS THE NORMAL MONTHLY MEAN TEMPERATURE, THE CURVES ABOVE AND BELOW, THE HIGHEST AND LOWEST TEMPERATURES EVER RECORDED, AND THE COLUMNS INDICATE THE NORMAL MONTHLY PRECIPITATION

for every conceivable sport and variety of recreation compatible with the climate. The harbour and channel (3-5 m.) to the ocean have been deepened by the Federal Government to 25 ft., accommodating large ocean-going vessels, and improvement of the inland waterway to Jacksonville is under way. Along the bay for 15 m

runs a ioo ft. boulevard, bordered with royal palms, and a

water-front park has been created by filling in 43 acres. A ment, within the state of Indore. Pop. (1921), 31,737. It is 27-story county courthouse was completed in 1927, and office one of the chief military stations of India. There are two high buildings and hotels are on a corresponding scale. Miami has schools, a Zoroastrian and a Canadian mission, the Dorabji extensive commercial fisheries, and its manufacturing industries (with an output in 1927 valued at $10,249,710) are already mPestonji dispensary, and a gaol. MIAGAO, a municipality (with administration centre and portant and diversified. It ships large quantities of grapefruit, 94 berrios or districts), on the south coast of the province of oranges, limes, pineapples, avocados, and other fruits, coco-nuts, Iloilo, island of Panay, Philippine islands, about 25 m. west of and early vegetables. In 1896 Henry M. Flagler extended the Florida East Coast Iloilo, the provincial capital. Pop. (1918), 24,556. The climate is comparatively cool and healthy. The most important local railway to Miami (then a little Indian trading post consisting of industry is the weaving of abaca and pia fabrics. In 1918, it two dwellings, a storehouse, and the small stone Ft. Dallas, erected had 2,717 household industry establishments with outputs valued in 1836 during the Seminole wars), and began the construction at 849,300 pesos; and seven sugar mills. Of the 17 schools, 12 of the Royal Palm hotel. On July 28, 1896, the city was incorpe rated, with a population of 260. By 1910 it had grown to 5,471, were public. The language spoken is a dialect of Bisayan. a tribe of North American Indians of Algonquian by 1920 to 29,571. It was one of the principal foci in the stock, first found in south-eastern Wisconsin, about 1750. Their to Florida which began in 1922, At the opening of the winter of 1925-26, when the boom was at its height, adventurers wert civilization was advanced and they lived in stockaded towns.

MIAMI, 2 town of Gila county, Arizona, U.S.A., 6 m. S.W. of Globe (g.v.) on Federal highway 180 and the Southern Pacific

arriving from all parts of the United States by rail, steamer, auto-

mobile, mule and on foot, at the rate of 6,000 a day, and leaving

railway. Pop. (1920), 6,689; and in 1930 it was 7,693. Itisa great copper-mining camp of the Globe.Miami district (which

at the rate of 2,000 a day. Shelter was at a premium. Buildi was pushed at top speed, and tent colonies sprang up until they

varied mineral deposits and much beautiful scenery. a city of south-eastern Florida, U.S.A., the county seat of Dade county; on Biscayne bay, at the mouth of the Miami river, from which a canal extends to Lake Okeechobee. It is on federal highways x and 94; has two municipal and one

escaped with slight loss in the storm of 1928. The city is under a commission-manager form of government.

ranks third in the United States in the production of copper), in presented a serious sanitary problem. In September 1926, a cattle-raising and truck-farming region, containing many and city was seriously damaged by a West Indian hurricane, but it

commercial airport; and is served by the Florida East Coast and

the Seaboard Air Line railways, the Pan-American Airway and

various steamship lines. The population was 69,754 (32% ne-

groes) in 1925 (State census); 131,286 in 1926, after annexations of territory (special enumeration under the supervision of the Federal Census Bureau); but was 110,637 in 1930 by Federal census. Miami is the metropolis of south-eastern Florida, with a

MIAMI, a city near the north-eastern corner of Oklahoma,

U.S.A., on the Neosho river and federal highway 66; the counly seat of Ottawa county. It is served by the Frisco, the Kansas,

Oklahoma and Gulf, and electric railways. The population ws

6,802 in 1920 (93% native white) and was 8,064 in 1930 by the

Federal census. It is the metropolis of the principal lead and zint

mining district of the state, which in 1926 produced ores co®taining 65,473 tons of lead and 253,897 tons of zinc. There a smelters and various other manufacturing industries. was founded in 1893 and incorporated as a city in 1895.

Mi

MIAMISBURG—MICA

405

SBURG, a village of Montgomery county. Obio, ; He died on June 24, 1835 at Athens. USA. 12m. S.S.W. of Dayton, on the Miami river and Federal | MICA, a group of widely distributed rock-forming minerals,

highway 25. It is served by the Baltimore and Ohio, the Big | some of which have important commercial applications. The Four and the Erie railways, and by interurban electric and motor- | principal members of the group are muscovite, biotite, phlogopite bus lines. Pop. 4,383 in 1920; in 1930 it was 5.518. It is in the | and lepidolite (g.v.). The name is the Lat. mica, a grain, but is heart of the tobacco district of the State, and has four, pulp and | confused with micare, to glitter, the German word for mica, Glimpaper mills, and various other manufacturing industries. mer, having also the meaning of glitter. Mineralogical Characters.—The micas are characterized by a MIANTON OMO (156 Pa 643), chief of the Narraganset tribe of North American Indians, nephew of their grand sachem, ;very easy cleavage in a single direction and by the high degree of

Canonicus (d. 1647). He seems to have been friendly to the |flexibility, elasticity and toughness of the extremely thin cleavage English colonists of Massachusetts and Connecticut, though he was | fakes. They all crystallize in the monoclinic system, often, howaccused of being treacherous. In 1637 he permitted John Mason | ever, in forms closely resembling those of the rhombohedral! or to lead his Connecticut expedition against the Pequot Indians |orthorhombic systems. Crystals have usually the form of hexathrough the Narraganset country, and in 1638 he signed for the ; gonal or rhomb-shaped scales, plates or prisms, with plane angles Narraganset the tripartite treaty between that tribe, the Connecti- | of 60° and 120°, and, with the exception of the basal planes, are cut colonists and the Mohegan Indians, which provided for a per- | only rarely bounded by smooth and well-defined faces. The difpetual peace between the parties. In 1643 a quarrel broke out be- | ferent species have very nearly the same forms and interfacial tween the Mohegan and the Narraganset, and Miantonomo led his | angles, and the crystals not infrequently occur intergrown together warriors against those of Uncas, the Mohegan sachem. He was |in parallel position; those of Vesuvian biotite are the best

defeated and captured at what is now Norwich, Conn., and was | developed. later tried at Boston.

A committee of five clergymen, to whom

When a cleavage flake of mica is struck a sharp blow with a

his case was referred, recommended that he be executed, and the } blunt needle-point a “percussion figure” or six-rayed star of commissioners accordingly sentenced him to death and chose | cracks is developed; the rays intersect at angles of approximately Uncas as his executioner. Miantonomo, who was kept in ignorance | 60°, and the pair most prominently developed are parallel to the of this sentence, was taken to the scene of his defeat and was there | plane of symmetry of the crystal. A similar six-rayed system of tomahawked in cold blood by Wawequa, the brother of Uncas. | cracks, bisecting the angles between the rays of the previous set, There is a monument to Miantonomo in Sachem’s Park, Norwich, | is produced when a blunt punch is gradually pressed against a sheet of mica; this is known as the “pressure figure.” These Conn. MIANWALT, a town and district of India in the Punjab. | cracks coincide with planes of easy separation or of gliding in the The town is situated on the left bank of the Indus, 655 ft. above | crystal; they are especially useful in helping to determine the sea-level. Pop. (1921) 9,135.

The district was formed in rogor, | crystallographic orientation of a cleavage flake when crystal faces

after the creation of the North-West Frontier Province, out of the | are absent. Sheets of mica which have been subjected to earthCis-Indus portions of Bannu and Dera Ismail Khan districts. |movements are frequently cracked and ridged parallel to these Area, 5,395 sq.m. Pop. (1921),: 358,205. directions, and are then valueless for economic purposes. About three-quarters of the district lies to In their optical characters the micas exhibit considerable variathe east of the Indus. Along the river is tions. The indices of refraction are not high, the mean index being a low fertile tract, liable to floods. The about 1-58~r-60, but the double refraction is very strong (0-04—remaining upland, known as the Thal, is oog) and is negative in sign. The angle between the optic axes barren and sandy, cultivable only where Y varies from 70-50° in muscovite and lepidolite to ro-0° in biotite irrigation is possible. In the north-east iis, and phlogopite; the latter are thus frequently practically uniaxial. the district includes the western flank of | The acute bisectrix of the optic axes never deviates from the the Salt Range. The part of the district (VGA normal to the basal plane by more than a degree or two, hence a west of the Indus is a level and fairly fer- iW cleavage flake of mica will always show an optic figure in contile plain. The chief agricultural products vergent light when placed on the stage of a polarizing microscope. are wheat and other grains and oil-seeds. The plane of the optic axes may be either perpendicular or paralHides and wool are also exported, together lel to the plane of symmetry of the crystal, and according to its with small quantities of alum (abundant position two classes of mica are distinguished. To the frst class, in the Salt Range), salt (from the Salt and with the optic axial plane perpendicular to the plane of symmetry, Maidani ranges), and coal of poor quality, |. belong muscovite, lepidolite, paragonite, and a rare variety of which is found at several points. biotite called anomite; the second class includes zinnwaldite, phlo-

MIAOTSZE, a hill tribe of southern

gopite, lepidomelane and most piotites. Dark coloured micas are

China, of Northern Burma and Indo- ty cooaresy of ane nore | strongly pleochroic. China. At one time they occupied the fer- Woo» press service, LONDON The different kinds of mica vary from perfectly colourless and

tilelands of central China, but were driven A MIAO OF SOUTH-WEST- | transparent—as in muscovite—ihrough shades of yellow, green,

mto the mountains of the southern prov- ERN CHINA WITH HIS SON | zed and brown to black and opaque—as in lepidomelane; the ices. They were driven out of Hunan about 800 s.c. and were | former have a pearly lustre and the latter a submetallic lustre on

finally crushed by the emperor K’ien-Lung.

(See also Man.)

See Playfair, The Miaotsu of Kwei-chow and Yunnan (1877).

the cleavage surfaces. Sheets very often show coloured rings and bands (Newton’s rings), due to the interference of light at the

MIAOULIS, ANDREAS VOKOS or Boxos (1768-1835), | surfaces of internal cleavage cracks. The sp.gr. varies between Greek admiral and politician, was born in Negropont. He settled | 2-7 and 3-1 in the different species. ‘The hardness is 2-3; smooth m the island of Hydra east of the Morea, and with the islanders | cleavage surfaces can be just scratched with the finger-nail. Micas took an early and active part in the Greek War of Independence. | are bad conductors of heat and electricity, and it is on these

As early as 1822 Miaoulis was appointed navarch, or admiral, of | properties that many of their technical applications depend. Inswarm of small vessels which formed the insurgent fleet. For | clusions of other minerals are frequently to be observed, and the events of the struggle see GREEK INDEPENDENCE, War OF. | flattened crystals of garnet, films of quartz, and needles of tourHe continued to be the naval chief of the Greeks till Lord Dun- | maline are not uncommon. Cleavage sheets are frequently disdonald entered their service in 1827, when he retired in order | figured and rendered of little value by brown, red or black spots to leave the English officer free to act as commander. When in- | and stains, often with a dendritic arrangement of iron oxides. dence had been obtained, Miaoulis in his old age was en- | Minute acicular inclusions, probably of rutile, arranged parallel to tangled in the civil conflicts of his country, as an opponent of| the rays of the percussion figure, give rise to the phenomenon of podistrias and the Russian party. He had to employ his skill | “asterism” in some micas, particularly phlogopite; a candle-flame

the employment of fireships against them at Poros in 1831.1!

or spot of light viewed through a cleavage sheet of such mica

406

MICA

appears as a six-rayed star.

World’s Production of Mica, 1921-25 In Metric Tons

Chemical Composition.—The micas are extremely complex and variable in composition. They are silicates, usually ortho-

silicates, of aluminium together with alkalis (potassium, sodium, lithium, rarely rubidium and caesium), basic hydrogen, and, in some species magnesium, ferrous and ferric iron, rarely chromium, manganese and barium. Fluorine is also often an essential constituent, and titanium is sometimes present. The composition of the several species of mica is given by the following formulae, some of which are only approximate, and many attempts have been made to explain the variations in composition. It will be seen that they may be divided into two groups —alkali-micas (potash-mica, etc.) and ferromagnesian micas— which correspond roughly with the division into light and dark micas. Muscovite . Paragonite Lepidolite . Zinn waldite

Biotite

Phiogopite

HeK Als(Si0.)s HeNaAls(SiO.)s KLi[Al(OH,F) 2]Al(SiOs)s (K,Li) s[A] (OH,F )2} F eAlSisOre

r

(H,K)2(Mg,Fe) 2(Al,Fee(Si0,)s

[H,K,(MgF) ]sMgsAl(SiO,):

The water which is present in muscovite to the extent of 4 to 6%, and rather less in the other species, is expelled only at a high temperature; it is therefore water of constitution, existing as basic hydrogen or as hydroxyl replacing fluorine. Roscoelite is a mica in which the aluminium is largely replaced by vanadium (V:0;, 30%); it occurs as brownish-green scaly aggregates, intimately associated with tellurides of gold in California, Colorado and Western Australia. Occurrence.—Mica occurs as a primary and essential constituent of igneous rocks of almost all kinds; it is also a common product of alteration of many mineral silicates, both by weathering and by contact- and dynamo-metamorphic processes. In sedimentary rocks it occurs as detrital material. Muscovite and biotite are commonly found in siliceous rocks, whilst phlogopite is characteristic of calcareous rocks. The best crystallized specimens of any mica are afforded by the small briliant crystals of biotite, which encrust cavities in the limestone blocks ejected from Monte Somma, Vesuvius, Large sheets of muscovite, such as are of commercial value, are found only in the very coarsely crystallized pegmatite veins traversing granite, gneiss or mica-schist. These veins consist of felspar, quartz and mica, often with smaller amounts of other crystallized minerals, such as tourmaline, beryl and garnet; they are worked for mica in India, the United States (South Dakota, Colorado and Alabama), and Brazil (Goyaz, Bahia and Minas Geraes). The commercially valuable micas of Canada and Ceylon are mainly phlogopite (g.v.), which has a rather different mode of occurrence. The mica mined in India is practically all muscovite. The principal

mining districts are those of Hazaribagh in Bengal and Nellore in Madras; in the former district the mica has usually a ruby

tint, whilst in the latter it is more often greenish. In the Inikirti mine, Nellore, “books” of mica measuring roft. across, and up to 15ft. across the folia have been found, and rectangular sheets

measuring 30 by 24in..and free from cracks and flaws have

frequently been obtained. Uses.—On account of its transparency and its resistance to fire and sudden changes of temperature mica has been much used for the windows of stoves and lanterns, for the peep-holes of furnaces, and the chimneys of lamps and gas-burners. At one

time it was used for window panes of houses and the port-holes of Russian men-of-war, being commonly known as “Muscovy glass.” Spangles of mica are much used for decorative purposes of various kinds, and the mineral was formerly known as glacies Mariae (Ger., Frauenglas) because of its use for decorating statues of the Virgin. The lapis specularis of Pliny, scattered

oyer the Circus Maximus to produce a shining whiteness, was

webebly mica. Large quantities of ground mica are used in the acture of wall, and to produce a frosted effect on toys, Stage scenery, etc. Powdered mica is also used, in the manu-

| Zaptare of paints and paper, as a lubricant, and as an absorbent

(Compiled by L. M. Jones of the U.S. Bureau of Mines)

Country

2

| Anea

anada

.

1921 | 1922 | 1923 | 1924 | r92

au GG SAAN aeGs

.

. United States . South America Argentina*® Brazł* ss Europe Norway* . Rumania.

Russia Spain Sweden Asia

. . .

.

. . .

2,674 | 6,514 | 8,243 ‘’ .

2 S . .

. .. «5. « « «tt

Ceylon*® . 22a’. Chosen . . India (British) Japan... Africa Madagascar* ..

Rhodesia, Southern

.

147 46

Western Australia*

.

120] 79

rt 65

I

I0 6

235| :

ł

8)

ag

fT

8

.

Data not available.

4)

3

II

33

s7i

3

IS|

I I < a

I Í

2

136| 73511,

3 pa

|

269 |

286

83]

132]

ft

ij

3 se

a

:|

{Less than } ton.

World's Production of Sheet Mica, 1921-25 In Metric Tons

*Data not available.

of nitro-glycerine and disinfectants.

|

23 2,078 | f

165]

60}

f

|

I| 20 + t

92]

77|

f]

vic

I4I

.

... . .

$

3]. 5

5 I Ij II IQ II 1,650 | 1,619 | 1,720] f 15| 430

Oceania

“North orthern Territory Queensland. .

Bris

t

es

87| 56

a

f

nD

64 67

2

Tanganyika Territory*. . Vaia x South Africa (TransV. a a a e oe

*Exports.

|

37 | 3:038 | 3:197 | 3,711 |

Sheets of mica are used

as a surface for painting, especially in India; for lantern. slides; for carrying photographic films; as a protective covering for

pictures and historical documents; for mounting soft and collapsible natural history specimens preserved in spirit; for vanes of anemometers; for mirrors of delicate physical instruments; for various optical and many other purposes. Being a bad conductor of heat it is used for the packing and jackets of boilers and steam-pipes. Other applications depend on the strength of its resistance to acids. The most extensive application of mica at the present day is for electrical purposes. Being a bad conductor of electricity it is of value as an insulator, and the smooth flexible sheets are much used in the construction of armatures of dynamos and in other electrical machinery. ““Micanite” or “micanite cloth”—small sheets of mica cemented with shellac or other insulating cement on cloth or paper—is used for various purposes. Muscovite and phlogopite are practically the only species used commercially. Phlogopite is rarely found as colourless transper-

ent sheets and is therefore almost exclusively used for electrical

purposes. Many other uses of mica might be mentioned: the potassium it contains renders it of value as a manure, and th

species lepidolite is largely employed in the manufacture of

lithium and rubidium salts.

Mining, Preparation and Value.—Mica mining is an indus

try of considerable importance, especially in India where, how-

ever, methods are very primitive and wasteful. In working dow®wards in open quarries and in tortuous shafts and passages m of the mica is damaged and a large amount of labour is in hauling waste material to the surface. Since the mineral occurs

MICAH—MICA-SCHIST in definite veins a more satisfactory and economical method of working would be that adopted in metalliferous mines, with a vertical shaft, cross-cuts, and levels running along the strike of the yein; the mica could then be extracted by overhead stopping, and

the waste material used for filling up the worked-out excavapn dressing mica the “books” are split along the cleavage into sheets of the required thickness, and the sheets trimmed into rectangles with a sharp knife, shears or guillotine, stained and damaged portions being rejected.

The dressed sheets are sorted

according to size, transparency, colour and freedom from spots or stains. Scrap mica is ground to powder or used in the manufacture of micanite. See Sir T. H. Holland,

“The

Mica

Deposits of India,” Memoirs

of the Geological Survey of India (1902), xxxiv. ti-121; F. Cirkel, Mico: its Occurrence, Exploitation and Uses (Canada, Mines Branch, Ottawa; 2nd edit. by H. S. de Schmid, 1912, No. x18); Mica Imp.

Mineral Resources Bureau, London, 1922.

(L. J. S)

MICA PRODUCTION

From any one mine the percentage of the output of mica that can be manufactured in the sheets seldom exceeds 10%. Formerly the rejected material was mostly wasted; to-day this scrap mica is in active demand for grinding.

The term vermiculite is applied to the group of micaceous minerals which generally are alteration products of mica. Until a few years ago the few known deposits were considered a mineral curiosity. Large quantities have recently been discovered in Colorado and Montana, and have attracted attention to the com-

mercial possibilities. The most pronounced characteristic of vermiculite is great expansion by heating which takes place in only one direction, at right angles to the cleavage. During expansion the volume increases up to sixteen times the

original. At the same time the colour changes according to the degree of heat and the exposure to the air. This change is believed to be caused by the oxidation of the iron in the mica and therefore to vary with the amount of oxygen available. The expanded product has been found to be an excellent heat insulator and sound deadener, and to possess possibilities as a paint and calcimine pigment.

MICAH, the sixth in literary order of the “minor prophets” of the Old Testament, is not to be confused with the 9th century Micaiah (x Kings xxii.; the gloss in verse 28b, quoting Micah L 2, and absent from the Greek version, shows that such confusion occurred at an early date). Micah was a younger contemporary of Isaiah, living in the closing decades of the 8th cen-

tury, though, unlike Isaiah, he belonged to the country, not to the aty. He is called “the Morashtite” as being a native of Moresheth-Gath (1.14), Łe., a daughter-village of Gath, in the “Shephelh,” a district in which his interest is manifest (i. 10-15). The editorial title of the book of Micah declares that Micah

prophesied “in the days of Jotham (739-734), Ahaz (733-721) ami Hezekiah (720-693), kings of Judah.” . Nothing in the book uself can claim to belong to the reign of Jotham, but the prophecy against Samaria (i.5—8) may have been uttered originally before the fall of Samaria in 722, 2.€., in the reign of Ahaz. In its present

form, however, it has been incorporated in a prophecy against

Judah, belonging most probably, to the years shortly before 701,

a a new Palestinian rising provoked Sennacherib’s campaign.

This prophetic activity of Micah under Hezekiah is confirmed by

!i r

i

407

fate that befalls Judah as well as Samaria, in a “dirge” that describes the destruction of the country-side, with many plays on

names (i.ro-16). The moral evils denounced are the rapacity of “land-grabbers” and the eviction of former owners (ii.1-11), the injustice of rulers and the falsity of prophets (iii.1-8), whose selfish interests dictate their conduct (iiiq-12). Their false confidence in the protection of Yahweh can have but one issue—the destruction of Jerusalem and its temple. Our only evidence as to the reception of Micah’s message by his contemporaries is that afforded by Jer. xxvi. 17 seg., both directly, in the recorded effect on Hezekiah and the people; and indirectly, in the fact that the impression created was remembered a century afterwards. Micah resembles Amos, both in his country origin, and in his general character, which expresses itself in strong emphasis on the ethical side of religion. As the last of the four great prophets of the 8th century he undoubtedly contributed to that religious and ethical reformation whose literary monument is the Book of Deuteronomy. The remainder of the book bearing the name of Micah falls into two main divisions, viz., iv., v. and vi., vii. Each differs from the first division (i-iii.) in a marked degree. The second consists mainly of prophecies of restoration including eschatological (iv.1 seq.) and Messianic (v. 2 seg.) hopes. The third is formed of three or four apparently unrelated passages, on the spirituality of true worship (vi. 1-8), social immorality and its doom (vi. 9—16; vii. 1-6), and Israel’s future recovery from present adversity through Divine grace (vii.7-20). It is improbable that much, if any, of these chapters can be ascribed to Micah himself, not only because their contents are so different from his undoubted work (i-iti.), for which he was subsequently remembered (Jer. xxvi. 18), but because they presuppose the historic outlook of the

Exile, or a later age (e.g., iv. 6 seg.; vii. 7 seg.). It is neither psychologically nor historically impossible for a prophet of judgment to be also a prophet of comfort; but the internal evidence of composite and (in whole or part) later authorship must outweigh the traditional attachment of these passages to a ms. containing the work of Micah. It is noteworthy that the triple division of the book of Micah (i-iii.; iv., v.; vi, vii.) corresponds with that of the book of Isaiah (i~xxxix.; xl—lv.; lvi—lxvi.) in the character of the three divisions (judgment; coming restoration; prayer for help in adversity) respectively, and in the fact that the first alone gives us pre-exilic writing in the actual words of the prophet to whom the whole book is ascribed. In both cases, it need hardly be said, the great literary and spiritual value of the later passages ought in no way to suffer prejudice from critical conditions as to their date and authorship. Amongst these passages there are two that call for special notice. The first is the prophecy that the little clan of Ephrathah, which includes Bethlehem, the birthplace of David, is destined to be the source from which comes the future Davidic prince who shall “shepherd” the Messianic kingdom (v. 2, 4; the intervening verse is a gloss, connecting this “Messiah” with a Messianic interpretation of Is. vii. 14). The second is the summary of the fundamental principles of prophetic religion—justice, mercy, and humility (vi. 6-8). BIBLIOGRAPHY.—The German commentaries of Nowack (1897, 1904), Wellhausen (1898), Marti (1904), Sellin (1922); the French commentary of van Hoonacker (1908); the English commentaries of Cheyne (Cambridge Bible, 1882); G. A. Smith (1896, 1927); J. M. P. Smith (International Critical Commentary 1912); H. Wheeler

(in Peake’s Commentary, 1919); G- W. Wade (Westminster the direct statement of Jer. xxvi. 17 seg., where Mic. iii. 12 is Robinson Commentary, 1925); T. H. Robinson (in Clarendon Bible, O. T., quoted (“Zion shall be plowed as a field,” etc.). The verse quoted vol. ITI. 1926). (H. W. R.) forms the climax of Mic. i-iii., from which chapters only any MICA-SCHIST, in petrology, a rock composed essentially fertain conclusions as to the prophetic message of the historic of mica and quartz, and possessing a foliated or schistose struc-

“can can be drawn; the remaining sections of the present book WV., vivii.) consist, in whole or in greater part, of writings aging to a later period. subject-matter of i—iii. consists of a declaration of divine t against Israel, a warning to other nations (i.2). This

axes the form of a theophany (i.3,4) and issues in the destrucfon of the northern and southern capitals (i.s), in which the evil to be punished is concentrated, and in the destruction of idols. Prophet wears the garb of a mourner, and loudly laments the

ture due to the parallel arrangement of the mica flakes. Micaschists differ from gneisses principally by the absence of conspicuous alternations of scbistose and granular bands characteristic of the latter rocks, and by the paucity of felspar minerals. Between phyllite and mica-schist there are all gradations. Micaschists possess a greater variety of constituent minerals and are more coarsely crystallized. The mica may be muscovite or biotite; both are often present. Paragonite and fuchsite are rare. In addition to quartz, minor quantities of albite or oligoclase fel-

MICHAEL

4.08

the conversion of the king to Christianity. On sea the empire suffered under the ravages of the Cretan corsairs; and in 865 the first pillaging expedition of the Russians endangered the Bosporus.

spar are frequently found. A great number of accessory minerals are known in mica-schists, and when these are conspicuous they may be regarded as constituting special varieties receiving distinctive names. These minerals include almandine garnet, staurolite, kyanite, andalusite and sillimanite. Many of them are indicators of a special grade of metamorphism. Minor accessories include rutile, hematite, ilmenite, tourmaline and zircon. In nearly all cases mica-schists are metamorphosed sedimentary rocks of the composition of clays, shales and slates, though examples are known which are clearly transmuted acid igneous rocks, such as rhyolites and porphyries. The origin of these latter

the army and financial system revived for a while the strength of the Empire. On the eastern frontier the important post of Edessa

types, if not decipherable by their field relations, is usually

was relieved.

indicated by their bulk chemical composition. The common associates of mica-schist are quartzites, quartzschists and limestones, representing sediments of a siliceous and calcareous nature interstratified with clays and mudstones from which the mica-schists are derived. Like all metamorphic rocks mica-schists are principally found in areas of pre-Cambrian rocks. In the mountain chains of the Alps, the Himalayas, etc., mica-schists of Palaeozoic and Mesozoic age are known as they are seen to pass into sediments containing recognizable fossils. At Bergen, in Norway, Palaeozoic fossils have been found in mica-schists, and some of the Mesozoic schists of the Alps retain identifiable organic remains. Mica-schists are rarely of economic value, being too fissile for building-stones and too brittle for roofing slates. (See also Scuists.) (C. E. T.)

MICHAEL,

an Old

Testament

name,

synonymous

with

Micaiah or Micah (Num. xiii. 13; 1 Chron. v. 13, ef passim). In the book of Daniel the name (which means “Who is like God?”) is given to one of the chief “princes” of the heavenly host, the guardian angel or “prince” of Israel (Dan. x. 13, 21; xii. 1; cf. Enoch xx. 5 and possibly Mal. iii. 1). He holds the secret of the mighty “word” by which God created heaven and earth (Enoch Ixix. 14), and was “the angel who spoke to Moses in the Mount” (Acts vil. 38). It was through Babylonian and Persian influence that names were given to the angels, and Michael finds a parallel in Vohumano, “Ahura’s first masterpiece,” one of the Zoroastrian Amesha-spentas or arch-angels. It is as guardian angel of Israel, or of the Church, the true Israel, that Michael appears in Jude g and Rev. xii. 7.

In 867 Michael was assassinated by Basil the Macedonian,

MicwHae IV. (d. 1041), “the Paphlagonian,” owed his eleva.

tion to Zoë, the wife of Romanus III., who poisoned her husband and married Michael, her chamberlain (1034). Michael, how.

ever, being weak and subject to epileptic fits, left the government in the hands of his brother, John the Eunuch. John’s reforms of The western Saracens were almost driven out of

Sicily (1038-40); but an expedition against the Italian Normans

suffered several defeats, and subsequently most of the Sicilian

conquests were lost (1041). In the north the Serbs achieved a sur. cessful revolt (1040), but a dangerous rising by the Bulgarians and

Slavs which threatened the cities of Thrace and Macedonia was repressed by a triumphant campaign which the decrepit emperor undertook in person shortly before his death (1041). MicHAEL V. CALAPHATES, or “the caulker,” nephew and successor of the preceding, surnamed after the early occupation of his father. He owed his elevation (Dec. 1041) to his uncle John, whom along with Zoé he almost immediately banished; this led to a popular tumult in consequence of which he was dethroned after a brief reign of four months, and relegated to a monastery.

Micuaet VI., “the warlike,” was already an old man chosen by the empress Theodora as her successor shortly her death in 1056. He was unable to check the disaffection feudal aristocracy, who combining with an officer named

when before of the Isaac

Comnenus, dethroned Michael (1057). MicHarext VII. Ducas, or PaRAPINACES, was the eldest son of Constantine X. Ducas. After a joint reign with his brothers, Andronicus I. and Constantine XI, (1067—1071), he was made sole emperor through kis uncle John Ducas. The feebleness of Michael

and the avarice of his ministers, were disastrous to the empire,

As the result of anarchy in the army, the Byzantines lost their last possessions in Italy (1071r), and were forced to cede a large strip of Asia Minor to the Seljuk Turks (1074). These misfortunes caused widespread dissatisfaction. In 1078 two generak, Nicephorus Bryennius and Nicephorus Botaniates, simultaneously revolted. Michael resigned the throne with hardly a struggle. MICHAEL, the name of nine East-Roman emperors. MICHAEL I. RHANGABES (d. 845), an obscure nobleman who MICHAEL VILI. PALAEOLOGUS (1234-1282) was the son of had married Procopia, the daughter of Nicephorus I. He was Andronicus Palaeologus Comnenus and Irene Angela, the grandmade emperor in a revolution against his brother-in-law, Staura- daughter of Alexius Angelus, emperor of Constantinople. At aa cius (811). early age he rose to distinction, and ultimately became commander Elected as the tool of the orthodox party, Michael diligently per- of the French mercenaries in the employment of the emperors of secuted the iconoclasts on the northern and eastern frontiers of Nicaea. A few days after the death of Theodore Lascaris I. in the empire, but allowed the Bulgarians to ravage a great part of 1259, Michael, by the assassination of Muzalon, became guardian Macedonia and Thrace; having at last taken the field in the spring of the young emperor, John Lascaris. Afterwards invested with of 813, he was defeated near Versinikia, and relegated to a mon- the title of “despot,” he was finally proclaimed joint-emperor and astery in the island of Prote where he died in 845. ' crowned alone at Nicaea on Jan. 1, 1260. In July 1261 Michael Mıcsarr II., called PserLrLus, “the stammerer,” emperor 820- conquered Constantinople through his general Strategopoulos. He 829, a native of Amorium in Phrygia, began life as a private sol- thereupon had John Lascaris blinded and banished. For this last dier, but rose by his talents to the rank of general. He had been act he was excommunicated by Arsenius, and the ban was not re sentenced to death in December 820 for a conspiracy against Leo moved until the accession of a new patriarch (1268). In 1263 the Armenian; his partisans, however, succeeded in assassinating and 1264 respectively, Michael, with the help of Urban IV., comLeo and called Michael to the throne. The principal features of his cluded peace with Villehardouin, prince of Achaia, and Michael, reign were a struggle against his brother general, Thomas (822~ despot of Epirus, who had been decisively beaten at Pelagonia m 824); the conquest of Crete by the Saracens in 823; and the be- Thessaly (1259); Villehardouin was obliged to cede Mistra, Mònginning of their attacks upon Sicily (827). emvasia and Maina in the Morea. MICHAEL III. (839-867), “the drunkard,” was grandson of Subsequently Michael was involved in wars with the Genoese

Michael II., and succeeded his father Theophilus when three years old (842). During his minority the empire was governed by his

mother Theodora (g.v.)}, who entirely neglected the education of her son. As a result Michael grew up a debauchee, and fell under the sway of his uncle Bardas, who induced him to banish Theodora

to a convent, and practically assumed the chief control (857); in the wars of the period Michael himself took a more active part. During a conflict with the Saracens of the Euphrates (856-63), the emperor sustained a personal defeat (860), which was retrieved by a great victory on the part of his uncle Petronas in Asia

Minor. In 861 Michael and Bardas invaded Bulgaria and secured

and Venetians, whose influence in Constantinople he sought te diminish by maintaining the balance of strength between them. Is 1269 Charles of Sicily, aided by John of Thessaly, made war with the alleged purpose of restoring Baldwin to the throne of Con stantinople, and pressed Michael so hard that he consented to the papal supremacy at the council of Lyons in 1274. The union thus

brought about between the two Churches was, however, extremely

distasteful to the Greeks, and the persecution of his “schismatic

subjects to which the emperor was compelled to resort weakened his power so much that Martin IV. was tempted to enter into all ance with Charles of Anjou and the Venetians for the purpose of

MICHAEL

MICHEL

409

of Serbia. He began his reign with an ambitious programme of self-assertion abroad and reform within; but alienated Turkey he helped to bring about. He died in Thrace in December 1282. , and Austria, while the heavy taxation imposed multiplied the

reconquering Constantinople.

The invasion, however, failed, and

Michael so far had his revenge in the “Sicilian Vespers,” which

\rcuaEL IX. PALAEOLOGUS, was the son of Andronicus IT. and’ party which had forced his father to abdicate. was associated with him on the throne from 1295, but predeceased

In Aug. 1842 Vučić, the leader of the malcontents, forced him to leave the

him (1320). He took the field against the Turks (1301, 1310) | country, Alexander Karageorgevic, son of Karageorge (q.v.),

and against the Grand Catalan Company

(1305), but was re-

being elected in his place. He married, in 1856, Julia, Countess Hunyadi.

peatedly defeated.

In 1858 Alexander was dethroned in his turn, and Miloš Obrenović I. recalled to the throne; on whose death (1860) Michael succeeded him. His policy was generally wise and moderate. He abolished the oligarchic Constitution of 1839, limiting the powers MICHAEL (1596-1645), tsar of Russia, was the first tsar of of the Senate and increasing that of the Skupština; established a the house of Romanov, being the son of Theodore Nekitich regular national army, and reformed the judicature and adminisRomanov, afterwards the Patriarch Philaret (g.v.), and Xenia| tration. Meanwhile, he was planning an ambitious foreign policy,

See Gibbon's Decline and Fall (ed. Bury, 1911) ; G. Finlay, Hist. of Greece (ed. 1877); G. Schlumberger, PEpopée byzantine (1896); J. Bury, in Eng. Hist. Rev. (1889) ; Meliarakes, ‘Ioropia rod BactXeiouris Nualas kal rod deomorarou THs “Helpov, pp. 539-627 (Athens, 1808).

Chestovaya, afterwards the nun Martha. He was elected unani-

mously tsar of Russia by a national assembly on Feb. 21, 1613, but not till March 24 did the delegates of the council discover

the young tsar and his mother at the Ipatievsky monastery near

Kostroma. He was crowned on July 22. The first care of the new tsar was to clear the land of the robbers that infested it.

Peace was made with Sweden

and Poland by the peace of

Stolbova (March 10, 1617) and the truce of Deulina (Feb. 13, 1619). The most important result of the truce of Deulina was the return from exile of the tsar’s father, who henceforth took over the government till his death in October 1633. Michael died

on July 12, 1645. See R. Nisbet Bain, The First Romanovs (Lond., 1905).

MICHAELIS,

GEORG

(1857-_—+),_German

statesman,

negotiating secretly with Bosnian, Bulgarian and Albanian leaders. Had his plans succeeded a great Yugoslavia would have been

formed, including Bulgaria under Serbian leadership. He secured

the sympathy of France to his plans, and a promise of neutrality from Austria; but his long diplomatic duel with the Turks only succeeded in obtaining the withdrawal of the last Turkish garrisons from Serbia (1867). Before he could take the next step, he

was assassinated in the Toptider, near Belgrade, on the night of

June 10, 1868. MICHALAKOPOULOS,

ANDREAS = (1875J; Greek statesman, was born at Patras, in 1875, and first joined

the military school, but subsequently became a practising lawyer. He entered politics in 1910 as an independent, joined the Liberals,

and was minister of national economy under Venizelos in rgr2

was born on Sept. 7, 1857 at Haynau. He studied law and for some and 1915, and minister of agriculture in Venizelos’ Salonika years lectured at the university of Tokyo. He entered the Prus- cabinet of 1916. He accompanied his leader to Paris for the peace sian administration in 1879, and by 1909 had risen to the grade of negotiations; was out of office during the Royalist reaction of under-secretary of state in the Prussian ministry of finance. On 1920-23, but re-elected in 1923, and negotiated the important the outbreak of the World War he was appointed director of the Greek Refugees loan. In Nov. 1924 he became prime minister imperial department for the control of the grain trade, and in and minister of war, and in Jan. 1925, also minister of foreign Feb. 1917 State commissioner for the national food supply. On affairs, holding office for the record period of eight months, despite the retirement of Bethmann Hollweg in July 1917, the military the difficult situation (see Greece). In Jume 1925 he was overauthorities, with the object of avoiding conflict with the civil thrown by General Pangalos (q,.v.) and subsequently exled to administration, advised the appointment of a chancellor who would Naxos. In the ‘‘Oecumenical cabinet” formed on Dec. 4, 1926, accommodate his policy to theirs. Michaelis, as a colourless he again became minister of foreign affairs, a post for which his Prussian official, was selected, but even in the first weeks of his long experience, his moderate views and his knowledge of lanchancellorship his weakness became manifest. He was confronted guages peculiarly fitted bim. with the demand of the parliamentary majority that he should MICHAUD, JOSEPH FRANCOIS (1767-1839), French publicly identify himself with the spirit and letter of the so-called historian and publicist, was born on June rọ, 1767, at Albens, Peace Resolution in favour of a peace “without annexation or Savoy. He was a strong counter-revolutionary, and editor of indemnities” passed by the Reichstag on July 19, 1917. Under the La Quotidienne. He was proscribed more than once during the influence of the military authorities he attempted to evade this revolutionary period. He entered the Academy in 1814, and obligation by declaring himself, in a phrase that became celebrated, died at Passy, Paris on Sept. 30, 1839. His principal work is an the supporter of the resolution “as he understood it.” He had Histoire des croisades, which was published in its final form in still further to compromise himself over the naval mutiny before six volumes in 1840 under the editorship of his friend Poujoulat.

it was recognised that his position was untenable. He was succeeded by Count Hertling on Nov. 1, 1917. He was then appointed chief president in the province of Pomerania, an office which he held till 1919. See his autobiographical Fir Staat und Volk (1922).

MICHAELIS, JOHANN

DAVID

(1717-1791), German

biblical scholar and teacher, was born at Halle, on Feb. 27, 1717, a member of a family which included several good biblical scholars. He qualified as university lecturer at Halle in 1739—40,

See Sainte-Beuve, Causeries dy lundi, vol, vii.

MICHAUX, ANDRÉ (1746-1802), French botanist and

traveller, was born at Versailles on March 7, 1746. In 1779 he spent some time botanizing in England, and in 1780 explored Auvergne, the Pyrénées and the north of Spain. In 1782 he was sent by the French government on a botanical mission to Persia. After two years he returned with a fine herbarium, and also introduced numerous Eastern plants into France. In 1785 he was sent to North America, but on his return in 1797 he was shipwrecked and lost most of his collections. In 1800 he went to Madagascar where he died on Nov. 16, 1802. His work on the flora of North America was a valuable contribution to American botarty.

but he did not feel at home in the pietistic atmosphere of the university at that time, and was glad to accept a position as privatdozent at Gottingen. He became full professor in 1750, and remained there until his death on Aug. 22, 1791. His works inHe wrote Histoire des chénes de PAmérique sepientrionale (1801) clude Supplementa (1784—92) to the Hebrew lexicons; Spicilegium and the Flora Boreali-Americana (2 vols., 1803). son Francois geographiae Hebraeorum exterae post Bochartum (1769-80); an published a Histoire des arbres forestiers de VAmériqué septentrionalé mleresting autobiography, Lebens beschretbung (1793). He also (3 vols., 1810-13, Eng. trans., 1817—19). edited the Orientalische und exegetische Bibliothek (24 vols. MICHEL, CLAUDE, known as Ctopron (1738-1814), 177i-79; new series, 8 vols. 1786-91). French sculptor, was born on Dec. 20, 1738 in Nancy. In 1755 MICHAEL OBRENOVIC III. (1838-1868), prince of he came to Paris and entered the workshop of Lambert Sigispla, was the youngest son of Prince Milo’ Obrenovié I. (¢.v.). bert Adam, his uncle, and on his death became a pupil of J. B. After the abdication of his father (1839) and the death of his Pigalle. In 1759 he obtained the grand prize for sculpture at the elder brother, Milan Obrenovié II. (1840), he ascended the throne Académie Royale; and in 1762 he went to Rome. Catherine 1. PT OSA aT n SEN TY NY t-PA eyewear e-waste rs en Pa ras ype er yer m erences meyers np

410

MICHEL—MICHELANGELO

was eager to secure his presence in St. Petersburg, but be re- | paid assistant in the workshop

turned to Paris in 177r. Among his many patrons were the chapter of Rouen, the states of Languedoc, and the Direction générale. He frequently exhibited at tbe Salon. The agitation caused by the Revolution drove Clodion in 1792 to Nancy, where he lived until 1798. His works include a statue of Montesquieu, a “Dying Cleopatra,” and a chimney-piece at present in the South Kensington Museum. One of his last groups represented Homer as a beggar being driven away by fishermen (1810). Clodion died in Paris on March 29, 1814. Thirion’s Les Adam et Clodion (1885) contains a list of the sculptor’s works sold between 1767 and 1884. Adam et les Michel et Clodion (1898).

MICHEL, CLEMENCE

LOUISE

See also A. Jacquot, Les

(1830-1905), French

anarchist, called la Vierge rouge de Montmartre, was born at the chateau of Vroncourt (Haute-Marne) on May 29, 1830, the daughter of a serving-maid, Marianne Michel, and the son of the house, Etienne Charles Demahis. She was brought up by her father’s parents, and received a liberal education. After her grandfather's death in 1850 she was trained to teach, but her refusal to acknowledge Napoleon III. prevented her from serving in a state school. She found her way in 1866 to a school in the Montmartre quarter of Paris, where she threw herself ardently into works of charity and revolutionary politics. During the siege of Paris she joined the ambulance service, and untiringly preached resistance to the Prussians. On the establishment of the Commune she joined the National Guard. She was with the Communards who made their last stand in the cemetery of Montmartre, and was closely allied with Théodore Ferré, who was executed in Nov. 1871. This ardent attachment was perhaps one of the sources of the exaltation which marked her career, and gave many handles to her enemies. When she was brought before the 6th council of war in Dec. 1871 she defied her judges and defended the Commune. She was sent as a convict to New Caledonia, among her companions being Henri Rochefort, who remained her friend till the day of her death. The amnesty of 1880 found her revolutionary ardour unchanged. She travelled throughout France, preaching revolution. For being concerned in a Paris riot in 1883 she was condemned to six years’ imprisonment, but was again released in 1886. She was touring France and lecturing on behalf of anarchist propaganda when she died at Marseilles on Jan. 10, 1905. Her Mémoires (1886) contain accounts of her trials. See also E. Girault, La Bonne Louise (1906).

MICHEL, FRANCISQUE

XAVIER (1809-1887), French

[EARLY WORK of the brothers

Ghirlandaig,

Domenico Ghirlandaio, bred a jeweller, had become by this time the foremost painter of Florence. Michelangelo studied also, like all the Florentine artists of that age, in the Brancacci chapel

where the frescoes of Masaccio, painted some sixty years before

still held their own; and here, in reply, to a taunt he had 4 at a fellow-student, Torrigiano, he received the blow on the nose which disfigured him for life. Sculpture.—Though Michelangelo’s earliest studies were di. rected towards painting, he was by nature and predilection much more inclined to sculpture. In that art he presently received ep.

couragement and training under the eye of Lorenzo dei Medic. On the recommendation, it is said, of Ghirlandaio, he was trang.

ferred, before the term of his apprenticeship as a painter had expired, to the school of sculpture established by Lorenzo in the

Medici gardens. Here he could learn to match himself against his great predecessor, Donatello, one of whose pupils and as. sistants, the aged Bertoldo, was director of the school, and to

compare the works of that master and his Tuscan contemporaries with the antiques collected for the instruction of the scholars Here, too, he could listen to discourses on Platonism, and steep himself in the doctrines of an enthusiastic philosophy which sought to reconcile with Christian faith the lore and the doctrines of the Academy. Michelangelo remained a Christian Platonist to the end of his days; he was also a devoted student of Dante His powers soon attracted attention, and secured him the favour of his patrons in spite of his rugged exterior and scornful umsociable temper. A notable work of this period is the marble Centauromachia (Casa Buonarroti, Florence), a fine work in full relief: Michelangelo followed the antique in his conception and treatment of the nude but the arrangement is his own. Michelangelo had been attached to the school and household of the Medici for barely three years when, in 1492, Lorenzo died. Lorenzo’s son Piero dei Medici inherited the position but not ‘the qualities of his father; Florence soon chafed under his authority; and towards the autumn of 1494 it became apparent that disaster was impending. Michelangelo was constitutionally subject to dark and sudden presentiments, and without awaiting the popular outbreak, which soon followed, he took horse with two companions and fled to Bologna. There he was received with kindness by a member of the Aldovrandi family, on whose commission he executed two figures of saints and one of an angel for the shrine of St. Dominic in the church of St. Petronius. After about a year, work at Bologna failing, and his name having

been included on the list of artists appointed to provide a new hall of assembly for the great council of Florence, Michelangelo returned home. recognizing their value, sent him to England (1833) and Scotland He found a friend in another Lorenzo, the son of Pierfrancesco (1837) to continue his researches there. In 1839 he was appointed dei Medici, for whom he executed a statue of the boy St. John. professor of foreign literature in the Faculté des lettres at Bor- Having also carved a recumbent Cupid in imitation of the deaux. Between 1834 and 1842 he published editions of a large antique, it was suggested to him by the same patron that it should number of works written between the 11th and 14th centuries be so tinted and treated as to look like a real antique, and sold in French, English and Saxon, including the Roman de la rose accordingly. Michelangelo for amusement lent himself to the and the Chanson de Roland. He died in Paris on May 18, 1887. counterfeit, and the piece was then actually sold for a large sum, MICHELANGELO (MICHELAGNIOLO BUONARROTI) (1475- as a genuine work of antiquity, to a Roman collector, Raffaele 1564), the most famous of the great Florentine artists of the Riario, cardinal di San Giorgio; the dealer appropriating the Renaissance, was the son of Ludovico Buonarroti, a poor gentle- profits. When the cardinal discovered the fraud he caused the man of that city, and of his wife Francesca dei Neri. The Buonar- dealer to refund; it was represented to Michelangelo that if be roti Simoni were an old and pure Florentine stock of the Guelf went to Rome the amateur who had just involuntarily paid so faction. Ludovico was barely able to live on the income of his high a tribute to his skill would certainly befriend him. He arrived estate, but boasted that he had never stooped to add to it by at Rome for the first time at the end of June 1496. He received mercantile or mechanical pursuits. He held the appointment of no countenance from the cardinal di San Giorgio; neither did the podestà or resident magistrate for six months, from the autumn banished Piero dei Medici, who also was now living at Rome, de of 1474, at Castello di Chiusi and Caprese in the Casentino. At anything to help him. But Michelangelo won the favour of @

scholar, was born at Lyons on Jan. 18, 1809. He edited the works of many mediaeval French writers, and the French Government,

, On March

6, 1475, his second son Michelagniolo or

Michelangelo was born. The child was put to nurse with a marble-

worker's wife of Settignano. His mother died a few years later,

after bearing three more sons. While still a young boy Michelangelo determined, in spite of his father’s opposition, to be an artist. He bad sucked ie passion, as he used to say, with his a ipster-mother’s milk. After a sharp struggle his stubborn will

Roman nobleman, Jacopo Galli, and through him of the French cardinal Jean de Villiers de la Grolaie, abbot of St. Denis. From the former he received a commission for a “Cupid” (sometimes identified with the cupid in the Victoria and Albert Museum

but this, if by Michelangelo, must belong to a later date) and 8 “Bacchus,” (Bargello, Florence), from the latter for a “Pietà

(St. Peter’s, Rome). Equal originality of conception and maggyercame his father’s pride and at thirte was articled as a nificence of technical execution mark the two contrasted subjects. heen

MICHELANGELO

SIXTINE CHAPEL] Michelangelo's stay in Rome

411

at this time lasted from the

qualities afterwards proverbially associated with Michelangelo—

extreme political distraction at Florence, which had created an

his furta, his terribilita, the tempest and hurricane of the spirit which accompanied his unequalled technical mastery and knowledge—first found expression.

summer of 1496 till that of 1501. The interval had been one of

atmosphere most unfavourable to art. Nevertheless Ludovico

Buonarroti, who in the troubles of 1494 had lost his permanent appointment in the customs, and had come to regard his son Michelangelo as the mainstay of his house, had been repeatedly urging him to come home. A spirit of family duty and family pride was the ruling principle in all Michelangelo’s conduct. During the best years of his life he submitted himself sternly and without a murmur to pinching hardships and almost super-

Second Visit to Rome.—Michelangelo had not been long in

Rome before Pope Julius entrusted to him the task of executing a sepulchral monument to be completed during his lifetime. The design being approved, the artist spent the winter of 1505-1506 at the quarries of Carrara, superintending the excavation and shipment of the necessary marbles. In the spring he returned to Rome, and when the marbles arrived fell to with all his energy at the human labour for the sake of his father and brothers. Having preparations for the work. For a while the pope followed their now, after an illness, come home in 1501, Michelangelo was re- progress eagerly. But presently his disposition changed. In quested by the cardinal Francesco Piccolomini to adorn with a Michelangelo's absence an artist who was no friend of his, number of sculptured figures a shrine already begun in the Bramante of Urbino, had been selected by Julius to carry out a cathedral of Siena in honour of Pope Pius II. Four only of these new architectural scheme, viz., the rebuilding of St. Peter’s church. figures were ever executed, and those not apparently, or only in To the influence and the malice of Bramante, Michelangelo atsmall part, by the master’s hand. tributed the unwelcome invitation he now received to interrupt A work of greater interest in Florence itself had diverted him the great work of sculpture in order to decorate the Sixtine chapel from his engagement to his Sienese patrons. This was the execu- with frescoes. Soon, however, schemes of war and conquest intertion of the famous colossal statue of David, popularly known as posed to divert the thoughts of Julius from artistic enterprises. “the Giant.” It was carved out of a huge block of marble on To add to the artist’s discomfiture, when he went to apply for which another sculptor, Agostino d’Antonio, had begun unsuccess- payments due, he was first put off from day to day, and at last fully to work forty years before, and which had been lying idle actually with scant courtesy dismissed. At this he took horse ever since. Michelangelo had here a difficult problem before him. and left Rome, and before the messengers of the pope could overWithout much regard to the traditional treatment of the subject take him was safe on Florentine territory. Michelangelo’s flight or the historical character of his hero, he carved out of the vast took place in April 1506. Once among his own people, he turned but cramped mass of material an adolescent, frowning colossus, a deaf ear to all overtures made from Rome for his return, and tensely watchful and self-balanced in preparation for his great stayed throughout the summer at Florence. action. The result amazed every beholder by its freedom and Statue of Pope Julius at Bologna.—During the same sumscience of execution and its victorious energy of expression. The mer Julius planned and executed the victorious military campaign best artists of Florence debated on what site it should be set up, which ended with his unopposed entry at the head of his army and the terrace of the palace of the Signory was chosen, in into Bologna. Thither, under strict safe-conduct and promises of preference to the neighbouring Loggia dei Lanzi. Here accord- renewed favour, Michelangelo was at last persuaded to betake himingly the colossal “David” of Michelangelo took, in the month self. Julius received the truant artist kindly, as indeed between of May 1504, the place which it continued to hold until in 1882 these two volcanic natures there existed a natural affinity, and itwas removed for the sake of protection to a hall in the Academy ordered of him his own colossal likeness in bronze, to be set up of Fine Arts, where it inevitably looks crushed and cabined. over the principal entrance of the church of St. Petronius. For the Other works of sculpture belong to the same period: among next fifteen months Michelangelo devoted his whole strength to them a second “David,” in bronze and on a smaller scale, com- this new task. In the technical art of metal casting he was inexmissioned by the maréchal Pierre Rohan and left by the young perienced, and the work was cast by a Milanese whom Michelmaster to be finished by Benedetto da Rovezzano, who despatched angelo had called, and on Feb. 21, 1508, the majestic bronze col% to France in 1508 and which is no longer extant; a great ossus of the seated pope, robed and mitred, with one hand grasp- r reugh-hewn “St. Matthew” (Bargello, Florence), begun but ing the keys and the other extended in a gesture of benediction never completed for the cathedral of Florence; a “Madonna and and command, was raised to its station over the church porch. Child” executed on the commission of a merchant of Bruges and Three years later it was destroyed in a revolution. The people of still to be seen in the Church of Notre Dame at Bruges: and two Bologna rose against the authority of Julius; his delegates and tninished bas-reliefs of the same subject, one at the Diploma partisans were cast out, and his effigy hurled from its place. The Gallery, Royal Academy, London; the other in the Bargello, work of Michelangelo, after being trailed in derision through the Florence. streets, was broken up and its fragments cast into the furnace. Painting: Early Works.—Neither was Michelangelo idle at Sixtine Chapel.—Meanwhile the artist had followed his recon-

the same time as a painter.

Leaving disputed works for the

moment out of sight, he in these days at any rate painted for his and Raphael’s common patron, Angelo Doni, the “Holy Family”

now in the Uffizi at Florence. The unfinished painting of “the

Virgin and Child with Four Angels” in the National Gallery, has been confidently claimed for Michelangelo; but it lacks his strength and mastery. In the autumn of 1504, the year of the completion of the “David,” he received from the Florentine Sate a commission for a work of monumental painting on a neraic scale. Leonardo da Vinci had been for some months engaged on his great cartoon of the “Battle of Anghiari,” to be pamted on the wall of the great hall of the municipal council. gonfalonier Piero Soderini now procured for Michelangelo

‘commission to design a companion work. Michelangelo chose a2 madent at the battle of Cascina during the Pisan war of 1364,

ciled master back to Rome. The task that here awaited him, how-

ever, was the execution of the series of paintings in the Sixtine chapel. Painting, he always averred, was not his business: he was aware of his enemy’s hopes that a great enterprise in fresco-

painting would prove beyond his powers; and he entered with misgiving and reluctance upon his new undertaking. Destiny, how-

ever, so ruled that the work thus thrust upon him remains his chief title to glory. The only work which in all his life he was able to complete as he had conceived it was this of the decoration of the Sixtine ceiling. The pope had at first desired a scheme including figures of the twelve apostles only. Michelangelo proposed instead a design of many hundred figures embodying the story of Genesis from the Creation to the Flood, with accessory personages of prophets and sibyls dreaming on the new dispensation to come, and, in addition, those of the forefathers of Christ. The whole was to be enclosed and divided by an elaborate framework of

waen the Florentine soldiery had been surprised by the enemy m the act of bathing. He dashed at the task with his accustomed painted architecture, with a multitude of nameless human shapes energy, and had carried a great part of the cartoon to supporting its several members or reposing among them—shapes cuon when, in the early spring of 1505, he broke off the mediating, as it were, between the features of the inanimate frame-

work in order to obey a call to Rome which reached him from

work and those of the great dramatic and prophetic scenes them-

Pope Julius IL In the unfinished cartoon of the “Bathers” the selves. The pope bade the artist do as he pleased. By May 1508

AI2

MICHELANGELO

the preparations in the chapel had been completed and the work begun. Later in the same year Michelangelo summoned a number of assistant painters from Florence. He soon dismissed them, and carried out the remainder of his colossal task alone, except for purely mechanicai and subordinate help. The physical conditions of prolonged work, face upwards, upon this vast expanse of ceiling were trying in the extreme. After four and a half years of toil the task was accomplished. Michelangelo had been harassed alike by delays of payment and by hostile intrigue. Absolute need of funds for the furtherance of the undertaking constrained him at one moment to break off work and pursue his inconsiderate patron as far as Bologna. This was between September 1510, by which time the whole of the great series of subjects along the centre of the vault were completed, and January 1511, when the master set to work again and began filling the complicated lateral spaces of his decorative scheme. The main field of the Sixtine ceiling—in form a depressed barrel vault—is divided in Michelangelo’s scheme into four larger, alternating with five smaller fields. The following is the order of the subjects depicted in them: (1) the dividing of the light from the darkness; (2) the creation of sun, moon and stars; (3) the creation of the waters; (4) the creation of man; (5) the creation of woman; (6) the temptation and expulsion; (7) the sacrifice of Noah; (8) the deluge; (9) the drunkenness of Noah. The figures in the last three of these scenes are on a smaller scale than those in the first six. In numbers 1, 3, 5, 7 and 9, the field of the picture is reduced by the encroachments of the architectural framework with its seated pairs of supporters, commonly known as “Slaves” or “Atlases.” Flanking these smaller compositions, along the lateral spaces between the crown of the vault and the walls on either side, are seated figures of prophets and sibyls alternately; two other prophets are introduced at each extremity of the series—making seven prophets and five sibyls in all. In the triangles to right and left of the prophets at the two extremities are the death of Goliath, the death of Holofernes, the brazen serpent and the punishment of Haman. In the twelve lunettes above the windows are groups of the ancestors of Christ, their names designated by inscriptions, and in the twelve triangles above them (between the prophets and sibyls) other kindred groups crouched or sitting. These last are all shown in relatively simple human actions and household relations, heightened but not falsified by the artist’s genius, and rising into majestic significance from roots deep in daily human nature. The work represents all the powers of Michelangelo at their best. Disdaining all the accessory allurements of the painter’s art, he has concentrated himself upon the exclusive delineation of the human form and face at their highest power. His imagination has conceived attitudes and combinations of unmatched variety and grandeur, and countenances of unmatched expressiveness and power. As for the intellectual meanings of his vast design, they are mexhaustible, and can never be perfectly defined. Whatever the soul of this great Florentine, the spiritual heir of Dante, with the Christianity of the middle ages not shaken in his mind, but expanded and transcendentalized, by the knowledge and love of Plato;—-whatever the soul of such a man, full of suppressed tenderness and righteous indignation, and of anxious questionings of coming fate could conceive—that Michelangelo has expressed or shadowed forth in this great scheme of paintings. The powers of the artist seeem to have expanded with the progress of his work. He seems to have begun (as the spectator entering the chapel has to begin) with what is chronologically the last subject of the series, and rising in ascending scale of majesty through the successive acts of creation from the last to the first.

Death of Pope Julius—The Sixtine chapel was no sooner

completed than Michelangelo resumed work upon the marbles for the monument of Julius. But four months only had passed when Julius died. His heirs immediately entered (in the summer of 1513) into a new contract with Michelangelo for the execution of the monument on a reduced scale. What the precise nature

hitherto unknown in Renaissance sepulchral architecture—jp one

of the chapels of St. Peter’s

But the new design was to consist of

a great three-sided structure, two courses high, projecting from

the church wall, and decorated on its three unattached sides with statues. A much injured and not indisputable sketch by the master at Berlin, with a copy of the same by Sacchetti, are Supposed to

show the design at this stage of its reduction. was to be completed in nine years’ time.

The entire wor

During the next three

years, it would seem, Michelangelo brought to completion three at least of the promised figures, for which the blocks had reached Rome from Carrara as early as July 1508; and they are am the most famous of all existing works of the sculptor’s ar,—

namely, the “Moses,” now in the church of S. Pietro in Vincoli a Rome and the two “Slaves” at the Louvre. The “Moses,” originally intended for one of the angles of the upper course, is now placed at the level of the eye in the centre of the reduced monument. The prophet supposed to have just found the Israelites worshipping the golden calf, sits heavily bearded

and draped, his head raised and turned to the left, his right arm grasping the tables of the law—an incarnation of majestic indigna. tion and menace. The work, except in one or two places, is of the utmost finish. The “Slaves” at the Louvre are youthful mak figures of equally perfect execution, nude but for the band which passes over the breast of one and the right leg of the other. One,

with his left hand raised to his head, his eyes almost closed, seems succumbing to the agonies of death; the other, with his arms bound behind his back, looks upward still hopelessly struggling. All three of these figures were finished between 1513 and 1516, By 1516 Michelangelo’s evil star was again in the ascendant. Julius II. had been succeeded on the papal throne by Cardinal Giovanni dei Medici under the title of Leo X. The Medici, too, had about the same time re-established their sway in Florence. The consequence to him of the rise to power of the Medici was

a fresh interruption of his cherished work on the tomb of Julius. Leo X. and hbis kinsmen were full of a new scheme for the adorm ment of the façade of their own family church of San Lorenzo m Florence. Michelangelo offered his services for the new facade. They were eagerly accepted, although for a moment the idea had been entertained of entrusting the work to Leonardo da Vinci The heirs of Julius at the request of Leo allowed their threeyears’-old contract to be cancelled in favour of another, whereby the scale and sculptured decorations of the Julian monument wert again to be reduced. Michelangelo soon produced for the San Lorenzo façade a design of combined sculpture and architecture

as splendid and ambitious in its way as had been that for the original monument of Julius. The contract was signed in January 1518, and the artist went to Carrara to superintend the excavation of the marbles. When all was well in progress there under his own eye, reasons of state induced the Medici and the Florentine magistracy to bid him resort instead to certain new quarries at Pietrasanta, neat Serravalle in the territory of Florence. Hither Michelangelo atcordingly had to transfer the scene of his labours. Presently he found himself so impeded and enraged by the mechanical difculties of raising and transporting the marbles, and by the dsloyalty and incompetence of those with whom he had to deal, that he was fain to throw up the commission altogether. The contracts for the facade of San Lorenzo were rescinded in March 1518, and the whole magnificent scheme came to nothing. Michelangelo then returned to Florence, where proposals of work poured

in on him from many quarters.

The king of France desired

something from his hand. The authorities of Bologna wanted him

to design a facade for their church of St. Petronius; those of Genoa to cast a statue in bronze of their great commander,

Andrea Doria. Cardinal Grimani begged hard for any picture o statue he might have to spare. Lastly his friend and partis%

Sebastian del Piombo at Rome besought him on Raphael’s desth

to return at once to Rome, and take out of the hands of master’s pupils the work of painting still remaining to in the Vatican chambers. Michelangelo complied with and extent of the original design had been we do not know, only these requests. All that we certainly know of his doing that the monument was to stand four-square and free—a thing r518 and 1522 is the blocking out in the rough of four

the dead be dome none of betweet more

MEDICI MONUMENT]

MICHELANGELO

413

tbe “Slaves” for the tomb of Julius, and carrying out a com- and Child and of the two famous monumental groups, each commission, which he had received from three citizens of Rome as posed of an armed and seated portrait-statue in a niche, with two early as 1514, for a statue of the risen Christ. The roughed-out | emblematic figures reclining on each side of a sarcophagus below. “Slaves” now stand in the Academy of Fine Arts, Florence; the l The “Madonna and Child” (left unfinished because the marble Christ, practically finished by the master but with the last touches was short in bulk) combines the divers qualities of realistic added by pupils, stands in the church, for which it was destined,

of Sta. Maria sopra Minerva at Rome.

|motive

Return to Florence and Patronage of the Medici—The next twelve years of Michelangelo's life (1522-1534) were spent at Florence, and again employed principally in the service of the

|

and natural animation with learned complexity of design

and imposing majesty of effect. It was set up finally—not in accordance with the artist’s first intention—against a blank wall of the chapel, and flanked by statues of SS. Cosmo and Damian, the work of pupils. The portraits are treated not realistically but

Medici. The plan of a great group of monuments to deceased | typically. In that of Lorenzo seems to be typified the mood of

members of this family, to be set up in.a new sacristy or mortuary | crafty brooding and concentrated inward thought; in that of Giuliano, the type of alert and confident practical survey immediately preceding action. At the feet of the duke Giuliano recline the shapes of “Night” and “Day”’—the former a female, the latter

chapel in San Lorenzo, was first broached to Michelangelo in 1520 by Cardinal Giulio dei Medici. No practical impulse, however, was given to the work until Giulio had in his turn become pope in 1523 under the title of Clement VII. First Clement proposed to associate another artist, Sansovino, with Michelangelo in his task. This proposal being on Michelangelo’s peremptory demand abandoned, Clement next distracted the artist with an order for a new architectural design—that, namely, for the proposed Medicean or

“Laurentian” library. When at last the plans for the sepulchral chapel or “Sagrestia nuova” took shape, they did not include, as had been at first intended, memorials to the founders of the house’s greatness, Cosimo (pater patriae) and Lorenzo the Magnificent, or even to Pope Leo X. himself, but only to two members of the house lately deceased, Giuliano, duke of Nemours, and Lorenzo, duke of Urbino. Michelangelo was still engaged on the execution of this work—his time being partly also taken up by the building-

plans for the Medicean library—when political revolutions inter-

posed to divert his industry. In 1527 came to pass the sack of Rome by the army of Charles V., led by the connétable de Bourbon, and the apparently irretrievable ruin of Pope Clement. The Florentines seized the occasion to expel the Medici, and set up a free republican government once more. Naturally no more funds for the works in San Lorenzo were forthcoming, and Michelangelo, ou the invitation of the new signory, occupied himself for a while with designs for a group of Hercules and Cacus, and another of Samson and the Philistines—the latter to be wrought out of a block of marble which had been rough-hewn already for another purpose by Baccio Bandinelli. Soon, however, he was called to help in defending the city. Clement and his enemy Charles V. having become reconciled, both alike were now bent on bringing Florence again under the rule of the Medici. Michelangelo was appointed engineer-in-chief of the fortifications. He spent the early summer of 1529 in strengthening the defences of San Min-

ato; from July to September he was absent on a diplomatic misson to Ferrara and Venice. Returning in the middle of the latter month, he found the cause of Florence hopeless from internal treachery and from the overwhelming strength of her enemies. One of his dark seizures overcame him, and he departed again suddenly for Venice. There for a while he remained, negotiating for a future residence in France. Then, while the siege was still in progress, he returned once more to Florence; but in

the final death-struggle of her liberties he bore no part. When

in 1530 the city submitted to her conquerors, no mercy was shown to most of those who had taken part in her defence. Michelangelo

believed himself in danger with the rest, but on the intervention of Baccio Valori he was presently taken back into favour and employment by Pope Clement. For four years more he continued towork at intervals on the completion of the Medici monuments, with the help from 1 532 of Giovanni Montorsoli and other pupils, and on the building of the Laurentian library. In 1531 he suffered & Severe illness; in 1532 he made a long stay at Rome, and en-

tered upon yet another contract for the completion of the Julian

monument, to be reduced now to a still more shrunken scale and

to be placed not in St. Peter’s but in the church of San Pietro in

Vincoli. In the autumn of 1534 he left Florence for good. What remamed to be done in the Medici chapel was done by pupils, and the chapel was not finally opened to view until 1545. Medici Monument.—The statues of the Medici monument take rank beside the “Moses” and the “Slaves” as the finest

Work of Michelangelo in sculpture. They consist of a Madonna

a male, personification; the former sunk in an attitude of deep but uneasy slumber, the latter (whose head and face are merely

blocked out of the marble) lifting himself in one of wrathful and disturbed awakening. As grand, but far less violent, are those of the two companion figures that recline between sleep and waking on the sarcophagus of the pensive Lorenzo. Of these, the male figure is known as “Evening,” the female as “Morning.” In Michelangelo's original idea, partly founded on antique precedent in pedimental and sarcophagus groups, figures of “Earth” and “Heaven” were to be associated with those of “Night” and “Day” on the monument of Giuliano, and others—no doubt of a corresponding nature, with those of the Morning and Evening Twilight on that of Lorenzo. These figures afterwards fell out of the scheme and the recesses designed for them remain empty. Michelangelo’s obvious and fundamental idea was to exhibit the elements and the powers of earth and heaven lamenting the death of the princes. River-gods were to recline on the broad bases at the foot of the monuments. These too are lacking. They were never finished, but a bronze cast from a small model of one of them, and the torso of a large model, have lately been identified, the former in the National Museum and the latter in the Academy at Florence.

Other Works, 1522-1534.—“Victory” marble (National Museum, Florence). A youthful conqueror standing over a bearded enemy, whose shoulders he crushes down with his left knee. Fine and finished work: whether intended for one of the emblematic Victories of the Julian monument, or having some connection with the “Hercules and Cacus” and “Samson and the Philistine,” subjects undertaken for the Signory in 1528, must remain uncertain. For the former of these two subjects a wax model at the Victoria and Albert Museum, for the latter a plaster model at the Casa

Buonarroti, are claimed, perhaps rightly, as original. “David” (formerly called “Apollo”), marble, unfinished (National Museum, Florence). Both the authenticity and the approximate date of this fine work are beyond doubt: of its origin and destination we are uninformed. “Crouching boy,” marble, unfinished (the Hermitage, St. Petersburg). Another masterly sketch in marble; the seated lad stoops forward between his parted knees, having both hands occupied with his left foot; the figure blocked out of the marble, with the least possible sacrifice of the material; the subject and motive enigmatical. “Cupid,” marble (Victoria and Albert Museum); probably, but not quite certainly, authentic; if so, then of 1530 or thereabouts; its identification with the early Cupid done for Jacopo Galli at Rome in 1496 is untenable. Later Life in Rome.—NMichelangelo had fully purposed, .as soon as he could get free of his task on the Medici tombs, to devote all his powers to the completion of the Julian monument in accordance with the new contract of 1532. But his intention was again frustrated. Pope Clement insisted that he must complete his decorations of the Sixtine Chapel by painting anew the great end wall above the altar, adorned until then by frescoes of Perugino. The subject chosen was the Last Judgment; and Michelangelo began to prepare sketches. In the autumn of 1534, in his sixtieth year, he settled for the remainder of his life, at Rome. Immediately afterwards Clement died, and was succeeded by a Farnese under the title of Paul ITI. Even more than his predecessor, Paul insisted on claiming the main services of Michelangelo for himself.

414

MICHELANGELO

[LAST YEARS

For the first seven years after the artist’s return to Rome, his time was principally taken up with the painting of the colossal and multitudinous “Last Judgment.” This being completed in 1541, he was next compelled to undertake two more great frescoes— one of the Conversion of Paul and another of the Martyrdom of Peter—in a new chapel which the pope had caused to be built in the Vatican, and named after himself—Capella Paolina. The fresco of the “Last Judgment” in the Sixtine Chapel is probably the most famous single picture in the world. In it Michelangelo shows more than ever the omnipotence of his artistic science, and the fiery daring of his conceptions. But the work, so far as its deplorably deteriorated condition admits comparison,

! ber; other important examples remain still at what was for cen. turies the home of his heirs, the Casa Buonarroti at Florence: others at the Uffizi, Florence; the Venice Academy; the Albertina Vienna; the Louvre; the Condé Museum at Chantilly; the Berlin Museum; and, not least, the Teyler Museum at Haarlem. Ry means of these drawings and the many published facsimiles we are best able to trace the progress of the master’s genius and its sp. crets. We see him diligently copying in youth from the frescoes of Giotto, Masaccio, and his own master Ghirlandaio. At this

effect to the earlier and far more nobly inspired frescoes of the ceiling. It is to these and not to the “Last Judgment” that the student must turn if he would realize what is best and greatest in the art of Michelangelo. The frescoes of the Pauline Chapel are on their part so injured as to be hardly susceptible of useful study or criticism. In their ruined state they bear evidence of the same tendencies that made the art of Michelangelo in its latest phase so dangerous an example to weaker men—the tendency, that is, to seek for unqualified energy and violence of action, both in place and out, for “terribleness” guand méme, and to design actions not by help of direct study from nature, but by scientific deduction from the abstract laws of structure and movement. At best these frescoes can never have been happy examples of Michelangelo’s art. Other Works of 1534-1549. Scurprure-—During the fifteen years when Michelangelo was mainly engaged on these paintings, he had also at last been enabled to acquit himself, although in a manner that can have been satisfactory to none concerned, of his engagements to the heirs of Julius. Once more the influence of the pope had prevailed on them to accept a compromise altogether to their disadvantage. By a final contract dated 1542, it was agreed that the “Moses” executed thirty years before, seated on a low plinth in a central recess, should be the chief figure of the new scheme; in niches at either side of him were to be standing figures of “Leah” and “Rachel.” These Michelangelo himself executed hastily with the help of assistants, To pupils entirely was left the carrying out of the upper cornice, with the recumbent effigy of the pope occupying the centre of a weak and incongruous architectural scheme, a Madonna and Child in a niche above, and a prophet and a sibyl in recesses at either side. Meantime all idea of incorporating any of the “Slaves” in the new design had been abandoned. The master gave the two that had

the accessory figures for the tomb of Julius as first conceived, and

is hardly comparable in the qualities of colour and decorative

been finished in 1513~1516 to Robert Strozzi, who gave them to Francis I. “Brutus,” marble (National Museum, Florence). Probably executed soon after 1539, in memory of the tyrannicide Lorenzino de’ Medici. To the end of this period or to a year or two later belongs the infinitely pathetic unfinished sketch in marble of a life-size “Pietà” (Palazzo Rondini, Rome)—the mourning mother, standing on an elevation behind her son, holds bis body upright in front of her by the shoulders. Still later, after 1550, is the more complicated and more finished group of the “Pietà,” with the corpse of Christ collapsing in utter relaxation through the arms of those who try to uphold it: this Michelangelo destined for his own sepulchre; it stands now in the cathedral at Florence. Pamtinc—“The Entombment of Christ” (National Gallery, London). This unfinished painting bears all the marks of Michelangelo’s design, and must have been begun from a cartoon by him, probably of about 1535-1540. i . .. For nearly all his great life-works mentioned above, preparatory sketches and studies by the master’s hand exist. These, with a

large number of other drawings, finished and unfinished, done for their own sakes and not fer any ulterior use, are of infinite value

date his instrument was the pen only, used in a manner of hatch

ing: sometimes extremely careful and close, at others fiercely bold and free, and in either case all his own. Sketches and studies thus

drawn with the pen exist for the “David,” the “Bathers Surprised,”

the great series of the Sixtine Chapel decorations. By, or even before, the date of the Sixtine Chapel, chalk, red or black, comes into use along with the pen, and many of the finest studies for the “Slaves” or “Atlases” and other decorative figures of the ceil.

ing are in the latter material (many more studies are preserved for these subordinate figures than for the main compositions), After the Sixtine Chapel period the pen gives way to red chalk almost entirely. Sketches are rare for the great scheme of the Julius monument; almost non-existent equally abortive San Lorenzo facade; fairly abundant

or black abortive for the for the

various stages of the Medici monument scheme in its architectural parts, but not for the great figures. About the time of Michel angelo’s final change of domicile from Florence to Rome (1532 1535) he began the practice of making highly finished and fully shaded drawings of classic or symbolic subjects in red or black chalk for presentation to his friends, especially to young Tommaso Cavalieri, the object of his passionate Platonic affection, from about 1532. The “Fall of Phaeton,” the “Tityos,” the “Gany-

mede,” the “Men shooting at a Mark,” are well-known examples; in this class of work the Windsor collection is far the richest. At the same time, or soon afterwards, were produced drawings little less powerful and finished of Christian subjects, especially the “Crucifixion,” “Entombment” and “Resurrection.” Then comes the great fresco of the “Last Judgment,” for which there exist both general sketches and particular studies. In the few extant drawings for the Capella Paolina a faltering both of the imagination and of the hand become discernible. To the same or to still later years belong many beautiful but somewhat tentative drawings done either directly for, or nearly in the spirit of, the famous “Crucifixion” which he is recorded to have painted with so much devotion for Vittoria Colonna. Poetry.—During his later years the long-pent human elements of fervour and tenderness in Michelangelo’s nature had found utterance such as they had never found before. He had occasion-

ally practised poetry in youth, and there are signs of some transient love-passages during his life at Bologna. But it was not until towards his sixtieth year that the springs of feeling

were fairly opened in the heart of this solitary, this masterful and stern, life-wearied and labour-hardened man.

About 1533-

1534 we find him beginning to address impassioned sonnets—0 which the sentiment is curiously comparable to that expressed in some of Shakespeare’s—to a beautiful and gifted youth, the young Roman

noble Tommaso

Cavalieri.

Soon afterwards he

made the acquaintance of the pious, accomplished and high-souled

lady, Vittoria Colonna, widow of the Marquess Pescara. For ten years until her death, which happened in 1547, her friendship

was the great solace of Michelangelo’s life. On her, in all loyalty

and reverence, he poured out all the treasures of his mind and all his imprisoned powers of tenderness and devotion. She was the chief inspirer of his poetry—of which, along with her praises the main themes are the Christian religion, the joys of Platoax love, and the power and mysteries of art. Michelangelo’s poetic

and interest te the student. Michelangelo was the most learned and scientific as well as the most inspired and daring of draughts- style is strenuous and concentrated like the man. He wrote wi men, and from boyhood to extreme old age never ceased to prac- labour and much self-correction; we seem to feel him fimgmg tise with pen, chalk or pencil. There are some 250 genuine sheets himself on the material of language with the same overwhelming a scattered amongst various collections, chiefly public; those in energy and vehemence with which contemporaries describe him

Ragland (at the British Museum, the University Galleries, Oxford, the Royal Library; Windsor), are quite half the whole num-

~ ADR

flinging himself on the material of marble—the same impet

of temperament combined with. the same fierce desire of pe

+15

MICHELET fection. but with far less either of innate instinct for the material

or of trained mastery over its difficulties.

Last Years: Architecture.——And so the mighty sculptor, painter and poet reached old age. An infirmity which settled on

him in 1544, and the death of Vittoria Colonna in 1547, left him broken in heaith and heart. But his strength held on for many a

vear longer yet. His father and brothers were dead, and his family sentiment concentrated itself on a nephew. Leonardo, to whom

he showed unremitting practical kindness, coupled with his usual suspiciousness and fitfulness of temper.

During the last years

of his life he was much employed in the fourth art in which he

Justi, Michelangelo

(Leipzig,

1903),

and

with

caution

H. Thode,

Michelangelo u. das Ende der Renaissance (1902-03). Of the poems of Michelangelo the first sound edition is that already referred to, G. Guasti, Rime di Michelangelo Buonarroti (1863) ; in earlier editions the text had been recklessly tampered with, and the rugged individual_ ity of the master’s style smoothed down. An edition with German translations was published by Hasenclever (Leipzig, 1875); and a thorough critical edition by Karl Frey (Berlin, 1897); for the English student the translations by J. A. Symonds, in Sonnets of Michelangelo and Campanella (1878) are invaluable On the drawings of Michelangelo see especially B. Berenson, The Drawings of Florentine Painters (1903). A comprehensive work on the same subject, in which the most important examples are reproduced and discussed, unfortunately not | arranged chronologically, is Karl Frey, Die Zeichnungen Michelangelos | (Berlin, rg08 seg.). An elaborate life by the same author (Karl Frey,

arte ee teplmsi ee

excelled—that of architecture. A succession of popes demanded his services for the embellishment of Rome. Between 1536 and! 1546 he was engaged on plans for the rearrangement and recon- ti struction of the great group of buildings on the Capitoi—plans | ł

Michelagniolo

Buonarroti, sein Leben

und seine Werke)

is more

to

be prized for documentary fullness and accuracy than for critical insight. See also Romain Rolland, Vie de Michelange (1917); E. 8, 19 1913). |Steinmann, Die Portraitdarstellungen des Michelangelo (Leipzig, ; i t

which were only partially and imperfectly carried out during his

ý

lifetime and after his death. For Paul IIT. he finished the palace | MICHELET,

JULES

(1798-1874), French historian, was

which had Huguenot called after the name of the pope’s family the Farnese. On the !born at Paris on Aug. 21, 1798, of a family and Jules was offered printer, master a was father His s. tradition | he succeeded to the onerous and

death of Antonio da San Galle church, for which | a place in the imperial printing office, but his father sent him to of St. toPeter’s office ofallchief coveted he remodelled the architect designs, living see some of the main the Lycée Charlemagne, where he passed the university examinafeatures, including the supports and lower portion of the great central dome, carried out in spite of all obstacles, according to

his plans. The dome as it stands is his most conspicuous and one of his noblest monuments: the body of the church was completed

in a manner quite different from his devising. Other great architectural tasks on which he was engaged were the reconstruction of the Porta Pia, and the conversion of a portion of the baths of Diocletian into the church of Sta. Maria degli Angeli; the great cloister with its hundred columns, now used as the Museo delle Terme. is the only part of this reconstruction which remains as

he designed it. At length, in the midst of these vast schemes and responsibilities, the heroic old man’s last remains of strength gave way. He died on the threshold of his ninetieth year, on Feb. 18, 1564.

tion in 1821. Shortly in the Collége Rollin. tween 1825 and 1827 tables, ete., of modern

after appointed he began to teach history Soon after this, in 1824, he married. Behe produced divers sketches, chronological history. In 1827 he was appointed maitre

de conférences at the Ecole normale. Four years later, in 1831, the Introduction à Vhistoire universelle showed a very different style, displaying the peculiar visionary qualities which made Michelet the most stimulating, but the most untrustworthy (not in facts, which he never consciously falsifies, but in suggestion) of all historians. The events of 1830 had unmuzzled him, and had put him in a better position for study by obtaining for him a place in the Record Office, and a deputy-professorship under Guizot in the literary faculty of the

university.

Soon

afterwards

he began

his chief and

monu-

AvtRoRITIES.—For the bibliography of Michelangelo, which is mental work, the Histoire de France. But he accompanied this extensive, see E. Steinmann and R. Wittkover, Michelangelo-Bibli- with numerous other books, chiefly of erudition, such as the ographie (Leipzig, 1927). The most important works, taken in Oeuvres choisies de Vico, the Mémoires de Luther écrits par luichronological order, are the following: P. Giovio, supplement to the même, the Origines du droit francais, and somewhat later the fragmentary Dialogus de wiris litteris illustribus, written soon after 1527, frst published by Tiraboschi, Storia della letteratura italiana Procès des templiers. In 1838 he was appointed to the chair of (Modena, 1871); G. Vasari, in Vite degli più eccellenti architettori history at the Collège de France. He published, in 1839, his Hispiliort, ¢ scultori, etc. (Florence, 1550) ; A. Condivi, Vite di Mickel- toire romaine. The results of his lectures appeared in the volumes angelo Buonarroti (1553); this account, for which the author, a pupil Le Prêtre, la femme, et la famille and le peuple. and friend of the master’s, had long been collecting materials, was The principles of the outbreak of 1848 were in the air, and much fuller than that of Vasari, who made use of it in rewriting his own life of Michelangelo for his second edition, which appeared Michelet was one of those who condensed and propagated them.

after the master’s death (1568). The best edition of Vasari is that by Milanesi (Florence, 1878-83); of Condivi, that by Antonio

Maraini (Florence, 1927); for English readers there is a useful translation by H. Home (Boston, 1904). See also C. Holroyd, Mzchael

Angelo Buonarroti with translations of the life of the master by Ascanio Condivi and three Dialogues from the Portuguese by Francisco

D’Ollanda (1903). The first additions of importance were published by Bottari, Raccolta di lettere sulla pittura, etc. (Rome, 1754; 2nd ed. by Ticozzi, Milan, 1822) ; the next by Gaye, Carieggio inedito (1840).

Portions of the correspondence preserved in the Buonarroti archives were published by Guasti in his notes to the Rime di Michelangelo Buonarroti (1863), and by Daelli in Carte Michelangelsche inedite

(Milan, 1865). Complete biographies of Michelangelo had been meanwhile attempted by J. Harford (London, 1857), and with more power ermann Grimm, Leben Michelangelos

(Hanover, sth ed., 1879).

When the actual revolution broke out Michelet devoted himself

even more strenuously to his literary work. He began and carried out, during the years between the downfall of Louis Philippe and the final establishment of Napoleon III., an enthusiastic Histoire de la révolution française. Despite or because of its enthusiasm, this was by no means Michelet’s best book. The coup d’éiat lost Michelet his place in the Record Office, as, though not in any way identified with the republic administratively, he refused to take the oaths to the empire. But the new régime only kindled afresh his republican zeal, and his second marriage (with Mile. Adéle Malairet) seems to have

further stimulated his powers. While the history steadily held its way, a crowd of extraordinary little books accompanied and diversified it. Sometimes they were expanded versions of its titere di Michelangelo Buonarroti, ed. G. Milanesi (Florence, 1875). episodes, sometimes what may be called commentaries or commaterial was first employed in a connected but too trivial ae by A. Gotti, Vita di Michelangelo (Florence, 1875). Next panion volumes. In some of the best of them natural science, a mod C. Heath Wilson, Life and Works of Michelangelo Buonarroti new subject with Michelet, to which his wife is believed to have rence, 1876), the technical remarks in which, especially as concerns introduced him, supplies the text. These are Les Femmes de la b fresco Paintings, are still valuable. Other lives of Michelangelo are révolution (1854), L’Oiseau (1856), L’Insecte, L'Amour (1859), J. A. Symonds, The Life of Michelangelo (London, 1893), full of valuable matter on the history and spirit of Michelangelo’s times, La Femme (1860), La Mer (1861), and La Sorciére (1862). Deby th trustworthy in the criticism of his works. Michelangelo, veloped out of an episode of the history, La Sorcière has all its k nutz Knapp, in the Klassiker der Kunst series (Stuttgart, 1906) author’s peculiarities in the strongest degree. It is a nightmare the. very useful compendium. For the early works of Michelangelo and nothing more, but a nightmare of the most extraordinary f Standard authority is H. Wölfflin, Die Jugendwerke Michelangelos verisimilitude and poetical power. Later short works are: La Bible eee 1891, and later editions). The most elaborate study of de Phumanité (1864), an historical sketch of religions; Le MonSixtine frescoes, magnificently illustrated, is by E. Steinmann A great increment of biographical material was at length obtained by 7ipublication, in the four-hundredth year after Michelangelo’s birth, : the whole body of his letters preserved in the Buonarroti archives,

Sixtinische Kapelle, vol. ii. (Munich, 1908).

Consult also C.| tagne (1868); Nos fils (1869), a tractate on education; and Le

MICHELL—MICHELSON

416

Banquet, posthumously published, a vivid picture of the indus- of Northgate, a brother of the cloister of St. Austin of Canter. trious and famishing populations of the Riviera. Two collections ; bury. The value of the book is chiefly philological as an authentiof pieces, written and partly published at different times, are Les cated and dated example of the southern dialect. The Ayenbite of Inwyt was edited for the Roxburghe club by the Soldats de la révolution and Légendes démocratiques du nord. The publication of this series of books, and the completion

of his history, occupied Michelet during both decades of the empire. He lived partly in France, partly in Italy, and was accustomed to spend the winter on the Riviera, chiefly at Hyères. At last, in 1867, the Histoire de France was finished. In the usual edition it fills nineteen volumes. Michelet was perhaps the first historian to devote himself to anything like a picturesque history of the middle ages, and his account is still the most vivid that exists. His inquiry into manuscript and printed authorities was most laborious, but his lively imagination, and his strong religious and political prejudices, made him regard all things from a singularly personal point of view. Uncompromisingly hostile as Michelet was to the empire, its downfall and the accompanying disasters of the country once more stimulated him to activity. Not only did he write letters and pamphlets during the struggle, but when it was over he set himself to complete the vast task which his two great histories had almost covered by a Histoire du XIX siècle. He did not, however, live to carry it farther than Waterloo. The new republic was not altogether a restoration for Michelet, and his professorship at the Collège de France of which he contended that he had never been properly deprived, was not given back to him. He died at Hyères on Feb. 9, 1874.

Rev. J. Stevenson in 1855, and for the early English Text Soc. by R Morris in 1876. i

MICHELOZZO

DI

BARTOLOMMEO

(1396-1472),

Italian architect and sculptor, was a Florentine by birth, the son of a tailor. He was trained as a goldsmith and at the age of 24 entered the workshop of Ghiberti, whom he assisted on both doors

of the Florentine Baptistry and with the statue of St. Mather’s for Or San Michele. He assisted Donatello in bronze work such as the “St. Louis’ for Or San Michele and the “‘Salome’s Dance” in the Sienese Baptistery. In 1428 he signed the contract for the exterior pulpit of the cathedral at Prato of which the sculpture is by Donatello. His first independent work in sculpture was the tomb of Bartol. Aragazzi, parts of which are at Montepulciano, and of which

the Victoria

and Albert

Museum

has two fine

figures of angels (1437). Michelozzo’s great friend and patron was

Cosimo de’ Medici, whom he accompanied to Venice in 1433

during his short exile. While at Venice, Michelozzo built the library of San Giorgio Maggiore. The magnificent Palazzo Medici-

Riccardi at Florence was designed by him for Cosimo (1444);

it is one of the noblest specimens of Italian 15th-century architecture. He built the library, convent and cloister of San Marco in Florence (1437-1452). In 1446 he succeeded Brunneleschi as architect of the Duomo. In 1448 he executed the tabernacle at

S. Miniato for Piero de’ Medici. The beautiful silver statuette of the Baptist now in the Opera del Duomo is dated 1452. He rede philosophie (1914); G., J. J. Monod, La vie et la pensée de J. modelled the interior of the Palazzo Vecchio, especially the main Michelet, 1798-1852 (2 vols. 1923); and L. Refort, L’art de Michelet court and the hall of The Two Hundred, At Milan he remodelled dans son oeuvre historique (1923). the Palace of the Medici, now Vismara, and built the Portinari MICHELL, JOHN (1724-1793), English natural philosopher Chapel at the church of S, Eustorgio. He was called to Ragusa and geologist, was born in 1724, and educated at Queens’ College, in Dalmatia in 1464 and there designed the arcade of the Palazzo Cambridge. He was a fellow of his college, and was appointed Rettorale. He also superintended the fortification on the island Woodwardian professor of geology in 1762, and in 1767 rector of of Chios. He died in Florence in 1472 and is buried in San Marco See Hans Stegman, Michelozzo di Bartolommeo (Munich, 1888); Thornhill in Vorkshire, where he died on April 29, 1793. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1760. In 1750 he pub- Fritz Wolff, Michelozzo di Bartolommeo (Strassburg, 1900); C. vou Fabriczy, Jahrbuch der Kgl. Preusz. Kss. XXV. (1904); W. Bode, lished at Cambridge a work of some 80 pages entitled A Treatise Florentiney Bildhauer (1909); A. Schmarsow, Nuovi studi intorno 4 expeditious and easy an shown ts ‘of Artificial Magnets, in which Michelozzo (Arch. stor. 1893). method of making them superior to the best natural ones. Besides MICHELSEN, PETER CHRISTIAN HERSLEB the description of the method of magnetization which still bears was bom statesman, Norwegian (1857-1925), KJERSCHOW his name, this work contains a lucid exposition of the nature of at Bergen on March 15, 1857. At the general election of 1903 he magnetic induction. He was the founder of seismology. Michell was returned to the Storting as a member for the country district was the original inventor of the torsion balance, which afterwards outside Bergen. Appointed Prime Minister in the spring of 1905 became so famous in the hands of its second inventor Coulomb. Michelsen played a leading part in the events which resulted in Michell described it in his proposal of a method for obtaining the the dissolution of the union with Sweden and the establishment mean density of the earth. He did not live to put his method into of the new kingdom of Norway. In 1907 he definitely retired practice; but this was done by Henry Cavendish (Phil. Trans., from politics and died near Bergen on June 29, 1925. 1708). His most important geological essay was that entitled MICHELSON, ALBERT ABRAHAM (1852); Conjectures concerning the Cause and Observations upon the American physicist, was born in Strelno, Germany, Dec. 19, 185°. Phaenomena of Earthquakes (Phil. Trans., li. 1760). His parents moved to San Francisco, Calif., where he studied in Michell’s other contributions to science are: “Observations on the the public schools. He graduated from the U.S. Naval Academy Comet of January 1760 at Cambridge, Phil. Trans. (1760); “A Recchemistry there (1875ommendation of Hadley’s Quadrant for Surveying,” ibid. (1765); in 1873, and was instructor in physics and “Proposal of a Method for measuring Degrees of Longitude upon 79). He was then for a short time in the Nautical Almanac office. Parallels of the Equator,” ibid. (1766) ; “An Inquiry into the Probable From 1880 to 1882 he studied in Berlin, Heidelberg and Paris. See G. Monod, Jules Michelet: études sur sa vie et ses oeuvres (Paris, 1905); R. van der Elst, Michelet, naturaliste: esquisse de son système

Parallax and Magnitude of the Fixed Stars,” zbid. (1767); “On the Twinkling of the Fixed Stars,” ibid. (1767), “On the Means of Discovering the Distance, Magnitude, etc., of the Fixed Stars,” ibid. (1784). See Charles Davidson, The Founders of Seismology (1927).

MICHEL

OF NORTHGATE,

DAN

(7. 1340), English

writer, the author of the Ayenbite of Inwyt. Nothing is known of

him except what can be gathered from his work. It is a literal translation in the Kentish dialect of a French treatise entitled Le Somme des vices et des vertues (also known as Le Miroir du monde or Le Livre des commandemens, etc.), written in 1279 by

Laurentius Gallus, a Dominican monk and confessor to Philip III. of France. This work was translated into Flemish, Catalonian, Spanish and Italian, and appears in no less than six English translations. Dan Michel’s autograph ms, is preserved in Arundel ms. 57, which states that the work was completed in the year 1340 on the eve of the apostles Simon and Jude by Dan Michel

He resigned from the Navy in 1881.

In 1883 he was appointed

professor of physics at the Case school of applied science, Cleve-

land, O., and six years later accepted a similar position at Clark University. In 1892 he was appointed professor and head of the

department of physics at the University of Chicago. He early directed his researches to the velocity of light, and while in

Cleveland invented his interferometer for measuring distances by

means of the length of light-waves. His researches enabled him to revise and improve upon the achievements of Fizeau in respect of the velocity of light. He perfected the methods for exper

menting, and determined with great precision the speed at which

light travels, Michelson measured a metre in terms of the wave-length of cadmium light for the Paris Bureau International des Poids e Mesures. The consequence is that the metre bar, hitherto care fully safeguarded in Paris, can easily be replaced, since its length

MICHELSON-MORLEY is known in terms of an absolute unit. In 1892 he was a member

417

EXPERIMENT

Preliminary experiments were carried out by Michelson alone

of the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures and in 1897 | in 1881; the experiment with Morley, of a superior order of of the International Committee of Weights and Measures. He was accuracy, was performed in 1887. In the experiment of 1887 the

ident of the American Physical Society in 1901, of the American Society for the Advancement of Science in 1910, and of the National Academy of Science (1923-27). He received medals and prizes from many learned societies, and in 1907 was awarded

the Nobel Prize for physics. During the World War he rejoined

the naval service and devoted his entire time to new devices for naval use. His range-finder was adopted as part of the U.S. Navy

equipment. In 1920 he was able to demonstrate by means of light interference that the diameter of Betelgeuse was 260,000,ooo miles. This was the first approximately accurate determina-

tion of the size of a star. He published Velocity of Light (1902);

Light Waves and Their Uses (1903); Studies in Optics (1927); and numerous papers in scientific journals. He was the first to be

appointed “distinguished service professor” at the University of Chicago (1926).

(For the “Michelson-Morley

experiment” in

interference of light, with its bearing on the Einstein theory, see RELATIVITY.)

MICHELSON-MORLEY EXPERIMENT. Acelebrated experiment carried out by A. A. Michelson and E. W. Morley, to

attempt to measure a velocity of the earth through the ether by the effect which such a velocity might be anticipated to have on the velocity of light. Had such a velocity been established, axes fixed in the ether could have been taken as standards of fixed

position, to which all velocities could be referred, and in this sense we should have been able to talk of the absolute velocity

of a material body, as distinct from the relative velocity of two

material bodies. The failure of Michelson and Morley to detect any influence of the earth’s motion on the velocity of light really formed the starting point of Einstein’s theory of relativity (see RELATIVITY), and it is on account of its importance for this theory that the experiment is so fundamental, and has been so often repeated. In the experiment light is sent along two paths at right angles to one another. If the luminiferous ether were a fixed medium, obeying the laws of such a wave-carrying medium as an elastic solid (or, to be more correct, if less suggestive, of a medium obeying the laws represented by Maxwell’s original equations) then the time of the passage of the light should be greater for a to-and-fro path in the direction of the earth’s motion through the ether than for a to-and-fro path, of equal length, at right angles to the direction of motion. More precisely, when light goes from a source to a mirror at distance / and back, and both source and mirror are moving with the same velocity v, the time taken is

: + = c—v c when the motion is in the direction of the rays, and is

Aa C

—

2

(24 =)

c

g>

2

and at (r+: =) respectively,

c?

2

so that the difference depends on (=) which, on account of the C

smallness of all terrestrial velocities compared to the velocity of , is very small and requires the greatest refinement of experi-

mental skill for its detection. (See RELATIVITY.) _ H, therefore, the apparatus can be set so that one path lies m the direction of motion, and can then be turned through a right angle, the two beams of light will interchange their rôles, the one which in the first position travelled the faster travelling the slower in the second position. If, further, a system of interference fringes is formed by the two beams, as is done in the

Michelson interferometer (see INTERFEROMETER), then it follows af once that this fringe system will shift when the apparatus

8 slowly rotated, so that it must pass through the two positions Just specified twice per revolution.

out causing any strains to be set up. To increase the light path, and so the effect to be sought, each of the interfering beams was

reflected several times backwards and forwards: four mirrors were used to replace each of the single mirrors in the simple form of interferometer, and their supplementary mirrors. The total length of the path of either beam was about

1,100

cm.

With

such a path length the difference of times to be expected on the fixed ether hypothesis, though only about 1 in 100,000,000, should give rise to a displacement of -4 of a fringe. But the actual displacement measured was at most a fortieth of this value. In carrying out the experiment the orbital motion of the earth alone was considered, the sun being considered at rest. (The rotational motion of the earth produces a velocity which is, of course, negligibly small compared to the orbital motion.) Readings were made for sixteen different directions, the stone being

kept slowly turning and the observations taken by the experimenter walking round with it. The experiment was carried out at midday, when the velocity relative to the sun is in the plane of the apparatus, and at 6 p.m., when the velocity is normal to the plane of the apparatus. To see if there was a velocity of the solar system as a whole through the ether, which might, by a remote chance, have cancelled out the orbital motion at the particular month of the experiment, it was proposed to repeat the experiment every three months. Recent experiments have put this possible explanation of the negative effect out of court. The experiment is of such fundamental importance that it has been much repeated, with a view both to increasing the accuracy and to investigating suggested explanations of the negative effect, other than that offered by the theory of relativity. In 1904, that is, a year before Einstein first put forward his theory, Morley and Miller carried out new measurements. It had been suggested that the contraction in the direction of motion demanded by the Fitzgerald-Lorentz hypothesis (see RELATIVITY) might be a property of particular materials only, and that it would be desirable to try the effect of replacing the stone on which the interferometer parts were mounted by other substances. Morley and Miller used both a wooden and a steel framework to support the apparatus, which was floated on mercury, as in 1887. The path length was increased to 3,224 cm., which is 55 million wave lengths of yellow (sodium) light, so that the fringe displacement should, on the hypothesis of a stationary ether, be 1-1 fringes in place of the -4 fringes of 1887. In the cellar at Cleveland where the apparatus was mounted the effect was less than one hundredth of this amount, which is alternatively expressed by saying that these results show that the velocity of the earth with reference to a

c

when it is crosswise, c being velocity of light. These expressions are approximately

interferometer was mounted on a heavy block of stone which was carried by a disc of wood floating in a tank of mercury: this arrangement enabled the apparatus to be retated smoothly with-

Michelson and Morley looked

fer, but failed to find, any shift of fringes of the order of magto be expected on the hypothesis of a fixed ether.

hypothetical stationary ether is at most 3 kilometers (say 2 miles) a second. (The shift is, of course, proportional to the square of the velocity, and the earth’s orbital velocity is about 30 kilometres

per second.)

Morley and Miller took into account the motion

of the solar system towards a certain fixed point in the heavens, and compounded this with the velocity of the earth in the solar system when computing the magnitude and direction of the velocity of the apparatus. In 1905 and 1906 Morley and Miller removed their apparatus from the cellar and installed it in a light shed at a height of 300 feet above Lake Erie, to see if possibly the nature of the immediate surroundings, whether massive or no, affected the “ether wind” which the experiment was designed to detect. A possible effect of about jt, of the calculated value was detected, but it was not clear whether this was a spurious effect of temperature. Tt would be a result of the first importance, constituting a grave blow to the theory of relativity, if an actual effect, which varied with the height above sea level or with the surroundings, could be definitely established, and therefore in 1921 and again In 1925 D. C. Miller carried out experiments of the Michelson and Morley

type at Mount Wilson, about 1,800 metres (6,000 feet) above sea

MICHIGAN

418

level. To avoid possible magnetic effects the steel frame used in the earlier experiments was later replaced by a concrete frame. Miller, as a result of several thousand readings, arrived at the conclusion that there was a small positive effect, about 9 kilometers per second, as against the full orbital velocity of 30 kilometers per second, and also considered that the experiments in the cellar at Cleveland showed a still smaller positive result. He attempted to explain his results by a drift of the solar system

in a direction nearly normal to the plane of the ecliptic. These experiments of Miller naturally attracted much attention, but it appears almost certain that the positive effect must be due to unrecognised sources of error, possibly to temperature effects. It has, for instance, been pointed out, notably by Thirring, that the measurements of Miller are not consistent among themselves, from the point of view of his explanation. To check Miller’s results R. J. Kennedy repeated the experiment, using an ingenious modification of the interferometer, produced by making a small step, only one-twentieth of a wave length in height, on one of the totally reflecting mirrors. This produces two fringe systems bordering on one another, which enables a very slight displacement of the interference patterns, of the order of 4 thousandths of a fringe, to be detected. Kennedy’s apparatus was comparatively small, the light path being only 4 metres, and sealed up in a case containing helium, the re-

fractivity of which is only one-eighth that of air, at atmospheric pressure. The experiments were carried out at times of day when Miller’s effect should be greatest, but no positive effect was ever found. although a shift one-quarter as great as that measured by Miller would have been detected. K. K. Illingworth has repeated Kennedy’s experiments, likewise finding no positive result (1927). Both Kennedy’s and Illingworth’s experiments were carried out in a constant temperature basement at Pasadena, California, which gives defenders of the reality of Miller’s effect a possible line of criticism, namely that while no

[PHYSICAL FEATURES

Ontario, Canada; south by lakes Huron and Michigan and the

straits of Mackinac, which separate it from the lower peninsula. and south-west and west by Wisconsin, and the Menominee, Bryle and Montreal rivers, which separate it from Wisconsin. The lower peninsula is bounded north by lakes Michigan and Huron and the straits of Mackinac, east by lakes Huron, St. Clair and Erie and the St. Clair and Detroit rivers, which separate it from Ontario: south by Ohio and Indiana, and west by Lake Michigan. In size Michi. gan ranks 21st among the States of the Union, its total area being 57,980 sq.m. of which 500 sq.m. exclusive of its Great Lakes jurisdiction, are water surface. Physical Features.—The northern part of the State isrugged mountainous “old land,” not completely worn down by erosion:

and the southern part is a portion of the old coastal plain, whose layers contain salt, gypsum and some inferior coal. Lake Huron, on the east, and Lake Michigan on the west of the lower peninsula

are each 5814 ft. above sea-level, and Lake Superior on the north of the upper peninsula is 602 ft. above sea-level. For the most part the surface of the State is gently undulating and at a slight eleva. tion above the lakes, but low marsh lands are common to many sections; the north part of the lower peninsula is occupied by a plateau of considerable dimensions, and the north-west part of

the upper peninsula is rugged with hills and mountains. Crossi the lower peninsula from Saginaw bay west by south through the

valleys of the Saginaw, Maple and Grand rivers, is a depression— the former channel of an old glacial river—in which elevations for a considerable area are less than roo ft. above the lakes. To the south-east of this depression a water-parting with summits

varying from point between south border quite rapidly

about 400 to 600 ft. above the lakes extends from a Saginaw bay and Lake Huron, south by west, to the of the State and beyond. The east slope descends to a low flat belt from 5 to 40 m. wide along the east border of the State south from Lake Huron. From Lake Huron to the south-east shore of Saginaw bay a wide sandy beach

positive result can be found in a sheltered spot, where massive surroundings check the “ether wind,” this does not prove that a small positive effect does not exist at a height, in a free situation. This last possibility is, however, removed by the experiments

of Piccard and Stahel, carried out at intervals from 1926 to 1928. These workers placed the apparatus in a free balloon, the chief measurements being made at a height of 2,500 metres. The apparatus was a small interferometer of Michelson-Morley pat-

tern, with multiple reflections. The fringes were registered photographically, on a moving film, and the balloon was kept in steady rotation by small air screws. No trace of an effect was ever found. In January, 1929, Michelson published a preliminary account of a repetition of the Michelson-Morley experiment carried out by himself in collaboration with Drs. Pease and Pearson, with new refinements: the results, in contradiction to Miller’s, were negative. We may therefore say that the broad result of a series of experiments of Michelson-Morley type is that no motion of the earth through the ether can be detected by an influence on the velocity of light. For theoretical implications see RELATIVITY. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Brief accounts of the Michelson-Morley experiment are given in the standard text-books of light, cited under Licur, and

the experiment is discussed in all books on relativity

(g¢.v.).

The

most important original papers are:—A. A. Michelson and E. W. Morley, Philosophical Magazine, 24, 449 (1887); E. W. Morley and D. C. Miller, Philosophical Magazine, 9, 680 (1905); D. C. Miller, Proceedings National Academy of Sciences, 11, 306 (1925); H. Thirring (criticism of D. C. Miller’s results), Zeitschrift fir Physik, 35, 723 (1926); J. R. Kennedy, Proceedings National Academy of Sciences, 12, 621 (1926); K. K. Illingworth, Physical Review, 30, 692

(z927); A. Piccard and E. Stahel, Naturwissenschaften, 14, 935 (1926); 15, 140 (1927); 16, 25 (1928); A. A. Michelson, Nature, 123,

88 (1929).

(E. N. pa C. A.)

WISCONSIN 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Calumet Marquette Menominee Cheboygan Bay City Saginaw

Muskegon 8 Grand Rapids.

9 Flint

=

10 Port Huron 11 12 13 14 15 16

=

=

=

y

=

:

Pontiac Kalamazoo Battle Creek Jackson Ann Arbor Detroit

ILLINOIS 20 0 0

20

40

60

80

WO MILES

MAP SHOWING THE MAIN ROADS IN MICHIGAN

is followed northward by precipitous shores abounding in rocks and bluffs. West of the divide and south of the depression, south

MICHIGAN (miïshi-gan), known as the “Wolverine State,” west Michigan is occupied by the valleys of the St. Joseph, Kale-

is one of the north central group of the United States of America. It is situated between latitudes 41° 44’ and 47° 30’ N. and longi-

tudes 82° 25” and go° 31’ W., and consists of two peninsulas,—

the upper or northern and the lower or southern—separated by a strait. The upper peninsula is bounded north by Lake Superior; .Bast by lakes Superior, Huron and Michigan, and by Whitefish

mazoo and Grand rivers, by the gently rolling uplands that form

the parting divides between them, and by sand dunes, which here and there rise to a height of from 100 to 200 ft. or more along the shore of Lake Michigan, and are formed on this side (but not of

the Wisconsin side) of the lake by the prevailing west winds. The surface of the upper peninsula is more irregular than

i ey and. St. Mary’s river, which separate it from the Province of of the lower peninsula. A portion extending through the middie of

h, À ae i

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a

A

MICHIGAN

FLORA AND FAUNA]

419

from east to west and south, from west of the centre of Green birds the favourites are the robin, thrush, bobolink, oriole, chicks. Among bay, is either flat and even swampy or only gently undulating. | meadow-lark, cat-bird, blue-bird, wrens and warbler the one lining _ adee, i fishes, white fish, wall-eyes, lake trout, perch, herring, sun-fish, Fastward from Green bay are two ranges of hills; the south shore and ranging from 100 to 300 ft. in height, the bass, sturgeon, pike, chubs, suckers, mullets, sheepheads and Gerother close to or touching the north shore and reaching in places man carp abound in the lakes. The speckled, brown and rainbow anelevation of 600 ft. above Lake Superior. The famous Pictured | trout thrive in many of the streams. The area now included in rocks in Alger county on the lake shore, east of Munising, form the | Michigan was a forest, except in the south-west, where there were

GRAPH SHOWING THE GROWTH 1810-1920, AND THE PERCENTAGE

OF POPULATION IN OF FOREIGN BORN

MICHIGAN

FROM

west portion of this north range; they display a wide diversity

of shapes as well as a great variety of tints and hues, especially of

grey, blue, green and yellow. The most rugged portion of the State

is farther west. South and south-east of Keweenaw bay, in the Marquette iron district, is an irregular area of mountains, hills, swamps and lakes, some of the mountain peaks of the Huron moun-

tains (in Marquette county) rising to an elevation of 1,400 ft. or more above the lake. These and a peak in the Porcupine mountains (2,023 ft. above the sea) in the north-west part of Ontonagon county are the highest in the State. To the south of this is the Menominee iron district, marked somewhat regularly by east and west ridges. Extending in a general north-east and south-west direction through Keweenaw peninsula to the Wisconsin border, and beyond, is the middle of three approximately parallel ranges, separated from each other by flat lands, with here and there an isolated peak (in the Porcupine mountains) having an elevation of from goo to 1,400 ft. above the lake. The northern portion of these ranges, together with Isle Royale some distance farther north, which is itself traversed by several less elevated parallel ridges, contains the Michigan copper-bearing rocks; while to the south, along the Wisconsin border, is the Gogebic iron district. The rivers of the entire State consist of numerous small streams

of clear water. In the interior of the upper peninsula, along the east border of the lower peninsula south from Lake Huron, and in Saginaw valley, they are rather sluggish; but many of the larger sireams of the lower peninsula have sufficient fall to furnish a large amount of water-power, while the small streams that flow into Lake Superior from the central portion of the upper peninsila as well as some of the larger ones farther west, have several falls and rapids; in places also they are lined with steep, high banks. Most of the larger rivers of the State—the Muskegon,

Grand, St. Joseph, Manistee and Kalamazoo—are in the west

portion of the lower peninsula. Several thousand lakes of clear water, formed by glacial action, dot the surface of the State, and many of them are lined with picturesque woodland shores. Islands ia lakes Superior, Michigan and Huron are scarcely less numerous.

Fauna and Flora.—Mammals include black bear, moose, deer, lynx, wolves, coyotes, wildcats, porcupine, fox, squirrels, rabbits, musk rats, minks, weasels, skunks, racoons and woodchucks. The only woodland caribou now known in United States proper are found on Isle Royale. Among the game birds

ae quail (“Bob White”), grouse, including “partridges” (ruffed grouse), ducks, geese, coots, brant, woedcocks, snipe and plover,

aswell as the imported Chinese ring-necked pheasants. Of song

a few small prairies, possibly cleared by the Indians. The re| mainder of the south part of this area for about 60 m. along the southern boundary was a part of the great hardwood forest of the Ohio basin with woods varying with soil and drainage: on the drier gravel lands were oak forests consisting of red, black and white oak, hickory, ash, cherry, basswood and walnut; in depressions there were maple, elm, ash, beech, sycamore, poplar and willow; and in the south-east there were a few chestnuts and tulip trees. North of this southern hardwood forest there were pine forests on the sandier land, mixed hardwoods and conifers on the loam and clay, and tamaracks and cedar in the swamps. The sandy lands were in part burnt over by Indians, and there was a growth of scrub oak, aspens and huckleberry bushes. The tamarack and cedar swamps now have a growth, especially on their edges, of spruce, birch, balsam, white pine, soft maple, ash and aspens. In 1920 the woodland area, including stump lands, was estimated at nearly two-thirds of the entire State; but of this area not more than 4,000,000 ac. now bear timber worth cutting. The State controls eight forest reserves, whose area is 356,388 ac., which are being re-forested at a rate of about 10,000 ac. a year. White pine, Norway pine and Jack pine are the only species planted. Two national forest units, embracing about a million acres, were established in 1928. Soil and Climate.—The soil of the south-west and south-east Michigan is for the most part a dark clay loam; in the north central part of the lower peninsula it is a light sandy loam, along the Huron shore it is heavy with blue clay, in the mining districts of the north-west the rocks are usually either barren or very thinly covered; and elsewhere in the State the soil is generally rich in a variety of mineral elements. Although the temperature of the entire lower peninsula is considerably influenced by the lakes, yet the prevailing winds being westerly, it is in the west portion of that peninsula that the moderation is greatest, both the summer and winter isotherms being there deflected more than half the length of the peninsula. On the other hand, the prevailing winds of the upper peninsula being north-westerly, the lakes have little effect on the temperature there; and so, while in the south-west the extremes are not great, in the rest of the State they have ranged within two years from 108° to 48° below zero. Throughout the State July is invariably the warmest month, February the coldest; the mean annual temperature is about 45°. The mean annual precipitation is not far from 31 in., a little more than one-half of which falls during the five growing months from May to October; the rain is evenly distributed over all parts of the State, but the snow is exceptionally heavy along the north shore of the upper peninsula. Government.—The Constitution under which Michigan is now governed was first adopted in 1850, when it was felt that the powers which the first one, that of 1835, conferred upon the executive and the legislature were too wide. In 1908 it was revised. The Constitution admits of amendment by an affirmative vote of two-thirds of the members of each house of the legislature, followed by an affirmative vote of a majority of the electors voting upon the question; or an amendment may be proposed by an initiative petition signed by 10% of the total number of electors, and such an amendment is submitted to popular vote at the next election and comes into effect only if it receives a favourable majority of the popular vote. Amendments suggested by the legislature have been frequently adopted, and one, adopted in 1862,

provided that the question of a general revision of the Constitution shall be submitted to a popular vote once every 16 years and at such other times as might be provided by law. When this ques-

tion was so submitted for the first time, in 1866, the vote was to revise; but the revision prepared by a convention called for the purpose was rejected at the polls. The revision by the Consti-

420

MICHIGAN

[GOVERNMENT

tutional Convention of 1907-08 was adopted by popular vote in 1908. The question of revision was again submitted to the electors in 1926 and was rejected by a vote of 285,252 to 119,491. Inits present form the Constitution confers suffrage upon every citizen of the United States who is 21 years of age or over and has resided in the State six months and in his township or ward 20 days immediately preceding an election. At the head of the executive department is the governor, who is elected for two years, and who at the time of his election must be at least 30 years of age and must have been for five years a citizen of the United States, and for the two years immediately preceding a resident of the State. A lieutenant governor, for whom the same qualifications are prescribed, is elected at the same time for the same term. Under the first Constitution the secretary of State, treasurer, auditor general, attorney general and superintendent of public instruction were all appointed by the governor, but under the present one they are elected for a term of two years. The State highway commissioner is elected for a term of four years. The governor’s salary is fixed by the revised Constitution of 1908 at $5,000 a year. The lieu-

propriation bills a two-thirds majority of all members elected to each house is required. All legislation must be by bill, legislation by joint and concurrent resolutions thus being prevented. No pif

tenant governor succeeds the governor in case of vacancy, and next in order of succession comes the secretary of State. A State

it holds four sessions annually, exercises a general control over the inferior courts, may issue, hear and determine any of the mote

administrative board, consisting of all the six elective State offcials mentioned, was created in 1921. Legislature.—The legislature, consisting of a senate of 32 members, and a house of representatives of 100 members (according to the Constitution not less than 64 and not more than 100}, meets, in regular session, on the first Wednesday in January in odd-numbered years, at Lansing. Both senators and representatives are elected for a term of two years by single districts,

except that a township or city which is entitled by its population to more than one representative elects its representatives on a general ticket. Beginning in 1913 and at each subsequent tenth

may be passed at a regular session until it has been printed and in possession of each house for fve days; no bill may be passed at a special session on any subject not expressly stated in the gov-

ernor’s proclamation or submitted by special message. The goyernor has ten days (Sundays not being counted) in which ty exercise his veto power (which may be applied to any item o

items of any bill making appropriations of money and embracing distinct items), and an affirmative vote in each house of two. thirds of the members elected is required to pass a bill over his veto.

Judiciary.—The administration of justice is entrusted to a supreme court, a continually increasing number of circuit counts, 40 in 1927, one probate court in each county, and not more than four justices of the peace in each township. The supreme court is composed of one chief justice and seven associate justices, all elected for a term of eight years, two retiring every two years: important writs, and has important cases. There is cuit, unless the legislature term of office is six years. for a term of four years;

appellate jurisdiction only in all other only one circuit court judge foracit. provides for the election of more; the Each county elects a judge of probate

he has original concurrent jurisdiction

with the circuit court in matters of probate, and has original jurisdiction in all cases of juvenile delinquents and dependents. The legislature may provide for the election of more than one judge of probate in a county with more than 180,000 inhabitants, Justices of the peace are elected by the townships for a term of

four years—there are not more than four in each township. Local Government.—For purposes of local government the State is divided into 83 counties, each of which is in turn divided by north and south and east and west lines into townships. The officers of the township are a supervisor, clerk, treasurer, highwaycommissioner, one overseer of highways for each highway district, justices of the peace and not more thap four constables, all of whom are elected at the annual township meeting in April, The supervisor, two of the justices of the peace and the clerk constitute the township board, whose duty it is to settle claims against the township, audit accounts, and publish annually an itemized statement of receipts and disbursements. The supervisor is also

i

the care and management of the property and business of the

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the township assessor, and the several township supervisors con stitute the county board of supervisors who are entrusted with

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county, and may borrow or raise by tax what is necessary to meet the more common expenses of the county. Other county officers are a treasurer, clerk, sheriff, register of deeds, attorney, survey and two coroners, each elected for a term of two years, a school

commissioner elected for a term of four years, and one or more notaries public appointed by the governor. City Government.—Under the revised Constitution of 1908 SOEREN the former classification of cities into four classes and the prat tice of granting special charters were abolished, and the legisltture is required to provide by general laws for the incorporation of cities and villages; “such general laws shall limit their rate of taxation for municipal purposes and restrict their powers of borrowing money and contracting debts.” Cities and villages are perPh

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WASHINGTON BOULEVARD, PING DISTRICT OF DETROIT

AND

IN THE

THE

TOURIST’S

HEART

BUREAU

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HOTEL

AND

SHOP-

year, the legislature, under the revised Constitution of 1908, is required to re-arrange the senatorial districts and reapportion the representatives among the counties and districts, using as a basis the returns of the next preceding decennial census; but this obligation has not been strictly followed, the legislature finally in 1925 arranging a compromise calculated to restrict Detroit’s representation below that which its population calls for. No bill can pass either house except by an affirmative vote of a majority of the members elected to that house, and on its third

weading the ayes and noes must be taken and recorded; for ap-

mitted—upon authorization by the affirmative vote of three-fifths

of the electors voting on the question—to own and operate, even

outside their corporate limits, public utilities for supplying water,

light, heat, power and transportation, and may sell and deliver, outside their corporate limits, water, heat, power and light to æ amount not more than one-fourth that furnished by them in each

case within their corporate limits; but no city or village of less than 25,000 inhabitants may own or operate transport facilites Under the revision of 1908, corporate franchises cannot be gt for a longer term than 30 years. Population.—The first census taken in that portion of the

North-west Territory now included in the State of Michige

showed, in 1810, a population of 4,762. The population at othe

421

MICHIGAN

EDUCATION]

township into school districts and to exercise a general super-

selected decennial censuses was as follows :—31,639 in 1830; 749,-

113 in 1860: 1,636,937 in 1880; 2.093.890 in 1890; 2.420.982 in |vision over the several schools within their jurisdiction; a town1900: 2,810,173 in 1910; and 3.668,412 in 1920; an increase of | ship may be organized as a single district, called a “township unit

305° within the last decade. The population in 1930 was 4.842,- | district.” The qualified electors of each district having an ungraded

325. an increase of 1,173,913 or 32 per cent. Of the total popula- | school elect a moderator, a director and a treasurer—one at each tion in 1920, 1.670.447 were of native parentage; 1.204.545 of for- ; annual school meeting—for a term of three years, who constitute =

eign or mixed parentage; 726,635 were foreign-born; 60,082 were ; the district school board, entrusted with ample power to direct the affairs of the school. Each county has a county school com' missioner elected for a term of four years, who exercises a general ' supervision over the schools within his jurisdiction.

Finally, at

` the head of all the public elementary and secondary schools of the State is the State superintendent of public instruction, elected for a term of two years; he is ex officio a member and secretary of the State board of education. and a member, with the right to speak but not to vote, of all other boards having control of public instruction in any State institution. In 1926 there were 866,945 pupils enrolled in the public schools of the State, and 30,327 teachers were engaged in giving instruction. Of the public school enrolment 720,212 were in the kindergarten and elementary grades and 146,733 were in the secondary schools. Private and parochial schools had an enrolment of 101,137. The net expenditures for public elementary and secondary education, in 1926, were $76,654,656 or a per caput based on

py COURTESY OF THE CORPS OF ENGINEERS, US. ARMY

RRR ee cece ent ee ts tt Oe = a

ST. MARY'S FALLS CANAL, MICHIGAN, THE UPPER APPROACH To THE | total enrolment of $88.42. The illiteracy rate was 3% in 1920 as LOCKS, SHOWING PARTS OF WEITZEL, POE, DAVIS, AND FOURTH LOCKS | against 3-39 in 1910. In many of the public schools vocational

negroes; and the remaining 6,703 were Indians, Chinese or Jap- ||courses were added in recent years. At the institutions of higher education, attendance greatly increased. Some of the colleges anese. The chief national groups among the foreign-born showed |with church connection shared in this growth; but the chief en164,502 natives of Canada (145,867 English; 18,635 French), largement was at the University of Michigan and the Michigan 103,926 of Poland, seca : P 47,149 of England, 45,State college of Agriculture and Applied Science.

of Russia, 3, of the Netherlands, 30,216 of Italy and as of EN PAA density of onla on E feasd ooa 63-8 to 84-2 per sq.m. in the decade 1920-30. During the decade 1910-

: ae a : s er The higher State institutions of learning consist of a university (see MICHIGAN, UNIVERSITY oF), four teachers colleges and nor-

za the urban population (in places having 2,500 inhabitants or mal schools, an agricultural college and a school of PIRES The more) increased from 47-2% to 61-1% of the total population. university (at Ann Arbor) was established in 1837, and is under

There were 38 cities and 2 villages with 10,000 inhabitants or more | the control of a board of regents elected by the people for a term in 1930. The population of the following cities in 1930 was:

two every two y Ears; the president of the instituDetroit, 1.568.662; Grand Rapids, 168,592; Flint, 156.492; Sagi- of tioneight and years, the superintendent of public instruction are members of the board but without the right to vote. The State teachers’ naw, 80,715; Lansing, 78,397; Pontiac, 64,928; Hamtramck $6,268 and Jackson, 55,187. À colleges are: the Michigan State Normal college at Ypsilanti Finance—The present Constitution (as revised in 1908) (1849); the Central Michigan Normal school at Mount Pleasant

forbids the contraction of a State debt exceeding $250,000 except | (1895); the Northern state Normal school at Marquette (1899); for repelling an invasion or suppressing an insurrection, and the

borrowing power of the minor civil divisions is restricted by a general law. The Constitution of 1850 provided that no general

and the Western State Normal school at Kalamazoo (1904). All

of these are under the State board of education, The Michigan State college of Agriculture and Applied Science at East Lansing,

banking law could have effect until it had been submitted to the | 3 ™. east of Lansing, is the oldest in the United States; it was people and had been approved by a majority of the votes cast on

provided for by the State Constitution of 1850, organized in 1855

the question. This provision was included in the revised Constitu- | 224 was opened in 1857. The College of Mines, at Houghton, was

tion adopted in 1908, with an additional provision that no amend-

established in 1885. In 1927 there were 14 other institutions of

ment shall be made to any banking law unless it shall receive an | higher Jearning within the State, but not maintained by it. Agriculture.—In 1925 18,035,290 ac. or 49% of the land was affirmative two-thirds vote of both branches of the legislature. Every stockholder in a bank is made individually liable for the | in farms. Of this amount 9,671,381 ac. were classified as crop

amount of his stock at its par value in addition to the said stock, |land. All farm property in the above year had an estimated value All banks are subject to the inspection and supervision of the com- | Of $1:523,976,902. missioner of the State banking department.

The number of farms (192,327) in 1925

showed a decrease of 14,626 as compared with 1910. During the

The assessed value of all property in Michigan in 1928 was | Period 1920-25 all farm-land decreased from 19,032,961 ac. to

$8,201,420,920, on which the State levied $20,500,000 in taxes | 18,035,290. The percentage of tenantry decreased from 17-7 to $4.46 per caput). The remainder of the general revenue was | 15‘! during the same period. The aggregate value of all farm secured, principally, from various specific or indirect taxes, such | STOPS 12 1926 was $250,600,000. ‘The table below shows the acreas the inheritance tax and a tax on corporation franchises. The |28°, product and value of the principal crops in 1926. principal sources of the State road funds are the motor vehicle licence fees ($18,616,326 in 1928) and a tax of three cents per

gallon on gasolene ($17,683,913 in 1928). The bonded indebted-

Crop

Tame ha nie the State on June 1, 1927 was $83,500,000 or a per caput || indian IA

of approximately $20. Educational System.—Michigan

_ || Potatoes . was a pioneer State in || Wheat

creating the American educational system; she began the organiza- || Oats . Dry beans ion of it at the time of her admission into the Union in 1837, and has since been noted for the high standard of her schools. Each

township operating under the district act has two school inspectors}

Acreage

2,869,000 cba ae

Product

4,097,000 tons}

Biter ooo bu.

Value

$56,539,000 aoe

249,000 984,000

| 29,880,000 bu. | 17,998,000 bu.

35,856,000 21,958,000

1,570,000 552,000

51,810,000 bu. 6,624,000 bu.

20,723,000 18,547,000

Other crops of considerable economic value were sugar-beets,

~me being elected at each town meeting for a term of two years— | fruits, barley, rye, peppermint and vegetables. Michigan, in 1926 who with the township clerk constitute the township board of| ranked first among the States of the Union as 2 producer of dry school inspectors, and to this board is given authority to divide the | beans and peppermint, and second only to Colorado as a producer

4.22

MICHIGAN

of beet sugar. The growth of mint on the muck lands in the southwestern counties is quite as old as the State. Market gardening is an important industry both in the south-west and south-east counties. All the principal fruits are grown in large quantities in what is known as the fruit belt in the south-west; grapes are grown chiefly in the south-western counties. The area nominally in woodland, including farm wood-lots as well as forests and cut-

over lands, comprises nearly two-thirds of the State; but of this area not more than about 4,000,000 ac., nine-tenths of which lie in the upper peninsula, now bear good timber. The barrenness of the sandy soil and the shortness of the growing season have hindered the reduction of land to cultivation, and some 10,000,000 ac. (more than a quarter of the State) are thus a deforested desert. Minerals.—Michigan, with a mineral product valued at $122,212,254 in 1925, ranked ninth among the States of the Union. Of the mineral products iron-ore, copper, cement, salt and clay products, respectively, were of chief value. Iron was first discovered in the Marquette district along the shore of Lake Superior early in the 18th century, but active operations for mining it did not begin until 1845; in 1877 mining of the same mineral began farther south in the Menominee district, and seven years later farther west along the Wisconsin border in Gogebic county. From 1890 to 1901 Michigan ranked first in the Union as an tron-producing State, but after roor its product was exceeded by that of Minnesota. Since the first discovery of iron-ore up to Jan. 1, 1926, a total of about 1,230,000,000 tons had been shipped from the Lake Superior region of Michigan. Copper mining in the State began about the same time as iron mining. The product in 1845 was I2 long tons; in 1926 the product was 174,779,000 pounds. From 1847 to 1887 the product of Michigan exceeded that of any other State; from 1847 to 1883 its copper product was more than one-half that of all the States, but in 1926 more of that mineral was mined in each of the States of Arizona, Utah and Montana than in Michigan. The chief producing region is in the Keweenaw

[PRODUCH

proportion to the whole being 45-5%.

Foundries and maching

shops with an average number of 31,291 wage-earners in 1925 had a product valued at $162,545,298. Furniture ranked next, with

21,512 wage-earners and products valued at $99,039,416. Other

industries of great value included engines and water-wheels ($o;. 932,026); paper and wood pulp ($91,149,648); brass, bronze and copper products ($65,594,415); lumber and timber products ($59,569,472); slaughtering and meat packing ($53,932,676): food preparations

($53,423,945);

bread

and bakery products

($51,358,975); and butter, cheese and condensed milk ($49,300. 693). Michigan led all other States in 1925 in output of chemicals drugs, engines and water-wheels, motor vehicles and motor vehick bodies and parts, and threshing machines. The State ranked third in the manufacture of furniture and food preparations. Detroit with its neighbouring cities Highland Park and Hamtramck, pro.

duced more than half the manufactured products of the State. In this district centred the motor vehicle, the foundry and machin

shop, the meat-packing,

and the brass and bronze industries

Flint, with products valued at $422,644,236, was another impor. tant motor vehicle manufacturing point.

Transport.—The building of railways in Michigan began in 1830, but little progress had been made in 1837 when the State began the construction of three railways and two canals across the southern half of the lower peninsula. Some progress was maze, but by 1846 the State proved itself incompetent to carry on the

work and sold its interest to private companies.

The railway

mileage continued until.rg10 when it was 9,021; since that date there has been a gradual decrease, the mileage in 1925 being 8,349. The principal lines are the Michigan Central, the Pere Marquette, the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern, the Grand Trunk and the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul. The mileage of electric rail Ways Was 1,795 in 1925. Besides railway communication, Michigan has a coastline of about z,600 m. and several good harbours. The water commupeninsula and its vicinity. cations were extended and improved by several canals, among Fields of bituminous coal extend over an area of over 10,000 which are the Sault Ste. Marie, which passes the rapids of the sq.m. in the south-east portion of the State; but its quality is St. Mary’s river; the St. Clair Flats, at the north end of Lake $. inferior. The mining of coal began in Jackson county in 1836, Clair, by which a deeper channel is made through shallow water; but for many years the production increased slowly. The period and the Portage lake, in the copper district, which connects that of greatest average production was the five years, 1916-20 when lake with Lake Superior. The traffic through the Sault Ste. Mark 1,301,000 short tons were mined annually. The product in 1926 canal in 1926 according to the annual report of the chief of eswas 649,000 tons. The principal producing area was in Bay, Sagi- gineers, U.S. army, was 85,679,000 short tons, and had a value of naw, Tuscola and Calhoun counties. Salt wells are numerous in $1 ,063,876,000. During 1925 Michigan harbours made shipments the middle and south-eastern sections of the lower peninsula; the aggregating 20,283,000 tons, with receipts totalling 9,277,000 tons. An excellent system of State trunk roads is maintained by th first successful one was drilled in Saginaw county in 1859 and 1860. For a number of years prior to 1893 Michigan was the State highway department. This department, at the close of 1924, leading salt-producing State; then New York became the chief controlled 6,756 m. of roads, of which 6,229 m. were surfaced producer for several years. In 1926 the State ranked first among The total expenditure for rural highways by the State highway the States with a product of 2,260,320 tons of salt. Gypsum is department in 1926 was $36,136,000. The total motor vehicle obtained from deposits along the banks of the Grand river in Kent registration for the year 1926 was 1,125,031. county and in the vicinity of Alabaster along the shore of Lake History.—From 1613 until 1760 the territory now within the Huron in Josco county. In 1925 649,053 tons valued at $5,447,294 borders of Michigan formed a part of New France, and the frst were mined. Marl is found in many parts of the State; limestone Europeans to found missions and settlements within those bermost largely in the northern part of the lower peninsula, and in ders were Frenchmen. Two Jesuits, Raymbault and Jogues, visited the eastern part of the upper peninsula. The presence of these the site of Sault Ste. Marie as early as 1641 for the conversion of products has given rise to Michigan’s large Portland cement indus- the Chippewas; in 1668 Marquette founded there the first per try; in 1926 the State’s output was 12,037,000 barrels. Clay pro- manent settlement within the State; three years later he bed ducts in 1925 had a value of $7,396,071; about 42% of this total founded a mission among the Hurons at Michilimackinac; la represented the value of the pottery product. Salle built a fort at the mouth of the St. Joseph in 1679; andi Manufactures.—The manufactured products in 1925 were 1701 Cadillac founded Detroit as an important point for valued at $4,373,186,136, as compared with $1,086,162,000 in French control of the fur trade. The bitter strife between the 1914, an increase of over 300%. This advance was mainly due to missionaries and Cadillac, and the French system of absolutism@ the extraordinary growth of the automobile industry and its con- government and monopoly in trade were further obstacles te centration in the State. The value of automobiles manufactured in- progress. Even Detroit was so expensive to the Government e creased from $7,996,534 in 1904 to $1,551,990,000 in 1923. In the mother country that there was occasional talk of abandoning

1926 the motor vehicles manufactured within the State were

it; and so during the last 59 years that Michigan was a part a

valued at $1,820,296,128; motor vehicle bodies and parts had an

New France there were no new settlements, and little if ay growth in those already established. During the last war hetweet

additional value of $921,901,337. About half the motor vehicles

manufactured in the United States in 1925 were made in Michigan. The number of wage-earners engaged in this industry in 1914 was 67,538, constituting 24-9% of the total number of industrial wageearners in the State; these were increased to 234,492 in 1925, their

the English and the French in America, the Michigan settlements passed into the possession of the English, Detroit in 1760 the others in 1761. The white inhabitants, mostly French, Ww

subjected to an English rule that until the Quebec Act of 1774 W

MICHIGAN, LAKE chiefly military, and as a consequence many of the more thrifty |

423

in 1810 and 8,896 in 1820, increased to 31,639 in 1830 and 212,267

sought homes elsewhere, and the Indians, most of whom had been | in 1840. In 1819 the Territory had been empowered to send a allies of the French, were so ill-treated, both by the officers and delegate to Congress. By 1832 the question of admission into traders, that under Pontiac, chief of the Ottawas, a simultaneous |the Union had arisen, and in 1835 a convention was called in Deattack on the English ports was planned. Detroit was besieged |troit, a Constitution was framed in May which was adopted by for five months and both Michilimackinac and St. Joseph were | popular vote in October, State officers were elected, and applicataken. Moreover. the English policy. which first of all was con- | tion for admission was made; but a dispute with Ohio over the boundary between the two caused a delay in the admission of Michigan into the Union as a State until Jan. 26, 1837. Since admission into the Union the more interesting experiences of the State have been connected with internal improvements and with banking, which together resulted in serious distress; in the utilization of its natural resources, which have been a vast source of wealth; and in the development of its educational system, in which

the State has exerted a great influence throughout the Union. From the beginning of its Government under its first State Constitution in 1835 until 1855, Michigan had a Democratic administration with the exception of the years 1840-42, when opposition to the financial measures of the Democrats placed the Whigs in power. But it was in Michigan that the Republican Party received its first official recognition, at a State convention held at Jackson on July 6, 1854, and from 1858 to 1928 the administration, with

`

ll l

i

|

i 1 e

the exception of four gubernatorial terms, was Republican.

p

i

BY COURTESY OF THE DETROIT CONVENTION ARD TOURISTS BUREAU THE MASONIC TEMPLE IN DETROIT, THE LARGEST

IN THE WORLD

cerned with the profits of trade and manufacture, gave little more encouragement to the settlement of this section of the country than did the French. By the Treaty of Paris, in 1783, which concluded the American Revolution, the title to what is now Michigan passed to the United States, and in 1787 this region became a part of the North-west Territory; but it was not until 1796 that Detroit and Mackinac (Michilimackinac), in accordance with Jay’s treaty of 1794, were surrendered by Great Britain. In 1800, on the division of the North-west Territory, the west portion of Michigan became a part of the newly established Indiana Territory, into which the entire area of the present State was embodied in 1802, when Ohio was admitted to the Union; and finally, in 180s, Michigan Territory was organized, its south boundary being then described as a line drawn east from the south extremity of Lake Michigan until it intersected Lake Erie, and its west boundary a line drawn from the same starting point through the middle of Lake Michigan to its north extremity and then due north to the north boundary of the United States. During the War of 1812, General William Hull, the first governor of the Territory, although not greatly outnumbered, surrendered Detroit to the British without a struggle; in the same year also Mackinac was taken and Michigan again passed under British rule. This rule was of short duration, however, for soon after Commodore Oliver H. Perry’s victory on Lake Erie, in September of the next year, Detroit and the rest of Michigan except Mackinac, which was not recaptured until July 1815, were again taken into the possession of the United States.

Development.—Up to this time the Territory had still re-

mained for the most part a wilderness in which the fur trade reaped the largest profits, its few small settlements being confined to the borders; and the inaccurate reports of the surveyors sent out by the United States Government described the interior as a vast swamp with only here and there alittle land fit for cultivation.

The large number of hostile Indians was also a factor in making the Territory unattractive. But during the efficient administration of Lewis Cass (g.v.), governor of the Territory from 1813 to 1831,

the interference of the British was checked and many of the In-

were removed to the west of the Mississippi; printing presses, established during the same period at Detroit, Ann Arbor, Monroe and Pontiac, became largely instrumental in making the country better known; the first steamboat, the “Walk-in-the-

Water,” appeared at Detroit in 1818; the Erie canal was opened

in 1825; by 1830 a daily boat line was running between Detroit

aad Buffalo, and the population of Michigan, which was only 4,762

BrsriocraPHy.—For the history of Michigan see H. M. Utley and B. M. Cutcheon, Michigan as a Province, Territory and State (1906) ; Charles Moore, History of Michigan (1915); J. V. Campbell, Outlines of the Political History of Michigan (1876) ; T. M. Cooley, Michigan: A History of Government (1885), a critical but popular narrative by an eminent jurist; Michigan Pioneer and Historical Society, Historical Collections: Collections and Researches (1879-1915): Michigan Historical Commission, Michigan Historical Publications, University Series (1916 seg.), some of the best recent works on Michigan history and government; Michigan Historical Commission, Bulletins (1913 seqg.): and the Michigan History Magazine (1917 seg.); George B. Catlin, The Story of Detroit (1923). For politics and government see Harriette M. Dilla, The Politics of M tchigan, 1865-78 (1914); A. C. Millspaugh, Party Organisation and Machinery in Michigan since 1890 (1917); W. J. McKone, Michigan State and Local Government (22nd ed., 1922), a school text; the Michigan Officzal Directory and Legislative Manual, issued biennially by the secretary of State; and the biennial reports of the various State officials and departments. See A. C. McLaughlin, History of Higher Education in Michigan, in circulars of information of the U.S. bureau of education (Washington, 1891). For population data, etc., see the volumes of the Fourteenth Census of the United States; the biennial Census of Manufactures and the 1926 Census of Agriculture. The Publications of the Michigan Geological Survey (Detroit, Lansing and New York, 1838 seg.) deal largely with the mining districts of the upper peninsula; A. Winchell, Michigan: Being Condensed Popular Skeiches of the Topography, Climate and Geology of the State (1873), is In large measure restricted to the southern half of the State; see also the bibliography bulletins of the U.S. Geological Survey for special] articles relating to Michigan. (L. A. W.)

MICHIGAN, LAKE, the third largest of the Great Lakes

of North America and the only one wholly within the boundaries of the United States. It is about 307 m. in length, averages about 7o m. in width, and has a maximum measured depth of 870 feet. The lake is bounded on the north and east by the State of Michigan, on the south by Indiana and on the west by Illinois and Wisconsin. It has a water surface of 22,400 sq. m. and a drainage basin of some 69,040 sq. miles. Taking the average for the past 68 years, its mean surface is 580-94 ft. above mean sea-level, being the same as Lake Huron and 21-28 ft. below that of Lake Superior. The average or normal elevation of the lake surface varies irregularly from year to year. During the course of each year, the surface is subject to a consistent seasonal rise and fall, the lowest stages prevailing during the winter months and the highest during the summer months. In addition to the annual fluctuation, there are occasional oscillations of irregular amount and duration. Sometimes these are apparently seiches, resulting from variations in barometric pressure, which may produce

changes ranging from a few inches to several feet, and return to normal, within a few hours. The dangerous storms of the autumn, winter and early spring are usually westerly. Ice interferes

with navigation in the northern part of the lake in winter; the average closing and opening dates for navigation in the Straits of Mackinac are Dec. 15 and April 12, respectively. Harbours.—The harbours along the shores are generally situ-

424.

MICHIGAN,

UNIVERSITY

OF

ated at the mouths of rivers. Most of these rivers are small and Lake Michigan by a low divide. In 1848 the Illinois and Michigan unimportant, the larger streams being the Menominee and the canal was constructed from the Chicago river across the divide Fox, both of which empty into Green bay, the most important to the Illinois river at a point just below La Salle, thus permitting arm of the lake. The early plan of improvement consisted of through navigation. In 1900 the sanitary district of Chicago com. parallel piers protecting a dredged channel; subsequently, at pleted a drainage canal from the south branch of the Chicago some harbours, detached breakwaters were built to provide addi- river to the Des Plaines river at Joliet. This, combined with work tional protection from prevailing storms. In recent years, the in- in the Chicago river, reversed the flow of the latter and permitted jurious effects of storm waves in inner harbours have been re- the flow of water from Lake Michigan through the canal into lieved by the formation in the lake of a wave-stilling basin, the Des Plaines and thence to the Illinois. It also provided enclosed by breakwaters or piers which converge to an entrance navigable channel 21 ft. deep, with a minimum bottom width of opening in deep water beyond the inner piers, this basin allow- 200 ft., from the lake to a point between Lockport and Joliet, ing the waves to expand and lose force instead of being conducted where a power plant was constructed. In 1908 the Illinois water. through the confined channel between the parallel piers. Such way was provided for by amendment to the State’s Constitution, basins now exist at Holland, Ludington, Manistee, Manistique, to be financed by the sale of bonds, to permit navigation from Two Rivers, Manitowoc, Sheboygan and Racine. The outer har- Lockport to Utica, with the intention of connecting the Grea; bours at Milwaukee, Chicago and South Chicago (Calumet), pro- Lakes with the Mississippi system. The waterway is designed for tected by breakwaters, afford commodious and safe anchorage for o ft. depth, and was under construction in 1928. The Federal Govall classes of vessels. The harbours of Port Washington, Waukegan, ernment has undertaken the improvement of the Illinois river with Indiana Harbor and Gary are entirely artificial, consisting of a view to securing a navigable channel of the same depth to the dredged channels and basins protected by breakwaters and piers. mouth, where connection is made with the Mississippi river. Under authority of Sec. ro of an act of Congress approved on As a result of the improvements made and maintained by the United States and local interests, the harbours are generally March 3, 1899, the secretary of war, upon the recommendation of accessible to vessels drawing from 14 to 21 ft. at low stages. The port of Escanaba on the north shore of the lake is an important shipping point for iron ore. Green Bay and Milwaukee are centres of distribution for coal from Lake Erie ports. Near the south end of the lake the Chicago district is a great industrial centre, consuming large quantities of water-borne raw materials, principally iron ore, coal and limestone, which are handled through

the important ports of Calumet (South Chicago), Indiana Harbor, Gary and Buffington. Milwaukee, Chicago and Calumet are grain-

shipping ports. The commerce

for the calendar year

1927 of the principal

ports on the lake in tons is shown in the following table:—

Water-borne Commerce of Ports on Lake Michigan During 1927

Foreign | Domestic

Manistique Menominee . . Green Bay and De Pere. T ; Kewaunee Manitowoc Sheboygan Milwaukee Racine . .

Grand Haven

.

Muskegon Ludington Frankfort .

: .

Sturgeon Bay . Gladstone . Arcadia

Escanaba. Chicago .

Indiana Harbor

| Gary.

Buffington

.

: 11,147

6,194 325,091

262,754 419,523

268,948 756,361

24,498 | 1,744,156 cn 2,075

ag 1,768,654 330,603 332,678 LI,O00 690,563 | 1,566,912 | 2,268,475 ue 476,030 bh 476,030 288,713 | 5,690,916 | 2,253,569 | 8,233,198 D; 256,776 ie 250,776

223,238 | 1,015,664 | 1,238,902

-o

3959259

7,816

I0T,579

45,458 za zy

a

->

395,259

386,810 ba 432,268 165,796 | 2,251,589 | 2,417,385 904 | 1,566,108 | 1,567,012

ae

ne

109,395 pe

. .

351,712 | 6,433,273 440,619 |13,654,900

6,784,985 14,005,519

.

4,151 | 5,392,834

5,396,985

18,004 | 5,769,915

i

1,380,688

by some of the Lake States to restrain the Chicago drainage district from diverting water from Lake Michigan, and the matter was finally settled by the Supreme Court in favour of the Lake

States in January, 1929. Jean Nicolet is credited with being the first white man to navigate Lake Michigan. Sent west by Champlain on a voyage of ex-

General cargo

Ports

the chief of engineers, issued on March 3, 1925, to the sanitary district of Chicago, a permit to divert from Lake Michigan, through its main drainage canal and auxiliary channels, an amount of water not to exceed an annual average of 8,500 cuft. per second, the instantaneous maximum not to exceed 11,000 cu.ft. per second under certain conditions including the requirements that the sewage be artificially treated, that controlling works be constructed to prevent the discharge of the Chicago river into the lake, and that the water service of the city of Chicago be metered. This permit, if not previously revoked or specifically extended, becomes null and void on Dec. 31, 1929. Action has been brought

5,787,919

1,380,

ploration, he threaded his way in a birch canoe from Georgian bay through the Straits of Mackinac and thus discovered Lake Michigan in the summer of 1634. Later explorers were Joliet, Marquette and La Salle. BrBLiocraPHY.—RHistory of the Great Lakes (1899); Transportation on the Great Lakes (War Department, 1926); Bulletins and Charts issued by the U. S. Lake Survey Office (1928) ; Document No. 4, Committee on Rivers and Harbors, 69th Congress, rst Session; Azsual

Report of the chief of engineers, War Department.

(E. JA)

MICHIGAN, UNIVERSITY OF, situated at Ann Arbor, Mich., is one of the principal educational institutions of the United States. It includes a college of literature, science, and the arts, opened in 1841, a medical school (1850), a law school (1859), a school of dental surgery (1875), a college of pharmacy (1876), a college of engineering, separately organized in 1895, a college of architecture (1913), a school of education (1921), a school

of business administration (1924), and a school of forestry and conservation (1927). The graduate school of the university was established as a separate division in 1912. The first summer courses were given in 1894. In 1926-27 there were in all departments 689 instructors and 13,257 students. The university was

The transfer of loaded freight cars on car ferries on the Great Lakes was inaugurated in 1892 by the Ann Arbor railroad. The present service on Lake Michigan, which is by far the most extensive of its kind in the world, consists of two ferries operated between Grand Haven, Mich., and Milwaukee, Wis., by the Grand Trunk railway; seven between Ludington, Mich., and Milwaukee, Manitowoc, Wis., and Kewaunee, by the Pere Marquette railway;

one of the first in America to admit women, having opened its doors to them in 1870; since 1900 they have constituted nearly one-third of the student body. Up to March 1928 the university had conferred 53,509 degrees. The organic relation of the wiversity to the other schools of the State was well established in

four between Frankfort and Menominee and Manistique, Mich., and between Frankfort, Mich., and Manitowoc and Kewaunee, Wis., by the Ann Arbor railroad. Engineering.—Lake Michigan is connected at its north-east extremity with Lake Huron by the Straits of Mackinac, 48 m. long, with a minimum width of 6 m.; the water is generally deep and

the first in any ates from high by a committee examination. The libraries

the shoals lying near the usually travelled routes are well marked.

volumes, of which 441,013 volumes are housed in the Gene

The head of the Illinois river watershed is separated from

1870 through the establishment of a department of education, American university, and a provision that gradu schools which had been examined and approved from the university should be admitted without of the university comprise a total of 649,912

Library Building (1919) occupying the centre of the campus

MICHIGAN

CITY—MICKIEWICZ

425

The William L. Clements Library of American History, the gift ' Founding of the University of Michigan (10915); Wilfred Shaw, The

af Regent Clements of Bay City, occupies a separate building (1923) and comprises one of thelargest and most valuable col-

University of Michigan (1920); also Annual Reports of the President | (1922—27). (W. B. Sz.)

lections on Colonial and Revolutionary history in the world. ' MICHIGAN CITY, a city of La Porte county, Indiana, The university's resources are inventoried ai over $35.000.000, U.S.A., on Lake Michigan. 40 m. E. by S. of Chicago. It is on

of which over $29,000,000 is invested in buildings and lands. The . federal highways 12 and 20, and is served by the Chicago, Indian-

physical property of the university includes 51 larger buildings

| apolis and Louisville. the Michigan Central, the Nickel Plate, the

and many smaller ones. At a little distance from the campus | Pere Marquette and electric railways, motor bus and truck lines is the great university hospital which with other buildings in the _and lake steamers. The population was 19.457 in 1920 (18% hospital group furnishes bed accommodations for over 1.c00 pa- | foreign-born white) and was 26.735 in 1930 by Federal census.

tients and serves as a great hospital centre for the whole State of Michigan. Its administration is entirely in the control of the university. A noteworthy feature of the university’s equipment are the buildings devoted to physical education and sports. In addition to the Waterman Gymnasium for men and the Barbour Gymnasium for women, on the campus, the university possesses a great ound in Ferry Field comprising over 75 acres. Here is the Yost Field House, 345 ft. long by 165 ft. wide, devoted to a

year-round programme of intercollegiate sport, while a building

equally large for intramural sports was completed in 1928. The

football stadium has accommodation for 87,000 spectators. Recent important developments in the university are: the establishment of the University college (to be open in 1929), including

practically all the first and second year students in the university under a united administration; the establishment of a special fund in 1927 for faculty research; the development of special divisions for engineering research and cancer research; the estab-

lishment of a series of scholarships for oriental women through the funds left by the late Levi L. Barbour of Detroit; and the inauguration of a programme for the erection of dormitories. The university is governed by a board of eight regents, two elected biennially by popular suffrage. The internal government rests to a large extent with the president and the members of the faculty of professorial rank organized as the university senate. The principal income of the university comes from the Treasury of the State of Michigan with the annual receipts for the year 1926-27 for all purposes totaling $10,500,000. The university also has a small permanent income of $38,000 derived from the sale of the lands originally set apart by the State for educational parposes under the Ordinance of 1787.

The first incorporation of a university within what is now the State took place in 1817 when the Governor and judges of the Territory established the “Catholepistemiad, or University of Michigania,” with a remarkable Greek system of nomenclature for its courses and faculties. Neither this institution, however, nor its successor, which came four years later, the first University of Michigan in Detroit, ever offered courses of a collegiate character. It was not until the admission of Michigan into the Union as a State in 1837 that an Organic Act under the constitution of 1835 made possible the organization of the present university and its establishment at Ann Arbor. The regents first met in June 1837 and plans were begun in 1838. A series of branches were established in neighbouring towns to furnish the necessary Students; these were soon discontinued, however, and the whole effort of the newly established Board of Regents centred in the university which opened its doors in 1841. The first division,

the department of literature, science, and the arts was much like

g New England college. The prospects at first were not promising, m 1851 a new State constitution provided that the regents should be elected by the people instead of being appointed, as

onginally provided, by the Governor.

They were also directed

te choose a president and Henry Philip Tappan (1805-81) was

selected. It was under his administration (1852-63) that the Present broad and liberal policies of the university were clearly 3 - The germ of graduate study was planted and a scien-

ilc course was introduced. Gradually the various schools and colleges of the university came into being. In 1871—72 the German Seminar method was introduced in graduate work in history, and ™ 1878 the elective system was established.

, It is the seat of the Northern State prison and a United States

| Life Saving station, and the see of a Protestant Episcopal bishop.

The commerce of its harbour in 1925 was valued at $1,712.750; and its manufactures in 1927 were valued at $24,987.996. Michigan City was founded about 1830, incorporated as a village in 1837, and chartered as a city in 1867. Since 1922 it has had a commission-manager form of government.

MICHMASH,

a place in Benjamin about 9 Roman miles

north of Jerusalem (Eusebius, Onom.), and the scene of Jonathan's daring exploit against the Philistines (1 Sam. xiv.): mod. Mukhmas, pop. 400. It was re-colonised after the exile (Neh. Xi. 31); Jonathan made it his administrative centre (1 Macc. ix. 73), and it was a large village in Eusebius’ time. The only archaeological interest is a cave with columbaria. There are megalithic monuments in the neighbourhood.

MICHOACAN,

or MICHOACAN

DE OCAMPO, 2

State of Mexico touching on the Pacific. Pop. (1921) 939,849, chiefly Indians and mestizos. Area, 23,198 sq. miles. Its territory is divided into two nearly equal parts by the Sierra Madre Occidental, the northern part belonging to the great central plateau region, and the southern to an extremely broken region formed by the diverging branches of the Sierra Madre, with their wooded terraces and slopes and highly fertile valleys. The general slope of the southern part is southward to the river Balsas, or Mescala, which forms its boundary-line with Guerrero. The narrow coastal zone on the Pacific is only ror m. long and has no ports or towns of importance, the slopes being precipitous and heavily wooded and the coast-belt sandy, hot and malarial. The Lerma, on the northern frontier, and the Balsas on the southern, are the only rivers of importance in the State, their tributaries within its boundaries being small and swift-flowing. There are several large and beautiful lakes in the State, the best known of which are Patzcuaro and Cuitzco. Lake Chapala lies on the northern boundary. Michoacan lies within the most active volcanic region of Mexico: Jorullo (4,262 ft.) is near its southern line, and Colima (12,750 ft.) is north-west of it in the State of Jalisco. The climate is for the most part temperate and healthy, but it is hot along the Pacific coast. Michoacan is essentially a mining region, producing gold, silver, lead and cinnabar, and having rich deposits of copper, coal, petroleum and sulphur. The natural products include fine cabinet and construction woods, rubber, fruit, palm oil and fibres. The soil of the valleys is highly fertile, and produces cereals in the higher regions, and sugar-cane, tobacco, coffee and tropical fruits in the lower. Though the plateau region was settled by whites soon after the Spaniards came to Mexico, there are districts on the southern and Pacific slopes that still belong almost exclusively to the Indians. Besides Morelia, the capital and largest city, the principal towns of the State are: La Piedad (pop. in 1921, 12,115), an important commercial town on the Lerma river and on the Mexican Central railway, 112 m. N.N.W. of Morelia; Zamora (in 1921, 13,863), 75 m. W.N.W. of Morelia; and Uruapan (in 1921, 13,689), on the Mexican National, 55 m. S.W. of Morelia in a mountainous district celebrated for the fine quality of its coffee.

MICKIEWICZ (mik-#4-vits), ADAM

(1798-1855), Polish

poet, born near Nowogrodek, in the Russian government of Minsk,

where his father, who belonged to the lesser nobility, had a

small property. The poet was educated at the Vilna university; but, becoming involved in political troubles as a member of a secret patriotic student society, he was imprisoned for a time by ypc. —B. A. Hinsdale, History of the Universi ty of the Russian Government and afterwards ordered to live in Russia. ickigon (1906) ; A Memorial of the Seventy-fifih Anniversary of the He had already published two small volumes of miscellaneous

426

MICKLE—MICROANALYSIS

poetry at Vilna, and at St. Petersburg he was a great favourite in | men of his ballads each of them being connected with some ng. society. In 1825 he visited the Crimea, which inspired a collection tional tradition. Besides Konrad Wallenrod and Pan Tadeusz, of sonnets. attention may be called to his early poem Grasyna, which de. In 1828 appeared his Konrad Wallenrod, a narrative poem scribes the adventures of a Lithuanian chieftainess against the describing the battles of knights of the Teutonic order with Teutonic knights. A fine vigorous Oriental piece is Farys. V the heathen Lithuanians. Here, under a thin veil, Mickiewicz good, too, are the odes to Youth and to the historian Lelewel: the represented the sanguinary passages of arms and burning hatred former did much to stimulate the efforts of the Poles to shake which had characterized the long feuds of the Russians and Poles. off their Russian conquerors. It is enough to say of Mickiewic, The object of the poem, although evident to many, escaped the that he has obtained the proud position of the representative poet Russian censors, and it was suffered to appear. It is a romance in of his country; her customs, her superstitions, her history, her the Byronic vein and contains two beautiful lyrics. After a five struggles are reflected in his works. He is the great voice of Pp. years’ exile in Russia the poet obtained leave to travel abroad; and land appealing to the nations in her agony. he never saw his native country again. Visiting parts of GerBIBLiocRAPHY.—The poet’s life has been written, and his corm. many and Italy, he paid his homage to old Goethe at Weimar, and spondence edited, by his son, Ladislas Mickiewicz (4 vols., Poznan was received very cordially. It was on these wanderings of his 1890-1895, French Life in 1 vol., Paris, 1888). The standard moderp Polish work on Mickiewicz is that of Professor J. Kallenbach (Adam that Mickiewicz wrote the greatest scenes of his fantastic drama Mickiewicz, 2 vols., th edition, Lwów, Ossolineum, 1925). In English, Dziady (Forefathers’ Eve), the subject of which is the half- see Adam Mickiewicz, the National Poet of Poland, by Miss Monia pagan religious commemoration of their ancestors practised among M. Gardner (London, Dent, 1912). Translations into English of the peasantry of the Slavonic nations. Interwoven with this sub- Konrad Wallenrod and Pan Tadeusz were made by M. H. Dziewicki ject from folk-lore, there is, in the earlier portion of the poem

(the so-called “Fourth Part”) a dramatic account of an unhappy early love affair of the poet’s, and, in the later and more important

portion, called the “Third Part,” a picture of his own and his Vilna fellow-students’ sufferings in the Russian prison, and a powerful poetic statement of the workings of his genius while a mystical religious philosophy was being produced in his mind by the influence of personal and national suffering. Mickiewicz’ acknowledged masterpiece is his epic poem Pan Tadeusz, published in 1834. Its scene is laid in Lithuania on the eve of Napoleon’s expedition into Russia in 1812, and its subject is a family feud among the country gentry, happily terminated by a wedding. In this epic idyll, Mickiewicz gives us a picture of the homes of the olden-time Polish nobility and gentry, with their somewhat boisterous but very genuine hospitality, their meals and manners and pastimes, and their readiness for patriotic sacrifice in the service of their country. Turning to the land of his childhood with the loving eyes of an exile, he gives us delightful descriptions of Lithuanian skies and forests: through the medium of his poetry, the modest landscape of the Lithuanian country-side has become dear and familiar to every Pole, and to many readers outside Poland. In 1832 Mickiewicz left Rome for Paris, where most of his later life was spent In poverty and unhappiness. He had married a Polish lady, Celina Szymanowska, who became insane. In 183839, he occupied the chair of Latin Literature in the University of Lausanne, Switzerland. In 1840 he became professor of Slavonic

and Miss Biggs (1881-85), and more recently, by Professor G. R. Noyes in California and his students (Pan Tadeusz, 1917; Konrad Wallenred

and other Writings, 1925, University of California Press; Forefatkery

Eve, prologue and scenes 1-5 of Part Third, 1926, London, Eyre and

Spottiswoode).

MICKLE, WILLIAM JULIUS (1735-1788), Scottish poet, son of the minister of Langholm, Dumfries-shire, was bom on Sept. 28, 1735. He was educated at the Edinburgh high school, and became a brewer. He failed in business, and went to London in 1763. There he published (1765) “a poem in the manner of Spenser” called the Concubine (afterwards Syr Martyn); was appointed corrector to the Clarendon Press, and translated the

Lusiads of Camoens 1771, complete work, poems in his youth, i

the outbreak of the Crimean War he was sent to Constantinople to assist in raising a regiment of Poles to take service against the Russians. He died suddenly there in 1855, and his body was re-

moved to France.

In 1890 his remains were disinterred and

buried in the cathedral of Cracow, the Westminster Abbey of Poland. Mickiewicz is one of the greatest among Slavonic poets. He is one of the best products of the so-called romantic school in Polish literature. While that literature was cribbed and confined by 18th century classicism, the country was full of legends and picturesque stories which only awaited the coming poet to put them into shape. Hence the great popularity among his country-

into heroic couplets (specimen published 1775). Scott read and admired Mickle’s and founded Kenilworth on his ballad of Cumnor Hall, which appeared in Thomas Evans’s Old Ballads ... with some af Modern Date (1784).

MICMAC.

An Algonkin people of

| Nova Scotia and northern New Brunswick, probably discovered by Cabot in 1497. They formed a confederacy of seven

"1 tribes: their name means “allies.” They "=| were non-agricultural and made much use of canoes and fish. They were consistently friendly to the French and hostile to the 1 English settlers, whom they fought bitterly

f| after the cession of Acadia to Great Brit-

languages and literature in the Collége de France. His last lecture was given on May 28, 1844. He had fallen under the influence of a mystic named Towianski. His lectures became a medley of religion and politics, and thus brought him under the censure of the Government. A selection from his lectures contains some good sound criticism; the philological part is necessarily defective, but the poet shows much intuitive insight into the history and mentality of the Slavonic races, especially of Poland and Russia. In his later years, Mickiewicz endeavoured to turn from poetry to active work for the cause of his country’s deliverance. In 1848, he attempted to form a Polish volunteer legion in Italy, but the attempt came io nothing. In 1849 he founded a radical French newspaper, La Tribune des peuples, but it only existed a year. His last composition was a Latin ode in honour of Napoleon III. On

(R. Dy.)

=-=] ain.

>N

Estimated at 3,000 to 3,500 during

the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, sq they now number nearly 4,000. Their diaà lect differs considerably from that of their neighbours, so that they may represent 4 OF fairly early offshoot of the Algonkin fam-

BY COURTESY OF THE MUSEUN THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA

MICMAC INDIAN OF Nova

ily. (A. L. K.) MAICON, a Greek painter of the mid-

SCOTIA, CANADA

dle of the fifth century B.c. He was closely

associated with Polygnotus of Thasos, in conjunction with whom he adorned the Painted Stoa, at Athens, with paintings of the battle of Marathon and of the Greeks and Amazons. He collabe-

rated with the same artist in paintings in the Theseum and the Anaceum, and was esteemed also as a sculptor of athletes.

MICROANALYSIS,

CHEMICAL.

Chemical analysts

(see CHEMISTRY, ANALYTICAL) becomes chemical microanalysis when the quantities of substances examined or measured are very

small. The power to deal successfully with minute quantities of material has been acquired as a consequence, in the first place, of the increased precision of such instruments as the microbalance and the spectroscope, and, in the second, of a general advancem analytical knowledge and technique. Microchemical methods are of the highest importance because

of their ever-increasing application, not only in chemical, bie

chemical, and pathological research, but also to daily life and industry. Artificial products and the products of animal

427

MICROANALYSIS

;

`

P2 Os

PbO2, ABNHEATING MORTAR ASBESTOS CHOKING PLUG

@ COURTESY

OF

THE SOCIETY

OF CHEMICAL

INDUSTRY

(B) BUBBLE COUNTER, (D) DRYING BON DIOXIDE-ABSORBING TUBE

TABLE,

(C)

COMBUSTION

TUBE,

(H)

HEATING

MORTAR,

(A,)

WATER-ABSORBING

TUBE,

(A>)

CAR-

vegetable life are usually obtained as mixtures, more or less complex, which can be separated by physical means (distillation, crystallisation, dialysis, etc.), into component parts consisting each of a more or less pure chemical substance. The identification of these substances and the control of their purity depend ultimately

brous processes, and that their general adoption will greatly accelerate the progress of chemical and biological knowledge. A brief outline of one of the most important processes is given below: Determination of Carbon and Hydrogen—A weighed quantity upon chemical analysis. The recognition and estimation of traces (3 to 5 milligrams) of the substance, placed in a small platinum of impurities, frequently a matter of great public importance, boat, is burned in a current of oxygen (dried by passage through must generally be carried out by microchemical methods; and it the tubes B and D) in the apparatus shown in the diagram. is becoming increasingly appreciated that quantitative microanal- The hard-glass tube, C, is 40 cm. in length, and contains a filling ysis often affords the most rapid and economical means of ex- of chemicals (as indicated in the diagram) designed to arrest the amining even bulk products and chemically pure substances. This escape of nitrogen, sulphur, halogens, and other products which is particularly true of the products of research, many of which can might vitiate the analysis. The remaining gaseous products of be isolated only with difficulty and in minute quantities and yet the combustion, water and carbon dioxide, are swept over with air, often exercise the most important functions. It is only neces- and are retained, respectively, in the tubes A; and As, which are sary to mention in this connection the vital réles played by weighed on the microbalance both before and after the experi-

catalysts and promoters in chemical processes, and those of the vitamins, hormones, and enzymes, in biochemical phenomena. Microanalysis may be either qualitative, i.e., concerned only

with the detection of the kinds of substances present; or it may be quantitative, being then concerned also with the proportions in which the substances occur. Thus, it might be required to know whether strychnine were present in a given drug, or whether human blood were present as a given stain; or again, it might be required to decide whether the proportion of arsenic in a given foodstuff (beer or cocoa) exceeded a certain limit. Speaking quite generally, it may be said that the quantity of material required for, or measured

in, a given microanalysis is from

1

to 2% of that in the large-scale or macroanalysis. The methods employed in microanalysis are usually essentially similar to those in the corresponding macroanalysis. This is particularly the case in: Quantitative Microanalysis, in which the classical methods of analysis for elements and radicals (see CHEMISTRY: Ana-

ment. From the gains in weight of these tubes, the amounts of hydrogen and carbon in the original material are calculated. The gas pressures at different points of the apparatus are carefully regulated, and the temperature of the lead peroxide is maintained at 180° C by means of the external heating device shown at H. Practically all classes of organic substances may be analysed with great accuracy in this apparatus. Reference may be made also to the semi-micro-analytical methods, requiring 50 milligrams and upwards of material, of H. Ter Meulen, who has employed manganese dioxide in the combustion tube. Especially worthy of notice is his method of determining oxygen in organic compounds by heating in hydrogen in the presence of a nickel catalyst. (H. Ter Meulen and J. Heslinga,

Recueil des Travaux chimiques des Pays-Bas, 1922 et seq.) Some of the following methods of qualitative micro-analysis, may be applied quantitatively also, e.g., spectroscopic analysis.

(See A. B. P. Leme, Comptes rendus, 1918, 166, p. 465, and Zeit-

Schrift für das Gesamigebiet der Mikrochemie und Mikrophysik, ical) are preserved in refined forms. ‘These developments W. Muller, Vienna; 1923 e¢ seq.) have taken place since 1910, and are due principally to Fritz Qualitative Microanalysis.—Since each chemical produces Pregl of Graz. They have been rendered possible by the elabora- its own characteristic spectrum, an examination, by means of the ton, by W. H. Kuhlmann of Hamburg and by others, of a spectroscope (g.v.), of the flame or spark spectrum of a substance chemical microbalance capable of determining loads (up to 20 reveals the identities of the elements present. The delicacy of the ams) to within two or three thousandths of a milligram; of method far transcends that of the most sensitive chemical reacbeing manipulated with ease and rapidity; and of retaining sensi- tions. Thus, the presence of one hundred-thousandth part of a tiveness during many years. milligram of lithium may be revealed by means of the spectroGeneral methods are now in use for the quantitative estimation scope; or, again, five hundred-thousandths of a milligram of the of the following elements and radicals: Carbon and hydrogen, rare gas, neon, present in the atmosphere, may be detected. In uirogen, chlorine, bromine, iodine, sulphur, selenium, tellurium, this manner the metallic elements gallium, rubidium, indium, horus, arsenic, copper; carboxyl-, methoxyl-, ethoxyl-, caesium and thallium were discovered. The absorption spectra methylimido-, and acetyl-groups. In addition, metals in salts; (qg.v.) of many inorganic and organic substances are also charash content; water content; and molecular weight (ebullioscopic acteristic, thus enabling the presence of these substances to be ) may be microanalytically determined. recognised. Examples are: copper sulphate; the blood pigments

The weight of material required for each determination varies mm 0-5 to 15 milligrams (0-0005 to 0.015 gram); it is usually from 3 to 5 milligrams (0-003 to 0-005 gram.). The microanalyt-

kal methods are at least as accurate as the large-scale methods,

u Some cases more so; they are much more rapid than the latter;

wad they involve economy in respect of power, bench space, and eip The necessary skill and accuracy to operate the meth-

tatt easily acquired by any chemist. There can be little doubt these methods are rapidly replacing the older and more cum-

(haemoglobin and oxyhaemoglobin); and the porphyrins. Far more widely employed, however, are the purely chemical methods which depend upon the production, on the addition of reagents to the sample or to its solution, of colorations or of colour changes; of precipitates having characteristic odour, colour, or crystalline form; or of gases or liquids which can be distilled over and identified. These tests, many of which are very delicate, may be specific for particular compounds, radicals, or elements; or for groups of these. Thus, the presence of 1 part of copper in 100

4.28

MICRO-ASBESTOS—MICROMETER

million parts of water is shown by the blue colour produced on the successive addition of alcoholic hydrogen peroxide and guaiacum resin in pyridine. The presence of 1 part of gold in 20 million parts of solution is revealed by the yellow coloration given with otolidine. Prussic acid (1 part in 2 millions of air) may be detected by means of the blue colour which it gives upon a test paper moistened with a solution containing o-tolidine, acetic acid, and copper acetate. There are many hundreds of such tests, which are also quantitative. Methods of manipulating minute quantities of liquids Cipitates have been worked out, particularly by F. Emich Thus two drops of a mixture of two organic liquids may

some of

and preof Graz. be fractionated and the boiling points of each ascertained with accuracy. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—F. Emich, AMikrochemisches Praktikum (J. F. Berg-

mann, Munich,

1924);

G. Klein and M. Strebinger, Fortschritte der

Mikrochemie (F. Deuticke, Leipzig, 1928) ; A. Lucas, Forensic Chemistry (E. Arnold and Co., London, 1921); Behren, Microanalysis. For descriptions of special apparatus and methods used in quantitative determinations, the following works may be consulted: F. Pregl, Quantitative

Micro-analysis

(Translated by E. Fyleman,

J. and A.

Churchill, London, 1924); H. D. K. Drew and C. R. Porter (Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry, London 1928, p. 17 T); J. H. Yoe, Photometric Chemical Analysis (1929); also articles by Garner in “The Industrial Chemist”; Abstracts and Transactions of the Journal of the Chemical Society (London). (H. D. K. D.)

MICRO-ASBESTOS, MIKROASBEST, ASBESTPULVER, BURGENLANDISCHE ASBESTINE, trade names for a fibrous asbestos product obtained from crumpled and crushed serpentine rocks which occur near Rechnitz, Austria. It is used as a filler in the rubber trade, in absorbent papers and matrix boards, for insulating, in acid and weather resisting paints, in plastics and synthetic resins, for making certain types of flooring, in asphaltic roof compositions, and for many other uses

where an inert acid resisting mineral filler is indicated. ASBESTINE.) MICROBE: see FILTER-PASSING VIRUSES.

MICROCEPHALY:

(Cy.

see NEUROPATHOLOGY.

MICROCLINE, atriclinic potash felspar (g.v.) of the same

material from which Brand prepared phosphorus, whence It i called “salt of phosphorus.”

(See CHemistry: Analytical. )

MICRODISSECTION: see PrortorLasm. MICROMANIPULATION. This term has recently been

applied to a specialized technique for operating on microscopi objects under the high magnifications of the compound microscope,

The operations are made with microneedles (for microdissection)

micropipettes (for microinjection) and microelectrodes, held and

moved in different planes by a mechanism

styled the micro

has also made

the physical ang

manipulator. The delicate, rigid tips of the microneedles and micropipettes are usually of glass or quartz; the microelectrodes of salt-filled pipettes or of metal. The injections are made with a syringe cop. nected to the pipette by a coil of capillary tubing. The movements are so accurately controlled that such delicate operations can þe made as to puncture and tear a mammalian blood-corpuscle 3 microns (0-008 mm.) or less in diameter. The pipettes for micro. injection have apertures Jess than one micron across. With this technique colloidal particles and bacteria have been manipulated and isolated, and histological structures microm. jected and dissected for physiological studies. The technique

possible investigations

on

chemical properties of the protoplasm of living plant and animal

cells.

There is also a micro-radio-puncture

technique developed

by Tchakotine. (See PRoToPLasM.) BIBLIOGRAPHY.—R. Chambers, Anat, Record, vol. 24 (1922); J, Royal Microsc. Soc., p. 373 (1928); Churchill in Gatenby and Cowdry’s The Microtomists Vade-Mecum; McClung’s Handbook of Microscopical Technique (1929); T. Péterfi, in Abderhalden’s Handbuck der biologische Arbeitsmethoden (1923); Pflugers Archiv. der gesammte Physiol., vol. 208 (1927); Arch. exper, Zellforsch., vol, 4: C. V. Taylor, University of California Publ., Zool, vol. 26 (1925);

Proc. Experim. Biol. and Medicine, vol. 23 (1925); S. Tchakotine, Comptes Rendus Soc. Biol., vol. 85 (1921); Bollet. Soc. Ital. biol, sperimentale, vol. 3 (Genoa, 1928). (R. Cu.)

MICROMETER,

a name generally given to any device for (from Gr. mxpós, small,

measuring small angles or dimensions

#éTpov, a measure). In particular a great variety of appliances used for astronomical measurement are called micrometers. in physical and chemical properties. The triclinic character is One of the immediate difficulties of accurate measurement of established by its crystallographic and optical properties, viz., linear dimensions is to secure coincidence between the measuring the cleavage angle oor:o10 (89°30’), the twinning and the optical appliance and the object measured. For inaccessible (celestial) extinction. Twinning on the albite and pericline laws is almost objects, coincidence is, of course, impossible; for accessible obuniversal and produces a characteristic grating or quadrille struc- jects, e.g., a photographic plate, the plate and the measuring ture seen in thin sections of the mineral examined in polarized appliance are likely to get in each other’s way. The remedy is light. This feature and the extinction angle of 15°—17° on the face that either the measuring scale or the thing measured should be oor distinguish the mineral from orthoclase. Laue X-ray photo- insubstantial. Certain devices, such as interferometers, can be graphs of microcline and orthoclase are identical, but the inner regarded as representing the first alternative; but, in general, the crystal structure of these minerals had not yet been determined. simplest solution is to arrange that the thing measured shall be The evidence, however, does not support the contention that insubstantial, viz., an optical image, accessible and offering no orthoclase owes its apparent higher symmetry to a submicroscopic interference with our measuring tools, but forming a faithful twinning leading to zero optical extinction in oo1. Microcline is reproduction to scale of the object whose dimensions we really unknown in surface lavas, but is common in plutonic rocks as wish to know. Both ın the telescope and the microscope a real granite and syenite and in pegmatites. Rare in contact meta- image is formed in the focal plane; here we place the “pointer” morphic zones, it is widely distributed in the crystalline schists. of our micrometer—a movable wire, a scale ruled on glass, or (C. E. T.) some other fiducial mark—and move it about in the midst of the

composition as orthoclase (KAISi;0s), which it closely resembles

MICROCOSM, a term often applied in philosophical and in ghost that we are measuring. We view the coincident pointer and regarded as a “little world” (Gr. image through an eyepiece, which acts as a magnifying glass.

general literature to man

pixpos Kéopos) in opposition to the “macrocosm,” great world,

Most micrometers make use of the principle of the screw; the pointer is displaced uniformly by turning a screw. If, for ex

in which he lives. From the dawn of speculative thought in Greece the analogy between man and the world has been a common-place, and may be traced from Heraclitus and Empedocles, through Plato, Aristotle, the Stoics, the Schoolmen and the thinkers of the Renaissance down to the present day. Thus Lotze’s comprehensive survey of mental and moral science is termed Microcosmus. The most systematic expression of the tendency indicated by the term is the monadology of Leibniz, in which the monad is regarded as containing within its own closed sphere an expression of the universe, the typical created monad being the human soul.

measurements of the diameters of the sun, moon and planets, which are still extant, and prove that his invention made a very

cause it is contained in the decomposing urine of man (the “microcosm”) is ammonium sodium hydrogen orthophosphate, NHNaHPO.-4H20. It is interesting historically as being the raw

pointers are replaced by parallel wires or spider-webs, ¢ on metal frames. Two screws are provided, one of which moves

MICROCOSMIC

ample, the step of the screw is o-; mm., and the screw-head i

read to ;3> of a revolution, we measure to 0-o005 mm. (about equal to the wave-length of light). Needless to say, many precatr tions are necessary if we would actually attain such high accuracy.

Filar Micrometer.—The first micrometer used with a tele-

scope was made by William Gascoigne, about 1638. It consisted

of two pointers with parallel straight edges, which could be

brought together or separated by turning a screw.

He

SALT, so named by the alchemists be- great advance on earlier measurements. The modern successor of this instrument is the flar micrometer, in which the twa

MICRONESIA the pair of wires as a whole, and the other alters the separation of the two wires. In most observations, only the reading of the

second screw is required, the first screw being merely an aid in

4.29

to be measured.

MICRONESIA

(A. S. E.)

(from Gr. uxpós, small, and vĝoos, island),

one of the three great divisions of the oceanic islands in the central and western Pacific. Lying to the north of Melanesia, it now done photographically, and the use of the filar micrometer is embraces the following groups: Mariana, Pelew, Caroline, Marsetting.

Much

work formerly done

by visual measurement

is

now mainly for measurement of the separations and position les of double stars. (See also HELIoMETER.)

Travelling-wire Micrometer.—tThis is an appliance used in conjunction with the transit circle (q.v.) which has proved very successful in avoiding magnitude-equation and other systematic errors, and is now generally adopted in fundamental observation. The older method was to tap off on a chronograph the observed

times of passage of a star across a series of fixed wires set in the focal plane of the telescope.

In the travelling-wire or “imper-

sonal” micrometer, the observer continually turns a screw so as

to keep a fine wire or web continually bisecting the moving star

image. (The turning of the screw moves the eye-piece as well as the wire, so that the bisected star remains apparently station-

ary at the centre of the feld of view.)

Electrical contacts are

made when the moving frame reaches definite positions, and the

time when the wire, and therefore the star, reaches a series of positions is thus automatically recorded on the chronograph.

Photographic Measuring Machines.—These are examples of

the application of the micrometer to the microscope. There is a wide variety of patterns, and nearly every observatory bas its own form, designed to embody some special improvement, valuable either for securing accuracy or for saving time in the particular work

there

pursued.

Many

lines of work

prodigious amount of measurement of photographs, time-saving factor is therefore of great importance.

involve

a

and the We can

only summarize here some of the typical requirements. The photographic plate must be carried on slides allowing it to move

m two perpendicular directions, so that any point of it can be

brought directly under the microscope.

The frame should have

great rigidity, in order that perfect focus may be preserved. The cross-wires, glass scale or other fiducial marks, are in the focal plane of the microscope objective, and are movable in two directions at right-angles by two micrometer screws. The eye-piece is mainly responsible for the magnification. Magnification by the objective is seldom greater than 3:1; there are, in fact, many advantages in using unit magnification, i.e., the image in the focal plane of the objective is the same size as the photograph itself. It may be recalled that in visual observing we magnify with the eyelens an image formed in the focal plane of the telescope; by inserting a photographic plate in the focal plane this image is materialized and rendered permanent; the objective of the measuring microscope converts this back into an insubstantial image, preferably of the original size, and we then make our deferred examination of it with an eye-lens. In accurate (as distinct from time-saving) machines, the modern tendency has been towards simpler construction. The secret of success is to remove the difficulties before reaching the sage of micrometric measurement, instead of elaborating the

measuring instrument

to solve them.

In researches

on stellar

parallax and proper motion, it is necessary to compare two or more

Photographs of star fields taken at different epochs. In parallax

work the photographs are now often taken on the same plate

(which is kept undeveloped in the interval between the epochs),

the different images of the same star being arranged close together in a symmetrical way. In proper motion work the photo-

shall and Gilbert. For full details of these various islands, see Pacific Islands.

groups of

ETHNOLOGY

This area, besides countless small islands, comprises the Mariannes or Ladrones (Japan and U.S.A.), the Carolines, East and

West (Japan) and Marshall (Japan), and Gilbert (British) groups. The people are a highly mixed stock, Melanesian to an extent, with a Polynesian influence strong in the eastern portion, whilst over all is a later infusion of Malay blood, particularly in the Western Carolines. Their skin colour extends from brown to nearly yellow, the hair is black with a tendency to curl. Eyes are almost black, the cheek bones being highly placed. The stature of the Micronesians is only medium, nor are they so robust as the Polynesians. Everywhere the Chiefly caste is well established, although such iofluence is not so much hereditary as personal. In languages

great differences are found.

The basis, however, contains Poly-

nesian roots. Tattooing is much in vogue for both sexes, par-

ticularly on the body, slaves being debarred from this privilege. In the main they are an inoffensive and lazy people, but liable at times to get out of hand. As navigators they formerly excelled, whilst in the Marshall group the regular use of charts was common. These, formed from palm strips, showed the relative position of the various islands, and occasionally were elaborate affairs, several feet long. Although accurate to the extent of showing the prevailing winds and ocean swell, they were only of use from the actual island on which they were made. The Ladrones, from their discovery by Magellan in 1521, were controlled by the Spaniards until 1898. Of the original inhabitants little remains, except numerous stone monuments, rapidly falling into decay. To-day, they form a miscellaneous and somewhat degenerate people, of whom immigrants from the Carolines are an important section, outwardly at least, all converts of the former

Catholic priests. In Guam, the largest island, records of the original Chamorro religion and social structure hardly exist, the sole records being the somewhat imperfect account of the Jesuit missionary Le Gobien, whose narrative in French was published in 1700. These people, one reads, were bardy and warlike, and opposed the Spaniards for many years and finally ceased to exist as a race. Of the Gilbert group, comparatively little knowledge of old customs remains. The people are a sturdy race, much tinged with Polynesian blood implanted on a Melanesian stock. The possession of a light coloured skin, therefore, was esteemed as occular proof of the dominant Polynesian element, and a cus-

tom was in vogue for marriageable girls to undergo a course of “bleaching,” extending over a year or more. The chief held great power, and some, particularly the king of Apamama, as recorded by Robert Louis Stevenson, lived in great style. Polygamy was practised and maintained on harem lines, with specially appointed officials; alternatively, slavery was a regular institution, and their numbers were controlled at their masters’ discretion. The ordinary method of burial was interment under the dwelling house, although with very important people the body was allowed to shrivel in the sun, and was kept indefinitely, being produced at,

festivals. Crania were objects of regard and were preserved ig a shrine near the dwelling. This survival of a skull cult indicate ` graph at one epoch is taken through the glass of the plate, że., that the Melanesian element was formerly strong enough to“ with the plate “the wrong way round”; the two plates to be comimplant some of their customs on the invaders. The presence of pared are then placed film to film so that corresponding images the soul was recognized, for after death it passed away to the ate very near together. In either case the comparison resolves West, as among the Polynesian peoples. Local legend definitely self into measuring exceedingly small distances between pairs of states that the invaders came from Samoa, some 700 years ago. mages, and there are comparatively few sources of error. The inhabitants of the Marshall group show less admixture of tar principles apply to machines for measuring spectra Polynesian blood than the Gilbertese, whilst their social structure (celestial or laboratory). Here the motion and measurement are and mode of life is more nearly related to the Caroline peoples, m one dimension only, and a line is a somewhat easier object to a dolichocephalic race. Both groups are composed of a great t on, either with single or parallel wires, than a star image. number of small islands, wherein individual differences exist; in rer possible the measurements are made relatively to a addition a marked contrast is found between the eastern and “mparison spectra, so that only small differences of position are western portions. The inhabitants of the last offer peculiar fea-

439

MICROPEGMATITE—MICROPHONE

tures, due to Malay, or even Chinese influence. Two excellent accounts of the Pelew Islands at the western end are accessible. That of the wreck of the “Antelope” in 1783 and the narrative of one Amasa Delano, an American ship’s captain, in 1791. The Carolines were known to the Portuguese in 1526, being named in 1686 after Carlos II. of Spain. They remained under nominal Spanish control down to 1899, when the group was purchased by Germany. In the island of Ponapé remain great stone enclosures and remains of artificial islands constructed in the quiet waters of the lagoons, evidence of a numerous and energetic population, since formerly these islands were the stepping stones of the early Polynesian immigrants. The investigations of Hambruch in rg1o, following those of Christian, show that formerly a vast area of artificially formed land, reclaimed from the shallow water, was occupied by temples, palaces, and burying places. An elaborate social organization was in force, whilst the king was the embodiment of the gods. To-day, the whole area is congested with ruins and abandoned by the few remaining natives. The people are now divided into numerous clans, each having its chief; next, prior to the nominal conversion to Christianity, came the priests, who exercised considerable power and combined the functions of doctors. The chiefs retain to this day considerable power and have great hold on their followers. Little is known of the former religion, which was of an animistic character, and even now certain recognized natural objects are venerated. The Melanesian system of “club houses” for the males is in full force and afford the most elaborate structures in the villages. On the island of Yap this custom is particularly prevalent, and the stone money discs peculiar to this island are disposed round these “club houses” as evidence of wealth. These discs reach a diameter of 12 feet and represent the communal wealth. This stone currency, being the ownership of the community, is an object of pride to the natives, and the Germans, when in possession, enforced local laws by the simple expedient of painting the German arms on the most valued till such time as the village had carried out the Government requisitions. The institution of these “club houses” forms an important part of the social life of the men, the females being excluded, and it is the custom for the young men to reside therein at an early age. The occurrence of pottery vessels for domestic purposes affords another peculiarity of the western Carolines, where also the betel nut (Areca cathecu) is chewed extensively, whilst the natives of the eastern portion are addicted to the use of kava, a true Polynesian custom. Weaving with the loom is common to both divisions and sexes indifferently; the material used is either fine fibres from the banana, or the hibiscus; elaborate and effective patterns in colour are produced with pleasing effect. BIBLIOGRAPHY.——G. Keate, An account of the Pelew Islands, ato, 3rd ed. (1789); Amasa Delano, Narrative of Voyages and Travels, 8vo (Boston, 1817); W. H. Furness, The Island of Stone Money, 8vo {19r0); F. W. Christian, The Caroline Islands, 8vo (1899); Robert Louis Stevenson, Jn the South Seas (Gilbert Group) 8vo (r900); J. S. Kubary, Kenntnis des Karolinen Archipels (Leyden, 1889); Akira Matsumura, Tke Caroline Islands (Tokyo, Ae (H. G. B.)

MICROPEGMA TITE, in petrology, a very fine intergrowth

only be detected with the microscope.

The felspar of microneg.

matite is usually orthoclase, but sometimes albite, oligoclase of microcline. Occasionally it has crystalline form, and then ithas been proved that the quartz may be so disposed that the two

minerals have a definite relation between their crystallographic axes (parallel growth). The quartz typically occurs as angular

patches.

Micropegmatite

is often so fine grained that even jp

the thinnest sections and with high powers it cannot be resolved into its components. This fine micropegmatite resembles threads. having a divergent arrangement. In some rocks the whole ground mass consists of spherulitic growths of fibrous micropegmatite (see QUARTZ-PoRPHYRY) ; in their centres there is often a quartz or felspar crystal; the outer boundaries of the spherulites are not

usually circular but irregular owing to the interlocking of adjacent spherulites at their margins. In rocks where micropegmatite frequently occurs (e.g., granite, porphyry and granophyre, quartz-diorite) it is usually the last product of consolidation, and represents the mother liquor left over after the other minerals had separated out in more or less perfect crystals. Hence it has no definite form of its own, but fills up the irregular interspaces between the earlier crystalliza. tions. For that reason it has been compared to a eutectic, and supposed to be the mixture of quartz and felspar which has the lowest fusion point. Eutectics are common in alloys and often have a very perfect micrographic structure. The eutectic mixture

of quartz and orthoclase has been estimated to contain 70-75° of the latter. This theory, however, is not without its difficulties:

analyses of micropegmatite prove that its composition is by no means constant (this may perhaps be due to small admixtures of soda and lime felspars). Furthermore micropegmatite is not always the last consolidation product, as a eutectic should be, but

may occur as well-shaped phenocrysts lying in a felsitic or glassy matrix which solidified at a still later time. Micrographic struetures in the minerals of igneous rocks prove only that these minerals crystallized simultaneously. (J. S. F.) MICROPHONE or TELEPHONE TRAN SMITTER, a device for converting mechanical energy of sound waves into electrical energy with similar vibrational characteristics. The first instrument used for this purpose was the telephone receiver i» vented by Alexander Graham Bell in 1876, the same type of ie strument being then used in a telephone circuit for transmitting

and receiving.

(See TELEPHONE.)

The term microphone, how

ever, was first used by D. E. Hughes in connection with his discovery in 1878 that a loose contact in a circuit containing a

battery and a telephone receiver may give rise to sounds in the telephone corresponding to the vibrations to which the contact is subject. Hughes constructed his microphone in the form of a horizontal carbon rod resting in grooves in two carbon blocks, the battery and telephone receiver being connected in series with these blocks. Microphones have in general been developed on two main lines. First, as instruments (similar to the Hughes type) where the action is that of an amplifying relay, the impact of sound waves on the microphone causing a variation of energy supplied by a local battery. In this case efficiency is the primary object. Secondly, as instruments where the electrical energy is mainly

of quartz and alkali felspar, occurring often as the last product derived through the microphone from the mechanical energy of of consolidation in many igneous rocks which contain high or the sound waves, the first considerations being the perfection of moderately high percentages of silica. It shows the same struc- frequency characteristic and a linear relation between air pressure ture on a minute scale as certain pegmatites (g.v.) or coarse and consequent electric current. granitic veins do on a large scale (see the article, PETROLOGY); The former type has been developed for commercial purposes the quartz forms angular patches scattered through a matrix of such as telephone communication systems; the latter for scientific felspar. In polarized light the separate areas of one mineral all work such as sound measurement (see Sounp) and for purposes extinguish at the same time, and this proves that even though where high quality is essential, as, for instance, in broadcasting apparently discontinuous they have the same crystalline orienta- and gramophone recording installations. tion. The felspar may be considered an irregular crystal of The conversion of pressure vibrations in the air into correspongy structure, the interstices being filled up by another spongy sponding electrical vibrations in an electrical circuit is generally crystal of quartz. This kind of mineral intergrowth is said to be carried out in two operations, which take place simult “graphic,” because the coarsely graphic veins have triangular First of all the sound wave impinges on a surface in the quartz areas dotted over a felspathic background resembling cer- strument (usually known as the diaphragm), which is capable tain primitive inscriptions. Micropegmatite differs from “graphic slight movement. The variation of air pressure on this diaphragm granite” only in being so much finer grained that its nature can causes it to move to and fro in a manner corresponding to the

MICROPHONE hackwards and forwards movement of the particles in the air—

i

that is corresponding to the original sound.

4-31

and natural speech.

High Quality Types.—In recent years a careful study of

The second operation is that in which the diaphragm by its| the response of microphones to sound pressure has been made, movement causes a corresponding change in some property of | with the objects in view of accurate sound measurement and of

an electrical circuit. Thus the diaphragm may be one plate of a | faithful transmission of speech and music. As a rule, to obtain condenser producing variations in capacity, or it may be part of | high quality, efficiency must be sacrificed. Thermionic valve

amplifiers must be used to bring the voltages provided by the

an inductive electromagnetic system, or it may cause variations of electrical resistance. In each case variation of current takes

place by diaphragm movement. Thus, in studying the performance of microphones. two things :

CARBON ELECTRODE

must be considered: first, the mechanical movement of the dia- |

phragm; secondly, the nature of the method in which this move- |

ment sets up the changes which we desire.

|

pressure applied. =

|

Commercial Types.—The majority of these are of the loose| contact type, the resistance of the contact varying with the|

The change of resistance with pressure varies greatly with materials used, and it has been found that particles of carbon in | light contact with each other produce the greatest change in re- | sistance when subjected to small variations of pressure. |

MARBLE BLOCK

eerie

The electrical A.C. energy produced at the contact, since the power is taken from a local battery, may be many times the energy of the accoustic input, ‘and this may be increased by increasing the current from the battery passing through the contact. But there always exists a slight variation of current at the contact even when no sound waves are impinging on it, which is heard as a hiss in a telephone receiver, and if the current through the con-

tact is increased too much, the hiss becomes a loud crackling noise, due to overheating at the contact points. Another disadvantage is that the contact or contacts may get into a very insensitive state known as “packing,” the remedy for which is an occasional shaking. The connection between input pressure and output current for this type of microphone is only linear (i.e., proportional) for a very small range of pressures. Speech transmission and reproduction can, however, be con-

siderably distorted before becoming unintelligible to the human ear, and the efficiency of the microphone can be improved by introducing resonances at certain frequencies which are useful for intelligible transmission. Microphones of this type incorporate diaphragms with natural periods round about 800 cycles per second, and although the lowest and highest frequencies are lost with a considerable decrease in naturalness, the result is sufficiently good, even with the non-linear conditions of normal use, to be SCREW FOR STRETCHING DIAPHRAGM

A {

iy

, 3 t t t f i ' i

A

4 Me| = t

i a t 1 +

t

~~

aper l mn o e ~

Fie. 1—WESTERN

at

ELECTRIC

and practicable

DOUBLE-BUTTON

CARBON

MICROPHONE

for transmission over a telephone

Om.

A familiar type of commercial microphone is one in which current-varying element or “inset” is a cell consisting of two

small carbon electrodes with polished faces, the space between Which is filled with carbon granules. One of the electrodes is fired and the other attached to a circular metal plate, which acts a3 a diaphragm to receive the sound waves. This type of microphone, on account of the fact that it deals with only'a limited range of frequencies, and also provides nondistortion, is quite unsuitable for the transmission of music

eg ame re te

FIG.

2.—REISZ

CARBON

MICROPHONE

microphone up to the strength required for any particular practical purpose. This type of microphone must rigidly fulfil certain conditions, while others must be satisfied as far as possible. These conditions are as follows: (1) The microphone must have a good frequency characteristic. It must be equally responsive throughout the range of frequencies from 25 cycles to 10,000 cycles per second. (2) The condition of linearity must be satisfied for the range of pressures with which it is likely to deal. (3) The microphone must be free from inherent noise or hiss. (4) It must be sensitive so that not too much amplification is necessary to bring the voltage output to a suitable strength. (5) The microphone must be robust so that its essential characteristics in the given conditions of use are retained and it must be easy to install and maintain. (6) It must be sufficiently small to cause no serious disturbance to the sound field. Usually some sort of compromise must be made, depending on the purpose for which the microphone is to be used. Two types of carbon microphone come in the “high quality” class. The first, the Western Electric “double-button” carbon microphone (fig. 1) has a diaphragm of duralumin, stretched to a natural period above the useful range of frequencies, and subject to air damping. A capsule of carbon granules is placed on each side of the diaphragm. The second, called the Reisz microphone (fig. 2) has no diaphragm as such, but the sound acts on a layer of very fine carbon granules, placed on a heavy non-conducting block, and held in position by some material such as thin rubber or mica. The flow of current and its variation take place in a direction at right angles to the direction of application of pressure. Each of these microphones has a fairly good frequency characteristic, and is linear up to moderate sound pressures, but for the largest sound pressure variations met with in practice, the linear relation does not hold and “blasting” or non-linear distortion takes place. The best known “high quality” microphone is the condenser microphone developed into an instrument of precision by the Western Electric Co., Ltd. (fig. 3). The diaphragm is of duralumin, and is stretched to a very high natural period and air damped, and held very close to a solid insulated metal plate, the two forming the sides of a condenser. A stretched diaphragm of this type naturally exihibits very marked resonance characteristics, having a much greater response for its natural frequencies than other frequencies. If damping is increasingly applied all over the diaphragm the resonances tend

MICROPHONE

434

to be less marked, and a point will be reached when the frequency characteristic curve becomes almost level corresponding to a fairly equal response for all frequencies under consideration. A further increase in damping will only result in reduction of overall sensitivity. In the first microphones of this type designed by Wente, the diaphragm was stretched to a period of 17,000 cycles per second, thus outside the useful and audible range of

use. For instance the hot wire microphone has been developer

by Tucker for the detection and location of gunfire and of aero.

planes. The microphone consists of a fine wire grid which jg heated by a local battery and connected in a bridge type of ciy. cuit. The impact of sound waves cools the grid and the resultant change of resistance is observed.

It is insensitive and must be

used with resonators to increase the effect. As a consequence i cannot be used for musical purposes. The glow discharge microphone has been made by the Westing. house Co., and also in Germany in the form of a capsule consis.

HOOK

FOR ATTACHMENT IN TRANSMITTER HOUSING

15 14

©

i

13 m.

Peet) Jj

a

SECURING

SCREW

2

n $ a

Sink Cee Se

TL!

t

5 > 12 B= it O u io s

Eo

ertpolnt, after leaving the eyepiece.or J£0,produced by the object-glass in Fig. 12 are shown the paths of the The eyepiece may be consid-.

—

FIG,

13.— RESOLVING

POWER

OF A LENS

(a) Shows the image-forming rays from a single self-luminous point at 0, the “geometrical” image being at I. (b) Distribution of light in the Image

plane round the geometrical image-point 1, is Indicated in this figure; the central bright area extends as far as dd. (c} Shows the image-forming rays from two self-luminous points O and Ot, the geometrical images being at |

and It. (d) Indicates the distribution of light in the image-plane when O and O! are so close together that thelr images are only just distinguishable è

full diameter

of the central disk, is represented by the distance s negative lens is used as ered as a simple microscope, of dd. The brightness of the disk falls off rapidly towards the edge,

i magnifying power Mg, which is used to examine the magnified image formed by the object-

and a visual estimate of the diameter would usually put it at about $ of the full diameter dd. The diameter dd depends on the gass. The total magnification obtained is thus equal to Mox Me. wave-lengt h of the ligbt emitted by the source at O, and on the distance d is approximately equal to fi, the focal length of angles which the extreme rays make with the axis of the lens. the object-glass, while D may be taken as equal to the “‘tubeIf have two independent similar point sources at O and O’ ” (L) of the microscope. This gives Mo equal to L/fı- The (fig. we 13.c) equidistant from the Jens, each of these will produce eof Mg is taken as 10/f», where fz is the focal length of the a disk image with its surroundin g system of rings; the centres of tyepece in inches (see Simple Microscope}. Hence, if all the the two systems will be at J and Z’ respectively. If the disks are

MICROSCOPE

436

completely separated they will be seen clearly, but if they overlap by more than a certain amount they will merge into a single bright area over the centre of which the brightness is almost uniform: the two disks will not then be distinguishable as separate

large numerical aperture and (b) the most nearly perfect coy. rections it is possible to obtain over the whole of this aperture Spherical aberration can be corrected by combining together |

individual

images. In the latter case the resolving power of the lens is insufficient to enable O and O’ to be resolved as separate point sources, The resolving power of a microscope object-glass is

of

Suitable

glass. A more usual method is to use combinations of lenses of different glasses which may either

usually stated in terms of the minimum distance which must exist between two details in the object if their images are to be

be cemented or may be mounted

distinguishable as separate images.

at suitable distances from each

Now if the extreme ray OD makes an angle u with the axis of the lens, the two point sources O and O’ (fig. 13.c) will give rise to diffraction disks which will be just completely separated if

other and separated by ir, This method lends itself to the

FIG. 14.—EXAMPLES OF LENS SYSTEMS USED IN OBJECT-GLASSES

simultaneous correction of both spherical and chromatic aberra. tions, and is therefore used fer all ordinary microscope object. glasses. In the more powerful

(a) Achromatic system,

object-glasses

I'22À =

lenses,

forms, all made of one king 9;

TE

Sinu

where À represents the wave-length of the light emitted by the sources O and O’, and s represents the distance between O and O'. The edges of the diffraction disks are, however, only very faint, consequently the images can be plainly distinguished even if the diffraction disks overlap to a quite appreciable extent. The distribution of brightness indicated in fig. 13.d, corresponds to the relation _ Or51A

matic system

(b) apochro-

lenses

several

individual

and lens systems must

be used in order to obtain the requisite degree of correction over

the whole aperture (fig. 14).

To secure a good image of a small object it is not sufficient merely to correct the spherical aberration for a point on th axis of the object-glass. It is necessary, in addition, that the ligh in the object plane be brought to focus in the corresponding

area in the image plane. Seidel (1856) and Clausius (1864) investigated conditions which must be fulfilled to obtain this, Between the two brightest points there is, in this case, a line in and showed the that there must be a definite relation between the 7

siny

which the intensity is 97% of that at the two maxima. This is inclinations of the rays on the object side and the inclinations of probably sufficient for the two maxima to be just distinguishable. the corresponding rays on the image side. Helmholtz and Abbe For a trained observer with eyes of normal acuity, the limit of investigated this independently in 1873 with similar results. The resolution obtainable may thus be taken as about condition is, if a ray from a point lying on the axis in the object plane is inclined to the axis at an angle #, the corresponding ray 2h s = on the image side must be inclined to the axis at an angle x’ such sinu that nsinu= Csin, If the medium has a refractive index n, the wave-length of the where C has the same value for every ray coming from the point light will be shorter than it would be in air, in the proportion 1/m. We can use Aa, the wave-length as measured in air, in this formula in question. Abbe drew special attention to the importante of this condition being satisfied in designing microscope objectby substituting \_/m for A, when we obtain glasses, and gave to it the name of the “sine-condition,” If the — —

Za

axial spherical aberration has been corrected but the sine-con

nsinu

dition has not been fulfilled, the pencils of rays which come from a point a little off the axis are brought to focus at different distances from the axis on the image side (fig. 15), giving different

The quantity msinu is a property of the lens, since it depends on u and on the refractive index of the medium in which the lens is intended to be used on the object side; it is called the numerical

aperture of the lens. For a “dry-front” lens

is unity, and the

maximum numerical aperture such a lens can have is I.

Immersion Lenses.—Many lenses are designed for use with a layer of fluid filling the space between the front of the lens and the object or cover-glass. The maximum numerical aperture such an immersion liens can have is determined by the refractive

index of the immersion fluid, by the refractive index of the coverglass (if any) over the object, or by the refractive index of the front lens of the object-glass, whichever of these three has the lowest value. The front lens of an immersion object-glass is

usualy made of crown glass of refractive index 1-508 to 1-525; the

cover-glasses most commonly used have a refractive index between 1-§15 and 1-525. For most immersion lenses, therefore, a thickened

FIG. 15.—EFFECT QF NON-COMPLIANCE WITH THE ‘'SINE-CONDITION” Rays

passing

through

different zones

of the lens

produce

different degrees

of magnification

cedar-wood oil, having a refractive index of 1-515 to 1-525, is magnifications according to the zone of the lens through which used as the immersion fluid. For obtaining still higher resolving the pencils pass. powers, object-glasses have been made with front-lenses of refracChromatic aberrations can be corrected by using lens combine tive indices up to 1-66, for use with proper immersion fluids. A tions in which the individual lenses are made of different typé homogeneous tmmerston lens is an object-glass designed for use of glass. A negative lens of low power, made of flint glass, with an immersion fluid having the same refractive index as its produce a dispersion equal and opposite to that produced hy 8 front lens.

Aberrations of Object-glasses.—Unless the aberrations of the

lens are very small, the actual resolving power will fall short of that corresponding to the numerical aperture, except with certain special methods of illumination which may give a semblance of resolution. In an object-glass, therefore, we require, in addition to a reasonable magnifying power, (a) an appropriately

positive lens of considerably higher power made of crown glass.

Two such lenses, correctly combined together, will act as 8 positive lens with a common focus for both the blue and rays. Such a lens is called an achromatic lens.

Although the blue and the red rays of certain selected wave

lengths can be brought to a common focus in this way, rays other wave-lengths will not come to the same focus as the

MICROSCOPE

437

blue rays, owing to the differences between the relative “partial ” | a particular tube-length when used on uncovered objects, can be dispersions of the two glasses. The lens thus gives an image which satisfactorily corrected for covered objects by shortening the tubejs slightly coloured at the edges, and is said to show “secondary length appropriately. Conversely, a lens corrected for covered colour.” In modern apochromatic lenses three selected wave- objects can be used satisfactorily for uncovered objects if the hs are made to have a common focus; thus only a trace of tube-length is appropriately increased.

“tertiary colour’ is present and this in some instances is so small

as to be unnoticeable. It has not been found possible, as yet, to design apochromatic lenses which give precisely equal magnification for light of different colours. This can be corrected by a suitable eyepiece called a “compensating eyepiece” (see p. 438). An

For use in microscopes with fixed tube-lengths, Amici made separate object-glasses to suit different thicknesses of cover-glass,

achromatic lens is usually corrected spherically for one colour oly, an apochromatic lens should be corrected so as to have no rical aberration for light of ‘wo different colours. Other Aberrations of Object-glasses are:—curvature of field, distortion, astigmatism, and extra-axial coma. These are aberrations of oblique pencils; their effect is to impair the image of any object-details lying off the axis, and to cause the image to

lie on a curved surface so that it cannot all be seen in focus at one time. These defects are not of great importance in the ordinary use of the microscope since, if the sine-condition is satisfied, the definition is good over an appreciable area round the

centre of the field where the field is flattest. For microphotographic work, however, these aberrations are most objectionable. It is possible to select types of design such that, in correcting the lens for axial, spherical and chromatic aberrations, the aberrations of oblique pencils are kept within small limits over a fairly Jarge

angle. Any object-detail to which particular attention is being paid should be brought into the middle of the field of view, że.,

on to the axis of the object-glass. Monochromatic Object-glasses for Visual Work—For the purpose of obtaining higher resolving powers than have hitherto been

FIG. 17.—ABERRATION INTRODUCED BY A COVER-GLASS (a) Lens fully-corrected for use with uncovered object when Image Is formed at

distance

L.

(b}

Same

lens,

with

object

under

cover-glass

and

focus

of central pencils at distance L. Ray system {fs under-corrected on object side and over-corrected on image side. (c) Same lens, with object as before.

By increasing the distance of the lens from the object, the distance of the image is reduced to L, and full correction on the image side is obtained

obtainable with achromatic and apochromatic object-glasses, cer-

modifying the corrections but preserving the same aperture and power. This was made unnecessary by the introduction in 1837, by Andrew Ross, of object-glasses furnished with a “correc: obiain full correction for spherical aberration over a numerical tion-collar” which enabled the spherical aberration of the object~aperture larger than that over which combined chromatic and glass to be adjusted so as to compensate for the aberrations prospherical correction has hitherto been satisfactorily accomplished. duced by cover-glasses of different thicknesses. The correctionModern apochromatic immersion lenses of high quality are made collar was improved later by H. F. Wenham, of the firm of Ross, with numerical apertures up to 1-4, while monochromatic lenses, and still later by Zeiss (fig. 18). ' fully corrected up to 1-6, have been designed. The aberrations produced by refraction at the cover-glass and Aberration Produced by a Cover-glass—A microscopic at the first surface of the front lens of the object-glass can be object-glass is usually designed to be used with an object placed reduced by filling the space between the object-glass and the on the axis at a particular distance in front of the lens and covered object, or the cover-glass, with a medium of higher refractive | with a cover-glass of particular thickness index than air. Amici introduced the frst practical immersion and refractive index. The image of such an lenses in 1840, using water as the immersion fluid, and improved object will then be formed at a particular water-immersion lenses were made by E. distance behind the lens and, if the lens is Hartnack in 1855. On the suggestion of ‘=m | J. W. Stephenson, Abbe in 1878 investiproperly designed and made, this image will be free from spherical aberration. If S gated the matter and designed the first the cover-glass is not of the proper thickhomogeneous immersion lenses and had ness the image will not be free from spherthese made up by the firm of Zeiss. ical aberration and, to correct the aberraThe apochromatic immersion objectglass, in virtue of its large numerical apertion thus introduced, the distance between the object and the object-glass must be ture and its almost perfect chromatic and altered. This will alter the distance bespherical corrections, is the most nearly | tween the image and the object-glass, so perfect type of object-glass constructed. := 16.—-CORRECTED AND the length of the microscope tube (the disSince the first apochromatic object-glasses TEMS TED LENS SYS- tance between the object-glass and the eyewere designed by Abbe about 1886, slight tain monochromatic lenses have been made, for use with radiations of one wave-length only. This method makes it possible to

(a) Under-corrected, (b) Piece) will have to be altered accordingly.

Fully-corrected, and

Orer-correoted system

(¢)

The type of aberration introduced is

best explained in terms of the aberration

of an ordinary uncorrected lens. A system in which the outer

rays intersect the axis at a point nearer the lens than the intersec-

bon of the central rays is an “under-corrected” system. An “overcorrected” system has a shorter focal length for the central rays than for the outer rays (fig. 16). The effect of increasing the thickness of the cover-glass is indi-

taied in fig. 17, as is also the way iñ wbich a change in the tubecan be made

to correct

the aberration thereby intro-

The lens is supposed to be corrected for use with an uncovered object when the image of this object is formed at a distance L behind the lens (fig. 17.a). A lens corrected for use with

FIG. 18.—OBJECT-GLASS improvements in the degree of correction os ae

have been made, but no such marked improvement as that represented by the difference between achromatic and apochromatic object-glasses. Object-glasses for Ultra-violet Work.—The number of materials suitable for making lenses to be used with ultra-violet radiations is very limited. Most of the solid materials which are transparent to these radiations are unsuitable owing to their doubly-refracting properties, or else are difficult to obtain in sufficiently large pieces of good optical quality. Object-glasses for use with ultra-violet radiations are nearly all designed as monochromatic lenses (see Aberrations of Object-glasses). An achromatic object-glass made of quartz and fluorite was produced in r900 by von Rohr for ultra-violet work; this lens

438

MICROSCOPE

had a focal length of about 4 mm. and a numerical aperture of ' a scale in the eyepiece fitting. The scale is mounted in front ol o3. In r904 the firm of Zeiss introduced a series of lenses, made the field-lens and is made to coincide with the image formed from fused quartz, for use with monochromatic ultra-violet light, the object-glass. Any distortion produced by the eyepiece thy having numerical apertures up to about 1-25. In 1926, an object- affects the image and the scale equally. Except for purposes of glass of novel design for use as a water-immersion lens, and an- this type the Ramsden form of eyepiece is not largely used, Ina other for use as a homogeneous immersion lens, were designed Huyghens eyepiece the image of the object is formed between and computed by the British Scientific Instrument Research Asso- the two eyepiece lenses, and hence the comparison scale mugt he fitted between the lenses. Any distortion produced by the field. lens will, therefore, only affect the image of the object. A com. parison of the image with the scale may thus lead to an inaccy. rate estimate of the size of the object. These eyepieces, when properly designed, give equal magnifi. cation for light of all colours, though the differently coloured images lie in slightly different planes. The eye is much leg

sensitive to slight “out of focus” effects than to differences of

magnification, consequently both types of eyepiece are practically achromatic when properly constructed. The effects of the spherical

aberrations of the eyepiece are only small and in practice may be IMAGE PLANE..

Fic.20

FIGS. 19 & 20.—PATHS OF RAYS THROUGH 19), AND THROUGH RAMSDEN’S EYEPIECE THE RAMSDEN CIRCLE IN EACH FIGURE

HUYGHENS’ (FIG. 20),

EYEPIECE (FIG. R.C. DENOTING

ciation. Lenses made up to these formulae by the firm of R. and J. Beck have numerical apertures of 1-14 and 1-2 respectively, and are fully corrected for use with the monochromatic ultraviolet radiation for which they were computed. The resolving

neglected. The compensating eyepieces used to correct the chromatic dif. ferences of magnification of apochromatic object-glasses are con. structed, in the lower powers, like a Huyghens eyepiece with the second lens replaced by a doublet. This doublet is over-corrected for chromatic aberration. These eyepieces are designed to havea higher magnifying power for red light than-for blue so as tg correct the chromatic difference of magnification of apochromatic object-glasses; compensating eyepieces can be used with advantage with many high power achromatic object-glasses. In the higher powered compensating eyepieces of certain makers the design is not similar to that of the lower powered compensating eyepieces, a more elaborate system being used (fig. 21). Compensating eyepieces having magnifying powers up to roo are obtainable, bx it is only with object-glasses of the highest quality that a magnifying power greater than X25 can be used without making the imperfections of the object-glass image disturbingly apparent, Many other types of eyepieces are made to suit special purposes but it is not possible to describe them in this article.

powers of these objectives are equivalent to those obtained with lenses of aperture 2-28 and 2.4 when they are used with green light. i THE EYEPIECE ' The eyepiece serves primarily as a magnifying glass which is used to examine the real image formed by the object-glass. The MODE OF FORMATION OF THE IMAGE IN THE MICROSCOPE simpler types of eyepiece are made with a large field-lens which

bends the ray-pencils from the object-glass towards the axis without greatly altering the convergence or divergence of the rays in the individual pencils. Behind this field-lens, and at some distance from it, Is a second and much smaller lens which converts each ray pencil into a parallel or only slightly diverging ray system which is capable of being focussed by the eye. After emerg-

ing from the second lens, all these pencils pass through a small circular area called the “eye-point” or the Ramsden circle. This area is the image which the eyepiece forms of the object-glass aperture. The eye of the observer should be placed at the Ramsden circle in order to obtain the largest field of view and the maximum brightness over that field. | The two types of eyepiece at

one time most commonly

met

km

F16.

21—COMPENSATING

EYE.

PIECES {ZEISS)

with are those originally invented by Huyghens and Ramsden; in both types two simple plano-convex lenses are used. To prevent any dirt on the field-lens from being seen sharply focussed by the eye, the distance separating the two lenses is made a little greater than the focal length of the eye-lens in Huyghens’ form, and a little less in Ramsden’s form (figs. r9 and 20). The image formed by the object-glass is seen clearly when it lies in a position in front of the field-lens of a Ramsden eyepiece, but with a Huyghens eyepiece the light from the object-glass is intercepted by the fieldlens before it has come to focus in the image plane. The Ramsden eyepiece is convenient to use if the size of the object is to be measured by comparing the size of its image with

We may take it that the way in which a lens forms the image of a luminous object is understood and generally accepted. The formation of the image of an illuminated non-luminous object requires consideration, however, since the light reaching the lens. whether reflected from, refracted through, or passing round the object, originates from an independent source of illumination, and the object is only “seen” as a result of the way in which it modifies the light which falls upon it. As regards large objects common experience shows that the way in which their images are formed, as in the act of “seeing,” can be considered as substantially the same as that in which the images of luminous objects are formed, with the exception that a non-luminous object may. in certain circumstances, be “seen” merely as an opaque mass against a luminous or brightly illuminated background. At one time it was commonly accepted that an object is seen in the microscope in essentially the same way as larger objects are ordinarily seen, and that the processes involved in formmg the microscopic image of a small non-luminous object are the same as those involved in forming the image of a self-lummos body. These were the views put forward by such students

as Airy, Arago, Foucault, J. F. W. Herschel, and Helmholiz When light falls on a very small object, however, diffraction effects, which are not usually observed when the object is large, come into. prominence. Abbe made a study of these effects as a result of his observations, put forward a new theory of ibe mode of formation of the image in the microscope. This theory is giyen in most treatises on the microscope and microscopy aad need only be briefly outlined here. Abbe’s Diffraction Theory.—When white light from a distant small source falls perpendicularly on to a diffraction graumg

such as could be made by ruling fine lines at regular small inter vals through a silver film deposited on glass, much of the light passes straight through the grating in the ordinary way. On

MICROSCOPE

439

either side of the direct beam, however, beams of coloured light scopists was also put forward as contradicting Abbe’s theory, notwill emerge, the directions of these beams being inclined at ably by R. Koch Germany and by Lewis Wright and E. M, various angles to the direct central beam. An object-glass of Nelson in England. in Lewis Wright's views on the mode of formasuitable aperture placed close up to the grating would receive the | tion of the image in the microscope were emphasized by E. M. direct beam and certain of the “diffracted” beams, the number Nelson's clear demonstration s of the greatly improved images to of diffracted beams admitted by the object-glass being dependent |be obtained by the use of wide axial cones of illumination, as opon the spacing of the lines in the grating and on the numerical | posed to the narrow axial or oblique pencils more favoured by the aperture of the object-glass. Each of the beams admitted would adherents to Abbe’s theory. give rise to a small image of the source, so that immediately The views held by these people were that, with suitable illumibehind the object-glass there would be a central white image nation, any non-luminous body can be considered as “equivalent” of the source with elongated coloured images lying on either side to a self-luminous body, and that, under the conditions of illuminof this. In any particular part of one of these images the light ation commonly used by microscopists, the image is formed in of any one colour vibrates in a manner which bears very precise essentially the same way as the image of a luminous body. Acrelationships to the vibrations of C light of the same colour in | cording to this “equivalence” theory the most perfect resolution corresponding parts of the other images. As a result, interference : should be obtained when the full aperture of the object-glass is fringes will be produced in the body tube of the microscope, the | being used, i.e., when the cone of illumination is of such an angle distribution of brightness seen in any particular plane being that direct rays would, except for such obstruction as the object determined by the number and position of the images formed produces, enter all parts of the object-glass aperture. It usually behind the object-glass. happens, however, that, as the angle of the cone of illumination is According to Abbe, the “image” seen on looking through the increased from some quite small initial value, resolution is steadily eyepiece is simply the interference pattern in the focal plane of improved at first, but a condition is reached such that further inthe eyepiece. In so far as this pattern is determined by, and crease of angle of the cone causes contrast in the image to dimintherefore characteristic of, the structure of the object, it may ish very rapidly, so that resolution, in the sense of visibility of be considered to be an “image” of the object, but it cannot be detail, is greatly impaired. In the absence of any Satisfactory exclaimed that the form of this “image” bears any true resemblance planation of this phenomenon, it seemed to be in direct conflict to the abject. Abbe based these views on observations made with with the implications and consequences of the “equivalence” gratings illuminated by a parallel or nearly parallel pencil of theory, and constituted a formidable stumbling-block to that rays, using object-glasses behind which he could place small dia- theory until the causes of the loss of contrast were discovered and phragms so that the different diffraction images of the source of were shown to be quite distinct from, and independent of resolulight’could be cut out or admitted at will. He claimed that the tion and resolving power proper. results he obtained in this way are of general applicability, and Lord Rayleigh (3rd baron) considered the formation of the that the images of non-luminous objects are formed exclusively microscope image on theoretical grounds, and showed in 1896 as the result of interference of the type described, no matter that definite interference of the type required by the Abbe theory what the structure of the object and irrespective of the way in cannot occur unless the angle of the cone of illumination is small which the object is illuminated. compared with the ratio A/s, where s is the distance separating To obtain any indication of structure in the object at least two adjacent similar details in the object and A is the wave-length of images of the source must be formed behind the object-glass, the light used to illuminate the object (Lord Rayleigh, Scientific since two images are required if any interference is to be pro- Papers IV., 1903). This means that, with a wide angle of illuminaduced in the body-tube. The smallest numerical aperture that will tion, the vibrations coming from adjacent points in the ob ject are admit two separate beams of light from the grating (the direct virtually independent of each other, provided they are separated beam and one diffracted beam) is given by by a distance which is not small compared with the wave-length of 1 the light used, z.¢., each of these points is “equivalent” to a selfnsinu =Ie luminous point in so far as the light coming from it is concerned. Theoretical investigations by Mandelstam (1911), Wolfke where s is the distance between adjacent similar details in the (1912) and von Laue (1914) confirmed Lord Rayleigh’s views. object, and A, is the wave-length of the light used to illuminate Recently the whole subject has been comprehensively investigated the object (as measured in air). In order that a lens of this by Berek, and in a series of papers published in 1926 he gives a numerical aperture may admit the two beams, the object must be illuminated obliquely, so that the direct beam is thrown into full discussion of the applicability and limitations of both the one side of the object glass aperture and one of the first diffracted theories. The conclusions he arrives at are that, under the condibeams is just admitted into the other side. The smallest struc- tions of illumination ordinarily used, the image in the microscope ture-interval that could be resolved by this lens, in the sense that is formed, in the main, in the same way as is the image of a selfan interference pattern would be produced in the focal plane of luminous object. The image thus obtained is a “true” image in the sense that it bears a close resemblance to the object, and has a true the eyepiece, is thus obtained as “focus-plane.” Under the conditions which Abbe used in his dif-2N fraction experiments, i.e., with an object of regular periodic struc~ nsinu ture illuminated by a narrow pencil of almost parallel rays, the it will be seen that this result is very nearly the same as that only “image” obtained is of the nature of an interference patobtained earlier for the resolution of two luminous point sources. tern. This “image” has no true focus-plane, the appearance seen The “Equivalence” Theory.—Many microscopists and physi- in the eyepiece shows very little variation if the eyepiece is moved cists did not accept Abbe’s theory as being of general applicability, through quite large distances along the axis of the microscope, and it was clearly valid under the particular conditions which this appearance does not necessarily possess any true resemblance obtained in Abbe’s experiments, ie., with objects of regular pe- to the object. Medic structure illuminated by light from a distant small source. The theory that under the conditions of illumination commonly y experiments were carried out in order to disprove Abbe’s used, the mode of formation of the image in the microscope is, theory. Altmann stated in 1880 that the results Abbe had ob- in the main, the same as the mode of formation the image of lamed with illuminated gratings, using diaphragms behind the @ self-luminous object, can thus be taken as welloffounded. The ebject-glass, could all be reproduced with self-luminous hot-wire experimental evidence supporting the theory has accumulated when similar diaphragms were used behind the object- rapidly since the conditions for obtaining contrast have been Blass. Mandelstam carried out these experiments with hot-wire properly understood. Even before these conditions had been thor-

in 1911 and confirmed Altmann’s statement. The value

Abbe’s experiments as evidence supporting his theory was thus ‘ously discounted. Evidence based on the experience of micro-

oughly investigated, however, important evidence in support of the “equivalence” theory was available from observations made with so-called “dark-ground” illumination (see p. 440). According te

440

MICROSCOPE

the Abbe theory, the resolving power of a lens when used with

this form of illumination must necessarily be less than it would be if the object were illuminated with transmitted light. Moreover, no “dry” lens, when used with dark ground illumination provided by a “dry” condenser, could have a greater resolving power than that corresponding to a numerical aperture o5. According to the “equivalence” theory the resolving power of a lens should be the same for any method of illumination which ensures that the full aperture of the lens is used. Actual experiment shows that resolving power is not in any way reduced when dark-ground

rays reflected from the plane mirror reach the object along direc. tions which give illumination over an appreciable angle. The con. cave mirror can provide a convergent cone of illumination from quite a small source. For obtaining an illuminating cone of larger angle than the cop. cave mirror can give, a condenser is interposed between the

(plane) mirror and the object. The condenser is a system of lenses capable of concentrating the rays reflected from the plane mirror so that they converge on to the object as a cone of wide angle (see fig. 22). A diaphragm, usually of the “iris” type, is

illumination is employed. In fact, the resolution obtainable with this method of illumination often appears to be better than that obtainable with ordinary illumination by transmitted light, since dark-ground illumination secures a high degree of contrast in the image obtained. Because of this marked gain in contrast resolution is therefore easily recognizable.

fitted below the condenser, in order that the angle of the cone of illumination may be varied conveniently at will. By focussing

Ilumination by Transmitted Light.—To examine an ob-

and are put into “immersion contact” with this by filling the space between the underside of the slide and the top surface of

the condenser so as to form an image of the source, or of a bull's eye lens in front of the source, on to the object, intense illumina. tion of the object is obtained. Provision should be made for “centering” the condenser in order that the illuminating beam may be truly axial. Dry condenser; ILLUMINATING APPARATUS AND METHODS OF capable of filling an object-glass having a numerical aperture of ILLUMINATION 0-95 are obtainable, well corrected for chromatic and spherical The methods of illumination commonly used are very varied; aberrations. Immersion condensers are made with numerical each method requires the proper apparatus for its convenient apapertures as high as 1-4, similarly corrected for chromatic and plication. The principles involved in some of the most impor- spherical aberrations and capable òf being used with microscope tant A these, together with the apparatus needed, are here dis- slides of thicknesses up to about 1-5 mm. Immersion condensers cussed, are brought up close to the underside of the microscope slide,

ject in this way, light from a suitable source is passed through the

the condenser with cedar-wood

oil.

Immersion

condensers are

used when it is desired to fill the aperture of an immersion objectglass.

Dark-ground

Ilumination.—lIf

the condenser aperture is

opened wide and a central circular stop is fitted below the condenser, the rays reaching the object form a hollow cone. A similar effect can be obtained by special methods of construction. By choosing an opaque central stop of suitable size, all the direc rays from the condenser can be

made to pass outside the objectglass, and no light will be received into the object-glass except that which is reflected, refracted, or scattered by the object so as to pass into the object-glass. If the object contains particles, veins, or other structure capable of diverting the rays into the object-

h ae

glass by any or all of these three processes, such inclusions or structure will be rendered visible in the microscope, and will be seen bright against the dark ground corresponding to the clear homogeneous portions of the object and mounting medium, Ordinary dry and immersion

condensers can be used to give dark-ground illumination if provided with central opaque stops. For work with object-glasses of

object and so inte the object-glass.

SUB-

Usually the light from the

source is reflected from a mirror mounted below the object, the

mirror being generally mounted so as to allow of a considerable range of movement both of translation and also of rotation. The mirror may be either plane or concave; usually both types are provided, mounted back to back in a single mount. With a small source of light the plane mirror gives an illuminating heam composed of practically parallel rays, With an extended source the

23.—-IMMERSION

DARE

GROUND ILLUMINATOR (BECK) The paths of the light rays are shew

opaque stops can be used, but more satisfactory results are obtained with special immersion

shows a focussing device permitting * image to be focussed when glass side

condensers

FIG, 22.—MICROSCOPE FOR GENERAL USE (BECK), SHOWING STAGE ARRANGEMENTS SEPARATELY IN THE SMALLER FIGURE

FIG.,

apertures above 0-65, immersion

fitted with

central

in the lower figure.

The upper

of different thicknesses are used

dark-ground illuminators. The reflecting systems used in these illuminators give less stray light and at the same time produ a blacker ground.

Most immersion dark-ground illuminators are made for a fixed

working distance and are suitable for use with microscope slides

of only one particular thickness, The illuminator can be usable with a thinner slide by packing cover-glasses between the

top lens of the illuminator and the underside of the slide, each cover-glass being covered on both sides with immersion oil to pi

vide immersion contact between the top of the illuminator and

441

MICROSCOPE

dide. If the slide is too thick there is no remedy. To avoid the | the prisms relatively to the other. Accessory apparatus of various mconvenience of a fixed working distance, the frm of R. and J.| types is convenient for the special examination peck bas introduced an adjustable immersion dark-ground il- objects which show polarization effects, such as iuminator which, by moving the constituent optical elements rel- Microscopes specially equipped with polarizing ative to each other, can be made to work with microscope slides sory apparatus for the examination of objects

of any thickness betweenai o-5 mm. and 1-5 mm.

of many kinds of fibres and crystals.

prisms and accesby polarized light

microscopes pes ((see fig. 25). ‘are generally described as petrological eee A dark-ground illuminator computed by E. M. Nelson has the | Vertical Iiluminator.—For examining opaque objects it is special feature that it will give dark-ground illumination with an | necessary to send light down on to the object from above. One

ebject-glass having a numerical aperture as high as 1-4. The working distance of this illuminator is sufficiently large to permit of its being used with slides o-8I-4 mm. thick. Transmitted Polarized Light.—By placing a Nicol’s prism, or other polarizing apparatus, between the mirror and the condenser, the object can be illuminated by a cone of light in which the vibrations are all paral-

Fig, 24.—DARK-GROUND

NATOR (WATSON)

ILLUMI-

lel to one direction. If the object

has any properties which cause it

to modify the state of polarization of the light coming through the polarizer and condenser, these modifications can be observed,

provided a second polarizing prism (the analyser) is used in conjunction with the eyepiece. í If the analyser is set with its polarizing axis at right-angles

to that of the polarizer, no light should be seen in the eyepiece,

FIG, 26.—VERTICAL ILLUMINATOR (WATSON), A SELF-CONTAINED FORM

WITH LAMP, CONDENSER, SLOTS FOR STOPS, REFLECTOR, AND BALANCED

WEIGHT; AFTER CONRADY method of doing this is to mount a cover-glass in a fitting above the object-glass, the plane of the cover-glass being inclined at 45° to the axis of the microscope. Light, admitted through a hole at the side of the fitting, is reflected by the cover-glass down into the object-glass and is brought to focus on the object by the objectglass. The light returning into the object-glass from the object is transmitted with but little loss through the inclined cover-glass,

and proceeds to form an image in the usual way. Any inequalities in the cover-glass will tend to impair the resulting image, and in any case this image will be slightly astigmatic owing to the refraction of the light through the inclined cover-glass. To render these effects as small as possible a thin uniform cover-glass should be selected for this purpose. Prisms, semi-circular mirrors and other types of reflectors are uséd sometimes instead of the inclined cover-glass just described. Most of these give illumination through only one half of the

object-glass aperture, and permit of only the other half being used to form the image of the object. Iluminatich in this way is apt to cause shadows on the object, while the use of only half the lens aperture causes the resolution to be reduced to one-half, in so far as detail lying parallel to the short dimension of the used aperture is concerned. Furthermore, the portion of the lens used to form the image has a semi-circular aperture which causes the diffraction rings seen round any image detail to depart from

their usual circular form.

All of these effects may give rise to

misleading appearances in the image and may lead to the drawing of false deductions as to the form of the object structure. To avoid these effects, some firms make small annular reflectors for vertical illuminator work. These reflectors send the light down through the outer zone of the object-glass and permit of the rest of the object-glass being used to form the image of the object.

Such reflectors do not give rise to misleading effects of the type described above, they merely cut down the available numerical aperture of the object-glass by a small amount. The vertical illuminator is largely used for metallographic work and for examining large opaque objects.

Many object-glasses are unsuitable for use with a vertical illuminator owing to “vertical illuminator glare,” że., the production of “flare images” which are brought into focus, or nearly into Fis, 25.-—PETROLOGICAL

MICROSCOPE

(SWIFT),

AN INSTRUMENT

FITTED

WITH THE OPTICAL EQUIPMENT REQUIRED TO COVER A WIDE RANGE OF

PETROLOGICAL WORK

focus, by the eyepiece. These images, which are due to reflections at the various lens surfaces, are superposėd on the image of the object, and may render it impossible to see this image properly. Object-glasses for use with a vertical illuminator should be se-

less portions of the object have the power of modifying the lected for their freedom from this flare effect.

sate of polarization of the illuminating beam. For the complete tion of an object by polarized light, it is necessary to be

The Ring Uluminator—An illuminator, which provides “top” illumination without using the object-glass as part of the

able to rotate the polarizer and analyser together while keeping | illuminating system, has been introduced by the firm of R. and J. object at rest, or else to rotate the object between the sta- Beck. This illuminator is an annular lens-mirror reflector, In prisms. It is also necessary to be able to rotate one of principle this “ring” illuminator acts in the same way as the

442

MICROSCOPE

old-fashioned “Lieberkühn” but it is differently constructed, provides much more intense illumination, and is much more convenient. The object to be examined is mounted on a microscope slide, and on the underside of the slide a small patch stop is gummed if necessary; alternatively an opaque central stop of suitable size

can be mounted below the microscope stage. A parallel beam of light is sent up through the stage, and reaches the lens-mirror as a hollow cylinder of light. Any light the object sends back into the object-glass has been either diffusely reflected or scattered by the object. What is seen represents the most natural appearance the object could present if it were enlarged to a degree corresponding to the magnification given by the microscope. By building a hollow condenser system round the object-glass,the firm of Chapman and Aldridge has produced a type of vertical illuminator which gives the same kind of illumination as that

given by the ring illuminator. A plane mirror is mounted above the condenser with its surface inclined at 45° to the axis of the FIG. 27.—APLANATIC RING ILLUcombined system, an elliptical MINATOR (BECK), SHOWING HOW hole being cut in the mirror to LIGHT IS BROUGHT TO FOCUS ON TOP SURFACE OF OBJECT allow of its being fitted round the object-glass. Through a hole in the side of the mount light is admitted. This light is reflected down through the condenser system, and so is brought down to the surface of the object. By adjusting the position of the light source, an image of this source can be brought to focus on the surface of the object at the same time as the microscope is in focus for the object. The appearance of

the object resembles that obtained when a ring illuminator is used and, since all the illuminating apparatus is above the object, this type of illuminator is of value in metallographic work, or for use in the examination of any large opaque object. Like the ring illuminator, this illuminator enables “top” illumination to be obtamed without incurring any of the difficulties associated with vertical illuminator głare. Side Ilumination.—It is sometimes necessary or useful to illuminate the surface of the object by light projected on to the object from one side and inclined to the surface at almost grazing incidence. This can be done by using a powerful beam, consisting of almost parallel rays, directed slightly downwards on the object. A more convenient way, if great intensity of illumination is required, is to mount a half-lens of high power on the stage of the microscope, so that the principal focus of the half-lens lies in the surface of the object and in the centre of the field of view of the object-glass. An alternative method avoids the

production of a coloured image of the source, by a paraboloid

reflector. ‘This method of illumination produces pronounced shadow effects -on the surface of the object and shows any surface irregularities in sharp relief. The method is of value in studying the surface contours of objects if due care be taken in translating the appearances seen in the image. THE MECHANICAL PARTS OF THE MICROSCOPE

main limb of the microscope frame, movement of the tube rel. tive to the limb being provided by the coarse and fine adjustments. The coarse adjustment is operated by a rack and pinion mechan. ism which moves

machined guides. ployed.

the coarse adjustment

slide up and down in

This type of design is almost universally em.

The fine adjustment slide also works in machined guides.

but is operated by a mechanism which is capable of adjusting the

position of the body tube by very small amounts. The design of the fine adjustment has attracted the attention of microscope makers for very many years, and the number of designs invented is so great that to describe them here is out of the question. In some instruments the slide of the fine

adjustment block fits in guides in the limb, the coarse adjustment slide being carried by guides machined in front of the fine adjustment block. In other instruments this arrangement is reversed. At one time designs were developed in which only the object-glass fitting was carried by the fne adjustment, the object-glass fitting being made to move up or down relatively to the body tube. These designs have practically disappeared. The fine adjustment should move easily and smoothly, be free from “backlash” and from tendency to stick, and should hold the microscope steady. In microscopes of good make, the body tube can be set by means of the fine adjustment to within

am iN. or, in some cases, to within ps in.,

FIG. 28.—WENHAM’SBIK. OCULAR

PRISM

Diagram

showing

paths of

the two rays up to the twa eyes

and can be brought back to its original setting to within simikr limits if the fine adjustment is re-set to its original reading after having been altered. In a special instrument made by one English firm, for ultra-violet work, the fine adjustment can be set by means of its indicator so as to bring the body tube to within

wowo in. of any desired position.

Binocular bodies to allow of the simultaneous use of both eyes are commonly met with. Some instruments are provided

with binocular bodies which are interchangeable with the ordinary

single-tube (monocular) body. In the binocular bodies prismatic systems are arranged close behind the object-glass, so that light from the object-glass is brought up as two beams of approxmately equal intensity, one beam into each eyepiece. Matched pairs of eyepieces are used. If both eyes receive light from the whole of the object-glass aperture, stereoscopic relief is not obtained. To obtain stereoscopic relief, the light coming from the right half of the object-glass must be brought up to the Jeft eye, and vice versa, unless the prism system completely inverts both of the ray systems from the objectglass so as to produce erect images of the object. The binocular prism invented by Wenham in 1861 is the simplest yet devised (1928) for easily giving proper stereoscopic appearances, and this form of

prism is commonly used in modern binoctlar instruments. Wenham’s prism brings the rays from the right side of the objet-

2 9.—~BINOCULAR While the optical system by which the image is obtained is FIG. PRISM SYSTEM (BECK) glass up to the left eye, the rays from the the most important part of a microscope, the fullest use of this Light from whole object left side being allowed to pass on unde system cannot be made unless the microscope stand is accurately glass passes to each eye viated so as to enter the right eye (fig. 28). constructed and arranged for the convenient manipulation of the The images formed are inverted images in the object, and show optical parts, the object, and the illuminating system. proper stereoscopic relief. Many of the early systems did not The Body Tube and Its Mounting.—The object-glass and invert the ray systems so as to produce erect images of the object the eyepiece are mounted in a body tube, the length of which can and gave rise to pseudoscopic effects. ,

be varied so as to allow of the tube-length being adjusted to suit

the corrections of the object-glass. The object-glasses are screwed into the bottom end of the body tube and are interchangeable one with another; the eyepieces are made to slide into the upper end

In Wenham’s system the resolving power of the object-glass 8

halved, in so far as detail lying parallel to the short dimensions the semicircular half-apertures is concerned. To avoid this, sy%

tems are made in which light from the whole object-glass apetof the tube, The body tube is mounted on slides carried by the ture is used in forming each of the images (fig. 29). Stere

MICROSCOPICAL

SOCIETIES

443

scopic effects can be obtained with these systems by adjusting | fitted so that they can be conveniently swung out of position when the eyepieces so that they produce Ramsden circles separated by not required. In most instruments the whole sub-stage can either 3 distance slightly less than the distance between the eyes of the

observer. When the observer’s eyes are placed at the Ramsden

circles, the light entering the right eye comes mainly from the left side of the object-glass and vice versa. With a little experience the adjustment required to give stereoscopic relief can be made without difficulty. This may be done more easily perhaps if capped eyepieces are used in which stops with semicircular apertures are fitted, as in Abbe’s stereoscopic eyepiece system. The stops are placed in or just below the Ramsden circles, and are used with the curved sides of the apertures outwards. Without these stops it is easy to produce pseudoscopic appearances by

making the distance between the Ramsden circles larger than the inter-ocular distance, so that the light entering each eye comes mainly from the

wrong half of the object-glass. used,

with

separate

object-

glasses (fig. 30). These microscopes are fitted with prismatic erecting systems just below the eyepieces, to produce stereoscopic and not pseudoscopic effects. The Stage.—tThe stage for carrying the

object is usually fixed rigidly to the microscope limb, though in some microscopes it is mounted on slides on the limb and is movable by means of a rack and pinion mechanism.

The stage may be a simple

plane table on which the object is moved about by hand when different portions are to be examined, or it may be made with

slides permitting of movement in two directions at right-angles, and with a bearing to allow of rotation about the axis of the microscope. Centering screws are sometimes fitted so that the axis of rotation may be brought into coincidence with the axis of the object-glass. The stage should be rigidly supported, and should bear the weight of

sip meg terete

any other part of the instrument.

In the

Greenhough binocular two separate micro-

scopes are

be swung bodily out of the axis or removed entirely. The substage is often mounted on a pillar attached to the underside of the stage, and is movable up or down on a spiral cut on this pillar. In some instruments there is no proper sub-stage at all, any condenser or other illuminating apparatus being made to slip into a tube fixed under the stage. The importance of the sub-stage equipment should be strongly urged since, for the systematic study of an object under the microscope, it is necessary to be able to use several different conditions of illumination. A well-equipped sub-stage is essential if this is to be carried out conveniently and, in selecting the equipment for a microscope which is to be used in serious investigations, the sub-stage apparatus should receive as much attention as

FIG.

30.—-—-GREENHOUGH BINOCULAR (WATSON)

Two separate microscope systems are shown with an “Erecting?” prism in each microscope

Accessory Fittings.—For the greater convenience of the microscopist, fittings of many varieties have been introduced by different makers. Many of these are devised to enable one objectglass to be quickly changed for another, and to minimize the work involved in readjusting the instrument when this is done. The necessity for readjustment arises mainly from minor errors in the mounting of the lenses constituting the object-glass system, or in the mounting of the whole object-glass in the object-glass cell. If critical observation is desired, these errors may necessitate recentring the condenser, or the object-glass, each time one objectglass is substituted for another. Rotating nosepieces which carry two or more object-glasses are among the simplest of these accessory fittings. They are not usually provided with centring adjustments for each object-glass, and only permit of the quick changing of one object-glass for another. Interchangeable object-glass carriers, which slide into or clip on to a nosepiece carried by the body tube, are also used. Each object-glass is fitted permanently into its own slide or clippiece, and is accurately centred once for all. Each object-glass will then be in correct adjustment, so far as centring is concerned, as soon as its carrier is pushed or clipped into position. Similar carriers are made for holding sub-stage condensers. Such accessories, though very convenient in use, are not essential parts of the microscope. For fuller descriptions of them the reader must be referred to the catalogues issued by the various microscope makers.

comparatively heavy specimens without serious deflection. The mechanical slides, and the rotation bearings if fitted, should opBIBLIOGRAPHY.—Historical:—Quekett, Practical Treatise on the Use erate smoothly but without tendency to slip under the weight of the movable parts, or under the weight of any specimen likely to of the Microscope (1855); J. Mayall Junr., Cantor Lectures on the Microscope (Royal Society of Arts, 1886). General microscopy:— be examined. The mechanical slides of the stage should be accu- S. H. Gage, The Microscope and Microscopic Methods (1925); J. rately at right-angles to the axis of the microscope, as should also Hogg, The Microscope (15th ed., 1898) ; W. B. Carpenter, The Microbe the plane in which the stage moves when it is rotated. Except scope and its Revelations (8th ed. by W. H. Dallinger, rgor) ; Sir A. E. m some metallographic microscopes, the centre of the stage is Wright, Principles of Microscopy (1906) ; E, J. Spitta, Microscopy (2nd 1909) ; C. Beck, The Microscope (1923). Theoretical treatment of cut away, to admit light through to the specimen when illumina- ed., the microscope:— M. von Rohr, Die Theorie der optischen Instrution with transmitted light is required. mente (1904); S. Czapski, Grundzüge der Theorie der optischen InThe Sub-Stage.—Provision is made below the stage for mount- strumente (Leipzig, 1904). Technical applications:—R. H. Greaves, Introduction to Microscopic Metallography (1924); H. Freundlich, ing the illuminating apparatus required for examining an object Elements of Colloidal Chemistry (Eng. trans., 1925); A. Herzog, Die with transmitted light. The minimum equipment necessary is a mikroskopische Uniersuchung der Seide und ae oe aw) š mirror which can be moved into various positions, so as to reflect . Ja.3 H. Mo.

light up through the hole cut in the stage. In the more completely

equipped microscopes special sub-stage attachments are fitted. These are adapted to carry a condenser, polarizing apparatus, vatious stops, a disk of ground glass and colour filters, with an

iis diaphragm to permit of varying the cone of illumination provided by the condenser. Geared cells, to permit of rotating various accessories used in the examination of objects under polarized

ight, such as selenite plates, are often included in the more elaborate sub-stage equipment. The cells used for carrying the stops should be fitted as close as possible to the underside of the condenser, as should also the iris diaphragm. sub-stage is usually, but not invariably, carried on a block

Which slides on the.limb of the microscope, and which can be moved up or down by a rack and pinion; the mirror is then

mounted on an extension of the limb below the sub-stage slides.

The sub-stage condenser fitting should have centring adjustments toallow of the axis of the condenser being brought into line with

the axis of the object-glass. The various attachments are generally

MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETIES.

The Royal Microscopi-

cal Sóciety (1839, incorporated 1866), with Transactions (18421868) and Journal (1869, etc.); the Quekets Microscopical Club (1865), with a Journal (1868, etc.); and the Postal Microscopic Society (1873), also with a Journal, are located in London. There are suburban societies at Ealing (1877), Hackney (1877), Highbury (1878), South London (1871), and Sydenham (1871). In the provinces may be mentioned those at Bath (1859), Birmingham (1880), Bolton (1877), Bradford (1882), Bristol (1843), Carlisle, Chichester (Trans.), Croydon (1870, Trans.), Dublin (1840), East Kent (1858), Edinburgh, Liverpool (1868, Trans.), Manchester (1880), and Sheffield (1877). In the United States the State Microscop. Soc. af Ilinois, the Amer. Soc. of Microscopists at Buffalo, the New York Microscop. Soc.; and the Amer.

Micros. Soc. at Urbana, Ill, publishing Trans. (1895, etc.). Brussels, Soc. Belge de Mtcroscop. (1875), Proc.-verb. (1875, etc.) and Annales (1876, etc.). Berlin, Ges. f. Mikroskop. (1877), Ztschr. (1878, etc.). Hanover, Ges. f. Mikroskop. (1879), Jahresber.

444

MICROSCOPY

MICROSCOPY,

the art of using the microscope.

There is an object which contains discrete minute particles is thus deficient

little need for stressing the importance of the microscope in the investigation of many widely different problems. In medical, biological, geological, metallurgical and many other kinds of work, the value of the microscope is well understood, and the instrument is used constantly in routine work and in research. In other applications the value of the microscope is being increasingly realized, but its value might be appreciated even more widely if all users of the instrument should make a study of its principles, sufficient

in blue and appears as of a yellow or brown colour, while the li seen by looking sideways at the object appears blue. If the par-

ticles are regularly arranged in the object there is, in addition to

the scattered light, a certain amount

main beam.

This light is difracted light. The diffracted beams

obtained from white light are séen as coloured bands, because the vibrations corresponding to the different colours which make

to enable them to realize the full implications of their observa-

tions. Such study would also prevent erroneous deductions from appearances seen in the image, appearances which might be due to faulty adjustment either of the instrument itself or of the illuminating apparatus. (See MICROSCOPE.) Methods of Ulumination Commonly Used.—The most commonly used method of illumination is that in which the object is illuminated by transmitted light. This method is peculiarly liable to give images in which the contrast is seriously impaired

up “white” are diffracted along different directions. If the whole of the light in any one diffracted beam is recombined, the result.

ing “colour” is white. If, however,

only part of the light in a dif. fracted beam is recombined, the

due to “glare” effects if the cone of illumination is made sufficiently large for the aperture of the object-glass to be fully utilized. The importance of this method of illumination is not to be be-

littled, however.

colour obtained

It gives information of much value and is

various forms of illumination are fully dealt with in many treatises and textbooks on the microscope atid microscopy (see also MicroScope). We must confine ourselves here to emphasizing the necessity of mastering the methods of making these adjustments. The

readér is referred to these textbooks, also, for information regarding thé appearances obtained in examining objects by these methods and by suth other methods as are commonly used in medical, biological, geological and other types of work in which the technique has become almost standardised. We shall restrict ourselves to supplementing that information by giving (a) a few

examples to illustrate the interpretation of some of the less wellunderstood appearances obtained by the more usual methods of

illumination, and (&) descriptions of some of the results obtainable by the use of novel or less commonly used technique, which serve to illustrate the possibilities of extended use of the mitro-

scope for obtaining information as to the nature of the object

i MICROSCOPE

LAMP

WITH

EYE AND SCREEN HOLDER minated depends cone of ground

depends on the

colours present in the used part of the diffracted beam. Many opal glasses, when exam. ined by means of an object-glass of too low a numerical aperture to show the “opal” material as

convenient to employ; it must, also, be the chief method of examining such objects as thin stained sections of animal and

vegetable tissues. The information obtainable with any single type of illumination is necessarily incomplete, however, and should be supplemented where possible by examining the object under other conditions. Among other methods of illumination ordinary darkground illumination, vertical illumination and side illumination are probably the most commonly uséd. The ways in which the microscope ahd illuminating apparatus ate adjusted to provide these

of light which leaves the

object along definite directions inclined at definite angles to the

BULL'S

discrete particles, appear of a yel-

low or brown colour when ilu-

with transmitted light. The depth of the colour seen on the density of the opal; it is deeper, also, with a narrow

illumination than with a cone of wide angle. With darkillumination giving a hollow cone much wider than that

corresponding to the numerical aperture of the object-glass, the

opal glass will appear of a marked blue colour. Such appearances of colour can be taken as definite evidence of the existence of particles in the object, even though the particles cannot be seen as separate discrete particles with the particular object-glass used. Similar effects are obtained with fossil diatoms but the appearances may be complicated by diffraction due to the regular structure of the diatom. The colours seen, whether by transmitted light

or dark-ground illumination, then depend on the fineness of the

structure in relation to the numerical aperture of the lens. If the structure is much too fine to be resolved by the lens used, the

diatom shows as a yellow or brown object with well-marked out-

lines when examined with transmitted light, and as a blue or whitish-blue object with dark-ground illumination. If, however, the structure is almost resolvable by the object-glass used, areas showing blues and greens or pinks may appear on the diatom when a transmitted cone of suitable angle is used, the colours seen with

being examined.

wide-angle dark-ground illumination being usually approximately

serve as the source of light for every kind of work to be done with

complementary to those seen with transmitted light. These colours are due to the admission of portions of the first order spectra into the object-glass, and are indications of a regular

The Hiuminant.—A powerful lamp with a small radiant will

the microscope. The use of 4 small radiant minimises the amount

of light reflected down on to the top of the object from the sur=

structure which is almost resolvable by the object-glass. The intensity of the colours depends on the medium in which the.diatom is mounted. Strong colours are shown if the diatom is mounted dry (in air) or in realgar, owing to the large difference of refractive index between the material of the diatom and air (lower) 0f focussing an image of the radiant on to the object, this can be realgar (higher). A weak colour is shown if the diatom is mounted done by placing a bull’s eye lens or a piece of ground glass, or in Canada balsam or styrax, both of which have refractive indices both, in front of the lamp, and producing a focussed image of not greatly different from that of the diatom itself. either of these on the object. A small radiant is not essential, Small objects having rounded contours with smooth faces may however, and much useful work can be done with a simple give rise to a pearly appearance under suitable conditions of paraffin lamp or with ordinary gas or electric lamps. either transmitted or dark-ground illumination. This is not neceRecognition of Structure.—Although there is a limit to the sarily an indication of structure, since the distribution of the resolving power of any object-glass, this does not mean that an pearly light can be shown in some instances to be due to the object-glass cannot give indications of structure in objects having irregular refractions occurring at the surfaces of the objects. structures appreciably finer than the lens could possibly show Tous les mois starch grains mounted in water show these lenticular resolved. Small particles have the power of scattering light which refractions very clearly, though there is, in addition, a slight falls upon them. The intensity of the scattered light is greatest in brownish colour discernible on portions of the grains when ezamdirections at right-angles to the illuminating rays, and the per- ined with a narrow cone of transmitted light. This brownish colout centage of incident light scattered is greater for blue light than for is indicative of structure which, in this object, is the result of faces of the individual lenses in the object-glass, or from the coverglass, when transmitted illumination is used, and so reduces the loss of contrast due to lens flare and cover-glass glare. If it is desired to use a larger area of illumination than that obtained by

light of longer wave-lengths.

The light directly transmitted by the growth of ohe layer over another. The brown colour is very

MICROSCOPY

445

sight compared with that seen on a diatom such as the Pleuro-

examined under a ring illuminator. It may be mentioned, in passing. that these differences can be idf tlicates that the differences of refractive index in the starch used to identify the cause of the iridescent colours seen on much grain ructure are only very slight, antique glass and porcelain. If the interference colours show Groth structures frequently give double refractive effects, weil under the vertical illuminator and are not seen so well, if at and mny instances of animal and vegetable tissues and fibres all, when the ring iluminator is used, this is strong evidence that are known in which evidence of structure can be revealed by | the iridescence is due to a film which has a high refractive index, etamirntion with polarized light. The use of polarized light in| such as a film of tarnish on a thin metal foil burnt on or just into the study of natural and artificial fibres used in the textile and the glass or glaze, e.g., in “lustre” ware, If, on the other hand, the other industries is common, and this method of examination jis iridescent colours are shown best with the ring illuminator, they

sigma angulatum, even when this is mounted in Canada balsam.

employed for distinguishing between different types of fibres as are probably produced by surface flakes of comparatively low

well as for controlling various industrial processes connected with | refractive index such as result from disintegration of the glass or the treatment and manufacture of fibres. This method of illumi- | glaze. Evidence as to the refractive index of the iridescent manation has considerable diagnostic value in the study of animal , terial can also be obtained if any idea of the thickness of this and vegetable tissues. material can be formed by endeavouring to focus to the levels of Recognition of Colour—The colours of stained specimens its top and bottom surfaces down one edge (not through it). If can be seen quite clearly by transmitted light, but many naturally | the refractive index is very high, the layer will be too thin for its colourzd objects are either so opaque that they appear black by thickness to be measured, but if the refractive index is comparatrasmitted light or else, with any method of illumination, there tively low it should be possible to distinguish a difference of focus i o much general light mixed with the light coming from the between the levels of the top and bottom surfaces when examined cohured object or detail that its precise hue cannot readily be with a high power. These interference colours, whether due to films or flakes, preidentified. With ordinary dark-ground illumination, surface colours are liable to be masked by light coming through from the vent the true colour of the object from being recognised. They lower parts of the object, and the true colours of the surface are can, however, be got rid of by a method now to be described, in not readily perceived. With the vertical illuminator, the difficul- which illumination with polarized light is used. This method of ties arising from this cause are avoided, but the surface colours are illumination also causes much of the regularly reflected light and much diluted by light regularly reflected from the surface of the stray light to be cut out. It is commonly assumed that only

object. The ring uluminator gives a hollow cone of illumination

of wide angle, similar to that used in ordinary dark-ground illumination, the only essential difference being that the ring illuminator reflects the light down on to the surface of the object. As a result of: this, illumination by means of the ring illuminator gives a ter idea of the true surface colours than that obtained with dark-ground illumination, since the amount of light coming from the surface is bright compared with that coming from lower lortions of the object. The ring illuminator also shows up surface colours better than the Vertical Illuminator since, with the former, direct, regular reflections from the surface are largely cut out and colours seen are diluted with comparatively little of the tegyularly reflected light. For the study of insect colouring and fofr much analogous work the Lieberkiihn was at one time extensively used as the best method of illumination; the ring illuminator gives essentially the same type of illumination as the Lieberkijhn. if the object under examination has a flaky surface, or is covered with a surface film, it may show iridescent colours such as are seen In a soap bubble. These colours arẹ produced by interference between the light reflected by the upper and lower sur-

_ faces of the surface film or surface flake, With light falling almost perpendicularly on the surfaces, the reflected light is of feeble

intensity unless the refractive index of the film or flake is high, The interference colours are easily masked, therefore, when a vertical illuminator is used, if the flake or film has a comparatively low refractive index, a little stray light being sufficient to prevent the interference colours from being seen. A film of high refraclive index, however, such as a film of oxide or sulphide on copper, gives quite strong interference colours when illuminated with a vertical illuminator.

With the ring illuminator the light strikes the surfaces much more obliquely, and is more strongly reflected because of this. Any of this light which gets into the object-glass should show

stronger interference colours than are seen with the vertical il-

luminator, and this actually occurs if the film or flake is of low

refractive index. With a film or flake of high refractive index, however, the amount of light reflected at the first surface is so

large that comparatively little light penetrates into the film or flake, and the amount which can be reflected at the lower surface is small. Moreover, the light which penetrates and is reflected at the lower surface is often much weakened by absorption in the

doubly-refracting materials will be visible when examined with polarized light when the axis of the analyser is at right angles

to the axis of the polarizer (crossed nicols). This is not so. Re-

flection at a surface can cause a sufficient change in the state of polarization of the light from the polarizer for an appreciable proportion of the reflected light to be transmitted through the analy-

ser. Moreover, if the surface at which the reflection takes place is coloured, this colour will show up strongly in the light which

passes through the analyser.

In order that examination by polarized light may be used satisfactorily for the recognition of surface colour, it is necessary that the refractive index of the reflecting material should differ as much as possible from that of the material which surrounds it. The increased reflection resulting from this is of no advantage, of itself,

but this increased reflection is associated with a comparatively large change in the state of polarization produced by the reflection, The visibility of a non-doubly-refracting particle when viewed between crossed nicols is thus dependent in a very large measure on the difference between its refractive index and that of the material in which it is embedded. As a result, particles of high refractive index, such as metals or the more highly-coloured metallic oxides, show up quite strongly when surrounded by almost any transparent medium; whereas particles having a refractive index not greatly different from that of the medium surrounding

them, e.g., white “opal” particles in an opal glass, show compara-

tively feebly, giving but little light compared witb that seen on

the particles when examined with non-polarized light. To illustrate the ways in which the examination with polarized light can

be applied to the identification of surface colours, a few typical examples may be given, though many other applications will occur to the microscopist of experience. A few flakes of an opal glaze which showed pinkish veins when

examined visually, could only be seen as of a brownish-yellow

colour with ordinary transmitted light, and as bluish-white by

ordinary dark-ground illumination or with the xing illuminator,

Transmitted polarized light, even when the nicols were crossed,

gave a good deal of general white light owing to the intensity of

the opal, and the pinkish colour was completely masked. With the ring illuminator used to reflect polarized light on to the specimen (the polarizer being below the stage as usual), large numbers

of coloured particles could be seen when the nicols were crossed, and these particles were of the unmistakable colour of copper. pared with the light reflected at the upper surface, As a result, With the nicols parallel, a few of these were distinguishable owing the interference colours are not in general easily seen when an to their having been previously located when the nicols were object covered with a surface film of high refractive index is crossed, but the colours were so much paler that it would have

flm or flake, and the emerging light is of feeble intensity com-

44.6

MICROSCOPY

been impossible to identify the nature of the particles by their the visibility of any particles or fibres, or of structure generally, colours. Under similar conditions crystals of ferric oxide in a glaze may be impaired since, to some extent, the upper layers, of the were easily recognized by their deeper red or brownish-red colour. specimen will be illuminated by transmitted light sent uphrewweh In a green-gray porcelain “body” of presumably Chinese origin, them from the underlying portions of the object. With 1e ring a few pale-green particles could be detected by careful observa- illuminator, much of this diffuse transmitted light is avoied and tion of the porcelain, using ordinary light and a ring illuminator. the visibility of particles or fibres is often better than that otained With polarized light and the ring illuminator a very large num- with ordinary dark-ground illumination. ber of such particles could be seen, amply sufficient to account for Minute particles are often much better revealed when irtensely the depth of colour seen when the porcelain was examined visually. illuminated by ordinary dark-ground methods, or by meazs of a Moreover, the colour of the particles was so clearly recognizable ring illuminator, than when viewed by transmitted light, just as that it gave strong presumptive evidence that the particles were dust particles in a beam of light are visible to an eye looking sidea compound of chromium. Subsequent spectroscopic examination ways into the beam but cannot be seen by looking along the beam identifed chromium. towards the source of light. Thin objects, such as bacteria or other Examination of a tarnished piece of copper by the vertical minute living organisms, in water, are often seen better by means illuminator showed a flush of colours such as are produced by thin of a lens of moderate numerical aperture, when ordinary darkfilms. With the ring illuminator the whole surface appeared granu- ground illumination is used, than by an immersion lens of much lar except for a few scratches, most of the granules appearing like higher aperture used with transmitted light. It is worth while burnished copper, though a few were blackish. The interference emphasising how much work lies within the scope of ar-front colours were not seen. Examination under the ring illuminator lenses of numerical apertures of 0-35 to 0-85 if advantage is tah using polarized light, and with the nicols crossed, showed that of the high visibility of small particles when intensely illuminati, most of the granules were more crimson in colour than the surface either by ordinary dark-ground methods or by means of the ng of copper seen in the scratches, and these granules were recog- illuminator. nizable as particles of cuprous oxide. The blackish particles For dark-ground work with object-glasses of numerical apershowed an intensified darkness of colour; these were particles of tures between 0-85 and 1-0, immersion object-glasses give mort cupric oxide. satisfactory visibility of faint objects than do dry object-glasses Diatoms mounted in Canada balsam or styrax are hardly visi- of corresponding apertures, as stray light from the cover-glass \ ble when viewed by transmitted light between crossed nicols, but and front surface of the object-glass is largely avoided. For the if mounted dry or in realgar they show up brightly unless the purpose of rendering very minute particles visible, specially iœ main lines in the structure lie parallel to the axis of one or other tense dark-ground illumination is used in conjunction with æ of the polarizing prisms. As the diatom is rotated, extinction ordinary microscope. This method of studying minute particks positions highly reminiscent of those obtained with doubly refract- is called ulira-microscopy. The Ultra-microscope.—There is, in theory, no limit to t: ing crystals occur, extinction, in the sense of greatly diminished brightness, occurring every go° of rotation. Reflection surfaces smallness of a material particle which can be made visible, progive similar extinctions, and it is very easy to mistake a reflecting vided sufficient light can be made to fall on the particle. Bodies surface of any material, whether doubly-refracting or not, for a of small size have the power of scattering light which falls on fragment of a doubly-refracting crystal. them, the intensity of the scattered light being greatest in diree This method of illumination is of very great value in critical tions at right-angles to the path of the illuminating beam. At microscopy, as can be gathered from the few examples which have vantage is taken of this in the ultra-microscope, in which the parbeen quoted. It is also useful when an object is to be examined ticles to be rendered visible are illuminated by an intense beam with a cone of transmitted light large enough to fill the object- of light which is directed through or across the object, in a dirk glass aperture, as it enables this to be done without incurring such tion at right-angles to the axis of an ordinary microscope. Eat loss of contrast as results from light reflected by the surface of particle scatters some of this light, and the scattered light which the cover-glass (cover-glass glare) or by the surfaces of the indi- enters the object-glass from any one particle is brought to focus vidual lenses in the object-glass (lens flare). This reflected light as a diffraction disk in the image plane. If the dimensions of the is almost entirely stopped by the analyser and, as a result, the particle are smaller than half the wave-length of the light used, full resolving power of the object-glass can be obtained by full no deductions as to the form of the particle can be made from use of the object-glass aperture, without any marked loss of con- the appearance of the diffraction disk seen in the image pane | trast such as is usually observed with ordinary transmitted light Some estimate of the relative sizes of the different particles can and a similarly wide-angled cone of illumination. The general be made from the relative brightnesses of the corresponding difappearance of the image when the object is examined between fraction disks, but the diffraction disks will all be of substantially crossed nicols with transmitted light resembles that obtained with the same size. The size of the diffraction disks becomes smaller and smaller as the numerical aperture of the object-glass used for dark-ground illumination. Visibility of Minute Particles or Fibres.—If a particle or viewing the particles is increased. Each diffraction disk represents fibre is to be visible when examined with transmitted light, using a particle; the number and positions of the particles can thus be an object-glass of numerical aperture nsinu, the diameter of the determined provided no two particles are so close together that particle or the diameter of the fibre must be not less than their diffraction disks are practically coincident in the image plane. The illumination used is of such intensity that an appreciable 4\/nsinu. Smaller particles or thinner fibres will not obstruct the ight sufficiently for the object-glass to resolve the two sets of amount of light is sent into the microscope from a plain slide of rays travelling past opposite sides of the obstruction. With dark- glass, either due to lack of homogeneity in the glass, to imperfecground illumination all the light entering the object-glass is light tions of its surface polish, or to fluorescence of the glass. For this which has been reflected from or scattered by the object. If, reason any specimens which require mounting are usually mounted therefore, a particle is large enough, or a fibre thick enough, to on slides of polished quartz when they are to be examined by the send sufficient light up into the object-glass, the particle will ultra-microscope. For the examination of fluids the Siedentoptbe seen as a bright disk, or the fibre as a bright line of light ex- Zgismondy ultra-microscope is largely used, the fluid being conirae much beyond its apparent end as shown by transmitted tained in a small chamber fitted with quartz windows, through

” The visibility of particles and fibres when illuminated by means

which a very intense beam of light is passed. The larger the particle and the higher its refractive index relative to that of the

Humimation, except in one respect. With dark-ground illumination the ight passes up through the lower layers of the specimen and, except when the specimen is very thin, much light may be

modern methods of illumination, particles of colloidal gold having diameters as small as 1-7 wu (17 Angstrém units, or about x88 of the wave-length of blue light) have been seen. i

ht.

ofa ring ilfuminater, is similar to that obtained with dark-ground

Setup into the object-glass from’ these layers. As a result of this,

surrounding medium, the more readily is the particle seen.

WE

The ultra-microscope has been used for many purposes, su

MICROSCOPY as obtaining estimates of the number of smoke particles in the '

447

The technique worked out by Barnard offers great promise in

air of ditferent localities, for estimating the amounts of foreign | other directions, notably in metallurgical research, for determining matter in water or in glues, gelatines. etc., as well as for many the detail-structure of metals and alloys. Experimental work to s in connection with the study of colloids. The instru- ' explore the further possibilities of ultra-violet microscopy is in

ment is also used in investigating the structure of natural and | progress, investigations have also been suggested with a view to

discovering whether the very short ultra-violet radiations, of wavesions, etc. Although the ultra-microscope fails to reveal particles lengths about 40 to 60 wu can be used in microscopy. These which are separated by distances smaller than the limit of reso- | Schumann rays are absorbed to a considerable extent by all forms lution of the object-glass used, the brightness of the haze of light of matter, a layer of air one or two centimetres thick being suffiobtained affords a measure of the size and concentration of the cient to absorb them almost completely, consequently any apparaparticles. Increase of brightness indicates either increase in the tus in which such rays are employed must be used in a vacuum and number of particles per unit volume or increase in the size of the must be of the reflecting type. artificial fibres, for the examination of artificial fibres for inclu-

individual particles. This effect can be made use of in certain work on very minute living organisms and in the study of the growth of minute crystals separating out from solutions. The

The Microscope in Metallurgy, Engineering and Spectroscopy.—In metallurgical work an inverted type of microscope is now usually employed, though an ordinary microscope fitted microscope when used for this kind of work is being employed as with apparatus for giving illumination from above can also be a Nephelometer. used. In the more commonly used form, the stage, the microscope Ultra-violet Microscopy.—For the microscopic examination proper, the illuminating apparatus and all the other equipment of objects having structures too fine to be resolved by any object- are mounted on pillars carried by slides which can be moved indeglass when ordinary visible light is used, recourse must be had pendently along a machined bar, thus forming a type of optical to methods involving the use of ultra-violet radiations and of bench. The specimen is illuminated from beneath, vertical or lenses made of fused quartz computed for use with ultra-violet side illumination being provided by various types of apparatus. light of appropriate wave-length. Glass lenses are opaque to these The illuminated underface of the specimen can be examined radiations. In 1904, Dr. Kohler of Jena experimented with ultra- visually or can be photographed. The camera is an integral part violet light with a view to obtaining resolution of structures previ- of the apparatus and is mounted separately from the tube which ously irresolvable. He used monochromatic radiation of wave- carries the eye-piece used for visual examination. The same length 275 wugiven by an electric arc between cadmium poles, and object-glass is used both for visual and photographic work, the projected the image on to a fluorescent screen for visual examina- change-over being made easily and quickly. Focussing adjusttion or for focussing in readiness for photographic recording. ments are fitted to the object-carrier and also to the object-glass In England J. E. Barnard has developed a technique for ultra- support. The fine adjustment can be fitted to either, but is usually violet work which is much simpler than that used by Kohler. In his on the object-glass support in order that the load it has to carry more recent work described in 1925, he used a combined illumina- shall be as small as possible. tor made by the firm of R. & J. Beck consisting of an outer sysThe lenses used for metallurgical work should be selected with tem of glass, which acts as an immersion dark-ground illuminator, special regard to the absence of flare when used with a vertical

and an inner immersion system of quartz which enables a illuminator. Special lenses of high numerical aperture (1-6) for transmitted beam to be passed through the object. Both con- use with (blue) monochromatic light have recently been designed densers have the same focus, the one for visible light and the specially for metallurgical purposes, to be as free from flare as other for the ultra-violet radiation used. Either condenser can possible, to be well-corrected for spherical aberrations and to have be stopped out at will, the quartz one by mieans of a central stop as high a resolving power as appears to be feasible with a lens and the glass one by means of an annular diaphragm. The con- computed for both visual and photographic use. denser is put in immersion contact with the quartz slide on which The mechanical properties of metals and alloys, such as hardthe object is mounted, and the object is illuminated with visible ness, ductility and tenacity can largely be correlated with their light by means of the dark-ground illuminator. The microscope structure as revealed by the microscope. The information prois then focussed so that the object is clearly seen by visible light. vided by the microscope amplifies and extends that obtained from The dark-ground illuminator is then closed, the central stop is chemical analyses and in other ways, and enables the behaviour removed so as to uncover the quartz condenser, and a beam of of the individual constituents to be more completely followed out ultra-violet light is passed into this condenser and focussed by it, when the metal or alloy is subjected to various heat-treatments without further adjustment, on to the object. The object-glass or to mechanical processes such as forging, hot- or cold-rolling, has not the same focus for ultra-violet light as for visible light, drawing, pressing, etc. however, so it is necessary to readjust the focus before any photoMicroscopes have valuable applications in the workshops as graph can be taken with the ultra-violet light. Arrangements are precision measuring devices. The type of microscope for use in provided so that by moving the fine adjustment through a known the workshop is usually a simple robust instrument having a magsmall distance, the requisite readjustment of focus can be made nification not greater than about 20, with a low-power objectwith certainty. If desired, a number of photographs of one object glass and an eye-piece in which a scale or graticule is mounted. can be taken in succession, so as to show the structure of the The type of graticule or scale used depends on the kind of work object in successive parallel planes separated by distances of the in connection with which the microscope is being used, as does also order of m inch. the method of mounting the microscope. For use on flat surfaces The technique developed by Barnard has brought ultra-violet the microscope may be rigidly mounted on a plane base, while for microscopy into an important position in bacteriological research. other uses, such as in precision screw-cutting, tool- and jig-making, Bacteria are nearly uniformly transparent to visible light but are etc., other types of support are used. The microscope is provided not so to certain regions of the ultra-violet spectrum. To photo- with sliding-tube focussing, or with an ordinary rack-and-pinion graph bacteria it has hitherto been necessary to stain them with coarse adjustment. Simple electrical illuminating devices are frein order to make their outlines or structure visible with quently incorporated with or permanently fitted to these instrutransmitted light. In the process of staining, the bacteria are ments. For examining and measuring screw threads, wires, etc., » Consequently any deductions drawn as to the form and specially designed microscopes, some of which are of the “projecstructure of living bacteria are lable to be fallacious if based solely tion” type, are used. ea the microscopic examination of stained specimens. With ultraIt is only possible briefly to point out the properties desirable violet illumination staining is no longer necessary. Thus, not only in the type of attachment which enables the microscope to be used BH possible with this new technique to examine the structure of for micro-spectroscopy. It should be so constructed that the which have never previously been resolved, but also it is object can be brought into the centre of the field and isolated by possible to avoid staining the bacteria, so that the structure of means of suitable adjustable diaphragms, and arrangements should bacteria, whether large or small, can be photographed. be made for the spectroscope and slit to be swung in easily when

448

MICROTOMY—MIDDLE

AGES

the object and illumination have been properly adjusted. Pro- has ass's ears.” See Roscher’s Lexikon, s.v; H. J. Rose, Handbook of Greg, vision should also be made for comparing the absorption spectra Mythology (1928). eye-piece the in scale wave-length a seen in the microscope with MIDDELBURG, the ancient capital of the province of Zee and with spectra obtained from known substances. The microspectroscope has many useful applications in the study of colour- land, Holland, in the middle of the island of Walcheren, 4 m, by ing matters of vegetable, animal and mineral origin, and can play rail N. by E. of Flushing, with which it is also connected by an important part in micro-chemical work and in the identification steam tramway and by ship canal (1873), which continues to of small quantities of fluids or solids having selective absorption Veere on the N.E. coast, with a branch eastward to Arnemuiden, Pop. (1926) 19,020. Middelburg contains many old houses. The for light. The manifold applications mentioned or indicated in this article town-hall, built about 1512, with a square tower 180 ft. high and show that the microscope can be used for studying by means of a facade adorned with statues contains the city archives and light, anything which, as regards size and condition, can be pre- antiquarian and historical collections. The old abbey of S. sented to the instrument. It has been said earlier that there is no Nicholas, founded in 1150, and now occupied by the provincial need to stress the importance of the microscope in medical, biolog- council, has old tapestry of the end of the 16th century. MIDDELBURG, a town of South Africa, 25° 44’ S. 30° 1’ ical, geological, metallurgical and many other applications, but it is well to call attention again to its importance in general scientific E.; altitude 4,971 feet. Population 2,705 whites in 1921, falling 158, coloured and industrial work and research. An hour or two at the micro- to 2,600 in 1926: natives (1921) 2,066, Asiatics scope may not only assist in shaping the problem to be investi- 114. It is situated 98 m. by rail E. of Pretoria on one of the gated, but it may in many instances enable much laborious work to richest coalfields in South Africa. About 20 collieries are a be avoided, either by solving the problem completely or by indicat- work and the coal is of very good quality. Middelburg is also the name of a town in the Cape Province, ing those methods of attack most likely to bring a speedy solution. If care be taken to become familiar with the general principles and 250 m. by rail N. by W. from Port Elizabeth. Its population ja methods of microscopy, a comparatively small additional experi- 1921 included 2,093 Europeans, and 2,278 non-Europeans. MIDDLE AGES, THE. The term is of course a modem ence in any one particular line of work will make the microscope practically indispensable for such work. The many valuable appli- term, coined consciously to define the contrast which its authors cations of the microscope in science, industry and general educa- felt between the centuries which succeeded the downfall of the tion have rightly over-shadowed its use as a means of recreation ancient world and their own time. To them the world of old alone; but it is well to recall the interest, pleasure, enlightenment Greece and Rome was in some ways nearer to them, more intelliand inspiration which the microscope can arouse, when used for gible than the Europe held together by a common religious system. recreation, as a revealer of unsuspected beauties and of things It would seem unnecessary to observe that the men and women who lived during the thousand years or so preceding the Reforotherwise unknowable. mation were not conscious of living in the middle ages; and yet, For bibliography see MICROSCOPE. (H. Ja.; H. Mo.) plants or so strong are the associations and implications of the phrase, we animals cutting of MICROTOMY is the technique i or their parts into minute slices. For many years both botanists often unthinkingly speak of the mediaeval world as though whe beings by inhabited mediaeval, consciously world a razor, was the by made sections hand free on depended and zoologists and this method is still universally used by botanists except for thought of themselves as mediaeval. This absurdity has been ac. schol the finest work, Skilled botanists can cut very thin sections of centuated by obeisance to specialism. Conveniently enough, an they or modernists, and mediaevalists as razor, sharp described a are and ars plant tissues merely by means of a pith mount but this method is inapplicable to animal tissues the cells of which said to profess modern or mediaeval history. Conventional Sense of Term.—A more far reaching reaso are unsupported by stiff cellulose walls, as are those of plants. sens Consequently the animal histologist, the embryologist or mor- for using the term “the middle ages,” in a more conventional mon and more become necessarily will it on, goes the time and as that, animals, is minute of structure the studies phologist, who gestur a making were it used first who persons The meaningless. cytologist, who investigates the structure of individual cells, use time they wer special micrological techniques for the preparation of the thin of their sense of freedom, and yet at the same as a serie history of conception mediaeval the accepting implicitly dealing. are they slices of parts of animals with which Modern microtomy owes its efficiency to two things—first the of well defined ages within a limited framework of time. The: the chronology o development of methods of infiltrating tissues and animals with did not speak of the six ages or believe in a schem inherited they less the none but prophesy, supporting media like gelatine, paraffin wax and celloidin, and Joachimite second, the development of cutting instruments of precision. of history which began with the Garden of Eden and would en The infiltration of tissues with special hardening media is called with the Second Coming of Christ. In such a scheme the thousam might wel embedding; the special instruments for cutting the tissues into years from the fifth to the rsth centuries after Christ

thin slices are called mzcrotomes.

—A., B. Lee, Microtomist’s Vade-mecum (x921); BIBLIOGRAPHY, H. M. Carleton, Histological Technique (1926) ; Mallory and Wright, Pathological Technique (1924).

MIDAS, a very old royal, possibly also divine, name among

the Phrygians and the Briges (a people living north of Greece). In Greek mythology, the following wdrchen, all of a fairly well-

known type, are told of “King Midas.” (1) By mixing wine with the water of a spring he made Silenus (¢.v.) drunk, caught him, and induced him io teach him some of his wisdom. (2) He restored Silenus to Dionysus, who, by way of reward, gave him

a wish. Midas wished that all he touched might turn to gold; as tbis included food and drink he was nearly starved to death, and asked that the gift might be taken away again. The god bade him bathe in the river Pactolus, which has had gold in its sands ever

since. (3) He preferred the music of Pan (qg.v.) or Marsyas (g.v.) to that of Apollo; Apollo in wrath gave him ass’s ears, He concealed this deformity from all but his barber, who, bursting ta tell the secret, dug a hole in the ground and whispered it into that, afterwards filling in the hole. Reeds grew from it, which, Whenever the wind blew through them, whispered “King Midas

be regarded as a distinct, respectable period of history, whic would stand out clearly in the providential pattern. Nowadays we have discarded the Eusebian chronology; we loak back tọ & almost infinite past and forward ta an almost infinite future. I the eyes of a scientist a period of a thousand years is neither her nor there. Moreover, the content of history, both before th middle ages and contemporary with them, has been immensel enlarged, The significance of many aspects of mediaeval life bz heen changed by our knowledge of previous civilizations—of th

civilizations with which mediaeval Europe was in contact.

Downfall of Rome.—JI{ we set our preconceptions om oF

side, the middle ages are the period in the history of Europea people, and especially of the western peoples, since the downfa

of the Roman empire. The breach between ancient and later ii tory was not so Clearly defined as we are wont to say—some di tinguished scholars, for example, led by Pirenne, would deny thi

there was any real breach until the Mohammedans occupied tl Mediterranean,—but the settlement on a large scale of the Ge manic peoples within the borders of the Roman empire and il failure af the central imperial goverament to maintain itself, we developments so striking as to justify the use of the terms “a!

MIDDLE

AGES

449

dent” and “mediaeval” to describe the state of society before and | everyday

after them. It is impossible to fix any date, for tastes differ, and the date 250 or 410 or 476 has only a dogmatic significance in the minds of various historians.

It is a convenience like the limits

of legal memory or the legal doctrine that the House of Lords and

1 2

life of scientific inventions are recent developments which separate us in external and possibly in more far reaching ways, from the middle ages., though their civilizing effects are still uncertain. The isolation in which so many people lived in earlier

|

days, and the immense differences in wealth, social importance ts personnel dates from the year 1295. and external trappings between class and class have largely disThe Renaissance.—It is still more impossible to fix any date | appeared; the sum of human happiness and comfort is probably as marking the end of the middle ages. The view that the fate | greater than in mediaeval times; but the contrast, once so fashionof Constantinople in 1453 was a catastrophic event, unexpected l able, between the ages of darkness and the ages of light has no and devastating, which had violent effects upon the whole temper more truth in it than have the idealistic fancies which underlie of western society, Is quite discredited. The view that the breach attempts at mediaeval revivalism. The fascinating perplexity felt hetween the papacy and various European countries—an event by students of mediaeval life is due precisely to the fact that our which we describe as the Reformation—diverted the stream of forefathers were not barbarians struggling forward, unaided, to history or introduced new life into history, has more truth in it, a state of civilization; but were vigorous, intelligent, semi-civilized but is grossly exaggerated. If we give a sufficiently wide inter- people who fell at every turn under highly sophisticated influences. pretation to the movement known as the Renaissance, and remem- Even before they settled down in the fifth century they had, more ber that, although it was most consciously intense during the 15th or less consciously, entered upon what is termed the “heroic age,” and 16th centuries, it had no obvious beginning and has had no in which an exotic element, derived perhaps from the east by way end. we may define the end of the middle ages as the point, reached of the Black sea and the great trade routes of central Europe, in diferent ways and at different times, at which the spirit of gave direction to their barbaric qualities. Some of them, like the the Renaissance was victorious in political, social and artistic life. Visigoths, fell at once under the influence of Roman jurisprudence. There has never been anywhere a complete breach with mediaeval All in due course were affected by the Church and were introinstitutions or modes of thoughts. duced to forms of organization, thought, art and conduct which Development of National States.—The settlement of peoples they appropriated as best they could. Three or four centuries later and the gradual development of national states under the joint in- their men of learning came under the steadily increasing influence uence of native habit and the living traditions of the ancient world of Greek thought, as transmitted by the Greek speaking scholars were not matters of a day. They required more than a thousand of the Eastern empire, by Arabs and Jews: an influence which years. Everywhere natural forces and conscious contrivance can be reached its height in the 13th century. By this time social contact traced together, although the element of contrivance varied very with the East, never entirely lost, had been deepened by the esconsiderably in extent. Two great kingdoms, Germany and Italy, tablishment of western states in the Levant, the result of the crubegan to lose their political unity almost as soon as they had sades. Hence the process of sophistication, if the term may be acquired it; they had to wait until the 19th century before they used, was intensified by new periodic injections. However infound it again. Switzerland and the Low Countries (the modern digenous the expressions of political, social, literary and artistic Holland and Belgium) were strongly welded into political units life were, they flourished in an atmosphere of self-consciousness. in a process in which it is difficult to disentangle the elements They were not all spontaneous, and were rarely “artless.” The of nature, accident and artifice; but the unity, once acquired, has results were naturally very varied, some bizarre and grotesque, on the whole been permanent. Only a long and complicated pro- with the seeds of decadence in them, some simple and effortless, cess of events could decide that Portugal was to be separated some extraordinarily beautiful; some foolish, others profound; irom Castile, and Castile united to Aragon, that Catalonia was some pagan, others Christian. to be part of the kingdom of Aragon and not linked up with the Distinction of Values.—These facts help to explain the Mediterranean littoral north of the Pyrenees, that Hungary was strange inconsistencies of the mediaeval world. To return to our ta be attached to the German marchland of Austria and that the starting point they also make the usual distinction between the River Tweed was to separate a kingdom of Scotland from Eng- values, moral and intellectual, of mediaeval and later times very land. misleading. If we search in history for examples of sheer goodIn these political developments the effect of Roman imperial- ness, or of forms of delicate perception, or of intellectual greatism, working through geography and tradition, was not very ness, of legal acumen or of constructive ability, we can find them marked. It might be an obstacle to be overcome, as in Italy and as readily in the middle ages as elsewhere, just as we find, as the Rhine valley, or an incentive to unity, as in France. But nowhere else, depths of religious experience. All that was fresh within the structure of society the element of contrivance was and vigorous in the European peoples could be drawn out and largely proportionate to the strength of classical influence, whether directed in the service of religion and art, learning, and even of this were continuous or consciously revived. The extent and force statesmanship. Similarly, it could be perverted into an intensity of this influence have been the theme of endless discussion. How of persecution or cruelty, into decadent orgies of sophisticated far the land settlement of the Franks was a continuation of the superstition, -Just as it could respond to eccentric and heretical inRoman system in Gaul, whether city life in North Italy and on fluences, or find its own vent in ways which seem to us to be theRhine was completely interrupted, or, to take examples of startlingly modern. A sedentary society, throwing off a continuous adifferent kind, the extent to which the folk lore and legendary stream of wanderers; a conventional society, ruled by custom, literature of mediaeval peoples was drawn from native sources yet indulging all sorts of adventures of the spirit; a pagan soor derived from the treasure house of the East and the fancies clety responsive at every turn to the teaching of the Christian of sophisticated brains, and whether mediaeval art is mainly pop- religion—such was mediaeval society. war or “learned” in origin—these are some of the problems whith Belief in Custom.—Mankind has not yet found the way to still arouse controversy. On the whole the tendency is to empha- health without belief in its past. It steps back with relief into sue the extent of the artificial and learned element in later cen- the old tried paths from the highest, the best thought-out experilunes and to minimize the importance of continuous classical ments in constructive revolution. Societies, during the thousand t

survivals in the early middle ages. The continuous and ever Present influence of the ecclesiastical system is, it is hardly neces-

years after the fifth century, found health in the vigorous persist-

ence of custom, and the veneration for custom.

The essential

tary to say, undisputed and is regarded as exceptional even by thing to remember is that mediaeval belief in custom was not who deprecate the view that it was the really formative a dead weight, but a conscious discipline in a changing world. r m mediaeval life. Lawyers and church have idealized it in the light of their belief

eval and Modern Culture.—-Whatever the final issue e discussions may be, it is no longer possible to draw a harp distinction between culture or intelligence in mediaeval and times. Compulsory education and the impact upon our é

in a universe bound together by law. Moreover men instinctively clung to their trust in custom, for the conception of the

universe with which they were presented

did not permit of

that constant discovery of the inner relations of things which we

450

MIDDLEBOROUGH—MIDDLESBROUGH

call science. However speculative or transitory modern science | a village in 1832. MIDDLESBOROUGH, a city of Bell county, Kentucky is, it has secured popular allegiance by using the mysteries of nature—heat, electricity and so on—in the everyday service of U.S.A., in the south-east corner of the State, at an altitude of man, so that conservatism nowadays shares its old power with a 1,100 ft., among ranges rising to 3,100 ft.; on Federal highway belief in science. Yet, as has been well said, modern science was 25E and served by the Louisville and Nashville and the Souther both made possible by the earlier, mediaeval, belief in the reason- railways. Pop., 8,041 in 1920 (15% negroes); 10,350 in 1930by ableness of the world, and was also an adventurous reaction Federal census. The city lies in a valley of the Cumberland against the rationalism of mediaeval thought. It was a revolt mountains, 5 m. N.W. of the Cumberland gap, through which against the rigidity of law, but the belief in law was at the root of Daniel Boone in 1775 marked the Wilderness road, the thorough. the new investigation into facts. The conception of sovereignty fare of the Kentucky pioneers. It is a summer resort, surrounded illustrates the same tendency in the political world; it was a recog- by beautiful scenery. It was founded in 1889 and incorporated nition of the fact that certain social entities were directing their in 1892. MIDDLESBROUGH, a municipal, county and parliamen. energies in their own self-regarding way, and a repudiation of the belief (due to a mingling of Christian and Roman ideas) in the tary borough in the North Riding of Yorkshire, England, 2384 m unity of mankind under a universal law of nature; yet a long N. by W. from London on the L.N.E. railway. Population (1931) discipline had been required, under the régime of custom, in order 138,489. It stands on the south bank of the Tees estuary, 5 m to make the conception of sovereignty safe or tolerable. Its value from its mouth in the North Sea, and is the centre of one of the is on the wane, and the trust in law in the mediaeval sense seems most important iron-working districts in the world. Where Mid. dlesbrough now stands there were at one time a small chapel and to be returning. Influence of the Church.—The Christian Church shaped the priory founded by Robert de Brus of Skelton Castle. These were European peoples in two ways. It gave direction to the energy of dedicated to St. Hilda, and were given, together with some lands the robust European peoples, and it offered a higher interpretation by de Brus to the abbey of St. Hilda at Whitby in 1130. The of the meaning of life. Suicidal strife, with the succeeding stag- priory fell into ruins at the time of the Reformation and very littl nation, was checked. The Romans had impressed on the barbar- trace now remains. In 1801 there were, upon the site of Middles. ians a system of law and order which they had neither the brough, only a few farm houses with a population of 25. In 1829, ability nor the desire to maintain. The Church maintained this a company styling itself the Middlesbrough Owners bought sec system in its own way and, while accepting the traditional social acres of land and began building. When, in 1830, the Stocktor arrangements of the barbarians, enabled them to develop. The and Darlington railway was extended to Middlesbrough, it became response was very extraordinary. Indeed the danger of absorption a new Tees port; four years later the town was lighted with ga: was so great that the Church in self defense strengthened its or- and in 1840 a public market was established. In 1841 the popula ganization and emphasized its unity in the Papacy. Hence we tion was 5,709. In 1842, the opening of the docks gave it additiona have the interplay of political and ecclesiastical forces which runs importance; by 1851 blast furnaces were erected and soon thy through the history of feudal and afterwards of national or urban whole district became a thriving iron centre. Iron stone was mined in the neighbouring Cleveland Hills; lime societies, and profoundly modified the structure of the Church itself. Throughout the middle ages the Church maintained the stone and coal were at hand, transport was made easy by thi conception of unity and its claim to interpret the moral law. presence of the young railway and the navigable river way, whic But its other great function, though sometimes lost in the de- meant cheap facilities for export. The town grew so rapidly thati velopment of organization, was never forgotten. There again the 1853, Middlesbrough was given a charter as a municipal borough peoples responded. Their craving for certainties or for adventure it was created a county borough in 1888. Iron and steel workin was met by the development of dogma, the various monastic ex- is the most important industry. The entrance to the River Tees is protected by two break periments, the Crusades. They produced an endless series of saints. They tried to comprehend in their schools and universities waters, the South Gare, which was begun in 1863 and took 2 the learning of the ancient world and to harmonize it with the years to build is more than 24 miles in length; and the North Gare teaching of the theologian. They built thousands of buildings, which has been completed for a length of 3,330 feet. Extenstv bringing all their energy to expression in the name, if not in the dredging operations have been carried on in the river; since 185 service, of a Church and the saints. Our political systems, our about 45,477,463 cu.yd. of material have been removed from if scientific thought, and our art are developed from those of the bed. In 1863 the depth of water on the Bar was 34 ft. at lo middle ages, and the conscious reactions against the fundamental water of ordinary Spring tides; it is now 20 ft. at low water an 37 ft. at high water. Vessels of heavy tonnage which regular! ideas of the mediaeval church are a tribute to its strength. frequent the river require increased depth of water, and to met (E. M. P.) MIDDLEBOROUGH, a town of Plymouth county, Massa- this demand powerful ladder-dredgers are used. The scheme sam chusetts, U.S.A., 30 m. S. of Boston, on the Taunton river and tioned by parliament for the widening of the river from Middle: served by the New York, New Haven and Hartford railroad. brough to the sea will ultimately result in an additional width i ‘Fhe population was 8,453 in 1920; 8,608 in 1930. It has an area the channel, averaging 350 to 400 feet, to the Middlesbrough Doc of 70 sq.m. and embraces several villages. There are many shoe entrance. This dock is the property of the L.N.E. railway, at factories and various other manufacturing industries. The public was considerably enlarged in 1926. Its area is 26 acres; the ne

library and many of the town’s improvements owe their existence to gifts from Thomas Sprout Peirce (1823-1901), a local merchant, and to a trust fund created by his will The town of Middleberough was established in 1669, from common lands called Namassakett. MIDDLEBURY, a village of western Vermont, U.S.A., the county-seat of Addison county; on Otter creek, Federal highway 7 and the Rutland railroad, midway between Rutland and Burlington. The population in 1930 was 2,003. It has a beautiful location in the Champlain valley, near the Green Mts., and is the seat of Middlebury college (chartered 1800), which has a campus of 244 ac., a forest preserve of 30,000 ac., an endowment of about $3,000,000 and an enrollment in 1927-28 of 1,145. A settlement was made here in 1773. It was deserted at the opening of the

entrance is 80 ft. wide and total length of quayage is 6,843 it

Revolution, almost destroyed by British troops, re-established at the close of that war, and incorporated as a borough in 1813 and as

the Tees Conservancy Commission; Bulmer, Middlesbrough

3,350 acres of land have been reclaimed from the foreshore of th Tees, much of it by the deposit of slag from the iron works. A the reclaimed land on the south side has been sold for the co

struction of iron and steel works, shipbuilding yards, dry dod and deep water quays.

The chemical industry, which owes ?

creation to the presence of salt and to the by-products of t

coking ovens, is becoming increasingly important.

Middlesbrough, being the main port of the river Tees, deals wi

the bulk of the trade of the region. Its chief exports are coal a

coke, pig iron, brass, plates and rails, galvanised sheets, chemica

and bridge work and girders. Its imports are chiefly ores—ir and manganese—coal and wheat. See Sir J. Bell, The Iron and Steel Industry in Cleveland; Report

Shipping Facilities, South Tees-Side Regional Planning Scheme.

451

MIDDLESEX—-MIDDLETON MIDDLESEX,

LIONEL

CRANFIELD,

ist Earr or | Middlesex was granted to the mayor and citizens in fee.

By

(1575-1645), was a successful London merchant, who was intro- | charter of 1242 the common pleas for the county of Middlesex duced to James I. by Henry Howard, earl of Northampton, and | were ordered to be held at the stone cross in the Strand. Under entered the royal service in 1605. In 1613 he was knighted and a charter of 1447 the lord mayor was authorized to nominate one was appointed surveyor-general of customs; in 1616 he became of the city aldermen as justice of the peace for Middlesex. The

|

one of the masters of requests, and in 1619 master of the court of ; six modern hundreds of Edmonton, Elthorne, Gore, Isleworth,

wards and liveries and chief commissioner of the navy. He was | Ossulston, ani Spelthorne have been scarcely changed since the returned to parliament for Hythe in 1614 and for Arundel in | Domesday survey, except that Isleworth was then Honeslaw 1621. He took part in the attack on Bacon in 1621, and in the (Hounslow), while in the r2th century hidage a hundred of same year was created Baron Cranfield and became lord high “Mimes” is mentioned, corresponding with the Domesday huntreasurer. Impeached by the House of Commons for corruption, dred of Edmonton. Middlesex has always been included in the he was found guilty by the House of Lords in May 1624, but diocese of London excepting a small portion which is in that of was pardoned in the following year, and restored to the House Oxford. The archdeaconry of Middlesex, which includes part of Essex, is mentioned in 1151. of Lords in 1640. He died on Aug. 6, 1645. In r215 Middlesex was ravaged by King John’s army. In the MIDDLESEX, a county of England, bounded north by Hertfordshire, east by Essex, south-east by the county of London, Civil War Middlesex supported parliament. Sir Denzil Hollis was south by Surrey, and west by Buckinghamshire. Excepting Rut- defeated by the Royalists at Brentford in 1642, and in 1645 a land. the county is the smallest in England. It lies entirely within | fruitless treaty between Charles I. and the parliament was conthe Thames basin and within the geological region known as the cluded at Uxbridge. The woollen and leather industries flourished in Middlesex in London basin. The general slope and dip of the strata is to the south-east. South of an irregular line from Uxbridge, north of Norman times; hides were tanned at Enfield, bricks were manuHayes, by Hanwell and Ealing to Hyde park and east of a line factured, and Heston was noted for its wheat. Paper was manu-

from the park to Tottenham, the ground is covered by gravels | factured in the 17th century. Agriculture and Industry.—The deposited by the Thames. From this river in the south and from

soil is not particularly the Lea, forming the eastern boundary with Essex, the gravels | suitable for agriculture and the acreage cultivated, as well as the rise in a series of terraces. Underneath the alluvial gravels and number of livestock, has decreased rapidly as London has exemerging north of the boundary line, indicated above, lies the panded, incorporating villages and covering the land with buildLondon clay. It forms the undulating country around Harrow, ings. The most important cultivation is that of market gardens Chipping Barnet and Elstree. The highest ground is found along on the rich alluvium in the Thames valley. The county possesses the northern boundary, and near Stanmore the hills are 503 ft. a number of varied industries which depend for their prosperity high. These hills send two projections southward, one towards on their proximity to the metropolis and on the railway lines, the Harrow and the other towards Hampstead. On these ridges are spread of industries along which is a very marked feature of the remains of the sandy and pebbly Bagshot beds which formerly industrial change for the period after 1918. Communications.—The county is closely intersected with cavered the London clay area. Glacial deposits are also present in the county, e.g., the pebbly gravels of Stanmore heath, the railways, the following companies affording communications: clay and sand of Finchley, and chalky boulder clay of Southgate. L.N.E.R., L.M.S.R., $.R., G.W.R., Metropolitan and District. The Reading beds emerge only in the north-west, near Harefield. Moreover, In some parts the tramway system has been extended The western part is watered by the rivers Colne, Crane and Brent. over a wide area from London. The principal canals are the Grand History and Early Settlement.—Palaeolithic implements Junction, running west from Brentford to the Colne valley, and have been found in the river drifts at various points, and Neolithic thence northward; with a branch (the Paddington canal) confinds are numerous. Beaker pottery and bronze implements have necting it with the Regent’s canal in London; and, in the east, also been found. In spite of this it is probable that the county the Lea navigation. Administration.—The part of the ancient county transferred never had a large population in prehistoric times, because the lower lands were often marshy and subject to floods, while the to the county of London under the Local Government Act of higher clay lands were forested. Thus, the majority of the arte- 1888 was 31,484 ac. In extent, and 771 were then transferred to facts found probably only indicate linesyof movement across the Hertfordshire; while under the London Government Act of 1899 county. In Roman times the eastern border from Tottenham the southern part of Hornsey was transferred to London. Area to Waltham Cross was traversed by Ermine street; Watling street of administrative county 148,691 ac., pop. (1931) 1,638,521. The ran across the county from Cricklewood towards Elstree, and municipal boroughs are Acton, Ealing, Hornsey, Twickenham. the Roman road from London to Silchester crossed the county The county is within the Metropolitan Police district and within from Turnham Green to Staines, where the Romans hada station. the jurisdiction of the Central Criminal Court. There is one Middlesex was colonized in the 6th century by an offshoot of court of quarter sessions held at the Middlesex Guildhall, Westthe East Saxon tribe, and derived its name from its position minster, but no county town. The extra-Metropolitan parliabetween the kingdoms of the East and West Saxons. In a charter mentary divisions, each returning one member, are Acton, Brentdated 704 Middlesex is mentioned as a dependency of Essex, but ford and Chiswick, Enfield, Finchley, Harrow, Hendon, SpelThe parl. soon after it acknowledged the supremacy of Mercia, and the thorne, Twickenham, Uxbridge and Wood Green. Mercian council was held at Brentford from 780 onwards. In the boroughs are Ealing, Edmonton, Hornsey, Tottenham and Willesgth century Middlesex formed part of the Danelagh. The only den; the first three return one member, the last two, two members reference to Middlesex in the Saxon Chronicle occurs in 1011, to parliament. See John Norden, Speculum Britanniae: the firste parte, an kiswhen it was overrun by the Danes. The Conqueror’s march upon London was preceded by a general devastation of the surrounding toricall and chorographical description of Middlesex (London 1593: l

country. At the time of the Domesday survey, the district north of London had a population of 2,302, and formed the forest of Middlesex.

As a shire, Middlesex probably originated the frith of 886. During the Saxon period the church of Canterbury, the bishop of London St. Paul’s, and the Abbey of Westminster were

about the time of manors held by the and his canons of held as independent

franchises. By charter of Henry I. (confirmed by Stephen and

Henry II.) the citizens of London held Middlesex at. farm for

£300, with power to elect a sheriff from among their number, and by charter from John the shrievalty of both London and

teprinted 1637 and 1723); Daniel Lysons,

The Environs

(1792—96); Victoria County History, Middlesex.

of London

MIDDLETON, EARLS OF. JoHN MIDDLETON, 1ST EARL of MIDDLETON

(c. 1619-1674), belonged to a Kincardineshire

family which had held lands at Middleton since the 12th century. In early life he served as a soldier in France; later he fought against Charles I., being especially prominent at the battle of Philiphaugh. He held a high command in the Scottish army, In 1656 the king made him an earl, four years later, commander-in-

chief of the troops in Scotland and lord high commissioner to the Scottish parliament. Owing to serious dissensions with the earl

452

MIDDLETON

of Lauderdale he was deprived of his offices in 1663. He was afterwards (1667) governor of Tangier, where he died in June 1674. His eldest son CHARLES, 2ND EARL oF MIDDLETON (c. 16401719), held several offices under Charles II. and James II., being envoy extraordinary at Vienna, joint secretary for Scotland, and from 1684 English secretary of state. In 1693 he joined the exiled king at St. Germain, where he became his secretary of state. See A. C. Biscoe, The Earls of Middleton (1876).

One of Middleton’s kinsmen was Sır CHARLES MIDDLETON, Bart. (1726—1813), comptroller of the navy from 1778 to 1790. In 1805, at a most critical time, although 80 years old, he was appointed first lord of the admiralty by Pitt and was created Lord Barham. It was his experience, industry and energy which made possible the great campaign which ended at Trafalgar. He resigned office in Jan. 1806 and died on Jan. 17, 1813. His barony passed through his daughter Diana (1762-1823) to the Noels, earls of Gainsborough, by whom it is still held. See The Barkham Papers, Sir J. K. Laughton, ed. (3 vols., 1907-11) and J.S. Corbett, The Campaign of Trafalgar (1910).

MIDDLETON,

ARTHUR

(1742-1787), American politi-

cian and signer of the Declaration of Independence, was born at Middleton Place, S.C., on June 26, 1742. His family was one of

the most prominent in the colony. The grandfather, Arthur Middleton (1681-1737), was president of the council in 1721~30 and as such was acting governor in 1725-30, and the father, Henry

Middleton (1717-84), was speaker of the assembly in 1745-47 and again in 1754-55, a delegate to the continental congress in 1774+6, and its president 1774-75. Like most wealthy South Carolinians of the r8th century, Arthur Middleton was educated in

England—at Hackney, at Westminster school and at St. John’s college, Cambridge. In 1773 he returned to South Carolina, and in the controversies between the colonists and the home government became a leader of the Whigs. He was a member of the provincial council of safety in 1775-76, and a delegate to the continental congress in 1776-77. He was captured by the British at Charleston in May, 1780, was exchanged in July, 1781, was again a delegate to Congress in 1781-83, and later served in the State legislature. He died on Jan. 1, 1787, near Charleston. See Benson J. Lossing, Biographical Sketches of Signers of American Declaration of Independence (1854); and Charles F. Jenkins, The ae Sets of the Signers of the Declaration of Independence 1925).

MIDDLETON,

CONYERS

(1683-1750), English divine,

was born at Richmond, Yorks., on Dec. 27, 1683. He graduated from Trinity College, Cambridge, took orders, and in 1706 ob-

tained a fellowship, which he soon resigned. In 1717 a dispute with Richard Bentley, who had demanded a large fee on Middleton’s being created D.D., involved him in an acrimonious controversy. He wrote “Remarks” and “Further Remarks” on Bentley’s Proposals for a New Edition of the Greek Testament. In 1723 he was involved in a lawsuit by personalities against Bentley, which had found their way into his otherwise judicious tract on library administration, The Present State of Trinity College (1719), written on the occasion of his appointment as university librarian. Observations made during a visit to Italy on the pagan origin of church ceremonies and beliefs were embodied in his Letter from Rome, showing an exact Conformity between Popery and Pagan-

ism (1729). This tract probably contributed to the storm which

broke out on his next publication (1731). In his remonstrance with Daniel Waterland on occasion of the latter’s reply to Matthew Tindal’s Christiansty as Old as ihe Creation, Middleton laid himself open to the charge of latitudinarianism. assailed from many quarters, and retreated with under cover of a sheaf of apologetic pamphlets and attendance at church. His next important work, a

He was hotly some difficulty a more regular Life of Cicero

{1741}, enhanced his reputation at the time, but was in fact largely borrowed from William Bellenden’s, De tribus luminibus Romanorum. His chief writings are the Iniroductory Discourse (£747) and the Free Inquiry (1748) “concerning the miraculous

powers which are supposed to have subsisted in the church from thé earliest ages.” Middleton showed that ecclesiastical miracles

must be accepted or rejected in the mass; and he distinguished between the authority due to the early fathers’ testimony to the

beliefs and practices of their times, and their very slender cred}.

bility as witnesses to matters of fact. On July 28, 1750, he died at Hildersham, near Cambridge. The character of Middleton’s intellect was captious and iconp.

clastic, but redeemed from mere negation by a passion for abstract truth. His diction is generally masculine and harmonious, Pope thought him and Nathaniel Hooke the younger, the only prog

writers of the day who deserved to be cited as authorities on the language. See Sir Leslie Stephen’s English Thought in the Eighteenth Century (1876). His works, containing several posthumous tracts, but not including the Life of Cicero, appeared in 4 vols. in 1752 (5 vols. 1755),

MIDDLETON, THOMAS (ce. 1570-1627), English dra. matist, son of William Middleton, was born about 1570, probably in London.

He may probably be identified with one of the Thomas

Middletons entered at Gray’s Inn in 1593 and 1596 respectively. His earliest work

was

The

Wisdom

of Solomon

paraphrased

(1597). He began to write for the stage with The Old Lew, in the original draft of which, if it dates from 1599 as is generally

supposed, he was certainly not associated with William Rowley and Philip Massinger, although their names appear on the title. page of 1656. By 1602 he had become one of Philip Henslowe's established playwrights. The pages of Henslowe’s Diary contain notes of plays in which he had a hand, and in the year 1607—1608 he produced six comedies of London life, which he knew as accurately as Dekker and was content to paint in more realistic colours. In 1613 he devised the pageant for the installation of the

Lord Mayor, Sir Thomas Middleton, and in the same year wrote an entertainment for the opening of the New River in honour of another Middleton. He was frequently employed to celebrate civic occasions, and in 1620 he was made city chronologer, performing the duties of his position with exactness till his death. At the Globe theatre in 1624 he produced a political play, A Game at Chesse, satirizing the policy of the court, which had just received a rebuff in the matter of the Spanish marriage, the English and Spanish personages concerned being disguised as the White Knight, the Black King, and so forth. The play was stopped, after nine performances, in consequence of remonstrances from the Spanish ambassador, and the dramatist and the actors were summoned to answer for it. It is doubtful whether Middleton was actually imprisoned, and in any case the king’s anger was soon satisfied and the matter allowed to drop, on the plea that the piece had been seen and passed by the master of the revels, Sit Henry Herbert.

Middleton died at his house at Newington Butts,

and was buried on July 4, 1627. He worked with various authors, but his happiest collaboration was with William Rowley, this literary partnership being so close

that F. G. Fleay. (Biog. Chron. of the Drama) treats the dra-

matists together. The plays in which the two collaborated are A Fair Quarrel (printed 1617), The World Lost at Tennis (1620), an ingenious masque, The Chongeling (acted 1624, printed 1653), and The Spanish Gipsie (acted 1623, printed 1653). The main interest of the Fair Quarrel centres in the mental conflict of Captain Ager, the problem being whether he should fight in defence

of his mother’s honour when he no longer believes his quarrel

to be just. The underplot, dealing with Jane, her concealed marriage, and the physician, which is generally assigned to Rowley, was suggested by a story in Giraldi Cinthio’s Hecatommithi. The Changeling is the most powerful of all the plays with which Middleton’s name is connected. The plot is drawn from the tale of

Alsemero and Beatrice-Joanna in Reynolds’s Triumphs of God's

Reveng against Murther (bk. i., hist. iv.), but the story, black as it is, receives additional horror in Middleton’s hands. With Thomas Dekker he wrote The Roaring Girle, or Molt CutPurse (1610). The frontispiece represents Moll herself in man’s

attire, indulging in a pipe of tobacco. She was drawn or idealized from life, her real name being Mary Frith (1584-1659?) who was compelled to do penance at St. Paul’s Cross in 1612

In the play she is the champion of her sex, and is equally ready

with her sword and her wits. Middleton is also credited with à

MIDDLETON—MIDDLE

WEST

453

share in Thomas Dekker’s Honest Whore (pt. i, 1604). The woods add charm to the surroundings, and 3 m. E. are the Witch, first printed in 1778 from a unique ms., now in the Bod- ; “narrows” of the Connecticut, an impressive gorge more than a ian, has aroused much controversy as to whether Shakespeare mile long, cut by the river through a rocky barrier. The city is borrowed from Middleton or vice versa. The distinction be-' the seat of Wesleyan university (Methodist Episcopal: 1831) tween the two conceptions has been finely drawn by Charles; which has an endowment of $4,500,000; the Connecticut State Lamb, and the question of borrowing is best solved by sup- | hospital (for the insane) with accommodations for 2,180 patients:

posing that what is common to the incantations of both plays | Long Lane farm. the State industrial school for girls; and the

was a matter of common property. The Mayor of Quinborough, | Middlesex hospital. It has diversified manufactures, with an outthe scene of which is laid in ancient Britain, was published with | put in 1925 valued at 519,312,494. Middletown occupies the site Middleton's name on the title-page in 1661; it may date from | of an Indian village, Mattabesec or Mattabesett, and was at first

about 1606. One of its editors, Havelock Ellis, thinks the proofs ! known by that name.

Settlement by the whites began in 1650.

of its authenticity as Middleton's work very slender. |The town was incorporated in 1651 and the city was chartered The plays of Middleton still to be mentioned may be divided | in 1784. It became a ship-building and commercial centre.

into romantic and realistic comedies of London Life. Dekker bad

MIDDLETOWN,

a city of Orange

county,

New

York,

as wide a knowledge of city manners, but he was more sympathetic | U.S.A.. on the Wallkill river, 67 m. N.N.W, of New York city, in treatment, readier to idealize his subject. Two New Piayes. |at an altitude of 700 feet. It is served by the Erie, the MiddleVis.: More Dissemblers besides Women. Women beware Women, | town and Unionville and the New York, Ontario and Western of which the former was licensed before 1622, appeared in 1657. | railways. Pop. (1920) 18.420 (87% native white): 21,276 in The plot of Women beware Women is a double intrigue from a | 1930, Federal census. It is surrounded by fertile farming country, Ame

contemporary novel, Hyppolito and Isabella, and the genuine his- |rich in beautiful scenery, and there are many summer homes and

tory of Bianca Capello and Francesco de Medici. This play, |hotels in the vicinity. The city has railroad shops and a great which ends with a Massacre appalling even in Elizabethan drama, | variety of manufacturing industries, with an output In 1925 may be taken as giving the measure—no mean one—of Middle- | valued at $6,154,256. It is the seat of a State homeopathic hospital tons unaided power in tragedy. for the insane, which has about 3,000 patients. Middletown was The remaining plays of Middleton are: Blurt. Master-Constable, | settled about 1796. It was a half-way house (whence the name) Or the Spaniards Night-walke (1601-02) ; Michaelmas Terme (16067), | on the Minisink road to western New York, and for a time was described by A. C. Swinburne as an excellent Hogarthian comedy; ; : : ae : Tke Phoenix (1607), a version of the Haroun-al-Raschid trick: 4 | + terminus of the Erie railroad. The village was incorporated 5

Trick to catch the Old One (1606-07) ; The Famelie of Love (played | 2 1848 and chartered as a city in 1888,

between 1604 and 1607: pr., 1608); 4 Mad World, my Masters (c.| MIDDLETOWN, a city of Butler county, Ohio, U.S.A., on 1606; pr., 1608) ; Your five Gallants (1607?, pr. 1608) ; A Chast Mayde | the Miami river, midway between Cincinnati and Dayton (whence in Cheapside (1612? pr., 1630), notable for the picture of Tim, the th ). Ith os i ; eth Iti Cambridge student, on his retum home; Amything for a Quiet Life | © Dame). it has a municipal airport, and is served by the Balti-

(e. 1617, printed 1662); No Wii, No Help like a Womans (c. 1613, | More and Ohio, the Big Four, the Erie and the Pennsylvania railprinted 1657); The Wrddow (printed 1652), on the title-page of ; ways, Inter-urban trolleys and motor-bus lines. Pop., 23,594 in "o appear a eae a J oe and J n fee 1920 and 29,992 in 1930. It is the trade centre of a rich and Ir couaporallo

formance in 1608-09.

ou

; DUHEN

pu

e

ẹ Or

Eleven of his masques are extant.

Its

per-

1

A tedious beautiful

7

agricultural

z

eee

E

producing

:

chiefly tobacco, wheat,

poem, The Wisdom of Solomon paraphrased, by Thomas Middleton, | °ts and corn; and has large and varied manufacturing industries was printed in 1597, and Microcynicon.

Six Snarling Satires by T. M.

(for which the river supplies water-power)

Gent, in 1599. Two prose pamphlets, dealing with London life, Father | 1925 valued at $56,732,394.

Hubbard's Tale and The Black Book, appeared in 1604 under his initials. Thus non-dramatic work, even if genuine, has little value.

paper bags, boxes and gas engines are leading products, The city laid bet 80 di a3 Tt han ° :

AuTHorITIEs.—His works were edited by Alexander Dyce (5 vols., |WaS /@i¢ oul in 1802 and

incorporated

1840), with a valuable introduction quoting many documents, and | slon-manager form of government,

by A. H. Bullen (8 vols., 1885), The Best Plays of Thomas Middleton|

were EAN a oe eee bea an introduction Dy e owindurne.

oo Ar. ee aiSo

z

with an output in

Corrugated and sheet steel, paper,

MIDDLETOWN,

In 1833.

it

a Commis-

a borough of Dauphin county, Pennsyl-

T,{Ngwr with | vania, U.S.A., on the E.+ bank of the Susquehanna river, 9 m. IPE, . é

into the Authorship of the Middleton-Rowley Plays (Betton, 1807), below Harrisburg.

It is served

by the P ennsylvania

and the

the notice on Middleton in Professor A. W. Ward’s Hist. of Eng. | Reading railways, Pop. (1920) 5,920 (90% native white); and

Draw. Lit. (ed. 1899; ii., 493-540), which contains a full account of | 6,085 in 1930 by the Federal census. It has large steel plants, oe ieS, eo alle treed gop nana; ag| car works, furniture and shoe factories and hosiery mills.s The E. K. , Eliz . H. . . careful examination of the parallelisms between the plays of Shake- | town has an intermediate depot of the Army Air Corps, includspeare and Middleton is made by D. Hugo Jung in “Das Verhältnis | ing Olmstead feld, Middletown was founded in 1755 by Quakers Thomas Middleton’s zu Shakspere” (Münchener Beiträge sur roman. | and Scotch-Irish, and was incorporated in 1828. It was named %, engl. Phil, vol. xxix., 1904). from its position midway between Lancaster and Carlisle,

MIDDLETON, market town, municipal borough, Prestwich

MIDDLE WEST, THE, the northern portion of the central

and Middleton parliamentary division, Lancashire, England, on United States and more specifically the States of Ohio, Indiana, the Irk, near the Rochdale canal, and on.the L.M.S. railway, 6 m. Ilinois, Michigan, Iowa, Wisconsin and Minnesota, N.E. of Manchester. Pop, (1931) 29,189. The tower arch of | In his American Commonwealth (1888), James Bryce obSt. Leonard’s church is r2th century, the rest dates from 1412, | served that in the United States there were four areas which were save for the south aisle built in 1524. Two chapels in it are | diverse in cultural aspects. After a long generation the most recent named after two ancient Lancashire families, the Asshetons and | serious commentator on American affairs, André Siegfried, is still

the Hopwoods. The Queen Elizabeth grammar-school (Tudor | able to note the differentiation that Bryce described. There is an style) was founded in 1572 by Nowell, dean of St. Paul’s, Lon- East, a South, a Far West and a Middle West. don. The prosperity of the town dates from the close of the 18th The four cultural areas are by no means equal in their social century. The staple trade is the spinning and weaving of cotton, weight. Of the ros millions of people resident in the States in and the other industries include silk weaving, calico-printing, 1920, the South, with 37 million, led the groups; the East, countbleaching, dyeing, iron-founding and the manufacture of soap and ing from Philadelphia and Pittsburgh, had 29 million: the Middle

chemicals, There are collieries in the neighbourhood.

The town

West had 26 million, and the Far West 13 million. There is no

was incorporated in 1886. Area, 4,775 acres. greater equality in the areas which they roughly occupy; and MIDDLETOWN, a city of Connecticut, U.S.A., the county | there is an inversion of order. Of the 2,974,000 sq.m. of land seal of Middlesex county; on Federal highway 5 and the west which they cover, the Far West has nearly half, or 1,483,000; the bank of the Connecticut river, 15 m. S. of Hartford. It is served South 947,000, the Middle West 382,000 and the East 162,000. by the New York, New Haven and Hartford railroad and coast- The Middle West thus covers about 13% of the area of the mg steamers. Pop. (1920) 13,638 (27% foreign-born white, United States and contains nearly 25% of the population. At neatly half from Italy); 1930 Federal census 24,554. Hills and the time when Bryce wrote their proportion of the population

454

MIDDLE

WEST

was already about 25°. as it had been a generation earlier, at from Kentucky and Tennessee into Missouri where there was a the opening of the Civil War in 1860. For 60 years or more. clash of West and South that has not yet subsided. Here, meg these States—Ohio. Indiana. Illinois, Michigan, Iowa, Wisconsin groped for the key to American politics during the middle third and Minnesota—have retained their constant proportion of the | of the roth century. By its outspoken southern preferences jt American people and have been regarded, as Bryce regarded them, | encouraged the leaders of the South when they thought of seces. as “the most distinctively American part of America,” and as | sion; by its essential western interests it discouraged them when “one of the most interesting subjects of study the modern world | the issue came to a head in the Civil War. It is to-day so southern that it cannot fairly be described as Middle West; but it is go has seen.” (American Commonwealth, 3rd. ed. 1895.) It has been noted (under AMERICAN FRONTIER) that the United western that it is no longer a dependable ally of the solid South. At the outbreak of the Civil War the dominant American sec. States was occupied in the 17th century. along its eastern front, where the Atlantic rivers meet arms of the ocean and afford easy tions were East, South and West; and beyond the West there lodgment at numerous places between Florida and Nova Scotia. stretched to the Pacific a zone of plain and mountain sparsely Before the 13 English colonies asserted their independence their sprinkled with inhabitants and not yet organized to any type. people had spread thinly over the Atlantic coastal plain, had When during and after the Civil War this region developed into passed bevond the geographers’ “falls line,’ and had begun the

penetration of the parallel valleys of the Appalachians that open corridors running north-east and south-west between Albany, N.Y.,

and Chattanooga, Tenn. In the older sections of these original colonies there were already aristocracies of standing before the Continental Congress at Philadelphia undertook to direct their common effort against England. This tidewater section, and its immediate hinterland, was to become the East, when a West should arise behind it. It has remained the East until to-day, containing by a natural social drainage the administrative heads of many American institutions, the agencies of control of the wealth of the United States, the executive and legislative establishments of the Government of the United States, and the oldest and most crystalline society that the United States can display. It has also, by its location, received the inflow of immigrant people that have affected all percentages of population, and it has put the immigrant workers into the industrial machine that was the great product of the roth century. Its constant drift has been towards the social and economic standards of western Europe; and its international commitments in fnance have here been paralleled by tbe strongest of the American sentiments for internationalism in government and a world league. Out of this old East, came the young West. The American Revolution did not stop, or seriously check, the pioneer process whereby the young, and the landless, and the ambitious among the people of the East sought to better themselves and gain economic independence. The new communities west of the Appalachians began to take shape while the Revolution was under way; and at its close Kentucky and Tennessee were growing rapidly towards statehood. A few years more, and the organization of the territory north-west of the Ohio river became a step that led to otber new States in Ohio, Indiana and Illinois. All of these regions came to be known as West; and by this fact gave significance to the term East, which had no special meaning as long as there was no West to contrast with it. The East was the starting point; the West was the derivative. The East was becoming a stable community; the West was on the make. Wealth in the East was showing itself, and was shaping society to its conditions; poverty and debt were the universal qualities of the pioneer West. The people of the East were differentiating, according to their duties and opportunities in life; the West started uniform, and retained its uniformity throughout the greater part of the cycle of pioneer development. For something more than a gen-

another new West there was confusion in terminology for it was

nearly as different from the West of the middle period as the West was from the East or South. Time brought the nomenclature. The plains and the cow country, the mining camps, and the Pacific slope became the Far West; and Middle West came

haltingly into use to describe what had before been West. There is a topographic unity that helped to shape the old West, and that has not ceased to operate now that it has become the Middle West. The unity began to have an influence when the earliest pioneers crossed the Appalachians. These were not entirely free to choose their crossings. At two or three places the valley roads were designated by easy passes across the mountains. The military leaders of the colonial period had discovered

one of them; and in the wake of the armies of Braddock (1755) and Forbes (1758) a procession of homeseekers advanced up the tributaries of the Potomac and Susquehanna until among the hills they met the southern tributaries of the Ohio river, the Youghiogheny and the Monongahela. Half a century later the Cumberland road, following this trail, was the first great Federal venture in internal improvements. Jt was a venture that had no real rivals until the Erie canal (1825) became effective through New York, and the central trunk line railroads reached the Ohio river at Pittsburgh and Wheeling a quarter-century later. The other great gateway to the Middle West was blazed by Daniel Boone for a land company in 1775, and emptied through Cumberland Gap into the Blue Grass region of Kentucky, the social overflow from Virginia and the Carolinas. Once through these gateways, the pioneer of the Middle West found himself

cut off from easy

access east by a mountain wall, and thrown into local alignment west by the fact that the rivers of the western slope of the Appalachians start separately as Allegheny and Monongahela. Kanawha, Cumberland and Tennessee, only to end as the Ohio river and to pass as a single stream into.the Mississippi. From the Great Lakes to Muscle Shoals of the Tennessee river there was a necessary unity of need, a set of agricultural and climatic similarities, and a fact of separateness from the East. The moun-

tain wall was not too high for the migrant; but it was too high,

and the road was too long, for the farm surplus of the West to reach an Eastern market. The uniformities that thus resulted may be studied in detail from the time of the rebellion of Western farmers against the whisky excise (1794) until the time of their demand that greenback money be used to pay the debts of the Civil War (1868); they show themselves in the conspiracies for the opening of the Mississippi river to up-river trade, and in the eration the American sectional antithesis was East and West. From the point of view of the West, the rise of the South is zest for the conquest of Canada and the control of the St. Lawsignificant because the process drew away part of the West from rence route. In the decade after the war of 1812, their greatest the section bearing this name, and although not entirely altering leader, Henry Clay, developed a theory of national integration its interests identified it primarily with the States bordering upon for their special benefit, but called his programme the “American the Gulf of Mexico. It was after the second war with England System,” because both he and they genuinely fancied themselves (1812-14) that this differentiation became most apparent, and to be America. Never, until the railroad cut across the natural before the election of Andrew Jackson the result was both visible routes indicated by topography, did the West free itself from the and ominous. The South stretched across the continent from the coercive control over its destinies, resources and ideas exercised tidewater bases in Maryland, Virginia, the Carolinas and Georgia. by the Ohio river and the Mississippi. And when at last therail It thrust itself into the open lands of the public domain as far roads brought geographical dominance to an end, the Middle as these were capable of normal agriculture, and came to an end West had acquired a habit of thinking alike; and found a cononly along the eastern margin of the high plains of western tinuing influence to uniformity in a debtor relationship that Texas. It did not provide for the area of the West a precise not easily be shaken off. Southern Orientation.—The struggle for the control of southern limit. for there was developed a twilight zone running

MIDDLE the Federal Government that took shape in the Presidential contest of 1824, and that resulted in Jacksonian victory in 1828,

wndicated not only a sharp and unified western point of view, but

WEST

455

continued in a wide and real substantial unity. They lacked both depths and heights. There were few of the very rich; but the very poor were lacking. They were not peasants or proleta-

a possible shift in the direction of American destiny. Thereafter rians; yet they lacked that acceptance of the going world that the tri-sectionalism of American life and politics was complete, makes the bourgeois mind. They were citizens and democrats, with the West more nearly retaining the same old attitude ; and saw nothing incongruous in a Lincoln advancing from the and faith than either of the other sections. While the South ad- cabin to the White House or in a Grant rising from the tan-yard vanced into cotton economics, and all that that implied, the East ` to be a general of the army. They believed in opportunity, which

lost its nearly solid agricultural condition, and was transformed |they had themselves enjoyed; and they conserved it for their

by the rise of manufactures, the accumulation of investable capital, the drift of population into the cities, and the appearance

of a social aristocracy founded upon wealth and luxury.

By the

time of the Mexican War the Astor and Vanderbilt fortunes were

ploughing new channels through the field of American business, and establishing new dynasties whose social flowering was to eccur after the Civil War.

More and more the Eastern cities took

on traits of European social organization.

Their natural position

that made them the receiving hoppers for the influx of aliens after 1840, enabled them to retain large shares of the alien population as permanent members of their society, and from the aliens came

traits and customs novel to the older Americanism. The leaders of Eastern thought continued to think of their section as the legitimate and normal United States. Their Universities, responding to the nourishment of wealth, educated not only their own people but also the youth of all sections, and left an Eastern stamp wherever they made a contact.

Their control of

capital for investment, whether of their own accumulation or borrowed from Europe, gave Eastern financiers a power of direction and exploitation over the West that they exercised with little check or sympathy for the remainder of the century. Their op-

portunities for communication made them the centre of journal-

im and literary production, whose natural tone was that of cul-

tural superiority. They were recruited continuously by a procession of successful Americans from the other sections, who had reached a level at which they demanded larger fields of activity or more sophisticated standards of life; and these generally made haste to slough off the traits of West or South, and to accommodate themselves to the Eastern type with all the ardour of the convert. The differentiation among the sections that had been

begun by the rise of the West and the deviation of the South was perpetuated by the absorption of the East within the main currents of the industrial revolution. Youth was another condition of the pioneer. The heavy labour of frontier development was no task for the old or the infirm. The normal frontier unit was the young or youngish family, all of whose members worked at the common tasks in and outside the cabin home. There were few of the dependent old, or of the middle-aged workers, among them. The mental traits of any pioneer group were those of youth and unbroken spirit. Hope and enthusiasm went with youth and poverty into the making of a Western settlement. It took hope, courage and a willingness to run risks to make a pioneer. One may suppose that, other things remaining equal, the brothers and cousins of an Eastern family who made the break from custom, and sought new homes in the West, were somewhat more adventurous than those who stayed at

home, There are “pockets” in the East to-day where sociologists believe that they find a stagnant life that may be attributed to the long-repeated drift of the able and the enterprising to the West oœ to the cities.

The West was enriched, and often was sur-

charged with an enthusiasm that bore too many traits of youth

and lack of information.

Bearing these resemblances, and bound together by the geographic bonds of the Upper Mississippi valley, the people of the

Middle West developed a great community whose centre and

whose highest uniformity lay within the radius of yoo m. of the tip of Lake Michigan. They were held to their similarities because of their agriculture and because of their financial bonds. was no great force operating among them which, like the

plantation of the South, tended to separate the magnate from the

common man: or, like the industry of the East, tended to raise the rich above the poor. Those who became rich were likely to Rove to the Eastern centres; those who remained in the West

children by devoting to their schools and universities the greater portion of their public revenues. | The hundred years that have elapsed since the election of | Andrew Jackson have seen this Upper Mississippi valley pass | through three generations, and three distinct cultural phases, without losing the high concentration of westernism that was its main characteristic. For the first generation, it was the West, with the other sections of the United States emphasizing its nature by developing along contrasting lines. In the second generation, between the Civil War and the first defeat of William Jennings Bryan (1896) it became imperceptibly the Middle West; not because it was greatly changing in its point of view, but the emergence of the Far West made necessary a change of epithet. And it retained its character largely because it continued to be agricultural, and its unlike or unusual elements tended to be drafted into the East. In the third generation the old spirit has been thrown upon the defensive, as an industrial organization, a working class and an economic independence have broken into the old uniformities. It is likely enough that within the generation to come it will be largely absorbed, and will cease to exist as a geographical section. The whole United States is moving towards class stratification in place of geographic regionalism and the Middle West cannot forever hold its own against the tendencies of the times. Andrew Jackson was the first great indigenous prophet of the West; Robert M. LaFollette was perhaps the last. Among the conditions whose influence has been to perpetuate the sectional consciousness of the Middle West, there is none that ranks higher or has been more pervasive than that of economic dependence. The frontier was always in debt. In this it did not differ greatly from a large part of society everywhere; but it was unique in the universality of the dependence. By definition, there were few residents in the frontier who possessed free capital. Those who had it stayed away from the frontier. Each new region was built out of the hopes of pioneers and the capital of the East. The poor equities of the West or Middle West, made the eastern capitalist loath to part with his wealth except at a high interest rate and often with bonus to boot. The Westerner, in the period of enthusiasm, was ready to agree to any rate, and inclined to believe that his soil could earn it. But inevitably there came the moment of liquidation. Much of the apparent wealth of the growing Western communities was derived not from the produce of the soil but from the enhancement of nominal land values as population increased. When the sad moment arrived when the Western borrower found himself unable to meet his interest charges, uniformity turned his condition of economic dependence into social or political reactions. In the more complex East, debtor lived next to creditor, and the tone of his society was commonly dictated by the solvent members. It was hard for repudiation movements to get under way. But when one Westerner was in debt and insolvent, his neighbour was in the same condition. And absenteeism made it as easy to diabolize his creditor as common trouble made it easy for self sympathy to become a local virtue. In two ways at least this tendency has affected the Middle West. Here have originated movements of currency inflation. In the Jackson generation, the West enthusiastically backed up the wrecking of the Second Bank of the United States, largely because it operated as a check upon easy money and Western banks of issue. In the Civil War period, the same Middle West saw no defect in the scheme to pay the creditor of the nation and the holder of Western obligations in legal tender paper money, manufactured by the printing press. Towards the end of the roth century Bryan swept the Western States with free silver inflation as his panacea for the

456

MIDDLEWICH—MIDIAN

common man. Eastern interest in Western investments has tended to hold the sections apart, while Eastern distrust of Western economic theory has tended to confirm the Easterner in his assumption of his own superiority of intellect and virtue. The Western liability to inflation finance has kept the West apart in a second way: it has created and developed a jealous

example, semolinas will pass through a mesh of say 20 per lineg] inch, middlings through a mesh of say 56 per lineal inch, ang

was inevitable that he should hate him. The Eastern centres that controlled the lending of money, and the collection of debts, became synonyms for greed. The Second Bank was an “octopus”; the Civil War bond-holder was “inflated” and grasping; the “goldbug.” if not actually in the pay of Britain, was at least party to a conspiracy of Wall street. Eastern suspicion and Western jealousy came naturally to accentuate the sectionalism, and to prolong the existence of the Middle West. By the very nature of its existence, the Middle West has had few reflective and discriminating exponents of its point of view. Its active fighting leaders have been partisans. The East has drawn off and adopted a large share of its exceptional individuals. The market for literary and artistic wares has forced the Western maker of these to invade the East, and to adapt his output to his custom. The result has been that the Middle West has drawn few conscious pictures of itself, and the historian or literary artist who seeks to identify it must generally work among either the unconscious records of events that were transpiring in the West, or the

of a civil judge, was born at Constantinople in 1822. His father trained him for an administrative career, and at the age of 232 he was attached as secretary to Faik Effendi, whom he accompanied

suspicion of Eastern motive. Under best conditions it is hard for a debtor to love his creditor; under Western conditions of debt it

jaundiced expressions of the alien who visited it and frequently

did not like it. It can best be understood when one realizes that the qualities that identify the Middle West are the old qualities engendered along the fighting frontier of the United States in the period when the struggle for existence was a reality; that these qualities, by accident, survived beyond their normal expectation of life; that their uniformity gave them vividness and

dunst through a mesh of say 88 per lineal inch. Middlings so pro. duced are, during the later stages of milling, resolved into finished flour and finished by-products. With recent changes in marketing the term may cease to apply to a by-product of milling. (A. E. Hu.)

MIDHAT PASHA (1822-1884), Turkish statesman, the son

in Syria for three years.

On his return to Constantinople Midhat

was appointed chief director of confidential reports, and after ą new financial mission'in Syria was made second secretary of the

grand council. His enemies caused him to be given the nearly impossible task of settling the revolt and brigandage rampant in Rumelia. His measures were drastic and their success was startling and the Government made him an official of the first rank and

restored him to his place in the grand council. He restored order

in Bulgaria in 1857. In 1860 he was made vizier and pasha, and entrusted with the government of Nisch, where his reforms were so beneficial that the sultan charged him, in conjunction with Fuad Pasha and Ali Pasha, to prepare the scheme for adapting them to the empire which was afterwards known as the law of the vilayets. He organized the council of State in 1866, and was then made governor of Baghdad, where his success was as decisive as

at Nisch, but attended with much greater difficulties. In 1871 the anti-reform influence of the grand vizier, Mahmoud Nedim, seemed to Midhat a danger to the country, and in a personal interview he boldly stated his views to the sultan, who appointed Midhat grand vizier in place of Mahmoud. Too independent, however, for the court, Midhat remained in power only three

months, and after a short governorship of Salonica he lived apart

permanence; and that their normal reflexes are still capable of

from affairs at Constantinople until 1875.

flaring up to influence affairs to-day, even in an industrialized society. Breviocrapay.—Prof. Turner has discussed the Middle West in his

While sympathizing with the ideas and aims of the “Young Turkey” party, Midhat was anxious to restrain its impatience, but the sultan’s obduracy led to a coalition between the grand vizier, the war minister and Midhat Pasha, which deposed the sultan in May 1876, and he was murdered in the following month. His nephew Murad V. was in turn deposed in the following August and replaced by his brother, Abdul Hamid II. Midhat Pasha now became grand vizier, reforms were freely promised, and the Ottoman parliament was inaugurated with a great flourish. In the following February, however, Midhat was dismissed and banished for supposed complicity in the murder of Abdul Aziz. Again recalled in 1878, he was appointed governor of Syria, and in August exchanged offices with the governor of Smyrna. But in the following May the sultan again ordered him to be arrested, and although he effected his escape and appealed to the Powers,

Frontier in American History (1920); and the literary histories have tried to evaluate it in R. L. Rusk, The Literature of the Middle Western Frontier (1925); and L., L. Hazard, The Frontier in American Literature (1927). (F. L. P.)

MIDDLEWICH, urban district, Northwich parliamentary division, Cheshire, England, 166 m. N.W. of London, on the L.MS. railway. Pop. (1931) 5,458. It lies in open country near the river Dane, having water communications with the Trent and Mersey canal, and the Shropshire Union canal. The church of St. Michael and All Angels is of various periods and contains numerous monuments. Old buildings and fine timbered houses occur in the neighbourhood. Middlewich shares in the salt indus-

try common to several towns, such as Northwich and Winsford, in this part of the county; there are also chemical works and a manufactory of condensed milk.

MIDDLINGS, 2 term applied to various commercial products

which may be regarded as occupying a middle position between two other articles. This idea covers the origin of fhe term when it is applied to wheaten products. Prior to the middle of the roth century millers used millstones for grinding wheat, and sought at one operation to obtain as much finished flour and finished byproducts, e.g., bran, as possible. But they could not by such means avoid making a granular intermediate product, which they called “middlings.” This was sold with or without further

he shortly afterwards surrendered, claiming a fair hearing. The

trial took place in June, when Midhat and the others were sentenced to death. On the intercession of the British Government the sentence was commuted to banishment. The remaining three years of his life were spent in exile at Taif in Arabia, where be

died, probably by violence, on May 8, 1884.

To great ability,

wide sympathies and patriotism he added absolute honesty. (G. F. B.

MIDHURST, town, Sussex, England, 12 m. N.E. of Chichester

by rail. Pop. (1921) 1,890; rural district (1931) 15,018. Situated

near the river Rother. The name of Midhurst (Middeherst, Mudtreatment either for use ultimately as human food or as pigs’ hurst) first occurs under Henry I. It was governed by a bailiff un-

food, These alternative purposes are reflected in the present confusing uses of the term. When modern methods of milling were

til early in the roth century. No charter of incorporation is known.

In the reign of Henry VI. a market was held every Thursday, and fair on Whit-Tuesday. Pleasure-fairs are still held on April 6 a introduced, and particularly when the machines known as “purifiers” were first used, millers were enabled to obtain from and Oct. 29, but there is no market. The church of St. Mary “middlings” flours of the greatest excellence, so they then sought Magdalen and St. Denis is Perpendicular. A grammar-sch to make as many as possible. Ultimately they adopted methods was founded at Midhurst in 1672 and reopened in 1880. of “gradual reduction” and at an early stage of the milling procMIDIAN. One of the peoples of North Arabia whom the Heess are able to granulate the kernel of the wheat berry. (See brews represented as sons of Abraham’s wife Ketūrah. The FLOUR AND FLOUR MANUFACTURE.) These granular products Midianites appear in connection with the gold and incense trade known as semolina (g.v.) middlings and dunst are essentially from Yemen (Isa. Ix. 6), and the trade between Egypt and Syrā the same in constitution, differing only as to size of particle. For (Gen. xxxvii. 28, 36); also as warriors invading Canaan from the

MIDLAND—MIDLOTHIAN eastern desert, and ravaging the land in all ages when Palestine lacked Gmeon). Again, they are described the pastures of the branch of Midian law belonged, lay near Mount Horeb

Baraa, Enos.)

de

457

as similar tribes have done | branch has sub-offices in important industrial centres and in three a strong government (see! Atlantic liners, and a shipping department. The Midland Bank as peaceful shepherds, and | Executor and Trustee Company Limited was formed in 1909. It to which Moses's father-in- | has a paid-up capital of £200,000, all held by the bank, a reserve (Exod. iii. 1) (see Kenrres, ! fund and undivided profits of £163,000, and branches in four large . ' provincial centres. Various other departments were formed from

MIDLAND, a city of Michigan, U.S.A., on the Titabawassee year to year, and the progress of the bank is thus indicated: river, at the mouth of the Pine and the Chippewa, 25 m. N.W.. of Saginaw: the county seat of Midland county. It is on federal || | Paid. | | | highway 10, and is served by the Michigan Central and the Pere | Marquette railways. The population Was 5,483 in 1920 and 8,038| in 1930. It is in a farming, dairying and coal-mining region; has| factories making automobile and aeroplane parts, machine tools,

|

|}

LIMITED.

De-

| posits

|

Ad-

|

Cash | vances

|

Net

profits

£ Millions

b ty aeés Uir ta ti bg m bo wg Cn ag a

*Includes money at call and short notice.

This British joint-stock

company was in 1928 the world’s largest commercial banking insti-

fund

|

MIDLAND, a manufacturing borough of Beaver county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the Ohio river and the Pennsylvania railroad. 30 m. N.W. of Pittsburgh. Pop. (1920) 5,452 (42% foreign-born white); it was 6,007 in 1930.

BANK

Reserve,

|

|

toys, guns, etc.; and salt-brine wells of chemical value.

MIDLAND

eal

|

The paid up capital was £13,320,000 in 1928, held by 65,000

tution and had for chairman the Right Hon. Reginald McKenna, | individual shareholders. The new head office is in Poultry, London.

a former chancellor of the exchequer during the World War. It had 13,000 employees, with 2,000 branches in England and Wales

MIDLETON,

WILLIAM

ST. JOHN

(L. C. M.) FREM ANTLE

and over 1,250,000 customers. , BRODRICK, 1st Eart or, cr. 1920 (1856—+), Conservative The bank was formed under a deed of settlement in 1836 and| statesman, the son of the 8th viscount, was educated at Eton and

opened in Birmingham under the title ọf “The Birmingham and| Balliol college, Oxford, and was president of the Oxford Union. Midland Bank,”

with a paid-up capital of £28,000. A first divi- | te entered parliament in 1880. He was secretary of state for war dend of 6% was paid in 1837, and thereafter the rate was raised | (1900-03); and for India (1903-05). He lost his seat for the from time to time until it reached a maximum of 23% in 1876. | Guildford division in 1906. In March 1907 he was made an alder-

During this period the paid-up capital had been increased to £300,- | man of the London County Council. In that year his father died, ooo by capitalizing undivided profits and by issuing further shares. | and he entered the House of Lords. He was prominent as leader In 1851 and 1862 the bank undertook its first two amalgama- | of the southern Unionists of Ireland, in virtue of his position as tions, and in 1873 was registered as an unlimited company under | a landowner in County Cork. In the Irish Convention of IQI7—I8

the Companies Act of 1862. In 1880 it became a limited company| this group separated themselves from Ulster, and expressed a

with an issued capital of 24,000 shares of £60 each, of which £123 | readiness to concede a unitary Home Rule government for Ireland, was paid up, £123 callable and £35 reserved. It then had only | subject to safeguards for the minority of loyalists. three branches, besides its head office in Birmingham, but thereafter the twin policies of amalgamation and branch extension came

MIDLETON, a town of co. Cork, Ireland, on the River Owenacurra, 13 m. E. of Cork. Pop. (1926) 2,731. The river

into full play. The inspiration for this policy came mainly from | enters a branch of Cork harbour. Trade is in agricultural produce Mr. (later Sir) Edward H. Holden, who, joining the bank as ac- | and there are also whisky-distilleries. Ballinacurra, 13 m. south, countant in 1881, occupied in succession various important posi- | serves as a small port. The grammar school was founded here tions until finally (1908-1919) he held the dual office of managing | jn 1696.

director and chairman of the board. To his foresight was due} MIDLOTHIAN or EDINBURGHSHIRE, eastern county, very largely the progress of the bank and its development as a | Scotland, bounded north by the Firth of Forth, east by the shires

British national institution. of Haddington, or East Lothian, and Berwick, south-east by RoxA third absorption was effected in 1883, but from 1889 amal-| burghshire, south by Selkirkshire, Peeblesshire and Lanarkshire, gamations followed rapidly. The policy pursued was distinctive, | south-west by Lanarkshire, and west by Linlithgowshire or West 3o of the 33 institutions taken over were joint-stock banks as | Lothian. Its area (excluding water) is 234,325 acres. The island opposed to private firms. Moreover, fusions were complete, with | of Cramond belongs to the county. The Pentland Hills rise managerial control centralized in the head office of the absorbing | boldly in the south-west to heights of nearly 1,900 ft., and extend bank. The most important of the earlier amalgamations was that | to within 5 m. of the sea.

They are generally of rounded form,

with the Central Bank of London, in 1891, which gave the provin- | and covered with heath or grass. In them the Silurian strata cial institution a footing in the metropolis and a seat in the Lon- | characteristic of the south of the county, and of the southern updon Bankers’ Clearing House, and resulted in the transfer of the | lands of Scotland generally, are covered unconformably by lower

head office to London. The name was changed to “The London | Old Red Sandstone rocks. The Carboniferous beds are thrown off

and Midland Bank Limited,” and in this year the bank, under the | to the north-west and south-east from the palaeozoic ridge. The

Companies (Memorandum of Association) Act, 1890, substituted | Moorfoot Hills, in the south-east, belong to the Silurian area and a memorandum and articles of association for its old deed of set- | are a continuation of the Lammermuirs, and attain in Blackhope tement. The position was further reinforced by the absorption of | Scar a height of 2,136 ft. A volcanic series extends from West The City Bank in 1898, when the title became “The London City | Kip in the Pentlands to the Braid Hills and isolated heights, and Midland Bank Limited.” The largest amalgamation, that with |prominent in the scenery, are due to this intrusion of igneous

The London Joint Stock Bank, in 1918, led to a further change to | rocks, mostly of the age of the calciferous sandstones, which cover “London Joint City and Midland Bank Limited.” The present | a fairly wide area and in their upper portion include valuable oil

bame was adopted in 1923. Meanwhile, in 1917 the control of the | shales. Of the rivers the Gala flows south to join the Tweed, and Belfast Banking Company had been secured by an exchange of | the Tyne after a course of 7 m. passes into Haddingtonshire.

The

shares, and in 1920 and 1923 the Clydesdale Bank and the North | others flow into the Firth of Forth. The Esk, which is the longest,

of Scotland Bank were also acquired. The Midland owns the capi- | drains the district between the Pentlands and the Moorfoot Hills,

ial of these affiliated banks, which, however, have preserved their | and reaches the sea at Musselburgh. The Water of Leith flows autonomy. In August 1928 the Midland group possessed 2,450 | past Edinburgh to Leith. The Almond forms the boundary be-

offices. None of these was outside the United Kingdom.

In 1905 the overseas business of the bank was concentrated in

4 special department, later known as the overseas branch.

tween Midlothian and Linlithgowshire.

Several of these streams,

especially the Esk and the Water of Leith, furnish water power.

This | The only loch is that at Duddingston, but there are several large

reservoirs supplying Edinburgh. Cobbinshaw reservoir supplies the Union Canal connecting the Forth with the Clyde. Agriculture —High farming is the rule in the three Lothians. All the area on which wheat can be profitably grown is so occupied; oats, however, is the predominant grain crop, though barley

is also raised. Turnips and potatoes are the chief roots. Near Edinburgh sewage farming has been largely developed. The produce consists principally of natural grasses. Sheep and cattle raising and horse breeding are important pursuits. In the neighbourhood of the capital dairy farming is conducted on an extensive scale.

MIDRASH

MIDNAPORE

458

Pig-keeping has grown considerably and poultry-farming

is carried on near Edinburgh.

of the district are the Hoogli and its three tributaries, the Rup. narayan, the Haldi and the Rasulpur. The main line of the

Bengal-Nagpur Railway passes through the district from east to west; from Kharagpur the East Coast section goes to Madras and the line to Gomoh branches off north to Chota Nagpur. Kharag. pur contains the railway workshops and has a population (1921) of 25,280. There are three canals, the Midnapore canal, the Hijli tidal canal, and part of the Orissa coast canal. Drainage works have been constructed for a water-logged area in the south: there is also an extensive system of embankments. Silk, mats and brass and copper utensils are manufactured.

The early history of Midnapore centres round the ancient town

The nursery gardens are extensive,

and there are many orchards.

Other Industries.—Coal is extensively mined on the North

of Tamluk

(g.v.). In the 16th c&ntury it was eclipsed by Hijli

which had Portuguese and Dutch settlements.

In 1687 Job Char.

nock occupied Hijli and sustained a long siege by the Mughal forces. The British administration of the district dates from 1760, when Mir Kasim ceded it to the East India Company with Chittagong, and Burdwan when he became Nawab of Bengal. MIDNIGHT SUN: see Twiticut. MIDRASH, lit. “exposition” (cf. 2 Chron. xiii., 22: xxiv., 27) great docks at Leith, and a number of smaller quarries for the | or intensive study (deriish) of the spirit of a passage, frequently supply of road-material are scattered throughout the county. | used of homily and parable in opposition to literal interpretation Owing no doubt to the growth of printing and publishing in the | (Peshat): term applied to certain methods of scriptural exegesis metropolis, the chief manufacturing industry in Midlothian is and to a class of Jewish writings illustrating these methods. The paper-making. The most important mills, some of them dating importance of Midrash to an understanding of Judaism is being from the beginning of the 18th century, are situated on the North recognized more generally. It is now realized that Judaism must Esk at Penicuik and Lasswade. At Balerno, Currie and elsewhere be studied from its own sources and that apocrypha and apocaon the Water of Leith there are several mills, as well as near Mid lypse, though exceedingly valuable for the light they shed on Calder and in Edinburgh. There are carpet factories at Roslin, dissenting sects or shades of quasi-orthodox opinion, do not reflect Bonnyrigg and Dalkeith. The manufacture of gunpowder is also normal Judaism. These extra-canonical books were excluded just carried on at Roslin and Calder. Iron foundries exist at Dalkeith because they were abnormal. The last generation, which was otand around Edinburgh. Dalkeith is famous for oatmeal. The cupied in their recovery and study, tended to overstate their apshipping trade is concentrated at Leith and Granton, and there plication. To-day stress is laid on material which bears the warrant of unbroken tradition and which is therefore a more faithful are fishing fleets at Fisherrow and Granton. Population and Government.—The population was 507,666 mirror of the main body of Judaism. This material may be divided into three groups:—(1) the rules in tg1r and 526,277 in 1931, of whom 3,269 spoke both Gaelic and English, and 19 Gaelic only. The chief towns, besides Edin- of the traditional law or Halakhah which is systematized in the burgh (pop. 1931, 438,998), are Bonnyrigg and Lasswade (4,483), Mishnah (see GAon; Tatmup); (2) the Midrash of the Schools, Dalkeith (7,502), Loanhead (3,940), Musselburgh (16,996) and often called Halakhic (see HaccaADAH) or Tannaite (i.e., MishPenicuik (2,750). The county forms a single parliamentary con- naic) Midrash: this may be defined as the scholastic deduction stituency with Peebles, exclusive of Edinburgh county and Leith of the traditional from the written law and consists of several and Musselburgh burghs. It has been divided by the county works differing in character and style from (1) and from (3), the council into three county districts (Calder, Gala Water, Lass- Haggadic (see HaccapaH) or homiletical Midrashim, which are collections of short sermons, of an ethical rather than of a legal wade). The shire is under school-board jurisdiction. History and Antiquities.—Cramond was once a Roman sea- nature. The Haggadic Midrash was highly esteemed but it was port, and various Roman objects have been discovered in its not as authoritative as the Halakhic. This was natural from the vicinity and along the banks of the Almond. On several heights essential difference between the two. Halakhah may be dull and are remains of early military works—the most important being legalistic but it is sober, whereas Haggadah is rarely dull, oftes that on Dalmahoy Hill, Braidwood Castle in the parish of Peni- highly imaginative and edifying, but it does not insist on sobriety. cuik, and Castle Greg on the Harburn estate in Mid Calder parish. It includes many elements of extreme interest in folk-lore, Picts’ houses are found at Crichton Mains, at Borthwick Casile, archaeology and history. For example, I. Ziegler’s Kémigsnear Middleton House and elsewhere, the first being especially gleichnisse des Midrasch (Breslau, 1903) shows how vividly the interesting from the fact that some of the stones bear marks of Midrash illustrates the life and manners of Imperial Rome, Roman masonry. There are but-circles and a fort on Kaimes especially in the provinces. The Halakhah is deeply spiritual and is designed to stress the Hill, near Ratho; a large tumulus, with three upright stones, at Old Liston; a smaller tumulus at Newhbattle; a cistvaen or stone divine immanence, simple piety and the saintly life. The parables burial chest at Carlowrie; and standing stones at Lochend, at are mostly homely and the sayings terse, frequently in Aramaic,

Esk. Some iron-stone is obtained and fire-clay occurs at various points. Paraffin is made near West Calder, where valuable oilbearing shale is worked. Limestone is quarried at Mid Calder, Balerno, Loanhead, Craigmillar, Ratho, etc., and cement is made near Cranston. Freestone is quarried at Penicuik, near Edinburgh, and elsewhere. It is used for pavements and stairs, and for the

ee

Comiston (the Caiy stone), and the “Cat Stane” near Kirkliston.

at one time the vernacular, and not in Hebrew, the language of

Temple, on the South Esk, was at one time the chief seat of the Knights Templars in Scotland for whom David I. here built a

the schoolmen.

church, now in ruins. (See EDINBURGH.)

lieved literally. Naturally great play with these has been made

But there is also unrestrained fantasy, e.g., stories

of the Sindbad the Sailor type, which were not meant to be be-

MIDNAPORE, a town and district of British India, in the by opponents of the Jews, but the authority of the Haggadah bas

Burdwan division of Bengal. The town has a station on the Bengal Nagpur railway. Pop. (1921) 28,965. The District oF MripNAPoRE has an area of 5,055 sq.m. and a population (1921) of 2,666,660. The greater part consists of a large open plain under cultivation but the country along the western boundary, known as the Jungle Mahals, is undulating and in the N.E. corner some hills rise to over 1,000 ft. in height. The eastern and south-eastern portions are swampy, richly cultivated, and thickly populated. The west, which has a lateritic soil partly covered by jungle, is sparsely inhabited, The chief rivers

never been absolute. It stands in the same relation to theology

as a mediaeval miracle-play to canon law or decretals. Thus, oR July 20-24, 1263, at the great disputation at Barcelona between

R. Moses b. Nahman and the dominican Pablo Christiani, the former disarmed his opponent by repudiating the Haggadak, %

which Pablo had based his case, and by declaring that the fables

were merely points in sermons, expressing at most the individual opinions of the preacher and lacking the sanction of authority. Nevertheless,

the extent of the fantastic must not be exag

gerated. In addition to strict truth and sheer fiction, ¢.g., betwees

MIDSHIPMAN a genuine fact of archaeology or lexicography, recovered in a le or exemplified in a saying, and an angelic digression of

tion (the ordinance of the |Exodus are not commented T

z i

Passover). The later portions of on (as they are historical) in the

tic exuberance, there is an intermediate portion which | present work, but there is reason to believe that the original was must neither be categorically denied nor accepted absolutely. | fuller. This famous Midrash was of the school of R. Ishmael, but This element has been described as pragmatic historiography. it was concluded in the school of the patriarch Judah in the 2nd There are three types of historical writing, the genetic or scientific, the purely narrative and the pragmatic. Religious historians write pragmatically, but this does not mean fraudulently. Their mental environment subconsciously influences them and they tend to prefer that record which appeals to their own age. They exto find in the past elements mature only in their own day. But ancient historians must not be brushed aside because they

fail to conform to modern standards. carefully tested. This is the portions of Midrash. Here we examples may be seen in the which is a “Midrash” to Kings.

Their writings must be

way to treat the quasi-historical find subjective history but earlier Bible, by examining Chronicles, Thus the life of Joash in 2 Chron.

wii. differs in some details from that in 2 Ki. xi. and affords an illustration of the chronicler’s

methods.

(On the Midrashic

nature of Chronicles, see W. A. L. Elmslie’s Introduction in Camb. Bible, Chronicles, 1916.) Probably the chronicler had access to sources now lost and in the account of Joash a Midrash is actually

mentioned. But such Midrashic compilations can be traced even hefore his date (4th century B.c.). Pragmatic historiography is exemplified in the various Deuteronomic writers. Similarly the relation between Genesis and the Book of Jubilees should be noted. The Apocrypha to some extent fills the gap between the Old Testament and the Rabbinic Midraskins, but, as has been stated, it must be used with care. Judidously used, the Midrash and the Apocrypha may sometimes

present a clue to a lost line of tradition: this tradition may or

may not be valuable historically but its recovery is of interest, since it lay before the particular O.T. writer who discarded it er used it only incidentally. Thus Gen. xlviii., 22, contains a

cryptic allusion to the capture of Shechem. In Jubilees xxxiv. (about 2nd century B.c.) a story of this war is detailed and similay accounts are preserved in various Mzdrashim. It is unlikely

that these were mere elaborations of Gen. xlviii. 22: it may be mierred that an extracanonical tradition continued to survive the compilation of Genesis and ultimately assumed the exaggerated farms now extant. Again, Jewish traditions of Abraham in Ur of the Chaldees recur in the Targums, Midrashim and Jubilees (ch. xii, ed. Charles, p. 91; cf. also Judith, v., 16 sgg.). The legends of his escape from a fiery furnace may have a philological basis, for ’ur can be interpreted as fire, but the allusion to the redemption of Abraham in Isa. xxix., 22, seems to indicate that older tradition was fuller than the present records in Genesis. Midrashic exposition was based on the theory of progressive

imerpretation. Every word of the scriptures had a definite mean-

mg, Ray, no single letter was otiose; moreover every word had

“7o aspects.” This means that generation after generation would extract new lessons, all of which were deemed latent or implicit. Some of these interpretations were arbitrary but more often the

arbitrariness lay not in the teaching but in the deduction. When

t was desired to point a moral or elicit a law not always the best

ermplar was adopted. Thus faulty proof rather than faulty inference is illustrated when the rare word Be-mikhsath, “‘in-

number” (Exod. xii. 4), was used to confirm the Halakhah that theman who killed the paschal lamb must know how many people

were about to share it. (Jew. Enc. VIII., 570.) Many cases of apt deduction can be adduced and deductions, similarly apt or

far-fetched, occur also in the N.T. Thus emphasis on a single

word is illustrated by Gal. iii. 16, where the argument rests on the

word “seed” (and not the plural “seeds”) in the proof-text and the same word in Rabbinical writings is used to support other ar-

uments (cf. Mishnah, Sanhedrin, iv., 5: see A. Geiger, Z.D.M.G.

1858, pp. 307 sqq.: S. R. Driver, Expositor, IX. [1889], pp. 18

mee the allegorical method Isa. lxi. is applied to Jesus (Luke

- 16-22). The more important Midrashim are:— A, ic or Tannaite Midrashim: (z) Mekhilta, on Exodus. This begins at xü., the first. legisla-

century A.D. ia

(Text, M. Friedmann, Vienna 1870: I. H. Weiss,

1865. German trans., J. Winter and A. Wiinsche, Leipzig,

1909. (2) Another recension of the Mekhilta, cited by mediaeval authors, was that of Simeon ben Yohai—ed. D. Hoffmann (1905). (3) Midrash hag-Gadol, a composite work on the Pentateuch, compiled in the 13th century, recently discovered in Arabia, con-

tains much lost material.

The Midrash is edited in part.

(S.

Schechter, Camb. 1902: D. Hoffmann, Berlin, 1913.) (4) Sifra (de-Be Rab), on Leviticus, which it follows almost verse by verse. Probably redacted by R. Hiyya in the beginning of the 3rd century A.D. (Text, M. L. Malbim, Bucharest, 1860: I. H. Weiss, Vienna, 1862. Latin trans. [faulty in parts] in Ugolinus [Thesaurus] xiv.) (5) Sifre, on Numbers and Deuteronomy (2nd and 3rd centuries). (Text, M. Friedmann, Vienna, 1864: H. S. Horovitz, Part I., Leipzig, 1917. Germ. trans. [on Deut.] G. Kittel, Stuttgart, 1922.) B. Haggadic Midrashim: (x) Midrash Rabba, on the Pentateuch and Five Rolls. Ed.princeps, Constantinople, 1512: frequently reprinted, Crit. ed. of Genesis Rabba by J. Theodor (unfinished), (Berlin, 1903— Germ. trans., A. Wünsche, Bibliotheca Rabbinica, Leipzig, 1880). (2) Tanhuma (2 recensions) on the Pentateuch, one of the

oldest Afidrashim: mentioned once in the Talmud. (Text, ed. S. Buber, Wilna, 1885: the other recension, Constantinople, 1520-22.) (3) Pesigia (de Rab Kahana), 33 homilies on the festivals (lectionary, etc.}. (Text, ed. S. Buber, Lyck, 1868. Germ. trans. A. Wiinsche, Leipzig, 1885.) (4) Pesigia Rabbathi, a similar but separate collection of sr homilies of which 28 have a Halakhic exordium. (Text, ed. M. Friedmann, Vienna, 1880.) (5) Midrash Skohar Tébhk on Psalms, text, Warsaw, 1875. (6) Yalgut or “Wallet,” title of several midrashic collections. BrstioGRapHy.—Articles (main and subsidiary) in Jew. Enc., Hastings, DNB. and ERE. G. M. Moore, Judaism, I. 125 foil. Cambridge

(Harvard),

1927.

MIDSHIPMAN is the title given to the officer ranking below the lowest commissioned officer, which in the British Navy is a sub-lieutenant. A midshipman in the British Navy is senior only to a naval cadet. Originally a midshipman was a petty officer, but after the Restoration, in 1660, Charles IT. with his brother James, Duke oi York as Lord High Admiral, decided to train officers for the sea service from an early age. Young lads were sent as volunteers with a “letter of service” instructing the admirals and captains of the warships to which they were drafted that the bearer was to be shown “such kindness as you shall judge fit for a gentleman, both in accommodating him in your ship and in furthering his improvement.” Until 1720 these young gentlemen were known as “king’s letter boys.” Originally, the future officers entered the service at avery youthful age, but at a later stage no boy could be borne on a ship’s books until he was 13, except in the case of an officer’s son, who might be entered at rr. First class volunteers were permitted to wear naval uniform. They were generally styled “youngsters” and came directly under the care of the gunner, who was supposed to superintend their mess and general welfare. Their nautical studies were attended to by a school master, or in his absence the captain was expected

to take a personal interest in them. At the age of 15, when proknown as “oldsters” and formed a mess among themselves with the mates. After serving two years they became eligible for promotion to master’s mate. The practice of sending boys to sea at such a very early age proved unsatisfactory, end a Naval Academy was founded at moted to midshipmen, they became

460

MIDSOMER

NORTON—MIDWIFE-TOAD

Portsmouth in 1729, in which forty lads were trained for sea ' In the great expansion after the authorization of a new nation » to appoint as service. In 1773 the school was reorganized and the number in- navy in 1794, the president was empowered d from civil life appointe were They desired. men as midship reorganized again was it 1806 In seventy. to forty creased from without special regard to education or aptitude, but in the ensy midof and became known as the Naval College. The number naval wars with France and the Barbary States, and the Wa; the to proportion in was 1815 in war of man a in borne shipmen size of the ship. Thus a first rate was allowed 24, 2 second rate of 1812, theirs was a record of great activity and gallantry. Age at entry was generally 14 to 20, but this varied. Stephen Decaty 15 and a third rate 12 and so on in proportion. In 1837 the practice of sending structors in the ships superseded system of preliminary training was basis of the supply of officers to navy to this day. It was in this

boys direct to sea under inthe school, but in 1857 the reverted to and remains the the executive branch of the year that the training ship

was warranted a midshipman at 20, and commissioned a lieutenary at 21. David G. Farragut entered at 9, and became a lieutenant at 24. In 1827 the grade of passed midshipman was established, Ay

the age of 20, and having served three years at sea, a midsbipman was eligible for promotion to passed midshipman. The time of

As the numbers became too great

promotion to lieutenant varied, depending on the vacancies, In the Navy regulations of 1802, commanding officers were enjoined to consider the midshipmen as “meriting in a special degree the fostering care of their Government,” and to see that the

into the navy was completely reorganized, the preliminary train-

schoolmasters (at that date the chaplains) were diligent in in. structing them. Later, schoolmasters were added to the ship,

“Britannia” was established,

for the one ship, in 1864 a second ship, the “Hindustan” was linked up. It shares the name of the parent ship. In 1902, under the aegis of Admiral Sir John Fisher, entry

ing being modernized, while the period was extended from two years to about four. The first half of the course was spent at the Royal Naval College at Osborne, Isle of Wight, and the remainder at the newly-built Royal Naval College, Dartmouth. In 1921 Osborne College was abolished and the preliminary training for the greater part of the executive branch of the navy is now carried out at Dartmouth College alone. Cadets now (1928) join the College, after a competitive examination, at about 134 years of age. They do 34 years there, after which they are appointed to sea-going ships. When they have served eight months afloat they are rated midshipmen. Special entry cadets, limited in number, enter the service by competitive examination about the age of 17. They do twelve months in a training ship before being rated midshipmen. As a midshipman an officer serves two years and four months before he is qualified to pass the first of a series of five examinations for eventual promotion to lieutenant. The initial examination is one to test his ability as a seaman. If he proves this to the satisfaction of a board of captains and commanders, he is given the acting rank of sub-lieutenant. He is confirmed in this rank when he has also passed examinations in general education, gun-

However, the system of giving instruction on board ship did net

prove satisfactory. This led often from the service itself, Military Academy established of the navy from 1814 to 1845

to proposals from many sontces for a naval school similar to the in 1802. Nearly every secretary recommended it. In the meantime

the midshipmen received such instruction as the system permitted, at sea, and at the navy yards at Boston, New York, Norfolk and Philadelphia, where professors of mathematics and languages wer stationed. With sail as the motive power, and the ald smooth-bore ord. nance, “the young gentlemen of the watch” could master the elements of their profession at sea, even if they did not acquire a liberal education. But the advent of steam and the swift advances in the arts and sciences soon made more efficient instruetion imperative. Congressional action continually failed, but in 1848 secretary of the navy George Bancroft set up a naval school on the site of Ft. Severn, Annapolis, Md., by concentrating there all the equipment and instructors available, and ordering the attendance of all midshipmen undergoing instruction at the navy yards. Acting midshipmen, aged 13 to 16, attended nery, torpedo, navigation and pilotage, Although a midshipman one year; they were then warranted midshipmen and served at is regarded as being to a large extent under instruction, he is given sea for three years; then returned for another year’s study, final very definite, if not unduly weighty, responsibilities as an officer, examinations and promotion to passed midshipmen. In 1850-31 including such duties as complete charge of one of the ship’s the Naval school was reorganized as the U.S. Naval Academy. For many years the Navy Department had been free to ap boats, sometimes one of the smaller guns, a fire control or ammunition supply party, while in the administrative work of the point as many midshipmen as it pleased. In 1845, Congress ship he is the principal assistant to lieutenants of divisions and provided that midshipmen should be appointed from each State officers of quarters. or Territory in proportion to the number of representatives and Midshipmen selected for the engineering branch of the Navy delegates. This principle has been adhered to. go to the Royal Engineering College, Keyham, Devonport, where, The students at the Naval Academy have been called, m tum, after duly qualifying, they are promoted to sub-lieutenant. acting midshipmen, midshipmen, cadet midshipmen and cadet erPaymaster midshipman is the present day title of the sub- gineers, naval cadets, and again, midshipmen. From 1873 to ordinate officer who used to be called a clerk R.N. He enters as a 1912 the academic course was six years, the last two of which a cadet and is promoted after twelve months service were spent at sea. In rg9r2 the course was reduced to four years, oat. the midshipmen, upon graduation, being commissioned as ensigas See Falconer, Marine Dictionary; King’s Regulations and Admiralty in the line or staff corps of the Navy, or as second lieutenants m Insiructions (H.M. Stationery Office); Appendix to the Navy List the Marine Corps. i (HM, Stationery Office). (E. A.) See J, R. Soley, Historical Sketch of the Naval Academy (1876); Park Benjamin, The United States Naval Academy (1990); Ra THE UNITED STATES Earle, Life at the U.S. Naval Academy

(1917); Navy Regulations

In the U.S. Navy midshipman is the title given to the student (1802, 1814, et seg.); Navy Registers; Naval Academy Registers and undergoing the course at the U.S. Naval Academy (g.v.}, prepara- Regulations Governing the Admission of Candidates into the US. tory to entering the lowest commissioned ranks. As such he is Naval Academy as Midshipmen, published by the Bureau of Naver (S.S. R) an officer in a qualified sense. He is appointed a midshipman in tion, Navy Department. Somersttin district urban an N, NORTO the Navy, not merely at the Naval Academy, is subject to the MER MIDSO orders and regulations of the Navy Department, but does not shire, England, 124 m. §.S.W. of Bath on the G.W. railway. Pop. participate in the benefits of retirement or longevity. He may be (1931) 7,490. The town is situated between two branches of ordered to sea duty, although this is not customary except on river Somer. The church of St. John the Baptist, mainly Petpractice cruises. He ranks after a commissioned warrant officer, pendicular, has in its tower three bells presented by Charles IL and ahead of a warrant officer. Both this town and the adjacent urban district of RapsTocs (pop When the naval forces were first established, midshipmen were 3,661) have a considerable trade in coal, which is mined in seagoing officers in training for commissions, with rank and duties vicinity. The coalfield extends north-westward towards Bristol. similar to those of the British Navy of that time. In the Revolu- The industries include manufacturing of textiles and leather g tionary War midshipmen were appointed by the commanders of MIDWIFERY: see OBSTETRICS. MIDWIFE-TOAD: see ALYTES. vessels, but practically all were discharged at the end of the war.

MIERES—MIGNE RES, a town of northern Spain, in the province of Oviedo,

461

Cologne. showing drinking, smoking and dicing, in the year 1680. Mieris received valuable commissions from Archduke Leopold,

tam. by rail S.E. of Oviedo, on the river Caudal, a tributary of |

the Nalon. Pop. (1920), 40.560. Mieres is the chief town of a , the elector-palatine, and Cosimo III., grand-duke of Tuscany. His mountainous, fertile and well-wooded region in which coal. iron practice was large and lucrative. If there be a difference between

and copper are extensively mined and sulphur and cinnabar are . the painter's earlier and later work, it is that the former was obtained in smaller quantities.

The

town

contains

large iron clearer and more delicate in flesh, whilst the latter was often darker

foundries and chemical works, and has an active trade in fruit,

r, timber and live stock. MIEREVELT (MIEREVELD

and more livid in the shadows.

i MIFFLIN, THOMAS (1744-1800), American soldier and MIREVELDT), | politician, was born in Philadelphia (Pa.), on Jan. to, 1744.

or MICHIEL JANSZ VAN (1567-1641), Dutch painter, was , Mifflin was a member of the Pennsylvania house of representaborn at Delft on May 1, 1567, the son of a goldsmith, who| tives in 1772-75, and was sent as a delegate to the frst Contiae Sl NE Bae

apprenticed him to the copperplate engraver J. Wierix. He sub- | nental Congress.

He entered the continental service in June

sequently became a pupil of Willem Willemz and Augustyn of | 1775, was appointed quartermaster-general in August, became a Delit, until Antonio van Montfort (Blockland), who had seen : brigadier-general in May 1776, and major-general in Feb. 1777. and admired two of Mierevelt’s early engravings, “Christ and the | In the autumn of 1777 Mifflin was a leader of the Conway Cabal Samaritan” and “Judith and Holofernes,” invited him to enter| which attempted to replace Washington by Horatio Gates. The his school at Utrecht. He remained at Utrecht till the death of | faction gained sufficient power to secure the appointment of Montfort (1583), and then settled at Delft. Devoting himself | Gates as head and of Mifin as a member of the board of war. anaie a

first to still life, he eventually took up portraiture, and the many | In March 1778, Nathanael Greene superseded Mifflin as quarter-

commissions entrusted to him necessitated the employment of | master-general; in October he was removed from the board of numerous assistants, by whom hundreds of portraits were turned | war; and in Feb. 1779, he resigned as major-general. Mifflin was out in factory fashion. The works which are certainly his are | a delegate in Congress in 1783 and in November of the same year remarkable for sincerity, severe drawing and harmonious colour, | was made president of that body. He was speaker of the Pennbut comparatively few of the two thousand or more portraits that | sylvania general assembly (1785-88), president of the State subear his name are wholly his handiwork. He went frequently to | preme executive council (1788-90) and the first governor of the

The Hague, where he entered the guild of St. Luke in 1625. | State (1790-99). He died at Lancaster on Jan. 20, 1800.

Though Mierevelt is chiefly known as a portrait painter, he also)

See William Rawle, “Sketch of the Life of Thomas Mifflin,” in

executed some mythological pieces. Many of his portraits were | Memoirs of the Historical Society of Pennsylvania (vol. ii. part 2, reproduced by Dutch engravers. He died at Delft on June 27, Philadelphia, 1830); and J. H. Merrill, Memoranda Relating to the 1641.

Mifin Family

(Philadelphia, 1890).

The Ryks Museum in Amsterdam bas the richest collection of | MIGNARD, PIERRE (1610-1695), called—to distinguish Mierevelt’s works, chief of them being the portraits of William, | him from his brother Nicholas—Le Romain, French painter,

Philip William, Maurice and Frederick Henry of Orange, and of| was born at Troyes in 1610, and came of a family of artists. In the count palatine Frederick V. At The Hague Museum are the | 1630 he left the studio of Simon Vouet

for Italy, where he

portraits of four princes of the house of Orange, of Frederick V., | spent twenty-two years, and made a reputation which brought him

king of Bohemia, and of Louise de Coligny as a widow. Other por- | a summons to Paris. Successful with his portrait of the king, and traits by him are at nearly all the leading continental galleries. | in favour with the court, Mignard pitted himself against Le Brun,

notably at Brunswick (2), Schwerin (1), Munich (2), Paris | declining to enter the Academy of which he was the head, and (Louvre, 4), Dresden (4), Berlin (2), Hanover (2), London Por- | organizing the opposition to its authority.

The history of this

trait gallery (7). The town hall of Delft has numerous examples. | struggle is bound up with that between the old gilds of France MIERIS, FRANZ VAN, called the elder (1635~1681), son | and the new body which Colbert, for political reasons, was deter-

of Jan van Mieris, and chief member of a family of Leyden | mined to support. Shut out, in spite of the deserved success of painters, was born, according to Houbraken, at Leyden on April | his decorations of the cupola of Val de Grace (1664), from any 16, 1635, and died there on March 12, 1681. great share in those public works the control of which was the

Franz took service with Abraham Torenvliet, a glazier who kept | attribute of the new Academy, Mignard was chiefly active in a school of design. In his father’s jewellery shop he became | portraiture. Turenne, Molière, Bossuet, Maintenon (Louvre), La familiar with the ways and dress of people of distinction. His eye | Vallière, Sévigné, Montespan, Descartes (Castle Howard), all was fascinated in turn by the sheen of jewellery and stained glass; | the beauties and celebrities of his day, sat to him. His readiness

and, though he soon gave up the teaching of Torenvliet for that of | and skill, his happy instinct for grace of arrangement, atoned Gerard Dou and Abraham van den Tempel, he acquired a manner | for want of originality and real power. With the death of Le which had more of the finish of the exquisites of the Dutch school | Brun (1690) the situation changed; Mignard deserted his allies, than of the breadth of the disciples of Rembrandt. He seldom | and succeeded to all the posts held by his opponent. These late

chose panels of which the size exceeded 12 to 15 in. Mieris never | honours he did not long enjoy; in 1695 he died whilst about to

ventured to design figures as large as life. Characteristic of his art | commence work on the cupola of the Invalides. His best comin tS minute proportions is a shiny brightness and metallic polish. | positions were engraved by Audran, Edelinck, Masson, Poilly, etc. The subjects which he treated best are those in which he illus-| MIGNE, JACQUES PAUL (1800-1875), French priest and trated the habits or actions of the wealthier classes; but he some | publisher, was born at St. Flour, Cantal, on Oct. 25, 1800. He times succeeded in homely incidents and in portrait, and he some- | studied theology at Orleans, was ordained priest in 1824 and times ventured on allegory. He often rivalled Ter Borch in the | placed in charge of the parish of Puiseaux, in the diocese of faithful rendering of rich and highly-coloured woven tissues. In | Orleans. In 1833 he went to Paris, and started L’Univers religieux. the form of his composition, which sometimes represents the | Three years later, he opened at Petit Montrouge, near Paris, framework of a window enlivened with greenery, and adorned with | the great publishing house which brought out in rapid succession iefs with figures to the waist, his model is Gerard Dou. numerous religious works at popular prices. The best known One of his best-known pieces, a party of ladies and gentlemen | of these are: Scripiurae sacree cursus completus, and Theologiae at an oyster luncheon, in the Hermitage at Leningrad, bears the | cursus (each in 28 vols., 1840-1845); Collection des auteurs of 1659. Another beautiful example, the “Doctor Feeling a | sacrés (100 vols., 1846-1 848) ; Encyclopédie théologique (171 Lady's Pulse” in the gallery of Vienna, is dated 1656. In the same | vols., 1844-1866); Patrologice cursus completus, Latin series gilery is one of his masterpieces “the Cavalier and the Lace-|in 222 vols. (1844-1855, 2nd edition, 1878 seg.); Greek series, Maker,” dated 1660. In 1657 Mieris was married at Leyden. On | first published in Latin (85 vols., 1856-1861); with Greek text May 14, 1658 he was elected a member of the Guild at Leyden. | and Latin translation (165 vols., 1857~1866). Unfortunately these the numerous panels by Mieris, twenty-nine at least are dated | editions do not come up to the requirements of modern criticism. —the latest being an allegory, long in the Ruhl collection at | By far the most noteworthy is the Patrology, which was superin-

4.62

MIGNET—MIGRATION

tended by the learned Benedictine J. B. Pitra. Its vast scope | lobed leaves, and bearing longish spikes—technically raceme

leaves it still unique and valuable, where other editions of special | of rather insignificant flowers at the ends of the numerous branches The plant thus naturally assumes the form of 3 low dense mass of soft green foliage studded over freely with the

works do not exist. The indices in 3 vols. are arranged so that | and branchlets. one may easily find any reference in the patristic writings.

In

February 1863 a great fire destroyed the whole of Migne’s print- | racemes of flowers, the latter unobtrusive and likely to be Over. ing premises. but he established a new house in Paris, which was looked until their diffused fragrance compels attention, I B purchased in 1876 by the publishers Garnier Frères. He died in probably a native of north Africa and was sent to England from Paris in 1742; and xro years later it appears to have been sent Paris on Oct. 25, 1875. For a more complete account of Migne’s life, see the article in the from Leiden to Philip Miller at Chelsea. The small six-petaled Caikelic Encyclopaedia (New York, 1906 seq.). flowers are somewhat curious in structure: the two upper petals MIGNET, FRANCOIS AUGUSTE ALEXIS (1796— are larger, concave, and furnished at the back with a tuft of chp.

1884), French historian, was born at Aix-en-Provence on May 8, shaped filaments, which gives them the appearance of being 1796, and died in Paris on March 24, 1884. His father, a Vendean deeply incised, while the two lowest petals are much smaller and by birth, was a locksmith. Francois studied at Avignon in the undivided; the most conspicuous part consists of the anthers lycée where he was afterwards professor (1815); he returned to which are numerous and of a brownish red, giving the tone oj Aix to study Jaw, and in 1818 was called to the bar. His memoir colour to the inflorescence. In the varieties named Golden on Les Institutions de Saint Louis was crowned in 1821 by the Queen and Golden Machet the anthers have a decided tint of Académie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres. He then went to orange-yellow, which imparts a brighter golden hue to the plants Paris, where he was soon joined by his friend and compatriot, Adolphe Thiers, the future president of the French republic. He became a member of the staff of the Courrier Francais which carried on a fierce warfare against the Restoration. In 1830 he founded the National with Thiers and Armand Carrel. He then became director of the archives at the Foreign Office, where he stayed till the revolution of 1848, when he was dismissed. He had been elected a member of the Académie des Sciences Morales et Politiques, re-established in 1832, and in 1837 was made the per-

manent secretary; he was also elected a member of the Académie Francaise in 1836. With the exception of his Histoire de la Révo-

when in blossom. A handsome proliferous or double-flowered yariety has also been obtained, which is a very useful decorative plant, though only to be propagated by cuttings; the double white flowers grow. in large massive panicles (proliferous racemes), and are equally fragrant with those of the ordinary forms.

Though practically an annual in Great Britain, as already noted, since it flowers abundantly the first season, and is destroyed by the autumnal frosts, and though recorded as being annual in its

native habitat by Desfontaines in the Flora Atlantica, the mignonette, like many other plants treated in England as annuals, wil

continue to grow on if kept in a suitable temperature. Moreover, lution francaise (1824), a political manifesto, all his early works the life of this and certain other plants of this semi-annual charrefer to the middle ages. For a long time he was occupied acter may be prolonged into a second season if their flowering and with a history of the Reformation, but only one part of it, seeding are prevented. The young plants are grown under glass, dealing with the Reformation at Geneva, has been published. His and their flowering prevented by nipping off the blooming tips of Histoire de Marie Stuart (2 vols., 1851) is well worth reading; the shoots, so that they continue their vegetative growth into the the author made liberal use of some important unpublished docu- second season. In classifying the odours given off by plants Rimmel ranks the ments, taken for the greater part from the archives of Simancas. He devoted some volumes to a history of Spain, which had a well- mignonette in the class of which he makes the violet the type; and deserved success—Charles Quint, son abdication, son séjour, et Fée adopts the same view, referring it to his class of “iosmoids.” The genus Reseda contains about 55 species, natives of Europe sa mori au monastère de Yuste (1845); Antonio Perez et Philippe ii. (1845); and Histoire de la rivalité de François I. et de Charles and west Asia. R. luteola, commonly called dyer’s-weed or weld, Quini (1875). At the same time he had been commissioned to yields a valuable yellow dye. R. alba is a fine biennial about 2 ft. publish the diplomatic acts relating to the War of the Spanish Suc- high, with erect spikes of whitish flowers. MIGNONS, LES. In a general sense the French worl cession for the Collection des documents inédits; only four volumes of these Négociations were published (1835-42), and they do mignon means “favourite,” but the people of -Paris used it in a not go further than the peace of Nijmwegen; but the introduction special sense to designate the favourites of Henry III. of France, is celebrated, and Mignet reprinted it in his Mélanges historiques. frivolous and fashionable young men, to whom public malignity See the eulogy of Mignet by Victor Duruy, delivered on entering attributed dissolute morals. The best known of the mignons were the Académie Francaise on June 18, 1885, and the notice by Jules the dukes of Joyeuse and of Epernon. Simon, read before the Académie des Sciences Morales et Politiques on Nov. 7, 1885.

MIGNON, ABRAHAM

MIGRAINE.

Hemicrania, migraine, megrim, brow-ague and

sick headache are various terms employed to describe what by

(1640-1697), Dutch painter, was

born at Frankfort. His father, a merchant, placed him under the still-life painter Jacob Merrel, by whom he was taken to Holland about 1660. He then worked under de Heem at Utrecht, where in 1675 he married the daughter of the painter Cornelis Willaerts. Sibylle Merian (1647-1717), daughter of the engraver Matthew Merian, became his pupil and achieved distinction as a flower

painter. He died at Wetzlar. Mignon devoted himself almost exclusively to flowers, fruit, birds and other “still life,” though ai times he also attempted portraiture. His flower pieces are marked by careful finish and delicate handling. His favourite scheme was to introduce roses against a dark background. Fifteen

paintings (twelve signed) are at Dresden; six at the Louvre, four

at the Hermitage, and others at the museums of Amsterdam, The Hague, Rotterdam, Brussels, Munich, Karlsruhe, Brunswick, Cassel, Schwerin, Copenhagen and Turin. MIGNONETTE or MIGNONNETTE (ie. “little darling’), the name given to a popular garden flower, Reseda odorata

(family Resedaceae), highly esteemed for its delicate but delicious

some is considered to be a form of neuralgia, and by others as a paroxysmal neurosis or nerve storm. An attack may come on suddenly, but, in general, begins by a dull aching pain in the brow or temple, which steadily increases in severity and extent, but remains usually limited to one side of the head. It attains at times an extreme degree of violence, and is aggravated by movement,

loud noises or bright light. There is more or less nausea, and when the attack reaches its height vomiting may occur,

which relief comes, especially if sleep supervene.

An attack of

this kind may last for a few hours or for a whole day, and after

it is over the patient feels comparatively well.

It may recur

periodically, or, as is more common, at irregular intervals. Durmg

the paroxysms, or even preceding them, sensory disturbances may be experienced, especially affections of vision, such as ocular spet-

tra, hemiopia, diplopia, etc. Gout, eyestrain and intestinal ter aemia have been put forward as causes of migraine. MIGRATION. Migrations, or the shiftings of peoples, bave

been universal on the earth in space and time, but there have alse

been migrations or transmissions of cultural objects and ies perfume. The mignonette is generally regarded as an annual and is which frequently have little relation with the former and @ plant of diffuse decumbent twiggy habit, scarcely reaching a may be termed cultural drifts. Most primary migrations of mankind may be traced to need foot jn height, clothed with bhuntish lanceolate entire or three-

MIGRATION

4.63

of food. The practice of tilling the soil. in order to obtain a _ for the Eskimo. Magdalenian man in western Europe lived under more or less reliable supply of food, by its nature tends to anchor l arctic conditions and certainly the characters of the Chancelade

a people to the land. and all permanence of work with a re- | skull of western France are very similar to those of the Eskimo able food supply forms an essential condition for continuous | of arctic North America, but it does not follow that the Eskimo

residence in one spot; when these fluctuate, unrest arises and in- ‘ever lived in Europe.

dividuals or communities are set in motion.

For the greater part of the very long time that man has been in existence he has been merely a collector of food or a hunter. Where game was plentiful or wild vegetable food abundant he could live in moderate sized communities, but normally any

country would be very sparsely inhabited, therefore there would be a necessity for migration when the population grew too numer-

ous for the food supply.

Usually the game migrate seasonally

to seek fresh feeding-grounds,

or for other reasons,

movement may be merely a backward

but this

and forward shifting

The savanna belt of north Africa and

western Asia, just referred to, would afford an easy migration corridor between Asia and Africa, and when that area became | uncomfortably dry a movement of population could take place i to the north or south. If the people then living there were origi| nally inhabitants of a temperate region they would be more likely | to = northwards than southwards. (See CLIMATE, HISTORY | OF. According to Pettersson a period of maxima of tide-generating i force attained its latest phase in A.D. 1434 and has a periodicity | of about 1.800 years. In the rath century the devastating storm-

within a particular range and naturally the hunters would ac- | floods of the North sea and the Baltic coasts resulted in cold

company them; during the winter months the Eskimos live on the sea coast so as to be able to catch seals on which they mainly depend for food, but in the summer they shift to inland areas, where they can hunt reindeer, or, in the more northerly regions,

periods and inundations

in the northern

countries

with their

consequences, famine and migrations of the population. About 1,800 years earlier similar storm-floods impoverished the people of the late Bronze age of Scandinavia, and land-elevation and deterioration of climate occurred throughout the north Atlantic.

the musk ox, and also they can then procure more varied diet. Collectors of vegetable food within their various countries have About 700 B.c. the amber trade route shifted from the Elbe and similarly to move where a particular root, seed or fruit crop is Weser to the Vistula, which indicates that the supply of amber ripe. Movements of these kinds though dictated by necessity was thenceforth chiefly derived from the Baltic instead of from are to some extent voluntary. the North sea, which was then in a tempestuous condition. There Movements are compulsory when changes of climate or of are statements in literature which connect the invasion of the geographical conditions cause a complete shifting of the flora Teutons and Cimbri into Gallia and later into Italy with a big and fauna, as, for example, during the major and minor fluctua- inundation of the sea which destroyed their homesteads in Juttions of temperature in the glacial periods of northern latitudes, land. These catastrophes probably began as early as the 6th northerly or southerly shiftings of the rain belts further south, century B.C. There were also traditions amongst the Druids that desiccation, elevation or depression of land, changes in the coast their ancestors had been expelled from the islands on the other line, and so forth. Man was forced to move as his food decreased side of the Rhine by hostile tribes and by a great invasion of the or the climate became too rigorous, and the directions in which ocean. Pettersson regards this as the primary cause of the great he moved were similarly conditioned, but in addition were de- migrations in the first millennium s.c. which began with the determined to a large extent by open land or by barriers of vari- cline of the Bronze-age civilization through catastrophes in nature ous kinds. Human movements resulting from these causes may which forced the inhabitants of the North sea countries to emiwell have been slow, and archaeological evidence shows that even grate, and he finds that a maximum of oceanic disturbances must m very early times they extended over the greater part of the have occurred about the 3rd and 4th century B.C., as also hapearth's surface. A warning may here be given that a similarity pened about A.D. 1300-1400. He adds, “Apparently a warm, icein stone implements, for example, does not necessarily imply a less period, which favoured agriculture and shipping and allowed sinict synchronism for these artifacts in Europe, South Africa, the Scandinavian races to expand in the powerful manner which lodia or Australia. The fluctuating character of many of these characterizes the Viking age, must have occurred between the phenomena acted frequently as a force-pump or as a suction- interval of the two maxima of 400 B.C. and A.D. 1400. This prospump, at one time expelling a people from a given area at another perous epoch then corresponds to the former post-glacial heatattracting them towards it. It is obvious that in very early times period or the Kjökken-mödding—and the earliest stage of the we can have no historical record of such happenings, but archae- Bronze age. The remembrance of the bygone civilization 2,000 ology gives sufficient indications that they occurred. years earlier lived in the myths of the German race and found As examples of historical events of this nature the following its expression in the Edda. According to Victor Rydberg the may be cited, though what occurred in earlier times can only be myths of the Edda centre in a great catastrophe in nature, the inferred, but it is not unreasonable to suppose that they were Fimbul-winter, or “G6étterdimmerung,” when frost and snow ruled the world for generations. (O. Pettersson, Ur Svenska It is obvious that during the advent of a glacial period the Hydrografsk-Biol. Kom. Skrifter, V., and cf. C. E. P. Brooks, The mcreasing fields of snow and ice would drive the people who Evolution of Climate, p. 147, 1922; Climate through the Ages then lived in north-west Europe (and we have evidence that [1926]; cf. G. C. Simpson, QJ.R. Meteorol. Soc. liii., p. 213, there were men in England in preglacial times) further south 1927.) where livelihood was possible, and similarly there would be a O. Pettersson (Ur Svenska Hydrografisk-Biol. Kom. Skrifter, southerly shifting of peoples who were accustomed to a genial V.) states that in the roth and 12th centuries a strong emigration dimate. The formation of a northern ice-cap would result in a took place from Norway to Iceland and Greenland, one Viking southerly shifting of the temperate rain- and storm-belts in pro- fleet taking 750 to 1,000 persons to Greenland; at this time the portion to the advance of the ice. Thus the wide belt of northern climate of Iceland and Greenland was comparatively mild, as Africa which is now the desert of Sahara would then be a well- there was no ice-blockage of the north coast of Iceland or round watered, habitable country of grass-land and savanna. The same southern Greenland. At the end of the 13th century the first applies to the arid areas of western Asia. There was, therefore, signs of an ice blockade appeared and at the close of the r4th a continuous stretch of pleasant lands from Central Asia, through century there was a great accumulation of drift ice off the east Arabia and north Africa to the Atlantic. When the ice coast of Greenland. At the close of the 13th and beginning of Wireated the storm-belt shifted further north and these areas the r4th century there began an invasion of Eskimo from the face more became dry and thirsty lands. A recurrent phenome- north which eventually wiped out the colonies of Norsemen. This aan of this kind must have occurred with each major glaciation. invasion must not be regarded as a common raid, it was the H we assume that a people long habituated to live on the fringe migration of a people, and like other big movements of this kind

%#the ice-cap and to hunt reindeer and other arctic animals would prefer to continue its mode of existence then it would folthe retreating ice, and it seems as if this had been the case

was impelled by altered conditions of nature, in this case the alterations of climate caused by the advance of the ice.

The

Eskimo then lived further north in Greenland and North America,

MIGRATION

464

but when the climate deteriorated and the sea which gave them their living was closed by ice the Eskimo had to find a more suitable neighbourhood. It should, however, be noted that F. Nansen (in Northern Mists, p. ii., 95, 1911) strongly combats the view that the E:kimo gradually overpowered and exterminated the

Norsemen.

The seulements were almost entirely cut off from

Norway. imports of corn and four finally ceased, stock could not be renewed. and unaccustomed dietary conditions, disease and probable decreased birth-rate in his view sufficiently account for the decline of the settlements and he asserts that this was not due to “the peaceful and unwarlike Eskimo.” In any case this illustrates the diffculty of maintaining an artificial migration in a country where conditions are such that Europeans, who are dependent upon fresh supplies from the home country, can barely live. The climatically induced migration of the Eskimo at least reasserted the superior viability of a people long accus-

tomed to special local conditions. The question whether central Asia is becoming drier has been discussed for many years. Kropotkin held that there is a gradual desiccation irrespective of periods of greater or less rainfall. Ellsworth Huntington has written repeatedly on this problem and

in The Pulse of Asia (1907); Palestine and its Transformation

(i911) and other writings has accumulated evidence to show that the fluctuations in the prosperity of ancient civilizations are ultimately due to climatic conditions. Thus in the Nearer East there

was progress and peace, save for dynastic wars, when the rainfall was sufficient, but when it began to diminish the peoples of the poor lands and deserts were set in motion. For example, after 1700 B.c. we hear of invasions from the desert and elsewhere. Kassites invaded Media, Elam and Babylonia, and Egypt was swamped by the Hyksos, who brought their families, flocks and herds, and introduced the horse to Egypt, and we know that famine was the reason for the migration of Hebrews into Egypt. For 200 years after the expulsion of the Hyksos Egypt again prospered. About 2400 B.c. the Aramaeans invaded Syria from the

a difficult one as it is complicated by habits of life and by tropica] diseases, as well as by the effects of heat and moisture.

North.

ern Europeans by taking suitable precautions can live long and healthy lives in the tropics, but it has yet to be shown that their de scendants can live the whole of their lives there and indefinitely

continue the race. The only definition of a “white man’s coup.

try” is one which includes the latter proviso.

A transplanted

population which has to be continually replenished by fresh im. migrants and has to be diminished by the return of the children to the home country cannot be described as a true migration, it is merely an occupation of the country. In primitive times, tha is, before the period of the means of efficient overseas transport

migratory movements

of a people were

perforce

usually very

slow and thus it was possible for acclimatization to take place to some extent em route. But this may not have been always opera. tive, as there seem to be indications that the Amerinds of Gyj

for example, are not yet thoroughly acclimatized to their tropical habitat. We may take it as a general rule that voluntary migratory movement in early times took place only along lines of least re.

sistance.

Definite barriers which could not be crossed, or only

to a small degree, were ice and snow, oceans, inland seas, lofty, inhospitable mountain ranges, dense forests, jungle-clad, tropical

mountain regions, swamps, very poor steppes and deserts. Un

der exceptional circumstance or through dire necessity these might be partially negotiated by small bands, but normally they would prove to be definite obstacles to the migration of whole communities, On the other hand, grassy plains and plateaur, savanna

or bush veldt, loess lands, etc., afforded highways for

migration. On the whole, mountain ranges running east and west do form appreciable barriers, those running from north te south may do so for people wanting to travel east or west, but

for those travelling from north to south, or vice versa, they

may afford toilsome but practicable bridges along which people accustomed to a temperate climate might cross unhealthy tropical regions, all the time keeping to healthy conditions. It is, however, unwise to suggest actual routes for prehistoric migrations uti geographers and others have provided maps which give the

south and the Hittites from the north. The second millennium was a period of depression in the ancient East; from Arabia, Central Asia and Europe new nations immigrated into the lands of ancient civilization. This universality was probably due to orography, climatic conditions and flora; for these determine the widespread adverse economic conditions which were beyond lines of least resistance or, at all events, the routes along which

human control. This sort of thing has happened time after time, and analogous incidents have doubtless occurred elsewhere among peoples beyond the ken of history. The theory that the increasing aridity of parts of Central Asia is the direct result of climatic change has been disputed by several authorities (cf. A. Stein, Geog. Journ, lxv., pp. 485—490, 1925; R. C. F. Schomberg, G.J.,

boii., p. 357, 1928).

Elaborate hypotheses have been promulgated about sunken continents. There is a considerable literature about “Atlantis” and Macmillan Brown adduces evidence satisfactory to himself in favour of a sunken continent or, at all events, of great land areas in the Pacific. Naturally the existence of great land masses im these oceans in human times would have had a considerable effect on migrations if, as is claimed, they belong to human times, but, on the other hand, existing distributions can, on the whole, be satisfactorily explamed by present conditions. We do know, however, that great tracts of land have been alternately submerged and elevated within relatively recent times, for example, men hunted game over what is now the North sea, and coastal areas are constantly liable to fluctuations of level. There is thus ample evidence for compulsory migrations or shiftings of populations due to causes entirely beyond the control of man The direction in which all migrations take place is conditioned

by geographical factors. We may take it as axiomatic that people will usually seek conditions similar to those to which they have become accustomed. This is, on the whole, true for modern

emigrations and colonizations. people to emigrate to similar eHmate which resembles that Europeans seem to experience

There is a distinct tendency for latitudes or to countries with 2 of the home country. Northern greater difficulty in acclimatiza-

difficulties could be readily overcome, and at the same time the

maps would supply information concerning routes which would be quite impracticable.

Another type of barrier is found in densely populated areas,

the inhabitants of which, if strong enough, would prevent a migration across their territory. The same applies to a country which had a strong military force or contained a warrior population There are many examples of this, Artificial barriers such as dykes

and ramparts or walls may prevent movements for, at all events, some time. As Ujfalvy suggests: “The building of the great wall of China was an event fraught with the greatest consequences, and one may say without exaggeration that it contributed powerfully to the premature downfall of the Roman Empire.” (C. de Ujfalvy, Les Aryens au nord et au sud de l Hindou-Kouch, p. 24, 1896.) Barriers are thus relative, and only in rare cases are they insurmountable. There are certain means of transport which greatly facilitate movements of peoples, such as beasts of burden and hoats. The domestication of the few animals that could be utilized for riding

and drawing of vehicles is confined to the Old World, though i

Peru llamas are used to carry burdens and to a slight extent for

riding, and dogs were utilized in North America to drag travam on the plains and sledges in the arctic regions. The domestication

of the reindeer for hauling sledges is confined to the arctic regions of the Old World and possibly this idea arose from the example

of draught cattle. Only to a limited extent were these animals aids to movements of peoples. Probably somewhere in central

western Asia before 5000 B.c. took place the domesticatiea of camels, cattle, horses and asses. Although invaluable for arid

areas the camel has a restricted use, and it is not suitable for and does not thrive in most countries or climates. Cattle can be

tion m tropical countries than do south Europeans. The subject is employed almost everywhere except where there is intense

MIGRATION

465

or great scarcity of water. ‘Their rate of progress is slow, but we know that ox carts or wagons were used for human transportation

settlements by the hill tribes. The earliest records of the Nearer East show (and this has continued to the present day) that the in the Bronze age, and in our own time the trekking of the Boers pastoral peoples have preyed upon the agriculturalists and have m South Africa was accomplished in the same manner. A pastoral frequently colonized considerable areas. or semi-pastoral people can only migrate along a country which Hunger and loot are not the only impulses towards migration. affords sufħcient pasturage and water—mountains, deserts and The restless disposition of the “winners of the West” of North swamps are practically insuperable for such peoples. A further America was not due to an inability to maintain an existence in barrier for migration is found in the tsetse fly, ticks and other the eastern States nor to an expectation of speedy riches. A insect pests, which afford intermediate hosts of the parasites of craving for land is only a partial explanation; sentiment and a yarious kinds of cattle diseases; these have been especially reaction against even the slightest of social restraints had a good operative in Africa. The use of the yak and sheep in Tibet as deal to do with it, as it had for the trekking of the Boers. Gold beasts of burden has had no effect on migrations. The horse on rushes are different, as wealth may thus be speedily gained by account of its speed has rendered possible rapid raids of nomad rapid exploitation. peoples, which would prepare the way for more leisurely mass Migrations have taken place to gain freedom from social, movements, since communities moving with their flocks and herds political or religious bondage, like the exodus of the Hebrew bondcannot travel faster than the slowest of these. The horse reached men from Egypt, the voyage of the “Mayflower” or the migration Symeria from the north about the time of Hammurabi and later of the Flemings and Huguenots into Britain. Religious enthusithe conquest of Egypt by the Hyksos was greatly facilitated by asm may stimulate race expansion and lead to shiftings of poputheir horse-drawn war chariots, for it was not till subsequently lations as seen in the histories of Buddhism, Christianity and that cavalry were employed in warfare. Wherever the horse has Islam. The partnerships of the crescent and the sword, of the been taken it has facilitated human movements, and so, to far cross and the gold of El Dorado, have been based upon a double less extent, has the ass. enthusiasm which has led to migrations. We may well believe that for many thousands of years large The movements of peoples which are sufficiently dramatic for stretches of water proved very effective barriers to migration. the ordinary historian to record are often of less importance than Rivers might be crossed on floating logs and rafts; later would the quiet, steady drift of a population from one area into another, come dug-outs and such craft as the coracle and allied skin boats as, for example, the emigration from Europe to America in of the Old World and the bull-boat of North America, which are modern times. Movements may result in a noticeable or even practically skin-covered baskets; certainly very early there were fatal depletion of a country, and the parent country may remain floats and incipient boats made of bundles of reeds, etc., and desolate or may be filled up in course of time by an alien people doubtless also bark canoes and skin floats; but none of these as in the case of eastern Germany and the Slavs in the 4th and would be efficient for long distances on open seas. It seems im- 5th centuries A.D. probable that the Tasmanians, for example, could have crossed An excellent example of the migration of cultures is given by Bass strait as it now is in the floats of bundles of bark that they Prof. V. Gordon Childe in his paper on “The Danube thoroughd when first discovered. It was not until canoes were fare and the beginnings of civilization in Europe” (Antiquity, i. provided with side-planks that seaworthy vessels were available Pp. 79, 1927), In which he traces the spread of culture along the for oversea Commerce, warfare and colonization. The invention deposits of loess in the Danubian region. The evidence seems to of outriggers to steady such craft occurred in the Indian ocean, point to the fact that the majority at least of the people were either in the East Indian archipelago or in India, but nowhere long established in this region before the little settlements of else; and it was by this discovery, together with that of lashing Aegean fishers became outposts of Troadic commerce and led to two canoes together to form a double canoe, that the migrations the opening up of mines of cinnabar, gold, copper and tin. Childe of the Polynesians all over the Pacific became possible. Some says: “The discovery and original exploitation of the Bohemian maintain that the Invention of sea-going craft was due to the tin deposits and hence the inauguration of a bronze industry in ancient Egyptians, but there is also a case to be made out for at Central Europe was due to explorers coming up the Danube from kast an independent invention in the Persian gulf or possibly in the south-east. Now the first dated bronze objects found in a India. Peake and Fleure are of opinion that “between 4000 and definite context In Britain come from the graves of the so-called 3500 B.c. the Sumerians arrived probably by sea, at the head of Beaker Folk, who reached these islands from Central Europe. the Persian gulf, bringing with them for the first time into Meso- It therefore seems likely that we owe our first metallurgy in the potamia herds of dairy cattle, an advanced copper culture, and a jong run to those explorers from Troy whose tracks we have been habit of decorating objects by means of inlaid slabs of mother-of- following up the Danube. So not only was that river one of the pearl and other materials.” (The Corridors of Time, IIL., p. 95, routes by which a so-called ‘neolithic’ culture reached north1927.) But there were two earlier civilizations in Mesopotamia. western Europe, it was also a channel in the diffusion of the arts Not only superior means of transport by land or sea, but posses- of metallurgy northward and westward from the Ancient East.” sion of more deadly weapons or improved implements for daily In his Dawn of European Civilization (1925) Prof. Childe needs have given their owners decisive superiority when coming in traces in detail the growth and spread of culture up to the Middle contact with worse equipped peoples. These advantages have Bronze age. His view is that the cultures of the collectors and been potent factors in producing changes of population. hunters and fishers of epipalaeolithic times da not in any real It is probable that a migration induced by an attraction is much sense constitute points of transition from the palaeolithic to the rarer than one produced by an expulsion. The simplest cases of neolithic culture, but that the latter gradually spread westwards. migration by attraction are those of peoples living on poor steppes “Peasants with stone hoes and axes opened up its valleys to cultior plateaux adjoining cultivated land or rich valleys. Agricultural vation; hunters and herdsmen, blazed the trail through its primpeoples, as a rule, are averse to and ill-prepared for war and the aeval forests; mariners mm dug-out canoes sailed the seas to more prosperous their circumstances the more they are likely to the isles of the West; prospectors with picks of hom and flint be enervated by their very civilization. They are thus liable at revealed the treasures of the earth and crossed mountain passes all times to be attacked by neighbouring brigands, who in some in search of merchandise. These explorers were the forerunners cases retire to their barren homes with their booty, but in others of Greeks and Phoenicians; the paths they discovered have been remain among the conquered people, and, assimilating with them, followed by Roman roads and modern railways” (p. 14). He în due course become more civilized, and in their turn are subject regards the Occident as “indebted to the Orient for the rudiments to mvasions from their barbarian kinsmen of the borders. The of the arts and crafts that initiated man’s emancipation from —

walled towns of ancient Greece in the centre of valleys opening out to the sea point to a danger from the brigands of the moun-

tains and possibly also from pirates from the sea. The inhabitants

af the rich plains of Assam have always been subject to raids and

bondage to his environment and for the foundation of those spiritual ties that co-ordinate human endeavours. But the peoples of the West were not slavish imitators; they adapted the gifts of the East and united the contributions made by Africa and Asia

4.66

MIGRATION

into a new and organi: whole capable of developing on its own original lines” (p. 13). Owing to the great amount of careful archaeological investigation in Europe the cultural history of tbat region is becoming increasingly clear, but when data are available it will probably

be found that the same general principles have obtained elsewhere. New techniques, ideas, and ideals are continually spreading, sometimes slowly, sometimes with considerable rapidity, but the recipients by no means adopt them wholesale, they accept what appeals to them and usually in so doing they modify them to their own particular needs or idiosyncrasies. We may regard this as being true for all times and all places. With regard to customs and religious ideas and ceremonies there is probably always some personal influence, though the

results may be disproportionate to the numbers of the culturebearers; in these instances the racial drift may be inappreciable, or may not affect the physical characters of the local population in the least, while the cultural drift may be very conspicuous. A good illustration of this last is seen in the spread of European culture and religion by Christian missionaries, but it is by no means confined to these. The gradual spread of cults and customs has been proved by careful investigations among many peoples and it can be traced in action as well as by inference. Wirz has shown that in the last 50 years a secret cult has been adopted from communities on the coast, by three villages on Lake Sentani (in north New Guinea). These three villages have since drawn together and look down upon the neighbouring villages which have nat adopted the cult. (Tijds. u. Ind. Taal-Land-en Volkenkunde, lxii, p. 53, 1923.) There is a tradition that the teaching of ceremonies, including the elaborate death ceremonial, was introduced into the western islands of Torres straits by two culture

heroes from New Guinea and there are other folk-tales of migratory culture-heroes instructing the people in better ways of living. The great religious cult of Murray Island was brought by what can only be described as the missionary zeal of the western islanders, and most of the funeral ceremonies and many sacred

songs admittedly came from the west. (Rep. Comb. Anth. Exped. ta Torres Straits, v. 1905; vi, 1908.) An interesting parallel occurred also in Fiji. Two culture heroes are reported to have distinctly stated that they went to Fiji to teach the cult associated with large stone enclosures, Nanga (A. B. Joske, Internat. Arch. f. Ethnogr. ii., p. 258, 1889). In all these instances there is not

the slightest trace in tradition or elsewhere of secular aggression.

A. B. Deacon has traced the spread of the Kakihan Society from a to New Guinea and Melanesia (Folklore, xxxvi., D. 332, 1925). Since rgtr G. Elliot Smith has affirmed the diffusion of culture from Egypt to every part of the world; his views are stated in his The Migrations of Early Culture (1915) and he gives an account of the development of “the new teaching” in the second edition of The Ancient Egyptians (1923), where he stated “There can no longer be any doubt that the essential elements of civilization did really originate in Egypt.” He gives a number of arts, practices, and beliefs which he affirms were carried by Egyptian seamen to various countries. These became centres of secondary diffusion, and ultimately this culture-complex reached America across the Paciñc. In Tke Evolution of the Dragon (1919) he suggests that these culture-bearers were seeking for “givers of life,” which W. J. Perry is “convinced” is “one of the most important generalizations ever made in the study of human society” (The Children of the Sun, 1923). In this book and in several others (The Megalithic Culture of Indonesia, 1918; The Growth of Civilisation, 1924, etc.), Perry has elaborated the details of the spread of this so-called “Archaic Civilization.” For criticisms of this theory and the methods of its promulgators ef. J. L. Myres, Folk-lore, xxxvi., p. 15, 1925; The Geographical Teacher, xiii., pp. 8, 152, 155 (1925); H. St. L. B. Moss, The Quarterly Rev., No. 494, and more recently Roland B. Dixon,

The Building of Cultures (1928), in which he gives a careful dis-

cussion of the difusions of cultures and a criticism of various

sought mainly in the physical characters of peoples, their artif

customs, folk-tales and language. Each of these sources of infor. mation has to be utilized with great caution as there are many

dangers of erroneous interpretations of actual facts. As a ryk every tribe or isolated community has definitely characteristic artifacts, but if these are found to be subject to modification has to be determined whether there has been a local evolution or whether, as is most probable, influences have come in from else. where, in which case the change may be due to a “racial drift” ge to tbe imitation of objects obtained by trade or loot, that is a cultural drift. The introduction and methods of utilization ‘of domestic animals and plants is analogous to the foregoing. For

instance, the introduction of the horse into America was due tog racial drift, but its employment by the Plains Indians and the Amerinds of the pampas of South America was a culture drift A good example of a simple culture drift is the spread of the use of tobacco over Africa and New Guinea. Finally, language is criterion for racial contact, but not necessarily for a migration og a large scale. For a general account of the main racial migrations the reader referred to A. C. Haddon, The Wanderings of Peoples (1911) ; Gratton

E. Smith, The Migrations of the Early Culture, London and New York, 1915; Brief List of References on Racial Migration, Library of Congress, Select List No. 708, Wash. 1922; The Races of Man end their Distribution (1924). (A. C. H.)

MODERN HISTORY A new epoch in migration and in world history commenced with the great geographical discoveries, which opened up to Europe

vast continents containing unlimited natural resources. The early movements from Europe were prompted by the spirit of adventure and the search for gold. Trading centres were next established and population began to flow from the Old World to the New Portugal and Spain established settlements in South America in the 16th century, and by 1570 it is estimated that there were 100,000 white men in the overseas empire of Spain. The first English settlements overseas date from the early 17th century, French migration to Canada also began in the 17th century. In 1664 the population of French Canada was 2,500, and by 1760, the date of the British conquest, this had reached to 70,000, EMIGRATION

TO THE UNITED

STATES

The population of the United States in 1790 was 4 millions, In 1926 it was estimated at 105,000,000 (excluding the coloured population). The immigration from Europe into America during the past century, which has been mainly responsible for this growth, has been, both in its volume and its variety, the most remarkable peaceful mass movement of population in history.

The number of immigrants who entered America previous ta the year 1820 is not accurately known, but it is supposed to have averaged from 5,000 to 6,000 a year and the total number of immigrants from the time of the foundation of the National Goversment down to 1820 was probably not more than 250,000. Fhe total number of immigrants from 1820 to 1927 was 37,000,000, of whom 32,000,000 came direct from Europe.

In 1820 the number of arrivals was 8,385 and by 1830 it had reached over 20,000. During the decade 1830-40 some 60,000 immigrants annually were admitted, while from 1840-46 the average number was about 90,000. Down to 1846, the first 70 years in America’s national life, the total number of immigrants

was less than 1,600,000, whereas in that period the population of the United States grew from 3,000,000 to 21,000,000. In 1847 the great tide of immigration began with-an enormous influx from Ireland, following upon the potato famine, and twe years later political troubles led to heavy immigration from Germany. From 1847 to 1854 immigration ranged between 250,000 and 400,000 per annum. e

During the ten years 1847-56 approximately 3,000,000 imm

grants entered America—twice the total number that rived during the previous seventy years. Immigration during the Civil War period, but increased again thereafter,

ar”

by the year 1890 the total number of immigrants admitted te Thè evidence for the migrations of unlettered peoples is to be the United States had reached a figure of over 15,500,000.

MIGRATION The financial crisis of 1893 temporarily checked immigration,

467

the five years 1911-15 out of a total immigration from Europe of 3.796,000, the number from southern and eastern Europe was

but the upward trend was resumed, and during the twenty-four years 1891-1914 the total number In each of the six years 1905-07, exceeded a million. The greatest in any one year WaS 1,255,000 In

of immigrants was 16,500,000. Over 3,000,000 or 79°% of the total. Up to 1917 this enormous volume of immigration was admitted 1910 and 1913-14 the number ' number of immigrants arriving without restrictions upon the white races other than (a) the 1907. ‘exclusion under the Immigration Act of 1882 and subsequent These figures include numbers of people who did not remain | legislation of certain undesirable classes, e.g., criminals, paupers permanently in the United States, but the following table shows }j and physical and mental defectives, etc. (b) those imposed by the population of the United States at each census, the decennial the Alien Contract Labour Law of 1885 forbidding the entry of r

increase, and the average net immigration (i.¢., excess of arrivals | any person under a contract made previously ‘to perform labour

! or service of any kind in the United States.’ over departures) during the period 1790-1925 :— The proportion of arrivals excluded under the provisions of United States Population ai Each Census, Decennial Increase, and Net the various Immigration Laws was negligible, the total number Immigration: 1700—1025 | debarred in 1913 being 20,000 or 1-494 of the total applicants j for admission. Population l Net immi!

) Í

Census year

| Decennial Total A

eee

LL

.

1810

a

| 1820

1830 . B4. | Bso.

.

> > >

© e .

«© . .

1860

.

°

°

»

e o a e ee

e >

00.

IBO 1880.

| the decade a

n

Millions

7 1790

gration in

increase

Millions

Millions

°

.

°

.

3:9

ve

14

=

+

+

.

e

F2

I:Q

Ee

°

.

a

o

6

°

ele

5°3

12-9 I7'I 23°2

3°3 4'2 6-1

2°4

o'I rons) 16

.

3TA

8-2

2°7

a >œ

38°5 50-2

aE 11:7

2°4 2°5

= œ

9°6

ne

| 1890 .

e

à

62-9

12-7

4°3

|IO. | 1920 1925

.« 2

-« 4 ;

92°0 I05°7 II5'4

16-0 13:7 9'7

5°6 3°2 2'0

1900

.

>

>

76-0

I3'I

3°2

The total immigration into the United States and the immigration from Europe during the period 1820-1927 by decades was as follows :— Total 1821-30 1831-40 1841-50 1851-60 1861-70 | 1871-80 1881-90 189-1900 IQQI-10 | IQII-20

1921-27

Total 108 years 1820-1927 .

Europe

I51,824

106,508

590,125

495,688

1,723, 25 I

2,598,214

2,314,824 2,8I2,IQI

1,597,501 2,452,660 2,065,270 2,272,262

5,246,613 3,087,564 8,795,386 5,735,811 3:278,576

4,737,046 3,558,978

36,933,379

31,811,797

8,136,016

4,376,564 2,013,304

The proportion of the total immigrants from various countries of Europe during specified decades is shown in the following table :-— (Percentages of total)

The problem of the assimilation of the various elements involume of immigration was giving rise to the World War. A policy of restriction was

i cluded in this vast || some anxiety before |

advocated as far back as 1880. American labour organizations had long been in favour of some form of restriction, and a com-

mission appointed by President Roosevelt in 1910 reported that immigration restriction “was demanded by economic, moral and social considerations” and suggested a restriction law on a percentage basis. Experience during the World War raised the issue in an acute form, and a clause was inserted in the Consolidating Immigration Act of 1917 prohibiting the entry of illiterates over 16 years of age. This proved ineffectual in producing the desired effect. It was anticipated that the close of the World War would be followed by an influx from Europe which would equal, and perhaps exceed, anything which had hitherto been experienced. That this fear was not without foundation was shown by the fact that 430,000 immigrants entered the United States in 1920 and over 800,000 in 1921. The United States Immigration Act, 1921.—In order to

meet this situation emergency legislation was passed and came into operation on June 2, 1921, which limited “the number of aliens of any nationality who may be admitted under the immigration laws to the United States in any fiscal year . . . to 3 per centum of the number of foreign-born persons of such nationality resident in the United States as determined by the United States census of 1910.” This fixed the total annual immigration at 357,803 and that from Europe at 353,747, approximately one-third of the number of European immigrants during the years 1913 and 1914. The proportion or quota for Great Britain and Ireland under this law was 77,342, for Germany 68,059, for Italy 42,057, for Poland 25,827, for Russia 34,284 and for Sweden 20,042. Certain categories of persons were excluded from the quota arrangements. This Act not only limited the aggregate numbers of immigrants. It was also selective in character, in that its effect was to reduce

the proportion of Immigrants from southern and eastern Europe to less than one-half of the total, viz., 198,000 from northern and western Europe and 158,000 from southern and eastern Europe.

The object of the law was, however, partially defeated by increased immigration from Canada and Mexico, which were not included within the scope of the quota provisions, and from which aliens could enter provided they had been resident in a country on the American continent for one year (subsequently amended

to five years). In consequence of the increase in immigration from Canada and Mexico the total immigration during the three years 1922-4 during which the law was in operation was actually on the up-grade, as will be seen from the following figures :—

4 very important change took place during the period from 1880

to 1910 in the racial composition of the immigrants. Up to 1880

the peoples of northern and western Europe had predominated, but after 1880 the bulk of the immigrants came from southern and eastern Europe. In each of the two decades 1871-80 and 1901-10 the total immigrants from western Europe numbered Pproxnmately 2,000,000, whereas the total from southern and

testem Europe increased from 200,000 in the first of these two

periods to over 6,000,000 (70-8% of the total) in the second. In

Immigration Into the United States, r920~4 Oversea 287,615 702,153 243,195

3432140

Continental 142,386 103,075 66,361

180,779

416,870

200,026

1,992,973

782,627

Total

430,001

805,228,

309,556 522,010 706,896 2,774,600

by land and sea added to these totals.

MIGRATION

468

Immigrants from other countries on the The Act of 1921 was only a temporary measure in order to | desirable types. do not come under the law at all if born ip continent American restriction. of policy allow time for framing a more permanent one of those countries, but if born elsewhere they can only be “John(the 1924 of Act n Immigratio the in embodied was This quota of their country of birth, je., a the of part as admitted son Act”). from Canada n Act, 1924.—This Act came into force on person born in Great Britain can only be admitted The Immigratio July 1, 1924, and assigns a temporary maximum limit of about 160,000 to the number of immigrants from Europe to be admitted in any one year, that number to be ultimately reduced to 150,000 per annum. (This total is exclusive of immigrants from countries outside the operation of the law and of non-quota immigrants.) The main provisions of the Act are:— (i.) In any year there shall be admitted to the United States not more than 2 per centum of the number of foreign-born individuals of any nationality resident in Continental United States as determined by the United States census of 1890. This constitutes each country’s quota. The minimum quota of any nationality is roo. The census of 1890 was chosen because it was considered that the census record of that year showed that the number of foreign-born persons then corresponded better than later censuses to the racial composition of the United States population in 1924. On this basis the annual quotas allotted to

the principal countries of emigration are as under. For comparison the quotas allotted under the 1921 Act are also shown, and the average immigration from the countries mentioned during the decade 1901-10:— Quota 1924-5

Average Immigration IQOI-I10

Northern and Western Europe

Belgium

.

Denmark France

.

:

Germany

ee

Great Britain and Northern Ireland . o oe Trish Free State | Netherlands

1,563

512

5,019 5:729 67,607

2,789 3:954 51,227

773342

34,007

. 3,607

12,202

20,042 3:752

197,463

52,595

33906 4,826

6,453

44905

2,081

140,799

42,1 28

3,845

138,805

73337 34,150

9,501 }

1,258 3:073

6,426

6,528

28,567 1,648

13,089 14,357 30,977 7:419 24,405

4,163

5:982 603 2,248

3:499

IQ1I,007

214,526

204,387

if he can be included in the British quota.

(iii.) Aliens ineligible to become naturalized citizens under

the United States naturalization laws are not admitted excepti

under existing Treaty stipulations. This provision excludes the Japanese. Japanese immigration had previously been governed not by a formal treaty, but by a “Gentleman’s Agreement” under

which the Japanese Government agreed to limit the entry of its subjects into the United States.

(iv.) The Act also provided that after July 1, 1927, the total

number of immigrants in any one year was to be reduced toa

total of 150,000, the quota of each nationality being the proportion of 150,000 determined by the ratio between the number of inhabitants having that national origin to the total population of

the United States in 1920. This is known as the “national origin” plan. It did not take effect on July 1, 1927 Congress postponing

its operation for a year. laid before

to 25,000, of the Irish Free State from 28,567 to 17,500 and of Norway, Sweden and Denmark from 18,803 to 11,000. The national origin plan was intended to give immigrants from the various countries representation approximately proportional to the number of people of their own nationality domiciled in the United States. In principle it seemed fairly easy to work out

such representation; in practice it has proved difficult and the provisional quotas to be allotted have been changed several times. The restrictive legislation was two-fold in its intention: (i) to reduce the number of immigrants so as to afford an opportunity for assimilation; (ii.) to allow future immigration on a scale designed to preserve a reasonable degree of homogeneity in the population of the United States. “The myth of the melting pot has been discredited. .. . The day of unalloyed welcome to all peoples, the day of indiscriminate acceptance of all races has definitely ended” (Johnson).

The effect on the proportion of the English-speaking races

(English, Irish, Scotch and Welsh) entering the United States is shown in the following table:— Immigration Into the United States of English and Non-English S peaking Races

Total immigra-

159,370

17,680

1928, the principal alterations

would be the increase of the quota of Great Britain from 34,007 to 66,000, and the reduction of the quota of Germany from 51,227

53300

671

On this basis, according to proposals

Congress in March

583,783

Englishspeaking

1,218,480 | 107,199 120,080 805,228 64,172 309,556 131,159 522,919 200,265 706,896 I2I,QII 294,314 304,488 TI5:293 II1,735 335,275

The total immigration from south and eastern Europe was reduced to less than one-fifth of that from northern and western Europe, the proportion being 15% and 84% respectively. The effect is still more noticeable if the emigration to the United States from the most important European countries of emigration in 1914 is compared with that during the years 1921-7 :—

245,334

391,760 506,631

172,403 189,195 223,440

Immigration Into the United States from Certain Countries of Europe, 1914 and 1921-27 Country eae

England, Scotland, Wales Germany oe e

E r

| TS

|

| NS

|

A:

|

ATTA

|ei

ai

aT

TTD

.

(a.) Certain classes of immigrants are exempted from the quota arrangements, 8g., the dependants of previous immigrants

The policy of restriction has been based mainly on consider

tions of race-dilution, literacy, standards of living, etc. Tt re

naturalized in the United States, and certain other individual | mains to be seen what will be the economic effect of the clostag

MIGRATION

4.69

Oversea Migration From and Into Great Britain and Ireland for the Years ror3 and r920-27* British Empire oye

N. British America || Australia

Year

a 56,779

Pe | ig13: Out >..

-a | I9OB34

In

| Balance . enta

~.

i CL

, 1920: Out In

«|

12,351

764,506

44,428

es |New

Zealand

71,809

|

2,445

Balance . sE g 94,4 I0,I20 S p

12,285

p

27,751

11,513

3

4. «= 2 ġa R O s Balance . ee ae

67,907

| Other |

28,974 12,854

1921: Out. In

|

14,425

-= | 118,837 24,341

|

14,853 2,5

1

20,440

£1,816

29,606

1,568 9:945 ee

45,828

39:099

12,259 2,223

22,057

Balance .

29,021

30,789

I0,036

—1,723

| 1923: Out In

88,290 12,424

30,967 8,384

9,392 2,204

19,413 215426

,

2

3

Balance

16,107

8,310

21,234

| 77,151 | 197,084

|

60,067

|

56,393

|

40,902 12,61r

37,291 93,076 7,042

56,034 17:315

Balance .

47,194

30,304

8,740

— 1,377

6,435

1925: Out

38,662

35,006

11,730

245723

27,260

9:766

49,632

44,513

16,565

132939

In

| Balance

1926: Out

In Balance 1927: Out mM Balance.

-

2 -

ome .

10,431 393151 52,916 12,570 40,346

7:737

|

7:599 30:914 40,991

8,032 32:959

1,964

2,172 14,393 7,841 2,511 $13.30

20,918

|

|

|

— 2,013 19,541

2,321

9,357 5094

| 4263

| |

73188 12,061

8,295

7,505

85,709

2,092

. 43,9025 | 42,468

31,583 38,599

15,822

j

Britain Great Britain | Other parts |(Great ae and Ireland

78,072

75:868 63,016

| 1924: In Out | |

-|

3

21,063 8:543

U.S.A.

16,619

2,718

35,930 24,114

fee

Totals na]

p

aeceea idea tion 94,691 | 9,657 339,394

23,158

8,861 £3,390 A

In

Foreign

parts E|

21,055 46,552

qg22: Out.

|

26,288

|

|

6,307

4,895 I2

5:784

5,728 5

oF

et.ee e

MILITARY

RAILWAYS—MILITIA

483

As a result of the World War the security of French frontiers | NAE: Metaurvus; ZaMaA; ILeRDA; PHARSALUS; ADRIANOPLE; s to-day an undisputed and universally organized dogma. This | Daras; TAcINaE, etc. This evolutionary thread is maintained security can only be guaranteed by an army sufficient in strength | in dealing with the battles of mediaeval history, from Towrs,

and easily mobilized. For 125 years a conception of “the nation

MANZIKERT and Hastincs through Duppiin, Crecy, Portrers and Formicny, to RAVENNA and Maricnano, while special periods The “nation in arms” idea is the chief outcome of the World are examined in the MowamMepan Campaicns, Moncot CamWar and the French military organization has been framed in PAIGNS, HUNDRED Years’ War and Roses, WARS OF THE. In modern history each of the main wars has an article, e.g., accordance with it. To summarize, in this system the reserves play the most im- Turety Years’ War, GREAT REBELLION, SPANISH SUCCESSION, ant part; as a consequence, the strength of the standing army SEVEN Years’ War, FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY Wars, NAPOLEONIC may be reduced. From the standing army is to be recruited that CAMPAIGNS, PENINSULAR WAR, CRIMEAN War, AMERICAN CIVIL of war time. To train, to mobilize and to cover the frontiers, War, SEVEN WEEKS’ War, FRaANcO-GERMAN War, Russo-JAPAare henceforward the main duties of the standing army. NESE War. For the last war, as a whole, see the long and imGermany.—The general principles of German military law are portant article Wortp War, which is supplemented by other similar to those of Great Britain and many European countries, articles on each of the great battles or phases, e.g., FRONTIERS, and the United States system is somewhat similarly framed. There BATTLES OF THE; MARNE, First BATTLE OF THE; MEUSEis no permanent president for courts-martial but, as in England, ÅRGONNE, BATTLES OF THE; SOMME, BATTLES OF THE; VERDUN, a presiding officer is chosen for each trial. BATTLES OF; YPRES, BATTLES OF 1914, 1915 and 1917; TANNENIn different States of Germany different procedures hold for BERG, BATTLE OF; CAPORETTO; VITTORIO VENETO; ST. QUENTIN; the formation of special summary courts-martial as occasions Lys; CHEMIN-DES-DAMES; MARNE, SECOND BATTLE OF THE; arise, There are no “Courts of Honour.” The proceedings before AMENS; ST. MIHEL; HINDENBURG LINE; MEUSE-ARGONNE. The a German court-martial are usually public except in the case of more distant theatres of war, such as PALESTINE, SALONIKA, matters offending public morality, or in any other way compromis- MESOPOTAMIA and EAST Arrica, are covered in special articles. ia arms” has been before the public mind.

ing public order, and excepting also those cases where publicity is considered injurious to the interests of the forces as a whole. Such are cases of discipline, disclosure of military secrets, plans, etc. Military crimes and offences dealt with in the German Military Code of Penal Law of June 20, 1872 (within the meaning of the notification of Feb. 16, 1926) as acts punishable by law

are mainly: (1) Extended unauthorized absence and running away from the flag; (2) self-mutilation; (3) cowardice; (4) seri-

ous wrongs against military subordination, as for instance threatening, insult and setting actually at work against superior officers—

mutiny; (5) serious wrongs against inferiors, for example actual insult and ill treatment; (6) military theft (embezzlement), plun-

dering;(7) bribery.

The Public Prosecutor acts normally as counsel for the accused. In Germany, however, procedure differs not only from district to district but according to the simplicity or severity of the case. There is no appeal, except for officials attached to the Army. Since the World War a series of changes has been introduced into the

vanous systems in use in the different states and generalization concerning German procedure is now (1929), and will probably

MILITIA, a term used generally for organized military forces which are not professional in character and not permanently embodied. (Fr. milice, Ger. Miliz, from Lat, miles, soldier, militia, military service.) All ancient armies, with the exception of the personal guards of their leaders, were militias or national levies, remaining under arms for the war or the campaign and returning to their ordinary occupations at the close of each military episode. Militias such as those of the Greek city-states and that of Rome were of course highly trained to the use of arms; so were the barbarian “nations in arms”; which overcame the professionalized

Roman armies of the Empire; and although in the Eastern Empire these new fighting elements were absorbed into a fully organized regular arm, in the West the tribal militia system gradually developed into feudalism. The noble and the knight indeed spent the greater part of their lives in the field and devoted themselves from their youth to the cult of arms, but the feudal tenantry, who were bound to give forty days’ war service and no more, and the burghers who, somewhat later in the history of civilization, formed

the efficient garrisons of the walled towns were true militias. The

English “Yeomanry” indeed almost ruled the battlefield. In the r5th century the introduction of firearms began to weigh down the balance in favour of the professional soldier. Artillery MILITARY RAILWAYS: see Licot RAILWAYS, MILITARY. was always the arm of the specialist. The development of infantry MILIT ARY SCIENCE, ARTICLES ON. The basic “fire-power,” with the early arquebus and musket, called for the article is that on War, and complementary to this are the two highest skill and steadiness in the individual soldier, and cavalry important articles StrratEcy and Tactics. Special forms of war- too adopted the new weapon in the form of long and expensive fare are dealt with in the articles GUERRILLA WARFARE and MOUN- wheel-lock pistols. In the new military organization there was no TAIN WARFARE. The weapons and auxiliary means of warfare are place for the unprofessional soldier. The réle of the unprofescovered in such articles as AMMUNITION; ARTILLERY; CHEMICAL sional combatant, generally speaking, was that of an insurgent— Warrare; BRIDGING, MILITARY; CAMOUFLAGE: CROSS-COUNTRY harassing small detachments of the enemy, cutting off stragglers TRANSPORT; FORTIFICATION AND SIEGE-CRAFT; MOTOR TRANS- and plundering convoys. Towards the end of the first civil war in PORT, MILITARY; ORDNANCE, etc. England (1645) the country-folk banded themselves together to For the structure, or organization, of armies the main article is impose a peace on the two warring armies, but their menace was . This is supplemented and enlarged by ARTILLERY; BAR- without effect, and they were easily disarmed by Fairfax and RACKS; CAVALRY; ENGINEERS; INFANTRY; INTELLIGENCE; MEDI- Cromwell, who did not even trouble to hold them as prisoners. CAL Service; SUPPLY AND TRANSPORT; STAFF; and by CONSCRIP- The calling out of the arriére ban of Franche-Comté in 1675 disTON; MILITIA; NATIONAL GUARD; TERRITORIAL ARMY; VOLUN- played its ludicrous inefficiency, and thereafter in France, which TRERS and YEOMANRY. set the fashion for Europe im all military matters, the “provincial Important aspects of war and armies are treated in the articles militia,” which Louvois and Barbezieux raised in place of the dissuch as Army (MoraLe In War); Cozours and Uniforms. The credited arrière ban, was employed partly to find drafts for and student of military antiquities will find much information in these, partly to augment the regular army. & well as in ENGINES oF WAR; GUARDS; GUN; HELMET; LANCE When a first line army was large enough to absorb the fighting AND SWORD. strength of the country there was neither room nor need for a In military history, the chief wars of the ancient world are true militia force. This was the case with France under Napoleon’s be for some years, unsafe. The general principles martial only have remained unchanged.

of courts(X.)

Weated in such articles as GRAECO-PERSIAN WARS; PELOPONNESIAN

régime, but things were different elsewhere. In Great Britain the county militia (whose special history is briefly sketched below) Macepontan Army; Roman Army and BYZANTINE ARMY. was permanently embodied during the greater part of the NapoFer the more important or famous battles of ancient history, leonic Wars. Destitute as it was of technical and administrative 4 MARATHON; Mantinera: Issus; TrastmMeus;, Carn-; services, of higher staffs and organization, and even of cavalry, War; Punic Wars, as also are the great military organizations,

MILITIA

484.

this militia was a regular army in all but name. Combining continuous service with territorial recruiting as it did, it consisted of men of a better stamp than the casually recruited regular forces. In those days, the militia was a county force commanded by the lords-lieutenant and officered by men of influence; it was not administered by the War Office. In other countries. Napoleon’s invading armies had only to deal with regular or professional troops. Once these were crushed, nothing remained for the beaten side but to make peace with the conqueror on such terms as could be obtained. Militias existed in name as organizations, for the production of more or less unwilling drafts for the line, but the fundamental militia obligation of defending the fatherland as distinct from defending the staée, produced only local and occasional outbursts of guerrilla wariare. In the Crimean War, the 1859 war in Italy, the 1866 war in Germany, and other wars (the Hungarian War of 1848-49 excepted) the forces, other than the regular troops, engaged in first line were guerrilleros, insurgents, Garibaldians, etc., and behind the forces in first line there were draft-supplying agencies, but no true militia. Only the British militia and the Prussian landwehr represented the self-contained army of second line, and of these the former was never put to the test, while the latter, responding feebly to a political call to arms in 1850, was In consequence so entirely reorganized that it formed a mere rear rank to the line troops. This latter system, consecrated by the German successes of 1870, became the universal model for the continent of Europe,

and organized and self-contained militias to-day are only to be found in states maintaining first line armies of “general service” professionals, or in states which maintain no first line troops whatever. In the first class are the auxiliary forces of the British Empire and the United States, in the second the Swiss, Norwegian, Dutch and Swedish forces. On the other hand, with the reduction of the term of service in countries where conscription prevails to a term as short as twelve months, these armies are in nature if not

in name tending to become a superior type of national militia. MILITIA OF ENGLAND

The title of “militia” disappeared from the list of the British forces in 1908, on the conversion of the existing self-contained militia into an army “special reserve” which is restricted to the rôle of providing drafts for the first line? The “self-contained”

second line army of the present day is the Territorial Army (g.v.) (see also Army and GREAT BRITAIN: Army).

of liability to serve both in the general and local militia, Eveg » the abolition of these forces the statutory liability to service i them was not done away with. Inspections of arms and the ag. sembly and training of the men raised under this national system were secured from time to time by means of “assizes of arms” “views of armour,” “commissions of array,” and “commissions of

musters,”’ dating from early in the 12th century down to the 16th century. These constitutional powers were frequently abused by “electing” or impressing men to serve out of the kingdom, by this was checked in the year 1327 by an Act of Parliament, which

strictly regulated the scope and limits of military service within the kingdom at the charge of the parishes or counties, but pro.

vided for service abroad at the charge of the Crown. “Commis. sions of musters” were a development of preceding measures for

raising men and material for military service, under which the commissioners registered and mustered persons liable to serve. sorted them into bands and trained and exercised them at the charge of the county. These bands became known as irais or trained bands, and were mustered annually.

With them were as.

sociated lieutenants of counties, first appointed in 1549 by Ed. ward VI., subsequently in Queen Mary’s reign called lords leu. tenant, and after the Restoration appointed as statutory officers for the militia. There does not appear to have been any clearly defined regimental organization in existence until these bands or companies were called into active service, but the Acts of the

Commonwealth

supplied this defect, and initiated a permanent

regimental system. One of the earliest attempts to reform the force since the time of King Alfred was made by Charles I. in

1629, when Orders in Council were issued instructing lords liewtenant to put the militia on a better footing. Cromwell subse. quently issued similar orders couched in strong terms, though under the Commonwealth the duties of lords lieutenant were not recognized, the militia being raised by commissioners. The great services rendered by the militia in the “crowning mercy” of Worcester are a historic exception to the general decadence of second

line troops in the 17th and 18th centuries (see Great Reset. LION and Worcester, BATTLE OF, 1651). At the Restoration an act was passed declaring that the control of the militia was the prerogative of the king. By the same statute the militia of each county was placed under the lieutenant, who was vested with the appointment of officers, but with a reservation to the Crown in the

way of commissioning and dismissal. The cost of the anneal training—for fourteen days—fell upon the local authority. Of-

The county organization of England, with which throughout fences against discipline were dealt with by the civil magistrates, the militia was closely associated, began with the advent of the but with a power to the officers of fining and of imprisoning m Saxons. The prototype of the militia was the Fyrd. In tbis force default. Upon this footing the militia of England remained for as reorganized by Alfred liability of service was general on the part nearly a century, with the general approval of the community, of every able-bodied male between the ages of 16 and 60. Although as an instrument for defence and the preservation of internal the title of “The Fyrd” survived until long after the Norman con- order. While the supreme command was distinctly vested in the quest, the force established by King Alfred was known as the gen- Crown, every practical security was thus taken against its use eral levy, which was bound to appear armed when ordered to aid by the Crown for any object not constitutional or legitimate. in suppressing domestic riots as well as in defending the realm It was regarded as, and was, in fact, the army of the state as against invasion by foreign foes. Service was restricted to the distinguished from the standing army, which was very much counties, except in case of invasion, when it was extended to the the army of the king personally. But the new “professional” whole kingdom. The Norman Conquest was immediately followed conditions of warfare, and perhaps the practice of trying mil by the introduction of the feudal levy in addition to the general tary offences by civil courts, contributed to the disrepute inte levy, the distinction between these forces being that while obli- which the militia fell and the inefficiency it displayed, with gation to serve in the latter rested upon every male within certain the exception of the trained bands of London, until it was tre limits of age, service in the feudal levy depended upon tenure of organized in 1757. Under the act of 1662 all train bands wer lend under the king as feudal lord, The general levy was not in discontinued in the counties, but those of London, with ther any case hable for service overseas, but the king for a long time auxiliaries, remained until 1794, when they were reorganized 8s employed his feudal tenants in continental wars until they too, the City of London Militia. In 1688 an act was passed raising the successfully resisted the demand. Personal service formed the militia for one year, and for some time it was an annually santbasis of both levies, but service by deputy, or payment in lieu of tioned force as the regular army is to-day. In 1690, on the opersonal service were allowed from very early times. The feudal casion of the threatened French invasion, the militia was emlevy was discontinued during the Commonwealth and abolished at bodied; and again in 1715 and 1745 during the troubles caused by the Restoration; but liability to serve in the general levy has never the Old and Young Pretenders. In a pamphlet of 1712 the Engbeen extinguished, but remains in the statutory and practical form lish militia was estimated at 7,450 horse and 84,391 foot soldier. Various dominions and colonies of the British Empire have militias, for which see Untrep Kincpom: Army. For the Swiss Militia System, which is in many respects the archetype of modern militias, see

SWITZERLAND; and for the organized militia of the United States see UNTTED STATES and NATIONAL GUARD.

MILITIA OF IRELAND

AND SCOTLAND

Ireland and Scotland did not furnish any

militia uoti

1715 and 1797 respectively, although in Scotland militia existed

MILITIA

485

jong before 1797, ¢.g. in Perthshire in 1684; and in addition corps `

In the later stages of the great French war the tendency of the government was to use the general militia rather as a reservoir grst raised in 1715 Was restricted to Protestants between the ages producing drafts (in the end whole units) for service abroad, and yí 16 and 60, who were bound to appear or provide substitutes. . the local militia as the real defensive force. After the peace of The force was not made subject to military law, but various mil- 1815 the militia was allowed practically to fall into abeyance, and wary offences were punishable by fine or imprisonment. In 1793 | although the permanent staff was maintained, it had no duties to a new act was passed providing for raising a force of militia by| perform. It was not until 1852, after an unsuccessful attempt to ballot among men between the ages of 18 and 45, to serve for four resuscitate the local militia, that the general militia of England rs. An amendment in 1797 abolished religious restrictions for was reorganized under a system of voluntary enlistment with the the supplementary militia, and another in 1802 for the general ballot in reserve, Scotland and Ireland being included in 1854. militia. The Scottish militia was at frst raised by ballot among Larger powers respecting the militia were conferred upon the men between the ages of 19 and 30. In 1802 former acts were Crown, and during the Crimean War the queen was authorized ced by an act providing for the organization of the militia to embody the militia whenever a state of war existed with any on a basis similar to that on which the militia of England was foreign power. In that war the militia was embodied and did garorganized by the Consolidation Act passed in that year. rison duty not only in the United Kingdom but in the Mediterranean garrisons, thus enabling the authorities to send most of CONDITIONS DOWN TO THE WORLD WAR the available regular troops to the scene of hostilities. It further Reorganization of 1757.—To return to England, the imme- contributed many officers and some 30,000 men to the line. Durdiate cause of the organic reform carried out in 1757 was the dis- ing the Indian Mutiny it filled scarcely less useful functions when closure of the inefficiency of the militia during the Rebellion of again called out. 174g. A liability on the part of the county or parish was now subIn 1871 an important constitutional change was made. It was stituted for a liability on the part of individual property-owners. part of the new army system inaugurated in that year that the Each county was required to furnish a quota apportioned among control of the militia should be removed from the lord-lieutenant the various parishes; men were to be chosen by lot to serve for of the county and vested wholly in the Crown. It now virtually three years (this being the first provision of a fixed term of serv- ceased to exist as a distinct body, and in 1881 it became a part of ice) or to provide, or pay £10 for the provision of, a substitute, the regular forces with a limitation as to the time and area and and the ages of liability were from 18 to 45. The force was to be other conditions of service. Militia battalions were united with the annually trained and exercised for a limited period, and in case of line battalions to form “territorial” regiments. The officers, who invasion or danger thereof, or in case of rebellion, the Crown were commissioned by the Crown, were in 1877 made subject at all could order it or any portion of it to be embodied; but only on times to military law. Non-commissioned officers and men were condition of informing parliament (which was if not sitting to be only so subject when embodied or out for training. The period of summoned for the purpose). During the embodiment or annual engagement was for six years, re-engagements for periods of four training it was subject to the Mutiny Act, except that no punish- years up to the age of 45 being permitted. Bounties were paid to ment during training was to extend to “life or limb,” to prevent militiamen at various rates upon enlistment, conclusion of trainan unconstitutional use of the militia by the Crown, the estimate ing, re-engagement, enlistment into reserve or special service secfor its training was framed each year, not by an executive minis- tion, and other special circumstances. The annual training varied ter of the sovereign, but by the House of Commons itself. Upon with the different branches of the service. The usual term for inthe initiative of a committee of the House, an act was passed pro- fantry was 27 days, 56 days being the legal maximum. The militia viding for the pay and clothing of the militia for the year. The dépots occupied as a rule the same barracks, and officers and men king directly appointed the permanent staff and was given a veto wore (with slight distinctions) the same uniform as the regulars. on the appointment and promotion of the officers, who were to ‘The militia reserve consisted of men selected from the ranks of have a property qualification. the militia for special enlistment for service in the regular army Under this act 30,000 militiamen were raised by ballot and em- when called upon in emergencies, in the following proportions to bodied from 1759 to 1763. This force was exclusively “‘Protest- the establishments of the various corps: Artillery, one-third; enant,’ and remained so until 1802. The service of the militia as gineers and infantry, one-fourth; medical staff corps, orie-half. thus arranged remained nearly in the same state until 1870. Pitt’s The term “militia” reserve was therefore a complete misnomer, reform, however, was followed by numerous amendments, new and the force so called was purely an army reserve. The special enactments, and other changes, of which the most important are service section of the militia was formed by royal warrant in 1898, summarized below :— and consisted of (1) militia units and (2) individual militiamen. 1796. Supplementary militia formed, consisting of 63,878 men. A militia unit was considered as available for special service if 1798. Seon Saree English militia volunteered for service in not less than 75% of the officers and men present at training made reang. a voluntary offer to engage for special service in any part of the 1799. Irish militia volunteered to serve in Great Britain. world. Liability for service was limited to 12 months. The result 15,000 militiamen volunteered to regular army. 1805. Militia affiliated to line for purposes of recruiting for regulars. of this special section was not up to rgoo satisfactory. of fencibles were raised and embodied.

The Irish militia when

ai

1806. Training Act to raise by ballot 200,000 men to be trained for one whole year, and then to discharge them from training for two years.

1808. Difficulties having arisen under above Act, local militia (which is in effect the old general levy) established in addition to general militia then embodied.

1811. English militia now made liable to serve in any part of the United Kingdom under certain restrictions, which were subsequently (in 1859} removed. 1812. In this year there were 250 regiments of local militia, with an establishment of 240,388 men and 214,418 actually enrolled.

1813. During ten years, from 1803 to 1813, nearly 100,000 militiamen Joined the regular army.

Act passed to enable militia to serve abroad as militia with their own officers. Three strong battalions joined the British army im France.

1815. Local militia and Ballot Act suspended.

General militia disembodied.

1820-21-25. Militia called out for training. , t. Militiamen raised by ballot in accordance with Order in Council, 27th of December 1830. This was the last occasion on which the ballot was put in force.

During and after the South African War, while militia recruiting for the regulars showed a constant increase compared with preceding years, the strength of the militia itself decreased year after year. Its militia character had been diminishing ever since the creation of the “‘militia reserve” and the close affiliation of the force to the regular army. For good or evil, then, it had become in the first place a draft-producing agency, and on the reorganization of the forces of the Crown into two lines by Mr. Haldane the old “constitutional force” was frankly reorganized as a reserve for the

line, enlistment and training conditions remaining somewhat similar to those in vogue in the militia, but the liability for service abroad becoming the first and most important condition in the “special reservist’s” enlistment. THE SPECIAL RESERVE Test of the War—The new Special Reserve was soon to be tested highly. For the World War had hardly begun in 1914 before the casualties and the consequent demand for drafts immeasurably

486

MILITIA

exceeded all calculations. While the Territorial Force and the | organization, armament and discipline to be the same as in the New Armies were maintained from their own reserve sources of | regular army; it authorized the secretary of war to issue at Federy man-power, the requirements of the regular army were such that | expense ammunition and supplies provided for the regular army:

in the later stages of the war many of its battalions were officered , it provided for regular inspections by regular army officers and regular returns by State adjutants general; it provided for partic). pation of the militia in joint manoeuvres with the regular army and to the infantry alone. The Special Reserve performed a three- for pay, subsistence and transportation during such activities fold task, for besides supplying drafts it was relieving the Terri- State encampments for training were provided for, regular army torial Force of the duty of guarding the coast and provided part officers were sent to the States as instructors, and other important of the nucleus of trained soldiers on whom the New Armies were improvements in organization were provided. The Division of built. In addition, six infantry battalions and thirteen R.E. Military Affairs in the War Department, with a regular army of companies were sent out as units. cer as chief, was inaugurated. The divisional plan of organization After the war, as a concession to feeling, the time-honoured was adopted in r913 and further Federal aid and co-operation Were title of “The Militia” was revived, and the War Office took the embodied in the National Defence Act of June 3, 1916. step of allotting one battalion to each regular regiment and invited On Aug. 5, 1917, all of the National Guard to which Federal entirely by officers trained in the Special Reserve. Some 67,307 officers and 1.763.253 other ranks were sent overseas as drafts

county authorities to recommend officers for command.

But the

retrenchment

of any

of expenditure caused the postponement

action, and the militia remains a mere title in the Army List, with

a few officers nominally on Hs strength and the solemn annual announcement that “no militia training will be carried out this year.” The increasing mechanization of the army is, however, tending to reduce the need for and the suitability of such a force, and its place has to some extent been taken by the formation of a Supplementary Reserve consisting mainly of technical personnel. (B. H. L. H.)

UNITED STATES The militia of the United States of America consists of all ablebodied male citizens (including those who have indicated their intention to become citizens) of more than 18 and, except as provided by law, of not more than 45 years of age. It comprises the National Guard, the Naval Militia and the Unorganized Militia. The National Guard consists of regularly enlisted militia between the ages of 18 and 45, and commissioned officers between the ages of 21 and 64 years. The National Guard developed from the militia, and is the largest and best prepared component of the military

establishment. It is to be used as a front line force in time of emergency. In 1774 the Massachusetts Colonial Assembly appointed a Committee of Safety which organized the militia in the locality of Boston. The Second Continental Congress (1775) provided for the organization of the militia of the several colonies, part of which agreed to hold themselves in readiness at a minute’s notice, thereby becoming the so-called “Minute Men.” Shortly after the battle of Lexington, the Congress of Massachusetts resolved that 50,000 troops were necessary and advised the several colonies to

raise their proportion of this force, 13,600 being the quota to be raised in Massachusetts. The Continental Congress, in so far as organization and administration of the militia was concerned, was almost entirely advisory. Enlistments were for approximately three months and desertions were extremely numerous. Of the 395,864 troops enrolled during the Revolutionary War, 164,087 were militia. Troops were untrained, and the officers inexperienced.

The first Federal Militia Law was enacted in 1792 and provided for the enrollment for military duty of able-bodied, white, male citizens between 18 and 45 years of age. No compensation was offered but each militiaman was expected to provide himself with a good musket. No active Federal control was contemplated and no Federal nancial aid provided before 1808, For over roo years

after the Revolution, there was practically no development of the militia. There was no co-operation between the regular army

and State troops until about 1880.

In 1880, $200,000 was voted

by Congress for the militia. This continued until 1887 when it was increased to $400,000 yearly. From 1900 to 1906, $1,000,000 was voted, and at present appropriations are about $31,000,000.

In the Spanish War, the militia consisted of about 1,600 companies informally grouped, in some instances, into battalions, regiments and brigades. The origin of the present National Guard dates from the Dick Bill of 1903, whereby the militia was officially designated the “Organized Militia of the United States.” The bill provided for:

recognition had been extended became part of the army of the United States. These troops consisted of 12,115 officers and 336,954 enlisted men and were organized into 16 divisions which were sent to various camps throughout the country for further training and development for use during the World War. Reorganization of 1920.—By the Act of June 4, 1920, the National Guard was reorganized, and provision made for the preservation of names, records and flags of former National

Guard organizations that had served in the World War, and for

the establishment of the Militia Bureau of the War Department.

This law further provided for enlistment under Federal oath,

defined the pay, provided for equipment and training, and for the employment of the National Guard by draft into the service of the United States in national emergencies. The authorized strength of the National Guard was fixed at 200 enlisted men for each senator and representative in Congress

and a number to be determined by the president for each territory

and the District of Columbia, this number to be increased each year after 1920 in the proportion of not less than 50% until the total peace strength of not less than 800 enlisted men for each senator and representative in Congress should have been reached. This now provides for a force of about 435,800.

In 1922 the National Guard was to be limited to 250,000, bat

current appropriations are sufficient for the maintenance of only 186,000, which comprise 18 infantry divisions, four cavalry divisions, certain coast defence corps and army troops, G.H.Q. and auxiliary units. In general, two divisions of infantry have been allocated to each of the nine corps areas of the United States, The enlisted personnel is obtained by recruiting agencies under State control. Original enlistments are for three years, subsequent enlistments being for one year. The National Guard when not in Federal service is under command of the governor of each State. While not in the service of the United States, it is governed by National Guard regulations issued by the War Department in forms similar to army regulations. The Militia Bureau, under the direction of the secretary of war, is charged with the general administration of National Guard affairs. It is inspected by regular army officers to determine

Federal recognition and consequent Federal financial aid. Annual

armoury and field inspections are required. State funds amounting to about $11,000,000 provide for the State administration of the National Guard and supplement the pay of officers and mea

which is provided by the Federal Government.

In general, the

United States appropriates about $3.00 where the States appropriate about $1.00. The cost of each enlisted man in the National Guard is approximately $230.00 a year. Officers and men in the National Guard receive one day’s pay on a regular army basis for each drill period attended by 50% of

the enlisted and 60% of the officer personnel and for each day of

practical training in camp. Officers of the National Guard ar eligible for detail as students at the general and special service schools of the army.

National Guard troops may be employed (1) as State troops under State control; (2) by the Federal Government under into the Government service under constitutional provisions execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrection and repel invasion; (3) by draft into the Federal service as part of the

MILK amy

of the United States.

A “call” into the service of the

United States is issued by the president in certain specifically degned emergencies. It may be issued when troops are required for

„me specific purpose, or it may be a warning order preliminary

to a procedure known as a “draft.” A “draft” is a procedure adopted by the president to take into the military service of the nation as a component of the army for service during the war or

in an emergency a part or all of the National Guard when Conshall specifically authorize for any particular emergency the use of armed land forces in excess of the regular army. As a resuit of this act (draft), the National Guard is divested of its militia character and becomes a Federal force without allegiance to State authorities. (W. N. HA.)

MILK is the secretion of the mammary glands (mammae) of

487

to purchase all their supplies through the pool. The Agency already embraces over 1,200 individual farmers,

Recently the Scottish Milk Poo! has extended its activities to

Edinburgh and Aberdeen. Little changes have been caused by the inception of the pool in the methods of distribution, but gradual economies will be introduced, so as to lower transport and distribution costs. Milk Classification.—Various “clean milk” movements have resulted, in England, in an optional system of grading milk with a sufficiently high degree of bacterial purity. The following standards are laid down under licence granted by or under the authority

of the Ministry of Health:—

the large class, the Mammalia, of vertebrate animals that suckle tbeir young. Those animals the milk of which is commonly con-

Reu Milk

sumed by man are the cow, the goat and the sheep.

Bacterial content

The average composition of milk, according to Richmond is shown in the following table. Water aa‘ Fat (Milk fat or butter fat) Lactose

.

š

;

-

.

14 Farmer’s co-

operative creameries, and handles over 50,000 gallons of milk per day, or 70% of all the milk supplies of the Clyde valley.

Maximum number of

bacilli per cubic

. 87-34 . 3:95

Coliform bacillus

4:70

Caseinogen Lactalbumin Salts ee ; Other Constituents

3-00 O40 O75 a6

Tuberculin tested and physically examined at regu-

While the lactose and mineral salts are in true solution (see SoLUTIONS) the proteins, caseinogen and lactalbumin, are present in colloidal solution, with which fat is intimately mixed in the form of an emulsion or suspension of globules.

Bottled on the farm, name of

Absent

in

fs cubic

lar intervals

Milk is a complete food, containing as it does protein, fat, carbohydrates, mineral constituents, and water.

Other conditions

Though deficient or

physically examined at regular intervals

very young of that species in all respects, including its contents of

vitamines (g.v.). On the other hand, it may not be equally satisfactory for the young of another species. Thus cow’s milk is not

Physically examined at regular intervals

THE BRITISH MILK TRADE

Owing to its nature, fluid milk is one of the few products which arepractically free from foreign competition. Approximately 80%

Absent in q$

cubic

See Note*

centimetre

*Delivered to consumers in (a) the bottles or the sealed containers as received from the farm; (b) suitable containers of not less than two gal-

lons capacity; (c) bottles with the name of the dealer by whom the milk was bottled, the address of the licensed bottling establishment, the day of production and the words “Grade A Tuberculin Tested” or “Grade A” on each bottle cap.

Pasteurized Milk Grade A milk that after pasteurization, as required by the Minister of Health, contains not more than 30,000 bacilli per cubic centimetre and no coliform bacillus in y cc. AH other conditions as required for Grade A milk

separated or condensed milk) must contain not less than 3 per cent. of milk fat and 8-5 per cent. “solids not fat,” until the con-

trary is proved. Skimmed or separated milk should contain not lessthan 8-7 per cent. total solids. The addition of preservatives or of colouring matter is illegal.

tion and word “Certified” on each bottle

Tuberculin tested and

lacking in certain metallic elements believed essential for normal adult health, the milk of any species is an adequate diet for the

always an absolute source of vitamine C for human infants. Normally cow’s milk if produced under proper conditions is an adequate source of vitamines A and B, and a reasonably good source oi C and D. Its content of vitamine E is probably low. Variation in Composition.—The specific effects of different crcumstances on the yield and chemical composition of milk are frequently dealt with in the reports on the experimental work carried out by the various agricultural colleges. According to Mackintosh the naturally occurring conditions which influence the yield and quality of milk can be summarized as follows:—1. Breed of Cow. 2. Individuality of Cow. 3. Period of Lactation. 4. Interval between milkings. 5. Efficiency of the milker. 6. Age of the Cow. 7. Climate and weather conditions. 8. Health of the Cow. 9. Kind and quality of food. Under the Food and Drugs Act milk (other than skimmed,

farm, day of produc-

Pasteurized

Any milk that after pasteurization, as required by the Minister of Health, contains not more than 100,000 bacilli per cubic centimetre. No requirement for bottling

The regulations for the production of graded milks in Scotland is similar to the above, except that the milk must contain not less than 3-5 per cent of butter fat.

ed the dairy farms in England and Wales are producing milk for

CONSUMPTION OF MILK Statistics indicate that of the 1,117 million gallons of milk

of all food stuffs. Such organization depends largely upon centres

consumed in the liquid state. This figure ignores the surplus which would be used for manufacturing. On this basis it has been estimated that the consumption per person in England and Wales is approximately o-44 pts. per day. For comparison, the consumption of milk per capita per day in the following countries Is given:—Switzerland 1-83 pints, Sweden 1-48 pints, U.S.A., 1-oo pints, France 0-33 pints, and Berlin o-30 pints.

sale in the liquid state, which necessitates good market organizaion, as milk is the most perishable, bulky and easily contaminated

ei consumption by reason of the high cost of transport and necessary speed of delivery.

Afterthe low prices of 1922 the National Farmers’ Union and

the National Federation of Dairymen combined to form a com-

muttee, which now regulates the price, and this price at first only plicable to London now influences the whole country. After some opposition the majority of milk distributors agreed

produced (exclusive of that fed to calves, etc.), 888 millions were

488

MILK

Milk Products.—Butter and cheese production is largely con- | quantities are obtained from the Netherlands, Canada, Australia fined to the West of England. (See Darey Farminc.) Large and the United States. Dried Casein.—Casein is prepared for food, and industrial quantities are imported, butter from Denmark, New Zealand, and Australia. New Zealand and Canada are the chief countries from purposes. The usual method is by curdling separated milk, either which cheese supplies are drawn. Cream for sale finds a limited by rennet or by acid; the precipitated casein is then washed and market, and recent legislation entirely prohibits the addition of dried. Two distinct types are produced, one for food and medicinal preservatives to cream. purposes, the other for use in the manufacture of paints, putties ice Cream.—Accurate figures on the manufacture of ice cream plastic masses, artificial ivory, for waterproofing manufacture, and are difficult to obtain. The consumption is steadily increasing and as a dressing for paper and cloth. the sales in 1923 were quite 5 times greater than those in 1919. Good ice cream is very nutritious and easily digested. Unlike the United States and Canada, England has no definite legal standard as to composition. The constituents used are many including fresh milk, condensed or dried milk, butter, cream, eggs, sugar, flavouring chocolate, nuts and fruit, with gelatine. corn-flour and rennet as stabilisers. The process through which the mix, or unfrozen ice cream, passes are as follows:—Weighing and mixing of ingredients, pasteurising, homogenizing, and standardising to smooth the mixture and form a perfect emulsion, cooling, ageing for 12—72 hours to improve the flavour and then finally freezing and hardening. Condensed and Dried Milk.—Condensed milk is cow’s milk, skimmed or full cream from which a large proportion of water has been evaporated. The varieties known to the trade are sweetened condensed milk, to which cane sugar has been added, unsweetened condensed or evaporated milk, bulk condensed milk, and concentrated milk, such designations referring to the degree of concentration. Unsweetened varieties are sterilized during the manufacturing process. In this country the composition, and concentration is limited by the Condensed Milk Regulations (1923), which require that all condensed milk imported or sold for human consumption be contained in a tin or receptacle labelled as prescribed in the regulations. All condensed milk shall contain not less than:—

The imports of Casein into Great Britain are largely from New Zealand, France, and Argentina. Considerable progress in the manufacture and export of casein has taken place in New Zealand

(O. J. R.; A. Hy.)

during the last few years.

UNITED STATES

The total annual production of milk in the United States has

increased steadily for a number of years. This is due more tg increased production per cow than to increase in number of

cows. The number of milch cows on farms, 1920-28, as estimated on Jan. 1 of each year by the U.S. Department of Agriculture

and including all milch cows and heifers two years old and over

follows :—

Number

Number | 1925

21,427,000

The increase in number of cows on farms from 1920 to 1928

was 6.41%. On Jan. 1, 1928, there were 185 milcn cows on farms per 1,000 population, as against zor in 1920. Estimates by the U.S. Department of Agriculture of milk production since 1020 indicate the progress of the dairy industry :— Production of milk

Production of milk in pounds

89,65 7,000,000 98,86 2,000,000

114,666,000,000 116,505,000,c00 120,766,000,000

in pounds

1. Full cream (unsweetened) . 2. Full cream (sweetened)

102,562,000,000

England is the principal market for condensed milk, but conSiderable quantities are re-exported. The Netherlands, Denmark, and the United States are the chief sources of supply, to a lesser extent Switzerland and Canada. A small amount is manufactured in this country. Cow's milk, whole, or with part, or all of the cream removed, and evaporated to dryness, is variously named dry milk, desiccated milk, dehydrated milk, pulverized milk, milk powder, powdered milk, or milk four. Sometimes it contains sucrose, and sometimes alkali or a buffer salt is added to render the product easily soluble. Powdered milk is well dried. Troubles due to bacteria and enzyme action are seldom met with, but deterioration due to oxidation of the milk fat may take place. For this reason milk powder from skimmed milk is most extensively manufactured.

The Public Health (Dried Milk) Regulations 1923 prescribe for the labelling and description of dried milk and milk powder. There are four classes of dried milk (1) dried full cream milk; (2) dried three-quarter cream milk;.(3) dried half-cream milk; and (4) dried quarter-cream milk. Such milk shall contain not less than the following percentage of milk fat and milk solids :—

Milk fat % aa

| Three-quarter-creaam milk Half-creammikk 2. . Quarter-creaam milk. 2.

. . . . ow, |,

199,736,000,000

-

3. Skimmed (unsweetened) 4. Skimmed (sweetened).

Mik

22,481,000 22,188,000 | 21,818,000 21,948,000

21,408,000 } 1926 21,788,000 || 1927 22,063,000 | 1928 22,255,000

3°6

2°7 18 o9

Milk solids (including fat)

T

124

11-6 10°8 9°9

New Zealand is the chief source cf supplies, but considerable

| | |

Utilization of Milk.—The following table gives the quantities and proportions of milk in the United States used in each product for the calendar year 1926 :— Production and Uses of Milk in the United States Milk used | Quantity of

per unitiproduct manu-

of

product

factured

lb. Creamery butter . | 2r Farm butter . . | ar Cheese (all kinds). | 10

Condensed

Ib.

oe

s

"

evaporated milk. | 2-5 | 1,733,504,000 | 4,333,760, Powdered milk Powdered cream

Malted milk... Sterilized milk (canned) . . Milk chocolate

Ice cream

8 IQ

10,708,000 331,000

milk

6,144, 6,289,

25' 245 10-b | 3°53 |

|

3-580 | “a7! “005

2-2

20,673,000

45,481,

-038

I iS

1,286,000 a

1,286, 171,543,00

“00! "142

13°75"|

324,665,000f|

Total whole milk used in manufacturing. . .

T

Milk: For household purposes } Fed to calves

4,464,144, 56,784,893,

ATOR

55°3 gal. : { per caput } 56,417,000,000 46-716 200 Ib. per calf] 3,941,600, 3°264

Wasted (esti-

mated)

Grand total

of total

Ib.

1,451,766,000 | 30,487,086,000} 615,000,000 | 12,915,000, 427,416,000 | 4,274,160,

and

[Per cent

a

3,622,994;

F *Per gallon.

120,766,487,000{ fGallons.

|

57008| 100000

MILKING MACHINE—MILKY The per caput consumption of milk, butter, cheese, condensed and evaporated milk and ice cream in the United States since 1917 shows remarkable increases. |

Tee

. Milk

gal w7

1913 1919

1920

> | A424

43°0 43°0

a Butter

Ib. 14°6

140 14°8

jand eva

Ice

rated milk tae

Ib.

ib.

gal.

2°89

10°49

2°O7

3°00 3°50

12-50 12°30

2-14 2-49

4Q°O

16-1

3°50

3°59

1017

II*40

2°28

1922

50°0

16:5

3°70

12-69

2°43

54°75

17°38

4°20

14°00

2°50

14°32

2°77

1923

1925

1926

530

54°75

55°30

14°7

Condensed Cheese

1931

1924

43°0

|

179

17°39

17°82

3°90

4°26

4°36

13°25

14°87

2°46

2-68

2-80

City Milk Supply.—The smaller American cities, having popwlations from a few hundred to 5,000, are usually supplied entirely by farmers who live near the cities, and by people who live in the suburbs and own one or more cows. Cities with a population of 5,000 to 10,000 are supplied by farmers from near the cities and also by milk distributors who purchase milk from more distant farmers and distribute it throughout the city. The larger cities receive their milk supply by train or truck from the country districts, sometimes from a distance of 200 or more miles. The

supply of cream may be furnished in part by dairy districts 500 to 1,000 m. distant. The farmers who supply milk for such large tities as New York and Chicago, receive a price based on the butter-fat content of the milk less a charge for transportation according to the zone from which it is shipped. The zones are 10 m. in width and shippers in the same zone pay the same

WAY

489

cream. One co-operative creamery association, during 1927, shipped 417 cars of sweet cream from the Middle West to Eastern cities. A recent development in the distribution of market milk and cream consists of the chain stores which retail milk and

cream, generally at a slightly lower price than is asked for the

milk delivered at the door of the patrons. Chain stores also have become an important factor in the retail distribution of butter and cheese, often buying direct from the manufacturers and

tana

selling direct to the consumer with a very small margin of profit.

(See also Foop PreservaTron.) (T. R. Pr.) MILKING MACHINE: see Damy MACHINERY. MILK-TREE, the name applied to two South American trees.

In Brazil this is Mimusops elata, which produces a latex that “exudes in abundance when the bark is cut: it has about the consistence of thick cream” (A. R. Wallace, Travels on the Amazon and Rio Negro), and is used as milk and as glue. The timber of this tree is valuable and the fruit is edible. It belongs to the sapodilla family (Sapotaceae). The milk-tree of Venezuela is Brosimum Galactodendron, a member of the mulberry family (Moraceae). (See COW-TREE.)

MILKWEED,

the name given to plants of the botanical

genus Asclepias, family Asclepiadaceae (g.v.), comprising about 85 species, natives mostly of the New World, some 45 of which are found in North America. All are characterized by having a milky juice, and silky-downy seeds. Well known species of the eastern United States and Canada are the common milkweed (A. syriaca), the swamp milkweed (A. incarnata) and the poke milkweed (A. exaltata). Noteworthy species of the western United States are the showy milkweed (A. speciosa) and the narrow-

leaved milkweed (A. mexicana). See BUTTERFLY-WEED.

MILKWORT, in botany, the common name for plants of the

genus Polygala (family Polygalaceae), a large genus of some soo species, widely dispersed in temperate and tropical regions and represented by about 5o species in North America and a few

transportation costs per 100 Ib. of milk. Milk receiving and cooling stations are located along the railroads, to which the milk is species in Great Britain. The common species, P. vulgaris, is delivered direct by the farmers or “milk haulers” who collect a small wiry perennial found on heaths and in meadows throughfrom the farmers. Milk is hauled by passenger trains or by special out the British Isles. The stems are 2 to 10 in. long and bear trains which take precedence on the railroad over most of the narrow rather tough leaves and other traffic. When the milk arrives at the dépots it is speedily small, to 4 in. long, white, pink, taken to the plants of the milk distributors, pasteurized, cooled blue, lilac or purple flowers. The aad bottled ready for the milk wagons or trucks to deliver it to flowers are peculiar in form and the consumers the following day. arrangement of parts; they have Trend of Milk Prices—The trend of the price of market five free sepals the two inner of milk has been upward for the last 30 years. This increase in which (6) are large petaloid and pice is, of course, due in part to a rise in the general price winglike, forming the most conlevel of all commodities. The yearly average wholesale price of spicuous part of the flower; the market milk per too Ib. in Chicago, Ill., in 1900 was $1.35; in petals are united below with the 1910, $1.83; in 1928, $2.49, an increase of 84-4% from 1900 to 1928, The retail price of milk for household use varies with the

sheath forming behind; the pea

region and also with the season. The winter price is higher than the summer price on account of the additional cost of feed and

as an inducement to producers to increase the supply and thus prevent a shortage. Co-operative bargaining associations of producers have been able to increase the producer’s price somewhat, but in many cities the retail price is more than double the buying price at country stations. When the price paid the producers is from 6 to 9 tenis per quart, the retail price per quart delivered to consumers

gala is from the Greek rods, much, and yaa, milk, the plant being supposed to increase the yield of milk in cows. Some species with showy flowers are known in cultivation as greenhouse or hardy annual or perennial, herbs or shrubs. The root of P. Senega, snake-root, a North

im large cities is usually from 12 to 20 cents.

_ the prices paid milk producers who are members of co-operalive-selling organizations, are generally established monthly at a meeting of their committee, which meets with the dealers to dis-

cuss the market conditions. The price of 92 score butter and the

of milk for manufacture of cheese are considered with other

of the eight stamens a tube split at the base their form recalls that of family. The name Poly-

MILKWORT

(POLYGALA VULGARIS)

The flowers have two coloured sepals,

American species is officinal. The fringed milk wort or flowering

wintergreen

(P. paucifolia), of

which are red, white or blue like the the north-eastern United States

factors in establishing the fluid milk price. Although the principal flowers

and adjacent Canada, is a delicate woodland plant with handsome purple flowers. Sea milkwort let butter and cheese, some of them are in a position to ship is the common name for Glaux maritima, a small succulent herb cet cream or milk to the city market whenever it is advanta- found on northern ocean shores, and occurring on the Atlantic and tows to do so. Frequently cheese factories are under contract to Pacific coasts and locally in the interior of North America and furnish milk distributors in cities with milk when it is needed. also in the British Isles; it belongs to the primrose family (Pri~ co-operative creameries, where the cream is of good quality, mulaceae). of co-operative butter and cheese associations is to mar-

wany cars of sweet cream to large cities for use as fluid

MILKY WAY: see GALAXY AND STAR.

490

MILL

MILL, HUGH

ROBERT

(:861-

), British geographer

and meteorologist. was born at Thurso on May 28, 1861, and was

educated at Edinburgh university In 1884 he was appointed chemist and physicist to the Scottish marine station. In 1892 he became librarian to the Royal Geographical Society, and was honorable secretary of the Royal Meteorological Society from 1902-06, becoming Its president in 1907. He served on many committees connected with meteorology and allied subjects, including the International Council for the study of the sea (1901og), and the board of trade committee on the water power of

the British Isles (1918).

In 1901 he became director of the

British Rainfall Organization, and editor of the British Rainfall and Symons’s Meteorological Magazine, and when the organization was converted into a trust he became chairman of trustees (1909-19).

From

1906-19 he was rainfall expert to the Metro-

politan Water Board. In 1927 he became president of the Royal Geographical Society. His publications include: The Realm of Nature (1892, latest ed. 1913); The English Lakes (1895); Hints on the Choice of Geographical Books (1897); New Lands (1900); The Siege of the South Pole (1905); a historical introduction to Sir Ernest Shackleton’s Heart of the Antarctic (1909); The Life of Str Ernest Shackleton (1923); he also edited Iniernational Geography (1911).

MILL, JAMES (1773-1836), historian and philosopher, was born on April 6, 1773, at Northwater Bridge, in the parish of Logie-Pert, Forfarshire, the son of James Mill, a shoemaker. His mother, Isabel Fenton, of a good family which had suffered from connection with the Stuart rising of 1745, sent him first to the parish school and to the Montrose academy, and then to the university of Edinburgh, where he distinguished himself as a Greek scholar. In October 1798 he was licensed as a preacher, but occupied himself with occasional teaching and with historical

and philosophical studies. In 1802 he went to London in company with Sir John Stuart, then M.P. for Kincardineshire, and devoted himself to journalism. In 1804 he wrote a pamphlet on the corn trade, arguing against a bounty on the exportation of grain. After his marriage (1805) with Harriet Burrow, he took a house in Pentonville, where his eldest son, John Stuart Mill (g.v.), was born in 1806. About the end of this year he began his History of India, which he took 12 years to complete, instead of three or four, as he had expected. in 1808 he became acquainted with Jeremy Bentham, and was for many years his chief companion and ally. He adopted Bentham’s principles in their entirety, and did more to propagate them and to oppose the beginnings of Romanticism than anyone else. He was a regular contributor (1806-18) to the AntiJacotin Review, the British Review, the Electric Review, and the Edinburgh Review (1808-13). In 1811 he co-operated with Willam Allen (1770-1843), quaker and chemist, in a periodical called the Pialanthropist. He contributed largely to every number—his principal topics being Education, Freedom of the Press, and Prison Discipline (under which he expounded Bentham’s “Panopticon”). He took part in the discussions which led to the foundation of London university in 1825. In 1814 he wrote various articles, containing an exposition of utilitarianism, for the supplement to the fifth edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica.

shape for the first time; political theory was brought to bear on

the delineation of the Hindu civilization, and the conduct Of the actors in the successive stages of the conquest and administratiog

of India was subjected to a severe criticism. The work itself, and the author’s official connection with India for the last 17 years of his life, effected a complete change in the whole system of gover-

ing that country. Mill played a great part in English politics, and was, more than

any

other man,

the founder

of what

was

called “philosophic

radicalism.” His writings on government and his personal Influence among the Liberal politicians of his time determined the ¢ of view from the French Revolution theories of the rights ofman and the absolute equality of men to the claiming of securities for

good government through a wide extension of the franchise. Under

this banner it was that the Reform Bill was fought and won. His Elements of Political Economy, which was intended only as a textbook of the subject, shows all the author’s precision and lucidity. Its interest is mainly historical, as an accurate summary

of the views of the philosophic radicals, based mainly on Ricardo. Mill maintained: (1) that the chief problem of,practical reformers

is to limit the increase of population, on the assumption that capital does not naturally increase at the same rate as population

(ii. § 2, art. 3); (2) that the value of a thing depends entirely on the quantity of labour put into it; and (3) that what is now known as the “unearned increment” of land is a proper object for

taxation. The clear enunciation of the second of these propositions is important in view of the emphasis laid on it by Marx and

his followers and the deductions they made from it.

In his Analysis of the Mind Mill developed the psychological side of the Benthamite philosophy. It was a more systematic attempt than that already made by Hartley to explain all mental

phenomena by the association of ideas. “Not only does he explain

all phenomena of consciousness as having arisen through association, but he also—in a somewhat artificial fashion—reduces all

associations to the association of such ideas as have frequently occurred together (which has since been called association by contiguity). . . . As Bentham had attempted to base the whole

of ethics on the single principle that pleasure is preferable to pain, so James Mill attempts to construct the whole of psychology on the single principle that that which has been once experienced can be recalled when experiences which occurred with it, either in space or time, are repeated” (Hoffding, Hist. of Mod. Phd. li. 371). The implication of the Benthamite doctrine as interpreted by Mill, which took too little account of all emotions save one, and of the unconscious and involuntary elements in life, was fiercely fought by Samuel Taylor Coleridge. BrBLioGRAPHY.—Leslie Stephen, The English Utilitarians, vol. & (1900), and article in Dict. Nat. Biog.; A. Bain, James Mill (1882);

G. 8. Bower, Hartley and James Mill (1881) ; James McCosh, Scottish Philosophy (1885); J. S. Mill, Autobiography (1873); Th. Ribot, La Psychologie anglaise (1870; Eng. trans., 1873); J. Morley ia Fortnightly Review, xxxvii. (1882); Graham Wallas, The Life af Francis Place (1898).

MILL, JOHN STUART

(1806-1873), English philosopher

and economist, son of James Mill (qg.v.), was born on May m,

In 1818 the History of India was published, and, in spite of the fact that it contained drastic criticisms of British rule in India, Mill was appointed an official in the India House. He gradually rose till he was appointed, in 1830, head of the office. His Elerp Political Economy appeared in 1821 (3rd and revised

1806 in his father’s house in Pentonville, London. He was edt cated exclusively by his father, who was a strict disciplinarian, saù at the age of three was taught the Greek alphabet and long ists of Greek words with their English equivalents. By his eighth year he had read Aesop’s Fables, Kenophon’s Anabasis, and the whole of Herodotus, and was acquainted with Lucian, Diogenes

From 1824 to 1826 Mill contributed to the Westminster Review, started as the organ of his party, articles attacking the Edinburgh and Quarterly Reviews and ecclesiastical establishments, In 1829 appeared the Analysis of the Human Mind. From 1831 to 1833

biography.) He had also read a great deal of history in Englisk— Robertson’s histories, Hume, Gibbon, Robert Watson’s Philip i. and Philip III., Hooke’s Roman History, part of a translation of Rollin’s Ancient History, Langhorne’s Plutarch, Burnet’s History

1826).

Mill was largely occupied, as the spokesman of the court of directors, in the defence of the East India Company, during the controversy attending the renewal of its charter. His last published 2 was the Fragment on Mackintosh (1835). He died June 23, 1836. Mill's greatest literary monument is the History of India. The

materials for the history of the conquest of India. were put into

Laërtius, Isocrates and six dialogues of Plato.

(See his Aste

of My Own Times, 30 volumes of the Annual Register, Millar's

Historical View of the English Government, Mosheim’s Ecclasta* tical History, M‘Crie’s Knox, and two histories of the Quakers. A contemporary record of Mill’s studies frdm eight to thirteen 5

published in Bain’s sketch of his life. It shows that the As biography rather understates the amount of work done. At U* age of eight he began Latin, Euclid, and algebra, and began te

MILL

491

reach the younger children of the family. His main reading was ‘in the same year. gill history, but he went through all the Latin and Greek authors The Autobiography tells how in 1826 Mill’s enthusiasm was commonly read in the schools and universities. He was never an |checked by a misgiving as to the value of the ends which he had 4

exact scholar; 1t was for the subject matter that he was required |set before him. At the Speculative Debating Society, where he first to read, and by the age of ten he could read Plato and Demos- measured his strength in public conflict, he found himself looked with ease. His father’s History of India was published in upon with curiosity as a precocious phenomenon, a “made man,” 1313; immediately thereafter, about the age of twelve, John began | an intellectual machine set to grind certain tunes. He now saw that a thorough study of the scholastic logic, at the same time reading regard for the public good was too vague an object for the satisfacAristotle's logical treatises in the original. In the following year he tion of a man’s affections. It is a proof of the dominating force of was introduced to political economy and studied Adam Smith and his father’s character that it cost the younger Mill such an effort Ricardo with his father. to shake off his stern creed about poetry and personal emotion. Not unnaturally the training which the younger Mill received Like Plato, the elder Mill would have put poets under ban as has aroused amazement and criticism. The really important part enemies of truth, and he subordinated private to public affections, of the training was the close association with the strenuous char- Landor’s maxims of “few acquaintances, fewer friends, no familacter and vigorous intellect of his father; from his earliest days iarities” had his cordial approval. These doctrines the younger he spent much time in his father’s study and habitually accom- Mill now felt himself forced in reason to abandon. Too much in ied him on his walks in North London. It was an inevitable awe of his father to make him a confidant, he wrestled in gloomy

| i

result of such an education that Mill acquired many of his father’s speculative opinions, and his father’s way of defending them.

But

he did not receive the impress passively and mechanically. “One of the grand objects of education,” according to the elder Mill, “should be to generate a constant and anxious concern about evidence.” The duty of collecting and weighing evidence for himself

solitude. He emerged from the struggle with a more catholic view of human happiness, a delight in poetry for its own sake, a more placable attitude in controversy, a hatred of sectarianism, an ambition, no less noble and disinterested, but moderated to practical

possibilities.

Gradually the debates in the Speculative Society

attracted men whose society was invigorating and inspiring, among was at every turn impressed upon the boy; he was taught to accept others Maurice and John Sterling. He ceased to attend the society no opinion on authority. He was deliberately educated to think in 1829, but he carried away from it the conviction that a true for himself, and never to accept any proposition on authority, but system of political philosophy was “something much more comto reason for himself. His childhood was not unhappy, but there plex and many-sided than he had previously had any idea of, and is no doubt that it was a strain on his constitution, and that he that its office was to supply, not a set of model institutions but suffered from the lack of natural unforced development. He was principles from which the institutions suitable to any given cirover-educated. cumstances might be deduced.” His letters in the Examiner in the autumn of 1830 after a visit From May 1820 till July 1821 Mill was in France in the family of Sir Samuel Bentham, brother of Jeremy Bentham. Copious to Paris, where he made the acquaintance of the younger liberals, extracts from a diary kept by him at this time are given by Bain; may be taken as marking his return to hopeful aspiring activity. they show how methodically he read and wrote, studied chemistry His enthusiasm for humanity had been thoroughly reawakened, and botany, tackled advanced mathematical problems, made notes and had taken shape as an aspiration to supply an unimpeachable on the scenery and the people and customs of the country. He also method of search for conclusions in moral and social science. gained a thorough acquaintance with the French language. On his But he could not at once shake off his early training. He had been return in 1821 he added to his work the study of psychology, and bred by his father in a great veneration for the syllogistic logic as that of Roman law, which he read with John Austin, his father an antidote against confused thinking. He attributed to his early having half decided on the bar as the best profession open to him. discipline in this logic an impatience of vague language which in la 1822, however, when he had just completed his seventeenth all likelihood was really fostered in him by his study of the year, this intention was abandoned, and he entered the examiner’s Platonic dialogues and of Bentham, for he always had in himself ofice of the India House, nominally as a clerk, but from the first more of Plato’s fertile ingenuity in canvassing the meaning of he was more than that, and after a short apprenticeship he was vague terms than the schoolman’s rigid consistency in the use of promoted, in 1828, to assistant-examiner. For twenty years, from them. But he was determined that the new logic should stand in 1836 (when his father died) to 1856, Mill had charge of the Com- no antagonism to the old. In his Westminster review of Whately’s pany’s relations with the native states, and in 1856 he became Logic in 1828 he defended the sylogistic logic against highfliers chief of the office. Few statesmen of his generation had a wider such as the Scottish philosophers who talk of “superseding” it by experience of the responsible application of the principles of gov- “a supposed system of inductive logic.” His inductive logic must ernment, “supplement and not supersede.” But for several years he searched About the time of his entering the India House Mill read Du- in vain for the means of concatenation. mont’s exposition of Bentham’s doctrines in the Traité de LégisMeantime, he had ceased (1828) to write for the Westminster, letion, which made a lasting impression upon him. When he laid but during the years 1832 and 4833 he contributed many essays down the last volume, he says, he had become a different being. It to Taii’s Magazine, the Jurist, and the Monthly Repository. In pave unity to the detached and fragmentary parts of his knowledge 1835 Sir William Molesworth founded the London Review with and beliefs. The impression was confirmed by the study of the Mill as editor; it was amalgamated with the Westminster (as the English psychologists, also of Condillac and Helvetius, and in London and Westminster Review) in 1836, and Mill continued

1822-23 he established among a few friends the “Utilitarian”

editor (latterly proprietor also) till 1840. Some of his essays writ-

Society, taking the word, as he tells us, from Galt’s Annals of the Parish. Two newspapers were open to him—the Traveller, edited

ten for these journals were reprinted in his first two volumes of Dissertations and Discussions (1859). The essays on Bentham and Coleridge constituted the first manifesto of the new spirit which Mill sought to breathe into English Radicalism. In 1837, on reading Whewell’s Inductive Sciences and re-reading Herschel, Mill at last saw his way clear both to formulating the methods of scientific investigation and joining on the new logic as a supplement to the old. The Logic was published in 1843. In 1844 ap-

bya friend of Bentham’s, and the Morning Chronicle, edited by his faiher’s friend Black. One of his first efforts was a solid argument

lor freedom of discussion, in a series of letters to the Chronicle on

the prosecution of Richard Carlile. He seized every chance for posing departures from sound principle in parliament and courts

ei Justice. Another outlet was opened up for him (April 1824)

by the starting of the Westminster Review, which was the organ of the philosophic radicals. In 1825, too, he edited Bentham’s of Judicial Evidence. He discussed eagerly with the many men of distinction who came to his father’s house, and

gaged in set discussions at a reading society formed at Grote’s house in 1825, and in set debates at a Speculative Society formed

peared his Essays on Some Unsetiled Questions in Political Econ-

omy. Four out of the five are solutions of perplexing technical problems—the distribution of the gains of international commerce, the influence of consumption on production, the definition. of productive and unproductive labour, the precise relations between profits and wages. Though Mill appears here purely as the

492

MILL

disciple of Ricardo, striving after more precise statement, and reaching forward to further consequences, he appears as an original

and independent thinker.

That originality and independence became more conspicuous when he reached his second stage as a political economist, struggling forward towards the standpoint from which his systematic

work was written. While his great systematic works were in progress, Mill turned aside for a few months from his Political Economy during the winter of the Irish famine (1846-47) to advocate the creation of peasant-proprietorships as a remedy for distress and disorder in Ireland. The Political Economy was published in 1848. Mull now made a more thorough study of Socialist writers, and began to look upon some more equal distribution of the produce of labour as a practicability of the remote future, and to dwell upon the prospect of such changes in human character as might render a stable society possible without the institution of private property. Mill was convinced that the social question was as important as the political question.

He desired the extension of the franchise, but

he never saw it as the panacea for all ills. He declined to accept property, devised originally to secure peace in a primitive society,

as necessarily sacred in its existing developments in a quite different stage of society. He separated questions of production and distribution, and he examined with an open mind Socialist solutions. He could not rest satisfied with a distribution which condemned the labouring classes to a cramped and wretched existence, and in many instances to starvation. He did not come toa socialist solution, but he had the great merit of having considered afresh the foundations of society. This he has called his third stage as a political economist, and

he says that he was helped towards it by the lady, Mrs. Taylor (Harriet Hardy), who became his wife in 1851. It is generally supposed that he writes with a lover’s extravagance about this lady’s powers when he compares her with Shelley and Carlyle. But he expressly says that he owed none of his technical doctrine to her, that she influenced only his ideals of life for the individual and for society; the only work perhaps which was directly inspired by her is the essay on the enfranchisement of women (Dissertatons, vol. ii.). It is obvious that his real emancipation began when be threw off his father’s authority, and entered on married life, against the wishes of his family. This new inner life was strengthened and enlarged by Mrs. Taylor. During the seven years of his married life Mill published less than in any other period of his career, but four of his most closely reasoned and characteristic works, the Liberty, the Utilitarianism, the Thougkis on Parliamentary Reform, and the Subjection of Women, besides his posthumously published essays on Nature and on the Utility of Religion, were thought out and partly written in collaboration with his wife. In 1856 he became head of the examiner’s office in the India House, and for two years, till the dissolution of the Company in 1858, his official work, never a light task, kept him fully occupied. It fell to him as head of the office

to write the defence of the Company’s government of India when the transfer of its powers was proposed. Mill opposed the transfer, and the documents in which he defended the Company’s administration are models of trenchant and dignified pleading. On the dissolution of the Company Mill was offered a seat in the new council, but declined, and retired with a pension of £1,500. His retirement from official work was followed almost immediately

by his wife’s death at Avignon. Mill spent most of the rest of his hfe at a villa at St. Véran, near Avignon, returning to his Blackheath house only for a short period in each year. He sought relief in active literary occupation, in politics, sociology and psychology. He published, with a touching dedication to his wife, the treatise on Liberty. He then turned to politics, and published, in view of the impending Reform Bill, a pamphlet on parliamentary reform. In the autumn of the same year he turned to psychology, reviewing Bain’s works in the Edinburgh Review. In his Representative Government (1860) he systernatized opinions already put forward Jn many casual articles and essays. His Utilitarianism (published m Praser’s In 1861) was a closely-reasoned systematic attempt to answer objections to his ethical theory and remove misconceptions

of it. He was especially anxious to make it clear that he included in “utility” the pleasures of the imagination and the gratification of the higher emotions, and to show how powerfully the good of man. kind as a motive appealed to the imagination.

His next treatise

The Subjection of Women, was not published till 1869. He was one of the founders, with Mrs. P. A. Taylor, Miss Emily Davies and others, of the first women’s suffrage society, which developed into the National Union of Women’s Suffrage Societies, and hig

writings are the classical theoretical statement of the case for women’s suffrage. He presented to Parliament the first petition on the subject. (See further Blackburn, Women’s Suffrage Rec.

ord.) His Examination of Hamiltons Philosophy, published in 186s, had engaged a large share of his time for three years before While mainly occupied in those years with philosophical studies Mill did not remit his interest in current politics. He supported

the North in the American crisis of 1862, using all his strength to

explain what has since been universally recognized as the issue really at stake in the struggle, the abolition of slavery. Hurley, Tyndall, Cairnes, Mark Pattison, F. Harrison, Sir Frederick Pol. lock and Lockyer were among the contributors. In 1865 he stood as parliamentary candidate for Westminster, on conditions strictly in accordance with his principles. He would not canvass, nor pay agents to canvass for him, nor would he engage to attend to the local business of the constituency. He was with difficulty persuaded even to address a meeting of the electors, but was elected. He took an active part in the debates on Disraeli’s Reform Bill (moving, on April 12, 1866, an amendment to omit the word “man” and insert “person”), and helped to extort from the government several useful modifications of the Bill for the Prevention of Corrupt Practices. The reform of land tenure in Ireland, the representation of women, the reduction of the national debt, the reform of London government, the abrogation of the Declaration of Paris, were among the topics on which he spoke with marked effect. He took occasion more than

once to enforce what he had often advocated in writing, England’s duty to intervene in foreign politics in support of the cause of freedom. As a speaker Mill was somewhat hesitating, pausing occasionally as if to recover the thread of his argument, but he showed great readiness in extemporaneous debate. Mill’s subscription to the election expenses of Bradlaugh, and his attack on the conduct of Governor Eyre in Jamaica were perhaps the main causes of his defeat in the general election of 1868. But his studied advocacy of unfamiliar projects of reform had made him unpopular with “moderate Liberals.” He retired witha sense of relief to his cottage and his literary life at Avignoa. His little cottage was filled with books and newspapers; the beaw tiful country round it furnished him with a variety of walks; he read, wrote, discussed, walked, botanized. He was extremely fond of music, and was himself a fair pianist. His step-daughter, Miss Taylor (d. January 1907), was his constant companiog after his wife’s death. Mill was an enthusiastic botanist all his life long, and a frequent contributor of notes and short papers te

the Phytologist.

One of the things that he looked forward te

during his last journey to Avignon was seeing the spring flowers

and completing a flora of the locality. His delight in scenery frequently appears in letters written to his friends during his summer and autumn tours.

Yet he did not relax his laborious habits nor his ardent owt-

look on human affairs. The essays in the fourth volume of bs Dissertations—on endowments, on land, on labour, on metaphysical and psychological questions—were written for the Fert-

nightly Review at intervals after his short parliamentary career.

One of his first tasks was to send his treatise on the Subjeciien of Women (written 1861, published 1869, many editions) through the press. The essay on Theism was written soon after. The last public work in which he engaged was the starting of the Tenure Reform Association. The interception by the state of the

unearned increment, and the promotion of co-operative culture, were the most striking features in his programme.

wrote in the Examiner and made a public speech in favour of association a few months before his death. The secret of the ardour with which he took up this question probably was

MILL

493

conviction that a great struggle was impending in Europe between | Logic he had learned from Comte that the a posteriori method— jbour and capital. He regarded his project as a timely com- in the form which he chose to call “inverse deduction’—was the

Mill died at Avignon on May 8, 1873. He was a man of ex-

treme simplicity in his method of life. His services in ethics,

politics and philosophy lay not so much in his actual achieveas in his personality and the liberal and inquiring spirit

only mode of arriving at truth in general sociology; and his admission of this at once renders the essay obsolete. But, unwilling to relinquish the a priori method of his youth, he tries to establish

a distinction of two sorts of economic inquiry, one of which,

though not the other, can be handled by that method. Sometimes in which he handled the great questions of his time. A statue in he speaks of political economy as a department “carved out of bronze was placed on the Thames Embankment, and there is a the general body of the science of society”; whilst on the other good portrait by Watts (a copy of which, by Watts himself, was hand the title of his systematic work implies a doubt whether hung in the National Gallery). political economy is a part of “social philosophy” at all, and not The influence which Mill’s works exercised upon contemporary rather a study preparatory and auxiliary to it. Thus, on the English thought can scarcely be over-estimated. In philosophy his logical as well as the dogmatic side, he halts between two opinions. chief work was to systematize and expound the utilitarianism of Notwithstanding his misgivings and even disclaimers, he yet rehis father and Bentham. (See UtiLiTartanism.) He may, in mained as to method a member of the old school, and never passed isct, be regarded as the final exponent of that empirical school into the new “historical” school. In political philosophy his greatest work was done as an advoof philosophy which owed its impulse to John Locke, and is Its fundamental

cate of liberty. In the treatise On Liberty he shows that political

selves rather than to accept the authority of others. Knowledge must be based upon experience. In reasserting and amplifying the empirical conclusions of his predecessors, especially in the sphere of ethics, Mill’s chief function was the introduction of the humanist element. This was due, no doubt, to his revulsion from

despotism, however benevolent, must in fact cramp and destroy the development of any people. He was torn all his life between his passion for individual liberty and initiative and his sense of the benefits of social control.

generally spoken of as being typically English.

characteristic is the emphasis laid upon human reason, że., upon liberty alone is insufficient, that social tyranny may be more the duty incumbent upon all thinkers to investigate for them- grinding than legal tyranny. And he showed consistently that any

the sternness of his upbringing and the period of stress through

which he passed in early manhood, but also to the sympathetic and emotional qualities which manifested themselves in his early manhood. We have seen, for example, that he was led to investi-

gate the subject of logic because he found in attempting to ad-

vance his humanitarian schemes in politics an absence of that fundamental agreement which he recognized as the basis of scientific advance. Both his logical and his metaphysical studies were thus undertaken as the pre-requisites of a practical theory of human development. Though he believed that the lower classes were not yet ripe for Socialism, with the principles of which he (unlike James Mill and Bentham) was in general agreement, his whole life was devoted to the amelioration of the conditions of the working classes. This fact, no doubt, should be taken into

account In any detailed criticism of the philosophic work; it was taken up not as an end but as ancillary to a social and ethical sysiem Reference to the articles on Locic, METAPHYSICS, etc., will show that subsequent criticism, however much it has owed by way of stamulus to Mill’s strenuous rationalism, has been able to point to much that is inconsistent, inadequate and even super-

ficial in his writings. Two main intellectual movements from widely different standpoints combined to diminish his influence: the idealism of the German school and the application of the evolutionary theory to ethics. In the sphere of psychology, likewise—e.g., in connection with Mill’s doctrine of Association of Ideas (q v.) and the phrase “Mental Chemistry,” by which he sought to meet the problems which Associationism left unsolved— modern criticism and the experimental methods of the psychophysiological school have set up wholly new criteria, with a new teminology and

different

fields of investigation.

(See Psy-

CHOLOGY ) A similar fate has befallen Mill’s economic theories. The title of his work, Principles of Political Economy, with some of their

Applications to Social Philosophy, though open to criticism, indicated a less narrow and formal conception of the field of the

scence than had been common amongst his predecessors. It is an admirably lucid, and even elegant, exposition of the Ricard-

#2 economics, the Malthusian theory being of course incorpo-

tated with these; but, notwithstanding the introduction of many

= novelties, it is in its scientific substance little or nothing

With respect to economic method he shifted his position, yet to

end occupied uncertain ground. In the fifth of his early essays he asserted that the method a priori is the only mode of investiga-

Hon in the social sciences, and that the method a posteriori “is

ther inefficacious in those sciences as a means of arriving at mY considerable body of valuable truth.” When he wrote his

BIBLiocRAPHY.—W orks: System of Logic (2 vols., 1843; oth ed. 1875; “People’s” ed., 1884); Essays on some Unsettled Questions of Political Economy (1844, ed. 1874); Principles of Political Economy

(2 vols., 1848; many ed., especially ed. by W. J. Ashley, 1909); On Liberty (1859; ed. Courtney, 1892, W. B. Columbine, 1903; with Introd, Pringle-Pattison, 1910); Thoughts on \Parliamentary Reform (1859); Dissertations and Discussions (i., ii, 1859; ili, 1867; iv. 1876); Considerations on Representative Government (186r; 3rd ed. 1865) ; Utilitarianism (1863) ; Examination of Sir W. Hamilton’s Philosophy (1865); Aug. Comte and Positivism (1865, ed. 1908) > Inaugural Address at the University of St. Andrews (1867) ; England and Ireland (1868); Subjection of Women (1869; ed. with introd. by Stanton Coit, 1906) ; Chapters and Speeches on the Irish Land Question (1870). The Autobiography appeared in 1873 (ed. 1908), and Three Essays on Religion (1874). Many of these have been translated into German, and there is a German edition by Th. Gomperz (12 vols., 1873-80). A convenient edition in the New Universal Library appeared between 1905 and rgxo. Biographical and Critical—Many of Mills letters are published in Mrs. Grote’s life of her husband, in Duncan’s Life of Herbert Spencer, in the Memories of Caroline Fox, and in Kingsley’s letters, There are also editions of the correspondence with Gustave d’Eichtal and Comte (specially that of Lévy-Bruhl, 1899). By far the most illuminating collection is that of Hugh Elliott, Letters of Fokm Siuart Mill (2 vols., 1910), which contains letters to John Sterling, Carlyle, E. Lytton Bulwer (Lord Lytton), John Austin, Alex. Bain, and many leading French and German writers and politicians. These letters are essential to an understanding of Mill’s life and thought. Besides the Autobiography and many references in the writings of Mill’s friends (e.g. Alex. Bain’s Autobiography, 1904), see further A. Bain, John Siuart Mill, a Personal Criticism (1882); Fox Bourne, Life of J. S. Mill (1873); John (Viscount) Morley, Miscellanies (1877), ii. 239-327; W. L. CourtJ. E. Cairnes, J. S. Mill (1873), on economic theories, ney, Metaphysics of J. S. Mill (1879) and Life (1889) ; Douglas, Jok Stuart Mill, a Study of his Philosophy (1895), and Ethics of J. S. Mill (1897) ; Albee, Hist. of Eng. Utilitarianism (1902) ; Sir Leslie Stephen, The English Utilitarians (1900); J. MacCunn, Six Radical Thinkers (1907) ; Fred. Harrison, Tennyson, Ruskin, Mili (1899) ; John Watson, Comte, Mill and Spencer (1895); T. Whittaker, Comte and Mill (1905) ; Charles Douglas, J. S. Mill, a Study of his Philosophy (1895); J. Rickaby, Free Will and Four English Philosophers (1906): J. M. Robertson, Modern Humanists (1891); D. G. Ritchie, Principles of State Interference (1891); W. Graham, English Political Philosophy from Hobbes to Maine (1899). There are also 2 number of valuable French and German criticisms, e.g., Taine, Postitvisme anglais, étude sur , Mills Ansichten über die soziale Stuart Mill (Paris, 1864); F. A. Frage (Duisburg, 1866) ; Littré, A. Comte et Stuart Mil (3rd ed., Paris, 1877); Cauret, Philosophie de Stuart Mill (Paris, 1885); Gomperz, John S. Mill, ein Nachruf (Vienna, 1889); S. Sanger, J. S. Mill, sein Leben und Lebenswerk (Stuttgart, 1901); S. Becher, Erkenntnistheoretische Untersuchungen zu Stuart Mills Theorie der Kausalitét (1906) ; E. M. Kantzer, La Religion de J.S. Mill (1906) ; F. DegenfeldSchonburg, Die Lohnutheorien von Adam Smith, John Stuart Mill, etc. (1914) ; E. Wentscher, Das Problem des Empirismus, dargest. an J. S. Mill (1922); B. Alexander, J, St. Mill und der Empirismus (1927). See also histories of modern philosophy for later criticisms and devel$ opments of Mill’s ideas.

See further Locic (Historical Sketch); PSYCHOLOGY; ASSOCIATION

OF IDEAS.

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MILL—MILLAIS

MILL, the term given to the apparatus used in the grinding ‘work, including minute imitation of nature down to the Smallest

of corn into flour, and hence applied to similar mechanical devices for grinding or pulping other substances; e.g., coffee-mill, powder-mill, “Mill” was first used of the building containing the apparatus, frequently with a word attached descriptive of the motive power; ¢.g., wind-mill, water-mill, etc. It was not the early word used of the actual grinding mechanism. The old handmill was known as a “quern” (see FLour). The word mill is also applied to many mechanical devices by which raw material is transiormed into a condition ready for use or into a stage preparatory to other processes; e.g., saw-mill, rolling-mill, etc., or still more widely to buildings containing machinery used in manufactures; e.g., cotton-mill. In mining it is applied to various machines used in breaking and crushing the ore (see OREDRESSING).

In the engineering industries milling machines constitute a very important class of machine tools, the characteristic of which is that rotary cutters are employed for shaping the metal (see Toos}. In coins the “milling” is the serrated edge, called ‘‘creneling” by John Evelyn (Discourse on Medals, 1697, p. 225), which is formed on them to prevent clipping and filing. Coins made by the old process of hammering were apt to have irregular edges which invited mutilation; but the introduction of the screwpress, which came to be known as a mill (cf. W. Lowndes, Amendm. Stiver Coinage, 1695, Pp. 93), permitted the production of a regular edge with serrations which in consequence were termed milling. This machine also enabled legends to be impressed round the edges of coins, such as the Decus et tutamen suggested

by Evelyn (see W. J. Hocking, Catalogue of ihe Coins, etc., in the Museum of the Royal Mint, 1906). It was invented about the middle of the 16th century, and has generally been attributed to Guyot Brucher (d. 1556}, who was succeeded at the Paris mint by his brother Antoine. Introduced into England by one Eloye Mestrel in 1561, it was used for 12 years, and was then abandoned owing to the opposition of the mint officials to Mestrel, who was executed for counterfeiting and striking money outside the precincts of the Tower of London; but it was again introduced by one Peter Blondeau in 1662, when it permanently superseded hammering. In the United States of America the term “milling” or “mulled” is applied to the raised edge on the face of the coin; this is known in the British mint as “marking” (see MINT).

detail. The tale was told with dramatic force, and the e resda of the heads was excellent. His next important picture, “Christ ‘in the House of His Parents,” or “The Carpenter’s Shop” (1850) | representing a supposed incident in the childhood of our Loni !treated in a realistic manner, drew down upon him a storm af i abuse. The rest of his more strictly Pre-Raphaelite pictures ! “The Return of the Dove to the Ark,” “The Woodsman’ ' Daughter” and the “Mariana” of 1851, “The Huguenot” ayd “Ophelia” of 1852, “The Proscribed Royalist” and “The Order of | Release” of 1853—met with less opposition, and established his ~

| reputation with the public. Indeed, this may be said to have bees accomplished by “The Huguenot” and “Ophelia.” The were also greatly influenced by the championship of Ruskin, whe in letters to The Times, and in a pamphlet called “Pre-Raphaeli.

ism,” enthusiastically espoused the cause of the Brotherhood

Millais became acquainted with Ruskin, and in 1853 went tg Scotland with him and Mrs. Ruskin, the latter of whom sat fg the woman in “The Order of Release.” In 1855 Millais exhibited

“The Rescue,” a scene from a fire. This was also the year of his marriage with Mrs. Ruskin (Euphemia Chalmers, daughter of Mr. George Gray of Bowerswell, Perth), who had obtained a decree of the nullity of her previous marriage. The principal pictures of 1856 were “Autumn Leaves” and ‘‘Peace Concluded”: of 1857 “Sir Isumbras at the Ford,” and “The Escape of a

Heretic”; of 1859, “Apple-blossoms” and “Vale of Rest.” The

“Black Brunswicker” of 1860 was in motive very like the “Hugue not,” but it was a great deal broader in execution, and may he

said to mark the end of the period of transition from his minute Pre-Raphaelite manner to the freedom of his mature style.

From 1860 to 1869 Millais was much employed in illustration especially of Trollope’s novels. He contributed to Moxon's illustrated edition of Tennyson’s Poems, and made occasional

drawings for Once a Week, the Illustrated London News, Good

Words, and other periodicals and books. In 1863 he was elected a Royal Academician. The most important pictures of this and

the next few years were “The Eve of St. Agnes,” “Romans leaving Britain” (1865), “Jephthah” (1867), “Rosalind and Celia” (1868), “A Flood,” and “The Boyhood of Raleigh” (1870). Ia many of his pictures of this period, such as “The Boyhood of Raleigh,” his children were his models. In 1871 he exhibited the MILLAIS, SIR JOHN EVERETT (1829-1896), English first and most popular of his pure landscapes, called “Chill painter, was born at Southampton on June 8, 1829, the son of October.” Other landscapes from Perthshire, where he generally Jobn William Millais, who belonged to an old Norman family spent the autumn, included “Scotch Firs” and “Winter Fuel settled in Jersey for many generations, and Emily Mary, née (painted in 1874), “Over the Hills and Far Away,” and “The Evamy, the widow of a Mr. Hodgkinson. After his birth the fees of the Moor” (1875) and “The Sound of Many Waters” 1876). family returned to Jersey. In 1835 they removed to Dinan in Brittany. In 1838 he came to London, and on the strong recomWORKS OF LATER YEARS mendation of Sir Martin Archer Shee, P.R.A., his future was decided. He was sent to Sass’s school, and entered the Academy It was to the painting of nature and the world around him that schools im 1840. He won a silver medal from the Society of Arts he devoted himself principally for the last 25 years of his He, in 1839, and carried off all the prizes at the Royal Academy. He abandoning imaginative or didactic themes. To this period be was at this time painting small pictures for a dealer named long a number of pictures of children, like “Cherry Ripe,” “Little Thomas, and defraying a great part of the household expenses in Miss Muffet,” and “Bubbles.” Amongst his more serious pictures Gower Street, where his family lived. In 1846 he exhibited were “The Princes in the Tower” (1878), “The Princess Elizs“Pizarro seizing the Inca of Peru” at the Royal Academy. In beth” (1870), two pictures from Scott—“Effie Deans” and “The 1847 he competed unsuccessfully for the decoration of the Master of Ravenswood”—“A Yeoman of the Guard” (1877); Houses of Parliament, sending a very large picture of “The and “The North-West Passage” (1874), representing an ok Widow's Mite.” mariner (painted from Edward John Trelawney, the friend œ In 1848 Millais and W. Holman Hunt, dissatisfied with the Byron) listening to some tale of Arctic exploration in a room theory and practice of British art, initiated what is known as the overlooking the sea and strewn with charts. Amongst the works Pre-Raphaelite movement, and were joined by Dante Gabriel of his later years were his three portraits of Gladstone (187% Rossetti, and afterwards by five others, altogether forming the 1885 and 1890), and those of John Bright, of Lord Tennysos, Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood. Rossetti was then engaged, under and of Lord Beaconsfield, the last of which was left unfinished at the technical guidance of Hunt, upon his picture of “The Girl- his death. He also painted the marquess of Salisbury, Lord Rose - hood of Mary Virgin,” which, with Hunt’s “Light of the World” bery, the dukes of Devonshire and Argyll, Cardinal Newman, and Millais’s “Christ in the House of His Parents,” forms what Thomas Carlyle, Sir James Paget, Sir Henry Irving, George has been called the trilogy of Pre-Raphaelite art. According to Grote, Lord Chief Justice Russell, J. C. Hook, R.A., and himself Millais, the Pre-Raphaelites had but one idea—‘‘to present on (Uffizi Gallery, Florence). He drew Charles Dickens after bis canvas what they saw in Nature.” Millais’s first picture on his death. Amongst his portraits of women were those of Mis new principles was a banquet scene from Keats’s “Isabella” Bischoffsheim, the duchess of Westminster, Lady Campbell avd (1849), and contains all the characteristics of Pre-Raphaelite Mrs. Jopling. a:

MILLAR—MILLENNIUM

495

In 1879 Millais left Cromwell Place for a house at Palace | foreign-born white), and was 4957 in 1930 Federal census. Gate, Kensington, which he built, and where he died. In 188 5 he ;i It is a manufacturing town. making chiefly cotton, woollen and was created a baronet. Among his last works are: “St. Stephen,” linen goods, thread. felt and edge tools. Millbury was set off “§ Disciple.” “Speak: Speak!” (which was bought out of the | from Sutton and incorporated as a separate town in 1813. Chantrey Bequest), and “The Forerunner”—his last exhibited i MILLE, PIERRE (1364i ), French man of letters, was subject-picture. His finely-characterized portraits of Mr. John , born at Choisy-le-Roi in 1864, and educated at the Collége Rollin. Hare, the actor, and Sir Richard Quain belong also to his last He has taken part in many expeditions for the exploration of years. On the death of Lord Leighton he was elected to the West Africa, the Congo, Indo-China and British India. During the presidential chair of the Royal Academy. He died on Aug. 13, ! Greco-Turkish War {1897} he acted as war correspondent for 1396, and was buried in St. Paul's Cathedral. The Winter Ex- | the Journal des Débats, and he served the Temps in the same hibition of the Royal Academy in 1898 was devoted to his works. | capacity during the World War. His best works are Barnavaux The National Gallery of British Art possesses many of his finest et quelques Femmes (1908), Caillou et Tili, and le Monarque. $ į ]

y

I

works. He is also represented in the National Gallery, in the National Portrait Gallery, the Victoria and Albert museum, and

many other public galleries including those of Manchester, Liverpool and Birmingham. Bruiocrapuy—G. Millais, Life and Modern Painters, Notes on Royal Academy um, elc.; Catalogues of Grosvenor Gallery Royal Academy (winter of 1898); M. H.

Letters (1899); Ruskin’s Exhibitions, Pre-Rapkaelit-

(summer of 1886); and of Spielmann, Millais and his

Works (1896); A. L. Baldry, Sir J. E. Millais, kis Art and Influence (1809); J. E. Reid, Sir J. E. Millais (1909). (C. Mox.; X.)

MILLAR, ANDREW (1707-1768), British publisher, started business as a bookseller and publisher in the Strand, London, about 1729. His own judgment in literary matters was

small, but he collected an excellent staff of literary advisers, and paid what at the time were large prices for good material. “I respect Millar, sir,” said Dr. Johnson in 1755, “he has raised the

4 i

The central figures in these tales have in common their power to see life only through the imagination.

MILLEDGEVILLE,

a city of central Georgia, U.S.A., the

county seat of Baldwin county; on the Oconee river, 32 m. N.E. } of Macon. It is served by the Central of Georgia and the Georgia || railways. The population was 4,619 in 1920, 5.534 in 1930. It is |the seat of the Georgia State college for Women (1889), the State | penitentiary and reformatory, and the State hospitals for white and for coloured insane. Milledgeville was founded in 1803 and chartered as a city in 1836. It was named after John Milledge

(1757-1818), then governor of Georgia. From 1804 until 1868 it was the State capital, and a centre of wealth and culture. The governor's mansion, built in 1838, is now the residence of the president of the State college. On Nov. 23, 1864, Gen. Sherman entered the city. To save the State documents from the enemy,

price of literature.” He paid Thomson £105 for The Seasons, and

Governor Joseph E. Brown used the services of the convicts in the

Fielding £700 for Tom Jones and £1,000 for Amelia. He was one of the syndicate of booksellers who financed Johnson’s Dictionary. He also published the histories of Robertson and Hume. He died

penitentiary, granting them pardons in return.

MILLENNIUM,

literally a period of a thousand years, (a

at Kew Green, London, on June 8, 1768.

pseudo-Latin word formed on the analogy of biennium, triennium, from Lat. mille, a thousand, and annus, year). The term is spe-

dissement in the department of Aveyron, on the Tarn at its con-

cially used of the period of 1,000 years during which Christ, as has been believed, would return to govern the earth in person.

MILLAU, a town of southern France, capital of an arron-

fuence with the Dourbie, 74 m. N. of Béziers on the Southern railway. Pop. (1926) 14,033. In the middle ages Millau was the seat

of a viscounty held by the counts of Barcelona and afterwards by the counts of Armagnac. It became a leading stronghold of Calvinism and revolted against Louis XIII. (1620); after its submission, Richelieu caused its fortifications to be dismantled. The edict of Nantes hastened the decline of the town, which did not recover till after the Revolution. Millau lies in a valley 1,200 ft. above the sea surrounded by the spurs of the Levezou, Causse Now and Larzac ranges. One of its squares is bordered on two sides by wooden galleries on stone columns. The Romanesque church of Notre Dame was restored in the 16th century; there is a fine Gothic belfry on the old hétel de ville. Millau is seat of a sub-prefect, and possesses a tribunal of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators and a chamber of commerce. Glove making and leather-work are carried on. The chief articles of trade are skins, wool, timber, furniture and Roquefort cheese.

MILLAY, EDNA ST. VINCENT (1892-

_—+d);,American

poet, was born in Rockland, Me., on Feb. 22, 1892. She graduated from Vassar in 1917 and was married in 1923 to Eugen Jan Boissevain. She was awarded the Pulitzer prize in 1923 for her

volume, The Harp-Weaver. In 1925 she was commissioned by the directors of the Metropolitan Opera Company to write the book for an opera, the music of which was to be composed by Deems Taylor; the result of their collaborations, The King’s Henchman, first presented in 1927, was a greater success than

any previous American opera. Her works include Renascence and Other Poems (1917); A Few Figs from Thistles (1920); Second

Hence it is used to describe a vague time in the future when all

flaws in human existence will have vanished, and perfect goodness and happiness will prevail. Faith in the nearness of Christ’s second advent and the establishing of his reign of glory on the earth was undoubtedly a strong point in the primitive Christian Church. In the anticipations of the future prevalent amongst the early Christians (c. 50150) it is necessary to distinguish a fixed and a fluctuating element. The former includes (1r) the notion that a last terrible battle with the enemies of God was impending; (2) the faith in the speedy return of Christ; (3) the conviction that Christ will jadge all men, and (4) will set up a kingdom of glory on earth. To the latter belong views of the Antichrist, of the heathen worldpower, of the place, extent, and duration of the earthly kingdom of Christ, etc. These remained in a state of solution; they were modified from day to day, partly because of the changing circumstances of the present by which forecasts of the future were regulated, partly because the indications—real or supposed—of the ancient prophets always admitted of new combinations and constructions. But even here certain positions were agreed on in large sections of Christendom. Amongst these was the expectation that the future kingdom of Christ on earth should have a fixed duration—according to the most prevalent opinion, a duration of 1,000 years. From this fact the whole ancient Christian eschatology was known in later times as “chiliasm”?— a name which is not strictly accurate, since the doctrine of the millennium was only one feature in its scheme of the future. This idea that the Messianic kingdom of the future on earth should have a definite duration has—like the whole eschatology

April (1921); Distressing Dialogues (1924, under the pseudonym Nancy Boyd); Three Plays (1926), which reprints her earlier of the primitive Church—its roots in the Jewish apocalyptic publications, Two Slatterns and a King (1921), Aria da Capo

literature, where it appears at a comparatively late period. At first it was assumed that the Messianic kingdom in Palestine Snow (1928). See J. H. Preston, “Edna St. Vincent Millay” in would last for ever (so the prophets; cf. Jer. xxiv. 6; Ezek. Frginis Quarterly (vol. 3, 1927). xxxvii. 25; Joel iv. 20; Dan. vi. 27; Sibyll. iii. 49 seg., 766: MILLBOARD: see CARDBOARD. Psalt. Salom. xvii. 4; Enoch lxii. 14), and this seems always to MILLBURY, a town of Worcester county, Massachusetts, have been the most widely accepted view (John xii. 34). But USA, on the Blackstone river, and on the Boston and Albany and from a comparison of prophetic passages of the Old Testament

(1920) and The Lamp and the Bell (1921); and The Buck in the

New Haven railways. The population was 5,653 in 1920 (22%

learned apocalyptic writers came to the conclusion that a dis-

496

MILLENNIUM

tinction must be drawn between the earthly appearance of the Messiah and the appearance of God Himself amongst His people and in the Gentile world for the final judgment. Nowhere in the discourses of Jesus is there a hint of a limited duration of the Messianic kingdom. The apostolic epistles are equally free from any trace of chiliasm (neither 1 Cor., xv. 23 seq.

nor 1 Thess., iv. 16 seg. points in this direction). In Revelation however, it occurs in the following shape (ch. xx.). After Christ has appeared irom heaven in the guise of a warrior, and vanquished the anti-Christian world-power, the wisdom of the world

and the devil, those who have remained steadfast in the time

more discredited in the Greek Church; they were, in fact, stigma.

tized as “Jewish” and therefore “heretical.” Dionysius, bishop of

Alexandria, succeeded in healing the schism and asserting th allegorical interpretation of the prophets as the only legitimate exegesis. During this controversy Dionysius became convinced that the victory of mystical theology over “Jewish”

would never be secure so long as the book of Revelation passed

for an apostolic writing and kept its place among the homole goumena

of the canon.

He accordingly raised the question of

its apostolic origin; and by reviving old difficulties, with i, genious new arguments, he carried his point. The Greek Church

of the last catastrophe, and have given up their lives for their faith, shall be raised up, and shall reign with Christ on this earth as a royal priesthood for 1,000 years. At the end of this

kept Revelation out of its canon, and consequently chiliags remained in its grave. It was considered a sufficient safeguan against the spiritualizing eschatology of Origen and his school tg

time Satan is to be let loose again for a short season; he will prepare a new onslaught, but God will miraculously destroy him and his hosts. Then will follow the general resurrection of the dead, the last judgment. and the creation of new heavens and a new earth. That all believers will have a share in the first resurrection and in the Messianic kingdom is an idea of which the author of Revelation knows nothing. The earthly kingdom of Christ is reserved for those who have endured the most terrible tribulation, who have withstood the supreme effort of the worldpower—that is, for those who are actually members of the church of the last days. The Jewish expectation is thus considerably curtailed, as it is also shorn of its sensual attractions. “Blessed and holy is he that hath part in the first resurrection; on such the second death hath no power; but they shall be priests of God and of Christ, and shall reign with Him a thousand years.” Other ancient Christian authors were not so cautious. Accepting the Jewish apocalypses as sacred books of venerable antiquity, they read them eagerly, and transferred their contents bodily to Chris-

have rescued the main doctrines of the creed and the regula Sides (the visible advent of Christ; eternal misery and hell-fire for the

tianity.

Nay more, the Gentile Christians took possession of

them, and just in proportion as they were neglected by the Jews -—-who, after the war of Bar-Cochba, became indifferent to the Messianic hope and hardened themselves once more in devotion to the law—they were naturalized in the Christian communities. The result was that these books became “Christian” documents; it is entirely to Christian, not to Jewish, tradition that we owe their preservation. The Jewish expectations are adopted for example, by Papias, by the writer of the epistle of Barnabas, and also by Justin. That a philosopher like Justin, with a bias towards an Hellenic construction of the Christian religion, should nevertheless have accepted its chiliastic elements is the strongest proof that these enthusiastic expectations were inseparably bound up with the Christian faith down to the middle of the 2nd century. After the middle of the and century these expectations were gradually thrust into the background. They would never have died out, however, had not circumstances altered, and a new mental attitude been taken up. The spirit of philosophical and theological speculation and of ethical reflection, which began to spread through the Churches, did not know what to make of the old hopes of the future. To a new generation they seemed paltry, earthly and fantastic, and far-seeing men had good reason to regard them as a source of political danger. But more than this, these wild dreams about the glorious kingdom of Christ began ta

wicked). Anything going beyond this was held to be Jewish In the Semitic churches of the East (the Syrian, Arabian and

Ethiopian), and in that of Armenia, the apocalyptic literature was preserved much longer than in the Greek Church, They were very conservative of ancient traditions in general, and

hence chiliasm survived amongst them to a later date than in Alexandria or Constantinople. But the Western Church was also more conservative than the Greek. Her theologians had, to begin with, little turn for mystica] speculation; their tendency was rather to reduce the gospel tg a system of morals. Now for the moralists chiliasm had a

special significance as the one distinguishing feature of the gospel, and the to their ologians fathers,

only thing that gave a specifically Christian character system. This, however, holds gaod of the Western theonly after the middle of the 3rd century. The earlier Irenaeus, Hippolytus, Tertullian, believed in chilissm simply because it was a part of the tradition of the Church and because Marcion and the Gnostics would have nothing to do with this conception. It is the same all through the 3rd and 4th centuries with those Latin theologians who escaped the ie fluence of Greek speculation. Commodian, Victorinus Pettavensis, Lactantius and Sulpicius Severus were all pronounced millennarians, holding by the very details of the primitive Christian expectations. As to the canonicity and the apostolic authorship of the Johannine Apocalypse no doubts were ever entertained ia the West; indeed an Apocalypse of Peter was still retained im the canon in the 3rd century. That of Ezra, in its Latin tran lation, must have been all but a canonical book-—the numbers of extant manuscripts of the so-called 4 Ezra being incredibly great, while several of them are found in copies of the Latin Bible at the beginning of the 16th century. These facts show how

vigorously the early hopes of the future maintained themselves in the West. In the hands of moralistic theologians, like Lactatius, they certainly assume a somewhat grotesque form, but the fact that these men clung to them is the clearest evidence that in the West millennarianism was still a point of “orthodoxy” ia the 4th century. This state of matters, however, gradually disappeared after tht end of the 4th century. The change was brought about by twe

causes—first, Greek theology, which reached the West chiefly

disturb the organization which the Churches had seen fit to intro-

through Jerome, Rufinus and Ambrose,

the State and the heretics, the Christian communities had formed

the altered political situation of the Church. Augustine was the first who ventured to teach that the Catholic Church, in its empirical form, was the kingdom of Christ, that the mi kingdom had commenced with the appearing of Christ, and wes therefore an accomplished fact. By this doctrine of Augustine’

duce.

In the interests of self-preservation against the world,

themselves into compact societies with a definite creed and con-

stitution, and they felt that their existence was threatened by the white heat of religious subjectivity. So early as the year 170, a Church party in Asia Minor—the so-called Alogi—rejected the whole body of the apocalyptic writings and denounced the book of Revelation as a book of fables. All the more powerful was the

reaction. In the so-called Montanistic controversy (c. 160-220)

one of the principal issues involved was the continuance of the chiliastic expectations in the Churches. The Montanists of Asia

Minor defended them in their integrity, with one slight modifica-

tion: they announced that Pepuza, the city of Montanus, would

and, second, the new

idea of the Church wrought out by Augustine on the basis of

the old millennarianism, though not completely extirpated, ws

at least banished from the official theology.

It still lived %,

however, in the lower strata of Christian society; and in ¢

undercurrents of tradition it was transmitted from century century.

At various periods in the history of the muddle ages

we encounter sudden outbreaks of millennarianism, sometimes as the tenet of a small sect, sometimes as a far-reaching move

be the site of the New Jerusalem and the millennial kingdom.

ment. And, since it had been suppressed, not, as in the East, by

Aiter the Montanistic controversy chiliastic views were more and

mystical speculation, its mightiest antagonist, but by the polities!

MILLER

497

church of the hierarchy, we find that wherever chiliasm appears ` Joe Miller's Jests, or Wit's Vade Mecum (1739), a collection of m the middle ages it makes common cause with all enemies of contemporary and ancient coarse witticisms, only three of which the secularized Church. It strengthened the hands of Church are told of Miller. Any time-worn jest has, somewhat unjustly,

democracy; it formed an alliance with the pure souls who held |come to be called “a Joe Miller.” up to the Church the ideal of apostolic poverty; it united itself | MILLER, OSKAR VON (1855-

for a time even with mysticism in a common

opposition to the

), German engineer,

was born in Munich on May 7, 1855. After studying electrical

cy of the Church; nay, it lent the strength of its convic- technology he became director of the German Edison Company tions to the support of States and princes in their efforts to break from which developed the Allgemeine Elektrizitats Gesellschaft

the political power of the Church. It is sufficient to recall the |(the A-E.G., or General Electric Co.). He was director of the

well-known names of Joachim of Floris, of all the numerous | electrical exhibition (Frankfurt-on-Main,

1891), when the first

franciscan spiritualists, of the leading sectaries from the 13th to | high tension alternating current power-transmission apparatus was

the rsth century who assailed the papacy and the secularism of | installed. The transmission was accomplished over a distance of the Church-——above all, the name of Occam. In these men the ' 180 km. (from Lauffen on the Neckar to Frankfurt) and with millennarianism of the ancient Church came to life again; and in only 255% loss. These experiments were of the highest importance the revolutionary movements of the r5th and 16th centuries— in the development of modern electric-technology. He promoted especially in the Anabaptist movements—it appears with all its the development of Bavarian water power as well as a systematic old uncompromising energy. If the Church, and not the State, electric supply for that country, and was the founder and organwas regarded as Babylon, and the pope declared to be the Anti- izer of the German museum for natural and technical science in christ, these were legitimate inferences from the ancient traditions Munich.

and the actual position of the Church. The German and Swiss reformers also believed that the end of the world was near, but they had different aims in view from

those of the Anabaptists,

It was not from poverty and apoca-

lypticism that they hoped for a reformation of the Church.

In

contrast to the fanatics, after a brief hesitation they threw millennarianism overboard, and along with it all other “opiniones Judaicae.” They took up the same ground in this respect which the Roman Catholic Church had occupied since the time of

Augustine.

How millennarianism

nevertheless found its way,

with the help of apocalyptic mysticism and Anabaptist influences

into the Churches of the Reformation, chiefly among the Reformed sects, but afterwards also in the Lutheran Church, how it became incorporated with Pietism, how in more recent times an exceedingly mild type of “academic” chiliasm has been developed from a belief in the verbal inspiration of the Bible, how finally new sects are still springing up here and there with apocalyptic and chiliastic expectations—these are matters which cannot be fully entered upon here. BreuiccrapHy.—Corrodi, Kritische Geschichte des Chilasmus (x78x); Bousset, Religion des Judentums (1926), and works there ES Lohmeyer, Die Offenbarung des Johannes (1926). See also Histories of Christian Doctrine and cf. Escmarorocy. (A. Ha.)

MILLER, JOAQUIN (Cmcwyartus Heme) (1841-1913), ican poet, was born in Indiana, Nov. 10, 1841, and was educated for the Jaw. After some experiences of mining and journal-

ism in Idaho and Oregon, he settled down in 1866 as judge in Grant county, Oregon, and during his four years’ tenure of this post he began to write verse. In 1870 he travelled in Europe, and ia 1871 he published his first volume of poetry, Songs of the Sierras, on which his reputation mainly rests, His Songs of the Suslends (1873) followed in the same vein, and after other volumes had appeared, his Collected Poems were published in 1882, He also wrote plays, The Denites in the Sierras having some success as a sensational melodrama. On his return from Europe he became a journalist in Washington, but in 1887 returned to California. His pen-name, “Joaquin Miler,” by whìch he is

MILLER, WILLIAM

(1782-1849), leader of the Second

Adventists in America, was born on Feb. 5, 1782, at Pittsfield, Mass. He bore a good reputation as a farmer and citizen, served as a captain in the War of 1812, and was a diligent student and reader, although he had only a common school education. About 1818, after two years of minute study of the Bible, he became a Second Adventist. In 1831 he began to lecture, arguing that the “two thousand three hundred days” of Daniel viii. 14 meant 2,300 years, and that these years began with Ezra’s going up to Jerusalem in 457 B.c., and therefore came to an end in 1843, and urging his hearers to make ready for the final coming of Christ in that year. To his many followers, after the year 1843 had passed, he proclaimed that 1844 was the year, that his error was due to following Hebrew instead of Roman chronology, and that Oct. 22 was to be the day. There was renewed excitement among Miller’s followers; many of them left their business, and in white muslin robes, on house tops and hills, awaited the epiphany. In spite of disappointment, many still believed with him that the time was near. He returned to Low Hampton and died there on

aaa eaae aa aa r eee

Dec. 20, 1849. The Adventists or Millerites, were formed into a single body in a convention called by him in April 1845, but have since separated into four sects: Seventh Day Adventists (110,998), Advent Christians (29,410), Churches of God in Jesus Christ (1,686) and the Life and Advent Union (535). Their total membership in the United States in 1926 was about 146,177. Miller published in 1833 a pamphlet which was the basis of his lectures; these also were published in 1842 as Evidence from Scripture and History of the Second Coming of Christ about the Year 1843. ,

oe are biographies by Sylvester Bliss (1853) and James White

1875).

MILLER,

WILLIAM

(1795-1861), British soldier, who

took a prominent part in the South American Wars of Liberation, was born on Dec. 2, 1795 at Wingham, Kent, entered the British artillery service in 1811, and till 1814 served with Wellington’s army in the Peninsula. He afterwards served in North America, then travelled for two years in Europe, and went to South Amerknown, was assumed by him when he published his first book, in ica. The war which culminated in the expulsion of the Spaniards consequence of his having written an article in defence of Joaquin was just breaking out, and he took command in the Chilean Murietta, the Mexican brigand. He died at Oakland (Cal.), artillery. As a major he commanded the marines on Cochrane’s February 17, 1913. In compliance with his last wishes his body vessel, the “O'Higgins.” In 1821 he landed in Peru, to assist was cremated and the ashes taken up into the Sierras and cast to General San Martin, and as general of brigade, rendered conthe winds. spicuous services at Junin (Aug. 6, 1824), and at Ayacucho (Dec. Revised editions of his Complete Poetical Works appeared at San Francisco in xg02, Critical estimates and personal reminiscences of 9, 1824). He subsequently filled various high military and political him may be found in The Sunset Magazine, vol. 30, pp. 765~770 and offices in Peru. In 1839 he was involved in the fall of Santa in The Overland Monthly, vol. 63, pp. 109-19; vol. 78, p. 93-96. See Cruz, and went into exile. For some years he filled the post of H. Wagner, Joaquin Miller and his Other Self (1929). British Consul-General of the Pacific Coast. He died on board MILLER, JOE (Joseru or Jostas) (1684-1738), English H.M.S. “Naiad” at Callao, on Oct. 31, r86r.

actor, first appears in the cast of Sir Robert Howard’s Committee

at Drury Lane in 1709 as Teague. Trinculo in The Tempest, the

Fist Grave-digger in Hamlet and Marplot in The Busybody, were among his many favourite parts. He died on Aug. 16, 1738. After lis death, John Mottley (1692—1750) brought out a book called

See the Memoirs published by his brother John Miller (1827).

MILLER,

WILLIAM

(: 796-1882), Scottish line-engraver,

was born in Edinburgh on May 28, 1796. After studying in London under George Cook, a pupil of Basire’s, he returned to Edinburgh. He executed plates after Thomson of Duddingston, Mac-

+98

MILLERAND

culloch, D. Q Hill. Sir George Harvey, and other Scottish land- 1918 he was elected a member of the Académie des science, scapists, but his chief works were his transcripts from Turner. morales et politiques. A few months after the conclusion of hostilities, on March 3 He engraved Turners “The Grand Canal, Venice“; ‘The Rhine, Osterprey and Feltzen’’; “The Bell Rock”; “The Tower of | 1919, Millerand was appointed commissioner general for Alsace. London”: and “The Shepherd.” The art of William Miller was | Lorraine. The problem of reuniting with the mother-country warmly appreciated by Turner himself, and Ruskin pronounced ,. two provinces which had been torn from her in 1871 was a most him to be on the whole the most successful translator into line serious one. For 50 years they had been under an administration of the paintings of the greatest English landscapist. In his later widely different from that of France. A period of transition, years Miller abandoned engraving for landscape-painting. He re- therefore, was essential, alike from the point of view of political sumed his burin, however, to produce two final series of vignettes expediency, administration, economics and finance. The firg from drawings by Birket Foster illustrative of Hood’s Poems, French officials sent to Strasbourg had not been equal to ther published by Moxon in 1871. Miller died on Jan. 20, 1882. task; and for this reason it was essential to appoint a statesmap MILLERAND, ALEXANDRE (1859), French of eminent authority with power to act, who would keep in con. Socialist and politician, was born in Paris on Feb. 10, 1859. He stant touch with the government. This post was filled by Mille. was educated for the bar, and made his reputation by his defence, rand with complete success. In an important speech delivered in with Georges Laguerre, of Ernest Roche and Duc-Quercy, the Paris on Nov. 15, 1919, on the eve of the elections, he outlined instigators of the strike at Decazeville in 1883; he then took the policy of the coalition which, under the name of the boc Laguerre’s place on Clemenceau’s paper, La Justice. He was national, was returned to power. elected to the chamber of deputies for the department of the On the resignation of Clemenceau, Jan. 18, 1920, Millerand Seine in 1885 as a Radical Socialist. He was associated with Cle-

was chosen to form a cabinet, and became both prime minister

menceau and Camille Pelletan as an arbitrator in the Carmaux strike (1892). He had long had the ear of the chamber in matters of social legislation, and after the Panama scandals had discredited so many politicians his influence grew. He was chief of the Socialist left, which then mustered sixty members, and edited until 1896 their organ in the press, Le Petite Républigue. His programme included the collective ownership of the means of production and the international association of labour, but when in June 1899 he entered Waldeck-Rousseau’s cabinet of

and minister for foreign affairs. His main activities were in regard to the application of the Treaty of Versailles; and in order to force Germany to fulfil her obligations, he ordered the provisional occupation of Frankfort. He was present at the inter-allied conferences at San Remo and Spa, in April and July 1920, and in August of the same year he met Lloyd George at Hythe. The situation in regard to Poland, who had been attacked by the Bolsheviks, now became grave, and Millerand therefore sent to

“republican defence” as minister of commerce he limited himself

With this assistance the Poles gained a complete victory over the Bolsheviks. Millerand about this time officially recognised the anti-Bolshevik government of General Wrangel, who was soon

to practical reforms, devoting his attention to the improvement of the mercantile marine, to the development of trade, of technical education, of the postal system, and to the amelioration of the conditions of labour. Labour questions were entrusted to a separate department, the Direction du Travail, and the pension and insurance office was

also raised to the status of a “direction.” The introduction of trades-union representatives on the Supreme Labour Council, the organization of local labour councils and the instructions to factory inspectors to put themselves in communication with the councils of the trades-unions, were valuable concessions to labour, and he further secured the rigorous application of earlier laws devised for the protection of the working-classes. His name was especially associated with a project for the establishment of old age pensions, which became law in 1905. He became in 1898 editor of La Lanterne. His infiuence with the extreme Socialists had already declined, for it was said that his departure from the true Marxist tradition had disintegrated the party. Millerand, now only a private member, threw himself into his work as a barrister, and appeared in many important civil cases. In the chamber he was a fierce opponent of the Combes ministry, which succeeded that of Waldeck-Rousseau; for he objected to its narrow and fanatical anti-clericalism. In July 1909

he became minister of public works in Briand’s first cabinet, his principal achievement at this time being the re-organisation of the state railways. Together with Briand he took strong measures to suppress the railway strike of October rọrọ. In January 1912 he was appointed minister of war under Poincaré. His promotion surprised no one, for he had always taken a keen

Warsaw a contingent of French ofħcers under General Weygand,

after completely defeated.

In France itself, in May 1920, he

frustrated various attempts, especially by the railwaymen, to organise revolutionary strikes.

In September 1920 Deschanel, president of the republic, was forced by ill-health to resign. Millerand was elected as his successor, and out of 892 votes cast, no fewer than 695 were given in his favour. During his candidature, he made it known that if he were elected, he intended to exert a more powerful influence on the policy of the government than his predecessors had done. He refused to admit that his office of president forced him to comply with a tradition of which he disapproved, by remaining absolutely neutral in politics. He made it clear that he intended to watch closely the foreign policy of the government, and made no secret of his wish to strengthen the power of the president by a revision of the constitution which would modify the conditions of his election; and he put his ideas into practice, by frequently intervening in diplomatic negotiations. During the inter-allied conference at Cannes in January 1922 he despatched a telegram expressing dissatisfaction at the conduct of affairs, which caused Briand to return to Paris, and, in fact, brought about his resignation. Working on the same lines, he summoned to the Elysée the prefects, or chief administrative officers of each department from all over France. In a powerful speech at Evreux in the spring of 1923 he declared that he would not agree to the introduction of the scrutin d’arrondissement, and showed marked

favour to the adherents of the bloc national, who had been im the majority in the Chamber since the elections of November 1919, and against whom the Radicals and Socialists were then carryimg on a campaign of public meetings.

interest in questions of military organisation; and when the menace of Germany increased, he devoted himself to strengthening the national defences. He re-organised the higher comMillerand’s conception of the réle of president of the Republic mand, and by the Act of May 29, 1912, he gave a definite status brought him into collision with the Radical and Socialist majontty, to military aeronautics for the first time. In January 1913 a which, under the name of the cartel des gauches, was s personal incident brought about his retirement. On Aug. 25, in the elections of May 11, 1924. He was violently attacked by 1914, be was invited by Viviani to take the place of Messimy as the Radical Socialist press, which accused him of having exceeds minister of war; and during the terrible situation which then his powers by intervening in the party struggle, and called for bs prevailed he had constantly to take the initiative, for example, resignation. Herriot, the leader of the cartel des gauches, When in attempting to remedy as far as possible the shortage of muni- asked by Millerand to succeed Poincaré as premier, annous tions. He was accused, however, of being too slow in providing that he would do so only on Millerand’s resignation. The lathe the necessary heavy artillery, and he resigned with the other replied that he had been elected for seven years, and that members of the Viviani cabinet at the end of October rors. In alteration of the party in power could in no way affect his canst

MILLERITE—MILLET tutional position nor abrogate his rights. But he made it clear that be had not the slightest intention of obstructing the new

ernment, and that its leader could count on his impartiality. Herriot, however, remained immovable; and Millerand therefore invited the senator Francois-Marsal, who had been his min-

ister of finance in 1920, to form a cabinet. Francois-Marsal declared in the Chamber that the attacks on Millerand were

contrary to the constitution, and that it was in order to uphold the latter that he had agreed to take office. His government, however, was immediately defeated; and Millerand tendered his

resignation, protesting meanwhile

against the illegality of the

499

Two Fires,” in the Tate Gallery, London. He also wrote essays and short stories, and an English version of Tolstoi’s Sebastopol (1887); and among his publications are The Danube (1891),

Capillary Crime and other Stories (1892), and Expedition to the

Philippines (1899). He was drowned in the “Titanic” disaster, April 15, 1912.

MILLET (or Mite), JEAN FRANCOIS

(c. 1642-1679),

commonly called Francisgue, was born at Antwerp about 1642, and is generally classed amongst the painters of Flanders on account of the accident of his birth. But his father was a Frenchman, a turner in ivory of Dijon, who took service with the prince of Condé and probably returned after a time to his native country. He remained long enough in Antwerp to apprentice his son to an obscure member of a painter family called Laurent, pupil of Gabriel Franck. With Laurent, Francisque left Antwerp for Paris, and there settled in 1660 after marrying his master’s daughter. He was received a member of the Academy of Painting at Paris in 1673, and after gaining consideration as an imitator of the Poussins he died in 1679, bequeathing his art and some of

action taken against him. The attitude of the party in power dissatisfied the Senate, which, as a result, voted with the opposition and elected Doumergue as Millerand’s successor, instead of Painlevé, the candidate of the cartel des gauches. In January 1927, at the senatorial elections in the department of the Seine, Millerand was defeated. Several months later he stood for a by-election in the department of the Orne, in Normandy. He was elected and resumed his place in the Senate. MILLERITE, a mineral consisting of nickel sulphide, NiS. his talents to one of his sons. His paintings of Italian and Arcadian Crystals belong to the rhombohedral system and have the form scenery were graceful and effective, although, as he had not of slender needles arranged in divergent groups or of delicate travelled, his impressions of them were gained at secondhand. fibres loosely matted together (“hair-pyrites”). The colour is Twelve of his most important landscapes in the Tuileries were brass-yellow and the lustre metallic. Typical specimens of mil- destroyed by fire; and though many of his pieces may still be lerite, so named, in 1845, in honour of W. H. Miller, are found found catalogued in Continental and English collections, a great in the coal-measures in the neighbourhood of Merthyr Tydvil, number remain unknown and unacknowledged. where the delicate needles and fibres occur with crystals of quartz MILLET, JEAN FRANCOIS (1814-1875), French painter, and pearl-spar in the fissures of septarian nodules of clay-iron- who came of a peasant family, was born on Oct. 4, 1814 in the stone. hamlet of Gruchy, near Gréville (La Manche). His boyhood was MILLER’S THUMB, a small fish, abundant in all rivers and passed working in his father’s fields, but the sight of the engravings lakes of northern and central Europe with clear water and in an old illustrated Bible set him drawing. Two drawings were gravelly bottom, up to 7,000 feet. It has a broad, flat head, shown to a painter at Cherbourg named Mouchel, who at once rounded and scaleless body, large pectoral and narrow ventral accepted him as a pupil; but shortly after (1335) Millet’s father fins, with two dorsal fins; the gill-cover is armed with a spine. died, and the eldest son, with heroic devotion, took his place at The numerous species of the genus are confined to the north home, nor did he return to his art until encouraged by his own temperate zone, the majority being marine and called “‘bullheads.” family. After a short time spent at Cherbourg under a master The miller’s thumb is confined to fresh water; one other fresh- named Langlois he started for Paris. The council-general of the water species is found in Europe, others occur in the fresh waters department had granted him a sum of 600 francs, and the town of northern Asia and North America. The miller’s thumb (Cottus council promised an annual pension of 400, but in spite of friendly gobio) is common in all suitable localities in Great Britain, but help and introductions Millet experienced great difficulties. The rare in Ireland. Its usual length is from 3 to 5 inches. Its prey system of the Ecole des Beaux Arts was hateful to him, but after consists of small aquatic animals, upon which it pounces from much hesitation, he decided to enter an official studio—that of some refuge. The female deposits her eggs in a cavity under a Delaroche. The master recognized his ability, and arranged for his stone, whilst the male watches and defends them until the young free admission to the studio, but he tried in vain to make him take are hatched. The common American bullhead is the sculpin the approved direction, and lessons ended with “Eh, bien, allez à (a name sometimes applied to all the New World members of the votre guise, vous ĉtes si nouveau pour moi que je ne veux rien genus), C. octodecim-spinosus, which is marine. vous dire.” At last Millet withdrew, and with his friend Marolle MILLET, FRANCIS DAVIS (1846-1912), American artist, started in a little studio in the Rue de l’Est. He continued to study was born at Mattapoisett (Mass.), on Nov. 3, 1846. He was a hard whilst he provided bread by painting portraits at ro or 15 drummer boy with the Union forces in the Civil War, graduated francs apiece and producing small “pastiches” of Watteau and from Harvard college in 1869, and in 1871 entered the Royal Boucher. In 1840 Millet went back to Gréville, where he painted Academy of Fine Arts, Antwerp. In 1873 he was made secretary “Sailors Mending a Sail” and a few other pictures of Cherbourg of the Massachusetts commission to the Vienna exposition. Dur- life. mg the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78 he was correspondent of His first success was obtained in 1844, when his “Milkwoman” the London Daily News and Graphic, and of the New York and “Lesson in Riding” (pastel) attracted notice at the Salon, Herald. On his return he was made a member from the United and friendly artists presented themselves at his lodgings only to States of the International art jury at the Paris exposition of learn that his wife had just died, and that he himself had disap1878. He was director of decorations at the Columbian exposition, peared. Millet was at Cherbourg; there he remarried, but having Chicago, 1893, and in 1898 he went to Manila as war correspon- amassed a few hundred francs he went back to Paris and presented dent for The Times and for Harper’s Weekly. In 1880 he became his “St. Jerome” at the Salon of 1845. This picture was rejected a member of the Society of American artists, and in 1885 was and exists no longer, for Millet, short of canvas, painted over it

elected to full membership in the National academy of design,

“Oedipus Unbound,” a work which during the following year was

New York, and was for one term its vice-president. He was a trustee of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, secretary of the

the object of violent criticism. He was, however, no longer alone; Diaz, Eugéne Tourneux, Rousseau, and other men of note sup-

ican

academy of Rome and vice-chairman of the Fine Arts

Committee. He was also a member of the American water colour

sonety and of the Institute of painters in oil colours, London. His Work as a decorative artist may be seen at Trinity church, Boston;

the Bank of Pittsburgh; and the capitol at St. Paul (Minn.). His Pictures are in many public collections: among them are “A Cosy

Comer,” in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; “At the Ion,” in the Union League club, New York; and “Between

ported him by their confidence and friendship, and his second wife, Catherine Lemaire, bore poverty with dignity and gave courage to her husband. To this date belong Millet’s “Golden Age,” “Bird Nesters,” “Young Girl and Lamb,” and “Bathers”; to the “Bathers” (Louvre) succeeded “The Mother Asking Alms,” “The Workman’s Monday,” and “The Winnower.”’ This last work, exhibited in 1848, was highly praised, but remained unsold until Ledru Rollin, informed of the painter’s dis-

MILLET—MILLIKAN

500

spikelets, 2-5 to 3 millimetres long, C. italica (foxtail millets}. , mission which enabled him to leave Paris for Barbizon, on the Grain globose, forcing open the hull as it matures, and falling free skirts of the forest of Fontainebleau. There he settled in a threewhen threshed; spike dense, Pennisetum glaucum (pear! roomed cottage for the rest of his life—twenty-seven years, in millet). which he wrought out the perfect story of that peasant life of Common millet (also called Indian millet, proso, hog-millet, which he alone has given a “complete impression.” Jules Breton has coloured the days of toil with sentiment; others, like Courbet, broom-corn millet) is Panicum miliaceum. Its origin is unkn whose eccentric “Funeral at Ornans" attracted more notice at the ' but it is probably a native of Egypt and Arabia. It has been Salon of 18so than Millet’s “Sowers and Binders,” have treated cultivated in Egypt, Asia and southern Europe since prehistoric times. It is a small erect annual similar subjects as a vehicle for protest against social misery; reaching a height of 3-34 ft,and Millet alone, a peasant and a miserable one himself, saw true, possesses bristly, much branched neither softening nor exaggerating what he saw. To a friend he nodding panicles. Cross-pollina. expressed his resolve to break with mythological subjects. In 1852 tion regularly occurs. The grain he produced “Girls Sewing,’ “Man Spreading Manure’; 1853, is about 3 mm. long by 2 mm “The Reapers”; 1854, “Church at Gréville”’; 1855—the year of broad, the kernel being firmly the International Exhibition, at which he received a medal of secsurrounded by the shining, hard, ond class—"Peasant Grafting a Tree“; 1857, “The Gleaners”; flowering glume and palea. (Se¢ 1859, “The Angelus,” “The Woodcutter and Death“; 1860, “Sheep Grasses.) Three varieties are Shearing”; r86r, “Woman Shearing Sheep.” “Woman Feeding often recognised: Vars. effusum, Child“; 1862, “Potato Planters,” “Winter and the Crows”; 1863, coniracium and compactum. The “Man with Hoe,” “Woman Carding’; 1864, “Shepherds and

tress, gave him 500 francs for it. Rollin also gave Millet a com-

plant ripens as far north as south ern Germany; in fact, wherever the vine can be grown for wine

Fiock,” “Peasants Bring Home a Calf Born in the Fields”; £869,

“Knitting Lesson”;

1870, “Buttermaking”;

1871, “November—

recollection of Gruchy.”

Something of the imposing unity of his work was, no doubt, due to an extraordinary power of memory, which enabled Millet to paint without a model; he could recall with precision the attitudes or gestures which he proposed to represent. Thus he could count on presenting free from afterthoughts the vivid impressions which be had first received. Those impressions were always of a serious and often of a noble order, to which the character of his execution responded so perfectly that even a ‘““Washerwoman at her Tub” will show the grand action of a Medea. The drawing of this sub-

ject is reproduced in Souvenirs de Borbizon, a pamphlet in which M. Piédagnel has recorded a visit paid to Millet in 1864. His circumstances were then less evil, after struggles as severe as those endured in Paris. A contract by which he bound himself in 1860 to give up all his work for three years had placed him in possession of 1,000 francs a month. His fame extended, and at the exhibition of 1867 he received a medal of the first class, and the ribbon of the Legion of Honour. He died on Jan. 20, 1875. He was buried by his friend Rousseau’s side in the churchyard of Chailly. (E. F.S. D.; X.) See Millet Millet ea

1921).

the article Barpizon; also A. Sensier, Vie et oeuvre de J. F. (1874); Piédagnel, Souvenirs de Barbizon, etc. (1876); Gensel,

production. The grain, which is very nutritious, is used in the form of groats and makes ercellent bread when mixed with

wheat flour.

It is also largely

used for feeding poultry. Chaetochloa tialica or Setarig italica includes many varieties known as foxtail millets, Turkistan millet, German millet, Hur garian millet or grass, etc., is a native of Asia and is extensively grown in India. The grains are BY COURTESY OF THE DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE smaller than those of the common TURKISTAN OR ITALIAN MILLET, millet but it is exceedingly pro (SETARIA ITALICA), WHICH IS CULlific, the total yield being many TIVATED AS A CEREAL IN ASIA times that of wheat. The grains are used locally for human food and imported into Great Britain for poultry feeding. Pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum or P. typhoideum) is extensively cultivated in tropical Asia, Egypt and India. Its origin is

und Rousseau (1902); Julia Cartwright, Jean Francois Millet ; Etienne Moreau-Nélaton, Millet Raconté par lui-même

unknown but it has come probably from tropical Africa. Echinochloa (Panicum) crusgalli is the barnyard grass or

ET, a name applied to a number of very different species

millet of the United States and E. frumentacea (Panicum frwmentaceum) may be a variety of E. crusgalli; it is the Japanese barnyard millet or Deccan grass. Æ. maximum is the Guinea grass, a native of tropical Africa; it grows 8 ft. high and yields a nutritious grain. Other gigantic species form the field crops on the banks of the Amazon. i

of cereals and grasses belonging to distinct genera and even subfamilies of the Gramineae (grasses). They are grown in Europe and the United States as forage and in Asia and Africa as food crops. The four genera, Chaetochloa (Setaria), Echinochloa, Panicum, and Pennisetum, belonging to the tribe Paniceae, include most of the millets, though Eleusine coracana (ragi or finger millet grown in India) falls in the tribe Chlorideae. A key, following Frear and Robbins, is given below to the principal millets of economic importance and to some of the closely related weed grasses, Inflorescence paniculate; no involucre below the individual spikelets. Inflorescence a raceme

of short spikes; empty glumes awned or

awn-pointed, Echinochloa (Barnyard millets and wild: barnyard grass).

Awns long; spikelets white, E. crusgalli (common barnyard grass).

E. (P.) decompositum is the Australian millet the grains of

which are used by the natives, Kodo

millet

Paspalum scrobiculatum is the

cultivated in India, while Malium

effusum is the

millet grass. (See also Durra and SorcHum.) For further details see C. R. Ball, “Pearl Millet,” U.S. Dept. Agri. Farmers’ Bull. 1681 (1903); G. Watt, Dictionary of the Economi Products of India (London, 1908) ; M. A. Carleton, The Small Grams

(New York and London, 1916); W. Robbins, Botany of Crap Plants

(Philadelphia, 1924).

MILLIKAN, ROBERT ANDREWS

(V. H. B.) ;

(1868-

_+),Ametr

can physicist, was born at Morrison, II., March 22, 1868, and re-

Awns short; spikelets brown, E. frumeniacec (Japanese barnyard millet). Inflorescencea drooping panicle; empty glumes not awned, Panicum aceum (proso or broom-corn millet).

ceived his education at Oberlin College (A.B., 1891; A.M., 1893) where he was instructor in physics 1891-93. He then proc

Grain enclosed in lemma and palet (the hull) at maturity; spike loose, Chactochloa (foxtail millet and foxtail grass). Panicle usually x centimetre thick or less; bristles commonly pran i‘iia about 2 millimetres long, C. viridis (green

ant in physics at the University of Chicago, with which msitix

Inflorescence spicate; involucre of bristles below each spikelet.

0 k Panicle usually x to 3 centimetres thick; bristles usually purple:

to Columbia University (Ph.D., 1895), and the universities

Berlin and Göttingen (1895-96). In 1896 he was appointed assisttion he continued to be associated for the next 25 years in the department of physics, being professor from rg1o to 1921. Ja 1921 he became director of the Norman Bridge laboratory of physics and chairman of the executive council of the California

MILLING—MILLING Institute of Technology at Pasadena, California. He was vice-

MACHINES

501

Often several articles are clamped in line for the cutter to mill

chairman of the National Research Council, Washington, D.C., | them in succession, so that at one traverse of the table three or

m 1917, and chief of the science and research division of the Signal | four or more receive treatment.

Corps, U.S.A., with the rank of lieutenant-colonel.

In 1922 he

was the frst exchange lecturer to Belgium on the C.R.B. Founda-

When a varied range of milling has to be performed, this model is not sufficiently adaptable, and what is termed a plain or a universal machine is chosen. This has a column near the top of which

"The best known of his researches were the “oil drop” experiments, undertaken with the view of making measurements of fundamental electrical quantity. They proved conclusively that all electrons are alike, and yielded the most accurate determination of the electron thus far made. He also undertook researches into

photoelectric effect. Later research of his has tended definitely to bridge the gap between light and X-ray phenomena and to yield

new information on the radiating properties of light atoms. He has recently brought new precision to the study of cosmic rays. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in physics in 1923 for his work in isolating and measuring the electron, and in making the first exact photoelectric determination of the light-quant. He received the Edison Medal for especially meritorious work in the field of electricity, and the Hughes Medal of the Royal Society in recognition af his determination of the electronic charge and other physical constants. He is also the recipient of the Faraday medal and the Matteuci medal. (See also Puysics and ELECTRICITY, ATMOS-

pHenic: Cosmos Radiation.) Millikan was the author of the following, among other works:— Mechanics, Molecular Physics and Heat (1901); Electricity, Sound and Light (1908); The £lectron (1917); Practical Physics (1920) ; Scvence and Life (1923); Science and the New Civilization (1930), in addition to numerous contributions to technical periodicals.

MILLING: see FLOUR AND FLOUR MANUFACTURE. MILLING-CUTTERS are revolving tools which cut all

shapes in metal by continuous action and not by the reciprocating movement used in planing, shaping or slotting. (See MAcHINE Toots.)

MILLING

MACHINES

are a highly important class of

machine tool which will perform almost all the operations necessary in metal-cutting, by means of revolving cutters past which the work is fed. Milling was first done in the lathe, the cutter being rotated between the centres, while the slide traversed the piece of metal across and beneath it. There are still many milling machines, termed Lincoln millers, in which the resemblance to the lathe is evident, and which were developed at an early period to mill parts of small arms and sewing machines, when the interchangeable system of manufacture began. The great advantage of the milling machine is that cutters can be made for all sorts of shapes, to mill corresponding profiles, which they will do on tens of thousands of pieces alike. Hand production by files is thus eliminated and great accuracy ensured. Cutters can also be multiplied, several being used on one spindle,

so that a complicated surface or a number of duplicate pieces may be milled at one pass. Machines with multiple spindles, each carrying a cutter or a set will surface off very complex shapes of castings, e.g., castings for parts of engines and machinery, etc., thereby saving a lot of piecemeal cutting which would otherwise be necessary to finish the outlines. There is a system termed profile milling, by means of which a cutter will produce curves and flats, the work being coerced during the traverse by a copy of like shape. The constantly-changing curves of cams are also milled by a similar device. Screw-threads DIAGRAM SHOWING THE ELEMENTS and worms are cut by a milling OF A MILLING MACHINE cutter of suitable shape, revolved and fed laterally whilst the screw rotates.

_The Lincoln machine mentioned is built in small and in large

sizes for what is termed manufacturing, that is the milling of large numbers of similar shapes for small arms, machine-guns, sewing machines, cycles, parts of cars, etc.

Its constructional features

are relatively simple, and the pieces of work are either gripped % a vice, or in a special clamping unit, termed a fixture, which automatically gives the correct attitude in relation to the cutter.

a horizontal spindle is driven by belt or motor, and usually a change-speed gearing to obtain the various speeds. A triangularshaped knee is adjustable up and down, slidewavs on the face of the column, and across the flat face at the top of the knee a saddle is adjustable. This saddle, in turn, carries the long sliding table for the i f objects to be milled. The operator has | thus the choice of three adjustments with which he can bring all sorts of castings and forgings into correct position for milling. and then feed them by hand or automatically. Some cutters, termed end mills, cut mainly by their ends and effect surfacing and the milling of slots and grooves. By putting a pair of index centres, że., a couple of heads with point centres between which work can be swung, on the table circular dividing may be effected. This action enables flats, squares, hexagons, etc., to be finished, or slots cut around a cylinder or disc. Gearwheel teeth are also made in the same manner. The difference between a plain and a universal miller is that the latter has a swivel-mounting for

the table, so that it may be slewed at a suitable angle, and spiral grooves be cut, or the helically set teeth of milling-cutters or gears be produced, as well as screws and worms that may be required. ee Piano-millers.—Castings too large for the foregoing types of machines receive treatment on the plano-millers, big affairs like planing machines in general outline, but with one or more cutter-spindles on the cross-rail, and sometimes others attacking from the sides. The long table feeds the pieces under the cross-rail, or a gang of pieces is clamped to the table for milling at a single travel. Motor car cylinders are milled in batches on these machines, as well as many other portions of engines and machines. Or long frames or FROM VERHOEFF, “DIPLOPODA” FIG. 1.—POLYXENUS LAG- rods, such as printing machinery frames, URUS, BACK AND FRONT locomotive connecting or coupling rods, 9

VIEWS.

SEE

ram a

,

a2

MILLIPEDE etc. are passed under the cutters.

Very

large castings, such as cylinders, beds, turbine casings, condenser bodies, and big machine framings are too big for any plano-miller, but the milling is performed with a combined drilling, boring and milling machine or a portable milling machine is brought into position and attached to the object upon which it is intended to do the work. Vertical-spindle milling machines handle a varied range of cutting by means of the end mills previously mentioned, or of cylindrical mills cutting on the periphery, for edges and sides.

The profiling of contours which cannot be milled by the linear movements of the slides is effected by controlling the slides through the medium of a copy of the shape desired. Somewhat recent developments of the vertical-spindle designs are the continuous millers; a revolving circular table holds a set of workholding fixtures so that each in turn passes the cutter. The attendant can remove the finished specimen from the fixture farthest from the cutter and put in a fresh one for milling, so that no stop need occur in the running. Siaiton milling is another highly productive method; the rotary table feeds straight in towards the

cutter; then it reverses, and makes a portion of a revolution,

MILLIPEDE

502

A. Sus-cLass PsELAPHOGNATHA. Soft-bodied millipedes with bringing another piece into line for the feed. The operator is able to remove finished components and to re-load the fixture that is |rows and tufts of bristles. Example: Polyxenus. Integument strengthened B. Sus-cLAsS CHILOGNATHA. furthest away from the cutter. Still higher rate of production is practicable in the drum continuous machines which have a set of | deposition of salts of lime. Hairs, when present, occur singly, no

quantity of chips produced. The first difficulty is remedied chiefly by strong construction of the machine; the second by effective lubrication with a heavy volume of oil, which washes the chips rapidly (F.H.) away from the machine.

Sexually modified limbs in the male on the ~th seg.

in tufts.

fixtures spaced around a big horizontally

! | ment or at the hind end of the

set cylinder, and cutters attacking fromj each end of the work. The principal difficulties in milling are| connected with the results of vibration,| which leaves a bad finish, and with the

body. 1. Opisthandria. Male has sexually modified limbs (one or two pairs) at the hinder end of the body. Order Limacomorpha. Body with 22 segments. Body can| From m. oz saussure, “essar | not roll into a ball. Example: ~ FROM BRADE-BIRKS TERNA | Glomeridesmus (fig. 2). a Order Oniscomorpha. Body Fic. 5.—BRACHYCHAETEU UA. Fie. 2.—GLOMERIDESMUS |

with 14-16 segments. Body WALKING LEGS MILLIPEDE, an animal with a dis- MEXICANUS roll into a ball. Example: Glomeris (fg. 3). will | body segmented a and (antennae) feelers of pair one head, tinct not divided up into regions like that of most arthropods.

Each

2. Proterandria.

typical segment of the body is provided with two pairs of walking | in the male. legs (fig. 5}. The millipedes form in the phylum Arthropoda the

distinct class Diplopoda.

Superorder Eugnatha. Not more than seven pairs of walk.

Aikat)

g-

Chg

some remains (Archidesmus loganensis) have been found in Scatland even in the

uve r

w tit

iry a ini yeeeloea S

Upper Silurian. By Carboniferous times millipedes were well established and are represented by a great array of specimens SASAEOLETAIRE obtained in the United States, Great Fic. 3.—GLOMERIS (THE Britain and Bohemia. Early millipedes P!-L-MILLIPEDE) were remarkably like living forms. Some Carboniferous forms were probably amphibious (fig. 8). The nesting habits of some millipedes are most interesting and somewhat complicated. In Polydesmus the female selects a suit-|

able site on a fragment of wood or a similar object ina damp spot | and builds a circular wall by the discharge of faeces, which are moulded by the anal valves; this process is carried on until the beehive-like nest is well advanced

p

and then the eggs are deposited and the nest is roofed in. The female remains coiled around the nest for some time after the structure is complete (fig. 9).

Skin-changing is a serious danger to the life of a millipede because it leaves the animal in an

Q

)

} f

A qiNp=

nA

(ocelli)

IS ete Fon

into retirement when the process 1s imminent, and in some cases, 2s in Glomeris and Oxydesmus, a special changing-cell like a nest is constructed. For some unexplained reason

fraas N ergs x poms a f ATN i A AN

sien in

ea

On

one

Hare

ce a train was stoppe

because the dead and crushed

bodies

occur

some are blind.

for this reason the animal goes | SAN

broad

Order Polydesmoidea. 19 to 22 body segments. pair of limbs of the 7th segment modified in the male, the second pair isa | normal pair of walking legs. Examples: | Polydesmus, Platyrhacus (fig. 4). Order Nemato-phora. 26 or more body segments. One or both pairs of limbs of the 7th segment modified in the male. Silk glands present. Example: Brachychaeteuma. Order Juliformia. More than 40 cylindrical body segments. No walking legs on the 7th segment of male. No silk glands. Examples: Zulus, Blaniulus, Spirostreptus (fig. 6). Superorder Colobognatha. 8 pairs of walking legs in front of the sexually modified legs of the male. Example: Polyzontum (Head in fig. 7).

singly

grouped,

but FIG. 6.—-A TYPICAL MEM-

vided at the sides of the head with a FORMIA

sense-organ (organ of Tömösvary) of unknown function. In the Pselaphognatha the integument remains soft but in other millipedes the cuticle is strengthened by the deposition of lime salts within its substance except in places where flexibility is necessary for movement. The roof and side-walls of the typical

aa

trunk segment are fused together to form a single pleurotergite

Ou ees aR:

“zooLociscHe exces. | almost

Oe

ee

ACTERISTIC

or

Most millipedes are pro- BER OF THE ORDER JULI-

pha Ep

encircling the body,

OF THE

ORDER

the

floor being formed by two small

plates, the sternites,

th z 7 di ESoffthe migrating diplopods ywipar, sHowING THE FORM cuar. | front of the other.

made the rails slippery.

The first

gnathochilarium. In most millipedes paired simple eyes FROM BRONN, KLASSEN wus

unusually defenceless condition;

millipedes occasionally move in large numbers, sometimes even in

ment.

Structure.—The head bears one pair of antennae and the masticatory apparatus which consists of a pair of mandibles and a pair of fused appendages modified to form a single plate-like structure, the

MGC f í

ing legs in front of the sexually modifed limbs of the 7th seg-

|

Millipedes have a world-wide distribution, and were among the

earliest creatures to emerge from the water, for fossil Diplopoda are known in considerable numbers from the Devonian and

Sexually modified limbs on the 7th segment

poLy- | With

each

sternite

el one in 7 Associated

is a pair of

FROM

VERHOEFF,

“DIPLOPODA”

FIG. 7.—-HEAD OF POLYZONIGS

Some millipedes injure crops, DESMOIDEA walking legs. More fusion, or less, accounts for differences in this but their masticatory organs are weak and they can only damage | arrangement in different millipedes. In many there is in additive delicate tissues such as young roots or internal structures exposed | one pair of protective “stink glands” opening on each pleurotetby the attacks of other pests; others eat any decaying tissues. gite. The digestive tube, heart, main nerve cord and breathing Classification.—Millipedes were known to Aristotle but were | apparatus (tracheae) are in general like those of the centipede little studied till the time of Linnaeus. The class may þe subdi- | (g.v.). The reproductive system lies below the gut and opens # vided, according to Attems, as follows:— the third body segment.

MILLOM—MILNE The origin of the double segment in diplopods is obscure but an

503

by a Republican Senate as to be unacceptable to the house. The

additional pair of masticatory appendages Just behind the mandi- ' tariff thus became the chief issue in the presidential campaign bles has been found in the embryo of Spirostreptus. The young ' of 1888. During the free silver controversy he adhered to the Cleveland section of the Democratic Party, and failed to be reare hatched from the egg with three pairs of walking-legs. BmrocrRaPHY.—The literature in English and French is very scat- elected when his term in the Senate expired in 1899. He then tered. The best modern accounts are engaged in business and the practice of law in Cr: ticana, Tex., | an: Carl Attems, “Diplowhere he died on Sept. 2. 1971. gie, Zoolo ’ der uch Handb ae MILLSTONE: see Flour axnp Frour MANUFACTURE. ef, SCTE Verho W K. ); yol iv. (1926

|

Eat tees

“Piplopoda.” which includes an account of fossil forms, in Bronn’s Klassen und Ordnungen

|| MILLVALE, a manufacturing borough of Allegheny county,

E

ke

At

Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the Allegheny river, opposite Pitts| burgb. It is served by the Baltimore and Ohio and the Pennsyl| vania railways. Pop. (1920) 8,031 (159 foreign-born white); and was 8.166 in 1930. MILLVILLE, a city of Cumberland county, New Jersey, U.S.A.. on the Maurice river, 40o m. S. by E. of Philadelphia. It is served by the Pennsylvania railway system, trolley and motorbus river barges. The population was 14,691 in 1920 (92% | lines and

des Tier-

Reicks, vol. v. (Leipzig, 1926-27) ;

}

K. W. Verhoeff, Die Diplopoden Deutschlands (Leipzig 1910-14). Onsronomic status, see S. G. Brade Birks, Supplement to Lancashire (Dec. Naturalist axd Cheshire

1

a is CENTIPEDE; MYRIAPODA;

n

| native white) and was 14,705 in | The principal industry (established

‘ROPODA; SYMPHYLA.

'

(S. G. B.-B.)

MILLOM, market town, urhan district, Whitehaven parlia-

mentary division, Cumberland, England, on the L.MLS. railway. Pop. (1921) 8,078. The church

of Holy Trinity, early Norman

and Decorated in date, is of interest for its pillars, alternately

1930 by the Federal census.

in 1806) is the manufacture of |glass, almost all kinds except for windows. Textile manufactures

AFTER

SCUDDER,

MEM.

BOSTON

SOC. NAT. BIST.

FIG. 8.—ACANTHERPESTES MAJOR, AN AMPHIBIOUS MILLIPEDE OF COAL MEASURE TIMES

(dating from 1854) and the mining of sand are also important. The factory output in 1925 was valued at $8,098,127. The site of Millville is part of a large tract bought before 1790 by the Union company, which built a dam across the river, forming a beautiful pond 3 m. long and a mile wide (now called Union Jake and included in a large public park), and established saw-mills there, from which lumber was floated down the river for half a century.

round and octagonal, and for a window in the north aisle. A! The property changed hands in 1795, and in 1803 a town was laid massive roodstone stands in the churchyard. Millom castle, dating from the Conquest, was fortified (14th century) by Sir John Huddlestone, whose descendants held it until 1774. Though

strongly built, the castle has been largely dismantled.

In the

neighbourhood of Millom there are blast furnaces and highly

productive mines of red haematite. expended upwards of £120,000

The mining company has

upon a sea-wall and embankment to protect the works from the sea.

MILLS, JOHN

(d. 1736),

English actor, was a member of the company at Drury Lane, London from 1695 almost uninterruptedly to his death, playing and creating hundreds of parts. He was at his best in tragedy. His wife was an actress, and their son William—“the younger Mills” —was also an actor of some merit. MILLS, ROGER

QUARLES

and amirs in the Old Testament, sifted and classified documentary evidence, and evaded or minimized the miraculous. In consequence, his inevitable preferment was delayed. In 1835, however, Sir Robert Peel made him rector of St. Margaret’s, Westminster,

(1832-1911),

American legislator, was born in Todd county, Ky., on March 30, 1832. He went to Texas in 1839, studied law, and was admitted to the bar. He entered the Confederate army in 1861,took part asa

private in the battle of Wilson’s Creek, and as colonel at Arkansas

Post, Chickamauga, Missionary Ridge and Atlanta. He served in the national House of Representatives as a Democrat in 1873-92, and in the Senate 1892-99. He

out on the present site by Joseph Buck, with the plan (not then carried out} of moving the mills from the pond to the banks of the river. Millville was incorporated as a city in 1866, and in 1913 a commission form of government was adopted. MILMAN, HENRY HART (1791-1868), English historian and ecclesiastic, third son of Sir Francis Milman, Bart., physician to George ITI., was born in London on Nov. 10, 1791. He was educated at Eton and at Brasenose college, Oxford. He gained the Newdigate prize with a poem on the Apollo Belvidere in 1812, was elected a fellow of Brasenose in 1814, and in 1816 won the English essay prize with his Comparative Estimate of Sculpture and Painting. In 1816 he was ordained, and two years later was presented to the living of St. Mary’s, Reading. Milman’s early work included tragedies, epic poems, hymns and translations from the classics. In 1821 he was elected professor of poetry at Oxford. Turning to another field, Milman published in 1829 his History of the Jews, which is memorable as the first by an English clergyman which treated the Jews as an oriental tribe, recognized sheikhs

BY COURTESY

OF HUGH

MAIN

FIG. 9.—NEST-BUILDING OF A MILLIPEDE, SHOWING SUCCESSIVE STAGES BY WHICH THE FEMALE MILLIPEDE POLYDESMUS MAKES THE NEST TO PROTECT ITS EGGS

made the tariff his special study, and was long recognized as a leading authority in Congress. As

chairman of the ways and means committee he reported in April,

1888, the “Mills bill,” which provided for a reduction of the duties 6 sugar, earthenware, glassware, plate glass, woollen goods and other articles, the substitution of ad valorem for specific duties in many cases, and the placing of lumber, hemp, wool, flax, borax, tin plates, salt and other articles on the free list. This bill was passed the Democratic House on July 21, and was then so amended

and canon of Westminster, and in 1849 he became dean of St. Paul’s. By this time Milman was generally revered and beloved. His History of Christianity to ihe Abolition of Paganism in the Roman Empire (1840) had been ignored; but his reputation was fully established by the continuation of that work, his History of Latin Christianity (1855), which has passed through many editions. In 1838 he had edited Gibbon’s Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, and in the following year published his Life of Gibbon. Milman died on Sept. 24, 1868, and was buried in St. Paul’s cathedral. See A. C. Tait, Sermon in Memory of H. H. Milman (1868), and A. Milman, H. H. Milman (1900). See also the Memoirs of R. Milman, bishop of Calcutta, by his sister, Frances Maria Milman (1879).

MILNE, SIR GEORGE FRANCIS (1866), British field marshal, born Nov. 5, 1866; joined the Royal Artillery in 1885. He served in the Nile Expedition of 1898, and the South African War (1899-1902). In 1913 he became commander of the artillery of the 4th Div., with which he went out to France in 1914. He was given, in July 1915, command of the 27th Div., which, three months later, he took to the Salonika theatre where, at the end of the year, he was placed in charge of an army corps.

In May 1916 Milne was advanced to the command of the British

504

MILNE—MILNER

forces in Macedonia, and he occupied this responsible position | Colony. under the orders of three successive French commanders-in-chief 2

es

e

The situation resulting from the Jameson raid (se

| TRANSVAAL and SOUTH AFRICA) was one of the greatest delicacy

4

until the end of the struggle. He filled a difficult position witb | and difficulty, and Mr. Chamberlain, now colonial secretary, unfailing tact and sound judgment: after the final victory in 1918, he remained in charge of the British forces in the Near

East and about the Black Sea until 1920, and on return to England was appointed to the Eastern command. In Feb. 1926 he succeeded Lord Cavan as Chief of the Imperial General Staff.

MILNE, JOHN (1850-1913), British seismologist and mining

engineer, was born at Liverpool on Dec. 30, 1850, and educated at King’s College. London and the Royal School of Mines. He worked as mining engineer in Newfoundland and Labrador, and in 1374 went as geologist with Dr. Beke’s expedition to Northwestern Arabia. In 1375 he was appointed professor of geology and mining in the Imperial Engineering College at Tokyo, where he remained for 20 years. Milne was recognized as a leading first authority on seismology. He travelled widely in the East, and about 1880 established the seismic survey of Japan, with 968 stations. He invented various forms of seismograph. In 1894 he returned to England, and established a private observation station near Newport, I. of Wight. As secretary of the seismological committee of the British Association he was largely responsible for the establishment of seismological stations throughout the world. He died on July 30, 1913. He published two standard works, Earthquakes (1883), and Seismology (1898), besides many books on scientific mining and crystallog-

raphy, and papers in scientific journals.

MILNE-EDWARDS,

HENRY

(1800-1885),

French

zoologist, the son of an Englishman, was born in Bruges, Oct. 23, 1800, but spent most of his life in France. He graduated in medicine at Paris in 1823, but devoted himself to the study of the lower forms of animal life. In 1841 he was appointed professor of entomology at the muséum d'histoire naturelle, and 21 years

selected Milner as Lord Rosmead’s successor. The appointmen was avowedly made in order that an acceptable British Statesman, in whom public confidence was reposed, might go to South Africa to consider all the circumstances, and to formulate a policy which should combine the upholding of British interests with the attempt to deal justly with the Transvaal and Orange Free State governments.

Sir Alfred Milner reached the Cape in May 1897, and after the difficulties with President Kruger over the Aliens’ Law had

been patched up he was free by August to make himself personally acquainted with the country. Between August 1897 and May

1898 he travelled through Cape Colony, the Bechuanaland Pro. tectorate, Rhodesia and Basutoland, and also during this period learned both Dutch and the South African “Taal.” He came to the conclusion that there could be no hope of peace and progress

in South Africa while there remained the “permanent subjection of British to Dutch in one of the Republics.” He also realized— as was shown by the triumphant re-election of Mr. Kruger to the

presidency of the Transvaal in Feb. 1898—that the Pretoria government would never on its own initiative redress the grieyances of the “Uitlanders.” That Milner had good grounds for his

view of the situation is shown in a letter written (March 11) by Mr. J. X. Merriman to President Steyn of the Free State: “The greatest danger,” wrote Mr. Merriman, “lies in the attitude of President Kruger and his vain hope of building up a State ona foundation of a narrow unenlightened minority.” Though this was

recognized by the more far-seeing of the Bond leaders, they were ready to support Kruger, whether or not he granted reforms, and they sought to make Milner’s position impossible. At the general election in Cape Colony the Bond obtained a majority, and in later he succeeded Geoffrey Saint-Hilaire in the chair of zoology. accordance with constitutional practice were invoked to form a He died in Paris on July 29, 1885. ministry. In November he visited England, and the next February Besides his papers in the Annales des sciences naturelles, with the editorship of which he was associated from 1834, he published: Histoire (1899) returned, assured of support, to find the situation more naturelle de crustacés (3 vols., 1837-41) ; Histoere naturelle des coral- critical. On May 4’ Milner penned a memorable despatch to the Haires (1858-60); and the excellent Leçons sur la physiologie et Colonial Office, in which he insisted that the remedy for the unrest Panetomie comparée de Phomme et des animaux (14 vols., 1857-81). in the Transvaal was to strike at the root of the evil—the political MILNER, ALFRED MILNER, Viscount (1854-1925), impotence of the injured. “It may seem a paradox,” he wrote, British statesman and colonial administrator, was born at Bonn on “but it is true that the only way for protecting our subjects is te March 23, 1854, the only son of Charles Milner, M.D., whose help them to cease to be our subjects.” The policy of leaving wife was a daughter of Major-General Ready, sometime governor things alone only led from bad to worse, and “the case for interof the Isle of Man. Alfred Milner was educated first at Tiibingen, vention is overwhelming.” Milner felt that only the enfranchisewhere his father was Reader in English of the university, then at ment of the Uitlanders in the Transvaal would give stability to King’s College, London, and under Jowett as a scholar of Balliol the South African situation. He realized keenly that the spectacle College, Oxford, from 1872 to 1876. He graduated in 1877, with of thousands of British subjects in the Transvaal in the condition a first class in classics, having won the Hertford, Craven, Eldon of “helots” (as he expressed it) was undermining the prestige of and Derby scholarships, and was elected to a fellowship of New Great Britain throughout South Africa. This despatch was kept College. At Oxford he formed a close friendship with Arnold private for a time by the home government but its tenor was Toynbee, and was associated with his schemes of social work; known to the leading politicians at the Cape, and at the instance and subsequently he wrote a tribute to his friend, Arnold Toyn- of J. H. Hofmeyr a conference was held (May 31-June 5) at bee: a Reminiscence (1895). In 1881 he was called to the bar at Bloemfontein between the high commissioner and the president the Inner Temple and joined the staff of the Pall Mall Gazette of the Transvaal. Milner then made the enactment by the Transwder Jobn Morley, becoming assistant editor under W. T. vaal of a franchise law which would at once give the JohannesStead. In 1885 he was Liberal candidate for the Harrow division burgers a share in the government of the country his main, and of Middlesex at the general election, but was defeated. He acted practically his only, demand. The conference ended without any as private secretary to Mr. (afterwards Lord) Goschen, and in agreement being reached, and war broke out in Oct. 1899. 1887, when Goschen became chancellor of the exchequer, was In Feb. 1902 he was called upon to undertake the administraappointed his principal private secretary. It was by Goschen’s tion of the two Boer states, both now annexed to the British influence that in 1889 he was made under-secretary of finance Empire, though the war was still in progress. He thereupon in Egypt. He remained in Egypt four years, his period of office resigned the governorship of Cape Colony, while retaining the coinciding with the first great reforms, after the danger of bank- post of high commissioner. The work of reconstructing the civil ruptcy had been avoided. Milner returned to England in 1892, administration in the Transvaal and Orange River Colony could and was appointed chairman of the Board of Inland Revenue, only be carried on to a limited extent while operations conti being made C.B. in 1894 and K.C.B. in 1895. Shortly after his in the field. Milner therefore returned to England for a holiday; return to England he published his England in Egypt, which at on his arrival he was raised to the peerage with the title of Bares once became the authoritative account of the work done since the Milner of St. James’s and Cape Town. Meanwhile the diplomacy British occupation. of 1899 and the conduct of the war had caused a great change i Sir Alfred Milner remained at the Board of Inland Revenue the attitude of the Liberal party in England towards Lord Milner. until 1897. In April of that year Lord Rosmead resigned his posts A violent agitation for his recall, in which Sir Henry Campbellof high commissioner for South Africa and governor of Cape Bannerman joined, was organized, but without success, and m

MILNGAVIE

MILO

505

August he returned to South Africa, where he plunged into the | scholarship, steadiness and somewhat bureaucratic habit of mind

herculean task of remodelling the administration. In the nego- | supplied an invaluable complement to his chief’s daring, impatations for peace he was associated with Lord Kitchener, and | tience of precedent, quickness of apprehension and intellectual the terms of surrender, signed at Pretoria on May 31, 1902, were agility. In February 1917 he attended, on behalf of the British Government, a conference of the Allies in St. Petersburg (Lenindrafted by him. On July 15 he was made a viscount. Immediately following the conclusion of peace Milner pub- | grad).

ished (June 21) the Letters Patent establishing the system of |

crown colony government

in the Transvaal

and Orange

River

colonies, and exchanging his title of administrator to that of

governor. The reconstructive work necessary after the ravages of

the war was enormous.

He provided a steady revenue by the

levying of a tax of 10% on the annual net produce of the gold mines, and devoted special attention to the repatriation of the

Boers, land settlement by British colonists, education, justice, the constabulary, and the development of railways. During a yisit to Europe he was offered the post of secretary of State for

the Colonies, but refused, returning to South Africa, where economic depression was becoming pronounced. He was back in Johannesburg in Dec. 1903, and had to consider the crisis in the gold-mining industry caused by the shortage of native labour. Reluctantly he agreed, with the assent of the home government, to the proposal of the mineowners to import Chinese coolies on a three years’ contract.

In the latter part of 1904 and the early months of 1905 Lord

Milner was engaged on the elaboration of a scheme to provide the Transvaal with a system of “representative” government, a

half-way house between crown colony administration and that of

He devoted himself to his duties in the War Cabinet, seldom appearing in the House of Lords except to explain and defend the

government's food policy. The acceptance by the government of the principle of imperial preference, and of the conservation of the raw materials of the Empire, owed much to his influence and support. He worked heartily for inter-Allied co-operation m the conduct of the War, and he was in France as the representative of the British cabinet at the time of the victorious German advance in March 1918; it was largely owing to his influence that General Foch was appointed generalissimo of the Allied forces in France on March 26. Lord Milner was made secretary for war on April 19, and presided over the Army Council during the succeeding months of the year which ended with victory. After the general election, Lord Milner became colonial secretary. In that capacity he attended the Paris Peace Conference, and was a signatory to the Treaty of Versailles; and he subsequently helped to deal with a number of difficult questions arising under the treaty out of the disposal of the German colonies conquered in war. His financial authority was invoked to defend ministerial finance in the House of Lords; and when a serious revolutionary outbreak took place in Egypt in r919, he was sent there in December, at the head of a special mission. The mission remained till March and subsequently conferred with Zaghlul

self-government. Letters Patent providing for representative govemment were issued on March 31, 1905. Owing to the advent of a Liberal ministry in England, in Dec. 1905, this scheme remained Pasha, the Nationalist leader in London. In November they inoperative. (See TRANSVAAL: History.) For some time he had recommended the recognition of Egyptian independence. Great suffered in health from the incessant strain of work, and he Britain was to guarantee the integrity of Egypt against aggresdetermined to retire. He left Pretoria on April 2, and sailed for sion; she would have a privileged position in Egypt and would Europe on the following day. Speaking at Johannesburg on the maintain a garrison in the canal zone. The capitulations were to eve of his departure, he recommended to all concerned the pro- be abolished, and the veto on legislation affecting foreigners motion of the material prosperity of the country and the treat- would be vested in the high commissioner, Lord Milner resigned, ment of Dutch and British on an absolute equality. When he leit, February 1921, and was given the Order of the Garter. Before the economic crisis was still acute and criticism rife. But the the end of the month he married Lady Edward Cecil, the widow of Lord Edward Cecil, formerly Miss Violet Maxse. foundations of revival had been laid. After this, though he took an active part in the work of the Experience in South Africa had shown him that underlying the difficulties of the situation there was the wider problem of Rhodes Trust, and also published his views (Questions of the imperial unity. In his farewell speech at Johannesburg he con- Hour, 1923), Milner only once showed any disposition to resume cluded with a reference to the subject. “When we who call our- public work. When Baldwin, in the autumn of 1923, appealed to selves Imperialists talk of the British Empire we think of a group the country for a mandate to introduce protection, Milner acof states bound, not in an alliance—for alliances can be made and cepted the chairmanship of a committee to advise the government unmade—but in a permanent organic union. Of such a union the as to the proposed tariff. As the electorate rejected protection, dominions of the sovereign as they exist to-day are only the raw the committee proved abortive. Soon after returning from a visit material.” This thesis he further developed in a magazine article to South Africa he was attacked by sleeping sickness and died written in view of the colonial conference held in London in 1907. on May 13, 1925, at Sturry Court, near Canterbury. There was He advocated the creation of a permanent deliberative imperial found among his papers, and published shortly after his death, an council, and favoured preferential trade relations between the impressive document containing his Credo (1925). See also E. B. Iwan-Miiller, Lord Milner and South Africa (1902) ; United Kingdom and the other members of the empire; and in B. Worsfold, Lord Milners Work in South Africa (1906); W. T. later years he took an active part in advocating the cause of tariff W. Stead, “Sir Alfred Milner,” in The Review of Reviews, vol. xx. (1899) ; reform and colonial preference. and the bibliography to SoutH Arrica. The Nation and the Empire Milner occupied himself mainly, after his return from South (Collected Speeches 1913).

Africa, with business interests in the City of London. He was active on behalf of causes which appealed to him from the imperial side, and he made several speeches on behalf of tarif reform and colonial preference. He was roused, however, by Lloyd

George’s budget of 1909, and he advised the House of Lords to

reject the Finance Bill, and, as he said at Glasgow, to “damn the consequences.” He made several speeches in the next 12 months m defence of the Lords’ position; and when the Parliament Bill fame up to the House of Lords in 1911, he was a leading spirit

among the “Diehards” who advised resistance to the end.

Lloyd George, when he formed his first war ministry in Decem-

ber 1915, at once turned to Milner, the only British administrator who before r914 had directed a war from the civil side, and constituted him one of his principal colleagues in his War Cabinet ei four. From this time to the cessation of hostilities their rela-

lions were close, and, after Lloyd George, Milner took the largest in the civilian conduct of the War.

Milner’s experience,

MILNGAVIE

(locally pronounced Millguy), burgh, Dum-

bartonshire, Scotland, 6 m. N.N.W. of Glasgow by L.N.E.R. Pop. (1931), 5,056. Industries include bleach-fields, dye-works, and a paper-mill; but the town is largely a residential quarter for Glasgow. Close to the town are two large reservoirs, in which is stored the water from Loch Katrine. Mugdock Castle, 1? m. N. of Milngavie, is an old stronghold of the Grahams; in Baldernock parish, about 2 m. E., stands a megalith, called “the Auld Wives’ Lift” (400 ft.), commanding a fine view.

MILO or MILON, of Crotona, Greek athlete, lived about the

end of the 6th century B.c.

He was six times crowned at the

Olympic games and six times at the Pythian for wrestling, and was famous throughout the civilized world for his feats of strength— such as carrying an ox on his shoulders through the stadium at Olympia. In his native city he was much honoured, and he commanded the army which defeated the people of Sybaris in 511. The traditional account of his death is often used to point a moral:

MILO—MILTIADES

506

he found a tree which some woodcutters had partially split with a |treme Serbian patriots, Miloš persuaded them to raise no active

wedge, and attempted to rend it asunder; but the wedge fell out, and the tree closed on his hand, imprisoning him till wolves came and devoured him. His name became proverbial for personal strength (Diod. Sic. xii. 9; Strabo vi. 263; Herodotus iii. 137).

opposition to his election in 1817 as supreme prince of Serbia:

shortly before he had almost certainly had his old chief and rival Karageorge murdered in his sleep. The Turkish régime was grady-

ally relaxed, although the new position remained undefined, until

MILO, TITUS ANNIUS, Roman politician, was the son of the Haitti-sherif of 1830 recognized Milos as hereditary prince

C. Papius Celsus, but was adopted by his mother’s father, T. Annius Luscus. He joined the Pompeian party, and organized bands of mercenaries and gladiators to support the cause by public violence in opposition to P. Clodius, who gave similar support to the democratic cause. Milo was tribune of the plebs in 57 B.C. He took a prominent part in bringing about the recall of Cicero from exile, in spite of the opposition of Clodius. In 53, when Milo was candidate for the consulship and Clodius for the praetorship, the two leaders met by accident on the Appian Way at Bovillae and Clodius was murdered (January 52). Milo was impeached; his guilt was clear, and his enemies took every means of intimidating his supporters and his judges. Cicero was afraid to speak, and the extant Pro Mione is an expanded form of the unspoken defence. Milo went into exile at Massilia, and his property was sold by auction. He was the only man excepted from Caesar’s general amnesty. He joined M. Caelius Rufus in 48 in his rising against Caesar, but was slain near Thurii in Lucania. His wife was Fausta, daughter of the dictator Sulla.

besides granting the Serbs other concessions.

While preserving the appearance of loyalty to the Porte, Milgi

actually furthered his own ambitions.

He did much for the

organization of his country, but more for himself, and so tyrannical were the methods by which he enriched himself as to evoke

a rebellion in 1824. His general enemies were assassinated; his officials forced to dust his boots; and he secured to himself the monopoly of the export of swine to Austria, Serbia’s most lucra. tive trade. At last his exasperated people forced him in 1835 to

grant a democratic constitution which in turn brought on him the disfavour both of the Porte and of Russia.

Russia’s intrigues

with the Serb opposition at last forced Milos to abdicate (1839), His sons Milan and Michael III. (g.v.) ruled Serbia: Milog lived on his estates in Rumania, or in Vienna. He was recalled to the throne in 1859, on the deposition of Prince Alexander

Karageorgevi¢, but had only just time to show that his ideas remained unchanged. He died on Sept. 27, 1860, in Belgrade.

MILOVANOVIC,

MILOVAN § (1863-1912),

Serbian

MILO OF GLOUCESTER, lord of Brecknock and earl of statesman and diplomatist, was born at Belgrade on March 2,

Hereford (d. 1143), was the son of Walter of Gloucester, who appears as sheriff of that county between 1104 and 1121, when he was succeeded by his son who later combined this office with that of local justiciar for Gloucestershire. After the death of Henry I. he declared for Stephen, at whose court he appears as constable in 1136. But in 1139, when the empress Matilda appeared in England, he declared for her, and placed the city of Gloucester at her disposal. He sacked the royalist city of Worcester and reduced the county of Hereford. In 1141, at Matilda’s coronation, he was rewarded with the earldom of Hereford. He remained loyal to the empress after her defeat at Winchester. See the Coniinwation of Florence of Worcester (ed. B. Thorpe, 1848—

49); the Cartulary of Gloucester Abbey (Rolls series); and J. H.

Round, Geofrey de Mandeville (1892).

MILORADOVICH, MICHAEL ANDRIJEVICH, Count (1770-1325), Russian general, saw service under Suvarov in the wars against Turkey and Poland, and in the campaign of Italy and Switzerland (1799) earned much distinction as a commander of advanced troops. In 1805, having attained the rank of Keutenant-general, be served under Kutusov in the campaign of Austerlitz. In the Turkish War he distinguished himself at Guir-

gevo (1807).

Promoted general of infantry in 1810, he com-

manded a corps at Borodino, and subsequently inflicted the defeat

of Tarutino (or Winkovo)} on Murat, king of Naples (Oct. 18, 1812). His corps was one of those most active in the pursuit of Napoleon’s Grande Armée, and in 1813 he led the rear-guard of the Allies after their earlier defeats. He led a Russian-Prussian corps, at Leipzig and in the campaign of 1814. From 1818 to the time of his death he was military governor of St. Petersburg. He perished in the popular outbreak in the capital, on Dec. 26, 1825.

MILOS

OBRENOVIC

I. (1780-1860), prince of Serbia,

founder of the Obrenović dynasty, was born in 1780 of poor Serbian peasants, and began life as a cattle-drover. Appointed voivede by Karageorge (g.v.) in 1807, Milo8 distinguished himself both as military leader and administrator, and early became ane of the leaders of the Russophil opposition to Karageorge, with whom he had a personal feud, believing him to have poisoned bis half-brother. He was one of the few Serb leaders who remained behind when Karageorge and his followers fled in 1813 (see Szrsra) and obtained from the Turks the post of voivode of Rudnik, in central Serbia, in return for his co-operation in restoring order, His attitude, when a fresh Serbian revolt broke out against the cruelties of the returning Turks, was at first most equivocal; but at last he decided to join the rebels, and on Palm Sunday 1815 proclaimed the new revolt in the church of Takovo. By diplomatic astuteness and bribery, but chiefly by representing himself to the Turks as alone capable of restraining the ex-

1863, and was educated there and in Paris, where he was the first Serb to take his degree as doctor of law and was awarded a gold medal for his thesis. On returning home he was appointed professor of international law at Belgrade university and soon acquired the position of one of Serbia’s leading jurists. He was mainly responsible for drafting the new Serbian Constitution of 1888; and, becoming secretary of the central committee of the Radical party, he entered politics and held successively the portfolios of justice, commerce and finance during the closing decade of last century. In r90r he went to Rome as minister, and retained his post after the revolution of 1903. In 1907 he represented Serbia at the Second Hague Conference, and was appointed a member of the international court of arbitration. In July 1908 he was made foreign minister in the Vetimirovié cabinet, and thus had to guide Serbian policy through the difficult period of the Bosnian annexation. crisis. In 19rz he succeeded Pasi¢ as premier. In foreign politics he showed signal moderation, and though a confirmed Russophil, initiated negotiations for a commercial treaty with Austria-Hungary and actively favoured good relations with Turkey. He was one of the chief founders of the Balkan League, the decisive step towards the creation of which was taken at a meeting between Milovanović and the Bulgarian premier, Gueschov, on Oct. 11, rgiz. Secret negotiations continued throughout the winter and led to the conclusion of the Serbo-Bulgarian treaty of March 13, 1912 (see SERBIA). Discussions were still pending between the various Balkan capitals for a more precise and comprehensive project of alliance when, on July x, 1912 at Belgrade, Dr. Milovanovic died suddenly of heart failure. His removal at so critical a juncture was a grave blow to the cause of peace and moderation, and also deprived Serbia of her ablest statesman since the death of Prince Michael.

MILREIS.

The Reis was the monetary unit of Portugal, and

was naturally adopted in her South American colonies. With is

depreciation in bygone days, it became too small to be convenient, and was replaced by the milreis, or thousand reis. When Brasil won her independence, she retained the milreis as her monetary unit, and as Portugal now calls the milreis the escudo (q.v.), the milreis is the monetary unit of Brazil. A thousand milreis are known as a conto. It is written as 1,000 $000, while one milreis is written as 1$000. Subsidiary coins are of 500, 200, 100 and 50 rezs in denomination.

.

Though nominally a gold coin, the milreis has always consisted

of inconvertible currency notes. See BRAZIL.

MILTIADES, the name of two Athenian statesmen and

generals of a family (the Philaidae) of Aeginetan origin, claimed descent from Aeacus.

MILTON

EARLY WRITINGS]

597

p. MILTIADES (6th century B.C.), the son of Cypselus, a promi- by the Camden Society in 1877), and his “Paraphrase on Psalm nent opponent of Peisistratus. He founded an Athenian colony ı cxiv.” and his “Paraphrase on Psalm cxxxvi.” At the age of 16 ia the Thracian Chersonese at the request of the Doloncians : Milton was entered as a student of Christ’s college, Cambridge, (Herod. vi. 36). He became “tyrant” of the Chersonese which

he fortified by a wall across the isthmus from Cardia to Pactya. He was captured by the people of Lampsacus, but released on the

mtercession of Croesus of Lydia. He was succeeded by Stesag-

oras, son of his half-brother, Cimon.

in the grade of a “Lesser Pensioner,” and he matriculated two months later, on April ọ, 1625. At least three students who entered Christ’s after Milton, but during his residence, deserve mention. One was Edward King, a youth of Irish birth and high Irish connections, who entered in 1626, at the age of fourteen; another was

;, Muitiapes (died c. 488 B.c.), the victor of Marathon (q.v.),

John Cleveland, afterwards known as royalist and satirist, who

was another son of Cimon. On the death of Stesagoras, he was sent to the Chersonese (? about 518-516) by Hippias—no doubt

entered in 1627; and the third was Henry More, subsequently famous as the Cambridge Platonist, who entered in 1631, just before Milton left. Milton’s own brother, Christopher, joined him in the college in February 1630/31, at the age of fifteen. Milton’s academic course lasted seven years and five months, bringing him from his 17th year to his twenty-fourth. In his second year he quarrelled with his tutor, Chappell. Jobnson’s suggestion that Milton may have been one of the last students to suffer corporal punishment deserves no credit; all we know is that he left college for a time and was transferred on his return to the tutorship of Nathaniel Tovey. For the first two or three years of his undergraduateship, he was generally unpopular among the younger men of his college. They had nicknamed him “the Lady” —a nickname which the students of the other colleges took up, converting it into “the Lady of Christ’s’; and, though the allusion was chiefly to the peculiar grace of his personal appearance, it conveyed also a sneer at what the rougher men thought his unusual prudishness, the haughty fastidiousness of his tastes and morals. A change in this state of things had certainly occurred before January 1628/29, when, at the age of 20, he took his B.A. degree. By that time his intellectual pre-eminence had come to be acknowledged. In July 1632 Milton took his M.A. degree. Tradition still points out Milton’s rooms at Christ’s college. They are on the first floor on the first stair on the north side of the great

to support Hegesistratus at Sigeum (see Peisistratus).

He

entrapped and imprisoned the chief men of the Chersonese, which was then in a turbulent condition, and married Hegesipyle, daughter of the Thracian prince Olorus (Herod. vi. 39). He led 4 contingent in the Scythian expedition of Darius Hystaspes, but Herodotus’ story of the subsequent

event is improbable

(see

ScyrHia) and is probably derived from Alcmaeonid tradition,

hostile to Miltiades. According to Herodotus, he advised the destruction of the Danube bridge, which would have cut off Darius’

retreat, and was subsequently driven out by Scythian invaders, heing restored by the Doloncians; he then fled to Athens on the

arrival of the Persian expedition under Datis and Artophernes (492 B.C.), and was at once impeached for tyranny. On the approach of the Persians Miltiades was made one of the ten Athenian generals, and it was on his advice that the pole-

march Callimachus decided to give battle at Marathon

(g.v.).

Subsequently he obtained a fleet of 7o ships from the Athenians, with a commission, according to Cornelius Nepos, to regain control over the Aegean. Herodotus says that, having besieged Paros

vainly for nearly a month, he made a secret visit to Timo, a priestess of Demeter in Paros, with a view to the betrayal of the island, and being compelled to flee wounded himself severely in attempting to leap a fence (but see Ephorus in Fragm. hist. gr. 107). In any case, the siege was raised for some reason, and the Alcmaeonidae had him impeached on some charge on his return. All that is known is that he died of his wound (489-488), without paying

court,

Early Writings.—Of Milton’s skill at Cambridge, specimens remain in his Prolustones quaedam oratoriae. They consist of seven rhetorical Latin essays, generally in a whimsical vein, dethe ine, which was paid subsequently by his son Cimon (g.v.). livered by him, either in the hall of Christ’s college or in the He appears to have been a man of strong determination and great public university schools. To Milton’s Cambridge period belong personal courage, of a type characteristic of the pre-Cleisthenic four of his Latin “Familiar Epistles,” and the greater number of constitution. His absence in the Chersonese during the first years his preserved Latin poems, including: (1) the seven pieces, of the new democracy (508-493?) and his patrician lineage written in 1626, which compose his Elegtarum liber, two of the account naturally for the difference which existed between him most interesting of them addressed to his friend, Charles Diodati, and one to his former tutor, Young, in his exile at Hamburg; and the popular leaders—Themistocles and Aristides. See Herodotus, vi., and Cornelius Nepos, Miltiades, and histories of (2) the five short Gunpowder Plot epigrams, now appended to the Greece the Parian expedition and the trial, R. W. Macan, Elegies; and (3) the first five pieces of the Sylvarum liber, the Herodoius iv—vi., vol. 2, appendix xi.; on the foreign policy of most important of which are the hexameter poem “In quintum Miltiades see THEMISTOCLES. novembris” (1626), and the piece entitled Naturam non pati MILTON, JOHN (1608-1674), English poet, was born in sentum (1628). Of the English poems of the Cambridge period Bread Street, Cheapside, London, on Dec. 9, 1608. His father, the following is a dated list: “On the Death of a fair Infant” John Milton of Bread Street, scrivener, was himself an interest- (1625-1626), the subject being the death of the first-born child me man. He was the son of a staunch Roman Catholic, and of his sister Anne Phillips; “At a Vacation Exercise in the College” tamed Protestant at Oxford, for which he was disinherited. How (1628); the magnificent Christmas ode, “On the Morning of he supported himself in London at first is obscure; perhaps his Christ’s Nativity” (1629); the fragment called “The Passion” musical abilities helped him. He was about 37 when he became and the “Song on May Morning,” both probably belonging to qualified early in 1600. He then set up at the Spread Eagle, Bread 1630; the poeny “On Shakespeare,” certainly belonging to that Street, and married Sarah Jeffrey; John Milton the younger was year, printed in the Shakespeare folio of 1632; the two facetious pieces “On the University Carrier” (1630-1631); the “Epitaph on the second of their children who survived infancy. Education.—When Milton was ten years old he had as tutor the Marchioness of Winchester” (1631); the sonnet “To the Thomas Young, afterwards master of Jesus college, Cambridge; Nightingale,” probably of the same year; the sonnet “On arriving he stayed till 1622, but before then Milton had already started to at the Age of twenty-three,” dating itself certainly in December go to St. Paul’s. Music was a natural part of his home environ- 1631. Just before Milton quitted Cambridge, his father, then verging ment, as his father was of some note in the musical world. Milton’s chief friend at school was Charles Diodati, who left on his 7oth year, had practically retired from his Bread Street business, and had gone to spend his declining years at Horton, to go to Oxford in 1623. Milton stayed till 1624. Milton had then all but completed his 16th year, and was as Buckinghamshire, not far from Windsor. Here Milton mainly y, as accomplished and as handsome a youth as St. Paul’s resided for the next six years—from July 1632 to April 1638. Although, when he had gone to Cambridge, it had been with school had sent forth. We learn from himself that his exercises m English or other tongue, prosing or versing, but chiefly this the intention of becoming a clergyman, that intention had been latter,” had begun to attract attention even in his boyhood. Of abandoned. His reasons were that “tyranny had invaded the poems the only specimens that now remain are two copies church,” and that, finding he could not honestly subscribe the ei Latin verses, preserved in a commonplace book of his (printed oaths and obligations required, he “thought it better to preserve

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MILTON

a blameless silence before the sacred office of speaking, begun with servitude and forswearing.” In other words, he was disgusted with the system which Laud was establishing and maintaining in the Church of England. Eventually he decided to devote himself to scholarship and literature. There seems to have been some remonstrance from his father; in Milton’s poem Ad patrem their agreement is recorded; Milton had his way. In perfect leisure, and in a pleasant rural retirement, with Windsor at the distance of an easy walk, and London only about 17 m. off, he went through, he tells us, a systematic course of reading in the Greek and Latin classics, varied by mathematics, music, and the kind of physical science we should now call cosmography. It is an interesting fact that Milton’s very frst public appearance in the world of English authorship was in so honourable a place as the second felio edition of Shakespeare in 1632. His enthusiastic eulogy on Shakespeare, written in 1630, was one of three anonymous pieces prefixed to that second folio. Among the poems actually written by Milton at Horton the first, in all probability, after the Latin hexameters Ad pairem, were the exquisite companion pieces L’dilegro and I? Penseroso. There followed, in or about 1633, the fragment called Arcades. It was part of a pastoral masque performed by the young people of the noble family of Egerton, before the countess-dowager of Derby, at her mansion of Harefield, about 10 m. from Horton. That Milton contributed the words for the entertainment was, almost certainly, owing to his friendship with Henry Lawes, who supplied the music. Next in order among the compositions at Horton may be mentioned the three short pieces, “At a Solemn Music,” “On Time,” and “Upon the Circumcision”; after which comes Comus, the largest and most important of all Milton’s minor poems. The name by which that beautiful drama is now universally known was not given to it by Milton himself. He entitled it, more simply and vaguely, “A Masque presented at Ludlow Castle, 1634, on

Michaelmas night, before John Earl of Bridgewater, Lord President of Wales” (1637). Lawes supplied the music and was stage manager; he applied to Milton for the poetry; and on Sept. 20, 1634, the drama furnished by Milton was performed in Ludlow Castle before a great assemblage of the nobility and gentry of the Welsh principality, Lawes taking the part of “the attendant spirt,” while the parts of “first brother,” “second brother” and “the lady” were taken by the earl’s three youngest children, Viscount Brackley, Mr. Thomas Egerton and Lady Alice Egerton. From Sept. 1634 to the beginning of 1637 is a comparative

blank in our records. Straggling incidents in this blank are a Greek translation of “Psalm cxty.,” a visit to Oxford in 1635 and the beginning in May 1636 of a troublesome lawsuit against his father by Sir Thomas Cotton, who accused him of misappropriation. The lawsuit was still in progress when, on April 3, 1637, Milton’s mother died, at the age of about sixty-five. The year 1637 was otherwise eventful. It was in that year that his Comus, after lying in manuscript for more than two years, was published by itself, in the form of a small quarto of 35 pages. The author’s name was withheld, and the entire responsibility of the publication was assumed by Henry Lawes. Milton seems to have been in London when the little volume appeared. He was a good deal in London, at all events, during the months immediately following his mother’s death. The plague, which had been on one of its periodical visits of ravage through England since early in the preceding year, was then especially severe in the Horton neighbourhood, while London was comparatively free. It was probably im London that Milton heard of the death of Edward King, who had sailed from Chester for a vacation visit to his relatives in ireland, when, on Aug. 10, the ship in perfectly calm water struck on a rock and went down, he and nearly all the other passengers going down with her. There is no mention of this event in Milton’s two Latin “Familiar Epistles” of September 1637, addressed to his friend Charles Diodati, and dated from London; but in Nov. 1637, and probably at Horton, he wrote his matchless pastoral monody of Lycidas. It was his contribution to a collection of obituary verses, Greek, Latin and English, inscribed to the memory of Edward King by his numerous friends, at Cambridge and elsewhere. The collection appeared early in 1638. The second part

[EARLY WRITINGS

‘ contained thirteen English poems, the last of which was Milton’, | monody, signed only with his initials “J. M.” | His Tour Abroad.—Circumstances now favoured his plan for a foreign tour. The Cotton lawsuit was at an end, and Milton’

younger brother Christopher had married and gone to live at Horton.

Before the end of April 1638 Milton was on his w

across the channel, taking one English man-servant with him

Through Paris, where Milton was introduced to the famous Hugo Grotius, then ambassador for Sweden at the French court, he moved on rapidly to Italy, by way of Nice. After visiting Genoa, Leghorn and Pisa, he arrived at Florence, in Aug. 1638. Enchanted by the city and its society, he remained there two months, fre.

quenting the chief academies or literary clubs, and even taking part in their proceedings. It was in the neighbourhood of Florence that he “found and visited” the great Galileo, then old and blind, and still nominally a prisoner to the Inquisition for his astro. nomical heresy.

By way of Florence and Siena, he reached Rome some time ig October, and spent about another two months there, not only

going about among the ruins and antiquities and visiting the galleries, but mixing also, as he had done in Florence, with the learned society of the academies. The most picturesque incident of his stay in Rome was his presence at a great musical enter. tainment in the palace of Cardinal Francesco Barberini. Here he had not only the honour of a specially kind reception by the cardinal himself, but also, it would appear, the supreme pleasure of listening to the marvellous Leonora Baroni, the most renowned singer of her age.

Late in November he left Rome for Naples. He had hardly

been in Naples a month, however, when there came news from England which urged his immediate return home.. “The sad news of civil war in England,” he says, “called me back; forI considered it base that, while my fellow-countrymen were fighting at home for liberty, I should be travelling at my ease for

intellectual culture” (Defensio secunda). In Dec. 1638, therefore, he set his face northwards again. His return journey, however, probably because he learnt that the news he had first received was exaggerated or premature, was broken into stages. He spent a second January and February (1638/39) in Rome, in some danger, he says, from the papal police, because the English Jesuits in Rome had taken offence at his habit of free speech on the subject of religion. From Rome he went te Florence, where he stayed two months, and in April 1639 be went on, by Bologna and Ferrara, to Venice. About a month was given to Venice; and thence, having shipped for England the books he had collected in Italy, he went, by Verona and Milan, over the Alps, to Geneva. Here he spent a week or two i June, having daily conversations with the great Protestant theologian Dr. Jean Diodati, the uncle of his friend Charles Diodati. From Geneva he returned to Paris, and so to England. He was home again in Aug. 1639, having been absent in all 15 or 36 months. Milton’s Continental tour, and especially the Italian portion of it, which be describes at some length in his Defensio secunde, remained one of the chief pleasures of his memory through all

his subsequent life. Nor was it without fruits of a literary kind. Besides two of hbis Latin Epistolae Familiares, one to the Florer tine grammarian Buommattei, and the other to Lucas Holstenius,

there have to be assigned to Milton’s 16 months on the Continent his three Latin epigrams Ad Leonoram Romae canentem, WS Latin scazons Ad Salsillum poetam romanum aegrotaniem, his ie Latin hexameters entitled Mansus, addressed to Giovanni Battista Manso, and his five Italian sonnets, with a canzone, Œ praise of a Bolognese lady. : His bosom friend and companion from boyhood, Charles Di

dati, died in Blackfriars, London, in Aug. 1638, not four months after Milton had gone away on his tour. The intelligence did not reach Milton till some months afterwards, probably not

his second stay in Florence; and, though he must have leami

some of the particulars from his friend’s uncle in Geneva, he did not know them fully till his return to England. How pre

foundly they affected him appears from his Epitaphium Damons,

MILTON

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509

then written in memory of his dead friend. The importance of away the last relics of papacy and prelacy. Among all the rootin Miiton’s biography; cannot be overrated.

It is per- -and-branch pamphlets of the time it stood out, and stands out

the noblest of all his Latin poems; and. though written in still, as the most thorough-going and tremendous. It was folthe artificial manner of a pastoral, it is unmistakably an outburst ; lowed by four others in rapid succession—Of Prelatical Episcopacy ef the most passionate personal grief. In this respect Lycidas, | and whether it may be deduced from the Apostolical Times (June yrtistically perfect though that poem is, cannot be compared | 1641), Animadversions upon the Remonstrant’s Defence against with it; and it is only the fact that Lycidas is in English, while Smectymnuus (July 1641), The Reason of Church Government the Epitephium Damonis is in Latin, that has led to the notion urged against Prelaty (Feb. 1641/42), Apology against a thet Edward King of Christ’s college was peculiarly and pre-emi- Pamphlet called a Modest Confutation of the Animadversions, we

pny 3

pentiy the friend of Milton in his youth and early manhood. | etc. (March and April 1641/42). The first of these was directed We should not have known, but for an incidental passage in ' chiefly against the middle party, with especial reply to the arguthe Epitaphium Damonis (160-178), that, at the time of his 'ments of Archbishop Ussher. The greatest of the four, and the

return from Italy, he had chosen a subject for a great poem from | most important of all Milton’s anti-episcopal pamphlets after the the Arthurian legend. This epic was to be in English, and he had |first, is The Reason of Church Government. It is there that Milresolved that all his poetry for the future should be in the same | ton takes his readers into his confidence, speaking at length of

tongue.

.

;

| himself and his motives in becoming a controversialist.

Poetry,

London and Public Affairs—Not long after Milton’s re- |he declares, was his real vocation: it was with reluctance that he tum Christopher Milton and his wife went to reside at Reading, | had resolved to “leave a calm and pleasing solitariness, fed with

taking the old gentleman with them, while Milton himself pre- | cheerful and confident thoughts, to embark in a troubled sea of ferred London. He had first taken lodgings in St. Bride’s church- |noises and hoarse disputes”; but duty had left him no option. The great poem or poems he had been meditating could wait; and

yard, at the foot of Fleet street; but, after a while, probably

early in 1640, he removed to a “pretty garden house” of his own, at the end of an entry, in part of Aldersgate street. His

sister, whose first husband, Edward Phillips, had died in 1631, kad married a Mr. Thomas Agar, his successor in the Crown Office; and it was arranged that her two sons by her first husband should be educated by their uncle. John Phillips, the of them, only nine years old, had boarded with him in the St. Bride’s churchyard lodgings; and, after the removal to Aldersgate street, the other brother, Edward Phillips, only a year older, became his boarder also. Gradually a few other boys, the sons of well-to-do personal friends, joined the two Phillipses whether as boarders or for daily lessons, so that the house in

Aldersgate street became a small private school. The Arthurian epic bad been given up, and his mind was roving among many other subjects, and balancing their capabilities: How he wavered between Biblical subjects and heroic subjects from British history, and how many of each kind suggested themselves to him, one learns from alist in his own handwriting among the Milton mss. at Cambridge. It contains jottings of no fewer than 53 subjects from the Old Testament, eight from the Gospels, 33 frem British and English history before the Conquest, and five from Scottish history. It is curious that all or most of them are

headed or described as subjects for “tragedies,” as if the epic fem had mow been abandoned for the dramatic. There are four separate drafts of a possible tragedy on the Greek model under

the title of Paradise Lost, two of them merely enumerating the dramatis personae, but the last two indicating the plot and the divisien into acts. In 1641 he wrote in the Reason of Churck Government that he was meditating a poem on high moral or

religious subjects.

But the fulfilment of these plans was in-

definitely postponed. Milton became absorbed in the ecclesiastical comtroversies following on the king’s attempt to force the epis-

topal system on the Scots.

Net until the Church question became paramount did Milton

ter actively into public affairs.

On this question there were

three parties: the high church party, who wanted episcopacy retamed; the middle party, who wanted it curtailed; and the “root-

meanwhile, though in prose-polemics he had the use only of his “left hand,” that hand should be used with all its might in the cause of his country and of liberty. Of Milton’s life through the first months of the Civil War little is known. He remained in his house in Aldersgate street, teaching his nephews and other pupils; and the only scrap that came from his pen was the semi-jocose sonnet bearing the title “When the Assault was intended to the City.” In the summer of 1643, however, there was a great change in the Aldersgate street

household. About the end of May, as his nephew Edward Phillips remembered, Milton went away on a country journey, without saying whither or for what purpose; and, when he returned, about a month afterwards, it was with a young wife, and with some of her sisters and other relatives in her company. He had,

in fact, been in the very headquarters of the king and the Royalist army in and round Oxford; and the bride he brought back with him was a Mary Powell, the eldest daughter of Richard Powell, of Forest Hill, near Oxford. She was 17 years and four months old, while Milton was in his 35th year. However the marriage came about, it was a most unfortunate event. The Powell family were strongly Royalist, and the girl herself seems to have been frivolous and entirely unsuited for the studious life in Aldersgate street. Hardly were the honeymoon festivities over, when, her sisters and other relatives having returned to Forest Hill, she pined for home again and begged to be allowed to go

back on a visit, Milton consented, on the understanding that the visit was to be a brief one. This seems to have been in July 1643. Soon, however, the intimation from Forest Hill was that he need not look ever to have his wifein his house again. The resolution seems to have been mainly the girl’s own; but, as the king’s cause was then prospering in the field, Edward Phillips was probably right in his conjecture that the whole of the Powell family had repented of their sudden connection with so prominent a Parliamentarian and assailant of the Church of England as Milton. While his wife was away, his old father, who had been residing for three years with his younger and lawyer son at Reading, came to take up his quarters in Aldersgate street. Milton’s answer to the Insult of his wife’s desertion was most

ranch” party, who wanted it abolished. The manifesto of the high church party was issued by Joseph Hall, bishop of characteristic. The Doctrine ated Disciphne of Divorce, Restored ter; it was answered in March 1640/41 by five Puritan en, whose initials put together on the title-page formed

the word “Smectymnuus.” Thomas Young, Milton’s old tutor,

to the good of beth Sexes from the Bondage of Canon Law and other Mistakes was the title of a pamphlet put forth by him in August 1643, without his name, but with no effort at concealment,

was largely responsible for the pamphlet, but Milton’s own hand

declaring the notion of a sacramental sanctity in the marriage

ams in their subsequent rejoinders to Hall’s defences of himself.

relation to be a clerically invented superstition, and arguing that inherent incompatibility of character, or contrariety of mind,

i In May 1641 he put forth a defence of the Smectymnuan side

between two married persons is a perfectly just reason for divorce.

the Couses that hitherto have hindered it. He reviewed English eclesiastica! history, with, an appeal to his countrymen to re-

but the boldness of the speculation roused attention amd sent a

® also discernible in it, and he continued to aid the Smectymnu-

m Of Reformation touching Church Discipline in England and There was ne reference to his own case, except by implication; Sune that course of reformation which he considered to bave prematurely stepped in the preceding century, and to sweep

shock through Londen. It was a time when the authors of heresies of thìs sert, or af ány sert, ran considerable risks. That there might be ne obstacle to a more public prosecution, Milton put his

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[PUBLIC AFFAIRS

name to a second and much enlarged edition of the tract. in į 29, that year; on Jan. 1, 1646/7, his father-in-law Richard Powel in confusion; and in the followi February 1644. dedicated openly to the parliament and the as- |died there, leaving his affairs ; sembly. Then, for a month or two, during which the gossip about : March his own father died there, at the age of 84, and was buried him and his monstrous doctrine was spreading more and more, he in the adjacent church of St. Giles, Cripplegate. From Barbican Milton removed. in Sept. or Oct. 1647, toa turned his attention to another subject. In June 1644 he published smaller house in that part of High Holborn which adjoins Lis. a treatise Of Education. In July he returned to the divorce subject in a pamphlet coln's Inn Fields. His Powell relatives had now left him, and addressed speciaily to the clergy and entitled The Judgment of

Martin Bucer concerning Divorce. The outcry against him then reached its height. A sermon was preached against him before the houses of parliament, and efforts were made to bring him within parliamentary censure. The lead was taken by the Stationers’ Company. who had a technical ground of complaint against him. His first divorce treatise, though published immediately after the “Printing Ordinance,” requiring all publications to be licensed and registered in the books of the Stationers’ Company, had been

issued without license and without registration. Complaint to this effect was made against Milton, with some others liable to the same charge in a petition of the Stationers of the House of Commons in August 1644; and the matter came before committee both in that House and in the Lords. It is to this circumstance that the world owes the most popular and eloquent. if not the greatest, of all Milton’s prose writings, his famous Areopagitica, a Speech of Mr. Jokn Milton for the Liberty of Unlicensed Printing, to the Parliameni of England. It appeared on Nov. 25, 1644, deliberately unlicensed and unregistered, and was a remonstrance addressed to the parliament, calling for the repeal of their ordinance of June 1643 and attacking the whole system of licensing and censorship of the press. Though repeal did not follow, the pamphlet virtually accomplished its purpose. The licensing system had received its death-blow; and, though the Stationers returned to the charge in another complaint to the House of Lords, Milton’s offence against the press ordinance was condoned. To this period there belong, in the shape of verse, only his sonnets ix. and x., the first to some anonymous lady, and the second “to the Lady Margaret Ley,” with perhaps the Greek lines entitled Philosophus ad regem quendam. In March 1644/5 he published simultaneously his Teirachordon: Expositions upon the four chief places of Scripture which treat of Marriage, and his Colasterion, a Reply to a nameless Answer against the Doctrine and Discipline of Divorce. In these he replied to his chief recent assailants, lay and clerical, with merciless severity. So far as Milton was concerned personally, his interest in the divorce speculation came to an end in July or August 1645, when, by friendly interference, a reconciliation was effected be-

tween him and his wife. The ruin of the king’s cause at Naseby had suggested to the Powells that it might be as well for their daughter to go back to her husband after their two years of separation. By this time, having an increasing number of pupils, he had taken a house in Barbican, where he stayed till Sept. or Oct. 1647. Among his first occupations there must have been the revision of the proof sheets of the first edition of his collected poems. It appeared as a tiny volume, copies of which are now very rare, with the title, Poems of Mr. John Milion, both English and Latin, composed at several times. Printed by his true Copies. The songs

were set in Musick by Mr. Henry Lawes... . The title-page

gives the date 1645, but Jan. 2, 1645/6, seems to have been the exact day of its publication. In English there were only the four sonnets now numbered xi—xiv., the first two entitled “On the Detraction which followed upon my writing certain Treatises,” the third “To Mr. Henry Lawes on his Airs,” and the fourth “To the Religious Memory of Mrs. Catherine Thomson,” together with the powerful anti-Presbyterian invective or “tailed sonnet” entitled “On the New Forcers of Conscience under the Long Parliament”; and in Latin there were only the ode Ad Joannem Rousium, the Apologus de Rustico et Hero, and one interesting “Familiar Epistle” (April 1647) addressed to his Florentine friend Carlo Dati. The fall of Oxford in 1646 compelled the whole of the Powell family to seek refuge in London, and most of them found shelter in Milton’s house. His first child, Anne, was born there on July

he had reduced the number of his pupils, or perhaps kept only his two nephews. But, though thus more at leisure, he did ne yet resume his projected poem, but occupied himself rather with three works of scholarship, which he had already for some time had on hand. One was the compilation in English of a complete history of England, or rather of Great Britain, from the earliest times; another was the preparation in Latin of a complete system

of divinity, drawn directly from the Bible; and the third was the collection of materials for a new Latin dictionary. Milton had always a fondness for such labours of scholarship and com. pilation. Of a poetical kind there is nothing to record, during his

residence in High Holborn, but an experiment in psalm-trang.

lation, in the shape of Ps. lxxx.—lxxxvili. done into service-metre

in April 1648, and the sonnet to Fairfax, written in September of the same year.

Milton’s Secretaryship.—Milton’s sonnet “On the Lord General Fairfax, at the siege of Colchester,” attested the exultation of the writer at the triumph of the parliamentary cause. Wher the king was beheaded (1649) the first Englishman of mark ont of parliament to attach himself openly to the new republic was

John Milton.

This he did by the publication of his pamphlet

entitled Tenure of Kings and Magistrates, proving that it iy lawful, and hath been held so in all ages, for any who have the power, to call to account a Tyrant or wicked King, and, after due conviction, to depose and put him to death, if the ordinary

Magistrate have neglected or denied to do it. It was out within

a fortnight after the king’s death, and was Milton’s last per-

formance in the house in High was Offered, and accepted, the to the council of state of the was to be £288 a year (worth

Holborn. In March 1649 Milton secretaryship for foreign tongues new Commonwealth. The salary about £1,500 a year now). To be near his new duties in attendance on the council, he removed at once to temporary lodgings at Charing Cross. Thus he must at once have made acquaintance with President Bradshaw, Fairfax, Cromwell himself, Sir Henry Vane, Whitelocke, Henry Marten, Haselrig, Sir Gilbert Pickering and the other chiefs of the counal and the Commonwealth, if indeed he had not known some of them before. After a little while, for his greater convenience, official apartments were assigned him in Whitehall itself. At the date of Milton’s appointment to the secretaryship be was 40 years of age. His special duty was the drafting in Latin of letters sent to foreign states and princes, and the examination and translation of letters in reply. As Latin was the language employed in the written diplomatic documents, his post came te be known indifferently as the secretaryship for foreign tongues

or the Latin secretaryship.

In that post, however, his duties,

more particularly at first, were very light in comparison with those of his official colleague, Walter Frost, the general secretary. Foreign powers held aloof from the English republic as much as they could; and Milton’s presence was required only when some piece of foreign business turned up. Hence, from the first, bis employment in very miscellaneous work. Especially, the council

looked to him for everything in the nature of literary vigilance

and literary help in the interests of the struggling Commonwealth. He was employed in the examination of suspected papers, and M interviews with their authors and printers; and he executed great literary commissions expressly entrusted to him by the council. The first of these was his pamphlet entitled Observations

on the Articles of Peace (between Ormonde and the Irish), published in May 1649.

A passage of remarkable interest in it 8

one of eloquent eulogy on Cromwell. More important still was the Eikonoklastes (which may be translated “Image-Smasher”), published by Milton in Oct. 1649, by way of counterblast to the famous Eikon Basilike (“Royal Image”), which had been io circulation in thousands of copies since the king’s death,

PAMPHLETS]

MILTON

511

had become a kind of Bible in all Royalist households. on the Fairfax, Fleetwood, Lambert and Overton, together with a long iupoositiun that it had been written by the royal martyr himself. , panegyric on Cromwell himself and his career, which remains to see GAUDEN, JOHN.) In the end of 1649 there appeared abroad | this day unapproached for elaboration and grandeur by any estithe Defensio regia pro Carolo I., by Salmasius, the greatest | mate of Cromwell from any later pen. scholar of Europe. Milton threw his whole strength into a reply, | From about the date of the publication of the Defensio Secunda through the year 1650. interrupting himself only by a new and | to the beginning of 1655 the only specially literary relics of Milenlarged edition of his Ezkonoklastes. His Latin Pro populo angli- | ton's life are his translations of Ps. i—viil. in different metres, zano defensio (1651) ran at once over the British Islands and | done in Aug. 1654, his translation of Horace’s Ode, i. 5, done the Continent, and was received by scholars as an annihilation probably about the same time, and two of his Latin “Familiar of Salmasius. Through the rest of 1651 the observation was that Epistles.” The most active time of his secretaryship for Cromwell the two agencies which had co-operated most visibly in raising was from April 1655 onwards. Milton’s office was then redefined; the reputation of the Commonwealth abroad were Milton's books the ordinary Foreign Office work was taken off his hands and he and Cromwell's battles. was left to deal with special occasions. Hardly was the arrangeThrough 1651 Milton also acted as licenser and superintending ment made when a signal occasion did occur. In May 1655 all editor of the Mercurius politicus, a newspaper issued twice a week, England was horrified by the news of the massacre of the Vaudois of which Marchamont Nedham was the working editor and Protestants (Waldenses) by the troops of Emanuele II., duke of proprietor. Miilton’s hand is discernible in some of the leading Savoy and prince of Piedmont, in consequence of their disarticles. obedience to an edict requiring them either to leave their native About the end of 1651 Milton left his official rooms in White- valleys or to conform to the Catholic religion. Cromwell and bis hall for a “garden house” he had taken on the edge of St. James's council took the matter up with all their energy; and the burst park in what was then called Petty France, Westminster, but is of indignant letters on the subject despatched in that month and now York street. Milton had now more to do in the special the next to the duke of Savoy himself, Louis XIV. of France, work of his office, in consequence of the increase of correspond- Cardinal Mazarin, the Swiss cantons, the states-general of the ence with foreign powers. But he had for some time been in United Provinces, and the kings of Sweden and Denmark, were all ailing health; and a dimness of eyesight which had been growing by Milton. His famous sonnet “On the Late Massacre in Piedupon him gradually for ten years had been settling rapidly, since mont” was his more private expression of feeling on the same his labour over the answer to Salmasius, into total blindness. occasion. Milton’s last Latin pamphlets, the Pro se Defensio, and Before or about May 1652, when he was but in his 44th year, his the Scripium domini protectoris, appeared in August. blindness became total, and he could go about only with some one Through the rest of Cromwell’s Protectorate, Milton’s life was to lead him. Hence a rearrangement of his secretarial duties. of comparatively calm tenor. He was in much better health than Such of these duties as he could perform at home, or by oc- usual, bearing his blindness with courage and cheerfulness; he casional visits to the Council Office near, he continued to per- was steadily busy with important despatches to foreign powers form; but much of the routine work was done for him by an on behalf of the Protector, then in the height of his great foreign assistant. a well-known German, George Rudolph Weckherlin, policy; and his house in Petty France seems to have been, more succeeded later by Philip Meadows and, eventually, by Andrew than at any previous time since the beginning of his blindness, a Marvell. Precisely to this time of a lull in Milton’s secretaryship meeting-place for friends and visitors, and a scene of pleasant on account of his ill-health and blindness we have to refer his two hospitalities. The four sonnets now numbered xix—xxii., one of great companion sonnets “To the Lord General Cromwell” and them to young Lawrence, the son of the president of Cromwell’s “To Sir Henry Vane the Younger.” council, and two of the others to Cyriack Skinner, once his pupil, In 1652 died his only son, who had been born at Whitehall in belong to this time of domestic quiet, as do also no fewer than the March of the preceding year. His wife died in 1653/4, just ten of his Latin “Familiar Epistles.” His marriage to Katherine after she had given birth to his third daughter, Deborah. With Woodcock on Nov. 12, 1656 brought him a brief period of the three children thus left him—Anne, but six years old, Mary, domestic happiness; but, after only 15 months, he was again a not four, and the infant Deborah—the blind widower lived on in widower, by her death in childbirth in February 1657/8. The his house in Petty France in such desolation as can be imagined. touching sonnet which closes the series of Milton’s Sonmezs is his He had recovered sufficiently to resume his secretarial duties; tribute to the memory of his second marriage. Some of his and the total number of his dictated state letters for the single greatest despatches for Cromwell, including letters, of the highest year 1652 is equal to that of all the state letters of his preceding importance, to Louis XIV., Mazarin and Charles Gustavus of term of secretaryship put together. To the same year there be- Sweden, belong to the year 1658. On the whole, there is no doubt long also three of his Latin “Familiar Epistles.” In December of Milton's high opinion of Cromwell; but he felt some doubts 1652 there was published Joannis Philippi Angli responsio ad about his later policy, which he expressed in the Defensio Secunda. spologiam anonymi cujusdam tenebrionis, being a reply by Mil- Above all, he was disappointed with Cromwell’s church policy. ton’s younger nephew, John Phillips, but touched up by Milton Milton was strongly for complete disestablishment, and Cromhimself, to one of several pamphlets that had appeared against well’s conservation of the Established Church must have been Milton for his slaughter of Salmasius. Milton’s deepest disappointment with Cromwell’s rule. In Dec. 1653 Cromwell’s formal sovereignty began under the Cromwell’s death on Sept. 3, 1658 left the Protectorship to name of the Protectorate, causing a split in the party. Milton his son Richard. Milton and Marvell, now his assistant secretary, adhered to Cromwell, and was his Latin secretary through the continued in their posts, and a number of the Foreign Office whole of the Protectorate. For a while, indeed, his Latin letters to letters of the new Protectorate were of Milton’s composition. foreign states in Cromwell’s name were but few, the reason for In Oct. 1658 appeared a new edition of his Defensio prima, and, which may have been that he was then engaged on an answer to early in 1659, a new English pamphlet, entitled Treatise of Civil the pamphlet from The Hague entitled Regi sanguinis clamor ad Power in Ecclesiastical Causes showing that it is not lawful to coelum adversus parricidas anglicanos (March 1652). It came compel in Matters of Rekgton, in which he advocated the separa~ out in May 1654, with the title Joannis Miltoni Angli pro populo tion of Church and State. To Richard’s Protectorate also beexghicano defensio secunda (Second Defence of John Milton, longs one of Milton’s Latin “Familiar Epistles.” Englishman, for the People of England). The author of Regii His last work for the Commonwealth was a desperate struggle saugusnis clamor was Dr. Peter du Moulin the younger, then to avert the restoration of the monarchy. In a Letter to a Friend moving about in English society, close to Milton; but the reply concerning the Ruptures of the Commonwealth, written in Oct. ig made to Alexander More, a professor at Middelburg, to whom 1659, he had propounded a scheme of a kind of dual government the pamphlet was attributed. The Defensio contains passages of for réconciling the army chiefs with the Rump; through the Smgular autobiographical and historical value, and includes lauda- following winter, marked only by two of his Latin “Familiar tory sketches of such eminent Commonwealth’s men as Bradshaw, Epistles,” his anxiety over the signs of the growing enthusiasm.

512

MILTON

[AFTER RESTORATION

throughout the country for the recall of Charles II. had risen ' some of his books, and would have sold the rest.” It was to remedy this state of things that Milton consented tg to a passionate vehemence which found vent in a pamphlet entitled The Ready and Easy Way to Establish a Free Common- a third marriage. On Feb. 24, 1662/3 he married Elizabeth wealth, and the Excellence thereof compared with the Incon- Minshull, a relative of Dr. Paget. She proved an excellent wife. veniences and Dangers of readmitting Kingship to this Nation. and the Jewin street household, though the daughters remaineg An abridgment of this pamphlet was addressed by him to General in it, must have been under better management from the time of Monk in a letter entitled “The Present Means and Brief Delinea- her entry into it. Meanwhile, he had been building up his Paradise tion of a Free Commonwealth” (March 1660). Milton's pro- Lost. He had begun the poem in earnest, we are told, in 1658 eda ~

posal was that the central governing apparatus of the British Islands for the future should consist of one indissoluble grand council or parliament, which should include all the political

at his house in Petty France. He had made but little way whey

chiefs, while there should be a large number of provincial councils or assemblies sitting in the great towns for the management of local and county affairs. Not even when the king's cause was practically assured would Milton be silent. In Brief Notes upon a late Sermon (April 1660) he made another protest against the recall of the Stuarts, and in the same month he sent forth a second edition of his Ready and

dictations of 20 or 30 lines at a time to whatever friendly or hired amanuensis chanced to be at hand. Considerable progress had

Easy Way, containing additional passages of the most violent denunciation of the royal family, and of prophecy of the degradation and disaster they would bring back with them. This was the dying effort. Charles II. returned to London on May 29,

and by then the chief republicans had scattered themselves, and Milton was hiding in an obscure part of the city. After the Restoration.—How Milton escaped the scaffold at the Restoration is a mystery now, and was a mystery at the time. The Commons voted that he should be taken into custody by the serjeant-at-arms, for prosecution by the attorney-general on account of his Hikonoklastes and Defensio prima, and that all copies of those books should be called in and burnt by the bangman. There was a story that Milton had once protected Davenant and now owed his immumity to him; but it is more likely that he was protected by the influence of Marvell, by Arthur Annesley, afterwards earl of Anglesey, and by other friends who had influence ai court. At all events, on Aug. 29, 1660, when the Indemnity Bill did come out complete, with the king’s assent, Milten did not appear as one of the exceptions on any ground or in any of the grades. He was actually taken into custody, though the prosecution was quashed by the Indemnity Bill, and complained to the Commons of the fee charged for his release. Milton did not return to Petty France. For the first months after be was free he lived as closely as possible in a house near what is now Red Lion square, Holborn. Thence he removed, apparently early in 1661, to a house in Jewin street, in his old Aldersgate street neighbourhood. In Jewin street Milton remained for two er three years, or from 1661 to 1664. This is the time of which he says:-—

there came the interruption of the Restoration; but the work haq

been resumed in Jewin street and prosecuted there steadily, by been made in this way before his third marriage; and after tha the work proceeded apace, his nephew, Edward Phillips, who was then out in the world on his own account, looking in when he

could to revise the growing manuscript. Not very long after the third marriage, probably in 1664, he removed

to another house, with a garden, in “Artillery Walk,

leading to Bunhill Fields.”

Here Paradise Lost was certainly

finished before July 1665—Aubrey says in 1663—for when Milton and his family, to avoid the Great Plague of London, went intg temporary country-quarters in a cottage in Chalfont St. Giles,

Buckinghamshire (Milton’s cottage here is still standing, and is open to visitors), the finished manuscript was taken with him. This we learn from Thomas Ellwood, who had taken the cottage for him, and was allowed to take a copy of the manuscript away with him for perusal, during Milton’s stay at Chalfont (Life of Thomas Ellwood, 1714). On April 27, 1667 Milton concluded an agreement, still preserved in the British Museum, with Samuel Simmons, printer, of Aldersgate street, London, to dispose of the copyright for £5 down, the promise of another £5 after the sale of the first edition of 1,300 copies, and the further promise of two additional sums of £5 each after the sale of two more editions of the same size respectively. The poem was entered in the Stationers’ Registers on Aug. 20 following, and shortly after that date it was out in London as a neatly printed small quarto, with the title Paradise Lost: A Poem written in Ten Books: By John Milton. The sale of an edition of 1,300 copies in 18 months proves that the poem found a wide circle of readers. “This man cuts us all out, and the ancients too,” is the saying attributed to Dryden on the occasion; and it is the more remarkable because the one objection to the poem which at first, we are told, “stumbled many” must have “stumbled” Dryden most of all. Except in the drama, rbyme was then thought essential in anything professing to be a poem; blank verse was hardly regarded as verse at all; Dryden especially had been and was the champion of rhyme, contending for it

. . - though fallen on evil days, On evil days though fallen, and evil tongues,

even in the drama. That, notwithstanding this obvious blew struck by the poet at Dryden’s pet literary theory, he should have welcomed the poem so enthusiastically and proclaimed its merits so emphatically, says much at once for his critical perception aad

The “evil days” were those of the Restoration in its first or Clarendonian stage, with its revenges and reactions, its open proclamation and practice of anti-Puritanism in morals and in literature no less than In politics. His few friends were mostly Nonconformisis of some denomination, whe were themselves under

for the generosity of his temper. According to Aubrey, Dryden requested Milton’s leave to turn the poem into a rhymed drama,

In darkness, and with dangers compassed round, And solitude.

similar obloquy.

Besides his two nephews, the faithful Andrew

and was told he might “tag his verses if he pleased.” The result is seen in Dryden’s opera, The State of Innocence and the Fol

of Man (1675). One consequence of Milton’s renewed celebrity

was that visitors of all ranks again sought him out for the honour of his society and conversation. His obscure house in Artillery Walk, Bunhill, we are told, became an attraction now, “muck

Marveli, Cyriack Skmner and some others of his former admurers, we hear chiefly of a Dr. Nathan Paget and of several yomg men who would drop in upon him by turns, partly to act more than he did desire,” for the learned notabilities of his time. Last Years.—Accaunts have come down to us of Milten’s petas his amanuenses, and partly for the benefit of lessons from him —ome of them a Quaker youth, named Thomas Ellwood. His sonal appearance and habits in his later life. They describe bm three daughters, on whom he ought now to have been able prin- as to be seen every other day led about in the streets in the cipally to depend, were his most serious domestic trouble. The vicinity of his Bunhill residence, a slender figure, of middle statare poor motherless girls, the eldest in her 17th year in 1662, the sec- or a little less, generally dressed in a grey cloak or overceat, and ond in her 15th and the youngest in her rrth, had grown up, in wearing sometimes a small silver-hiktted sword, evidently in feeble their father’s bhndness and too great self-absorption, ill-looked- health, but still looking younger than he was, with his lightish after and but poorly educated; and the result now appeared. hair, and his fair, rather than aged or pale, complexion. He They “made nothing of neglecting him”; they rebelled against sit in his garden at the door of his house, in warm weather, in the the drudgery of reading to him or otherwise attending on him; | same kind of grey overcoat, “and so, as well as in bis room, rethey “did combine together and counsel bis maid-servant to | ceived the visits of people of distinguished parts, as well as cheat him in her marketmgs”; they actually “had made away| quality.” Within deors he was usually dressed in neat

POSTHUMOUS WORKS]

MILTON

He was a very early riser, and very regular in the distribution of

513

copying out and arranging those two important mss. Negotiations

his day, spending the first part, to his midday dinner. always . were on foot. after Milton’s death, between this Daniel Skinner

m his own room, amid his books, with an amanuensis to ior him and write to his dictation, Music was always a chief of his afternoon and evening relaxation, alike when he by himself or when friends were with him. His manner friends and visitors was extremely courteous

read 'and the Amsterdam printer, Daniel Elzevir, for the publication of part | both mss., when the English government interfered, and the mss. was | were sent back by Elzevir, and thrown aside, as dangerous rubbish,

with ' in a cupboard in the State Paper Office.

Meanwhile, in 1676, a

and affable. with lLondon bookseller. named Pitt, who had somehow got into his

just a shade of stateliness. In free conversation, either at the |possession a less perfect, but still tolerably complete, copy of the midday dinner, when a friend or two happened, by rare accident, |State Letters, had brought out a surreptitious edition of them, to be present, or more habitually in the evening and at the light | under the title Literae pseudo-senatus anglicani, Cromwell .. .

supper which concluded it, he was the life and soul of the com-

nomine

et jussu conscriptae

y, from his “fow of subject” and his “unaffected cheerful- | posthumous

publications

a Joanne

of Milton’s

Miltono.

appeared

No

other

till 1681, when

ness and civility,” though with a marked tendency to the satirical | another bookseller put forth a slight tract entitled Mr. John Mäand sarcastic in his criticisms of men anc things. This tendency | ton’s Character of the Long Parliament and Assembly of Divines, to the sarcastic was connected by some of those who observed it !in 1641, consisting of a page or two, of rather dubious authenwith a peculiarity of his voice or pronunciation. “He pronounced | ticity, said to have been withheld from his History of Britain in the letter r very hard,” Aubrey tells us, adding Dryden’s note | the edition of 1670. In 1682 appeared A Brief History of Moson the subject: “litera canina, the dog-letter, a certain sign of a | covta, and of other less-known Countries lying Eastward of Russatirical wit.” He was extremely temperate in the use of wine or | sia as far as Cathay . . . undoubtedly Milton’s, and a specimen any strong liquors, at meals and at all other times; and when | of those prose compilations with which he sometimes occupied supper was over, about nine o’clock, “he smoked his pipe and | his leisure. Of the fate of his collections for a new Latin Dicdrank a glass of water, and went to bed.” He suffered much from | Honary, which had swelled to three folio volumes of ms., all that

gout, the effects of which had become apparent inastiffening of | is known is that, after having been used by Edward Phillips for his his hands and finger-joints, and the recurring attacks of which in | Enchiridion and Speculum, they came into the hands of a comits acute form were very painful. His favourite poets among the | mittee of Cambridge scholars, and were used for that Latin dic-

Greeks were Homer and the Tragedians, especially Euripides; | tionary of 1693, called The Cambridge Dictionary, on which

among the Latins, Virgil and Ovid; among the English, Spenser | Ainsworth’s Dictionary was based. In 1698 there was published and Shakespeare. Among his English contemporaries, he thought | in three folio volumes, under the editorship of John Toland, the most highly of Cowley. He had ceased to attend any church, | frst collective edition of Milton’s prose works, professing to

belonged to no religious communion, and had no religious ob- | have been printed at Amsterdam, though really printed in London. servances in his family. His reasons for this were a matter for | A very interesting folio volume, published in 1743 by “John curious surmise among his friends, because of the profoundly | Nickolls, junior,” under the title of Original Letters and Papers

religious character of his own mind; but he does not seem ever | Of State addressed io Oliver Cromwell, consists of a number

to have furnished the explanation.

The matter became of less | of intimate Cromwellian documents that had somehow come into

single maid-servant, and the “man”

or amanuensis

interest perhaps after 1669, when his three daughters ceased to | Milton’s possession immediately after Cromwells death, and reside with him, having been sent out “to learn some curious and | were left by him confidentially to the Quaker Ellwood. Finally, ingenious sorts of manufacture that are proper for women to | a Chance search in the London State Paper Office in 1823 having learn, particularly embroideries in gold or silver.” After that | discovered the long-lost parcel containing the mss. of Milton’s the household in Bunhill consisted only of Milton, his wife, a | Latin State Letters and his Latin Treatise of Christian Doctrine,

who came in| as these had been sent back from Amsterdam a hundred and fifty

for the day.

years before, the Treatise of Christian Doctrine was, by the com-

In 1669 he published Accedence commenced Grammar, and in | mand of George IV., edited and published in 1825 by the Rev.

1670 his History of Britain . .. to the Norman Conquest, and | C. R. Sumner, under the title of Joannis Miltoni Angli de doc-

a Latin digest of Ramist logic, entitled Artis logicae plenior | trina christiana libri duo postkumi.

An English translation, by

msiiiuito. In 1671 there followed his Paradise Regained and | the editor, was published in the same year. Those state papers Samson Agonistes, bound together in one small volume, and giv- | of Milton which had not been already printed were edited by W.

img ample proof that his poetic genius had not exhausted itself | D. Hamilton for the Camden Society, in 1850. in the preceding great epic.

In 1673, Milton ventured on the

Milton as Writer.—Milton’s

literary life divides into three

dangerous experiment of one more political pamphlet, in which, |almost mechanically distinct periods: (1) the time of his youth uder the title Of True Religion, he put forth, with a view to | and minor poems, (2) his middle twenty years of prose polemics,

popular acceptance, as mild a version as possible of his former | and (3) the time of his later Muse and greater poems. principles on the topics discussed. In the same year appeared| Had Milton died in 1640, when he was in his thirty-second

the second edition of his Poems ... both English and Latin, | year, and had his literary remains been then collected, he would which included, with the exception of the Sonnets to Cromwell, | have been remembered as one of the best Latinists of his generaFairfax, Vane and the second address to Cyriack Skinner, all | tion and one of the most exquisite of minor English poets. In the the minor poems. latter character, more particularly, he would have taken his place In 1674 the second edition of Paradise Lost, in 12 books in- | as one of that interesting group or series of English poets, com-

stead of 10, appeared, and his Epistolae Familiares, together with | ing in the next forty years after Spenser, who, because they all his Cambridge Prolusiones. On Nov. 8, 1674, Milton died, in | acknowledged a filial relationship to Spenser, may be called collechis house in Bunhill, of “gout struck in,” at the age of 65 years | tively the Spenserians. In this group Milton would have been and rı months. He was buried, the next Thursday, in the church | entitled, by the small collection of pieces he had left, and which

of St. Giles, Cripplegate, beside his father; a considerable con- |would have included his Ode om the Nativity, his E Allegro and course attending the funeral. Posthumous Publications—Of

Il Penseroso, his Comus and his Lycidas, to recognition as inmasses of manuscript that | dubitably the very highest and finest. There was in him that

bad been left by Milton, some portions saw the light posthum- | peculiar Spenserian something which might be regarded as the.

ously. Prevented in the last year of his life from publishing his | poetic faculty in its essence, with a closeness and perfection of Latin State Letters in the same volume with his Latin Familiar | verbal finish not to be found in the other Spenserians, or even Epistles, he had committed the charge of the State Letters, pre- | in the master himself. But owning discipleship to Spenser as pared for the press, together with the completed manuscript of his | the author did, he was a Spenserian with a difference belonging tm Treatise of Christian Doctrine, to a young Cambridge | to his own constitution—which prophesied the passage of Eng-

scholar, Daniel Skinner, who had been among the last of his| lish poetry out of the Spenserian into a kind that might be called amanuenses, and had, in fact, been employed by him especially in | the Miltonic. This Miltonic something, distinguishing the new

514

MILTON

[BIBLIOGRAPHY

poet from other Spenserians. was more than mere perfection of broke in upon the absolutism of Charles and Laud, and set the literary finish. It consisted in an avowed consciousness already ; English Revolution agoing. He belonged distinctly to that larger

of the os magna soniturum, “the mouth formed for great utter- |and more persistent wave of Puritanism which, passing on thr

ances,” that consciousness resting on a peculiar substratum of | Independency, and an endless variety of sects, many of them personal character that had occasioned a new theory of literature. rationalistic and freethinking in the extreme, developed into “He who would not be frustrate of his hope to write well here- what has ever since been known as English Liberalism. The treaafter on laudable things ought himself to be a true poem” was tise makes clear that, while Milton was a most fervid theist and Milton's own memorable expression afterwards of the principle a genuine Christian, believing in the Bible, and valuing the Bible that had taken possession of him from his earliest days; and this over all the other books in the world, he was at the same time principle of moral manliness as the true foundation of high one of the most intrepid of English thinkers and theologians BiprioGRAPHY.—Mss. of the poems of Milton’s earlier Period in hi literary effort, of the inextricable identity of all literary produc-

tions in kind, and their coequality in worth, with the personality

in which they have their origin, might have been detected, in more or less definite shape, in all or most of the minor poems. It is a specific form of that general Platonic doctrine of the invincibility of virtue which runs through his Comus. That a youth and early manhood of such poetical promise should have been succeeded by twenty years of all but incessant prose polemics has been a matter of regret with many. But this is to ignore his political and social side. Milton was not only the greatest pamphleteer of his generation—head and shoulders above

the rest—but there is no life of that time, not even Cromwell’, in which the history of the great Revolution in its successive phases, so far as the deep underlying ideas and speculations were concerned, may be more intimately and instructively studied than in Milton’s. Then, on merely literary grounds, what an interest in those prose remains! From the entire series there might be a collection of specimens, unequalled anywhere else, of the capabilities of that older, grander and more elaborate English prose of which the Elizabethans and their immediate successors were not ashamed.

While it is wrong to regard Milton’s middle twenty years of prose polemics as a degradation of his genius, who does not exult in the fact that such a life was rounded off by a final stage of compulsory calm, when the “singing robes” could be resumed, and Paradise Lost, Paradise Regained and Samson Agonistes could issue in succession from the blind man’s chamber? Of these three poems, and what they reveal of Milton, no need here to speak at length. Paradise Losi is one of the few monumental works of the world, with nothing in modern epic literature comparable to it except the great poem of Dante. This is best perceived by those who penetrate beneath the beauties of the merely terrestrial portion of the story, and who recognize the coherence and the splendour of that vast symbolic phantasmagory by which, through the wars in heaven and the subsequent revenge of the expelled archangel, it paints forth the connection of the whole visible universe of human cognisance and history with the grander, pre-existing and still environing world of the eternal and inconceivable. To this great epic Paradise Regained is a sequel, and it ought to be read as such. The best critical judgment now pronounces Paradise Regained to be not only, within the possibilities of its briefer theme, a worthy sequel to Paradise Losi, but also one of the most artistically perfect poems in any language. Finally the poem in which Milton bade farewell to the Muse, and in which he reverted to the dramatic form, proves that to the very end his

right hand had lost none of its power or cunning, Samson Agonistes is the most powerful drama in the English language after the severe Greek model, and it has the additional interest of being so contrived that, without any deviation from the strictly objective incidents of the Biblical story which it enshrines, it is yet the poet’s own epitaph and his condensed autobiography. Much light is thrown upon Milton’s mind in his later life, and even upon the poems of that period, by his posthumous Latin Treatise of Christian Doctrine. It differs from all his other prose writings of any Importance in being cool, abstract and didactic. Professing to be a system of divinity derived directly from the Bible, it is really an exposition of Milton’s metaphysics and of his reasoned opinions on all questions of philosophy, ethics and politics. The general effect is to show that, though he is rightly regarded as the very genius of English Puritanism, its representative poet and idealist, yet he was not a Puritan of what may be

called the first wave, or that wave of Calvinistic orthodoxy which

own handwriting are preserved in the library of Trinity college Cam. bridge. These are not enumerated among the gifts made by Sir Hen , Newton

Puckering

in 1691, but presumably

belonged

to him aa

came to the library at his death in 1700, as they were found Mason, a fellow of the college, among papers and books been his. They were bound in a folio volume by the care Clarke, afterwards Master of the Rolls, in 1736. Besides

by Charles which had of Thomas the poems

with many interlineations and corrections, the ms. contains suggestions

and in some cases fully developed plans, for works generally dramatic in form. This manuscript volume, invaluable as an index to Milton's methods of work, was reproduced in facsimile (Cambridge, 1899) by W. Aldis Wright.

The first complete edition of The Poetical Works of Mr. John Milton

. . . was printed by Jacob Tonson in 1695. In 1732 Richard Bentley put forward a curious edition of Paradise Lost in which long p were rejected and placed in the margin on the ground that they were interpolations made possible by Milton’s blindness. The Latin and Italian poems, with a translation by William Cowper, were printed by W. Hayley in 1808. The most important of the numerous later editions of Milton’s poetical works are by H. J. Todd (6 vols. 1801); J. Mitford (“Aldine edition,” 3 vols., 1832) ; T. Keightley (2 vols., 1859), whose notes are most original and interesting; D. Masson (“Library” or “Cambridge” edition, 3 vols., 1874; of which a new edition appeared in 1890, with memoir, introduction, notes and an essay on Milton's English and versification); John Bradshaw (new “Aldine edition,” 2 vols., 1892) ; also a careful reprint retaining the peculiarities of the earlier printed copies, by H. C. Beeching (“Oxford edition,” 1904); and another, with variant readings, by W. Aldis Wright (Cambridge

University Press, 1903). The prose works were first partially collected in 1697. They were edited by J. Toland (3 vols., 1698), by C. Symmons (7 vols., 1806), by Pickering (8 vols., 1851) with the poetical works, and by J. A. St. John for Bohn’s “Libraries” (5 vols., 1848-53).

There are numerous annotated editions of separate works. The earliest life of Milton is contained in Wood ms. D. 4 in the

Bodleian library, Oxford, and was printed in the Eng. Hist. Review for January 1902, also by E. S. Parsons in Colorado College Studies, No. X. (1903). The author, who sympathized with the poet’s political views, is unknown, but the name of Milton’s friend, Dr. Nathan Paget, is suggested. His account formed the basis of the life given by Anthony à Wood in Fasti oxonienses (1691). Wood was also indebted to John

Aubrey, whose Brief Lives were not printed until later. The life by his nephew Edward Phillips was prefixed to the Letters of State printed in 1694, and reprinted by William Godwin in his Lives of E. and J. Phillips (1815). Samuel Johnson’s famous Life of Milion (1779), which contains some valuable criticism, is written from a somewhat unfriendly standpoint. The records of Milton’s official life, available

in the State Papers, were first made use of by H. J. Todd in a third edition (1829) of his Milton. All the available information was gathered in Professor Masson’s Life of John Milton; narrated in Connezion with the Political, Ecclesiastical and Literary History of his Time (6 vols., 189-80, with index, 1894; new ed. of vol. i, 1881) which contains ample reference to original authorities. Shorter works are

Milton und seine Zeit (2 pts., 1877, 1879), by Alfred Stern; Miltos (1879), by Mark Pattison in the “English Men of Letters” series, and Life of John Milton (1890) by Dr. Richard Garnett in the “Great Writers” series, with a bibliography by J. P. Anderson. W.H. Huhne, Two early lives of Milton (1924), contains lives by Toland and Fenton.

A valuable contribution to Miltonic criticism was made in 1893 by Robert Bridges in an essay on Milion’s Prosody. This was reprin in Igor (new ed. 1921). Amongst other critical essays should be mentioned essays by Macaulay (Edinburgh Review, 1825) ; Walter Bagebot (Literary Studies, vol. i. 1879); S. T. Coleridge (Seven Lectures om

Shakespeare and Milton, 1856); Edward Dowden

(Transcripts and

Studies, 1888); Edmond Scherer (Etudes sur la littérature contemporaine, vol. vi., 1882); Augustine Birrell (Obiter dicta, second senes 1887); Walter Raleigh (Milton, 1900); E. Allodoli, Giovanni Miton e PItalia (Prato, 1907); N. G. Tarrant, John Milton (1908); R. 0. Havens, Influence of Milton in English Poetry (1922); W. Harms

John Milton (and ed. 1923); J. Langdon, Milton’s Theory of Pastry

and Fine Art (1924); D. Saurat, Milton, Man and Thinker (193 y J. H. Hanford, A Milton Handbook (1926); M. A. Larson, Modernity of Milton (1927). (D. Ma; X

MILTON, a town of Norfolk county, Messachusetts, U.S.A. 7m. S. of Boston, on the Neponset river, and served by the New

MILTON—MILWAUKEE York, New Haven and Hartford railroad.

The population was

|relics

515

and of material illustrating the natural sciences.

The city

9.382 in 1920. 22° foreign-born white. and was 16,434 in 1930 by 1 maintains one of the largest zoological gardens in the country. the Federal census. It covers 13 sq.m., embracing the villages of | There is a municipal art institute, and the Layton Art gallery has Milton, East Milton and Mattapan, and is primarily a residential | one of the best collections of paintings west of the Alleghenies.

b of Boston. It has several factories, and two quarries of | The Germans who played so large a part in building up the city dark bluish-grey granite, used chiefly for monuments. One of the | are represented (among many other reminders) by numerous

ic parks is part of the estate of Thomas Hutchinson, the last | musical societies and fturnvereins.

| governor.

On Great Blue hill (635 ft.), where great fires

were kindled to celebrate important news and signal beacons were burned during the Revolution, is the Blue Hills observatory, estabshed by Albert Lawrence Rotch, who used kites for securing meteorological data and made important studies of clouds.

home of Daniel Vose, a meeting

(adjourned

from

Dedham)

the bold “Suffolk Resolves,” urging forcible opposition to Creat Britain, if necessary. MILTON, a borough of Northumberland county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the Susquehanna river and the Susquehanna trail, 67 m. N. of Harrisburg. It is served by the Pennsylvania and the Reading railways and motor-bus lines. Pop. (1920) 8,638 and in 1930, 8,552. It is in a beautiful and productive region, and has important manufactures, including tank cars, fabricated steel, pressed steel products, hosiery, shirts, broad silk, cedar

chests and dairy products. The borough (originally “Mill Town”) was founded in 1792 and incorporated in 1817. A large part of the town was destroyed by fire in 1880.

MILWAUKEE,

lic; 1881) which has one of the largest dental schools in the country; the Milwaukee School of Engineering (1905); the Wisconsin Workshop for the Blind; the Wisconsin Industrial School

Milton

was formed in 1662 from a part of Dorchester called Uncataquissett, which had been settled in 1640. On Sept. 9, 1774, at the

the largest city of Wisconsin, U.S.A., and

the r2th in size in the United States (1930), on Lake Michigan, sm. N. of Chicago; a port of entry and the county seat of Milwaukee county. „dt is on Federal highways 16, 18, 41 and 141; has

municipal and commercial airports; and is served by the Chicago and North Western, the Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific, the Chicago, North Shore and Milwaukee, the Grand Trunk, the Pere Marquette, and the Soo Line railways, numerous motor coach and truck lines, and g lake steamship lines. Pop. (1920) 457,147 (110,160 foreign born, of whom 39,771 were from Germany and 23,060 from Poland; in 1930 it was 578,249. The city has an area of 35 sq.m.; an altitude of 580 ft., rising toa height of 75 to 125 ft. above the level of the lake. Three rivers cut it into natural divisions, known as the east, the west and the south sides. The Milwaukee river, entering from the north, is joined half a mile from its mouth by the Menominee, flowing

from the west, and nearer the lake by the Kinnickinnic, from the south, and empties into Milwaukee bay, about 6 m. wide. The rivers are navigable for lake traffic into the heart of the city. A large part of the lake front is owned by the city, and developed in

Milwaukee is the seat of a

State normal school (established 1880); Milwaukee-Downer college for women (formed in 1895 by the consolidation of Milwaukee college and Downer college, a Baptist institution established at Fox Lake in 1855); Marquette university (Roman Cathono a $

meinta matinn

for Girls (to be moved about 1930); and numerous private schools and charitable institutions under religious auspices. Just west of the city is a group of county institutions for the care of the aged, infirm, insane and dependent. On the south-west outskirts is a branch of the national home for disabled and tuberculous army veterans. The privately supported philanthropic agencies of the city raise their funds in a joint annual campaign. Eight daily papers are published in the city, including one German and two Polish. The general death rate and the infant mortality are low. Government.—The city operates under a charter of 1874, providing for a municipal form of government, with a mayor and board of aldermen elected biennially. The budget system has been in use since 1913. The water supply is taken from Lake Michigan, at a point 5 m. from the harbour. The two pumping stations have a capacity of 219,000,000 gal. in 24 hours, about three times the daily average consumption in 1927. The entire cost of the water works ($16,000,000) has been paid out of earnings of the depart-

ment.

In 1925 a sewage disposal system was completed at a cost

of $8,500,000. It is based on the activated sludge process, by which fertilizer material of commercial value is produced, covering about two-thirds of the operating expense. The city’s assessed valuation of property for 1928 was $1,181,899,550. Exempt

property was valued at $191,435,264, and public utilities at $128,449,000. A comprehensive city plan was prepared in 1917 but has not yet (1928) been formally adopted. Zoning ordinances were enacted In 1920 and 1924. Commerce and Manufactures.—Milwaukee is the commercial metropolis of the State, and ranked 11th in 1925 among the cities of the United States in the value of its manufactured products. Its fine harbour, open throughout the year and accessible to the largest craft on the lakes, is the most important gateway to the North-west for traffic across Lake Michigan. The water-borne commerce amounted in 1927 to 8,233,198 tons, valued at $466,-

parks, airport, and harbour facilities. The Court of Honor (dedi- 726,000, of which entire total 66% (in value) was car-ferry cated to those who have taken part in the wars of America) is traffic, and the rest general vessel cargo, largely coal and grain. a broad parked space extending for three blocks on Wisconsin Milwaukee is one of the great grain ports of the Great Lakes ahd avenue, past the public library and museum, several fine churches, one of the largest. distributing centres for coal in the country. Its and other important buildings. In the heart of the city is the vast commerce is domestic for the most part. Exports to foreign counmunicipal auditorium, comprising 8 halls (seating from 300 to tries were valued in 1927 at $43,676,422, and imports at $6,-

8,000) under one roof, and providing over 95,000 sq.ft. of exhibition space. The 4o hotels have 5,500 guest-rooms, and the alice buildings, department stores, and other business structures are for the most part large and of modern type. The park system covers 1,000 ac. and includes provision for all the popular games and recreations. Additional playgrounds are maintained by the school board. Under the forestry division of the park department,

the systematic planting of shade trees and shrubs in the city

streets is carried on, and existing trees are pruned, sprayed, moved when necessary, and removed when dead or diseased. In the

frst ten years after the creation (1918) of this service, 25,000

new trees were planted,

Education and Charities.—The public school system includes $0 elementary and 8 general high schools, two technical high

schools, a trade school for girls and one for boys (the latter

providmg a Mechanics Institute for men), and a part-time voca-

ional school which has an attendance of 12,000.

The paro-

chial schools number tox. The public library and museum contat 680,000 volumes, and an excellent collection of historic

813,084. The aggregate jobbing and wholesale business of the city for 1926 was estimated at $170,000,000. Bank debits in 1927 amounted to $3,699,524,000. The manufactures of the city are many and varied. The large brewing industry for which it was famous was dissipated by the national legislation following the adoption of the x8th amendment to the Constitution; but even at its height the manufacture of beer was less important than many of its other industries. In the year ending June 30, 1918, just before the prohibitory legislation,

the output of the breweries was 2,900,000 bbl., valued at $22,500,000, but this was probably less than 4% of the aggregate output of all the factories. The total factory product in 1927 was valued at $627,415,824. Chief among the manufactures are heavy machinery (cranes and hoists, steam shovels, excavators and dredges, steam arid water turbines, hydraulic electric units, rock and ore crushers, mining, milling, refrigerating and agricultural machinery of all kinds), tinware and enamelled ware, leather, motorcycles and automobile frames, steel wheelbarrows, work shoes, silk stockings, toilet soaps, doll carriages, candy, leather

516 gloves, trunks and soft drinks

MILYUKOV—MIMICRY Milwaukee shovels dug the Panama |history5 for a learned work on the State EEconomics of Russia iy

canal and the great open-pit iron mines of Minnesota. The largest | the First Quarter of the 18th Century, His liberal opinions br ore-crusher in the world (in operation in Chile), weighing 500 tons, him into conflict with the educational authorities, and he Was

was made in Milwaukee; as was the huge hydro-electric unit in- ; dismissed in 1895 after one of the ever-recurrent university stalled at Niagara Falls. “riots.” After the meetings of the zemstvos in 1905 he became the

History.—In 1673 Father Marquette and Louis Joliet, return- political editor of the Retck, and helped to found the COnstity. Ing to the mission of St. Francis Xavier at De Pere from their trip tional democratic party (Kadets). Milyukov became the leader of down the Mississippi, skirted the west shore of Lake Michigan in that party, although he was not elected a member of the first

their canoes. Milwaukee bay is distinctly marked on the map attributed to Marquette which was discovered in a convent in Montreal and is now in the Jesuit college in that city. La Salle and his party probably stopped here on their way south in 1679, and the name first appears (‘‘“Millioke”) in the Jesuit Relations of that year. This and the numerous other variants were attempts to transliterate the Indian name (meaning “good lands”) of the village which the white men found here. The first Englishman known to have visited the spot was the adventurous trader, Alexander Henry, in 1760. There is record of a French fur-trading post in 1763. In 1795 Jacques Vieau established a permanent post for the North-Western Fur Company, which he seems to have kept up until it was superseded in 1820 by one belonging to Astor’s American Fur Company. Vieau built a dwelling and a warehouse and engaged in extensive trading operations. In 1818 there arrived a young Frenchman, Laurent Solomon Juneau (1793-1856), who married one of Vieau’s daughters and eventually bought out his business. The settlement was on the direct line of travel from Ft. Dearborn (Chicago) and Green Bay, and as soon as the Indian titles were extinguished by the treaties of 1831 and 1833 with the Menominee, colonists began to come to the neighbourhood. In 1833 Morgan L. Martin (1805-87) of Green Bay explored the harbour, made a map of the place, and entered into an agreement with Juneau and Michael Dousman for its development. A saw-mill was built in 1834. The east side was platted in the summer of 1835, and the west side a little later (by Byron Kilbourn}. The rival settlements, officially Milwaukee East Side and Milwaukee West Side, were popularly known as Juneautown and Kilbourntown. A third, called Walker’s Point, was established on the south side by George H. Walker. The east side and the west side towns had bitter quarrels, especially over the building of bridges, for their streets, having been surveyed independently, did not come out at the same point on the river. They were separately incorporated as townships of Milwaukee county in 1837, but in 1839 united as wards of the same village, each one keeping complete financial and administrative autonomy of its own affairs. Walker’s Point was annexed as a third ward in 1845, and in 1846 the three were incorporated as the city of Milwaukee, of which Solomon Juneau was elected the first mayor. The first vessel anchored in Milwaukee bay in 1779. A Chicago packet entered the river in 1823. The first newspaper, the Milwaukee Advertiser, began publication on July 14, 1836, and a public school was opened in that year. In 1839 George Smith and Alexander Mitchell established the Fire and Marine Insurance Bank, which for 40 years was one of the Strongest banking houses west of the Alleghenies. Its notes passed at par through panics under which even Government issues depreciated, and it financed the “Milwaukee” and other western railways. The first brewery was built in 1840, by Owens and Pawlett. Connection was established with Chicago by telegraph in 1849; by railway in 1856. About 1840 began a stream of immigration from Germany, which was accelerated by the revolutionary movements of 1848 and continued for half a century. In 1900, out of a total population of 285,315—53,854 had been born in Germany, and 151,045 more had one or both parents of German birth, making a total of 72% who were either German by birth or of the “first generation.” The population of the city has grown steadily from the beginning. By 1860 it had reached the total of 45,246, and the increase in succeeding decades was 58%, 62%, 77%, 40%, 31%, and 22% far 1910-20,

MILYUKOV, PAUL NIKOLAYEVICH (1859), Russian politician and historian, was bom near St. Petersburg (Leningrad) on Jan. 27, 1859. He studied history and humanities at the University of Moscow, and received the degree of master in

or the second Duma. When the tsar dissolved the first Dum he helped to draft the “Viborg manifesto,” in which members of the Duma declared themselves ready to follow the people in

resisting arbitrary rule. Milyukov did not sign, however, as he wa not a member of the Duma, and escaped the persecution which accompanied the Stolypin reaction. He was elected to the third and the fourth Duma, and was a leader of the opposition.

When the World War broke out he stood for a national union

and for co-operation with the Entente, but the maladministratigg of the War Office drove him into an attitude of increasing hostility Milyukov took office in Prince Lvov’s provisional Government as minister of foreign affairs. When the Bolsheviks seized power he escaped to Kiev, then occupied by the Germans, and gave up the cause of the Allies as lost. After the Armistice Milyukov wen to London and subsequently to Paris, where in 1921 he directed a journal (Last News) in which he advocated an alliance with patriotic Socialists. His works include a History of the Second Russian Revolution (3

vols., 1921-23) and Russia’s Catastrophe (2 vols., 1927).

MIME, an ancient Greek dramatic form in which the players

portrayed events of everyday life, with the help of elaborate ges tures; the name came to be applied also to the actors themselyes,

As literature, the mime developed in Sicily and southern Italy

(sth century B.c.) through the prose of Sophron and Epicharmu, and later (3rd century B.C.) through the metric compositions of

Herondas. The mimus found its way into Roman literature (rst century B.c.) through D. Labienus, Publius Syrus and others For later growth and development see DRAMA; PANTOMIME,

TITE, a mineral consisting of lead chloro-arsenate,

(PbC1)Pb.(AsO,)s,

crystallizing in the hexagonal system and

closely resembling pyromorphite (g.v.) in appearance and general characters. The arsenic is usually partly replaced by equivalent amounts of phosphorus, and there may thus be a gradual passage from mimetite to pyromorphite. The two species can, as a rule only be distinguished by chemical analysis, and because of their close resemblance the less frequently occurring chloro-arsenate was named mimetite, or mimetesite, from Gr. uunrhs, imitator. Crystals of pyromorphite though usually optically uniaxial are sometimes biaxial, but in mimetite this anomalous character is almost always present; a cross-section of a hexagonal prism of mimetite shows a division into six optically biaxial sectors or a complex lamellated structure. In colour mimetite is usually yellow or brown, rarely white or colourless; the lustre is resinous te adamantine. The hardness is 3-5, and the specific gravity 7-0-7-25. Like pyromorphite, mimetite is found in the upper parts of veins of lead ore, where it has been formed by the oxidation of galena and mispickel. When found in large amount it is of importance as an ore of lead. The best crystallized specimens are those from

Johanngeorgenstadt in Saxony, Wheal Unity in Cornwall, and Tsumeb in South-west Africa. It was formerly found in conse-

erable amount at Dry Gill, Cumberland, as six-sided barrel-shaped crystals of a brownish-red or orange-yellow colour containing a considerable proportion of phosphoric acid; this variety has been called campylite (Gr. xaumtdos, curved), on account of the remarkable curvature of the faces of the crystals.

MIMICRY.

The word Mimicry is applied by naturalists te

certain advantageous resemblances between animals, and in some

instances between plants. The resemblance of the common desdnettle to the stinging nettle, with which it is commonly associated, is a good example of plant mimicry. These resemblances are i

dependent of affinity, viz., they may exist between species of very

different degrees of relationship, generally distant but sometimes near; they are such as appeal to the senses of enemies, es

to the sense of sight, not uncommonly to hearing, occasionally to

MIMICRY

BRAWN FOR THE ENCYCLOPZDIA

BRITANNICA

BY MISS O. F. TASSART FROM SPECIMENS

FOUR Top row (left) The Danaid Euploea midamus and paradoxus of Malaya

(right)

phalid mimic Heliconius aristiona both of Peru

IN THE HOPE DEPARTMENT, OXFORD UNIVERSITY MUSEUM, AND THE BRITISH MUSEUM

BUTTERFLIES its mimic Papilio

Second row (left) the Ithomiinae Melinaea mothone and (right)

PLATE I

its Nym-

AND

THEIR

(NATURAL HISTORY)

MIMICS

Third row (left) the Danaid “Monarch” Danaus plexippus and (right) Its mimic the Nymphalid “Viceroy” Basilarchia archippus both of North

America Fourth row (left) the Danaid Hestia Jewconoe and (right) its mimic Papilio Idaeoides both of the Philippines

MIMICRY

St7

meli and touch. They differ from the much larger class of Pro-

ever, supplied by the divergent colours and patterns of the Danaine models, of which a few examples are figured. The Oriental Hestia

to some object of no interest to enemies, whereas the true

and its allies are large, black-and-white butterflies with thin papery

rective Resemblances in that these bring about concealment by a

mic resembles a conspicuous “model” feared or disliked by its wings. A characteristic example (Hestia leuconoe) from the Philenemies, and thus becomes conspicuous itself. Other differences ippine islands and its swallowtail mimic (Papilio idaeoides) from the same locality are shown in the fourth row. ïn this and the foland not the vegetable or mineral surroundings; that it resembles ‘lowing -7 pair it must be borne in mind that the mimic is but a a moving and not a stationary object. These distinctions, although Single example selected to represent many butterflies of different generally true, do not always hold. The resemblance of external | groups. and also day-flying moths, which mimic the same type of “arasites to the hair, feathers or skin of their host, and of many pattern in various parts of the Oriental region. In top row is the meects to the excrement of birds, snails or of other insects, and to ' male of Euploea midamus, an example of a far more dominant and empty snail-shells, is not mimicry but protective resemblance, ! widespread Danaine type, that of the blue Euploeas, at its right which would also include those caterpillars whose curious swaying ‚is its swallowtail mimic (Papilio paradoxus). The originals of movements suggest a swinging fragment of twig, or butterflies ' these two figures were both taken in the same part of the Malay and moths which float to the ground like a falling leaf or allow ‘ peninsula. In Africa the Danaines are much less numerous but still themselves to be driven like a leaf before the wind. Mimics are supply the chief models for mimicry. The majority of the species have been suggested—that the mimic resembles an animal model

yiso commonly adapted to resemble their models in the position |belong to the genus Amauris, black butterflies with white or yellow-

of rest as well as in flight. | ish markings. very unlike the Oriental Danainae. Wimetic resemblances also differ from those which are an inci- | An entirely different type of Danaine pattern (third row, left) dental result of similar functions, such as the general likeness in is borne by a series of nearly related species in the Oriental region, form between the racehorse and the greyhound or between the which must be regarded as the original home. This pattern is of mole-like species with mole-like habits of life in the insectivores, ‘especial interest for the present argument, because one species rodents and marsupials; also from the incidental likeness between | bearing it has migrated westward and become the chief model for species which resemble the same part of their surroundings— mimicry in Africa, while two others have travelled eastward and sand, bark, leaves, etc. Mimetic resemblances differ from these become the ancestors of American species mimicked by indigenous in that they have been developed for the sake of the resemblance | American butterflies. In the third row is the best-known invader,

because of some advantage conferred in the struggle for existence. ' Danaus plexippus, the monarch, the figured specimen, together The term “mimicry,” implying in its ordinary use conscious imita- with its mimic, the viceroy, having been caught near Chicago by tion, has been a source of confusion; it has now, however, a the writer on Aug. 5, 1897. The mimic shown is a Nymphaline butterfly, Bastlarchia archippus, closely related to the British white technical scientific meaning. Other views as to the origin of these resemblances are:—that admiral and itself so recently descended from a North American they are due (1) to the direct influence of the environment acting white admiral that the two will interbreed and produce hybrid similarly on different species; (2) to a physiological response to offspring. In all the earlier stages of its life-history the mimic constant mental experience such as colour sensation; (3) to sexual remains a white admiral, the mimetic resemblance being restricted selection, modified by the presence of other types of colour. This | to the final colour and pattern. If, as some have supposed, mimetic last suggestion, due to Fritz Miiller, is not supported by the fact likeness is the result of local influences, we should expect that the that female butterflies are far more commonly mimetic than males. invader would have come to resemble the native rather than that The suggestion that these resemblances are a mere coincidence the native should mimic the invader. The above facts point directly to the conclusion that there is fails because of the evident geographical relationship. Mimics are tod in the same localities as their models and when the latier are some advantage in mimicking Danaine butterflies, and, if space modified in various parts of their range the mimics change with permitted, similar evidence could be brought forward to show that them. There are however exceptions when the mimics are greater the widespread mimicry of the other great tropical groups is also wanderers than thelr models, and in one remarkable example two advantageous. The proof becomes especially convincing m certain butterflies in western China appear to be undoubted mimics of butterflies with many forms of female. Thus, three Uganda a model yery common south of the Himalayas; bere it is suggested females of the African swallowtail Papilio dardanus mimic respecthat selection by migratory insectivorous birds may be influenced tively three very different Danaine patterns, and the fourth an

Acraeine; and in other parts of Africa where the Danaine patterns

by their remembered experiences of the tropics. Although mimetic resemblance is believed to exist in mammals,

birds and fishes the number of examples is small and their interpretation often doubtful. Among reptiles poisonous snakes are mimicked by harmless species. Even the English grass-snake will often, when cornered, poise itself and strike like an adder. But for the study of the subject the insects are supreme, the smal percentage of survival and swift succession of generations rendering natural selection peculiarly searching in its operation and rapid m its results,

alter, and one of them or the Acraeine model is absent, we find that the corresponding female is similarly modified or wanting. In another African swallowtail, Papilio cynorta, the females mimic an Acraeine, changing geographically with the changes of the model. But in Abyssinia, where there is no appropriate model of

this group, the female mimics a Danaine. All the local females of

the second, together with yery few Danainae and many Acraeinae.

P. derdamus have often been bred, together with the non-mimetic males, from the eggs laid by a female of one form. From this it has been argued that they must have arisen suddenly from a female like the one found in Madagascar and Abyssinia and resembling the male. In recent years, however, numbers of intermediate females have been discovered and also bred in the Nairobi district. Furthermore the mimetic females which exist with the male-like females in Abyssinia, retain the “tails” on their hindwings which elsewhere have been lost by the fully formed mimics of the tailless Danaine and Acraeme models. From these and many other examples it is evident that in butterflies the female is more commonly mimetic than the male. Furthermore when both sexes mimic, the female’s likeness to a model is often the more complete. Apart from mimicry, female butter-

ur extensively mimicked.

material ready to be built up by natural selection.

DANAINE BUTTERFLIES

The figures on Plate I. illustrate facts consistent with the belief

that mimicry is an advantageous resemblance and has been developed for its own sake—facts which are meaningless on any suggested interpretation except one based on selection.

The but-

terflies most generally mimicked by species of other groups and by day-flying moths belong to a few dominant tropical sub-families,

the Danainae and Acraeinae of the Old World, and, in the New,

the Tthomiinae, allied to the first, and the Heliconinae allied to

Now, however widely the types of pattern vary within each of flies also appear in two or more forms far more commonly than these sub-families, they are still mimicked by butterflies of other males, and recent researches have shown that the females are Soups and often by moths. The South American Acraeas have more variable. It is therefore probable that the evolution of female my different patterns from those of the African Acraeas, yet both mimicry bas been facilitated by the quantity and variety of the The most striking evidence is, how-

518

MIMICRY

i Returning to a consideration of the advantages secured by mim- will share between them the lives which must be sacrificed befan icking the great tropical groups we find that their species possess | the enemies have learned to associate the warning characters with conspicuous patterns made up of contrasted tints, the pattern of their special means of defence. If they are unlike, the lives meg the under-surface of the wings being generally similar to that on |i be contributed by each of them independently. These resen warning, ar the upper, so that when these butterflies fly with their character- blances, which cake are a E form SE of common; or combined LA A Batesian mimic may be compari istic flapping or sailing flight, or rest with wings closed. the colours called “Miillerian mimicry.” and patterns, once learned, are easily recognized. Many of the to an unscrupulous tradesman who copies the advertisement ¢ species when disturbed emit an unpleasant odour which in some a successful firm; Müllerian mimicry to a combination betwee species is known to be secreted by special glands. When offered firms to adopt a common advertisement and share the expense. The qualities of Miillerian mimics differ widely in effectivensy to insect-eating animals they are rejected except under the stress $

|

of hunger, and they have been seen to be attacked and rejected by enemies in the wild state. Their tissues are soft and flexible so that they can often recover from the injuries of experimental

tasting. Just as these groups of buttertlies are foremost in providing models for mimicry so are they conspicuous in the possession and in the advertisement of qualities which protect against attack. Mimicry of the advertisement suggests possession of the qualities. That young insect enemies do learn to associate the advertisement with the qualities has been proved by the interesting experiments of Lloyd Morgan. It must be remembered that the qualities are of the most varied kinds. Thus C. F. M. Swynnerton has shown that large African butterflies Charaxes, although palatable, are rejected because of their toughness, thus accounting for the mimetic likeness to them borne by smaller and less tough species of the genus; also for the resemblance of larger species to one another. The two figures in the second row on Plate I. show that the species of the great tropical groups are not only mimicked by other butterflies but also that they mimic each other. Thus several African Acraeines mimic Danaines, while in both groups the species of one genus sometimes mimic those of another; the same is true of the Oriental Danaines. In tropical America the few Danaines and many of the Heliconines mimic species of the domi-

nant group, the Ithomiines. This last mimetic association has been a fruitful source of confusion, for the superficial resemblance between the Ithomiines and an important section of the Heliconines is so strong that both groups were united under the Heliconidae by the older naturalists. And even when H. W. Bates recognized the wide difference between them he still left them as a single family divided into the Danaoid Heliconidae (the Ithomiinae) and the Acraeoid Heliconidae (the Heliconinae proper). Hence the models for mimicry, Ithomiine as well as Heliconine, are commonly called “Heliconidae.” But in the meantime naturalists have recognized the true distinction, placing the two sections

far apart, the Ithomiinae next to the Danainae, and the Heliconinae next to the Acraeinae. Now in the numerous mimetic associations between the two groups, the Ithomiinae, with hardly an exception, are the models and the Heliconinae the mimics.

Thus the frst figure In the second row represents the Ithomiine model, Melistaea mothone, and the second figure its beautiful Heliconine mimic H. eristiona, both from Peru. But as the latter is a Heliconine, it and other Heliconine mimics of Ithomiines are constantly referred to as models, thus reversing the true relationship, which is well shown by an exhibit, in the Oxford University museum, of the butterflies indiscriminately captured on two days in central British Guiana. There were taken on the first day 216 specimens of the chief Ithomiine model with two Heliconine mimics, belonging to different genera, on the second day six months later, of the model 220, and no mimic. BATESIAN AND MULLERIAN MIMICRY It is obvious that this resemblance between the butterflies of distasteful groups is, as Bates recognized, a different thing from the mimicry he sought to explain by his hypothesis—the likeness of a harmless or palatable species to a formidable or nauseous one which advertises its qualities by warning characters, especially colours, but often by movement, attitude or sound. The mimic gaims advantage by the display of false warning characters. This is called “Batesian Mimicry” after its discoverer. The resemblance between the distasteful species themselves was later explained by Fritz Miller as an adaptation which economizes life by facilitating ‘the education of enemies. If two distasteful species are alike they

and the species differ immensely in their relative numbers and jg their capacities for variation. Hence models and mimics erg

among them no less than in Batesian mimicry and in both therejg the same evidence of the development of a mimetic from a dif.

ferent non-mimetic appearance still retained by allied species and often by the non-mimetic male. Those in second row are sug. cient to show the likeness to the model which may be attained

by a Miillerian mimic. But while Batesian mimicry isnever ay advantage and may be a disadvantage to its model, Milllerian mimicry is never a disadvantage but generally (theoretically gj. ways) an advantage. Although this criterion is in itself simple,it is extremely difficult, with our present imperfect knowledge of mimics and their enemies in life, to apply. The decision therefore

rests on indirect evidence, which makes a different appeal to different minds, so that opinions differ widely as to the relative

importance of the two kinds of mimicry. It will be generally agreed that the resemblance of a Batesian mimic to its model is closely related to protective resemblance. In fact Bates originally included both resemblances under mimicry,

A. R. Wallace and nearly all later writers on the subject have differed from him in this because, although the two classes are so

near akin, the species in one are conspicuous, in the other well concealed. They may, however, be conveniently grouped together under deceptive (or apatetic) resemblance. Both classes include palatable species, much sought after by the enemies of the group to which they belong. Any evidence supporting the conclusion that a mimic has been developed from a species with concealing colours would be evidence that it is a Batesian and not a Miillerian mimic. Such evidence may generally be obtained by comparison with its closest non-mimetic allies, and in butterflies often by comparing a mimetic female with its non-mimetic male, paying special attention to the under-surface, upon which concealing colours are specially developed. In the tropical American butterfly Prote gonius, conspicuously mimetic on the upper surface and deadleaf-like on the under, Kaye has recently observed that the latter appearance is so transparent that when the insect is sailing with expanded wings above the observer, he can only see the colows of the upper side. If, on the other hand, the above comparisons lead to the conch sion that a mimic belongs to a group with warning colours, espe cially one which supplies models for mimicry,—we should, in the opinion of the present writer, be justified in considering it as Mit lerian. Special evidence is offered by some mimics which retam warning characters independent of the mimetic appearance, ani by others which, themselves resembling a central model, never

theless act as models for still more outlying members of a association. Still stronger evidence may sometimes be found m reciprocal relationship between the species of two groups or between the groups themselves, A usually supplying models and B their mimics, but B also including models mimicked by species m

A. In any case it is often difficult to draw the line between Bate sian and Millerian mimicry. It is not always necessary, as has been generally assumed, that a mimetic pattern should be beneficial to the species. Certam butterflies which have developed such patterns in the presente g

Danaine or Acraeine models are equally abundant, but no mimetic, in other areas where the models are absent. It is dest

that, in these species, the variations which promote the resem-

blance have been selected, but it is equally clear that the averag? number of survivors in each generation was not thereby ! It is the proportion of survivors with and without the

pattern that has been changed, not the total number of

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Í pdividuals of the species. For this process, J. S. Huxley has suggested the term intra-specific selection. —

349

of the wing may be so reduced in size that the light passes between them: (2) remaining the same size they may become much fewer;

Une of the chief objections urged against the interpretation of (3) they may stand up on edge; (4) remaining in the usual overmimicry as a ee a by oe aoe belief that lapping position they may become themselves transparent. Fur- rarely attack butterflies. Some naturalists of great experi- _ thermore in the models themselves, the scales of the transparent oe that they have never witnessed such an attack. Never- iparts have become minute vestiges, reduced to a much greater theless those who have paid special attention to this aspect of the |extent in one of the two genera to which the species belong. It F. subject have oe oats of naan from a Aas pas |may be added that the wings of many moths which mimic bees are, ion. Fig. 1 on

Plate

il. represents an Injury seen

d Pied by a bird upon a butterfly at Durban.

by F. Muir to ' on emergence from the chrysalis, covered with loosely attached The insect was 'scales which blow off during the first flight. Such different methods

l at rest and the bird, attacking it from the rear, has shorn through ' of attaining the same end are to be expected if the development both hind-wings symmetrically.

Now this is a common type of : has been brought about by natural selection, for it is unreasonable

| mjury and it is reasonable to suppose that it is generally if not ‘to believe that similar variations would appear in very different | always caused in the manner observed by Muir and others. Again ‘species with very different natures. Swynnerton in Rhodesia and Lamborn in Nyasaland have found | The most convincing evidence of the development of mimicry | the impress K a Ea apo = Yeas oe Fi wal ae up ‘and protective resemblance by natural selection is ta be found * ster seeing them torn off bya bird. such beak-marks are 'in the Homoptera which, in addition to the cicadas, aphides, etc.

, ae fond on specimens by those who look for them.

‘The remaining figures on Plate II. illustrate mimicry in other i insects, especially the species resembling the most formidable of © all models, the bees and wasps, among which, it must be added, |, Millerian combinations are especially prevalent. Striking examples | of the ee bees eee parez T are rep< resented in figures g-12A, fig. 9 being a black Indian species Xylocopa tenuiscapa) mimicked by the fly (Hyperechia xylo| copiformis) shown in fig. 9A. The following three examples are

| African, fig. 10 the white-banded bee X. inconstans and 10A its | fy mimic H. bifasciata; fig. 11, the reddish-brown banded X.

| favorufa, with 11A H. marshall, the model and mimic here rep-

) resented having been taken within a few yards of each other at Mt. Mlanje, Nyasaland; fig. 12, the white-marked X. nigrita, with < nÀ, H. consimilis. It has been proved in recent years that the _ larvae of these flies burrow into the tunnels made by the larvae of |. their models and devour the occupants. It might appear at first

|) sight that the object of the mimetic resemblance is to enable the flies to approach the nest and lay their eggs near or within the |, opening, but no such aid is necessary, for the mimics are more

| powerful fliers and more alert than their models. They are also | more formidable and sometimes have been known to prey upon |, the bees themselves although generally upon other insects; but | with all their other powers they have not the dreaded sting and

| are therefore protected by resembling the much commoner bees among which they live. Wasps and bees are also mimicked by many other insects of

ce oe e ,, the model of 2A, a

bug

ES ae (Spimiger), and 2B

-r aa a long-horned grass-

| hopper (Scaphura). The movements in life of these two mimics— |. both members of unwasp-like groups—are known to promote the

resemblance. The wasp’s yellow-tipped antennae are seen to be short and thick as compared with those of its mimics but in both the section near the base is thickened and that beyond of hair-like fineness so as to be invisible except on close inspection. The end of the thick section is yellow in the grasshopper like the tip of |. the wasp’s antennae. Similarly in certain beetles which mimic others with shorter knobbed antennae, a thickening at the corresponding distance from the base, or in some species the appearance ' | of a thickening produced by a tuft of hairs, brings about a super-

e ficial likeness to the model. The close resemblance to a powerful

f Curved spine on the wing-cases of the model, a distasteful Bornean

j beetle (an Endomychid), fig. 14, is similarly brought about by a curved pencil of hairs on its Longicorn mimic (Zelota) shown in 14A. Examples such as these afford strong evidence that the likeness has been achieved by the selection of any variation which led m the right direction, and as a result some feature in the mimic

which seems to the eye toge similar to that of the model is often

m its essential structure efitirely different.

_ Agood example of a mimetic resemblance attained in many ways egieee in the large tropical American association of diverse

ne and day-flying moths which have developed transparent | Sas on their wings in mimicry of dominant Ithomiine models.

|

Transparency has been attained by the following different methods

different mimetic species or groups of species:—(1) the scales

also include the Membracidae, a family of small insects found nearly all over the world but most commonly in tropical America. These insects have, on the bedy-ring behind the head, a projection which grows backwards and expands into a shield covering every part except the head, wings and legs. The form of the concealed body is much like that of the allied greenfly and other aphids of our gardens. Five tropical American membracids are represented in figs. 4-8A. Hemtkyptha, like a hooked seed, seen from above in 4A, from the side in fig. 4; the thornlike Umbonia in figs. 5, 5A; the smooth-seedlike Hebetica in 6, 6A; the ant-like Heteronotus in 7, 7A; finally Oeda, resembling the orange-coloured, freely exposed cocoon of a distasteful moth, in 8, 8A. Thus in the Membracidae the concealing or the mimetic appearance is developed on the covering shield, and not, as in so many other insects, on the body. Mimicry is only developed where it can be seen. The value of the ant-mimicry in figs. 7, 7A has been questioned because the Membracidae, like the allied froghoppers (Cercopidae), can escape by jumping, but this is only one of the numerous examples in which

ar a. piian

different methods are adopted by a species so that if the first fails there is still a chance of success by the second. It has also been objected that ants have many enemies and are therefore dangerous models. Haase is the only naturalist who has thought it necessary to assume that the special protection of models confers absolute immunity, even believing that it 1s efficient against the insectenemies of insects. We know, however, that the species which are most distasteful to the higher insect-eating animals are especially liable to be attacked by parasitic and predaceous insects, Admitting the existence of numerous enemies, ants nevertheless possess qualities which render them the most successful insects in the world. Analogous reasoning would attempt to show that the form, colour and pattern of grass-feeding caterpillars are valueless because so many animals feed upon grass! The mimicry of ants is a vast subject which cannot be treated even superficially here. They are models not only for insects of many diverse kinds but also, in movement as well as appearance, by numerous spiders. Certain species of the carnivorous mantises and also of long-horned grasshoppers mimic ants when small but in their later stages become flower- or leaf-like. Some idea of the advantage which may be conferred by resembling these models is suggested by a study of their guests. Since 1891 H. Donisthorpe has discovered in British ants’ nests r50 species of insects, spiders

and mites new to the country, including 70 new to science. Of these guests 28 species are mimics of ants and thus would be protected outside the nest or in a disturbed nest against enemies which fear the ants. In addition to these British ants are mimicked by 34 species living independently, and by 15 species possibly guests, possibly independent. BOGEYS

A very different kind of mimicry is adopted by another tropical American homopterous insect, one of the large lantern flies (Fulgoridae). The front part of the head of this imsect, Laternaria lucifera, projects forward as a hollow mask which resembles in remarkable detail the head of an alligator as may be seen from

the side view represented in fig. 13. The true eye of the insect is

MIMNERMUS— MINA

520

shown behind the last of the apparent teeth, the alligator’s eye and nostril are represented on humps in their characteristic position,

Australia and the true mimosas in America. The former are of considerable importance as sources of timber, gum and tannin,

The rows of long sharp teeth, not hidden by lips as in other animals, form the most terrifving feature of the alligator's head, and these are convincingly suggested by a series of brilliantly white elevations. The mask of this lantern-fly in fact reproduces the appearance of the reptile’s head not only in colour but in form, as it would be reproduced by a sculptor. Alligators are excessively abundant in tropical America und a terrible menace to animals which come to the riverside to drink, among them the arboreal

but the latter are of much less economic value, though a few, like the talh (M. ferruginea) of Arabia and Central Africa, are important trees. Most are herbs or undershrubs, but some South

American species are tall woody climbers. They are often prickly. The roots of some Brazilian spe-

cies are poisonous, and that of

M. pudica has irritating proper-

ties. The mimosas, however, owe their interest and their extensive cultivation, partly to the

monkeys which ure probably some of the chief enemies of the lantern-tly. It is not supposed that the insect is mistaken for the reptile—but that an appearance, even on a very small scale, asso-

beauty of their usually bipinnate foliage, but still more to the remarkable development in some species of the sleep movements manifested to some extent by most of the pinnate

ciated with a near escape from death, causes such a shock to an

intelligent animal that the lantern-fly is given the chance of flight. This remarkable example is only one of many in which reptiles are mimicked by insects, especially snakes by caterpillars. Experiments have proved that the deceptive appearance is effective in terrifying insectivorous monkeys, birds and lizards.

Leguminosae,

Another remarkable form of mimetic resemblance is illustrated on Plate 1I., fig. 3, representing the cocoon of a west African moth Deilemera, covered with the apparent cocoons of a hymenopterous parasite. Such cocoons are woven by larvae which have hatched from eggs laid in the body of a caterpillar, lived and fed without injuring any vital part until the host is full-grown, then devoured the whole of it or its chrysalis, and bored their way out. The nutriment is then divided up and enclosed in numbers of tough cases, cach containing very little and very difhcult to open. It is therefore an advantage for a caterpillar to mimic the appearance of such an attuck, and Lan:iborn has shown how this is achieved. The caterpillar while spinning produces from the end of its body a number of pale yellowish frothy spheres, each encircled by a silken girdle, dragged off and tixed to the cocoon by a few strands of silk. Other examples of the kind are known and probably numbers will be found now that Lamborn’s discovery has directed

other

as well as many

(especially

seedling;

plants. In the so-called “sensitive plants” these movements not only take place under the in-

mY COURTESY OF THE TRUSTEES OF BRITISH MUSEUM (NATURAL HISTORY)

MIMOSA

(MIMOSA

PUDICA),

NATIVE OF TROPICAL AMERICA

THE

A

fluence of light and darkness, but can be easily excited by mechanical and other stimuli. When stimulated—say, at the axis of one of the secondary petioles— the leaflets move upwards oneach

side until they mect, the movement

being

propagated

centri-

petally. lt may then be communicated to the leaflets of the other secondary petioles, which close (the petioles, too, converging), and thence to the main petiole, which sinks rapidly downwards towards the stem, the bending taking place at the pulvinus (swollen attention to this kind of mimicry. base of the Jeafstalk). When shaken in any way, the leaves close It has heen impossible to describe more than a very small pro- and droop simultaneously, but if the agitation be continued they portion of the recorded examples of mimicry. It is believed, how- soon cease to respond to the shock. The common sensitive plant ever, that those which have been selected will serve to illustrate of hot-houses is M. pudica, a native of tropical America, now the chief aspects of the subject. naturalized in corresponding latitudes of Asia and Africa, but BisuioGrarny.—aA. R. Wallace, Contributions to the Theory of the hardly distinguishable M. sensitiva and others are also cultiNatural Selection (1875); Darwinism (1889); H. W. Bates, A Naturalist on the Amazons (1879); T. Belt, A Naturalist in Nicaragua vated. Species of the closely allied genus Schrankia are known as (7888); EF. B. Poulton, The Colours of Animals (1890); Essays on sensitive-briar in the southern United States. Evolution

(1908):

E. Hause, Bibliotheca

Zoologica

(1891-93;

Eng.

trans. by C. M. Child, 1896); C. Lloyd Morgan, Habit and Instinct

(1890) ; Animal Behaviour (1900); E. B. Poulton, J. M. Baldwin and

C. L. Morgan, “Mimicry” in Baldwin’s Dict. of Philos. and Psychol. (1902); A. Weismann, The Evolution Theory (Eng. trans., 1906) ; H. Eltringham, African Mimetic Butterflies (1910); A. Jacobi, Mimikry und Verwandte Erscheinungen (1913) ; R. C. Punnet, Mimicry in Butterflies (1915); G. D. H. Carpenter, With the Belgian Frontier Force in East Africa (1926); H. Donisthorpe, Guests of British Ants (1927). Nearly everything published since 1908 has appeared or is referred to in Trans. and Proc. Ent. Soc. Lond. (E. B. Po.)

MIMNERMUS of Colophon, Greek elegiac poct, flourished about 630-600 r.c. One of his extant fragments refers to the struggle of the Tonians against Lydia. His most importani poems were a set of elegics addresesd to a flute-player named Nanno.

Mimnermus was the first to make the elegiac verse the vehicle for love poetry. He set his own poems to the music of the flute, and the poet Hipponax says that he used the melancholy véyos xpadins, a melody peculiar to the Thargelia festival, to the accompaniment of which two human purificatory victims were led out of Athens to be sacrificed (Hesychius, s.v.). Edition of fragments in T. Bergk, Poetae lyrici Graeci; see also G. Vanzolini, Mimnermo (1883), a study of the poet, with notes and a metrical version of the fragments.

MIMOSA, so named from the movements of the leaves in many species which “mimic” animal sensibility, a genus of 400 species of the family Leguminosae, which gives its name to the large sub-order Mimoseae (characterized by usually small regular flowers with valvate corolla), to which belongs also the nearly allied genus Acacia. They are distributed throughout almost all tropical and subtropical regions. the acacias preponderating in

MIMULUS, in botany, a genus (family Scrophulariaceae) comprising about 115 species of showy, hardy or half-hardy, herbaceous, rarely shrubby plants, natives of the extra-tropical or

mountainous parts of both old and new worlds excepting Europe. but most numerous in western North America, 45 species occurring in California. The planis have opposite, undivided leaves. and axillary, generally solitary flowers with a two-lipped, gaping corolla. The herbaceous species thrive best in damp situations,

the shrubby species, of which M. glutinosus (called also Diplacus aurantiacus), bush-monkey-flower, is best known, are adapted for pot culture in the greenhouse. 4. Langsdor fis (common monkeyflower), widespread in western North America, has become naturalized by river-sides in many parts of Britain. M. moschatus (musk-plant), a native of north-western America, with small. nearly regular, yellow flowers, diffuse hairy stem and hairy scented leaves, is a well known and favourite perennial for pol culture and outside borders. Several other species are cultivated for their attractive flowers.

MINA, FRANCISCO

ESPOZ

Y (1781-1836), Spanish

guerrillero leader and general, was born at Ydozin in Navarre ot! June 17, 1781. He began guerrilla warfare against the French invaders in 1808. The national government at Cadiz gave him rank, and by the 7th of September 1812, he had been promot’!

to be commander-in-chief in Upper Aragon, and on the left bané of the Ebro.

In the interval he claimed that he had fought 143

actions big and little, had been repeatedly wounded with bullet. sword and lance, had taken 13 fortified posts, and 14,000 prisoners. and had never been surprised by the French. Mina claimed thi! he immobilized 26,000 French troops which would but for him

Note: This page from 1929 edition.

MINANGKUBAU—MINAS

GERAES

521

In the |ig given. The fourth class comprises the slim, tapered, circular are probably based on built of white marble His political opinions '

have served with Marmont in the Salamanca campaign.

| polygonal minarets of Turkey which ign O f 1813 and; 1814 he served under Wellington a . After the or Persian precedent, although frequently

ali

of Ferdinand he was exiled.

were democratic and radical, and as a yeoman he disliked the

and always without colour decoration.

In most cases, however,

hidalgos (nobles). The revolution of 1820 brought him back, and ' instead of the single gallery of the Persian minaret, there are be served the Liberal party in Galicia, Leon and Catalonia. On two. or even three, and the minarets are universally capped with Wov. 1, 1523; he was compelled to capitulate to the French sup- ` slim, wooden cones. There are usually two minarets on the ers of Ferdinand VII.. but escaped to England by sea. In: smaller mosques. and from two to six on the larger ones. The 1830 he took part in an unsuccessful rising against Ferdinand. six minarets of the mosque of Sultan Achmed I. (1615), at ConOn the death of the king he was recalled to Spain, and the govern- stantinople, are characteristic. In India, early minarets were much affected by the native ment of the regent Christina gave him the command against the Carlists in 1835, though they feared his Radicalism. By this time, ! Hindu styles. Thus the famous Koutub Minar at Delhi (early years, exposure and wounds had undermined his health. He was ' r3th century), in its ridged masonry and rich solidity owes aso opposed to Thomas Zumalacarregui (g.v.), an old officer of much to the Jaina style. Later examples show, on the other his in the War of Independence, and an even greater master of | hand, strong Persian influence. The forms are, nevertheless, wregular mountain warfare. His health compelled him to resign |treated with that peculiar delicacy and restrained richness typiin April 1835, and his later command in Catalonia was only| cal of Mogul work. memorable for the part he took in forcing the regent to grant a constitution in August 1836. He died at Barcelona on Dec. 24, 1836.

See H. Saladin, Manuel d'Art Musulman, vol, i. MECRES (z997) J

MINAS

(MINOIDES)

(c. 1790-1860), Greek scholar, was

Avrmorrtrss.—In 1825 Mina published A Short Extract from the | a native of Macedonia. During the Greek War of Independence

Life of General Mina, in Spanish and English, in London. Mention : he migrated to Paris, where he tried to enlist the sympathies of is made of him in all histories of the affairs of Spain during the first | Europe on behalf of his countrymen and to promote the study third of the roth century. His full Memoirs were published by his of ancient and modern Greek. He discovered two important mss. widow at Madrid in 1851-52.

to MINANGKUBAJ, the name for a mountainous district of| in the monastery of Mt. Athos, part of a treatise nowthebelieved Fables of portion of central Sumatra and for the true Malay tribe inhabiting it, the |be by Hippolytus (g.v.) and the greater Orong Malayu, from which sprang the civilized Malay race, whose | Babrius. MINAS GERAES (i.e., “general mines”), popularly MINAS, migrations, starting in the 12th century, made them the dominant inland State of Brazil, covers an area of 221,861 sq. m. upon an race in the Malay archipelago. The tribe is now Muslim, but the system of confederate villages governed by the assembled chiefs the great Brazilian plateau. Among the Brazilian States it is fifth

of the different clans in council still exists and the matrilineal

system is observed in reckoning descent and relationship. Members of the royal clan seem to have had powers over property not unlike those of Polynesian chiefs (see MALAY).

See Marsden, History of Sumatra (1783) ; Winstedt, Malaya (1923).

MINARET, the tower usually attached to a Mohammedan

mosque, from which the muezzin gives the call to prayer at the appointed hour. The origin of the form has been traced to the pharos or lighthouse at Alexandria. The Arabic word manar or minar signifies lighthouse. Early examples are those built by El Walid for the mosque at Damascus (707), and that of the mosque at Ibn Tulun at Cairo (879); the latter is remarkable for its heavy, square base and the external stair which leads up to the gallery from which the call to prayer is sung.

Four characteristic types of minarets were later developed. The first is the type of Cairo and Syria in which there are usually several galleries supported on stalactite work with the tower receding in stages at each gallery and the whole crowned with 2 bulbous dome. At times the lowest stage is square. Characteristic examples are those

of the mosque

of El Moyed,

Cairo

(2416); of Sultan Barkuk, Cairo (1405) and of Kait Bey, Outside the Walls, Cairo (1468); and the two later minarets of the mosque at Damascus (c. 1400). The second type, that of Morocco and Spain, consists simply of a large, richly decorated, square tower with a smaller square pavilion at the top, the platform over the lowest stage serving as the gallery for the call

to prayer. This type is frequently built of brick, with rich re-

lef patterns on all four sides. Noteworthy among them are the simple, low minaret at Kairouan

(probably oth century); that

of the Koutoubia at Marrakech (1184); of Hassanat Rabat in

Morocco (1184) and the famous Giralda at Seville (1195). The type, characteristic of Persia, usually consists of a long, slender, tapered, cylindrical turret, most frequently placed in pairs flanking a great entrance

arch,

and usually

single, high gallery and capped by a low dome.

carrying

a

The whole is

often cased in glazed Persian tile and glows with green, blue amd yellow. Examples of the Persian type are the minaret of

the tomb

of Tamerlane

at Samarkand

(1405), those

of the

r-dar mosque at Samarkand (1601), and those of the imperlal mosque at Ispahan (1613-27), the last noteworthy be-

tause of the delicate wooden gallery with open-work railing and

sim posts that crowns the balcony from which the call to prayer

in size and first in population—5,388,174 In 1920. The surface of Minas Geraes is broken by mountain ranges and deeply eroded river-courses, the latter forming fertile valleys shut in by partly barren uplands, or campos. The principal mountain ranges are the Serra da Mantiqueira on its southern frontier and its north extension, the Serra do Espinhaço, which runs parallel to the Serra do Mar, or coast-range, and separates the inland or campo region from a lower forested zone between the two ranges. Most of the wooded district south of the Mantiqueira belongs to the States of São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, but east of the Espinhaço it belongs to Minas Geraes and extends eastward to the Serra das Aymores, on the frontier of Espirito Santo. This zone has an abundant rainfall, dense forests and a fertile soil. It is drained by the Doce, Mucury, Jequitinhonha and Pardo. The southern part of this region is well populated, and is covered with coffee and sugar plantations. On the western frontier a northern extension of the great central chain of Goyaz forms the water-parting between the drainage basins of the São Francisco and Tocantins, and is known at different points as the Serra do Paranan, Serra de São Domingos and Serra das Divisões. South-east of this chain, between the headwaters of the Paraná and São Francisco, are the Serra da Canastra and Serra da Matta da Corde, an irregular chain of moderate elevation running north and south. The highest elevations in the State, so far as known, are Itatiaya (8,898 ft.) in the Serra da Mantiqueira. and Caraga (6,414 ft.), near Ouro Preto, in the Serra do Espinhaço. Less than roo m. from the city of Rio de Janeiro and 6o m. from the coast is the source of the Rio Grande, the larger of the two rivers that form the Paraná. North and parallel with its course is a low watershed, which separates its drainage basin both from that of the Sao Francisco and from that of the Parnahyba, the northern confluent of the Paraná. The latter rises on the western slopes of the Serra da Matta da Corde. The central and greater part of the State, is included in the drainage basin of the upper São Francisco. The climate of Minas Geraes is characterized by high sun temperatures and cool nights, the latter often dropping below the freezing point on the higher campos. The mean annual temperature is about 85° in the São Francisco valley, 77° on the campos of the south-east and 70° on the campos of the west.

The year is divided into two seasons—wet and dry—the former lasting from November to May. This division is not so clearly marked in the south, especially in the “matta” (forest) regions,

522

MINBAR—MINCHINHAMPTON

where the rainfall ranges from 59 to 65 inches. There is much !| cial centre of western Minas near the Goyaz frontier; Queluz malaria in the wooded districts of the east; and on the higher (16,474), on the Central do Brazil railway; Congonhas do Campa campos, where the daily extremes of temperature are great, lung (10,902), in the municipality of Queluz, celebrated for its miracleand bronchial diseases are common. Some of the high plains, working image, its great church and chapels and the pilgrimages io however, as at Barbacena, serve as health resorts for the coast its shrine; Sabara (4,900), a railway junction on the Central do districts. Brazil, and port on the Rio das Velhas; Congonhas de Sabará Minas Geraes is a mining State, though the mining industry has (16,766), in the municipality of Sabará, where the celebrated lost much of its importance through the decline in the output of Morro Velho gold-mine is situated; São João d'El-Rei (17,738) gold and diamonds. Gold is widely diffused, and abandoned an important commercial mining and pastoral centre; and Uber“washings” all over the State show how general the industry was aba (40,539), a commercial town of the western campos of Minas. at one time. There were in 1908 five deep mines worked by EngMinas Geraes was first explored by Fernando Dias Paes Leme lish companies and one by a French company. One of these, the between 1664 and 1677, though he was not the first European to Morro Velho mine, belonging to an English company, is not only penetrate it. The discovery of gold in 1692-95 by bands of adventhe deepest gold-mine in existence (over 6,126 ft. in 1920), but it turers from the São Paulo scttlements, led to every occupation has been worked since 1725, and since 1835 by its present owners. and profession being abandoned in the mad rush for the new silver is not mined by itself, but is found in combination with mines. Minas Geraes at first formed part of the capitania of São gold. In igo8 a rich goldfield was discovered in the northern part Paulo, but in 1720 it became a separate Government and was of the State, 5 m. from Montes Claros, in the valley of the Verde brought more directly under the Portuguese crown. The arbitrary Grande river. There are many rich deposits of iron ores in the restrictions imposed upon the colonists aroused dissatisfaction State, but they produce only a small quantity of charcoal iron for among them and eventually led to conspiracy in 1789, inspired by local consumption. Manganese ore is mined, and 311.000 tens a fear that the Portuguese government. was about to enforce the were exported in 1926. Minas Geraes is most widely known for collection of its “fifths” of the mining output, which had largely its diamonds, which are found in widely separated parts of the fallen into arrears. Among the conspirators was one José Alves State. The largest and most productive field is that of Diamantina Maciel, who had just returned from France where he had met (g.v.) on the head-waters of the Jequitinhonha river, where dia- Thomas Jefferson and had become infected with French revolumonds were discovered about 1725, and where the celebrated tionary ideas. A number of residents became involved, among “diamond reservation’—an oval-shaped territory 8 leagues wide them the poet Thomaz Antonio Gonzaga. Reckless talk in public by 16 leagues long, with Tejuco, now Diamantina, very nearly in places led to the arrest of the conspirators. Only one was exethe centre—was established in 1730. The mines becume crown cuted, a poor, uneducated subaltern militia officer, Joaquim José property. gold-mining was forbidden, and no one was permitted da Silva Xavier, who has been glorified as the proto-martyr of to enter the reservation without a licence. The State monopoly Brazilian independence. In 1822 Minas became a province of the was abolished in 1832, and mining has since been carried on by empire created by Dom Pedro I. The abolition of slavery in 1888 privale enterprise. John Mawe estimates that the annual product caused much discontent among the planters and in the following was 1.000 ounces during the first 20 years, and Castelnau puts the year Minas Geraes promptly adhered to the declaration of the value of the total output down to 1849 at 300.000,000 fr. No es- republic in Rio de Janciro. timate can be made of the contraband, which must have been large. A great. decline in the output occurred during the last half of the roth century: while several new ficlds have been discovered since 1908, the output is not large. Other valuable stones, the topaz, chrysolite, aquamarine, amethyst and tourmaline are found. Agriculture and grazing have become the main dependence of the pepulation—the former in the lower, forested region of the south-east, where coffee and sugar-cane are the principal products, and the latter on the higher campos and river valleys, and on the mountain slopes. The shipping of fresh milk to Rio de Janeiro

and butter-making are comparatively new industries. The river valleys of the campo region are also cultivated to some extent. Among the general products are Indian corn, tobacco, mandioca, beans and cotton. There is a large variety of fruits, and the cultivation of grapes for wine. Railway communication with Minas Geraes includes the following lines: the Central do Brazil, the Leopoldina, the Minas and Rio, the Mogyana, Campinas, Sao Paulo and the Bahia & Minas. River transport has some local value on the upper Sao Francisco and its larger tributaries.

The population of Minas Geraes is chiefly of Portuguese origin, which has been constantly strengthened by immigrants from the mother country. A considerable admixture from other nationalities has resulted from the influx of mining adventurers, and some German colonies have been established in the State. The negro population is large, and there is a still larger contingent of mixed races. The capital is Bello Horizonte (qg.v.), or Cidade de Minas; other important cities and towns are: the former capital, Ouro Preto, Barbacena, Diamantina, Baependy (pop. 20,680), on the head-waters of the Rio Verde, the centre of a rich tobacco-pro-

ducing district; Curvello (12,803), north of Sabara in the Rio das Velhas Valley, the centre of a cotton-growing district and cotton manufactures; Entre Rios (9.121) in the coffee district of southeast Minas; Januaria (14,308), a river port of the Sao Francisco in northern Minas; Juiz de Féra; Marianna (5,851), an episcopal town east of Ouro Preto; Mar de Hespanha (10,181), the centre of a productive and populous agricultural municipality of south-east Minas; Paracatu (14,983), an important commer-

MINBAR or MIMBAR, a term in Mohammedan architec-

ture for the pulpit in a mosque from which the sermon is given.

MINBU, 2 district in the Magwe division of Burma. The district has an area of 3,293 sq-m., and a population (1921) of 274,302, showing an increase of 11,922 in the decade and a density of 83 inhabitants to the square mile. The district may be said to consist of low plain-Jand towards the Irrawaddy, and of undulating country inland rising higher and higher west wards towards the Arakan hills. Between the plain and the Arakan Yoma range is a distinct line of hills running north and south, and usually called

the Nwa-Madaung hills. ‘The submontane valleys are largely cultivated, but are very unhealthy except to those born in them. ‘The chief streams besides the Irrawaddy are the Mon, the Maw, and the Salin, which are largely used for irrigation. At Minbu town the Irrawaddy is 3 miles wide, with many islands and sandbanks. There are considerable fisheries along the Irrawaddy and on the

Paunglin lake, which is a lagoon fed from the Irrawaddy.

il

occurs near the mud volcanoes of Minbu, and three distinct oi!fields have been developed in the line of hills—an anticline o! Peguan rocks—which runs through Minbu town; but the Minbu fields are small and cannot be ranked with the great fields oł Yenangyaung and Singu. There is a large area of reserved forest in the district. The chief crops raised are rice, gram, millet, beans, peas, sesamum and tobacco. The annual rainfall varies greatly over the district. It 1»

very considerable on and under the Arakan Yomas, and very slight towards the Irrawaddy. The thermometer rises to over 100° 1M the hot months, and the mean minimum in December is abou! 49°. Minbu, the district headquarters, stands on the Irrawaddy It had a population of 5,403 in 1921. The river steamers in the

dry season can come no nearer than four miles to the south of the town. The town of Salin is the centre of the northern part of th district; pop. (1921) 6,834. MINCHINHAMPTON, a town in Gloucestershire, England

4m. S.E. of Stroud. Pop. (1921) 3,722. The church of Holy Trin-

ity is largely reconstructed. The manufacture of woollen cloth 1° the long-established staple of Minchinhampton. Earthworks ant

Note: This page trom 1929 edition.

MIND—MINERALOGY

523

historic remains have been discovered on the common; while | discontinued, and the market day has been changed to WednesWoeful Dane Bottom, a neighbouring valley, was the scene of a day. During the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries Minehead had a considerable coastwise trade in wool, grain and wine, but began Danish defeat (c. 918). MIND: sce PsycHoLocy. to decline owing to the migration of the woollen industry to MINDEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of the north of England, and to the decay of the herring fishery. Westphalia, 44 m. by rail to the W.S.W. of Hanover, on the left A renewal of prosperity began when it acquired a reputation bank of the Weser. Pop. (1925) 27,033. Minden (Mindun,| as a watering-place. The town has three parts: the Upper, built Mindo). apparently a trading place of some importance in the on a foreland known as North Hill; the Lower; and the Quay time of Charlemagne, was made the seat of a bishop by that mon- Town, with many old houses, stretching for about a mile beside arch, and subsequently joined the Hanseatic League. In the 13th the harbour. St. Michael's, the parish church, has a Perpendicular

century it was surrounded with walls. In 1648 the bishopric was

tower.

converted into a secular principality under the elector of Brandecburg. From 1807 to 1814 Minden was included in the kingdom of Westphalia, and in the latter year it passed to Prussia. The fortifications were finally demolished in 1873. About 3 m. to the

Catania by rail. Pop. (1921) 11,975. It occupies the site of the ancient Menae, founded by Ducetius in 459 B.c. Remains of ancient fortifications still exist. Four miles to the north is the

MINEO, town, province of Catania, Sicily, 34 m. S.W. of

south of Minden is the so-called “Porta Westfalica,” a narrow

Lacus Palicorum, a small lake in a crater, which still sends up carbonic acid gas. By it was the temple of the Palici, twin

of Minden embraced an area of about 400 sq.m. and bad about -o,000 inhabitants. The older parts of the town retain their narrow and crooked streets. The cathedral tower dating from the ith century. illustrates the first step in the growth of the Gothic

Sicel gods, the most holy place in Sicily, where an oath taken was especially binding, and an inviolable asylum for fugitive slaves.

defile by which the Weser quits the mountains.

The bishopric

spire in Germany. The nave was erected at the end of the 13th century, and the choir in 1377-79. Among the chief edifices are the old church of St. Martin and the town hall, with a Gothic

facade. Its industries include brewing, ship-building and the manufacture of tobacco, glass, soap, chocolate, leather, shoddy, cement and chemicals. There is also some activity in the building

of small craft. The Battle of Minden was fought Aug. 1, 1759, between the Anglo-Allied army commanded by duke Ferdinand of Brunswick

and the French under Marshal Contades, the latter being defeated. The most brilliant episode of the battle was the entire defeat of the French cavalry by the British infantry, but Minden, though it is one of the brightest days in the history of the British army, has its dark side also, for the British cavalry commander Lord

George Sackville (see Sackvmie, Viscount)

refused to obey

the order to advance, several times sent by Ferdinand, and thereby robbed the victory of decisive results. For an account of the

battle, see SEVEN YEARS’? WAR.

MINDEN, a city of north-western Louisiana, U.S.A., the capital of Webster parish; on Federal highway 80 and served by the Louisiana and Arkansas railway. Pop. (1920) 6,105 (41% negroes); and in 1930, 5.623 by Federal census. It has a large shipping trade in cotton and lumber, railway shops, and other manufacturing industries. Minden was founded in 1832 by Samuel Veeder and named after his home town in Germany.

MIND-READING: see TELEPATHY. MIND STUFF THEORY, a term introduced by W. K. Clifford to denote the view that mind is composed of the same kiad of ultimate elements as what appears to it as matter, and that these ultimate elements are of the nature of monads or spiritual entities. See W. K. Clifford, Lectures and Essays (1901);

W. James, Principles of Psychology (1909).

MINEHEAD, a market town and seaside resort of Somerset-

shire, England, 188 m. W. by S. of London by the G.W. railway.

Pop. of urban district (1931) 6,315. Minehead owed its origin and growth to its good harbour. Certain documents suggest that t bad a corporate existence during the xsth century, but no record of the grant of a charter has been found. A charter of "corporation given by Elizabeth in 1558 vested the government m 4 pertreeve, a steward and twelve burgesses, the continuance afthe corporation being subject to the port and harbour being kept in repair. The charter lapsed in the reign of James I., and an attempt to obtain its renewal in the 18th century failed. The corporation was replaced by two constables chosen annually in

the court leet of the manor until 1894, when an urban district

council was appointed. The borough returned two members to t from 1558 until disfranchised by the Reform Act of

1832, A weekly market on Tuesdays and a fair (Sept. 29 to Oct.

2) were held from the rsth century.

In 1465 a second annual

fair on May 1 was granted by Edward IV., which is still held

a the Wednesday in Whitsun week. The other fair has been

MINER: see Coat anp CoAL MINING, HEWER.

MINERAL DEPOSITS: see Ore Deposits. | MINERALOGY, the science which describes and classifies the different kinds of mineral matter constituting the material of the earth’s crust and of those extra-terrestrial bodies called meteorites. The study of minerals is thus a branch of natural history, but one in which certain of the exact sciences find an application. The determination of the composition and constitution of minerals is a chemical problem; their optical and other physical properties are determined according to the principles of physics; the study of their crystalline form and structure belongs to crystallography; their modes of occurrence, origins, associations and changes come within the province of geology and petrology; while a consideration of the localities at which they are found requires some acquaintance with geography. Finally, there is the economic side, dealing with the mining and application of useful minerals, the extraction of metals from their ores, and the uses of minerals for building, decoration and jewellery. Many minerals have attracted the attention of mankind from the earliest times. The stone and bronze implements of prehistoric man and many of his personal ornaments and charms were directly or indirectly of mineral origin. The oldest existing treatise on minerals is by Theophrastus mepi r&r Mbwv—On Stones, ¢. 315 B.C (Eng. version by John Hill, 1746), of which only a portion remains. Minerals were then classed as metals, stones and earths. The last five books of Pliny’s Historia naturals, written about A.D. 77, treat of metals, ores, stones and gems. Some of the Arabian philosophers devoted themselves to the study of minerals, and about 1262 Albertus Magnus wrote his De mineralibus. In the 16th century Georgius Agricola published several large volumes, dealing more especially with the mining and metallurgy of metalliferous minerals, in which more exact descriptions were given of the external characters; he mentioned several minerals by names (e.g. blende, fluor, quartz) which are now in common use. About the same period there appeared the systematic treatise on minerals of K. Gesner (z565), and that on precious stones by Anselm Boethius de Boodt (1609). The remarkable researches of Erasmus Bartholinus on Iceland-spar were published in 1669, and J. F. Henckel’s Pyritologia in 1725. Later came the Systema naturae of C. Linnaeus (1735). Although the importance of chemical properties was recognized by the Swedish chemists—J. G. Wallerius (1747) and A. F. Cronstedt (1758)—-the external characters of minerals formed the basis of the mixed systems of classification of A. G. Werner (1774) and of other authors, and even as late as the Natural History System of Mineralogy of F. Mohs (1820). It was not until the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th century, when the foundations of crystallography were laid by Romé de l'Isle and R. J. Haüy, and chemistry had assumed its

modern phase, that any real advance was made in scientific mineralogy. It was then recognized that chemical composition and crystalline form were characters of the first importance, and that external (natural history) characters were often more or

MINERALOGY

524

less accidental. During this period numerous mineral substances were analysed by Scheele, Berzelius and others, and many new mineral-species and chemical elements discovered. After W. H. Wollaston’s invention of the reflecting goniometer in 1809, exact measurements of the crystalline forms of many minerals were made. The principles of isomorphism and dimorphism enunciated by E. Mitscherlich in 1819 and 1821 respectively cleared up many difficulties encountered in the definition of mineral-species. About the same time also the discovery by E. L. Malus of the polarization of light gave an impetus to the optical examination, by Sir David Brewster and others, of natural crystals. Later, the investigation of rocks in thin section under the microscope led to the exact determination. particularly by A. Des Cloizeaux (1867), of the optical constants of rock-forming minerals. For a detailed account crystallography), see F. von

of the history of mineralogy

(including

Kobell, Geschichte der Mineralogie von

1650-1860 (München, 1864); P. Groth, Entwicklungsgeschichte mineralogischen Wissenschaften (Berlin, 1926).

I.—CHARACTERS

der

OF MINERALS

Essential mineral characters are those relating to chemical composition, crystalline form, crystallo-physical properties and specific gravity; these are identical, or vary only within certain defined limits, in all specimens of the same mineral-species. Nonessential characters—such as colour, lustre, hardness, form and structure of aggregates—depend largely on the presence of impurities, or on the state of aggregation of imperfectly formed crystalline individuals. In an absolutely pure and perfectly developed crystal all the characters may be said to be essential, but such crystals are of exceptional occurrence in nature. (See, e.g.,

QUARTZ and CALCITE.) In the following enumeration of the more salient characters of minerals it is to be noted that many of the terms used for nonessential characters are purely descriptive and have no exact definition; on the other hand, essential characters can be expressed numerically and are therefore perfectly defnite. i, MORPHOLOGICAL

CHARACTERS

a. Crystalline Form.—This most important character of minerals can, of course, be determined only when the material available is in the form of crystals (¢.e., crystallized), which is not always the case. Massive aggregates of crystalline material are of much more frequent occurrence; when small fragments or thin sections of such material are transparent the crystalline symmetry may be determined, within certain limits, by the help of the optical characters (see below). External crystalline form must not, however, be considered alone apart from all other characters, for crystals of substances quite different chemically,

¢.g. silver iodide, zinc oxide and zinc sulphide, are sometimes almost identical in crystallme form. All the six systems of crystals and most of the thirty-two

symmetry-classes are represented amongst minerals (see CRYSTALLOGRAPHY). Crystals of the same mineral-species may differ very widely in general form or habit; e.g., crystals of calcite (g.v.) may be rhombohedral, prismatic, scalenohedral or tabular in habit. Besides habit there are frequently also characteristic kinds of groupings of crystals: thus parallel, divergent or radiatIng (e.g. scolecite)}, rosette-shaped (e.g. haematite—Etsenrosen), reticulated (e.g. rutile), or matted. The faces of natural crystals may be smooth, rough, striated, curved or drusy, #.¢., studded with small crystal faces and angles. b. State of Aggregation: Structure.—According to the particular state of aggregation of a number of imperfectly developed crystals, which have grown together, various kinds of structure may be presented even by the same mineral species. The descrip-

tive terms applied to these structures are almost self-explanatory: thus the structure may be granular (e.g. marble), fibrous (asbestos), radio-fibrous or stellated (wavellite), columnar (beryl), laminar or lamellar (talc), bladed (kyanite), etc., according to the relative shape and sizes of the individual crystals composing the aggregate. When the constituent crystals are invisible to the unaided eye the material is described as compact; incoherent aggregates are powdery or earthy. Minerals which are really

1 t

amorphous, i.e. without any crystalline structure, are compan. few in number (e.g. opal); many which are ap amorphous are really microcrystalline (e.g. turquoise). The term

|tively

massive is often used loosely for a crystalline mineral not sh

crystal-faces. Crystal-aggregates often assume more or less acei. dental and imitative external forms to which the following de scriptive terms are applied: dendritic or arborescent (e.g, copper

pyrolusite), mossy (copper), leafy (gold), wiry or filiform (silver), capillary (aragonite, with

(millerite), coralloidal

concentric

structure;

(aragonite), globular

wavellite, with radiated

structure), mammillary or with breast-like protuberances (arg. nic), nodular (malachite), warty (menilite), botryoidal {dolp mite), reniform (menilite), amygdaloidal (agate), stalactitie (calcite, chalcedony). 2. PHYSICAL

CHARACTERS

a. Optical Characters.—The action of crystallized matter og transmitted light is a character of the highest importance in mip. eralogy. Even when the substance is opaque in large masses, jt may be sufficiently transparent when in small splinters or in thip sections for the determination of the optical characters, The re fractive indices, strength of the double refraction, optic axial angle, extinction angles on certain faces, are constant for each

mineral-species (see CRYSTALLOGRAPHY), In their diaphaneity, or degree of transparency, minerals differ very widely even in the same species. Some, such as metals and

most metallic sulphides are always opaque; while others may vary in different specimens from perfect transparency to perfect opacity Cin the latter case, however, minute fragments will, as a rule, still be transparent). A good example of this is afforded by the varieties of quartz; rock-crystal is water-clear, chalcedony is translucent, and jasper opaque. The colour of minerals is the character which first arrests attention; but being a character which may vary almost indefinitely

in one and the same kind of mineral, it affords a typical example of a non-essential character. Thus, fluor-spar and quartz, when in well-formed and chemically pure crystals, are quite colourless and transparent; but it would be easy to collect a series of each of these minerals in which almost every shade of colour is represented. The difference is due solely to the accidental presence of traces of colouring matters so small in amount that their exact nature is difficult or impossible to determine, The value of diamond, corundum and other gem-stones depends largely on these accidental differences in colour. Such substances, which are essentially colourless and owe their colour to the presence of colouring matter as an impurity, are said to be “allochromatic”; any colour

they may possess i§ non-essential.

In some other substances,

known as “idiochromatic,” the colour is a definite and essential character. An important character of transparent crystals is that of u» equal absorption in different directions; so that light will, asa rule, be differently coloured according to the direction in which # has travelled through the crystal; this is known as dichroism œ pleochroism (see CRYSTALLOGRAPHY). Certain minerals (¢.g. aIcon and those containing cerium) when examined with a spectro scope by transmitted light show characteristic absorption spectra.

The colours of minerals may also be due to the interference of

rays of white light at the surfaces of thin crevices or minute inclo-

sions, either tabular or fibrous in form, in the mineral; for

example, the play of colours of opal; the change of colours of labradorite; the bands of rainbow colours (Newton’s rings) see

along cleavage cracks and irregular internal fractures (e.g. B

quartz) ; the iridescent tarnish due to a superficial film of a decomposition product (e.g. “peacock copper ore”). à

The true colour of a mineral is best revealed by its “stresk,

i.e. the colour of its powder. This is obtained by scratching the mineral, or by crushing a fragment of it on a sheet of white pape, or rubbing it upon unglazed porcelain. The streak of allochre-

matic minerals is white, while that of idiochromatic minerals is coloured and is often of determinative value. Ores of iron may, for example, generally be distinguished by their streaks. Another character depending on light is that of lustre, which #

MINERALOGY

525

retain their charge of frictional elecuricity was made use of by | R. J. Haüy as a determinative character. For the pyro-electrical example, For aggregation. of state the by considerably modifed the usual adamantine lustre of diamond is not exhibited by the | and thermo-electrical characters of crystals see CrySTALLOGRAct aggregate known as carbonado; while earthy masses of PHy. Some minerals—for exampk, salt, sylvite and blende—are any mineral will be devoid of lustre. Descriptive terms applied to highly diathermanous, t.¢e. transparent for heat-rays. The specific heat and melting point of minerals are essential the kinds of lustre are: metallic (e.g. pyrite), adamantine (diamond), Vitreous (quartz), resinous (pyromorphite), greasy (elae- characters capable of exact measurement and numerical expresolite), waxy (chalcedony), pearly (talc, heulandite and other min- sion, but they are not often made use of. The following scale of eralg with a perfect cleavage), silky (satin-spar), etc. The degrees fusibility was proposed by F. von Kobell:— of intensity of lustre: splendent, shining, glistening, glimmering 1. Stibnite (s25°C.) s. Orthoclase 2. (rr75°C.) and dull, depend usually on the smoothness of the crystal-faces. 2. Natrolite 965°C.) 6. Bronzite . . (1300°C.) 3. Almandine . . (1265°C.) 7. Quartz . . (1430°C.) The phenomena of phosphorescence (g.v.), fluorescence (q.v.) 4. Actinolite . (1296°C.) and radioactivity (qg.v.) are strikingly exhibited by some minerals (see FLUOR-SPAR, DIAMOND, ETC.). The melting points given above in parentheses were determined On the optical determination of minerals see E. S. Larsen, “The by J. Joly. Stibnite readily fuses to a globule in a candie-flame, Microscopical Determination of Nonopaque Minerals” (Bull. while quartz is infusible before the ordinary blowpipe. d. Characters Depending on Cohesion.—Some minerals US. Geol. Survey, No. 679, Washington, 1921), b. Microscopical Examination of Opaque Minerals—A (e.g. a sheet of mica) are highly elastic, springing back to their method for the investigation of opaque minerals borrowed from original shape after being bent. Others (e.g. talc) may be readily metallography (g.v.), in which polished sections are examined bent, but do not return to their original form when released; these under the microscope in reflected light, is specially useful for the are said to be pliable or flexible. Sectile minerals (e.g. chlorarstudy of metallic ores and consequently finds an economic appli- gyrite) may be cut with a knife without being fractured; related cation in the valuation of ore deposits. By this means several characters are malleability (e.g. argentite) and ductility (e.g. mineral species of which the ore is composed can be distinguished silver). The tenacity, or degree of frangibility of different minerals and their relations to one another determined; g.g., the order of varies widely: they may be brittle, tough, soft or friable. The their deposition, and whether they are of primary or secondary fractured surface produced when a mineral is broken is called the origin. The process of grinding and polishing the sections presents “fracture,” and the kind of fracture is often of determinative certain difficulties owing to the extreme differences of hardness of value; descriptive terms are: conchoidal (e.g. quartz, which may the several minerals that may be present. The prepared section often be recognized by its glassy conchoidal fracture), sub-conis illuminated vertically by means of a right-angle prism placed in choidal, uneven, even, spliniery (e.g. jade), hackly (e.g. copper). In many cases when a crystallized mineral is broken it sepathe tube of the microscope above the objective. Details of structure can be brought out by etching the section with various chem- rates in certain definite directions along plane surfaces. ‘This ical reagents. The several characters (colour, hardness, relief) property of “cleavage” (see CRYSTALLOGRAPHY) is an important of the minerals, together with their behaviour towards reagents, essential character of minerals, and one which is often of conhelp in their determination. But in many cases ordinary simple siderable assistance in their recognition. For example, calcite, with tests made on fragments detached from the polished surface are its three directions of perfect cleavage parallel to the faces of a more reliable. Electrical tests can be made with quite simple rhombohedron, may always be readily distinguished from araapparatus; for example, the electrical conductivity can be deter- gonite or quartz. “Hardness,” or the resistance which a substance offers to being mined with a dry cell and voltmeter using needles as terminals on the polished surface. Certain optical determinations can also be scratched by a harder body, is an important. character of minerals, and being a test readily applied it is frequently made use of. It made in reflected polarized light. One result of this study of opaque minerals is to draw attention must, however, be remembered that the hardness of an incoherent to the extremely intimate association and intergrowth of many of or earthy aggregate of small crystals will be very different from the ore-minerals; this is shown in some photo-micrographs. What that of a single crystal. A comparative “scale of hardness” was te all appearances by ordinary methods is a homogeneous mineral devised by F. Mohs in 1820 for the purpose of giving a numerical may be found by the new method to be really heterogeneous; and, statement of the hardness of minerals. mi fact, several supposed mineral species have been proved to be Mohss Scale of Hardness mixtures, and well-developed crystals have in certain cases been 1, Talc. 6. Orthoclase. often Very characteristic in certain minerals, though it may be

found to contain enclosures of other minerals. The method is thus

of use for ascertaining the degree of purity of material collected jor exact chemical analysis when the formula of a species is to be established. The long-debated question as to how silver exists in argentiferous galena (lead-ore) has been studied by this method,

2. 3. 4. 5.

Gypsum. Calcite. Fluor-spar. Apatite,

7. 8. g. ro.

Quartz. Topaz. Corundum. Diamond.

which is strongly magnetic with polarity; a few others, such as

These minerals, arbitrarily selected for standards, are successively harder from talc the softest, to diamond the hardest of all minerals: a piece of talc is readily scratched by gypsum, and so on throughout the scale. A mineral which is capable of scratching calcite and can itself be as easily scratched by fluor-spar is said to have a hardness of 34. Some care is required to avoid error in the determination of hardness: it is best to select a smooth crystal-face, cleavage-surface or fracture on which to rub a sharp corner of the scratching mineral; the powder should be wiped off and the surface examined with a lens to see if a scratch has really been produced or only powder rubbed off the corner of the mineral

pyrrhotite and native platinum, possess this character to a much

with which the scratching was attempted.

The technique of the subject (called mineralography, mineragraphy or chaleography) is dealt with in the text-books; J. Murdoch, Microsamcal Determination of Qpaque Minerals (N.Y., 1916) ; W. M. Davy and C. M. Farnham, Microscopic Examination of the Ore Minerals (N.Y., 1920); H. Schneiderhéhn, Axleitung zur mikroskopischen Bestimmung und Untersuchung von Erzen . . . (Berlin, 1922); R. W.

van der Veen, Mineragraphy and Ore-deposition (The Hague, 1925). c. Magnetic, Electrical and Thermal Characters.—These

as far as related to crystalline form, are discussed under crystal-

ography (g.v.}. Magnetite (“lode-stone”) is the only mineral

less degree, Many minerals are, however, attracted by the pole

of a strong electromagnet, while a few (diamagnetic) are repelled.

With a little practice

a fair idea of the hardness of a mineral may be obtained with the use of a knife or file, which will scratch all minerals with a hard-

Most minerals with a metallic lustre are good conductors of ness of 6 or less. Thus pyrite (H.=64) and chalcopyrite (H.=

ductors of electricity became electrified hy friction, some posi-

34), apatite (H.=5) and beryl (H.=74), or gem-stones and their paste imitations may be readily distinguished by this test. Talc and gypsum can be readily scratched with the finger-nail.

amber). The length of time during which different gem-stones

figures are sometimes characters of importance in describing and

t and electricity; others are bad conductors, For example,

te is a good conductor, while diamond is bad. Non-con-

tively (e.g. quartz and topaz), others negatively (¢.g. sulphur and

Planes of parting, etching figures, pressure- and percussion-

526

MINERALOGY

distinguishing minerals. (See CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.) e. Specific Gravity.—The density or specific gravity of minerals is an essential character of considerable determinative value. In minerals of constant composition it has a definite value, but in isomorphous groups it varies with the composition: it also, of course, varies with the purity of the material. It is a character which has the advantage of numerical expression. The exact determination of the specific gravity of minerals is therefore a matter of some importance. Three methods are in common use, viz. hydrostatic weighing, the pyknometer, and the use of heavy liquids. The first two methods are only applicable when a weighable amount of pure material can be selected. This is generally laborious. For exact determinations the pyknometer method is usually to be recommended, using for material the pure fragments which have been selected for quantitative chemical analysis. With a single pure crystal of a faceted gemstone the method of hydrostatic weighing is usually applicable, providing the stone is not too small. The most ready method, however, is that afforded by the use of a heavy liquid, and the most convenient liquid for this purpose is methylene iodide. This liquid has a specific gravity of 3-33. Benzene is added until the fragment just remains suspended, neither floating nor sinking; the specific gravity of the fragment will then be the same as that of the liquid, and the latter may be determined by hydrostatic weighing or, more conveniently, by means of indicators. Small recognizable crystals of the following minerals may be kept at hand as a set of indicators: gypsum (sp. gr. 2-32), colemanite (2-42), orthoclase (2-56), quartz (2-65), calcite (2-72), aragonite (2-93), rubellite (3-02), apatite (3-20), dioptase (3-32), etc. With a series of tubes containing mixtures of methylene iodide and benzene of different densities and suitable indicators, specific gravities may be rapidly and accurately determined. For minerals of specific gravity greater than 3-33 heavier liquids have been suggested; the best being thallium silver nitrate (TlAg(NO;)2), which melts at 75° C. toa clear liquid with a density of 4-8. f. Touch, Taste and Smell.—In their action on the senses of touch, taste and smell a few minerals possess distinctive characters. Talc is unctuous or soapy to the touch; triponte and trachyte are respectively meagre and harsh. Some porous minerals (e.g. clays and hydrophane) adhere to the tongue. Gem-stones may often be distinguished from their glass imitation by the fact that they feel colder, since they are better conductors of heat. Bitumen and clays, when moistened, have a characteristic smell; pyrite and some other sulphides when rubbed emit a sulphurous odour. Minerals which are soluble in water have taste. g. Radioactivity.—The strong radioactivity (q¢.v.) of uranium minerals affords a ready means of recognizing these valuable ores; the mineral may be wrapped up with a photographic plate, which is afterwards developed, but a simpler and quicker test is that with a simple gold-leaf electroscope. A piece of the mineral to be tested is placed on the cap of the electroscope, which is then charged with electricity; if the mineral contains uranium (and hence radium), the gold leaves will soon come together. Determinations of the ratio of the amount of uranium to the amounts of the various products of its decay (radium, helium,

lead, etc.) present in various radioactive minerals give (knowing the rate of the decay) some idea of the period of time during

which these products have been accumulating. In this way estimates have been made of the age in years of these minerals and even of the age of the earth; but, of course, many unknown factors must have been omitted from such calculations. Lead of radioactive origin, or isotopic lead—the final product of uranium decay—is found to vary slightly in its atomic weight (q¢.v.) according to the uranium mineral from which it is extracted.

To radioactivity are ascribed the well-known “pleochroic halos” -—tiny spots or borders of deeper colour surrounding microscopic inclusions—long ago observed in certain rock-forming minerals (cordierite, andalusite, mica, etc.) when micro-sections of rock are examined in polarized light. The long and continued emission of X-rays from zircon or other mineral grains has caused a change in colour of the surrounding mineral for distances varying from

0-002 to o-4 millimetre. A study of these has again given some

information as to the age of the minerals. Much experiments] work on the coloration of minerals has been done within r years by exposing the minerals to the action of radiations of varh. ous kinds. For example, some diamonds acquire a green colour

and fluor-spar becomes blue when placed in contact with radiws bromide. 3. CHEMICAL

CHARACTERS

Chemical composition is the most important character of mip.

erals, and on it all modern systems of classification are based. A mineral-species cannot, however, be defined by chemical c

sition alone, since many instances are known in which the same chemical element or compound is dimorphous or polymorphous

(see CRYSTALLOGRAPHY).

In such cases a knowledge of some

other essential character, preferably the crystalline form, is neces.

sary, before the mineral can be determined. All the known chemical elements have been found in mineral: and of many of them minerals are the only source. On the other hand, nitrogen, which is frequently present in organic substances.

is rare in minerals; carbon has a wide distribution in mineral carbonates.

It is estimated that the minerals of the earth’s cry

consist of about 47% by weight of oxygen, 27 of silicon and 8 of aluminium; silicates, and especially alumino-silicates, therefore predominate.

The chemical composition of minerals is determined by the ordinary methods of analytical chemistry. Since, however, min. erals of different kinds usually occur intimately associated, it ig

often a matter of some difficulty to select a sufficiency of pure material for analysis. Thus the exact composition and the em-

pirical formulae of several minerals, particularly amongst the silicates, still remain doubtful. Whenever possible, the chemical analysis should be made on small pure crystals which previously determined crystallographically. For the chemical examination of minerals, when only a small material is available, the methods of blowpipe analysis chemical analysis are often convenient.

have been qualitative amount of and micro-

The principle of isomorphism (see CRYSTALLOGRAPHY) is of the highest importance in mineralogy, and on it the classification of minerals largely depends. In some minerals (e.g. quartz) isemorphous or vicarious replacement is not known to occur; but in the majority of minerals one or other of the predominating elements (generally the base, rarely that of the acid radical) may be isomorphously replaced by equivalent amounts of other chemically related elements. In some isomorphous groups of minerals replacement takes place to only a limited extent, and the element which is partly replaced always predominates; while in other groups the replacement may be indefinite in extent, and between

the ends of the series the different members may vary indefinitely in composition, with no sharp demarcation between species. Thm in the group of rhombohedral carbonates the different species ave usually sharply defined. In well-formed crystals of calcite the calcium is replaced by only small amounts of magnesium, ives, lead, etc.; in chalybite, however, iron is often more largely re placed by calcium, magnesium, manganese, etc., and the “brewa spars” are not always readily distinguishable. In the dimorphous group of orthorhombic carbonates isomorphous replacement is jes frequent, and the different species (aragonite, cerussite, etc.) ar quite sharply defined. In other groups of minerals, parti amongst the silicates, isomorphous replacement of the basic ee ments is so general that the several members of the series vary

almost indefinitely in chemical composition, and will scarcely be

the same for any two specimens, though it may be reduced i the same type of formula. For example, the formula of all var

eties of garnet may be expressed generally as R” R’“s(Si0s)s where R”=Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn, and R’”=Al, Fe, Mn, Cr, Ti. Toa maline affords another good example. In the plagioclase felspexs (see PLAGIOCLASE) we have an example of the isomorphous mur ing of two end-members, albite (NaAISi,O.) and (CaAl,Si,0,) in all proportions and with no sharp line betwee the several sub-species. In some other similar cases the ex members of the series are purely hypothetical: e.g., in the scapobl group (mixtures of Ca,Al,Si,O., and Na,Al,Si,O.,Cl) and in th

micas and chlorites. In such instances, where the formulae of tht

MINERALOGY

BY COURTESY

OF

THE

AMERICAN

MUSEUM

OF

NATURAL

HISTORY

EXAMPLES Beryl from Portland, Connecticut. This mineral and aluminium in combination as a silicate

OF IMPORTANT

consists of beryllium

A goid nugget found at Rampart, Alaska a An agate geode lined with quartz crystals Malachite, from south west Africa. Copper-ore cf fine green colour Silver from Kongsberg, Norway Oy grt Native sulphur, a non-metallic element occurring as yellow orthorhombic crystals.

Specimen

shown

Prate I

from Cianciana,

Sicily

MINERALS

7. Goethite, a mineral composed of an iron hydroxide. Negaunee, Michigan S. Native copper from Lake Superior, Michigan. A crystallized spray 9.

Barytes, a mineral composed of barium sulphate.

Cumberland,

10. Serpentine asbestos from the Grand Canyon of Colorado.

England

This mineral

rubs down to a fine silky fibre which can be spun Il.

Pyrite.

A brass-yellow mineral with a brilliant metallic lustre

MINERALOGY PLatTe IT

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MINERALOGY

527

two end-members differ in type, “mass effect” may have some | primary origin in igneous rocks have crystallized out from the iaftuence on the isomorphism. In addition to isomorphous series, there are amongst minerals

magma, or fused silicate-mass, which on consolidation gave rise to the rock-mass. Magmas sometimes contain a considerable

(g v.) and barytocalcite (q.v.). The manner in which water enters into the composition of minerals is often difficult to determine. In some cases, e.g., in the wolites (g.v.), it is readily expelled at a low temperature, even

rocks (pegmatites) often result, and under these conditions minerals of many kinds are formed as well-developed crystals. Those minerals which are present in large amount in igneous rocks are distinguished as essential constituents, since it is on these that the classification of igneous rocks is largely based: the most important are quartz, felspars, pyroxenes, amphiboles, micas and olivines. Other minerals occurring as primary constituents, but in small amounts, are distinguished as accessory. Sometimes these accessory constituents are concentrated by magmatic differentiation, and important ore-deposits sometimes result. Surface weathering and other processes result in the alteration of some or all of the primary minerals with the production of others, which are spoken of as secondary minerals: thus felspars are often partly or wholly altered to kaolin, olivine to serpentine, pyroxene and mica to epidote, chlorite, etc. Minerals are also formed by the vapours given off by igneous magmas, The gases emitted by volcanoes and solfataras may deposit directly by sublimation, or by their chemical interaction, such minerals as sulphur, sal-ammoniac, haematite, which occur for instance, as incrustations on Vesuvian lava; the boric acid of the Tuscan lagoons has also originated in this way. The effects produced by the exhalations of deep-seated magmas are more complex in character, since the vapours, being more confined, have more opportunity of acting chemically not only on the surrounding rocks but also on the igneous rock-mass itself before its final consolidation. A good example of the “pneumatolytic” action produced by the vapours from a mass of granitic magma is afforded by veins of tin-ore, in which the ore (cassiterite) is associated with minerals containing boron and fluorine. In a similar way the exhalations of basic magmas have given rise to chlorapatite with associated sphene and ilmenite. Minerals of Metamorphic Rocks.—By the baking action of a deep-seated igneous mass on the surrounding rocks or on included rock-fragments, various new minerals are developed. By this process of thermal or contact-metamorphism well-crystallized examples of many minerals have often been formed; e.g. in calcareous rocks (limestones), especially those containing some magnesia and silica, idocrase, garnet, diopside, tremolite, wollastonite, etc., are developed; in argillaceous rocks (slates), chiastolite and staurolite are characteristic products; and in arenaceous rocks (sandstones), cordierite and sillimanite often result. The effects of pressure (dynamo-metamorphism) on rocks of various kinds, especially those of igneous origin, also result in the production of new minerals; e.g. pyroxene is transformed to amphibole, orthoclase to muscovite, plagioclase to zoisite, olivine to tremolite. Minerals of Sedimentary Rocks.—By the weathering and disintegration of igneous and metamorphic rocks the various minerals set free and the products of decomposition of others supply the material of sedimentary rocks; thus sandstones consist largely of quartz, shales of kaolin and other clay minerals. Those minerals (e.g. gem-stones, cassiterite and gold) which resist the action of weathering processes are found as water-worn pebbles and grains in detrital deposits. Other sedimentary rocks consist of minerals deposited from solution either by chemical or organic agencies, Írom sea-water, lakes or springs; e.g. the calcite of limestones, deposits of bog-iron-ore (limonite), gypsum. Minerals Segregated in Veins and Rock-cavities.—Water percolating through rock-masses takes up mineral matter in solution, and the solutions so formed may further react on the minerals composing the rocks. Such solutions will deposit some of their dissolved material in rock-cavities with the production of various minerals. For instance, the amygdaloidal cavities of basic

instances of double salts, which contain the same constitu- | amount of water and are then in a state of aqueo-igneous fusion, several ents as the members of the isomorphous series: e.g., dolomite | rather than of dry fusion; in such cases very coarsely crystalline

at the ordinary temperature over sulphuric acid, and may be re-

absorbed from a moist atmosphere or replaced by some other substances: it is then regarded as “‘water of crystallization.” In other cases, when expelled only at a higher temperature, it is to be regarded as “water of constitution,”

forming either a basic

salt (e.g. malachite, Cu(OH).CO;) or an acid salt (e.g. dioptase,

H,CuSiO,, and mica, g.v.). When present as hydroxyl it is often jsomorphously replaced by fluorine (e.g., topaz [Al(F,OH)],.SiO,). As to the actual chemical constitution of minerals the little that

is at present known is mainly speculative. Dimorphous minerals, which have the same empirical formula, may be expected to differ in constitution; and experiments have been made, for example on

pyrite and marcasite, with the object of discovering a difference, hut the conclusions of various investigators are not in agreement. More promising results have been obtained (by F. W. Clarke and others) by the action of various reagents on silicates, particularly

on the more readily decomposed zeolites, and several substitutionderivatives have been prepared. The arrangement and relative positions of the constituent atoms have now been worked out for

many minerals by X-ray methods of investigation. Synthesis of Minerals.——The production of minerals by artificial means is a branch of chemical mineralogy which has been pursued with considerable success, especially by French chemists. Most minerals have been obtained artificially in a crystallized condition, and many related compounds, not as yet found in nature, have also been prepared. Crystals of artificially prepared minerals, though usually quite small in size, possess all the essential characters of natural crystals, differing from these only in orig. The following are the principles of some of the methods which have been used: simple sublimation (e.g. arsenolite); inter-

action of gases (e.g. haematite, from steam and ferric chloride; cassiterite, from steam and stannic chloride or fluoride); action of gases on liquids and solids; slow cooling of fused masses, either

with or without the presence of agents minéralisateurs (e.g. minerals in furnace slags); from aqueous solution, sometimes at a high temperature and under pressure (e.g., quartz); electrolysis; er even by subjecting dry amorphous material to enormous pressure. The chemical reactions by which various minerals have been obtained are often of considerable help in speculating as to ther mode of origin in nature, though it must’ be borne in mind that the same mineral may have been formed, both naturally and artificially, by more methods than one. In this direction important

results have been obtained experimentally by J. H. van’t Hoff and his pupils on the formation of oceanic salt deposits, by J. H. L. Vogt with slags. A large amount of experimental work has been done in the geophysical laboratory of the Carnegie Institution at

Washington.

Many minerals and allied compounds have been

prepared artificially in silicate and salt fusions. The conditions necessary for their formation and their ranges of stability—either when alone or when in the presence of other compounds—have

been studied in detail. One important result obtained by experimenting over wide ranges of temperature has been to show that practically all compounds known as minerals exist in several

polymorphous forms. Some few minerals used as gem-stones have been prepared artificially (see Gems: Artificial). IE—OCCURRENCE

AND

ORIGIN

OF MINERALS

While some minerals are of rare and sporadic occurrence in

reck-cavities and mineral-veins, others are widely distributed as mportant constituents of rocks. The same mineral-species may ve several distinct modes of occurrence and origin, and be assowith different minerals in each case, for example quartz.

of Igneous Rocks.—The rock-forming minerals of

volcanic rocks (e.g. basalt, melaphyre), are frequently partly or completely filled with agate or beautifully crystallized zeolites, calcite, etc. The crevices and joint-planes of limestone become

in this way coated with crystals of calcite, and those of siliceous rocks with quartz, giving rise to the abundantly occurring quartz-

MINERAL

528

PHOSPHATES

veins. In sedimentary rocks pyrite, flint and other minerals be- | and Romans for the names of stones, the names themselves ing. come segregated round a nucleus of organic matter. In the case cating some character, constituent, or use of the stone, oy the of ore deposits, including metalliferous veins or lodes, however, locality at which it was found. For example, haematite, the solutions are no doubt frequently of deep-seated origin of the blood-red colour. The custom of naming minerals after per and often connected with igneous and metamorphic processes. sons is of modern origin; ¢.g. prehnite, biotite, haiiyne, Toii By the weathering of the metallic minerals of mineral-veins Unfortunately there is a lack in uniformity in the termination of numerous other finely crystallized minerals result; for example, mineral names, many long-established names being without the in the upper oxidized portion of veins of lead-ore (galena) crystals termination ite, e.g. beryl, blende, felspar, garnet, gypsum quarta of anglesite, cerussite and pyromorphite are often met. (See zircon, etc. The termination ine is also often used, e.g, nepheline olivine, serpentine, tourmaline, etc.; and many others were intro. Ore DEPOSITS.) Alteration of Minerals: Pseudomorphs.—Crystals which duced by R. J. Haüy without much reason, e.g., anatase, dioptas The number of known mineral species differs, of course, accord have been formed under one set of conditions of temperature and pressure and in the presence of certain solutions, will in many cases be unstable under another set of conditions. The crystals

ing to different authors; roughly there may be said to be about

a thousand.

The total number of mineral names

(apart frog

may then be corroded or even completely redissolved, or the substance may undergo a chemical or physical change and give rise to the formation of minerals stable under the new conditions. An example of the secondary products due to the decomposi-

chemical names), many of them being applied to trivial varietis, or given in error, amount to about 6000. Minerals may be classified in different ways to suit differen purposes, e.g., according to their uses, modes of occurrence, system of crystallization, etc. The earlier systematic classifications, being

types of alteration may be distinguished. By oxidation in the presence of pure water it gives rise to ferrous sulphate (melanterite), free sulphur and sulphuric acid; the melanterite by further alteration gives various basic ferric sulphates (copiapite, etc.); and the sulphuric acid by acting on surrounding rocks (limestone, clay, etc.) gives rise to the formation of gypsum, aluminite and other sulphates. By the action of water containing oxygen and calcium carbonate in solution pyrite suffers another kind of alteration; the sulphur is carried away in solution as gypsum and the iron is left behind as a ferric hydroxide (limonite) which preserves the original form of the crystals. We have then a pseudomorph of limonite after pyrite. Pseudomorphs are frequently met with in nature, and they are of considerable importance in studying the changes which minerals undergo. Several kinds of pseudomorphs are to be distinguished. When the alteration has involved no change in chemical composition of the material, but only in the internal crystalline structure and physical properties, the altered crystal is called a “paramorph.” For example, crystals of aragonite are often altered to a confused granular aggregate of crystalline individuals of calcite, the change being accompanied by a decrease in specific gravity but without change in external form. An “‘epimorph” results from the encrustation of one mineral by another; the first may be afterwards partly or wholly dissolved out, leaving the second as a hollow shell (e.g. chalybite after fluor-spar).

based solely on external characters, were on natural history prip.

tion of a mineral is afforded by pyrite (FeS,), of which. two

WL

NOMENCLATURE AND CLASSIFICATION OF MINERALS A mineral-species, or simple mineral, is completely defined by the statement of its chemical composition and crystalline form. When we are dealing with a definite chemical compound the limitation of species is easy enough; thus corundum, cassiterite, galena, blende, etc. are quite sharply defined mineral species. But with isomorphous mixtures the division into species, or into subspecies and varieties, must be to a certain extent arbitrary, there being no sharp lines of demarcation in many isomorphous groups of minerals. Thus in the minerals garnet and tourmaline the chemical composition varies indefinitely between wide limits, but no corresponding difference can be traced in the crystalline form or in the external characters save colour and specific gravity. Some authors have therefore questioned the advisability of separating minerals into species each with distinctive names, and they have attempted to devise chemical names for the different kinds of minerals. Owing, however, to the frequency of polymorphism and isomorphism amongst mineral substances such a system presents many practical difficulties. Thus the three modifications of titanium dioxide are more simply and conveniently referred to as rutile, anatase and brookite, while to give a purely chemical designation to such a mineral as tourmaline would be quite impracticable. The practice of giving distinct names to different kinds of minerals dates from very early times (e.g. diamond). The common termination ste (originally sts or ifes) was adopted by the Greeks

ciples and too artificial to be of any value. J. J. Berzelius, in

1815, was the first to propose a purely chemical system of clasgi. fication; his primary divisions depended on the basic (electro positive) element and the subdivisions on the acid (electro. negative) element.

This method of classification, though still in

use for metallic ores, is now quite arbitrary. The systematic classifications in use at the present day are modifications in detail

of the crystallo-chemical system of G. Rose (1852). Here there are four main divisions, viz. elements; sulphides, arsenides, etc.: halogen compounds; and oxygen compounds: thelast, and largest,

division is subdivided into oxides and according to the acid (car.

bonates, silicates, sulphates and chromates, phosphates and arses ates, etc.); in each section isomorphous minerals are grouped te gether. The classifications adopted by different authors difer

much in detail, especially in the large section of the silicates BrBiiocRaPHY.—Elementary introductions to the study of minersk are: E. S. Dana, Minerals and how to study them (N.Y., 1895):

L. J. Spencer, The World’s Minerals (1911, N.Y. 1916). A larger work on popular lines is: R. Brauns, The Mineral Kingdom, Em, trans. by L. J. Spencer (Stuttgart, 1908—12). Textbooks for students: H. A. Miers, Mineralogy, an Introduction to the Scientific Study of Minerals (1902); E. S. Dana, Textbook of Mineralogy (3rd ed., NY, 1922) ; and G. Tschermak, Lehrbuch der Mineralogie (gth ed., Vienna, 1923). The standard works of reference for descriptive mineralogy are: J. D. Dana, System of Mineralogy (6th ed., by E. S. Dam, N.Y., 1892, Appendices 1-3, 1899-1915); C. Hintze, Handbuch der Mineralogie (Leipzig, 1898, etc.). For special branches of mineralogy reference may be made to the following: R. Brauns, Chemische Mineralogie (Leipzig, 1896); © Doelter, Handbuch der Mineralchemie (4 vols., Dresden & Leipzig, 191x, etc.) ; H. Rosenbusch, Mikroskopische Physiographie der Mineralien und Gesteine, Band I., Die petrographisch wichtigen Minerali sth ed, by O. Miigge (Stuttgart, 1925-27); J. P. Iddings, Rock Minerals (2nd edit., N.Y., r911); G. P. Merril, Non-metallic Minerals, their Occurrence and Uses (2nd edit., N.Y., 1910) ; T. Crook, Eee nomic Mineralogy (1921); G. J. Brush, Manual of Determi

Mineralogy

(16th ed., by S. L. Penfeld, N.Y., 1907); M. Bauer,

Edelsteinkunde (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1909), and Eng. trans. Precioa Stones, by L. J. Spencer (1904). There are many books on topographical mineralogy, for example:

Greg and Lettsom, Manual of the Mineralogy of Great Britain ond

Ireland (1888).

The following scientific journals are devoted to mineralogy: News

Jahrbuch für Mineralogie, etc. (Stuttgart, since 1807); Tse Mineralogische und petrographische Mitteilungen (Vienna, since 1873);

The Mineralogical Magazine and Journal of the M ineralogical (London, since 1876, including since 1920 Mineralogical Abstracts) ; Zeitschrift fiir Krystallographie und Mineralogie (Leipzig, since 1879}; Bulletin de la Société francaise de Minéralogie (Paris, since. 187%, American Mineralogist (Menasha, Wis., since 1916) ; Fortschritte de

Mineralogie, Kristallographie und Petrographie (Berlin, E von

MINERAL PHOSPHATES. In mineralogy, those variehes

of native calcium phosphate which are not distinctly cryst

like apatite (g.v.), but occur in fibrous, compact or earthy masse,

the often nodular, and more or less impure, are included under

general term phosphorite.

The name seems to have been gw%

originally to the Spanish phosphorite, probably because it phot

A Remini

Lanegannt NE RN

EE ef Se stunt ARO ryt

geHoy Bhd NE SS

r pi wae

ema EEe

mandi ee

ae naa eui iie orim eaaia me

me

BY COURTESY

OF

THE

AMERICAN

MUSEUM

OF

NATURAL

VALUABLE .

New Hampshire

Calsada Sr

gold,”

from

Central

”

re

airia maed aadi

Srate

HISTORY

l. Fluorite, or Fluor Spar, from Westmoreland, 2p

wwe

City,

AND

BEAUTIFUL

5. Rhodonite,

MINERALS

manganese

Furnace, New

ore,

from

FROM Franklin

Jersey

MANY

LANDS

9. Gold

nugget,

western

from

Canada

the x

Klondike,

North-

6. Hematite: iron ore, from Cumberland, Eng-

10. par adotits, with

3. Cinnabar, native vermilion, from Felsobanya,

7. Rhodochrosite,

4

ville, Colorado S. Cassiterite, tin-stone, from St. Agnes, Cornwall, England

11. Realgar, arsenic sulphide, from Manhattan,

.

*

ungary “opper, man’s first useful metal, from Cornwall, England

an

manganese

ore, from

Lead-

Labrador

rainbow

colours,

from

Nevada 12. Crocidolite, ‘‘tiger’s eye,” from Griqualand, South Africa

13. Sulphur, from

Cianciana,

Sicily

MINERAL resced when heated.

PHOSPHATES

This mineral, known as Estremadura

sphate, occurs at Logrossan and Caceres, where it forms an important deposit in slate. It may contain from 55 to 62% of

529

in Aruba, 1.000,000 tons from Curacao since the deposits were discovered in 1870, and Christmas Island in 1925 yielded 110,000 tons.

calcium phosphate, with about 7° of magnesium phosphate. | In the older formations the phosphates tend to become more pahllite is a Norwegian phosphorite, containing calcium carbon- , and more mineralized by chemical processes. In whatever form

xe, named in 1888 by W. C. Brogger and H. Bäckström after the

Norwegian geologists T. andJ. Dahil. Phosphorite, when occurring in large deposits, is a mineral of

much economic value for conversion into the superphosphate largely used as a fertilizing agent. Many of the impure substances thus utilized are mot strictly phosphorite, but pass under such

names as “rock-phosphate,” or, when nodular, as “coprolite” igt.), even if not of true coprolitic origin. The ultimate source

of these mineral phosphates may be referred to the apatite widely distributed in crystalline rocks. Being soluble in water containing carbonic acid or organic acids it may be removed in solution, and may thus furnish plants and animals with the phosphates required in their structures. On the decay of these structures the phos-

phates are returned to the inorganic world, thus completing the cycle. There are three sources of phosphates which are of importance geologically. They occur (a) in crystalline igneous and metamorphic rocks as an original constituent, (d) in veins associated

with igneous rocks, and (c) in sedimentary rocks either as organic fragments or in secondary concretionary forms. The first mode of occurrence is of little significance practically, for the crystalline rocks generally contain too little phosphate to he valuable, though occasionally an igneous rock may contain enough apatite to form an inferior fertilizing agent, e.g., the trachyte of Cabo de Gata in south-east Spain, which contains

12-15% of phosphoric acid. Many deposits of iron ores found in connection with igneous or metamorphic rocks, and the oolitic iron ores, such as those of the Jurassic system in England and Lorraine, contain from 1 to 2% of phosphorus, which passes into the slags in the basic process of steel-making, and forms a very

important source of phosphatic manures (“basic slag”).

Another group of phosphatic deposits connected with igneous rocks comprises the apatite veins of south Norway, Ottawa and other districts in Canada. These are of pneumatolytic origin (see PNEUMATOLYSIS), and have been formed by the action of vapours emanating from cooling bodies of basic eruptive rock. They once formed an important source of phosphate, but are now worked out. The phosphatic rocks which occur among the sedimentary strata are the principal sources of phosphates for commerce and agriculture. They are found in formations of all ages from the Cam-

brian to those which are accumulating at the present day. Of the latter the best known is guano. (See MaNnurRes and MANURING.) Where guano-beds are exposed to rain their soluble constituents are removed and the insoluble matters left behind. The soluble phosphates washed out of the guano may become fixed by entering

they were originally deposited they often suffer complete or partial solution and are redeposited as concretionary lumps and nodules, often called coprolites (g.v.). The “Challenger” and other oceanographic expeditions have shown that on the bottom of the deep sea concretions of phosphate are now gathering around the dead bodies of fishes lying in the oozes; consequently the formation of the concretions may have been carried on simultaneously with the deposition of the strata in which they occur. Important deposits of mineral phosphates are now worked on a large scale in the United States, the annual yield far surpassing that of any other part of the world. The most active operations are carried on in Florida, where the phosphate was first worked in

1887 in the form of pebbles in the gravels of Peace river. Then followed the discovery of “hard rock-phosphate,” a massive mineral, often having cavities lined with nearly pure phosphorite. Other kinds not distinctly hard and consisting of less rich phosphatic limestone, are known as “soft phosphate”: those found as smooth pebbles of variable colour are called “land pebblephosphate,” whilst the pebbles of the river-beds and old rivervalleys, usually of dark colour, are distinguished as “river pebblephosphate.” The land pebble is worked in central South Florida: the hard rock chiefly between Albion and Bay City. In South Carolina, where there are important deposits of phosphate, formerly more productive than at present, the “land rock” is worked near Charleston, and the “river rock” in the Coosaw river and

other streams near Beaufort. The phosphate beds contain Eocene fossils derived from the underlying strata and many fragments of Pleistocene vertebrata such as mastodon, elephant, stag, horse, pig, etc. The phosphate occurs as lumps varying greatly in size, scattered through a sand or clay; they often contain phosphatized Eocene fossils (Mollusca, etc.). Sometimes the phosphate is found at the surface, but generally it is covered by alluvial sands

and clays. Phosphate mining began in South Carolina in 1868, and for twenty years that state was the principal producer. Then the Florida deposits began to be worked. In 1892 the phosphates of Tennessee, derived from Ordovician limestones, came into the market.

From North Carolina, Alabama and Pennsylvania, also,

phosphates have been obtained but only in comparatively small quantities. In 1g00 mining for phosphates was commenced in Arkansas. In 1908 Florida produced 1,673,651 tons of phosphate valued at rz million dollars. All the other states together produce less phosphate than Florida, and among them Tennessee takes the

first place with an output of 403,180 tons. Algeria contains important deposits of phosphorite, especially near Tebessa and at Tocqueville in the province of Constantine.

Near Jebel Kouif, on the frontier between Algeria and Tunis, there are phosphate workings, as also in Tunis, at Gafsa. The of the oceanic islets are composed of coral limestone, which in this deposits belong to the Lower Eocene, where it rests unconformway becomes phosphatized; others are igneous, consisting of ably upon the Cretaceous. The joint production of Tunis and trachyte or basalt, and these rocks are also phosphatized on their Algeria in 1927 was not less than 3,748,000 tons. Phosphates surfaces but are not so valuable, inasmuch as the presence of iron occur also in Egypt, in the desert east of Keneh and in the Dakla or alumina in any quantity renders them unsuited for the prepara- oasis in the Libyan desert. tion of artificial manures. France is rich in mineral phosphates, the chief deposits being ‘The leached guanos and phosphatized rocks, which are grouped the departments of the Pas-de-Calais, Somme, Aisne, Oise and with them for commercial purposes, have been obtained in great Meuse, in the north-east, and another group in the departments of quantities in many islands of the Pacific Ocean (such as Baker, Lot, Tarn-et-Garonne and Aveyron, in the south-west; phosphates Howland, Jarvis and McKean Islands) between long. 150° to occur also in the Pyrenees. The deposits near Caylus and in 180° W. and lat. 10° N. to 10° S. In the West Indies from Vene- Quercy occupy fissures and pockets in Jurassic limestone, and have zela to the Bahamas and in the Caribbean Sea many islands yield yielded a remarkable assemblage of the relics of Tertiary maminto combination with the elements of the rock beneath.

Many

supplies of leached guanos; the following are important in this mals and other fossils. Phosphates occur in Belgium, especially respect: Sombrero, Navassa, Aves, Aruba, Curaçao.

Christmas

near Mons, and these, like those of north-east France, are prin-

Island has been a great source of phosphates of this type; also cipally in the Upper Chalk. Two varieties of phosphate rock are Jaluit Island in the Maldive Archipelago, Banaba or Ocean Island, recognized in these districts, viz., the phosphatic chalk and the

and Nauru or Pleasant Island. On Christmas Island the phosphate been quarried to depths of roo feet. To these leached guanos

and phosphatized limestones the name sombrerite has been given. thas been estimated that 500,000 tons of phosphate were obtained

phosphate sand, the latter resulting from the decomposition

of

the former. Large and valuable deposits of the sand have been obtained in sinks and depressions on the surface of the chalk. The production is on the whole diminishing in Belgium (172,000

WATERS

DUTY—MINERAL

RIGHTS

MINERAL

530

TABLL I. Typical Mineral Waters

|

Gastein

Salt

Earthy

Indiferent | `’

Leuk

||

Ka

i

De o a e

| 93°-118°

| Bicarbonate of soda = v

„magnesia „ calcium i

œooI7 oorgs

' » potash „n Magnesia;

90135 i

| Sulphate of soda We oa

!

F

» Calcium . Sulphide of sodium . | Chloride of sodium . „ potash 5 „ Magnesia 55 . Carbonate of iron . Silicic acid Gases

|

00208

be 0:0428 se | B | | o-0005 i ©0496

§ '

©œor3 oor2

| i

07038 9*308

|; oojo

17520 i

Be , ©7023 | 0-036 |

l

Zs

|

ae

|

H

œOI7 roô

+ |

O45 238

|

oe 0-588

7

ake 2-96

—

se

} oœ38ọo Zs | 552

| 25 a | | 25°21

| o286

|

0303 ©7277 a

| | |

beds in Devonian rocks. The deposits were rich but irregular and local, and were much worked from 1866 to 1884, but are no longer of economic importance. In northern Estremadura in Spain and Alemtejo in Portugal there are vein deposits of phosphate of lime. As much as 200,000 tons of phosphate have been raised in these provinces, but in 1927 Spain was not mentioned in the list of producers. Large deposits of phosphate occur in Russia, and those in the neighbourhood of Kertch have attracted some attention; it is said that the Cretaceous rocks between the rivers Dniester and Volga contain very large supplies of phosphate, though probably of low grade. Phosphatic nodules and concretions, with phosphatized fossils and their casts, occur at various geological horizons in Great Britain. Bands of black nodules, highly phosphatic; are found at the top of the Bala limestone in North Wales; beds of concretions occur in the Jurassic series; and important deposits are known in the Cretaceous strata, especially in the Lower Greensand and at the base of the Gault. The Lower Greensand phosphates have been worked, under the name of “coprolites,” at Potton in Bedfordshire and at Upware and Wicken in Cambridgeshire. The

Cambridge Greensand, rich in phosphatic nodules, occurs at the base of the Chalk Marl. The chalk occasionally becomes phosphatized, as at Taplow (Bucks), Lewes (Sussex) and Ciply in Belgium. At the base of the Red Crag in East Anglia, and occasionally at the base of the other Pliocene Crags, there is a “nodule bed,” consisting of phosphatic nodules, with rolled teeth and bones, which were formerly worked as “coprolites” for the preperation of artificial manure. Lord Rayleigh has found that phosphatized nodules and bones are rich in radioactive constitvents, and has brought this into relation with their geological age. BIBLIOGRAPHY.——For American phosphates see The Phosbkaies of America, by Francis Wyatt (sth ed., 1894); the Annual Reports on Mineral Resources or ihe U.S. (US. Geol. Survey), including some valuable reports byC. W. Hayes, also those in Rothwell’s Mineral Industry; “Nature and Origin of Deposits of Phosphate of Lime,” R. A. F. Penrose, Jun., Bull, U.S. Geol. Survey, No. 46 (1888) ; South Carolina and Canadian Phosphates, by C. C. Hoyer Miller {1892}; and Tke Non-metallic Minerals, by G. P. Merrill (1904). Many of the above include descriptions of mineral phosphates in other parts of the world. For a general discussion of the origin of the phosphates, see “The Natural History of Phosphate Deposits,” J. 3. B. Teall, Prec. Geol. Assoc., xvi. 369 (1900). Consult also tude aie sur les phosphates, by A. Deckers (Liége, 1894}.

RIGHTS

DUTY:

see

INLAND

REVENUE

DuTES.

MINERAL WATERS.

The number of mineral waters in

various parts of the world is so great that a comprehensive list cannot be given. In the accompanying tables are presented short

carole itnhicah cea

|

Carlsbad

Seltzers

| 119°—138

4:883

I-92

1-2

0°352

A

>

O02122 0:2213

0'303 0'434

o-18 0'428

0:0037 P

ja

o'Ió Soa

0°292

0:0079

Se 0-01 36 2-616 is

i 0:0837 0:0320

5°35 "i

= trace

|

hack

|

2

|

3°I9 j

Schwal-

water

0:0206

©1527

ie

r Vyichy 105-8°

water

Y

| 072831 |

Saline

0-6449 00506 0'157

3°39 si :

tons in 1927), but in France by this time it has become nearly, or very nearly, extinct. In the Lahn district of Nassau (Germany) there are phosphate

MINERAL

||

| Purging |

| Alkaline | Alkaline- | Table

| Sulphur | Iron |

= ;

.

. | . Carbonic acid | Hydrosulphuric acid

Salt

Aix-la| z i . Kissingen Sea-water | ee

|

|

»» potash |

1238?

, |

ioe

og D

w i

ie ..

159

es

2°37

Hunyadi

A 16-5

o 0-46

gi 0°534 M

se

4 1°03 a s 0:003 ai

es es 2+2 si S O-or e

at i 13 fey

2-6 5

0-76 s

2°24

o-45 7

notes of the chief with their dominating characters and indications for their use in medicine. In many instances detailed information can be readily obtained from the various official handbooks issued. As to the action of mineral waters in general (see BALNEOTHERA-

PEUTICS; BATHS) there is so large a social and commercial ele ment in all spas that the medical side, viewed from a strictly

scientific standpoint, is much obscured. Where the water contains a special substance (e.g., arsenic, as in some French springs, lithium, radium or radium emanation) it is usually regarded as dominating the character of the water and the uses to which it should be put medically. See also AERATED WATERS and Sort DRINKS. Tasxe II. Indifferent Waters

Height | Temp. in ft. | °Fahr.

Locality

Evian, Lake of Geneva | 1,100

For what prescribed

afo

{

ea T out and rheumatism : (nitrogen present).-

Badenweiler, Baden

4.25

aie

Buxton, England

980

82

Schlangenbad, Nassau | 800 | 80~87 Sacedon, Spain y Württem.

:

.

Pfeffers, Switzerland Ragatz, do.

1,500 e .

. | 2,115 1,570

85 lera 99 95

Panticosa, S. Pyrenees | 5,110 | 85-95 .

eee

s

f=

e S B E Do. Do.

Do.

A se niata >

do. do.

nmng.

do. do.

(nitrogen present);

special action Goat thes id ut, rheumatism, old ix 648 |10I-120 juries, jjoints or bones. Do. do.; soothes nervous 3:315 | 9571181 > ystem.

=

Teplitz, Bohemia . . Gastein, Austria .

TasreE IIT. Earthy Waters

Locality

ote

Contrexéville, Vosges | 1,050 Lippspringe, North } Germany

.

=] Wildungen,

do.

Q

Weissenberg, zerland

Pougues, France

m

.

R 2

a

Therapeutic action —______—_——_

ee na Supposed to be useful@ pithisis.

Special use in urtar comp aint: contain

sees 2

600

Resorted to for pulmonary}

affections. | Dyspepsia, diabetes, ° wi patic and urinary© cretions,

MINERAL

WATERS

532

TaBLE III. Zarthy Weters—continued Height : Temp. in ft. |°Fahr. |

| | 'Baden, Switzerland

|1,180

Therapeutic action

S ;

|

93-123) 70,

ae

ai

Rippoldsau, Black Forest]

ae female

com-

Homburg, near Frank-|

g Bormio, North Italy | 4,400 ||rz08—r22! 86-r04| ‘Do. do.; old do.sprains -. Do. do.

#1 Lucca, Italy 3 | Bath, England

-.

{xro8—-r22!

Do. do.

do.

|Dax, south of France | 1,400 | 139 | Do. do.

B. de Bigorres, at 1,800 3

64-123, Do.; chlorosis,

neuralgia.

j

TABLE IV. Sali Springs

Locality

bog | arn

ss

4

near

Therapeutic action Serene a eee

{Dyspepsia,

F done,

| Homburg, ©

xs

J|

Me,

ee

‘3: Pyrmont, North Ger-| Kreuznach,

Bingen

.

ms

near

WU

.

=

In all essentials the same.

{Better known for its iron; has a \ good salt drinking spring.

A salt well without carbonic acid;

..

J

Wiesbaden, Nassau Baden-Baden

used in scrofula and anaemia;

5 cane more important.

2

sed

in

..

96

J

B

neuralgia, for

treatment

.

used for obesity.

Rheumatism; with the bathspecial deposittreatment lonii as

185

Spain.)

-f|

Almost all the above strengths: the cold may tedium; the warm are 26, In several, minute

baths;

mud

of bath

88-94 f}

chi

named stations have several springs of various be said to vary from 14 to 5-8% of chloride of generally weaker, perhaps varying from 6-8 to traces of iodine or bromine are found.

hs

N OR aS Fee ee (Scrofula, acta of; mies

; ee OS

311

g

Salzungen, North Germany | 256 Ischl, Austria (r,440ft.})

Hall, Tyrol (r,z00ft.). rs

Sea Water

anthemas,

theumatism,

|

2

Wetterau ar

Do.

do.

Do.

do:

Do.

\ bath.

| Do.; laxative.

{Do.;

| air. Do.

gate (chloride)

sought

for

its

Do.

wge

Do.

E deficient bonic acid.

in car-

a

Do.

do.

36

Do.

do.

Do.

304

29

Locality

Eilsen, ee ; Meinberg, Lippe-Detmold . Gurnigel, Switzerland (3,600ft.) uk,

do.

(3:593ft.)

Challes, Savoy (gooft.}) . . Enghien, near Paris. . . Uniage, Isére, France (1, 500ft.) Harrogate, England. . . Strathpeffer, Scotland . . Lisdoonvarna, Clare, Ireland . TasLe VIII.

Warm Sulphur Springs

HydrosulHeight | Temp. |phuric acid ` in ft. °Fahr. labsorbed in

Locality

y

Do.

do.

g if

Aix-la-Chapelle, Germany Baden, near Vienna . Schinznach, Switzerland Lavey, Rhone Valley. Hercules Bad, Banat... Aix-les-Bains, Savoy . Luchon, Pyrenees .

. 534 I3I-I40 . Ls 95-125 . | 1,060 80-92 . | 1,350 92-113 500 IIO . 765 108-5 . | 2,000 | 135°5 Baréges, do .. . .{ 4,100 II3 Amélie-les-Bains, Pyrenees 810 87-147 Cauterets, d 3,254 Eaux Bonnes, do. Archena, Murcia, Spain

. 2°5 37°8 3°5 42°6 27°2 T Je

a

O-OL

a

Therapeutic uses

Vals, South France Bilin, Bohemia

.

.

Vichy, Frances{105° F) as

. .

Rhineland

7 .

Be

a

$

Catarrh of stomach, gout, renal and biliary calculi,

liver complaints,

dia-

set

do.

special use in locomotor

ataxia.

Do.

Sulphide

water

do.

156

near Worcester | 233-6 .

{Do.; laxative; a ladies’

uterine infiltrations. Do. do.

., ee i

Rehme, Westphalia (92°F) | 24-85 Ta

nic exudachronic ex-

. | 25s

SAEY (2,400

Castrocaro, Tuscany .

mation tions, "some

. | 256

ty near Salzburg\|

Ea i

Therapeutic application

i Sig 85

ee,ee

SS

n

ah Sg aS

Locality

Aargau,

| bath. Do.

Muspratt Spring, Harro-)

chitis,

Taste VY. Stronger Salt Waters

Rheinf a

.

{Do.; much of a ladies’

of

used for poultice. Caldas de Mombuy,\ I153—I 58h Rheumatism, sciatica, old innear Barcelona .? juries. Cestona, Guipuzcoa, 8 Rheumatism, indigestion, bron-

See

{For anaemic conditions; |. laxative.

1,886

fort . . 1 Elster, Saxony . 1,465 Liebenstein, North Ger- \ QII many. . Schwalbach, Nassa 900 Bocklet, near Kissingen 600 Griesbach, Black Forest | Franzensbad, Bohemia Pyrmont, Germany . Spa, Belgium TE Petersthal, Black Fores St. Moritz, Engadine, , Switzerland Se Forges-les-Eaux, France La Malou, Hérault,) France (temp. 88°) Recoaro, North Italy . Tunbridge Wells .

effects

ool asian, loss of power, sexua rders. [Act on liver and digestive canal;

Italy | 169 do.

Abano,

Therapeutic use

. | 155 } bathing is most important. 156 tae milder water; uses similar;

ey a voy (1,480ft. ; E piin, Savoy (1,700 Acqui, North

Carb. of iron

dyspepsia and gout; the

ü s gout. Bourbonne, Haute-\ rii Rbeumatism, Marne ... . 4-1491 of malaria. Balaruc, South SG Do.; Ton France . . . paralysis.

elit).

Te

scrofula,

Dyspepsia, slighterhepaticafec

.

“many

anaemia,

special for throat and phthisis.

l= Kissingen, Bavaria

| Height | in ft.

Locality

tet

un See

| 4,400

do.

| \Teuk,

TABLE VI. Iron Waters

do.

La Malou, France (97° F) Vidago, Portugal

.

.

nervous system.

Do.3 gout, urinary affections.

MINERAL

534 Crass II. With Chloride of Sodium

WATERS Tase X. American Mineral Waters—continued

varying from 43 to I

in amount

Therapeutic uses

| Luhatschowitz,

|

carb. soda and chl. sodium.

«fi

Light

| Ténnistein, Rhine} Valley

wie

ake

i

|

tonic

8asù |Hathorne, Saratoga, N.‘ Y. Ballston, Saratoga co., N. Y.

to stomach.

K

mepams

‘Special

a

Ems, Nassau

antacid

nmasi mayyroma g

sm, gout, scrofula, (St. Catharine’s, Ontario, Canada (Rheumati neuralgia. 2 « |Caledonia, Ontario, Canada Rheumatism, gout. | qi

Springs rich both in

`

Moravia .

Therapeutic application

Designation and locality

Ulcers, diseases of the skin! passive haemor(has i atonic diarrhoea

: Genesee oo) (Oak-Orchard Acid,

in

complaints

85-115 | 2'0

`jaundice ab : l yspepsia, dominal plethora. . | Do. do . do.

aA

mucous membrane.

Ve

:

>

'

i

:

'

Specially rheumatism

Ischia, Italy

‘ |--

Royat, Auvergne

|Up to 17a)

1,400 | 80-95

2-0

and

female

plaints.

Do.

1°3

and

some

com-

.

Rawley, Rockingham co., Va. .

skin

=

Sweet

affections.

Mont Dore, do.

. }

Bourboule, do.

. | 2,

3:300

}

CO.,

yngitis.

107-125

Scrofula, rachitis, cu-

s

taneous affections. pee wa cena

i

5

a

aS O Crass III. With Sulpkaie of Soda varying from 5-2 to 2 in amount, and Carbonate of Soda varying from 3-55 to 0-51 im amount

Height | in ft.

Locality

| Elster, Saxony

Marienbad, Bohemia . Franzensbad,

do.

1,012

.

1,293

Tarasp, Lower Engadine . 4,000 Carlsbad, Bohemia (121°) 1,200 “164° FF). . . Lf

viscera.

Gout, liver affections, biliary and renal calculi, diabetes.

TABLE X. American Mineral Waters

Designation and locality

.

Scrofulous ulcers and ophthalmia, ozoena, chronic diarrhoea and dysentery, € secondary and tertiary

Healing, Bath co., Va. (88° F)

a

syphilis.

B

6 4 a >

5 A

matism,

gout,

nephritic Sd

neuralgia

calculous

diseases. ae D iseases of liver,

Hot, Bath co., Va. (110° F}

ralgia,

Paso Robles, San Luis Obispo co., Cal. (12° F} . . .

gout, neu-

contractions

of

joints.

Dartrous diseases of skin, functional diseases of Garland co., Ark. (93-1 se} uterus, chronic mercurial

g

and lead poisoning. Calculus, gravel, catarrh of

Gettysburg, Adams co., Penn, |{ stomach or bladder, dyspepsia. Sweet, Monroe co., W. Va. (74° pa

7

aie

erally, tonic,

{Do.

do.

do.

3

ý

arti l

Midland, Midland co., Mich. . Bladen, Choctaw co., Ala. (carbonated alkaline) . . . Congress, Santa Clara co., Cal.

(saline-alkaline) z Stean ra P

.

.

.

‘

|

chroni |

f

5 yspepsia,

neuralgia,

ie ae |aon and subacute rheu. sm.

BIBLIOGRAPHY .—(1) German: E. Osann, Darstellung der Heilquelles Europas (3 vols., Berlin, 1839-43); J. Seegen, Handbuch der Heit.

quellenlehre (Vienna, 1862) ; B. M. Lersch, Hydrochemie (1870), and

many other works; Helfft, Handbuch d. Balneotherapie (8th ed., Berlin, 1874); Valentiner, Handbuch d. Balneotherapie (Berlin, 1876); L. Lehmann, Bader u. Brunnen Lehre (Bonn, 1877); J. Braun, Sy:tem, Lehrbuch d. Balneotherapie, 4th ed., by Fromm (Berlin, 188); Q. Leichtenstern, Balneotherapie (Leipzig, 1880); Deutscher Bäderkalender (Berlin, 1927). (2) French: Dictionnaire des eaux minérales, etc... by MM. Durand-Fardel, etc, (2 vols., Paris, 1860); J. Lefort,

(2nd ed., Paris, 1873); C. James,

Guide pratique aux eaux minérales (Paris), many editions; Mac, Guide aux viles d'eaux, etc. (Paris, 1881); Joanne and Le Pileur, Les Bains d’Europe (Paris); L. Porcheron, Guide pratique aux ville deaux, stations, climatiques, plages marines françaises (Paris, 19123). (3) Swiss: Meyer Ahrens, Heilquellen der Schweitz (Zirich, 1867); Gsell Fels, Die Bäder und Kurorte der Schwettz (Zürich, 1880). (4) Italy: G, Jervis, Guida alle acque minerali d'Italia (Turin, 1876, ett.); E. F. Harless, Die Heilquellen und Kurbäder Italiens (1848). (3) Spanish: Rubio, Tratado de las fuentes minerales de España (Madrid,

Spanish waters. (6) English: T. Short, History of the ae 1734); J. Rutty, Methodical Synopsis of London, 1757); Granville, Spas of England (1841); Springs of England (London, 1841); J. Macpherson,

Mineral Water Mineral Water E. Lee, Minera Our Baths and

Wells (1871), and Baths and Wells of Europe (1873) ; H. Weber's Eng.

ed. of Braun (London, 1875); The Spas of Britain, the official handbook of the British Spa Federation (Bath, 1924) ; E. Hawkins, Medical Climatology of England and Wales (London, 1923) ; T. D. Luke, Spas

and Health Resorts of the British Isles (London, 1919); N. Wood, Health Resorts of the British Islands (2nd ed., London, 1919). 4

great portion of the literature is to be found in monographs on patticular places. (7) American: J. Bel, Tke Mineral and T Springs of the United States and Canada (1855) ; J. J. Moorman, The

Mineral Waters of the United States and Canada (1867); C. F.

Chandler, Lecture om Water (1871); G. E. Walton, The Miner Springs of the United States and Canada (1875) ; I. Burney Yeo, 7he

Therapeutics of Mineral Springs (1904); A. A. Chambers, “Compat-

dyspepsia (diuretic,

son of American and European Mineral Waters,” in U.S. Geol.Sw.

Berkeley, Morgan co., W. Va Neuralgia (restorative). MEO TEE oe ke ta N : : Earthy atledhany, Montgomery co., Va. | Purgative, diuretic. pinnae Eat se and Calcarcous inflammation of bladder,

Prod. of Mineral Waters, 1916, pp. 500-508 (1918) ; A. J. Ellis, Pub-

S

Bethesda, Waukesha co. , Wis. .

%

a

Lower Blue Lick, Nicholasco.,Ky.| |sharon, Schoharie co., N. Y. . ‘

,

phoretic).

dropsy, albuminuria

(diu-

retic Aperient and alterative. 5 Do. _ M j artrous skin diseases, dis-

ae are Supe areca cont eases of the bladder, jaun-

a“

g

33»

e

Re

e

e

(Salt Sulphur, Monroe co., W, Va.

Bedford, Bedford co., Penn.

dice, dyspepsia.

|

|

1853); Don J. de Antelo y Sanchez has recently published a work on

Chronic and subacute a

Warm, Bath co., Va. (98° F)

`

Traité de chemie kydrologigue

Therapeutic application

Lebanon, Columbia co., N. Y.

(73°F).

7

sulphuric

Chlorosis and anaemia gen-

Cooper’s Well, Hinds co., Miss. gp Crab Orchard, Lincoln co., Ky.

:

Therapeutic uses jAction on abdominal organs, \ female complaints. Do.; special use in obesity. Do.; specially a ladies’ bath. Ea action on abdominal

1,460

a.

Alleghany

of free

acid in the pint).

i Rockbridge Alum, Rockbridge} |íScrofula, chronic diarrhoea | co., Va. ae a

Asthma, chronic lar-

LOO-IIT4

oo

grains

pee scrofula and syphilis, gravel, { naemia, eee ey tar calculus

lications on Mineral Waters,” 2b., pp. 509-510; O. E. Meinzer, “Large

Springs in the United States,” U.S. Geol. Surv. Water Supply Paper

557 (1927); and W. E. Fitch, Mineral Waters of the United States end American Spas (1927).

United States—The term “mineral water” is employed to connote water of high mineral content as well as all water Dou and sold for table or medicinal use without appreciable alteration from its natural state. Some of these waters contain consid less mineral matter than many of the public water supplies. À mineral content of less than xo grains per gallon is cons low, 30 grains high, and over roo grains very high, It is es

that there are over 10,000 mineral springs in the United States Mineral waters are employed for medicinal purposes, as

MINERAL

WELLS—MINES

533

waters in place of public water supplies, and for the manufacture | A sample of air-borne dust of 2 milligrammes per cu. metre as of soft drinks, particularly carbonated beverages. , determined by the method in use on the Witwatersrand corre-

MINERAL

WELLS, a city of Palo Pinto county, Texas, |sponds to about 350 particles of fine dust per cu.cm. of air

USA. 45 m. W. of Fort Worth, near the Brazos river; on | (counted by Kitze koniometer). The other great safeguard is Federal highway 8o, and served by the Gulf, Texas and Western “working wet” as the chief source of the dust associated with

and the Weatherford, Mineral Wells and North Western railways. |machine drilling is “sludging” with air. When it is practicable to Pop. (1920) 7,890, and in 1930, 5,986 by Federal census. It is| sludge with water only, machines raise much less dust. Water-

rily a health and pleasure resort. More than 150,000 Visitors | sprays should be in continuous use and the roof, walls and floor of come annually to drink the waters and take the baths. The water | the working-place kept wet (see MINING).

isbottled for shipment in one of the largest plants of the kindin|

A machine may be in good order for rock-cutting and in bad

the world. The city was founded in 1880 and incorporated in | order for dust-control and should be inspected from the latter 1335. : PN point of view as well as the former. A hand-drill is more difficult MINERS MILLS, an anthracite-mining borough of Luzerne | to keep in order for dust-control than is the larger machine and it

county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., 3 m. N.E. of Wilkes-Barre; served ' is doubtful if it is possible to secure safe conditions if hand-drills REA Mevani ge Si aLa aE aAa EZr aaa

by the Central of New Jersey, the Delaware and Hudson, and | are used dry when cutting phthisis-producing rock. In all phthisisthe Lehigh Valley railways. Pop. (1920) 4,365 (29% foreign- |producing industries, apart from working wet, it is wise to think born white). It was annexed to Wilkes-Barre in 1929. of the fine air-borne dust as a gas and make use of exhaust-hoods

MINERS PERMANENT

RELIEF

FRIENDLY SOCIETIES.

SOCIETIES: see | and abstractors; while sources of dust escaping to the air should, as far as possible, be located and enclosed.

MINERS PHTHISIS. Almost any dust inhaled in sufficient | There are two important factors in the severe forms of miners’ quantity may cause chest trouble, but certain dusts are related to | phthisis :— the occupational

disease variously known

as miners’ phthisis,

(1) The phthisis-producing dust.

pheumonoconiosis, grinders’ rot, potters’ rot, stonecutters’ rot, etc. | (2) The tubercle bacillus.

Phthisis-producing Dusts.—Dusts with this association are The modern view of pulmonary tuberculosis as met with in the aften referred to as phthisis-producing dusts, because pulmonary | adult population of civilized countries is that it is contracted from tuberculosis plays a more or less important part in this disease | an active case by inhalation. Under experimental conditions the andis always associated with a fatal termination and usually with | presence of dust in the air, together with the tubercle bacillus, disablement. E. L. Collis has shown that the phthisis-producing | renders the susceptible animal much more liable to infection by dust of far the greatest importance in industry is dust of free | inhalation.

It is on account of this association that, in a phthisis-

silica (SiO,) and the disease is often known as “Silicosis.” For | producing industry, one must strive not only to eliminate dust

a dust to be phthisis-producing it must be comparatively insol- | but also to eliminate the tubercle bacillus. The Only practicable uble and inert and the particles must be minute, say from five | step towards the latter ideal is to detect and remove the “carrier,” microns downwards, or about the size of the common pathogenic | że., the sufferer from open tuberculosis.

micro-organisms. Owing to their minute size these particles may | Breiocrapay.—Public H ealth (1915, with bibl); E. L. Collis, be present in air in dangerous concentration without being visible

a

i "Miners Phehigs ae

tad Mine

Pe

deal i the E Or Many other way noticeable to the senses, SO 1N 2 | Bureau, Department of Mines and Industries, Union of Southif Africa; phthisis-producing industry it is expedient to sample the air for | Publications of United States Bureau of Mines, B132, T.P. 372, etc. dust as one samples for gas in a “gassy’’ mine. (A. Ma)

The Lungs and Dust.—The lungs have a very considerable

MINERSVILLE,

a borough of Schuylkill county, Pennsyl-

power of ridding themselves of inhaled particles, and some dusts, | vania, U.S.A., on the Schuylkill river, 4m. W. of Pottsville. It like coal-dust, are much more readily got rid of than others while, | is served by the Pennsylvania and the Reading railways. Pop. m the case of a phthisis-producing dust, accumulation readily gets | (1920) 7,845; and in 1930 it was 9,392. Anthracite mining is ahead of elimination, so quite small quantities of air-borne dust | the chief industry, and there are several factories. The borough may be dangerous. It is owing to this cumulative factor that dura- | was settled about 1790 and incorporated in 1831. fon and continuity of exposure are of importance as well as con-| MINERVA, an Italian goddess, subsequently identified with centration in the air.

While

the average incidence

of miners’ | Athena; also Menerva, from mens, mind.

She presided over all

phthisis in the gold-mines of the Witwatersrand is under 3% per | handicrafts, including professions and arts. Besides her Etruscan

annum of the underground population, the incidence rises as high | cult in the capitol, she had at Rome, before 207 B.C., a temple on % 10% per annum among miners of 13 years’ service and over. the Aventine, which was from the time of Livius Andronicus A certain proportion of the fine dust inhaled runs the gauntlet | (q.v.) the meeting-place for guilds of craftsmen, including draof the upper respiratory passages and gets right down into their | matic poets and actors. The dedication day of the temple was minute blind extremities, the alveoli. In silicosis as in pulmonary | March 10, called quinguatrus, because it fell on the fifth day after tuberculosis “lesion means arrest” and the dust particles are | the Ides. Properly this was a festival of Mars, but it came to be arrested by being taken up by certain cells often called dust cells. | considered Minerva’s day, apparently from the accident that her These are phagocytic endothelial cells and, when dust-laden, they | temple had been founded then. She herself was confused with

aggregate forming masses or pseudo-tubercles on the alveolar | Nerio, the cult-partner of Mars. All the schools had holidays at walls, under the pleura and in the lymphatic channels which they | this time, and the pupils, on reassembling, brought a fee (minerct. The pseudo-tubercles tend to degenerate and: become | val) to the teachers. At a later time the festival extended over replaced by fibrous tissue, thus forming the fibroid nodules char- | five days. Her later cult is wholly modelled on that of Athena.

acteristic of the early stage of silicosis.

There was another shrine of Minerva on the Caelian hill,

where Prevention.—It is the fine dust that matters and, in mines | she was worshipped under the name of Capta, the “captive.” This where 2 phthisis-producing rock is dealt with, the chief sources of | cult was brought to Rome on the capture of Falerii, 241 B.c. Here

fne dust are blasting and rock-cutting with machines. From the | a festival called the lesser gusnquatrus was celebrated on June 13

piat of view of prevention, in industries where blasting is prac- | and 14, chiefly by the flute-players (Livy ix. 30; Ovid, Fasti vi.

ised, the workers should not return to the working-place until | 651). See also PALLADIOM. after all dust and fume have been blown away. Ventilation with MINES, MINELAYING AND MINESWEEPING.

A

geod currents of dust-free air is the great safeguard because, by | submarine mine is a weapon used for the attack and defence of

the air-borne dust as a gas, it can be diluted down towards | harbours and anchorages or to deny the use of certain areas of

a safe level. With daily exposure over many years, perhaps about | water to w milligramme of dust per cu. metre of air is a safe level. The | tained in finedust is only a small proportion by weight of the total air-borne | of action Particles, but includes the majority of particles by enumeration. | Prior to

ships. Briefly, it consists of a charge of explosive, cona water-tight case, intended by its explosion to put out a hostile vessel of any class it is designed to act against. 1870 the term “torpedo” was used for all explosive

MINES

534

charges fired in the water, but since that date the word “torpedo” has been restricted to the mobile torpedo (see TorPEpors).

Al-

though the scientitic development of submarine mining warfare is the work of the last sixty years, attempts to use drifting charges against ships and bridges are recorded as early as the 16th century. Mines were used by the Americans in 1777, and in 1780

Robert Fulton produced an explosive machine which he called a “torpedo,” and which was experimented with, not very successfully. up to 1815. In 1854, the Russians used mechanical mines in the Baltic, but without any marked success. The first application of electricity to the explosion of submerged charges was made by Sir Charles Pasley in the destruction of wrecks in the Thames and of the wreck of the “Royal George” at Spithead in 13839 and subsequent years. The frst military use of electrically-fred mines was made in the American Civil War of 1861-65 when several vessels were sunk or damaged by mines or torpedoes. From this date onwards most European nations experimented with mines, and they were actually used during the Franco-German War of 1870, the Russo-Turkish War of 1878 and the Spanish-American War of 1898. The most interesting example of mine warfare prior to the World War was in the attack and defence of Port Arthur during the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-05. Both sides used mechanical mines only, and both suffered heavy losses from the mine warfare. Mines and torpedoes were first introduced into the English service about 1863, defence mines being placed in the charge of the Royal Engineers, while torpedoes were developed by the Royal Navy. In 1904 the responsibility for all mining work was placed on the Navy. As a rule mines are moored, but mines which drift with the tide or current are occasionally used for special purposes. Any explosive can be used in submarine mines provided adequate means are provided to explode the charge. The detonators for electrically fired mines are fired by heating a small length of wire, termed a “bridge,” round which is placed a priming which burns and detonates a small charge of fulminate of mercury, lead azide or similar explosive, which in turn detonates the main charge. The detonator for mechanically fired mines is exploded

by the friction of the striker entering it. The charge is contained in a steel mine case which also contains the necessary electrical or mechanical arrangements for firing the mine. For buoyant mines the cases must have sufficient air space to provide the necessary buoyancy. The size of the mine case will therefore depend principally on the weight of charge and the buoyancy required, the latter varying according as the mine is to be laid in still water or in currents or tides, and according to the depth of water and consequent weight of mooring rope. The cases are moored to the sea bed by a heavy weight called a “sinker,” the connection being made by a flexible steel wire rope or, in electrically controlled mines, by the electric cable itself. Various proposals have been made for including in a mine some apparatus which will compensate for the rise and fall of the tide and enable the mine to be kept at the pre-arranged depth all the time. Submarine

mines may be divided into two main classes, “‘controlled” and “non-controled.” Controlled Mines.—These are fired by electricity and are connected by electric cables to a shore station where means are provided for switching off the current, thus rendering the mines inert and harmless during the passage of friendly vessels. They are thus absolutely under the control of the operator on shore, their condition is always accurately known from the testing apparatus at the shore station and if any break adrift from their moorings the mines are harmless. It should be noted that all mines are supposed to be harmless if they break adrift. Controlled mines take longer to prepare and lay than non-controlled mines, as the electric cables have to be laid and jointed, and more skill and training is required to lay and maintain a minefield. They can be arranged on two systems according to the method to be employed to effect the exact moment to fire the charge. These methods are by observation or by circuit closer. In the observation system, the exact position of the mines when

laid is marked on a special chart, on which the track of any ship be A the minefield can also be plotted. The operator in the exo: iS eaei rete

k

d Re

shore station plots the track and when it is seen to be Crossing the

position of a mine he closes a switch and the mine is fired mines themselves are placed either on the sea bed or at

well below the bottom of any friendly ships, and therefore suck mines offer no obstruction to friendly traffic, though anchoring in the mine field must be prohibited for fear of damaging the cable As the mines are not in contact with the ship at the moment f firing and as errors in observation must be allowed for, these mines must carry larger charges of explosive than mines fired by contact with a ship and they are usually fired in groups.

In the circuit closer system, each mine contains an apparaty which is actuated by any vessel or other heavy object bum

against the mine. When set in action the apparatus completes the electrical circuit through the detonators in the explosive charge

and the mine fires if the main controlling switch on shore is closed When it is not desired to fire, the main switch on shore iskent

open and the circuit closer is restored to its open condition aio. matically after the mine has been bumped. Such mines are neces. sarily placed near the surface and though they can be rendered harmless they are liable to damage by vessels passing through the

field and consequently are used in waters which it is intended ts close entirely.

Their principal advantage over observation mines

is that as long as the main switch is closed they are effective ia fog or mist, when observation mines and the guns of the defence system could not be effective. As they are fired in contact with the ship a comparatively small charge only is required and only a single mine is fired at a time.

Non-controlled Mines.—In these the means of firing are contained in the mine itself; they may be fired either electrically by means of a small local battery or mechanically by a spring pistol or suspended weight. In all cases the impulse which actu ates the firing gear is the bump given bya ship or other heavy object striking the mine. When non-controlled mines have once been laid they are dangerous to friend and foe alike. Safety arrangements are fitted to these mines to keep the firing apparatus out of action while the mine is being laid, to render the mine harmless in case it breaks away from its mooring and, in som cases, to render it inactive after a certain period of time. Mines that fail in these respects become as great a danger to friend as to foe. At the outbreak of war in 1914 the German Carbonit mine was unreliable in respect to its safety after breaking adrift while the British mines were, unfortunately, only fully efficient in the same respect. In the latter part of 1917 the new and improved British H2 mines came into use. This mine was similar in princi ple to the German Carbonit mine except for the method of taking up the predetermined depth. The German method of depth-taking was for the mine, attached to the sinker, to drop to the sea bottom, where, after a short interval for the purpose of safety, the mine released itself from the sinker and rose to the depth for which it was set. In the British method, on release from the minelayer the mine remained on the surface while the sinker went down, unreeling the mooring wire until a small weight (hanging below the sinker a distance

equal to the depth the mine was required to be below the surface) struck the bottom. The mooring rope then stopped unreeling and

the sinker continuing to sink pulled the mine below the surface. An advantage of the British system was that heavy water pres sure on the mine-case was obviated; but, on the other hand, it did not obtain the exceptional accuracy in depth-taking which was noticeable in the German method. The United States used a mint

of a novel type. It carried the usual charge of 300lb. of tri-niire toluene, but from each mine there extended antennae for a a tance of 35ft. which, if touched by a metal ship, exploded te mine. The result was that the danger zone was largely in Moored mines can be laid in any depth up to 100 fathoms, o even more in tideless waters, and they can be regulated to he a any depth below the surface. Deep mines are used against merged submarines, and shallow ones against surface shipping. h

a strong tide, with a long mooring-rope, the mine will bend ovet to the tide; so that mines, under strong tidal conditions, som times lie too deep to be harmful to surface ships. During the

War in a position such as the Pentland Firth, mines were in fat

MINES

535

only a danger at slack water, a period of minutes only. Again, the

ing and the comparative neglect of the subject by Great Britain. The second factor is the operation of laying the mines. To be successful, this must be governed by the element of surprise, and be expeditiously performed; it requires for its purpose a ship of high speed, or one which, by disguise or subterfuge, can carry out yided no mines had been seen at low water on the surface. By the work unmolested. The Hague convention drifting mines should become inactive one The third factor is purely one of technique. No type of mine hour after they are first dangerous. Some uses for these mines | that does not meet the following requirements is efficient. It must are (a) for attacking ships sheltering in a harbour by allowing | be safe until it is laid. When laid, it must take up and maintain the tide to drift the mines in; (b) for dropping in the wake of' its required depth, throughout all kinds of weather, for an apprea ship or squadron when being chased. clable length of time. It must be immune from mechanical failure The most recent forms of drifting mine are oscillating mines when required to function. In the interest of both belligerents and which maintain themselves at approximately a steady depth by neutrals, it must automatically render itself safe should it break mechanical means. The inventors claim for them the advantage | from its moorings. Considerable importance attaches to the design that they cannot be swept up. Of oscillating mines a well known of a minefield. A simple straight line of mines is easily and type isthe Leon mine. The mine is slightly heavier than the water quickly laid. but presents little difficulty to the minesweepers once it displaces and therefore sinks slowly. On passing the pre- it is located. Lines of mines laid in zig-zags, particularly when arranged depth a hydrostatic valve switches on electrical power spaces of water are left clear, present the greatest difficulty to which drives a propeller and causes the mine to rise until at a removal. On the other hand, such patterns will necessarily cover a certain depth the power is switched off, and the mine commences larger sheet of water, and will require very accurate plotting if, to sink again. subsequently, the vicinity of the mined area is to be approached MINELAYING by the sea forces of the minelayer. An existing apparatus termed Mines are laid by vessels specially fitted to carry them. In “taut wire measuring gear” proved a great aid to accuracy in surface vessels the mines rest on their sinkers which have wheels positioning a minefield. British Minelaying in the War.—On October 2, 1914, the at tbe bottom running on rails laid on the decks in a fore and aft direction. Means are provided for hauling the mines along these first line of 1,264 mines was laid by the old cruisers in an area rails until they enter the mine traps placed in ports cut in the tom. north ef Ostend. This had the effect of forcing neutral ship-

difference in height between high and low water is an important matter. If. for instance, the tidal range was exceptionally large, as in the Bristol Channel or Bay of Fundy, all types of ships could pass over a minefield at high water in perfect safety, pro-

stern of the ship. The traps hold the mine in position ready for letting go. When the trap is opened the mine sinker runs down ashort curved piece of the rails and drops into the water. In mine-

laying submarines the mines are carried in tubes or shoots formed in the hull, from which they can be released one at a time. British Minelaying Resources.—At the outbreak of hostilities in 1914 the British Navy possessed seven old cruisers (Latona class) fitted as minelayers. These had a speed of only 14 knots. Shortly afterwards four merchant ships were added; and in the second part of the War a considerable number of submarine minelayers and fast destroyers were used. German Minelaying Resources.—At the outbreak of war the Germans had available 3 men-of-war and nine auxiliary vessels ited as minelayers. Two of the men-of-war “Nautilus” and “Albatross,” were 20 knot vessels and each carried 200 mines. During the War four more auxiliaries were fitted including the

raiders “Mowe” and “Wolf.” In 1915 the first of the submarine minelayers started work. In June 1915 a small type, termed U.C. beats, working from Zeebrugge, with Bruges as a mine-depot, commenced laying batches of 12 mines held in vertical shoots, at first between Dover and Harwich, and later over a wider area. During 1915, 54 cargoes (648 mines) were laid in this manner. The effect was a serious increase in British losses by mine, which comprised 5 Supply ships, 1 hospital ship, 2 Trinity House vessels, 34 steamers, 19 fishing boats and 15 minesweepers, also 24 neutrals, a

ping to pass through the Downs. Unfortunately, the British mines then in use proved so defective that for a time minelaying had to cease; and although in 1915, after some technical improvement, some 15 more minefields were laid, it was not until 1916 that attention was concentrated on providing a mine of the calibre of that used by the Germans.

One of the principal British minelaying operations of 1916 was a coast barrage, consisting of a double line of deep mines, running

ip em Ye a7 roomy yo

S32 laRrrisH!

S $S

See

42miles | -7

total of 100 vessels. The number of German submarine minelay-

ers increased in 1916, and there were larger boats operating over a still wider area. These carried 18 mines. As further construc-

tion improved, the number of mines carried rose to 24, and in

1917, to 36. The larger boats worked from the Elbe, and the smaller from Flanders. Elements of Mining Warfare.—Three factors are necessary

for successful mining warfare—the strategic function, the opera-

Scale of Miles 50

bon of laying the mines and the technical efficiency of the mine

itself. The first of these factors is woven into the main strategy of a naval war. The stronger fleet, in its anxiety to seek out and destroy its enemy, desires a clear sea; and, to obtain this, must

msure that such a means of attrition as the mine is reduced to

THE PLAN OF THE GREAT NORTHERN MINE BARRAGE OF LAID IN 1918, BY BRITISH AND UNITED STATES MINELAYERS

71,126

MINES

for 4om. from the Belgian coast, at a distance of 12m. from the shore. It was supplemented by mine nets laid by the Dover drifters. The work took five weeks to complete; but only one sub-

the utmost. On the other hand, the weaker fleet will use the mine profusely in an endeavour, by attrition, to reach an equality or marine seems to have been accounted for by it. The end of the

perority of force: and it will also use this weapon against merships, particularly when they belong to a belligerent de-

pendent on its carriage of foodstuff from overseas. This was the muttal stage of naval strategy in the World War; and to some

ftient it explains the pre-war application of the Germans to min-

year saw the institution of a mining school at Portsmouth for research and development. On the assumption that the Belgian coast barrage had been effective, a similar barrage was completed in Feb. 1917 across the Straits of Dover; but the mines dragged and had to be swept up.

536

MINES

It was, however, relaid by the end of July 1917. In Jan. 1917 it became essential to encircle the Heligoland Bight and thus to surround all exits from German ports; but the shortage of mines at the time caused the operation to be postponed, nor was the British mine considered suitable for it. However, towards the end of 1917 the “Abdiel” and five minelaying submarines had laid nearly 16,000 mines in the German Bight; and these accounted for a certain number of German destroyers and minesweepers. The mine used in the later stages of this operation was the new British Hz. In due course the new Hz mine was delivered in sufficient quantity for the long-delayed defensive minefields to be begun by the British, and an extensive new barrage in the English Channel was then completed. Between Folkestone and Cape Gris Nez g,500 mines were laid in 20 parallel lines, the shoals of the Varne and the Ridge dividing the area into three sections. This barrage effectively closed the Channel exit to the German submarines, nine of which were lost in attempts to pass it, Minelaying by the United States.—The entry of the United

States into the War admitted of a large augmentation in mines and in minelayers; and an attempt was made to close the northern exit from the North sea by a mine barrage between the Orkneys

and the Norwegian coast (see plan}. This operation was undertaken by both British and U.S. minelayers. The latter formed a base at Inverness, and supplied ten large minelayers with a total Carrying capacity of over 5,500 mines. The vast area covered by mines can best be appreciated by a reference to the plan, which gives an idea of the work carried out by the U.S. minelayers. Difficulties were encountered as the operation proceeded. A proportion of the American mines exploded prematurely; while a number of British mines took up a shallower depth than intended, and had to be swept up and relaid.

The complete operation, however, was finished by June 1918. It must not be supposed that the whole water available for a submarine was effectively covered by this minefield; but the dangerous area was greatly increased and an effect on the morale of the Germans quickly produced. In July German submarines began to creep past in Norwegian waters; but the Norwegians closed this coastal lane to both belligerents by minefields of their own. Of the mines laid in the Northern Barrage 56,033 were American and 15,093 British. All the time the encircling of the Bight had been going steadily on, and some 21,000 mines were in place by the

date of the Armistice.

During the period of the War, approxi-

mately 172,000 mines were dropped in the North sea and Channel by the British and American minelayers, the very great majority

| quickly into touch with the local movements of the traffic, the | method and capacity of their opposing minesweepers and the coastal navigation within their beats.

In most cases after sone

to to 14 days a commander would not hesitate to pass over , position where he had previously laid mines. He would be cog, fident that his mines had been discovered and cleared if shin had been seen in the area.

Minelaying from surface vessels Was

confined to disguised raiders such as “Wolf” who laid smal groups of mines in various parts of the world including the ¢

Bombay, Colombo and Australian coasts. Altogether 11,009 mines were laid by German minelayers in British home waters,

The first mining offensive against the Grand Fleet occurred in August 1915, when 380 mines were laid in the entrance to the Moray Firth, distributed over lines which totalled nearly 79 miles A large portion of the fleet was at Invergordon at the time. The results were negligible, the losses being confined to minesweepers

and one destroyer.

A channel was found to be clear on the

northern side of the Firth, which was at once used as an exit for the fleet. On the southern side, however, a channel was cl

but an area of mines was purposely left to form a defensive bar. rier and so limit the water requiring patrol and minesweeping,

On January 1, 1916 the area west of Scapa Flow was mined by

the “Möwe” on hber passage into the Atlantic. In this field 233 mines were laid, endangering an area of 40 sq.m., which resulted in the loss of H.M.S. “King Edward VII.” before the presence of mines was realised. Once located, this area was treated in the same way as the Moray Firth. On May 29, 1916, “U.75” laid her 18 mines close to Marwick

Head, off the northwest coast of Orkney. The operation was part of the pre-Jutland submarine actions of the enemy.

It is proba-

ble that these mines were intended to be laid off the western

entrance of Scapa Flow to hinder the exit of the fleet and that 4 mistake was made in the position. The mines were set for a depth of seven metres. The tide was appreciable causing sufficient “dip” to insure that the mines at this depth should be innocuous even

to a heavy-draught ship, except at low water, and with considerable motion on that ship. The period of slack water was extremely limited. The “Hampshire,” proceeding in a sudden gale, and hugging the shore to obtain less sea, struck one of the mines at low slack water and sank. By this curious conjunction of all these factors, the career of Lord Kitchener was brought to a tragic close. Except for a determined offensive by the Flanders sub marines against the Channel Ports, the mine was not extensively

used in the latter part of 1916. It would appear that the Ger-

of which were laid during the last 18 months of the War. The mans were then husbanding their resources for unrestricted subItalian Navy laid 12,293 mines during the War chiefly in the marine and mine warfare. Adriatic. Synchronous mining of adjacent British ports was resorted to German Practice.—In the early part of the War, the Germans by the Germans, which raised many sudden problems in trafie used surface vessels for minelaying and the fields consisted of control. The convoy system had now been introduced, and the large groups of mines concentrated in areas where they were likely to damage naval vessels. For instance, on Aug. 5, 1914, the

“Königin Louise” laid a line of about 15o mines off the east coast of England and on Dec. 16, 1914, under cover of the raid on Scarborough the “Kolberg” laid 180 mines near Scarborough Bay. After 1915 German minelaying in British home waters was carried out almost entirely by submarines. These usually confined their mines within an area of two or three sq. miles, laying them in groups of four or even less. The position chosen was most frequently near some focal point, buoy or lightship, or at the entrance to a naval base or commercial port. For instance, during the war, over 450 mines were laid by German submarines

within a mile of the Shipwash Light vessel, a position necessarily passed by all traffic up and down the east coast war channel, by the convoys to and from Holland and by those destroyer flotillas based on Harwich. The Germans also allotted to each of these submarines a particular stretch of the British coast. The flotillas working from Flanders covered the coast from Flamborough Head

south about to the Clyde, also the northern French coast; the

high sea, or large boats, working from the Elhe, were responsible

sweeping of convoys into certain ports often became essential Particular difficulties arose in regard to Liverpool owing to the

shallowness of the channel and narrow entrance; mines swept up, and sunk without exploding, causing serious danger to heavy

draught ships by their proximity to the ship when resting on the

bottom. The south coast of Ireland was seriously and contin

ously mined, and even the bays on the west coast of Ireland did not escape.

Early in 1918, an appreciation of failure led the Germans te

concentrate their efforts in minelaying in two directions only. The first was a grandiose scheme, which, commencing in Jam

ary, was only concluded in late September. It consisted of batches of 36 mines, laid at regular intervals of rom. apart on a semb circle 45m. from the Bell Rock, the result being a complete rmg round the entrance to the Firth of Forth. This operationfulfil a two-fold purpose.

It menaced the exit and entry of Norwegue

convoys, which were then working from Methil in the Firth a Forth; it also menaced every possible course taken by the G

Fleet when leaving or entering its base at Rosyth. The schem, however, was barren of results to the Germans, although m

for the rest of the English and Scotch coasts, and the whole of ically carried out in every detail. It was appreciated and cous Ireland, Each commander being restricted to work in his indi- tered after the third batch of these mines was discovered, the t& vidual area, the danger of striking previously laid mines was sult being that each of the successive groups of mines was minimised. The commanders, moreover, by this arrangement, got and cleared immediately; and this was done without the Germans

MINES

547

realising that any of these groups had been removed. The other the slower type of sweepers were hastened to the spot to clear it. concentration took the form of a field of 400 mines, also laid |In practice this system constantly led the fast sweepers to report ually by submarines. It was directed against the Dutch con- : mines when they had only encountered wrecks or some other voys, and was laid close to the Dutch coast to cover the ap- | harmless obstruction, and little confidence was therefore placed in proaches to the Maas and Ijmuiden. This Position was such that | the reports of mines by this fast flotilla. Under ordinary cruising

any attempts at clearance exposed the minesweepers to a flank | conditions, searches by sweepers were made whereby only a small

attack from enemy vessels. There were some losses by mine, par- | percentage of the water was covered—sufficient, however, to allow

ticularly to destroyers escorting the convoys; but the convoys ' a strong probability of the presence of mines being discovered in

sailed as before, and the losses, on the whole, were very trivial. 'good time. The introduction of tbe “paravane,” which protected The total number of German mines laid in all parts of the world ' the ship herself, very much reduced the mine danger; but it is an

was 43.630.

MINESWEEPING

| apparatus which, for assured efficiency, requires skilled handling. There are situations where its use is impracticable, and it has not

Methods of Sweeping.—At the outbreak of War, the British | replaced the necessity for the minesweeper. Minesweeping During the War.—Before system of minesweeping was for two vessels to tow a stout wire

between them, the wire being kept at the required depth by means

of water kites, one being attached to each side and towed astern of each vessel. The sweep comes into contact with the mooring rope of the mine which is generally cut in the process of dragging particularly when serrated wire is used. When the mooring rope is cut the mine comes to the surface when it can be sunk by rifle-fire. In some cases, however, the sweep strikes a horn of the mine, and explodes it. This occasionally parts the sweep and consequent

delay is caused while a new wire is passed. The most serious drawback is that if the sweep fails to break the mine wire, the mine is towed along, more often than not unknown to the sweepers, This latter trouble caused many of the early minefields in the War to be scattered far beyond the limits in which they were laid, and constituted a serious danger. The eventual safeguard was to heave the sweep slowly in, and to sight the whole wire and water-kites on the surface before slipping it, when a mine holding

to the wire would be seen and reswept afterwards. The innovation

of a serrated form of sweep wire eventually reduced the difficulty

the outbreak of war in 1914 the British navy had, to some extent, realized the possibility of a mining offensive on the part of their enemies; and, largely due to the foresight of the late Admirals Lord Charles

Beresford and Sir Doveton Sturdee, trawlers had been tested and

had proved to be efficient minesweepers as early as 1907. A traw-

ler reserve purely for minesweeping was instituted shortly afterwards. Thus, by August 8, 1914, 96 hired trawlers had put to sea ‘to sweep up enemy mines, and within a fortnight another roo trawlers had been requisitioned and were fitting out. The trawler minesweeper, however, did not entirely cover the requirements, as it was too slow to sweep the water ahead of a moving fleet; and this had been realised, and to some slight extent, catered for, by

training a flotilla of eight old capable of towing the sweep speed at which the majority gunboat flotilla moved north

torpedo-gunboats. These ships were at 12 knots, which was double the of the trawlers could operate. This from Dover on July 31, 1914, and,

with sweeps out, actually covered the track over which the Grand

Fleet passed. They were necessarily much overworked in the first six months of the war, as, whenever practicable, they swept the waters through which the fleet moved, and were also constantly required to search areas where mines were expected to be laid.

to a considerable extent. This simple method of minesweeping stood the test of the whole war, and its simplicity had the great advantage of reducing the training period which would have been The first batch of the special sweeping vessels, called sloops, was necessary had a more complicated apparatus been used. Sweeping laid down in January 1915. In British home waters the augmentation of the minesweeping with this type of sweep can be carried out by any suitable pair of vessels. Trawlers and drifters are fitted with appliances for force was less difficult than abroad. Light-draft excursion vessels their ordinary fishing work which make them readily convertible (paddlers) were requisitioned in addition to the newly built craft into sweepers. They are also very good sea boats and as far as already mentioned, and by April r915, over 150 vessels were emweather conditions are concerned, sweeping can be carried out by ployed on minesweeping in home waters. In the Dardanelles 8 them as long as they can come together to pass the end of the cross-channel steamers had augmented the trawler force, and a sweep wire from one to the other. Where, however, mines have certain number of destroyers had been fitted for minesweeping. Progress in 1916.—By the beginning of 1916, 14 sloops had been laid at very shallow depths and there is little or no rise and fall of tide lighter draught vessels must be used as sweepers. When joined the Grand Fleet, and 35 hired paddlers were in action. The sweeping, marks are laid out to show the channel which has been success of this latter type led to 24 being laid down by the Adtleared. That minesweeping is a most arduous and dangerous miralty, and also a new type of twin-screw sweeper, known as the work is shown by the fact that throughout the World War an “Hunt” class. The value of these ships lay in their sea-keeping average of half of the crew of a trawler was lost when one was qualities and shallow draught. The paravane (g.v.) also passed mined, For the first two months of the war, for every two mines its test in 1916, and by the end of the year had been supplied swept up one trawler was lost. Improved methods and greater to 180 of H.M. ships. A modified form of this apparatus was experience later minimised the losses, until an average of one loss fitted in merchant vessels; and, by the end of the war, 2,740 for every 80 mines was achieved in 1918. merchant ships had been fitted. The intensity of minelaying and expansion of areas in the first The French towed- from a single vessel two sweeps, one on either side, each kept out by an otter similar to the usual otter half of 1917 was difficult to meet with the minesweepers availused in trawling but regulated for depth by attachment to a large able; and the climax was reached in April, with a loss of one torpedo-shaped float, the depth at the other end being regulated minesweeper per diem for the greater part of that month. Probby a water-kite. Along each wire was distributed a series of small ably no other service had a more severe strain placed on its permechanical and explosive wire-cutters. The “shooting” of these sonnel during this month and those immediately following. Every sweeps caused trouble unless the crews were adept, and the speed available and suitable paddle steamer and motor fishing boat had at which the apparatus could be towed was limited to six to seven to be requisitioned; and those incapable of towing a heavy sweep . The spread of the British system was 400 to 500 yd. per were fitted with a light one, and used for search. Aircraft and pair according to the type of minesweeper, that of the French motor launches were also used for low-water searches for mines, system not more than 200 yards. In the latter part of the war the in order to reduce losses of sweepers; and improvements in traffic Americans adopted the French method, which had by then been organisation and still closer co-operation between adjacent areas

y were gradually effected. Further protective minefields were laid in The German system was akin to the British, excepting that, in certain suitable positions, but the opening of new areas was con-

somewhat simplified,

order to cover the route of their fleet more quickly, they insti- stantly necessary; and, by the end of 1917, the coastal waters of luted a very light form of sweep which could be towed at 20 Great Britain and Ireland, over 1,coom. in extent, were being nots. Directly this apparatus met with an obstacle it was auto- |swept every day for mines. The war channel was also extended to

matically slipped, thus giving notice of the obstruction, whereupon į the Firth of Forth, and merchant ships only released from a night

MINGHETTI—MINIATURE

538

shelter when they could proceed in freshly swept water. One hundred new vessels of the “Hunt” class were laid down, and 300 new drifters put out to contract, so as gradually to replace and release

trawlers for patrol and anti-submarine work. The year closed with a total of 3,989 German moored mines swept up in home waters, at a cost of 170 Allied and neutral merchant ships sunk and 28 damaged. This total of mines for the year exceeded the combined totals for the previous years of the War. Nevertheless, the outlook was more hopeful. Although the intensity of minelaying had become so much greater, the losses had only been increased by nine ships over those of the previous year; and progressive success in the destruction of submarines and their personnel made it evident that the same intensity and efficiency of the minelayers could not be continued much longer. New construction and greatly improved material for minesweeping had already made their mark. The only fear was that the minesweep would be defeated by some innovation of the enemy. This fear, however, never materialised; although a delayed action (whether intentional or otherwise) for releasing the mine from its sinker some hours after it was laid was observed on several occasions. Minesweeping After the Armistice.—When the hour of the Armistice struck, a minesweeping force was waiting at the gate of the Dardanelles; and, within 24 hours, 600 British and enemy mines had been removed to clear the way for the fleet to Constantinople. For one year after the War, mineclearing was continuous in every area where British or German mines had been laid. Under the difficult conditions which immediately followed the war, a special minesweeping force had to be enrolled. It consisted of some 600 officers and 15,000 men. Over 23,000 Allied mines and some 70 German mines were cleared from the sea by British minesweepers. No loss of a merchant ship by mine occurred during that period; and exactly one year to the day from the institution of this force the seas round Britain, her colonies and in the Mediterranean were reported clear. A fine performance in this respect was the clearing by the Americans of the mines laid between Orkney and the Norwegian coast. The Germans also commenced to clear the heavily mined areas in the Heligoland Bight, and later in the Baltic; but this work of clearance was not completed until 1923. Other nations concerned cleared their own coastal waters. (For military mines see FORTIFICATION and SIEGECRAFT.) (A. H. W.) BrstiocraPHy.—Rudyard Kipling, The Fringes of the Fleet (1915); W. MacNeile Dixon, The Fleets Behind the Fleet (1917) ; L. C. Corn-

ford, The Merchant Seaman in War (1918); W. Wood, Fishermen in War Time (1918); D. W. Bone, Merchanimen-at-Arms (1919); M. F. Sueter, Evolution of the Submarine Boat, Mine and Torpedo (1907).

MINGHETTI,

MARCO

(1818-1886), Italian economist

and statesman, was born at Bologna on Nov. 18, 1818. In 1846 he was appointed member of the State council summoned to prepare the constitution for the papal States. In the first constitutional cabinet, presided over by Cardinal Antonelli, Minghetti was minister of public works, but after the allocution by Pius

TX. against the Italian war of independence he resigned, and joined the Piedmontese army as captain on the general staff. Returning to Rome in Sept. 1848, he refused to form a cabinet after

the assassination of Pellegrino Rossi, and spent the next eight years in study and travel. He was in 1859 appointed by Cavour secretary-general of the Piedmontese Foreign Office. In the same year he was elected president of the assembly of the Romagna, after the rejection of pontifical rule by those provinces, and prepared their annexation to Piedmont. Appointed Piedmontese minister of the interior, he resigned office shortly after Cavour’s death, but was later made minister of finance by Farini, whom he succeeded as premier in 1863. With the help of Visconti-Venosta he concluded (Sept. 15, 1864) the “September Convention” with France, whereby Napoleon agreed

to evacuate Rome, and Italy to transfer her capital from Turin

PAINTING

don and Vienna by the Lanza-Sella Cabinet to organize a of neutral powers. In 1873 he overthrew the Lanza-Sella Cah; and was premier and minister of finance until the fall of the

Right on March 18, 1876. During his premiership he inaugurated

the rapprochement between Italy, Austria and Germany, and, a

finance minister, restored equilibrium between

expenditure and

revenue for the first time since 1860. After the advent of the

Minghetti remained for some years in Opposition, but towards

1884 joined Depretis in creating the “Trasformismo,” which cog. sisted in bringing Conservative support to Liberal cabinets.

hetti died at Rome on Dec. 10, 1886. His writings include: Delle economia pubblica e delle sue attinenze con la morale e col diritto

(Bologna, 1859), and La Chiesa e lo Stato (Milan, 1878). MINGRELIA: see Georcran S.S.R. MINIATURE LANDSCAPE: see Bon-SeExKI; BoN-Kr ¥ Bon-Sar; HAxo-NIw4A. MINIATURE PAINTING. The word “miniature” is de

rived from the Latin “minium,” vermillion, the colour used for

the borders of the pages and the initial letters of manuscripts, ia

which small pictorial scenes were introduced.

These lines were later on known as rubrications, and the word “miniature” applied to the decorations themselves,

rather than to the lines which

surrounded them. Then, owing to the small size of the work, the

word became connected with the French word “mignature” and so gradually applied to paintings in little, and in the present day te anything that is of unusually small size. The two more accurate phrases are “paintings in little” as Pepys calls them, or “limnings”

as they were termed in 1675, and the miniature painter, even in Queen Anne and George I.’s time, was spoken of as the “limner”

That word itself goes back to “enluminer,” and that again is derived from the Latin “illuminare,” to paint. (For Byzantine and

Early Christian miniatures see ILLUMINATED MANUSCRIPTS.) " (G.C. W.) MINIATURE

PAINTING IN THE EAST

The beginnings of miniature painting in the Mohammedan East

are obscure, in consequence of the various forces of destruction that have laid in ruins so many of the centres of Muslim culture, as well as the hostile attitude of the theologians towards all forms of representational art, and the fanaticism that. sought to destroy the work of the artist. Two or three drawings on Arabic papyri of the roth century, now in the collection of the archduke Rainer in Vienna, show that Coptic influence was operative from an early period in the Mohammedan era; but examples are not forthcoming as evidence of any further development in Egypt.

Persia.—In Mesopotamia, however, in the 13th century begins

a series of miniature paintings, illustrating the Maqamit of Hariri and such animal stories as those of Kalila and Dinma; a comparison with contemporary miniatures in the service books

of the Jacobite and Nestorian Churches suggests that the painters were either themselves Christians or were carrying on the tradition of oriental Christian art, in the service of Muslim employers

Influences of another kind are observable in the illustrations of a

ms. (dated A.H. 710=A.D. 1310-11) of the history of the word, by the famous minister of State, Rashid ud-Din (d. ap. 1318),

made by his painters in Tabriz; the talented author appears te

have provided not only Christian but also Chinese and Indias pictures for the guidance of his painters in their representations of the various historical incidents of successive ages. From thi,

period onwards Persia continued to produce the finest examples of Mohammedan

painting.

Chinese influences were, it is trae,

prominent under the rule of the Mongol conquerors, and portraits of them occur (e.g., in such a ms. as Supplément persan 1113 in the Bibliothèque Nationale); but native Persian gemes

began to re-assert itself in the reign of Timiir (1369-1404) and

under his immediate successors, and freed itself from all

Chinese influences, except certain conventional forms of repre-

to Florence. Minghett? was then driven from office. He took sentation, such as clouds, etc. Several portraits of Timūr are little part in public Efe until 1869, when he became minister of extant, and his sons and grandsons, who divided his empire among agriculture in the Menabrea Cabinet. Both in and out of office themselves, were distinguished for an even more generous patro

be exercised bis influence against an Italo-French alliance and for age of artists. But the art of painting in Persia is entirely anouyan finmediate advance upon Rome, and in 1870 was sent to Lon-

meg X +

mous until the reign of the last of the Timurid princes, Suitea

MINIATURE PAINTING

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(2, 3) THE SCHWAIGER

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i. Indian. Portrait of the Empress Nur Jahan Begam (1573-1645), wife of the Mogul Emperor Jahangir. Mogul painting (Delhi school), 17th

century

2. Indian. Prince Murad, son of Shah Jahan, Mogul emperor of Delhi. Note the carefully painted out halo. Mogul painting, c. 1650 3. Indian. Ragini Todi, one of the musical modes, an illuminated tempera painting. Rajput (Jaipur school), 18th century 4. Persian. Laila and Majnun in love with each other at school, probably

COLLECTION,

(4,

5, 6)

THE

METROPOLITAN

MUSEUM

OF

ART,

NEW

YORK

MINIATURES painted by Mirak. From Nizami, Khamsah, Cochran Collection, c. 1525

5. Persian.

fol. 129a:

ms. & of the

“Seek thou for Jamshid’s Cup in the wineglass, and for the

water of life in the grape lees.” From Jami, Diwan, fol. 263b: ms. 17 of the Cochran Collection, 15th century 6. Persian. “Bahram Gur on the Chase.” From Nizami, Haft Paikar, fol. 10a; ms. 10 of the Cochran Collection, late 16th century

Prate II

MINIATURE

PAINTING

e

s

'}

a ij

t

ja, J

1

A

BY COURTESY OF (1, 2) THE BERLAIN'S DEPARTMENT

DIRECTOR

OF THE

VICTORIA

AND

ALBERT

MUSEUM,

MINIATURES

OF

LONDON,

THE

17TH

1. Portrait of Sir Kenelm Digby (1603—65), signed and dated 1627, by Peter Oliver (1594—1647), English. From the collection of the Hon.

Frederic Wallop

2. Portrait

of Charles,

fifth Lord

North, first Lord

of Rolleston, English.

3. Portrait of Voltaire, by Louis Cheron (1655-1735), French. Pierpont Morgan collection, New York

of Madame

du

Barry,

by Richard

Cosway

of the artist

1743), French.

7. Portrait

in fancy costume,

From

by Nicholas

(1742-1821),

Lancret

the Pierpont Morgan collection

on ivory of Lord

Robert

Fitzgerald,

From

From the

English. From the Pierpont Morgan collection, New York 5. Portrait on ivory of the Hon. Frances Courtenay, by Andrew (1763-1837), English 6. Portrait

7, 16,

TO

I7,

19,

20)

THE

THE

19TH

METROPOLITAN

MUSEUM

OF

ART,

NEW

YORK,

(18)

THE

LORD

CHAN-

CENTURY

11. Portrait of Mile. Constance Mayer, by Pierre Paul Prud’hon (17581823), French. From the Pierpont Morgan collection, New York

12. The artist’s daughter, by Jean Baptiste Greuze (1725-1805), French. Grey

painted c. 1650-65, by Samuel the collection of the Hon. Frederic Cooper Wallop (1609-72),

4. Portrait

(5,

Plimer (1690—

From the Pierpont Morgan collection, New York 13. Š Portrait of Mile. à de Bethisy, daughter of the dame du palais Iais to Marie-Leszezynska, queen consort of Louis XV. of France, by Frangols Dumont, the elder (1751-1831), French. From the Pierpont Morgan collection, New York

14. Portrait

of Mrs. Baldwin,

signed

and

dated

16. Portrait of Mrs. James

Lowndes,

by Edward

1807), American

by George Engleheart

(1750-1829), English &. Portrait on a snuff-box, of the children of Mme. de Coincy, by Jean Baptiste Jacques Augustin (1759-1832), French. From the Pierpont Morgan collection, New York

1782,

by John Smart

(17411811), English. From a private collection in London 15. Portrait of the Marquise de Gauville, by Nicolas de Largilliére (16561746), French. From the Pierpont Morgan collection, New York Green

Malbone

(1777-

17. Portrait on ivory of Alexander Murray, by James Peale (1749-1831),

American 18. Portrait of Queen Charlotte (1744-1818), wife of George IIl., by Ozias Humphry (1742-1810), English. From the collection of His Majesty the King of England

9. Portrait of Marie Antoinette, Queen of France (1755-93), by Antoine Sergent (1751-1817), French. From the Pierpont Morgan collection

19. Portrait on ivory of George Washington, 1819), English

10. Portrait of the artist, by Peter Adolf Hall

20. Portrait of Mrs. Stephen van Rensselaer third, water colour on ivory,

93), Swedish.

(Pierre Adolphe)

(1739—

From the collection of His Majesty the King of Sweden

by Robert Fulton (1765-1815), American

by Robert

Field

(1749-

MINIATURE

PAINTING

539

ysayn Mirza, who reigned in Harat from 1468 to 1505. The çois Clouet; but lack of intelligent patronage checked the growth most famous painter in the annals of Persian art, Bihzad, during | of a school of painters in Turkey, and their achievement has conthe earlier part of his career worked under the patronage of this | sequently been more meagre and less distinguished than that of ce, and more than one portrait of his patron is attributed to him. Later, Bihzād enjoyed the favour of Shāh Ismé‘il, the

founder of the Safavid dynasty in 1502, and for about a century a succession of painters of extraordinary talent were actively yed in the service of the earlier monarchs of this dynasty. Their work has survived mainly in manuscripts of Persian poetry, which they were called upon to illustrate, and masters, such as

Mirak, Muzaffar ‘Ali, Qasim “Ali and Sultan Muhammad, carried ea in a brilliant manner the traditions of the school of Bihzad. Shah ‘Abbas (1587-1629) followed the practice of his forefathers in employing a number of court-painters, who worked in the royal

Mohammedan painters in either Persia or India. BrsriocrapHy.—P. W. Schulz, Die persisch-islamische Miniaturmalerei (1914=, bibl.) ; P. Brown, Indian Painting under the Mughals (1924); T. W. Arnold, Painting in Islam (1928); A. Grohmann

T. W. Arnold, The Islamic Book (192y). EUROPEAN

MINIATURE

and

(T. W. A.)

PAINTING

Portraits of living persons appear in illuminated manuscripts, especially of the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries and in many notable

documents. They reached a high standard in France and the Netherlands. Hans Holbein the younger executed small portraits of very fine and dainty technique, such as are called in the present

atelier, but though their names have been recorded, it is difficult to day miniatures; and though at this period there were other porassign to them, with any degree of certainty, the pictures that trait painters who were responsible for somewhat similar work,

have survived from this period. Only a very few paintings bear such as Shute, Betts, Benninck and Teerlinc in England (see the signature of any of these court-painters, with the important Salting collection, Victoria and Albert museum) Holbein is genion of Riza ‘Abbasi, who was a prolific artist, and not only erally regarded as the earliest and greatest representative of the had the habit of signing his pictures, but in many instances also art. The technique of the European miniature painter was closely wrote out long inscriptions giving the exact date and the circum- derived from that of the painter of illuminated manuscripts.

stances under which the pictures were made; he was a master in

England.—The earliest known English miniature painter, Nicholas Hilliard (c. 1547-1619), in his work shows clear signs of Shab ‘Abbas, his patron, and of a considerable number of his of such derivation, his colours are opaque, gold is used to heighten contemporaries. A portrait of the master himself, who died in the effect, but the portraits have a flatness and absence of shadows April 1635, is extant, copied 40 years later by an enthusiastic entirely resembling the paintings of the illuminated manuscripts. admirer, named Mu‘in Musavvir, who called himself his pupil. His son’s work is a little bolder than that of the father, and his India.—From the end of the 16th century onwards, portraiture miniatures somewhat richer in colour. Two painters named Isaac constituted one of the most prominent forms of artistic activity and Peter Oliver, father and son, succeeded Hilliard, Isaac (c. get only in Persia, but also in India. The emperor Akbar (1542—- 1567-1617) being stated to have been a pupil of Hilliard, and 1605) kept up a large establishment of over roo painters, and Peter (1594-1647) his father's pupil. These two men were employed them to illustrate his manuscripts, especially the transla- the earliest to give roundness and form to the faces that they tions which he had made for his use of works of Sanskrit litera- painted, and they were responsible for larger portraits than Holture into Persian. The emperor himself often sat for his portrait, bein or Hilliard had ever painted in miniature, some of them and also ordered the portraits of the grandees of his court to be measuring as much as 10 in. by g inches. taken. Of the painters themselves very little more than their The representations of all these four miniature painters are flat, names is known, but these frequently occur, written apparently by everything is seen in one light, all in detail, and embroidery, lace seme one of Akbar’s clerical staff, not by the artists themselves, or jewellery presented with almost microscopic minuteness. wder the paintings with which they were credited. Among them, The two Olivers were followed by two painters named Hoskins, “Abdus Samad was especially noted for his skill in portraiture and again father and son, the elder, John (d. 1664) was the master of he was entrusted with the training of some of the other court- Samuel Cooper the greatest of English miniaturists. In the time painters. Jahangir (1605—1628) was as generous a patron of of Hoskins, the influence of the old school of illuminators nearly painters as his father had been, and innumerable portraits of him passed away, the portrait was presented much more completely in and of his courtiers are in existence; in his memoirs, the emperor the round, in distinguished fashion, painted with a full brush in makes mention of several of these artists, and bestows especial easy rich masses, and the harmony of colours was deeper and paise on Abu’l Hasan, as having painted a picture of his acces- grander. Hoskins was the first of the miniature painters to be son, and on Bishandas, as a painter of portraits; the latter was able to represent in satisfactory fashion the appearance of flesh. sent to Persia in the suite of an ambassador accredited to that Hoskins was succeeded by Samuel Cooper, his nephew (1609— court, in order that he might there paint the portraits of the shah 1672), who spent much of his early life in France and Holland, and the chief nobles. Shah Jahan (1628-1659) carried on the and whose work in miniature has been characterized as “life-size tradition of his father and grandfather in patronizing art. The in little.’ His under-painting is often in sepia, but where flesh heed of his staff of painters was named Muhammad Faqirullah was concerned in vivid green with a transparent red lake over it. Khan, and he was assisted by Mir Hashim, famous as a portrait He painted faces supremely well, although erring a little on the painter. But the rigid orthodoxy of his son, Aurangzeb (1659- ruddy side, and Walpole says of him that, “if a glass could expand 1707), caused him to be hostile to all forms of representational Cooper’s pictures to the size of Vandyck’s, they would appear to art, and during the long reign of this monarch the art of painting have been painted for that proportion.” m India suffered a decline from which it never entirely recovered, Up to this time, miniature portraits had been painted mainly and though many pictures, portraits especially, were produced, upon the backs of playing cards, very occasionally upon thin skin, they fall short of the fine achievements of the court painters of usually chicken-skin, stretched across such card, but Cooper exthe first five emperors of the Mughal dynasty. perimented twice at least upon mutton bone. The use of ivory did

the art of portraiture, and his miniatures have preserved a record

Turkey.—Similarly, orthodox sentiment stood in the way of not come in until long after his time. His portraits mark the

panting receiving so open and generous a patronage in Turkey, as

supreme point in English miniature portrait painting.

aay record of a painter of genuine Turkish stock, named Husamsida Şan‘ulläh. Mohammed II. (1451-1481) took a special inter-

David des Granges (1611-1675), whose work can be studied at Ham House and Windsor Castle, Richard Gibson (1615-1690), Mrs. Rosse, his daughter, who cleverly imitated the work of Samuel Cooper, and other painters, such as Flatman, who was also a poet, Nicholas Dixon, Sir B. Gerbier and Charles and Mary

it had once enjoyed in India, though some of the Ottoman sultans He had a brother Alexander (d. 1660), whose works resemble tookpainters into their service; the earliest of these were Persians, those of Samuel Cooper, but are not as strong or as magnificent. and it was not until the middle of the rsth century that there is There were many other painters of his period; among them were

est in the work of Italian painters and medallists, and Gentile

worked for him in Constantinople for a little more than a year, and trained a Turkish pupil, named Shiblizida Ahmad. yYman the Magnificent (1520-1566) also encouragéd painters,

‘ae of whom, named Haydar, made copies of miniatures by Fran-

Beale. All these made use of opaque colours. Just before 1768, there was a fashion for extremely small

540

MINIATURE

miniatures, still. however. painted upon cardboard or occasionally upon vellum, and the work of such artists as Gervase Spencer (d. 1763), Hone and Scouler should be noted. In the 18th century, we come to the earliest use of ivory as a suitable material on which to paint portrait miniatures. This provided miniature painters, especially those of France, with

exactly the most suitable material upon which to use the newly discovered transparent colours. The establishment of the Royal Academy (1768) was largely responsible, in England, for the popularity of the miniature painting on ivory. Richard Cosway (1742~1821) is usually regarded as the principal English exponent of the art, so much so that for a long time when little was known of other artists, miniatures on ivory spe-

cially well painted were invariably attributed to him. His works are brilliant and of considerable beauty, his dexterity being so great that the portrait, to use the words of a well known critic, looks as if it was blown on to the ivory, and was gently resting there. With all their beauty, however, Cosway’s miniatures possess many faults in draughtsmanship, and these were exaggerated by one of his successors, Andrew Plimer (1763-1837) whose delightful portraits are often marked by forced chiaroscuro, experiments in strong colour and most inaccurate drawing. Plimer had a brother Nathaniel, who did better work than did his elder brother, and his miniatures are much smaller, and more difficult to acquire. Perhaps the most popular man of this period was George Engleheart (1750-1829), who was responsible for nearly 4,000 miniatures, a careful account of which he kept in his ledgers. His work is bolder and stronger than that of Cosway. His paintings are usually signed by an initial, and often dated. The most skilful draughtsman of the period was John Smart (1741-1811) whose work excelled all that of his contemporaries in its silky texture and elaborate finish, and in the extreme skill with the flesh, perchance sometimes too ruddy in colour, is painted. Amongst all the group, Smart alone seems to have had a profound knowledge of anatomy. One of the most delightful miniature painters of the day was Ozias Humphry, whose work is broader than that of his contemporaries, and who was in many respects an original genius. Towards the end of his life, owing to failing eyesight, he had to devote his time to pastel painting. Nathaniel Hone and his son Horace Hone, Peter Paillou (1740-1800) and William Wood (1768-1809) are painters who stand out in somewhat marked fashion. At the end of the 18th century, another group of artists come into view, such as Shelley, whose best portraits are groups of two or three persons, Hargreaves, a Liverpool painter, Mrs. Mee, who was responsible for a large number of portraits, Edridge, who drew also in pencil full length portraits, colouring the faces in miniature fashion, as did Cosway, Nixon, Collins, Crosse and others. Lawrence and Raeburn, in the early part of their career, both painted miniatures, but works that can be definitely attributed to either of them are extremely rare, and can very seldom be identified. Hoppner is said to have painted one or two miniatures, one only is known bearing his signature. Andrew Robertson started quite a new fashion in miniature portraits, desiring to make them more like small-sized paintings in oil, but his pigments were water-colours used with extreme skill and great knowledge. His paintings are particularly brilliant and also often executed with a very dark background, and full of dignity and force. The desire gradually came about in his time, and the time of those who followed him, to have much larger portraits than had hitherto been called miniatures, and at that period there was introduced the process of flattening out curved slices of ivory by hydraulic pressure. This enabled such men as Sir William Ross, Chalon, Newton and Thorburn to paint portraits of unusually large size, as large, and in some cases, larger than an octavo sheet of paper. In some instances, the ivory, by reason of climatic changes, has returned in a slight degree to its original curved shape, and hence these larger miniatures are often slightly cracked. Of this latest school, Chalon and Newton were the only two who worked in broad masses, the others, notably Ross, had

an almost microscopically minute technique, and invariably worked,

PAINTING under a magnifying glass.

All this school devoted too much attention to costume and acces. sories, and too little to the representation of the human face, senting their works, moreover, in full direct light, with but little shadow, and comparatively formal and stiff in their positions Among modern miniaturists the work of Alyn Williams jg of marked distinction and importance, and he has gathered about him

a group of excellent modern miniature painters, but it would by

invidious to name any others than Miss Brunton, whose work is s

distinctive and almost miraculous in its combination of minute treatment and broad effect, that it stands out in sharp relief.

Lately, an effort has been made to move away from the accepted microscopic minuteness to an effect of broader painting with excellent results, and even the modernist school has its exponents amongst the miniature painters of the present day, who aim a showing that the art is a living one, and that it progresses with the steady evolution that should characterize all artistic movements United States.—In the United States there have been many

notable miniature painters.

The earliest that can at present be

identified was John Watson (c. 1715), who drew small portraits

in pencil and in India ink. C. W. Peale was the most notable of the Philadelphia painters, and his works exhibit much charm, Ip Charleston (S.C.), Henry Bembridge did admirable work in abou the middle of the century.

Miniaturists who must be specially

mentioned in connection with New York are J. S. Copley, Henry

Pelham and Joseph Dunkerley, while John Ramage was aly notable and for a while was known in connection with Bosteg also. Two Scotsmen, Archibald and Alexander Robertson, went out to America towards the end of the century, and did admirable work in miniature painting, as did also another Robertson, an Trishman named Walter. The best native talent in the United

States belongs to a Rhode Island man, E. G. Malbone, and with him should be mentioned Benjamin Trott from Boston and Charles

Fraser from Charleston; the latter continued to paint down to 1850. Perhaps the most famous of all was named Robert Fiek, who was responsible for some of the very finest miniatures ever painted in America. He is the subject of a notable book by H. Piers, Robert Field (1927) recently issued concerning him, Two New Englanders amongst the very last of the Americana miniature painters were Alban Clark of Massachusetts and R. M. Staigg of Newport, and in the early part of the roth century, one ought not to forget to mention Henry Williams of Boston and Sarah Goodridge, and in New York, Dickinson, Wood, Inman and Cummings. France.—In France, there has always been a very important series of miniature painters. Amongst the earliest portraits oa vellum and paper were those painted by Clouet, father and s, Perreal and Fouquet, and following them is a long series of exce lent painters who were, in almost every case, admirable draughtsmen and good colourists. Some of the finest portraits painted ia France were, however, the work of a Swede named Pierre Adolphe Hall (1739-93), who, during the Pompadour period, was an ër-

ceedingly popular artist. A great painter was the Austrian, Heim rich Fiiger (1751-1818), who painted single portraits and groups on ivory in amazingly skilful fashion, charming graceful compos tions in excellent colour. Of French painters, amongst the best known are Dumont, Sicardi, and in later days Isabey and Augustin; the former died ja

1855 and the latter in 1832.

Probably no Frenchman painted

portraits more skilfully than did Augustin, and those he produced

of the great Napoleon are unequalled for beauty and brilliance. Quite another school of miniature painters was represented by Fragonard, whose portraits are painted with a brush very fullal

colour in exceedingly broad manner, with a marked absence of

the excessive minuteness of technique which is usually exhibited

in a miniature painter’s work. Other names that ought to bè mentioned are those of Drouais, Nattier, Largilliere and The great Boucher also was responsible for a few miniatures. Spain.—In Spain, Goya produced some excellent works, there are also many other notable painters in Spain, who good miniatures.

Italy.—Rosalba Carriera (1675-1757), the famoùs Venetis

MINIM—MINIMUM pastellist. was also a notable miniature painter,

(1921), also the privately printed Catalogue of the Pierpont Morgan

Collection (4 vol, 1yob-oS); Dudley Heath, Miniatures (with bibl.,

TECHNIQUE

s One is not able to speak with certainty respecting the vehicle The that were used by the earlier painters (see G. C. Williamson, n ’s Art of the Miniature Painter, 1926).

541

WAGE

Probably Holbein

, 1905); J. J. Fuster, Sumuel Cooper and English Miniature Painters af the i7th century (1914-16).

See also the Catalogue of Miniatures of the Victoria and Albert museum {1908}. R. W. Golding, The Welbeck Abbey Miniatures (1916); H. A. Kennedy, Eorly English Portrait Miniatures in the

traits were executed with a distemper vehicle, either the white or ` Collection of the Duke of Buccleuch

(1917); the series, Die Bildnis-

the yolk of egg, or both combined, and it has been stated that by miniatur und ihre Meister (edit. L. Grunstein, 12 vol. to date, 1925. analysis absolute proof has been obtained of Holbein's use of etc.); H. B. Wehle, American Miniatures, 1730-1850 (London, 1927). MINIM (adapted from Lat. minimus, the smallest; a super-

albumen. and of his arrangement to neutralize the alkaline action

of the albuminous liquid by means of weak acetic acid. Hilliard certainly ground his colours with gum arabic, and other gums

lative formed from the Indo-Germanic

root min-, small), the

smallest possible part of a thing, a particle. In music the name “minim” (nota minima) was given by mediaeval musicians to a

similar to that were used by those who followed him. Sugar candy

note whose value was half

cause Bernard Lens painted his own portrait with his palette, dated 1724, and shows on it the actual colours set on the palette. Respecting the colours used by the artists who painted on ivory,

MINIMI (or Minims), members of a Catholic monastic order founded in Italy in 1435 by St. Francis of Paula. The first rule of the order followed closely that of St. Francis of Assisi, but the second (1501) and third (1506) showed more independence. By the year of the death of St. Francis of Paula, 1507, the order had spread to France, Spain and Germany. In 1623 there were 359 convents and 6.430 members. After the French Revolution the number declined rapidly. In roro there were 19 convents, r5 of them in Italy, with about 330 friars.

a semibreve. It was, as its name also was used, sometimes in lieu of the gum, and sometimes in implies, the note of the shortest duration then in use. In modern connection with it, and honey has also been mentioned as one of music several notes of lesser value. as the ‘‘crotchet” and “quaver,” the vehicles used by these painters. The use of glycerine as a have been added, and the minim is now about halfway in the scale vehicle did not come about until after 1800. Hilliard certainly of “values.” According to Thomas Morley (A Plaine and Easie painted upon parchment, especially upon what he calls abortive | Introduction ta Practical Music, 1597), its introduction into manuparchment. and with long, slender, highly pointed brushes, in some Script music is ascribed to Phillipus de Vitriaco, a musician of cases made from the hair of the English squirrel. The use of the r4th century. In medicine a minim is the smallest fluid opaque colours by miniature painters continued during the 18th measure. century. in some instances we know exactly what they were, be-

we have ample details, as many of them have left behind speci-

mens of their colours and information concerning their technique and media. Painting in oil upon copper, or very occasionally upon silver plates was an art that was peculiarly characteristic of the Netherlands and also of Italy. There was a long series of artists about

whose art history we know very little, who in Holland produced numberless miniature paintings of this kind. They are seldom

WAGE.

A wage-rate fixed either by collective

agreement, or (more commonly) by legal enactment, or by some

other means, as the lowest wage payable to workers either generally or in a particular craft or grade. The phrase is most frequently used in connection with the various minimum wage laws passed by numerous countries in recent years, and especially in Australia and Great Britain. But it has no necessary reference to a legal minimum; and the phrase is also used to describe wages arrived at by collective bargaining, or adopted as minima by employers without either bargaining or legal compulsion. These other uses, however, raise no special problem: and this article is concerned with the discussion of the legal minimum wage. The idea of enforcing a legal minimum wage is closely bound up with the idea that society has certain obligations to safeguard the life-standard of its members. “Free” contract, without State interference, is in most countries still regarded as the normal method of determining the conditions of employment, but exceptions to this rule are more and more widely recognized. Just as hnest works of this kind were produced by Petitot (1607-1691) one country after another has been driven, by the hard compulsion who worked under Louis XIV., and whose son succeeded him in of facts, to build up a system of factory and similar legislation the same profession. Among the chief exponents of this art who for the purpose of preventing inhuman and anti-social conditions sometimes came and settled down in England, Boit and Zincke of employment, so the evil of “sweated labour” is compelling them may be mentioned as examples. Enamel portraits required the to legislate for the enforcement of wage-rates high enough to ensure for those covered by them employment at a “minimum standgreatest possible skill and a never-ending patience to produce them. ard of civilized life.” Nowhere, indeed, has this purpose yet been A few moments too long exposure in the kiln might entirely ruin the work of a very long period. We do not even yet know how wholly achieved; but the minimum wage laws now in force in Petitot painted some of his very finest enamels, and what method various parts of the world represent a considerable advance. While this has been the outstanding motive behind legislation he adopted for burning them. Some of his best are on gold instead for the enforcement of a minimum wage, it has in certain cases of copper plates. The greatest English exponent of the art was been intertwined with another—that of checking the development Henry Bone, and there are many other members

signed. The English and French miniature painters produced very

few oil paintings on metal, in fact, hardly a single example can be attributed to any of them with certainty. In Italy, the art was more usually accepted, and there are several painters, particularly of the later Bolognese school, who are known to have practised this art, but small oil portraits on copper attributed to the great masters, such as Tintoretto in Italy, and Velasquez and El Greco in Spain, must be considered as having names attributed to them very much at haphazard. We have no evidence to support such a contention, but a considerable amount of evidence to set against it. There is a bare possibility that some of tbem may have expermented in such a medium, but they have left no record of such experiments, either amongst their papers or in contemporary records or by means of their own signatures. Portraits in Enamel.—The art of portraits in enamel is an important section of the study of portrait miniatures. The very

of the same family who were closely associated with him in producing fine of strikes and industrial unrest. In Australia especially the laying down of enforceable minimum rates has been often combined with

portraits in enamel. Painters in enamel frequently also copied well works that had been executed in oil, producing small-sized reproductions of great charm and beauty, with the added advantage of being imperishable and almost indestructible. (See PENCIL (G. C. W.) Deawines; PAINTING; PORTRAITURE.)

Buerrocrarmy.—J. L. Propert, History of Miniature Art G. C. Williamson, Portrait Miniatures (1897; 2nd ed., 1910); Comey, RA. (1897; 2nd ed., 1905); George Engleheart Andrew and Nathaniel Plimer (1903); How to Identify Miniature

(1887): Rickard

(1902);

s (1904); History of Portrait Miniatures (2 vol, Portrait 1904);

Life and Works of Ozias Humphry (1918); The Miniature Collector

the prohibition of strikes and lock-outs and the enactment of compulsory arbitration. Where this is the case the rates of wages

enforced by law are in effect maximum as well as minimum rates, whereas under systems of pure minimum wage legislation there is nothing to prevent the demanding or payment of higher rates. Thus, under the British Trade Boards Acts, only pure minimum rates are prescribed, and the workers, or their trade unions, are left perfectly free to claim, and, if they think fit, strike for, higher rates. On the other hand, the rates of wages fixed by the justices after the Black Death and in Elizabethan times began

544

MINIMUM

as maximum rather than minimum rates, and only came [ater to be minima as well as maxima.

At the time of their institution,

the object was to prevent. not sweating or underpayment, but the rise of wages above a conventionally accepted standard. The Elizabethan wage legislation, which fell gradually into disuse during the 17th and 18th centuries, was finally repealed in

WAGE whole country, with the object of bringing the worse areas grady

| ally up towards the level of the better.

The act of 1909 was only experimental, and covered only a fey

specially selected trades. The act of 1918 brought in many mors

(for details see Trane Boars); but the regulation of wages by the State was still treated as an exceptional measure, and wag

1813. after the weavers and other classes of workers, whose wage- extended only to trades in which, because the wages paid wep standards had been depressed by the Napoleonic wars and the abnormally low or no satisfactory machinery for collective bay. Industrial Revolution. had vainly attempted to use it for the gaining existed, a special case of regulation was held to exist Jy raising of wages by State aid. A minimum wage bill introduced the great mass of British industries, including most of the great by Samue! Whitbread in 1795, largely on behalf of the agricultural basic services, no legal minimum wage exists to-day. The Trade workers, was thrown out in face of the dominance of the ideas of Boards Acts apply to about three million workers, out of a total free contract and the iron law of wages. Not for more than a employed population of 20 millions, The agricultural labo century after Whitbread’s failure was the British State to begin

the direct legal regulation of wage-rates, though factory legislation made a timid beginning in 1519, and important truck acts, regulating the form in which wages might be paid, were passed early in the rgth century. In Great Britain, until the Trade Boards Act of 1909, the State contented itself with legislating against

truck, and with the provision of purely voluntary machinery for conciliation and arbitration under such acts as the Conciliation Acts of 1867 and 1896. Minimum Wage Acts.—The provision by law of machinery for prescribing legally enforceable minimum rates of wages began in 1896 in the Australian State of Victoria. Under the act of 1896,

with later amendments, wages boards were set up in one trade after another, consisting of equal numbers of employers and workers, with an impartial chairman. These boards were given power to fix minimum rates enforceable on the employer; and provision

was made for a court of industrial appeals. South Australia followed Victoria's lead, and established boards of a broadly similar type. Other Australian States, and later the Commonwealth of Australia, followed a different plan, already started by New Zealand in 1894, and introduced in varying forms the system of compulsory conciliation and arbitration, under which the rates fixed were binding on both parties, and not as minima on the employer alone. The British Trade Boards Act of 1909 was based on the Victorian precedent, in that it set up boards for particular trades, with impartial chairmen (to whom it added certain impartial “appointed members”), and with pewer to fix binding minimum rates, but without any powers of compulsory arbitration. As this act and the still more important Trade Boards Act of 1918 are fully described in a separate article, they are not further dealt with here, save as illustrating the general principle of the legal minimum wage. Nor is there space in this article to deal with the widely varying experiments in minimum wage legislation which have been made in other countries. (See WaGES, and under the countries concerned.) It need only be said here that in both Europe and America the greater part of this legislation is confined to women workers, while many of the European acts deal only with home-workers. The French act of 1915, for example, is limited in both these ways.

The decision to institute some sort of minimum wage legislation in Great Britain followed on the Liberal election victory of 1906 and the return to parliament of a Labour Party which then for the first time became formidable enough to exert a real influence on the policy of the State. The ground for the act of 1909 was prepared by the exposures of the evil of “sweating” by the National Anti-Sweating League and other bodies, as well as by tradeunion agitation. At the outset, two possible courses presented themselves. The State could have aimed at enforcing, over the whole range of industry and employment, a single minimum rate

of wages (or perhaps different minima for men and women, boys

and girls). But any such rate or rates would have necessarily been very low, as they could only have been based on the situation in the worst-placed industries. As in Victoria, the alternative was preferred of setting up a distinct board for each trade or industry, each with power to prescribe a rate or rates for the particular

trade concerned. The boards were also given power, if they thought fit, to prescribe different minima for different localities; but they

whose wages were first regulated by law by the Corn Production Act of 1917, have now a minimum wage fixed separately for each

county under the Labour Government’s Agricultural Wages Act of 1924. The miners, too, have a Minimum Wage Act passed in connection with the national mining strike of 1912; but, as will

be seen, this is not a true minimum wage measure.

Though the trade-board method has been gradually extended to new trades—until further progress was stopped with the coming of the post-war slump in 192I—very many classes of lowpaid workers are still outside the scope of any form of State

wage-regulation. With many of these it would be possible to deal by the creation of more trade boards; but any such project is bound to encounter at least two difficulties. The Trade Boards

Acts have been applied so far only to trades in which a large proportion of the total number of workers employed has been in

receipt of exceptionally low wages.

But many sections of low-

paid workers are to be found in industries in which, taken as a whole, the rates of wages are relatively high. If the acts were

applied to these cases, it would be necessary either to apply them to the whole trade or to the underpaid sections only; and in either case this would involve a new principle. The trade unions and employers would probably be alike opposed in many instances

to the former method; while the latter would involve considerable difficulties of demarcation. Moreover, even if the acts were extended as widely as possible to clearly defined trades, there would remain a large residue oi workers, including many of the worst paid, employed in iHdefined or scattered occupations for which it would be difficult to establish any wage-fixing machinery on trade-board lines. It has been suggested that, in order to legislate for workers of this type, there should be set up some sort of general board, with power to prescribe minimum rates for any classes of workers for whom the establishment of a special board is difficult or im expedient. Coal Mines Minimum, 1912.—The Coal Mines Minimum

Wage Act of 1912 stands in quite a different class from the legislation discussed above, and cannot properly be regarded as a minimum wage act at all. It was passed primarily in order te remedy a grievance peculiar to the mining industry—that of the

man who, finding himself in an “abnormal place” in which coal getting is especially difficult, is unable at piece-work prices te earn a reasonable wage. The act of 1912 provides for the payment to such a man of a minimum wage based on the wages actually in force in the district concerned. Thus, if the district wage fixed by collective bargaining falls, the legal minimum falls too. The act is designed, not to secure a particular rate of wages, but merely

to protect individuals from earning, owing to conditions beyond their control, less than a standard established by the ordmary

process of collective bargaining. It has, therefore, been of no effect in dealing with the severe fluctuations of miners’ wages recently. In general, the question of the legal minimum wage is

up with the wider question of the State’s duty to secure for all its citizens a reasonable standard of life. In Australia, where the conception has been furthest developed, the minimum wage has been gradually forced up in accordance with an expanding coe ception of the minimum standard of civilized living. The growing practice has then been to define in relation to human needs a “basic” wage, which is then established as a general minimum,

chose, as a rule, rather to fix minimum rates for a trade over the rates in particular trades being fixed at varying levels above the

MINING

ACCIDENTS—MINING

pasic wage. In other countries, including Great Britain, legislahas been introduced only with great caution, and the boards

entrusted with the task of fixing minimum rates have been ded largely by the immediate “ability to pay” of the trades concerned, with the result that they have had relatively little effect ia raising the general standard of living. During the past few indeed. the tendency has been towards a narrow interpreta-

ENGINEER

543

power to establish minimum rates. In two of these, Massachusetts

and Nebraska, the force of the rates depends upon public opinion. The administrative bodies created by the acts are of two kinds. Permanent and general bodies are intended to be permanent f| continuing bodies and generally are not restricted to the subject of minimum wages but have general powers as to the conditions of employment of women and minors. Advisory and special

1

t

|

tion of their functions and powers. Under these circumstances, |bodies have duties usually limited to the investigation of condithe often expressed fears that the fixing of minimum rates might | tions and the making of recommendations. “drive trade out of the country” have not been verified. In cer- provided for in most of the minimum wage rain trades—notably tailoring—there has been some tendency to sions exist concerning the personnel of these simulate factory production and the use of machinery in place |generally the employers, the employees and

|

of home work and the small workshop. But on the whole the acts

have had relatively little effect on the structure or organization of industry. They have, however, never been used in Great Britain with the purpose of bringing about any general rise in wages, and their utility has in practice been limited to the prevention of some

of the grosser forms of “sweating.” Within this limited sphere

minimum wage legislation has undoubtedly produced good results, and would produce better if a more adequate system of inspection were provided. The number of inspectors is, however, still too small to ensure full enforcement of rates prescribed. BeLOCRAPHY.—}. H. Richardson, The Minimum Wage (1927); M. E. Burns, Wages and the State (1926); D. Sells, The British Trade Boards Acts (1923); A. G. B. Fisher, Wages and their Regulation (1926); E. Aves, Report on Wages Boards and Industrial Conciliation aud Arbitration Acts in Australia and New Zealand (1908).

(G. D. H. C.)

United States.—The fixing of wages of employees has not been favoured in the United States.

Because of constitutional limita-

tions on the powers of the legislatures and because of public opinion, legislation attempting to fix wages has followed tendencies different from those in other large industrial nations. Legislation fixing the wages of public employees and those engaged upon public works has been upheld as constitutional. Some acts, with regard to employees engaged on public works, fix a fat minimum rate while others provide that the rate shall be the “prevailing rate of wages” in the vicinity where the work is being done. With reference to private industrial enterprises the courts have recognized a difference between those affected with a public

interest (as railroads) and other private industries. With reference to industries affected with a public interest there seems to be a tendency to recognize the power of the legislatures to fix wages at least in emergency cases. As to other private industries the courts do not look upon the fixing of wages of men, women and children in the same light. As to men in private industry the legislatures have not taken any action to fix wages, except by the compulsory arbitration law of Kansas which has been held unconstitutional. Minimum wage laws covering women and children in private employment have been passed and have received considerable attention since 1912. Massachusetts was the first State

(1912) to enact one of these laws. The following year 8 States, California, Colorado, Minnesota, Nebraska, Oregon, Utah, Washington and Wisconsin passed laws. In 1915 Arkansas and Kansas acted. In 1917 the Arizona legislature passed a minimum wage act and the following year (1918) Congress passed a minimum wage act for the District of Columbia. In 1919, 3 laws were passed, North Dakota, Porto Rico and Texas, and since then, only South Dakota, 1923, has passed a law on the subject. Though

17 laws were passed Nebraska (1919) and _ With the exception imum wage acts are

only 15 are now on the statute books as Texas (1921) have repealed their acts. of Massachusetts the States having minnot important industrial States. Most of

the laws are general in their enumeration of industries covered by

the act with a tendency to except domestic service and similar

employment from the terms of the act. Most of the acts apply to male minors as well as females but some of the acts are limited

to females only. The States may be divided into two groups according to the method of determining wage rates.

Four acts,

those of Arizona, Porto Rico, South Dakota and Utah, fix flat mates. Arkansas fixes a flat rate but gives power to a commission

te change the rate. The other 12 acts provide a more flexible fysiem. In these States an administrative body is created having

Advisory boards are acts. Various proviadvisory boards but the public are repre-

sented. Many of the laws provide for the granting of special licences in the case of substandard workers who, because of age or physical or mental condition, cannot earn the standard wage. The non-compulsory Massachusetts law was upheld as constitutional in the State courts. The Oregon Act of 1913 became the basis of an important test case. After being upheld in the State courts, the case was taken to the Supreme Court of the United States where it was argued Dec. 16-17, 1914, and reargued on Jan. 18, 1917. The court divided equally 4 to 4 on the question of constitutionality and the decision of the State court upholding the act was sustained April 9, 1917 (Mr. Justice Brandeis, who

had originally appeared as attorney for the law, not voting). Partly because of the doubt as to the constitutionality of the acts the development became slow. After the passage of the District of Columbia Act in 1918, and with four changes in the personnel of the Supreme Court bench a new test case was taken to the Supreme Court of the United States. That court, by a five to three decision (Mr. Justice Brandeis not participating), held the act unconstitutional on April 9, 1923, in the case of Adkins v. Children’s Hospital. This decision was followed in 1925 and 1927 by per curiam decisions holding the Arizona and Arkansas acts unconstitutional. Several of the States have accepted the Adkins case as controlling but have continued to enforce the acts with the voluntary co-operation of some employers and without prosecution for violation of the acts. The Adkins case seems to be limited to the application of the act to women and not necessarily as applied to children. The Massachusetts non-compulsory law is being enforced. Wisconsin in 1925 passed an act intended to save the constitutionality of that act by bringing it within the limitations laid down in the opinion in the Adkins case. BIBLIOGRAPHY .—Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, No. 285. “Minimum Wage Laws of the United States: Construction and Operation” (1921); Women’s Bureau, US. Depariment of Labor, No. 61. “The Development of Minimum-Wage Laws in the United States, r912 to 1927.” (E. STE.)

MINING

ACCIDENTS:

see Coar anD Coar MINING;

DANGEROUS TRADES; INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENTS.

MINING

ENGINEER.

This term may be broadly con-

sidered to include anyone who is engaged in the extraction of minerals from the earth. The work of the mining engineer includes prospecting (g.v.) for deposits and various minerals, the development of mining methods and works required for the exploitation of proven deposits, and the installation of the necessary

equipment above and below ground. The mining engineer should be of rugged physique, capable of undergoing serious hardships. He should have an active and imaginative mind and must be able easily to adapt himself fo varying circumstances. Above all, he must be an able executive. Because of consolidations and the centralised operation of mining properties, the number of mining engineers required is decreasing. While the training and experience at present expected of the mining engineer is much broader than formerly, in many instances it is true that continual broadening of the field is forcing him to specialize in some certain phase of the mining industry. Thus, there is a sharp distinction between a coal mining engineer and

a metal mining engineer.

Opportunities for the general mining

engineer are, perhaps, greatest in Asia, Africa and South America

where much pioneer work yet (1929) remains to be done. A mining engineer should have a knowledge of the kinds and methods of mining and the fundamental sciences that are the foundation of all technical education. He should also be familiar

MINING,

544

METALLIFEROUS

LOPEN-CUT

with geology, mineralogy, chemistry and the principles of me- `weather. Thick deposits are worked in several benches. The chanical, electrical and civil engineering. He should have a- slope of the bank varies at different mines, but for preliminary general knowledge of mining law and metallurgy.

(F. J. G. Dv.)

MINING, METALLIFEROUS, the winning of metals and

|investigations may be taken as 45° from the horizontal, giving g general slope of from 38° to 40° for the entire side of the cut.

The shape of the ore body has an important bearing on th their ores from the ground. Metals. in their pure state and also mechanically and chemically combined with other substances. , feasibility of open-cut mining. Due to the slope which the sides occur all over the earth's surface. These deposits of metals and 3 of the cut must take, a narrow ore body cannot be mined as metal ores vary in extent and metal content and in their depth under the surface of the ground. which gives rise to different methods of mining. The broad classification of these methods, which is used by the American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers, divides metalliferous mining into two main fields; open-cut mining and underground mining.

|

Classification uf Mining Methods

OQpen-cut, Benches with or Glory-holes and milling

|

without | Hand sluicing Stripping. |Placer mining «Dredging | ‘Hydraulicking

yoy Vee

‘Breast Stoping. Continuous horizon apaan Hat- ` Casual pillars dipping deposits or i Room-and-pillar

beds ed Underhand Stoping. ‘Glory-hole and milling with pillars Veins and large |with stulls

‘

FIG. 1

pi aeai

masses.)

| |Overhand

Underground! Methods. `

Open stope; with square-set timbering í |With pillars ' with stulls

Stoping.

|

ing to underground mining for some part of it. Fig. x illustrates how side slope limits the economical depth of open-cut mining. (Horizontal cut and fill To carry shovel working to greater depth would require the

flat-back)

Shrinkage stope

‘Continuous horizon

Top-slicing. (Wide) Panel slicing

veins or masses.) | Block slicing Inclined slicing

| Sub-level caving

Methods.

wl

Even under favourable conditions,

in

(Sub-level stopes

Combined

diluting the ore with waste.

it is seldom possible to mine the entire ore body without resort-

Open a) with square-set timber-

\Steep dipping: Filled stope! Inclined cut and fill velns or masses.) | (rill) Square-set timbering Resuing or stripping

Caving. masses.)

economically by this method as a large flat lying deposit. If the deposit is irregular in, outline it may be difficult to prevent

Undercut from main level (Large}Block|Undercut from sub-levels caving, Block-caving into chutes Block-caving with branch raises

ee shrinkage stope and pillar, pillars mined by tonp-slicing, sub-level caving or block-cav

Sunate setCatering: pila mined Wy ice. OPEN-CUT

MINING

This term is applied to the working of metalliferous deposits

which either outcrop at the surface of the ground or are covered by a shallow overburden or capping which must be removed be-

fore the cre can be mined. Since the cost of removing the over-

burden is charged to the cost of mining, a point is reached, as the cover increases in thickness, beyond which open-cut mining does not pay and some method of underground mining must be used, Large deposits of copper and iron ores are worked by opencut mining, usually by the bench method. The depth of capping varies from a few feet up to 300 feet. Power-driven shovels work on benches loading the ore into cars running on a track placed near the edge of the bench. The material is loosened by

blasting, and care should be taken that the pieces are small enough to be handled easily by the shovels. The height of bank is determined by the thickness of the deposit, the size of the shovels

used, the physical character of the ore and climatic conditions. The higher the bank the more material the shovel can handle

from one position, but the greater is the danger of a slide burying the shovel and of falling rock injuring the men. The material may stand at a high angle when dry, but slides may occur in wet

removing of too much overburden, so for deeper working some method of underground mining must be used. The electrically operated shovel fitted with caterpillar tread is superseding the steam shovel, especially in large scale work, The electric shovel eliminates the problems of water and fue supply, which are of especial disadvantage in cold weather. Powershovel work, due to the high cost of equipment, must be on 2 large scale, and consequently can be economically applied only to large ore deposits, in which case it gives a large output ata very low mining cost. Ample dump room must be available, if much capping is to be removed. No timbering is required; hewever, the surface of the ground is destroyed for further use, bad weather may seriously interfere with operations and a large outlay of capital is required.

Glory-hole Mining.—Jn this case a vertical connection or raise is driven ta the surface from an underground haulage way. The top of this raise is broken out to farm a funnel-shaped opening, which is widened and deepened by drilling and blasting around the inside. The broken ore slides down the funnel into the ratse which serves as a chute, the ore being drawn off through gates

into cars on the haulage level. This is a cheap method of mining, but it is dangerous especially if pieces of the wall tend to break

off and the excavation is large. A series of holes may be mined until they intersect. The intervening ridges are then worked out. The entire operation of getting the ore into the chutes is called “milling.”

PLACER

MINING

Placer mining is a general term applied to deposits of minerals accumulated into workable quantities of economical importance

through the natural processes of erosion and concentration. The

heavy and not easily decomposed minerals in the parent rock are freed as the rock is broken down, and are sorted by the action of water and concentrated in the lower parts of stream beds Alluvial, used largely in the British Empire, is applied to placer formed by the mechanical action of moving water, whether of

streams, lakes or oceans, Eluvial is a term applied to placer

found clase to the parent rock, see fig: 2. Erosion has set free the gold which has worked down the slope due to the combi action of gravity and rains, Once a flowing stream is reac

the gold may be carried a long distance before it is deposited A placer deposit may be formed by one or more of a number af different minerals.

MINING, METALLIFEROUS

UNDERGROUND METHODS]

the gravel. the slope of the sluice and the pressure of the water.

Placer deposits are found in present stream beds. in benches above present streams, in elevated channels of ancient streams now cutting across present drainage (as the White Channel placers

As a rough guide, under average conditions the duty of a miner’s

inch is from 3 to 6 cu.yd. of gravel per 24 hours. Undercurrents are in some cases placed at an intermediate point or at the end of the main sluice to save fine gold. They

gf the Yukon), in gravels deeply buried (deep leads) beneath t streams or covered by lava flows.

545

They have also been

discovered at the mouths of streams flowing into lakes and as

are short sluices considerably wider than the main sluice, and beach deposits formed by the breaking, transporting and sort- ` are set on a steeper grade, generally at right-angles to the main sluice. A screen or grizzly in the main sluice lets the fine gravel. sand and gold pass through but retains the large rocks and sufl |

i

1 1 H 1 i1

ficient water to move them in the main sluice. The discharge from the undercurrent is either returned to the main sluice through an

auxiliary sluice of flatter grade or goes directly to the dump. Drift Mining is the term applied to the working of placer | deposits by underground methods of mining. It is classified f

|

2 q

under breast stoping. The paystreak is reached through a horizontal opening called a drift or adit (g.v.), or through a shallow vertical shaft. Small cars are commonly used for transporting the gravel, which is removed in some system of regular cuts or sluices across the paystreak. Posts and headboards are used to support the roof, but if the gravel is loosed a method of forepoling or

tight timbering must be used.

FIG. 2

ing action of waves.

before it can be mined.

Frozen gravel must be thawed

Steam, hot water or cold water have

Some beach deposits have been elevated | been suceessfully used as thawing mediums, being forced into

above the present ocean level. W orkable placers have also been | the gravel through pointed pipes.

Drifting is more

expensive

formed by the action of wind, which carried away the lighter |than sluicing or hydraulicking and is used only for rich gravels.

minerals leaving a residual concentrate of economic importance. | The thickness of pay gravel is generally between 2 and 8 feet. ‘The size of placer gold varies from nuggets of 2,000 oz. tray f UNDERGROUND METHODS or more to such fine flakes that 2,000 of them are worth only 1 cent. Gold coated with silica, oxide of manganese or iron oxide These include the various forms of stoping, top-slicing and

will not be caught by mercury. Small pockets of auriferous |caving. BREAST STOPING gravel are worked by the pan or the rocker. A rocker is a small wooden trough or box mounted on two transverse rockers so As a separate method of mining this is applied to thin ore the device can be given a side motion. By diligent work an ex- deposits that are ejther horizontal or dip at a small angle with perienced panner may handle 1 cu.yd. of gravel in ro hours. the horizontal. Stoping is the term applied to breaking the ore Two men with a rocker can handle from 3 to § cu.yd. of gravel from place by drilling and blasting. The excavation in which the in 10 br. under average conditions. miners work is called a stope. Thickness of deposits worked by Sluicing and Hydraulicking.—A slightly sloping wooden this method is not usually over r2 ft., although in modified form trough (box sluice) or a ditch cut in hard gravel or rock (ground this system is applied to beds up to 70 ft. in thickness, as in the sluice) is used as a channel along which gold-bearing gravel is Wisconsin zinc district. In thin deposits the entire thickness of carried by a stream of water. Riffles, in the form of cobble- ore is mined at one time, thus advancing the working in a vertical stones, wooden blocks, wooden poles or steel rails are placed face or breast. In thicker deposits the ore is mined in a series along the bottom of the sluice to aid in saving the gold. Sluices of benches. Continuous horizon implies a long working face vary from 1 to 6 ft. in width and from 1 to 4 ft. in depth, their which is attacked simultaneously at a number of points. cmss-section being proportional to the volume of material passing In the Missouri lead and zinc region the roof is supported by through them. Their length should be sufficient to allow the pillars of ore from 1o to 40 ft. in diameter, placed at irregular i3

gravel to disintegrate and the gold to settle. This usually takes place in the first 100 to 300 feet. Additional length of sluice is required to save much of the finer gold (sluices are not sufficient savers of very fine gold) and to convey the gravel to the dump. The slope or grade of sluices is commonly specified as the drop in inches in a length of 12 feet. Sections are commonly 12 ft.

bag. A drop of 3 in., per box may be sufficient for small light gravel, but more common drops are 6 to 7 in. per box. A drop of 12 in. gives a current too swift to permit the settling of any

but the coarsest gold. Sinicing is the term applied to working placers where the gravel is carried to the head of the sluice by shovelling, in wheelbarrows, in small cars, by scrapers, by dragline excavators or by small steam shovels. Large placer deposits are worked by hydraulicking, the gravel being loosened from place and washed into the sluice by powerful jets of water from nozzles called hydraulic giants. To be effective the head of water on the giant should not be less than 200 ft., equivalent to a pressure of 86-8 Ib. per square

mch, In case more head room is required than natural conditions

intervals. From 10 to 17% of the ore is left in the pillars, this amount depending upon the nature of the floor (hard or soft), the strength of the roof and total weight supported. The recovery of ore from the pillars is low, it being more economical to leave some of the ore than to use artificial means of support. To reduce the cost of mining, hand shovelling is replaced wherever feasible by some form of machine loading. Small power shovels are used in some large stopes. Concrete discs and concrete columns have proved a satisfactory means of support and in some places have supplanted wooden cribs filled with waste. Room and Pillar.—This method applies to the systematic cutting of the deposit into regular lines of square or rectangular pillars, which later are removed as much as possible. At the Maywood iron mine, Yorkshire, England, a deposit of iron ore 7-5 ft. thick is cut into pillars 54 to 60 ft. by drives 15 ft. wide, leaving some 63% of the ore in pillars, which later are worked out in sections, using posts as temporary roof supports. Finally, the posts are pulled out and the roof settles down over. UNDERHAND

afford, additional lift of gravel may be had through tbe use of

STOPING

As the name implies this is a method of working an ore body an hydraulic elevator, a steeply inclined pipe having a nozzle placed inside at the bottom. The gravel is washed into the from the top down. Holes for blasting are drilled downward. at a point just above the nozzle and is carried up by the Fig. 3 shows a composite section of underhand mining in a narrow force of the jet. Water for the hydraulic giant is measured in vertical vein. In mining it is customary to concentrate the hanterms of the miner’s inch, or a flow of 1-5 cu.ft. per minute. dling of ore and waste and the distribution of supplies on certain The volume of gravel loosened and washed through a sluice by a horizons called levels, which are commonly spaced 100 ft. apart miner's inch of water used for 24 hr. varies with conditions of vertically, though this distance may be greatly increased in some ia n e aai eaa aaa aei a ia e A SOR PUT INP AAA anama a a a a

MINING,

546

METALLIFEROUS

[UNDERGROUND METHOD

mines. The ore mined between two consecutive levels is dropped | tect the lower level and to provide a means of loading cars, the through chutes to the level below for hauling to the shaft.

On | lower level is either timbered, as shown at D, orapillar of

any level the passageways driven lengthwise of the vein are | Æ, is left, through which chutes, G, are cut at intervals of 25 te called drifts (a single drift may be called a level), and those 50 feet. The face of the ore forms a rough slope rather than a

driven across the vein from wall to wall are called cross-cuts. If series of steps as indicated at F. The angle of repose of broken the vein is inclined, the upper wall is the hanging wall and the ore is from 35° to 45°, the steeper angle being for hard ores, lower wall is the footwall. Two levels are interconnected by verti-

If possible, the slope should be such that the ore runs dows under the influence of gravity, but in inclined veins it may be

necessary to shovel the ore down the slope or to use mechanigj

LOS

ed 2 Stulis 7 X

s

a f

r

ve

Ž

fet

ekat

Ea

E

a

r

AEEA

QO

7

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F

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P

another series by an intervening pillar of ore.

E

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“J pane

a os

E

7

ei PES,

MAE gl PERA AET

B

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athe

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scrapers. Underhand stoping may be applied to large ore bodies under certain conditions. It generally takes the form of underground glory-holes (mill-holes), one series of holes being separated from

#44

YE4 wee SHAPT 2PER

Orth, ri

’

P

rock falling from the back or walls of the stope, hence the de-

r

aseAy

CY EYEE «Yet tt,

ee

ee

nf AILLEART,

|

r

LOWER

LEVEL-

sirability of having a firm back and strong walls. In Veins, the maximum width worked by underhand stoping using stulls is about 20 ft., since longer timbers have little supporting power, Underhand Stoping with Square-sets has been used fo

fg!

Moe

LS: Led

P ef

$

In these Cases,

as in the working of a narrow vein, the men are in danger of

f

IT)

mining small bodies of ore. The term square-sets is applied to ;

Fic. 3

cal or inclined openings called raises, if driven upward from a level, and winzes, if driven downward

from a level.

Thus the

same connecting opening may be a raise or a winze depending upon which level is used as a reference point. The term back is applied both to the roof of an underground opening or to the entire body of ore between a level and the next one above. Since each main level must have a haulage system and a station must be made at the shaft, a large number of levels in a mine calls for a heavy development expense. To lessen this expense levels may be placed 1,000 ft. or more apart, if the vein is fairly constant in dip and has strong walls, as in some of the Rand mines. Raises are spaced from roo to 200 or even 500 ft. apart horizontally. An underhand stope, see fig. 3, is started by working outward from the top of a winze in a series of horizontal slices, which

flexible system of timber support. A complete set is composed of 12 pieces of timber, four each of posts, caps and girts. As additional sets are added each timber becomes common to fow

adjacent sets. Round timbers are also used in sets, but they require a different framing. Sets are held in place by short blocks placed at the corners and wedged tightly against the walls of the stope. By extending sets vertically and horizontally this

skeleton framework may be shaped to fit a stope of very irregu-

lar outline. However, it is an expensive method of support and cannot withstand great pressure. If a few of the timbers are

thrown out of line, the entire framework is likely to collapse, The ore is first stoped to make room for the top floor of sets,

LTI L

which are covered with lagging to hold back the sandy capping or back, then the excavation for the floor below is made. The second floor sets are supported from the top floor sets by using

_ a t

H

G

N: X

Q

LEVEL.

iq

i

Tia

FIG - 4

leave the ore in step-like form. If the ore is rich, timbers called chains and planks nailed from a timber in the top set to another stulls are covered with plank (called lagging) to form the bot- in the floor below. The second set timbers are then wedged i tom of the level, as at A, but if the ore is lean, it is more eco- place and work on the third floor is started. nomical to leave a pillar of ore as at B. Should the level be the lowest level in the mine, the ore must be hoisted to the top OVERHAND STOPING of the winze. The cost of mining is increased, so this procedure Open Stopes.—In this system of mining, the stopes are a is used only for recovering small bodies of ore below a level. vanced upward, the ore being removed in horizontal, vertical e Raises and winzes are generally timbered to afford at least two inclined slices. The stopes are started from the bottom of 8 closed compartments, one to be used as a chute for ore or waste raise; either from the top of a protecting pillar of ore, as at P, and the other fitted with a ladder to serve as a manway. To pro- fig. 4, or directly off the level, as at S, in which case the

QVERHAND STOPING]

MINING,

METALLIFEROUS

547

isprotected by stulls or drift sets which are covered with lagging. ' to wet the surface of the waste before the ore ıs shot down.

Seulls used in narrow veins are commonly from 8 to 12 in. in After drawing off the ore, the hne material remaining is carefully diameter, though sizes up to 30 in.. have been used in heavy , scraped off the waste before additional filling is run m. d. The upper ends of the stulls are held in place by wedges. Filled Square Sets—These offer a flexible method of mining ing may be plank or round poles. Scattered pillars of ore . heavy ground. By varying the number of sets opened on the may be left to support the walls. Though the attempt is made ; bottom or sill floor of a stope and by limiting the vertical number later to recover this ore much of it may be lost. In wide veins so 'Of sets left unfilled, this system can be made to suit the nature much ore would be required for pillars that square-set timbering | of the ground being mined. If no great pressure is brought on 15 used. f |the timbers, a sill foor of say 12 to 15 sets or even more may As the stoping proceeds upward the miners must have some | be opened. In bad ground, the sill floor may be only two or three

support on which to work. For veins having a dip of 40° or less, ' sets. This area of horizontal cut is carried up to the level above, the men can work from the footwall, but on steeper dips stulls

and then another similar cut is started next to the filled sets,

or square-sets are covered with lagging to afford temporary : and the operations are repeated.

Thus a large block of heavy

working platforms. Strong walls and firm ore require a minimum ' ground may be safely mined in a series of small vertical slices. of support, and then the slope may be left open. In very heavy ground, the filling must be carried as close as pos-

Filled Stopes.—lIn case the ore is likely to fall as soon as it is undercut and if the walls are weak a stronger support than can be given by timbering alone is required and filling the stope with waste is resorted to. The waste is secured from sorting the

| sible to the working face. Chutes and manways are made by | lining square sets tightly on the inside with vertically placed : plank or lagging. Waste is confined within sets by placing lagging horizontally on the inside of the posts and spacing the plank a

ore (the amount is seldom sufficient), from driving small drifts or | few inches apart unless the filling is very fine.

inclined raises into the walls of the deposit, or outside the mine.:

Resuing or Stripping—This term is applied to the mimng of

In some cases the tailing from concentrating plants is used. This . rich narrow veins or of veins in which rich ore lies in a streak

material may be dry or it may be mixed with water and washed . of less width than the vein. The object of resuing is to mine into the mine through pipes in which case the water is drained the ore clean and free from waste, and thus save diluting the from the filling and is pumped from the mine. This method is . ore with waste and sending a larger tonnage of lower grade ore called sand filling. The horizontal-cut-and-fill or flat-back sys- | to the mill or smelter. In fig. 5 tem of overhand mining is shown in fig. 4. At H the cut is being | made horizontally to the right, the miners drilling holes from the |F top of the pile of broken ore at O. Chutes, C, are for drawing off |

A is the rich streak and V is the lean part of the vem. A level Ł is opened and the stoping is car-

the ore to the level below. These timbered chutes are built up | to keep the top just above the waste filling, which is brought in | through the upper level and dropped down the waste chute in the raise to be distributed through the stope in cars. As the mining progresses away from the main raise, additional waste raises, B, are driven at intervals to save hauling distance. Before FIG. 5 a slice of ore Is shot down, the waste filling is levelled and is covered with planks. The planks are removed when waste is to | The ore should separate easily be dumped. After the slice H has been carried beyond the first | adheres tightly to the wall some

ried upward. The level is driven largely in the worthless rock, which is first removed and then the rich streak is shot down, canvas or hides being commonly

iati aihio ele A a aaa ae nai.

waste raise, another slice may be started from the main raise. In|

used to catch the ore since the richest part is generally the finest. from the wall of the vein; if it waste will be mixed with the ore.

Shrinkage Stoping.—This is also called magazine stoping.

this way several sets of miners may be working in a stope. In | The ore is mined by overhand stoping. Only enough ore is drawn the Michigan copper mines where this system is followed, the | from the stope to afford working space to the miners who stand ore 1s sorted in the stope. At the Champion mine about 53% of | on the broken ore while drilling holes in the back. Broken ore the material broken in the stopes is left for filling. The ore | occupies some 60% more volume than ore in place, consequently chutes are built of large pieces of waste arranged in circular | about one third of the ore must be drawn off, as it is broken, fom. Some support to the back may be afforded by cribs built | through chutes closely spaced, from 25 to 50 ft., along the bottom on the waste or on the ore as at A, fig. 4, but no heavy weight | of the stope. Two-thirds of the ore is left in the stope. This can be supported in this way. For ore bodies of long horizontal | method of mining is best suited to hard ores of uniform character,

extent, vertical pillars of ore are left at intervals, and additional | with walls which are firm and regular and dip at not less than 60° support is afforded by horizontal pillars left just above and below. | from the horizontal. The ore should work easily down the stope Rill Stoping—This method, also known as inclined-cut-and-fill |when it is being drawn.

minmg, is a form of overhand stoping in which inclined slices | dilute the ore are broken, as is shown at R, fig. 4. The method works well where | under unusual the ore is hard and the walls are firm and regular. The slices or | that packs in cas are made either from the top down or the bottom up, the | ore breaks in

Soft walls are likely to slab off and

with barren rock. Sorting is not practised except conditions, and little timbering is required. Ore the stope must be loosened by blasting. If the large blocks, these must be drilled with shallow

miners standing on the broken ore. After a slice has been shot | holes and blasted; this is called block holing.

One disadvantage

down and the ore has drawn off at the level, waste is run in from | of this method lies in the long time the ore is left in stopes, this the raise. The waste runs in under the influence of gravity and | being two or three years in some cases, and entails high interest takes its own angle of repose. A layer of planks is laid on the | charges for carrying the ore. waste, another slice of ore is shot down and drawn off, and the Fig. 6 shows shrinkage stoping as applied to a large ore body. planks are removed for the next layer of waste filling. Both ore | The lower level is protected by a pillar through which short and waste require a minimum of handling. At T, fig. 4, stulls and | raises, C, for chutes are put up at 25 ft. intervals. Raises are posis are used as support. Here, the broken ore is shown lying | driven through the pillars at the ends of the stope. Short-cuts, en the plank-covered waste. Still stronger support is given by | driven through the pillars at small vertical intervals, connect with using square-sets. As the stope increases in height the lower | the working space in the stope, as shown at Jf. To prevent large point or toe moves away from the raise. The danger of falls of | pieces of ore from logging the chutes grizzlies, G, are placed at rocks from the back limits the length of the stopes, which in some | the top of the chutes C. A pillar of ore, indicated by the fine cases may be only 5o to 6o feet. An ore chute is started from the | line at P, may be left to protect the upper level. Later, pillars level at the toe of the slope and is carried up, keeping pace with | are mined by another method. Fig. 7 illustrates shrinkage stoping

the waste filling, If two chutes are used, one for waste and the | in a steeply dipping vein. The ore passes through the grizzly G ather for ore and a grizzly is placed over the ore chute, the | into the chute C along the haulage H. Bisa bulldozing chamber

larger pieces of waste may be sorted out. At the Pilares copper | in which men can work at blasting the large pieces which do mme in Mexico no planks are used in the stope; water is used | not pass the grizzly.

MINING, METALLIFEROUS

k agin ed are seg Te Sake E| m

a

a ot

C

Eaag

[SUB-LEVEL STOPING

ee

YU. Ce

rs

fi

FIGs.

6&7

Sub-level Stoping—This mining method was developed in several working places. The ore can be drawn out at once. The the Michigan iron mines. The principles of the method are il- method is limited to deposits having a dip of not less than 45°, lustrated in fig. 8. Main levels are from 100 to rso ft. apart, and since the ore should work freely down the footwall.

are connected by raise.

At intervals of 20 to 25 ft. vertically,

sub-levels 7 to 8 ft. high are driven from the raise to the end of the stope. These sub-levels are commonly a single drift down the centre of the stope. By driving cross-cuts at the end, sub-level No. 1 is for a short distance widened to the limits of the stope. Inclined holes are drilled around the chute raises C which are put up from the haulage level at intervals of 25 ft. or even less. These holes are blasted to give a funnel-shaped top to the chutes. Holes are now drilled in the back over the sub-level, and a slice im the centre of the stepe from level to level and the sub-levels 1s shot down, the broken ore falling into the chutes. Sub-level No. 2 is taken back by first cross-cutting to the full width of the stope, and then drilling down holes in the floor to remove part of

the lower pillar and “uppers” in the back to take out half of the upper pillar, Thus miners in No. 2 sub-level retreat toward the raise, drilling down holes in the slice B and up holes in the slice D. The ore falls into the chutes. The ore should be firm and free

N

YY OPEN

yy) NO. 2 SUB-LEVEL

STOPE

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No. 1 SUB-LEVEL

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HAULAGE

FIG. 8

$

LEVEL

TOP SLICING

This method, developed from methods used in the north of England iron mines, was first used in the iron mines of the

United States. Later it was adapted to the mining of copper

and lead-zinc ores.

Continuous Horizon.—Mining is done in horizontal slices,

to to 12 ft. thick, working downward from the top of the deposit. The first slice is taken just beneath the capping, which is sup

ported by timbering. As the slice of ore is taken out lagging is

laid on the floor to tightly cover the ore below. The posts sup porting the capping are then shot out and the capping caves onte the timber floor or mat. This mat is temporarily supported by the timbering of the second slice. After the ore in the second slice is taken out, a timber floor is laid and the posts are shot out. Thus the timber mat, which serves to prevent the capping from mixing with the ore receives additions as each slice is stoped. From the haulage level a raise, containing a chute and manway, is put up to the top of the ore and a main drift is driven to the boundaries of the block. Cross drifts are turned off at rightangles to the main drift and are driven to the limits of the block. The ore is broken by breast stoping, and is shovelled into cars to be hauled to the chute. The back is supported by timbering. After a cross drift has been completed, the floor is covered with a layer of timber and the posts are shot out, using small charges of dynamite. The overlying capping or timber mat settles down

onto the new floor. If capping in a caved drift tends to run into a working drift, the side of the latter is lagged to hold the capping. Since the timber is not recovered, it is as poor a grade as will do

for temporary support.

In variations of this method a form of

square-set timbering is used, and successive cuts may be two sets wide and two or three sets high. Panel, Block and Inclined Slicing —aA large ore body i not worked in one continuous horizon, but rather is a series of blocks or panels. Inclined top-slicing was devised to save shovel-

from slips. The sub-levels are carried back in steps, one working face being some 30 ft. horizontally ahead of that above. ling the ore. The cuts (frequently called slices, though slice If the walls are soft some waste will fall and mix with the ore. seems best applied to the entire series of cuts on one horizon) Tf the ore is hard, the cost of driving the sub-levels and drilling are inclined upwards from the chute at an angle of 33° with the the ore is increased. In long stopes a vertical cut may be made horizontal, so the ore will roll down to the chute. This method in the centre of the stope from level to level and the sub-levels does not permit sorting of the ore in the stope and is more difare carried back each way from this centre point. In wide stopes, ficult to work than horizontal slicing. The Mitchell method o 40 to roo ft. in width, two parallel haulage drifts may be driven, top-slicing is a modified form in which inclined slices are These are connected at intervals by cross cuts as at A. This up from a chute at 45° for from rz to rs ft. and are thent method entails a high cost for development, but requires little horizontally. It is difficult to keep the working drifts open fer timber and gives a large output from each stope because of the a long time, hence a large ore body is worked in a series uf

MINING, METALLIFEROUS

CAVING]

independent units. Top-slicing is applicable to weak ore with

549

Suitable ore bodies should be large, and the ore should be firm

r walls. It is most suitable for deposits of large horizontal enough to stand well during the work of undercutting and yet be extent which have a capping that caves readily. It is a safe brittle enough to break up well during the process of settling. method and gives a high extraction of ore, up to 98¢%. However, The capping should cave readily. The broken ore is drawn off the ore is mined by breast stoping and a large amount of timbering | at the bottom of the block until capping appears. Variations s required. The method is being replaced by others in which the ! of block-caving are due to the methods of undercutting the ore ore ig largely broken by undercutting and caving. and drawing off the ore. If undercut from the main level, the CAVING

Sub-level Caving.—This method is suitable for the large scale mining of ore that is moderately hard, that has fairly regular ymits and a capping which caves readily. The method is used chiefly in the iron mines of the Lake Superior district. Fig. 9 illustrates the principles of the method. Details vary at different

mines. From the haulage level (levels may be 75 to 100 ft.

block is cut by intersecting drifts and cross drifts into a series of pillars, which are as small as safety permits. The pillars are drilled and blasted, and time is allowed for the ore to settle. At the Pewabic iron mine in Michigan. levels are from roo to 125 ft. apart; the height of undercut is 7 feet. A block requires several weeks to settle, but continues to work for months. It was found that at the end of 6 to 8 months about 80° of the ore was fine enough to pass through a 3 in. ring. The broken ore

is mined by driving a series of closely timbered drifts into the driven from the raises at vertical intervals of from 15 to 18 ft., broken material. The ore runs in at the ends of the drifts and leaving a horizontal pillar of ore some g ft. thick between the is shovelled into cars. When waste appears a few sets in the sub-levels. The development work on each sub-level consists of drift are blasted down and drawing is resumed at a new point, longitudinal drifts, marked No. 1 sub-level, No. 2 sub-level, etc., thus following a retreating system. If a block is undercut from and cross drifts marked D. These are spaced about so ft. apart. sub-level, the general features are similar to those just described. Mining is started on the top sub-level, No. 4 in fig. 9, by driving From the main haulage-level, drifts are turned off at right-angles a cross drift parallel to D across the block of ore at the end of | at say so ft. intervals. and are driven to the limits of the block. tbe sub-level. The drift is timbered with three-piece sets of A sub-level is driven above the main level, and the block is two slightly inclined posts and a cap and is lagged overhead. A undercut by intersecting drifts and cross drifts on the sub-level. second drift is driven alongside the first one, the feet of the Chutes are put up to the sub-level from the haulage level. The posts in the two drifts overlap slightly. By removing a little of pillars are blasted and the ore is worked into chutes. In caving the lagging over the first drift, shallow holes can be drilled in info chutes, the chutes are close together and their tops are the back and the ore blasted. Men in the second drift shovel widened into funnels. The ore as it caves falls into these funnels. Block-caving With Branch Raises is a method followed at sevthe ore into cars far tramming to the chutes in the raises. After the ore is removed, the floor of the first drift is covered with a eral large copper mines in the United States and in South America. layer of timber, and a third drift is driven alongside the second The method is shown in figs. ro and rr. From the haulage-level drift and the operations are repeated. The capping caves and, as main inclined chutes (also called transfer raises or simply transi is caught on the timber mat, enough pressure is developed by fers), #, are driven to the grizzly level, where drifts, g, are used this weight on the ends of the horizontal pillars of ore to reduce to connect a line of chutes. The tops of the chutes are covered with a grizzly made of rails to catch the large pieces of ore which considerably the amount of blasting needed to break the ore. tn ig. g the ore over drifts A has been shot down. Shovellers would choke the chutes. From the grizzly level inclined chutes, in drift B have removed this ore and have laid planks on the k, are carried up and terminate in a square set, C, called a control floor, As soon as a new drift has been driven alongside drifts B, set, from which two or four inclined raises, F, called “finger mining the ore above B will be started. As in sub-level stoping, raises” are driven to the undercutting level at the bottom of the mining is done in a series of steps. From half to two-thirds of block. The tops of the finger raises are spaced 12.5 ft. apart each way, thus offering an ample number of points for drawing apart) raises are put up at 50 ft. intervals, and sub-levels are

off the caved ore. The ore is undercut by running a series of drifts, D, 25 ft. apart to the limits of the block. At one end of the block the ends of

an

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a”

the drifts are widened. Holes are then drilled in the intervening ribs or pillars and in the back. Blasting these holes generally starts the caving. Isolating shrinkage stopes, called “boundary shrinks,” are carried up across the ends or sides of the block

1

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before the ore is undercut to separate it from the adjoining ground

=

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No. 1 SUB-LEVEL

|

AULAGE LEVEL Fic. 9

the ore is broken by caving. In some miaes where mechanical scrapers are used, cuts are not taken at right angles to the main drifts but at a smaller angle to avoid working the scrapers around corners. The scrapers pull the ore to the chutes. Sub-level cavmg requires less timbering than top-slicing and the cost of mining 8 lower. However, the percentage of extraction is not so high and some capping becomes mixed with the ore. “caving.—In this method a block of ore is undercut,

and settles the height of the undercut. This relatively small movement of the ore is sufficient to break it into small pieces.

and thus facilitate the caving. This method is suitable for ore that is saft or of medium hardness in which there is little ar no waste. Hard ores which break in large blocks are better suited to shrinkage stoping. The capping should follow down freely after the ore, which should break into small pieces and run well into the chutes. Ores containing much fine material are likely to stick in the chutes, especially if wet. Details of the method vary at different mines. The undercutting level may be inclined ta follow the bottom slope of the ore. Finger raises may vary in number from two to four and in slope from 33° to 45° or more. Chutes may have a slope as great as 70°, but vertical chutes tend

to choke more easily than inclined ones. The spacing of the series of branch raises along the haulage way may vary from 25 to roo feet.

The height of ore (called lift) in a block may be from 30 to 240 feet. A thick body of ore may be worked in more than one lift. For a given amount of development work, the higher the lift taken the less is the cost per ton for the development work, since the cost is spread over all the ore in a hlock. However, other factors such as the horizontal extent of the ore and the economic life of the workings must also be considered. Since the method is applied to low grade copper ores, between 1 and 2% copper,

MINING, METALLIFEROUS

[COMBINED METHOns

CAPPING SF

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a T

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es

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FIGS. 12 & 13

of ore body, (3) grade of the ore, (4) quantity of waste admixed with the ore, (5) character of rock surrounding the section te be mined, (6) flexibility. Of the ore mined at the Pilares mine durmg 1927, the percentage secured by different mining methods was & follows: horizontal cut and fill, 58.6%; rill stoping, 15-7%; shrinkage with filling, 14-4%; square-sets, 9-8%. Top-slicing, caving and combined methods account for the remaining 1-5%.

(S66 also

CoaL AND Coat MINING; PROSPECTING; DREDGES AND DREDGING.

BrsriocraPHy.—H. Utah Copper Company

C. Goodrich, Shovel Operations at Bins (1925); G. J. Young, The Working 8 Ur-

MINION—MINISTRY

53"

protijed Mineral Deposits (1927); C. Raeburn and H. B. Milner,| act of the Crown, as well as for the general policy they had been Juviol Prospecting (1927); R. Peele, ed., Mining Engineers’ Hand- called upon to administer, should have seats in both houses of

hook (2d. ed, 1927); W. Lindgren. Mineral Deposits (3rd ed. rev., | parliament. These changes also introduced the practice and con928); E. E. Payne, “Support of Workings on the Van Ryn Deep,” | Journal Chem. Met. and Min. Soc. (South Africa, July, 1926); J. ception of having a leading minister who was to become known Richardson, “Methods of Support of Hanging on New States, Area as the prime minister (g.v.). But political unanimity in the Ltd, with Special Reference to Concrete Columns,” Journal Chem. cabinet was not yet recognized as indispensable. Met. end Min, Soc. (South Africa, July, 1926); see also series of In 1812 an attempt was made to form a ministry consisting articles on mining methods by C. A. Mitke in the Eng. and Min.| Jour. (Sept. 10, 19245 Oct. 8; Dec. 10, 24, 1917; March 3, April 7, | of men of opposite political principles, who were invited to accept May 1, 26, 1928); V. A. Brussolo, “Mining Methods at the Pilares office, not avowedly as a coalition government, but with an offer Mine,” Min. Congress Jour. (May, 1928). (R. S. L.) to the Whig leaders that their friends should be allowed a majority of one in the cabinet. This offer was declined on the plea that MINION, a favourite, pet, or spoiled person. “Minion” is | to construct a cabinet on “a system of counteraction was inconchiefly applied in a derogatory sense to the “creatures” of a royal court. In the sense pretty, delicate, dainty, the French form sistent with the prosecution of any uniform and beneficial course mignon or mignonne is often used in English. During the 17th of policy.” From that date it has been an established principle century “minion” was the name of a type of cannon with a small that all cabinets are to be formed on some basis of political union hore. In printing, a size of type smaller than brevier and larger agreed upon by the members when they accept office together. It is now also distinctly understood that the members of a cabinet are than nonpareil; it is also known as 7-point. jointly and severally responsible for each other’s acts, and that MINISTER, an official title both civil and ecclesiastical. The any attempt to distinguish between a particular minister and his word minister as originally used in the Latin Church was a transcolleagues in such matters is unconstitutional. lation of the Greek dzaxovos, deacon, and in this sense it is still During the 19th century the power of ministers was greatly technically used. See MINISTRY, THE CHRISTIAN. extended, and their duties became more distinctly marked out. For the civil title of minister see the articles Ministry and As now interpreted, the leading principles of the British Consti- Cagrnet. For the history and meanings of the word “minister” tution are the personal irresponsibility of the sovereign, the rein diplomacy, see DIPLOMACY. sponsibility of ministers, and the inquisitorial and controlling meanits all in (g.v.) minister a of office MINISTRY, the power of parliament. At the head of affairs is the prime minister, ings, political and religious, or the body of persons holding such with the more important members of the administration conan office and performing its duties; more particularly the body | stituting the cabinet. Certain of the subordinate members of the of persons who, in theory the servants at the head of the State, | administration are occasionally invited to join the cabinet, while act as the responsible executive over the whole sphere of govern- others are never in it. ment, The word “ministry” is also in some cases applied to a parFor further details the articles CABINET, Privy Council, Govticular department of government with its responsible head and ERNMENT DEPARTMENTS, should be consulted, as well as the

permanent officials or staff. In England, ever since the introduction of monarchical institutions the sovereign has always been surrounded by a select body of confidential advisers to assist the Crown in the government of the country. At no period could a king of England act, according to law, without advice in the public concerns of the kingdom; the institution of the Crown of England and the institution of the privy council (g.v.) are coeval. In the earlier stages

the king’s councillors, as confidential servants of the monarch, were present at every meeting of parliament in order to advise upon matters judicial in the House of Lords; but in the reign of Richard II. the privy council dissolved its judicial connection with the peers and assumed an independent jurisdiction of its own. In the reign of Henry VI. the king’s council first assumed the name of privy council, and it was during the minority of this sovereign that a select council gradually emerged from the larger body of the privy council, which ultimately became the modern cabinet.

separate treatment of the more important offices under their own headings, as PRIME MINISTER, Lorn Hric CHANCELLOR, SECRETARY OF STATE; and FOREIGN OFFICE, ADMIRALTY, WaR OFFICE. The corresponding lists of officers in the United States will be found under the title CABINET, a name which is universally used in that country. TABLE OF Lorp TREASURERS OR First LORDS oF THE TREASURY FROM 1603, AND OF THE PRIME MINISTERS FROM 1721 {For the origin and history of the lord treasurer’s office, see TREASURY, EXCHEQUER, and Loro Hrce TREASURER. Since the Commonwealth the office of lord treasurer has been executed by a board of commissioners, known as the lords of the Treasury, with the exception of the six lord treasurers whose names are printed in italics. Special rank was given to one of the commissioners as first lord of the Treasury, and from the end of the 17th century it has been customary for the leading minister of the Crown to occupy the office of first lord; in later times, therefore (with the few exceptions noted in the list given below), it has usually been held in conjunction with the premiership. The lord treasurer’s commission sometimes enables the first lord to act also as chancellor of the exchequer (see Table of Chancellors of the

Since the revolution of 1688, and the development of parliamentary government, the privy council has dwindled into comExchequer). The office of lord high treasurer of Scotland was united parative insignificance, and the power which it once swayed is with that of England at the Union, and in 1816 the separate Irish

now exercised by that unrecognized select committee of the coun-

cil known as the cabinet (g.v.). At first government by cabinet was as unpopular as it was

irregular, and until the formation of the first parliamentary ministry by William III. the ministers of the king occupied no recognized position in the House of Commons; it was, indeed, a

moot point whether they were entitled to sit at all in the lower chamber, and they were seldom of one mind in the administration of matters of importance. Before the revolution of 1688 there Were ministers, but no ministry in the modern sense of the word; divisions in the cabinet were constantly occurring, and it was nO uncommon thing to see ministers opposing one another in parliament upon measures that in modern times would be sup-

ported by a united cabinet. As the change from government by Prerogative to government by parliament consequent upon the

revolution of 1688 developed, and the House of Commons be-

came more and more the centre and force of the State, the ad-

vantage of having ministers in the legislature to explain and defend

measures and policy of the executive Government began to e appreciated, and it became absolutely necessary that the advasers of the sovereign, who were responsible for every public

Treasury was similarly incorporated.] 1603. Lord Buckhurst, cr. earl of ' 1643. Lord Cottington. Dorset 1604. 1649. Commissioners under the Commonwealth. 1608. Earl of Salisbury. 1660. Sir E. Hyde, after. earl of 1612. Earl of Northampton and others. (Commissioners.} Clarendon, and others. (Commissioners.) 1614. Earl of Suffolk. 1660. Earl of Southam pion. 1618. Archbishop Abbot and 1667. Duke of Albemarle and others. (Commissioners.) others. (Commissioners.) 1620. Sir H. Montagu, cr. Vis1672. Lord Clifford. count Mandeville 1620, after1673. Viscount Dunblane, cr. earl wards earl of Manchester. of Danby 1674, after. duke of 1621. Lord Cranfield, cr. earl of Leeds Middlesex 1622. 1679. Earl of Essex. 1624. Sir J. Ley, cr. Lord Ley 1679. Lord Hyde, cr. earl of r625, and earl of Marlborough Rochester 1682. 1626. 1684. Lord Godolphin. 1628. Lord Weston, cr. earl of 1685. Earl af Rochester. Portland 1633. 1687. Lord Bellasyse. 1635. Archbishop Laud and oth1689. Viscount Mordant, earl of ers. (Commissioners.) Monmouth, after. earl of Peter1636. W. Juxon, bishop of Lonborough. don. 1690. Viscount Lonsdale. 1641. Sir E. Littleton and others. 1690. Lord Godolphin, (Commissioners.)

MINISTRY

552 169", C. Montaru, cr. earl of Haliiax 1700. 1099. Earl of Tankerville. 1700. Lord Godolphin, r7or. Earl of Carlisle. 1702. Lord Godalphin, after. earl of Godolphin. 1710. Earl Poulett.

tryin. Furl of Orford.

71g. Duke of Shrewsbury. 1714. Earl of Halifax.

1715. Earl of Carlisle,

1713. Sir R. Walpole. isi’. J. Stanhope, after. earl Stanhope. 1718. Earl of Sunderland. 1721. Sir R. Walpole (commonly revarded as the first of the prime ministers). i742. Earl of Wilmington. 1743. Henry Pelham. 1754. Duke of Newcastle. 1756. Duke of Devonshire. 1757. Duke of Newcastle (W. Pitt and the duke of Newcastle’s administration). 1762, Earl of Bute. 1763. George Grenville, 1765. Marquess of Rockingham. 1766. Duke of Graiton (W. Pitt,

earl of Chatham, prime minister till 1768).

1770. Lord North. 1782. Marquess of Rockingham. 1782, Earl of Shelburne, after, marquess of Lansdowne. 1783. Duke of Portland (prime minister, Lord North, after, earl of Guilford). 1783. William Pitt.

1801. H. Addington, after. count Sidmouth. 1804. William Pitt. 1806. Lord Grenville. 1807. Duke of Portland. 1809. Spencer Perceval.

Vis-

1812. Earl of Liverpool.

Goderich, after, 1834. Lord Lyndhurst. 1880. Lord Selborne, cr, earl of Ripon. 1835. Sir C. C. Pepys and others. elb orne 1882. i m 1823. Duke of Welington. (Commissioners.) 1885. Lord Halsbury. 1830. Earl Grey. 1836. Lord Cottenham. 1886. Lord Herschell, 1834. Viscount Melbourne. 1841. Lord Lyndhurst. 1886. Lord Halsbury. 1834. Sir R. Peel. 1846. Lord Cottenham. 1892. Lord Herschell. 1835. Viscount Melbourne. r8s50. Lord Langdale and others. 1895. Lord Halsbury, er, 1841. Sir R. Peel. (Commissioners.) Halsbury 1898. H 1846. Lord J. Russell, cr. Earl 1850. Lord Truro. 1905. Lord Loreburn. Russell 1861. 1852. Lord St. Leonards. IQI2. Lord Haldane. 182. Earl of Derby. 1852. Lord Cranworth. Ig1s. Lord Buckmaster, 1852. Earl of Aberdeen. 1858. Lord Chelmsford. r916. Lord Finlay, 1855. Viscount Palmerston. 1859. Lord Campbell. 19109. Lord Birkenhead, cr, earl 1858. Earl of Derby. 1861. Lord Westbury. of Birkenhead 1922. 1839. Viscount Palmerston. 1865. Lord Cranworth. 1922. Lord Cave. 186%. Earl Russell. 1866. Lord Chelmsford. 1924. Lord Haldane (from Jan, 1866. Earl of Derby. 1868. Lord Cairns. to Nov.). 1868, Benjamin Disraeli. 1868. Lord Hatherley. 1924. Lord Cave. 1868. W. E. Gladstone, 1872. Lord Selborne. 1928. Lord Hailsham. 1874. B. Disraeli, cr. earl of Bea1874. Lord Cairns, cr. Earl Cairns 1929. Lord Sankey. consfield 1876. 1878. 1880. W. E. Gladstone. TABLE OF CHANCELLORS OF THE EXCHEQUER 1885. Sir Stafford Northcote, cr. earl of Iddesleigh 1885 (prime The chancellor of the exchequer, as finance minister of the C minister, marquess of Salis- is required to be a member of the House of Commons, and is the bury). person named second after the first lord of the Treasury in the patent 1886. W. E. Gladstone. appointing commissioners for executing the office of lord hich treasurer 1886. Marquess of Salisbury, (see p. 540, Table of Lord Treasurers). The title dates from 1887. W. H. Smith (prime minis- separate existence of the exchequer court, as the king’s revenue couthe ter, Lord Salisbury). in the reign of Henry III. (See EXCHEQ UER.) In Scotland lord 1891. A. J. Balfour (prime minis- high treasurer, who in virtue of his offic e had a seat in the the Scottish ter, Lord Salisbury). parliament, presided over the court of the exchequer, and this court 1892. W. E. Gladstone. was reserved by the Act of Union. But the judicial functions 1894. Earl of Rosebery. English and the Scottish courts of exchequer were transferred of the 1895. A. J. Balfour (prime minis- high court of justice and the court of session respectively in theto the ter, Lord Salisbury till 1902; part of the roth century. The office of chancellor of the exchequerearly hag after 1902, A. J. Balfour). sometimes been held jointly with that of prime minister and first bord 1905 Sir H. Campbell-Bannerof the Treasury, and is so indicated by an “*” in the list of chanman. cellors from the time of the Scottish Union given below: 1908. H. H. Asquith, cr. earl of 1714. Sir R. Onslow. 1839. F. T. Baring, after, Sir P, Oxford and Asquith 1925, 1715. *Robert Walpole. 1841. H. Goulburn. z9r6. D. Lloyd George. 1717. *Lord Stanhope. 1846. C. Wood, after. Sir Chas 1922, A. Bonar Law. 1718. John Aislabie. 1852, B. Disraeli, after, earl of 1923. Stanley Baldwin. 1721. *Robert Walpole Beaconsfield. 1924. J. Ramsay MacDonald 1742. Sam, Sandys. W. E. Gladstone, (from Jan. to Nov.). 1743. *Henry Pelham. 1855. Sir G. C. Lewis. 1924. Stanley Baldwin. 1754. Hon. H B. Legge. 1858. B. Disraeli, 1929. J. Ramsay MacDonald. 1827. Viscount

1827. George Canning. 176r. Viscount Barrington. TABLE OF LorD CHANCELLORS (C.) or Lorp KEEPERS (L.K.) 1762. Sir Francis Dashwood, (For the history of these offices see under their own headings.) after. Lord le Despencer. r603. Sir T. Egerton, L.K., cr. 1710. Sir S. Harcourt, L.K., cr. 1763. *George Grenville. Lord Ellesmere 1603, and VisLord Harcourt ryzz, C. 1713. 1765. William Dowdeswell. count Brackley 1616. 1714. Lord Cowper, C. 1766. Hon. Charles Townshend. 1617. Sir F. Bacon, L.K., cr. Lord 1718. Sir R. Tracy and others. 1767. Lord North. Verulam 1618, and Viscount St. (Commissioners.) 1770. *Lord North. Albans 2621. 1718. Lord Parker, C., cr. earl of 1782, Lord John Cavendish. 1621. J. Williams, bishop of LinMacclesfield 172r. William Pitt. coln, L.K. 1725, Sir J. Jekyll and others. 1783. Lord John Cavendish. 1625. Sir T. Coventry, L.K., cr. {Commissioners.) *William Pitt. Lord Coventry 1628. 1725. Lord King, C. 1801. *Henry Addington. ré40. Sir J. Finch, L.K., cr. Lord 1733. Lord Talbot of Hensol, C. 1804. *William Pitt. Finch 16.0. 1737. Lord Hardwicke, C., cr. 1806. Lord Henry Petty. 164%. Sir E. Littleton, LK., cr. earl of Hardwicke 1754. 1807. Spencer Perceval. Lord Lyttleton 1641. 1756. Sir J. Willes and others. 1809. *Spencer Perceval. 1645. Sir R. Lane, L.K. (Commissioners.) 1812. N. Vansittart, after. Lord 1649. Interregnum. 1757. Sir R. Henley, the last lord Bexley. 1660. Sir E. Hyde, C., cr. Lord keeper, cr. Lord Henley and C. 1823. F. J. Robinson, after. VisHyde 1650, and earl of Clar1760, and earl of Northington count Goderich, and earl of endon 1661. 1764. Ripon. 1667. Sir O. Bridgeman, L.K. 1766. Lord Camden. 1827. *G. Canning. 1672. Earl of Shaftesbury, C. 1770. Charles Yorke. 1827 J. C. Herries. 1673. Sir H. Finch, L.K., cr. Lord 1770. Sir S. S, Smythe and others. 1828, H. Goulburn. Finch 1674, C. 1675, cr. earl of (Commissioners.) 1830. Viscount Althorp, after. Nottingham 1681. 1771. Lord Apsley, succeeded as Earl Spencer. x682. Sir F. North, L.K. er. Lord Earl Bathurst 1775. 1834. *Sir R. Peel.

Guilford 1683. 1685. Lord Jeffreys, C. 1690. Sir J. Maynard and others. (Commissioners.) 1690. Sir J. Trevor and others. (Commissioners,) 1693. Sir J. Somers, L.K., C., er. Lord Somers 1697. 1700. Sir N. Wright, L.K. 1705. W. Cowper, L.K., cr. Lord

Cowper 1706, C. 1707. 4710. Sir T. Trevor and others. ommissioners.)

1778. Lord Thurlow.

1783 Lord Loughborough others. (Commissioners.) 1783. Lord Thurlow.

and

1792, Sir J. Eyre and others. (Commissioners.) 1793. Lord Loughborough, cr. earl of Rosslyn x8or. 1801. Lord Eldon. 1806. Lord Erskine. 1807. Lord Eldon. 1827. Lord Lyndhurst. |

1830. Lord Brougham.

1835. T. Spring-Rice, after. Lord Monteagle.

1859

1866. 1868.

W. E. Gladstone,

3B. Disraeli. G. W. Hunt. R. Lowe.

1873. *W. E Gladstone, 1874. Sir S. Northcote, after, earl of Iddesleigh. 1880. *W. H. 1885. Sir 1886. Sir 1882,

E. Gladstone, C. E. Childers. M. Hicks-Beach. William Harcourt.

Lord Randolph Churchill

1887, 1892. 1895.

1902,

G. J. Goschen. Sir W. Harcourt. Sir M. Hicks-Beach. C. T. Ritchie.

J. Austen after. Sir A,

1905.

Chamberlain,

H. H. Asquith, after. earl

of Oxford and Asquith. I008. D. L. George. IQI5. R. McKenna. I9I6. A. Bonar Law. IQI. A. Chamberlain. IQ2I. Sir R. S. Horne. 1922. S. Baldwin. 1923. N. Chamberlain. 1924. P. Snowden. 1924. W. S. Churchill. 1929. P. Snowden.

TABLE OF SECRETARIES OF STATE

[With the substitution of two secretaries for one, there was, at first, no distinction of departments, each secretary taking whatever work the king saw fit to entrust him with. During the reigns of the first twe

Stuarts, there was a tendency to entrust one secretary with the cortespondence with Protestant states and their allies, and the other with the

correspondence with Catholic states. Probably in the reign of

II., and certainly as early as 1691, two departments, the Northern a the Southern, were instituted. In 1782 the departments were ch Home and Foreign; see SECRETARY OF STATE.]

MINISTRY

553

TABLE OF SECRETARIES OF STATE FROM 1603

Sir R. Cecil, cr. Lord Cecil Ps Viscount Cranbone earl of Salisbury ON og

A Sir R tWinw ood. 1615. s

Sir T. Lake.

,

1618, Sir R. Naunton.

1633. Sir E. Conway; ‘cr, ‘Lord Conway 1045:

.

_ Sir F. Windebank. 0. . SirE.Nicholas. `Interregnum.

; Sir J. Trevor. Henry Coventry.

f

HA Sir Williamson. 1678. 4 Sit Jof Sunderland.

Earl of Shrewsbury.

1694.

1695. SirW. Trumbull. _ 1697. J. Vernon. 1700, Sir C. Pea r

a

oe

wa.

ie

.

Earl of Jersey. Earl of Manchester. Earl of Nottingham.

°

te

xe

He Earl of Sunderland. 1708,

.

R. Harley, cr. earl of Oxford 1711. HQ Boyle, cr. Bn. Carleton r714.

.

Bedfor

wh

ve

; Earl of Bute. ; : G. Grenville. Earl of Halifax. Duke of Grafton. Duke of Richmond. Earl of Shelburne. dey sot te. «ot Earl of Hillsborough, Colo-

1713. W. Bromley. 1714, J. Stanhope, cr. earl Stan-

Viscount Townshend.

1783. 1789. W. W. Grenville, cr. Baron

J. Addison.

1791. H. Dundas.

1794

a

Hame Office . | Duke of Portland

.

| 06

07

. | Lord Hawkesbury

a o.

,

og

.

1822 27

, .

| 1809 1812

827

e

.

.

‘a

. | Lord Hawkesbury, after. earl of Liverpool

. | R, Ryder

x Viscount Sidmouth (H. Addington) Marquess of Lansdowne

R. Peel

Viscount Melbourne

‘

3 1034.

1835

1539 1039

| 1841

| 1845

1846

| 1852 1852

i

Viscount Duncannon, after. earl of Bessi boroug

H. Goulburn

1834

z% Marquess of Normanb

Sir T.Graham, Bart. i

. | Sir G. Grey

wi

H. Walpole . | Spencer H. Viscount Palmerston

1853, Earl of Clarendon.

1858. Earl of Malmesbury.

Lord Hawkesbury S5

Viscount Stormont.,

CLE

Foreign Office

C. J..F Earl Temple.

Lord Sydney. ;

Lord Grenville. War and Colonial Office H. Dundas, cr. Visct. Melville 1802.

Lord Hobart, after. earl of Buckinghamshire. Earl Camden.

C, J. Fox

W. Windham.

Viscount Castlereagh. Viscount Castlereagh.

G, Canning

i

Earl Bathurst

a | Marquess Wellesley Viscount Castlereagh, after. | Earl Bathurst. Marquess of Londonderry

Earl of Aberdeen

Viscount Palmerston S

Duke of Wellington E ie

| Earl of Aberdeen tes

Viscount Palmerston Earl of Malmesbury | Lord J. Russell

TABLE OF FOREIGN SECRETARIES FROM 1853 1859. Lord J. Russell, cr. Earl 1865. Earl of Clarendon. Russell 1861.

Earl of Sandwich. Earl of Halifax. Earl of Suffolk.

Lord Harrowby

Viscount Palmerston

Lord J. Russell

‘

Foreign Office Lord Grenville

| G. Canning Earl of Dudley

R. Peel . | W. S. Bourne

Viscount Weymouth.

Grenville 1790.

Lord Mulgrave

Earl Spencer

1828

1830 1833

after. earl of Chichester

P. Yorke

oe

1B04

| 1805

ae arr

:

‘

1803

Earl of Sandwich.

H. S. Conway.

T. To amend: cr. Baron Sydney 1783.

$H. St. Jobn, cr. Viscount Boling- | 1783. Lord North. broke 1712. 1783. Marquess of Carmarthen.

hope 2718.

Earl of Egremont.

Home Office 1782, Earl of Shelburne. 1782. Lord Grantham.

1710. Lord Dartmouth,cr. earl of Dartmouth 1711.

1717. Earl of Sunderland.

Sir T. Robinson, cr. Baron Grantham 1761, H, Fox. W. Pitt.

1771. Be. ak e 1772. Earl of Dartmouth, Coženies. 1775. Viscount Weymouth, cr. marquess of Bath 1789. 1776. Lord G. S. Germaine, Colonies. 1779 . 1. Earl of Hillsborough, ‘er. marquess of Downshire 1789. 1782. W. Ellis, cr. Baron Mendip, 1794, Colonies.

S. Godolphin. Earl of Middleton. Viscount Preston. Earl of Nottingham.

'Earl of Shrewsbury. . Viscount Sidney. . Sir J. Trenchard.

Duke of

1768.“Earl of Recito: 1740. : . 1771.

Sir L. Jenkins.

i' Lord Conway. . Earl of Sunderland.

>

L755. eee 1761. 1761. 1762. 1763. 1765. 1766. 1766. 1768. ee

Sir W. Morrice.

of Arlington 166 5:

P

1748.

1751. Earl of Holderness. 1754. Sta «6 dh

Sir H. Vane. i Viscount Falkland. Lord Digby.

_ Sir E. Nicholas. 1662. Sir H. Bennet, cr, earl

1701.

1746. Earl of Harrington. oe atk T Poel pais

Sir A. Morton. Sir J. Coke.

1625. 1645. 1628, Viscount “Dorchester.

a

1746. Earl Granville.

Sir G. Calvert.

1619.

J. Craggs. Lord Carteret, Duke of Newcastle.

1718. Earl Stanhope. 1721. Viscount Townshend, 1724. 1730. Lord Harrington. 1742. Lord Carteret, became Earl Granville 1744. 1744. Earl of Harrington.

f Viscount Goderich.

W. Huskisson.

Sir G. Murra

Viscount Goderich, after. earl of Ripon. E. G. S. Stanley, after. Lord Stanley and earl of Derby.

T. Spring-Rice, after. Lord Monteagle.

Earl of Aberdeen.

Lord Glenelg.

Normanby. a ofel ussell

Lord Stanley, after. earl of Derby.

W. E. Gladstone.

Earl Grey

Sir J. S,“Pakington, after. Lord Hampton. Duke of Newcastle.

1866. Lord Stanley, after. 15th

earl of Derby. 1868. Earl of Clarendon.

MINISTRY

554 1870, Earl Granville.

1900. Marquess of Lansdowne.

1874. 1878. 1880, 1885. 1886. 1886,

1905. Sir E. Grey, cr. Viscount Grey 1916. 1916. A. J. Balfour, cr. earl of Balfour 1922. r919. Earl Curzon, cr. Marquess Curzon 1921. 1924. J. Ramsay MacDonald. J. Austen Chamberlain, after. Sir A. 1929. Arthur Henderson.

1887.

1892.

1894. 1895.

Earl of Derby. Marquess ot Salisbury. Earl Granville. Marqut:- af Salisburv. Earl ot KoseLery. Earl ot Iddesleich, Marquess ef Salsbury. Earl ot Reuseberv. Earl of Kimberley. Marquess of Salisbury.

Particulars of the leading ministers in modern times and the events with which their names are associated may be read in the article ExcLIsH Hrsrory. H. H. Asquith (Earl of Oxford and Asquithi, was kome secretary 1892-95; H. J. (Viscount) Glad-

ent shape. There was no necessity for an exceptional or Prophetic

ministry, and, in fact, the apostles who claimed to be such in the

third generation had come to be regarded with suspicion, and the class soon died out. | Fi

| !

t

Thus the local ministry had the field to itself. We have see that the celebration of the Eucharist was its characteristic office

On this ground Ignatius calls the bishop the representative of Christ, and the presbyters the representatives of the Apostle, But the whole tendency of Christian thought was monarchical

Perhaps the original churches were collegiate, the authority which

came to be vested in the bishop being at first held collectively by the body of presbyters or bishops. But this soon ceased. The government passed into the hands of the bishop, with the of presbyters as his council. In fact there was an analogy with the mediaeval guilds of western Europe. In them, as they survive

stone (1905-10); W. S. Churchill (1910-11); R. McKenna (1gti-15); Sir J. Simon (1915-16); H. (Sir Herbert) Samuel in the city of London, the society is divided into two classes, the (1916); Sir G. (Earl; Cave (1916-19); E. Shortt (1919-22); “court” which governs and the “livery,” from which the “court” W. C. (Viscount) Bridgeman (1922—23); A. Henderson (1924); is elected, but which has itself no powers of administration, So, Sir W. Joynson-Hicks (Viscount Brentford) (1924-29); and J. R. under the Roman empire, the guild, or collegium was divided inte Ciynes (1929~ ) occupied the same office. H. (Sir Henry) Camp- the ordo which ruled and the plebs which obeyed, the whole mem. bell-Bannerman was secretary for war in 1886 and 1892-95; R. B. bership being often called the populus. When the Christian (Viscount) Haldane (1905-12). The resignation of Colonel societies grew in numbers it was natural that they should (Major-General) J. E. B. Seely from this office in 1914 led to themselves of the liberty allowed to humble folk of combiningavail in the prime minister (Asquith) taking it into his own hands from collegia illicita, i.e., unlicensed, rather than illegal, guilds for such March to August of that year. The war secretaries who followed purposes as that of a burial club. No doubt other definitely during the war were Earl Kitchener (1914~16); D. Lloyd George religious ends were served by these organizations, in which the (June to December 1916); the Earl of Derby (1916-18); and lead was naturally taken by the ordo. It is strange that in Latin Viscount Milner (April to December 1918). The war secretaries and its derivative languages the technical term “orders” should since the war have been W. S. Churchill (1918-21); Sir L. Worth- have been borrowed from this quite secondary side of the office. ington-Evans (1921-22); the Earl of Derby (1922-24); S. In several languages plebs has similarly come to mean “parish”: Walsh (1924) and T. Shaw (1929- ). At the Colonial Office, Italian pieve, Welsh’ plwyf. Sir M. Hicks-Beach (Viscount St. Aldwyn) was secretary 1874-80 The authority of the ministry has been attributed and Joseph Chamberlain 1895-1902; among others the office was from the Christian community, regarded as directly to a grant inspired by held by A. Bonar Law and W. H. (Viscount) Long during the its Founder, of powers with which He had endowed it as a corWorld War; J. H. Thomas (1924). In 1926, during the term porate body, to certain of its members. It has also been regarded of L. C. M. S. Amery (1924-29), a Dominions Office was set up as a power over the members of the church which was bestowed and Mr. Amery held both offices until 1929; Lord Passfield by the Founder, first upon His Apostles and subsequently, through (Sidney Webb) succeeded him in both posts. John (Viscount) them, on a permanent line of successors. In explanation of this Morley was secretary for India in 1905~10 and was followed by was developed the doctrine of Orders as sacramenta l. In its final the Earl of Crewe (Marquess of Crewe) during 1910-15; J. A. form, as held in the Roman communion, there are three distinct (Sir Austen) Chamberlain (1915-17); Edwin Samuel Montagu sacraments of orders, those of bishop, priest and (z917-22); Viscount Peel (1922-24); Lord Olivier (1924); papacy, in spite of its authority, is not regarded deacon. The as having the Earl of Birkenhead (1924-28); Viscount Peel (1928-29); and same sanction, for it has “no outward and visible sign.” A pope W. Benn (1929- )}). is regarded as becoming invested with his office from the moment MINISTRY, THE CHRISTIAN. The purpose of this that he signifies his assent to his election. article must be to trace the history of the existing Christian But this doctrine, which was to become classical, in the form ministries, assuming, as with but insignificant exceptions all of a theory of the transmission of authority by the laying on of Christian communities do, that a ministry is necessary for their the bishop’s hands, could not be older than the systematic dewelfare, and indeed for their existence. Practically, our enquiry velopment of Christian thought on the subject of sacraments. must be into the development of local ministries. We cannot St. Ignatius had not asserted more than that the Eucharist of the consider the authority or the actions of Apostles or prophets bishop is more securely authentic than that celebrated by any except as they shaped the constitution of the primitive churches. other; he had not claimed that it, received at his hands or at That they did so, is clear. We find St. Paul appointing in the those of his delegate, is alone valid. And the argument of St. churches which he founded officers named “bishops” or “elders,” Irenaeus that the test of orthodoxy is the doctrine handed down titles which are synonymous. As his was a spiritual office it was from the Apostles through the bishops is an appeal to succession a spiritual authority that he conveyed. In fact, a generation in office, not to transmission of office. The successors of St. John, which expected an immediate and sudden return of the Lord, who had learned each from his predecessor, what St. John had could have no interests that were not spiritual. There was one taught, were witnesses who could be trusted, especially as the Christian duty that was pre-eminently spiritual. It was that of line was still brief and therefore the opportunities of error few. reproducing the Last Supper. It was dramatic. The leading In any case, the position of the bishop became secure, and he Christian took the place of our Lord; he was, whether perman- was universally established in the Christian churches. This preently or for the occasion, the chief of the body of bishops or eminence of the one member of the ministry had the inevitable elders. The rest of them sat at meat with him, while the congre- effect of depressing the others. The presbyters, or priests, regation stood around. The sacred acts were repeated. Before mained as the council of the local church under the bishop's liturgies were thought of, the president uttered an extemporary presidence. They still sat while others stood at worship, they prayer; he spoke as an inspired prophet. Soon, as part of the were consulted by the bishop in all matters of importance, Same process which led to the use of written Gospels in lieu of they had the dignity of a corporate body. To this day, at the reminiscences which’ were growing faint or came to be

at second hand, a fixed form of service was composed. There was no longer the primitive confidence. Soon also, some unknown man of genius changed the actual into a symbolic meal. When those three steps

had been taken, the church had advanced far towards its perman-

ordination of a priest, all members of that order who are presest

join in laying their hands upon the candidate for admission te

their order. This has never been done at the ordination of der cons, upon whom the bishop alone lays hands.

The reasen 8

that originally deacons were the personal officers of the bishop,

MINISTRY

555

dosen by him to be his assistants, and were not a corporate . his order by a similar act, the significance of which has been . He was only concerned in their admission to orders. made less conspicuous by the lead taken by the bishop in the Presbyterate and diaconate were two separate branches of the : ordination. In any case. but perhaps wrongly, the validity of the derical office, as in England now the professions of solicitor , rite, whether it be sacramental or no, has been regarded as deand barrister are distinct within the legal calling, nor was it |pendent on the fact that the bishop's hands have been imposed.

gual to pass from the one to the other.

But election to the | In regard to the third order there is no doubt of the historical

episcopate was equally within the reach of both. In fact, a deacon | justification for the bishop's acting alone.

had in early times the better chance, especially if at the time of When his staff was duly constituted by ordination, it was inyacancy he held the office of the bishop’s chief deacon, or in later |evitable that it should be organized. We have seen the beginnings terms of archdeacon. At Rome the deacon usually succeeded. of local priests and deacons. But general organization could only

This deacon was the administrative officer of the diocese. He | be arranged after the peace and favour conferred by Constantine its finance, he supervised the conduct of the minor | the Great. It was his will that the church should be co-extensive

dergy and the laity. He was better known to the congregation | with his empire, that all its subjects should be induced—and than anyone except the bishop, for he, like the other deacons, | persuasion before long was changed into compulsion—to become

gave his whole time to his work, while the presbyters, apart | Christian, and that the doctrine throughout the Church should be from their duty as the bishop’s counsellors, were only occasionally | uniform.

Thus there arose a problem of administration, which

employed when the bishop had need of their services. This is | was solved by making the area of civil administration that of the

strikingly shown in the consistent use of the title sacerdos, till | ecclesiastical diocese;

and by constituting metropolitan

and

well into the fourth century, for the bishop and for the bishop | patriarchal regions corresponding to higher areas of civil governalone. St. Cyprian never uses it otherwise, and though other | ment. As men grew familiar with these arrangements, which surwriters are not equally uniform in their usage, the word “priest” | vived in principle, and often in detail, the fall of the western as we understand it and as it is employed in the Old Testament, | empire, they came to attach a certain sacredness to them; to the normally means both in Greek and Latin none other than the | most important of those arrangements, that which gave unique

bishop. He was still the regular celebrant, though he would from | authority to the patriarchate of Rome, they gave an actually time to time charge one of the presbyters to execute this office | theological significance. And the systematizing genius of an age for him; and indeed, as the churches grew larger and places of | which worked out scholasticism made the whole scheme of reworship more numerous, these presbyters came regularly to pre- | ligious thought coherent; it was assumed that all was equally true side at the Eucharist in places to which they were appointed, | and equally important. though that where the bishop himself for the occasion presided | Towards the end of the middle ages the weakest point in the was for that day the centre of the local church. With the usual | system came to be the personal life, as contrasted with the official ministration of the Eucharist the -deacons were tbus more | claims, of the clergy. Notorious scandals led men on to dispute habitually connected than the priest. A deacon must be present to | the current theory of the ministry; and the religious practices

assist; it could even be said that he consecrated the chalice, for |which hitherto had satisfied the public conscience lost their imit was his duty to pour some of the consecrated wine into each of | pressiveness.

Not to speak of earlier attempts at revolt, when

the flagons from which it was drawn for the communion of the | Luther proclaimed his new system it was in fact a contradiction to laity. In this way as in many others the deacons were always | the old. The clergy, though necessary for religion, were not before the public eye. No instance is known of a bishop, how- | authoritative; they were simply means towards the end of proever small his see, who had no deacon. Many bishops had no more | moting the spiritual life of the community. Luther revived the then one. The traditional number at Rome was seven, which may | mediaeval conception of the monarch as the vicar of God on be due to the fact that Rome was divided for ecclesiastical as | earth. It was for him to provide religious ministrations for his well as civil purposes into fourteen regions, over two of which | people, and to compel them to take advantage of the provision.

each deacon may have presided.

No doubt the record of the | The theory had been worked out by opponents of the papal

Acts, according to which seven was the number of deacons insti- | autocracy, especially in the fourteenth century, and was now to

tuted at Jerusalem had its weight; but it is very doubtful whether | be put in practice. A sufficient justification was found in abuses deacons, as we know them, owe their origin to the Apostolic de- |which Rome, itself notoriously unreformed, refused to correct. cision. Rome is the first church which is known to have had | The monarch

(and the class was construed to include quite in-

deacons with local authority; Alexandria the first with priests | significant princes of Germany) was therefore bidden by virtue who had “parishes,” to use the later term of their own. Perhaps | of his God-given summepiskopat, as it was called in Prussia till we may trace the definite subordination of deacon to priest, | 1918, to correct the Church, and to provide for the continuance

winch ended in the former office becoming a mere apprenticeship | of a satisfactory ministry. Of its character the prince was to be ior the latter, to the idea, which sprang up in the fifth century, | judge; in Luther’s eyes it was a heinous crime for anyone to of a correspondence between the three orders of the Christian | officiate as a minister of religion without the prince’s sanction.

with the three orders of the Jewish. The name “levite” came to | Such was the external authority of the Church; inwardly it was be not infrequently used for “deacon.” the second order of the ministry, in analogy, gained the title of sacerdos, with the Jewish high priest. This must

It is more important that | verified by the assurance which Luther and his followers enjoyed accordance with the same | that they were in a satisfactory spiritual state. But Lutheranism the bishop being identified | has laboured under the difficulty of reconciling the two standards, ` have led to the impression | that of loyalty to the society and that of inward feeling. The that the chief and characteristic function of the priest (a name | latter, known as Pietism, has always been suspected as tending to

which survived in general use) was that of celebrating the Euchar- | breed insincerity and disloyalty.

The rival school of reformed thought, while agreeing with the st. In fact, as Christianity spread so widely that it was beyond the power of the bishop to satisfy the need, the ordinary minister | Lutheran in such traditional essentials as acceptance of the Bible, Sacraments came to be not the bishop but the priest. the Augustinian theology, and the duty of enforcing conformity over the minor orders, which are very ancient but | to the recognized Church, assigned a higher office to the ministry ing nly of archaeological interest, we must turn to the organization | and the Church. The latter is not under the authority of the af the ministry, the theory of which had come to be that of| state, but is the immediate organ of Christ, and its ministry has transmission by laying on of hands. The bishop elect was | authority from Him, not from the monarch. It has also a pattern approved and also consecrated (though the formal distinction | prescribed in Scripture. As the Old Testament gives direction for n “consecration” to the episcopate and “ordination” to| civil life, so do the epistles of the New for the organization of the lowergrades of the ministry is comparatively late) by neighbour- | Church, While Luther had been indifferent to systems of church-

i bishops who assembled at the vacant see on news of the late | government, rejecting the opportunity of continuing the histori-

bishop's death. They admitted him to their own community by| cal ministry which the adhesion of several bishops to his cause @corporate laying on of hands, just as the priest was admitted to | had giver him and satisfied to dispense with any justification for

556

MINISTRY

OF FOOD—MINNEAPOLIS

his ministry save that of its efficiency and the monarch’s approval, Calvin framed a doctrine which raised the ministry to the mediaeval level. It had for him Divine authority; and its members formed a corporate body which not only should, in national synods, guide the religious life of nations, but also, when the world was fully reformed, assemble to control the universal

faith and morals. But there was one profound change; Calvin taught the parity of ministers. There is but one sacred order; for St. Paul bishop was synonymous with presbyter, and his teaching is binding upon later generations. Authority is vested, not in Pope or bishop, but in representatives chosen out of the one order. First at Geneva, and then in Scotland and the Netherlands on a national scale, this government was established, and

buttressed with an elaborate theology, which armed the ministry

with formidable powers. Both these novel systems had their weight in England. But there the Reformation began simply as Catholicism without the Pope, though under Edward VI. there was a swift though brief movement towards the continental pattern. The ancient ministry was retained, and survived even when, after the Marian reaction, England became definitely Protestant. This survival of antiquity had to be justified. Why, it was asked, is the English ministry different from that of the other reformed churches? The answer given, and found satisfactory on the continent, was that the or-

dination of its ministry is a matter within the power of each national church. The English, in its discretion, had chosen to retain the ancient use. It did not condemn other reformed churches which, of choice or of necessity, had dispensed with bishops. It recognized their ministries, and conversely they did the same, though each had no doubt that it had chosen the better course. This was the line taken by Ken, the future bishop and non-juror, when resident in Holland as chaplain to Mary, who was to be the queen of William III. But such tolerance did not satisfy the keener spirits on any side, and when the English Presbyterians under Elizabeth protested that English orders, because conferred by bishops, were invalid, Bancroft and his followers retorted that it was the orders of their critics that were invalid, because given by presbyters. When such arguments were in use reconciliation was no longer possible.

But, at any rate, both sides in this debate believed that it was Divinely ordered that churches should be national, covering the whole ground and including all citizens. Early in the Reformation period a contrary doctrine had been taught, chiefly, though not exclusively, by Anabaptists. This doctrine was that the little Apostolic churches, each independent of the others and united only in love, were the permanent pattern which Christians were bound to follow. Certain devout people felt drawn together. They associated freely; none might be compelled to join the society, nor might it be forced to admit any to membership. Every such society was complete in itself, and was immediately under Christ. By His authority it chose its minister, or ministers. But the choice, once made, was binding, for it was in the name of Christ, and by His inspiration, that it had been made, and the members must recognize His Will in it. Such was the doctrine in its best and most definite shape. But unhappily there can be no doubt that in many instances the appointment of a minister among Congregationalists has been practically a business agreement in which higher considerations have not Iastingly prevailed. Their mode of religious organization has had little vogue outside the peoples of English speech; and in England their chief historical importance is that under Cromwell they frustrated the attempt to set up a Presbyterian church. One effect of this temporary victory was that they reduced the English Presbyterians from an organized society to a number of separate congregations, which were unable to escape the same declension from their original standard in regard to the ministry that had affected their rivals. It remains to speak of the Methodist ministry. It is often said that John Wesley was driven out of the national church. But Wesley had reached the conviction that the Presbyterians were right as to the parity of ministers; he held that he had as much right to ordain as to administer the Lord’s supper. He believed also in the value for practical religion of the society which he

had founded, and organized with much skill.

For him i was

authenticated by its usefulness, and he was resolved to gain for i the loyalty of his adherents, for so he would be assured of their continuance in piety. To this end he ordained ministers first for

America and Scotland, and finally for England. He did no realize that this meant separation; but he had inspired so strong a Methodist patriotism that his followers, many of whom had

never been churchmen, had little attachment to the Church of

England. They therefore continued to appoint ministers after his death in 1791 though they did not practice the laying on of hands

till 1836, when they resumed it while carefully stating that it i,

not essential. Methodists, in all its forms, reject the Presbyterian theory of the transmission of the ministry. The corporate Metho. dist body claims to have the right of conferring the ministry

and holds that spiritual success verifies the claim.

Three great systems, we have seen, lay stress in different ways

on corporate life; the historical, within which the authority of the ministry has been differently explained, the Presbyterian, which claimed to be a reversion to a primitive type which ought never to have been forsaken, and the Methodist, which frankly

justifies itself by its success in edification. We have also cop. sidered the isolating type, in which the single congregation

invested by Christ with His authority, appoints its minister, Jy none of these systems, widely as they may differ, is there any hesitation in asserting that a Power higher than human is at work. Even where, as with the Friends, the ministry may seem to

a superficial observation to be reduced to insignificance because it was, and for the most part, except in the United States, stil is voluntary, it is really taken most seriously as a Divine appointment. Not only in practice, but in principle, the Christian ministry is recognized universally as a providential ordinance, necessary for the maintenance of the society and for the sustenance of the spiritual life of its members. BrBLioGRaAPHY.—John Wordsworth, The Ministry of Grace (1902), T. M. Lindsay, The Church and the Ministry in the Early Centuries

(1907). Essays in the Early History of the Church and the Ministry

edited by H. B. Swete (1918). J. Tixeront, L’Ordre et

MINISTRY

,

ea (E. W. W.

OF FOOD: see War ConrtroL oF Foon.

K, a name for certain large species of the genus Putorius

(Polecat), distinguished by slight structural modifications connected with their semi-aquatic habits. The two best-known species, P. lutreola, of eastern Europe, and P. vison, the mink of North America are very similar. The former inhabits Finland, Poland and the greater part of Russia, west of the Ural Mountains. The latter is found throughout North America. Another form, P. sibiricus, from eastern Asia, connects the true minks with the polecats.

In size the mink resembles the English polecat—the length of the head and body being usually from 15 to 18in., that of the tail about gin. The female is smaller than the male. The tail is bushy, but tapering at the end. The ears are rounded, and scarcely project beyond the fur. The pelage consists of a dense,

soft, matted underfur, mixed with long, stiff, lustrous hairs. The gloss is greatest on the upper parts; on the tail the bristly hairs

predominate.

Northern specimens have the finest pelage. In

colour the animal is ordinarily of a rich dark brown, with the back usually the darker and the tail nearly black. There is some white on the jaws, and often irregular white patches on the under

parts. The fur is important in commerce.

The principal characteristic of the mink is its amphibious mode of life. It is to the water what the other weasels are to the Jand, or martens to the trees. It swims and dives with ease. It makes its nest in burrows in the banks of streams, producing five or sit young once a year about April. Its food is very varied comprising crustacea, molluscs and members of all the vertebrate classes.

It has a very disagreeable smell. (See CARNIVORA.) MINNEAPOLIS, the largest city of Minnesota, U.S.A.,a port of entry, and the county seat of Hennepin county; at

Falls of St. Anthony and the head of navigation on the Mississippi

river, 2,160 m. from its mouth, immediately above and west of St. Paul, and exactly midway between the equator and the north

pole. It is on Federal highways 10, r2 and 53; has direct

MINNEAPOLIS

557

service to Chicago, connecting there with the transcontinental ' Rounds,” one section of which is the Victory Memorial Driveairways, and is served by ten trunk railroad lines (the Burlington | way, dedicated in 1921. Route, the Chicago Great Western, the Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Minneapolis has wide streets and many fine public and business Paul and Pacific, the Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis and Omaha, buildings. Building permits in the nine years following the World

the Great Northern, the Minneapolis and St. Louis, the Minneapolis, Northfield and Southern, the Northern Pacific, the Rock

Island and the Soo Line) and by electric railways, terminal

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MINNEAPOLIS

CIVIC AND COMMERCE

ASSOCIATION

“THE MILLING SKYLINE,” THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER WITH FLOUR MILLS IN THE BACKGROUND

switching and belt lines, motor coach and truck lines in all directions and river barges. The population was 380,582 in 1920, of whom 88,032 were foreign-born white (largely from northern

Europe and Canada), and was 464,356 in 1930, being the rsth city in the United States. The “Twin Cities” and their immediate suburbs constitute a great urban community with a population in

1930 of about 800,000.

Minneapolis lies on both sides of the

river, on a plateau 800 ft. above sea-level at the Falls and rising to points several hundred feet higher. It covers 58-72 sq.m. and has 22 m. of frontage on the Mississippi, which here averages about 1,200 ft. in width. Nineteen bridges (12 highway and 7 railroad) cross the river within the city limits, and some of them have great structural beauty. Clustered about the Falls, mostly on the west bank of the river, and approached by a long, low bridge of concrete, are the great flour mills, forming a huge mass of limestone masonry, Impressive by its bulk and outline. With the addition in recent years of large creameries to the mill district, the silhouette against the western sky has come to be known as “the bread and butter skyline.” Minnehaha Creek, the outlet of Lake Minnetonka, flows through the southern part of the city, and just before joining the Mississippi plunges over a cliff 5o ft. high in the falls celebrated by Longfellow (who never saw them, but formed his idea from a photograph) in his poem “Hiawatha.” Minnehaha Falls are in one of the city’s parks. Adjoining it, in: grounds of 51 ac., given to the State by the city, is the State soldiers’ home (1887). Just beyond (lying between Minneapolis and St. Paul, at the mouth of the Minnesota river) is the Ft.

Snelling Military Reservation

(established

1819), where

the

original fort built in 1822, an ivy-covered round stone tower,

stands, with the modern barracks and other buildings of the post, on a high bluff overlooking the gorge of the Mississippi and the valley of the Minnesota. At Ft. Snelling a U.S. Veterans hospital of 560 beds was constructed in 1926-27. There are six large natural lakes and several smaller ones within the city limits. Twelve miles west is Lake Minnetonka, one of the oldest and most famous summer resorts of the North-west, a beautiful body of

water 12 m. long, surrounded by wooded hills, with a dozen islands

and a shore-line so indented by inlets and points that its length

is variously estimated at from 250 to soo miles. The city owns 131 parks, covering 4,777 ac., of which about 1,000 ac. is outside the city limits. The system embraces a playground or neighbourhood park for every square mile of residential area (and more than ah acre to each hundred of the population), 4 public golf courses,

36 athletic fields, 131 tennis courts, 32 skating rinks, 11 lighted

hockey rinks and 4 public bath-houses; and 56 m. of boulevards

encircling the city, connecting the lakes and the larger parks and passing through beautiful residential districts—called the “Grand

War (1919-27) represented values aggregating $193,524,500. The assessed valuation of property for 1927 was $426,858,182. There are some 150 hotels of all grades, many of them with from 300 to 600 guest-rooms. A magnificent municipal auditorium of granite and Bedford stone (completed in 1927 at a cost exceeding $3,000,000) has an assembly room seating 10,543, a stage 50 by go ft., and many ingenious interior arrangements for comfort and convenience The Federal Reserve Bank, designed by Cass Gilbert and completed in 1924, is impressive and unusual. With only one entrance, and lighted entirely from above, it conveys a sense of tremendous strength and security. The Art Institute, designed by McKim, Mead and White (opened 1915) is a beautiful building 575 ft. long by soo ft. deep. The main campus of the University of Minnesota (g.v.) occupies 128 ac. in a bend on the east bank of the Mississippi, entirely within the city of Minneapolis. Its memorial stadium (opened 1924) seats 52,000 spectators. Among the other educational institutions in the city are Augsburg college and Theological Seminary (Norwegian Lutheran, 1869), the Minnesota College of Law, Northwestern College of Law, the William Hood Dunwoody Industrial Institute (an endowed trade school founded in 1914) and the Minneapolis School of Art The public school system includes (1928) 88 elementary, 16 Junior and senior high, and several special and vocational schools—a total of 113; and there are 21 parochial schools maintained by the Roman Catholic church. The public library (470,000 volumes, 1928) grew out of a private institution, the Athenaeum. There are 272 churches in the city, representing many faiths and denominations. The hospitals, public and private, have an aggregate of 3,500 beds. The civic and philanthropic agencies of the city, public and private, are affiliated for the purpose of

ree

promoting the general welfare in a Council of Social Agencies; and the 65 or 7o organizations among them which are not financed by endowment or from the public treasury or in some special way unite in a joint campaign for funds which raises about $1,100,000 annually. Three general daily newspapers are published in English, one in German, and one in Norwegian and Danish. There are special daily publications devoted to the interests of finance and commerce, the building trades, farming and grain dealers. The city operates under a charter secured in 1872, revised in 1881, and readopted in 1920 with the addition of the numerous amendments made to that date. Under the “home rule” amendment to the State Constitution, new charters representing various plans of government were formulated and presented to the voters in 1900, 1904, 1906 and 1913, but all were rejected. Administrative powers, under the present charter, are vested in a mayor, a council, and several boards (school, library, estimate and taxation and public welfare). Since r9r2 the non-partisan system of nomination has been in effect. A city-planning commission was established in ror9, and in 1924 a zoning ordinance was adopted. The water-supply is taken from the Mississippi river, filtered and purified and distributed by a gravity system through 765 m. of mains. With extensions already planned, the plant will have a capacity of 150,000,000 gal. a day, while the average daily consumption at present is about 46,000,000 gallons. Minneapolis is the principal industrial, commercial and financial centre of the North-west, with an immediate trade territory embracing Minnesota, North and South Dakota, Montana, and the northern part of Nebraska, Iowa, Wisconsin and Michigan. It is the seat of the Ninth Federal Reserve Bank, serving a territory in which there are 2,800 banks. Deposits in the 30 local banking institutions amounted to $344,666,507 on June 30, 1928; and debits to individual accounts aggregated $4,837,608,000 for the year 1928. The 1,200 factories and 1,200 wholesale houses have a total annual business estimated at $1,300,000,000. With the completion of improvements undertaken by the U.S. Government in 1894, navigation of the Mississippi up to the heart of the city was opened on July 3, 1917, when the first steamer passed through the

new lock and tied up at the new municipal dock. Since then a

558

MINNESINGERS

revival of river traffic (for freight) on the Upper Mississippi has set in, and this will be an important supplement to the transport facilities afforded by the ten trunk railways and numerous motortruck lines which focus at Minneapolis. The terminal yards of the railroads have a capacity of 35,000 freight cars; and 623,790 were received and despatched in 1927. The enormous water-power of

from as far north as St. Cloud and as far south as Mankato, ang camped on the island below the Falls until they could get } ground. The period of great expansion began about 1870, when

the Falls of St. Anthony, of which 60,000 h.p. is utilized, was the

1870 to 2,051,840 in 1880, 6,988,830 in 1890 and 15,982,725 jp 1900. The maximum on record was 17,769,280 bbl. in 1914. In 1878 some of the mills were destroyed by a flour-dust explosion, in which 18 employees lost their lives. Pop. in 1880 was 46,887:

original factor determining the development of Minneapolis as a manufacturing centre. The perpendicular fall of the water is about so ft. and the rapids below add about 35 ft. In 1868 erosion of the soft limestone ledge threatened to destroy the source of power, but the loss was averted by the construction of a series of dams, a wooden “apron,” and a concrete floor (completed 1879) at the joint expense of the U.S. Government and the citizens of Minneapolis. Flour-milling has long been the city’s chief industry. The vast lumber industry, developed earlier and for many years equally important, reached its peak in 1899, with an output of 600,000,000 board feet, and then gradually dwindled, as the pine forests were exhausted and replaced by wheat fields, until in 1920 the last saw-mill went out of existence. The flour mills have a daily capacity of 78,800 bbl., and the grain elevators can store 63,433,000 bushels. The total output of the mills in 1927 Was 11,540,042 barrels. Minneapolis is still the largest

primary wheat market and the largest producer of flour and other grain products in the country, but since the World War reduction of freight rates via the Great Lakes has operated to transfer some of the grain trade and milling business to Buffalo and other points in the East. It is one of the world’s largest markets for highgrade butter, its own creameries producing annually 7,500,000 lb.; and it is the largest flaxseed market and producer of linseed oil and cake, with mills having a capacity of 16,450,000 bu. of flax, 880,500 bbl. of oil, and 334,000 tons of cake. Other leading manufactures are motor vehicles, bodies and parts; knit goods; foundry and machine-shop products; structural and ornamental iron work. Three of the railroads have extensive construction and repair shops in the city, employing together some 5,000 men. The aggregate factory output in 1927 was valued at $348,416,571. Since the World War the “open shop” has prevailed in most of the trades.

History.—The first European visitor of record to the site of Minneapolis was Father Louis Hennepin, the French Jesuit missionary, who discovered the Falls of St. Anthony and named them for his patron saint. Probably he was preceded by some of the adventurous coureurs de bois, few of whom left written records of their travels; and Radisson and Groseilliers seem to have visited the region two decades earlier. The land east of the Mississippi became U.S. territory at the close of the American Revolution, but the west side was under Spanish and then French sovereignty until the purchase of the Louisiana territory in 1803. In 1766 the site was visited by the American traveller, Jonathan

Carver; and in 1805 by Lieut. Pike, who bought from the Indians for a military reservation a tract including the greater part of the west side of the city. The fort was built in 1819. In 1822 its commandant set up a lumber mill, and a little later used it to grind flour also, but it was never profitable. In 1838 Franklin Steele built the first claim shanty on the east side of the Mississippi, opposite the Falls; by 1845 there was a population of 200 and the village of St. Anthony was incorporated; in 1848 Steele dammed the east channel of the river above the Falls and erected a group of saw-mills; and in 1852 Richard Rogers built a new and modern flour-mill. Meanwhile, by special act of Congress in 1849, permission was given to two Mexican War veterans to settle on the military reservation west of the river. Squatters followed, until by the time the land was opened to settlement in 1854 there was a population of about 200, who set up a village government in 1855, and named their settlement Minneapolis. There was great rivalry for commercial and industrial leadership between the two settlements. St. Anthony was chartered as a city in 1860; Minneapolis in 1867; in 1870 the population of Minneapolis was 13,066, of St. Anthony, 5,013; and in 1872 they united, under the name of the larger. About 1859 the milling industry began to develop. Farmers hauled their wheat to the St. Anthony mills

the lumbering industry had provided an accumulation of capital and the agricultural development of the country was increas} the supply of wheat. The output increased from 200,000 bbl. in

in 1890 164,738;

1920 380,582.

in 1900 202,718;

in 1910 301,408: and iy

Minneapolis, like its neighbour Saint Paul, has

a low general death rate, a low infant mortality, little illiteracy,

a small proportion of children employed for wages, a high per. centage in school, a high percentage of home ownership and an index figure for cost of living below the average for large Amer. can cities.

MINNESINGERS, the name given to the German lyric poets of the r2th and 13th centuries. The term Minnesang, strictly applicable to the poems expressing the homage (Minnedienst) rendered by the knight to his mistress, is applied to the whole body of lyric poetry of the period, whether dealing with love, religion or politics. The idea of amour courtois, with its excessive worship of woman, its minute etiquette and its artificial sentiment, was introduced into German poetry from Provençal literature; but the German Minnesang was no slavish imitation of the poetry of the troubadours. Its tone was, on the whole, healthier and more sincere. The minnesinger usually belonged to the lower ranks of the nobility, and his verses were addressed to a married

woman, often above him in rank. He was not permitted to give his lady’s name, or to betray her identity; and a direct expression

of passion would also have contravened the rules. The poems were from the first sung In open court to a melody (Weise) of the poet’s own composing, with the accompaniment of a fiddle or small harp. The Older Songs.—These consisted of a single strophe cast

in three divisions, two (known as Stollen) identical in form, stating and developing the argument, the third (Abgesang) of different form, giving the conclusion. Later on, two or more strophes were used in a single poem, but the principle of their structure was retained. In this form were cast the Tagelied, a dialogue describing the parting of lovers at dawn; and the crusading song. Side by side with these existed the Spruch, writter in a single undivided stanza, destined for recitation and often cast in the form of a fable. The lay (Leich) was written in unequal strophes, each formed of two equal divisions. It was applied i the first instance to sacred lyrics, and was first used in love poems by the Alsatian minnesinger Ulrich von Gutenberg. The earliest minnesinger whose name has come down to us is

von Kiirenberg (f. c. 1160), a scion of an Austrian knightly family whose castle lay on the Danube, west of Linz. His songs, however, contradict the root idea of Minnedienst, since the lady is the wooer, and the poet, at the most, an acquiescent lover. They take the form of laments for an absent lover, complaints of

his faithlessness and the like. Among the other Austrian and south German lyrists who show small trace of foreign influence was Dietmar von Aist (d. c. 1171), though some of the songs attributed to him seem to be of later date. While the love-song remained in the hands of noble singers, the Spruch was cultivated by humbler poets. The elder of the two or three poets concealed

under the name of Spervogel was a wandering singer who found

patronage at the court of the burgraves of Regensburg, one of whom himself figures among the earlier minnesingers. Characteristic Period.—In German Minnesang this begins at

the close of the r2th century with the establishment of the Provescal tradition in western Germany through the poems of Heinrich

von Veldeke and Friedrich von Hausen. National elements abound in Veldeke’s songs, although the amour courtois dominates the whole; Friedrich von Hausen (d. 1190) followed Provencal models

closely, as did also the Swiss Count Rudolf von Fenis. The greatest name among the earlier minnesingers is that of Heinrich vol Morungen, a Thuringian poet who lived on in popular story @

MINNESOTA the ballad of “The Noble Moringer.” He brought great imaginative power to bear on the common subjects of Minnesang, and his poetry has a very modern note. The formal art and science of

Minnesang reached full development in the subtle love-songs of Reinmar, the Alsatian

“nightingale of Hagenau.”

He became

a

member of the court of Duke Leopold V. (d. 1194) of Austria,

and there Walther von der Vogelweide (g.v.) was first his disciple, and then perhaps his rival. Walther, the greatest of mediaeval German lyric poets, had Reinmar’s technical art, but in feeling

559

Misquah hills north of Lake Superior, where the altitude reaches 2,230 ft.; another high point of 1,960 ft. occurs in the Coteau des

Prairies in the south-west; and the Mesabi range, in St. Louis county, rises to an elevation of 1,920 feet. The average elevation is 1,200 feet. Only in the valleys of the Red, Minnesota and Mississippi rivers and along the shore of Lake Superior does the altitude drop below 800 ft., the lowest being 602 feet. The south-

was more nearly allied to Morungen. He raised the Spruch to the

dignity of a serious political poem, which proved a potent weapon against the policy of Innocent III. The Tagelieder of Wolfram von Eschenbach give him a high place in Minnesang, although his

fame, like that of Heinrich von Veldeke and Hartmann von Aue, chiefly rests on his epics. A new style—called by Lachmann köfische Dorfpoesie—was developed by Neidhart von Reuental (d. c. 1250), who belonged to the lower Bavarian nobility. He wrote songs to accompany the dances of the village beauties, and comic and realistic descriptions of village life to please the court.

DAKOTA

= LAKE EFS UPERIOR

He was acknowledged by the Meistersinger as one of the 12 mas-

ters of song. Nevertheless, with him the decadence may be said to bave begun. The Styrian poet Ulrich von Lichtenstein (d. c. 1275) unconsciously caricatured chivalry itself by his Frauendienst, in which he relates the absurd feats which he had undertaken at his lady’s command, while Steinmar (f. c. 1276) deliberately parodied court poetry in his praises of rustic beauty and good living. In the lays, songs and proverbs of Tannhäuser something of both elements, of the court and the village, is to be found. The Austrian poet Reinmar von Zweter (d. c. 1260) left some hundreds of Sprüche

NORTH 1 2 3 4 5 6 ia 8

Hibbing Virginia Duluth Brainerd StCloud Minneapolis Mankato Faribault

political or social in their import. The didactic motive came more

and more to the front in the 13th century. The wandering Swabian

poet Marner (d. c. 1270) cultivated especially the Spruch, laughed at the Provencal and courtly tradition, and there is no very great step from his learning and his feuds to the conditions of Meistergesang. Bærrocraray.—The chief mss. containing the work of the 300 or

MAP OF MAIN ROADS IN MINNESOTA

more minnesingers whose work has been partially preserved are the

ern part of the State was originally open, rolling prairie interold Heidelberg ms. (13th century), the Weingarten-Stuttgart ms. (14th century) and the Great Heidelberg ms. (14th century), formerly spersed with groves of oak and other déciduous timber. A region known as the Manasse ms. This last is the most comprehensive of all. known as the “Big Woods,” composed of broad-leaved, hard-wood Jt has been printed by F. Pfaff (Heidelberg, 1899). The completest trees, extended up the Minnesota valley to the big bend. The collection of the minnesingers’ verses is F. H. von der Hagen, Minne- northern part, aside from the Red river valley, was one dense singer (4 vols., Leipzig, 1838) ; K. Lachmann and M. Haupt, Des Minnesangs Frühling (ed. F. Vogt, 3rd ed., Leipzig, 1920) is a collection coniferous forest, made up largely of white, Norway and jack pine, of the minnesingers prior to Walther von der Vogelweide. There is but containing also some birch, poplar, maple and oak. Outside of a comprehensive selection of 97 minnesingers by Karl Bartsch, certain forest reserves much of the land has been cleared or the Deutsche Liederdichter des 12. bis 14. Jahrhunderts (ed. W. Golther, best timber cut, though about 15 million acres of Minnesota land th ed., 1914) ; see also F. Pfaff, Der Minnesang der r2. bis 14. Jahr- —much of it in the rocky eastern area north of Lake Superior—is_ kunderts, pt. i. (Stuttgart, 1892). English translations of early German better suited to forest than to any other use. Of the three river systems mentioned above, the Mississippi—which has its source in Lake Itasca in the north-central part of the State—drains, with its tributaries, approximately the southern two-thirds of the 1901), where further references will be found; also A. E. Schénbach, State. Below its junction with the St. Croix, it forms the eastern Die Anfinge des deutschen Minnesanges (Graz, 1898); F. Grimme, boundary and is bordered by high bluffs, well-wooded for the most Geschichte der Minnesinger, vol. i. (Paderborn, 1892); K. Burdach, Reinmar der Alte und Walther von der Vogelweide (Leipzig, 1880) ; A. part, but crowned here and there by picturesque limestone cliffs. Schultz, Das héfische Leben sur Zeit der Minnesdnger (2nd ed., Leip- Its tributaries in this region, the Cannon, Zumbro and Root rivers, = eS Wechssler, Das Kulturproblem des Minnesangs, i. also flow through beautiful and fertile, though narrow valleys, considerably below the general level of the prairies. The principal MINNESOTA, a north-central State of the United States of tributaries, however, are the St. Croix and Minnesota rivers. The America. It is bounded north by the Canadian provinces of former forms the Wisconsin boundary for some distance, and is Manitoba and Ontario, east by Lake Superior and Wisconsin, navigable for about so m. from its mouth. The latter rises in south by Iowa and west by South and North Dakota. It is the Big Stone lake on the western boundary and flows, with a great eleventh State in size in the Union, with a total area of 84,682 angle to the south, almost entirely across the State, a course of sqm., of which 3,824 sq.m. are water surface. It is about 400 m. about 450 miles. All these tributaries furnish considerable waterlong (43° 30’ to 49° 24’ N.) and averages 240 m. wide (89° 29 power, as does the Mississippi itself at the Falls of St. Anthony, to.97° 15’ W.). Its name, of Sioux Indian origin, was first applied St. Cloud and Little Falls. Glacial action not only determined the direction and character to the river of that name, and means “cloudy,” “turbid,” or invisible” water. i of these rivers, but made numerous swamps, and by scouring out Physical Features.—An extensive water-parting in the north- rock basins, damming rivers and leaving morainal hollows became central part of the State, an elevation whose inclination is almost responsible for the countless lakes of Minnesota. Doubtless it has mperceptible, determines the course of three great continental many more than any other State in the Union, the number being iver systems. From this central elevation the land slopes off in estimated at over 10,000. The lakes in the south, which occupy all directions. The highest point in the State, however, is in the glacial moraines for the most part, are generally broad and shal-

lyrics are F. C. Nicholson, Old German Love Songs (1907). See also WALTHER V. D. VOGELWEIDE. For bistorical and critical work on the minnesingers, see H. Paul, Grundriss der germanischen Philologie, vol. ii. (Strasbourg, 2nd ed.,

MINNESOTA

560

low, while those in the north, formed by glacial basins scoured in solid rock, are generally deep, with ragged, rocky, pine-covered

percentage of increase of cities having more than 20,000 inhabitants in 1930:—

shores. The most interesting feature of the glacial epoch is the extinct Lake Agassiz, which the receding ice of the later glacial 19 Inc 20-30 Cities 1930 1920 1910 period left in the Red river valley of Minnesota, North Dakota and Manitoba. This lake drained southward into the Gulf of Ey 22:0 380,582 464,356 Minneapolis . Mexico by way of the Minnesota and Mississippi rivers until the 214744 Is: 234,698 271,606 St. Paul 78.466 2-6 98,917 ice-sheet that had prevented its natural drainage to the north had 101,463 . Duluth St. Cloud . 21,000 15,873 323 £0,609 melted sufficiently to allow it to be drained off into Hudson bay 1B s8y 8-9 19,143 20,850 Winona through the Nelson river. The remarkably level character of the 744 50°3 13,722 20,621 Rochester. Red river district is due to horizontal deposits in the bottom of this lake, which have been little dissected by river erosion. The Government is conducted under a Constitution adopted og largest of the present lakes in this district, Red lake, has an area Oct. 13, 1857, and frequently amended. A proposed amendmen of 494 square miles. On the northern boundary are the Lake of must be passed by a majority in both houses of the legislature and the Woods (1,485 sq.m.) and Rainy lake (345 sq.m.), draining be approved by a majority of the votes cast at a general election northward into Hudson bay. The “Park Region” centring in Otter The legislature is composed of two houses—the senate and the Tail county, contains several thousand lakes. Lake Minnetonka, house of representatives—members of the former being chosen near Minneapolis, has many bays and islands. There are 22 State for four years and of the latter for two years. There may be one

parks, 13 of which have areas of over roo acres. These include Itasca State park (32,000 ac.) about the sources of the Missis-

senator for every 5,000 people, and one representative for every

sippi; Interstate park in Chisago county, and the Minneopa State park, containing Minneopa falls, near Mankato.

1913. There were, in 1927, 67 senators and 131 representatives The executive department is made up of a governor, lieutenant governor, secretary of State, treasurer and attorney general, all elected for two years, and an auditor elected for four years.

Over the greater part of the State the soil consists of surface drift of glacial origin—a dark brown or black sandy loam of great fertility, adapted to cereal crops. In the east-central part of the State the soil is sandy and is devoted largely to potatoes.

Fauna.—The lakes provide excellent fishing. The State game and fish commissioner has charge of a number of hatcheries and field stations which annually help to restock the lakes and streams;

2,000 people. There has been no reapportionment, however, since

Since

1925 the governor,

secretary of State, treasurer, auditor

and attorney general together constitute an executive council which unifies the executive policy of the administration. The governor has a veto which must be exercised within three days after a bill is passed, or it becomes law without his signature,

in 1926~27 they distributed 520,173,700 young fish. Game birds A two-thirds vote of each house is necessary to override the veto. are abundant. In the lake regions ducks are especially plentiful The lieutenant governor presides over the senate and succeeds the and more than a million are killed by hunters each year. As a governor in case of the latter’s death. A Reorganization Act, result of short open seasons and the establishment of game passed in 1925, combined some of the existing State boards and refuges, the number of quail, sharp-tailed grouse, upland plover commissions and created the department of administration and and ring-necked pheasants is increasing. Bear, deer, moose, elk finance. This is administered by a commission of three—compand caribou are the only large game animals. troller, commissioner of the budget, and commissioner of purThere is a permanent closed ‘season on all these animals except chases—appointed by the governor and removable at his pleasure. deer and bear, and only every other season is open for deer, which The supreme court consists of a chief justice and four assoenjoy a wide range over the northern half of the State. Refuges ciate justices, each elected for a term of six years, and two comhave been established, and despite the fact that about 22,000 deer missioners who are appointed by the court. The State is divided are killed in open seasons by sportsmen, their numbers are in- into rọ judicial districts, each of which has a district court. In creasing. The important fur animals are lynx, bobcats, mink, most districts one district judge is able to care for all cases. In muskrat, skunk, raccoon, weasel, wolf, red fox and beaver. every county there is a probate court presided over by a probate Climate.—Minnesota has a INHABITANTS judge, and justices of the peace and municipal justices handle comparatively low mean annual local cases. temperature, but there is great Finance.—Tangible property was valued in 1922 at $8,548, variation, the average annual 000,000, giving the State a rank of r2th in wealth. This valuarange for Minneapolis and St. tion represents an increase over Paul being x19°. The cold inthat for 1912 of $3,116,000,000. creases not only from south to The per caput wealth in 1922 north, but to some degree from averaged $3,442. A east to west. The amount of rain Taxable property was valued in decreases from east to west, vary1926 at $6,667,617,283 and its |g ing from nearly 31 in. to less than assessed valuation in 1927 was FR 25 in. at some points, but in all GRAPH OF GROWTH OF POPULATION $2,403,963,745. On this a direct fs. sections there is enough moisture IN MINNESOTA, AND NUMBER OF State tax of 7-70 mills was levied, for humid farming. FOREIGN-BORN, 1850-1920 resulting in $15,011,334 direct Population.—In 1920 Minnesota had a population of 2,387,- taxes. The receipts were apporfill SRT Tater 125 and ranked 17th among the States. In 1930 the population tioned as follows: to the State [25-7 ~~"ss was 2,563,953, an increase of 176,828 or 17-4 percent. The state revenue fund 3-3 mills; to the [eo ete. 5 ranked 18th; the density per sq.m. was 31-7 against 29-5 soldiers’ bonus fund 1-50 mills; to BY COURTESY OF THE ST. PAUL ASSOCIATION m

ëë on

ë k

hlC rll

In 1920. Of the 1920 total, 2,368,936 were whites, 8,809 negroes and 8,761 Indians. The negroes increased by 1,725 between 1910-20 and the Indians decreased by 292. The Indians were mostly Chippewa in the northern part of the State. The foreign-born population numbered 486,164; of these 112,117 were

from Sweden, 90,188 from Norway, 74,634 from Germany, 33,732

from Canada, 29,108 from Finland and 25,125 from the United Kingdom and Ireland. In recent years many south-eastern Euro-

peans have settled in the northern iron-mining districts. The urban population represented 34-1% of the whole in 1goo, and 44-1% in 1920. The following table gives the population and the

the road and bridge fund 1-00 SIBLEY HOUSE, WHERE THE

gs

mill; and to the State school tax S°VERNOR OF MINNESOTA LIV fund 1-23 mills. An additional tax of $26,695,256 was levied by

the counties, $9,533,333 by townships, $40,200,180 by school dsstricts, and $38,558,066 by cities and villages. According to a report made by the bureau of the census in 1926, the cost of general government in Minnesota averaged 58 cents per caput, as compared with an average of 75 cents for all

States. Per caput expenditures for the development and conser vation of natural resources amounted to $1.20 as compared with & 45 cent average throughout the United States. Per caput expendi-

MINNESOTA tures for education amounted to $5.79 as against $3.57, the average

in all States. On Dec. 31, 1927 there were 1,163 banks (281 of them national banks) with total resources and liabilities amounting to $1,162,-

417,000, capital and surplus of $96,557,000, and deposits of $390,213,000, of which $517,243,000 were savings deposits. In the general depression during the four years preceding 1926 the hanks suffered greatly, there being 70 suspensions in 1926 and 46

561

hay, 1,865,000 ac., $15,964,000.

The spring wheat

gradually

of flax is rapidly increasing.

decreasing,

while

that

acreage

is

Apples are the only fruit crop raised commercially to any extent. Live with since 1927, year

stock marketed in 1926 totalled $166,008,395 as compared $142,095,045 in 1925. Horses on farms have decreased 1918; there were 810,000 valued at $62,645,000 on Jan. 1, as compared with 827,000 head valued at $66,733,000 a earlier. Minnesota ranked sixth in the number of all cattle

in 1927 among State banks. Education.—General supervision of the State public school system is placed in the State department of education and control of the department is vested in a non-salaried board of education,

on farms on Jan. 1, 1927, there being 2,739,000 head valued at $125,165,000. In 1925 and 1926 sheep-raising made rapid progress, the 670,000 reported Jan. 1, 1927, being a larger number than in any previous year. They were valued at $6,529,000. The wool

consisting of five representative citizens appointed by the governor

production has shown a corresponding increase, the 1926 production amounting to 3,392,000 Ib., as compared with the 1919~23 average Of 2,547,000 pounds. In 1927 swine numbered 3,525,000 with a farm value of $61,688,000. The aggregate gross value of all live stock on farms amounted to $257,119,000 on Jan. 1, 1927. In the five-year period from 1920-25 butter production nearly doubled, increasing from 139,000,000 Ib. to 260,000,000 lb. In dairy products generally Minnesota is second only to Wisconsin. The number of farms in 1927 was 175,139, nearly 3,000 less than in 1920, and the total area of farm land also was somewhat less. The farm population in 1925 was 875,749, or 33.5% of the total population. The average acreage per farm was 150-7; 58-19% of the land area was occupied by farms. The depression in the farm industry after the World War is shown by the decrease

and approved by the senate. The board’s powers are exercised through the State commissioner of education, whom it elects, As soon as the required standards

are met the department

metes out State aid in a certain fixed proportion. In addition to this fixed aid there is a supplemental aid designed mainly to help

the poor school districts.

In 1927 there were 400 consolidated

schools, and 32,289 pupils were transported to and from them. Other means also were used to improve the rural schools. Only 2,054 rural schools were taught by teachers with first-grade certificates in 1911; in 1928 the number holding first-grade certificates or advanced diplomas was 8,137.

Pupils enrolled in the public school system numbered 440,083 in 1909-10 and 550,330 in 1926-27. Of the latter number 464,461 were in elementary schools, and 85,869 in secondary schools. The number of teachers was 22,099, and they received salaries amounting to $27,698,732. Total expenditures for the public school system of the State have increased from $13,724,000 in 1909-10 to

$54,264,674 In 1926-27.

in value of all farm property from $3,787,420,000 in 1920 to $2,761,684,000 in 1925. The decrease was mainly in land, for the value of buildings increased. The average value per farm dropped from $21,221 to $14,672, and land from $91.00 per acre to $59.77.

Mining and Lumbering.—From 1919 to 1924 inclusive Minnesota supplied approximately 60% of the entire iron ore producversity of Minnesota and at six teachers’ colleges, and in high- tion of the nation. In 1927 36,504,854 of the 61,778,000 tons school normal training departments. The teachers’ colleges in which formed the national output were mined in the State. The 1927-28 had 3,307 students and 225 instructors. There were, in value of ore shipped amounted to $90,289,000 in 1927. The ore addition to those enrolled in teachers’ colleges, 22,646 collegiate comes from three distinct districts known as the Vermilion, Mestudents in the State in 1925-26, 1,142 post-graduates and 2,446 sabi and Cuyuna ranges, named in the order of their discovery professional students. In 1926-27 there were also 63 nurses’ and development. All these ranges lie in the northern part of the training schools in the State with 3,851 students, and in r924~25, State, the Vermilion farthest to the east and the Cuyuna farthest 17 commercial schools with 4,833 students. to the west (see Iron and Mrninc). Most important of the institutions of higher learning is the Tron represents about 98% of Minnesota’s total mineral outUniversity of Minnesota (g.v.). Privately supported colleges of put and is the only metal produced. The remainder is made up liberal arts are Carleton and St. Olaf at Northfield, Gustavus largely of quarry products. In early years the quarrying of limeAdolphus at St. Peter; Hamline and Macalester at St. Paul; and stone was very important, especially along the bluffs of the MisSt. John’s at Collegeville. sissippi and its tributaries. As population pushed northward into Charities and Corrections.—The State board of control, the granite country and as prosperity began to demand a more created in 1901, had, in 1926, general control over 18 State permanent building stone, granite assumed greater importance. charity and corrective institutions, and supervision over 14 county The value of the stone output in 1923 was $2,412,000. tuberculosis sanatoria. It inspects jails, poorhouses, infirmaries: Minnesota was formerly one of the leading lumber States. In inspects and licenses maternity hospitals and infant’s homes; 1899 it held third rank with an output of 2,342,000,000 ft., but supervises the administration of mother’s pensions; safeguards careless exploitation has reduced the timber resources. The prothe interests of illegitimate children; administers the soldiers’ duction of 1919 was byt 700,000,000 ft. and by 1925 it had dropped welfare fund; appoints county child welfare boards; and acts as to 579,000,000 feet. In the latter year the State fell to 18th a board of parole and discharge for the State Training school for place in lumber production but still held first place in the proboys and the Home school for girls. duction of white pine. Wood pulp production is also important, Agriculture and Live Stock.—Minnesota is pre-eminently amounting in 1925 to 81,542 tons. In preparation for reforestation an agricultural State. In farm value of all crops it ranked fifth the State forestry department was reorganized in 1925. There among the States in 1924 and 1925, and in 1926, because of un- are two national forests with a combined area of 1,490,000 ac., favourable crop conditions, seventh. In 1926, however, it was and two State forests of 21,000 acres, first in the production of barley and flax, second in oats and rye, Manufactures.—In 1925 manufactures were valued at $1,101,third in spring wheat and potatoes and fifth in corn. These rank- 856,000, of which $331,932,000 was added by factory processes. ings indicate the extent to which crop diversification is practised. There were 100,614 men employed in manufacturing at wages The total acreage devoted to all crops was approximately 18,000,- amounting to $123,767,000. First in importance was the flour and coo and their estimated value for 1926 was $327,008,000, as com- feed-milling industry with an output in 1925 valued at $215,637,pared with $372,062,000 for the year 1925 and $421,485,000 for 578, exceeding that of any other State. The lumber and flouryear 1924. Lower prices and unfavourable weather conditions milling industries built up Minneapolis, which for many years has Were responsible for the decrease in value. The acreage and value been the centre of flour-milling in the United States. It produces of the principal crops in 1926 follow: corn, 4,343,000 ac., $82,691- about 60% of the mill products of Minnesota. In 1927 there were 000; oats, 4,532,000 ac., $43,915,000 (1926 yield exceptionally in Minneapolis 66 elevators with a storage capacity of 63,433,000 poor);tame hay, 2,091,000 ac., $38,922,000; potatoes, 298,000 ac., bu., greater than that of any other city in the world. Slaughtering 34,270,000; spring wheat, 1,967,000 ac., $30,243,000; flax, 910,- and meat-packing was the second manufacturing industry, its out000 ac., $16,851,000; barley, 1,307,000 ac., $16,664,000; and wild put in 1925 amounting to $182,555,429. This industry centres in Teachers are trained at the College of Educationin the Uni-

562

MINNESOTA

South St. Paul. Minnesota’s advance as a dairy State was accompanied by an increase in the manufacture of dairy products, an industry third in importance in 1925 with an output valued at $123,456,850. It is widely distributed among the smaller towns. Saw-mill, planing-mill and other timber products amounted in value to $42,289,000 in 1925. Minneapolis in the last decades of the rgth century was the mill centre of the lumber industry, but the last saw-mill there was dismantled in 1921. Next in importance are motor vehicles, $38,761,000; railroad car and repair shops, $35,829,552; and linseed-oil, meal and cake products, $32,933,341. Printing and publishing, bakery products, knit goods, boots and shoes, confectionery and ice-cream contribute greatly to the total. Iron ore is now worked in huge iron and steel plants near Duluth, and farm machinery is manufactured in large quantities. One of the phenomena of recent years has been the development of electric light and power. Production in kilowatt hours increased from 87,579,000 in 1907 tO I,040,000,000 in 1926. Transport.—Both by water and by land Minnesota is exceptionally well provided with transport facilities. Duluth stands at the head of the Great Lakes and through its port passes most of the iron-ore and a large share of the grain grown in the Northwest. It aiso is a receiving port and distributing point for coal and othe: products for the Northwest. Railways connect with the iron ranges, while others, expanding and intersecting, reach out into the wheat lands of the Dakotas, Montana and western Canada. At the head of navigation on the Mississippi stand Minneapolis and St. Paul. Efforts have been made in recent years, with some success in 1927 and 1928, to develop freighting on the river between Minneapolis and St. Louis, but perhaps the greatest importance of the river is the check it affords against extravagant freight rates by rail. In 1927, 369 buses were operating over 6,211 m. of route, carrying 12,351,612 passengers. Of the 6,936 m. in the State trunk highway system, 1,327 m. were paved and 4,936 m. were heavily gravelled at the beginning of 1928. Disbursements for this trunk system amounted in 1925 to $17,599,213 and in 1926 to $19,439,209. Building and maintenance of the trunk highways has been financed by motor tax, gasolene tax and Federal aid entirely, and no bonds have been issued. Provision is made for keeping the trunk system open for motor travel all winter. The rural roads have a mileage of 110,929, of which 25,628 m. are surfaced. Expenditures on rural roads of all classes amounted to $30,349,000 in 1926 and $30,702,000 in 1927. Motor vehicles registered in the State numbered 654,350 in 1927, as compared with 332,652 in 1921 and 28,776 in 1912. History.—The first European visitors to the territory now embraced in the State of Minnesota found it occupied mainly by two Indian tribes, the Ojibway or Chippewa, who lived in the heavily wooded northern portion, and the Dakota or Sioux, who made their homes in the more open country of the South and West. Between the two tribes there was almost continual warfare. The first white men known to have entered the State were Frenchmen. Radisson and Groseilliers may have reached Minnesota territory on an expedition overland from Lake Michigan in 165s. It is more probable that they visited Minnesota on a journey south-west from Lake Superior about 1659. Daniel Greysolon, sieur du Luth (Duluth), is known to have penetrated the territory south-west of Lake Superior in 1679 as far as Mille Lacs, where he set up the standard of Louis XIV. The following year Du Luth crossed via the Bois Brule-St. Croix route to the Mississippi, where he met a party of three Frenchmen led by Michael Accault. They

had been sent up the river by La Salle to make the first explora-

tion of the upper Mississippi. Accompanying this expedition was Father Louis Hennepin, who during his wanderings before meeting Du Luth discovered and named the falls of St. Anthony, and who later wrote the first published description of the country. Nicolas Perrot, a trader, ascended the Mississippi in 1686 to Lake Pepin, on the east shore of which he built a fort. Again in 1688 he visited the region, and in 1689 he proclaimed the sovereignty of France over it. In 1695 Le Sueur, who had traded on the upper Mississippi for some years, established a post on Isle Pelée (Prairie island) in the Mississippi between Hastings and Red Wing. In

‘700 he ascended the Minnesota river to the mouth of the Blue

Earth river at Mankato, whereon he built Fort L’Huillier. A period of lethargy followed these early explorations, due te the death in 1698 of the energetic governor, Frontenac, who had

encouraged them, and the absorption of France in the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-13). All French garrisons in the north. west were withdrawn. Not until Sept. 1727 did another French expedition reach the region. Then the Sieur de la Perriare landed on the west bank of Lake Pepin, built a fort, and the Jesuit fathers who accompanied him established a mission, but both

institutions were short lived. In 1731 a party under La Vérendrye

explored the chain of lakes along the northern border of Minnesota, and a detachment under his nephew, La Jémeraye, buit

Fort St. Pierre on the north bank of Rainy Lake. In the next year the main expedition pushed on to the Lake of the Woods, where

within Minnesota borders, they built Fort St. Charles, occupied

for 20 years, or longer than any French establishment in the territory. In the treaty of Paris (1763) at the close of the Seven

Years War in Europe, the French ceded to England all their pos-

sessions east of the Mississippi except the island on which Ney

Orleans is located; those west of that river they had cautiously ceded to Spain in a secret treaty the previous year. During the period of English and Spanish possession fur-trading

operations were carried on by traders of both nations. The only notable explorer to enter the Minnesota country at this time was Jonathan Carver, who was sent out to treat with the Indians, in 1766, by Major Rogers, commandant at Mackinac, and who spent the winter of 1766-67 among the Sioux of the Minnesota valley,

In the spring he went down the Minnesota with a large party of

Indians

and at a cave near the present site of St. Paul, since

known by his name, he held a council with the natives. Thence he travelled to Prairie du Chien, where he joined an expedition under Capt. Tute sent out by Rogers to find a route to the “west-

ern sea.” Carver later published a lively account of his travels, which was widely read in Europe. After the Revolutionary War,

the English relinquished their portion of the region (Treaty of Paris, 1783) to the newly formed United States. There was no force to expel the English from the north-west wilderness, however, and the British flag remained flying over the trading-posts of the Northwest Company in Minnesota until after the War of 1812. This company had been formed to organize systematically the fur trade of the north-west. Its headquarters for the region during the last two decades of the 18th century were at Grand Portage, at the east end of the famous portage between Lake Superior and the Pigeon river. In 1803 the western part of Minnesota was acquired by the United States as part of the Louisiana Purchase. In 1805-06, at the instance of President Thomas Jefferson, Lieut. Zebulon M. Pike led an exploring expedition up the Mississippi as far as Leech lake and Upper Red Cedar or Cass lake. He visited the main posts of the North-west Company and took formal possession for the United States. He also negotiated with the Indians fora tract of land at the confluence of the Minnesota and Mississippi rivers upon which, in 1819, the post later known as Ft. Snelling was established. For many years this remained the most north-westem military post in the United States, and it was also the centre of the fur trade in the region. In 1816 the Northwest Company's traders were forced out of Minnesota and their posts were taken over by the American Fur Company, which was soon doing business throughout the upper valley of the Mississippi. In 1818 the jurisdiction of Michigan Territory was extended to the Mississippi river, and its governor, Lewis Cass, in 1820 conducted an expedi-

tion to search for the source of the Mississippi, which he was satisfied was in the large body of water named Cass lake in his honour. In 1823 extensive explorations of the Minnesota and Red river valleys were conducted by Major Stephen S. Long, and sib-

sequently knowledge of the Minnesota country was extended by

investigations of the region by Henry R. Schoolcraft, 'who dis covered Lake Itasca, the source of the Mississippi, in 1832.

A settlement was attempted in 1812 by Lord Selkirk in Hut son’s Bay Company territory in the Red river valley, but failed A nucleus of settlement also grew up at Mendota, on the Minne sota river opposite, Ft. Snelling, the headquarters of the American

MINNESOTA Fur Company.

In 1837 two treaties, one with the Chippewa and

563

were built to the mines and by 1900 31 million tons of ore had

che other with the Sioux, were negotiated, extinguishing the Indian title to the wedge of land between the Mississippi and St. Croix

been taken out. By the end of 1927, 780,323,313 tons had been shipped from the Mesabi and 53,095,923 tons from the Vermilion

rivers and opening it to settlement.

range.

Following these treaties thriv-

ing settlements grew up at St. Paul and Stillwater. In 1849 the pill organizing the Territory of Minnesota was passed by Congress and Alexander Ramsey was appointed governor. The first territorial legislature met at St. Paul on Sept. 3 of the same year. By ihe Federal census of 1850 the territory had 6,077 inhabitants, most of whom lived east of the Mississippi, or along the Red river in the extreme north-west. Treaties negotiated in 1851 with the

Sioux opened to settlement the greater part of the land in the territory west of the Mississippi; and treaties with the Chippewa in 1854 and 1855, negotiated largely in the interests of the lumbermen, extinguished the Indian title to nearly two-thirds of the northern half of the State. Such an unparalleled rush to the new lands took place that a census in 1857 showed a population of 150,037. The lumbering business was booming and building up

the towns of Stillwater and St. Anthony (Minneapolis).

River

steamers to the number of 119 in 1855 and 292 in 1857 landed at St. Paul with settlers and goods, making that city the commercial centre of the territory. Other river towns proved prosperous ports

of entry from which settlers trekked to the interior, sometimes individually, sometimes by whole colonies transplanted from Eastern States.

In July 1857, a convention met and drew up a

State Constitution, which was adopted the following October by an almost unanimous popular vote. On May 11, 1858, the State was admitted to the Union with its present boundaries. Minnesota furnished nearly 22,000 men for the Federal armies

during the Civil War. Even more important to the State than the war in the South was the need for defending her frontier against the uprising of the Indians within her borders. The Sioux felt that they had been deceived and outdone in the treaty of 1851. In 1858 their small reservation was halved and most of the payment went to the traders. Many of the natives resented the Govemment’s attempts to make them farmers. When in the summer of 1862 there was delay in the payment of annuities, bands of the Sioux suddenly began to massacre the settlers in the Minnesota valley. These attacks continued with increasing fury (more than 350 whites losing their lives) until forces under Col. Sibley decisively defeated the Indians under Little Crow, their principal leader, at Wood lake. Three days later 269 white captives were released. Many of the Sioux fied into the Dakota country, but expeditions under Sibley in 1863 and Sully in 1863 and 1864 marched against them and drove them beyond the Missouri. The coming of peace marked the beginning of a new pertod of rapid growth, the Federal census of 1870 showing a population of 439,706 or a gain of 155-6% in ten years. During the same decade railway construction, which had begun with a line between St. Paul and St. Anthony in 1862, reached close to 1,000 miles. The period 1870-80 was one of great discontent among the farmers, and one expression of their feeling was their opposition to certain wide-spread abuses of the railroads. A number of reguktory laws, usually called the “granger-acts” because they were sponsored by farmer organizations known as “granges,” passed the legislature. Cases arising out of these acts, and carried to the U.S, Supreme Court, which decided against the railroads, had farreaching results in establishing principles of public regulation of common carriers. The railways themselves suffered severely in the panic of 1873, while the farmers were troubled by severe and repeated grasshopper invasions that destroyed the crops over large areas. Despite these setbacks, Minnesota’s population increased 77-6% in the decade from 1870 to 1880; settlements spread over the prairies of the west and south-west, and down the river valley. Many of the newcomers were Scandinavian and ) immigrants. Wheat became the great crop of the prairies.

In the‘north the forests were falling under the organized attack

af great lumber companies. Agricultural conditions revived, railtoads again were being built, and the basis was laid for steady Sowth in the following decades. In 1884 the mining of iron-ore was begun on the Vermilion range and in 1890 and 1891 the much er deposits of the Mesabi range were discovered.

Railways

In 1911 shipments began from the Cuyuna range and by

1927 they totalled 25,106,581 tons. Scores of prosperous towns have grown up along the ranges, and the mines have also contributed largely to the prosperity of Duluth. As wheat began to exhaust the land, the farmers turned more and more to diversified farming and the raising of live stock, and gradually dairying came into prominence. Immediately following the World War agrarian unrest manifested itself first in the NonPartisan League and later in the Farmer-Labor Party. This party was able to elect two members to the U.S. Senate—one to fill an unexpired term. In 1924, however, the State elections were carried by the Republicans, including one senator. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—For contemporary conditions consult the reports and publications of various State officers, boards and departments, especially the Biennial Reports of the treasurer, tax commission, auditor, commissioner of highways, etc.; also the publications of the agricultural experiment station of the University of Minnesota, the Bulletins of the State department of agriculture, and State dairy and food department, and Bulletins of the experiment station of the University of Minnesota School of Mines (No. 4 being a “Bibliography of Minnesota Mining and Geology,” 1915). The best history of the State is W. W. Folwell, A History of Minnesota (St. Paul, r921- ). Valuable also are E. D. Neill, History of Minnesota (4th ed., Minneapolis, 1882) ; and Minnesota in Three Centuries, by various authors (1908). For other phases of the State’s history and life see N. H. Winchell, The Aborigines of Minnesota (St. Paul, r911); D. E. Willard, Tke Story of the North Siar State (St. Paul, 1922); W. H. C. Folsom, Fifty Years in the North-west (St. Paul, 1888); H. P. Hall, Observations (St. Paul, 1904), Minnesota in the Civil and Indian Wars (St. Paul, 1890); W. P. Shortridge, The Transition of a Typical Frontier (Menasha, 1922); J. G. Pyle, The Life of James J. Hill (1917); M. W. Odland, Life of Knute Nelson (Minneapolis, 1926); M. L. Hansen, Old Fort Snelling (Iowa City,

1918); J. F. Williams, A History of the City of Saint Paul (St, Paul, 1876); W. Van Brunt, Duluth and St. Louis County, Minnesota (Chicago, 1921); A. N. Winchell, Handbook of Mining in the Lake Superior Region (Minneapolis, 1920) ; E. V. Robinson, Early Economic ` Conditions and the Development of Agriculture in Minnesota (Minneapolis, 1915); H. Larson, The Wheat Market and the Farmer in Minnesota (1926); M. Hartsough, The Twin Cities as a Metropolitan Market (Minneapolis, 1925) ; W. C. Edgar, The Medal of Gold (Minneapolis, 1925); W. Anderson, A History of the Constitution of Minnesota (Minneapolis, 1921); F. F. Holbrook, Minnesota in the Spanish-American War and the Philippine Insurrection (St. Paul, 1923); and F. F. Holbrook and Livia Appel, Minnesota in the War with Germany (St. Paul, 1928 ). See also the 17 vols. of the Minnesota Historical Collections (St. Paul, 1872-1920) ; and Minnesota History, A Quarterly Magazine (formerly Minnesota History Bulletin, St. Paul, r915 seg.), both published by the Minnesota reper painty.

. J. Bv. under established OF, Y MINNESOTA, UNIVERSIT the Territorial Act in 1851 and perpetuated by provisions of the State Constitution, the university of Minnesota began its work of instruction in 1868. By 1928 it had become one of the largest of American universities. The scope of its instruction is exemplified by the fact that during the academic year from Sept. 1926 to June 1927, 12,232 students pursued regular work in such varied subjects as science, literature and arts; engineering and architecture; agriculture, forestry and home economy; law; medicine, nursing and medical technical service; dentistry and dental nursing; mines; pharmacy; chemistry; education; business administration; graduate and special war courses. The university also conducts a summer session in nearly all of its schools and colleges with a total enrolment of over 5,000 students. It conducts four schools of agriculture of less than college grade, and one teacher-training high school, the enrolment in the five schools being 1,430 during 1926-27. Extension courses having regular class instruction im sciences, arts, business administration and engineering were pursued by 6,318 students, correspondence study courses by 2,184 students, and a wide variety of special short courses by 1,512 students. A total of 1,916 degrees was granted during 1926-27, of which 195 were awarded by the graduate school, 34 of these being the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. The university carries on an extensive programme in¢luding

MINNOW—MINORITIES

564

research and State service. In co-operation with the Federal Government the agricultural experiment station, through an expenditure of $392,000, studies important agricultural problems. The Mayo foundation for research in medicine works in cooperation with the Mayo clinic at Rochester, Minn., upon the most fundamental problems of human diseases. The engineering experiment station also conducts researches.

State services

of a wide variety are provided by the university in lecture courses, entertainments, reading and study materials, boys’ and

girls’ club work and county agricultural agents.

(L. D. C.) MINNOW (Phoxinus phoxinus), a cyprinid fish of Europe and

“June, July, August and Port Mahon are the best harbours of

the Mediterranean.”

(See Port Manon.)

The climate is not

equable as that of Majorca, and the island is exposed in autumn and winter to the viclence of the north winds. Its soil is of unequal quality; that of the higher districts being light, fine, ang

fertile, and producing regular harvests without much laboy while that of the plains is chalky, scanty, and unfit for pastureq the plough. Some of the valleys have a good alluvial soil: ang where the hills have been terraced they are cultivated to the sum mit. The Hedysarum coronarium or zulla, as it is called by the Spaniards, is largely cultivated for fodder. Wine, oil, Potatoes,

northern Asia, distinguished from the dace and chub by its small hemp and flax are produced in moderate quantities; fruit of al scales. A length of 3 or 4 in. is usual, but specimens 7 in. long are kinds, including melons, pomegranates, figs and almonds, is known. In America the name is given to other small cyprinids, abundant. Horned cattle, sheep and goats are reared, and smali and to some cyprinodonts. Top minnow is the name given in game abound. In the district of Mercadal and in Mt. Santa America to those species of the cyprinodont genus Fundulus, Agueda are found fine marbles and porphyries; lime and slate are also abundant. Lead, copper and iron might be worked were it not which swim at the surface, particularly F. notatus. MINO DI GIOVANNI (1431-1484), called DA Fresote, for the scarcity of fuel. There are manufactures of wool, Italian sculptor, was born at Poppi in the Casentino. He had hemp and flax. A road, constructed in 1713—15 by Richard Kane, property at Fiesole. Vasari’s account of him is very inaccurate. runs through the island from south-east to north-west, and conMino was a friend and fellow-worker with Desiderio da Settignano nects Port Mahon with Ciudadela. and Matteo Civitale; all three being about the same age. Mino’s MINORITIES, the protection of racial, linguistic and te. sculpture is remarkable for its finish and delicacy of details, as ligious minorities in the sphere of international law. Such prowell as for its spirituality and strong devotional feeling. Of Mino’s tection is not an innovation introduced by the treaties concluded

earlier works, the finest are in the duomo of Fiesole, the altar- at the end of the World War. Diplomatic history affords several piece and tomb of Bishop Salutati, executed before 1466. In the examples of treaties containing special clauses which aim at proBadia of Florence are an altarpiece and the tombs of Bernardo viding certain guarantees for groups of the population of a dif. Giugni (1466) and of Count Hugo of Andersburg (1481), all ferent race, language or religion from that of the majority of the sculptured in white marble, with life-sized recumbent effigies and population of the State to which they belong. (X.) attendant angels. The pulpit in Prato Cathedral, in which he HISTORY collaborated with Antonio Rossellino, finished in 1473, is very

delicately sculptured with bas-reliefs of great minuteness, but somewhat weakly designed. Soon after the completion of this work Mino went to Rome, where he executed the tomb of Pope Paul II. (now in the crypt of St. Peter’s), the tomb of Francesco Tornabuoni

in S. Maria sopra Minerva, and a beautiful little

marble tabernacle for the holy oils in S. Maria in Trastevere. Some of Mino’s portrait busts and profile bas-reliefs are preserved in the Bargello at Florence; at the Berlin Museum and in the collections of Baron Schickler and of Dreyfus in Paris; they are full of life and expression. See Vasari, Milanesi’s ed. (1878-82) ; Wilhelm Bode, Die italienische Plastik (Berlin, 1893); D. Angeli, Mino da Fiesale (Florence, 190%).

MINOR, a word used both as an adjective and as a substantive for that which is less than or inferior to another. “Minor Friars,” or “Minorites,” was the name (fratres minores, lesser brothers) given by St. Francis to the order he founded (see FRANCISCANS); “minor canons” are clergymen attached to a cathedral or collegiate church, but not members of the chapter, who read and sing the daily service. (For the distinction between holy and

minor orders in Christian hierarchy see ORDERS.) The name “Minor Prophets” is used collectively of the twelve prophetical books of the Old Testament from Hosea to Malachi inclusive. For the “minor premise” in Logic, see Syrrocrsm. In Jaw, a

“minor” is a person under legal age (see INFANT). For the “minor of a determinant” in mathematics, see DETERMINANT. In astronomy, the term minor planets is given to the members of the solar system which have their orbits between

those of Mars and Jupiter (see PLANETS, MINOR). As used in music the term minor is opposed to major as indicating an interval of smaller size, a minor interval containing a semitone

less than the corresponding

Mayor and Harmony.)

MINORCA

major interval.

(See

The World War has been described as a “War of Nationalities.” At any rate, it resulted in the overthrow of four empires, and the creation in Europe of a number of new or greatly enlarged States, which were based on the principle of nationality. This process was imperfectly carried out, partly because its complete application is impossible in a continent where the nationalities are so mixed, and partly because the victors refused in some cases to apply it to their disadvantage. minorities became majorities others were able to coalesce already organized in a State.

Nevertheless, many of the previous in the newly organized States, and with men of the same nationality Naturally so great a reversal of con ditions has created difficult problems, which can only be understood by a reference to history. Religious Minorities—Since no State is comprised of an absolutely homogeneous mass of people of the same race and religion, there have always been “minorities” of one kind or aother. In the middle ages there were religious minorities, such as the Albigenses in southern France, which developed an organization of their own, so strong that they were considered specially dangerous and suppressed by the Church by special means. After

the Reformation had completely disrupted the religious unity af

Europe, religious minorities were present in all States and were treated with great rigour in the majority of them. In some cases

the ruler tried to enforce the religion of a minority, but in nearly all cases this failed, and the religion of the majority was adopted as that of the State and that of the minority forbidden. After £648 the religious position’was stabilized and played a less i portant part and gradually in some countries the idea of toleration of religious belief grew up. But to the end of the roth century

there was always a tendency in some States to deny full religious equality to minority sects.

Nationality.—Meanwhile, minorities of another and evet (Menorca), the second in size of the group of more disruptive kind had been growing up. From the end of the

Spanish islands in the Mediterranean sea, known as the Balearic islands (g.v.), 27 m. E.N.E. of Majorca. Pop. (1920), 42,147; area, 260 sq.m. The coast is deeply indented, especially on the

north, with numerous

creeks and bays—that

of Port Mahon

18th century onwards the idea of nationality, which had long

been in existence in western Europe grew immensely stronger and

penetrated throughout the Continent. The exact causes of ths great increase in national feeling are not exactly known. It cm

(17,866), being one of the finest in the Mediterranean, if not the best of them all, according to the popular rhyme—

be partially traced to the French Revolution, whose ideas wet carried all over Europe by Napoleon’s armies but perhaps, the

Junio, Julio, Agosto y Puerto Mahon Los mejores puertos del Mediterraneo son—

nationalities were awakened or made much more self-conscious by

most important cause was the spread of education.

Di

MINORITIES

HISTORY]

teachers, Who, drawn largely from the middle class, and in revolt against the aristocratic and semi-feudal government, which still isted in many parts of Europe, used the national feeling as 3 means of revolt against rulers, who were often of another na-

tionality. The universities, some of which were newly founded,

were sometimes the centre of such movements, and the professor

was their prophet. The historians, especially, by reviving a knowledge of periods in which the racial minorities had played a great part, had a great effect on their compatriots. Moreover, the

change in industry and transport enhanced the efficiency and importance of the State machine.

‘The unit became larger and men

no longer thought in terms of their village or county. Their con-

tacts with officials at a distance became more numerous especially after the extension of railways. Both this cause, and the spread of education made language assume a new importance. It was irk-

some to be governed by men who could not be understood, and impossible to be educated by them.

The growth of democratic ideas made men desire to choose their

rulers, and elected assemblies inevitably increased the expression of national feelings. Thus each minority began to demand more

and more government by its own nationals, and, where these were organized in another State, to look to that State for help against its own rulers. Side by side with these national aspirations there still persisted religious ties such as those of the Greek or Roman Churches, which were sometimes strong enough to hold the other m check. There were, moreover, racial as distinct from national groups, which helped to unite Slav and Teuton or was at any rate an instrument in the hands of Russia and Germany, the most

powerful representatives of each “race.”

These forces operating throughout the roth century were one

of the main causes of the formation of the German empire and the unification of Italy, bringing together men of the same nationality, hitherto divided into small units. But the German empire made by the sword of Prussia contained also Danes and Lorrainers incorporated in it by force, as well as the Poles given to Prussia by the Treaty of Vienna (1815). Italy on the other hand, being weak, many Italians were still left under the domination of the Austrian Government. Meanwhile, as a result of national feeling, the Austro-Hungarian empire had grown less united. The German part had been cut off from Germany by Prussia’s arms. The Hungarians established an equality with the German-ruled half of the monarchy. In both parts, the Slavs became self-conscious after the revolution of 1848 and struggled to express themselves. The same process had begun even earlier in the Balkan peninsula, where the Christian nationalities, with the assistance of the Great Powers, especially of Russia, threw off the Turkish yoke and gradually obtained autonomy and complete independence, the whole culminating in the Balkan Wars of 1912—13, when they had become strong enough to defeat the Turks themselves. The nationalities along the Russian frontier, also, developed from the same causes, but only two were strong enough to make their cause much known in the rest of the world—the Finns, because of their previous Connection with Sweden and semi-independence, and the unquenchable Poles, whose insurrections in 1830 and 1863, though ruthlessly Put down, had shown that they were still determined to

assert their national rights. In other countries there were also, minorities, which did not accept their position, the most alive

being the Irish, whose struggle for Home Rule or semi-independface went on uninterruptedly throughout the roth century.

In pre-war Europe, therefore, there was a body of people, which has been estimated at about roo millions, which was discontented with its rulers, and wished to obtain complete independence, or to unite with some other State, or to have some form of autonomy inside their present State. There were the people of

Alsace-Lorraine the majority preferring France to Germany, or

at least some form of autonomy, and the Danes of Schleswig, as

565

Austria-Hungary was a mosaic of nationalities. In the Austrian part they had been given much autonomy. The Czechs and Poles of the north and the Slavs of the south had obtained many cultural rights, and played a great part in the government. In the Hungarian part, however, the Magyars since they had won their own rights in 1867 had done their best to deny them to their minorities. The Slovaks and Ruthenes in the north, one with an affinity to the Czechs, and the other to the Ruthenes of Galicia and Russia, were kept down in every way. The Croats and Serbs of the south, and the Rumans of Transylvania were more able to assert themselves after an independent Rumania and Serbia came into existence. But they were denied adequate representation under a pseudo-democratic constitution, and their cultural rights were reduced to the lowest possible minimum. The situation was indeed a difficult one, for islands of Magyars and Germans extended into these lands, and especially in Transylvania, the landlords tended to be of the dominant race. An economic motive was thus added to the other causes of the increase of the national spirit of the minorities, whose combined total was greater than that of the Germans in Austria, or that of the Magyars in Hungary. In the Balkans, though the Turks were confined to the region round Constantinople the subsequent interference of the Powers and the war between the Balkan States had resulted in large minorities being left under alien rule. Rumania, Serbia and Greece all had Bulgarian subjects. Indeed the mixture of races in Mace. donia and other parts was such that minorities were inevitable, though the final arrangement might have been much juster. The creation of Albania had made another national State, but both in

its northern frontier with Serbia and its southern with Greece

national minorities were necessarily left in all three States. Meanwhile in the Russian empire the Poles were subjected to worse treatment than in Germany and, of course, much worse than in Austria. The Finns lost many of their old privileges and grew more rebellious in consequence. The peasants of the Baltic provinces of Esths, Letts and Lithuanians were also much affected by the revolution in Russia, a result of the weakness of the Government in the Russo-Japanese War, and there were fierce agrarian outbreaks, Jater ruthlessly suppressed. In Ireland by 1914 the attempt by the Liberal Government to pass a Home Rule bill against the wishes of the Protestant minority had brought civil war into sight. The World War.—The war completely reversed this situation. From the outset each side endeavoured to foment the aspirations of the minorities under the control of their enemies, The Germans were at first the most active, and had most success, because of their military victories over Russia. By this

means a new Poland was constituted and the Baltic nationalities revived under German

control.

Attempts were even made

to

create a Ruthenian revival in South Russia. But the Allied efforts were in the long run more lasting and effective. They were gradually able to reach the minorities of Austria-Hungary, efforts which were facilitated by the co-operation of exiles, who established “Governments” in the Allied countries. The accession of the United States, where President Wilson had already advocated the right of self-determination, added strength to their agitation and money was contributed by their American kinsmen. When therefore, the tide of war turned, the national minorities of Austria-

Hungary asserted their right to complete independence, and though, by the secret treaties with Italy and Rumania, the Allies had somewhat violated the principle of nationality, yet they were already pledged to recognize the claims of the Czechs, the Southern Slavs, the Rumanians, the Poles to form new States out of the mosaic.

Thus the Peace treaties were a recognition of the rights which the minorities had claimed, and the new frontier lines of Europe followed more closely than any that had preceded them the ethno-

graphical frontier lines. But, of course, in the intermixture of could look back to citizenship in a Polish State of fairly recent ‘nationalities it was inevitable that minorities should still exist, date, while the latter, though most of them were more recent and it was perhaps also inevitable that the defeated countries amgrants, were still conscious of their Polish nationality, which should lose more than a strict interpretation of ethnographical Was reinforced by their Catholicism, which contrasted with the frontiers would have taken from them. Some mitigation was obtained by the institution of plebiscites in Schleswig, Klagenfurt otestantism of the Prussian State. _

well as the Poles of Posen and Upper Silesia of whom the former

566

MINORITIES

[LEAGUE OF NATION

and in Upper Silesia, where the line of demarcation was later the century. It was again applied to Greece in 1863, and 188i settled by the League of Nations. Nevertheless, both against Ger- when additions to its territory were agreed to by the Powers an many in the east, against Austria in the south and most of all on "it was made a cardinal feature of the Treaty of Berlin. : ira : Clauses all the frontiers of Hungary, lines were drawn, which were in protecting religious minorities were inserted, as a condition ofihe some cases determined by other considerations, and included recognition of Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria and Rumania Ter. greater minorities than was necessary in the new States. While key herself could not be treated in exactly the same manner, singe such a transfer would in any case have caused great suffering and she was already an established State. But in return for theguaran. protest, this has been increased by the arbitrary nature of some tee of her territory made in 1856 at the Treaty of Paris, the Sultag of these frontier lines. And since many of the former minorities made, expressly as it was said of his own free will, a declaration now rule over those who had previously tyrannized over them, that he would maintain religious liberty, while in the Treaty of bitter memories tend to make them unjust in their turn. Ger- Berlin the Powers took note of a similar declaration. many, for example, while accepting to a certain extent the loss of One of the main causes of these provisions especially as regards Posen to Poland, has felt deeply the loss of Danzig, the corridor Rumania was a desire to protect the Jews. Efforts to obtain for to Poland and the partition of Upper Silesia, though these two last them full civil rights and freedom of religion in Germany by can be defended on ethnographical grounds. The Polish State international action had been made as early as the Treaty of includes also other nationalities, such as the Ruthenians of Ga- Vienna (1815). Jewish communities in France, Britain and, later licia, and the White Russians, which were increased by the occu- in the United States not only influenced their Governments, while pation of Vilna. The Czechs were allotted all Bohemia and there- the Treaty of Berlin was being made, but established organizations fore, the two and a half million Germans in it became a minority, to watch over the execution of the clauses of the treaty, which while strategic reasons included numbers of Hungarians in Slo- protected the Jews with the other national minorities. vakia, as well as the Ruthenes of the Carpathians. Similarly the Nevertheless, it was admitted that this attempt to protect the Rumans obtained not only the inevitable islands of Magyars and minorities by treaty was not a success. No machinery was setup Germans in Transylvania, but also a large slice of Hungary proper, to see that the promises of the new States were carried out, and though not nearly so much as their secret treaty had promised they were often evaded or broken. Protests could be made and them. The Italians, also, obtained a large portion of South Tirol, were sometimes made by one of the signatories of the treaty, but which was almost purely German, while their extension round the there was no means of ascertaining the facts and no method by Adriatic brought many Slovenes and Serbs under their rule. Thus which the Great Powers could act as a body in the name of Europe, in one way or another nearly thirty millions of Europeans were Consequently the new governments who resented interference ip still living as “minorities,” the majority necessarily so, since they their domestic concerns by outside Powers found it comparatively were surrounded by men of other race, but others arbitrarily easy to defy their sponsors, when they wished to do so. When, included as a result of the war. therefore, the question arose at the Paris Conference, where again The situation was naturally much worse in some parts than the Jewish community through a special delegation brought their others. ‘The Germans of Czechoslovakia for example were united influence to bear on the proceedings, it was only natural that some by many ties to the Czechs and were soon to take part in the new method of control should be sought to protect the minorities activities of the new State. But the situation is very different in the new or greatly enlarged States, which were then being as regards the Magyars who are sustained by the unceasing propa- made. Opportunity was found in the permanent machinery of the ganda of their compatriots in Hungary. Even worse is the situa- League of Nations, to whom the supervision of the special treaties tion between Hungary and Rumania, where a policy of land ex- on this subject was entrusted. It was, of course, only on new propriation has added bitterness to the struggle. The minorities States or on States that had been greatly enlarged as a result of in Greece and Yugoslavia have been sustained by an active or- the war that the obligations were imposed. No Great Power ganization, which styles itself “Macedonian,” and is only partially would submit to them, and Italy therefore, in spite of her new connected with Bulgaria. The Germans of the Tirol, in spite of accessions of territory, is outside this machinery described below, promises made in 1919, have been subjected by the Italian Fascist BrsriocrapHy.—The best account of how the present position arose Government to a régime, which has caused a loud outcry not only is in Les Minorités Nationales d’Europe et la Guerre M ondiale, by Th. in Austria, but also in Germany. Europe still contains, therefore, Ruyssen (1923), which has a good bibliography. For the history of in its minorities a number of explosive forces of which the future protection of minorities in the roth century see Iford L. Evans, “The is uncertain, but which obviously need special treatment. How far Protection of Minorities,” British Year Book of International Law, 1923-24; H.W. V. Temperley, A History of the Peace Conference of that has been organized under the League of Nations is described Paris, vol. v. Chapter II. (an authoritative account of the motives of below, but it remains to sketch here such efforts as were made in the Powers). A German account is in F. Wertheimer, Deutschland, die the roth century with a similar object and the causes of their Minderheiten und der Vilkerbund (Berlin, 1926). For the influence of the Jews see Max J. Kohler and Simon Wolf, Jewish Disabilities in the failure. Balkan States (New York, the American Jewish Committee, 1916) The protection of minorities by the action of an outside power and Lucien Wolf, Notes in the Diplomatic History of the Jewish Quesis a very old one. It constantly occurred with regard to religious tion (Jewish Historical Society of England, 1919). (C. K. W.) minorities, Cromwell’s action on behalf of the Protestants of Piedmont being a well-known one. But the attempt to protect by THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS international treaty dates only from the settlement of 1814-15; In the new system established after the World War, theLeague the British Government insisted on clauses being inserted in the of Nations was entrusted with the task of guaranteeing the stipt treaty which guaranteed, though only in vague terms, the rights lations concerning the position of minorities. The States estabof the Poles to special treatment by the Governments of Russia, lished, restored or territorially enlarged by the treaties of peace, Austria and Prussia. It was on these clauses that Britain and as well as Austria, Bulgaria, Hungary and Turkey, accepted France founded their protests against Russian action after the in- certain special obligations concerning the position of racial, lm surrections of 1830 and 1863. Moreover, when the new State of guistic and religious minorities in their territories; these underthe Netherlands was created in 1814, by adding Belgium to Hol- takings, which were recognized in general as fundamental laws land, the new king guaranteed, in a document drawn up by the of the States in question, and as obligations of international. cot victorious Allies, religious equality and equal commercial opporcern, were placed under the guarantee of the League of Nations tunity to his new Belgian subjects. It was, however, in the It is perhaps well to mention that, in accordance with these Balkan peninsula, that the principle was to receive its fullest recprovisions, minorities consist—apart from a clause concerning ognition. New States were created out of the Turkish empire by the inhabitants of a country—of those of its nationals who:belong the action of the Powers, who had therefore both the opportunity to a different race or religion, or speak a different language from and the duty to place limits on the sovereign power of the new the majority of the population. The system therefore. does ne States, as a condition of their recognition. This policy began in affect either foreigners living in a country the majority of whose 1830 in connection with Greece and was continued . throughout population belongs to a different race, religion or language

LEACUE OF NATIONS]

MINORITIES

tbeir own, or nationals of the country belonging to minorities other

than racial, religious or linguistic minorities, such as social or political minorities, etc. International Instruments.—The

international instruments

in force in 1928 containing stipulations for the protection of minorities placed under the guarantee of the League of Nations may be classified as follows:

x. Special treaties signed at Paris during the Peace Conference: (x) Treaty between the Principal Allied and Associated Powers and Poland, signed at Versailles on June 28, 1919; (2) Treaty between the Principal Allied and Associated Powers and

the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, signed at St. Germain

on Sept. 10, 1919;

(3) Treaty between the Principal Allied and Associated Powers and

Czechoslovakia, signed at St. Germain on Sept. 10, 1919; (4) Treaty between the Principal Allied and Associated Powers and Rumania, signed at Paris on Dec. 9, 1919;

(s) Treaty between the Principal Allied and Associated Powers and

Greece, signed at Sévres on Aug. 10, 1920.

2. Special chapters inserted in the general treaties of peace: (1) Treaty of Peace with Austria, signed at St. Germain-en-Laye on

Sept. 10, 1919 (part iii., section v., articles 62 to 69):

(2) Treaty of Peace with Bulgaria, signed at Neuilly-sur-Seine on Nov. 27, 1919 (part ii., section iv., articles 49 to 57) ; (3) Treaty of Peace with Hungary, signed at Trianon on June 4, 1920 (part iii., section vi., articles 54 to 6o); (4) Treaty of Peace with Turkey, signed at Lausanne on July 24, 1923 (part i., section iii., articles 37 to 45).

3. Declarations made before the Council of the League of Nations: (1) Declaration by Albania, dated Oct. 2, 1921; (2) Declaratior by Estonia, dated Sept. 17, 1923; (3) Declaration by Finland (in respect of the Aland islands), dated June 27, 1921; ,

(4) Declaration by Latvia, dated July 7, 1923;

(5) Declaration by Lithuania, dated May 12, 1922.

4. Conventions: (rt) German-Polish Convention on Upper Silesia, dated May 18, 1922 (part iii.); : , (2) Convention concerning the Memel Territory, dated May 8, 1924 (Article 11, and Articles 26 and 27 of the Statute annexed to the Convention}.

These lists of existing international instruments show the exceptional character of the system of protection of minorities by the League of Nations. The creators of the system had no mtention of establishing a general jurisprudence applicable wherever racial, linguistic or religious minorities existed. They sim-

ply aimed at facilitating the solution of the problems which might arise from the existence of racial, linguistic or religious minorities in certain countries in which there was reason to suppose that, owing to special circumstances, these problems might present particular difficulties. It is not enough to ascertain that a more or less considerable proportion of the population of a country belongs to a different

tace, language or religion to that of the majority in order to

deduce the existence of a minority problem which would justify

a special system of international protection being set up. The French-speaking population of Switzerland and, even more, the

567

ferent times discussions on this subject have taken place in the League assembly. It must also be kept in mind that a certain number of questions which before the war presented themselves tather in the form of an aspiration towards territorial autonomy are tending now to develop into minorities questions. These very brief indications, which do not pretend to have included all the European minorities which have remained outside the scope of the League’s protection, should, nevertheless, suffice to explain why the notion of a general system of minorities protection by the League of Nations, applicable to all States, is upheld by a large number of persons, and why it should already have been the subject of frequent discussion in the League. Even while the minorities treaties were being drafted at the Peace Conference, several of the States concerned raised objections. At the plenary meeting of the Conference on May 31, 1919, the representatives of these countries stated that they were prepared to accept obligations regarding the protection of minorities if all the States Members of the League accepted similar obligations. (See H. W. V. Temperley, History of the Peace Conference, vol. v., p. 129.) Moreover, the Polish delegation, in a memorandum submitted to the Peace Conference, pointed out that the Treaty of Versailles contained no stipulations concerning the protection of minorities in Germany similar to those which Poland. was asked to accept concerning the protection of German minorities in Poland. Germany, in the chapter of her counter-proposals to the peace terms which concerned the League of Nations, demanded the general protection of minorities, and in particular the protection of the German minorities in the territories ceded by her; she declared her willingness to treat minorities in her own territory according to the same principles. , At the meeting of May 31, 1919, M. Clemenceau and President Wilson replied to these objections. Their arguments will be found in Clemenceau’s covering letter to Paderewski referred to below. Furthermore, the Allies, on their reply of June 16, 1919, to the German counter-proposals, called attention to the guarantees which would be given by the minorities treaties to the German minorities in the ceded territories, and noted the German delegation’s declaration that Germany was prepared to

treat minorities in her territory according to the same principles.

The tendency towards the generalization of the system of the protection of minorities became evident once more at the third session of the Assembly of the League of Nations (1922). In the Sixth committee of this Assembly the Latvian representative, Dr. Walters, put forward the idea of a minorities law established on the same basis for all States. The Finnish representative, M. Erich, proposed that the Assembly should ask the Council to set up a commission to study the question of the protection of minorities in general. The Estonian representative supported this proposal, which, however, was subsequently withdrawn. Finally, the Sixth committee submitted to the Assembly a number of resolutions, which the Assembly adopted at its meeting of Sept. 21, 1922. The fourth of these resolutions was as follows:

minorities, but nobody could maintain that they need international protection. On the other hand, there are genuine minorities in Europe which have not been placed under the protection of the

The Assembly expresses the hope that the States which are not bound by any legal obligations to the League with respect to minorities will nevertheless observe in the treatment of their own racial, religious or linguistic minorities at least as high a standard of justice and toleration as is oe by any of the treaties and by the regular action of the Council.

constitutes a delicate problem which could have been resolved more easily and rapidly if the League had been able to inter-

Three years later, in 1925, at the sixth session of the Assembly (meeting of Sept. 14, 1925), the Lithuanian delegation submitted the following proposal:

usting engagements,

The Lithuanian delegation proposes that the Sixth Assembly of the League should set up a special committee

population of the Italian-speaking cantons constitute linguistic

League of Nations, and whose situation, in the opinion of many,

vne. The population of the minorities which, in virtue of have

been placed under the protection

to prepare a draft convention tt the’ League of Nations, may be estimated approximately to include all the States Members of the League of Nations and setting tween 25 and 30 millions. It is extremely difficult to speak forth their common rights and duties in regard to minorities. # the minorities outside this system of protection, because it is This proposal was discussed by the Sixth committee of the

most impossible to draw a line between the cases where the

ustence of a minority. population raises the problem of interational protection and where such a problem does not arise. the existence of these minority groups has led to proposals being

that a general system of minorities protection by. the League

i Nations should be: applied to all States equally, and at dif-

Assembly at its meeting of Sept. 16, 1925. The majority of the speakers who took part in the debate were opposed to the Lithuanian view; a few wished to reserve their opinion; and the Rumanian and Polish representatives declared themselves in favour of the proposal in principle. The Lithuanian delegate having finally withdrawn his. proposal, the Assembly decided, on Sept. 22, to

568

MINORITIES

inform the Council of the discussion which had taken place in

[PROTECTION

tution of the States affected which could be used for purely

the Sixth committee in this connection. The Council, at its meet- political purposes. In the new system the guarantee was entrusted ing of Dec. 9, 1925, merely took note of the Assembly’s resolution. to the League of Nations. Furthermore, added M. Clemenceau At the same meeting of the Council, M. de Mello Franco, a clause had been inserted in the treaties by virtue of which dis (Brazil), as rapporteur on minorities questions, stated his personal putes which might arise in connection with the guarantees ip views, in the course of which he pronounced definitely against question should be submitted to the Permanent Court of Inter. generalizing the system for the protection of minorities. In M. national Justice. In this way the differences which might arise de Mello Franco’s opinion, “the mere co-existence of groups of were removed from a political to a Juridical sphere—a fact which persons forming collective entities, racially different, in the terri- facilitated an impartial decision. tory and under the jurisdiction of a State, is not sufficient to The stipulations relating to the protection of minorities cop. create the obligation to recognize the existence in that State, side tained in the special minorities treaties and in the treaties of by side with the majority of its population, of a minority requiring peace mentioned in category 2 were placed under the guarantee a protection entrusted to the League of Nations. In order that of the League of Nations by special resolutions of the Council of a minority, according to the meaning of the present treaties, should the League. See report to the Sixth Assembly on the work of the exist, it must be the product of struggles, going back for cen- Council and the secretariat (pages 44 and 43). turies, or perhaps for shorter periods, between certain nationalities, and of the transference of certain territories from one sovereignty to another through successive historic phases.” As these factors were not constant in all the States Members of the League of Nations, it would not be possible, in M. de Mello Franco’s opinion, for all these States to adhere to a general convention such as that proposed by the Lithuanian representative. THE PROTECTION OF MINORITIES UNDER THE GUARANTEE OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS

The Minorities Treaties—In pursuance of certain clauses in the general treaties of peace, Greece, Poland, Rumania, Czechoslovakia and the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes agreed to the insertion in special treaties with the principal Allied and Associated Powers of the provisions which these Powers judged necessary to protect the interests of inhabitants differing

from the majority of the population of these States in race, language or religion. For Greece, see Treaty of Neuilly, article 46; for Poland, Treaty of Versailles, article 93; for Rumania, Czechoslovakia and the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, Treaty of St. Germain, articles 60, 57 and 51 respectively. Articles 44 and 47 of the Treaty of Trianon confirm the pledges given to Hungary by the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes and Rumania respectively. The drafting of these treaties was entrusted to a commission of the Peace Conference, called the Commission on New States, set up on May 1, r919. The following countries were represented on

this commission: France (M. Berthelot), the United States (Mr. Miller and Mr. Hudson), Great Britain (Mr. Headlam Morley), and later also Italy (M. de Martino and M. Castoldi) and Japan (M. Adatci). The first treaty prepared by this commission was that concluded with Poland. Its text was transmitted to M. Paderewski, the prime minister of Poland, with a letter from the president of the Con-

ference, M. Clemenceau. This letter may be said to contain the “considerations” which in the Peace Conference’s opinion form the basis of all treaties dealing with minorities. The letter first of all lays stress on the fact that the minorities treaties do not inaugurate any fresh departure. It had for a long time, said M. Clemenceau, been the established procedure of the public law of Europe, when a new State was created, or when an existing State absorbed any considerable amount of territory, for the formal recognition of the situation by the Great Powers to be accompanied by a request on the part of these Powers to the Government thus recognized that it should undertake to apply certain definite principles of government in the form of an agreement possessing an international character. M. Clemenceau went on to point out that the new minorities treaties nevertheless differed in form from previous conventions relating to similar questions. This change of form was a necessary consequence of an essential part of the new system of international relations Inaugurated by the establishment of the League of Nations. Formerly the guarantee for provisions of this nature was vested in the Great Powers. Experience had shown that this arrangement was ineffective in practice, and it was also open to the criticism that it might give the Great Powers, either individually or in combination, a right to interfere in the internal consti-

Declarations Made Before the Council.—On Dec. 15, 1920,

the Assembly, on the fifth committee’s proposal, adopted the following resolution: In the event of Albania, the Baltic and the Caucasian States being admitted to the League, the Assembly requests that they should take the necessary measures to enforce the principles of the minorities treaties, and that they should arrange with the Council the details required to carry this object into effect.

Of the above States, Albania and Finland were alone admitted during the First Assembly, and questions regarding the minorities in these two countries were considered by the Council at several of its meetings. As early as June 27, 1921, the Council of the League of Nations, after recognizing the sovereignty of Finland over the Aland islands, adopted a resolution regarding the guarantees which Finland undertook to grant to the population of the Aland islands for the preservation of their language, their culture and their local Swedish traditions. By the terms of this resolution, the Council was to see that the guarantees were duly observed. Finland was to forward to the Council, together with its own observations, any complaints or claims by the Aland Jandsting on the application of

these guarantees, and the Council could consult the Permanent Court of International Justice if the question was of a legal nature, Finland further submitted to the Council a memorandum conveying detailed information as to the rights guaranteed to minor-

ities in Finland by the constitutional law of that country. The Council noted this information at its meeting of Oct. 2, r921. At the same meeting the Albanian representative signed a declaration containing provisions similar to those in the minorities treaties. This declaration was ratified by Albania on Feb. 17, 1922, and placed under the guarantee of the League of Nations. During the Second Assembly, before the admission of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania to the League, the representatives of these States signed a declaration by which the Estonian, Latvian and Lithuanian Governments accepted the Assembly resolution of Dec. 15, 1920, and stated their readiness to enter into negotiations with the Council for the purpose of determining the scope and the details of the application of their international obligations for the protection of minorities. i The Council, in Jan. 1922, requested the representative of Brazil to enter into negotiations with the representatives of these States. On May x12 the representative of Lithuania, M. Sidzikauskas, signed before the Council a declaration containing provisions similar to those in the Polish Minorities Treaty.

Minority questions in Latvia and Estonia have been on the

agenda at several meetings of the Council, and the representatives

of Estonia and Latvia submitted several memoranda giving views of their Governments. At a meeting of the Council on July 7, 1923, the Latvian dekgation made a declaration containing proposals which were atcepted by the Council and which the Latvian Government subsequently approved on July 209, 1923.

This declaration brought to an end the negotiations between the

Latvian Government and the Council with regard to the protection of minorities in Latvia. The Council, however, retains the rightto re-open the question if it considers that the position of minorities in Latvia does not correspond to the general principles embodied in the Minorities treaties.

The -Latvian Government may abo

RIGHTS AND DUTIES]

MINORITIES

ask that the negotiations be taken up again. The declaration, furthermore, contains stipulations as to the procedure to be adopted for petitions addressed to the League concerning the position of minorities in Latvia. This procedure is similar to that established by the Council for countries that have signed the minorities

treaties. The Latvian Government undertakes in principle to give the Council any information that it may require if a question concerning the position of minorities in Latvia is brought before it by one of its members. In case of differences of opinion on questions of law or fact arising out of the declaration, either the Latvian Government or the Council may request that the differ-

ence be brought before the Permanent Court of International Justice for an advisory opinion. At its meeting of Sept. 17, 1923, the Council adopted a resolution and accepted proposals contained

in a declaration which was enounced by the Estonian representative.

According to this resolution, the Council takes note of the information communicated to it by the Estonian representative in his report of Aug. 28, 1923, concerning the position of racial, linguistic and religious minorities in Estonia. The report states

that the protection of minorities in Estonia is at present provided

for by the Estonian constitution in a manner conforming to the general principles embodied in the minorities treaties. The Council, however, retains the right to reconsider the position of minor-

569

language to be employed in all legal proceedings

of whatever

nature.

The Convention also deals with the right of petition and methods of appeal. A minorities office is to be set up in each portion of the plebiscite territory. Persons belonging to a minority may, after having filed a complaint with the highest administrative authority, submit a petition to the minorities office of their State for consideration. If the minorities office does not succeed in obtaining satisfaction for the petitioners, it will transmit the petition, together with any comments it may wish to make, to the president of the Mixed Commission for his opinion. The

president will give the members of the Mixed Commission an

opportunity to express their views. (The Mixed Commission is composed of two Germans and two Poles, with a president of some other nationality.) The president will then make known his opinion to the minorities office, which will communicate it to the proper administrative authorities. In case the petitioners are not satisfied with the findings of the administrative authority, they may appeal to the Council of the League of Nations. Such appeals must be addressed to the minorities office, which will see that they are forwarded to the Council by the Government.

The Council is also competent to give a decision concerning any individual or collective petition addressed to it directly by persons belonging to a minority. The Convention concerning the Memel Territory contains only two provisions relating to the protection of minorities. The first (article 11 of the Convention and article 26 of the statute require as to minorities questions that may be brought before it annexed to it) stipulates that the Lithuanian declaration of May by one of its members. In case of differences of opinion on 12, 1922, applies to minorities within the Memel Territory, with questions of law or fact arising out of this resolution, recourse the exception of paragraph 4 of article 4, relating to the use of may be had to the Permanent Court of International Justice for the minority languages in the law courts. This exception is due an advisory opinion. to the fact that, in accordance with the second stipulation The declaration subsequently made by the Estonian repre- (article 27 of the statute) the Lithuanian and the German lansentative laid down the procedure to be followed with regard to guages are recognized on the same footing as official languages in information addressed to the League on the position of minorities. the Memel Territory. This procedure corresponds to that already described in the case Certain States have concluded special conventions concerning of Latvia. the position of their respective minorities, but these have not been The Conventions.—The decision which was adopted on Oct. placed under the guarantee of the League of Nations, e.g., the 20, 1921, by the conference of ambassadors in conformity with Treaty of Brünn between Austria and Czechoslovakia, dated the opinion expressed by the Council of the League, lays down June 7, 1920; the Treaty of April 23, 1925, between Poland and as follows: Czechoslovakia, etc. Mention may also be made of article 33 (t) That the Polish Minorities Treaty of June 28, 19109, is applicable of the Convention of Nov. 9, 1920, between Poland and the to the Polish portion of Upper Silesia; (2) That considerations of equity, as well as the maintenance of the Free City of Danzig, under which Danzig undertakes to apply to minorities provisions similar to those which are applied by economic life of Upper Silesia, require that the German Government should accept similar provisions, at least for a provisional period of Poland in execution of the Polish Minorities Treaty. The 1§ years, as regards the German portion of Upper Silesia; Agreement of Oct. 24, 1921, between Danzig and Poland, in exe(3) That the provisions of the convention to be concluded between the German and Polish Governments in this connection should consti- cution of the Convention of Nov. 9, 1920, deals in articles 225 tute obligations of international concern both for Germany and for and 226 with the question of language, and in article 227 and Poland, and should be placed under the guarantee of the League of annex with the question of education in connection with the Polish Nations in the same manner as those of the treaty of June 28, r919. minority at Danzig. On the basis of this decision, negotiations between Germany THE RIGHTS AND DUTIES OF MINORITIES and Poland were begun at Beuthen in Dec. 1921, and were resumed Various treaties guaranteed to racial, linguistic or religious at Geneva on Feb. 15, 1922. The results of these negotiations were embodied in part III. minorities certain rights, which may be grouped under the follow(articles 64-158) of the German-Polish Convention signed at ing headings; (a) a number of general rights more or less common to all minorities in countries which have accepted the sysGeneva on May 15, 1922. The first division of this part of the Convention contains a tem of the protection of minorities by the League; (b) certain synoptic table, setting out in one column those articles of the special rights guaranteed to minorities situated in more or less Polish Minorities Treaty which Poland undertakes to apply in exceptional circumstances. the Polish portion of Upper Silesia, and in another column parallel GENERAL RIGHTS engagements entered into by Germany. Right to Nationality.—The various minorities treatiés conities in Estonia in case the application of the principles of the minorities treaties as laid down in the recommendation of the League Assembly voted on Dec. 15, 1920, should no longer be sufficiently safeguarded. For this purpose the Council may ask the Estonian Government to furnish it with any information it may

However, in order that the protection of minorities in the tain special provisions with regard to changes in nationality as a

Plebiscite portions of the territory might be based upon principles ofequitable reciprocity, and in order that the special conditions

result of territorial redistribution.

The principle contained in

these provisions is that the nationality of a newly-created or

amg out of the provisional régime might receive due consideration, the contracting parties agreed to observe, for a period of 15 years, certain more detailed provisions concerning civil and

enlarged country may be acquired: (a) by the fact that a person was habitually resident in the transferred territory, or had rights of citizenship (or “pertinenza”) there at the time of the coming

tation, vocational training and extension classes, secondary and

lArticles of the Treaties of Peace with Austria, Bulgaria, Hungary and Turkey which refer to nationality had not been placed under the guarantee of the League until 1929.

political nights, religion, private education, public elementary edu-

igher education, the official language of administration and the

579

MINORITIES

into force of the treaty’, and (b) by the fact that a person was born in the territory of parents habitually resident there, even though at the date of the coming into force of the treaty the persons concerned were not themselves habitually resident in the territory’. The various treaties also lay down that all persons born in the territory of one of these States and not born nationals of another State shall ipso facto become nationals of such State. Finally, the minorities treaties contain certain provisions with regard to the right of option. Persons over 18 years of age who, as a result of territorial changes and the operation of provisions regarding nationality, became nationals of one of the new or territorially enlarged States, were allowed to opt for any other nationality which was open to them. The period fixed in the minorities and peace treaties for the exercise of this right of option was two years as from the date of the coming into force of these treaties.

Persons who exercised this right were, within

the succeeding twelve months after option, to leave the territory of the State whose nationality they had lost. The treaties authorized them to retain their immovable property in the territory of the State which they had left and to carry with them their movable property of every description, no export duties being imposed upon them in connection with the removal of such property. The minorities treaties contain a special clause under which the States concerned undertake to place no hindrance of any sort in the way of exercise of this right of option. Life, Personal Liberty and Freedom of Worship.—Under the minorities treaties, the various States undertake to assure

to all their inhabitants full and complete protection of life and liberty; they recognize that their inhabitants shall be entitled to the free exercise, whether public or private, of any creed, religion or belief whose practices are not inconsistent with public order or public morals.

These rights therefore have been established not merely on behalf of citizens belonging to a minority, but for the benefit of all the inhabitants of the country. Nevertheless, as will be explained later, the League’s guarantee applies only in the case of persons belonging to racial, linguistic or religious minorities. Equal Treatment.—The various minorities treaties embody the following general principles: (a) equality of all nationals of the same country before the law, (b) equality in the matter of civil and political rights, and (c) equality of treatment and security in law and in fact. In the arguments in support of its Advisory Opinion No. 6 with regard to the question of settlers of German origin in Poland, the Permanent Court of International Justice interpreted these provisions on equality as follows: “The facts that no racial discrimination appears in the text of the law of July 14, 1920, and that in a few instances the law applies to non-German Polish nationals who took over property as purchasers from original holders of German race, make no substantial difference. . . There must be equality in fact as well as ostensible legal equality nthe sense of the absence of discrimination in the words of the aw. The treaties also lay down that differences of race, language or religion shall not prejudice any national of the country in the matter of admission to public employments, functions and honours or the exercise of professions and industries; that nationals belonging to minorities shall have an equal right to establish, manage and control at their own expense charitable, religious and social institutions, schools and other educational establishIIn the case of Poland, the Serb-Croat-Slovene Kingdom and Czechoslovakia, this provision must be interpreted in conjunction with certain provisions of the Treaties of Versailles (article 91, § 2), of St. Germain (article 76), and Trianon (article 62), according to which persons who established their place of residence or acquired rights of citizenship in various circumstances subsequent to a certain date (Jan. I, 1908 in the case of Poland, and Jan. xr, 1910, in the case of the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes and Czechoslovakia) do not acquire the nationality of these States without an authorisation from the latter. ?2In its Advisory Opinion, Number 7, of Sept. 15, 1923, the Permanent Court of International Justice interpreted this provision, with regard to the Polish Treaty, as referring only to the habitual residence of the parents at the date of birth of the persons concerned.

[RIGHTS AND DUTIES

ments, with the right to use their own language, and to exercise

their religion freely therein. The Use of the Minority Language.—These Tights as de. fined in the treaties take the form of three obligations accepted by the States concerned, namely: (a) The obligation to impose no restriction on the free use by a

national of any language in private intercourse, in commerce, in religion, in the press or in publications of any kind, or at public meetings,

(b) The obligation to grant nationals speaking a language other than the official language adequate facilities for the use of their Jaņ. guage, either orally or in writing before the courts. (c) The obligation to grant adequate facilities in towns and districts where there is a considerable proportion of nationals speaking a lan. guage other than the official language of the State, to ensure that in the primary schools! the instruction shall be given to the children of such nationals through the medium of their own language.

This provision does not, however, prevent the Government from making the teaching of the official language obligatory in these schools.

Public Funds.—The treaties also lay down that in towns and districts where there is a considerable proportion of nationals of

the country belonging to racial, religious or linguistic minorities, these minorities shall be assured an equitable share in the enjoyment and application of the sums which may be provided out of public funds under the State, municipal or other budget, for edu-

cational, religious or charitable purposes. SPECIAL

RIGHTS

Jewish Minorities. (a) Greece—In towns and districts where there is a considerable proportion of Greek nationals of

the Jewish religion the Government undertakes to respect their Sabbath. This provision does not, however, exempt Jews from such obligations as shall be imposed upon all other Greek nationals for the necessary purposes of military service, national defence

or the preservation of public order (article 10 of the Greek Minorities Treaty). (b) Lithuania and Poland—The Lithuanian Declaration (article 7) and the Polish Treaty (article 10) provide for the constitution of educational committees appointed by the Jewish communities with a view to providing under the general control of the State for the distribution of the proportional share of public funds allocated to Jewish schools and for the organization and management of these schools. Respect for the Sabbath is also stipulated. It is also laid down that no election shall be held on a Saturday. This provision, however, does not exempt Jews from such obligations as shall be imposed upon all other nationals for the necessary purposes of military service, national defence or

the preservation of public order. (Article 8 of the Lithuanian Declaration and article 11 of the Polish Treaty.) . (c) Rumania recognizes as Rumanian nationals ipso facto and without the requirement of any formality Jews inhabiting any Rumanian territory, who do not possess another nationality

(article 7 of the Rumanian Minorities Treaty).

Valachs of Pindus.—Greece has agreed to accord to the

communities of the Valachs of Pindus local autonomy under the

control of the Greek State, in regard to religious, charitable or scholastic matters. (Article 12 of the Greek Minorities Treaty.) Mount Athos.—Greece has agreed (article 13 of the Greek Minorities Treaty) to recognize and maintain the traditional rights and liberties enjoyed by the non-Greek monastic communities of Mt. Athos under article 62 of the Treaty of Berlin, which reads: “The monks of Mount Athos, of whatever country

they may be natives, shall be maintained in their former pos

sessions and advantages, and shall enjoy, without any exception, complete equality of rights and prerogatives.” Muslims in Albania, Greece and the Serb-Croat-Slo-

vene Kingdom.—The

Greek Treaty (article 14), the Treaty

with the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (article 10)

and the Albanian Declaration (articles 2 and 3) lay down that all necessary measures shall be taken to enable questions of family

law and personal status to be regulated in accordance with

‘It should be observed that in the Czechoslovak Treaty there is00

mention of “primary schools,” the word employed being “instruction in general without any limitation.

LEAGUE GUARANTEE] Muslim usage.

MINORITIES

At the same time these treaties guarantee the

protection of mosques, cemeteries and other religious establishBk

and

Saxon

Communities

in

Transylvania.

Te

dispute shall, if the other party thereto demands, be referred to the Permanent Court of International Justice. The decision of the Permanent Court shall be final and shall have the same force and effect as an award under article 13 of the Covenant.

The first paragraph of these provisions confines the League’s guarantee to “persons belonging to racial, religious or linguistic minorities.” The significance of this restriction will be realized when we remember that the Minorities Treaties establish certain Ruthene Territory South of the Carpathians.—Czecho- very important rights, such as the right to protection of life and slovakia has agreed to constitute this territory as an autonomous liberty and certain rights as to equality, and this not only for the mit within the Czechoslovak State, and to accord to it the benefit of minorities but for that of all nationals, and indeed all fullest degree of self-government compatible with the unity of the inhabitants of the country. If, therefore, a State which had that State. The régime is, according to the provisions of the subscribed to these undertakings infringed any provision estabtreaty, to include a special diet having powers of legislation in all lishing one of these rights, to the prejudice of a person not belonglinguistic, scholastic and religious questions, in matters of local ing to a minority, such an act would not bring the League’s administration, and in other questions which the laws of the guarantee into play as the guarantee in this case applies only Czechoslovak State may assign to it. The governor of this terri- with regard to minorities. tory must be appointed by the president of the republic and its According to the second paragraph, the members of the council oficials must be chosen as far as‘possible from the inhabitants (in other words certain Governments) alone have the right to of the territory (articles ro to 13 of the Czechoslovak Minorities bring to the attention of the Council any infraction or danger of Treaty). infraction of any of the provisions relating to minorities. Accord-

Rumania has agreed to grant these communities local autonomy in religious and scholastic matters, subject to the control of the Rumanian State (article 11 of the Rumanian Minorities Treaty).

THE

DUTIES

OF MINORITIES

The treaties contain no stipulations regarding the “duties” of minorities towards the States of which they form part. The Third Ordinary Assembly of the League, however,

in 1922, when defining certain points of the procedure to be followed in settling minority questions, also adopted the two

following resolutions regarding the “duties” of minorities: While the Assembly recognizes the primary right of the minorities to

be protected by the League from oppression, it also emphasizes the duty incumbent upon persons belonging to racial, religious or linguistic

minorities to co-operate as loyal fellow-citizens with the nations to which they now belong. The secretariat of the League, which has the duty of collecting information concerning the manner in which the minorities treaties are carried out, should not only assist the Council in the study of complaints concerning infractions of these treaties, but should also assist the Council in ascertaining in what manner the persons belonging to

racial, linguistic, or religious minorities fulfil their duties towards their

States. The information thus collected might be placed at the disposal of the States Members of the League of Nations if they so desire.

THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS GUARANTEE AND PROCEDURE All the Minorities Treaties, and also the chapters of the treaties of peace with Austria, Bulgaria, Hungary and Turkey! which relate to minorities, contain a clause establishing a League of Nations guarantee for such of their provisions as affect minorities. This clause reads as follows: Poland (or Austria, Czechoslovakia, etc.) agrees that the stipulations in the foregoing Articles, so far as they affect persons belonging to racial, religious or linguistic minorities, constitute obligations of international concern and shall be placed under the guarantee of the League of Nations. They shall not be modified without the assent of a majority of the Council of the League of Nations. The United States, the British empire, France, Italy and Japan? hereby agree not to withhold their assent from any modification in these articles which is in due form assented to by a majority of the Council of the League of Nations. Poland (or Austria, Czechoslovakia, etc.) agrees that any Member of the Council of the League of Nations shall have the right to bring tothe attention of the Council any infraction, or any danger of infraction, of any of these obligations, and that the Council may thereupon take such action and give such direction as it may deem proper and effective in the circumstances. Poland (or Austria, Czechoslovakia, etc.) further agrees that any difference of opinion as to questions of law or fact arising out of these

Articles between the . . . Government and any one of the principal

Allied and Associated Powers or any other Power, a Member of the Council of the League of Nations’, shall be held to be a dispute of an

International character under article 14 of the Covenant of the League of Nations.

The . .. Government hereby consents ae Sy A ce a a

that any such arc eees

“The Albanian and Lithuanian Declarations contain the same provision, For Estonia and Latvia, see p. 558. The Treaties of Peace with Austria, Bulgaria and Hungary read as follows: “The Allied and Associated Powers represented on the Coun-

U...” The United States of America is not mentioned in the Treaty of Lausanne,

e Treaty of Lausanne reads as follows here: “ ... and any one the other Signatory Powers or any other Power, a member of the

ouncil of the League of Nations . .. (article 44) .”

ingly, the report of the Italian representative, M. Tittoni, adopted

by the Council on Oct. 22, 1920, mentions the sharp distinction between the right of the members of the Council (that is to say, certain Governments) to bring to the attention of the Council any infraction or danger of infraction of the terms of the treaties, and the right of the minorities themselves, or of States not represented on the Council, to bring such infractions or dangers of infraction to the League’s notice. The directing of the Council’s attention by one or more of its members to an infraction or danger of infraction is a judicial act which has the effect of bringing the question officially to the Council’s notice, whereas a communication by which an infraction or danger of infraction is brought to the League’s notice otherwise than by a Member of the Council merely constitutes a petition or report and cannot in itself have the effect of officially bringing the matter before the Council. The right of the treaties thus established, according to which members of the Council alone can notify the Council of cases of infraction of the Minorities Treaties, has on a number of occasions given rise to discussion and controversy. Thus, at the time of the negotiations which led to the Albanian Declaration regarding the protection of minorities, the Greek Government asked that a clause should be inserted granting it the right to bring to the notice of the Council any infraction or danger of

infraction of the obligations which Albania was about to assume. The Council thought that there was no occasion to insert such a clause, as it would have constituted an exception to the general principles adopted in all the Minorities Treaties. (See Minutes of the 14th Session of the Council Sept.—Oct. 1921, pp. 115 and 162.) In 1925 Count Apponyi, the Hungarian representative at the Sixth session of the Assembly, maintained that it ought to be possible for the Council to be notified directly, by means of petitions from certain sources—from supreme ecclesiastical organizations or the cultural or economic institutions of the different countries. (See Records of the 6th Assembly [plenary meetings], page 73.) M. de Mello Franco (Brazil), discussing this question in the personal statement which he made to the Council on Dec. 9, 1925, drew attention to the practical difficulties to which such a procedure would give rise, and also asserted that it was incompatible with the letter of the treaties in force, by which even States which are members of the League but have no seat on the Council have no power to bring to the latter’s notice cases of infraction or danger of infraction of the terms of the minorities treaties. The second paragraph of the provisions concerning the League of Nations guarantee further lays down that when once a Minorities question has been brought before it, the Council may “thereupon take such action and give such direction as it may deem proper and effective in the circumstances.” The extremely general character of this wording and the wide powers it confers upon the Council will at once be noticed, as also the fact that no indication is given as to the procedure to bé fol-

MINORITIES

574

lowed by the Council in the settlement of Minorities questions’. The only rule of procedure applicable to this paragraph is that provided in article 4 of the Covenant of the League, which lays

down that any member of the League not represented on the Council shall be invited to send a representative to sit as a member at any meeting of the Council during the consideration of matters specially affecting the interests of that member. In practice the Council has always felt that it should act as an organ of conciliation in these matters, and accordingly all the Minorities questions with which it has had to deal have beensettled by agreement with the Governments concerned. In two cases (the questions of settlers of German race in Poland and the acquisition of Polish nationality), the Council asked the Permanent Court of International Justice for an advisory opinion on certain points. The third paragraph of the provisions relating to the League of Nations guarantees deals with the reference of minorities questions to the Permanent Court of International Justice. M. Clemenceau himself, in his covering letter to the Polish Minorities Treaty emphasized the importance of this clause whereby, as he said, “differences which may arise will be removed from the political sphere and placed in the hands of a judicial body.” Acting in the spirit of this declaration the Third Assembly, in its resolution II. of Sept. 21, 1922, recommended that the members of the Council should appeal without unnecessary delay to the Permanent Court of International Justice for a decision in case ef a difference of opinion with the Governments concerned as to questions of law or fact relating to the application of the minorities treaties. PROCEDURE

The Council did not consider it necessary to institute a special procedure for the examination of minorities questions brought before it by any of its members, but laid down such procedure for petitions and communications in regard to the protection of minorities addressed to the League but not sponsored by any of the members of the Council. This procedure provides machinery within the framework of the treaties, enabling minorities to appeal to the League by means of petitions, and it also ensures consideration of these petitions by a suitable body. The treaties merely refer to the duty incumbent upon members of the Council of seeing that the clauses provided for the benefit of minorities are duly observed, but the members of the Council realized, even at their very first meetings, that, however desirous they might be of observing the spirit of the minorities treaties, they would find it very difficult in practice to keep themselves directly informed as to how these treaties were being applied. Moreover, it was in some ways undesirable that minorities should apply direct to members of the Council individually; appeals of this kind would have the same disadvantages as the old system of protection of minorities by the intervention of the Great Powers which the League of Nations guarantee had been specifically intended to obviate. The direct appeal of minorities to a foreign power would have the further disadvantage that it might be interpreted by the Government under which the minorities were placed as an act of disloyalty on their part. It was in order to obviate these difficulties that the Council of the League established its procedure for minorities as the best method of render1The report submitted by the Sixth committee to the Third Assembly (1922) mentions an observation by Prof. Gilbert Murray (South Africa) to the effect that in certain localities of mixed population, where conflicts were frequent and serious, order had frequently been maintained and tranquillity restored by the mere presence of consuls or other representatives of foreign Governments who could impartially report on events and bring to bear the influence of a wider public opinion. Prof. Gilbert Murray also observed that cases might arise in which the presence of such a representative of the League might have an even more beneficent effect, in view of the disinterestedness and the moral prestige possessed by the League, and suggested that the Cquncil might well consider the desirability in suitable cases of employing such representatives, with the consent of the Government concerned, to allay public excitement and gradually restore tranquillity in disturbed districts. The Committee felt the force of these observations and placed them on record, but, considering the variety of possible contingencies

and the wide discretion in the hands of the Council for meeting them, thought best not to embody the proposals in a definite resolution.

[PROCEDURE

ing effective the protection guaranteed to minorities by the League. , The Council was also anxious to give minorities a guarantee that their petitions would receive serious consideration; hence the institution of the “Minorities Committee.”

The system of procedure as it exists to-day was not establisheg all at once; it is the outcome of long experience and a series of adaptations. It is to be found in a number of Council resolutions

which supplement or rectify each other, namely the report of the Italian representative and the Council resolutions of Oct. 22 ang 25, 1920, and the resolutions of June 27, 1921, Sept. 5, 1923, ang June 10, 1925. The basic idea underlying the procedure thus instituted is that petitions are intended purely for purposes of information. The Council has carefully eliminated anything that might lead ty procedure in which the respective cases of the minority and of the Government concerned would be heard as if they were two

parties to a lawsuit, because it considered that such asituation was incompatible with the ideas and principles underlying the

present organization of States. Accordingly the secretary-general in principle merely acknowledges the receipt of a petition, and does not keep the petitioner informed as to what is done with it. (On this subject see the memorandum of the secretary-general, approved by the Council

on June 10, 1926 [Official Journal, July, 1926, pp. 878 and 986].) The position of the petitioner in this procedure has frequently given rise to controversy. Reference may be made, for instance, to the speech of the Hungarian representative, Count Apponyi, at the Sixth session of the Assembly (Sept. 14, 1925). On that

occasion Count Apponyi expressed himself definitely in favour of a procedure in which both parties, and therefore the repre. sentatives of the petitioners, would have an opportunity of presenting their case. In reply to this, M. de Mello Franco (Brazil)

said in his personal statement to the Council dated on Dec. ọ,

1925, that in his opinion such a conception “would give rise to dangers which would threaten the moral ends towards which the system of protection instituted by the minorities treaties is tending.” An analysis is given below of the various Council resolutions laying down the procedure for minorities’ petitions (Resolutions of Oct. 22 and 25, 1920, June 27, 1921, Sept. 5, 1923, June 10,

1925).

Acceptance of Petitions——As soon as a petition regarding

the protection of minorities is received by the League secretariat it is submitted to a preliminary examination by the competent section. The object of this examination is to decide whether the petition can be accepted and the necessary procedure applied to it, or whether it should be declared inadmissible and rejected. It is the secretary-general who has to decide whether a petition can be accepted or not. The Government to which the petition

refers may, however, object to this decision, in which case the

question must be submitted to the acting President of the Council, who may appoint two other members of the Council to assist him in the consideration of the matter. Lastly, if the State concerned so requests, this question of procedure may be placed on the Council’s agenda (Council resolution of Sept. 5, 1923). The conditions which a petition must fulfill in order to be accepted were laid down by the Council in its resolution of Sept. 5, 1923. They are as follows: I. Origin of the Petition —The only condition required isthat the petition must not emanate from an anonymous or unauthentcated source. 2. Form of Petitions—Petitions must not be worded in violent language. z 3. Contents of Petitions—As regards their contents petitions (a) must have in view the protection of minorities in accordance

with the treaties;. (b) in particular, must not be submitted in the form of a request for the severance of political relations between

the minority in question and the State of which it forms a part and (c) must contain information or refer to facts which have

not recently been the subject of a petition submitted to the ordinary procedure.

MINORITIES

PROCEDURE]

Preliminary Communication of Petitions to the Government Concerned.—Originally (see report of M. Tittoni, Oct.

42, 1920).the Secretary-General, if he considered that a petition

could be accepted, used to communicate it without comment to

the Members of the Council for information.

The State concerned, if a Member of the League, was informed simultaneously with the Council as to the subject of the petition, it being a rule that every document communicated to the Mem-

bers of the Council for information is communicated immediately to all Members of the League. In this way the State concerned had an opportunity of submitting to the Members of the Council such observations as it thought desirable to make.

,

Certain Governments, however, raised objections to this practice and proposed amendments

to the procedure.

On the basis

of their proposals, the Council, by its resolution of June 27, 1921, modified the procedure so that all petitions concerning the protection of minorities, under the provisions of the treaties, from petitioners other than Members of the League, were communicated to the State concerned before being brought to the notice of the Members of the League. That State had a timelimit of three weeks within which to inform the secretariat whether it intended to make any comments or not. If its reply were in the afirmative, it had a total period of two months in which to submit its observations, which would be communicated, together with the petition, to the members of the council and to the Members of the League.

This procedure is still in force for the preliminary communication of petitions to the Governments concerned, but, as will be seen later, it has been modified as regards the communication of petitions to all the Members of the League. There are, however, two exceptions to the above-mentioned rule. In both cases the petition is not communicated in advance

to the Government concerned but is sent simultaneously to that Government and to the Members of the Council. The first of these exceptions refers to “exceptional and extremely urgent” cases. In such cases the Secretary-General, before communicating the petition to the Members of the Council, need only inform the representative of the State concerned accredited to the League secretariat. The question whether a case is of an excep-

573

ask for an extension of the time-limit.) As already stated, urgent petitions and petitions from Governments of Members of the League are communicated simultaneously to the Members of the Council and the Government concerned. At the time when

M. Tittoni’s report was adopted by the Council the communication of a petition to members of the Council meant that it would also be communicated to all the Members

of the League, since,

as explained in the report, it was the settled practice of the secretary-general that every document communicated to the Members of the Council for information should also be sent to all members of the League. As, however, this practice gave rise to objections on the part of certain Governments which were signatories to minorities treaties', the Council, in its resolution of Sept. 5, 1923, decided that the communication of petitions and of observations (should there be any) by the Government concerned should be restricted to the Members of the Council, but that communication could be made to other members of the

League or to the general public at the request of the Governments concerned or by virtue of a resolution passed by the Council. The restriction which the Council introduced on Sept. 5, 1923, gave rise to a discussion by the Sixth committee of the Fourth Assembly (meeting of Sept. 25, 1923), as a result of which the Assembly, on Sept. 26, adopted a resolution confirming the Council’s resolution of Sept. 5, but adding that “by virtue of paragraph v. of the Assembly resolution dated Sept. 21, 1922”, the Government of any member of the League can request the secretariat to communicate to it any petitions (together with the observations of the Government concerned) which have been communicated to the Council.” The Minorities Committee?.—The Council introduced into its procedure provisions whereby petitions, when once communicated to the members of the Council in ordinary cases together with the observations of the Government concerned, would be carefully considered by them. The object of this examination is to enable the members of the Council to decide whether they should or should not bring the subject of the petition to the Council’s notice as constituting an infraction or danger of infraction of the treaties. With this object the Council decided

in its resolution of Oct. 25, 1920, that with a view to assisting

urgent is left to the discretion of its members in the exercise of their rights and duties in the second exception refers to petitions matter it was desirable that the president of the Council and is a Member of the League. As it two members appointed by him in each case should proceed petitions in advance to the Govern- to consider any petition or communication with regard to an ment concerned only in the case of petitions “from petitioners infraction or danger of infraction of the clauses of the minoriother than Members of the League,” it must be assumed that ties treaties. There was thus instituted what came to be comthe original procedure remains in force as far as Members them- monly known as the “Committee of Three” or “Minorities Comselves are concerned. mittee,” which has become one of the normal organizations of The Council, in its resolution of Sept. 5, 1923, authorized the the League in the matter of the protection of minorities. Member of the Council acting as president to extend, at the This committee was formed essentially in the interest of request of the Government concerned, the period of two months the minorities themselves, in order to enable them to appeal within which that Government must send in its observations. direct to the League. On this subject the Supplementary Report Communication of Petitions to Members of the Council. (A. 7. [a] 1925, p. 20) to the Sixth Assembly on the work of the —M. Tittoni’s report explicitly provided that petitions should be Council contains the following passage: “(By the creation of the sent by the secretary-general to the Members of the Council Minorities Committee) the Council has . . . placed at the diswithout comment. It was careful to add, however, that this com- posal of the minorities a special body which enables them to munication of petitions did not constitute a juridical act, because state their claims without infringing in any way either the letter the Council did not become competent to deal with a question or spirit of the Treaties.” tional nature or extremely the Secretary-General, The from a Government which was decided to communicate

unless one of its Members notified it that the subject of the peti-

ton constituted an infraction or danger of infraction of the Treaties. As already pointed out, therefore, this communication

of petitions was intended purely for purposes of information.

According to the procedure now in force (resolution of June 27,

1921) petitions are communicated to members of the Council either immediately, if the Government concerned declares that

It does not wish to submit any observations on the petition, or at

the end of the period of three weeks, if the Government concerned

hasnot replied to the communication transmitting the petition to t, or, if the Government concerned says that it intends to preSent observations, as soon as these reach the secretariat. (Another possibility is that the Government concerned might

Slateits intention to submit observations, but might not send them within two months; in such a case however, it weuld doubtless

(a) Composition of the Committee.—A minorities committee

lThis question was dealt with by the Polish and Czechoslovak Governments, by the former in its notes of Jan. 16 and Aug. 22, 1923, and by the latter in its note of April 5, 1923. These notes were summarized in the report submitted to the Council on Sept. 5, 1923, by M. de Rio Branco (Brazil). (See Official Journal, Nov. 1923, p. 1426.) “Paragraph v. reads as follows: “The secretariat of the League which has the duty of collecting information concerning the manner in which the Minorities Treaties are carried out should not only assist the Council in the study of complaints concerning infractions of these treaties, but should also assist the Council in ascertaining in what manner the persons belonging to racial, linguistic or religious minorities fulfil their duties towards their States. The information thus collected might be placed at the disposal of the States Members of the League of Nations

if they so desire.”

.

8For all matters relating to the Minorities Committee see Supplementary Report to the Sixth Committee on the work of the Council and of the secretariat (A. 7 [a] 1925, pp. r7—20).

MINORITIES

574

is formed to deal with each petition. Until June 10, 1925, these

minorities committees were composed of the acting President of the Council at the time when the petition and the observations of the Government concerned were circulated to the members of the Council, and two other members chosen by the President from among any of his colleagues. On June I0, 1925, the Council adopted a resolution confirming, as regards the composition of these committees, certain rules which were already ap-

plied in practice and were designed to ensure that the committees would be independent and impartial. According to this Council resolution the members of a minorities committee cannot include either the representative of the State to which the persons belonging to the minority in question are subject, or the representative of a neighbouring State or of a State a majority of whose population belong from the ethnical point of view to the same people as the persons who are members of the minority in question. If the acting President of the Council himself comes under any of these three categories, recourse will be had to the member of

the Council who was president before him and who is not in the same

position.

(b) The Commitiee’s Method of Work.—The above-mentioned

Supplementary Report to the Sixth Assembly gives the following particulars as regards the working of the minorities committee: “After the communication of the petition to the Council, with the observations, if any, of the interested Government, the director of the minorities section addresses a letter, accompanied by a copy of the document in question, to the acting president of the Council, reminding him that it is his duty to appoint two of his colleagues in order to proceed without delay to an examination of the document. As soon as the president has sent his reply, the director of the minorities section gets into touch with the two other members of the Council. “The minorities section, in some cases in collaboration with the legal section, prepares for the use of the three members of the committee a written statement on the questions of fact and law raised by the observations of the interested Government. Further, the minorities section is at the disposal of the members of the Committee and of the members of the Council to procure for them any supplementary information which they may wish to receive. “The meetings of the minorities committee, or more correctly of the various minorities committees, which are simultaneously at work, gen-

erally take place during the sessions of the Council. Of late, some meetings have also taken place between the sessions of the Council owing to the difficulty of finding in all cases during the sessions of the

Council the time necessary for the discussion of these matters, which are sometimes extremely detailed and prolonged, and which always have a delicate side to them and require the most conscientious preparation both by the secretariat and by the members of the Council. “The examination of a case by the minorities committee is not, of course, restricted to the formal meetings of the committee. It is the duty of each member of the committee, as well as of the secretariat, to proceed to this examination without delay after the communication to the Council of the document relating to the case. The secretariat begins an examination of the case without waiting for the distribution of this document. The discussion is accordingly, from the first meeting of the three members of the committee, except perhaps in cases of extreme urgency, based on a very considerable amount of preparatory work. “The meetings of the committee are held in private, and no formal minutes are kept. Each committee is free to adopt its own procedure. “Tt results from the object of the work undertaken by a minorities committee that its members are free to form the best opinion they can of all the factors in the case which they are asked to examine. They may take into consideration the greater or less importance of the case, and its more or less general significance. They may take into account the attitude more or less conciliatory of the interested Government towards the requests of the minority as well as the attitude more or less loyal of the persons belonging to the minority. They may form the opinion, in a particular case, that the petitioner should have resorted to the administrative or judicial authorities of the country before

ting an end to the difficulties with which the minority is concerned. Iņ the majority of cases the committee addresses the Government jp question through the director of the minorities section of the secretariat, either by writing or verbally, either formally or informally, “The committee often does not reach a final decision, even after having received all the supplementary information which it may desire, The case may be regarded rather as a link in a long chain than as ay

independent affair, and the members of the committee sometimes consider that such a case, although of secondary importance in itself, may

be of a character to be brought before the Council, if other similar cases should arise. The committee, in these circumstances, invites the minorities section to follow the case for a certain period of time, and to notify it if there should arise any fact which would appear to justify a further discussion between its members.”

(c) Object of the Committee’s Examination —In its resolution

of Sept. 5, 1923, the Council clearly specified that the consideration by the committee of petitions and the observations of the Governments concerned is intended solely to determine

whether one or more members of the Council should draw the Council’s attention to an infraction or danger of infraction of any of the clauses for the protection of minorities. As the Council

also stated in the same

resolution,

the fact that the

committee is considering a petition or observation in no way affects the right of any member of the Council not represented on the committee to draw the Council’s attention to an infraction or danger of infraction of those clauses.

It will be clear from what has been said above regarding of the minorities committee what an important

the working

part this committee plays as a means

of conciliation and pacifi-

cation in this difficult and delicate problem. The flexibility of its procedure enables its members to take into account the special circumstances of each case. In short, the work of the minorities committee has enabled full effect to be given to a resolution

which was adopted by the Assembly at its Third Session (1922) with a view to defining the League’s methods in the matter of the protection of minorities. “While in cases of grave infraction of the minorities treaties it is necessary that the Council should retain its full power of direct action,” so it is set forth in the resolution of 1922, “the Assembly recognizes that in ordinary circumstances the League can best promote good relations between the various signatory Governments and persons belonging to racial, religious or linguistic minorities placed under their sovereignty by benevolent and informal communications with those

Governments.” THE COUNCIL OF THE LEAGUE AND THE PROTECTION OF MINORITIES ; Since its creation, the Council has at almost every session been called upon to consider questions connected with the protection of racial, linguistic or religious minorities. Mention should be made in the first place of the steps taken by the Council to prepare the declarations concerning the protection of minorities made by Albania, Finland, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. The frst part of this article contains information concerning the work of the Council in this domain. The Council has also had occasion to establish, in a series of resolutions

which

have

been

examined

in the previous pages,

these factors are continually discussed and taken into consideration. ‘The members of the committee may, moreover, enter into corre-

such a solution, would appear to the members of the committee to be a case which should be brought to the attention of the Council. Before deciding whether it should or should not draw the attention of the Council to a matter which is the subject of a petition the members of a cornmittee have in many cases asked the interested Government for

minorities committees of the Council with regard to minority petitions. Finally, the Council has dealt with a number of definite cases connected with the situation of certain minorities in various cowtries. These questions, which in most cases had formed the

In the minorities committees all

spondence with the interested Government with a view to removing doubts or misunderstandings or making friendly suggestions to the Government to induce it to modify its attitude on a point which, failing

supplementary information either in general terms or by putting definite questions. In some cases, such requests have been accompanied by ‘other suggestions, as, for example, that the interested Government should postpone taking any steps which might have the effect of creat"ing a fait accompli before the committee was in a position to take a a

i decision on the question of substance. “The members of the committee have, in certain cases, made personal representations to the representative of i the interested Governmen with the object of drawing friendly attention to the advisability of put-

the procedure applicable to petitions addressed to the League of Nations concerning the protection of minorities. It is not necessary to dwell here at any length on this aspect of the Council’s work, which has already been studied in a previous section of this

addressing the League of Nations.

Vie

[PROCEDURE

po

:

article. Nor is it necessary to revert to the discussions of the

subject of petitions addressed to the League, were placed on

the Council’s agenda through the action of certain members of the Council, who, in accordance with the procedure, had been

asked to examine them. The complicated nature of these ques-

575

MINOR PLANET

British Year Book of International Law (1923—24) ; A. Hajn, Problèm tions makes it impossible to give even a brief summary of the Ochrany Mensin (Prague, 1923) ; R. Laun, Entwurf eines Internationmain facts. It has seemed preferable, therefore, merely to give ales Vortrages über den Schutz nationaler Minderheiten (1923); J. a list of the various minorities and the questions concerning them Lucien-Brun, Le Probleme des Minorités devant le droit international nationalen considered by the Council, indicating the sessions at which they (1923); H. Rauchberg, “Der internationale Schutz der

were examined. Situation of the

Minderheiten,” Prager Juristische Zeitschrift, Nr. 1-8 (1923); H-

Muslim

Minority

of Albanian

Origin im

Greece —Council sessions of Sept. and Dec. 1924, and March, June and Sept. 1925.

Bulgarian and Greek Protocols for the Protection of the Greek

Minority in Bulgaria, and the Bulgarian Minority in Greece.— Council sessions of Sept. 1924 and March and June 1925. Minorities in Upper Silesta.—Since the coming into force of the convention on Upper Silesia between Germany and Poland the Council has dealt with a number

of minorities

questions

which it has had to consider in virtue of one or another article of this convention. These were mainly concerned with schools.

So far back as its session in March 1924, the Council examined a case connected with the opening of three German minority schools in Polish Upper Silesia; at its session in March 1927, it was called upon to settle a question of principle concerning the admission of children to German minority primary schools

in Polish Upper Silesia. Subsequently, at its session in March,

June and Sept. 1928, the Council had to examine a number of questions connected with German minority schools in Polish Upper Silesia.

The Council further examined, at its session in March 1926,

a petition concerning the personal status of Karl Michalik, a member of the Polish minority in German Upper Silesia, and a petition from the “Union of Poles in Germany” concerning the payment of certain indemnities by the German Government. Finally, at its session in June, Sept. and Dec. 1928, the Council

Rosting, Protection of Minorities by the League of Nations. American Journal of International Law (1923); Spectator, “Le Mineranze e le Società delle Nazioni,” Problemi Italiani, fasc. 19, (Rome, 1923) $

W. Szagunn, “Vom Rechte der nationalen Minderheiten,” Archiv fur Politik und Geschichte, Heft 2 (Berlin, 1923); M. H. Bochen, Europe irredenta (1923); Union des Associations pour la Societé des Nations: Reunion à Prague, 1922; Reunion 4 Vienne, 1923; Union Interparlementaire: Vingtième Conference à Vienna, 1922; Vingt et unième Conference à Copenhague, 1923; C. Heymann, La situation des minorités en Slovaque et en Russie Subcarpathique (1923) ; Tenekides, Le Status des minorités et Lexchange obligatoire des populations grecoturques (1924); T. Ruyssen, Les minorités nationales de PEurope (1924); J. Calve, Mehrheit und Minderheit (1924); K. Krofta, Die

Deutschen in Böhmen (1924); J. H. Schultz, La Minorité allemande in dans le Sleswig du Nord (1924) ; L. Crato, Das M inoritätsproblem Grossromänien (1925) ; R. Brunet and E. Loewenfeld, De la protection des minorités par la Societé des Nations (1925) ; R. Donald, A Danger Spot in Europe: the Saar Valley (1925); S. Gangas, Die Minderheit

(1926); J. Auerhelm, Dze Sprachlichen Minderheiten in Europa 1926, (1926); International Law Association: Vienna Conference, die Rapport du Comité des Minorités; F. Wertheimer, Deutchland,

Minderheiten und der Vélkerbund (1926) ; L. P. Mair, The Protection of Minorities (1928). Law See also British and American Year Books of International for exhaustive bibliographies; League of Nations Publications, Declara-

tion concerning the Protection of Minorities in Lithuania, 1923 (Annex in Upper to the Supp. Report A. 6. a. 1926) ; Protection of Minorities Minority Silesia (I.B.1, I.B.2, 1927) ; Admission of Children to German Schools in Silesia, Action Taken (1927).

MINOR

PLANET.

The minor planets or asteroids are a

vast host of very small planets that revolve round the sun in orbits that nearly all lie between those of Mars and Jupiter, though a few of them transgress these limits. The existence of a planet between Mars and Jupiter was suspected before any of them were found, on the ground of an empirical law of planetary distances which was first put forward by Titius, a contemporary of Kepler, though it attracted more notice when Bode restated it in 1772. The law assigned the following numbers as representing the distances very closely: Mercury 4, Venus 7, Earth 10, Mars 16, (blank) 28, Jupiter 52, Saturn Ico, (next planet) 196. It will be seen that, except in the first case, each interval is double the preceding one. When in 1781 Sir W. Herschel discovered Uranus, which fitted exactly with the next term in the series after Saturn, conviction was strengthened of the existence of a planet in the gap, and a society of 24 astronomers, with Baron de Zach at its head, was formed to devote itself to the search. Giuseppe Piazzi, director of

examined two petitions concerning the security of the Polish minority in German Upper Silesia, and the German minority in Polish Upper Silesia respectively. Jewish Minority in Hungary. (Question of the “Numerus clausus’”.)—Sessions of Sept. 1922 and Dec. 1925. Position of the Polish Minority in Lithuania.—Council sessions in March, June and Sept. 1925. German Minority in Poland—(a) Question of colonists of German race in Poland, and (b) Acquisition of Polish nationality. The Council was engaged in examining these questions from its session in Dec. 1921, until its session in June, 1924. On each of these questions the Council asked for an advisory opinion from the Permanent Court of International Justice. Hungarian M inority in Rumania. Question of Colonists of Hungarian Race in the Banat and Transylvania.—Council sessions of March, June and Sept. 1925. of this society, but Minorities in Czechoslovakia.—Question concerning the au- the Palermo Observatory, was not a member he observed Taurus, in region a g examinin while tonomy of the Ruthene territory south of the Carpathians. Ses- on Jan. 1, 1801, place before; he soon the in seen not had he which star small a sion of Nov. 1920. Feb. 11. In the Minorities in Turkey—(a) Greek minority in Constantinople found that it was moving, and followed it up till advance. In and Turkish minority in Western Thrace. Council sessions of interval it ceased to retrograde, and commenced to finding the in ed experienc was difficulty autumn following Oct. 1924 and March and Dec. 1925. (b) Armenian minority in the body again; this served as an incentive to the mathematician Karl Turkey. Council sessions of Dec. 1925. (P. DE Az.) methods of computing BELIOGRAPHY.—L. A. Villari, La Protezione delle Minoranze (1915); Friedrich Gauss to improve the existing a result of his calculaAs positions. poinar, Frontiers of Language and Nationality in Europe (1917) ; orbits from a few observed oRHET Unterdrückte Völker (1918) ; W. Lutolawski and E. Romer, tions Heinrich W. M. Olbers of Bremen recovered Piazzi’s planet e Ruthenian Question in Galicia (1919) ; O. Optet, Der Schutz der just a year after its discovery. (The three astronomers associated nationalen Minderheiten (1919) ; M. Vichniac, La Protection des droits first asteroid have been commemorated by de minorités dans les traités internationaux de rgrg-20 (1920); E. with the finding of the 1,000, 1,001, 1,002 Piazzia, Gaussia numbered Schmid, Wie können nationale Minderheiten geschützt werden? (1920) ; naming the planets F. Turba, Das Nationalitätgroblem und der Völkerbund (1920); K. and Olbersia.) The new planet was named Ceres; its distance Wolzendorff, Grundgedanken des Rechts der nationalen Minderheiten agreed exactly with the value predicted by the Titius-Bode law, but (Grgar) ; R. Vidrasco, De la reserve du droit des minorités et du contrôle it was very small (modern measures give a diameter of 480 miles, T oe (1921); L. Epstein, Der Nationale Minderhettenschutz to the : ernationales Rechtproblem (1922); Z. Baranyai, A Kisobbsegi about one-fifth of the moon’s), and its orbit was inclined ogok Védelme (1922) ; K. Berlin, Folkenes Selubestemmelsesret og de ecliptic at the large angle of 10°37’. Perhaps these circumstances nationale Mindretals Beskyttelse. Aorbog for de Nordiske Interparla- led Olbers to suspect that it was one of a group of small planets, mentariske Gruppe (1922) ; F. Brodihn, Das positive Recht der nationsweep the sky after he had recovered it, and F n Minderheiten (1922); C. Cereti, Di un nuovo orientamento del for he continued to found Pallas, whose distance from the sun he later months three iretto internazionale. Nei rapporti tra Stato e Nazione (Genoa, io) J. Fouques Duparc, La Protection des Minorités de race, de proved to be almost the same as that of Ceres; its orbit was ieyi oe iseg étude du droit des gens (1922); E. Hofmannsthal, inclined at the very large angle of 34°43’, and the eccentricity as enschutz, International Law Association (Buenos Aires was also large. A third and fourth member, Juno and Vesta, were nce, 1922); J. Carrera, La protecciò de los Minories Nacionals added to the family within six years by Harding and Olbers arcelona, 1923);

Ifor L. Evans,

The

Protection

of Minorities.

MINOR

576

PLANET

respectively. Vesta is the brightest of the whole family, sometimes attaining visibility to the naked eye; but its diameter is only half that of Ceres. It was natural that the discovery of these four little planets, revolving in closely adjacent orbits, should suggest the idea that a larger orb had been rent asunder by an explosion. This idea held the field for many years, and indeed has been revived of late in a modified form. It seems to have been assumed that four fragments completed the set, and search was abandoned till 1830; it was then renewed by M. Hencke of Driessen, who after fifteen years’ search found Astraea, and commenced a chain of discoveries

which

has continued

without

intermission.

By

1890 about 300 small planets had been found, all by visual search at the telescope, a very laborious method, necessitating the charting or memorizing of numbers of faint stars and searching for strangers among them. At the time Prof. Max Wolf of Konigstuhl, Heidelberg, introduced the photographic method of search, which had been suggested earlier by Dr. Isaac Roberts. An equatorial telescope with a photographic plate in the focus was made to follow the stars, which were registered as discs, while a planet appeared as a short trail owing to its motion during the exposure. This method produced a great acceleration in the rate of discovery, and nearly two thousand announcements of discoveries were made between 1890 and 1927. Not all of these have been permanently numbered. When the number of planets grew large there was found to be a danger of mistaking a previously discovered planet for a new one, and it was decided to postpone the numbering of a planet till five good observations, extending over some weeks, were available, thus enabling a reliable orbit to be deduced. 1,055 planets have now (1927) been numbered, but several hundreds more are known to exist, and approximate orbits have been found for some of them. DESCRIPTION

OF THE PLANETS

The following description is confined to the first 900 members, as details of the remainder were not available when it was prepared. There are two stragglers well on the inside of the family; these are Eros (see separate article) whose mean distance is less than that of Mars, and Hungaria (which, curiously, was the very next discovery to Eros in order of time) at a mean distance of 1-9 astronomical units. The main body begins at mean distance 2-1 units, and continues without a break up to 3-5 units. Then follows a gap with a group of six (the Hilda group) at 3-9 units, and an isolated planet, Thule, at 4-3 units. Its name is from the classical “Ultima Thule,” as it was thought to mark the outer boundary of the family till the Trojan group was found; that group consists of six planets, whose mean distance is 5-2 units, the same as that of Jupiter (see TROJAN PLANETS). Although the main body has no absolute gaps there are several very sparse regions in it. These correspond to the distances where the period is a simple fraction of Jupiter’s period, 11-86 years. The most notable gap is at 3-3 units, where the period is half Jupiter’s; there is also a marked one at 2-5 units, period one-third of Jupiter’ss the others are more feebly marked. The richest region of all is just inside the chief gap. Similarly in Saturn’s ring the brightest part is just inside the great division, which is at a distance from Saturn corresponding to half the period of Mimas. In each case the reason is the same; repeated perturbations at the same region of the orbit cause a slight change in the period and distance; inward shift has predominated, causing the rich region inside the gap. The influence of Jupiter on the motions of the

asteroids is made manifest in another way: when the positions of their perihelia, or nearest approaches to the sun, are plotted on

a diagram, it is seen that they congregate towards Jupiter’s peri-

helion; the density of distribution is here three times as great as

in the opposite region.

15°, 98 between 15° and 20°, 35 between 20° and 25°, 14 between 25° and 30°, and 3 above 30°. There seems to be a tendency for high eccentricity and inclination to go together. The diameters can be estimated only by the amount of light that we receive, since with few exceptions they are too Small to

measure even with the largest telescopes; the albedo has to he

estimated, and some uncertainty is thus introduced. 195 planets have estimated diameters exceeding 61 miles, 502 between 6r and 25 miles, 193 between 25 and ro miles, and 22 less than to miles

but these last very small ones can be seen only when they come fairly near to the earth, so there may be many of them undiscovered in the outer part of the asteroid zone. Estimates of the total mass of the family have been made, assuming a density

equal to that of the moon; the following is taken from “Astron.

omy,” by Drs. Russell, Dugan and Stewart p. 352. The total mass

of the known asteroids is about 1/3000 of that of the earth, Ceres

and Pallas accounting for half of the whole; the undiscovered ones, though probably numerous would be mainly small, so that 1/500 of the earth is an extremely liberal estimate for the whole family. It thus appears that, even if united, they would form an insignificant planet. There appears to be no reason to expect that the smaller planets

would have a spherical form. In the case of large planets the force

of cohesion is negligible compared with the gravitational forces, and any large departure from the figure of equilibrium is impossible; but with small bodies cohesion would be stronger than

gravitation. Irregular forms are suggested by the fact that the light of many asteroids is variable; this indicates either irregularity of shape or unequal albedo of different parts of the surface. It has been stated that the observed light curves are satisfied

better by the unequal-albedo explanation, but the observations

are so delicate that this can scarcely be considered decisive. On the albedo hypothesis the variation of light would have the same period as the rotation, on the other hypothesis half the period, The periods of light-change are a few hours—three hours for Eunomia, five and a quarter for Eros, eight and three-quarters for Tercidina. It may be possible to examine the shape of Eros at the near approach, in Jan. 1931, as it should show a disc with large instruments. The explosion hypothesis, after having been generally abandoned, has been revived in recent years by some astronomers. Dr. H. J. Jeffreys (“The Earth,” p. 60) suggests that a primitive satellite of Jupiter may have escaped from the control of that

planet and subsequently exploded, possibly through the raising of its internal temperature by radioactive matter; some of the fragments “night again explode, which would explain the wide distribution of the orbits. Again Prof. K. Hirayama, after an exhaustive study of the orbits, and an attempt to find their primitive or undisturbed forms, found five families of planets, each family having orbits so closely related as to suggest a common origin. The families are named from their brightest member;

the Flora family, distance 2-2, has 57 members; the Maria family, distance 2-5, 13 members; the Coronis family, distance 2-0, r5 members; the Eos family, distance 3-0, 23 members; the Themis family, distance 3-1, 25 members. Prof. Hirayama conjectured

that each family was produced by the explosion of a single planet, but it appears that the facts might also be explained on the “planetesimal” hypothesis, by postulating that several knots or condensations were present in the streams of particles, each knot

subdividing before final concentration so as to form a group of

tiny planets instead of a single larger one. The well-defined “Hilda” group may perhaps be added to the five families. Another interesting group is named after “Albert,” the first member to be

discovered; it has two other members, Alinda and Ganymede (not

to be small third they

confused with Jupiter’s third satellite). These are extremely The eccentricities of the orbits are distributed as follows: 200 bodies (the first two are about three miles in diameter, the planets have eccentricity between o and -087, 37s between 087 about 20). They have periods of about four years; and and -174, 248 between -174 and -259, 49 between -259 and +342, approach at perihelion within some twenty million miles of 7 between -342 and -423, while four stragglers, Albert, Alinda, the earth’s orbit, but recede at aphelion to within a unit of Ganymede and Hidalgo have eccentricity greater than one-half. Jupiter’s orbit. When in opposition at perihelion they have direct The figures for inclination of orbits to the ecliptic are: 222 planets motion in longitude, whereas retrograde motion is the usual rule between 0° and 5°, 297 between 5° and 10°, 222 between 10° and in that position; the reason is that their linear velocity then

MINOS—MINSK

577

of Guines (1352). Nothing whatever is known of Minot’s life, but the minuteness of his information suggests that he accomfortunately insufficiently observed at its first apparition, and is panied Edward on some of his campaigns. Though his name is now lost; but the other two have been very well observed. A Norman, he writes vigorous and idiomatic English of the northern still more remarkable asteroid is No. 944 Hidalgo, discovered by dialect with some admixture of midland forms. His poems are Dr. Baade at Bergedorf observatory in 1920. Its perihelion dis- instinct with a fierce national feeling.

exceeds that of the earth. Owing to their small size they cannot he observed at all except when fairly near perihelion. Albert was

tance is two units from the sun, its aphelion distance nine and a-

There are excellent editions of Minot’s poems by Wilhelm Scholle (Quellen und Forschungen, vol. lii., Strasbourg, 1884), with notes on etymology and metre, and by J. Hall (2nd ed., 1897).

fully examined, and failed to show the faintest sign of nebulosity, 0 it is difficult to classify it as a comet. It approaches Jupiter’s

Mouse river, 236m. W. by N. of Grand Forks; the county seat of Ward county. It is on Federal highway 2 and the main lines of the

half units (near the orbit of Saturn), its period 13-84 years, and the inclination of its orbit to the ecliptic 434 degrees. The orbit is distinctly of a cometary character, but the object was care-

orbit closely one and three-quarter years after perihelion, so its present orbit may be due to perturbations by that planet. A

similar but still more remarkable asteroid, discovered at Tokyo

in January 1927, and temporarily designated Tokyo 1, has perihelion distance one and a quarter units, but aphelion near the orbit of Uranus, its period being 34-8 years. Its inclination is only six degrees, so it passes near Jupiter’s orbit. It seems possible that both this object and Hidalgo are the remains of comets which have lost their supply of gas, and whose nuclei resemble asteroids in appearance. The task of keeping the thousand members of the asteroid family from being lost is a heavy one, and needs international cooperation both in computation and observation. The chief centres for computation are the Recheninstitut at Berlin, the Nice and Marseilles observatories, and Berkeley observatory, California; while observations (mainly photographic) are made at Königstuhl, Bergedorf, Simeis (Crimea), Uccle, Marseilles, Nice, Algiers, Barcelona, Johannesburg, Yerkes observatory, etc. The late Dr.

J. Palisa made many discoveries and observations at Vienna.

The following work by Dr. G. Stracke gives full details about the discovery and the elements of all the asteroids found up to the year 1925, together with other particulars. “Identifizier-

mgsnachweis und Elemente der Kleinen Planeten” (Veréfent-

MINOT, a city of North Dakota, U.S.A., in the valley of the Great Northern and the Soo Line railways. Pop. (1920) 10,476 (84% native white); was 16,099 in 1930 by Federal census. The winding river, bordered by trees and shrubs, flows through the city, and the valley is surrounded by high, bluff-like hills. There are 200 ac. in public parks. The Minot State Teachers college (opened 1913) occupies a beautiful campus of 70 ac. and had a total net enrolment in 1926-27 of 2,334. Minot is the chief trading centre for the northern part of the State, where dairying, poultryraising, and balanced farming are rapidly developing, supplementary to the basic occupation of wheat-growing. Its tributary territory is about the size and shape of the State of Indiana. The nearest larger city to the west is Great Falls (Montana), 600 m. away. There are wholesale groceries, distributors of agricultural implements and automobiles, and many other jobbing houses doing a large business. Bank debits to individual accounts in 1927 amounted to $84,000,000. Minot lies within the great lignite coal fields of the State, and the largest. strip lignite mine in the world lies not 30 m. from the city. Minot was founded in 1886, when the Great Northern railway reached this point. About 5 years later the Soo Line crossed the Great Northern here, establishing the new

town as a natural distributing centre for north-western North Dakota and north-eastern Montana. It was incorporated as a city in 1887 and has had a commission form of government since 1909.

MINOTAUR [Gr.Muwaravpos, from Mivws,and ravpos, bull], lichungen des Astronomischen Rechen-Instituts zu Berlin-Dahlem, in Greek mythology, a fabulous Cretan monster having the body No. 45). (A. C. D. C.) MINOS, a semi-legendary king of Crete, the son of Zeus of a man and the head of a bull. This creature was supposed to and of Europa. By his wife, Pasiphaë, he was the father of be the offspring of Pasiphaé, the wife of Minos, and a snowAriadne, Phaedra, and others. Ariadne is equated with Aphrodite; white bull, sent to Minos by Poseidon for sacrifice. Minos, inPasiphaë has been explained as a lunar deity, and a goddess of stead of sacrificing it, spared its life, and Poseidon, as a punishthat name was worshipped in Laconia (Plutarch, Agis, 9). Minos ment, inspired Pasiphaé with an unnatural passion for it. The reigned over Crete and the islands of the Aegean three genera- monster which was born was shut up in the Labyrinth (q.v.). It tions before the Trojan war. He “reigned for eight years and happened that Androgeus, son of Minos, had been killed by the was the gossip of Zeus” (Odyssey, xix. 178), which may mean Athenians, who were jealous of the victories he had won at the that he was a divine being, an incarnate god, replaced every ninth Panathenaic festival. To avenge the death of Androgeus, Minos year (so Frazer). He was the author of the Cretan constitution demanded that seven Athenian youths and seven maidens should and the founder of its naval supremacy (Herodotus iii. 122; be sent every ninth year to be devoured by the Minotaur. When Thucydides i. 4). In Attic tradition and on the Athenian stage, the third sacrifice came round Theseus volunteered to go, and Minos is a cruel tyrant, the heartless exactor of the tribute of with the help of Ariadne (q.v.) slew the Minotaur. Athenian youths to feed the Minotaur (q.v.). Recent discoveries

in Crete (q.v.) prove the existence of a civilization, the “Minoan” culture, the lord of which may well have had Athens and many other places tributary to him. Minos himself is said to have died at Camicus in Sicily, whither he had gone in pursuit of Daedalus, who had given Ariadne the clue by which she guided Theseus through the labyrinth. He was killed by the daughter of Coca-

lus, king of Agrigentum, who poured boiling water over him in

the bath (Diod. Sic. iv. 79). Subsequently his remains were sent back to the Cretans, who placed them in a sarcophagus, on which

was inscribed: “The tomb of Minos, the son of Zeus.” After his death he became judge of the shades in Hades, associated with Aeacus and Rhadamanthus.

MINOT, LAURENCE

(7. 1333-1352), English poet, the

author of rz battle-songs, first published by Joseph Ritson in 1795 as Poems on Interesting Events in the reign of King Edward III. They had been discovered by Thomas Tyrwhitt in an early 15th

century ms. (Cotton Galba, E. IX., British Museum) which bore on the fly-leaf the misleading inscription: “Chaucer, Exemplar emendate scriptum.” The poems were evidently written contem-

poraneously with the events they describe. The first celebrates the English triumph at Halidon Hill (1333), and the last‘the capture

It seems possible that a confused reminiscence of actual bullbaitings, perhaps a sacred rite, which are attested by Cretan wallpaintings, has something to do with this story. Pictures of halfhuman monsters are also common; see especially the seal-impression of a minotaurlike creature, Brit. Sch. Ath. VII. p. 18. But their meaning, like the original significance of the myth, awaits explanation. See Helbig in Roscher’s Lexikon der Mythologie; F. Durrbach in Daremberg and Saglio’s Dictionnaire des antiquités; A. B. Cook in

Classical Review xvii. 410; J. G. Frazer, Golden Bough iv. 10 et seq.

MINSK, a former government of Russia, now in the White Russian S.S.R. (g.v.). MINSK, the capital of the White Russian S.S.R., on the Svisloch river, a non-navigable tributary of the Berezina, in 53° 54” N., 27° 33’ E., at the intersection of the Moscow-Warsaw and Libau-Kharkov railways. Pop. (1926) 123,613. It was the headquarters of the IV. Army Corps under the Tsarist government. Its close proximity to the west Russian front involved it in the disorders of the Russian retreat. In November 1917 an executive committee of soviet workers, soldiers and peasants was formed in the town, but in 1918 Minsk was occupied by German troops, who advanced as far as the Dnieper river, but withdrew after the

MINSTER—MINSTREL

578 revolution in Germany.

In spring, 1919, a Polish army occupied

the district, and Minsk did not settle down to peaceful develop-

who was often a man of high social standing. Such a trouvare was Taillefer, who led the Norman attack at Hastings, singing th.

ment until the beginning of 1921. The effects of this period of destructive strife are still evident, and there is terrible overcrowding in the city, owing to the rapid growth of its population and the destruction of housing accommodation during the war. The province around Minsk is more favourably situated as regards agriculture than the rest of White Russia, and the town therefore has a less serious unemployment problem, though the situation is sufficiently difficult, especially ın view of the inter-. ruption of its trade with the west, owing to changes of boundary. The town has smelting and machinery works, a bristle industry depending on the marked development of pig-breeding in the

song of Roland and juggling with his sword. After the Conquest

province, a brewery, two leather factories and a paper factory. The town has a municipal electricity and water supply. There is a White Russian government university, a communist university, and an institute for research into White Russian culture, with a Polish and a Jewish branch. An institute was established in 1927 to study the problems of White Russian agriculture and forestry. The numerous small Jewish traders were thrown out of occupation after the 1917 revolution and efforts have been made to settle them in other parts of Russia in order to relieve the local unemployment problem. Its position near the west has always made it liable to invasion. Minsk is mentioned in Russian annals in the 11th century under the name of Myen’sk, or Menesk. In 1066 and 1096 it was devastated, first by Izyazlav and afterwards by Vladimir, prince of Kiev. It changed rulers many times until the 13th century, when it became a Lithuanian fief. In the rsth century it was part of Poland, but as late as 1505 it was ravaged by Tatars, and in 1508 by Russiaris In the 18th century it was taken several times by Swedes and Russians Russia annexed it in 1793, but within a few years it was laid waste by Napoleon I. (1812).

a churchman as Bishop Robert Grosseteste having a private harper, but they were more professional musicians. For these there were professional schools at Beauvais, Cambrai, Lyons and

MINSTER, two towns of Kent, England. rt. MinsTerR-IN-THANET, in the Isle of Thanet, lies above the Minster marshes, Stour valley, 4 m. W. of Ramsgate by rail. Pop (1921) 2,915. The church of St. Mary has a Norman nave and Early English transepts and chancel. The carved choir-stalls are a notable feature. The church belonged to a nunnery, founded at the close of the 7th century. Fruit-growing is carried on. 2. MINSTER-IN-SHEPPEY, a seaside resort in the Isle of Sheppey. Pop. (1921) 3,059. It has a fine church, dedicated to St. Mary and St. Sexburga, originally attached to a 7th century convent founded by Sexburga, widow of Erconberht, king of Kent. The present building is a portion of the r2th century conventual church founded by William de Corbeuil, archbishop of Canterbury; it retains also traces of pre-Norman work. The abbey gatehouse remains. There are oyster beds in the neighbouring sea

MINSTER, the church of a monastery, or one to which a

Berdic, joculator regis, is shown by Domesday to have been given

estates in Gloucestershire; and the traditions that Rahere, founder of St. Bartholomew’s priory at Smithfield, had been minstrel to Henry I., and that Richard I. was discovered in his captivity by his minstrel Blondel, if not true to fact, show the position occupied by such persons in popular opinion. Master Henry versificator regis, to whom Henry III. made various gifts, may have been one of the last of the English zrouvéres ; certainly after

that king’s reign the minstrels seem to take a lower place in go. ciety. Kings and nobles still kept their minstrels, even so strict

elsewhere, and in many towns they formed themselves into gilds, of which the earliest known is the Pu of Arras, founded in rios. The minstrels’ gild of Paris, of which the head was called roy des ménestriers, was ‘founded in 1321 and lasted to 1776; in London the minstrels were incorporated in 1469, and all minstrels in the

country were ordered to join the gild, but this order was ignored, and when a new charter was granted in 1604 the gild’s jurisdic. tion was limited to three miles beyond the city. The gild still

exists as the Corporation of Musicians of London.

Canterbury

had such a fraternity in 1526, and that of Beverley claimed to date from the time of Athelstan, certainly existed in the rsth century, and was reorganized in 1555, when rules were made that members must be minstrels to men of honour, “waits” to some

town,! or otherwise approved. The minstrels of the county of Chester were from an early date (traditionally 1210) under the control of the head of the family of Dutton, whose rights were recognized in all the vagrancy acts from 1572 onwards; as late

as 1756 the heir of Dutton held a court at Chester fair and issued licences to musicians.

Similarly at Tutbury John of Gaunt in

1380 established a roy des ministralx, whose court was still held at the end of the 17th century. Mediaeval account rolls of the expenses of royal and noble households, towns and monasteries are full of payments, often lavish, to all kinds of minstrels, musicians, players and jugglers, and at the marriage of Princess Margaret in 1290 no fewer than 426 minstrels, English and foreign, attended. Most of these came with noble guests, and the king himself, Edward I., had a large staff of musicians, partly minstrels and partly military band, as had his successors. But by the 15th century the day of the real minstrel was passing; and with the coming of printing the taste for listening to long chanted ballads and romances died out, and the minstrel became more and more an instrumental performer, just as the “minstrels’ galleries” in the halls of Tudor houses were

monastery has been attached. In the roth century the name was applied to the churches of outlying parishes, and is now given to some of the English cathedrals, such as York, Lincoln, Ripon and Southwell, and to large churches or abbeys, like those of Sherborne, Wimborne or Westminster. MINSTREL. The word “minstrel,” derived from the Latin minzster, a servant, was used after the 13th century to signify a household entertainer, its earlier equivalent being “jogelour” (Fr. jongleur). Still earlier the same part was played by the Teutonic gleeman or scép. In the Anglo-Saxon poem that bears his name, Widsith, the far-traveller, wanders from place to place, from the Picts and Scots in the west to the Medes and Persians in the east, singing and telling stories and welcomed everywhere; from the Ostrogoth Eormanric (Hermanric, d. 375) he receives a collar of gold, and on his return home he is given an estate. Other early poems, such as Beowulf, show the honour in which these minstrels were held in pagan times; but, although patronized by Charlemagne, they were denounced by the Church with a vigour and frequency which show how ineffective such denunciations were in stemming their popularity. The term minstrel covered a great variety of performers. At the head of the profession the place of the scôp was taken in the

purely for instrumental or choral music. With the 16th century the minstrels became players, in the sense of actors, or degenerated into that “thing of shreds and patches,” the wandering minstrel. Even from early times there had been many of these w-

rith century by the trouvère (q.v.) or the troubadour (q.v.),

night-watchman, “piping the watch” at fixed hours of the night.

attached, vagrant entertainers, picking up a precarious living by performing in fairs and village taverns, or thrusting themselves brazenly into the halls of the great, risking kicks for the sake of

halfpence. It was against these, headed by the Goliards (q.v.), that the Church chiefly fulminated for their ribaldry, indecency and lack of reverence. The State also viewed them with disfavour as men who wasted their own time and that of their listeners, and, not unjustifiably, as promoters of sedition. For these masterless men carried the news from place to place, sang biting lampoons against unpopular ministers, or voiced the wrongs of the poor;

and such revolts as the Peasants’ rising of 1381, Jack Cade’s of 1450, and other more local riots seem to have owed much to

their activity. Consequently from the time of the Black Death

(1349) onwards, and particularly after 1572, they were continually in danger of the stocks, the whipping-post and prison.

1The chief English towns, such as London, York, Chester, Bristol,

Coventry, etc., had minstrels, usually called “waits,” who wore a

livery and silver badge and combined the duties of town band an

MINT The best account of the subject is in E. K. Chambers, The Mediaeval

stage, i, 23-86, and il. 230-266 (1903); where references are given

tg other works. See also A. Schultz, Das hofische Leben zur zeit der Minnesinger (1889) ; J. Jusserand, English Wayfaring Life (3rd ed., 1025).

(L. F. S.)

T, A place where coins are manufactured, usually with the authority of the State.

579

although at a small charge. In the United States, Canada, India and Japan the mints also receive unrefined gold and refine it. Alloys Used in Coinage.—The earliest gold and silver coins made by the Greeks consisted of the pure metals (990-997 fine, i.e., 990-997 parts in 1,000) or of electrum. After electrum had

fallen into disuse, pure gold continued to be used, but under the Roman emperors copper was intentionally added and in the two According to Herodotus, the first mint was probably that estab- centuries preceding the fall of Rome very base alloys of gold were ished by Gyges in Lydia towards the end of the 8th century B.c. coined, some containing only 2% of gold or even less. In the for the coining of gold, silver and electrum, an alloy of gold and middle ages these base alloys were discarded and the “byzant”’ silver. Silver was coined in the island of Aegina soon afterwards. of Constantinople and the early coins of Western Europe were inThe art of coining was introduced by the Greeks into Italy and tended to be absolutely fine. The gold standard of +4 or 916.6 other countries bordering on the Mediterranean and into Persia (22 carats fine) was adopted in England in 1526 and remains and India. Subsequently the Romans laid the foundations of unchanged. modern minting. Coining originated independently in China at a The silver standard of 925 (x11 oz. 2dwt. of silver and 18dwt. later date than in the Western world, and spread from China to of alloy) was probably first introduced in England by the Saxons Japan and Korea. but has not been maintained continuously. Henry VIII. reduced In Britain gold and silver were coined before the arrival of the it to ro oz. silver and 2 oz. alloy and afterwards to 4 oz. silver and Romans, and after the Norman Conquest the number of mints 8 oz. alloy. Under Edward VI. the standard, at first debased mcreased to about 70, more than now exist in the world. The further to 3 oz. silver and 9 oz. alloy, was afterwards raised again, necessity for so many mints arose from the imperfect means of and the standard of 925 was restored by Elizabeth. In 1920 it communication. The coins were occasionally tested at Westmin- was reduced to 500, but the name “standard silver” generally ster, and if any deficiency in their weight or fineness was found means silver 925 fine. The 900 standard for both gold and silver the “moneyers” or minters were punished as traitors. About coins was introduced in France soon after the Revolution and 1180, officers were appointed to supervise the coinage on behalf of was later adopted in most other countries. The standard in India the king and to collect the seigniorage (qg.v.), which generally took is 916-6 for both gold and silver. the form of a deduction from the amount of bullion sent to the Copper was originally added to gold in coins to reduce the mint for coinage. The work was done by contractors at a great cost of metal, but it has long been recognized that gold-copper profit; Sir Isaac Newton, for example, amassed a fortune as mas- and silver-copper last longer in circulation than pure metals owing ter of the mint and contractor for the coinage. In 1850 the con- to their greater hardness. Rate of wear, however, does not depend tract system was abolished and since then the work has been con- entirely on hardness, but also on the resistance of coins to corducted by civil servants, all profits becoming part of the revenue. rosion. Coins become greasy in circulation and the fatty acids The London mint was built in 1810, when the old mint in the corrode the copper, forming a friable crust on the surface which Tower of London was closed after being in use for centuries. is easily rubbed off. Accordingly coins containing much copper In the United States the Philadelphia mint was opened in 1792 are not so resistant to wear as those of higher standard and more and there are other mints at San Francisco and Denver, opened to often present a dirty appearance in circulation. The average life provide markets for the gold produced near them. In most of silver coins of the 925 standard in circulation in Great Britain countries a single mint is found to be sufficient, but there are six was about 40 years in the z9th century, the larger coins lasting in Germany and two in Australia. Many countries do not pos- longer and the smaller ones for a shorter time. sess a mint, their coinages being executed under contract. Subsidiary coins have in the past generally consisted of copThe Supply of Bullion to Mints.—In England, in the middle per, but in France soon after the Revolution of 1789 copper beages, the king was accustomed to send to the mint the produce of came scarce and the church bells were melted down to eke out the his own silver mines. The right of levying selgniorage was some- supply. The bells consisted of an alloy of copper and tin with a times waived by the king to encourage his subjects to bring gold little zinc and the coins containing some of it were found to have and silver to the mint, but in spite of this inducement supplies advantages over those of pure copper. A mixture of these metals were often deficient, and several instances are recorded in which in the proportion of copper 95%, tin 4%, zinc 1% (“coinage alchemists were called in to effect transmutation of baser metals bronze”) was adopted in 1851 by France for subsidiary coins and into gold. afterwards by almost every country in the world. Silver bars, which usually weigh from 1,000 to 1,200 oz. troy The copper-nickel alloy or “nickel-bronze” (consisting of copeach, are bought by the mints only when new or additional issues per 75%, nickel 25%) has been used since its introduction in of silver coin are required for circulation or reserve. In the first Belgium in 1861. Aluminium-bronze (copper 91%, aluminium years after the World War very little new silver was required for 9%) has been used instead of silver for francs and two-franc coinage in Britain, owing to the widespread melting down of old pieces in France since 1921 and has been adopted elsewhere. silver coin for sale and its replacement by base metal coins or by Manufacture of Coins.—Until the middle ages coins were silver of lower standard. The intrinsic value of the silver in coins struck between engraved dies by hand hammers and hand minting Is usually much less than the nominal or face value at which they persisted in the native States of India until the roth century. The pass In circulation in their own country. Thus in Great Britain Romans cast their larger copper coins. Modern methods may be one ounce of a silver alloy containing 50% of silver is converted said to date from 1553 when rolls for reducing the thickness of Into §s.6d. in silver coin, whatever may be the market price of cast bars, machines for punching-out round discs from sheets of silver bullion (in 1927 this was about 20d. per oz. of fine silver). metal, and screw presses for striking coins were introduced in The difference between the minted and unminted values is re- Paris. In England the new machinery was tried in 1561 and finally tained by the State to cover the cost of manufacture and as a adopted in 1662. (For a detailed account of the history of minting, source of revenue. The system in other countries is similar, but see NUMISMATICS.) generally with less difference in value between the minted and The operations employed in the manufacture of gold and silver unminted silver. Thus the United States dollar contains 371-2 coin are as follows:—(1) Refining the metal to make it fit for grains or o-77 oz. of fine silver. coinage. Gold is refined at only a few mints and very little silver P Refined gold ingots suitable for minting (the “bar gold” of is refined even by these. (For a description of the processes, see commerce) are usually about 400 oz. troy in weight. They could GoLp: Mining and Metallurgy and Strver: Metallurgy, etc.) (2) be taken to the London mint for coinage without charge previous Melting the metal and casting it into bars. (3) Rolling the bars to 1925, but in that year the right was withdrawn except from the into strips or “fillets.” (4) Cutting out discs or blanks from the Bank of England. The branch mints in Australia continue to strips. (5) Adjusting the weight of the blanks. (This is omitted receive unrefined gold from the mines for refining and coinage in some mints.) (6) “Marking” or edge-rolling the blanks to

580

MINT

produce a raised rim or to impress a design on the edge. (7) Annealing the blanks and, in some mints, cleaning them in acid. (8) Striking the blanks between dies. (9) Weighing each coin. Among the incidental operations are: (a) The valuation of the bullion, by weighing and assaying it. (b) “Rating” the bullion, or calculating the amount of copper to be added to make up the standard alloy. (c) Recovering the values from ground-up crucibles, ashes and floor sweepings (the mint “sweep”). (d) Assay-

to the next position. The discs fall down a tube to a receptacle The blanks are then passed to an edge-rolling machine, by

which they are thickened at the edge so as to form a tim ty protect

the finished

coin from wear.

The

operation is called

marking, because originally the edges were not only thickened

but were also marked with an inscription, as is still done in some

mints.

The letters are sometimes sunk and sometimes raised.

ing the melted bars. (e) “Pyxing” the finished coin, or selecting specimens to be weighed and assayed. (f) “Telling” or counting. At the London mint about 2,750 oz. (86 kilograms) of gold are melted in a pot, but larger crucibles holding nearly 6,000 oz. (188 kilograms) are used for silver. The amount of metal to be melted in mints is small and its value great, so that small charges in the furnaces are convenient. The necessity for perfect uniformity in composition, discussed in the sequel, is also in favour of small charges. The cost of fuel is a small item and any loss of metal a serious matter. So crucible melting retains its place in mints. The silver-melting furnaces employed in the London mint are FEEDING ROLLS cylindrical in shape inside and are heated by ordinary illuminating gas. The charge consists of refined silver bars with the required amount of copper, together with scrap silver from former operations and old coin if available. When ready for pouring, the crucible is lifted out of the furnace by means of circular tongs which are suspended from a travelling electric crane. The crucible is placed in a pouring cradle which can be tilted by gear wheels worked by a hand crank. The contents of the crucible are then stirred by a rotating mechanical stirrer in order to ensure proper uniformity of composition and a portion is dipped out for assay. The limits of error allowed by law in the composition of gold and silver coins are narrow. In British gold coins the allowance or “remedy” for fineness is 2 per 1,000 of gold above or below the standard of 916-6. In most countries a divergence of only Iı per FIG. 1.—CUTTING MACHINE SHOWING HOW THE COIN BLANKS ARE 1,000 of gold is allowed and little difficulty is experienced in keepPUNCHED, TWO AT A TIME, FROM THE STRIP OF SILVER BY THE DESCENT ing coins within the limits. Silver-copper alloys, however, even OF STEEL CYLINDERS though perfectly mixed when molten, become of different composition in different parts on solidification. The only alloy of Like the graining or “milling” on the edges of coins, the inscripuniform composition when solid is that containing 720 parts of tions were intended to put a stop to the practice of clipping and silver and 280 of copper. This is the “eutectic” alloy (see ALLoys) filing coins, which was prevalent in the 16th and 17th centuries. Annealing and Blanching the Blanks.—The blanks are and is used for coinage in Holland and Mexico. Rolling.—The cast bars are reduced to the thickness of the next softened by annealing, and are then thoroughly cleaned before coin by repeated passages between rolls, which are divided into being passed to the coining presses. The blanks thus cleaned are breaking-down, thinning and finishing or gauging rolls, the last charged into a hopper at one end of the furnace and conveyed named being of the smallest diameter. The reduction of thickness towards the other end by a revolving Archimedean screw. Ina in the bars is accompanied bya slight increase in their width and few minutes they are raised to a dull red heat and become a very great increase in their length, so that it is generally neces- blackened by the formation on the surface of a film of oxide of copper. They leave the furnace by falling through an aperture sary to cut them into two parts. By repeated passages through the rolls the bars are hardened, into water. The oxide of copper is removed by solution in hot and to facilitate further reduction they are usually softened by dilute sulphuric acid, sometimes with the addition of bichromate, annealing before being passed to the finishing rolls. In some and a layer of pure frosted silver is left on the surface, which mints the strips are annealed. In the United States mints the use appears dead white in colour, and has lost its metallic lustre. of very carefully refined metal has made it possible to discontinue The operation is called “blanching.” The blanks are washed mn the annealing. When the strips are reduced to the correct thick- water to remove all trace of acid and are then dried. Striking the Coins.—The blanks are converted into coin by ness they are examined by the “tryer,” who cuts out one or two blanks from each strip witk a hand machine and weighs them on receiving an impression from engraved dies. Each blank is a delicate balance. If the blank is too heavy the strip is again placed on the lower of two dies and the upper die is brought down forcibly upon it. The pressure causes the soft metal to passed through the rolls. The degree of accuracy required is indicated by the tolerance flow like a viscous solid, but its lateral escape is prevented by or “remedy” allowance in weight, which is different for each a collar which surrounds the blank while it is being struck. The coin, and is the maximum difference from the standard weight collar may be plain, or crenated (“milled”), or engraved. Modern coining presses are improved forms of the lever press which is allowed by law. In the sovereign it is o-2 grain or about 1-62 per 1,000. As the mean thickness of a sovereign is 0-0466in. invented by Uhlhorn in 1839 which replaced screw presses. One the remedy in weight corresponds to a difference of less than of the London mint presses is shown in fig. 2. The blanks are

ww.

in the thickness of the strip. Remedies in weight and

fineness are intended to cover accidental variations. Cutting and Marking Blanks.—In the cutting machine (fig, 1) the revolution of a cam causes two or more short steel cylinders or cutters to enter holes in two parallel plates fixed to the bed of the machine. When the coinage strip is brought between the plates, the cutters descend and force discs of metal through the holes in the lower plate. After each descent of the cutters, the strip is advanced by small gripping or feeding rolls

fed by hand or by an automatic feeder into the machine which performs the rest of the operations. A blank is carried forward by a moving slide and placed exactly on the lower die by iron fingers, the “layer-on.”

This imitates the action of the human

finger and thumb which it has superseded. The collar encircles the blank and the upper die is brought down and pressed upon 1t.

By means of continued revolution the machine next lifts the upper die, and the lower die rises simultaneously and pushes the

coin out of the collar. Lastly the layer-on pushes off the finished

581

MINT—MINTO coin (which falls down a tube intoa bowl) and places another blank on the die. Coining presses strike about roo coins a minute. The dies consist of hard carbon steel, and the process of making them is complicated.

The original design of the artist, in the

form of a large plaque of plaster of Paris, is reproduced in relief in ‘on or bronze by casting or in nickel by electro-deposition. An exact copy of the plaque in miniature, of the diameter of the coin to be produced, is made by a reducing machine. The machine has two adjustable heads and on these are mounted DELIVERY CHUTE

|s oy < acu

STRUCK CON

~)

Q= la a |p) .

ROW

BLANK

i

MOVING SLIDE

FEEDING TUBE

FLYWHEEL

FEED TUBE FOR BLANKS

Tor DIE

“LAYER ON? BOTTOM DIE

CRANK OPERATING “LAYER ON“ DELIVERY CHUTE FOR FINISHED COIN

FIG. 2.—COINING PRESS SHOWING THE MASSIVE STRUCTURE OF A HODERN PRESS, WHICH RETAINS ITS RIGIDITY WHILE STRIKING A HEAVY BLOW EQUIVALENT TO A PRESSURE OF MANY TONS the model or plaque and a block of soft steel. In front of them isa balanced arm, pivoted at one end, and carrying both the tracer point, which presses against the model, and the revolving cutter. The model and steel block are rotated synchronously and at the same time the free end of the balanced arm is gradually raised. The result is that the tracer and cutter are made to travel in fine spirals over all parts of the model and steel block respectively, converting the block into the “reduction” punch.

The old way of making the original steel copy of the artist’s design was by hand engraving (see NumuismMaTics), a method still in use for slight changes in the design, as for example a change of date, and for all purposes in some mints.

Dies strike about 50,000 coins before they are worn out. Weighing the Coins.—Gold and silver coins are examined individually by eye on the overlooking machine, upon which the coins are spread on a travelling belt, arranged so that both faces of the coins are exposed in succession. Each coin is then tested by ringing and finally weighed separately by being passed over delicate automatic balances.

Automatic balances for weigh-

ing single coins were introduced at the Bank of England in 1843. In the London mint both light and heavy coins are returned to the melting pot. The proportion of rejected gold coin varies with the quality of the bullion, and may exceed 10%. The percentage of rejected silver is usually less than 1%.

_ Trial of the Pyx.—Periodical

examinations

of the coins

issued by the mint have been made from very early times in England by persons appointed by the Crown.

Specimens are se-

lected from the finished coins and are put into a box or “pyx.” At Intervals these coins are weighed and assayed by a skilled jury and the results reported to the Government. The trial is now held

Arts, London, 1884); Annual Reports of the Deputy Master of the Mint (London, 1870 onwards); Annual Reports of the Darector of the (United States) Mint (Washington). (T. K. R.; H. W. L. E.)

MINT, botanically Mentha, a genus of plants of the family Labiatae, comprising about 25 species of perennial herbs, widely distributed throughout the temperate and sub-tropical portions of the globe, but chiefly in the temperate regions of the Old World. The species have square stems, opposite, aromatic leaves, and a

stoloniferous creeping rootstock. The flowers are arranged in axillary clusters (cymes), which either form separate whorls or are crowded together into a terminal spike. The corolla is usually

small and of a pale purple or pinkish colour; it has four nearly equal lobes, and encloses two long and two short stamens.

In Great Britain a number of species are indigenous or naturalized but the forms easily hybridize so that there is great confusion in the genus. Mentha viridis is the garden mint or spearmint (qg.v.), which is commonly used for culinary purposes; it is distinguished by its smooth, sessile leaves and lax tapering flower-spikes. It is probably a cultivated race of the next species, Mentha sylvestris, which chiefly differs from the above in its coarser habit and hairy leaves, which are silky beneath, and in its denser flower-spikes. This plant is supposed to be the mint of Scripture, as it is extensively cultivated in the East; it was one of the bitter herbs with which the paschal lamb was eaten. M. aquatica grows in ditches, and is easily recognized by its rounded flower-spikes and stalked hairy leaves. M. piperita, or peppermint (g.v.), has stalked smooth leaves and an oblong obtuse terminal spike of flowers; it is cultivated for its volatile oil. M. pratensis belongs to a group which have the flowers arranged in axillary whorls and never in terminal spikes; it otherwise bears some resemblance to M. viridis. M. Pulegium, commonly known as pennyroyal, has small oval obtuse leaves and flowers in axillary whorls, and is remarkable for its creeping habit and peculiar odour. It was formerly popular for medicinal purposes. All the genus Mentha abound in a volatile oil, contained in resinous dots in the leaves and stems. Most mints blossom in August. The name mint is also applied to plants of other genera, Monarda punctate being called horsemint, Pycnanthemum linifolium mountain mint, and Nepeta Cazaria catmint.

MINTO, GILBERT ELLIOT, isr EARL of (1751-1814), was the eldest son of Gilbert Elliot (1693—1766), Lord Minto. About 1763 Gilbert and his brother Hugh were sent to Paris,

where their studies were supervised by David Hume and where they became

intimate with Mirabeau.

Gilbert entered Christ

Church, Oxford, and was called to the bar. In 1776 he entered parliament as an independent Whig. He became very friendly with Burke, whom he helped in the attack on Warren Hastings and Elijah Impey, and on two occasions was an unsuccessful candidate for the office of speaker. In 1794 Elliot was appointed to govern Corsica, and in 1797 he assumed the additional names of Murray-Kynynmond and was created Baron Minto. From

1799 to 180r he was envoy-extraordinary to Vienna, and having been for a few months president of the board of control he was appointed governor-general of India at the end of 1806. During his viceroyalty he had to provide against the danger from Napoleon, and deal with the nearer menace of the Sikh power at

Lahore. Before he gave up office in 1813 Java and the Moluccas had been added to the Empire. He was then created Viscount Melgund and earl of Minto. He died at Stevenage on June 21, 1814 and was buried in Westminster Abbey. See Hon. G. F. S. Elliot, The Border Elliots and tke Family of Minto (Edinburgh, 1897) ; the article Inp1a: History; also the Life and Letters of the first Earl of Minto, 1751-1806 (1874) and Lord Minto in India, 1807—1814 (1880), both edited by the countess of Minto; and Sir J. F. Stephen, The Story of Nuncomar and the Impeachment of Sir E. Impey (1885).

.MINTO,

GILBERT

KYNYNMOND,

JOHN

ELLIOT-MURRAY-

41H Eart or (1845-1914), was born in Lon-

(See also the article don on July 9, 1845. He was educated at Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge, and joined the Scots Guards in 1867. In 1870 he sent in his papers and went to live in Lincolnshire, where he acted as a BrstiocrapHy—Rogers Ruding, Annals of the Coinage of Great ritain (1840); F. Lenormant, La Monnaie dans PAntiquité (1878); gentleman rider for four years. He rode four times in the Grand ir W. C. Roberts-Austen, ‘Alloys used in Coinage” (Journ. Soc. of National, and in the 1876 race he broke his neck. He survived,

annually by the Company of Goldsmiths. Money.)

582

MINT

PAR

OF EXCHANGE—MINT

and turned newspaper correspondent. In this capacity he was in Spain with the Carlist army in 1874, and in Turkey in the RussoTurkish war. He was present in an unofficial way at the second Afghan war in 1879, and very nearly went to Kabul with Cavagnari’s party who were murdered there next year. He went to the Egyptian war in 1882 in the same casual way, and fought with the mounted infantry at Ismailia. He married Mary Grey in 1883, and the haphazard part of his life came to an end. In 1883 he went to Canada as military secretary to Lord Lansdowne; here he served in the Riel rebellion campaign and was offered the post of commandant of the North West Mounted Police. He returned to England in 1886, and spent twelve years at home, chiefly occupied with his volunteer corps, the Border Mounted Rifles, and studying the theory of warfare. In 1891 he succeeded his father as Lord Minto. In 1898 he was

PRICE

OF GOLD

MINT PAR OF EXCHANGE.

A mint par of exchange

can only exist between two currencies based upon the same metal It is defined as the fixed intrinsic value of the currency-unit of

one country expressed in terms of the other.

It depends solely

upon the amount and fineness of the metal that the law of each country enacts what its currency-unit shall contain. Thus, in England, 20 Ib. gold, 44 fine, equals £934-5; in Switzer. land, rkilog. gold, 4% fine, equals Frs. 3,100; in the United States

258 grains gold, 5%, fine, equals $ro.

The mint par of exchange can now be readily calculated. Take England and Switzerland: £934:5=2olb. std. gold, +4 fine. = 18-33 lb. fine gold. =6-84rkilogs. fine gold. Frs.3,100= rkilog. gold, y fine.

= -gookilogs. fine gold. made Governor-General of Canada. Here his great problem was the difference in point of view between Chamberlain, with his Then Frs. grooKAEA = 6-B4rkilogs, fine gold={934:5 vision of Imperial Federation, and Sir Wilfred Laurier, prime minister of Canada, whose vision, concentrated on Canada, inor, Frs. gt0o% O42 =fr cluded no such thing. Minto’s invariably constitutional behaviour ‘9 X 934°5 and his soothing personal influence helped to surmount some unor, simplifying, Frs. 25°22 =fr pleasant situations, notably the Alaskan question and that of the Until 1928 the same formula applied to France. Canadian contingent in the Boer war. Laurier said of him, “He Foreign exchange operators have a quicker way of calculating is the most constitutional governor we have had.” Minto returned to England in November 1904, and in August pars, known as “the chain rule.” This is illustrated below, in the 1905, he was appointed Viceroy of India in succession to Curzon. calculation of the pound against the dollar: Curzon left him a ticklish legacy; he had changed many things ? dollars =fr In a very short time, and he had been an autocrat. Not the least £934°5 = 20 Ib. gold std. 12 lb. std. =r1 lb. fine. of Minto’s troubles was the tradition of centralisation he found; t lb. fine = 5,760 grains fine. not the least of his assets were his great-grandfather’s work a 9 grains fine = 10 grains, 7% fine. hundred years before, and India’s long memory. Minto started at 258 grains, 3% fine =$10. once to restore responsibility to the Viceroy’s council. The relaThen the answer is: tion between Minto and his secretary of State, Morley, was interesting. They liked and trusted one another personally, but Morley, IX 20X11 X5760X 10X10 ten as secretary of State, was a difficult man to handle. He tended for $ 034°5 XI12X1 x9 X258 $4867 more than one reason, to be autocratic; he started by overriding The chain rule is: his own council, he went on to ignore the Viceroy’s council and to (1) State the question in the top equation. attempt to reduce the Viceroy himself to a satellite of the secre(2) Begin each new equation with the same kind of item as tary of State. Minto handled the situation very cleverly; more ends the preceding one. than one of his suggestions, quietly thrown out in letters, came (3) See that the final equation ends with the same kind of item back to him in the majesty of Morley’s somewhat Olympian as began the first. despatches. But Morley’s constant interference in the details of (4) Divide the product of the left-hand side into the product administration, raised a serious constitutional question, and very of the right. nearly provoked Minto’s resignation. The breach with Kitchener (See also CURRENCY; FOREIGN EXCHANGE; MINT PRICE OF that Curzon had left was immediately healed, and the two men GOLD.) (N. E. C.) worked together harmoniously in preparing India’s case when the MINT PRICE OF GOLD. In any form of metallic curdetails of the Russian Convention were being arranged. Minto rency it is essential that the law should lay down the weight of took a long step towards the solution of the frontier problem when metal that each coin should contain, as otherwise uniformity he made a firm friend of the Amir of Afghanistan, who paid him would be lost, and the currency would have no fixed value and pura visit in Calcutta. But Morley was somewhat inclined to ignore chasing power and would cease to command confidence. Furviews on the wider aspects of Imperial policy coming from India, thermore, the law usually reserves the right to coin money to the and in the event of the Convention of 1907 nearly undid all official mint, which is a government institution. From this it folMinto’s work for the conciliation of the Amir. lows that all gold or silver bullion which the holders wish to turn But all other aspects of Minto’s viceroyalty are of small mo- into coin has to be handed over to the mint in the form of bullion ment compared with the supreme importance of the Reforms. and returned by the mint in the form of coin. (See Inpra.) On this matter Minto and Morley saw eye to eye The need for this double transfer immediately raises the quesfrom the start. There were even times when the Tory Viceroy tion of the terms on which the mint is prepared to act. In these outran the prudence of the Radical secretary, and when the battle terms, three main factors are involved. These are the mint price was won Morley said to Lady Minto, “I am swimming in a popular of gold or silver, seigniorage and loss of interest. tide through victories which are not my own.” In spite of strong Confining this examination to gold, it is clear that if, as 3s opposition in India and at home the steps were gradually taken. always the case, the weight and fineness of gold in each given coin The first was the appointment of an Indian member to the Secre- is fixed by law the mint price of gold is equally fixed. Thus the tary’s Council; the second, much more hotly disputed, the ap- English law lays down that twenty pounds weight troy of standpointment of Sinha to the Viceroy’s council in March 1909. In ard gold shall be coined into 934 sovereigns and one half-sovereign, May of the same year the Reform Bill was passed, the foundation and standard gold is defined as twenty-two carats fine gold to two of the new policy of gradual extension of self-government to India. carats of alloy in the pound weight troy, or eleven-twelfths fine. Even Minto’s enthusiasm for a progressive policy was perhaps not The mint price of gold in England can thus be calculated at more to his credit than the: determination with which, while he once: firmly suppressed sedition and violence, he refused to let them £034°5= 20 lb. standard gold deter him from his chosen path. Lord Minto returned to England

in, Noy. 1910, and died at his home at Minto on March 1, 1914. ‘See J. Buchan, Lord Minto; 1924.

[= 24002. y “^. I oz. standard gold=£

a

hs 178. 109d.

a

MINUCIUS—MIOCENE

583

£3 178. 10$d., or—to use the form in which it is more usually entire island, which he intended to make the centre of Dutch blockhouse, wareexpressed—7 7S- rod. per oz. standard, is the mint price of gold settlement. On its southern point he built a made their homes. settlers the early around which mill, house and in London. United States law enacts that a ten-dollar piece shall consist of 268 grains gold, nine-tenths fine. This makes the mint price of

gold $20.67183 per 0z. fine.

Having shown how the mint price is calculated, it remains to

determine its significance. It simply expresses the amount of coin

that the mint will return to the tenderer of a given amount of bul-

lon. ‘Thus in England if 20 lb. of standard gold are tendered to the mint the holder will receive back £934 Ios. It will be seen that, so far, the mint has made no charge for the cost of coining the gold. In England this was the case, but abroad

the mint usually does make a charge. This is called seigniorage (g.v.) and it has the effect of reducing the mint price of gold.

The third point, namely loss of interest, arises from the fact that + ysually takes a week or ten days for gold bullion to be minted. During this period the owner of the gold is earning no interest

upon it. This also has a practical effect upon the mint price of gold, as can be seen very simply from the following calculation. Assume that the operation of minting takes ten days, and that the current rate of interest is 5%. Then in London, one ounce

standard gold equals 77s. rod. in ten days’ time, which is only equivalent to 77s. gd. spot cash.

The Bank and the Mint.—This fact has long had in London a curious result. Under the Bank Act of 1844 the Bank of England is bound to buy gold offered to it at a minimum price of avs, gd. per standard ounce. Hence, in practice, all bullion brought into England was not tendered: to the mint for coinage, but sold

outright to the Bank, who thus became in practice the sole ten-

derer of gold to the mint. This procedure was formally recognized by the Gold Standard Act of 1925, which lays down that only the Bank of England now has the right to tender gold to the mint for coinage. The London bullion market to-day is governed not by the mint price of gold, but by the fact that the Bank is to-day bound by law to buy gold offered to it at a minimum price of n7s. od. per standard ounce and to sell gold in bars of 400 ounces fine at a maximum price of 77s. ro$d. This keeps the market price between these two limits, and the Bank has “a turn” corresponding roughly to the loss of interest during minting. (See also CURRENCY. ) (N. E. C.)

MINUCIUS, FELIX MARCUS, one of the earliest if not

He ruled wisely until 1631 when he was recalled by the company because he had been too liberal in granting trading privileges

to Dutch patroons, which the company feared would endanger their monopoly. A few years later he entered Swedish service and was given command of the two vessels of Swedish and Finn colonists which in March 1638, made the first settlement upon the Delaware river, near Wilmington, Del. There Minuit built Ft. Christiana and successfully managed the colonists’ early relations with the Indians and the Dutch. In June 1638, he set out on a trading expedition to the West Indies and, when near the, island of St. Christopher, the ship he was on was carried away in a sudden storm and never heard from again.

MINUSINSK, a town of Asiatic Russia in the Siberian area,

in 53° 56’ N., 91° 40’ E., on the Minusinsk river, about 5 m. from its junction with the Yenisei. Pop. (1926) 20,403. The town is situated in the fertile Minusinsk district, which has rich black earth, where the warm dry summer enables spring wheat to ripen before the autumn frosts. The town has a flour-milling industry and exports about 4,000 tons of flour per annum to the Lower Yenisei. Sugar beet grows well and a sugar factory exists. Timber is floated down the river from the forests and saw-milling is one of the chief occupations of the town. The Tatar nomads of the Minusinsk steppes are noted stock-raisers. Before the settlement of Russians in the agricultural area after the 1907 Government survey they wandered over the whole region. The mineral wealth of the Minusinsk district is great, but is not yet much exploited. There are coal and copper beds, antimony is found in the rivers, Glauber’s salt is obtained from the sulphate of sodium found near the left bank of the Yenisei river, and sulphate of soda from two small lakes lying between Achinsk and Minusinsk. The Minusinsk oasis, sheltered by the mountains, well watered and fertile, has been settled from time immemorial and is rich in the remains of the stone, bronze and iron age. Among the specimens collected in its fire-proof museum are a fine and representative collection of bronze implements, and relics of Chinese origin dating from the Han dynasty of the second century B.c. The collections were arranged by Prince Alexander Kropotkin and M. Martianov when they were exiled to Minusinsk in 1877.

MINUTE

MEN, in the American War of Independence,

the earliest, of the Latin apologists for Christianity. He is now militia-men who had undertaken to turn out for service at a exclusively known by his Octavius, a dialogue on Christianity be- minute’s notice. In Massachusetts the minute men were enrolled tween the pagan Caecilius Natalis and the Christian Octavius by an act of the provincial congress of Nov. 23, 1774, and in Ianuarius, a provincial lawyer, the friend and fellow-student of Boston and vicinity were more prominent than elsewhere prior to the author. The form of the dialogue is modelled on the De the outbreak of the war. The Americans who fought in the opening action of Lexington were “minute men.” natura deorum and De divinatione of Cicero. MIOCENE, in geology, the system of strata which occurs The Octavius is admittedly earlier than Cyprian’s Quod idola di non sint, which borrows from it; how much earlier can be determined only between the Oligocene and the Pliocene and thus forms the by settling the relation in which it stands to Tertullian’s Apologeticum. lower of the two divisions of the Neogene or newer Tertiary Since A. Ebert’s exhaustive argument in 1868, repeated in 1889, the priority of Minucius has been generally admitted; the objections are

period. The term is derived from the Greek peiov, less, and kawós,

recent, and was introduced by Sir Charles Lyell. The name indicates that the system has a smaller number of recent species than is found in the overlying Pliocene. Conditions During the Miocene.—The close of the Oligocene was marked by a very general regression of the sea. The MINUET, a dance for two persons in } time. At the period beginning of the Neogene, that is of the Miocene, was marked when it was most fashionable it was slow, ceremonious, and grace- by a widespread marine transgression, followed later by a general ful (see Dance). The name is also given to a musical composi- regression. Thus the whole Miocene corresponds to a cycle of tion written in the same time and rhythm. Haydn introduced it sedimentation, quite distinct from the Pliocene cycle which folinto the symphony; in Beethoven’s hands it became the scherzo. lows it. As in the Older Tertiary period the marine transgression MINUIT, PETER (c. 1580-1638), Dutch governor of New took place in Europe from three directions—from the North Amsterdam and colonizer of New Sweden, was born of Dutch sea, the Atlantic and the Mediterranean. The Miocene deposits ancestry in Wesel, Rhenish Prussia, about 1580. He removed to are found in basins connected with each of these three areas. The North sea of Miocene times was never as extensive as that Holland and in 1625 received the appointment of director-general ofthe Dutch West Indies Company’s settlements in North Amer- of Eocene or Oligocene times, it did not invade the Paris basin ica, known as New Netherlands, of which he became the first and did little more than cover the fringes of eastern England, formal governor under the new government. He landed on Man- northern Belgium, Holland and northem Germany. The fauna hattan island on May 4, 1626, and sometime between July and is entirely different from that of the Mediterranean and correlaSeptember he called the native Indian chiefs into council and tion is difficult, especially as the North sea seems to have been from them for merchandise valued at 60 guilders purchased the cut off from the Atlantic by a ridge across the Straits of Dover. stated in the Dict. Chr. Biog. article by G. Salmon. Editions: F. Sabaeus-Brixianus, as Bk. viii. of Arnobius (Rome, 1543); F. Balduinus, first separate edition (Heidelberg, 1560); Migne, Patrol. Lat. iti. 239; Halm in Corp. Scr. Eccl. Lat. (Vienna, 1867); H. A. Holden; Rausch (19x3). Translations: R. E. Wallis, in Ante-Nic. Fathers, vol. iv.; A. A. Brodribb’s Pagan and Puritan.

584

MIOT

DE MELITO—MIQUEL

The Atlantic washed the shores of France as it does to-day, and

broad gulfs covered part of Brittany and Aquitaine, and there was

a wide

communication

with the Mediterranean

across

the

south of Spain. The Mediterranean sea of Miocene times has left deposits which are the best known of all Miocene strata. The Alps had already been built up as far as general features are concerned, and the Miocene transgression was restricted to the surrounding peri-Alpine depression. From the Middle Miocene onwards the eastern Mediterranean was cut off from the western and also from the seas of India and the east. It became an inland sea with a specialized fauna. Life of the Period.—From the beginning of the Miocene there Is an entire difference between the faunas of the North sea and the Atlantic-Mediterranean, and it is difficult to give lists of characteristic fossils except for special areas. The fauna of the Atlantic-Mediterranean area is obviously the parent of the existing Mediterranean fauna. Amongst foraminifera nummulites give place to Lepidocyclines, many of large size. Amongst fossils of zonal importance echinoderms such as Clypeaster, Scutella and Echinolampas are especially abundant; amongst the numerous lamellibranchs and gastropods many species of Pecten are of very restricted vertical range. The important mammalian forms are noted below. For an account of the flora reference should be made to the article PALAEOBOTANY. It has been argued that the marked increase of herbivorous mammals in the Miocene, including Hzpparion, was due to the spread of turf-forming grasses and that animal migration was greatly facilitated by the drying up of the Mediterranean. Miocene Stratigraphy.—The following stages have been distinguished in the Mediterranean Miocene: Marine Facies 3

2 Iı

Sahelian ‘ Vindobonian

Burdigalian

Torbonian facies cae facies

Eastern European Facies Pontian Sarmatian

Russia), which may be the equivalent of the upper Vindoboniay

Turning now to the North sea Miocene, the regression ofthe sea at the end of the Oligocene was such that the lowest Miocene

is found only in Denmark, Schleswig-Holstein and the neighbour. hood of Hamburg and is absent from England, Belgium and Hol-

land. The middle Miocene is marked by a southward transgres.

sion, the sea reaching as far south as Bremen and Osnabriick in Germany and covering much of Belgium where ferruginous sands constitute the Bolderian (Bolderberg, near Hasselt, Belgium) The presence of Aquitanian fossils in the Bolderian suggests a cop. nection with the Atlantic at this time. The upper Miocene jg represented by glauconitic sands near Antwerp, the Anversian of the Belgians. It is still doubtful whether the Miocene is repre-

sented in England except by lavas and some interstratified beds

on the west coast of Scotland and northern Ireland. A Miocene fauna is found in the “Boxstones” at the base of the East Anglian

Pliocene and it is claimed on palaeontological grounds that part of the Lenham beds, occurring in pockets in the chalk downs of Kent and Surrey, is Miocene. Outside Europe the Miocene is well displayed in parts of

northern India (where the Gaj series is Burdigalian) and has yielded a rich harvest of mammalian remains (especially from the Bugti beds); in the old gulfs of south-eastern Asia it ispartly marine, partly continental—including, for example, the upper

part of the Peguan of Burma, whilst the lower part of the freshwater Irrawaddian is Pontian. Along the Atlantic slope of the

United States and around the Gulf of Mexico the complete Mio-

cene series is present, the Sarmatian and Pontian occur also in California. Miocene rocks are important in the West Indies and

the Antilles. (See under Eocene.)

See the writings of G. E. Pilgrim in the Records of the Geological Survey of India on the correlation of Eastern deposits. (L. D. $.)

MIOT

DE

MELITO,

ANDRE

FRANCOIS,

Comm

(1762-1841), French statesman and scholar, was born at Versailles (Seine-et-Oise) on Feb. 9, 1762. He was a high official

in the war office before the Revolution, and under the Republic he eventually became secretary-general for foreign affairs, and served on many foreign missions. In 1806 he joined Joseph

The Burdigalian stage is here taken as the base of the Miocene, since reasons have been given for regarding the Aquitanian as the Bonaparte in Naples as minister of the interior, afterwards folhighest Oligocene. (See OLIGOCENE.) The Aquitanian marks the lowing him to Spain as comptroller of the household, but he beginning of the Miocene transgression, but contains a number returned to France in the retreat of 1813. He took no part in of characteristic marine shells which are not found in later beds. politics after Waterloo. He was admitted in 1835 to the French The Burdigalian (type area Bordelais) is marked by a conspicu- Academy for his translations of Herodotus (Paris, 1822) and ous transgression of the sea in the peri-Alpine region. Continental Diodorus (Paris, 1835-38). He died in Paris on Jan. 5, 1841. deposits of this age, notably the Orleanais sands, are marked by See his diary covering the period 1788-1815, and published by his the appearance of such probroscideans as Mastodon angustidens, son-in-law, General von Fleischmann in 1858, Eng. trans. 2 vols., 1881. See also A. Gaudin, Les Arrétés, Miot (Ajaccio, 1896). M. turricensis, Dinothertum cuviert, of Rhinoceros aurelianensis, Anchitherium, etc. MIQUEL, JOHANN VON (1829-1901), German statesThe Vindobonzan stage (type in the Vienna basin) is marked by man, was born at Neuenhaus, Hanover, on Feb. 19, 1829, being further local transgressions such as in Bas-Dauphiné and in the descended from a French family which had emigrated during the enclosed Vienna Basin. The base of the stage, often of a sandy Revolution. He studied law at Heidelberg and Gottingen. The facies, has been designated the Helvetian (from the marine “mol- writings of Karl Marx converted him to socialism; but though lasse” of Switzerland), whilst at the top there are sometimes blue he entered into correspondence with Marx, with the idea of startmarls with a deep-water fauna of Pleurotomas—a facies dis- ing a revolutionary movement, he took no open part in the events tinguished as Tortonian (from Tortona, Piedmont). In the of 1848-49. He was one of the founders of the German Nationcontinental equivalents, such as the deposits of Sansan and alverein, and in 1864 he entered the Hanoverian parliament as 4 Simorre (Gers) and La Grive-St.-Alban (Isére) the characteristic Liberal and an opponent of the Government. He accepted the anmammals are Mastodon angustidens, Dinotherium bavaricum, nexation of Hanover by Prussia without regret, and was one of Rhinoceros sansaniensis, Dicrocerus elegans and the last Anchi- the Hanoverians whose parliamentary abilities at once won a comthertum.

The Pontian Stage (from Pont-Euxin) consists of continental fluviatile or lacustrine deposits forming the final stage of the Miocene cycle. The Pontian includes the famous deposits of Pikermi near Athens and is distinguished palaeontologically by the appearance of Hipparion, Mastodon longirostris, the presence of M. turricensis, the last Dinotherium; Rhinoceros schleiermacheri, Gazella deperdita. Marine equivalents of the Pontian occur in certain parts of Algeria and have been called the Sahelian (after Sahel d’Oran). In eastern Europe where the huge stretch of the eastern Mediterranean was separated from the western the true Pontian is underlain by a brackish water series (the

manding position in the Prussian parliament, which he entered

in 1867. He was burgomaster of Osnabriick from 1865 to 1870,

and again from 1876 to 1879, being in the meantime (1870-73)

a director of the Discontogesellschaft.

In 1879 he was elected

burgomaster of Frankfort-on-Main, where he dealt energetically

with social questions, especially that of the housing of the poor. Probably owing to his early study of socialism, he was very ready to support the new state socialism of Bismarck. He was the chief agent in the reorganization of the National Liberal party in 1887,

in which year he entered the imperial Reichstag. After Bismarck’s

fall he was Prussian minister of finance (1890-1900). He reformed the Prussian system of taxation, but failed in an attempt

Sarmatian, from the country of the Sarmates in the south of to reform the system of imperial finance in 1893-94. Miquel had

MIR—MIRABEAU given up hisLiberalism, and aimed at practical measures for improving the condition of the people irrespective of the party prommes; some of his measures—such as that for taxing “Waaren-

häuser” (stores)—-were of a very injudicious nature. He professed to aim at a union of parties on the basis of the satisfaction of material interests, a policy to which the name of Sammlung was given; but his enemies accused him of intriguing against the three chancellors under whom he served. His sympathy for the ‘ans increased his unpopularity among Liberals and industrials; he insisted that the State, which for half a century had

done everything to help manufactures, might now attempt to support the failing industry of agriculture. He resigned in June roor,

and died on Sept. 8, at Frankfort.

Miquels Reden were edited (4 vols., 1911~14) by Schultz and Thimme. See W. Mommsen, Johannes Miquel (vol. i. 1928).

MIR: see VILLAGE COMMUNITIES. MIRABEAU, ANDRE BONIFACE LOUIS RIQUETI, VICOMTE DE (1754-1792), nicknamed “Barrel Mirabeau,” brother of the orator Mirabeau, was one of the reactionary leaders at the opening of the French Revolution. In 1789, he was elected by the noblesse of Limoges a deputy to the States General. He emigrated about 1790, and raised a legion which was to bear his

name; but his insolence alienated the German princes, and his command was taken from him. He died in August 1792 at Freiburg im Breisgau. See Joseph Sarrazin, Mirabeau Tonneau, ein Condottiere aus der Revolutionszeit

(Leipzig, 1893); and Eugène

Berger, Le Vicomte de

Mirabeau (Mirabeau Tonneau) » 1754-1792 (1904).

MIRABEAU, HONORE GABRIEL RIQUETI, Comte pe (1749-1791), French statesman, was born at Bignon, near Nemours, on March 9, 1749. The family of Riquet, or Riqueti, originally of the little town of Digne, won wealth as merchants at Marseilles, and in 1570 Jean Riqueti bought the chateau and seigniory of Mirabeau, which had belonged to the Provençal

family of Barras. In 1685 Honoré Riqueti obtained the title of marquis de Mirabeau. His son Jean Antoine married Françoise de Castellane, and left at his death, in 1737, three sons—Victor, marquis de Mirabeau, Jean Antoine, baili de Mirabeau, and

585

cally unjust but constitutionally illegal. It shows, though in rather a diffuse and declamatory form, that application of wide historical knowledge, keen philosophical perception, and genuine eloquence to a practical purpose which was the great characteristic of Mirabeau, both as a political thinker and as a statesman. With his release from Vincennes (August 1782) begins the second period of Mirabeau’s life. He found that his Sophie was an idealized version of a rather common and ill-educated woman, and she consoled herself with the affection of a young officer, after whose death she committed suicide. Mirabeau first set to work to get the sentence of death still hanging over him reversed, and by his eloquence not only succeeded in this but got M. de Monnier condemned in the costs of the whole law proceedings. From Pontarlier he went to Aix, where he claimed the court’s order that his wife should return to him, but he lost his case by accusing his wife of infidelity, on which the court pronounced a decree of separation. He then intervened in the suit pending between his father and mother before the parlement of Paris, and attacked the ruling powers so violently that he had to leave France and again go to Holland. About this time began his connection with Mme. de Nehra, and his life was strengthened by the love of his petite horde, Mme. de Nehra, his adopted son, Lucas de Montigny, and his little dog Chico. After a period of work in Holland he went to England, where he was admitted into the best Whig literary and political society of London, through his old schoolfellow Gilbert Elliot. Among his most intimate English friends were the rst marquess of Lansdowne, better known as Lord Shelburne, and Samuel Romilly. Romilly undertook to translate into English the Considérations sur Vordre de Cincinnatus, which Mirabeau had written in 1785. The Considérations sur Pordre de Cincinnatus which Romilly translated was the only important work Mirabeau wrote in the year 1785. He now turned his thoughts to employment from the French foreign office, either in writing or in diplomacy. He first sent Mme. de Nehra to Paris to make peace with the authorities and then returned himself, hoping to be employed as a political pamphleteer, but he ruined his chances by a series of writings

on financial questions.

On his return to Paris he had become

Comte Louis Alexandre de Mirabeau. The great Mirabeau was acquainted with Etienne Claviére, the Genevese exile, and a the eldest surviving son of the marquis. When but three years banker named Panchaud. From them he heard plenty of abuse of old he had a virulent attack of small-pox which left his face dis- stock-jobbing, and seizing their ideas he began to regard stockfgured, and contributed to his father’s dislike of him. He was jobbing, or agiotage, as the source of all evil, and to attack in educated at a military school in Paris, and in 1767 received a his usual vehement style the Banque de St. Charles and the Comcommission in a cavalry regiment which his grandfather had pagnie des Eaux. This last pamphlet brought him into a controcommanded years before. He crossed his colonel in love, and the versy with Beaumarchais, who certainly did not get the best of ensuing scandal led his father to ask for a lettre de cachet, and it, but it lost him any chance of literary employment from the Mirabeau was imprisoned in the isle of Ré. This was the first government. But after a preliminary tour to Berlin at the berecorded of many affairs of the heart. On his release, the young ginning of 1786 he was despatched in July 1786 on a secret count obtained leave to accompany as a volunteer the French mission to the court of Prussia, from which he returned in expedition to Corsica. After his return, he tried to keep on good January 1787, and of which he gave a full account in his Histoire terms with his father, and in 1772 he married a rich heiress, Marie secréte de la cour de Berlin (1789). He was in Berlin at the time Emilie de Marignane. His wild extravagance, however, forced of the death of Frederick the Great. He failed to conciliate the his father to forestall his creditors by securing his detention in new king Frederick William; and thus ended Mirabeau’s one semi-exile in the country, where he wrote his earliest extant work, attempt at diplomacy. During his journey he had made the the Essai sur le despotisme. A violent quarrel brought another acquaintance of Jakob Mauvillon (1743-1794), whom he found letire de cachet and imprisonment in the Château d'If. In 1775 possessed of a great number of facts and statistics with regard he was removed to the castle of Joux, to which, however, he was to Prussia; these he made use of in his De la monarchie prussienne not very closely confined, having full leave to visit in the town sous Fréderic le Grand (London, 1788). He had offered himself of Pontarlier. Here he met Marie Thérèse de Monnier, the Sophie as a candidate for the office of secretary to the Assembly of ofthe famous letters. He escaped to Switzerland, where Sophie Notables which the king had just convened, and to bring his Joined him; they then went to Holland, where he lived by hack- name before the public published the Dénonciation de Vagiotage. work for the booksellers; meanwhile Mirabeau had been con- The violence of this book ruined his chance of election, and he demned to death at Pontarlier for rapt et vol, and in May 1777 had to retire to Tongres; he further injured his prospects by

he was seized by the French police, and imprisoned by alettre

de cachet in the castle of Vincennes. The early part of his confinement is marked by the indecent

letters to Sophie (first published in 1793), and the obscene Erotica biblion and Ma conversion, while to the later months

publishing the reports he had sent in during his secret mission at Berlin. But 1789 was at hand; the states-general was summoned; Mirabeau’s period of probation was over. On hearing of the king’s determination to summon the states-

general, Mirabeau started for Provence, and offered to assist at

belongs his political work, the Lettres de cachet, published after

the preliminary conference of the noblesse of his district. They rejected him; he appealed to the tiers état, and was returned both

of French constitutional history skilfully applied in an attempt to

for Aix and for Marseilles. He elected to sit for Aix. At every important crisis his voice was heard in the Assembly, though his

his liberation (1 782). The book exhibits an accurate knowledge

show that an existing actual grievance was not only philosophi-

586

MIRABEAU

advice was not always followed. He possessed at the same time great logical acuteness and the most passionate enthusiasm. From the beginning he recognized the need of strong government. At the same time he thoroughly comprehended that for a government to be strong it must be in harmony with the wishes of the majority of the people. He had carefully studied the English constitution in England, and he hoped to establish in France a system similar in principle but without any slavish imitation of the details of the English constitution. In the first stage of the history of the states-general Mirabeau’s part was very great. He always knew his own mind, and was prompt in emergencies.

To him is to be attributed the successful consolidation of the National Assembly. When the taking of the Bastille had assured the success of the Revolution, he warned the Assembly of the futility of passing fine-sounding decrees and urged the necessity for action. He declared that the famous night of Aug. 4 was but an orgy, giving the people an immense theoretical liberty while not assisting them to practical freedom, and overthrowing the old régime before a new one could be constituted. His failure to control the theorizers showed Mirabeau, after the removal of the king and the Assembly to Paris, that his eloquence would not enable him to guide the Assembly by himself, and that he must therefore try to get some support. He wished to establish a strong ministry, which should be responsible like an English ministry, but to an assembly chosen to represent the people of France better than the English House of Commons at that time represented England. The duchesse d’Abrantés states in her Mémoires that he thought of becoming a minister of the crown as early as May 1789, but the queen rejected the idea. He tried In vain to work with Lafayette, and then with Necker, for whose financial scheme he obtained the assent of the Assembly. After the events of the 5th and 6th of October the comte de la Marck consulted Mirabeau as to what measures the king ought to take, and Mirabeau, delighted at the opportunity, drew up an admirable state paper, which was presented to the king by Monsieur, after-

wards Louis XVIII. The whole of this Mémoire should be read to get an adequate idea of Mirabeau’s genius for politics; here it must be summarized. The main position is that the king is not free in Paris; he must therefore leave Paris and appeal to France. “Paris wen veut que l'argent; les provinces demandent des lois.” But where must the king go? “Se retirer à Metz ou sur toute autre frontière serait déclarer la guerre à la nation et abdiquer le trône. Un roi qui est la seule sauvegarde de son peuple ne fuit point devant son peuple; il le prend pour juge de sa conduite et de ses principes.” He must then go towards the interior of France to a provincial capital, best of all to Rouen, and there he must appeal to the people and summon a great convention. It would be ruin to appeal to the noblesse, as the queen advised: “un corps de noblesse west point une armée, qui puisse combattre.” When this great convention met the king must show himself ready to recognize that great changes have taken place, that feudalism and absolutism have for ever disappeared, and that a new relation between king and people has arisen, which must be loyally observed on both sides for the future. “Il est certain, d'ailleurs, qu’il faut une grande révolution pour sauver le royaume, que la nation a des droits, qu’elle est en chemin de les recouyrer tous, et qu’il faut non seulement les rétablir, mais les consolider.” To establish this new constitutional position, between king and people would not be difficult, because “Tindivisibilité du monarque

et du peuple est dans le coeur de tous les Francais; il faut qu’elle existe dans l’action et le pouvoir.”

Such was Mirabeau’s programme, from which he never diverged, but which was far too statesmanlike to be understood by Louis, and far too positive to be palatable to the queen. Mirabeau followed up his Mémoire by a scheme of a great ministry to contain all men of mark—Necker as prime minister, “to render him as powerless as he is incapable, and yet preserve his popularity for the king,” the duc de Liancourt, the duc de la Rochefoucauld, La Marck, Talleyrand, bishop of Autun, at the finances, Mirabeau without portfolio, G. J. B. Target, mayor of Paris, Lafayette generalissimo to reform the army, Louis Philippe, comte de Ségur (foreign affairs), Mounier and I. R. G. le Chapelier. This scheme got noised abroad, and was wrecked by a decree of the Assembly of Nov. 7, 1789, that no member of the Assembly could become a minister. The queen utterly refused

to take Mirabeau’s counsel, and La Marck left Paris. In April

~“myg0 he was suddenly recalled by the comte de Mercy-Argenteau, $

yea

the Austrian ambassador at Paris, and the queen’s most trusted

political adviser, and from this time to Mirabeau’s death he he. came the medium of almost daily communications between the latter and the queen. Mirabeau at first attempted again to make an alliance with Lafayette, but it was useless, for Lafayette Was

not a strong man himself and did not appreciate “la force” i, others. From the month of May 1790 to his death in April 1791 Mirabeau remained in close and suspected, but not actually

proved, connection with the court, and drew up many admirable state papers for it. In return the court paid his debts: but it ought never to be said that he was bribed, for the gold of the court never made him swerve from his political principles, He regarded himself as a minister, though an unavowed one, and be. lieved himself worthy of his hire.

On the question of the veto Mirabeau declared for the king’s absolute veto and against the compromise of the suspensive veto. On the question of procedure he got his friend Romilly to draw up a detailed account of the rules and customs of the English House of Commons, in the vain hope that the Assembly might adopt them. On the subject of peace and war he supported the king’s authority, and with some success. Mirabeau almost alone of the Assembly held that the soldier ceased to bea citizen when he became a soldier; he must recognize that a soldier’s first duty is obedience. Lastly in finance he attacked Necker’s “caisse d’escompte,”’ which was to have the whole control of the taxes,

as absorbing the approved of the that they should half the value of

Assembly’s power of the purse; and he heartily system of assignats, but with the reservation not be issued to the extent of more than onethe lands to be sold.

Of Mirabeau’s attitude with regard to foreign affairs something must be said. He held that the French people should conduct their Revolution as they would, and that no foreign nation had any right to interfere with them while they kept themselves strictly to their own affairs. But he knew that foreign monarchs were being prayed by the French emigrés to interfere on behalf of the French monarchy. To avoid any pretext for such interference was his guiding idea in foreign policy. He had been elected a member of the comité diplomatique of the Assembly in July 1790, and became its reporter at once. As matters became more strained, he entered into daily communication with the

foreign minister, Montmorin, advised him on every point, and, while dictating his policy, defended it in the Assembly. How great a work he did is best proved by the confusion which ensued in this department after his death. For indeed in the beginning of 1791 his death was near. The excesses of his youth had weakened his strong constitution, and his parliamentary labours completed the work. Some time before the end he-sent all his papers over to Sir Gilbert Elliot, who kept them under seal until claimed by Mirabeau’s executors. Every care that science could afford was given by his friend and physician, Cabanis. The people kept the street in which he lay quiet, but medical care, the loving solicitude of friends and the respect of all the people could not save his life. When he could speak no more he wrote with a feeble hand the one word “dormir,” and on April 2, 1791, he died. No man ever so thoroughly used other men’s work, and yet

made it all seem his own. “Je prends mon bien où je le trouve” is as true of him as of Molière. His first literary work, except the bombastic but eloquent Essai sur le despotisme (Neufchâtel, 1775), was a translation of Robert Watson’s Philip JI., done in

Holland with the help of Durival; his Comsidérations sur Vordre

de Cincinnatus (London, 1788) was based on a pamphlet by Aedanus Burke (1743-1802), of South Carolina, who opposed the aristocratic tendencies of the Society of the Cincinnati, and the

notes to it were by Target; his financial writings were suggested

by the Genevese exile, Claviére.

During the Revolution he re-

ceived yet more help; men were proud to labour for him, and

did not murmur because he absorbed all the credit and fame.

Etienne Dumont,

Claviére, Antoine Adrien Lamourette and

Etienne Salomon Reybaz were but a few of the most distinguished of his collaborators. Dumont prepared famous addresses which Mirabeau used to make the Assembly pass by sudden bursts of eloquent declamation; Claviére worked out his figures, and wrote

MIRABEAU—MIRACLE his financial discourses; Lamourette wrote the speeches on the civil constitution of the clergy; Reybaz not only wrote for him

nis famous speeches on the assignats, the organization of the mitional guard and others, which Mirabeau read word for word at the tribune, but even the posthumous speech on succession to the estates of intestates, which Talleyrand read in the Assembly

as the last work of his dead friend. He took other men’s labour as

his due, and impressed their words, of which he had suggested the underlying ideas, with the stamp of his own individuality; his

collaborators were glad to help forward the Revolution through

its greatest thinker and orator.

As an orator his eloquence has

587

répasin the New Testament, and Heb. x77 (Exod. xv. 11; Dan. xii, 6) in the Old Testament. Other terms used in the New Testament are divays “with reference to the power residing in the miracle worker” (cf. may Deut. iii, 24 and nyg Num. xvi. 30), and onuetov “with reference to the character or claims of which it was the witness and guarantee” (cf. mx Exod. iv. 8); that the power is assumed to be from God is shown by the phrases

rvebpatt beod (Matt. xii. 28; cf. Luke iv. 18) and daxTiAq@ Oeod (Luke xi. 20). The two conceptions once common in the Christian church, that on the one hand miracles involved an interference with the forces

and a suspension of the laws of nature, and that, on the other hand, as this could be effected only by divine power, they served as credentials of-a divine revelation, are now generally abandoned. As regards the first point, it is now generally held that miracles rather are compeers true his oratory in which he excelled, and nature as known in our common Burke and Fox than any French speakers. Personally he had are exceptions to the order of that miracles are constitusecond, the regards as and experience; of power a mind, of nobility of mark truest that which is the deeds which display the revelation, divine the in elements ent X.) (H. M. Srt.; attracting love and winning faithful friends. not merely Aurnorities.—The best edition of Mirabeau’s works is that pub- divine character and purpose; that they are signs and lished by Blanchard in 1819-22, in ten volumes, of which the first two seals of truth. Various theories have been advanced which encontain his Oeuvres oratoires; from this collection, however, many of deavour to discover the means by which the exceptional occurrence his less important works | and the De la monarchie prussienne are is brought about; but the explanation is merely hypothetical, omitted. For details of his life consult Mémoires biographiques, litare not helped in conceiving the mode of the divine teraires et politiques de Mirabeau, écrits par lui-même, par son père, and we the working of miracles. The important consideration Lucas in son, activity adopted his by issued was which adoptif, fils son oncle et son de Montigny (8 vols., 1834-35) ; Correspondance entre Mirabeau et le from the religious standpoint is that God’s activity should be fully comte de la Marck, ed. A. de Bacourt (2 vols., 1851), some additional recognised. letters appeared in the German edition (3 vols., Leipzig, 1851-52). An attempt has been made to discover a natural law which will Other published correspondence is Lettres de Mirabeau à Chamfort Arnold (1796); Lettres du comte de Mirabeau à Jacques Mauvillon (Bruns- explain some at least of the miracles of Jesus. Matthew

peen likened to that of both Bossuet and Vergniaud, but it had neither the polish of the old 17th century bishop nor the flashes of genius of the young Girondin. It was rather parliamentary

wick, 1792) ; Lettres originales de Mirabeau, écrites du donjon de Vincennes, 1777-1780, published by L. P. Manuel (4 vols., 1792) ; and, on the same subject, Paul Cottin, Sophie de Monnier et Mirabeau d'après leur correspondance inédite (1903); Lettres à Julie, edited by D. Meunier and G. Selois (Paris, 1903) ; Lettres inédites (1806), edited by

J. F. Vitry. The Histoire secrète forms the basis of H. Welschinger’s

La Mission secrète de Mirabeau à Berlin (Paris, 1900). The most useful modern books are Louis and Charles de Loménie, Les Mirabeau (5 vols„ 1878 and 1889); Alfred Stern, Das Leben Mirabeaus (2 vols., 1889); E. Rousse, Mirabeau (1891) in the Grands Ecrivains Français; A. Mézières, La Vie de Mirabeau (1892); L. Barthou, Mirabeau (1919);Meunier, Autour de Mirabeau (1926). On his eloquence and the share his collaborators had in his speeches see F. A. Aulard, Orateurs de Passemblée constituante (1882). For his death see the curious brochure of his physician, Cabanis, Journal de la maladie et de la mort de Mirabeau (Paris, 1791, ed. H. Duchenne, Paris, 1890). English works include P. F. Willert, Mirabeau (1898) in the “Foreign Statesman” series; C. F. Warwick, Mirabeaw and the French Revolution (1903); W. R. H. Trowbridge, Mirabeau, the demi-god (1907) ; H. E.

(Literature and Dogma, pp. 143-144) and Harnack (Das Wesen des Christentums, p. 18) ascribe the healing miracles to the com-

manding influence of so great a personality as Jesus. While recent psycho-therapy (auto- or hetero-suggestion) lends some support to the theory it may be pointed out: (1) that the mature or cosmical miracles—feeding of the five thousand, stilling of the storm,

withering of the fig-tree—are as well attested as the miracles of healing; (2) that many of the diseases, the cure of which is reported, are of a kind with which moral therapeutics could not effect anything (see Dr. R. J. Ryle in Hibbert Journal V. 586); (3) that Christ never failed to ascribe His power to the Father dwelling in Him. Should medical research prove that organic diseases as well as functional disorders, dependent on neurotic

conditions, yield to such treatment, Jesus’ use of the method in anticipation of this long development of medical science, would demand explanation. Even if it be shown that in His healing von Holst, The French Revolution Tested by Mirabeau’s Career (ChiHe was in His compassion for man, and confidence in God acts (Loncago, 1894) ; and F. Fling, Mirabeau and the French Revolution bringing into play hitherto unsuspected resources in Himself or don and New York, 1908). age and surroundMIRABEAU, VICTOR RIQUETI, Marquis bE (1715- in others, His transcendence personally of His 1789), French author and political economist, father of the great ings would remain. An attempt is made to get rid of the distinctive nature of Mirabeau, was born at Pertuis on Oct. 4, 1715. In 1728 he joined the army, but never rose above the rank of captain. After re- miracle when the exceptionalness of the events so regarded is tiring from the army he wrote his Testament politique (1747), in reduced to a new subjective mode of regarding natural phenompraise of the middle ages. This was followed by L’Utilité des états ena. H. E. G. Paulus dismisses the miracles as “exaggerations or provinciaux (1750), attributed at the time to Montesquieu; L’Ami misapprehensions of quite ordinary events.” A. Ritschl has been des hommes, ou traité de la population (1756); written under the unjustly charged with this treatment of miracles. But what he influence of Quesnay; Théorie de Vimpét (1760), a vehement emphasizes is on the one hand the close connection between the attack on the farmers-general of the taxes. The last named book conception of miracles and the belief in divine providence, and brought him imprisonment and exile to his estate at Bignon. There on the other the compatibility between miracles and the the Physiocratic School had its centre, and in 1765 Mirabeau order of nature. He declines to regard miracles as divine action bought the Journal de Agriculture, du Commerce et des Finances contrary to the laws of nature. So for Schleiermacher “miracle to serve as its organ. His health and his fortune were broken by is neither explicable from nature alone, nor entirely alien to it.” a prolonged law-suit with his wife, in which his defence was What both Ritschl and Schleiermacher insist on is that the belief oe by his son. The marquis died at Argenteuil on July in miracles is inseparable from the belief in God, and in God as immanent in nature, not only directing and controlling its exIl, 1789. See L. de Loménie’s Les Mirabeau (2 vols., 1879). Also Oncken, istent forces, but also as initiating new stages consistent with the Der ältere Mirabeau und die oekonomische Gesellschaft in Bern (Berne, old in its progressive development. We may accept Dorner’s definition as adequate and satisfac1886) ; H. Ripert, Le Marquis de Mirabeau, ses théories politiques et tconomigques [thèse pour le doctorat] (1901); De Lavergne, Les Eco- tory. “Miracles are sensuously cognizable events, not comprenomistes francais du r8&me siècle. hensible on the ground of the causality of Nature and the given system of Nature as such, but essentially on the ground of God’s and power, human beyond wonderful, MIRACLE, anything (tviating from the common action of nature, a supernatural free action alone. Such facts find their possibility in the conevent. The term is particularly associated with the supernatural stitution of nature and God’s living relation to it, their necessity factors in Christianity. To the Lat. miraculum correspond Gr. in the aim of revelation, which they subserve” (System of Chr.

MIRACLE

588

Doc. Il. p. 161). By the first clause inward moral and religious changes due to the operation of the Spirit of God in man are excluded, and rightly so (see INsprration). The negative aspect of miracles is that they are not explicable by the order of nature as we know it; the positive that owing to their character we are led to refer them directly to the divine causality.

When the ex-

istence of God is denied (atheism) or His nature is declared unknowable (agnosticism), or He is identified with nature itself (pantheism), or He is so distinguished from the world that His free action is excluded from the course of nature (deism), miracle is necessarily denied. It is only the theistic view of God as personal power—that is as free-will ever present and ever active in the world,—which leaves room for miracles. Although the possibility of miracles is often confidently denied, such denial rests on an unproved assumption; since we do not know the continuity of nature so thoroughly as to be able to declare that this or that event is necessarily an interruption of it. Lotze has shown, not only how the possibility of miracles can be conceived (Mikrokosmos III. 364); but even that the mode of the divine working may be made intelligible (op. cit. II. 54). If we conceive God as personal, and His will as related to the course of nature analogously to the relation of the human will to the human body, then the laws of nature may be regarded as habits of the divine activity, and miracles as unusual acts which, while consistent with the divine character, mark a new stage in the fulfilment of the purpose of God. The doctrine of Evolution, instead of increasing the difficulty of conceiving the possibility of miracle, decreases it; for it presents to us the universe as an uncompleted process, and one in which there is no absolute continuity on the phenomenal side: for life and mind are inexplicable by their physical antecedents, and there is not only room for, but need of, the divine initiative,

a creative as well as conservative co-operation of God with nature.

Such an absolute continuity is sometimes assumed without warrant; but Descartes already recognized that the world was no continuous process, “Tria mirabilia fecit Dominus; res ex nihilo, liberum arbitrium et hominem Deum.” The theory of psychophysical parallelism recognizes that while there is a correspondence between mental and material phenomena, changes in the mind and changes in the brain, the former cannot be explained by the latter, as the transition from the one to the other is unthinkable. William James distinguishes the transmissive function of the brain from the productive in relation to thought, and admits only the former, and not the latter (Human Immortality p. 32). Thus

as life is transcendent and yet immanent in body, and mind in brain, and both utilize their organs, so God, transcendent and immanent, uses the course of nature for His own ends; and the emergence both of life and mind in that course of nature evidences such a divine initiative as is assumed in the recognition of

the possibility of miracles. For such an initiative there must be adequate reason; it must be prepared for in the previous process, and it must be necessary to further progress. The proof of the possibility of miracle leads us inevitably to the inquiry regarding the necessity or the sufficient reason of miracles, The necessity of miracles is displayed in their connection with the divine revelation; but this connection may be conceived in two ways. The miracles may be regarded as the credentials of the agents of divine revelation, as by Butler (Analogy part If. Chap. vii). This view, however, is now generally abandoned, for it is recognized that acts of superhuman power, even if established by adequate historical evidence, do not necessarily certify their divine origin. Their moral quality must correspond with the character of God; and they must be connected with’ teaching which to reason and conscience approves itself divine. The miracle and the doctrine mutually illuminate one another.

a pen into a pen-wiper or Huxley’s about a centaur trotting dow, Regent Street. The miracles of Jesus—the relief of need, the removal gf

suffering, the recovery of health and strength—revea] in outward events the essential features of His divine mission. Tho divine wisdom and goodness are revealed in the course of nature but

also obscured by it. The existence of physical evil, and stil]more

of moral evil, forbids the assumption without qualification that the real is the rational. God in nature as well as in history js

fulfilling a redemptive as well as perfective purpose, of which these miracles are appropriate signs. It is an unwarranted idealism

and optimism which finds the course of nature so wise and $0

good that any change in it must be regarded as incredible. On the

problem of evil and sin it is impossible here to enter; but this must be insisted on, that the miracles of Jesus at least express

divine benevolence under those conditions in which the course of

nature obscures it; and are therefore, proper elements in a rey-

elation of grace, of which nature cannot give any evidence.

Having discussed the possibility and necessity of miracles for the divine revelation, we must now consider whether there is suffcient historical evidence for their occurrence. Hume maintains that no evidence, such as is available, can make a miracle credible, Mill states the position with due care. “The question can be stated fairly as depending on a balance of evidence, a certain

amount of positive evidence in favour of miracles, and a negative presumption from the general course of human experience against them” (Essays on Religion, p. 221). The existence of “a certain amount of positive evidence in favour of miracles” forbids the sweeping statement that miracles are “contrary to experience.” The phrase itself is, as Paley pointed out, ambiguous. If it means all experience it assumes the point to be proved: if it means only common experience then it simply asserts that the miracle is uusual—a truism. The probability of miracles depends on the conception we have of the free relation of God to nature, and of nature as the adequate organ for the fulfilment of God’s purposes. If we believe in a divine revelation and redemption transcending the course of nature, the miracle as signs of that divine purpose will not seem improbable. For the Christian Church it is the miracles of Jesus which are of primary importance. The Gospels assumed their present form between A.D. 60 and go. Their representation of the moral character, the religious consciousness, the teaching of Jesus, inspires confidence. The narratives of miracles are woven into the very texture of this representation. In these acts Jesus reveals Himself as Saviour. In His sinless perfection and filial relation to God He is unique, and His works are congruous with His Person. Of the supreme miracle of His resurrection there is earlier evidence than of any of the others (xz Cor. xv. 3—7, before A.D. 58). His conquest of death is most frequently appealed to in the apostolic teaching. The Christian Church would never have come into existence without faith in the Risen Lord. Yet it must be remembered that the

fect of the resurrection does not stand or fall with the mode in

which it was conceived; and that the mode of a belief is necessarily dependent upon the pre-suppositions, scientific and religious, of the age in which it is held. The accounts in the Old Testament of miraculous events are obviously conditioned by the presuppositions of the age and would in most cases be recorded differently

to-day. The supernatural element that is prominent in the Old

Testament is regarded by the authors of its various books as God’s providential guidance and guardianship of His people, and His teaching and training of them by His prophets. In Roman Catholicism, in mediaeval as in modern times, the working of miracles has been ascribed to its saints; but the char-

acter of most of these miracles is such as to lack probability. Further, these records are imitative. As Christ and the apostles worked miracles, it is assumed that those who in the Church were distinguished for their sanctity would also work miracles; and

Accordingly, the credentials must also be constituents of the revelation, as the character of Jesus ever shines through His miracles. The wonders and the powers are also signs. As God is the there can be little doubt that the wish was often father to the Saviour, and the chief end of the revelation is redemption, it is thought. fitting that the miracles should be acts of divine deliverance from __,BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Hume, Essay on Miracles; Schleiermacher, Reden physical evil. This congruity of the miracle with divine truth über die Religion; J. B. Mozley, Bampton Lectures (7th ed., 1892); and grace is the answer to Matthew Arnold’s taunt about turning Temple, Bampton Lectures (1885); Westcott, The Gospel of the Resurrection; Bruce, The Miraculous Element in the Gospels (1890); 4

MIRA

DE AMESCUA—MIRANDA

jlingworth, Divine Immanence (1898); J. Wendland, Miracles and Christianity (1911); F. R. Tennant, Miracle and its Philosophical

asupposition (1928).

A. E. G.)

589

the object would be magnified along two dimensions. These conditions sometimes prevail in misty or foggy weather, more par-

delo Cabrère and Belisaire. Moreto’s Caer para levantar is simply

ticularly at sea, and thus give rise to the phenomena known as “looming.” A famous land example is the “‘spectre of the Brocken” (g.v.). The chromatic halos which so frequently encircle these appearances are caused by diffraction (see Hato). Lenses formed of non-homogeneous material and having the maximum refractive index along the central axis, have been prepared, and reproduce some of the effects already described.

a recast of Mira’s El Esclavo del demonio, a celebrated drama ghich clearly influenced Calderón when composing La Devoción de la cruz; and there is manifestly a close relation between Mira’s

The mathematical explanation of this subject was first given by Gaspard Monge; see J. Pernter, Meteorologische Optik (1906); E. Mascart, Traité d’optique (1899-1903) ; R. W. Wood, Physical Optics (1905); R. S. Heath, Geometrical Optics (1887).

DE AMESCUA, ANTONIO

(1578-1644), Spanish

dramatist, combined to a high degree creative power with evenness ofexecution. Two of his plays—La Adversa fortuna de Don Ber„rdo de Cabrera and El ejemplo mayor de la desdicha y capitan Belisario—are respectively the sources of Rotrou’s Don Bernardo

Ia Rueda de la fortuna on the one hand and Corneille’s Héraclius and Calder6n’s En esta vida todo es verdad y todo es mentira. MIRAGE, an optical illusion due to progressive variations in the refractive indices of adjacent layers of the atmosphere. It

embraces the phenomena of the visionary appearance of sheets of water in arid deserts, the images of ships and icebergs in the atmosphere of the Polar regions, the Fate Morgana, and “looming” as witnessed in mists or fogs. A ray of light, when traversing a homogeneous medium is deviated from its original path by any transparent medium of different refractive index which it enters at an angle less than aright angle; it is therefore readily seen that the path of a ray through continuously varying media is necessarily curved, being compounded of an infinite number of infinitesimally small rectilinear deviations. The atmosphere is a medium of continuously

varying refractive index. Meteorological optical phenomena, caused by variations in the refractive index of the atmosphere,

may be grouped as: (1) permanent variation as experienced during a normal ascent through the atmosphere, and (2) sporadic variations occasioned by irregular heating. The first variation necessitates the correction of astronomical observations and of geodetic measurements of heights; it is also important in the phe-

nomena of the twilight (q.v.) and the afterglow. The second type of variation gives rise to mirages. A common occurrence is the appearance of an isolated lake in hot sandy deserts. The sand, e.g., of the Sahara, being abnormally heated by the sun, causes the neighbouring air to expand, and its density and refractive index, are diminished, the minimum value being attained in the lowest layers. It reaches a maximum at a certain height, and then decreases according to the permanent variation. Any object viewed across such a heated area is seen by two sets of rays: one set passing near the earth and assuming a path convex to the horizon, the second set more remote from the earth and concave to the horizon. The object will thus appear double for an inverted image is also seen as though mirrored by the sand. The sky’s image appears-as a sheet of water often surrounded by rocks, reeds and trees, all being reflections of actual objects but frequently distorted out of recognition. Similar mirages may often be seen over smooth surfaces, e.g., tarred roads, on calm hot days, apparent pools of water flood the roadways and surrounding objects are reflected in them. For experimental veriication of the phenomena see R. W. Wood, Phil. Mag. 1899. _ Amirage, frequently observed at sea in high northern latitudes, is the appearance of ships and icebergs as if inverted and suspended in the clouds. In this case, a stratum of hot air is at some distance above the sea level, the rays of light near the horizon

are practically horizontal, while those at greater elevations are con-

cave. If the change in density is so great that only the upper rays teach the eye then inverted ships appear in the clouds, although nothing is visible on the ocean. The Fata Morgana, of the Straits of Messina, consists of an apparent vertical elongation of an object situated on the opposite shore. The distribution of density resembles that attending a desert mirage, but the changes of refractive index are not so

abrupt. The object is really viewed through horizontally stratified

media consisting of a central sheet of maximum refractive index,

over- and under-laid by sheets with decreasing refraction effects.

The entire system acts as a lens, magnifying the object in a vertical

direction, If, in addition to this type of horizontal stratification,

the atmosphere possesses a similar vertical stratification, then

MIRAJ, a native state of India, in the Southern Mahratta States, Bombay. Since 1820 it has been subdivided between a senior and a junior branch. The territory of both is widely scattered among other native states and British districts. Area

of the senior branch, 343 sq.m.; pop. (1921r), 82,580; tribute £800. Area of the junior branch, 211 sq.m.; pop. (1921), 34,665, tribute £500. The chiefs are Brahmans of the Patwardhan family. The town of Mrrayj, at which the chief of the senior branch resides, is situated near the river Kistna; it is a junction of the Madras & Southern Mahratta railway for the branch to Kolhapur. Pop. (1921), 21,424. The chief of the junior branch has his residence at Bhudgaoh (pop. 3,305).

MIRAMON,

MIGUEL

(1832-1867), Mexican soldier of

French extraction, was born in the city of Mexico, Sept. 29, 1832, and was shot with the Emperor Maximilian at Queretaro on June 19, 1867. While still a student he helped to defend the military academy at Chapultepec against the forces of the United States; and, entering the army in 1852, he rapidly came to the front during the civil wars. It was largely due to Miramon’s support of the ecclesiastical party against Alvarez and Comonfort that Zuloaga was raised to the presidency; and in 1859 he was called to succeed him in that office. Decisively beaten by the Liberals in 1860, he spent some time in: Europe advocating foreign intervention in Mexican affairs, and returned as a partisan of Maximilian. His ability as a soldier was shown by his double defence of Puebla in 1856. $

MIRANDA,

FRANCISCO

(c.

1754-1816),

Spanish-

American soldier and adventurer, born at Caracas, Venezuela. After serving with the French in the American War of Independence, he began to plot for the independence of Spanish America, was discovered, fled to the United States and thence to England. He travelled to Austria, Turkey, Russia and back to England, always in the vain hope of finding material support for his scheme. In April 1792 he was in Paris; he distinguished himself under Dumouriez, was entrusted in 1793 with the siege of Maestricht and commanded the left wing of the French army at Neerwinden. Although he had given notice of Dumouriez’s treachery, he was tried on May 12, acquitted and re-imprisoned till after the 9th Thermidor. He escaped after the coup d'état of Fructidor to England; disappointed in his efforts there, in the

United States and in Paris—whence he was expelled—he equipped the “Leander” in 1806 at his own expense with the aid of two

American citizens, Colonel W. S. Smith and Mr. S. G. Ogden, and backed by the English admiral, Sir A. Cochrane, landed near Carácas and proclaimed the Colombian republic. A false report of peace between France and England caused the English admiral to withdraw his support. In 1810 the events which brought about the Peninsular War had divided the authorities in Spanish America, and Miranda again landed, and declared a republic both in Venezuela and in New Granada or Colombia. Defeated by the Bourbon governor, the count of Monte Verde, he capitulated on July 26, 1812, on condition that he should be deported to the United States. The condition was not observed; Miranda was moved from dungeon to dungeon, and died on July 14, 1816, at Cadiz. See Buchez et Roux, Histoire parlementaire, xxvii, 26—70 (for his trial); J. Biggs, History of Miranda’s Attempt in South America (1809) ; Veggasi, Revolución de la Colombia; W. S. Robertson, Francisco de Miranda and the revolutionizing of Spanish America (1908) ; Marqués de Rojas, Zl General Miranda (1884), and Miranda dans

MIRANDOLA—MIRROR

599

la révolution francaise (Caracas, 1889); R. Becerra, Ensayo histórico

documentado de la vida de Don F. de M. (Caracas, 1896).

MIRANDOLA, a town of Emilia, Italy, province of Modena, 194 m. N. by E. of Modena by rail (also on the main BolognaVerona line), 59 ft. above sea level. Pop. (1921), 4,424 (town), 18,941 (commune). The Pico family held the town from the 14th century to 1710, Giovanni (b. 1463, d. 1494) being its ablest and most learned member (see Prco). S. Francesco contains some of their tombs.

HAN, an independent linguistic stock of South Amer-

ican Indians, so called from the Miranhas, one of its most important tribes. They live on the Cauinary river and between the lower Yapura and Putumayo rivers on the border between Brazil and Colombia. They are a barbarous, cannibalistic people, who perforated and enormously enlarged the nasal alae which could be put over the ears. The teeth are also filed and blackened. The men wear a tight belt of bast, with breech-clout, the women wear a bast skirt. They are a sedentary, agricultural folk, living in large, square houses, with clayed walls and gable thatched roof. Their hammocks are of palm-leaf fibre, very beautifully made, and are widely traded. See C. F. P. von Martius, Beitrëge zur Ethnographie und Sprachenkunde Amerika’s etc. (Leipzig, 1867); T. Koch-Griineberg, “Der Miranya” (Verh. Berliner Gesellschaft fiir Anthropologie etc., vol. xli.,

pp. 896-914).

MIRBEAU,

'

OCTAVE

HENRI

MARIE

(1850-1917),

French dramatist and journalist member of the Goncourt Academy, was born at Treviéres (Calvados) on Feb. 16, 1850. He

was educated in a Jesuit school at Vannes, and at the University of Paris. He then became dramatic critic of the Bonapartist

but in spite of this drawback, Mirkhond’s Rauzat remains One of

the most marvellous achievements in literature. The main portion

of the last volume is probably the work of his grandson the

historian Khwandamir

in his Mémoires sur diverses antiquités

picture of the Jesuit school in which his own early years were

spent; Le Jardin des supplices (1899); Les Mémoires d’une femme de chambre (1901); Les Vingt-et-un jours d’un neurasthénique (1902); and Dingo (1913), the story of a dog. His dramatic work is finer, and René Lalon has compared his social drama Les Mauvais Bergers (Théâtre Renaissance, 1897) with the work of Becque. Equally fine was his Les Afaires sont les Afaires (Théâtre Français, 1903), which was adapted by Sydney Grundy for Sir H. Beerbohm Tree in 1905. Some of his short pieces are collected as Farces et moralités (1904). He died in Paris on Feb. 16, 1917.

MIRFIELD, an urban district in the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 4¢ m. N.E. of Huddersfield, on the L.M.S. railway. Pop. (1931), 12,099. It is situated on the river Calder, and is served by the Calder canal. It lies in the carpet and blanket manufacturing area, and the large industrial population is employed in these and in the woollen and cotton industries. There are numerous collieries, and an Anglican theological college. MIRKHOND (1433-1498) [Mohammed bin Khawandshah bin Hahmiid] was born in 1433. From his early youth he applied

himself to historical studies and literature in general. In Herat, where he spent the greater part of his life, he gained the favour

of that famous patron of letters, Mir ‘Alishir (1440-1501). At the request of Mir ‘Alishir, himself a distinguished statesman and

writer, Mirkhond began about 1474, in the quiet convent of Khilasiyah, which his patron had founded in Herat as a house of retreat for literary men of merit, his great work on universal history, Raugat-ussafa fi sirat-ulanbig walmulik walkhulafad or Garden of Purity on the Biography of Prophets, Kings and Caliphs. He made no attempt at a critical examination of historical traditions, and wrote in a flowery and often bombastic style,

de la Perse

(Paris, 1793)

Besides the lithographed editions of the whole work in folio (Bombay, 1853, and Teheran, 1852-56) and a Turkish version (Constantino À

1842), the following portions of Mirkhond’s history have been pub-

lished by European Orientalists: Early Kings of Persia, by D, Shea (London, 1832) (Oriental Translation Fund) ; L’Histoire de ig dynastie

des Sassanides, by S. de Sacy (in the above-mentioned Mémoires); Histoire des Sassanides (texte Persan), by Jaubert (Paris, 1843) ` His. toria priorum regum Persarum, Persian and Latin, by Jenish (Vienna, 1782); Mirchondi historia Taheridarum, Persian and Latin, by Mit. scherlik (Göttingen, 1814, 2nd ed., Berlin, 1819); Historia Samanj. darum, Persian and Latin, by Wilken (Göttingen, 1808); Histoire des Samanides, translated by Defrémery (Paris, 1845); Historig Ghas-

nevidarum, Persian and Latin, by Wilken (Berlin, 1832); Geschichte

der Sultane aus dem Geschlechte Bujeh, Persian and German, by Wilken (Berlin, 1835); followed by Erdmann’s Erläuterung und Ergänzung (Kazan, 1836); Historia Seldschuckidarum, ed. Vulles (Giessen, 1837) ; and a German trans. by the same.

MIRROR, an optical instrument which produces images of objects by reflection. In ancient times it was merely a polished sheet of metal, and was called a speculum; in modern times a mirror is a sheet of polished glass silvered at the back. If an object CD (fig. 1) is placed in front of a plane mirror AB, every ray such as CP, starting from a point C on the object and striking the mirror, will proceed after reflection alonga line PQ, which if produced will pass through the point E, found by

dropping a perpendicular CM on the mir.

ror and producing it to a distance ME behind the mirror equal to the distance MC. For it is obvious that the triangles CAD and EAD will always be equal, and therefore that the angles at P which the rays CP and PQ make with the mirror will be equal. Thus to an eye at Q the appearance will be exactly the same as if the light had come from this point E, wherever the eye

paper, L’Ordre. For a short time before 1877 he was sous-préfet

and then préfet of Saint-Girons, but from that time he devoted himself to literature. In 1890 he began to write for the Révolte, but his anarchist sympathies were definitely checked by the murder of President Carnot in 1894. He married in 1887 the actress Alice Regnault. His first novel, Jean Marcellin (1885), attracted little attention, but he made his mark as a conteur with a series of tales of the Norman peasantry, Lettres de ma chaumière (1886). Le Calvaire (1887), a chapter of which on the defeat of 1870 aroused much rancour, was followed by L’Abdé Jules (1888), the story of a mad priest; by Sebastien Roch (1890), a bitter

(1475-1534), to whom also a part of the

appendix must be ascribed. For accounts of Mirkhond’s life see De Sacy’s “Notice sur Mirkhong”

FIG. 1

may be, so long only as the line EQ cuts

the surface of the mirror. The image formed bya plane mirror is therefore optically perfect, and free from all aberration. The image of a solid object is not however a solid of the same shape as the object. For instance the image of a man’s face may be imagined to be obtained by making a rubber mask of the face, and then everting it. The image will only be the same shape as the object if the face is perfectly symmetrical, right and left.

(See Licut.) Combination

of Two Plane Mirrors.—If

a beam of light,

ABCD (fig. 2), is reflected in succession from two plane mirrors which are parallel to one another, as all the angles which they make with the normals to the mirrors are obviously equal to one another, the path of the light after the second reflection must be

FIG. 2

incidence of the beam.

parallel to the original one AB. This final direction will therefore not be altered however the mirrors are turned about, provided only that the mirrors are kept parallel to one another. But the beam itself is displaced parallel to itself by an amount which depends upon the separation of the mirrors and the angle of Moreover any near object PQ seen by

reflection will appear in a position P’Q’, found by drawing lines PP’, DD’, QQ’, from PQ parallel to the common normal NN’, and twice its length. By rotating the pair of mirrors round omy

axis parallel to PQ, the image P’Q’ can be made to describe the surface of a cylinder of which PQ is the axis. If in fig. 2, we suppose the mirror B to remain still, and we

rotate the mirror C by an angle w, the ray CD will be tured through an angle 2w, and the emergent beam will make this

angle 2w, with the incident beam. This angle between the two

MIRROR

59I

beams is therefore independent of the angle of incidence of the

through XP, cutting YZ in M and measure MP’ equal to MP,

original beam upon the first mirror, and will be unaffected by

the light reflected in the mirror YOZ will travel parallel to P'O after reflection. As the angle at M is a right angle, it is obvious

any movement Or rotation of the pair of mirrors, so long as the angle between the mirrors is kept unchanged, and the line of intersection of their planes is kept parallel to itself.

A very important use of this property is made in the con-

struction of the common sextant (g.v.).

Multiple Reflections.—If two parallel mirrors are set up fac-

ing one another and an object, e.g., a candle, is placed between

them, not only is this reflected each mirror, giving two

images, but each of these images

ig again reflected, and so on.

In fact if the mirrors are strictly parallel there should be an infinite series. Two mirrors at right angles

Fic. 6

‘eld some interesting effects. An object P (fig. 3) will give images P, and Pg after one reflection in

QA and OB respectively, and (if

the angle AOB is exactly a right

that OP’ will make the same angles with OY and OZ that OP does, and that the angle it makes with OX is the supplement of that made by OP with OX. So reflection with any mirror changes the angle with the normal to that mirror = into its supplement; successive reflection Le| in all three mirrors will change all the angles made by OP with the normals OX, NS OY, OZ, into their supplements, ż.e., the beam will return exactly along its path. we As the final direction of the beam is simply the opposite of the original direction, it is not affected by rocking the system of mirrors. The mirrors are usually

FIG. 3

in the form of a tetrahedral prism, że.,

corner of a cube cut off by a plane meeting the edges at equal distances from the comer. On looking into the prism each eye sees itself in a line with the vertex, and no change seems to take place when either eye is closed. Astronomical Mirrors.—The earlier astronomical mirrors

angle), a single image Q after two reflections. This image can be constructed by drawing lines from the several points of the object

were made of speculum metal, but they were exceedingly difficult to cast owing to strains produced in cooling, and the surface was P, through O the line of intersection of the mirrors, and producing liable to be imperfect. For these reasons glass has been almost them to an equal length. It is then obvious that this image will exclusively used for the large mirror since the discovery by not be affected by rotating the pair of mirrors about O. If the Liebig of the method of front silvering it. Very large mirrors, mirrors are set up in a vertical plane, with the line of intersection ground from single slabs of glass, have been made successfully. vertical, a person looking at himself in them, will find his right Apparently the limit of size has been nearly if not quite reached, hand H reflected over to H’ on the left of the image as he sees it. for it is doubtful if the annealing of much larger and thicker If he moves to one side, the image moves to the opposite side, so slabs would be possible. Professor Ritchey who was responsible that he can always see it while he remains within the angle AOB. for the construction and figuring of some of the largest mirrors, Optical Illusions.—Many optical illusions can be produced has recently, however, described a built-up cellular glass structure, by the aid of plane mirrors, usually unsilvered or semisilvered or by which he believes that mirrors up to as large as 30 feet in platinised ones are required. One of the commonest devices is diameter could be made. An upper and a lower plate of glass of to vary the illumination of the objects, of which some are placed moderate thickness are connected together by vertical ribs of

about the same thickness. This forms a structure of comparatively light weight and great rigidity, which will retain its form at all temperatures. He believes it should be sufficiently rigid to be ground and figured to the required degree of accuracy to form the optical image. If Rand L are the right and left The first rough working of these mirrors may be done in one eyes of the observer, the right of several ways. They may be turned with a diamond; or they eye will see the image by rays may be ground with a grindstone made of carborundum or coming from the portion BB’ of alundum, both glass and stone being rotated; or an iron ring fed the mirror, and the left eye by with grinding material may be used. This: grinding tool is a disc those coming from the portion of iron of about the same size as the mirror itself, and it is AA”. If therefore the mirror is formed with a convex surface of the same radius of curvature as large enough to extend from A FIG. 4 the mirror is to have. In any case the final grinding and smoothto B, the image will be seen by both eyes as though the light were actually coming from an object ing are done with this tool, the mirror resting upon it, face down. at QQ’, and seems to be perfectly real and tangible. Thus an apple After the whole surface has been brought to the desired curve, the supported in a box UVWX (fig. 5) against a black velvet back- rough grinding is complete. It next has to be “smoothed.” The ground, and lighted by a lamp L, can be projected by a concave smoothing is produced by continuing the grinding with a series of finer and finer grinding materials. After the smoothing is finished shaving mirror among other fruit the surface should be grey when dry, and appear perfectly free Rona plate CD. It will disapfrom any pits or scratches, even when it is examined with a magnipear if the observer moves to fying lens. The next stage is the polishing, which is done with one side, or L is turned out. moist rouge (ferric oxide), washed to remove any coarse particles. Very striking effects are proFor this part of the process the tool is covered with a thin layer duced if water or mercury is of semi-elastic material, pitch mixed with ashes or wool. allowed to run out from a tube, During polishing the curve is checked at frequent intervals, and splash into a glass dish; then first to see that it has been ground to the radius desired, and then ifa second actual tube and glass FIG. 5 to see if it is approaching the paraboloidal shape, which it has dish are put to coincide with the mages of the tube and dish, it will appear as if the liquid is ultimately to reach; for this final change from the true sphere falling upwards. is usually all effected in the polishing. The method devised by The Tetrahedral Prism.—Let YOZ, ZOX, XOY, be three Foucault is always used for these tests. A pin point of light is plane mirrors, mutually perpendicular, intersecting in OX, OY, placed to one side of the centre of curvature of the mirror. If 0Z. Describe a sphere with centre O, and cutting the mirrors in the mirror is a perfect sphere the reflected light. will all pass great circles YZ, ZX, XY (fig. 6). Let a beam of light parallel through a point on the opposite side of the centre, and an eye at to PO fall on the inside faces of these mirrors. Each of the this point, or even a little further from the mirror but ina line mirrors will intercept and reflect part of the beam, which will with this point, will see the whole mirror filled with light. Also then fall in turn on each of the other mirrors. Draw a great circle if a straight edge be moved up from one side to cut the beam at

behind and some in front of the mirror. An eye will see only one of these, if it is illuminated strongly and the other left dark. Optical Illusions with a Concave Mirror—aA concave mirror AB’ AB (fig. 4), will produce at QQ’ a real image of an object at PP’.

MIRROR-WRITING—MISENUM

594

at which the mirror can be made to darken uniformly; but if it

and dwelling-houses of the wealthier merchants, is handsome: but the interior of the town is mainly composed of mud huts Formerly it was the emporium of trade between central India

zones will darken all over at the same time. To obtain a flat surface, it is necessary to work three mirrors, call them A, B, C. These are then tested in pairs by the “Newton’s ring” method. If A and B touch all over, and B and © and also C and A, they must all three be flat.

European and Indian lac factories, and manufactures and woollen carpets. The London Mission manages and an orphanage. The municipal limits include Bindhachal, an important centre of pilgrimage, with Vindhyeshwari.

this point, the whole mirror will darken uniformly. If the mirror is not a perfect sphere, no point can be found

ig a surface of revolution points can be found at which given

and Bengal, which has now been diverted to the railways. It has brass vessels a high school the town of the shrine of

The Disrrict of Mrrzapur extends into the Sone valley Area, 4,368 sq. miles. It is crossed from east to west by the Vindhya and Kaimur ranges. A central jungly plateau connects these and separates the valley of the Ganges from that of the per-plated to protect the silver. The carbons between which thè Sone. The part north of the Vindhyas is highly cultivated ang arc is formed are supported in the axis of the mirror, which is thickly peopled, but the rest of the district: consists largely of

Elliptic Mirrors

(generated by the rotation of an ellipse

about its major axis) have been successfully applied to cinematograph projection, and to “flood-arcs” for theatre lighting. The mirrors are made of glass, and are silvered at the back, and then cop-

pierced in its centre to allow the positive carbon to pass through; the crater of the negative carbon faces the mirror, and is adjusted at its focus. An enlarged image of the crater would then be formed at the farther focus of the mirror; but before reaching this focus, the light passes through a concave lens, which further magnifies the image of the crater, so that it is now large enough to cover the whole of the picture to be projected, which is 0-7 by

o-9 inches.

The picture thus becomes virtually a self-luminous

one, and the light from it enters the projecting lens as a slightly divergent beam. This method of dealing with the light differs fundamentally from that in the ordinary projecting lantern. Searchlight Mirrors.——Another very important application of the concave mirror is to the naval searchlight. Here it is required to project a nearly parallel beam, so that an intense light may be concentrated upon any desired distant object. The mirror must therefore have a paraboloidal figure, as this is the surface that has the property that a ray from the focus, striking the surface at any point, will be reflected in a direction parallel to the axis of the parabola. The parabola in this case must subtend a large angle at the focus, if it is to reflect the bulk of the light from the arc, and it will therefore differ greatly from the shape of a sphere. Thus the methods used to produce the parabolic mirror of a telescope (which only subtends a few degrees at its focus) cannot be used in this case. Such surfaces are difficult to grind.

To evade these difficulties, a French Colonel Mangin in 1774

described a very ingenious mirror made in the shape of a concavo-

convex lens with spherical surfaces, silvered on the convex side. By a proper choice of the radii of the two surfaces, the mirror

behaves aS a parabolic one, and gives a nearly parallel beam. These mirrors were used for some twenty years, but they were expensive, very liable to be cracked by the heat, and of course would be shattered by a single bullet. Mirrors made of sheet metal, pressed or spun to the required curvature, and coated on the inside with silver or gold, or other reflecting metal, and polished, do not reflect so much light. A method of grinding a glass mirror to have a, surface with any desired conic section was patented by Schuckert in 1888. He uses a very small tool, which can therefore fit the surface with sufficient approximation, and is constrained to travel in a comnic-section. Other ways have since been devised for obtaining a glass mirror of the required shape. (R. S. Cr.)

MIRROR-WRITING.

That form of writing which, like an

impression on blotting paper, is reversed and becomes legible on

holding up to a mirror. It is often associated with left-handedness, may occur in all classes of persons, from the mentally deficient to the genius, may concern adults or children and may be conscious or unconscious (as in right-sided hemiplegia.) In unconscious instances, the explanation seems to be that the right-sided hemi-

plegic who writes with his left hand mirror-wise, has a derangement of the visual component of speech, and the patient is therefore subject to the independent activity of stored-up memories localized in the right hemisphere. See M. Critchley, Mirror Writing (1928).

MIRZAPUR,

(W. S. L.-B.)

4 city and district of British India, in the

Benares division of the United Provinces. The city is on the right bank of the Ganges; pop. (1921), 54,904. The river front, lined with stone ghats or flights of stairs, mosques, Hindu temples

ravines and forests with a sparse population. The population in 1921 was 724,183. It comprises a large part of the hereditary

domains of the maharaja of Benares and is revenue-free. MISCARRIAGE, in its widest sense a going astray, a failure.

In law, the word is used in several phrases; thus, a miscarriage of justice is a failure of the law to attain its ends. In the Statute of

Frauds in the expression “debt, default or miscarriage of another,” the word is considered to mean a species of wrongful act for the consequence of which the law makes a party civilly responsible. In strict medical nomenclature miscarriage implies the birth

of a non-viable foetus at or after the sixth month of pregnancy, parturition before that time being termed abortion. Where the child is viable, z.e., at or after the seventh month of pregnancy,

the condition is termed a premature birth. Popularly, a miscarriage implies birth of a non-viable foetus independent of the duration of pregnancy. Birth of a dead foetus of viable age is termed a “still-birth.”

(See ABORTION.)

MISCEGENATION,

a mixture or blending of two races

(from Lat. miscere, tó mix, and genus, race).

MISDEMEANOUR, the generic term used in English law to

include all those offénces against the criminal law which are not

by common law or statute made treason or felony. In Russell on Crimes it is defined as a crime for which the law has not provided a particular name. The term misdemeanour includes not only all indictable offences below the degree of felony, sorne of them grave crimes, such as sedition, riot and perjury, but also the petty misdemeanours, which may be dealt with summarily by justices of the peace, and the most trifling breaches of local by-laws. Numerous acts or omissions aré punishable as “misdemeanours by interpretation.” In other words, disobedience to the command or prohibition of a statute as a matter of public concern is indictable as a misdemeanour, even if the statute does not so describe it, unless the terms of the statute indicate that some other remedy

alone is to be pursued. For somé misdemeanours perial servitude may be imposed by statute. But as a rule the appropriate punishment is by fine or imprisonment, without hard labour ot both, at the discretion of the court unless limited by a particular statute. The offender may also be put under recognizance to keep the peace and be of good behaviour.

At the present time the practical difference in English law be-

tween misdemeanour and felony lies in sorme matters of procedure,

for instance, an arrest for misdemeanour may hot be made without judicial authority except under specific statutory authority. MISE, an Anglo-French term denoting originally a payment. The Rotuli Misae of John’s reign, for example, record the king’s current disbursements from day to day. In a more technical sense, the word is applied to the payments made by the county

palatine of Chester to each new earl, and by the Welsh to each new lord of the Matches, or to a prince or king on his entry into the country. By transference of idea the word came early to mean the settlement of a dispute by arbitration or agreement, an

in this sense is familiar in English history in the “Mise of Amiens,” in January, and that of Lewes, in May 1264. MISENUM, ancient port, Campania, Italy, about 3 m. S. of Baiae (qg.v.) at the west end of the Gulf of Puteoli (Pozzuoli). Until the end of the Republic it was a favourite villa resort de-

pendent on Cumae.

Agrippa made the fine natural harbour into

MISERICORD—MISPRISION the main naval station of the Mediterranean fleet (31 B.c.). In 390 it was destroyed by the Saracens. The harbour consisted of the outer basin, or Porto di Miseno, protected by moles, of which remains still exist, and the present Mare Morto, separated from it by a comparatively modern embankment. The town lay on the south side of the outer harbour, near the village of Miseno, where remains of a theatre and baths have been found. Remains of villas

593

promoted the efforts of the exiled Yugoslav committee to organize Yugoslav legions on every front. He died on Jan. 20, 1921.

MISIONES, a territory of northern Argentina, bounded north by Paraguay and Brazil, east and south by Brazil and west by

Paraguay and the Argentine province of Corrientes.

Its boundary

lines are formed by the upper Parana and Iguassti rivers on the north, the San Antonio and Pequiry-guassu streams on the east can also be traced; the largest of these, which occupied the sum- and the Uruguay river on the south. Area, 13,512 sq.m.; pop, mit of the promontory, belonged first to Marius, then to (1914) 53,563, chiefly Indians and mestizos. The territory is a Lucullus, and then tọ the imperial house. Tiberius died in it, region of roughly-broken surfaces, divided longitudinally by low

MISERICORD

or MISERERE, in architecture, a small

bracket placed upon the under side of the folding seats of church

choir stalls, to furnish a support or rest against which the priest or clerk can lean while still canonically standing. Its name comes from the fact that these brackets were supplied in pity for the arduous task of remaining constantly standing during long services. The misericords of the choir stalls in Gothic churches both in France and Italy are usually richly carved, often with

grotesque figures, MISHAWAKA, a city of St. Joseph county, Indiana, U.S.A.,

on the St. Joseph river and Federal highway 20, 90 m, S.E, of

Chicago and 4 m. E. of South Bend. It is served by the Grand Trunk, the New York Central, and two industrial railways. Pop. (1920) 15,195 (859 native white) ; was 28,630 in 1930 by Federal census. It has large manufacturing industries, with an output in

1927 valued at $28,632,700.

Chief among them are a rubber-

mountains, called the Sierra Iman and Sierra Grande de Misiones. The greater part of the country is covered with forest and tropical

jungle. The temperature ranges from about 49° F for the coolest

month, July, to around 77° for the warmest month, January, Its products are chiefly confined to yerba mate or Paraguay tea (Ilex paraguayensis), tobacco and oranges and other fruits. Com-

munication with the capital is maintained by lines of steamboats running to Corrientes and Buenos Aires, and by a railway which has been built from Asunción in Paraguay to Buenos Aires, crossing the Paraná, Encarnación to Posadas, by ferry. Posadas (pop. [1914], 15,734), the capital, on the Paran4, officially dates from 1865. It is at the extreme west of the territory, and is the terminal port for the steamers from Corrientes.

MISKOLCZ, a Hungarian town situated on the eastern slope

of the Bükk mountains, in the fertile valley of the Szinva, It is an old but thriving town that clearly reflects its position on the

regenerating plant, and factories making over 14,000,000 pairs of frontiers of several forms of religious expression in its Gothic, rubber and woollen boots, shoes and overshoes, 30,000 trunks, and Roman Catholic, Eastern Catholic, Lutheran and Calvinistic large quantities of power-transmission machinery, sand-cutting churches. This aspect is closely connected with its function as a and sand-blast equipment, trunks and machinery made to special centre of contact for hill and plain, an activity further apparent order. Mishawaka was an Indian princess, and there was a village in the four large annual fairs at which there is a large trade in hearing her name on the site of the present city, In 1833 St. cereals and flour, wine and fruit, cattle and hides and other agriJoseph Iron Works was laid out on the south side of the river, and cultural products; in addition there are flour mills, tanneries, in 1836 Indiana City on the north side. In 1838 the two settle- boot factories and porcelain works. Like many of the towns on or ments, together with smaller hamlets, were incorporated as the near the Hungarian plain it has suffered greatly at the hands of invaders, notably the Mongols in 1241-43, who killed about 85,000 town of Mishawaka, and in 1899 it was chartered as a city. MISHMI, a hill tribe north of the Brahmaputra in Assam, Hungarians on the Mohi heath, south-west of the town, and India, divided into four groups, said to be endogamous, called during the Turkish wars in the 16th and 17th centuries, and has Chulikata (crop-haired), Bebejiya, Taroan and Miju, the customs been devastated by fire three times, in 1781, 1843 and 1847.

of the two last differing a little from those of the two former.

These groups are divided into patrilineal exogamous septs. They claim tọ have reached their present habitat from the north, except one sept, which came from the south. Polygamy is allowed and a man’s widows go to his heir. Headmen are chosen by heredity, qualified by wealth and personality. Offences within the sept are punished by the kindred, otherwise the blood-feud

is resorted to and revenge obtained by killing or enslaving some member of the offender’s sept. All use arrows poisoned with aconite, but, while the first two groups use the simple bow and cane helmets, the two latter use the cross-bow and no helmets.

All believe in a home of the dead under ground, and all bury, but T Taroan and Miju dig up their dead after five days and burn them.

: a O'Callaghan, The Mishmis (Assam Census Report, 1921), Apdx.

MISHNAH: see TALMUD. MIŠIĆ, ZIVOJIN (1855-1921), Serbian statesman, was born July 7, 1855 at Struganik near Valievo, the son of well-to-do

peasant parents. He passed through the old Artillery school in Belgrade and served in the Serbo-Turkish War of 1877 and the Serbo-

Bulgarian War of 1885. During the Bosnian annexation crisis he

About 4 m. S.W. of the town are the warm springs and baths of Tapolcza. The population of Miskolez (1920) is 56,982.

MISPICKEL or ARSENOPYRITE, a mineral consisting

of iron sulpharsenide FeAsS; it contains 46% of arsenic, and is of importance as an ore of this element. Mispickel is an old name of German origin, and as Mistpuckel was used by G. Agricola in

1546. The crystals are orthorhombic; they are often prismatic in habit and the prism is usually terminated by the deeply striated faces of an obtuse dome. The colour is silver-white or steel-grey, with a metallic lustre, but it is often tarnished yellow; the streak is greyish-black. The hardness is 54-6, and the specific gravity 5-9-6-2.

Mispickel occurs in metalliferous veins with ores of tin, copper,

silver, etc. It is occasionally found as embedded crystals, for example, in serpentine at Reichenstein, Silesia. In Cornwall and Devon it is associated with cassiterite in the tin-lodes, but is also

found in the copper-lodes; it is the principal source of arsenious oxide, the “white arsenic” of commerce (see ARSENIC). The chief

supplies are from Cornwall and Devon, Freiberg in Saxony, Can-

ada and the United States.

_MISPRISION, aterm in English law, almost obsolete, used to

describe certain kinds of offence,

Thus we have misprision of

hecame assistant chief-of-staff to Gen. Putnik; he also fought in treason and misprision of felony. But there is no misprision of the first and second Balkan Wars. When the Austrians invaded misdemeanour. erbia ia Nov. 1914, Misic was appointed to the command of Misprision of Treason is the concealment or keeping secret of the i. Amy. His simple and unaffected heroism inspired his soldiers with confidence: and after the decisive victory of Rudnik

high treason, and the punishment is loss of the profit of the lands of the offender during life, forfeiture of all his goods and imprison-

arly in Dec. the Austrians were driven out of Serbia. ment for life. Mišić, who had been created voivode after Rudnik, again Misprision of Felony is the concealment or procurement of the ‘ved with distinction during the retreat of the Serbian Army in concealment of a felony committed by another person, punishthe winter of 1915. He resumed command of the I. Army on the able on indictment by fine and imprisonment. Salonika front in Aug. 1917, and in June 1918 was made chiefof-staff. A convinced believer in the idea of Yugoslav unity, he

In the United States, misprision of treason is defined to be the

crime

committed

by a person

owing allegiance to the United

594

MISRULE—MISSI

DOMINICI

States, and having knowledge of the commission of any crime against them, who conceals and does not, as soon as may be, disclose and make known the same to the president or to some judge of the United States, or to the governor, or to some judge or justice of a particular state.

its parts, and the manner of determining the movable feasts. The general rubrics (Rubricae generales missalis) follow, explaini

MISSAL, the book containing the liturgy, or office of the mass

proper prefaces for the year, and the canon of the mass are inserted. The proper of the season is followed by the proper of the saints (Proprium sanctorum), containing what is special to each

what are the various kinds of mass which may be celebrated, prescribing the hours of celebration, the kind and colour of vestments to be used, and the ritual to be followed (ritus celebrandi mis. sam), and giving directions as to what is to be done in case of MISRULE, LORD OF, in mediaeval times the master of various defects or imperfections which may arise. The Praeparatio IIT.) Bough (Golden the Christmas revels. Probably J. G. Frazer missam and Gratiarum actio post missam which comes nert is right in suggesting that the lord or abbot of misrule is the ad in a short manual of devotion to be used as opportunity may are ed personat who a, Saturnali Roman the successor of the king of before and after celebration. Next comes the proper of the occur there s Saturn. Stow (Survey) writes: “In the feast of Christma (Proprium missarum de tempore), occupying more than was in the King’s House ...a Lord of Misrule . . . and the season the entire volume. It contains the proper introit, collect of half good or honour of like had ye in the house of every nobleman (one or more), epistle, gradual (tract or sequence), gospel, offer. worship, were he spiritual or temporal.” The mayor and sheriffs tory, secreta (one or more), communion and post-communion for of London also had lords of misrule but by an act of Common every Sunday of the year, and also for the festivals and ferias Council (1555) their expenses were severely curtailed. These connected with the ecclesiastical seasons, as well as the offices misruled and s Eve, Allhallow on reign their began archs mock-mon peculiar to the ember days, Holy Week, Easter and Whitsuntide, till Candlemas. In Scotland they were known as “Abbots of Unfor Holy Saturday and that for Easter Sunday reason,” and in 1555 a special Act suppressing them was passed. Between the office ordinary the mass (Ordo missae), with the solemn and of the expense. much by marked was reign In Tudor times their

(missa), of the Roman Catholic Church. The earlier Sacramentary, the book used by the celebrant at the altar, contained

merely the fixed canon of the mass or consecration prayer and the variable collects, secretae or orationes super oblata, prefaces, and post-communions for each fast, vigil, festival or feria of the ecclesiastical year; for a due celebration of the Eucharist other books were required for use by the choir, deacon and subdeacon, viz., the Antiphonarium Missae, afterwards called the Graduale,

containing the proper antiphons (introits), responsories (graduals), tracts, sequences, offertories, communions and other portions of the communion service designed to be sung by the schola or choir, and the Lectionarium (or Evangeliarium and Epistolarium) with the proper lessons. But as the custom grew, from the 8th century onwards, of private celebrations in which the priest had to say the whole service the contents of these separate books came by degrees to be combined in a single volume, the Missale plenum. All modern missals are of this last description. The Missale romanum ex decreto ss. concilii tridentini restitutum, now in almost exclusive use throughout the Latin obedience, owes its present form to the council of Trent, which undertook the preparation of a correct and uniform liturgy, and entrusted the work to a committee of its members. This committee had not completed its labours when

saint’s day in the order of the calendar, and by the Commune

sanctorum, containing such offices as the common of one martyr and bishop, the common of one martyr not a bishop, the common of many martyrs in paschal time, the common of many martyrs out of paschal time, and the like. A variety of masses to be used at the feast of the dedication of a church, of masses for the dead, and of votive masses (as for the sick, for persons journeying, for

bridegroom and bride) follow, and also certain benedictions. Most missals have an appendix also containing certain local masses of saints to be celebrated ex indulto apostolico. See Mass: VestMENTS.

MISSI DOMINICI, the name given to the officials commis-

sioned by the Frankish kings and emperors to supervise the ad-

ministration of their dominions.

Their institution dates from

Charles Martel and Pippin the Short, who sent out officials to see their orders executed. When Pippin became king in 754 he sent out missi in a desultory fashion; but Charlemagne made them a regular part of his administration, and a capitulary issued about 802 gives a detailed account of their duties. They were to execute justice, to enforce respect for the royal rights, to control the administration of the courts, to receive the oath of the council rose, but the pope was instructed to receive its report allegiance, and to supervise the conduct and work of the clergy. prowas missal” “reformed The it. upon when ready and to act mulgated by Pius V. on the 14th of July 1570, and its universal They were to call together the officials of the district and explain use enjoined, the only exceptions being churches having local to them their duties, and to remind the people of their civil and liturgies which had been in unbroken use for at least two cen- religious obligations. In short they were the direct respresentatives turies. It has subsequently undergone slight revisions under of the king or emperor. The inhabitants of the district they Clement VIII.(1604), Urban VIII. (1634) and Leo XITI.(1884), administered had to provide for their subsistence, and at times and various new masses, both obligatory and permissive, universal they led the host to battle. In addition special instructions were and local, have been added. The Roman, like all the Western given to various méssi, and many of these have been preserved. liturgies, is distinguished from those of the Eastern Church by The missi were not permanent officials, but were generally seits flexibility. A distinctive character has been given to the office lected from among persons at the court, and during the reign for each ecclesiastical season, for each fast or festival of the of Charlemagne personages of high standing undertook this work. year, almost for each day of the week; and provision has also They were sent out in twos, an ecclesiastic and a layman, and been made of a suitable communion service for many of the special were generally complete strangers to the district which they administered. Even under Charlemagne it was difficult to find mea occasions both of public and of private life. in 814 it The meagre liturgical details furnished by the Sacramentarium to discharge these duties impartially, and after-his death interfered Louis I. the nobles gregorianum are supplemented by the texts of the Ordo romanus, became almost impossible. Under

the first of which dates from about the year 770. The ritual they enjoin is that for a pontifical high mass in Rome itself; but the differences to be observed by a priest quando in statione facit missas are comparatively slight. The Gregorian Antiphonarius sive gradualis liber ordinatus per circulum anni, as its name implies, contains those variable portions of the mass which were intended to be sung by the schola or choir. It gives for each day for which

a proper mass is provided:

(1) the Amtiphona (Antiphona ad

Introitum) and Psalmus; (2) the Responsorium and Versus, with its Alleluia and Versus; (3) the Offertorium and Versus; (4) the Communio and Psalmus. The first pages of the modern Roman missal are occupied with the Calendar and a variety of explanations relating to the year and

in the appointment of the missi, who, selected from the district in which their duties lay, were soon found watching their own interests rather than those of the central power. Their duties became merged in the ordinary work of the bishops and counts,

and under Charles the Bald they took control of associations for the preservation of the peace. About the end of the gth

century they disappeared from France and Germany, and durin the roth century from Italy. See G. Waitz, Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte (Kiel, 1844); E- Dob-

bert, Ueber das Wesen

und den -Geschiftskreis der misst

(Heidelberg, 1861); L. Beauchet, Histoire de Porganisation judiciaire en France, époque franque (1865); V. Krause, Geschichte des Insttutes der missi dominici in the Mittheilungen des Instituts für öster-

reichische

Geschichtsforschung,

Band

XI.

(Innsbruck,

1880);

MISSIONS

595

THE MEDIAEVAL PERIOD Bourgeois, Le Capitulaire de Kiersy-sur-Oise (1885}; N. D. Fustel de ! Coulanges, Histoire des Institutions politiques de l'ancienne France Celtic Missionaries.—The passionate zeal of the Celtic mis1889-99) sions has never been surpassed in Christendom. The men came

MISSIONS, is the term used to denote organized efforts for from the Celtic Churches of the Scottish Highlands and Ireland,

the spread of a religion, those who carry out the work being nown as missionaries. Both “missions” and “missionaries” have hence come to be used of similar propagandist work in other

spheres (€.g., ‘a missionary of peace”). Not only Christianity, but also Buddhism, Zoroastrianism and Islam are, or have been, missionary religions. The phrase “foreign missions” customarily used indicates that the work is carried on in countries which are foreign relatively to those from which it emanates, though the increasingly

equal partnership of the younger Churches of the East and Africa

with the “foreign missions periods :

older Churches of the West tends to render the words missions” slightly misleading. The history of Christian may, for practical purposes, be divided into three chief (z) the primitive, (2) the mediaeval, and (3) the modern. THE PRIMITIVE PERIOD

Christian missions begin with Jesus Christ, in whom the uniyersalistic religion found in the nobler Judaism (e.g., in “second”? Isaiah, some of the Psalms and Jonah) achieved its fulfilment.

In His person, work and teaching the unity, holiness, and love, of God, the forgiveness of sins, the ideal of human conduct and the divine order into which the world is to be transformed, are

all expressed freed from local and racial limitation.

The initial

failure of the Palestinian Church to see the universal character of the Christian message was forgotten in the spontaneous movement of expansion in which Stephen, Philip and Barnabas led,

followed by the greatest of all missionaries, the apostle Paul, who evangelized a large part of Asia Minor and the most important

cities of Greece.

The refusal of Paul to bind upon the Gentile

converts Jewish customs such as circumcision marked a decisive

movement in Christian history. From this point Christianity pushed its way rapidly into all the great centres of population. We should remember the great number of Greek Jews converted at

Pentecost (Acts ii.), and scattered subsequently to the ends of the

Roman world. A famous testimony to the spread of Christianity is that of the younger Pliny, who in his letter to Trajan (A.D. 112) records that Christianity had taken such a firm hold of the province that its influence had penetrated to remote country districts, pagan festivals were almost entirely neglected, and animals for sacrifice could hardly fnd purchasers. Harnack in his Expansion of Christianity estimates the hold obtained by Christianity in the countries of the Roman Empire at the end of the third century as follows: (t) Christians numbered nearly one half of the population and Christianity was the standard religion of the people in most of Asia Minor, in the part of Thrace that lay over against Bithynia, m Armenia and in the city of Edessa. (2) Christianity claimed a very material part of the population, influenced the leading classes and held its own with the other religions in Antioch and Crete, syria, Cyprus, Alexandria together with Egypt and the Thebais, Rome and lower Italy, parts of central Italy, Proconsular Africa and Numidia, Spain, the maritime parts of Greece, and the southern coasts of Gaul. (3) Christians were sparsely scattered in Palestine, Phoenicia, Arabia, certain parts of Mesopotamia, the interior districts of Greece, the provinces in the north of Greece, the northern part of central Italy, and the provinces of Maure-

tania and Tripolis. (4) Christianity was weak or barely existent in the regions to the north and north-west of the Black Sea, the western part of upper Italy, middle and upper Gaul, Belgium, Germany, Rhoetia and the towns of ancient. Philistia. After the end of the third century missionary enterprise was carried on chiefly on the borders of the Empire. Among the most

famous missionaries of this period were Gregory the Illuminator,

the apostle of Armenia, about A.D. 300, Ulfilas the apostle of the Goths, about 32 5, Chrysostom, who founded at Constantinople in

out of a Christianity that is probably a legacy of the Roman occupation of Britain. Their missionary passion owed little to the central organization of Rome. Columba, the founder of the monastery of Iona in A.D. 563, an Irishman who was to pay back the debt Ireland owed to Scotland in Patrick, was the leader, and he was followed by Aidan who evangelized Northumbria, Columban who preached in the Vosges and to the Burgundians, Callich (St. Gall) the apostle of Switzerland and many others. Their work ranged from Switzerland and the Rhine to the Far6des and Iceland.

Missions from Rome as Centre.—The work of the Celtic missionaries proved lacking in permanency, and the work of later missionaries was directed from Rome and drew on other races in order to supplement the wonderful pioneering of the Celts. The English missionaries, Wilfrid, Willibrord, and, most famous of all, Winfrid or Boniface, the apostle of Germany, representatives of a newly evangelized Church, went in the seventh and eighth centuries to the Low Countries, Friesland, Saxony, Upper Hessia, Thuringia. Anskar (801-865) took the message to the pagan Scandinavian vikings, and was followed by the Englishman Haakon and the famous Olaf Tryggvason through whom the people of Iceland, Greenland and the Orkney and Shetland Islands were evangelized. Missions from Constantinople as Centre.—While Rome was attending to the missionary task in northern, central and western Europe, the Eastern church did not forget the Slavonic world at its gates. South Russia and the Balkans were evangelized from Constantinople; in 863 Cyril and Methodius produced a Slavonic Bible and a Slavonic liturgy. The work spread from Bulgaria through Moravia to Bohemia and Poland and finally to Russia, where at the end of the tenth century with the baptism of Vladimir there was symbolized the conversion of Russia, the greatest of all the children of the Eastern Church. As there was a pause between the end of the great expanding

movement of the primitive Church in the Roman Empire and the beginning of mediaeval missions, a pause during which the Church was consolidating its gains and establishing Christian civilization, so now there is a pause until the opening of the modern period. Of the world outside Europe, the world of the Moslem, or the still remoter world of the Hindu and the Buddhist, the mediaeval Church knew almost nothing; although the Nestorian Christians spread their influence throughout the whole East, in Arabia, Palestine, Persia, India and even China, and as many as twenty-five metropolitans are said to have owed allegiance to the Nestorian patriarch. With the terrible persecution of Jenghiz Khan and Tamerlane the Nestorian churches withered away, and are represented now only by tiny remnants of “Chaldeans.” The Crusades, which were no true missionary movement, permanently embittered the relations between Christendom and Islam. There are a few great stories that flash out as precursors of the wider missionary movement to come—Ramon Lull’s undying zeal for the conversion of Islam, crowned by martyrdom outside the gates of Bugiah in North Africa in 1315, the visit of St. Francis of Assisi to the Sultan, the embassies of Dominicans and Franciscans (to whom with the Benedictines had fallen most of the missionary labour of the Church) to Tartary, and the travels of Marco Polo accompanied by two Dominicans, to the court of Kublai Khan.

MODERN MISSIONS Early Movements. (1) Roman Catholic—Modern Missions begin with the new world-outlook to which the Renaissance, the Reformation, and the discovery both of the passage to India by the Cape of Good Hope and of the American continent all conduced.

The outlook of Christendom was magically changed.

No

AD. 404 a training school for native Gothic evangelists, Martin of longer were Christian nations in central and western Europe pent Tours, who evangelized central Gaul, and Patrick, a Scot or Briton, up into a corner with the Moslem hosts barring the way to an who was taken to Ireland a captive, escaped and became a monk East virtually unknown to Christendom. The Roman Church in France, returned to Ireland as a missionary and is traditionally

held to be the man who made Ireland the “isle of saints.”

first embraced the missionary implications of this new worldoutlook, beginning with proselytizing in the Portuguese and Span-

596

MISSIONS

ish colonies, as at Goa, but stimulated later by the counterReformation to unprecedented missionary efforts as for example in Mexico and Peru. Loyola founded the Society of Jesus, and one of his chief associates, Francis Xavier, landed at Goa on May 6, rs42, Ten years later he died on the Isle of St. John (Hiang-

Shang). In that short span he had roused the Christians at Goa to a new life, laboured with a success whose effects still endure among the fisher folk near Cape Comorin, gathered many converts in Malabar, visited Malacca and founded a mission in Japan. The Jesuits produced other men of the first rank as mission-

aries. Matteo Ricci laboured in China for 27 years, and Robert de Nobili tried in India to be a Brahman to the Brahmans, an experiment which has probably been misunderstood by its critics. Other Jesuits evangelized Paraguay in 1582, and pioneers in Canada added some rare stories of martyr-courage to the annals of missions. By the close of the 16th century a committee of cardinals was appointed under the name of the Congregatio de

propaganda fide to give unity and solidity to the missionary work of the Roman Church. The scheme originated with Gregory

XIII., but was given plenary authority by a bull of Gregory XV. (2) Protestant.—Contrasted with the great missionary activity on the part of the Church of Rome, the Protestant Churches were backward in realizing the missionary implications of the faith. The opportunity for imperial expansion came to Spain and Portugal earlier than to England or Holland, and the Protestant Churches had to take time to define and consolidate their position. We see this in the instructions given by Edward VI. to the navigators of Sir Hugh Willoughby’s fleet, in the efforts of Sir Walter Raleigh in Virginia, and in the expressed recognition, in the charter given to “the Governor and Company of Merchants of London trading with the East Indies” by Queen Elizabeth in 1600, of higher duties than those of commerce. When James I. granted letters patent for the occupation of Virginia it was directed that the “word and service of God be preached, planted and used as well in the said colonies as also as much as might be among the savages bordering among them.” In 1618 was published The True Honour of Navigation and Navigators, by John Wood, D.D., dedicated to the Governor of the East India Company, and about the same time appeared the famous treatise of Grotius, De veritate religionis Christianae, written for the use of settlers in distant lands. Dutch evangelists worked in Java, the Moluccas, Formosa and Ceylon. The North American colonies received some attention, first from Archbishop Laud who designed a scheme for the establishment of a local episcopate, then during the Protectorate when a corporation for the propagation of the Gospel in New England was planned and renewed later in the Restoration period. Cromwell himself characteristically planned a council for the Protestant religion, to rival the Roman Propaganda, and to consist of seven

councillors and four secretaries for different provinces.

Among

| began in 1731 that astounding missionary career which has made

them one of the great missionary churches of the world. Driven from Moravia by persecution, they had scarcely secured a place

for themselves in Saxony before they formed the design of carry. ing the Gospel to the heathen of Greenland and of the Weg Indies.

Within ten years they had established missions in the

West Indies, South America, Surinam, Greenland, among the North American tribes, in Lapland, Tartary, Algiers, Guinea, the

Cape of Good Hope and Ceylon. The closing years of the 18th century and the early years of

the roth were marked by the foundation of several of the leading missionary societies of modern Protestant Christianity. The estab.

lishment of private societies not officially sponsored by the State and in most cases not officially supported by the Churches, jg characteristic of this modern effort. William Carey, a Baptist cobbler in Northampton, and also a great linguist as well as a botanist and zoologist, published in 1792 his Enquiry into the

Obligations of Christians to use Means for the Conversion of the Heathens, and the book marks a distinct point of departure in the history of Christianity. Under its influence twelve ministers at Kettering in October 1792 subscribed £13:28:6d to begin the Baptist Society for Propagating the Gospel among the Heathen, and Carey left in 1793 for India. In 1795 the London Missionary Society was formed by a group of evangelical ministers of all denominations, particularly for work in the South Sea Islands, The evangelical movement in the Church of England took

missionary form in the Church Missionary Society, established in 1799 under the guidance of John Venn and Thomas Scott as “The Society for Missions to Africa and the East.” This great society

from its inception maintained cordial relations with the missionary societies of the Nonconformist Churches. In 1814 the Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society was founded. In Scotland private

missionary organizations in Edinburgh and Glasgow gave place to the organized work of the Church of Scotland, whose first mis-

sionary, sent out in 1829, was the famous Alexander Duff, the pioneer of the educational method in missions. On the Continent of Europe there was a similar movement. The Basel Mission, which came to have large work on the Gold Coast of Africa and in India, was founded in 1815, drawing support from both southern Germany and Switzerland. Other German, societies arose, such as the Leipzig, the Berlin and the Rhenish, The Netherlands Missionary Society (1797) in Holland began the evangelization of the Dutch Colonial possessions. The French a little later began their famous mission in South Africa.

In North America at the very end of the 18th century small societies were founded with a view to the evangelization of the

Indians. The action of three students at Williams College in Massachusetts, who in 1806 formed themselves into a mission band, led to the formation of the American Board of Commission-

ers for Foreign Missions, an interdenominational society which

the most eminent of the missionaries of the New England cor-

like the London Missionary Society is now virtually, though not

poration was the famous John Eliot who produced the Bible in the Indian language in 1661-64. Eliot received much assistance from the Hon. Robert Boyle, who gave other proof of his zeal for missionary work by contributing to the expense of publishing the four Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles in Malay. George Fox, the Quaker, wrote to “All Friends everywhere that have Indians or blacks, to preach the Gospel to them and their servants.”

movement

Efforts were made by several bishops to develop the colonial

formally, a Congregationalist organization, The first offshoot from it was the American Baptist Missionary Union in 1814. The Methodist Episcopal Church founded its mission board, now the largest Protestant Missionary organization in the world, in 1819, and in 1837 the Presbyterians began a similar work.

No account of the stages by which the modern missionary developed would be complete without reference to

two important features, which are to be taken into view along

church, supplemented by the work of Dr. Thomas Bray, who with

with the official work of the different denominational socieils.

were crowned in 1701 by the grant of letters patent under the great seal of England for the creation of a corporation under the ae of the “Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign

(q.v.)—the British and Foreign Bible Society (1804) and the

a number of laymen founded the Society for the Promotion of First, there are the important bodies such as the Society for Christian Knowledge and was later selected on the request of Promoting Christian Knowledge (1698), the Religious Tract Maryland as commissary of the Bishop of London. His efforts Society of Scotland (1793), of London (1799), and Amena

arts.

On the Continent the first Protestant missionary enterprise was initiated by King Frederick IV. of Denmark who in 1705 founded a mission on the Coromandel coast of India, begun by those remarkable men Ziegenbalg, Pliitschau and Christian Friedrich Schwartz, with whom the S.P.C.K. co-operated. The Moravians

(1823), and most important of all, the great Bible Societies

American Bible Society (1816). Secondly, there is the individual type of mission such as the

China Inland Mission, founded by J. Hudson Taylor who went

out to China in 1853; it has now over 1,000 missionaries there Recent Developments: Protestant. (1) Great Britain The eighties of last century marked a period of increased intetest in missionary work throughout Great Britain. One of i

MISSIONS

597

principal causes of this increased interest was the world-wide | Christian Associations of India, China, Japan, South-eastern Asia attention given to the life and work of David Livingstone and and the Near East have all been greatly indebted to the foreign particularly to his death in 1873. In 1874 Bishop Hannington department of the American Y.M.C.A.

went to Africa and his murder in 1885 deeply touched the Christian conscience.

In 1884-85 came the famous offer of service by

the “Cambridge Seven,” led by Stanley Smith and C. T. Studd.

The offer for service in China on the part of these seven men gave an impetus to missionary interest in the Universities, not

only in Great Britain but also in America, on the Continent and

in the Dominions. The principal instrument in the development of missionary

interest among students has undoubtedly been the Student Volunteer Movement for Foreign Missions organized in 1886 in America and the Student Volunteer Missionary Union organized in

1392 in Great Britain.

Medical Missions have greatly developed and in certain countries, notably in Mohammedan lands and in such tracts as the North-West Frontier of India, are of singular value. In China

the development of missionary medical training has been very noticeable and medical missions occupy an unusual place in relation to the medical profession. Perhaps the most remarkable

development of the missionary

enterprise has been the great extension of women’s work. It has only been in the last quarter of the nineteenth century that the missionary societies have engaged unmarried women to go out in

any appreciable numbers. The larger denominations have devel-

oped their own Women’s Auxiliaries (sometimes absorbing small voluntary societies). The Zenana Bible and Medical Mission was founded in 1861, and the Church of England Zenana Missionary Society in 1880.

(2) Dominions-—In Canada, Australia and New Zealand, the Protestant denominations all have regular organizations for foreign missions. The Anglicans of Canada have missionary work in India and in Japan, the Baptists in India, and the United

Church of Canada (a union of Presbyterians, Methodists and Congregationalists) in India, China, Japan and Korea. The Pres-

byterians of Australia have missionary work in India, Korea and the South Seas, the Baptists in India, the Methodists in the South

Seas. The Baptists and Presbyterians of New Zealand both have work in India. The Melanesian Mission associated with the

names of Selwyn and Patteson is supported by the Anglican Churches in New Zealand and Australia. The London Missionary Society and the Church Missionary Society both have important auxiliaries in Australasia. South Africa has a different problem. The Anglicans have in all their dioceses work among the African population. The Dutch Reformed Church is now one of the leading missionary churches. (3) Continental—The German Missions increased steadily until the World War. Of the Moravian Church we have already spoken. It has some two hundred and fifty missionaries working in Greenland, Labrador, Alaska, Central America, Tibet and among the Hottentots. The Basel Mission had extensive work on the Gold Coast of Africa, in the south-west of India, and in South China. The Berlin Missionary Society and the Rhenish Mission developed work in South Africa and China; the Hermannsburg Mission (Hanover) in South Africa and India; the Gossner Mission of Berlin among the aborigines of Chota Nagpur,

(5) Christian Missions to the Jews——Missions

to the Jews

have been conducted by a few Societies. In 1926 two important conferences were held in Budapest and Warsaw attended by representatives of all the Protestant organizations in the world engaged in missionary work among the Jews. These conferences revealed the immensely wide dispersion of Jewry, and the small number of missionaries of any kind ministering to the Jews. Plans were made for the increase of efficiency.

(6) Gemeral—One of the most notable developments of Protestant missionary work since 1910, the date of the World Missionary Conference held at Edinburgh, is the development of co-operation among Missionary Societies in Great Britain, America and on the Continent of Europe and on the part of the churches in the mission field. The Edinburgh Conference created widespread attention. It resulted in the establishment of the International Missionary Council, consisting of representatives of all the national missionary organizations. The enlarged meeting of the International Missionary Council, held at Easter 1928 at Jerusalem, typified in its discussions many of the leading tendencies in modern missionary work. Attention

was given both to such fundamental matters as the Christian Mes-

sage, Christian Education, the growth of the Church and its relation to the missionary societies from the West, and also to such “secular” problems as race, industrialism, and rural development. Between a third and a half of the members were natives of the Oriental and African countries, and the reports of this gathering are an indispensable source of information regarding modern missionary movements. Recent Developments: Roman Catholic—The Roman Catholic Church at the beginning of the nineteenth century seems to have been not less stagnant in regard to foreign missions .than were the Protestant churches. The nineteenth century however witnessed a great change. The revival was due in no small degree to the foundation in 1822 by a few earnest Catholics at Lyons of a Society called the Institute for the Propagation. of the Faith. The income of this society in 1925 had risen to approximately £325,000. This Institute does not send out missionaties but makes grants to the various missionary groups. Roman

missionary work is carried on by religious orders and missionary

societies under the supreme direction of the Pope and the supervision of the Congregatio de Propaganda Fide. The Congregation holds supreme control over all foreign missions in non-Christian countries and over some parts of the Church in Christian countries whose governments are not Catholic, e.g., the British Empire, America, Holland, Scandinavia, Greece and some parts of Germany and Switzerland. The non-Christian world is carefully mapped out among the different orders. The government of the various mission fields is principally carried on by Vicars Apostolic (ż.e., titular bishops acting as vicars or delegates of the Apostolic See) or Prefects Apostolic (ie., priests with similar powers, but without episcopal rank). Two important encyclicals have been issued dealing with missionary work. Pope Benedict XV. in ror9 issued the encyclical

Maximum Illud in which extensive directions were given for the India; and the Lutheran Leipzig Mission in South India. Other conduct of missionary work, exaggerated expressions of nationalmissions work in the South Seas. Two Missionary Societies work ism were severely condemned and great emphasis was laid on the in the Dutch Colonies, an important Danish mission works in importance of developing a native clergy. Following upon this in

South India. The Swedes and Norwegians have ‘increased their

missionary activities in South Africa, Madagascar and India; the

China Inland Mission has enlisted a number of Scandinavians. (4) America+—One of the features of missionary wotk in the present century has been the growth of American missionary activity. At the present time American missions represent probably seventy per cent of the Protestant missionary work in the

world. The large denominations have all vastly increased their

work especially as the result of large appeals made immediately

alter the war. The Young Men’s Christian Association, founded

i England and now extending throughout the world, has reached ts maximum influence in the United States and the Young Men’s

1926 six Chinese Japanese priest. Rerum Ecclesiae Maximum Illud,

priests were consecrated bishops and in 1927 one In 1926 Pope Pius XI. issued the encyclical in which he developed the subject matter of pointing out the paucity of missionaries, the

Holy Childhood

(for the supporting of orphans, etc.) and the

lack of native ministers and the urgent need for training colleges being established with a view to the equipment of native clergy including bishops. The Pope further urged all Catholics to support the Society of the Propagation of the Faith, the Society of Society of S. Peter (for training native priests), and all priests to join the Unio cleri pro missionibus (Missionary Clergy Union).

He emphasized also the annual day of prayer appointed for the

MISSIONS

598

penultimate Sunday in October. A great missionary exhibition was held at the Vatican during the Holy Year of 1925, and at the close of the Exhibition a museum of missions was established.

Orthodox Eastern Church.—When Ivan the Terrible (1533-

84.) began the great advance from Russia to Northern Asia, large numbers of missionaries accompanied the troops, and during the seventeenth century many thousands of Tartars were baptised, though most lapsed again to heathenism. Little was done until 1824 when John Veniaminov, later Archbishop Innocent, began a remarkable career of evangelistic activity. He founded missions in Alaska, the Aleutian Islands, Kamchatka and Eastern Siberia, and established the Orthodox Missionary Society at Moscow. In addition to nine separate missions in Siberia and six in European Russia, the Orthodox Church of Russia has had three foreign missions: in China, founded at Peking in 1714 in the face of Jesuit

opposition; in Alaska and the Aleutian Islands; and in Japan. The last of these, established in 1863 by Bishop Nicolai, had very remarkable success, and a large Japanese Church was gath-

ered, larger probably in proportion to the number of foreign workers than any other communion in Japan. The work of the Russian Orthodox Church has, however, suffered grievously since the War and the establishment of the Soviet Government, and the Orthodox Church in Japan has become considerably weakened. HISTORY

OF MISSION

FIELDS

The South Seas.—Missionary work in the Pacific began with Magellan’s visit to the Philippines in 1521. Roman Catholic missionary work was carried on from an early date in the Caroline Islands and others adjacent. Modern Protestant effort began with the sending of the London Missionary Society ship “Duff” in 1797 to Tahiti, the Tonga or Friendly Islands and the Marquesas. By 1815 idolatry was abolished in the larger islands of the Tahiti group. In the work of building up a Christian community the great leaders were William Ellis and John Williams; the latter established at Rarotonga a training school from which workers went as far as Samoa and Fiji, and was murdered at Erromanga in 1839. The London Missionary Society’s work was notable for the evangelistic activity of its converts. The Wesleyans had great success in Fiji to which they came in 1834. The bulk of the natives of the Fiji group are now Christians. The Sandwich or Hawaiian Islands were discovered by Captain

Cook and work began in them in 1819 when the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions sent missionaries. Great success was achieved and the work of the mission was handed over to the Hawaiian Evangelistic Association. Hawaiian missionaries went to the Marquesas and other islands in the Pacific. Australasia.—Little success has been gained among the aborigines of Australia. In New Zealand much greater success was attained among the Maoris, among whom the Church Missionary Society began work in 1814. In 1833 Wesleyan missionaries reached the Islands; Bishop Selwyn was consecrated in 1841 and established in 1843 at Auckland a training institution not only for Maoris but for workers from other islands. More than half the Maori population is now Christian; the first Maori Bishop was consecrated in 1928. John Patteson became the first Bishop of Melanesia in 186r. He transferred the training institute from Auckland, New Zealand, to the Norfolk Islands. It is part of the tragedy of his martyrdom that he was killed by natives who mistook him for one of the kidnapping traders to whose operations the islands owed so much of the decay of their life. The Church of England Mela-

nesian Mission operates in the North New Hebrides, Banks Torres, Santa Cruz and the Solomon Islands. In New Guinea the Gossner missionaries were the pioneers, followed by the Dutch who work in the Dutch part of the islands. Several German societies work in what was German New Guinea (now mandated territory), and in British New Guinea the London Missionary Society, the Australian Wesleyans and the Anglicans. _ Work was established later in the islands of Micronesia, the

Carolines, the Gilberts and Marshalls.

The Philippine Islands

are fields of Roman Catholic and American Protestant work. Africa.—This continent is in every sense a modern mission

field. Apart from North Africa, it is only within modern times that mission work has been carried on in the African continent

North Africa-—The lands in which Augustine, Cyprian and Tertullian lived have long been occupied by Islam, and even nog missionary work whether Protestant or Roman Catholic is weak The North Africa Mission works mainly on medical lines, The Methodist Episcopal Church has work in Morocco. In the Sudan and right across to Northern Nigeria, missionary work is carried on by agencies such as the Sudan United Mission and the Sudan Interior Mission. West Africa.—Mission work was begun in West Africa by the

Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in 1752, and work has been carried on longer and has achieved greater results in West Africa than in any other part of the continent. The Church

Missionary Society, the Wesleyans and the United Free Church of Scotland work on the Gold Coast, in Sierra Leone, Calahar

and Nigeria. The Basel Mission had very extensive work on the Gold Coast up to the outbreak of the War, and have now re

turned to their field. The American Baptists and the Episcopal. ians work in Liberia, the American Presbyterians in the Cameroons,

and the Congregationalists of America and Canada in Angola,

The Roman Catholic missions in West Africa are chiefly French organized by the Congregation of the Holy Ghost and the Lyons African Mission.

Central Africa-——In the interior of the continent the French and Belgium Protestant Churches have done some excellent work in the Congo, and the American Baptists, the Southern Presbyterians,

the Methodists

and

the Disciples

and

a number of

“faith” missions have developed the region. The English Baptist Mission on the Congo is the chief British mission there.

East Africa.—In Kenya the leading Protestant missions are those of the Church Missionary Society and the Church of Scot-

land Mission. The United Methodists also work in Kenya, while the Church Missionary Society has a large mission in Uganda.

The Universities’ Mission to Central Africa works in Zanzibar, Tanganyika (formerly German East Africa), and other parts of East Africa. Several German societies have done important work in Tanganyika. South Africa.—The Moravians (1737) were the first to undertake missionary work in South Africa, but their work was soon stopped by the Dutch. The London Mission came in 1798 and in 1818 Robert Moffat, Livingstone’s father-in-law, went to Bechuanaland. David Livingstone, one of the very small band of world-famous men, came to South Africa under the London Missionary Society, and dedicated a great life to the evangelization of Africa and the abolition of the slave trade. Madagascar-—Work was begun in this island by the London Missionary Society in 1819, and it has since been developed by the Friends, the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel and the Norwegian Missionary Society. Since the French took con trol of the island, the Paris Evangelical Society has worked there. The work of Protestant missions throughout Africa was comprehensively surveyed in a gathering held at Le Zoute in Belgium in September 1926. India.—India remains the greatest mission field both in the

extent of Christian work and in respect of the variety and dificulty of Christian work and in respect of the variety and difficulty of the issues which are presented there. The earliest missionaries to India, with the possible exception of Pantaenus of Alexandria (c. AD. 180), were the founders of the Syrian Churches af

Malabar.

The traditional belief is that these Christians owe

their origin to St. Thomas the Apostle, and although a Nestor

origin has been preferred by most historians, the Thomas legend

has its defenders.

The Jesuits came in the 16th century, the

Dutch, the Danes, the Germans and the British as we have told

above. William Carey, so far as Protestant missions are com cerned, began a new era with his emphasis upon literary work, translation of the Scriptures and the training of native workers. Carey and his two colleagues, Marshman and Ward, by 1834 when Carey died, had translated the Bible into 7 languages, and

the New Testament into 23 more.

|

The methods of mission work in India most used are: (x) The

MISSIONS regular method of vernacular preaching carried on both by Indian preachers and by missionaries; (2) Education in all its grades from the village school through the middle school to the high school and the college. Christian education has reached women

and girls in India in a way unequalled by any other agency; (3)

599

to be written. The reforms of 1901-04, especially the decrees regarding education, contained within themselves a complete

reversal of the traditional policy of China.

A system of public

instruction of the most extensive sort was drafted. Universities, technical schools and lower schools were designed, and young

Chinese began to turn their faces towards the West. Meanwhile the missionary societies had never slackened their among the purdah women, and on the North-west frontier efforts. Whereas in 1876 there were 289 mission schools with where almost no other kind of work is possible; (4) The mass 4,909 pupils, in 1910 the numbers had risen to 3,129 schools movement may almost be called a separate method. These move- with 79,823 scholars. American influence became particularly ments of the outcasts have been especially large in the Punjab, powerful, not least because the American government used part of the United Provinces, parts of western India, the Telegu country the indemnity paid after the Boxer rising to provide scholarships and Travancore. There have also been great ingatherings of the to enable Chinese students to pursue their studies in America. The recent developments in China have had a profound effect aborigines in Chota Nagpur and among the Khasis and Lushais in the Assam hills; (5) Christian Literature: more has been done on missionary work. The Manchu dynasty was overthrown in in creating Protestant Christian literature in India than in most rgrr by a revolution led by Sun Yat-sen. In 1925 he died and countries, but the supply is not adequate to the demand; (6) Spe- his book “The Three Principles” became the gospel of Chinese cial mention should be made of the special work conducted by nationalism; the nationalist party dedicated itself to carrying the women’s societies among purdah women in their homes, and out the purposes of the dead hero. The nationalist government of the South has made itself the de facto government of China in visiting schools and hospitals. The great task presented by Indian Islam tends to be over- and the whole future relationship of China to the western powers shadowed by the needs of Hinduism. Converts from Islam in is the subject of international debate. This entire series of political events has been reflected in the India have not been numerous, yet some leading Christians of northern India are converts or children of converts from Islam. Chinese Church and every mission board in the world conductMuch more attention is now given to the study of Indian Islam. ing work in China has been forced to review drastically its whole It is well-known that in India, more perhaps than in any policy, particularly in regard to the relations between the misother country, the effects of Christian work are only partly seen sionaries and the Chinese Church. Already Chinese Christians in the numbers of the Christian communities. The Brahmo- have shown themselves able to take up work which missionaries Samaj, chiefly in Bengal, is a type of reformed Hinduism which were compelled to leave during the fighting, and especially in the owes much of its impetus to contact with Christianity. The Arya work of the colleges and schools have shown both initiative and Samaj, mainly in North India, is an example of the opposite kind responsibility. The growth of Christianity in China may be shown by the fact of reaction to contact with Christianity, z.e., a return to an earlier that in 1925 the total number of the Protestant Christian comrehabilhas Nationalism heritage. Indian true the as Hinduism itated Hinduism in many minds, and nationalism together with munity in China was 795,095, and there were 27,133 Chinese the almost ineradicable pantheism of the Indian mind present a evangelists, pastors, teachers and other workers. The Roman strong defence against the Christian evangelistic message. On the Catholic returns give 27,640 Chinese priests and lay helpers, other hand there is widespread testimony to the admiration felt 556,201 catechumens, the total community being much larger. Japan and Korea.—Portuguese traders first brought the by educated Indians everywhere for the person of Jesus Christ. The Christian community of India is estimated to number Christian faith to Japan in 1542, followed by Xavier in 1549. 5,939,212, of whom 2,242,798 are Protestant; 791,556 belong to By 1581 there were 200 churches and 150,000 Christians. In the ancient Syrian churches, and 2,906,858 to the Roman Catholic 1594 there were one and a half million Christians. There folChurch. There are 48,787 Protestant Indian workers and 17,164 lowed a time of great persecution under Iyeyasu who in his second edict in 1614 forbade the entry of foreigners and exCatholic (1928). China—We have already mentioned the great missionary tinguished Christianity by fire and sword. The reopening of the country came in 1859, largely through activity of the Nestorians. It was they who were the first missionaries to China, but their work and that of the Roman American pressure, and in that year the Protestant Episcopal Church, begun as the result of Marco Polo’s travels about 1290 Church began work in Nagasaki. In 1868 the seclusion of Japan faded away under the persecution of the Ming dynasty, which ended; financiers and engineers poured in from western Europe, came into power about 1350. The next attempt was that of the and teachers, mainly missionaries, from America. In 1872 the French Jesuits following on the visit and death of Xavier. They first Japanese church was formed. In 1875 Joseph Neesima, conadvanced rapidly, especially after the accession in 1644 of the verted by a Russian missionary and educated in America, founded Manchu dynasty. The Orthodox Eastern Church came to Peking the Christian Japanese College, the Doshisha, in Kyoto. The war with China in 1894 initiated a time of intense national about the same time. Modern missionary activity begins with Robert Morrison of activity. Education and work for women made rapid advance the London Missionary Society, who reached Canton in 1807, and the work of missionaries, and especially that of Japanese and not being allowed to reside in China entered into the service ministers, prospered greatly. Christians more and more became Medical work: while medical work as an auxiliary of the Church

has had triumphs everywhere, it is notable in India for its value

of the East India Company.

In 1829 the American Board sent

their first representatives, and in 1836 Peter Parker began his famous medical mission. After the war of 1856 a measure of oficial toleration was obtained and the task of evangelizing the country was fairly begun. In 1877 the number of: Protestant converts in the whole of China was reckoned at no more than 13,000, though Protestant missionaries had been seventy years in the country. Public feeling against foreigners was accentuated by the territorial aggression of the French, German, British and

Japanese. ‘There were anti-foreign outbreaks at different times but the great upheaval came in 1899-1900 when in what was

known as the Boxer uprising 135 missionaries, 52 children and

probably 16,000 Chinese Christians perished, often after torture and showing constancy and heroism never to be forgotten.

The Boxer rising was put down, and out of the agony of these years was born the new China, of which the history remains still

prominent in public life.

In 1912 was held a conference of religions, when the government invited representatives of Shintoism, Buddhism and Christianity to meet and discuss the moral education of Japan. This recognition of Christianity as a religion tolerable in Japan marked in a way the beginning of a new epoch.

The Protestant community of Japan is about 165,000 (the Roman Catholics 80,000 and Orthodox 30,000) with 3,500 Japanese workers. It would be fair to say that Christians: exercise an influence far greater than their numbers. In Korea, early Roman Catholic Christianity introduced'at. the end of the 18th century was exterminated in 1864, but mission-

aries entered again in the ‘eighties and the Methodist Episcopal Church, the Presbyterians of America, of Canada, and of ‘Aus-

tralia, and the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel have all developed work in the country. A Korean National Christian

MISSIONS

600

Council has been formed, and the Korean Christian leaders are pressing for some attention to be given to the bearing of Christianity on economic and social issues. South-east Asia.—Burma, although a part of the Indian Empire and ecclesiastically related with India and Ceylon, has many of the characteristics of South-east Asia. The largest mission in Burma is that of the American Baptists, founded by Adoniram Judson in 1813. The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel has a mission in Burma, and both societies have had much success with the Karens, a non-Burmese people of whom a considerable portion have now become Christian. In Siam the American Presbyterians have had the field virtually to themselves. In Tongking and Annam, French colonies, Roman Catholic missions are extensive and strong. In the Malay States practically no work is done among the Moslems, but a good deal among the Indians and other immigrant

people, largely by the Methodist Episcopal Church. Straits Settlements, the Society for the Propagation

compare with that of the Christian missionaries.

Third, jt is

perhaps the greatest international enterprise in the world The

Churches of practically all the Western peoples have engaged in

it, and now that the younger Churches in the mission-field are

growing up, there is coming into being a literally world-wide Christian fellowship. Fourth, missionary work has added to the

tale of human history some of the greatest of personalities, The names of a few have been given above.

The ultimate argument for Christian missions lies now, as i has always lain, in the conviction laid upon Christians that the owe to their Saviour a gift so precious that they cannot keep it to themselves. The modern world may find a secondary motive

in the fact that there is arising in all countries the outline of common

(and largely secular) civilization, and that it is abung.

antly clear that the ancient religions are largely irrelevant to it. At the same time all history goes to show that no society cap survive without a religious and moral basis, and it appears likely that mankind will more and more be driven to choose between secularism and the religion of Jesus.

In the of the Statistics.—Too much reliance should not be placed upon Gospel, the Methodist Episcopal Church, the English Presbyterians and the Church of England Zenana Missionary Society these, as the facilities for collecting figures vary enormously in are all at work. In the Dutch Indies naturally the work has the different countries, and different standards of valuation are fallen to the Netherlands Missionary Society (1812) and other used. In the World Missionary Atlas (1925) figures are given Dutch agencies, which have been highly successful. There is an for Protestant missions which may be compared with those important German Mission, the Rhenish, working among the gathered in 1907. Bataks of Sumatra, In Dutch Borneo, the Rhenish Society is Missionaries 1925 making headway among the Dyaks, and in British Borneo and 1907 Sarawak the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel and the Ordained men 7,025 5:735 Methodist Episcopal Church. The total number of Christians 3,644 North America 1,980 British in British Malaysia and the Dutch East Indies is about 857,800, 2,831 Britain and 1,911 U.S.A. Dominions including 60,000 Roman Catholics. The Near East.—Few areas have undergone more startling Unordained men . 3,819 ; 2,802 1,917 North America 1,738 British changes than have taken place since the War in the Moslem lands 1,146 Britain and 535 U.S.A, of the Near East—Egypt, Turkey, Palestine, Syria, Arabia, Iraq _ Dominions and Persia. Unmarried women 9,125 4,387 The chief missions working in this area are the Church Mis5,362 North America 3,018 Britain and

sionary Society in Persia, Palestine and Egypt, the American Board in Turkey, the American Presbyterians in Persia and Syria and the American United Presbyterians in Egypt. There

is also a mission of the American Reformed Church in Arabia in

the Koweit region, and a mission of the United Free Church of Scotland near Aden. The establishment of well equipped colleges at Constantinople, Beirut, Smyrna, Cairo and other centres has been the distinguishing feature of the American mission policy in this area. A Christian Council for Western Asia and Northern Africa was founded in 1926, The most effective co-operative work has been done in the preduction of Christian literature for Moslems. Latin America.—The missionary societies of North America

carry on much work in the southern continent, partly among the Indian population, partly among the nominally Catholic Spanishspeaking people, The intellectyal life of the S. American universities is keen and deserves more attention than it receives at the hands of Eurepe. There are two British missions, the South American Missionary Society (Anglican) which works among the

Indians and received the praise of Charles Darwin for its achievements among the Fuegians, and the Evangelical Union of South America. | SUMMARY

We may end this survey of missionary history by suggesting four reflections to which it leads. First, it is impossible to resist

the impression that there is in the Christian faith, whether in its Protestant or its Catholic profession, an ineradicable conviction of universality. There is in spite of its unevenness a singular continuity in this Christian missionary effort. After every falling away there is a renaissance, as Christians recover fidelity to the mind of their Master. Second, the beneficence of the labours of missionaries can never be forgotten. In rescuing the oppressed, abolishing tyranny and superstition, spreading education, introducing medicine, raising the status of woman, protecting children, stimulating secial reform, the world has never seen any service to

2,332 British 1,527 U.S.A.

Dominions

| Indigenous churches Ordained workers : Communicants (full memers As ve ge Total

Christian

Commu-

nity (Protestant) Scholars (all types of schools). . . .

1925

1907

19,493

5,273

3,014,154

1,817,450

8,342,378

4,361,138

2,440,148

1,302,905

Roman Catholic Missions-—The Little Atlas of Catholic Mis-

sions (1926) contains figures gathered for the Vatican Exhibition of 1925 and given in Arens’ Handbuch (1925). They are compared here with figures for 1908:

1925 Foreign Priests . Native Priests .

8,196 4,516

.

Foreign Jay brothers.

3,187

Native lay brothers . Foreign Sisters .

Native Sisters

Native Catholics

Catechumens

.

1908

.

Schools (upper and lower)

732 12,944

11,158

11,956,160

1,534,446

21,753

75933 5,837

5,270 (total of foreign and native) 21,320 (total of

foreign and native) 7,441,215

1,537;909

24,909

BrepiocRapHy.—The Report of the World Missionary Conference (1910) 9 vols, is still wo

consulting.

The Complete Report of the

Jerusalem Meeting of the International Missionary Council (1928) 1 indispensable, Detailed facts and figures may be got from the World Missionary Atlas (2nd ed. 1925) for Protestant missions, and from

the Little Atlas of Catholic Missions (Rome, 1925) for Roman Catho-

lic missions. Other invaluable general works are Arens’ Handbuch der katholischen Missionen (1925); Richter’s History of Protestant Mis-

sions in India (2nd German ed,, 1924) ; Richter’s Geschichte der ewongelischen Mission in Afrika (1922); Richter’s Das Werden der Christ-

MISSISSIPPI

601

tienen Kirche in China (1925) Latourette’s History of Christianity in China (1928); Moore’s The Spread of Christianity in the Modern | chiefly by the Yazoo.

A small area in the north-eastern corner is drained northward by the Tennessee and the Hatchie. Most of the rivers flowing into the Gulf are obstructed by sand-bars and navigable only during high water from January to April. Oxbow the Baptist Missionary Society (1892); Lovett’s History of the Lon- lakes and bayous are common only in the Delta. don Missionary Society (1899); Findlay and Holdsworth’s History of Climate.—The southern latitude, the low elevation and the World (1919); A History of Protestant Missions tn the Near East (1910). Of denominational histories may be mentioned Stock, History oj the Church Missionary Society (1899) ; Myers, Centenary Volume of

ihe Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society (1924). Among older books are E. M. Bliss, T he Missionary Enterprise (1908) ; E. Stock, A Short Handbook of Missions (1904); H. H. Montgomery, Foreign Missions

proximity to the Gulf of Mexico produce in southern Mississippi a

TENNES

(1904); T. Moscrop, The Kingdom without Frontiers (1910); S. L.

Gulick, The Growth of the Kingdom of God (1897); G. Smith, Short

History of Christian Missions (1897); G. Warneck, Outline of a History of Protestant Missions (1910). A complete bibliography appears in each number of the International Review of Missions, thë organ of the International Missionary Council. W. Pa.)

S yo Wa 1 sl

MISSISSIPPI (mis-i-sip'ï), the “Magnolia State,” a South Central State of the U.S.A., situated between 30° 13’ and 35° N. lat. and 88° 7 and 91° 41’ longitude W. of Greenwich. The State is bounded N. by Tennessee, E. by Alabama, S. by the Gulf of Mexico and Louisiana, and W. by Louisiana, from which it is

separated by the Pearl river and the Mississippi, and by Arkansas, irom which it is separated by the Mississippi. The total area is 46,865 sq.m., of which 503 sq.m. are water surface. Physical Features.—The greater part of the State lies in the Mississippi embayment of the Gulf coastal plain, the surface rising

almost imperceptibly from the coast to the north-east. The highest elevations, about 800 ft. above the sea, are on the Pontotoc ridge

in Tippah and Union counties in the north. The uplift of the State is enough to expose the formations of four distinct geological periods. In the extreme N.E. are found the oldest rocks in the State—lower Devonian and, not so old, an extension of the lower Carboniferous which underlies the Warrior coal-fields of Alabama. The Cretaceous region includes, with the exception of the lower Carboniferous, all that part of the State eastward of a line cutting

the Tennessee boundary about 25 m. W., and drawn southward and eastward about 75 m., to the Alabama line. Deposits of the Tertiary period cover more than half the State, extending from the border of the Cretaceous westward nearly to the Yazoo delta

and the Mississippi bottom, and southward to within a few miles of the Gulf coast. Seven formations, or groups, of the Tertiary strata have been distinguished in Mississippi. The older formation of the Quaternary period is the Lafayette, which immediately

overlies all the Cretaceous groups except the prairies of the Selma chalk and all the Tertiary except the Porters Creek and Vicksburg formations and part of the Jackson. The second Quaternary formation is the Port Hudson, occurring within 20 m. of the Gulf coast, and, with alluvium, in the Yazoo delta. The Yazoo delta is a strip of bottom land between the Mississippi and Yazoo

rivers, extending from N. to S. about 175 m., with an average

width of more than 6o m. and covering an area of about 7,000 sq.m. With the exception of a few flat ridges running from N. to S., it is so low that, to protect it from overflows, it requires an unbroken line of levees averaging 15 ft. in height. Along the east-

em border of this delta, and along the Mississippi itself, extends a belt of hills or bluffs cut by deep ravines. East of the belt are level or gently rolling prairies, and along the Gulf coast is a low, marshy tract. The coast-line, about 85 m. long, is bordered by a beach of white

sand, and broken by several small and shallow indentations, among which are St. Louis, Biloxi, Pascagoula and Point aux Chénes bays. Separated from it by the shallow and practically unnavigable Mississippi sound is a chain of low, long and narrow sand islands,

the largest of which are Petit Bois, Horn, Ship and Cat. The principal rivers are: the Mississippi on the western border, and its tributaries, the Yazoo and the Big Black; the Pearl and Pascagoula, which drain much of the southern portion of the State and fow into the Gulf: and the Tombigbee, which drains most of the north-eastern portion. The Pontotoc ridge separates the drainage system of the Mississippi from that of the Tombigbee. Extend-

ingfrom the north-eastern part of the State southward, this ridge

ides in Choctaw county, the eastern branch separating the drainage basin of the Pascagoula from that of the Pearl, and the western branch separating the drainage basin of the Pearl from

that of the Big Black and the Mississippi. The delta is drained

1 2 3 4 5

Corinth Clarksdale Tupelo Aberdeen Greenville 6 Greenwood

7 8 9 10 11 12

Columbus Yazoo City Vicksburg Meridian Natchez Brookhaven

MAP

SHOWING

13 Laurel

14 Hattiesburg

‘\

15 Bay St.Louis 16 Gulfport

17 Biloxi 18 Pascagoula

MAIN

ROADS

OF MISSISSIPPI

rather mild and equable climate, but to the northward the extremes increase. ‘The normal mean annual temperature for the State is 64°, on the coast it is 67°, and on the northern border 61°.

Annual precipitation for the State is about sr in. (southern half, 54 in.; northern half, 49 in.). Nearly one-third of the rain falls in Jan., Feb. and March; July, also, is one of the wet months. The driest season is in Sept. and October. The prevailing winds are from the S.E.; but the rain-bearing winds chiefly from the

S.W., and the high winds from the west and north-west. The most fertile soil is the alluvium of the delta, deposited during the overflows of the Mississippi. Others that are exceedingly productive are the black calcareous loam of the prairies, the calcareous silt of the bluff belt along the eastern border of the

delta, and the brown loam of the table-land in the central part of the State. Government.—The chief special object of the present Constitution, adopted Nov. 1, 1890, was to preserve in a legal manner the supremacy of the whites over the ignorant negro majority. In addition to the ordinary suffrage qualifications of age and resi-

dence, the voter must have paid all taxes due from him for the two years preceding the election, and he must be able to read any section of the Constitution or “be able to understand the same when read to him, or give a reasonable interpretation thereof.”

MISSISSIPPI

602

In 1916 the initiative and referendum were adopted by an amendment to the Constitution, thereby placing the Government more within the direct control of the people. Under its provisions, an initiative petition must be supported by 7,500 qualified electors, and a referendum petition by 6,000. The chief executive constitutional officials are the governor, lieutenant governor, secretary of State, treasurer, auditor, attorney general and superintendent of education. All are chosen for terms of four years, and the governor, treasurer and auditor are ineligible for immediate re-election. The method of election is based in part upon the national presidential model. The governor is empowered to call extraordinary sessions of the legislature, to grant pardons and reprieves, and to exercise a power of veto which extends to items in appropriation bills. A two-thirds majority of the legislature is necessary to pass a bill over his veto. The legislature consists of a senate and a house of representatives, chosen every four years. Since 1912, it has met in regular session biennially, and in extraordinary session whenever the governor has seen fit to call it. Revenue measures may originate in either house, but a three-fifths vote in each is necessary to their enactment.

The judiciary consists of a supreme court of six judges, 17 circuit courts, ten chancery courts, county courts and magistrate courts. The supreme court judges are elected for a term of eight years, and the circuit and chancery judges for four years. A majority of nine jurors may return a verdict in all civil cases in the circuit and chancery courts. Population.—The population at selected census periods was: 8,850 in 1800; 40,352 in 1810; 606,526 in 1850; 1,131,597 in 1880; 1,551,270 1M 19003 1,797,II4 in 1910; 1,790,618 in 1920; 2,009,821 in 1930. The census of 1920 showed a decrease of 6,496, or nearly -4% from the figures for 1910. The negro population was 935,184, or 52-2% of the total, compared with 1,009,487, or 56-2% of the total in rg10. The foreign-born whites in 1920 numbered 8,019. The density was 38-6 per sq. mile. The seven cities having a popu-

Anish kth lee a GERAS eee f 1.250.000

Ed

whe AT

Amite counties in 1809-15, and to Port Gibson academy and

Mississippi college, at Clinton, in 1826. The State established j, 1819 the first educational institution which granted diplomas to

women. The public school system was established in 1846, Mississippi was the first State in the Union to establish, i 1884, a State-supported college for women. The lack of normal training for white teachers (from 1870 to 1904 there was a normal school for negroes at Holly Springs) continued until 1890 when a teachers’ training course was introduced into the curriculum of the State University.

There are separate schools for whites and

blacks, with equipment and service approximately equal, although

the whites pay about nine-tenths of the school taxes. The schools are subject to the supervision of a State superintendent of public education and of a board of education, composed of the superin.

tendent, the secretary of State and the attorney general: and within each county, to a county superintendent and a county board of education.

The schools are supported by a poll-tax, a dog-tax

by general appropriations, by local levies and by the Chickasaw school fund. An act of Congress of March 3, 1803, reserved from sale Section 16 of the public lands in each township for educational purposes.

A unique and distinctive educational and cultural State department was established in 1902 for the preservation and publication of the history of the State. The State department of archives and

history is founded on the idea that the State owes a duty to its

history. The department has issued a veritable library of Missis-

sippi history, has created a beautiful State Hall of Fame, and has the best State Museum in the country. An important development ın education was the establishment in 1908 of county agricultural high schools. Every county may establish one for white children and one for negroes, or two counties may combine and create one set of schools for the two counties. These schools receive State aid based on the number of boarding pupils. The public school system was modernized and

made uniform throughout the State by the school code of 1924.

The school population between five and 17 years of age, inclusive, in 1924, was 593,962. Of this number 560,971, or 94-4%, were in the public schools. High schools numbered 330 in 1925. The State institutions for higher education are: the University of Mississippi (chartered 1844; opened 1848), at University, near Oxford; the Agricultural and Mechanical college (opened 1880), at A. and M. College, near Starkville; the State College for Women (opened in 1885 as the Industrial Institute and College for Girls), at Columbus; the Alcorn Agricultural and Mechanical College for Negroes (1871; reorganized in 1878), at Alcorn; the State Teachers college, at Hattiesburg; the Delta. State Teachers college at Cleveland; and many colleges not supported by the State. An agricultural experiment station, established in 1887 under the Hatch act, is at the Agricultural College near Starkville; and there are branch experiment stations at McNeill, Holly

Springs and Stoneville.

Charities and Reformatories.—The charitable institutions of the State are supervised by separate boards of trustees appointed GRAPH OF THE GROWTH OF POPULATION IN MISSISSIPPI, 1800—1920, SHOWING RELATIVE PROPORTIONS OF NEGRO AND WHITE AT EACH CENSUS

lation of more than 14,000 in 1930 were Jackson (48,282), Meridian (31,954), Vicksburg (22,943), Hattiesburg (18,601), Laurel (18,017), Biloxi (14,850) and Greenville (14,807). Finance.—The total receipts and disbursements for the fiscal year ended Sept. 30, 1925 were $17,731,150.70 and $17,756,116.18

respectively.

The State indebtedness Oct. 1, 1925, consisted of

$14,543,250 in outstanding State bonds. Deposits in State banks are protected by a State guaranty fund. On June 30, 1925, there were 36 national banks and 323 State banks, with total resources and liabilities of $248,538,000. Deposits were $159,156,000. Education.—Educational interests were almost entirely neglected during the colonial and Territorial periods. The first school established in the State was Jefferson college, now Jefferson Military college, near Natchez, Adams county, incorporated in 1802. Charters were granted to schools in Claiborne, Wilkinson and

by the governor. Institutions maintained by the State are: the Mississippi Insane hospital, at Jackson; East Mississippi Insane hospital, at Meridian; the school and colony for feeble-minded, at Ellisville; Mississippi State Charity Hospital, at Jackson; South Mississippi Charity Hospital, at Laurel; Matty Hersee Hospital,

at Meridian; the Tuberculosis Sanatorium, at Magee; the Jefferson Davis Beauvoir Memorial Home (for old soldiers), at Biloxi; and a school for the deaf and a school for the blind, at Jackson. State aid is given to the hospitals at Vicksburg and Natchez and also to 2r hospitals distributed over the State. The Mississippi In-

dustrial and Training School for Delinquent and Abandoned Children was established at Columbia in 1916. The farm penitentiaries

of the State are controlled by a board of three trustees elected by the people; they are managed by a superintendent appointed for 4 term of four years by the governor. The convict lease system was abolished by the Constitution of 1890, and State farms were pur

chased in Rankin, Hinds Sunflower county.

and Holmes

counties, and later m '

Industry, Trade and Transport.—Agriculture is the leading

MISSISSIPPI industry of the State, and cotton is the chief product. The total yalue for all farm crops produced in 1926 was estimated at $192,-

758,000, and of this amount the cotton was valued at $112,000,000. Cotton is grown in every county of the State, but the large yields gre in the delta (Bolivar, Coahoma, Washington, Yazoo and Leflore counties), and in Monroe, Lowndes and Noxubee counties on the Alabama border. The acreage of cotton in 1926 was 3,768,000; ;

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basin was 19 ft., but since that time it has been increased to 23 feet. Gulfport is the chief shipping point for Mississippi lumber and also exports much cotton. Along the western border of the State, the Mississippi river is navigable for river steamboats. The first railway in Mississippi was completed from Woodville, Miss., to St. Francisville, La., in 1837, but the State had suffered severely from the panic of 1837, and in 1850 it had only 75 m. of railway.

the end of 1926. Of this total, 3,839 m. were classified as surfaced. History.—At the beginning of the 16th century the territory included in the present State of Mississippi was inhabited by three powerful native tribes: the Natchez in the S.W., the Choctaws in the S.E. and centre, and the Chickasaws in the north. In addition, there were the Yazoos in the Yazoo valley, the Pascagoulas, the Biloxis and a few weaker tribes on the borders of the Mississippi sound. The history of Mississippi may be divided into the period of exploration (1540-1699), the period of

i DN

Aa ar)

t

basin at Gulfport, 4 m. long by 4 m. wide and 19 ft. deep. By

June 1908, the maximum low water draft of the channel and the

In 1924 the total was 4,207 miles. There were 6,721 m. of highway under the control of the State highway department at

Be

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Pi

603

‘

French rule (1699-1763), the period of English rule (1763-81), the period of Spanish rule (1781-98), the territorial period (1798— 1817), and the period of statehood (1817 et seq.). Hernando de Soto (g.v.) and a group of Spanish adventurers crossed the Tombigbee river, in Dec. 1540, near the present city of

i

FU

FOREST,

NEAR

BUSSFIELD,

MISSISSIPPI

the yield was 1,930,000 bales, exclusive of linters (short lengths). The acreage of Indian corn in 1926 was 1,918,000 and the crop was 36,826,000 bushels. The only other cereal of economic sig-

nificance was oats, which had a yield of 1,386,000 bushels. Dairying and early vegetable growing are rapidly becoming important industries. In 1925, the number of farms was 257,228, of which 107,086 were operated by whites and 150,142 by negroes. There was a decrease both in the number of farms and the farm acreage as compared with 1920. There was a slight increase in the relative amount of tenantry during the period of 1920-25. Of the total number of farms in 1925, 80,808 were operated by owners and part owners, 175,742 by tenants, and 678 by managers. The live stock on the farms on Jan. 1, 1928, comprised 106,000 horses, 336,000 mules, 1,269,000 cattle and 878,000 swine. Mississippi, in 1924, ranked second among the Southern States in lumber production, which in 1924 was valued at $92,033,335 and was the greatest in the history of the State, and turpentine and resin were produced to the value of $3,408,879. The legislature in 1924 passed a law tending to promote reforestation. Fishing is a minor industry, confined for the most part to the Mississippi sound and neighbouring waters. The most valuable branches are the oyster and shrimp fisheries. In 1926, the production was 202,668 standard cases of canned oysters worth $966,521, and 163,962 standard cases of shrimps and crabs worth $850,770. The mineral wealth of the State is very limited. Lack of mineral resources, especially of coal and iron, and of a good harbour, until the improvement of Gulfport, discouraged manufacturing. The 1,705 industrial establishments operating within the State in 1925 gave employment to 55,171 wage-earners and had a product valued at $200,453,028. Compared with 1923 these figures show an increase in the number of industries and wage-earners and an increase of $22,381,870 in output. The chief products and their values were as follows: lumber and other timber products, $95,734,039; cotton seed oil, cake and meal, $25,215,846; planing mill

products, $14,656,705; cotton goods, $6,431,273; construction and repair done in steam railway shops, $6,264,710; wood preserving,

$5,274,577; and turpentine and resin, $4,010,022. Laurel, Jackson,

Meridian, Hattiesburg and Vicksburg were the industrial centres. Except for the artificial harbour of Gulfport, the water along

the Gulf coast is too shallow for any but small boats. The Gulf and Ship Island Railroad Company, with the co-operation of the

U.S. Government, in r90r began to dredge a channel 300 ft. wide and r9 ft. deep at mean low tide, and to construct an anchorage

Columbus, marched through the north part of the State, and reached the Mississippi river in what is now Tunica county, Mississippi, in 1541. In 1673 a French expedition, organized in Canada under Jacques Marquette and Louis Joliet, sailed down the Mississippi to the mouth of the Arkansas. Nine years later (1682) René Robert Cavelier, sieur de la Salle, reached the mouth of the river, took formal possession of the country which it drains, and named it Louisiana in honour of Louis XIV. The first European settlement in Mississippi was founded in 1699 by Pierre Lemoyne,

better known as Iberville, at Ft. Maurepas (Old Biloxi) on the east side of Biloxi bay, in what is now Ocean Springs, Jackson county. The site proving unfavourable, the colony moved to Twenty-seven Mile Bluff, on the Mobile river, in 1702, and later to Mobile (1710). The oldest permanent settlements in the State

are (New) Biloxi (c. 1720), situated across the bay from Old Biloxi and nearer to the Gulf, and Natchez or Ft. Rosalie (1716). During the next few years Ft. St. Peter and a small adjoining colony were established on the Yazoo river in Warren county, and some attempts at settlement were made on Bay St. Louis and Pascagoula bay. The efforts (1712-21) to foster colonization and commerce through trading corporations established by Antoine Crozat and John Law failed, and the colony soon came again

under the direct control of the king. In 1729-30 the Natchez tribe destroyed Ft. St. Peter and some of the small outposts. At the close of the Seven Years’ war (1763) France ceded to Great Britain all her territory east of the Mississippi except New Orleans, and Spain ceded Florida to Great Britain. By a royal proclamation (Oct. 7, 1763) these new possessions were divided into East Florida and West Florida, the latter lying south of the 31st parallel: and west of the Chattahoochee and Apalachicola rivers. Crown orders of 1764 and 1767 extended the limits N. to a line due E. from the mouth of the Yazoo at about 32° 28’ N.

latitude. Under British rule there was an extensive immigration into this region from England, Ireland, Georgia, South Carolina and New Jersey. A settlement was made in 1772 by Richard and Samuel Swayze of New Jersey, 18 m. S.E. of Natchez and on the Big Black river 17 m. from its mouth; another in 1774 by Phineas Lyman (1716-74), of Connecticut; while settlements also were made by other “military adventurers,” veterans of the Havana campaign of 1762. Spain took military possession in 1781, and in the Treaty of Paris (1783) both of the Floridas were ceded back to her. But Great Britain recognized the claims of the United

States to the territory as far S. as the 3xst parallel, the line of 1763. Spain adhered to the line of 1764-67, and retained pos-

session of the territory in dispute. Finally, in the Treaty of San Lorenzo el Real (ratified 1796) she accepted the 1763 (31°) boundary, and withdrew her troops in 1798.

604

MISSISSIPPI

Mississippi Territory was then organized, with Winthrop Sargent as governor. The Territorial limits were extended on the

N. to the State of Tennessee in 1804 by the acquisition of the west cessions of South Carolina and Georgia, and on the S. to the Gulf of Mexico by the seizure of West Florida in 1810-13, but were restricted on the E. by the formation of the Territory of

Alabama in 1817. The Choctaws ceded their lands to the United States in 1820 and 1830, and the Chickasaws ceded theirs in 1832; and both tribes removed to the Indian Territory. An enabling act was passed on March 1, 1817, and the State

RIVER

maintained their supremacy and preserved their social system until the adoption of the Constitution of 1890 which disfranchiseq

ignorance, venality and crime. The State has always been Democratic in national politics, except in the presidential elections of 1840 (Whig) and 1872 (Republican). Mississippi has remained mainly agricultural in interest in

spite of legislative encouragement to industry. The loss of lif. and property by successive floods of the Yazoo and the Missis. sippi rivers led to the provisions in the Constitution of 1890 estab.

lishing two great levee districts, the Yazoo-Mississippi delta and was formally admitted into the Union Dec. 10. The first State the Mississippi. Much had been done toward making the low. Constitution (1817) provided a high property qualification for lands safe, but the unprecedentėd floods in the spring of 1927 governor, senator and representative, and empowered the legisla- proved the levees not sufficient. ture to elect the judges and the more important State officials. In A child labour law was passed in 1912. Under its provisions no 1822 the capital was removed to Jackson from Columbia, Marion child under 12 may be employed in any mill or factory and no county. The Constitution of 1832 abolished the property quali- child under 16 may be employed for more than eight hours per fication for holding office and provided for the popular election of day. No employee is permitted to work in any mill or factory more than ten hours per day. The enforcement of this law is judges and State officials. On the death of John C. Calhoun in 1850, the State, under the placed in the hands of the county health offcer. The Torrens sysleadership of Jefferson Davis, began to rival South Carolina as tem of registration of land titles has been in force since rors. A leader of the Southern Constitutionalists in their defence of the State highway commission was appointed in 1916. Mississippi was the first State to ratify the 18th (Prohibition) rights of the States. There was a brief reaction: Henry Stuart Foote (1800-80), Unionist, was elected governor in 1851 over amendment, doing so Jan. 8, 1918. The legislature, however, re. Jefferson Davis, the States’ rights candidate, and in the same year fused to ratify the 19th (woman suffrage) amendment in 1919, a convention had declared almost unanimously that “the asserted and it took no action on the proposed 20th amendment regarding right of secession ... is utterly unsanctioned by the Federal child labour. The State flower is the magnolia and the State Constitution.” But the States’ rights sentiment continued to grow. motto is virtute et armis. The State has a flag as the emblem of An ordinance of secession was passed on Jan. 9, 1861, and the her sovereignty. Constitution was soon amended to conform to the new ConstituBrsriocrAPpHy.—T. A. Owen, “A Bibliography of Mississippi,” in tion of the Confederate States. During the Civil War battles the Annual Report of the American Historical Association, 1899, vol. 1 were fought at Corinth (1862), Port Gibson (1863), Jackson (1900) ; Dunbar Rowland, Mississippi the Heart of the South, two

(1863) and Vicksburg (1863). In 1865 President Johnson appointed as provisional governor William Lewis Sharkey (1797— 1873), who had been chief justice of the State in 1832-50. A

volumes of history and two of biography (1925), the only complete history of the State, based largely on original sources; J. F, H.

Claiborne, Mississippi as a Province, Territory and State (Jackson,

1880), gives a good account of the period, 1699-1817; R. Lowry and

convention which assembled Aug. 14 recognized the “destruction” W. H. McCardle, History of Mississippi (1893) and J. G. Baldwin, The Flush Times of Alabama and Mississippi (1898) are useful for of slavery and declared the ordinance of secession null and void. local history; P. J. Hamilton’s Colonial Mobile (1898) and ColonizaThe first meeting of the legislature after the war for southern in- tion of the South (1904) are of value for the French and English dependence was held Oct. 16, 1865, and at once enacted laws for periods. J. W. Garners Reconstruction in Mississippi (1902) is the protection of the white people of the State, their homes and judicial, scholarly and readable. See also the Publications of the social order, laws which the North interpreted as an effort to re- Mississippi Historical Society (Oxford, Miss., 1898 seq.); Publications of the Department of Archives and History; and the Encyclopaedia store slavery, but which, in fact were for the preservation of of Mississippi History (2 vol., Madison, Wisconsin, 1907), edited by civilization. Under the reconstruction act of March 2, 1867, Miss- Dunbar Rowland. For administration see Henry L. Whitfield’s Know Mississippi issippi with Arkansas formed the fourth military district, commanded successively by Generals E. O. C. Ord (1867), Alvan C. (1926) and the Biennial Reports of the the various State departments and institutions. For population, occupations, etc. consult the FourGillem (1868) and Irvin McDowell (June-July 1868), and by teenth United States Census. Physical features are treated by E. N. Gillem (1868-69) and Adelbert Ames (1869~70). Under the lat- Lowe, Mississippi: Its Geology, Geography and Soils (Mississippi ter the legally constituted civil officers of the State were ejected geological survey, Bulletin r2) and in the reports of the U.S. Geological Survey (consult the various bibliographies). (D. R.) from office by military force. The notorious “Black and Tan Convention” of 1868 adopted a MISSISSIPPI GULF COAST TO CHICAGO HIGHConstitution which conferred suffrage upon the negroes, and by WAY (Magnolia Route), an American highway connecting Chithe imposition of test oaths disfranchised the leading whites. It cago with the Gulf of Mexico at Bay St. Louis, Miss., just east was at first rejected at the polls, but was finally ratified in Nov. of New Orleans, La. It is about 1,050 m. long and the most 1869 without the disfranchising clauses. The 14th and 15th amend- direct road in this region. It runs almost due north and south ments to the Federal Constitution were ratified in 1870, and the and serves Terre Haute, Ind., Madisonville, Ky., Clarksville, State was formally readmitted into the Union on Feb. 23 of that Tenn., Tupelo, Laurel and Gulfport, Miss. year. MISSISSIPPI RIVER (Algonquin, Missi Sipi, or “great From 1870 to 1875 the Government was under the control of river”), the central trunk of the great river system draining that “carpet-baggers,” negroes and the most disreputable element part of the United States which lies between the Appalachian

among the native whites.

Taxes were increased—expenditure in-

creased nearly threefold between 1869 and 1871—and there was much official corruption; but the State escaped the heavy burden of debt imposed upon its neighbours, by reason of Constitutional inhibitions. The Democrats carried the legislature in 1875 and preferred impeachment charges against Gov. Adelbert Ames, who had been military governor (see above) and was a native of

Maine, a graduate of the U.S. Military Academy (1861) and a soldier in the Union Army. The lieutenant governor, A. K. Davis, a negro, was impeached and removed from office; T. W. Cardoza, another negro, superintendent of education under Ames, was impeached on 12 charges of malfeasance, but was permitted to resign. Gov. Ames, when the impeachment charges against him were dismissed on March 29, 1876, immediately resigned. The whites

Mountains on the east and the Rocky Mountains on the west. Together

with over

40 tributaries which

are navigable for at

least part of their courses it forms one of the great inland naviga-

tion systems of the world. Over 15,000 m. of waterway are capable of being used for commercial transport purposes. The entire area drained by the river and its tributaries is about I,240,000 sq.m., or over one-third the area of the United States. Over this drainage area there is an average annual precipitation

of 29-8 in., of which about one-fourth ultimately finds its way to

the sea via the Mississippi.

The total annual discharge at us

mouth is estimated at 785,190,000,000 cu.yd., and the total amount

of sediment

406,250,000 tons.

carried into the Gulf

annually is about Pee.

The Mississippi river rises in the lake region of northern Minne-

MISSISSIPPI RIVER sota and flows in a southerly direction to the Gulf of Mexico. Its yitimate headspring has been found in Little Elk lake about though the exact distance varies with its mouth, m. from a2.560 shifting river bed The river valley may be conveniently divided

into the Upper Mississippi and the Lower Mississippi, the con-

fuence with the Missouri, the longest tributary, being the divid-

ing point. Like the Missouri and the Ohio, the Upper Mississippi may then be thought of as merely a chief tributary to the Lower

605

to over Ioo feet, As the river flows through its alluvial plain it builds natural embankments or levees along its immediate shore. These natural levees are higher than the remainder of the flood plain, the fallaway to the inland averaging 7 ft to the first mile. Often the bed of the river actually lies higher than the surrounding country. The natural levees have been supplemented by artificial levees

Mississippi, and the contributions of the three most important branches may be compared as follows:— Per cent

Average annual rainfall

ater ee | Missouri. |Upper Mississippi oho.

.

r

20°9

. :

35°2

41*5

Per cent | of final of rainfall | discharge draining | of Mis-

off

sissippi supplied

15

14

24

3I

24

5

k

ti =o

B.

TAE

18 A

-K ry

These three rivers thus represent 63% of the Mississippi’s dis-

charge at the Gulf.

r

a

Below the mouth of the Ohio the chief

tributaries are the Arkansas and Red rivers with extensive drainage basins (187,000 and 93,000 sq.m. respectively) and the St. Francis and Yazoo with much smaller basins, but with a far heavier rainfall, of which almost 75% finds its way to the Mis-

sissippi. The Missouri river flows 2,950 m. from the Rocky Mountains before it enters the Mississippi and, if to its length is

added the 1,250 m. of the Lower Mississippi, the combination of the two forms the longest river in the world. From its source at a comparatively slight elevation (1,670 ft. above sea-level) to its mouth the incline of the Mississippi river proper is gentle and almost uniform. Its upper course is through many marshes and lakes, and its valley south to the Falls of St. Anthony at Minneapolis is shallow and young, lying on a bed of glacial deposit through which it has cut but slightly. Entering the driftless area below the Falls of St. Anthony its trench becomes deeper and all the way to Cape Girardeau, Mo., its bed lies 400 to 600 ft. below the level of the surrounding prairies. This valley trench is 2 to 6 m. wide, with a comparatively level flopr, and is bordered by abrupt bluffs, mostly wooded, but often crowned above their talus slopes with precipitous limestone and sandstone cliffs which add greatly to the beauty of the region. This trench was cut in pre-glacial times, and its rock floor, as determined by well borings, was then 100 to 200 ft. below the present river bed and a little steeper in its incline toward the south. The outwash of glacial sand and gravel later filled the trench to, or slightly above, its present level. During the retreat of the ice the Mississippi carried a much greater volume of water than at present. Glacial Lake Agassiz in the valley of the Red river (of the North), with its natural northern drainage blocked by ice flowed southward through the Minnesota river into the Mississippi. Likewise the Great Lakes, their St. Lawrence outlet dammed, drained into the Mississippi; Lake Superior by the St. Croix river, Lake Michigan by the Tllinois, and Lake Erie by the

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ope of f. ORNS :

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BY COURTESY OF THE ENGINEER DEPARTMENT, U.S. ARMY REPAIRING A BREAK IN A LEVEE ON THE MISSISSIPPI

RIVER

which are relied upon to protect the country from floods. These serve for the lower floods, but there are few high floods where the bank is not cut and a crevasse opened at some weak spot through which the waters pour over the lowland plantations. The levees cease with the arable lands, beyond which, in the delta, the land lies too low for cultivation. The delta, built up of the enormous amount of sediment brought down by the river, extends out into the Gulf in the pattern of a goose foot. Over this great mud plain, the river spreads, breaking up into branches or “passes,” as they are locally known, each of which in turn extends far out into the water where it has built up its own smaller delta. On the farthest banks nothing grows except the tall reeds which give a little cohesion to the mud. There are five chief openings, South-west pass, South pass, South-east pass, North-east pass and Pass a l’Outre. At different times shifting conditions made steamers use first one pass and then another, but after 1878 engineering works made South pass the principal entrance, The volume of water carried by the Mississippi varies greatly with the seasons. Usually the river is lowest in early autumn and again in early winter. A minor rise in November is generally checked by the freezing of the upper tributaries. In January a rise again commences, as a consequence of early rains from the

Gulf which sweep over the upper Ohio valley before the frost leaves the ground, and carry along with them the melting snows of the mountains. Unless the Ohio river contributes its general spring flood, it is rare that a large Mississippi flood follows. The Upper Mississippi has its heaviest rainfall in May and its waters and those of the Missouri do not reach Cairo at the mouth of the

Ohio until the crest of the Ohio flood has passed. It is when the waters of the upper Mississippi are unusually early, or rainfall precipitates a second flood in the Ohio valley, so that the two

Wabash and other rivers, From Cape Girardeau southward the highlands fall back to a crests meet, or one precedes but slightly and holds back the other, much greater distance from the Mississippi and the river flows that, a great flood occurs. The comparative height of floods is through an alluvial plain of its own making. Only at two points more accurately measured at Cairo than at lower points where the

on the west--New Madrid, Mo., and Helena, Ark.—and at several

points on the east—~Columbus and Hickman, Ky., the Chickasaw bluffs and various localities between Vicksburg and Baton Rouge ~da the hills approach the river banks. These places are impor-

tant for they offer the chief sites for towns and cities, Elsewhere

levels may be artificially affected by crevasse breaks.

A height of

50 ft, or more above low water at Cairo generally results in a

major flood which the levees are not capable of withstanding.

Before the great flood of 1927 the record height was 54-69 ft. in

The flood of 1927, the highest on record, registered 56-4 ft. ihe river banks are unstable, for the river itself is constantly at1913, Cairo.

shifting--islands becoming peninsulas, peninsulas becoming islands,

This great flood lasting more than six weeks with 47 recorded sight bends becoming in time long meanders, and these in turn levee breaks, inundated about 28,000 sq.m. and submerged the becoming old river channels with crescent-shaped lakes as the homes of 759,090 people. Over 600,090 people were rendered mver again cute across its peninsula. From Cape Girardeau to destitute and were temporarily dependent upon the American Red the Gulf in a straight line is about 600 m., but by the windings Cross and other relief agencies for shelter, food and medical of the Mississippi it is almost 1,700 m, From the Ohio to the attention, Property and other flood losses were finally fixed at bead

of the delta the river steadily diminishes in width from 1,590 $355,147,000, Expenditures of the Red Crass were more than lo about 800 yd,, but increases in depth from an average of 50 $14,000,900 and those of the Federal Government during the six

MISSISSIPPI

606

weeks were estimated at $5,000,000. As a result of the catastrophe, flood relief legislation by Congress became an urgent matter, and in Dec. 1927, President Coolidge submitted to that body the flood-control plan of Major-general Jadwin, chief of army engineers, calling for expenditures on the Lower Mississippi

totalling $296,400,000.

(X.) ENGINEERING

The engineering of the Mississippi river has two purposes, viz., improvement of its navigation and control of its floods so as to protect the adjacent alluvial lands from overflows. Both the work for navigation and that for flood control have always been executed by U.S. army engineers. Until 1928, the Mississippi River Commission, composed of three army engineers and four civilians, directed the work which was executed under the supervision of engineer officers of the army. Since 1928 the commission AREAS OF OVERFLOW BY STATES

ILLINOIS MISSOURI KENTUCKY TENNESSEE ARKANSAS MISSISSIPPI LOUISIANA

| |

TOTAL SQ

65 2874 125 453 4652 6926 14695 MILES

RIVER

to effect any material improvement

of the navigable channel

Navigation.—The Mississippi river has its source in numer.

ous lakes in the northern part of Minnesota, its origin bein traced to Little Elk lake. It flows in a southerly direction about 2,560 m. into the Gulf of Mexico.

The navigation in the Vicinit

of the headwaters of the Mississippi has been improved by gy reservoirs and by dredged cut-offs. The six reservoirs are, Winnj. bigoshish, Leech lake, Pokegama, Sandy lake, Pine river ang Gulf lake. They have a combined storage capacity of 93,662.~ 093,290 cubic feet. The construction of the reservoirs hasresulted in a greater channel depth and more uniform flow in the Mississippi river above Lake Pepin, 52 m. below St. Paul, Minn., and has made possible continuous navigation during the season op some stretches above St. Paul, where formerly it was subject

to interruption on account of low water, and has assisted navigation at and immediately below St. Paul. Computations have indicated that under the system in operation in 1928 the reser. voirs can produce an average increase in gauge height of rs ft. at St. Paul during low-water season. The reservoirs also are of value in mitigating the effects of floods in the river above $t, Paul. Dredged cut-offs above Lake Pokegama and the. partial closing

of auxiliary channels by suitable dams have brought about the more rapid transmission of water from Lake Winnibigoshish and

Leech lake reservoirs to the Pokegama distributing reservoir, and

29790

thus made it available for more prompt release there when needed.

At the site of the Twin City lock and dam near Minneapolis, the discharge of the Mississippi varies from 1,000 to 54,000 second

feet. The river in this section has an average slope of 5 ft. per

Jal i: A

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i

i

To

boa

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o

50

rORSE SHOE Ly foerv vr x

YOCOHA

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ae ea

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i

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a

a

7 | AREAS BY BASINS Rus Ek5

UN aS re wb; )

AUnELO E

ZLMONVG “g

MAP

OF AREAS

2

ALONG

THE MISSISSIPPI

nWAZOO

ST FRANCIS YAZOO WHITE RIVER TENSAS ATCHAFALAYA PONTCHARTRAIN LA FOURCHE

6706 6648 956 5370 6C85 2C0O1 2024

TOTAL SQ MILES

29790

RIVER SUBJECT

TO OVERFLOW

has directed the work as before but it has done so under the supervision of the chief of engineers of the army and the direc-

tion of the secretary for war. Some theories link the flood control structures and the navigation improvements together and claim that the control of floods causes the flood waters to improve navigation channels by their own action. It is true that bank revetments serve to prevent’ bank caving which keeps earth out of the river channel and also saves levees from caving into the river. ‘These revetments, therefore, serve both navigation and flood control. However, although some structures serve both purposes, it is not proved that the flood waters themselves are forced

mile and an average width of 700 feet. This lock and dam have extended navigation to the Washington Avenue bridge, Minneapolis, Minn., 1,944 miles above the mouth of the Mississippi with a low water depth of 6 feet. It will make possible the direct shipment of flour and grain from Minneapolis to the Gulf of Mexico by water and of coal and other bulky freight from down-river points to Minneapolis. The improvement has also made possible the development, under licence from the Federal Power Commission, of water-power with a maximum installed capacity of 18,000 horse power. The project depth for the navigable channel of the Mississippi, from Minneapolis south to the northern boundary of the city of St. Louis is 6 feet. This stretch is improved principally by regulating works but it includes the Twin City lock and dam at Minneapolis, the lock and dams at Moline and at Smith island in the Rock Island rapids, the lock and dam at Keokuk, Ia., and a lock and dam under construction near Hastings, Minn. The distance from the head of navigation at Minneapolis to the mouth of the Missouri is 669 miles. From the mouth of the Missouri to the northern boundary of St. Louis it is 6 miles. The low water discharge at St. Paul, Minn., is 2,500 sec.ft., and above the mouth of the Missouri it is 20,000 second feet. The highwater discharge at Rock Island, IIl., is about 250,000 second feet. The current is gentle except on the Rock Island rapids, the average fall being 0-576 ft. to the mile; on the rapids 1-48 ft. to the mile. The width between banks varies from 1,000 ft. at St. Paul to about 5,000 ft. at the mouth of the Missouri river. The navigable channel throughout the 675 m. referred to above has been improved by regulating works, by dredging and by the locks and dams mentioned. The regulating works consist of spur dikes by which the low-water channel is made sufficiently narrow to force the low-water flow to scour its own channel 6 ft. deep. This low-water channel varies in width from 200 ft. to 1,400 ft. between the Illinois and Missouri rivers. The spur dikes have 4

crest elevation of 4 ft. above low water above Quincy, IIL, and

6 ft. above low water below Quincy to the Missouri river. | The spur dikes generally consist of piles of stone extending out from the banks either perpendicular to the bank or in some cases oblique to the bank. Where necessary the bank at the starting point of a dike is paved with riprap. The dikes in many cases are built of a layer of brush, then a layer of stone, wll the desired height is obtained. In some cases dikes consist of two rows of piles tied together, with brush and stone in between. V2

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MISSISSIPPI RIVER PLATE

MISSISSIPPI RIVER the bottom there may be a mat through which the piles are driven.

The regulating works are assisted in their action, where necessary,

by dredging in order to maintain the low-water depth of 6 ft. throughout the navigable season. In a relatively few places rock excavation has been made to form the channel desired. The lock and dam at Keokuk as well as dry-dock, buildings, etc., were built by the Mississippi River Power Company and turned over to the Government free, in return for power rights given to that

company. The dimensions of the lock in the clear are 380 by sro ft. with a lift of 41 ft. at extreme low water. The dry-dock is 380 by 170 ft., with entrance gates 110 ft. wide. From St. Louis, Mo., to Baton Rouge, La., the existing project

607

narrow portions of the banks of the pass for the purpose of strengthening these banks; for the closure of minor outlets; for the construction of sills to prevent the enlargement of gaps and other outlets; for dredging in the river at the Head of the Passes; and for other minor work. The jetties are composed of a substructure of brush mattresses surmounted with a superstructure of concrete or large riprap. Spur dikes are composed of cribwork of round piling filled with willows and stone or with a curtain of round piles along the upstream face. The South pass (3 m. long and 750 ft. wide) has been improved by similar works and its navigable depth has been increased from 9 to 30 ft. at the mouth and from 13 to 36 ft. at the Head of the Passes so that larger and deeper draught vessels are permitted

provides for a channel not less than 300 ft. wide and 9 it. in depth. This channel is to be secured and maintained by con- to enter. traction works and by dredging. Below the mouth of the Missouri river, the banks of the Mississippi are not as stable as above the Missouri so that the type of regulating work used in the lower river generally is different from that used in the upper stretches

Flood Control_—The lands bordering the course of the Mississippi river below the vicinity of Rock Island, Ill, some

1,550 m. above the mouth have always been subject to overflow from floods, and man has sought to protect these fertile lands of the river. From St. Louis to Cairo, Ill. (the mouth of the and make use of them for agriculture without incurring the Ohio river) the Mississippi has been improved by spur dikes con- damage incident to overflows. From Rock Island south to Cape sisting of four rows of piles tied together, extending into the Girardeau, Mo., on the west side and to Cairo, Ill., on the east stream perpendicular to the banks. The banks at the bases of side (about 500 m.) the lands bordering the river, subject to the spur dikes are revetted with riprap and mattresses for a overflow, are comparatively narrow, and their protection is not distance of 100 ft. or more above and below. A mattress is as vital as is the protection of the alluvial valley proper, south placed on the bottom of the river through which the piles are of Cape Girardeau. These comparatively narrow lands are gendriven. Brush or brush and stone are placed between the piles. erally from 3 to 5 m. wide, while the broad alluvial valley south The current is checked by the dike and deposit from the current of Cape Girardeau is some 50 m. wide and about 600 m. long builds up the structure. The contraction of the river by these in a direct line (1,000 m. by river). From the earliest times protection against floods has been works causes the necessary depth to be scoured in the channel between the outer ends of dikes or between the outer ends of secured in varying degrees by levees along the river. The indikes on one side and the bank of the river on the other side. habitants first constructed their own local protection by throwing Banks which thus form one side of the channel are made stable up earthen mounds around their individual plantations. Then by mattresses below low water and paving on the bank above there were combinations of owners and communities, which protected, by levees, larger areas. Levee districts were formed and low water. The above-described contraction works are aided and supple- chartered in each State until there were about 27 of these mented by dredging. During the low-water season suction dredges districts in the alluvial valley proper, in addition to those north move from bar to bar and dredge out the navigable channel of the valley. For many years the U.S. Government carefully wherever it has shoaled to less than g ft. in depth. These dredges refrained from accepting any responsibility for flood protection. are generally self-propelling and have been developed to a very Then in 1879, the Mississippi River Commission was formed by efficient status. Below the mouth of the Ohio river (Cairo, Ill.) the Federal Government and charged with making surveys and dredging has been used in the past more than contraction works studies of the Mississippi river. For years thereafter the primary for the maintenance of channels, but contracting spur dikes and function of the Federal work was the improvement of navigation bank revetments are being extended southward so as to reduce the with flood control incidental. It was claimed and assumed that amount of maintenance by dredging that has been necessary in the levees and bank revetment for flood control improved the the past. As the Mississippi flows southward it becomes larger navigable channel and that the United States had no responsiand larger from the inflow of tributaries, the maintenance of bility except for this purpose. More recently legislative acts a low-water channel 9 ft. in depth becomes less and less difficult, have frankly authorized Federal money to be spent for flood and the places where either contraction works or dredging are protection without regard to navigation. For many years the funds of the United States could not be necessary become farther and farther apart. From Baton Rouge to New Orleans, La., a channel depth of 34 ft. or more over a spent for levees unless local interests contributed a material least width of several hundred feet has obtained naturally in proportion of the cost. Local contributions were turned over to the river, although there has been occasional shoaling to a depth Federal authorities who did the work. The local contributions to between 28 and 34 ft. in one or two short stretches. The existing the work in the alluvial valley have been reduced until now local project for this stretch of the river (132 m. long) provides for interests provide only rights of way for levees on the main river. a channel 35 ft. deep at low water and 300 ft. wide to be main- North of the alluvial valley proper and on tributaries subject to tained by dredging. No work has been necessary so far to main- backwater, local interests provide rights of way and contribute one third the cost. During the 30 years that the Federal Governtain this channel, and work will rarely be necessary. From New Orleans, La., to the Head of the Passes (about ment has been actively engaged in improving the Mississippi

94 m.) through which the Mississippi flows into the Gulf of river, many theories have been advanced for its improvement.

These have always aimed at using the force of the water to accomplish the desired results. It cannot be denied that in certain ways this is possible and that to some extent it is practicable and has produced some desired results. But never have the results been as great as expected, nor have they been proved conclusively, The theory which has had the most advocates, and which has dredging. The existing project provides for a channel 1,000 ft. Wide and 35 ft. deep. The general plan of improvement provides been actually tried to the greatest extent is that of “levees' only” for contracting the lower 8-3 m. of the pass to a width of 1,750 ft. or that an alluvial stream tends to make a channel to accommodate

Mexico, the natural channel is generally sufficient for oceangoing vessels. Of the several outlets into the gulf, two, the South pass and the South-west pass, have been improved and require continuous improvement for navigation. The South-west pass 1s 19-8 m. long. It is improved by contraction works and

by means of jetties, spur dikes, and inner bulkheads; for dredgIng the channel

between

the bulkheads

and

depositing

the

dredging material between the bulkheads and jetties; for dredging

a channel through the outer bar inclining to the left of the jetty axis; for the construction of small revetted openings through the

itself, that its confinement by levees would cause ‘the’ flood waters

to scour out a channel large enough to accommodate flood: flows: The confinement of the waters of the Mississippi by levees has

substantially raised the flood heights. Even if the “levees only” theory be correct, it does not solve the problem, because the

MISSISSIPPI RIVER

608

floods must be controlled before there has elapsed enough time for such a theory to work out. The water must be provided for now and after extreme stages are provided for, a possible future enlargement in size of channel is of little practical value. A gradual filling of the banks of the river between the levees and the

growth of the islands in the river tend to counterbalance scour in

the channel proper. Several thousand cross-sections of the river measured from time to time do not show any material change in the channel

itself. Although the confinement of the river between levees has caused large increases in flood heights, it has not caused as

yet any cumulative changes in the elevation of the river bed itself. The bed and natural banks of the river are continually undergoing the local changes found in any alluvial stream subject to a widely varying discharge, but the gross effect of these changes

on the discharge capacity of any considerable section of the river proper, since the construction of levees, is so small as to be less than the limits of accuracy of measurement. After a review of all the evidence, it is concluded that neither the levees nor the crevasses

that have occurred in them have had any

measurable effect on the capacity of the channel of the river itself to carry off flood waters. It is not necessary to discuss the effect of a spillway system

20 ft.). Opposite Cairo, Ill, the river bank levee on the wey side of the river is to be lowered to elevation corresponding to

55 on the Cairo gauge, and a new levee is to be constructed abo sm. back at elevation corresponding to 60 on the Cairo gauge

With this set-back floodway available the stage of the project

superflood will be held to one foot below the elevation of the top of the main line levees in this locality. From New Madrid south to the Arkansas river the superflood is to be confined within the river-side levees. Just below the Arkansas there is to he a fuse plug or relief levee some 35 or 40 m. in length with crow,

elevation generally about 3 ft, below the top of the riverside

levee grades. This situation is to be brought about, by leaving the present levee in the vicinity of Arkansas City at its existing height, from 35 to 40 m. in length, and raising all other levees

3 feet. The good lands in the Tensas basin on the west side are to be protected against water flowing over the top or through the fuse plug section by levees and natural ridges that will bound

the Boeuf river bottom southwards to below Sicily island, where the backwater area at the mouth of the Red river begins, Below

the mouth of Red river there will be another fuse plug section at the head of the Atchafalaya basin consisting of the existing levee at its present height. The main river levee lines other than the fuse plug section will be raised about 3 feet. In the Atcha-

on the discharge capacity of the river. Before the construction

falaya basin there will be protecting levees to confine the water to the lowlands and to protect the good lands. Just above New

the regimen of the river, The river channel is made and maintained by the river flowing the year round below the bank-full stage. If the periods of overflow lasting only a limited time could be confined, they would not for an extremely long time, if at all, affect appreciably the results of the channel-forming

emptying into a floodway about 5 m. long and some 1 to 2 m. wide which will empty into Lake Pontchartrain. The main river at

of levees, water spilled generally over the banks in every flood. There is no evidence that spilling has yet permanently affected

processes operating continuously.

Unproved theories concerning

the river channel as affected by levees or relief spillways have no practical bearing on plans for flood relief. Flood relief by means of reforestation or by reservoirs has no place in practical flood control for the alluvial valley of the Mississippi.

Reforestation

could not possibly have more than

an incidental and very minor effect on reducing flood stages. When the Mississippi watershed was in its original state of virgin forests, there occurred floods probably as great as those of

Orleans, near Bonnet. Carre, there will be a controlled spillway Cairo will carry about 1,900,000 sec.ft, and the set-back floadway

about 450,000 second feet. At Arkansas City the main river will

carry about 1,950,009 sec.ft. and the balance will go down the Boeuf basin. At the latitude of the mouth of the Red River the main river will carry about 1,590,000 sec.ft. and the balance can go down the Atchafalaya basin. At Bonnet Carre 250,000 sec.ft. can be taken out of the main river leaving 1,250,000

sec.ft. to go by New Orleans at a stage of 20 or under.

The floodway from Cairo to New Madrid will have a minimum

width of 5 miles. The width between the protecting levees in the Boeuf basin will be from 10 to 25 m. and in the Atchafalaya basin from 12 to 25 miles.

The excess waters that will flow

of all tributary

through the fuse plug sections and down the lowlands in the

Reservoirs in the valley as well as at the headwaters would have an appreciable effect in reducing floods in the valley but their cost is prohibitive.

in computing the protection to be provided in these basins. The levees that will protect the valley against the superflood will have a section that will be ample to include the line of saturation

modern

times.

Reservoirs

at the headwaters

streams would not store the water that falls in the valley itself.

The practical way to provide for flood control of the Mississippi river is to permit the flood waters of excessive floods to spill out of the main channel at selected points when stages reach the danger point. Then this water must he allowed to flow to the Gulf of.Mexico through the most efficient natural drainage basins. The overflows into these basins must be limited

side basins will rarely, it ever, be as much as the amounts used

and will vary with the material and foundations in different

localities. For loam (the predominating material) the section will generally have a river-side slope of 1 on 34, a crown of 10 ft, and a land side slope which will include a line of saturation,

starting from the river-side slope at an elevation of 1 ft, below

the crown elevation and running back with a slope of 1 on 6}.

The levees will vary in height generally from 20 to 25 ft., with greater heights where they cross depressions, For the protection of the levees against caving banks the same after protection of life is provided for. The water within the river channel does no damage and flows to the gulf with the kind of reyetments that are used for navigation works are used.

by natural ridges or by secondary levees whose location is determined on the economic basis of how much value they protect,

utmest efficiency because of its high velocities. It should be kept within the channel as long as possible. The excess above the safecarrying capacity of the main channel must be spilled through

safety valves.

Protection Planned.—The existing project adopted in 1928

provided for protecting the good Jands bordering the Mississippi

These are made either of brush or concrete. Below the low-water line a flexible mattress is sunk ta lie on the sloping bottom, Above the low-water line the bank is paved with one man stone or concrete usually laid on a gravel base. The flexible mattresses

are built on barges and slid into the water, where they are anchored over their location until they are sunk in place by dumping rock

against the maximum flood predicted as possible. This flood on them from barges. The hanks above the mattresses are graded was predicted by the best experts on the subject who said that by hand or by hydraulic jet to the slope desired and then paved.

it might occur on the average only once in two hundred years, The brush mattress consists of willows with diameters of from It is a flood which, if confined, is computed te produce a stage t to 4 in. woyen with galvanized iron cable into facies and the of from 63 to 66 at Cairo, Tl. (corresponding to a discharge of facines are woven into a continuous mat all in one operation. from 2,250,a00 to 2,459,000 sec.ft.); a stage if confined, of 74 The flexible concrete mats are of concrete slabs reinforced with at Arkansas City (corresponding to an outflow of about 2,850,900 galvanized wire and connected together by galvanized et sec.ft.), and a flood with a discharge at the mouth of Red river HISTORY of about 3,090,000 second feet. Above Cairo, DL, the project flood is to be confined between the river-side levees since it can early Spanish explorer, discovered an Soto, de Hernando be thus confined with levees not of excessive heights (about fhe lower course of the Mississippi river in 1541. The Spaniard t

MISSOLONGHI—-MISSOURI

609

bigh railway rates. For such non-perishable articles as steel and coal where bulk is large and delivery is not urgent, the river is again coming to the fore as a carrier. Traffic now takes the Lake Michigan by the Fox—Wisconsin river route to the Missis- form of tugs which guide or tow trains of modern steel barges, sippi and were probably the first white men on the upper course. one tug economically handling a load which would require 400 They voyaged south to the mouth of the Arkansas. In 1682 to 600 freight cars. During the World War the U.S. Government Ie Salle (g.v.) entered the Mississippi by the Illinois route established a line of boats as a common carrier between St. Louis and was the first to explore it southward to its mouth. There and New Orleans, which was after the war incorporated as the he took formal possession of the entire drainage basin of the Inland Waterways Corporation. Though at first it was run at Mississippi for France, naming it “Louisiana” in honour of Louis a loss it began in 1924 to produce a substantial profit. In 1926 XIV. Under his orders Michel Accault voyaged northward from the Mississippi carried a freight burden amounting to 691,637 the mouth of the Illinois as far as the Falls of St. Anthony in tons on the upper river between Minneapolis and the Missouri, Minnesota, thus completing for France the exploration of the 1,005,979 tons between the mouths of the Missouri and Ohio greater part of the river. French settlements were founded at rivers, 1,660,188 tons between the Ohio and Memphis, 4,792,780 Cahokia and Kaskaskia, Llinois, ¢. 1700 and New Orleans, 1718. tons between Memphis and Vicksburg and 11,074,488 tons from By the treaty of Paris (1 763) that part of the Mississippi Memphis to New Orleans. Exports to foreign countries from the valley east of the river (except the site of New Orleans on the port of New Orleans amounted to ,10,091,594 tons, imports to east side of the river) was transferred from France to England, 5,654,859 tons, coastwise traffic to 766,883 tons. Together with while the remainder of the valley was secretly ceded to Spain. internal receipts and shipments up the Mississippi, exports and The United States by the treaty (1783) at the close of the Revo- imports of the port were valued at a grand total of $945,458,088. BrsriocRaPHy.—E. Parkman La Salle and the Discovery of the lutionary War secured title to the British portion. To the settlers Great West (1907 ed.) ; J. D. Shea, Discovery and Exploration of the already crossing the Alleghenies in great numbers the Ohio and Mississippi River (1903 ed.) ; F. A. Ogg, The Opening of the Mississippi Mississippi rivers furnished the most natural outlet for their prod- (1904) ; Mark Twain, Life on the Mississippi (1883) ; H. and E. Quick, nets. Floating these down the river on rafts and flat-boats to Mississippi Steamboatin’ (1926); C. E. Russell, A Rafting on the Old New Orleans where they might be transferred to ocean vessels Mississip’ (1928); J. Chambers, The Mississippi River (1910); L.

did not follow up his discovery and there is no further record of white men on the river for 132 years. In 1673 two French lorers, Louis Joliet (g.v.) and Father Marquette went from

was much cheaper than carrying them overland across the mountains. To these settlers Spanish control of both sides of the river at New Orleans was a continual annoyance. A treaty with

Saxon, Father Mississippi

(1927);

R. M.

Brown,

“The

Mississippi

River from Cape Girardeau to the Head of the Passes,” in Bulletins of the American

Geographical

Society

(1902-03);

J. L. Mathews,

Remaking the Mississippi (1909); B. G. Humphreys, Floods and Spain in 1795 secured for Americans the right to deposit goods . Levees of the Mississippi River (*914). Publications of the Minnesota,

while they were awaiting transfer to ocean ships, but in 1802 the Spanish Intendant closed the river to all navigation by Americans, In the meantime Spain had transferred Louisiana to France.

Wisconsin, Illinois, Missouri, Louisiana and Mississippi State Historical societies contain many historical articles. See also Annual Reports of the Mississippi River Commission.

the chief rush of immigration into the Mississippi valley luckily coincided with the introduction and development of the steamboat. Only four years after Fulton made his memorable journey up the Hudson river, the first steamboat came puffing down the Mississippi. Thirty years later the steamboat period was at its zenith; 30 years more and it had declined before the competition ofeast-west railways. This was a gay and colourful period in the history of the river, one which furnished later writers with many a theme for romance. It is impossible to overemphasize the concrete contribution made by the steamboat to the development of the Mississippi valley, for waiting for the completion of railways would have postponed its general settlement for a generation. Besides the numerous freight steamers the picturesque, wellei passenger steamers were a notable feature of the period. During the Civil War the operations of the western division ofthe Union army were largely devoted to securing control of

Root; the county seat of Missoula county, the seat of the State university, and the metropolis of the western part of the Statė. It is on Federal highways 10 and 93, and is served by the Chicago,

MISSOLONGHI or MESOLONGHI (Meoodéyyrov), the Indignation in the trans-Allegheny settlements was running so high that President Jefferson authorized Robert Livingston to chief town of the province of Acarnania-and-Aetolia, Greece; on treat with Napoleon in an effort to purchase enough territory to the N. side of the Gulf of Patras, about 7 m. from the coast; secure for the United States control of the outlets of the Missis- pop. (1928) 9,270; notable for the siege which Mavrocordato and sippi. The unexpected result was the accession of the entire terri- Botzaris sustained in 1822 and 1823 against a Turkish army tory of Louisiana, comprising the entire western drainage basin t1,000 strong, and for the more famous defence of 1825—26. Byron died here in 1824, and is commemorated by a cenotaph. of the river. MISSOULA, a city of western Montana, U.S.A., on the Early traffic down the Mississippi was mostly by barges or keel-boats, and the return trip was rarely attempted. However, Clark Fork of the Columbia river, at the mouth of the Bitter

the Mississippi.

Land operations from the north were supple-

mented by the brilliant naval operations of Farragut from the South, and finally, with the fall of Vicksburg and Port Hudson,

Milwaukee,

St. Paul and Pacific and the Northern Pacific rail-

ways. Pop. (1920) was 12,668 (86% native white); 1930 Federal census 14,657. The city lies on a broad plain (the bed of a glacial lake) 3,223 ft. above sea-level. The steep eastern wall of the valley is formed by Mount Jumbo and University mountain

(Mount Sentinel), which rise abruptly over the city; and 5 or 6 m. to the west is the Bitter Root range. The university (opened in 1895) occupies a campus of roo ac. at the foot of Mount Sentinel. Its property is valued at $2,250,000. ‘The enrolment in 1927—28 was 2,272. Affiliated is the Montana School of Re-

ligion (organized 1924).

On the Bitter Root river, 2 m. S.W.

of the city, is Ft. Missoula, one of the important military posts of the mountain region; and 18 m. west is the Flathead Indian reservation. The city has railroad shops, an oil refinery and other manufacturing industries, with an output in 1925 valued

at $3,870,703. The first settlement in this region was made in 1841, when Father De Smet founded the Mission of St. Mary

the Confederacy was cut in two and President Lincoln was able to announce that “The Father of the Waters again goes unvexed

where Stevensville now stands (30 m. S. of Missoula). The area now covered by Missoula county was included in the Territory

after the Civil War, but in addition to the increasing inroads of ralways, it was checked by the bar at the mouth of the South-

of Oregon from 1848 to 1853, in the Territory of Washington from 1853 to 1863, in Idaho Territory for part of 1863 and of 1864, and became a part of Montana when that territory was organized in 1864. The city was founded in 1865 and incorporated

to the sea.” There was some revival of Mississippi commerce

West pass, Relief was obtained through the Eads jetties at the mouth of South pass in 1879, but still steamboat companies did in 1883. Settlers were so isolated that the result of the presihot prosper. | dential election of Nov. 1856, was not known until the following , Commerce.—Until recent years river transportation was in April.

‘self of secondary importance, but the river still served and will

continue to serve in an important rôle as an effective check to

MISSOURI, popularly known as the “Show Me” State, occu-

pies a central position in a group of 17 States which comprise

MISSOURI

610

the great agricultural plain of the Mississippi valley. It is situ- | elevation and a more completely dissected surface. The general shape of the highland is an elongated dome, whose longer azis

ated about goo and 1,600 m. respectively from the Atlantic and Pacific coasts and approximately midway between Canada and the Gulf of Mexico. It is bounded on the north by Iowa; east by Illinois, Kentucky and Tennessee; south by Arkansas; and west by Oklahoma, Kansas and Nebraska. Its length from north to south, disregarding the St. Francois projection southward, is about 285 m., the width from west to east varies from

extends from the vicinity of St. Francois county south-westward across the State into north-central Arkansas. In the east is an area of granite knobs, peaks and ridges covering some 7o sq.m, commonly called the St. Francois mountains, which are only from

500 to 800 ft. above the adjacent valleys.

In the south-western

part the surface is rougher and more elevated continuing into

210 to 310 m., and the total area of the State is approximately Arkansas. The highlands are noted for their swift, clear streams 69,420 sq.m. of which approximately 693 are water surface. The abounding in game fish. Climate.—The climate is characteristically “humid continental State takes its name from its great river, the Missouri, which was named after a tribe of Indians who inhabited the country near with long summers.” As a rule the number of sunshine days the river mouth. The highest recorded elevation in the State is is more dependable during each season than either rainfall or Taum Sauk mountain (1,750 ft.) in Iron county, and the lowest temperature. Summer months (June, July, August) have from 18 is on the flood plain of the Mississippi river in the south-east to 25 sunshine days, winter months (December, January, Feb. corner of Pemiscot county (229 ft.). The approximate mean ele- ruary) have from 12 to 18, The average winter temperature is 29° F. Summer average is 76° F. The yearly average of rainfall vation for the State is 800 feet. i, Physiographic Regions.—Missouri is divided into four dis- 38 inches. Some 12 to 15 in. fall during spring in State-wide rains, tinct physiographic regions: the old, glaciated and river plains, Summer rain of about 7 in. is in showers. Autumn periods of and the maturely dissected or Ozark highlands. The old plains four to six weeks of fine dry weather are common. Extended region occupies about one-fifth of the area of the State, and is periods during autumn are calm. Extremely warm humid days situated south of the Missouri river and west of the Ozark high- in summer may result in destructive tornadoes. The growing lands. This topographic condition extends for a considerable dis- season averages 178 days. Geology.—The geological history of Missouri ranges from tance into the adjoining States of Kansas, Oklahoma and Arkansas. It is underlain by shales, sandstones and limestones of-Pennsyl- pre-Cambrian to the present time. The oldest known rocks, which vanian and Mississippian age and is a region of topographic old are exposed in the south-eastern part of the State in the region of age. the St. Francois mountains, are of igneous and metamorphic origin The glaciated plains occupy the major portion of the State north and include granites, porphyries and schists. Their exact age is of the Missouri river. This region is underlain mainly by Mis-. unknown. A long period of erosion followed their formation before sissippian and Pennsylvanian rocks and glacial and loessal deposits. the first advance of the Paleozoic seas in late Cambrian time Rocks belonging to earlier Paleozoic periods occur along the Mis- These Paleozoic seas spread around and upon the old pre-Cambrian souri, Mississippi and other rivers. Pre-glacial features were igneous masses during their advances over the State, and their similar to those now present in the old plains region. Post-glacial deposits represent every period of the Paleozoic era except the erosion has developed a topography characterized by extremely Permian. All of Missouri except a small area in the extreme southeastern part and possibly a small area in the north-western part

> m o aimee

TS

mma O

1. St. Joseph

7. Moberty

2. Hannibal

8. St. Louis

3. Kansas City 4. Independence 5. Sedalia

6. Columbia

MAP

RSS ante stmis NDOe

SHOWING

THE

9. Joplin 10. Carthage 11. Springfield

ODS SE 2a

23

E 8T P

12. Cape Girardeau

MAIN

ROADS

MILES

gp" "Ob

OF MISSOURI

shallow valleys along the streams, and flattish inter-stream areas. The river plains are flat areas varying in width from less than a mile to as much as 8 or 10 m. along the main streams, but in the south-eastern area the river plain is from 30 to 60 m. wide. The Ozark highland, in Missouri, is a part of a highland area of considerable extent lying in the States of Illinois, Missouri, Arkansas and Oklahoma. It is underlain by pre-Cambrian igneous rocks and by sedimentary rocks ranging from Cambrian to Pennsylvanian in age, with Cambrian and Ordovician rocks underlying , Maost of the region. Occupying in Missouri about two-fifths of ' 3

SS a

z

the State, the Ozark highlands are distinguished by greater

Tt

w

“weik m

H,

h

has probably been above the sea and subject to erosion since post-Pennsylvanian time, as no Mesozoic rocks have been found in the State and later marine deposits occur only in the southeastern part. The presence of Cretaceous deposits in neighbouring States indicates, however, that late Mesozoic seas may have extended into south-eastern and north-western Missouri. Large glaciers advanced from the north late in Cenozoic time and extended south of the Missouri river. These glaciers modified the topography considerably and left a mantle of drift over the northern part of the State on their retreat. Soils.—The soils of Missouri present a wide variation. The soils of the northern part of the State were derived mainly from glacial and wind-blown materials, with the greater relative amount of rich loessal soils along the Missouri and Mississippi rivers. The west-central part of the State is underlain mainly by residual soils derived from the weathering of limestones and shales but contains alluvial soils. The east-central and Ozark regions of Missouri are in the main stony and gravelly and best suited to the raising of live stock, but finer and more productive soils occur along the Mississippi and Missouri river valleys and in the smaller stream valleys. These soils are derived from the weathering of limestones, dolomites and igneous rocks of the Ozark region and from loessal and alluvial materials. The lowlands of south-eastern Missouri are underlain by loamy soils derived from water-deposited materials. The loams are of sand and clay, and when cleared of timber and well drained, are fertile.

Government.—Three

Constitutions, framed by conventions

in 1820, 1865 and 1875, have been adopted by the people of the State, and a fourth (1845) was rejected. A Constitutional Convention holding sessions during 1922~23 formulated and submitted

to a special election on Feb. 26, 1924, 21 constitutional amendments, but all the more important proposals were rejected. In addition there was the body chosen in 1861 to decide the question of secession, which retained supreme though irtegular

control of the State during the Civil War, and some’ of whose acts had the force of promulgated constitutional amendments. `

present Constitution (that of 1875) was a notable piece of work

MISSOURI when framed. The term of the governor and other chief executive

officers, which had been four years until the adoption of the Con-

stitution of 1865, under which it was two years, was restored to the

long term. Various effective checks were placed upon legislative extravagance, and upon financial, special and local legislation generally. Among reform provisions, common enough to-day, but

mcommon in 1875, were those forbidding the general assembly to make irrevocable grants of special privileges and immunities; and

mitting the governor to veto specific items in general appro-

priation bills. The grand jury was reduced to 12 members, and nine concurring may indict. The township system may be adopted

by county option, but has not been widely established, though

611

tations,’ proved increasingly inadequate until the unpaid current obligations in 1917 totaled over $2,000,000. Attempts to secure relief for special purposes such as schools and good roads by constitutional amendments had all failed. The general assembly in 1917 passed new indirect taxes, a State income tax, a corporation franchise tax, a direct inheritance tax, a “soft” drink stamp tax and the wholesale liquor-dealers’ licences, which

yielded together nearly $2,400,000 in r917~19. These taxes, excepting the liquor licences, yielded $7,847,875 in 1926. To secure greater uniformity in taxation and increase revenue, the basis of assessed valuation was raised in 1921 to 100% of actual value. This raised the assessed valuation from $2,694,567,461

in 1920

purely administrative (not corporate) “townships” are an essen-

to $4,920,926,179 in 1921; the rate was lowered from $1.80 to $1.00 per $1,000 in the respective years. The chief sources of the

have adopted their own

State road fund in 1926 were: bonds, a gasolene tax ($6,006,934), Federal aid ($3,924,191) and motor vehicle licences ($3,774,941).

tial part of State Administration.

St. Louis and Kansas City

charters under constitutional provision.

An amendment (1908) provides for initiative and referendum; emergency measures, and appropriations for the State Govern-

ment, for State institutions and for public schools are exempt from referendum. ‘The referendum may be ordered by the legislature or by a petition signed by at least 5% of the legal voters in each of two-thirds (at least) of the congressional districts.

The executive and administrative department in 1927 consisted of a governor, lieutenant governor, secretary of State, attorney

general, treasurer, auditor and superintendent of public instruction, all elected for four years, and 54 State boards, commissions, departments and bureaux. The general assembly is composed of a senate of 34 members and a house of representatives of 150 members. Senators are elected every two years for a four-year term; representatives are elected for a term of two years. Regular sessions of the general assembly meet at Jefferson City, the capital, in odd-numbered ears.

A The supreme court, in certain cases holding sessions in two divisions, is composed of seven justices elected for a term of ro years. There are three courts of appeals known as the St. Louis, Kansas City and Springfield courts of appeals. Each court consists of three judges elected for a term of 12 years, one being elected every four years. The State is divided into 38 circuit court districts. The bureau of labor statistics maintains free employment bureaux in St. Louis, Kansas City and St. Joseph.

Population.—The first census taken (1810) of that part of the upper Louisiana Territory which later became Missouri, showed a population of 19,783. The population at other selected censuses was as follows: 66,586 in 1820; 383,702 in 1840; 1,182012 In 1860; 2,168,380 in 1880; 2,679,185 in 1890; 3,106,665 in

1900; 3,293,335 iN 1910; 3,404,055 in 1920 and 3,629,367 in 1930

(April rst) a gain of 225,312 or 6-6%. The percentage of urban population (in centres of 2,500-or more) increased from 425% in 1910 to 466% in 1920. Of the total urban population 797% in 1920 was in the three cities of St. Louis, Kansas City and St. Joseph. The rural population showed an absolute decrease in both rgt0 and 1920. The population of the chief cities was: s.e Cities

St. Louis . Kansas City .

St. Joseph Springfield

Joplin .

Increase

1920-30

IQIO

6-3 23°2

687,029 248,381

33:454 | 29,902 | 5-9

32,073

1930

1920

821,960 | 772,897 399,746 | 324,410

80,935 | 77,939 | 3-8 77,403 57,527 | 39,031 | 45°2 | 35,201

The density of population in 1930 was 52-8 per sq.m., as compared with 49-5 in 1920. Of the entire population in 1920 only 52% were negroes; this was the same relative position they held m 1goo. The foreign-born population was relatively small—

186,026 or 5-8% of the white population in 1920. The chief

Education.—The idea of providing a university and free local schools as parts of a public school system occurs in the Constitution of 1820 (and in the acts of Congress that prepared the way for Statehood); but the real beginning of the system dates from the acts of 1835 and 1839. Not much progress was made, however, until a law was passed in 1853 providing for the formation of small school districts and another law requiring a fourth of the general yearly revenue of the State to be distributed among the counties for schools. This provision was made regularly after 1855 (save in 1861-67), and since 1875 has rested on a constitutional provision. In the years after 1887 one-third of the total revenue was appropriated for the support of public schools. This source of revenue amounted to $1,618,341 in 1910 and $3,365,521 in 1926. To this must be added $187,040, the interest on the State’s common school fund of $3,159,000. The permanent county, municipal and township school funds amounted, in 1925,

to $12,720,879. Of the total revenue for the support of the public schools about 92% is derived from local taxation. The estimated total expenditure for public schools from State and local sources rose from $13,905,188 in 1910 to $49,970,000 in 1925; the per caput expenditure, in 1925, based on population aged 5—17 years inclusive, was $57.82. The public school enrolment in the above year was 735,589, with 103,221 in high schools. In 1924 there were 53,116 pupils enrolled in the private and parochial schools within the State. Negroes and whites are segregated in all schools. Among institutions of higher learning the University of Missouri at Columbia is the chief one maintained by the State. It was opened to students in 1841, and received aid for the first time from the State in 1867. Women were first admitted to the normal department in 1869, to the academic department in 1870 and soon afterward to all departments. ‘The university attendance in 1927 was in excess of six thousand. Teachers colleges are main-

tained as follows: at Kirksville (1870), at Warrensburg (1871), at Cape Girardeau (1873), at Springfield (1906), at Maryville (1906), and there is a normal department in connection with the Lincoln university, for negroes, at Jefferson City. Lincoln university (opened in 1866 as Lincoln institute) is for negro men and women. The basis of its endowment was a fund of $6,379 contributed in 1866 by the 62nd and 65th Regiments U.S. Coloured Infantry upon their discharge from the service. Privately endowed colleges within the State in 1928 included 16 senior colleges and universities. Among these schools the greatest is Washington university in St. Louis, opened in 1857.

Charities and Corrections.—The charitable and correctional institutions of the State include hospitals for the insane at Fulton, St. Joseph, Nevada and Farmington; a school for the blind at St. Louis; a school for the deaf at Fulton; a colony for the feeble-

minded and epileptic at Marshall; a State sanitorium for tubercular patients at Mount Vernon; a home for neglected and dependent children at Carrollton; a Federal soldiers’ home at St.

foreign groups were Germans (55,776), Russians (18,769), Irish (15,022), Italian (14,609), English (10,400). Early settlers were

James, and a Confederate soldiers’ home at Higginsville; the penitentiary at Jefferson City; a training school for boys at Boon-

States. After the Civil War, Northerners began to enter the State

1The Constitution of 1875 limited the State revenue to $.20 on $100 assessed valuation with the added provision that when the assessed valuation of the State should reach $900,000,000 the rate should not exceed $.15 on $100 valuation.

mainly from Kentucky, Tennessee, Virginia and the old slave in large numbers. Finances.—The revenue, inelastic through constitutional limi-

MISSOURI

612

ville; an industrial school for white girls at Chillicothe; and an industrial home for negro girls at Tipton. Agriculture and Live Stock.—The

State as a whole is de-

voted predominantly to agriculture, but it is no longer of chief economic importance. The total farm population in 1925 was 1,094,037 Or 31-4% of the State’s total population. Of the area of the State 74.2% was included, in that year, in farms (32,640,893 ac.); and of this 15,278,436 ac. was classified as crop land. The number of farms had decreased from 277,244 in rgīo to 260,473 in 1925; the average humber of acres per farm was 125-3.

The number

of farms operated by owners

decreased during

1920-25 from 185,030 to 174,381; tenantry increased from 28-8%

to 32-6% during the same period. The aggregate value of all farm crops in 1926 was $276,400,000 as compared with $307,560,000 for the average for the period 1921-26. The table below gives the production and value of the chief crops in 1926: Crop Indian corn

Cotton lint Sorghum forage

Apples

Acreage . | 5,404,000 3,147,000 1,391,000 2,077,000 81,000

434,000

140,000

Product

Value

174,189,000 bu. 3,569,000 tons 21,282,000 bu.

41,540,000 ,, 6,480,000

93

104,160,000 Ib. 434,000 tons

5,025,000 bu.

$118,449,000

48,181,500 26,389,680

17,447,800

11,016,000 10,416,000 4,340,000 53172,900

Indian corn and abundant grasses give to Missouri, as to the other central prairie States, a sound basis for her live stock interests. In 1926 the live stock dairy and poultry products marketed had an estimated value of $357,040,890. The aggregate total for all farm products in 1926, including farm and pasture crops, wood used on farms and all live stock products, was $679,641,260. Live stock on farms on Jan. 1, 1927 was valued at $210,552,800. Mining.—Lead, clay products, cement, coal and building stone were the most important mineral products of Missouri in 1925. In lead production in 1924, Missouri ranked first among the States with a product of 189,929 short tons worth $30,388,640. The lead-producing area is confined mainly to two districts, Franklin, Jefferson and St. Francois counties in south-eastern and Barry, Greene, Jasper, Lawrence and Newton counties in south-western Missouri. The so-called “Joplin district” of south-western Missouri and south-eastern Kansas produces a considerable part of the zinc mined in the United States. Some silver is found in connection with zinc and lead mining. In 1925 the State ranked second as a producer of raw clays. There are unlimited supplies of clay, shale and limestone, the three essential constituents of

|

Number

Industry

of plants

Value

Slaughtering and meat packing (wholesale) Boots and shoes . . oe : Motor vehicles. . . .

47

$175,302,412 124,327,761 113,130,501

Flour and grain mill products

:

Foundry and machine shop products .

Bread and bakery products. . . Printing and publishing newspapers and periodicals

eo

es

CGN.

og

. . . Men’s clothing. Electric machinery and apparatus Construction in steam railway repair shops

Commerce

and Transportation.—In

Iľ

241

225

82,442,041

49,420,214

582

49,384,309

387

43,327,824 |

96 54 64

Be ban | 39,130,533

37,892,002

commerce as well as

in manufactures St. Louis is first among the cities of the State, but

Kansas City also is one of the greatest railway centres of the country, and the trade with the South-west, which St. Louis once

held almost undisputed, has been greatly cut into by Kansas City

the ports on the Gulf and the rapidly growing cities of Texas There is still considerable commerce on the Mississippi from $t. Louis to New Orleans. In 1906-07 there was notable agitation for improvement of the Missouri from Kansas City to its mouth, 398 m. distant. Estimates were made in 1907 for 6 ft. and 12 ft. channels from Sioux City to Kansas City, and from Kansas City to the mouth of the river. The project for a 6 ft. channel 200 ft. wide from Kansas City to the mouth of the river was adopted by Congress in 1912; it has since been modified slightly. Between June 1910 and June 30, 1926, $13,339,079 were expended on the project. A 4 ft. channel was then open for the entire distance. Steam railway mileage increased until 1915 when there were 8,275 m. lying within the State; by 1925 the mileage had decreased to 8,051. In 1925 there were 19 electric railway com` panies operating 1,145 m. of track in Missouri.

The State highway system dates from the Hawes Act (1917), passed to take advantage of the Federal aid, and the Centennial Road Act (1921). The latter outlined the system and provided for the expenditure of a $60,000,000 bond issue approved by popular vote in 1920. Automobile licence fees and a gasolere tax provide additional funds. Of the total mileage of 7,640 under the highway department, on Dec. 31, 1926, 3,375-8 m. had been

surfaced. New surfacing laid during 1926 amounted to 823 miles. HISTORY

French and Spanish Régimes.—The first permanent settle-

ments in Missouri, St. Genevieve (c. 1735), at the crossing to the lead district in south-east Missouri, and St. Louis (1764), the headquarters for the Missouri river fur trade, were settled from Portland cement, and in its manufacture the State ranked sixth in the Canadian-French villages across the Mississippi, from which 1925. The cement product for that year was 8,164,000 bbl. valued there was a large migration after the establishment of English at $14,822,000. In 1924 the total value of stone quarried was control in Illinois in 1765. The Spanish régime, established in $4,961,333, mainly limestone. Coal is produced over a large Missouri in 1771, left few traces on population, language or cusarea; its production being reported from 27 different counties in toms. After 1796 American immigration was encouraged to gain the central, northern and western parts of the State. The coal strength against an apprehended British attack from Canada; production for 1924 was 2,480,880 short tons valued at $8,154,000. when the American flag was raised at St. Louis in 1804, threeMissouri, in 1925 ranked first among the States as a producer fifths of the 10,000 inhabitants of the region were Americans, of barytes ($725,000), chiefly from Washington county. chiefly log-cabin pioneers. The French were in the villages of Manufactures.—In manufacturing and mechanical pursuits St. Louis, St. Charles, St. Genevieve and New Madrid. Negro Missouri leads all States west of the Mississippi, California ex- slaves, introduced before 1730, numbered about 1,500. Lead and cepted. The State’s manufacturing activity is greatly diversified food-stuffs went down the Mississippi and peltries to Montreal.

as is shown by the 144 separate industrial groups identified by the 1925 census of manufactures. This census showed 5,114 indus-

Early Ametican Period—Under the Americans all the Louisiana Purchase (g.v.) north of the present State of Louisiana

194,959 Wage earners and having an annual product of $1,607,161,018. Twelve industries in 1925 had a product valued at

was attached to Indiana Territory in 1804, organized as Louisiana Territory in 1805, and the name changed to Missouri in 1812. A legislature with elective lower house was granted in 1812, the

trial plants operating within the State, giving employment to

more than $30,000,000 each. Of the total output in 1925, over 77% were made up by the products of St. Louis, Kansas City

and St. Joseph. The table in the next column gives the 10 leading industries, based on value, in 1925. One of the exclusive industries of the State is the manufacture of corncob pipes. Missouri produces practically the world’s supply of these. The main industry is slaughtering and meat packing, for the State is in the centre of a hog-raising area.

|

upper house was made elective in 1816. In 1818 the legislature petitioned for Statehood and in 1821 Missouri was admitted to the Union as a slave State under the Missouri Compromise (9.2.). The Indians were never a serious problem in Missouri, although the Sac and Fox from the north-east drove the outlying pioneers into blockhouses along the Missouri and upper Missouri during the war of 1812; they surrendered their claims in 1815-16.

The population grew slowly until the great influx after 1815 to

613

MISSOURI the new areas along the upper Mississippi and the Boonslick

country along the Missouri in the central part of the State. Of the 66,586 total population in 1820, nearly one-half were in these gistricts. In the succeeding decades the south-east filled in up to the Ozark section, the Missouri valley and the north-east were

occupied until the two areas merged; the Platte Purchase in the north-west, annexed in 1837, filled up very quickly. The north-

trade: the Irish, German and free State immigration increased until these elements comprised two-sevenths of the total population in 1860. Slaves fell to one-tenth of the total population in this decade, the institution holding its own only In some 25 counties along the Mississippi and Missouri. Railway building was aided by State loans of over $23,000,000; and the Hannibal and St. Joseph was completed across the State.

On the eve of the

central section was settled later, in part from Iowa, while the south-west Ozark border lands, except around Springfield, and the Ozarks proper were sparsely settled even in 1860. Through 1850 the total population increased at the characteristic frontier rate,

Civil War, Missouri was losing her Southern characteristics but the ruling classes had strong Southern traditions and sentiments, and the Benton fight had driven the Democratic leaders into a close alliance with the Southern wing of the party.

fourths in each of the next two decades, reaching 1,182,012 in 1360. Until 1850 most of the settlers were of the Southern type, from Kentucky and Tennessee, or the back country of Pennsylyania, Virginia and the Carolinas. While Missouri had few planta-

of 1860, Douglas received the electoral vote of the State, the only one he carried in the Union. When the question of secession was submitted to the people in Feb. 1861, they elected a convention which voted 80 to 1 against immediate secession. But there was

Slavery was less economic than patriarchal.

governer, Claiborne F. Jackson, indignantly repudiated Lincoln’s

more than doubling in the ’20s and ’30s and increasing by three-

tions, the slave population kept proportional pace with the whites.

The first steamboat reached St. Louis in 1816 and the Boonslick in 1819. The river transports carried out wheat, corn and meat

products, as well as tobacco and hemp from the Missouri river counties, and the Missouri mule was early in evidence.

St. Louis

was the centre of the fur trade on the upper Mississippi and par-

ticularly on the Missouri; in the ’2o0s the traders reached the

Rocky Mountains and beyond. In the same decade began the overland trade with the Mexican hinterland at Santa Fe. When

the Oregon trail was

opened Missourians were the largest ele-

ment of the early settlement in that territory; in the ’40s began the exodus to California over the California trail. The starting point of these three transcontinental routes was at the great bend of the Missouri at Westport Landing (now Kansas City). In 1831 the advance guard of the Mormons

Independence.

As their numbers

increased

settled around

friction with the

“Gentile” settlers developed and they were driven successively

from Jackson and Clay counties. The legislature created a special county of Caldwell for them but with the arrival of their leader Smith and the main body of the church, they spread into the surrounding counties. In the end, in 1838-39, the antagonism became so acute that the militia were called out and after some skirmishing the Mormons withdrew to Nauvoo, IIl. (g.v,). Missouri furnished a large element in the early settlement of Texas, In the Mexican War Doniphan led a regiment of mounted militia to Santa Fe and went on to Chihuahua, finally reaching Taylor’s amy at the mouth of the Rio Grande. Two other Missouri regiments held Santa Fe throughout the war, Early Politics,In politics the national parties were organized slowly. The leading figure was Thomas H. Benton, elected U.S.

senator in 1820 and re-elected p m util 1851. Missouri voted for M n

Clay in 1824.

In

1828

every

=

|

N®’

county voted for Jackson, but not NY until 1836 was discipline and sqli-

darity established in the Democratic Party,

a very strong sentiment for compromise or even neutrality.

The

call for troops, and intrigued to gain possession of the U.S. arsenal

at St. Louis and to put the State on a war footing. Nathaniel Lyon and the Federal troops, with Blair’s support, broke up an encampment of State militia at Camp Jackson, St. Louis, and began open hostilities with the driving of the governor

out of

Jefferson City. In August Lyon was defeated and killed by State and Confederate forces at Wilson’s creek near Springfield, but next spring these forces were driven into Arkansas and defeated. Meanwhile the convention re-assembled in 1861, ousted Governor Jackson and the legislature, and elected Hamilton R. Gamble provisional governor. Until his death in 1864 he maintained, with Lincoln’s support, a loyal State Government accepted by the majority of Missourians, in the face of lack of funds and the impatience of Federal military authorities. In 1861 a minority of the fugitive legislature adopted an ordinance of secession and Missouri was admitted to the Confederacy. Gen. Frémont’s emancipation proclamation issued at St. Louis in Aug. 1861 was promptly repudiated by Lincoln. However the convention after

refusing Lincoln’s plan of emancipation with compensation in 1863 enacted a plan of gradual emancipation. It also provided an oath of loyalty for officials and voters. Records show that 109,111 men were mustered into the Federal service while perhaps 50,000 served in the Confederate armies. In the election of 1864 the more radical elements swept the State and in 1865 a new convention abolished slavery immediately and without compensa-

tion. It also drew up a new Constitution which included an extremely rigorous test oath, covering in great detail all sympathy or indirect aid to the Confederacy, and imposed not only on voters but on professional men also. Although the latter sections were declared unconstitutional by the U.S. Supreme Court, the wholesale disenfranchisements and the rigid registration laws maintained the radicals in control until 1870. In that year Carl Schurz led a revolt of the more liberal Republicans and with the support of the reorganized Democratic Party elected B. Gratz Brown governor, repealing the test oaths. In 1872 the Democrats secured

control of the State Government and retained it until 1908.

The Clay-Adams

Economic

group supported candidates who i were nominally Jackson men, but faie favoured the bank and the & “American System” of Clay, thus electing Buckner senator (1830) : and Ashley representative (1831~

36). By 1839 the Whigs had

Civil War and Reconstruction.—lIn the presidential election

COMMERCE

developed a definite organization THE BOYHOOD HOME OF MARK and party politics prevailed. TWAIN AT HANNIBAL, MISSOURI The Whigs were to be found chiefly in St. Louis (the commercial

element) and in the older richer slave-holding river counties; from 1836 to 1850 they were the minority party.

Benton (g.v.) was

defeated in 1851 but fought to regain control until his death in 1857, splitting the Democratic Party. Political confusion was increased in the ’sos by the civil war in Kansas (g.v.) and the beginnings of the Republjcan Party. During the decade 1850-60 St. Louis grew rapidly due to the

development of the upper Mississippi country and the Southern

and

Industrial

Progress.—Missouri

emerged

from this reconstruction period with a heavy debt, State and local, incurred in loans to the railroads and in war expenditures. The prostration of the South and the rise of Chicago injured St. Louis, while the prevailing economic depression was especially hard on the rural population. However, railways were extended, valuable zinc and lead deposits were discovered in south-west Missouri, and after 1880 the development of the South-western portion of the United States led to the rapid growth of Kansas City. Though hard hit in the panic of 1893, Missouri’s economic and especially its industrial development since 1900 has been steady. Missourians were too interested in the reconstruction issues in the *708 to respond to the Granger movement, but the farmers’ alliances of the 80s had a very large membership. Bryan and free silver swept the State in 1896 and 1900. Roosevelt, who endorsed many of the Populist ideals and appealed to the younger generation, carried Missouri in 1904, and Folk, the reform Democratic candidate, was elected governor. Since 1904 Missouri has

614

MISSOURI

COMPROMISE—MISSOURI

been a doubtful State politically, voting Republican in all presidential elections, including 1928, except 1912 and 1916, but frequently going Democratic in off-year State elections. BrsLiocrapHy.—For history: see W. B. Stevens, Centennial History of Missouri (1921) ; E. M. Violette, History of Missouri (1918) ; W. F. Switzler, History of Missouri (1879) ; Lucien Carr, Missouri (American Commonwealths Series, 1892); Louis Houck, A History of Missouri (1908); F. C. Shoemaker, Missouri’s Struggle for Statehood, 1804-21 (1916); W. M. Meigs, Thomas Hart Benton

Slavery in Missouri

(1914); H. A. Trexler,

(1914); T. L. Snead, The Fight for Missouri

(1886); W. Britton, The Civil War on the Border (1891—99, 3rd ed. of vol. i., rev. 1899); Encyclopedia of the History of Missouri, edit. by H. L. Conrad (1901); H. M. Chittenden, History of Early Steamboat Navigation on the Missouri River (1903); T. J. Scharf, History of St. Louis City and County (1883); R. S. Douglass, History of Southeastern Missouri (1912) ; and W. Williams, ed., A History of

Northwest Missouri (1915). See also the volumes of Missouri His-

RIVER

state asking for admission into the Union conditions which do not apply to those states already in the Union. The compromise was specifically repealed by the Kansas-Nebraska bill of 1 54. See J. A. Woodburn,

“The Historical Signiñcance of the Missouy

Compromise” in the Annual Report of the American Historica Association for 1893 (Washington, D.C.); Dixon, History of ike

Missouri Compromise (Cincinnati, 1899) ; Schouler’s and McMaster’ Historieof s the United

Presidential Politics,

Jr., ed. E. S. Brown

States; and The Missouri Compromise ang the letters of William Plumer (St. Louis, r926). (W. R. Sm) `

1820-25, from

MISSOURI PACIFIC LINES.

The Missouri Pacific lines

to-day comprise a system extending from St. Louis, Mo. west

through Kansas

City, north to Omaha

and Lincoln, Neb.. west

of Kansas City to Pueblo, Colo., south-west from St. Louis through

Little Rock and Texarkana, Ark., into Texas and south down the

Mississippi valley to Memphis and New Orleans. They also in. torical Collections (1880 et seq.) and of the Missouri Historical Review (Columbia, 1906 et seg.). On administration: the Official Manual of clude the Gulf Coast lines, which circle the Gulf of Mexico from the State of Missouri; the reports of the various State officials, boards New Orleans, through Beaumont, Houston, Galveston and Corpus and departments; E. Fair, Government and Politics in Missouri (1922) ; Christi to Brownsvi lle on the Rio Grande, as well as the Interand Public Administration in Missouri (issued as a bulletin of the State Teachers college, Kirksville, Mo.); Political Science Series, No. x national-Great Northern, which criss-crosses Texas in a great “X” from Fort Worth to Galveston and from Longview Junction (1923). For population, occupations, resources, etc., see the Four-

teenth United States Census; the Biennial Census of M anufactures ; the U.S. Census of Agriculture; and the Missouri Red Book, published annually by the State bureau of labour statistics. For physical features see E. B. Branson, “Geology of Missouri,” Univ. of Mo. Bulletin, vol. xix., no. 15 (1918); M. F. Miller and H. H. Kruskopf, “The Soils of Missouri,” Bulletin 135, Agricultural Experiment Station, Univ. of Mo. (1918); publications of the State bureau of geology and mines, including bulletins and reports of the Missouri Geological Survey (1853 et seg.) and publications of the U.S. Geological Survey, particularly Bulletins 132, 213, 267 and the 22nd Annual Report, aen ) . VI.

MISSOURI COMPROMISE, an agreement (1820) between the pro-slavery and anti-slavery factions in the United States, involving primarily the regulation of slavery in the public territories. A bill to enable the people of Missouri to form a state government, preliminary to admission into the Union, came before the House of Representatives on Feb. 13, 1819. An amendment offered by James Tallmadge (1778-1853) of New York, which provided that the further introduction of slaves into Missouri should be forbidden, and that all children of slave parents born in the state after its admission should be free at the age of 25, was adopted by the committee and incorporated in the Bill as finally passed (Feb. 17) by the house. The Senate refused to concur in the amendment and the whole measure was lost. During the following session (1819—20), the house passed a similar bill with an amendment introduced by John W. Taylor (1784-1854) of New York making the admission of the ştate conditionat upon its adoption of a constitution prohibiting slavery. In the meantime the question had been complicated by the admission, in December, of Alabama, a slave state (the number of slave and free states now becoming equal), and by the passage through the house (Jan. 3, 1820) of a bill to admit Maine, a free state. The Senate decided to connect the two measures, and passed a bill for the admission of Maine with an amendment enabling the people of Missouri to form a state constitution. Before the bill was returned to the house a second amendment was adopted on the motion of J. B. Thomas (1777—1850) of Illinois, excluding slavery from the “Louisiana Purchase” north of 36° 30’ (the southern boundary of Missouri), except within the limits of the proposed state of Missouri. The House of Representatives refused to accept this and a conference committee was appointed. There was now a controversy between the two houses not only on the slavery issue, but also on the parliamentary question of the inclusion of Maine and Missouri within the same bill. The committee recommended the enactment of two laws, one for the admission of Maine, the other an enabling act for Missouri, without any restrictions on slavery, but including the Thomas amendment. This was agreed to by both houses, and the measures were passed, and were signed by President Monroe respectively on March 3/6, 1820. On the constitutional side the Compromise of 1820 was important as the first precedent for the congressional exclusion of slavery from public territory acquired since the adoption of the Constitution, and also as a clear recognition that Congress has no right to impose upon a

to Laredo, through Austin and San Antonio.

In addition to these lines the Missouri Pacific owns a majority interest in the Texas and Pacific, which covers Texas from east to west, the line extending from New Orleans to El Paso, through the cities of Shreveport, Dallas and Fort Worth. The Missouri Pacific also owns jointly with the Western Pacific the Denver and Rio Grande Western. The Missouri Pacific was originally known as the Pacific railway, construction of which was started at St. Louis on July 4,

1851. It was the first railroad constructed west of the Mississippi

river. Later the Missouri Pacific formed the nucleus or basis of the transcontinental system the elder Gould undertook to as-

semble.

The Missouri Pacific lines serve now virtually every

portion of the Mississippi valley, west of the great river from Omaha south to the Gulf of Mexico and to the Rio Grande. In recent years the property has greatly developed. (L. W. B.)

MISSOURI RIVER, the principal western tributary of the

Mississippi river, U.S.A. It is formed at Three Forks, in the Rocky Mountain region of south-western Montana, by the confluence of the Jefferson, Madison and Gallatin, thence it flows north into the plains, which it traverses in a course at first northeast, then east. Entering North Dakota, the river turns gradu-

ally to the south-east, then south, and again south-east, traversing both North and South Dakota. It forms the eastern boundary of Nebraska and, in part, of Kansas, and crosses Missouri in an easterly course to its junction with the Mississippi 17 m. above St. Louis, and 2,551 m. below the confluence of the three forks. The stream which is known as the Jefferson river in its lower course, Beaver Head river in its middle course and Red Rock

creek in its upper course, is really the upper section of the Missouri; it rises on the border between Montana and Idaho, 20 m. W. of the western boundary of the Yellowstone National park, near the crest of the Rocky mountains, 8,000 ft. above the sea, and 394 m. beyond Three Forks, and with this and the Lower Mississippi the Missouri forms a river channel about 4,240 M. in length, the longest in the world. The Madison and Gallatin forks rise within the Yellowstone park, and the Yellowstone river, which is the principal tributary of the Missouri, traverses the park. The Missouri drains a basin having an area of about 580,000 sq.m., 2,550 sq.m. of which are in Canada. Besides the Yellowstone and the three forks, there are the Platte, which rises in two large branches in Colorado, and the

Milk, which rises in north-western Montana.

The Kansas in

„Kansas, the James and Big Sioux in the Dakotas, and the Nio-

brara in Nebraska, are the principal tributaries wholly of the

plains. In'the mountain region the Missouri flows through deep canyons and over several cascades.

Below Great falls the slower

current is unable to carry all the silt brought down from the

mountains and plains, and consequently a winding and unstable channel has been formed on deep deposits of silt. Bends in the river continue to develop by erosion until the neck between.two of them is cut off, and in the process numerous islands, san¢

MIST—MISTRAL hars and crescent-shaped lakes are formed. Cottonwood, willow, cedar and walnut trees grow upon the banks that are for a time

615

(whence bird-lime is derived). The mistletoe is parasitic both on deciduous and evergreen trees and shrubs. In England it is most

left undisturbed, but years later the eroding current returns to

abundant on the apple-tree, but rarely found on the oak. Poplars, willows, lime, mountain-ash, maples, are favourite habitats. The stream aS Snags, which are specially dangerous to navigation. The fruit is eaten by most frugivorous birds, and through their agency minimum discharge is 12,000 cu.ft. per sec. at Sioux City and the plant is propagated. The sowing is effected by the bird wiping 23,000 at Kansas City. The maximum discharge is about 200,- its beak, to which the seeds adhere, against the bark of the tree on ooo cu.ft. per sec. at Sioux City and approximately 500,000 at which it has alighted. The viscid pulp soon hardens, affording a Kansas City. The waters of the Missouri begin to rise in March, protection to the seed; in germination the sucker-root penetrates and a high water stage is reached in April, as a result of the spring the bark, and a connection is established with the vascular tissue of rains and the melting snow on the plains; a second high stage is the first plant. The plant is slow in growth but it is very persisproduced in June by the melting of the snow on the mountains. tent, its death being determined generally by that of the tree on The fluctuation between extreme high and low water is r 3-3 ft. which it has established itself. The mistletoe so extensively used at Pierre; 22-5 ft. at Sioux City; and at Kansas City 34-6 feet. in England at Christmas is largely derived from the apple orchards The river is navigable to Fort Benton 2,285 m. above the mouth. of Normandy, but some from the apple orchards of Herefordshire. The mouth of the Missouri was discovered in 1673 by MarThe American mistletoe (Phoradendron flavescens), very simiquette and Joliet, while they were coming down the Mississippi. lar to the European mistletoe, occurs on deciduous trees, espeEarly in the 18th century French fur-traders began to ascend the cially on tupelo and red maple, from central New Jersey to Misriver, and in 1764 St. Louis was established as a depdét; but the souri and southward to Florida, Texas and New Mexico. The first exploration of the river, from its mouth to its headwaters, larger western form (var. macrophyllum), growing in bushy was made in 1804-05 by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark. clumps 2 ft. to 8 ft. in diameter, is parasitic chiefly on poplars Until many years later the commerce on the river was restricted and willows from Texas to central California. The common to the fur trade, and was carried on with such primitive craft as mistletoe (P. villosum) of the Pacific coast occurs chiefly on oaks the canoe, the pirogue, the bullboat, the mackinaw boat and the from Oregon to southern California and Arizona. Within the same keelboat. range three other mistletoes are found: the cypress mistletoe (P. The first attempt to navigate the Missouri with steamboats was bolleana), with pearl-like berries; the juniper mistletoe (P. junimade in 1819. The American Fur company began to use steamers perinum), with scale-like leaves, growing on junipers and incense in 1830, and from then until the advent of railways the steamboat cedars; and the mesquite mistletoe (P. californicum), with slender, on the Missourl was one of the most important factors in the pendulous branches, parasitic on mesquite, creosote-bush and development of the North-west. The traffic was at its height in cat’s-claw. 1858, when no fewer than 60 regular packets were engaged in it, MISTRAL, FREDERIC (1830-1914), Provencal poet, was but its decline began in the following year with the completion born at Maillane (Bouches-du-Rhéne) on Sept. 8, 1830. In the of the Hannibal and St. Joseph railway to St. Joseph, Mo., and autobiographical sketch prefixed to the Jsclo d’or (1876) he tells later on it had almost-entirely disappeared. Various attempts us, with great simplicity and charm, all that is worth knowing: of have been made to revive river traffic in an effort to secure his early life. His father was a prosperous farmer, and his mother cheaper transportation for the valley. a simple and religious woman of the people, who first taught him The U.S. Congress has authorized the improvement of the to love all the songs and legends of the country. In these early Missouri for navigation, with a view to securing a navigable days on the farm he received those first impressions which were channel 6 ft. deep from the mouth to Sioux City, and for snag- destined to constitute one of the chief beauties of Miréio. In his ging, with some rock removal and bank protection to Fort Ben- ninth year Mistral was sent to a small school at Avignon, where he ton. The Government has spent about $26,000,000 on the section was very wretched at first, regretting the free outdoor life of the below Kansas City, about $3,000,000 on the section between country. Gradually, however, his studies attracted him, above all Kansas City and Sioux City, and about $3,500,000 on the por- the poetry of Homer and Virgil; and he translated the latter’s first tion of the river above Sioux City. It is expected that a channel eclogue, showing his efforts to a young schoolfellow, A. Mathieu, capable of being used for barge traffic will be available to Kansas who was destined to play a part in the foundation of the Félibrige. City in 1930. When Roumanille (see PROVENÇAL LITERATURE) became an usher Brstiocrapuy.—F. V. Hayden, Geological Report of the Exploration at Mistral’s school, the two, fired by the same love of poetry and of the Yellowstone and Missouri Rivers (Washington, 1869), Profile of their native Provence, soon became close friends. Returning to Surveys of the Missouri River from Great Falls to Three Forks,

undermine these banks and the trees fall in and are carried down

Montana (1914), which is Water-Supply Paper, No. 367, U.S. ical Survey; J. V. Brower, The Missouri River and its Utmost (St. Paul, 1896) ; J. M. Hanson, The Conquest of the Missouri The Annual Reports of the Chief of Engineers, US.A.;

GeologSource (1909) ; H. M.

Maillane (1847) he sketched a pastoral poem in four cantos (Li

Meissoun). With all his love for the country, he soon realized that life on a farm did not satisfy his ambition. So he went to study law at Aix, where he contributed his first published poems Chittenden, History of Early Navigation on the Missouri River (1903) ; to Roumanille’s Li Prouvençalo (1852). He had become Jicencié P. E. Chappel, A History of the Missouri River (Kansas City, 1905) ; C. P. Deatherage, Steamboating on the Missouri River in the Sixties en droit the year before, but now decided on a literary career. (Kansas City, 1924). The Félibrige was founded in 1854, and five years later appeared (E. Ja.) Mirèio, the masterpiece not only of Mistral, but so far of the MIST: see Foc. MISTAKE, a misconception or error in thought or action. For entire school. The tale itself was nothing—the old story of a rich its legal significance see CONTRACT. girl and her poor lover, kept apart by the girl’s parents. Mireille, MISTLE THRUSH (Turdus viscivorus), a well-known in despair, wanders along a tract of country to the church of the European thrush, the largest found in Britain. The popular and Trois-Maries, in the hope that the latter may aid her. But the specific names suggest that the bird eats mistletoe berries. The effort was too great: she sinks exhausted, and dies in the presence name is also spelt missel thrush. (See THRUSH.) of her stricken parents and her frenzied lover. Into this simple MISTLETOE (Viscum album), a species of Viscum, of the web Mistral has woven descriptions of Provengal life, scenery, family Loranthaceae (q.v.). The whole genus is parasitical, and character, customs and legends that raise the poem to the dignity contains about 20 species, widely distributed in the warmer parts of a rustic epic that is unique in literature. There is no deep psyof the old world; but only the mistletoe proper is a native of chology in the characters, but then the people depicted are simple Europe. It forms an evergreen bush, about 4 ft. in length, thickly rustic folk, who wear their hearts on their sleeve. But Calendau crowded with forking branches and opposite leaves, which are (1867), the story of a princess held in bondage by a ruthless brigabout 2 in. long, obovate-lanceolate in shape and yellowish-green; and, and eventually rescued by a youthful hero, is a comparative the dioecious flowers, which are small and nearly of the same failure. The description of scenery is again masterly; but. the old

colour but yellower, appear in February and March; the white

etry when ripe is filled with a viscous semi-transparent pulp

lore, which had charmed all readers in Mirèio, here becomes forced, not inevitable. The characters are mere symbols—indeed

616

MISTRAL—MITCHELL

the whole poem is obviously an allegory, the princess standing for Provence, the brigand for France and the young lover for the Félibrige. Mistral lavished enormous labour on this work, which probably accounts for its lack of spontaneity, as also for the love he bears it. In 1876 (the same year in which he married Mlle. Marie Rivière, of Dijon) was published the volume Lis Isclo d’Or —a collection of the shorter poems Mistral had composed from

took up literature. Throughout his life he showed a particular interest in agriculture and landscape gardening, which he followed at first in pursuit of health. He produced books of travel volumes of essays on rural themes, of which My Farm of Ede. wood (1863) is the best, sketchy studies of English Monarchs and of English and Amierican literature, and a character-novel entitled Dr. Johns (1866), etc.; but he is best known as the author

the year 1848 onwards. Here he is again at his very best. Old (under the pseudonym of “Ik. Marvel’), of essays contained in legends, sirventes (mostly, as in mediaéval times, poems with 4 the volumes Reveries of a Bachelor, or a Book of the Heart (1850) ' tendency), and lyrics—all are admirable. Even the piéces d’occa- and Dream Life, a Fable of the Seasons (1831), sion may be reckoned with the best of their kind. Two pieces, MITCHELL, JOHN THOMAS WHITEHEAD (1828the Coupe and the Princesse, aroused violent controversy on their 1895), English Co-operator, was born at Rochdale on Oct. rg first appearance. They reproduce, in effect, the theme of Calendau, 1828. He was an illegitimate child, greatly attached to his and Mistral was accused of trying to sow discord between the north mother, who, to support them, kept a small beerhouse and later and south of France. He was altogether innocent of such a design. let lodgings to workmen. Not only did poverty make his schooling Nerto (1884) is a charming tale of Avignon in the olden days, in irregular, but at the age of ro or rr he worked in a cotton mil which a girl’s purity triumphs over her lover’s base designs and from 6 A.M. to 7 P.M. On Sundays hë attended classes to improve leads him to nobler thoughts. The play La Rèino Jano (1890) is his reading and writing and to obtain some knowledge of less ele. a complete failure, if judged from the dramatic standpoint: it is mentary subjects. Later he was employed in the warehouse of 4 rather a brilliant panorama, a series of stage pictures, and the flannel mill at 16/— a week, rising to be manager. When he was 2 characters neither live nor arouse our sympathy. In the great epic he became superintendent of the Milton Road Congregational on the Rhone (Lou Pouémo dou Rouse, 1897) the poet depicts the Sunday school, an office he held throughout his life. Through disformer barge-life of that river, and.intertwines his narrative with cussions at the Sunday school his interest in co-operation was the legends clustering round its banks, and with a graceful love aroused; he joined the Rochdale Pioneers Co-operative Society in episode. For the first time he employs blank verse, and uses it 1853, and served on its management committee for several years, with great mastery, but again the ancient lore is overdone. A In 1869, he was elected a director of the Co-operative Wholesale splendid piece of work is Lou Tresor dou Félibrige (1886). In Society—started in 1863, and its future still uncertain. Hitherto, the ideal of Co-operators had been that manufacture these two volumes Mistral has deposited with loving care every word and phrase, every proverb, every scrap of legend, that he should be carried on in self-governing workshops, the profits being had gathered during his many years’ journeyings in the south of

France. In 1904 he was awarded a Nobel prize for literature. In 1906 he published a Provencal translation of Genesis and Olivades, in 1912, a collection of Provencal poems.

His memoirs

appeared, under the title Mes Origines, in 1906. Maillane, near Marseilles, March 25, 1914.

He died at

An excellent literary appreciation of the poet is that by Gaston Paris, ‘Frédéric Mistral” (originally in the Revue de Paris [Oct. and Nov. 1894]; then in Penseurs et Poètes [Paris, 1896]). More elaborate accounts are Welter, Frédéric Mistral (Marburg, 1899) ; and Downer, Frédéric Mistral (New York, 1901), with a full bibliography. See P. Brousse, Frédéric Mistral (1903); E. Lefèvre, Bibliographie mistralienne (1903); H. J. Boeken, Frédéric Mistral (roro); J. Brochet, Frédéric Mistral (1910); J. Charles-Roux, Le jubilé de Fr. Mistral (1912) ; E. Ripert, La versification de Frédéric Mistral (1917) ; P. Lasserre, Frédéric Mistral (1918) ; J. Vincent, Frédéric Mistral: sa vie et son influence (1918).

divided amongst the workers.

But a new principle had been in-

troduced by the device of “dividend on purchase.” This brought success to the Rochdale Pioneers and a rapid increase in the num-

ber of retail co-operative societies, while productive workshops were continually failing. By this device, the surplus on trading was returned to the consumers, and profit-making was eliminated, A system was thus inaugurated in which the consumers organized distribution and production for use, to supply their own needs.

Mitchell was the first to understand the possibilities of this system and something of its underlying theory (of which the full implications were first shown by Mrs. Sidney Webb in 189r), and he believed that it could become co-extensive with the nation. The success of this “Rochdale” system in England, largely due te Mitchell, has led to its being copied in 36 countries, and these national movements comprise now (1928) over 50,000,000 individMISTRAL, a strong, dry, cold local wind which blows from uals. Mitchell was appointed chairman of the Co-operative Wholethe north-west on to the shores of the Gulf of Lion, where in sale Society in 1874; his business ability steered the C.W.S. winter the warm air usually has a lower barometric pressure than through serious difficulties in the ’yos, and under his chairmanthat over the colder lands to the north. The wind is experienced ship a strong financial position was built up, large developments over the whole of the north-west Mediterranean coastal land, but in banking and manufacture being initiated. Mitchell never married and in his later years lived alone, looked is most marked in the district of the Rhone delta, the record at Marseilles being 175 days in the year. The blowing of the mistral after by a devoted neighbour—a man he had befriended on reis accompanied by cloudless skies, brilliant sunshine, intense dry- lease from prison. His income from Co-operative work never mess and piercing cold. With any increase of the atmospheric exceeded £170 a year. This practical idealist had built up, through “voluntary socialism,” a great inheritance for his fellows, and pressure differences it develops into a wind of great violence. MISURATA, 4 town of Tripolitania, Italian North Africa, so lived for what he called “the good of the body politic.”

137 m. E.S.E. of Tripoli by road and 122 by sea. Pop. (1927)

For accounts of Mitchell see C.W.S. Annual, 1896 (Manchester), P.

about 10,000. Situated on the Great Syrtis it is the second city in Tripolitania, the seat of the commissioner of the eastern district,

Redfern, John T. W. Mitchell (Manchester, 1923) ; Mrs. Sidney Webb, The Discovery of the Consumer (1828).

Its port, an open road-

was born on Nantucket, Aug. 1, r818. Her astronomical work began as assistant to. her father, William Mitchell, in making

and manufactures carpets and reed mats.

stead, lies 7 m. E. at the north end of the salt marsh (Sebcha) of Tauorga, described by Strabo as about 4o m. long and nine wide. During the World War it was the capital of the ephemeral republic of Tripolitania, under the bandit Ramadan Sceteui.

MITAU: see JELGAVA.

MITCHAM, a suburb of London, in Surrey, Englarid, ro m. S. òf London Bridge by rail. Pop. of the urban district (1931) 36,856. Mitcham Common covers an area of 480 acres. The neighbourhood abounds in market gardens and plantations of aromatic hetbs used for scents, essences and chemicals.

MITCHELL, DONALD GRANT (1822-1908), American author, was born in Norwich, Connecticut, on April 12, 1822. He graduated at Yale college in 1841 and studied law, but soon

MITCHELL, MARIA

astronomical

observations.

(1818—1889), American astronomer,

On Oct. 1, 1847, she discovered a

telescopic comet (seen by De Vico, Oct. 3, by W. R. Dawes, Oct. 7, by Madame Riimker, Oct. rr). In 1865 she bécame professor of astronomy and director of the observatory at Vassat college; and in 4888 professor emeritus. She made: photographs of the sun and a special study of Jupiter and Saturn. She died at Lynn, Mass., on June 28, 1880.

See Phebe Mitchell Kendall, Maria Mitchell: Life, Letters and

Journals (1896) ; In Memoriam (1889), by her pupil and successor at Vassar, Mary W. Whitney; and a sketch by her brother, Henty Mitchell (1830-1902), himself a well-known hydrographer, in the Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, vol. xxv:

(1889-90), pp. 331-343.

617

MITCHELL—MITE MITCHELL, PETER CHALMERS (1864-

__), British

zoologist, was born at Dunfermline on Nov. 23, 1864, and was

educated at Aberdeen university, Christ Church, Oxford and at Berlin and Leipzig. From 1888 to 1891 he was university demonstrator in comparative anatomy at Oxford, and for the next two years Was organizing secretary for technical instruction to the

Oxfordshire County Council. He was later appointed lecturer in biology at Charing Cross hospital and at the London hospital, and in 1903 secretary to the Zoological Society of London.

He

also did much useful work as a member of the committees on fishery investigations and on sleeping sickness. During the World War he was attached to the Imperial General Staff and in 1918 acted as liaison officer to the War Office and to the British War Mission. He was elected F.R.S. in 1906. His publications include Outlines of Biology (1894), The Biological

Problem of To-day (1896), T. H. Huxley (1900), The Nature of Man (1904), The Childhood of Animals (1912), Evolution and the War (1915) and various papers in The Anatomical Journal, The Quarterly

Journal of Microscopical Science, etc.

MITCHELL, SILAS WEIR

(1829-1914), American phy-

sician and author, son of a physician, John Kearsley Mitchell, was born in Philadelphia, Feb. 15, 1829. He studied at the Uniyersity of Pennsylvania and in 1850 received the degree of M.D. from Jefferson Medical College, From the time of his Civil War experience aS an army surgeon he was interested in nervous diseases, soon becoming an international specialist particularly re-

nowned for his use of the “rest cure.”

In 1863 he wrote a

clever short story, combining physiological and psychological problems, entitled “The Case of George Dedlow,” published in the Atlantic Monthly. Thenceforward Dr. Mitchell divided his attention between professional and literary pursuits. He wrote over 100 medical monographs and articles, the topics varying from the venom of poisonous snakes to neurasthenia. His Wear

and Tear, or Hints for the Overworked (1871) might be classed as a best seller of its day; and Fat and Blood (1877) was translated into many languages. As a man of letters Dr. Mitchell wrote juvenile stories, several volumes of respectable verse, and prose fiction, perhaps the best being his historical novels Hugh

Wynne, Free Quaker (1897), The Adventures of François (1898) and The Red City (1908). Mitchell died in Philadelphia, Jan. 4, 1914, the recipient of many academic and scientific honours. Mitchell’s Complete Poems were published in 1914. See Beverly R. Tucker, S. Weir Mitchell (1914), and Anna Robeson Burr, Weir Mitchell: His Life and Letters (1929).

MITCHELL, SIR THOMAS LIVINGSTONE (17921855), Australian explorer, was born at Craigend, Stirlingshire, Scotland, on June 16, 1792. In the Peninsular War, he surveyed battlefields. As surveyor-general of New South Wales, he made four exploring expeditions between 1831 and 1845, and discovered the Peel, the Namoi, the Gwyder and other rivers, traced the course of the Darling and Glenelg, and was the first to penetrate

into that portion of the country which he named Australia Felix.

MITCHELL, MOUNT, a peak of the Black mountains, a short cross range extending north from the Blue Ridge through Yancey county, North Carolina, in 35° 45° 53” N. and 82° 15” 55” W., Itis the highest (6,684 ft. above sea-level) peak in the United States east of the Mississippi river. In the same region there are about a dozen summits above 6,000 ft., the noblest of them being Blackstock Knob (6,386 ft.), Big Craggy Mount (6,068 ft.) and Balsam Cone (6,645 ft.). The mountains of North Carolina were nat subject to glaciation and are, therefore, covered with a mantle of soil to the top, except for rocky precipices. They are covered with hardwood and pine forests in the lower elevations, and in the upper parts with an unbroken mantle of spruce and balsam fir. For elevation in North Carolina see Precise Triangulation, Traverse and Leveling in North Carolina (1924), which is special publication No. ror of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey.

MITE, a name applied to an order of small Arachnida, and to a coin of slight value. The coin was originally a Flemish copper coin worth one-third or, a smaller fraction of the Flemish penning, penny. It is an expression in English for a coin of the smallest value, from its use in Mark xii., 43. In zoology, “mite” is the name for minute members of the class

Arachnida

(g.v.), which, with the ticks (q.v.), constitute the

order Acari. The word “mite,” however, is merely a popular term and does not connote a natural assemblage. Mites are spread from the arctic to the antarctic hemisphere, and inhabit land, freshwater and the sea. Many are permanent parasites; others for part of their life only. The largest species reach half an inch in length; while the smallest, the most diminutive Arthropoda, are invisible to the naked eye. Mites are divided into a number of families. The Bdellidae

(Bdella) are free-living with long antenniform palpi. The large tropical forms above mentioned belong to the genus Trombidium of the family Trombidiidae. They are covered with crimson velvety hairs. The legs are adapted for crawling and the palpi are raptorial. They are non-parasitic in the adult; but immature individuals of a British species (Microtrombidium Autumnale) are parasitic. (See Harvest Buc.) The Tetranychidae are related to the last. A well-known example, Tetranychus telarius, spins webs and is sometimes called the money spider. The fresh-water Hydrachnidae are generally red or green and globular in shape. Their legs are furnished with long hairs for swimming. The red appears to be a warning colour. The marine Halacaridae creep on seaweeds and zoophytes. The Gamasidae are free-living with a thick exoskeleton, and allied to the ticks (¢.v.). The Oribatidae or beetle-mites are non-parasitic, and go through remarkable metamorphoses. The Sarcoptidae are mostly parasitic. Some, however, live in decaying substances, the best known being the cheese-

mite (Tyroglyphus siro). An allied species (T. entomophagus) damages collections of insects by destroying the specimens. They may be exterminated by benzine. The mites are parasitic upon mammals and birds. They belong to the four families, Gamasidae, Trombidiidae (vide supra), Sarcoptidae and Demodicidae. Most of the Gamasidae are free-living.

In 1851 he was sent to report on the Bathurst goldfields, and in 1853 he again visited England and patented his boomerang proa for steamers, He died at Darling Point, Sydney, on Oct. 5, The family, however, contains an aberrant genus, Dermanyssus, 1855, of which one species, “red-mite,” D. gallinae, is found in fowlHis works include: Geographical and Military Surveying (1827); houses, dovecotes and bird-cages, During the day they lurk in Three Expeditions into the Interior of East Australia (1838) ; Journal

cracks and emerge at night. They do much damage to the birds

of an Expedition inta the Interior of Tropical Australia (1848); an Australian Geography, and a translation of the Lusiad of Camoens. During his tenure of office as surveyor-general he published a map of

by sucking their blood and by depriving them of rest. Birds are also attacked by many species of Sarcoptidae (Pterolichus and

N. of Sioux Falls, on the high banks of the crooked James river, at an altitude of 1,322 ft.; the county seat of Davison county.

and live on the skin at the base of the feathers where they cause an accumulation of yellowish scales. Cytolechus lives in the con-

Analges) living on and between the barbules of the feathers, They MITCHELL, a city of South Dakota, U.S.A., 70 m. W. by are apparently harmless. Epidermoptes occur on diseased fowls

the settled districts of New South Wales.

agricultural area and the seat of Dakota Wesleyan university

nective tissue round the respiratory organs, or in the air sacs. They also penetrate to certain internal organs, and give rise ta tubercle-like nodules. The cutaneous mites mentioned above, merely suck the blood or feed upon the feathers, scurf and desquamating epidermis.

ace, redecorated annually with corn, grains and grasses, is the scene of a harvest festival during the last week in September.

scabies or mange. These mites belong to the Sarcoptidae and Demodicidae. A variety of species are responsible for Sarcoptic

It is on Federal highways 16 and 37, and-is served by the Chicago,

Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific and the Chicago, St. Paul, Min-

neapolis and Omaha railways.

Pop. (1920) 8,478 (91% native

white); 1930 Federal census 10,942. It is the centre of a rich (Methodist Episcopel: established 1885). Its unique “corn pal-

Mitchell was founded in 1879 and chartered as a city in 1883.

Some species, however, give rise to a contagious disease known as

mange,

Sarcoptes

mutams

producing

it in the feet of birds.

MITFORD—MITHRADATES

618

Feather scabies of poultry is caused by S. laevis. Three genera of Sarcoptidae, namely Sarcoptes, Chorioptes and Psoroptes cause mange or scabies in mammals, the mange produced by Sarcoptes being the most serious, because the females of the species scabiei, burrow beneath the skin and are more difficult to kill. Their multiplication is very rapid. The numerous forms described from different mammals are probably all merely temporary varieties of a single species. Mange, if taken in time, can be cured by applications of sulphur ointment. Demodex folliculorum gives rise to “Demodecic or follicular mange,” which is difficult to cure on account of the deep situation of the parasites. These infest the hair follicles and sebaceous glands in man and other animals. They differ from those previously noticed in the reduction of their legs and the elongation of the abdomen. They occur on domesticated animals, as well as on mice and bats. The family Eriophyidae or gall-mites produce in plants results analogous to those produced in animals by Sarcoptidae and Demodicidae. As in the Demodicidae the abdomen is elongate, but the Eriophyidae differ from all other mites in having lost the last two pairs of legs. The best known of the excrescences or galls which they produce are the nail-galls of the lime caused by Eriophyes tiliae. Many species have been described. They inflict considerable loss upon fruit-growers by destroying the buds of the trees.

partiality for a monarchy led him to be unjust to the Athenians and the appearance of Grote’s work eclipsed Mitford’s Histor

Clinton, in his Fasti hellenici, charged Mitford with “a gene’

negligence of dates,” though admitting that in his Philosophical

range “he is far superior to any former writer” on Greek history

MITHILA,

an ancient kingdom of India, corresponding ty

that portion of Behar lying N. of the Ganges, with an extension

into Nepal, where was the capital of Janakpur. Its early history is obscure, but it has always been noted for its peculiar conserva tism and the learning of its Brahmans. Maithili is a dialect of Bihari, with an archaic grammar and literature of its own. MITHRADATES, less correctly MITHRIDATES, a Persian name derived from Mithras (g.v.), the sun-god, and the Indo. European root da, “to give,” ie., “given by Mithras.”

The name

occurs also in the forms Mitradates (Herod. i. 110) and Meher.

dates (Tac. Aum. xii. 10). It was borne by a large number of

Oriental kings, soldiers and statesmen. The earliest are Mithra. dates, the eunuch who helped Artabanus to assassinate Xerxes I,

(Diod. xi. 69), and the Mithradates who fought first with Cyrus the Younger and after his death with Artaxerxes against the Greeks (Xen. Anab. ii. 5, 35; iii. 3, 1-103 iii. 4, 1—5), and is the

ancestor of the kings of Pontus.

The most important are three

kings of Parthia of the Arsacid dynasty, and six (or four) kings of Pontus. There were also two kings of Commagene, two of the Bosporus and one of Armenia (A.D. 35—51). Kings of Parthia.—Mururapates I. (Arsaces VI.), successor of his brother, Phraates I., came to the Parthian throne about

MITFORD, MARY RUSSELL (1787-1855), English novelist and dramatist, only daughter of Dr. George Mitford, or Midford, was born at Alresford, Hampshire, on Dec. 16, 1787. She retains an honourable place in literature as the authoress of Our Village (1824-32), a series of sketches of village scenes 175 B.C. The first event of his reign was a war with Eucratides and characters unsurpassed in their kind, and as fresh as if they of Bactria, who tried to create a great Greek empire in the East. had been written yesterday. Miss Mitford lived in close at- At last, when Eucratides had been murdered by his son about 150, tendance on an eccentric father, refused all holiday invitations Mithradates was able to occupy some districts on the border of because he could not live without her, and worked incessantly for Bactria and to conquer Arachosia (Kandahar); he is even said to him except when she broke off her work to read him the sporting have crossed the Indus (Justin 41, 6; Strabo xi. 515, 517; cf. newspapers. Her writing has the charm of perfectly unaffected Orosius v. 4, 16; Diod. 33, 18). Meanwhile the Seleucid kingdom spontaneous humour, combined with quick wit and real literary was torn by internal dissensions, fostered by Roman intrigues. skill. Miss Mitford met Elizabeth Barrett (Mrs. Browning) in Phraates I. had already conquered eastern Media, about Rhagae 1836, and the acquaintance ripened into a warm friendship. The (Rai), and subjected the Mardi on the border of the Caspian strain of poverty began to tell on her work, for although her (Justin 41, 5; Isidor. Charac. 7). Mithradates I. conquered the books sold at high prices, her income did not keep pace with her rest of Media and advanced towards the Zagros chains and the father’s extravagances. In 1837, however, she received a civil list Babylonian plain. In a war against the Elymaeans (in Susiana) pension, and five years later her father died. A subscription was he took the Greek town Seleucia on the Hedyphon, and forced raised to pay his debts, and the surplus increased the daughter’s their king to become a vassal of the Parthians (Justin 41, 6; income. She died at Swallowfield, near Reading, on Jan. 10, 1855. Strabo xv. 744). About 14r he must have become master of Her father was a curious character. He first spent his wife’s for- Babylonia. By Diodorus 33, 18 he is praised as a mild ruler; tune then the greater part of £20,000 which his daughter won in a and the fact that from 140 he takes on his coins the epithet lottery at the age of ten. Philhellen (W. Wroth, Catalogue of the Coins of Parthia, p. 14

Miss Mitford wrote poems in the manner of Coleridge and

seq.; till then he only calls himself “the great king Arsakes”)

Scott (Miscellaneous Verses, 1810, reviewed by Scott in the Quarterly; Christine, a metrical tale, 1811; Blanche, 1813). Several of her plays were produced with success, notably Julian (1823), The Foscari (1826), Rienzi (1828), and Charles I. (1834). Belford Regis, a novel idealizing Reading, ‘was published in 1835.

shows that he tried to conciliate his Greek subjects. The Greeks, however, induced Demetrius II. Nicator to come to their deliverance, although he was much pressed in Syria by the pretender

Her Recollections of a Literary Life (1852) is a series of causeries about her favourite books. Her talk was said by her friends, Mrs. Browning and Hengist Horne, to have been even more amusing than her books, and five volumes of her Life and Letters, published in 1870 and 1872, show her to have been a delightful letter-writer; see L’Estrange, Life of Mzss M. Russell Mitford with letters (3 vols., tee ; W. Roberts, Mary Russell Mitford, Her Life and Friendship 1913).

MITFORD,

WILLIAM

(1744-1827),

English historian,

born at Beaulieu, Hants, on Feb. 10, 1744, the son of a barrister. He was educated under William Gilpin at Cheam and at Queen’s College, Oxford. He then read at the Middle Temple. After his marriage (1766) with Fanny Molloy he retired to Exbury, where he occupied himself with Greek language and literature. After his wife’s death in 1776 he spent much time abroad. He sat in the House of Commons with intervals, from 1785 to 1818. Mitford

Diodotus Tryphon. At first he was victorious, but in 138 he was defeated. Hyrcania

Mithradates settled him with a royal household m and gave him his daughter Rhodogune in marriage

(Justin 36, 1, 38, 9; Jos. Anf. 13, 5, 11; Euseb. Chron. I. 257; Appian Syr. 67). Shortly afterwards Mithradates I. was succeeded by his son Phraates II., the real founder of the Arsacid Empire.

MITHRADATES II. the Great, king of Parthia (c. 120-88 »B.C.),

saved the kingdom from the Mongolian Sacae (Tochari), who had occupied Bactria and eastern Iran, and is said to have extended the limits of the empire (Justin 42, 2, where he is afterwards con-

fused with Mithradates III.). He defeated King Artavasdes of Armenia and conquered seventy valleys; and the prince Tigranes came as hostage to the Parthians (Justin 42, 2; Strabo, xi. 532).

In an inscription from Delos (Dittenberger, Or. gr. inscr. 430) he

is called “the great King of Kings Arsakes.” He also interfered in the wars of the dynasts of Syria (Jos. Ant. xiii. 14, 3). He was died at Exbury on Feb. ro, 1827. In addition to his History of the first Parthian king who entered into negotiations with Rome, Greece, he published a few smaller works, the most important of then represented by Sulla, praetor of Cilicia (92 B.c.). which was an Essay on the Harmony of Language, 1774. The Mirurapates III. murdered his father Phraates III. about 57 style of Mitford is natural and lucid, but without the rich colour

B.C., with the assistance of his brother Orodes.

of Gibbon.

of Media, and waged war against his brother, but was soon

Mitford was an impassioned anti-Jacobin, and his

He was made king

MITHRAS on account of his cruelty.

He took refuge with Gabinius,

the Roman proconsul of Syria. He advanced into Mesopotamia,

but was beaten at Seleucia by Surenas, fled into Babylon, and after along siege was taken prisoner and killed in 54 by Orodes I. (Dio

Cass 39, 50; Justin 42, 4; Jos Bell. i. 8, 7 Ant. 14, 6, 4).

A Parthian king Mithradates, who must have occupied the throne for a short time during the reign of Phraates IV., is mentioned by

Jos. Ant. xvi. 8, 4, in Io B.c,; another pretender Meherdates was brought from Rome in AD. 49 by the opponents of Gotarzes, but was defeated (Tac. Ann. Xi. 10, Xl. 10 sgq.). The name of another

pretender Mithradates

(often called Mithradates IV.)

occurs on a

coin of the first half of the 2nd century, written in Aramaic accomied by the Arsacid titles in Greek (Wroth, Catal. of the Coins of Parthia, p. 219) ; he appears to be identical with Meherdotes, one of the rival kings of Parthia who fought against Trajan in 116; he died in an attack on Commagene and appointed his son Sanatruces successor, who fell in a battle against the Romans (Arrian ap. Malalas, Chron.

pp. 270, 274) (Ep. M.) Kings of Pontus.—The kings of Pontus were descended from

one of the seven Persian conspirators who put the false Smerdis

to death. (See Darrus I.) According members of his family—Mithradates, _-were successively rulers of Cius on in Mysia. The last of these was put to

to Diodorus Siculus, three Ariobarzanes, Mithradates the Propontis and Cariné death in 302 B.c. by Anti-

gonus, who suspected him of having joined the coalition against

him. He was succeeded by his son Mithradates I. or IIT. (if the two dynasts of Cius be included!), the founder xriorns of the Pontic kingdom, although this distinction is by some attributed to the father.

Warned

by his friend

Demetrius,

the son

of

Antigonus, that he was threatened with the same fate as his father, he fled to Paphlagonia, where he seized Cimiata, a fort at the foot of the Olgassys range. Being joined by the Macedonian garrison and the neighbouring populations, he conquered the Cappadocian and Paphlagonian territories on both sides of the Halys and assumed the title of king. Before his death he further enlarged Pontic Cappadocia. He was succeeded by

Ariobarzanes, who left the throne to Mirurapates II. (c¢. 256—

190, according to Meyer, Mithradates II. and III.), a mere child. Early in his reign the Gauls of Galatia invaded his territory. Mithradates was at the battle of Ancyra (c. 241), in which he assisted Antiochus Hierax against his brother Seleucus Callinicus,

in spite of the fact that he had married the daughter of the latter

with Greater Phrygia as her dowry. His two daughters, both named Laodice, were married, one to Antiochus the Great, the other to his cousin Achaeus, a dynast of Asia Minor. He unsuccessfully attacked Sinope, which was taken by his successor Pharnaces, the brother (not the son) of Mrrxurapates III. (169121), surnamed Philopator, Philadelphus and Euergetes. According to Meyer, however, there were two kings (Mithradates IV. Philopator and V. Euergetes). He was the first king of Pontus to recognize the suzerainty of the Romans, of whom he was a loyal ally. He assisted Attalus II. of Pergamum. to resist Prusias IT. of Bithynia; furnished a contingent during the Third Punic War; and aided the Romans in obtaining possession of Pergamum, bequeathed to them by Attalus III., but claimed by Aristonicus, a natural son of Eumenes II. Both Mithradates and Nicomedes of Bithynia demanded Greater Phrygia in return for their services. lt was awarded to Mithradates, but the senate refused to ratify the bargain on the ground of bribery. For several years the kings of Pontus and Bithynia bid against each other, till in 116 Phrygia was declared independent, although in reality it was treated as

part of the province of Asia. Mithradates appears to have taken t without waiting for the decision of the senate. He invaded Cappadocia, and married his daughter to the young king,

Ariarathes Epiphanes; bought the succession from the last king of Paphlagonia, and obtained a kind of protectorate over Galatia. He was a great admirer of the Greeks, who called him Euergetes; he removed his capital from

Amasia

to Sinope, and bestowed

liberal gifts upon the temples of Delos and Athens. At the height of his power he was assassinated by his courtiers during a banquet in his palace at Sinope. &

: ‘There is much

difference

ontus called Mithradates

of opinion in regard to the kings of

to the accession of Mithradates Eupator.

. Meyer reckons five, T. Reinach three.

619

MITHRADATES VI. Exupator, called the Great, a boy of eleven, now succeeded his father. Alarmed at the attempts made upon his life by his mother, he fled to the mountains and was for many years a hunter. In rrz he returned to Sinope, threw his mother into prison, and put his younger brother to death. Having thus established himself on the throne, he turned his attention to conquest.

In return for his assistance against the Scythians, the Greeks of the Cimmerian Bosporus and the Tauric Chersonese recognized his suzerainty. He occupied Colchis, Paphlagonia and part of Galatia; set his son Ariarathes on. the throne of Cappadocia and drove out Nicomedes III., the young king of Bithynia. The Romans restored the legitimate kings, and, while apparently acquiescing, Mithradates made preparations for war. He had long hated the Romans, who had taken Phrygia during his minority, and he aimed at driving them from Asia Minor. The cause of rupture was the attack on Pontic territory by Nicomedes at the instigation of the Romans. Mithradates, unable to obtain satisfaction, declared war (88 B.c.). He rapidly overran Galatia, Phrygia and Asia, defeated the Roman armies, and ordered a general massacre of the Romans in Asia. He sent large armies into European Greece, and his generals occupied Athens. But Sula in Greece and Fimbria in Asia defeated his armies in several battles; the Greek cities were disgusted by his severity, and in 84 he concluded peace, abandoning all his conquests, surrendering his fleet and paying a fine of 2,000 talents. During what is called the Second Mithradatic War, Murena invaded Pontus without any good reason in 83, but was defeated in 82. Hostilities were suspended, but disputes constantly occurred, and in 74 a general war broke out. Mithradates defeated Cotta, the Roman consul, at Chalcedon; but Lucullus worsted him, and drove him in 72 to take refuge in Armenia with his son-in-law Tigranes. After two great victories at Tigranocerta (69) and Artaxata (68), Lucullus was disconcerted by mutiny and

the defeat of his lieutenant Fabius. (See Lucurzivs.) In 66 he was superseded by Pompey, who completely defeated both Mithradates and Tigranes. The former established himself in 64 at Panticapaeum, and was planning new campaigns against the Romans when his own troops revolted, and, after vainly trying to poison himself, he ordered a Gallic mercenary to kill him. So perished Rome’s greatest enemy in Asia Minor. His body was sent to Pompey, who buried it in the royal sepulchre at Sinope. Ancient authorities have invested Mithradates with a halo of romance. His courage, his bodily strength and size, his skill in the use of weapons, in riding, and in the chase, his speed of foot, his capacity for eating and drinking, his penetrating intellect and his mastery of 22 languages are celebrated to a degree which is almost incredible. With a surface gloss of Greek education, he united the subtlety, the superstition, and the obstinate endurance of an Oriental. He collected curiosities and works of art; he assembled Greek men of letters round him; he gave prizes to the greatest poets and the best eaters. He spent much of his time in practising magic and it was believed that he had so saturated his body with poisons that none could injure him. He trusted no

one; he murdered his mother, his sons, the sister whom he had

married; to prevent his harem from falling to his enemies he murdered his concubines, and his followers were never safe. See T. Reinach, Mithridate Eupator (1890; Ger. trans. by A. Goetz, 1895, with the author’s corrections and additions); also E. Meyer, Geschichte des Kénigreichs Pontos (1879).

MITHRAS (Mirueres, Mitra), a god, mentioned in Sanskrit and Old Persian documents and thus probably older than the separation of the Iranian stock from the Aryan invaders of India. (See Innra, History; Persia, History.) History.—Although mentioned by Greek writers, particularly of Hellenistic date, as an important Persian deity, his history is obscure. In Zoroastrianism as we know it, he is simply a Yazata, a kind of angel, a power of light who fights on the side of Ahura-Mazda. This warlike characteristic he seems always to have

retained.

But other evidence éxists to show that his position

remained higher than this would indicate. Names compounded of his (e.g., Mithradates) are common among Orientals of various epochs: his festival, the Mithrakana, (sixteenth day of the seventh month; both month and day were especially sacred to him) was

MITHRAS

620

brilliant, and modified forms of it survived to Muslim times. the animal under a roof about to be set on fire by two figures. the His cult naturally spread with the Persian conquests, and in particular, he reached the Euphrates valley, where he was so long settled that several Greek and Roman writers speak of him as an Assyrian god. Another branch of his cult, of some importance for later developments, was established in Cilicia; but for some reason he never penetrated to the western parts of Asia Minor till late times, about the beginning of the Christian era. Naturally, the concept of him was modified by contact with foreign cults, and in particular, he tended to be identified, or at least brought into close association with, the Sun. Perhaps as a

result of the accretion of foreign worshippers, his cult took on, if it did not less definite penance and Mithraism

already possess, the form of a mystery, with more or grades of initiation and ceremonials of purification, so forth, appropriate to such a worship, was first transmitted to the Roman world during the

yst century B.C, by the Cilician pirates captured by Pompey, As late as the time of Augustus it was but little known in Roman territory, and gained a firm foothold in Italy only gradually, as a result of Rome’s increasing hold upon Asia. Towards the close of the 2nd century the cult had begun to spread rapidly through the army, the mercantile class, slaves and actual propagandists, all of which classes were largely composed of Asiatics. It throve, especially among military posts, and in the track of trade, notably at ports. The German frontiers afford most evidence of its prosperity. Rome itself was a favourite seat of the religion. From the end of the 2nd century the emperors encouraged Mithraism, because of the support which it afforded to the divine right of monarchs. The Persian belief that the legitimate sovereign reigned by the grace of Ormazd, whose

favour was made manifest by the sending of the Hvarend, a kind of celestial aureole of fire, resulted in the doctrine that the sun was the giver of the Hvarend. Mithras, identifed with Sol Invictus, thus became the giver of authority and victory to the imperial house.

bull in flight, with Mithras in pursuit; Mithras bearing thebullon

his shoulders; Helios kneeling before Mithras; Helios and Mithra

clasping hands over an altar; Mithras with drawn bow on a ny.

ning horse; Mithras and Helios banqueting; Mithras and Helios mounting the chariot of the latter and riding over the ocean, These documents Cumont interprets tentatively as follows. The

head of the divine hierarchy of Mithras was Infinite Time: Heave

and Earth were his offspring, and begat Ocean. From Heaven and Earth sprang the remaining members of a circle analogous to the Olympic gods. Ahriman was also the son of Time, Mithras

was

the most

important

member

of the circle, the mediator

between man and the supreme god. The Mithras legend has þeen lost, and can be reconstructed only from the sculptures, Mithras was born of a rock, the marvel being seen only by certain shepherds, who brought gifts and adored him. Chilled by the wind, the new-born god went to a fig-

tree, partook of its fruit, and clothed himself in its leaves, He then undertook to vanquish the beings already in the world, and

rendered subject to him first the Sun, with whom he concluded a treaty of friendship. Next, he captured the sacred bull which had been created by Ormazd, This by order of the Sun, who seni his messenger the raven, he reluctantly sacrificed. From the dying

animal sprang the life of the earth, although Ahriman sent his emissaries to prevent it. The soul of the bull rose to the celestial

spheres and became the guardian of herds and flocks under the

name of Silvanus. Mithras was through his deed the creator of life. Meanwhile Ahriman sent a terrible drought upon the land.

Mithras defeated his purpose by discharging an arrow against a

rock and miraculously drawing the water from it, Next Ahriman sent a deluge, from which one man escaped in a boat with

his cattle, Finally a fire desolated the earth, and only the creatures of Ormazd escaped, Mithras, his work accomplished, ban-

queted with the Sun for the last time, and was taken by him in his

chariot to the habitation of the immortals, whence he continued to protect the faithful. As regards the organization of Mithraism, S. Jerome (Epis.

The beginning of the downfall of Mithraism dates from A.D. 275, when, Dacia was lost to the empire, The aggression of Christianity also was now more effective. The emperors, however, favoured the cult, which was the army’s favourite until Constantine destroyed its hopes. The reign of Julian and the usurpation of Eugenius renewed the hopes of its devotees, but the victory of Theodosius (394) may be considered the end of its existence. It still survived in certain cantons of the Alps in the sth century, and clung to life with more tenacity in its Eastern home,

107, 2) and inscriptions preserve the knowledge that the mystic, sacratus, passed through seven degrees, which probably corresponded to the seven planetary spheres traversed by the soul in its ascent; Corax, Raven; Cryphius, Hidden (xpidws) (cyryphus, the mss, corrected by Hilberg from inscr.; the initiate was perhaps veiled). Males, Soldier, signifying the holy warfare against evil in the service of the god; Leo, Lion, symbolic of the element

ledge regarding Mithraism consist of the Vedas, the Avesta, the

etc.) Heliodromus, Courier of the Sun; Pater, Father, a degree

the museums

bread, water and possibly wine, compared by the Christian

Sources, Remains,

Ritual—The

sources

of present know-

of fre; Perses, Persian (ef. the Christian use of “Israel,” “Zion,”

Pahlevi writings, Greek and Latin literature and inscriptions, bringing the mystic among those who had the general direction of and the cult monuments. The last include (a) some hundreds of the cult for the rest of their lives, sculptures, (b) numerous chapels, which are grottoes (spelaga) Of the seven degrees, those mystics not yet beyond the third, underground, or imitations thereof in masonry. The average Miles, were not in full communion, and were called tanperodvres grotto held from fifty to a hundred persons. The size of the (servants); while the fourth degree, Leo, admitted them into the sanctuaries, however, was compensated for by their number. class of the fully initiate, the meréxovres (participants). No The typical bas relief, which is found in great abundance in women were connected with the cult. A sacred communion of of Europe, invariably represents Mithras, under

the form of a youth with conical cap and flying drapery, slaying the sacred bull, the scorpion attacking the genitals of the animal, the serpent drinking its blood, the dog springing towards the wound in its side, and frequently, in addition, the Sun-god, his messenger the raven, a fig-tree, a lion, a ewer, and torch-bearers.

apologists to the Eucharist, was administered to the mystic who was entering upon one of the advanced degrees, The Mithraic priest, sacerdos or antzstes, was sometimes also of the degree of pater. Tertullian (De praescr, haeret. 40) calls the chief priest summus pontifex, probably the pater patrum who had

scenes in relief, The smaller reliefs Cumont arranges in two

he could marry but once.

The relief is in some instances enclosed in a frame of figures and

groups; (1) Infinite Time (Zrvan Akarana) called in Greek xpévos, identifed by theorists of that day with xpévos ; in Latin, Saturnus;

general supervision of all the initiates in one city, and states that According to the same author, there

were Mithraic, as well as Christian, virgines et continentes, Each

day of the week was marked by the adoration of a special planet,

Tellus and Atlas supporting the globe, representing the union of the sun being the most sacred of all. as Earth and Heaven; Oceanus; the Fates; Infinite Time giving into The Mithraic community of worshippers, besides being a spitttthe hand of his cessor Ormazd the thunderbolt, the symbol of ual fraternity, was a legal corporation enjoying the right of authority; Ormazd struggling with a giant of evil—the Mithraic holding property, with temporal officials at its head, like any other gigantomachy. (2) The birth of Mithras; then the god nude, cut- sodalitas. The cult was supported mainly by voluntary conttting fruit and leaves from a fig-tree in which is the bust of a deity, bution. An abundance of epigraphic evidence testifies to the and before which one of the winds is blowing upon Mithras; the

god discharging an arrow against a rock from which springs a foun-

tain; the bull in a small boat, near which again occurs the figure of

devotion of rich and poor alike.

Moral Influence.—Like all the mystery religions (see MysTERY) of that day, Mithraism attracted neophytes by claiming t¢

MITOSIS—-MITRE

621

was born in Buenos Aires on July 26, 1821, the son of an Argentine army officer. While still a youth his political views caused him in addition, to have had a high moral standard. The “soldier” of to seek refuge in Montevideo, and he spent the next 15 years Mithras, like the “soldier” of Christ, was a warrior on the side in exile, serving in the sieges of Montevideo in 1838 and 1843-46 of good against evil. While observing ritual, he had also to as captain and lieutenant-colonel, commanding the government be morally pure and upright. Those who were so, might hope to artillery in Bolivia, 1847-48, and editing El Mercurio in Valparaiso, regain, by successive degrees (corresponding according to the Chile, 1848-49, until his opposition to the government compelled popular astrological doctrine, to the seven planets), the original him to leave that country. In 1852 he returned to Argentina and beatitude of the soul; the wicked fell to the portion of Ahriman. commanded the Uruguayan artillery in the battle of Monte Relation to Christianity—The most interesting aspect of Caseros (Feb. 3, 1852) where Gen. Urquiza overthrew the dicMithraism is its antagonism to Christianity. Both religions were tator Rosas. Elected deputy to the provincial legislature of of Oriental origin; they were propagated about the same time, Buenos Aires, he led the opposition to Urquiza’s Federal plan of and spread with equal rapidity on account of the same causes, Government, was appointed provincial minister of war in 1853 viz, the unity of the politica] world and the debasement of its and in 1860 governor of the province. In 1859 the estrangement moral life. The points of collision were especially at Rome, between Buenos Aires and the Confederation resulted in war. in Africa, and in the Rhône Valley, and the struggle was the Mitre, commanding the provincial forces, was beaten in the battle more obstinate because of the resemblances between the two re- of Cépeda (Oct. 22, 1859) and Buenos Aires was incorporated into ligions, which were so numerous and so close as to be noticeable the confederation, but in 1861 he defeated Urquiza in the battle as early as the 2nd century, causing mutual recrimination. of Pavén (Sept. 17), definitively establishing the hegemony of The fraterna] spirit of the first communities, and their humble Buenos Aires; and after a short period as president ad interim, origin; the connection of their central figures with the Sun; he became constitutional president on Oct 7, 1862. Under his the legends of the shepherds with their gifts and adoration; the leadership Argentina made great progress. He impressed the flood, and the ark; the representation in art of the fiery chariot; authority of the national government upon the provincial caudilthe drawing of water from the rock; the use of bell and candle, los, reorganized the finances, improved international relations holy water and the communion; the sanctification of Sunday and and fostered public works, means of communication, immigraof the 25th of December; the insistence on moral conduct, the tion and industries. When, in 1865, Argentina joined Brazil and emphasis placed upon abstinence and self-control; the doctrine of Uruguay in the War of the Triple Alliance against Paraguay beaven and hell, of primitive revelation, of the mediation of the (1865-70), Mitre, now a general, was for a time in command of Logos emanating from the divine, the atoning sacrifice, the con- the allied troops. Soon after the conclusion of his presidential stant warfare between good and evil and the final triumph of the term in 1868, he was elected to the senate, and in 1872—73 filled former, the immortality of the soul, the last judgment, the resur- a special diplomatic mission to Brazil and Paraguay. A candidate for the presidency in 1874, upon his defeat he headed an rection of the flesh and the fiery destruction of the universe—are some of the resemblances which, whether real or only apparent, unsuccessful revolt, but he continued to have great political influenabled Mitbraism to prolong its resistance to Christianity. At ence and in 1891 was a third time candidate for the presidency; their root lay a common Eastern origin rather than any borrowing. he withdrew his name, however, and not long afterwards retired Neither these resemblances, many of which can be found in all from political life. He died in Buenos Aires on Jan. 18, 1906. the mystery cults, nor the approach made by Mithraism to be- Mitre’s activities were never restricted to those of soldier and coming a universal religion, should be exaggerated. As regards statesman. Aside from his journalistic career, which included the the latter, it could never have been really universal, for it ap- ownership of La Nacidn, one of the most important newspapers parently quite excluded women; also, it was a compromise with in Spanish-America, his contributions to philology and history polytheism, and, as such, weaker than its uncompromising rival. proved him one of the outstanding intellectual men of the conMoreover, like all the other mystery-cults, it had as its central tinent. His works include: Rimas (Paris, 1854); Historia de figure a mythical, not a historical personage. Many elements of Belgrano (Buenos Aires, 1887); Historia de San Martin (Buenos it passed into Manichaeism, which seems to have provided a Aires, 1890); Lemguas americanas (La Plata, 1894). His private half-way house for those who were not prepared to accept the library, at the time the finest in Spanish-America, he presented Christian theology in its entirety. as a gift to the State. See J. Victorica, Urquiza y Mitre (BA., 1906); Enciclopedia BreriocraPHy.—Chief work, F. Cumont, Texts et Monuments figsess ancient and divine wisdom and by holding out hopes of

a blessed immortality in union with a god. But it would seem,

urés relatifs aux Mystères de Mithra, 2 vols. (Brussels, 1896, 1899, bibliography) . Shorter works by same author, art. Mrruras in Roscher’s Lexikon; Les religions orientales dans le paganisme romain (1907).

MITOSIS,

:

Universal Ilustrada (Barcelona, 1917?); R. Bazan de Camara, Estudio sobre la personalidad del general Mitre (B.A., 1921); R. Rivarola, itre . . . 1852-62 (B.A. 192r); R. Rojas, Bartolomé Mitre (Inter-

America, Eng. ed. Dec. 1921, Feb. 1922).

a process of nuclear division. See CYTOLOGY.

(W. B. P.)

MITRE, a liturgical head-dress of the historic churches, gen-

MITRA, RAJENDRA LALA (1824-1891), Indian Ori-

erally proper to bishops. The word is derived through the Latin

entalist, was born in a suburb of Calcutta on Feb. 15, 1824, of a respectable family of the Kayasth or writer caste of Bengal. In

from the Greek uirpa, a head-band or head-dress.

journal, and to the series of Sanskrit texts entitled “Bibliotheca

bands (infulae), terminating in fringes. In the Roman Catholic

In the Roman Catholic Church its actual form is that of a sort 1846 he was appointed librarian of the Asiatic Society, and to of folding cap consisting of two halves which, when not worn, lie that society the remainder of his life was devoted—as philological flat upon each other. These sides are stifened, and when the secretary, as vice-president, and as the first Indian president in mitre is worn, they rise in front and behind like two horns pointed 1885 Apart from very numerous contributions to the society’s at the tips. From the lower rim of the mitre at the back hang two

indica," he published three separate works: (1) The Antiquities of Orissa (2 vols., 1875 and 1880), illustrated with photographic

Church mitres are divided into three classes: (1) Mitra pretiosa, decorated with jewels, gold plates, etc.; (2) Mitra auriphrygiata,

Plates, in which he traced back the image of Jagannath (Jugger-

naut) and also the car-festival to a Buddhistic origin; (2) similarly illustrated work on Bodh Gaya (1878), the hermitage Sakya Muni, and (3) Indo-Aryans (2 vols., 1881), a collection Ssays dealing with the manners and customs of the people India from Vedic times. He received the honorary degree

of white silk, sometimes embroidered with gold and silver thread or small pearls, or of cloth of gold plain; (3) Mitra simplex, of white silk damask, silk or linen, with the two falling bands behind terminating in red fringes. Mitres are the distinctive head-dress of bishops; but the right to wear them, as in the case of the other episcopal insignia, is granted by the popes to other dignitaries. Bishops alone, including of course the pope and his cardinals, are entitled to wear the pretiosa and auriphrygiata; the others wear the mitra simplex.

a of of of of

LLD. from the University of Calcutta in 1875, the companionship of the Indian Empiré when that order was founded in 1878,

and the title of raja in 1888. He died at Calcutta on July 26, 1891.

MITRE, BARTOLOMÉ

Origin and Antiquity.—The origin and antiquity of the episcopal mitre have been the subject of much debate. Some have

(1821-1906), Argentine states-

man, soldier, author, journalist and president of the republic, e

622

MITROVICA—-MITSCHERLICH

claimed for it apostolical sanction and found its origin in the

The mitre was introduced into the Greek rite only after the

liturgical head-gear of the Jewish priesthood. Such proofs as have | capture of Constantinople by the Turks (1453).

been adduced for this view are, however, based on reading a| See J. Braun, S.J., Die liturgische Gewandung, pp. 424-498 (907) special meaning into words (mitra, infula, etc.) used by early Ze eer A ae use of Saas In ane Anglican Church is

writers. With the episcopal mitre the Jewish miznephei, translated “mitre” in the King James Version (Exod. xxviii.pace 4,36), has o

nothing to do, and there is no evidence for the use of the former before the middle of the roth century evenA in Rome, while else-

where it does not make its appearance until the 11th. The first trustworthy notice of its use is under Pope Leo IX.

Can e

>os a E Pathe FiheChurch 2 aeAeonvocation y masters (1908),

See also the bibliography to the article VestmeEnrts.

MITROVICA.

a town of Croatia Slavonia. Y : 3 , Yugoslavia, Pop, (1921) 12,848. It is a flourishing river port, and one f or the rincipal markets of Croatia Slavonia for pies pigs and sheep, for PE

which three fairs are held annually. Cattle and horses ara Co on. This: pope : e r of i reared. Mitrovica occupies the site of Sirmium, the chief P who had accompanied him to Kome, With the noman m70, teng | ; him that he and his successors should wear it in ecclesiastico of Lower Pannonia, y and many y Roman remain s have been dis. ne Saar covered. The emperor Probus (232-282) was born and buried oficio (i.e., as a liturgical ornament) according to Roman custom, Sirmium, where according to some authorities the emperor Maron also died. It became an episcopal see he in order to remind him that he is a disciple of the Roman see | Aurelius (121-180) (Jaffé, Regesta pont. rom., ed. Leipzig, 1888, No. 4158).

: s From Leo IX.’s time papal grants of the mitre ates became increasingly frequent, and by the : ; had been assumed by all bishops in the west, with sanction, as their proper liturgical : head-dress. : century, too, dates the custom of investing the

2 to eminent prel12th 3 century it or without papal

7 y 441, y the Turks, who destroyed all its ancient buildings, in 1396 and rs2r EILHARD ERLICH. Jane T

bishop with the

chemist, was born on Jan. 7, 1794 at Neuende near Jever, Olden. He was educated at lea ae burg, where his father was pastor.

, It was not till came to be re: the 12th: century that the mitre : garded as specifically episcopal, and meanwhile the custom had

went to Heidelberg in 1811; he devoted himsel i 5 , Imself to Philology, and gave tospecial Persian Mitscheri E he a cht medicine to intheorder studyattention thatlanguage. resolved

From the: 12th :

mitre at his consecration.

grown up of eee (See

305, and was united with the diocese of Bosnia in 1773. Th city was sacked by the Huns in zat. and b :

MITSCHERLICH,

ARDT

(1794-1863), Germa

ee it honoris causa to other dignitaries besides | freedom of travel usually allowed in the East to physicians, He oo tt b ul began at Gottingen with the study of chemistry, and this so

moreparticularly, sovereigns. In thecoronation of theempero r, |a7ested his attention that he gave up the idea of a joumey to

: 2 | Persia. From his > ocr d i Gotti i the mitre played a part. According to the 14th Roman ordo, of : > s Gottingen days dates the treatise on certain , parts of Persianlihistory, compiled from mss.e in the universit y 1241, the pope places on the emperor’s; head first the mitra cleri-. |lib ` : calis, then the imperial diadem. rary and published in Persian and Latin in 1814, under the

Development of Form.—The original form of the mitre was f

À

title Mzrchondt historia Thaheridarum historicis nostris huiusque

incognitorum Persi

incipum.

i that of the early papal tiara (regnum), i.e., a somewhat high sine in the eee a H a Ýiee a conical cap. The stages of its general development from this | made analyses of phosphates and phosphites, arsenates and arseshape to the high double-horned modern mitre are clearly trace- nites, confirming the conclusions of J. J. Berzelius as to their able though it is impossible exactly to distinguish them in pomt composition; bis observation that corresponding phosphates and

of date.

may be said to The most characteristic modifications :

have taken place from the 11th to the middle of the 13th century.

arsenates crystallize in the same form was the

grew the

ger

paren: theory of isomorphism wiihheae

i

About rroo the conical mitre begins to give place to a round one; | cated to the Berlin academy in Dec. 1819. Shortly afterwards he

a band of embroidery is next set over the top from back to front, | went to Stockholm and studied under Berzelius; he returned to which tends to bulge up the soit material ou either side; and Berlin in 1821, and in the summer of 1822 he delivered his first E ee oe aa P 7 ae oe ae ae T lecture as extraordinary professor of chemistry in the university, See ee ee ee OT L eee in 1825 he was appointed ordinary professor. He died at century. The custom was, however, already growing up of ee setting where Schönberg, near Berlin, on Auz. 28. 186 horns over the front and back of the head instead of the sides, and 8, ; eee A . : ; ) In the course of Mitscherlich’s crystallographic investigations with this the essential character of the : mit erap & eecae established. racter ot the mitre during the middle he observed that the rhombohedral angles in the case of calcIn most of the reformed churches the use of mitres was aban- | SPT varied with the temperature, and that crystals, when heated

doned with that of the other vestments. They have continued to

b

h

, by the bish

fth

oe

expand unequally in the direction of dissimilar axes. His investi-

gation (also in 1826) of the two crystalline modifications of sul-

eee Ththe Church i England = Tae a ae phur brought to light the fact that certain substances could exist mitre was discontinued at the Reformation, but was revived in | 2 different crystalline forms, a property which Mitscherlich called : ; : dimorphism. He obtained selenic acid in 1827 and showed that the latter part of the roth century, and is now fairly widespread. | : ; In the Orthodox Fastar Church the mitre is proper only to Its salts are isomorphous with the sulphates, Ue while a few years

bishops. Its form differs entirely from that of the Latin Church. ae ; a - . that4 ps same thing is true of the ea In general it rather resembles a closed crown, surmounted by a| 270 “ve Sulpnates, and o the permanganates and the perchlorates. ; : He prepared benzene sulphonic acid (1833), nitrobenzene (1834) cross. In Russia the cross usually lies flat, only certain metro. , p3 33/5 ee oe eee bishops feee ee oe vain Kiev, se G rat - oe - E aving priests the right and to archdeacons, have the cross upright. the Armenian Church as well as the Inbishops were miles Thee ce À i Rares :

: which . embodied y: many original . s . der Chemie, observations. Hisis initerest in mineralogy led him to study the geology of volcanic Te-

the patriarch wears a mitre, which resembles that of the Greeks.

TSa D. AS ne

from a grant of PopeInnocen t that ofthe prist theoe |Blons, and he tried to devise a theory of volcanic action. He di IT; vahart, is not unlike the Greek mitre, In the Syrian Church oak ao TOVE publish any papers on Buni ea

The biruna of the Chaldaean Nestorians, on the other hand, worn

nn ac ae 7 bl} i SSer

ae

r

ee)

a

ia d in the Ab-

by all bishops, is a sort of hood ornamented with a cross. Coptic

hahalangecn of “theBerlin

the phrygium at Rome.

Mitscherlich (1894). in 1896, See whoalsoalsoA. published ErinnerungChemische von Eiker Mitscherlich D. von Hofmann, 'Erin-

ee fee ee Physik und priests and bishops wear the ballin, a long strip of stuff orna- | Chemie (ed. J. C. Puggendorf Halle 1790, etc.) ; and. in the Annales mented with crosses, etc., and wound turban-wise round the head; | de chimie de physique (1816, etc.). The 4th edition of the Lehrbuch the patriarch of Alexandria has a helmet-like mitre, the origin of | der Chemieet was published in 1844-47, a sth was begun in 1835 but which is unknown, though it perhaps antedates the appearance of was not completed. His Gesammelte Schriften were edited_by a The Maronites, and the uniate Jacobites,

Chaldaeans and Copts have adopted the Roman mitre.

nerungen (1882).

l

a

MITTAG-LEFFLER—MNEMONICS MITTAG-LEFFLER, MAGNUS GÖSTA (1846-1927), Mizpah of Benjamin, where the swedish mathematician,

was

born at Stockholm

on March

16,| to the annihilation

623

Hebrews assembled preliminary of the Benjamites (Judges xx., 1); Samuel

1346. He studied at Uppsala and later became lecturer at the

made it his headquarters (1 Sam. vii., 5). Fortified by Asa it

University of Uppsala (1872-77), professor at Helsingfors (1377— gr), and finally professor at Stockholm, being rector of the Uni-

became the seat of the viceroy Gedaliah and the scene of his murder. Although recently an identification with Tell-en-Nasbeh has been suggested, Nebi Samwil is the traditional and generally accepted site. A crusaders’ church (1151), later converted into a mosque, is built over the traditional tomb of Samuel. It was destroyed by the shelling of the Turkish army in their efforts to drive from it the British troops (Nov. 27-30, 1917). (3) A

yersity in 1886, 1891 and in 1893. Mittag-Leffler found the Acta

Mathematica in 1883, set up an editorial staff from the four

Seandinavian

countries,

gained the patronage

of Oscar

II. of

Sweden, and acted as chief editor for 45 years. This journal was international. As a mathematician, Mittag-Leffler made a numner of contributions to analysis. Ele worked on the general theory of functions and gave a proof of Cauchy’s theorem.

He also dealt

with the problem of the analytic representation of a one-valued function; in connection with this there is the well known MittagLeffler theorem. A good deal of his researches laid the foundation of later work by other mathematicians.

recipient of numerous

Mittag-Leffler was the

honours both at home

was an honorary member

holm on July 7, 1927.

of many societies.

and abroad and He died at Stock-

See notice by Norlund in Acta Mathematica.

MITTWEIDA, a town of Germany in the republic of Saxony, on the Zschopau, 12 m. way to Döbeln and Riesa. spinning and weaving mills. furniture, machinery, cigars

by rail N. of Chemnitz on the railPop. (1925) 19,278. It has cotton Other industries are the making of and leather.

MIVART, ST. GEORGE

JACKSON

(1827—1900), Eng-

lish biologist, was born on Nov. 30, 1827, in London. In 1851 he was called to the bar, but devoting himself to scientific studies, he was appointed lecturer at St. Mary’s Hospital medical school in 1862, and from

1874 to 1877 was professor of biology

at the short-lived Catholic University College, London. In 1871 his Genesis of Species brought him into the controversy then raging round the theories of Darwin, and ultimately led to his estrangement from both Darwin and Huxley. Though admitting evolution in general, Mivart emphasized the distinction between organic and inorganic matter, minimized the importance of natural selection, and, especially in his Nature and Thought (1882) and his Origin of Human Reason (1889), denied the evolution of the human intellect. Some articles published in the Nineteenth Century, while he was professor of the philosophy of natural history at Louvain, advocated the claims of science even where they seemed to conflict with religion, and were placed on the Index. Other articles in January 1900 led to his excommunication by Cardinal Vaughan, with whom he had a curious correspondence vindicating his claim to hold liberal opinions while remaining a Catholic. Shortly afterwards he died, in London, on

April 1, 1900.

Besides the above named works, Mivart wrote: Lessons in Elementary Anatomy (1873), Man and Apes (1873), The Common Frog

(1874) and The Cat: an Introduction

to the Study of Back-boned

Animals (1881)—all of which exhibit his scientific powers.

A complete

list of his publications is in the Dict. Nat. Biog.

MIXE-ZOQUE, a stock of Mexican Indians, in the region of

the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, between long. 92° and 96°, nowhere reaching the sea. The Mixe are to the west, the Zoque to the east. The two languages are related, but seem distinct from Zapotecan, Nahuan and Maya.

Mixe and Zoque were regarded

as sturdy but backward people by their ancient neighbors. The Popoloco of Puebla and Tapachula of the Guatamalan frontier seem to belong to them linguistically. tated 28,000 Mixe and 12,000 Zoque.

The 1895 census enume-

MIXTEC, a people occupying much of the western half of the

State of Oaxaca, Mexico. With the Zapotec and several smaller groups, they are considered to form the Zapotecan linguistic famly. They participated to some degree in the higher civilization of ancient Mexico, and made fine polychrome pottery. They were

Conquered by the Aztecs.

In 1895, 146,000 Indians spoke Mixtec.

MIXTURES, PROPERTIES OF: see CHEMISTRY.

MIZPAH. There are several places of this name in the Old Testament. (1) Mizpah of Gilead, where Jacob was reconciled to Laban, and Jepthah encamped before attacking the Ammontes. It is supposed to be identical with Ramoth

Gilead.

(2)

territory near Mt. Hermon (Josh. xi., 3). (4) A town in the tribe of Judah (Josh. xv; 38). (5) Mizpah of Moab, where David interviewed the king of Moab and found a place of refuge for his parents (r Sam. xxil., 3). See W. J. Phythian-Adams, “The Mizpah of 1 Sam. vii., 5"; Journ. Pal. Orient. Soc. 3 (1923) 13 seq. (=Tell-en-Nasbeh) ; W. F. Albright. “The Site of Mizpah in 637 seg. (Nebi Samwil).

Benjamin”:

Revue

Biblique

33

(1924)

MIZRAIM, the biblical name for Egypt (Gen. x. 6, 13). The apparently dual termination (Heb. Misrayim) may be due to a misunderstanding or may refer to Upper and Lower Egypt as two entities in one. There is an alternative poetical form Maso6r

(2 Ki. xix. 24, etc.). In Isa. xi. rz the name is distinct from Pathros or Upper Egypt, and includes some of Lower Egypt. But C. T. Beke, as long ago as 1834, in his Origines hiblicae, concluded that “Egypt” in the Old Testament sometimes denotes a district near Midian and the Gulf of ‘Akaba; and this view restated quite independently by Hugo Winckler on later evidence (1893) has been the subject of continued debate. Egypt is known to have laid claim to the southern half of Palestine from early times, and consequently the extension of the name of Egypt beyond the limits of Egypt is inherently probable (so especially Ezek. xx. 36). For example, Hagar, as the ancestress of Ishmaelite tribes, may not have been an “Egyptian” in the strict

ethnical sense. Besides this Mizraim the Old of another. In 1874 E. Schrader pointed out locate a Musri (2.e., Mizraim) to the north this land presumably is referred to in 2 Ki.

with seq., land some

Testament knows that the Assyrians of Palestine and vii. 6 (mentioned

the Hittites), and again in 1 Ki. x. 28 seg., 2 Chron. i. 16 Where the word for “droves” (Heb. m-k-v-h) conceals the of Kué (Cilicia). The situation of this Musri is disputed, authorities even placing it east of the Tigris.

MLADA

BOLESLAV,

a beautiful old town in Bohemia,

Czechoslovakia, on the Jizera, a right-bank tributary of the Elbe, dating from the roth century. Its old walls and towers harmonize with a picturesque setting but nevertheless the town is a brisk centre of trade and an important railway junction with sugar refineries and soap and candle factories. It has many fine old ecclesiastical buildings, some of them with a history closely associated with the Bohemian Brethren for whom the town was the metropolis; the tomb of Johann August, the celebrated bishop of their Order is in the Church of St. Maria. Pop. (1921) 17,237.

MNEMONICS,

the general-name

applied to devices for

aiding the memory. Such devices are also described as memoria technica. The principle is to enable the mind to reproduce a relatively unfamiliar idea, and specially a series of dissociated ideas, by connecting it, or them, in some artificial whole, the parts of which are mutually suggestive. Among the most famous examples

of metrical mars, the Celarent”) of Philos.,

mnemonics are the “gender rhymes”’ of the Latin gramhexameter lines (especially that beginning “Barbara invented by logicians (for a list see Baldwin’s Dict. vol. ii., s.v. “Mnemonic Verses”), the verse for remem-

bering the number of days in the months (“Thirty days hath September, April, June and November”). Other devices are numerous. Systems.—Mnemonic devices were much cultivated by Greek sophists and philosophers, and are repeatedly referred to by Plato and Aristotle. In later times the invention was ascribed to the poet Simonides, perhaps for no other reason than that the strength of his memory was famous. Cicero, who attaches considerable ; importance to the art, but more to the principle of order as the ' best help to memory, speaks of Carneades (or perhaps Char-

624.

MNEMONICS

mades) of Athens and Metrodorus of Scepsis as examples of the use of well-ordered images to aid The Romans valued such helps as giving facility in ing. The method used is described by the author

distinguished the memory. public speakof Rhet. ad Heren., iii. 16-24; see also Quintilian (Inst. Or. xi. 2), whose account is, however, obscure. In his time the art had almost ceased to be practised. The Greek and Roman system of mnemonics was founded on the use of mental places and signs or pictures, known as “topical” mnemonics. The most usual

method was to choose a large house, of which the apartments, walls, windows, statues, furniture, etc., were severally associated with certain names, phrases, events or ideas, by means of symbolic

pictures; and to recall these it was only necessary to search over the apartments of the house till the particular place was discovered where they had been deposited by the imagination. In accordance with this system, if it were desired to fix an historic date in the memory, it was localized in an imaginary town divided into a certain number of districts, each with ten houses, each house with ten rooms, and each room with a hundred quadrates or memory-places, partly on the floor, partly on the four walls, partly on the roof. Thus, if it were desired to fix in the memory the date of the invention of printing (1436), an imaginary book, or some other symbol of printing, would be placed in the thirtysixth quadrate or memory-place of the fourth room of the first house of the historic district of the town. Except that the rules of mnemonics are referred to by Martianus Capella, nothing further is known regarding the practice of the art until the 13th century. Among the voluminous writings of Roger Bacon is a tractate De arte memorativa. Raimon Lull devoted special attention to mnemonics in connection with his ars generalis. The first important modification of the method of the Romans was that invented by the German poet Konrad Celtes, who, in his Epitoma in utramque Ciceronis rhetoricam cum arte memorativa nova

(1492), instead of places made use of the letters of the alphabet. About the end of the 15th century Petrus de Ravenna (b. 1448) awakened such astonishment in Italy by his mnemonic feats that he was believed by many to be a necromancer. His Phoenix artis memoriae (Venite, 1491, 4 vols.) went through as many as nine editions, the seventh appearing at Cologne in 1608. An impression equally great was produced about the end of the 16th century by Lambert Schenkel (Gazophylacium, 1610), who taught mnemonics in France, Italy and Germany, and, although he was denounced as a sorcerer by the university of Louvain, published in 1593 his tractate De memoria at Douai with the sanction of that celebrated theological faculty. The most complete account of his system is given in two works by his pupil Martin Sommer,

published at Venice in 1619. In 1618 John Willis (d. 1628?) published Mnemonica; sive ars reminiscendi (Eng. version by Leonard Sowersby, 1661; extracts in Feinaigle’s New Art of Memory, 3rd ed., 1813), containing a clear statement of the principles of topical or local mnemonics. Giordano Bruno, in connection with

his exposition of the ars generalis of Lull, included a memoria technica in his treatise De umbris idearum. Other writers of this period are the Florentine Publicius (1482); Johann Romberch (1533); Hieronimo Morafiot, Ars memoriae (1602); B. Porta, Ars reminiscendi (1602). In 1648 Stanislaus Mink von Wenussheim or Winckelmann made known what he called the “most fertile secret” in mnemonics —namely, the use of consonants for figures, so as to express numbers by words (vowels being added as required); and the philosopher Leibnitz adopted an alphabet very similar to that of Winckelmann in connection with his scheme for a form of writing common to all languages. Winckelmann’s method, which in fact is adopted with slight changes by the majority of subsequent “original” systems, was modified and supplemented in regard to many details by Richard Grey (1694~1771), who published a Memoria technica in 1730. The principal part of Grey’s method (which may be compared with the Jewish system by which letters also stand for numerals, and therefore words for dates) is briefly this: “To remember anything in history, chron‘ ology, geography, etc., a word is formed, the beginning whereof, being the first syllable or syllables of the thing sought, does, by

frequent repetition, of course draw after it the latter part, which

is so contrived as to give the answer. Thus, in history, the Det happened in the year before Christ two thousand three hundred forty-eight; this is signified by the word Del-etok, Del Standing for Deluge and etok for 2348.” To assist in retaining the mnemon. ical words in the memory they were formed into memoria] j which, however, being composed of strange words in difficut hexameter scansion, are by no means easy to memorize. The vowel

or consonant,

which

Grey connected

with a particular

figure, was chosen arbitrarily; but in 1806 Gregor von Feinaigk a German monk from Salem near Constance, began in Paris t expound a system of mnemonics, one feature (based on Winckel mann’s system) of which was to represent the numerical

by letters chosen on account of some similarity to the figure ty be represented or some accidental connection with it. This alpha. bet was supplemented by a complicated system of localities and signs. Feinaigle, who apparently published nothing himself, came

to England in 1811, and in the following year one of his pupils published The New Art of Memory, which, beside giving Fein. aigle’s system, contains valuable historical material about previous

systems. A simplified form of Feinaigle’s method was published by Aimé Paris (Principes et applications diverses de la mnémpo. nique, 7th ed., Paris, 1834), and the use of symbolic pictures was revived in connection with the latter by a Pole, Antoni Jaéwinsky, of whose system an account was published by the Polish general J. Bem, under the title Exposé général de la méthode mnémonique

polonaise, perfectionnée à Paris (Paris, 1839).

Various other

modifications of the systems of Feinaigle and Aimé Paris were advocated

by subsequent

mnemonists,

among

them being the

Phrenotypics of Major Beniowsky, a Polish refugee, the PhrenoMnemotechny (1845) of Francois Fauvel Gouraud, the Mnemotechnik of Karl Otto Reventlow (generally known as Karl Otto), a Dane, and the Mnemotechny of the American Pliny Miles. The more complicated mnemonic systems have fallen almost into complete disuse; but methods founded chiefly on the so-called laws of association (see ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS) have been taught with some success in Germany by, among others, Hermann Kothe, author of Lehrbuch der Mnemonik (2nd ed., Hamburg, 1852), and Katechismus der Gedächtnisskunst (6th ed. by Montag, Leipzig, 1887); and Hugo Weber-Rumpe, author of Mnemonische Zahlwérterbuch (Breslau, 1885) and Mnemonische Unterrichisbriefe (1887-1888); in England by Dr. Edward Pick, whose Memory and the Rational Means of Improving it (sth ed., 1873) and Lectures on Memory Culture (1899) obtained a wide circulation. Passing over the work of William Day (New Mnemonical Chart and Guide to the Art of Memory, 1845), Rev. T. Brayshaw (Metrical Mnemonics, a very rare work), Fairchild and W. Stokes, the next name of any importance is the Rev. J. H. Bacon, a pupi of Edward Pick. His book (A Complete Guide ito the Improvement of the Memory, 3rd ed., rev. 1890) contains a good summary of the history of mnemonics and a very reasonable account of the principles; it gains in value by its comparative simplicity. More or less successful systems were issued by Lyon Williams

(1866), T. Maclaren (1866), Thomas A. Sayer (1867), Rev. Alexander Mackay (1869), George Crowther (1870), F. Appleby (1880), John Sambrook, who made use of similarities in sounds (gun, 1; Jew, 2), the French scientist Abbé Moigno, J. H. Noble and Allan Dalzell. Considerable interest was roused both in London and in America by the controversy which raged round the

system of “Alphonse Loisette,” who taught his “art of never

forgetting” successively in London and Washington. It claimed to be original in system, but was attacked in England by F.

Appleby and in America by George S. Fellows, and is generally regarded as both unoriginal and inferior on the whole to preced-

ing systems (for the litigation in America see e.g., Part II. of

Middleton’s Memory Systems, pp. 96 sgq.). An interesting work (Memoranda

mnemonica)

was published by James Copner 1

1893, containing a system based partly on the use of letters for

figures and words for dates, as well as a large number of rhymes for remembering facts in biblical, Roman, Greek and English

history. He made use of Grey’s system, but endeavoured as far as possible to invent, where necessary, words and terminations

MNESICLES—MOAB

625

which in themselves had some special fitness in place of Grey’s of Edom and south of Ammon (g.v.). The national traditions of monstrosities. More complicated systems are the Keesing the Israelites (see Jews) recognize a close relationship between Memory System (Auckland, 1896), the Smith-Watson System of Moab and Ammon, “sons” of Lot, and the “brothers” Esau

Memory and M ental Training (Washington), and the Pelman memory system.

BrsuiocraPHy.—A. large number of the works referred to in the

text contain historical material. Among histories of the subject, we C.F. von Aretin, Systematische Anleitung zur Theorie und Praxis der Mnemonik (Sulzberg, 1810); A. E. Middleton, Memory Systems, Old and New (espec. 3rd rev. ed., New York, 1888), with bibliography of works from 1325 to 1888 by G. S. Fellows and account of the Loisette litigation; F. W Colegrove, Memory (1901), with bibliog-

raphy, pp- 353-361. (J. M. M.) MNESICLES, the architect of the great Propylaea of the

Athenian Acropolis, set up by Pericles about 437 B.C. MOA, the Maori name of the extinct Ratite birds, comprising

the New Zealand group Dinornithes (see Brrp and Ratitag). In the North Island the moas seem to have died out some sooJoo years ago, soon after the arrival of the Maoris. In South Island they lingered much longer, possibly even down to the time that Captain Cook visited New Zealand. Numerous bones have been found in caves and swamps. The wings and shoulder-girdle, except for a few vestiges in one species (Anomalopteryx dromaeotdes), had entirely disappeared.

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giants, was in turn displaced by the Amorite king Sihon, who forced Moab south of the Amon (Wadi Madjib, a natural boundary) and drove Ammon beyond the Jabbok. The Israelites at Kadesh, almost at the gate of the promised land, incurred the wrath of Yahweh, and, deterred by a defeat at Hormah from pursuing their journey northwards, chose another route (Num. xiv. 40-45; contrast xxl. 1-3). A great detour was made round by the

south of Edom (Num. xiv. 25, xxi. 4; Judges xi. 18), and the people reached Pisgah in Moab (Num. xxi. 16-20; cf. Deut. ii. 27, XXXIV. I), or, according to another view, passed outside Moab

until they reached the border of Sihon’s kingdom (Num. xxi. 13, 26; Judges xi. 17 seg.). The late list in Num. xxxiii. even seems to assume that the journey was made from Kadesh across the northern end of Edom. Apparently no fixed or distinct tradition existed regarding the journeys; and it is extremely probable that some of the most characteristic features of the narratives belong to much later periods than the latter half of the second millennium B.C., the age to which they are ascribed (e.g., the poem on the fall of Heshbon, Num. xxi. 27—30). The history of the “brothers” Moab and Ammon was bound up with that of Judah and Israel respectively and depended, to a considerable extent, upon these two and their mutual relations. Jephthah (qg.v.), one of the Israelite “judges,” delivered Gilead from Ammon, who resumed the attack under its king Nahash, only to be repulsed by Saul (q.v.). Ehud (g.v.) of Benjamin or Ephraim freed Israel from the Moabite oppression. To the first great kings,

Saul and David, are ascribed conquests over Moab, Ammon, and Edom. The Judaean David, for his part, sought to cultivate friendly relations with Ammon, and tradition connects him closely with Moab. His son Solomon contracted marriages with women of both states (1 Kings xi. 5, 7), thus introducing into Jerusalem cults which were not put down until almost at the close of the monarchy (2 Kings xxiii. 13). In the gth century B.c. the two states appear in a more historical light, thanks to the Assyrian records and a lengthy Moabite inscription. This latter inscription, now in the Louvre, was found at Dhiban, the biblical Dibon, in 1868. It contains a record of the successes gained by the Moabite king Mesha against Israel. Omri (g.v.) had previously seized a number of Moabite cities north of the Arnon, and for 40 years the Moabite national god Chemosh was angry with his land. At length he roused Mesha; and Moab, which had evidently retreated southwards towards Edom, now began to take reprisals. “The men of Gad had dwelt in the land of Ataroth from of old; and the king of Israel built Ataroth for himself.” Mesha took the city, slew its people in honour of Chemosh, and dragged before the god the altar-hearth (or the priests?)

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(apparently a divine name, but curiously similar to

David). Chemosh next roused Mesha against the city of Nebo. It fell with its thousands, for the king had “devoted” it to the deity ‘Ashtar-Chemosh. Yahweh had been worshipped there, and

The moas varied from

the 12ft. high Dinornis maximus to the size of a turkey. Their

affinities are with the Australian Ratites, especially with the kiwis. Moas are known only as far back as the Pliocene, and seem to have been herbivorous. MOAB, the name of an ancient people of Palestine who inhabited a district east of the Jordan and the Dead sea, lying north

its territory, fortified its cities, supplied them with cisterns, and Mesha built a great sanctuary to his god. The inscription enu-

merates many places known elsewhere. (Isa. xv.; Jer. xlviii.), but, although it mentions the “men of Gad,” makes no allusion to the Israelite tribe Reuben, whose seat lay in the district (Num. xxxii.; Josh. xiii. 15-23; see REUBEN). The revolt will have followed Ahab’s death (see 2 Kings i. 1) and apparently led to the unsuccessful attempt by Jehoram to recover the lost ground (ibid. iii.). Moab thus retained its independence, even harrying Israel with marauding bands (2 Kings xiii. 20), while Ammon was perpetrating cruelties upon Gilead (Am. i. 13 sgg.). But under Jeroboam II. (qg.v.) Israelite territory was extended to the Wadi of the ‘Arabah or wilderness (probably south end of the Dead sea), and

MOʻALLAQAT

626

again Moab suffered. If Isa. xv. seg. is to be referred to this age, its people fled southwards and appealed for protection to the overlord of Edom (see Uzztant). During the Assyrian supremacy its king Salamannu paid tribute to Tiglath-Pileser III., but joined the short-lived revolt with Judah and Philistia in 712. When Sennacherib besieged Jerusalem in 700, Kamus (Chemosh)-nadab also submitted; and subsequently both Esarhaddon and Assur-

bani-pal received tribute from the Moabite king Musuri (“the

That a series of long poems was written at all at that re period is improbable in the extreme. Up to a time when the ay of writing had become far more general than it was before the

spread of Islam, poems were never—or very rarely—written, with the exception, perhaps, of epistles in poetic form. The diffusion

of poetry was exclusively committed to oral tradition. The legend

that the poems were written in gold evidently originated in th

name “the golden poems” (literally “the gilded”), a figurative expression for excellence. We may interpret the designation “su.

Egyptian”). During the reign of Assur-bani-pal Moab helped to repulse the invasion of the Nabayati and nomads of Kedar, a pended” on the same principle. It seems to mean those (poems) movement which made itself felt from Edom nearly as far as which have been raised, on account of their value, to a specially Damascus. It had its root in the revolt of Shamash-shum-ukin of honourable position. Babylonia, and, coming at a time immediately preceding the disThe selection of these seven poems can scarcely have hee integration of the Assyrian empire, had important consequences the work of the ancient Arabs at all. It is much more likely that we owe it to some connoisseur of a later date. Now Nahhis for Judah and the east of the Jordan. Later, Moab joined the coalition against Babylonia (Jer. xxvii. says expressly: “The true view of the matter is this: whe, 3), and if it is condemned for its joy at the fall of Jerusalem (Isa. Hammad ar-Rawiya (Hammad the Rhapsodist) saw how little xxv. 9 Seg.; Jer. xlviii.; Ezek. xxv. 8-11; Zeph. ii. 8—ro), it har- men cared for poetry, he collected these seven pieces, urged boured fugitive Jews (Jer. xl. 11): the dates of the most signifi- people to study them, and said to them: “These are the [poems] cant passages are unfortunately uncertain. If Sanballat the Horon- of renown.’” And this agrees with all our other information ite was really a native of the Moabite Horonaim, he finds an Hammad (who lived in the first three quarters of the 8th century appropriate place by the side of Tobiah the Ammonite and Gash- A.D.) was perhaps of all men the one who knew most Arabic mu the Arabian among the strenuous opponents of Nehemiah. poetry by heart. The recitation of poems was his profession, To Still later we find Moab part of the province of Arabia in the such a rhapsodist the task of selection is in every way appropriate: hands of fresh tribes from the Arabian desert (Jos. Ant. xiii. 13, and it may be assumed that he is responsible also for the some. 5}; and, with the loss of its former independent power, the name what fantastic title of “the suspended.” There is another fact which seems to speak in favour of survives merely as a type (Dan. xi. 41). As Mesha’s inscription proves, Moab had reached a high state Hammad as the compiler of this work. He was a Persian by of civilization by the oth century B.c. Its language differed only descent, but a client of the Arab tribe, Bakr ibn Wail. For this dialectically from Hebrew; its religion and culture were very reason, we may suppose, he not only received into the collection closely akin to the Israelite. The relation of Chemosh, the national a poem of the famous poet Tarafa, of the tribe of Bakr, but also god, to his “children” (Num. xxi. 29) was that of Yahweh to Israel that of another Bakrite, Harith, who, though not accounted a

(Judges xi. 24). Apart from the religious cult suggested in the name Mount Nebo, there were local cults of the Baal of Peor and the Baal of Meon; and Mesha’s allusion to ‘Ashtar-Chemosh, a compound deity, has been taken to point to a corresponding consort whose existence might naturally be expected upon other

bard of the highest rank, had been a prominent chieftain; while his poem could serve as a counterpoise to another also received— the celebrated verses of Harith’s contemporary ‘Amr, chief of the

Taghlib, the rival brethren of the Bakr. ‘Amr praises the Taghlib in glowing terms: Harith, in a similar vein, extolls the Bakr— grounds (see ASTARTE). The fertility of Moab, the wealth of ancestors of Hammad’s patrons. The collection of Hammad wine and corn, the temperate climate,'and the enervating heat appears to have consisted of the same seven poems which are supply conditions which directed the form of cult. Nature-worship, found in our modern editions, composed respectively by Amra’alas in Israel, prevailed, and the impure rites of Shittim and Baal- Qais, Tarafa, Zuhair, Labid, ‘Antara ibn Shaddad, ‘Amr ibn Peor (Num. xxxi. 16; Ps.cvi. 28) would not materially differ Kulthim, and Harith ibn Hilliza. These are enumerated both by from practices which Israelite prophets condemn. The kinship Ibn ‘Abd-Rabbihi, and, on the authority of the older philologists, of Israel with the external states (Moab, Edom, and Ammon) is by Nahbhas; and all subsequent commentators seem to follow entirely justified. It extends intermittently throughout the history. them. We have, however, evidence of the existence, at a very But Israel remained a great power while Moab disappeared. It is early period, of a slightly different arrangement. Certainly we cantrue that Moab was continuously hard pressed by desert hordes; not now say, on the testimony of the Jamharat ash‘ar al ‘Arab, the exposed condition of the land is emphasized by the chains of that two of the most competent ancient authorities on Arabic ruined forts and castles which even the Romans were compelled to poetry, Mofaddal (d. c. 790) and Abū ‘Ubaida (d. A.D. 824, at a construct. But the explanation is to be found within Israel itself, great age), had already assigned to the “Seven” (viz. “the seven Moʻallaqāt”) a poem each of Nābigha and Aʻshā in place of those and especially in the work of the prophets. BistiocrRAPHY.— See the articles on Moab in Hastings’ Dict. Bible (W. H. Bennett), Ency. Bib. (G. A. Smith and Wellhausen); also the popular description by Libbey and Hoskins, Jordan Valley and Petra (1905), and the invaluable works of Briinnow and A. von Domaszewski, Die Provincia Arabia (1904-5), and A. Musil, Arabia Petraea (1907—08). For the Moabite inscription of Mesha see G. A. Cooke North Semitic Inscriptions pp. 1—14, and the articles “Mesha” in Ency. Bib. (S. R. Driver) and “Moab” in Hastings’ Dict. Bible (W. H. Bennett). (S. A. C.)

MOSALLAQAT

(or

Mo‘arragat).

Al-Mo‘allagat is the

title of a group of seven longish Arabic poems, which have come down to us from the time before Islam. The name signifies “the suspended” (pl.), the traditional explanation being that these poems were hung up by the Arabs on or in the Ka‘ba at Mecca. Against this we have the testimony of the grammarian Nabhias (d. AD. 949), who says in his commentary on the Mo‘allaqat: “As for the assertion that they were hung up in [sic] the Ka‘ba, it is not known to any of those who have handed down ancient poems.” (Ernst Frenkel, An-Nahhés’ Commentar zur Mu‘aliaga Imruul-Qais [Halle, 1876], p. viii.) This cautious scholar is eer right in rejecting a story so utterly unauthenti-

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of ‘Antara and Hārith. For meanwhile it has been discovered that the compiler of the above-mentioned

work—who,

in order to

deceive the reader, issued it under a false name—is absolutely

untrustworthy. But the learned Ibn Qotaiba (oth century 4D.), in his book Of Poetry and Poets, mentions as belonging to the “Seven” not only the poem of ‘Amr, which has invariably been

reckoned among the Mo‘allaqat (ed. de Goeje, p. 120), but also

a poem of ‘Abid ibn Abras (ibid. 144). In place of which poem he read this we do not know; and we are equally ignorant as to

whether he counted other pieces than those indicated above among the seven. Now Nabigha and A‘sha enjoyed greater celebrity than any

of the poets represented in the Mo‘allaqat, with the excepuio

of Amra’al-Qais, and it is therefore not surprising that scholars,

of a somewhat later date, appended a poem by each of these to the Mo‘allaq&t, without intending by this to make them an

integral part of that work. This is clear, for instance, from the

introductory words of Tibrīzī (d. A.D. 1109) to his commentary

on the Mo‘allaqat. Appended to this he gives a commentary t0

a poem of Nabigha, to one of A‘sha, and moreover one: to that

poem of ‘Abid which, as we have just seen, Ibn Qotaiba

MOSALLAOAT counted among the seven. It is a pure misunderstanding when Ibn Khaldin (loc. cit.) speaks of mine Mo‘allaqat; and we ought

hardly to lay any stress on the fact that he mentions not only

Nabigha and A’sha, but also ‘Alqama, as Mo‘allaqa-poets. He was probably led to this by a delusive recollection of the Collection of the “Six Poets,” in which were included these three,

together with the three Mo‘allaqa-poets, Amra’al-Qais, Zuhair and arafa. oe lives of these poets were spread over a period of more than a hundred years. The earliest of the seven was AMRA’AL-

Qars (g.v.), regarded by many as the most illustrious of Arabian poets. His exact date cannot be determined; but probably the

best part of his career fell within the midst of the 6th century.

He was a scion of the royal house of the tribe Kinda, which lost its power at the death of King Harith ibn ‘Amr in the year

s29. (See Tabart’s Geschichte der Perser und Araber.. .

ibersetat von Th. Noldeke [Leiden, 1879], p. 171.) The poet’s royal father, Hojr, by some accounts a son of this Harith, was killed by a Bedouin tribe, the Banii Asad. The son led an adven-

turous life as a refugee, now with one tribe, now with another, and appears to have died young. The anecdotes related of him as well as his poems, imply that the glorious memory of his house

and the hatred it inspired were still comparatively fresh, and therefore recent. A contemporary of Amra’al-Qais was ‘ABID IBN Apras, one poem of whose, as we have seen, is by some authorities reckoned among the collection. He belonged to the Bani

Asad, and is fond of vaunting the heroic deed of his tribe—the murder of Hojr—in opposition to the victim’s son, the great poet. The Mo‘allaqa of ‘Amr hurls defiance against the king of Hira, ‘Amr son of Mundhir, who reigned from the summer of 554 till 568 or 569, and was afterwards slain by our poet. (See Noldeke’s Tabari, pp. 170, 172.) This prince is also addressed by HaritH in his Mo‘allaqa. Of Tarara, who is said to have attained no great age, a few satirical verses have been preserved, directed against this same king. This agrees with the fact that a grandson of the Qais ibn Khalid, mentioned as a rich and influential man in Tarafa’s Mo‘allaqa (v. 80 or 81), figured at the time of the battle of Dhi-Qar, in which the tribe Bakr routed a Persian army. This battle falls between A.D. 604 and 610. The Moʻallaqa of “ANTARA and that of Zumar contain allusions to the feuds of the kindred tribes ‘Abs and Dhobyan. Famous as these contests were, their time cannot accurately be ascertained. But the date of the two poets can be approximately determined from other data. Ka‘b, son of Zuhair, composed first a satire, and then, in the year 630, a eulogy on the Prophet; another son, Bujair, had begun, somewhat sooner, to celebrate Mahomet. ‘Antara killed the grandfather of Ahnaf ibn Qais, who died at an advanced age in A.D. 686 or 687; he outlived ‘Abdallah ibn Simma, whose brother Duraid was a very old man when he fell in battle against the Prophet (early in A.D. 630); and he had communicatons with Ward, whose son, the poet ‘Orwa, may perhaps have survived the flight of Mahomet to Medina. From all these indicatons we may place the productive period of both poets in the ead of the 6th century. To the same period appears to belong the poem of “ALQAMA, which, as we have seen, Ibn Khaldūn reckons amongst the Mo'allaqāt. This too is certainly the date of NABIGHA, who was one of the most distinguished of Arabic poets. For in the poem often reckoned as a Mof‘allaqa, as in many others, he addresses himself to Notman, king of Hira, who reigned in the two last

decades of the 6th century.

The same king is mentioned as a

contemporary in one of ‘Alqama’s poems.

The poem of A‘sHa, sometimes added to the Mo'allaqāt, contains an allusion to the battle of Dhi Qar (under the name

Battle of Hinw,” v. 62). This poet, not less famous than Nabigha, lived to compose a poem in honour of Mahomet, and

died not long before AD. 630.

627

a ripe old age. The seven Mo‘allagat, and also the poems appended to them, represent almost every type of ancient Arabian poetry in its

excellences and its weaknesses.

In order rightly to appreciate

these, we must translate ourselves into the world of the Bedouin, and seek to realize the peculiar conditions of his life, together

with the views and thoughts resulting from those conditions. In the Mot‘allaqa of Tarafa we are repelled by the long, anatomically exact description of his camel; but such a description had an extraordinary charm of its own for the Bedouins, every man of whom was a perfect connoisseur on this subject down to the minutest points; and the remaining parts of the poem, together with the other extant fragments of his songs, show that Tarafa had a real poetic gift. In the Mo‘allaqat of ‘Amr and Harith, for the preservation of which we are especially grateful to the compiler, we can read the haughty spirit of the powerful chieftains, boastfully celebrating the splendours of their tribe. These two poems have also a certain historical importance. The song of Zuhair contains the practical wisdom of a sober man of the world. The other poems are fairly typical examples of the customary

gasida, the long poem of ancient Arabia, and bring before us the various phases of Bedouin life. It is a phenomenon which deserves the fullest recognition, that the needy inhabitants of a barren country should thus have produced an artistic poetry distinguished by so high a degree of uniformity. Even the extraordinary strict metrical system, observed by poets who had no inkling of theory and no knowledge of an alphabet, excites surprise. In the most ancient poems the metrical form is as scrupulously regarded as in later compositions. The only poem which shows unusual metrical freedom is the song of ‘Abid. It is, however, remarkable that ‘Abid’s contemporary Amra’al-Qais, in a poem which in other respects also exhibits certain coincidences with that of ‘Abid (No. 5s, ed. Ahlwardt), allows himself considerable licence in the use of the very same metre—one which, moreover, is extremely rare in the

ancient period.

Presumably,

the violent deviations

from

the

schema in ‘Abid are due simply to incorrect transmission by compilers who failed to grasp the metre. The other poems ascribed to ‘Abid, together with all the rest attributed to Amra’al-Qais, are constructed in precise accord with the metrical canons. It is necessary always to bear in mind that these ancient poems, which for a century or more were preserved by oral tradition alone, have reached us in a much mutilated condition. Fortunately, there was a class of men who made it their special business to learn by rote the works either of a single poet or of several. The poets themselves used the services of these rhapsodists (rawi). The last representative of this class is Hammad, to whom is attributed the collection of the Mo‘allaq&t; but he, at the same time, marks the transition of the rhapsodist to the critic and scholar. The most favourable opinion of the rhapsodists would require us to make allowance for occasional mistakes: expressions would be transposed, the order of verses disarranged, passages omitted, and probably portions of different poems pieced together. It is clear, however, that Hammad dealt in the most arbitrary fashion with the enormous quantity of poetry which he professed to know thoroughly. The seven Motcallaqat are indeed free from the suspicion of forgery, but even in them the text is frequently altered and many verses are transposed. The loose structure of Arabic poems was extremely favourable to such alterations. Some of the Mo‘allaqat have several preambles: so, especially, that of ‘Amr, the first eight verses of which belong not to the poem but to another poet. Elsewhere, also, we find spurious verses in the Mot‘allaqat. Some of these poems, which have been

handed down to us in other exemplars besides the collection itself, exhibit great divergences both in the order and number of the verses and in textual details. This is particularly the case with

Lasi is the only one of these poets who embraced Islam.

the oldest Mo‘allaqa—that of Amra’al-Qais—the critical ‘treatment of which is a problem of such extreme difficulty that only

belongs to the Pagan period. He is said to have lived till 66r, r even later; certainly it is true of him, what is asserted with

an approximate solution can ever be reached. The variations of the text, outside the Mo‘allaqat collection, have here and there exercised an influence on the text of that collection. It would be well if our manuscripts at least gave the Mo‘allaqat in the exact

His Mo‘allaqa, however, like almost all his other poetical works,

less likelihood of several others of these poets, that he lived to

MOAT—MOBILE

628

The best text—in fact, we may say, a

delta of the Mobile river and the headwaters of the bay, provid.

really good text—is that of the latest Mo‘allaqa, the song of Labid.

ing an uninterrupted passage by highway over the Old Spanish trail from Florida to California. The land-locked fresh water harbour, formed by the lower 5 m. of the Mobile river, jg cop-

form of Hammad’s days.

The Mo‘allaqat exist in many manuscripts, some with old commentaries, of which a few are valuable. They have also been several times printed. Especial mention is due to the edition of Charles (afterwards Sir Charles) Lyall with the commentary of Tuibrizz (Calcutta, 1894). Attempts to translate these poems, verse for verse,

in poetical form, could scarcely have a happy result. The strangeness, both of the expression and of the subjects, only admits of a paraphrastic version for large portions, unless the sense is to be entirely obliterated.

An attempt at such a translation, in conjunction with a

commentary based on the principles of modern science, has been made by the present author: “Fünf Mo'allaqāt übersetzt und erklärt,” in the Sitzungsberichte der kais. Akad. d. Wiss. in Wien. Philos.-hist. Classe. Bde. cxl—cxiv.

nected with the Gulf by a 30 ft. channel and has ample anchorage To June 30, 1926, the Federal Government had spent $10,352 265

(spread over a century) in deepening the harbour and channel

which originally had a usahj

-ee i

SA ; Z

college, Oxford. He was head master of Winchester from 1835 to 1866. Mr. Gladstone made him bishop of Salisbury in 1869. Though Moberly left Oxford at the beginning of the Oxford movement, he formed an intimate friendship with Keble. In 1872 he astonished his High Church friends by joining in the movement for the disuse of the damnatory clauses in the Athanasian Creed. His chief contribution to theology is his Bampton

Lectures of 1868, on The Administration of the Holy Spirtt in the Body of Christ. He died on July 6, 1885. His son, ROBERT CAMPBELL MOoBERLY (1845-1903) became regius professor of pastoral theology at Oxford. He contributed

to Lux Mundi (1889), and wrote Atonement and Personality (1901). MOBERLY, a city of Randolph county, Missouri, U.S.A.,

135 m. N.W. of Saint Louis; on Federal highways 24 and 63, and served by the Missouri-Kansas-Texas and the Wabash railways. Pop. (1920) 12,808 (91% native white); and was 13,772 Federal census 1930. It is a shipping point for farm produce, live stock, wool, hides and hardwood lumber, and has a number of manufacturing industriės, including a shoe factory, hosiery mills, a cheese plant and large repair shops of the Wabash company

(established in 1872), with an output in 1925 valued at $4,133,565. Coal is mined in the vicinity. Moberly was platted in 1866; became the county seat in 1868; and a city in 1873. MOBILE, a city of south-western Alabama, U.S.A., at the head of Mobile bay on the Gulf of Mexico (30 m. long and 8 m. wide); county seat of Mobile county. It is on Federal highways 45 and 90; has a municipal airport; and is served by the Alabama, Tennessee and Northern, the Gulf, Mobile and Northern, the Louisville and Nashville, the Mobile and Ohio and the Southerm railways, and by 40 ocean steamship lines and the barges

ee

s terminal

completed

1928)

facilities

have

built by the State at a a

$10,000,000.

The

U.S. quaran-

Gte tine station occupies Sand island soem, at the entrance to the river

A supplement to this is formed by an article,

Raisonné, articles “Architecture Militaire” and “Chateau.”) MOBERLY, GEORGE (1803-1885), English divine, was born on Oct. 10, 1803, and educated at Winchester and Balliol

opps

tt

eyii

by Dr. Bernh. Geiger, on the Mo‘allaqa of Tarafa, in the Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlands, xix. 323 sqq. See further

the separate articles on the seven poets. (Ta. N.; X.) T, a depression surrounding a castle, city wall or other fortification, usually, but not always, filled with water. The existence of a moat was a natural result of early methods of fortification by earthworks, for the ditch produced by the removal of earth to form a rampart made a valuable part of the defence system. When, in the middle ages, earthworks gave way to masonry walls, the moat was retained, and became even more valuable than before, as it prevented moving towers or battering rams from being brought up to the ramparts until the moat had been filed. With the development of fire-arms the moat lost much of its importance, but was occasionally retained into the 18th century, as an obstacle against infantry attacks. Dry moats or ditches, as parts of modern earthworks, still occur spasmodically. (See CASTLE, FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT. For a thorough consideration of mediaeval moats, see Viollet-le-Duc, Dictionnaire

7

aaan Sees Se nea

depth of only 5-5 feet. Extensive

cee

Iae

Sey

Pinto and Blakely islands, oppo-

site the city, are occupied by dry-

2, docks

and

ship-building yards,

coaling stations and oil-tank farms. The U.S. Steel CorporaBY COURTESY OF THE MOBILE CHAMBER OF tion owns large tracts of land at COMMERCE OLD FORT GAINES, AT THE EN- Chickasaw, and other industrial TRANCE TO MOBILE BAY developments fringe the northwest boundary of the city. Five miles west is Spring Hill college

founded (1830) and conducted by Jesuits. There are 18th century

buildings in the city, many residences of both ante-bellum and

modern construction. The city’s assessed valuation for 1927 was $54,041,849. Since rgrz it has had a commission form of government. Mardi Gras has been celebrated annually since 1830.

The harbour traffic in 1926 was 3,193,166 tons, valued at 121,878,580, of which $37,058,400 represented exports (mainly raw cotton, lumber and timber, iron and steel products) and $9,224,134 imports (largely sodium nitrate, bananas, manganese and manganese ore and molasses). Garden truck and small fruits are the leading money crops of the region. Over 2,000 carloads of cabbage and $1,000,000 worth of satsuma oranges and pecans are shipped annually, and the county boasts a “cabbage patch”

of 500 acres. The output of the manufacturing industries was valued at $30,913,553 in 1927. Bank debits in 1926 aggregated $469,888,000. Mobile was founded in 1702 and was the capital of the French province of Louisiana until 1720. The name was taken from the Mobile or Maubila Indians, who then occupied the region. By the Treaty of Paris (1763) Mobile was ceded to Great Britain; in 1780 it was captured by a Spanish force; in 1813 it was seized for the United States by Gen. James Wilkinson, and in Aug. 1814

Gen. Andrew Jackson made it his headquarters, resisting an attack (Sept. 15) by the British on Ft. Bowyer at the mouth of the bay.

After the War of 1812 American immigrants rapidly changed the French character of the place. A town charter was received from the territorial legislature of Mississippi in 1814; a city charter from the first State legislature of Alabama, in 1819. Throughout the roth century it was the commercial metropolis of Alabama and Mississippi. Cotton exports increased from 7,000 bales in 1818 to 450,000 in 1840 and 1,000,000 in 1861.

During the Civil War Mobile was an important port of the Confederacy. Despite a Federal blockade begun in 1861, trade

with the West Indies and Europe was kept up byaline of swift vessels. In 1864 Admiral Farragut entered the channel, captured the Confederate ironclad ram “Tennessee,” destroyed one gunboat

of the Inland Waterways Corporation (Mississippi-Warrior Serv-

and drove another aground, losing the Federal monitor “Tecun seh.” Ft. Gaines, on Dauphin island, surrendered on August 7; Ft. Morgan, on Mobile Point, on August 23. In the spring of 1865 Gen. E. R. S. Canby laid siege to Ft. Blakely and Spanish Fort, on the east side of the bay. After 25 days the forts, and then the city, were evacuated, and the Federal forces entered the city oi

largest city. It occupies 20 sq.m. of a sandy plain. The Cochrane

1873, the municipality became bankrupt. trustees acting under the chancery cout temporary municipal government, called the Port of Mobile, was established. In 1887 the city of Mobile

ice). Pop. (1920) 60,777 (39% negroes); and was 68,202 Federal April 12. In 1879, in census 1930, with an additional 15,000 in adjacent suburbs, financial disturbance of making the total for the metropolitan area about 85,000. Its charter was vacated; Mobile is the only seaport of Alabama, and until 1900 was its were appointed; and a

consequence

of railway losses and the

bridge and causeway, 10-5 m. long (completed 1927) crosses the was again chartered. A hurricane on Sept. 27, 1906, destroyed

MOBILIZATION—-MOCHA property valued at over $5,000,000. MOBILIZATION,

the preparation of an army for active

service (from Latin mobile and French mobile), and its passage

from a peace to a war footing. It is of vital importance that the riod of mobilization shall be as short as possible, as victory in

the first battles and even the results of the whole war may be

jeopardized by any avoidable delay in this process. Thus every

amy is constantly endeavouring to speed up its mobilization by providing for contingencies. On the issue of the order much has to be done. Reservists have to be called up, clothed, armed and

equipped, fed and sent to the units into which they are to be incorporated. Arms, ammunition, equipment, vehicles and stores

not issued in peace time but necessary in war have to be provided and distributed; and any similar material in possession of units but not required for active service or defective must be returned to store or replaced. Special promotions and appointments must be made and notified; a number of new units and formations will have to be raised and fitted out; and everything must be ready by the time appointed for each unit to commence its move to its concentration area or port of embarkation in accordance with the time-table drawn up in peace time. All this complicated process ‘requires a complete programme for each

formation and unit, showing what is to be done on each day of the mobilization period; these programmes

are revised at frequent

intervals and subjected to partial tests. (See also Army.)

MOBIUS, AUGUST FERDINAND

(1790-1868), Ger-

man astronomer and mathematician, was born at Schulpforta on Nov. 17, 1790. At Leipzig, Gottingen and Halle he studied for four years, and in 1815 became professor of astronomy at Leipag, being chosen director of the university observatory, which was erected (1818-1821) under his superintendence. He died on Sept. 26, 1868. His doctor’s dissertation, De computandis occultationibus fixarum per planetas (Leipzig, 1815), established his reputation as a theoretical astronomer. Die Hauptsdtze der Astronomie (1836), Die Elemente der Mechanik des Himmels (1843), may be noted amongst his other purely astronomical publications. His labours in pure mathematics appear for the most part in Crelle’s Journal from 1828 to 1858. These papers are chiefly geometrical, many of them being developments and applications of the methods laid down in his great work, Der barycentrische Calcul (Leipzig, 1827), which, as the name implies, is based upon the properties of the mean point or centre of mass. (See ALGEBRA: Universal.) This work abounds in suggestions and foreshadowings of some of the most striking discoveries in more recent times—such, for example, as are contained in H. Grassmann’s Ausdehnungslehre and Sir W. R. Hamilton’s Quaternions. Möbius was a leader in the introduction of the powerful methods of modern projective geometry. in Gesammelten Werke were published at Leipzig, (4 vols. 1885—

18 7),

(2) Theodor, son of the last-named, Scandinavian authority, born at Leipzig, June 22, 1821. Among many papers and writings,

his Catalogas librorum islandicorum et Norvegicorum aetatis mediae (1856) and Verzeichnis der auf dem Gebiet der alinordischen Sprache und Literatur r855 bis 1879 erschienenen Schriften

(1880) as keys to Scandinavian bibliography, and his Edda-

Ausgabe as a text-book, are perhaps the most valuable to students. He died in Leipzig, April 25, 1890.

MOCATTA, FREDERICK DAVID (1828-1905), English

Jewish philanthropist, was a member of the London financial îm, Mocatta and Goldsmid, but retired from business in 1874

and devoted himself to works of public and private benevolence.

He first began to give his attention to the better housing of the

working classes, and the administration of charity in such a manler as not to demoralise the poor. He literally supported almost every hospital in London.

Mocatta did much to promote education, especially that of the

Jewish poor, and he encouraged Jewish literature and research. Besides this he was a patron of learning and himself an author of istorical works, the chief of which was The Jews and the Inqui-

ston. On occasion of his 7oth birthday, he was presented with a testimonial from more than 200 philanthropic and literary insti-

STONE

629

tutions. The Anglo-Jewish Historical Exhibition (1887) owed its inception to him. He bequeathed his fine library to the Jewish Historical Society of England, of which he was at one time president. This library formed the basis of the collections which are now included in the Mocatta Library and Museum, founded in his

memory, and located at the University of London

(University

College, Gower Street). See Trans. Jewish Hist. Soc. Eng. vol. v.

MOCCASIN, a shoe made of deerskin or other soft leather. It is made in one piece; the sole is soft and flexible and the upper part is often adorned with embroidery, beading or other ornament. It is the footwear of the North American Indian tribes and is also worn by hunters, traders and settlers. In botany, the lady’s slipper is known in the United States as the ‘moccasin flower.”

MOCCASIN SNAKE

(Ancistrodon piscivorus), a venomous

viviparous aquatic snake of the southern United States, also called cottonmouth (from the white rim round its mouth) and water moccasin. It belongs to the pit-viper family, Crotalidae (see Snakes), which also includes the rattlesnake (g.v.). The moccasin may reach four feet in length. It feeds largely on frogs and fishes and is one of the most deadly of American snakes. The allied copperhead (g.v.) is sometimes called the upland moccasin. It has a more northerly range. Moccasins are coloured dark olive-brown above, and yellowish-brown below, with dark bars and blotches. They are darker than the copperhead, being without the bright tints of the latter. The top of the head is mostly covered with scales like those of the back, instead of large regular plates as in the case of harmless snakes. The head is flat and broad. The water moccasin is mimicked by the harmless false moccasin (Natrix), a smaller water-snake with a narrow and less triangular head and a double row of scales on the underside of the tail.

MOCENIGO,

the name of a noble and ancient Venetian

family which included many doges, statesmen and _ soldiers. Tommaso MoceENIco (1343-1423) commanded the crusading fleet in the expedition to Nicopolis in 1396, and also won battles against the Genoese. While Venetian ambassador at Cremona he was elected doge (1414), and he escaped in secret, fearing that he might be held a prisoner by Gabrino Fondolo, tyrant of that city. He made peace with the Turkish sultan, but when hostilities broke out afresh his fleet defeated that of the Turks at Gallipoli. During his reign the patriarch of Aquileia was forced to cede his territories to the republic (1420), which also acquired Friuli and Dalmatia. Tommaso greatly encouraged commerce, reconstructed the ducal palace and commenced the library. Prerro Mocenico, doge from 1474 to 1476, was one of the greatest Venetian admirals, and revived the fortunes of his country’s navy after the defeat at Negropont in 1470. In 1472 he captured and destroyed Smyrna. He then defeated the Turks who were besieging Scutari and died of an illness contracted there. GIovaANNI MoceENIco, Pietro’s brother, doge from 1478 to 1485, fought against Mohammed II. and Ercole I., duke of Ferrara, from whom he recaptured Rovigo and the Polesine. Luror Mocenrco was doge from 1570 to 1577. During his reign Venice lost the fortresses Nicosia and Famagosta in Cyprus. He took part in the battle of Lepanto, but after the loss of Cyprus he was forced to make peace with the Turks and to hand them back his conquests. Awprea Mocenico, who flourished in the 1sth and 16th centuries, was a senator of the republic and a historian; he composed a work on the league of Cambrai entitled Belli memorabilis Cameracensis adversus Venetos historiae libri vi. (Venice, 1525). Another Luter Mocenico was doge from 1700 to 1709, and his brother SEBASTIANO from 1722 to 1732. ALVISE MOCENIGO (1701-78), who was doge from 1763 until his death, restricted the privileges of the clergy, and in consequence came into conflict with Pope Clement XIII.

MOCHA

STONE, a variety of chalcedony containing infil-

trated dendritic oxides of manganese and iron which give it the appearance of containing vegetable remains. Most of the mocha stones of commerce are obtained from India, being found among the agate pebbles due to the disintegration of the trap rocks of the Deccan. Artificial stones are produced at Oberstein.

MOCKING-BIRD—-MODENA

630

MOCKING-BIRD, popular name of birds belonging to the disputes about ancient lights or disagreements about extensions

American family Mimidae including also the thrashers (g.v.). The northern mocking-bird (Mimus polyglottus) inhabits the southern part of U.S.A., visiting the north in summer and breeding, though rarely, in New England. West of the Alleghanies it is less numerous, though occurring in suitable localities across to the Pacific. The mocking-bird has a fine song of its own and, in addition, has a remarkable power of mimicry. It is greyish-brown above and dull white below. The nest is often placed close to houses and is a careless structure. Three to six blue-green eggs, spotted with light brown, are laid. The great enemies of the mocking-bird are snakes, which eat both eggs and young; but the parents show great courage in defence of their home and often drive off the intruder. Some 12 or 14 other species of Mimus occur, mostly in S. America. The catbird (Dumatella carolinensis) is another ally; it too has both a fine song and the power of mimicry. It is sootygrey and has a wide range on the continent and extends to Bermuda.

MOCK

ORANGE,

the name given to various species of

syringa (g.v.), especially to those with highly fragrant flowers, and also to the Missouri gourd or calabazilla (Cucurbita foetidissima), of the south-western United States, because of the resemblance of the globular fruit to small oranges. The leaves of the latter were used medicinally by the Spanish-Californians.

MOCOAN,

a linguistic stock of South American Indians,

whose name is derived from the Mocoas, one of its best-known tribes. The Mocoan tribes occupied a small territory on the eastern slope of the Cordillera Oriental in southern Colombia, directly east of Pasto, on the sources of the Putumayo river and between it and the upper Caqueta. Little or nothing of the character and culture of these tribes is known. See A. F. Chamberlain, “Sur Quelques familles linguistiques . . . de VYAmerique du Sud” (J. Soc. Americanistes de Paris [ns.], vol. vii. Pp. 179-202).

MODELS

AND

MODEL-MAKING,

The making of

models is one of the oldest hobbies of mankind. The Egyptians, for instance, believed that the human spirit, after death, was capable of travelling on land, but required assistance across the waters of the Nile, so they buried with their dead a model boat called a “Spirit Ship” to assist the soul across the river. ,An early model dealing with steam is described by Hero of Alexandria, about a.p. 120. A reconstruction of this model is in the South Kensington museum, London, and consists of a boiler with a flat top supported by a frame over a wood fire. The top of the boiler has a hollow ball mounted between two pivots, one of which acts as a steam-pipe leading through the boiler. On opposite sides of the ball are two nozzles bent at right angles so that when steam is generated and passes into the atmosphere it causes the ball to revolve rapidly. An early model-maker was the famous James Watt. He was born in 1736 and spent some of his early days in improving the model of a Newcomen engine which formed part of the Glasgow college equipment, from which experiment we gained the first practical steam engine. Later, William Murdock, who invented gas lighting, joined James Watt, and the experimental

locomotive which Murdock built in 1786 was probably the first model locomotive in existence. It had a cylinder 3 in. diameter.

to buildings. Railway and motor-car accidents are modelled to show the positions of the trains or vehicles involved. (3) Last, but not least, there is the use of models for the instruction and

amusement of the young, in the form of model railways, model

power boats, sailing yachts and other high-class toys, in whic, scientific data play an Important part.

Model-making as a hobby is almost peculiar to the British Isles

and has many enthusiastic adherents, as witness the annual exhibitions held in London where amateur-made models are entered

for competition. The production of scale models is almost ey. clusively in the hands of very small groups of craftsmen, in some

cases working in their own homes or in small workshops; the chief reason being that very little machinery is required. The work de.

mands great personal skill, repetition being almost unknown, The commercial production of models on a large scale jsmainly carried on in England, America and Germany; several firms ip these countries give employment to Ioo or 200 workpeople: one British firm, established at Northampton, covers the whole Tange of model-making, from the mass production of popular models to elaborate scale models costing hundreds of pounds each. In addition to firms who devote themselves exclusively to model-making as a business, many of the leading engineering and shipbuilding companies have established model or experimental workshops where the new ideas are worked out in miniature. The South Kensington science museum, and other institutions have

workshops where exhibits are made and repaired.

One of the finest examples of recent model-making, to which hundreds of craftsmen and artists contributed, was the Queen's

doll’s house designed by Sir Edward Lutyens. It represents the amenities of domestic life in the present century and is built toa

scale of r in. to the foot. When shown at the Wembley Exhibition, it was seen by hundreds of thousands. In centuries to come this model, protected under its glass cover, will visualise civilization at the outset of the 2oth century. (W. J. B.-L.)

MODENA

(ancient Mutina), city, Emilia, Italy, capital of

the province of Modena and seat of an archbishop, 31 m. ESE. of Parma by rail. Pop. (1921) 61,763 (town); 83,663 (commune). It lies in a damp, low plain on the south side of the Po valley, between the Secchia to the west and the Panaro to the east. Some main streets follow lines of canals, which still (now covered) traverse the city. The observatory stands 135 ft. above sea-level. The fortifications, converted into promenades, give the city an irregular pentagonal contour. Within are various open areas—the spacious Ippodromo, the public gardens, the Piazza Grande, and the Piazza Reale. The Via Aemilia passes obliquely through the city, from east to west. Begun by Countess Matilda of Tuscany (1099), after designs of Lanfranc, and consecrated in 1184, the Romanesque cathedral (S. Geminiano) has a lofty crypt under the choir, three eastem apses, and a facade with sculptures of the 12th century. The graceful bell-tower, erected in 1224—1319, named La Ghirlandina from the bronze garland surrounding the weathercock, is 282 ft. high; in the basement may be seen the wooden bucket captured

by the Modenese from the Bolognese in the affray at Zappolino (1325)

(see Tassoni’s Secchia Rapita).

S. Giovanni Decollato

contains a Pieta in painted terra-cotta by Guido Mazzoni (1450

Models are now commonly used for the demonstration of 1518). The so-called Pantheon Estense (the church of S. Agospatents, inventions and experimental work both by engineering tino), is a baroque building by Bibbiena. San Pietro and San firms and private inventors. A few of the leading uses may be Francesco have terra-cottas by Begarelli (1498-1565). » here enumerated. (1) For instructional purposes by schools, railThe extensive ducal palace, from the designs of Avanalil way companies, technical colleges, physical laboratories, Ad- (1651-1679), and finished by Francis Ferdinand V., with a fne miralty, War Office and other Government departments. (2) For courtyard, contains the military school. The Albergo delle Arti, exhibition and publicity purposes, accurate reproductions to scale built by Duke Francis III., accommodates the Museo Lapidano make ‘it possible to show an article in precise detail within a lim- (Roman inscriptions, etc.); the valuable archives, the Bibliotecs ited space. Complete scale models are made for shipping com- Estense, the Museo Civico, with palaeo-ethnological and arch panies ‘and for engineering exhibitions. Sectional models are aeological collections; a collection of textile fabrics, and the pic often made to.explain internal constructions and the operation of ture gallery, presented to the city by Francis V. and since aug special details. Architects: now make extensive use of models for mented by the Campori collection. The town hall dates from housing details, town-planning,’ suggestions for extensions to fac- 1194. The university (783 students) is mainly medical and| tories, the laying out of estates and the rearrangement of trans- with a faculty of physical and mathematical science. : port facilities. ‘The law courts also make use of models in legal ~ Commerce is chiefly agricultural. Modena is the point at which

MODERATOR—MODERN the railway to Mantua and Verona diverges from that between Milan and Bologna, and has several branches to neighbouring laces. It is also the starting-point of a once important road over

the Apennines to Pistoia by the Abetone Pass, and of a canal by the Panaro and Po to the sea.

The old abbey of Nonantola (752) some 6 m. to the N. has a fne Romanesque church and valuable treasury and archives. Modena is the ancient Mitzna in the territory of the Boii, which became Roman in 215-212 B.c. The Roman town lay south-east of the modern; its north-western wall is marked by the Corso Umberto I.; but the Roman level is 15 to 20 ft. below the modern. Its territory was conterminous with that of Bononia and Regium,

and to the south it extended to the summit of the Apennines. Marcus Brutus, lieutenant of Lepidus, held it against Pompeius in 78 B.C., and in 44 B.C. the place was successfully defended by D. Brutus

against

Mark

Antony.

The

ravages

of Attila and

Lombard attacks ruined it, but about the close of the 9th century it was restored by its bishop, Ludovicus.

In the wars between Frederick II. and Gregory IX. it sided with the emperor.

In 1288 Obizzo d’Este became its lord.

Con-

stituted a duchy in 4452 in favour of Borso d’Este, and enlarged and strengthened by Hercules II., it became the ducal residence on the incorporation of Ferrara with the States of the Church

(1598). Francis III. (1698-1780)

gave the city many public

ARCHITECTURE

631

characteristic style, which has never entirely disappeared. The Moorish influence allied itself easily and organically with the Gothic style and also became a welcome element in the baroque.

The architecture of Central Europe is less determined in character. The ornamentation of the German Renaissance contains a seed of the turgidity of the baroque. North Germany is influenced by Holland, whose architecture adheres to the Italian Renaissance, especially as it has been developed by Palladio. Belgium stands under the influence of Spain, Italy, or France, each in turn. The architecture of the northern countries reflects their isolated position. In Denmark the Renaissance is dependent on Dutch, and

in Sweden mostly on north German models. The latter country came into closer contact with the rest of Europe during the latter part of the 17th century and acquired a monumental architecture, which is specially allied to the Roman high Renaissance. At the beginning of the 18th century Russia remained culturally and artistically isolated, the upper classes importing foreign—

Italian, German or French—architects.

(See RUŞSIAN ARCHI-

TECTURE.)

EIGHTEENTH CENTURY In Italy the first phase of the 18th century is on the whole an echo of the ryth. A few characteristic buildings from this time, however, deserve mention: La Superga at Turin by Juvara (1685—

1735), Fontana di Trevi in Rome by Salvi (1699-1751), and the facade of the Lateran basilica in Rome by Galilei (1691-1737). Galilei received his training in England and was obviously inand ruled them despotically. Francis Ferdinand V., succeeded in fluenced by Wren. Italian architecture is already under the 1846, and on August 20, 1859, the representatives of Modena restraining influence of other countries. During the 17th century France developed her academic classideclared their territory part of the kingdom of Italy, and their cal style of buildings, which bears the name of Louis XIV. At decision was confirmed by the plebiscite of 1860. MODERATOR, a judge or umpire, one who acts the part of the beginning of the 18th century comes a certain stagnation, mediator, and so a term used of the person chosen to be presi- although, during the whole of the century, France still sets the dent of a meeting (as in America, of a town meeting). In the fashion for the rest of the Continent. The changes of style, however, affect the exterior architecture Universities both of Oxford and Cambridge, it is still used of the officers appointed to preside over certain examinations; —which on the whole still follows the academic pattern—less but the best-known use of the word is in the Presbyterian than the interior. The regency period marks a relaxation in the churches; the name is applied to the minister elected to preside severe etiquette of Louis XIV. It aims at pleasantness, ease, over ecclesiastical meetings or assemblies, as the synod, presbytery and domestic comfort. The foremost French architects during this time are Oppenort (1672-1742) and de Cotte (1656-1735). or general assembly (see PRESBYTERIANISM ). The Rococo Style with its peculiar ornamentation, developed MODERN ARCHITECTURE, 18TH AND 19TH CENTURIES. This article deals with the development of archi- from baroque and oriental—especially Chinese—art, has a typical tecture in Europe and America during the last two centuries prior exponent in Meissonier (1693-1750). Boffrand (1667~1754) is to the general use of skeleton construction and design characteris- more refined, and in his private palaces, such as the Hôtel de tic of it. (See ARCHITECTURE.) Certain European developments Montmorency, he has created the ideal of a comfortable and disduring the 18th century are also treated in this work in the arti- tinctive dwelling. But although the rococo originated in France, cles BAROQUE ARCHITECTURE and RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE. it was of relatively short duration there, and its influence on Contemporary architecture is treated in this work under a num- architecture was limited. As early as 1732 signs of new ideals of ber of headings which are given in the article ARCHITECTURAL style appear in the competition for the façade of the St. Sulpice church in Paris, in which Servandoni (1695-1766) carried off the ARTICLES. prize with a project in “Palladio style” in competition with MeisCONTINENTAL EUROPE sonier’s project in sumptuous rococo. It is significant that both Continental architecture from the end of the 15th to the be- of these men of extremes came from the Italian school ginning of the roth century presents a continuous development on When the classicism of Servandoni made its appearance, it the lines of the Renaissance. But Renaissance is here used only was a unique occurrence in French architecture and is perhaps, for the first phase of the epoch, embracing about a century and rather the expression of a theatre-painter’s fantasy than the severe a half. The ensuing stage, extending to the first decades of the work of an architect. The struggle against the rococo style was 18th century, is termed baroque. The style of the following soon in full swing, supported by such theorists as Blondel and period is called rococo. From about 1770 the so-called neo-classi- Laugier. In 1737 Soufflot (1709-80) created an important building of classical inspiration—the Hoétel-Dieu in Lyons—and met asm dominates most European countries. Development.—Architectural development from the time of with such success that he was called to Paris and entrusted with buildings. Hercules ITI. (1727-1803) saw his states transformed

by the French into the Cispadine Republic, and died at Treviso. In 1814 his eldest son, Francis IV. received back the Stazz Estensi

the Renaissance takes very different forms in the different countries. This difference can be traced to the different character within each country of the Renaissance itself (see RENAISSANCE

ARCHITECTURE).

In Italy the Renaissance was never an estab-

the building of the St. Geneviéve church (Pantheon). This building, which testifies to a profound knowledge of Greek (Paestum) and Roman antique as well as of Italian high Renaissance, ushers in the eclecticism which prevailed in the roth century. Ange

lished and defined style and it rapidly passes over to the daring €xpressive forms and the grandiosity of the baroque. In France, the style of the Renaissance, cultivated by academic tradition,

Jacques Gabriel (1710-82) works more in conformity with French:

ofNapoleon. Whereas in Italy the Renaissance is a direct reaction against the Gothic style, in France it stands in many ways as the

Louis XVI. style, and correspond, to a certain extent, to the Eng-

pervades monumental French architecture right up to the time

heit of this style. The architecture of Spain also early acquired a

tradition in his buildings, such as the Ecole ‘militaire and Garde meubles (Place de la Concorde) in Paris, and: im the ‘Petit Trianon, near Versailles. Gabriel’s interiors show the developed

lish Adam style, but are more soft in their echo of the rococo. In Germany, which long suffered from the consequences of the

MODERN

632

ARCHITECTURE

devastating religious wars, the art of monumental architecture was developed later than in France. In the south, as well as in Austria, however, a lively building activity arose during the latter part of the 17th century. In Vienna and Salzburg Johan Bernhard Fischer von Erlach (1650-1723) created monumental buildings and churches, the most remarkable of which is the St. Karl Borromadus church in Vienna. In the pleasure palace of Belvedere in Vienna, erected for Prince Eugene, Johann Lukas von Hildebrandt (1666-1745) produced a work of art which exercised a deciding influence on Austrian and south German taste. A magnificent example of the Austrian baroque ecclesiastical architecture is the convent of Melk, built by Jakob Prandauer. The small St. Johann Nepomuk church in Munich, erected in 1733 by the brothers Asam, is an interesting example of the south German baroque. There is also the magnificently appointed residence for the Prince Bishop built by Johann Balthasar Neumann (1687-1753) at Wurzburg. While the ‘architecture of south Germany thus emanates from Italy, that of north Germany is dependent upon Dutch models. Building activity in north Germany was practically stagnant until the beginning of the 17th century, when the talented architect and sculptor Andreas Schliiter (1664-1714) was entrusted with the rebuilding of the royal castle in Berlin, a task continued by Johann Friedrich von Eosander (1670-1729). Prussia comes into close contact with French culture in the middle of the 17th century, and Georg Wenceslaus Knobelsdorf (1699-1753) was entrusted with the building of the city castle and the French church at Potsdam; the architecture of both is severely classical. During the latter part of the 18th century, French influence becomes more and more prominent in Germany. The so-called “Zopfstyle” appears as a mixture of French Louis XVI. and German baroque style. The most typical exponent of this early classicism is Carl

von Gontard (1736-1802). In the Netherlands artistic development came to a standstill after an extraordinarily flourishing period during the preceding centuries. As early as in the 18th century Holland developed in its churches that severe planning and sober appointments which have since become so common. Belgium came more and more under French influence during the 18th century, and therefore came under the influence of the French neo-classicism during the latter part of the century. In Spain, at the beginning of the 18th century, Don José de

Churriguera (1650-1723) developed the Spanish high baroque, with its sumptuous decoration and strange mixture of styles, which

has been named Churrigueresque (q.v.). Portugal during the 18th century concentrated its strength on

a gigantic building, the Mafra castle, which, from an artistic point of view, however, does not justify the enormous cost of its

erection.

Amongst the Scandinavian countries Sweden played a prominent rôle in the architectural history of the baroque period, especially through the activity of the Tessin family of architects. Nikodemus Tessin, the younger, created in the royal palace of Stockholm perhaps the most perfect building of the time emanating from the school of the Roman Renaissance. Later the Swedish art of building approached- closer to French models. NINETEENTH

CENTURY

Politically the period of the French Revolution ushers into view

a totally new epoch in the history of the Continent. The rupture is less evident in the history of art. Apparently the severe novantique, which characterizes the period following the Revolution, is a direct continuation of the classicism of the last phase of Pancien régime. In reality, however, the Revolution introduced into this field also a totally new conception, which becomes ever more apparent during the roth century. This is the eclecticism founded on archaeological studies. There is a fundamental dif-

to the architectonic creations of past times as possible, but not to surpass or transpose them. This imitation is not limited to the antique only, but seeks its models amongst all the building styles of earlier times. The eagerness for archaeological research be-

comes wedded to romanticism, which in its literary enthusiasm

for old times is blind to the requirements of the present day, So far as architecture is concerned, therefore, the roth century

is full of interesting suggestions and experiments, but on the

whole it is barren. A contribution during this century, howeve which is decisive for the future, is the increasing development of

the technique of building.

By the middle of the century, iro

made its appearance as a material with properties revolutionizing

the art of building, and a short time thereafter came cement, a new and extremely easily worked building material; finally these materials were combined into reinforced concrete, a combination which seems to herald a complete revolution in architecture.

During this period the lead in architectural development on the Continent passed more and more from France to Central Europe, France, however, still retained her reputation as the keeper of

the academic architectonic traditions, and in reality she still re. tained the lead at the beginning of the century. The architecture of the Napoleonic empire, or the so-called Empire style, is predominantly decorative in character. It does not aim in the first

place at the solution of a certain practical building problem, but at the creation of a monument for the glorification of the empire. Just as Napoleon based his court ceremonials on Roman models, so these monuments seek to emulate the antique, whether they appear in the form of a “temple of glory,” such as the Madeleine church, or as triumphal arches. However, in the latter erections and especially in l’Arc de Triomphe de l’Etoile by Jean Francois

Chalgrin (1739-1810) can be traced the last appearance of the noble tradition of French classical architecture (Porte St. Denis by Francois Blondel, etc.). The leading architects of the Napoleonic era and the architects mostly employed by the court were Charles Percier (1764-1838) and Pierre Fontaine (1762-1853). The works of these two collaborators show that they were influenced by the Adam brothers and, like them, they have made their works known in wide circles by their brilliant books of engravings. They have exercised a strong influence on the contemporary Continental taste especially by their designs for interior decoration and furniture. The style created by Percier and Fontaine rules in France on the whole up to the middle of the roth century, but it is occasionally modified under the influence especially of Italian Renaissance, as shown by the St. Vincent-de-Paul church by Jacob Ignaz Hittorf (1792-

1867). The German nation was naturally qualified, by its peculiar combination of naive eagerness for exact research work and dreamy enthusiasm, to acquire both the romanticism and the archaedlogical novantique. There appeared in the person of J. J. Winkel-

mann

(1717-68)

a-——for that time—extraordinarily learned stu-

dent of the history of antique art. Greek soon developed in German architecture, and of the 19th century received strong impulses. Tor in Berlin by Karl Gotthard Langhans

classicism was also from the beginning The Brandenburger (1733-1808) is the

most typical example of this severe classicism, and, in Karlsruhe,

Freidrich Weinbrenner (1766-1826) created a number of artistically important buildings in the same spirit. Finally, Kar! Fried-

rich Schinkel (1781-1841), a many-talented architect, transposed

with uncommon independence and a rich imagination the classical

ideals. His best known works are the royal theatre and the old museum in Berlin, the Niccolai church in Potsdam, and the Werder church in Berlin. With the last-mentioned building, Schinkel originated the new Gothic style, which afterwards became so popular in church architecture. South Germany possessed in Leo von Klenze a kindred spirit to Schinkel. The best known works by Klenze are the Glyptotheca and the Propylées in Munich ‘and

ference between the conception of architecture of this new period the Hermitage museum in St. Petersburg (Leningrad). and that of the Renaissance. Whilst the masters of the RenaisIn the other countries of Europe the new classicism followed sance and their successors gained inspiration for new creation from the development in the leading ones. Italian architects, as We the classical architecture, the architecture of the roth century is have already pointed out, have been actively instrumental in bringprincipally imitative and its highest aspiration is to come as close ing about the victory of classicism. The architect and engrave

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BY COURTESY

OF

(7)

F. R. YERBURY;

PHOTOGRAPHS

(1, 2; 3, 4, $, 8, 9) COLLECTION

17TH, 18TH AND

19TH

CENTURY

1. Louvre, Paris, Pavillon de Sully, 17th century 2. Panthéon, Paris, built 1755-81. Jacques Germain Soufflat, architect

3. Hôtel de Montmorency, 18th century, French.

Germain Boffrand, ar-

chitect 4, St. Vincent-de-Paul, Paris, 19th century. Example of modification of the style of Charles Percier and Pierre Fontaine (see fig. &) under

the influence of the Italian Renaissance.

Jacques

Ignatz

Hittorf,

architect 5. Church of the Madeleine, Paris, 1804. Designed by Pierre Vignon in imitation of an octastyle peripteral Roman temple, 350 feet by 147

ARCHIVES

PHOTOGRAPHIQUES,

CONTINENTAL

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(6) ALINARI

ARCHITECTURE

feet. The building stands on a podium 23 feet high 6. Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II., Milan, Italy, 19th century. Giuseppe

Mengoni, architect 7. Town Hall, Copenhagen, 19th century. Marten Nyrop, architect &. Library in the Chateau Malmaison, France, 19th century. Percier and Fontaine, architects

9, Petit Trianon, Versailles, France, 18th century.

for Madame

Dubarry,

and

later a favourite

Erected by Louis XV.

residence of Marie

Antoinette. The entrance façade is a typical example of the late French Renaissance style. Ange Jacques Gabriel, architect

MODERN

ARCHITECTURE

Giov. Battista Piranesi (1720—78), with his excellent reproductions of the buildings of the antique and the Renaissance periods,

has had a great influence on the direction of taste Giuseppe Va-

ladier (1762-1839) was active as an archaeologist and architect in a severe Classical spirit during the Napoleonic era. At this time the building of theatres received an extraordinary amount of attention

in Italy, Teatro della Scala in Milan by Giuseppe Piermarini (1734-1808) and Teatro St. Carlo in Naples by Antonio Niccolini being striking examples. The most characteristic ecclesiastical

buildings of this time are the church in Possango by Antonio Selva (1753-1819), and the St. Francesco di Paolo in Naples by Pietro Bianchini. During this time Denmark was artistically the leading counin Scandinavia and had excellent representatives in Christian Fredrik Hansen (1756—1845) and Michael Gottlieb Bindesböll

(1800-56) of the refined, national new Danish classicism. Hansen’s leading works were Christiansborg castle in Copenhagen (destroyed by fire) and Vor Frue church in Copenhagen. In Thorwaldsen’s museum Bindesboll created an original and beau-

tiful monument to the most celebrated sculptor of his time in northern Europe. The Dane Theophil Hansen (1813-91), who built the university in Athens and the house of parliament in Vienna, won international fame. The Later 19th Century.—Continental architecture presents a varied picture during the latter part of the roth century. The fashionable styles succeeded each other rapidly and academical architectonic education was mainly concentrated on imparting to the pupil an easy proficiency in the use of all these so-called “‘his-

torical styles.” This schematic doctrine of styles is the product of one-sided and to some extent imperfect knowledge of the his-

tory of architecture. Through its self-sufficient belief in its capability to judge what is right and suitable in each style, it has caused great and irreparable damage in the restoration

of old

buildings, a favourite occupation of the period. The inability of the roth century to solve its building problems in an independent manner is probably partly explained by the furious tempo at which building activity developed during this time. The larger towns especially grew with a speed hitherto undreamed of, and during the latter part of the century the problems of town planning therefore became acute. The roth century did considerable preparatory work in this field, of which we are now enjoying the fruits. Many building problems arose which demanded an architecture of a totally different kind from the traditional. This was especially the case with industrial buildings, the great stores, railway stations, bridges, and skeleton buildings of many kinds. It is only in a few cases that the 19th century can show final solutions in these spheres, but by zealous experiments the way was nevertheless prepared for a new and more homogeneous art of building. At the exhibitions, which were so usual in this century, there was a great predilection for the new technical creations, and these exhibitions have therefore given interesting examples of what technique has been able to accomplish at different times.

Only a few of the great number of architects active during this time can be mentioned here. France has in Viollet-le-Duc (1814-

79) @ prominent representative of the scientific art of restora-

tion, who occupies a leading position on the Continent. Charles Granier (1825~98) created a sumptuous edifice in the great

opera house in Paris, which aroused enormous admiration amongst contemporaries. The Eiffel tower, erected by Gustave Eiffel for the Paris exhibition in 1889, has met with more criticism but has

perhaps exercised a deeper influence on subsequent architecture. Germany has a refined and independent architect in Gottfried Semper (1803—79), who works in the spirit of the Renaissance. Alfred Messel (1853-1910) shows in his buildings, such

as Wertheim’s stores in Berlin, a free adaptation of historical styles to modern purposes.

In Italy—roused

to new life by

her political independence—a lively building activity was devel-

oped during the latter part of the roth century. The Galleria Vittorio Emanuele by Giuseppe Mengoni (1820—77) is a characteristic example of the generously planned Italian building projects. t the turn of the century representatives appeared in Austria,

633

Holland and Switzerland of new tendencies, which, however, were not fully developed until the 20th century. Denmark still retained its leading position amongst the Scandinavian countries. This country, by maintaining a sound and moderate tradition, forms a point of departure for the national re-creation of architecture which is taking place in the northern countries at the

beginning of the 20th century. The town hall in Copenhagen by Martin Nyrop (1849-1921) is the best example of this style. see W. H. Ward, The Architecture of the Renaissance in France (1912); R.T. Blomfield, A History of French Architecture, 1494-1774 (1921); P. Franke, Die Entwicklungsphasen der Neueren Baukunst (1914) ; J. Burckhardt, Geschichte der Renaissance in Italien (sth ed, 1912); G. von Bezold, Die Baukunst der Renaissance in Deutschland, Holland, Belgien, und Dänemark (1908); G. A. Platz, Die Baukunst der Neuesten Zeit (1927) ; Le Corbusier, Towards a New Architecture (trans. from 13th French ed., 1927); Robertson and Yerbury, Examples of Modern French Architecture (1928); Hajos, E. M. and Zahn, Berliner Architektur der Nachkriegszeit (1928) ; Encyclopédie de L Architecture, Construction Modernes, vol. i. (1928); Mieras and Yerbury, Modern Dutch Architecture of the 20th Century (1926); Stahl, Fritz, Neue Werkkunst German Bestelmeyer (1928). (H. Am.)

ENGLAND The architecture of England during the 18th century covers a longer period than commonly supposed. It begins with the school

of Sir Christopher Wren and his contemporaries (see RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE) and extends to the period of the Regency. Resting upon the broad foundation prepared in the late ryth century it became subject to many external influences but in general

remained constant to the classicism of the age. The classic viewpoint may be said to have dominated all the arts and to this cause can be attributed the remarkable consistency of style which is the chief characteristic of the buildings of the time. Between the years 1700-1800 the population increased from five to eleven millions, steam-power was harnessed and commerce was almost quadrupled. The impetus given to architecture began with the Revolution of 1688, when direct governance fell into the hands

of the Whig Party. From thence onwards statesmanship became more closely allied with commercial advantage, the nation changed its chief industry from agriculture to manufacture and a redistribution of the people was in progress. Throughout the period architects appear to have expressed the new conditions with due regard to the spirit of the age. Broadly speaking the buildings group into two main divisions, ż.e., monumental and domestic. In the main the tendencies were academic, and were related to similar impulses then in action on the Continent. English architecture, however, developed its own characteristics. The architects were continually seeking fresh inspiration from Italy and, at a later date, Greece. While this is true of the monumental aspect of certain buildings, the repose which is the chief attribute of the domestic architecture can be traced more directly to the AngloDutch tradition instituted by Wren. In addition, craftsmanship based upon mediaeval practice, and the persistence of regional traits, gave added piquancy to the vernacular style. It was not until the close of the first quarter of the rgth century that the old system began to be crushed out. On the monumental side the

completion of St. Paul’s cathedral and Greenwich hospital in the reign of Queen Anne, and the building of several new churches, terminated the immediate influence of Wren and Hawksmoor. Then ensued a transference of architectural energy to the erection of princely mansions in town and country expressing the sound status of the leaders among the Whig Party. Sir John Vanbrugh, famed as a dramatic author, now came into

prominence as an architect. To his care had been entrusted the naval buildings at Plymouth dock. He found further scope for his theories of vast scale at Castle Howard, Blenheim palace and Seaton Delaval. Vanbrugh was influenced not only by the work of Sir Christopher Wren but by contemporary French work, and

the designs of Daniel Marot. His pupil Thomas Archer created St. Philip, Birmingham, and the temple at Wrest park, Bedford-

shire. Vanbrugh forms the chief link between the school of Wren and the coterie of early 18th century architects who favoured the style of Palladio, and the revival of the style imitiatéd 'in' the previous century by Inigo Jones. James Gibbs is’ another link.

In this case the Palladian influence is carried on to the work of

MODERN

634

ARCHITECTURE

Gibbs is renowned for the church of St. as well d Martin-in-the-Fields an the Radcliffe library at Ozford, oe a 1730, year the By houses. as for country and town docRoman turned to Palladian and i aneE engaged on Holkham hall, Norfolk, and ots a Sir Wiliam Chambers.

London.

Deo hir house,

The amateur had entered the lists,

patron of earl of Burlington was looked upon as the chief

E can be th ts The extent of the revived Palladian movement (1729, a modi‘uded Ton the character of the villa at Chiswick castle, Kent,

a ae of the Villa Capra,

Houghton hall, Norfolk i

i ee

Vicenza),

Mereworth

(the anh of Sir Robert Walpole), and

Wood. Tour” and the acquisition of antique doe

classicism, statuary both contributed to the passion for authentic of the steps the in followed architects before long not was d it d the determine factors two word Hencefor rich trons to Rome. of a n publicatio the and Italy an architect, i.e., travel in E Ware, Leoni, by edited works folio The re. architectu work on archiGibbs and Chambers had the immediate effect of reducing influence was fecimal design to a mere repetition of rules. Another the resulted in the founding of the Society of Dilettanti which

design of Newgate, but newer forces were becoming active. Archi. tects and patrons now took notice of Greek detail and paid atten.

tion to “Stuarts Athens.” The Brothers Adam had already ex. ploited Greek detail, for stucco enrichments, but it was lef to

Henry Holland to imitate a formal Graeco-Roman manner The

most

original designer,

however,

was

Sir John

Soane.

$

began by following the work of the Adam brothers; he had been

employed in the offices of Dance and Holland; later, acting on the advice of Sir William Chambers, he gave attention to the designs of Piranesi. When Soane was commissioned to rebuild

the Bank of England he revolutionized the older school of thought

by evolving detail for which there was no precedent.

Reviewing the monumental character of English architecture from the period-of Vanbrugh to that of Soane, it becomes clear that the academic issues had been taken to a point beyond which it was impossible to go. At the end of the 18th century the modern

spirit was in the ascendant. The example of the French Revoly. tion, the rise of trade and the emergence of a vigorous middle

class, pointed the way to vaster developments. Soane had almog prophetic vision, and he became professor of architecture at the Royal academy, training many private pupils. In the first quarter of the 19th century there ensued a further merging of Palladian

of extension of classical research to Greece. While the building the cen- tendencies with Greek detail. The “metropolitan improvements,” eat palaces belongs more especially to the first half of In the engineered by John Nash and the Committee of Taste, were for the practice was continued to the end of the period. a Sir William an of Sir Robert Taylor, Robert and James Adam, of private extension an evidenced is York of Carr and Chambers ee building on a diminished scale. In this regard the Palladian ominant. ae social conditions of the period are ERoes a et

TOWN AND reflected in the development of town planning (see the London, of Squares the Crry PLANNING), more especially in h Althoug gh. Edinbur of Town New the and Bath of streets stately private of d consiste ture architec century the bulk of early 18th buildings mansions there was also scope for new types of public London the in which of CTURE), ARCHITE MENTAL (see GOVERN led by Bank of England, designed by Sampson and later remodel

Other Sir Robert Taylor and Sir John Soane, was the chief. Elder; the Dance by house, Mansion the include s official building Kent;

by the Admiralty, Whitehall, by Ripley; the Horseguards, town

halls and South Sea house. In various cities outside London DonBristol, Wood, Jobn by (1754) l Liverpoo at were built, as

and Salisbury.

The Georgian theory of civics

the most part stuccoed conventions.

NINETEENTH

CENTURY

The 19th century from first to last was a period of style ex-

ploitation and pictorial experiment. The reason for the change js associated with the enormous development of manufactures, At the close of the reign of George IV. the country had passed from

agriculture to intensive industry.

Town life formed a magnet

denuding the country-side of its rural population. The middle classes had become firmly established and participated in national affairs. The problems of housing and cheap food were foremost. It is not surprising, therefore, that the traditional handicrafts lost

caste. The new economic conditions demanded mass production,

the old values deteriorated, and revivals of historical styles became inevitable. The growth of cities, seaports and manufacturing centres, called for buildings of complex character. The administration of the country required public edifices (see GovernMENTAL ARCHITECTURE), education needed schools, religion ap-

caster, Warwick James Gibbs, St. cluded hospitals such as St. Bartholomew’s, bysuch as Newgate,

pealed for new churches

the matured Roman Palladian style was Sir William Chambers,

of engineers, among whom Rennie and Telford were prominent. From 1800 to 1830 the art of architecture in many particulars fulfilled the moods of the late r8th century. There was an'extension of the Greek school, which had been adumbrated as early

Luke’s by George Dance the younger, prisons

guildhalls and lawcourts. The principal Government buildings were erected in the second half of the century. The exponent of

a worthy associate of Reynolds and Dr. Johnson. The design of

Somerset house ranks among the first works of the second halfa of the period in London.

For this building Chambers evolved

and conventicles

MEMORIAL ARCHITECTURE).

(see RELIGIOUS AND

Civil engineering, at first associated

with docks, highways and railroads, led to the rise of a coterie

as 1770.

But the ambitions of the classicists, who had developed

majestic river frontage rising by terraces direct from the water line. The detail shows the influence of contemporary French taste, particularly the works of Neufforge and Gabriel. Broadly speak-

a bias towards academic Greek, were in process of being checked by the romantic group, who favoured revived Gothic. Although the “battle of the styles” was never brought to a conclusion,

collaboration with his brother James, contributed an elegant rendering of classical detail for his graceful designs, but by contrast

part passu with the revival of English and French Gothic, .At

ing the work of James Gibbs can be regarded as the basis upon which the Chambers manner was modelled. Robert Adam, in with the works of Sir William Chambers the buildings he erected

Classic remained in the ascendant. On the classic side the’stimulus of Greek,

Roman

and

Italian motives

continued almost

the time of the Great Exhibition of 1851 the divisioning was definite. On this showing one aspect of early Victorian art can

are effeminate. In the hands of Carr of York, James Gandon and be traced to the influences in vogue at the time of the Regency. Harrisoh of Chester the Roman Palladian expression was continued. Dublin owes its monumental buildings chiefly to Gandon.

These latter include the Customs house, the Four Courts and the

After 1851 the classic school had recourse to emulation of con temporary French Neo-Grec, to imitation of old Italian models and later to revivals of the domestic architecture current ,in,the

Kings Inns. Following the leading architects a host of lesser men

reigns of Queen Elizabeth and Queen Anne. The ‘interest aroused

Builders’ Guides, and, other works related to architecture, which

decade of the roth century.

were adding to the pronounced classicality. Architectural taste in 18th century social life, especially by the writings of Thackeray, was influenced by the publication of folio volumes of designs, foreshadowed the Georgian revival characteristic of’, the last had ‘the. beneficial effect of restraining eccentricity. The whole tendency towards standardization exactly suited the requirements

Little more than 50 years separates

the “artistic 80s” from the period of the “metropolitan improve

ments” which were the triumph of Nash and the Committee of

Taste. From 1840 onwards the development of lithography, e!

* Destine of Palladianism.—Towards the close of the century graving and photography made familiar to all classes the pictor the Roman Palladian school showed signs of abating interest. True, qualities of historical architecture. l Bae os its principles had been vindicated by the younger Dance in the _ Steel and Tradition—Among the Victorian architects the

MODERN ARCHITECTURE

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BRITISH ARCHITECTURE OF THE 18TH AND 19TH CENTURIES l. The four Courts, Dublin, (1776-86), James Gandon, arch’t. 2. Bank of Martin’s-in-the-Fields, London (1722), vames Gibbs, arch't. 8. Somerset England Buildin s, Bristol (1844), Prof. C. R. Cockerell, arch’t. 3. St. House, London (1776-86), Sir William Chambers, arch’t. 9. Harewood House, George's Hall, Liverpool C1859, a L. Elmes, arch’t. 4. Town Hall, Halinear Harrogate (1760). “‘Carr of York,” arch’t. 10. View from the choir of the

fax (1862), Sir Charles

Barry, arch’t.

5. The Radcliffe

Camera,

Oxford

(1739-49), James Gibbs, arch’t, 6. Greenwich Hospital, London (1617— 814); commenced by Inigo Jones, completed by Wren and others. 7. St.

new nave of St. Saviour’s Cathedral, Southwark, built in 1891—96 from designs by

Sir Arthur Blomfield. 11. Truro Cathedral, begun in 1880. J. L. Pearson, arch’t. 12. Dorchester House, Park Lane, London (1851), Lewis Vulliamy, arch’t

MODERN

ARCHITECTURE

aim was to compete with the masterpieces of the past and to reconcile the age of steel with the time honoured styles. The use

of cast iron and steel as a basis for construction enabled greater

spans to be attempted. Such frameworks gave scope to engineers, and called for ingenious veneerings of historical detail. Apart

from the Crystal palace, and the iron and glass vaults over railway stations, the result was one-sided. The feverish craze for

pictorial accomplishment

obscured

the benefits

of structural

statement. So far as monumental and civic buildings were concerned architects based their projects upon Greek, Roman and Italian prototypes. The exponents of Greek were H. W. Inwood.

who designed St. Pancras Church, London, to include features from the Erectheum and the Tower of the Winds; William Wilkins, who contributed University college, London; Sir Robert Smirke, who designed the British Museum, and the post office; and Decimus

Burton, who

designed the screen

at Hyde park

corner, and the Athenaeum club. George Basevi favoured the Graeco-Roman style, his chief work being the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge. The finest classic building of the first half of the century, St. George’s hall, Liverpool, was erected by Harvey Lonsdale Elmes; this building, conceived on Graeco-Roman lines, owes its detail to the skill of Professor C. R. Cockerell. Neo-Grec.—By the year 1850, more enlightened theories were in the ascendant; it was realized that neither academic Roman nor Greek entirely suited civic art. Fresh inspiration came from the Neo-Grec revival which was being pursued in France, under the leadership of Louis Duc, and Labrouste, and in Germany

under Schinkel. As a style neo-grec found a worthy exponent in Prof. Cockerell, whose researches in Greece and Italy fitted him to combine academic knowledge with respect for the works of Wren and the whole gamut of the English classical tradition. Cockerell’s buildings include the Taylor Institution, Oxford, the Sun Fire Office, London, branches of the Bank of England at Liverpool, Manchester, Bristol and Plymouth, and the remodelling of Soane’s attic storey to the Bank of England in Threadneedle street. Italianate.—Another section of the classic school entered upon an Italianate phase. For example Sir Charles Barry favoured astylar facades. His designs for the Travellers club, the Reform club and Bridgewater house, London, were thought to be admirably suited to their several purposes. Other exponents of the Italian school were Sir James Pennethorne, Philip Hardwick and Sir Gilbert Scott. This coterie designed, respectively, the Geological museum, London, the Great Hall at Euston station, London, and the Government offices, Whitehall, London, comprising the home, colonial, foreign and India offices. Another Italianate building, Dorchester house, London, designed by Lewis Vulliamy, as frankly a copy of the Villa Farnesina, Rome; much of the interior decoration was contributed by Alfred Stevens. Later Developments.—In

the second half of the roth cen-

tury the development of commerce demanded newer types of warehouses, banks, assurance offices and town halls. As a result

the Italian style gained fame. Two other buildings remain to be considered; ż.e., the Science college, South Kensington, and the Albert hall, London. These buildings, conjointly the work of Capt. Fowke, Gen. Scott and various architectural assistants, are good examples of ordered but free classic. In the work of “Greek” Thomson and Hibbert of Preston, there is evidence of a later revival of Neo-Grec. A freér version of monumental classic begins with the work of Norman Shaw, James Brydon, John

Belcher and Sir Reginald Blomfield. From thence to the present time the tendency has been towards classical scholarship com-

bined with invention. In this the influence of the Ecole des Beaux

Arts (see ARCHITECTURAL EDUCATION), is paramount. The Gothic Revival.—The beginnings of revived Gothic can be traced to the 18th century. The founding of the Society of Antiquaries, the monthly periodical magazines and the curious taste of Horace Walpole at Strawberry Hill prepared the way

for Fenthill and the remodelling of Windsor castle. In the late 18th century many cathedrals and churches became the subject

of churchwarden repair.

From

1800

onwards

the subject

of

mediaeval art forms the background of fashionable novels; Jane

635

Austen touches upon Gothic art in Northanger Abbey, and later Sir Walter Scott, Goethe and Victor Hugo made the subject popular. The mediaeval movement also found support at the hands of the Church. As a result, by the middle of the roth century, there ensued a phase of church restoration and building based upon an analytical study of authentic examples of Gothic Architecture. The subject of Gothic art also claimed exponents among the acknowledged leaders of the classic school. For example, Professor Cockerell designed Lampeter college, and Sir Charles Barry,

beginning with Birmingham grammar school (1833) gave Gothic verticality to the classic plan of the palace at Westminster. In this design Barry was assisted by Augustus Pugin whose extra-

ordinary knowledge of Gothic detail was unrivalled.

Indeed,

Pugin, who held almost fanatical views on the subject of what he termed the “Christian” style, was the moving spirit in the Gothic revival. His own work included 65 churches in the United Kingdom. His chief work is St. Georges cathedral, Southwark. Philip Hardwick, whose fame rests upon the classic hall at Euston station, was responsible for the eminently successful hall and library at Lincolns Inn. Both Sir Charles Barry and Philip Hardwick favoured a modern version of Tudor Gothic; other revivalist architects at the time concentrated upon Early English or Decorated Gothic (see Gormac ARCHITECTURE). The work of Sir Gilbert Scott covers the period 1846—77; he built St. Giles, Camberwell; St. Mary Abbotts, Kensington; St. Mary’s cathedral, Edinburgh; St. Pancras station, London; Glasgow university and many other large buildings. He was concerned with the restoration of many old churches, and has been censured for the design of the Albert memorial. William Butterfield and W. Burgess gave their attention to colour, and sought to modernize the Gothic spirit. Burgess designed his own dwelling, Tower House, Melbury road, Kensington; and he left innumerable designs for furniture. In the career of G. E. Street is evidenced the ultimate phase of the revivalist movement; the Royal Courts of Justice, London, 1874-82, rank as the last attempt to apply Gothic to a great public building; Street was conversant with Continental Gothic, and although he was cramped by an awkward site in Fleet street, and suffered interference from the lawyers, he overcame many difficulties. The work of John Loughborough Pearson is exemplified in the following London churches: St. John, Red Lion Square; St. Augustine, Kilburn; and the Catholic Apostolic church, Maida Hill: in addition to extensive repairs at Westminster abbey, Pearson designed Truro cathedral, a building which suffers from diminutive scale but whose details are faultless. Out of the ruck of revivalism the practice of Gothic art emerged into a clarified atmosphere. A new coterie consisting of James Brooks, G. Gilbert Scott, J. Oldrid Scott, G. F. Bodley, John Bently and Sir Arthur Blomfield, became responsible for a series of churches and college additions of great merit. Even towards the close of the roth century revived Gothic had not lost caste. At the hands of J. D. Sedding, H. W. Wilin and Leonard Stokes, the tradition was continued with varying success. The new Cathedral at Liverpool by Sir Giles Gilbert Scott is to be considered a fitting climax to the Gothic movement. This building, begun in 1903, is remarkable for its masterly plan and monumental character. The great double transepts, the mighty scale and the simple detail, contrasted with the beauty of the Lady Chapel, form an ensemble exactly suited to the magnificent site. BrsriocraPpHy.—Colin Campbell, J. Woolfe and J. Gandon, ed., Vitruvius Britannicus (1715—71) ; I. Jones, The Designs of Inigo Jones, (1727); J. Gibbs, Book of Architecture (1728); R. and J. Adam, Works in Architecture (1778—1822) ; G. H. Birch, London Churches of the XVII.th and XVIUI.th Centuries (1896); J. Belcher and M. E. Macartney, Later Renaissance Architecture in England (1897, 1901) ;

R. Blomfield,

A History

of Renaissance

Architecture

in Englan

(1897); A. E. Richardson and C. Lovett Gill, London Houses from 1660 to 1820 (1911); A E. Richardson, Monumental Classic Architecture in Great Britain and Ireland (1914) ; T. A. Gotch, The English Home from Charles I. to George IV.th (1918) ; A. Bolton, The Archi-

tecture

of R. and J. Adam

(1922);

Eberlen, The Smaller English House

1830 (1925).

A. E. Richardson

and H. D.

of the Later Renaissance,

1660—

(A. E. R.)

636

MODERN

ARCHITECTURE

AMERICA On the founding of the British colonies in the wilderness of North America the first dwellings were like the “frail houses,” made of wattle, clay and thatch, which still sheltered the farm labourers and copyholders in England. The first church at Jamestown was “set upon cratchets’—forked sticks set in the ground —*covered with rafts, sedge and earth.” Such primitive shelters were the “English wigwams” of early chroniclers, by no means like those of the Indians. At Plymouth and elsewhere, lines of stakes or hewn planks were driven into the ground to make “palisaded houses.” The log-house, of horizontal logs notched together at the corners and chinked with clay, was unknown in England, and was brought in by the Swedes of the Delaware, to whom it had been the ordinary form of dwelling at home. Its suitability to conditions in the densely forested new country soon led to its adoption by the English colonists, and it later became the typical form of frontier dwelling. Meanwhile, soon after the first settlement, the building of frame houses had begun, few at first, for the leaders. The filling of the “‘half-timber” frames with wattle or cat-and-clay was soon found inadequate to withstand the severe climate, and was covered with weather boards, as used in Kent. Thirty years after the settlement the ordinary farmer or artisan had such a house of a single room below, a storey and a half in height; the divine or magistrate, one of two storeys and a half, with two rooms to a floor, and often with a “lean-to” extension at the rear. Glass windows now became common, chimneys of masonry replaced those of clay, and shingle roofs rapidly took the place of thatch. The general dearth of lime made it difficult to build with brick or stone, and these were but gradually adopted, except in Pennsylvania, where lime and a fine ledge stone were both abundant. The artistic character of the 17th century buildings in America remained that of rural England at the time the colonists left, a simple Jacobean style in which mediaeval survivals predominated. Steep gabled roofs, leaded casement windows, high, clustered chimney stacks and exposed construction are characteristic elements of the effect. In the more elaborate wooden houses of New England, the upper storeys often overhung the lower, as in the old English houses of timber. Among the finest examples surviving are the House of the Seven Gables in Salem and the Parson Capen house (1684) in Topsfield, Mass. In the early plantation houses of Virginia there were more ambitious attempts at a Jacobean character: Bacon’s Castle (before 1676) with cross-shaped plan and with curved and stepped gables; Fairfield (now destroyed) with the H plan traditional in England under Elizabeth and James I. In the South, loyak to the Established Church, the churches continued the type of late Gothic English parish church with a square tower at the west. The earliest of them, at Jamestown and Smithfield, still had projecting buttresses and traceried windows. In New England the Puritan meeting-house followed the scheme of the dissenting chapel, with pulpit on one of the long sides,

galleries around the other three. They were of the utmost plain-

. hess, strongly framed, with roof on curved braces, as we see in the “Old Ship” at Hingham, Massachusetts. Eighteenth Century.—The opening of the 18th century

brought the adoption of the forms of academic architecture, introduced in England by Jones and Wren (see RENAISSANCE

ARCHITECTURE).

While retired farmhouses still kept the high

gable and other features surviving from the middle ages, the houses of leaders such as Keith and Logan in Pennsylvania, Hancock in Boston, or William Byrd in Virginia showed the

classic cornice, the mantelpiece framed by mouldings or the adornment of doorways by the classic orders. The abundant

forms of the Baroque (see Baroque ARCHITECTURE) appeared

in the scrolls of the pediments which crowned doorway and overmantel, while the classic spirit of order and repose brought in the balanced plan and the continuous horizontal cornice all about the lowered roofs. At first there was great simplicity in the wall surfaces, which relied only on: uniformity, proportion and the fine texture of brick, ledge-stone, clapboard or shingle. By the middle of the century there was some attempt at more

monumental treatment, even in the house. Tall pilasters marked

the corners and the centres, or stood all about. In a few houses on the eve of the Revolution—Drayton’s Palace and the Brewton House in Carolina, Monticello, the home of Jefferson, and Lansdowne, that of Gov. John Penn—storeyed porticos rose one above another at the front. This trend toward a modest grandeur was more clearly eyident in the churches. Those of the Church of England in the colonial capitals, like St. Philip’s and St. Michael’s in Charles.

ton, Christ church in Philadelphia and King’s chapel in Boston

These had columned interiors and steeples like those of Wren’s

churches in London; some even had the great external Portico brought in by Gibbs’ St. Martin in the Fields. With the increasing power of the colonial assemblies, public buildings began to assume importance and pretentions. Inde.

pendence hall, the old Pennsylvania State house, stands as the type of the earlier ones, still half-domestic in character, The painter Smibert in Faneuil hall at Boston and the gentleman. amateur Peter Harrison in the town hall at N ewport, with their

arched and pilastered fronts, set new standards of conformity to the old world. In the domestic interiors (see INTERIOR DECORATION) just be-

fore the Revolution the Chippendale vogue brought in the rocaille ornament of Louis XV., appearing in the carving of

chimney-pieces, the ornamentation of plaster ceilings with delicate leafage and tattered shell, as at the Phillipse Manor in Yonkers, at Westover on the James River and elsewhere, These were mansions in which the ideal was conformity to

current English usage, and the achievement was comparable to

that of the smaller houses of gentlemen in the English shires Far more racily American were the provincial types of the byroads, lagging behind the march of progress. The wooden New England farmhouse with its roof extended to the northern storms by a long lean-to and rambling sheds, the “Dutch colonial” type

about New York with low gambrel roof and wide overhanging eves; the Pennsylvania houses of stone, hooded, perhaps, above

the lower storey, the cottages of rural Virginia with their tall chimneys and detached outbuildings, are vernacular or dialect types purely American in their development. More distinct still are the stone houses of the French in Quebec, the stuccoed and whitewashed walls of the few Spanish buildings in Florida, the French and Spanish buildings of Louisiana, with their formal ordonnance, the Spanish missions of the south-west. Here, after beginning with structures of the simplest adobe, the Jesuits brought in, at the missions of San Antonio, some of the fire of Churriguerra; the Franciscans of California carried on a chastened Spanish tradition into the roth century.

The Revolution brought new problems and new ideals. A new type of legislative building was to be created; institutional buildings had to be reformed in accordance with democratic and humanitarian principles. There was the wish to throw off provincial dependence on British style, yet to retain the respect of foreign observers. Jefferson (1743-1826) established the new artistic direction when, long before Napoleon’s Madeleine, he chose the Maison Carrée as the model for the Virginia capitol (1785). The architecture of the early Republic was turned into a classical and monumental channel. In building the new city of Washington (1791 ff.) for the Federal Government great efforts were made to surpass the colonial capitals. L’Enfant (1754-1825), a French engineer, laid out the town on sugges tions from Versailles, Hallet, a French architect of the highest professional training, created the type of modern legislative building with wings for the two chambers and with a tall cen-

tral dome.

Hoban

(c. 1762—1831)

an Irish master-builder,

modelled the president’s house, the White House, on the great

British Georgian mansions, and Jefferson gave it, during his

presidency, the tall circular portico to the river. In New York

Mangin, another Frenchman, gave the design for the City Hall

(1803-12) a work purely Gallic; in Boston, Bulfinch (1763-

1844), a native amateur, soon to become professional, suggested

the fronts of the Place de la Concorde beneath the dome of his

MODERN ARCHITECTURE

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HISTORICAL

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2. Independence

Hall, the old Pennsylvania State house, at Philadelphia.

Type of the earlier American public building

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SOCIETY,

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4, St. Paul’s Chapel, New York city (1764—66, steeple, 1794).

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architect

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In mansions of thls

with the current English style

6. Brinckerhoff House, Hackensack, New Jersey

i ; : 7. Washington’s Headquarters at Valley Forge, near Philadelphia

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ARCHITECTURE

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MODERNISM State house (see GOVERNMENTAL ARCHITECTURE). In domestic architecture the modern

637

by the adoption of a steel frame, riveted throughout.

comfort invented under

The last

hindrance to ascent was swept away, the skyscraper appeared.

Louis XV. came in at the same time with the classic style. The

(See ARCHITECTURE.)

oval salon à la française was adopted in the White House and

the homes of many leaders in politics and fashion. In the North + was the delicate Adam versions of classical ornament which

The idea of finding in this new structural development the key to a new and modern style grew out of the rationalistic architectural theory of Viollet-le-Duc and Semper. It was Louis Sulli-

prevailed in the houses of Bulfinch, McIntire, McComb and Thornton; south of the Potomac the monumental portico sponsored by Jefferson at Monticello and the University of Virginia (1817-182 5) adorned the great houses of the Piedmont.

van (1856~-1924), of Chicago, who had the creative imagination to clothe the steel frame of the high building in new functional form. Its loftiness he accented by vertical lines replacing the old wall surfaces of masonry. His Wainwright building in St.

Greek Revival.—The

Greek revival came hard on the heels

of the Roman. The leader was Benjamin Henry Latrobe (1766~ 1320) who had learned his Greek details in England but got his stimulus toward bodily imitation of the temple from the American laymen and amateurs, now filled with a sophomoric enthusiasm for antiquity. His Bank of Pennsylvania (1799) was the beginning, his Bank of the United States (1819-24), now the Philadelphia Custom House, an imitation of the Parthenon, was the culmination of the movement. His pupils Mills and Strickland rang the changes on the classical motives, as in Mills’ great colonnade of the Treasury, and his Washington monuments in Baltimore (1815 ff.) and Washington (1836 ff.), a great Doric

Louis, designed in 1890, was the manifesto of a new school, and had an influence far beyond his own partisans. Neo-classicism.—Against Sullivan’s equation of beauty with

truth, his structural emphasis, the New Yorkers led by Charles Follen McKim (1847-1909) and Stanford White (1853-1906) sought to re-establish the independence of art through abstract beauty of form. Like worshippers of form in many earlier periods, they turned again to the Roman alphabet, but their work is not to be regarded merely as one more historical revival among many. They reaffirmed a unity of style, as well as a unity in the single

work, ignoring the temptation to characterize and differentiate minor elements.

The long unbroken fronts of McKim’s

Boston

abroad) and a vast

library (designed in 1888), with its uniform arcades, was the

obelisk. Churches and houses likewise followed the type of the temple, which became a single unconditional ideal for all classes

first work in this vein to seize public attention. The cohorts of function and of form met on the battlefield of the Chicago World’s Fair in 1893. The Westerners, with one exception lost themselves in a variety of historical reminiscences. Sullivan, in his Transportation building, glowing with colour and gold, sought to-create a new expressive idiom of detail and ornament, but he stood alone. The Eastern men made common cause in unifying their buildings about the Court of Honour. The sheds of steel and wood disappeared behind ordered white colonnades whose justification lay only in their own harmony. The cumulative effect was overwhelming, and was deeply branded on the memory of the nation. In the remaining years of the decade its whole architecture turned again to classic unity of form, finding a sanction in the works from the formative period of the Republic. The great formal groups for Columbia and New York universities, dominated by their domed libraries, recalled Jefferson’s initiative at the University of Virginia. The banks reverted to the models of Latrobe; the triumphal arch and column were revived as types of monuments. Domestic architecture followed Colonial or Italian suggestions, with gardens (see LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE) once more formal in design. With the plans for the improvement of Washington, developing the neglected conceptions of L’Enfant, at the turn of the century, the artistic ideals of the founders were re-established. (For current work see ARCHITECTURE.)

column (antedating the similar monuments

of buildings. The white porticos rose alike in the whaling ports of New England, on the banks of the Delaware, the Potomac and the distant Ohio, and on the borders of the Great Lakes and the Gulf, Their tradition lingered until the Civil War.

Gothic Revival.—tIn the ’30s it was already beginning to be undermined by the growth of romanticism. Jefferson and Latrobe

had already toyed with the Gothic as an alternative.

Downing,

the landscape gardener, and Davis, his architect collaborator, used it with greater conviction. Newcomers from England like Richard Upjohn (1802-1878) designer of Trinity church in New York, brought a new knowledge and competence. The enthusiasm of Ruskin made a Victorian Gothic universal in churches, and drew civil architecture into the Gothic orbit. Later disciples of romanticism like Cram and Goodhue added the element of craftsmanship, on the stimulus of William Morris. Eclecticism.—Meanwhile the widening historical horizon had evoked in America, as in Europe, a general eclecticism, a choice of many styles but half understood. The brilliance of the Second Empire gave vogue to the mansard roof; the influx of the Germans brought the floridity of the northern Renaissance; the Centennial Exposition, the English Queen Anne. For a moment in the ’80s Henry Hobson Richardson (1838-1886) carried all before him with his free and virile version of southern Romanesque, first embodied in Trinity Church in Boston. Richard

Morris Hunt (1827-1895), who had led the way to study at the

Ecole des Beaux Arts, introduced its system of instruction (see

ARCHITECTURAL EDUCATION), and adopted the style of the Valois chateaux in his great Fifth avenue houses and country palaces,

ike Biltmore, N.C., for the new American plutocracy. suggestions from early American

While

buildings were taken up by

BrsriocrAPHY.—Books concerned with the whole history of American architecture are: L. Mumford, Sticks and Stones (1924); T. F. Hamlin, The American Spirit in Architecture (1926); T. E. Tallmadge, The Story of Architecture in America (1927); F. Kimball, American Architecture with full bibliography (1928). For the earlier period see W. R. Ware, ed., The Georgian Period (Boston, 1898-1902) ; A. Embury, Early American Churches (New York, 1914); F. Kimball, Domestic Architecture of the American Colonies (New York, 1922).

For the contemporary period see J. Gréber’s L’architecture aux

Etats-

McKim and others who inaugurated a Colonial revival, and the Unis (1920) ; W. Hegemann and E. Peets, American Vitruvius (1920), local traditions of Florida suggested to Carrére and Hastings a and G. H. Edgell, American Architecture of To-day oe Kr) Spanish style, many

of the students returning from Paris re-

mained faithful to the style of the Louis.

Steel—_In the midst of these historical reminiscences science

.

Kı.

MODERNISM. This term has been used since the second decade of the twentieth century (at least as early as 1914) to

describe the form which the Broad Church or Liberal Church Movement has taken in the Church of England. The word Modernism had been used on the Continent during the pontificate of Leo XIII. as the designation of a neo-scholastic movement in the Roman Catholic Church which was condemned by the Encyclical Pascendi in 1907. The English movement, although in its philostolled iron, as in that of The World in New York, over 300 ft. ophy and theology it differs widely from Roman Modernism, yet

and industrialism were evoking new materials and modes of construction. The fruitful exploitation of iron came, along with the elevator, in the high office buildings, which the absence of legal restrictions allowed to rise on the preferred urban sites. At first these were amorphous structures of self-supporting external masonry walls, interior columns of cast iron, and beams of

As they grew higher and higher, the thickening of the walls com-

has affinities with it both in its causes and aim, and has been

In the Home

influenced in some measure by such Roman Catholic Modernist

(ago in 1883, the idea came of supporting the walls, as well as

instance English Modernists have no difficulty in accepting for themselves Tyrrell’s description of Modernism:

Promised the rental value of the lower storeys.

Insurance building designed by William LeBaron Jenny in Chi- writers as George Tyrrell, F. von Hiigel and Alfred Loisy. For the floors, on the frame. Soon the structural type was crystallized

638

MODERN

TENDENCIES

IN APPLIED

ART

«I think that the best description of Modernism is that it is the | beneficent purpose for humanity through the operation of the cor with | Church, and therefore holds that it is the duty of the individual] desire and effort to find a new theological synthesis, consistent

I mean a the data of historico-critical research... . By a Modernist of a synthesis churchman of any sort who believes in the possibility of between the essential truth of his religion and the essential truth modernity.”

The following accounts of it by five writers intimately connected with the activities of the English Modernist Movement present it fairly:

“Modernism is based upon evolution in science and the critical the method in history: and 1t demands, not that the great truths of Christian religion shall be given up, but that they shall be considered afresh in the light of growing knowledge, and re-stated in a way suitable to the intellectual conditions of the age.” of “Modernism seeks to combine in a higher unity the two ways looking at Christian history, the evolutional and the inspirational.” E = (Professor Percy Gardner.) «Modernism is the attempt of the modern spirit, acting religiously, to refashion Christianity, not outside, but inside, the warm limits of the ancient churches, to secure not a reduced, but a transformed : Ward.) (Mrs. Humphry Christianity.” «I do not disclaim the term Modernist. The name describes justly what I aim at being. I aim at thinking the thoughts and speaking the language of my own day, and yet, at the same time, keeping all that is essential in the religion of the past.” (Canon William Sanday.) “Modernism is only the altogether praiseworthy attempt on the part of a group of thinkers to present Christian truth in terms of modern knowledge. We do not to-day travel by coach, or wear jerkins, or speak the language of Chaucer, or believe that the earth is the centre of the solar system. Why in matters theological should we be forced to think in terms of bygone centuries? Woe betide the Church that shuts its eye to God’s gift of new knowledge.” (Canon Vernon Storr.) “Modernism is not a religion: it is a defence of religion, and of the . Christian Religion.” (Dr. R. W. Macan.)

The enormous advances made, not only in natural and physical science during the last seventy years, but in literary and historical criticism of the Bible, the history and psychology of religion, anthropology and history, have rendered much of the traditional Christian doctrine untrue in its form, but some of it also untrue in fact. English Modernists, who believe in the essential truth of the Christian Religion and in the indispensable services which the Christian Church, the historic organon of that religion, can perform in the spheres of both personal culture and social evolution, desire to win the Church authorities to the difficult and courageous policy of openly rejecting false tradition, however venerable, and discarding ancient formulae, where repugnant to modern thought and feeling, in favour of teaching which seeks to express the truth of fact and faith in harmony with modern knowledge, conviction, and aspiration. The Modernist regards his task as twofold:— (xr) The presentation of essential Christian truth in the modern knowledge and in such a way that it does not conflict (2) The conversion of the authorities and adherents of the to the acceptance, authorization and propagation of Christian in this new form.

light of with it: Church doctrine

Bishop Barnes F.R.S. has hailed Professor F. J. A. Hort of Cambridge as “the Father of English Modernism.” In that case he was its posthumous father as it is only in the Appendix to his Hulsean Lectures published in 1893, after his death, that his Modernism is clearly seen. Hort there affirms that “Christianity is not a uniform and monotonous tradition, but is to be learnt by the successive steps of life.” “Criticism is not dangerous save when it is merely the tool for reaching a result, believed on the ground of speculative postulates.” “There can be no surer sign of decrepitude and decay in faith than

a prevalent nervousness about naming and commending reason.”

Hort indicates what he regards as the right line of advance: “Tt is vain to uphold either (on the one hand)

a merely humani-

tarian theology: all study of nature dissolves it: an enlarged study of and care for humanity dissolves it hardly less: (or) on the other hand, a merely pantheistic theology in combination with a humanitarian morality or anthropology. Both the pantheistic and the humanitarian factors are needed in theology and in morality alike, and for the

union of both. No evidence of the.super-mundane God can have any power if we fail to discern the radiations of transmitted and derivative deity as the luminous and vital tissue of finite things.”

English Modernism differs mainly from the older Broad or Liberal Churchmanship in being less individualist and less Erastian. It conceives of the Christian Religion as best realising its

Christian to live in and work through the Church, which although it can often best serve the highest interests by closely co-operating

with the State, is yet essentially independent of it should the State’s policy be in conflict with Christian principles. The Mod. ernist’s ideal is not “a free Church in a free State,” but “a Christian Church in a Christian State.”

The English Modernist differs mainly from the Roman Modemist in being neither pantheistic in his theology, nor pragmatist in

his philosophy: neither does he identify the Christ with the Catholic Church. The English Modernist is one with the Roman Modernist in his plea for the continuous development of Christian

theology based on the truth-seeking interpretation of an enlarging Christian experience, and in the demand that scientific methods and historical criticism must be used to the full in the elucidation and presentation of Christian doctrine. Modernism claims to offer three great advantages over Traditionalism which are as much in harmony with essential Christi-

anity as with the modern mind.

It satisfies the modern Chris-

tian’s intellect by giving him freedom of research; his conscience

by giving him freedom to teach the truth as he learns it: his heart by admitting to Christian fellowship all who call Jesus Lord. Modernism claims to be in harmony with the fundamental character of the English Church and should assist that body to realise its function as the reunion-centre of a reformed and progressive Christendom. In Convocation in'1914 Bishop Hicks of Lincoln said: “I believe the men who may be called English Modernists are not unsettling the faith, but interpreting it, and making it clear to the

modern man, and within a generation they will be looked back to as men who helped to build the faith of the English Church.” The chief English Modernist society is “The Modern Churchmen’s

Union for the advancement of Liberal Religious Thought,” founded in 1898. Its organ is The Modern Churchman, a monthly

magazine, founded in 1911. The United States.—In America the term Modernism is used in a somewhat different sense from the way it is used in England. Full treatment of the controversy in America between the Fundamentalist and Modernist groups is given in the article FUNDAMENTALISM AND MODERNISM. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—A.

Fawkes,

Handley, Theological Room

Studies

in Modernism

(1913); H.

(1914); C. H. S. Matthews, Faith or Fear

(1916); C. W. Emmet, Conscience, Creeds and Critics (1918); M. G. Glazebrook, Tke Faith of a Modern Churchman, 2nd ed. (1918); C, H. S. Matthews, Faith and Freedom (1919) ; W. Sanday, Divine Over-

ruling (1920); and The Position of Liberal Theology

(1920); H.

Rashdall, Jesus Human and Divine (1922) ; J. M. Sterrett, Modernism in Religion (1922); R. D. Richardson, The Causes of the Present Conflict of Ideals in the Church of England (1923); Leighton Parks,

What is Modernism?

(1924); M. Pryke, Modernism

as a W orking

Faith (1925); E. W. Barnes, Should such a Faith offend? (1924); J. F. Bethune-Baker, The Ways of Modernism (1927); P. Gardner, Modernism in the English Church (1927); H. D. A. Major, English Modernism,

its origin, method,

aims

(1927)

(gives a full bibliog-

raphy). (See also, Roman CatHoric CHURCH; Ea

Saar se

MODERN TENDENCIES IN APPLIED ART. No exact date can mark the beginning of the modern movement in applied art. Whenever men grew tired of reproducing the decorative formulae of the periods preceding the industrial revolution and turned to the creation of new forms and new motives, then and

there were the beginnings. One might point to the porcelain table

service of Felix Bracquemond exhibited at the Paris exhibition of 1867 as a very early appearance, but in reality this was but the

application to western forms of Japanese motives, then just brought to the attention of artistic Europe.

_ On the other hand, it would hardly be correct to mention wil-

liam Morris as a precursor of the modern movement, inasmuch as his valiant struggle was not aimed against the old forms but against the machine and commercialism, and his own creations were always a reflection of the mediaeval spirit. The influence of Morris on later developments, however, was very great, if indirect. In the first place it was largely through his teachings

MODERN

TENDENCIES

and example that the English Arts and Crafts movement

came

into being, and although the underlying principles and motives of this revival did not make for modernism as conceived to-day,

many things were produced by the craft-workers that were essentially of this spirit, especially in woodwork, ceramics and embroidery.

Furthermore,

it was

the ideals of the Morris

group

and the English artist craftsman that perhaps more than any other influence inspired the beginnings of the true modern move-

ment in Vienna and southern Germany.

The first definite appearance of creations in the intention now identified as modern, would seem to have occurred at Paris

IN APPLIED

ART

639

Germany, but in Paris. There in 1895, Bing, who had for many years maintained a shop for the sale of Japanese prints and other examples of Oriental art, set up an establishment, L’art nouveau, for the display of modern art. At first the work of various artists and craftsmen was assembled, but finding harmonious ensembles impracticable in this way, Bing secured the services of a corps of designers, among whom were E. Colonna, De Feure and Gaillard engaged in production. As has been noted above, four rooms of van de Velde were exhibited here in 1895 and the characteristic curve originated by the Belgian was adopted

in the decade of the ’80s in the field of the smaller crafts, par-

by Bing as the peculiar motive for Part nouveau.

At this time

French furniture exhibited a mixture of influences:

English arts

ticularly in ceramics‘and glass. The French had long been acquainted with Japanese prints and pottery, but it was not until the ’90s that Chinese ceramics of the Tang and Sung periods became known. Certain craftsmen became filled with intense desire to discover the secret of the glazes of these wares and after much labour and research success crowned the efforts of Carriés and Chaplet. Delaherche continued these studies and

and crafts, reminiscences of Eastlake, naturalistic decoration and above all a welter of curved lines generally awkward and clumsy. This latter chaos the workers of Bing crystallized into a style by the adoption of the whiplash curve. It was a motive far too subtle to be handled successfully by any except highly talented designers, but it was exactly such individuals that the “Etablissement Bing” had employed, and some of the productions of Colonna and Gaillard stand to-day as unchallenged master-

shortly began to produce the remarkable series of sober, rich, deep-toned stoneware of the high fire kiln that have marked his pieces of design—masterpieces in which a highly artificial motive lng career.

Rejecting

all ornamentation

and

relying on the

manifold decorative glaze effects produced at high temperatures, he initiated the triumph of grés au grand feu that has remained ever since the high and characteristic achievement of French ceramics. The work of these craftsmen, together with that of

Dalpayrat and Lachenal attracted great attention and favourable comment at the International Exposition of 1889 in Paris.

Side

by side with these ceramic triumphs was the glass of Emile Gallé of Nancy. Gallé, an artist of versatile talent, had been experimenting for many years with various glass-techniques, all of which relied upon the material itself for decorative effect. (See Grass, MopERN, EuRopEAN for work of Gallé.) The buildings of the Exposition were also a very distinct ex-

pression of modernism. The genius of the architects, through ap-

propriate use of iron, concrete, glass and terra cotta, produced a number of delightful creations in form and colour, which were at the same time dignified and imposing. It is in the decade of the 90s, however, that the modern movement becomes widespread in western Europe. To try to establish priority among these developments would be a fruitless task and one that would inevitably lead to controversy. Nevertheless, it is clear that important activities in the field of decoration and furniture design were occurring very early in Brussels. Here, in 1894, took place an exhibition of the so-called “Free Aesthetics,” among whom were Henry van de Velde, Victor Horta, S. van Rysselberghe, Serrurier-Bovy and

Paul Hankar.

First among these in genius for design and later

influence was van de Velde. Educated as a painter, he early found the brush inadequate as a means of expressing his reactions towards contemporary life and turned to the design of furniture and household decoration. At heart a believer in functional design and sound construction, he was at first caught in the mesh of the curved line, then almost universally in vogue, and evolved a peculiar whiplash curve, which he designated “the line of force.” In 1895 van de Velde exhibited four complete rooms in the

establishment that had just been opened by S: Bing in Paris. These rooms were shown two years later at the Art Exhibition

at Dresden and made a profound impression upon German craftsmen and designers. Van de Velde was soon commissioned to construct the Folkwang Museum in Hagen, Westphalia, and the completion of this interesting building in r902 served to ‘cement his position in Germany as a leader in the new movement. Meanwhile the grand duke of Weimar, whose ambition was to improve artistic instruchon in his country, offered this task and problem to van de

Velde, who accepted and installed his studio in the art school

later known as the “Bauhaus.” Here he continued to exercise an Important influence on the decorative arts of Germany until the outbreak of the World War. His work in Germany culminated in the beautiful and severe theatre built for the “International Art osition” at Cologne in 1914.

was used to produce creations of much charm, that were at the same time guilty of no structural enormities. Lart nouveau was the sensation of the Paris International Exposition of 1900. Its success was its undoing. The new motives became at once the vogue, with the result that manufacturers in large numbers hastened to gain profit from their popularity. To give the new quality to their production, they called upon designers of all degrees of capacity. Consequently motives requiring the hand of a master were soon vulgarized and cheapened and the whole movement reduced to absurd and fantastic exaggerations. L’art nouveau was but an episode in the modern movement—a brilliant episode, but one based on a decorative motive and not on sound considerations of the vital tendencies of modern life. It had no organic relations with function or structure and from its nature was destined to a short life. At this exposition also Louis Tiffany of New York exhibited his creations in “Favrille-glass” of which the beautiful and subtle colour effects, often iridescent, attracted wide attention. The jewelry of René Lalique was also one of the features of 1900. Employing novel and richly-coloured materials and all the resources of the carver, engraver, and enameller, this prolific artist exhibited numberless examples of brooches, necklaces, combs and other dress ornaments that ran the entire gamut of the curved line and made of jewellery a charming decorative adornment rather than a mere exhibit of costly gems. One must also note the remarkable efflorescence of the French poster that occurred at a somewhat earlier period. Six artists, Chéret, Grasset, Toulouse, Lautrec, Steinlen and Mucha, captivated the interest of the entire world and carried the art of the poster to a point not since surpassed. (See Poster.) In r910 there was an important exhibit of the work of Munich artists and designers at the salon d’automne in Paris. Viewed from the standpoint of to-day the displays were not brilliant nor wholly consistent, but they were in a number of cases marked by simplicity of structure and of practical quality, at that time rare in the French designs, and they undoubtedly brought to French artists a needed sobering and fresh consideration of fundamentals. To bring the picture of the movement into perspective it is necessary to turn to the earlier developments in Germany and Vienna. In the years before 1900 furniture and decoration in Germany that did not follow the old lines showed a mixture of influences: traces of the Alt-Deutsch of the ’7os and ’80s; adaptations of the English arts and crafts, particularly of the Glasgow school, and some reflection of the curves of van de Velde. In

1899 the grand duke of Hesse-Darmstadt invited the Viennese architect Josef M. Olbrich to come to Darmstadt and design the houses of an artists’ colony in the suburb of MathildenhGhe. These houses together with an exhibition-building were for the

most part built in the following year, and a number of artists, among whom were Peter Behrens, Hans Christiansen, Ludwig The first fruition of van de Velde’s ideas, however, was not in Habich and Patriz Huber, became members of the colony. The

640

MODERN

TENDENCIES

houses exhibited much variety and novelty of design and while free from

conventional

architectural

motives were marked

by

sobriety and fineness of proportion. The first exhibit of the artistic creations of the colony was held in 1901 and showed many interesting experiments in modernism. Other influences quickly made themselves felt. In 1898 the grand duke had invited the English architect Baillie-Scott, a foremost exponent of the arts and crafts revival, to decorate

two rooms in his palace. The designs of this artist for furniture and house decoration quickly became popular all over Germany. Many examples of his furniture were made and sold in the Wertheim department store in Berlin. It is quite beyond the limitations of this article to make more than a reference to the development of German architecture in

IN APPLIED

ART

ence. The Werkstätte developed a business organization, employ.

ing its own designers and craftsmen and maintaining workshops for the fabrication of products. It aimed at introducing aria. furnishings into everyday life and at bringing about closer relations

between art and industry.

Many of the products of the Viennese artists exhibit a naive playful, and charming character that well reflects the atmosphere of the city. Especially typical of this kind of work are the bright.

glazed, low-fired figurines by Vally Wieselthier, Susi Singer, Herta Bucher, and others. Leather goods and printed textiles have al-

ways been noteworthy among the products of this city, and they

have received delightful expression at the hands of modern artists One of the exquisite achievements of VienneéSe art is the engraved glass of J. and L. Lobmeyr. This firm has employed the fore-

the years between 1900 and the World War. Suffice it to say most artists available in Central Europe to design the forms and that the talent of Olbrich, Messel, Peter Behrens and many others decoration of their products, and has brought to their execution created in their buildings during this period the only unified the highest type of technical skill. Architects from the first exercised a strong influence upon the architectural expression in Europe worthy of being called a modern style. The influence of this architectural development modern movement in Vienna. In 1895 Modern Architecture apwas felt and is still felt strongly not only all over Germany, but peared, written by the architect Otto Wagner, a professor in the in the countries of Central and Southern Europe. Vienna Academy. It was the first appearance of the new docThe quality that distinguished the German movement from that trines and the younger architects rallied to their support. Among in all other countries was its widespread organization and the Wagner’s students were many notable men. First among these was encouragement received from powerful official and industrial Josef Olbrich, a man of many talents, who, as noted before built agencies. Prominent among the organizations that championed the artists’ colony in Darmstadt and exercised a profound influence the new movement was the Deutsche Werkbund, founded in on German design in the early years of the present century. An1908. Its aims were to ennoble industrial work, to bring about other of Wagner’s pupils was Josef Hoffmann, who in 1899 beco-operation between art and industry and the work of the artisans | came professor in the Kunstgewerbe Schule in Vienna. While first

by means of instruction, of propaganda and of common action in| of all an architect who has designed many buildings in the suburbs

situations where it was appropriate. 732, members, of whom

Towards rgro it numbered | of Vienna and other places in Europe, he is also an artist crafts-

360 were artists, 267 industrialists and | man with an intimate knowledge of processes and the possibilities

business men, and 105 amateurs and officials of museums and | of materials. For 25 years he has devoted a large part of his time other interested

persons. The Werkbund aimed at bringing to- | and energy to applied art, in which field he has been for long the gether all the active forces in the art industries and in trade and | recognized leader of the modern Viennese school. In 1908 Hoffcommerce.

It carried out its programme

by such methods

as | mann built the Stocklet house at Brussels,

which remains to-day exhibitions, lectures, and publications. in its interior design and furnishings the most important residence The General Electric Company developed an artistic depart- | the modern style has yet produced. Hoffmann designed the house ment with Peter Behrens as counsellor. The great printing com- | to express the owner, a wealthy banker possessing an extra-

panies studied the work of talented typographic artists to im- | ordinary collection of oriental and occidental prove the character of type and to develop new styles in posters, |employed vigorous rectangular forms to suggest placards and head lines. The publishers of art periodicals lent | cious and beautiful marbles to give an atmosphere themselves industriously to the exposition of the new movement. | walls of the dining-room were decorated by ae of the oe T stores erected new buildings in the | designed by Gustav Klimt.

applied art. He power and preof richness The notable mosaics

j

im-

modern spirit.

Those of

Wertheim at Berlin and Tietz at Diissel- |

In this modern development of Vienne

dorf were especially noteworthy. The Werkbund pushed to the | portant infiuence was aed and isaed bythe“Kans. front those architects who were foremost in the new movement | gewerbe Schule which early attracted to its staff many of the most

for the design

of municipal architecture, such as city halls, rail- | talented and creative spirits of the time and which has for 30 way stations, theatres, and markets. Other organizations were de- | years placed great emphasis upon original design through a veloped, such as

the Deutsche Werkstätten für Handwerkskunst | craft work. As can be seen, the Viennese movement has been led in Munich. This organization dealt with all phases of decoration | by a group of highly trained and cultivated persons who have and applied art, making inexpensive furniture in quantity at its | guided its course within sophisticated channels, but running model factory at Hellerau and finer cabinet work at Munich. through its manifestations is constantly discernible a warm. strain Vienna, contributed a very interesting chapter to the modern | which reflects the manifold racial qualities of the peoples comadap r D was RS the Secession as a pro- | prising the former Austrian Empire.

est against

the academic quality in the arts. The society was |

Any reference to modern

dedicated to the purpose of bringing to Vienna from the outside | out mention of the E

world all healthy influences making for modernism.

E

i

E

Prominent | of industrial art matters in Sweden. The firms

j

ith-

thePRENE

of Bing and Gronamong the founders were Gustav Klimt, Josef Hoffmann, Alfred | dahl and the Royal Copenhagen Porcelain Factory have since Roller, Koloman Moser, F. Andri and Josef Olbrich, who built | their inception made most earnest efforts to combine multithe Secession building in 1898. At the second exhibition of the production with the highest artistic quality. Great variety of Society in 1898 were shown examples of applied arts from Eng- | character and technique characterizes the products of these establand and France, and for many years the annual exhibitions wel- lishments, some of which follow the lines of roth century tradicomed the work of the pioneers in modernism from all European | tions, while others embody the spirit of detain in a marked countries. In the expansion of the applied arts that followed the degree. The same energeticall i ttitude is found in organization of the Secession movement, ment, the the influence infl of the | several smaller establishments TninDeane Denmark whee where he the individudh English arts and crafts, as expressed by C. R. Ashbee, Voysey, and| ality of the artist plays an even larger part to the advantage of | sepa ease of the Glasgow school headed by Mackin- a ee 5 weden has for m j s In 1903, the Wiener Werkstätte was organized through the | sociation (Svenska or which a financial assistance of Fritz Waerndofer. For two years the so- | stantial assistance to manufact i ti ciety co-operated rE E E with the Secession, :but ut In in 1905 esta bli lished an higher i standards of work. The products ee ee of Orrefors Bruks ae well offmann as the guiding influ- | illustrate the situation. Upon request of this establishment the

MODERN TENDENCIES IN APPLIED ART

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IN

FURNITURE Germany. 1921. 5. Desk by Henry van de Velde, Brussels. 1899.

6. Table

Taylor furniture exposition of 1928 in New York city. 2. Buffet of mahogany with burl veneers of rare woods by W. and J. Sloane, New York. Contemporary. 3. Sofa designed by Eugene Schoen, New York, with rayon silk

of rosewood designed by Ed. Colonna in 1900 for the Etablissement Bing, Paris. 7. Tea room designed by Professor Josef Hoffmann, Vienna. Contemporary. 8. Twin beds by John Widdicomb Company, Grand Rapids,

upholstery.

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4. Buffet by Professor Richard Riemerschmid,

MODERN TENDENCIES IN APPLIED ART

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Ceo

MARA

BY COURTESY OF (3) TIFFANY STUDIOS, GRAPH, (2) COPR. H. BONNAIRE

(4, 8) ROBERT W. DE FOREST,

MODERN

(5) THE METROPOLITAN

TENDENCIES

IN ART

1. Porcelain vase with brown underglaze overrun with mauve coloured slip by Mrs. A. A. Robineau, Syracuse, New York. Contemporary. 2. Poster

by Jules Chéret, France. (1891). 3. Favrille glass vase by Louis Tiffany of New York (1898). 4. Stoneware jar and plate by Emile Decoeur, France.

Contemporary.

Lent to the Metropolitan

Museum

MUSEUM

of Art by Robert W. de

OF ART, NEW YORK,

OBJECTS

AND

(6) HOHENZOLLERN-KUNSTGEWERBEHAUS,

BERLIN; PHOTO-

POSTER

Forest. 5. Tea service, silver and lapis lazuli, by Jean Puiforcat, Contemporary. 6. Ornamental comb by René Lalique, France.

1900). 7. Firescreen, ‘The Forest,” executed Contemporary. 8. Stoneware vase by Auguste temporary

filets

(Abou by Edgar Brandt, France. Delaherche, France. Con-

MODERN

TENDENCIES

association recommended the employment of two artists, Simon Gate and Edward Hald. Within a few years the genius of these two men has brought the engraved glass of Orrefors to a well deserved world-wide reputation.

The World War brought all European art activities to a standstil. In Central Europe these have only of recent years been slowly resumed. France, the first to recover industrially, addressed herself to the effort to gain recognition in the international market as the exponent of the modern movement. Apparently re-

IN APPLIED

ART

641

ceptional talent, they are almost as a unit emphasizing design in the new spirit and adding to this thorough and intensive constructive processes. In England a number of individuals, whose initial devotion was to the arts and crafts, have continued their creative work into later times and have made valuable contributions to modern design. One establishment, Heal and Son, under the direction of Ambrose Heal, has served as a connecting link between the two periods and in its productions during the last 30 years has presented a continuous picture of the highest expression of English

solved no longer to rest content with individual initiative and enterprise she has endeavoured to organize the activities in this modernism. This firm has not only exhibited a fine sanity and feld. For one thing instruction in the modern spirit of design is purity of taste in its own furniture, but it has constantly presented now offered in all the schools of applied art throughout the and encouraged the best efforts of English manufacturers and republic. craftsmen in many other branches of applied art. This is parIn the last decade each of the large department stores, Bon ticularly true of ceramics, in which field the products of the great Marché, Galeries Lafayette, Printemps, and the Louvre, has in- English potteries as well as those of individual craftsmen have augurated a special department offering all kinds of material been given prominent place. conceived in the modern spirit, and has placed at the head of After the scant display of modern furniture at the Paris exhibithis department an individual of talent and reputation in this tion of 1925, English manufacturers showed rather surprising acseld. Each of these directors is furnished with a staff of de- tivity which in three years resulted in an exhibition of a dozen signers and personally designs or superintends the design in his furnished rooms in London, some of which displayed a sound own studio of much of the material offered by his department. grasp of the true spirit of modernism and attained a high degree This development has had an important commercial result, inas- of artistic taste. much as it has popularized the movement by bringing its producA factor of most promising character has arisen in the progress tions within the reach of the ordinary purse, whereas the modern of English applied arts, in the form of the Design and Industries creations up to a few years ago were to a large extent objets de Association, founded during the World War by a group of eduluxe available only to the wealthy. cators, designers, craftsmen and manufacturers. The rational Another organized body of considerable importance is that of and progressive attitude of the Association towards industrial the Société des Artistes Décorateurs, who hold a salon embracing art has already made an impression upon public thought and has the field of the industrial arts each spring and autumn in the achieved certain distinct influences upon production. Grand Palais. For years this society has admitted to its exposiIn the United States the development of modernism has been tions only works conceived in the modern spirit, and has refused marked in a few lines, but it is very uneven when the whole field place to all objects distinctly based upon the old styles. In the is considered. In the design of the tall office building in the same direction is the important influence of the Musée des Arts large cities America has evolved a distinct modern type. In a Décoratifs and the Musée Galliéra, which hold frequent tempo- situation in which many well equipped minds are working on the rary expositions. same problem—a problem involving for its solution the adjustFinally, as the culminating recognition of a national attitude, ment of rigid requirements of many kinds—social, physical, legal, France organized and carried through the International Exhibi- economic and aesthetic—a result has been arrived at which, tion of Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts in 1925. Per- if it cannot be termed a style, is at least characterized by very haps the most important lesson to be derived from the exhibition definite and uniform tendencies and very modern qualities. Conwas that which must be studied in all manifestations of modern- sidered purely from the aesthetic side, these buildings show an ism if the movement is to survive as a salutary influence in con- Increasing subordination of surface ornament and reliance upon temporary life, viz., that the only expressions in this new mode fineness of line, mass and proportion, and the dignity of plain which are significant and which will serve to carry forward the surfaces. level of applied art are those which conform to the age-old In the United States as in every other Western country, woman’s requirements of good design and at the same time possess those outdoor dress is the most significant of all expressions of modern qualities which are in sympathy with the needs and taste of taste. Such dresses, compared with those of 35 years ago show their times. Novelty for novelty’s sake, queerness and freak- a remarkable and rapid evolution. In response to the modern ishness of form that violate the demands of function and struc- demands for greater freedom and more natural living, feminine ture, are but the effort of mediocre designers to attract attention. costume has passed from an extreme of complexity and artificialThese represent the incubus that holds back the movement, and ity to an extreme of simplicity of which no one can gainsay the that must be discounted to gauge its true meaning and possibilities. aesthetic advantage. (See Dress, Modern.) Much of the material shown at the exhibition was of this characThe more sober coloured winter street dress reflects the same ter. In each division there was to be found the work of only a qualities as those represented by other modern creations, viz., few individuals possessed of sufficient culture, talent and under- elimination of artificial ornament, emphasis upon functional form standing to interpret the tendencies of their times in forms both and tendency towards quiet spaces that gain interest from the old in quality and yet new in spirit. If the modern movement is material itself. These are qualities fundamental to modern deto be a real evolution it is obviously only the work of such men sign, but by themselves they are obviously not enough to express that is significant, and it is their creations that must be examined completely this age, with its speed, its innovations, its unconvenrightly to appraise its nature and its tendencies. That leadership tionality, intellectual activity and new ideas. On this side modern ofa high order was in evidence in the French section of the exhi- life craves fantasy, novelty and fine colour and it is woman’s bition is hardly to be disputed. Whether the rank and file of dress that has first of all responded to this desire in the warm French producers will take their cue from these sources or con- weather street and sport clothing of recent years. tinue to follow after mere novelty remains to be seen. This demand for strong beautiful colour and playful fantasy, _ Germany since the war has been gradually resuming interest felt more and more by Western peoples ever since the first vision m modernism, The heavy and awkward character often to be of the Russian ballet, is one that extends to almost all phases sen in the earlier ventures has very largely disappeared and the of decoration (hangings, furniture stuffs, murals, floor and wall productions of many establishments, particularly those of the coverings and graphic advertising) and that brings with it an Deutsche Werkstätte of Munich and Hellerau, are marked with increasing problem of composition in a difficult field. fue sobriety, simplicity and good taste together with moderate To sum up the general situation one might venture to state Cost. The German schools of industrial art play a very important that wherever natural forces, such as social ideals, emulation, part In the present day situation. Often directed by men of ex- competition or seasonal demands, make for frequent changes

MODES—MODOCG

642

and adjustments, there one finds highly developed critical taste on the part of the consumer, continuous artistic progress and inevitable acceptance of the principles underlying modern design. Where these forces are either wanting or relatively weak, and this applies in large degree to all our household furnishings, progress is much slower and much more dependent upon the chance of leadership. Inasmuch as a transition epoch from its very nature can produce but few leaders with the ability and vision to interpret the needs and tendencies of their time in forms of beauty, a manifest critical need of this period is for public discrimination as to what is sound and fundamental in contemporary design and what is merely casual and novel. It is still too early to forecast with any certainty the ultimate significance of these developments of the last 30 years, but it is difficult to escape the conclusion that the essential qualities that are increasingly apparent in the best of present day applied art are too much a part of the vital and organic tendencies of modern times to be ephemeral. See ÅRTS AND CRAFTS; ARCHITECTURE, and cognate articles; GLass; GEMS In ArT; POTTERIES AND PORCELAINS, and the bibliographies thereto. (C. R. R.)

MODES, ECCLESIASTICAL.

The scales of early ecclesi-

astical music are not those used in the classical music of modern times. They form a series of eight, differing from one another not merely in pitch but in character. (See HARMONY; PLAINSONG.)

MODESTINUS,

HERENNIUS,

a celebrated

Roman

projecting portion and above the bed-mould

cornice.

(See ORDER.)

MODJESKA,

HELENA

(1844-1909),

of the Corinthian

Polish actres

daughter of a musician, Michael Opido, was born at Cracow an Oct. 12, 1844. After her marriage, to a Pole named Modrzejewski she joined a company of strolling players.

Count Bozenta

Chlapowski,

In 1868 she married

a Polish politician and critic, ang

then began to act at Warsaw, where she remained for seven or eight years. Her chief tragic roles were Ophelia, Juliet, Desde. mona, Queen Anne in Richard II., Louisa Miller, Maria Stuart

Schiller’s Princess Eboli, Marion Delorme, Victor Hugo’s Tishg

and Slowacki’s

Mazeppa.

In comedy

her favourite réles were

Beatrice in Much Ado About Nothing, and Donna Diana in the

Polish translation of an old Spanish play of that name. Madame Modjeska also played in modern pieces by Legouvé, Dumas father and son, Augier, Alfred de Musset, Octave Feuillet and

Sardou. In 1876 she went with her husband to California, where they settled on a ranch. This enterprise was a failure, and Modjeska returned to the stage. She appeared in San Francisco in 1877, in an English version of Adrienne Lecouvreur. She continued to act principally in America, but was also seen from time to time in London and elsewhere in the United Kingdom, her

repertory including several Shakespearian réles and a variety of emotional parts in modern drama. She died on April 9, 1900, at her home near Los Angeles, California. See Mabel Collins, The Story of Helena Modjeska (London, 1883), and = (autobiographical) Memories and Impressions (New York, I9I0)}).

jurist, who flourished about 250 B.c. He appears to have been a MODJESKI, RALPH (1861_+),American engineer, was native of one of the Greek-speaking provinces, probably Dal- born at Cracow, Poland, Jan. 27, 1861, his mother being the acmatia, and was a pupil of Ulpian. In Valentinian’s Lew of tress, Helena Modjeska. He graduated at the Ecole des Ponts et Citations he is classed with Papinian, Paulus, Gaius and Ulpian. Chaussées, Paris, with high honours, and settled in the United He is mentioned in a rescript of Gordian in the year 240 B.c. States. From 1892, he practised as consulting bridge engineer at No fewer than 345 passages in the Digest are taken from his Chicago and as a designer and builder of bridges he did distinwritings. guished work. Among his best known bridges are the Government MODESTO, a city of central California, U.S.A., 90 m. E. by bridge over the Mississippi at Rock Island; the McKinley bridge S. of San Francisco, in the northern end of the San Joaquin val- at St. Louis; the bridges over the Mississippi at Thebes (IL) and ley, on the Tuolumne river; the county seat of Stanislaus county. at Memphis (Tenn.); the Northern Pacific bridge over the MisIt is on the Pacific highway, has a municipal airport and is served souri at Bismarck (N.D.); also bridges over the Columbia and by the Santa Fe, the Southern Pacific and the Western Pacific Willamette rivers in Oregon. He was a member of the Quebec railways, and by auto-stages and motor-truck lines. Pop. (1920) bridge commission, and consulting engineer for the Ohio river 9,241 (88% native white); in 1930 it was 13,842. Modesto is bridge at Metropolis (Ill.), for the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy in the midst of 400,000 ac. of irrigated land, supplied with abun- Railroad, and the Thames river bridge at New Haven (Conn.), dant water and power from the Don Pedro dam, hydro-electric for the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad. He was plant, and storage reservoir in the foot-hills. Dairy and poultry chosen chief engineer and chairman of the board of engineers of products, forage crops, vegetables (notably beans), peaches, the Philadelphia-Camden bridge over the Delaware river, which, grapes, melons and a great variety of other fruits and nuts are on its completion, in 1926, was the longest suspension bridge mn produced in the county to the value of $40,000,000 annually. The the world. He was appointed chief engineer of the proposed bridge city cans 750,000 cases of fruits and vegetables a year, and its co- over the Mississippi river at New Orleans for the Public Belt Railoperative creamery, with a membership of 2,000 dairymen, makes road of New Orleans, also for the bridges over the Atchafalaya 5,000,000 Ib. of butter and 5,000,000 Ib. of skim-milk powder. The river at Melville (La.), for the Texas and Pacific Railway. city’s assessed valuation of property for 1927 was $14,087,865. MODLING is a popular summer resort for the Viennese and Bank clearings in 1927 totalled $136,416,764. Modesto was lies at the entrance to the Briihl valley, Lower Austria. In adplanned in 1870 and incorporated in 1884. In 1893 the.La Grange dition to the numbers of tourists attracted by its iron and sulphur diverting dam on the Tuolumne river was completed, and after baths it has important assets in its considerable iron and metal ten years’ delay, due to litigation, water was turned into the ditches industries and shoe factories. Pop. (1923), 18,695. In 1993, and the transformation of the district from a vast wheatMODOC, a tribe which formed the southern portion of the field to a region of diversified agriculture began. The Don Pedro so-called Lutuami group, the Klamath constituting the northem storage dam was completed in 1923. Between 1900 and 1920 the and larger portion. Between them the two tribes held the Klamath population increased nearly fivefold. Since r9rz the city has had lake basin, and are scarcely distinguishable in speech or customs. a commission form of government. The Klamath were wholly in Oregon, the Modoc partly in Cali-

MODICA, a town of Sicily, in the province of Syracuse, 57 m.

W.S.W. of Syracuse by rail and 33 m. direct. Pop. (1921) 5 5,817 (town); 60,192 (commune). It lies on a hill between two valleys, which was the site of the Sicel town of Motyca, while the modern part of the town extends along the river Mauro, an inundation of

fornia. Modoc means south. In 1873 part of the Modoc attempted to reoccupy lands they had ceded to the Government,

defied the troops, and for three months stood off several com-

panies of soldiers from their refuge in the broken Modoc lava beds.

In the course of negotiations Gen. Canby was murdered

which did much damage in September 1902. Six miles south-east is the valley of the Cava d’Ispica, with hundreds of grottoes cut in its rocky sides, some Sicel tombs; but mostly catacombs or tombs of the early Christian and Byzantine periods, or cave-dwellings of . the, latter age, :

by treachery, for which the Modoc leader, Kintpuash or Captain Jack, and several companions were later hanged. The whole hostile force numbered only 200, including women and children; part of the Modoc and all the Klamath remained peaceable. The

zontal bracket generally occurring in rows under the corona, or

See A. S. Gatschet, The Klamath Indians (1891) ; J. Curtin, Myths of the Modocs (1912).

. SMODILLION, in architecture, the enriched block or hori-

present population of the Modoc and Klamath jointly is 1,100.

MODULATION—MOFADDALIYAT MODULATION,

in music, signifies the passing from one

643

vast labyrinth attached to it was probably his funerary temple.

key to another. The term “transition” is also used, though prin-

This king was afterwards

cipally to designate very brief and transient modulations to keys not dwelt in. Modulation is of various kinds, as “natural” when the change is to one or other of the “relatives” of the original

about the lake under the name Marres (his praenomen Nemarē) or Peremarres, t.e., Pharaoh Marres. In the reign of Ptolemy

key; “extraneous” when it is to keys other than relative, i.e., more remote; or “enharmonic” when it is effected by a change of notation. Modulation constitutes one of the greatest resources of music as we know it and is employed by modern .composers to an ever-increasing extent. (See ENHARMONIC; Kry; HARMONY.) Modulation, as the term is used in radio, is the process whereby the frequency or amplitude of a wave is varied in accordance with

worshipped in more than one locality

Philadelphus veterans from the Syrian War were settled in the

“Lake” (Aiuvn), and the latter quickly became a populous and very fertile province. Strabo’s account of the Lake of Moeris must be copied from earlier writers, for in his day the outflow had been stopped probably for two centuries, and the old bed of the lake was dotted with flourishing villages to a great depth below the level of the Nile. Large numbers of papyri of the Ptolemaic and Roman

periods have been found in and about the Fayûm,

a signal wave. A modulator is a device to effect the process of which continued to flourish through the first two centuries of the modulation. It may be operated by virtue of some non-linear characteristic and also by a controlled variation of some circuit

quantity. MODULE,

in architecture, any unit adopted for measuring

Roman rule. The level of the lake varies from year to year with the amount of irrigation water which reaches it from the Nile. Its average level is now about 147 ft. below sea-level.

the relative proportions of the different parts of a building or decorative form. The term is relative only; the module chosen

See W. M. F. Petrie, Hawara Biahmu and Arsinoe (1889); R. H. Brown, The Fayiim and Lake Moeris (1892); B. P. Grenfell, A. S. Hunt and D. G. Hogarth, Fayiim Towns and their Papyri (1900) ; H. J. C. Beadnell, The Topography and Geology of the Fayiim Province

Vitruvius (iv., 3) for determining the proportions of a classic order

Geog. Journ.

may vary infinitely in actual dimension.

The module chosen by

(g.v.) was half the bottom diameter of a column.

This module

is sub-divided in various ways by different authorities; Vitruvius usually used six sub-divisions; in the later Renaissance, in the effort to obtain the most accurate proportions, the sub-divisions were sometimes increased to as many as 30. A new system of modules has recently

come

into vogue

in all sorts of artistic

criticism, based on the relations of the diagonal of a rectangle to its sides. With scales of relative value so established, it has been claimed that the proportions of many beautiful objects can be determined. This view is much contested and is at the basis of one

of the greatest controversies in current art criticism. The term

module is also applied in hydraulics (qg.v.) to a device for regulating the supply of water from an irrigation channel.

MOERIS, AELIUS, Greek grammarian, surnamed Afticista

(“the Atticist”), probably flourished in the 2nd century a.p. He was the author of an extant list of Attic forms and expressions (Arrixal \é£ers), accompanied by the Hellenistic parallels of his own time, the differences of gender, accent and meaning being clearly and succinctly pointed out. Editions by J. Hudson (1711) ; J. Pierson (1759) ; A. Koch (1830); I. Bekker (1833); with Harpocration.

MOERIS, LAKE

OF, the history of the lake which once

occupied a considerable area of the Faytim depression, and which to-day is represented by the shallow Birket Qarun, has been much elucidated by the geological and archaeological work which has been recently carried out in the desert margin of the depression. From the results obtained it would appear that in later palaeolithic times the lake level reached a point about 130 feet above sea-level, or about 280 feet above the present lake. During

neolithic times the level fell slowly for about 140 feet, though

there were occasional interruptions when it remained at one level long enough to allow formation of beaches which can still be

traced. Throughout this period primitive settlements occupied its shoreline, and down to early dynastic times the level does not seem to have varied greatly. Later however through the dynastic period the level of the lake fell slowly as a result probably of climatic conditions of greater aridity, though the fall was retarded from time to time as the volume of surplus water brought in from the Nile in order to irrigate the cultivated lands was greater or less.

_ The cultivated lands above the level of the lake which were imgated from the Nile were some of the most fertile in Egypt so long as the supply canals from the river were maintained in

good order, though this doubtless varied with the political conditions of Egypt. The Egyptian name of the lake was Shei, “the

lake,” later Pidm, “the sea” (whence Fayfim); Teshei, “the land of the lake,” was the early name

of the region.

At its capital

Crocodilopolis and elsewhere the crocodile god Sobk (Suchus) was Worshipped. Senwosré II. of the XIIth Dynasty built bhis pyramid at Tahun.

Amenemhét

III. built his near

Hawara,

and

the

of Egypt

(Cairo, 1905); G. Caton Thompson (1929).

and E. W. Gardner, (F. Lr. G.)

MOESIA, a district inhabited by a Thracian people, bounded on the south by the mountain ranges of Haemus and Scardus, on the west by the Drinus, on the north by the Danube and on the east by the Euxine. Some, however, place the boundary much farther west. Each was governed by an imperial consular legate and a procurator. It corresponded in the main to modern Serbia and Bulgaria. In 75 B.C., C. Scribonius Curio, proconsul of Macedonia, penetrated as far as the Danube, and gained a victory over the inhabitants, who were finally subdued by M. Licinius Crassus, grandson of the triumvir and also proconsul of Macedonia, during the reign of Augustus c. 29 B.C.; the country, however, was not organized as a province until the last years of the reign. Originally one province, under an imperial legate (who probably also had control of Achaea and Macedonia), it was divided by Domitian into Upper and Lower Moesia, the western and eastern portions respectively, divided from each other by the river Cebrus. As a frontier province, Moesia was strengthened by stations and fortresses erected along the southern bank of the Danube, and a wall was built from Axiopolis to Tomi as a protection against Scythian and Sarmatian inroads. After the abandonment of Dacia (g.v.) to the barbarians by Aurelian (270-275) and the transference of its inhabitants to the south of the Danube, the central portion of Moesia took the name of Dacia Aureliani. The Goths, who had already invaded Moesia in 250, hard pressed by the Huns, again crossed the Danube during the reign of Valens (376), and with his permission settled in Moesia. But quarrels soon took place, and the Goths under Fritigern defeated Valens in a great battle near Adrianople (378). These Goths are known as MoesoGoths, for whom Ulfilas made the Gothic translation of the Bible. In the 7th century Slavs and Bulgarians entered the country and founded the modern kingdoms of Serbia and Bulgaria. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—J. Marquardt, Römische Staatsverwaltung, i, 301 (1881); T. Mommsen, Provinces of the Roman Empire (1886). For ancient authorities, see Orosius, v. 23; Dio Cassius, li. 25, 27.

MOFADDALIYAT,

strictly Muranpativat, an anthology

of ancient Arabic poems, which derives its name from al-Mufaddal, son of Muhammad, son of Ya‘la, a member of the tribe of Dabba, who compiled it some time between A.D. 762 and 784 in the latter of which years he died. Al-Mufaddal was a contemporary of Hammad ar-Rawiya and Khalaf al-Ahmar, the famous collectors of ancient Arab poetry and tradition, and was somewhat the junior of Abi ‘Amr ibn al-‘Alaé, the first scholar who systematically set himself to preserve the poetic literature of the Arabs. He died about fifty years before Abū ‘Ubaida and alAsma‘i, to whose labours posterity is largely indebted for the arrangement, elucidation and criticism of ancient Arabian verse; and his anthology was put together between fifty and sixty years before the compilation by Abii Tammam of the Hamdasa (q.v.). Al-Mufaddal was a careful and trustworthy collector both of texts and traditions, and is praised by all authorities on Arabian

644

MOFADDALIYAT

history and literature as in this respect greatly the superior of Hammad and Khalaf, who are accused (especially the latter) of unscrupulous fabrication of poems in the style of the ancients. He was a native of Kiifa, the northernmost of the two great military colonies founded in 638 by the caliph ‘Omar for the control of the wide Mesopotamian plain. In Kiifa and Basra were gathered representatives of all the Arabian tribes who formed the fighting force of the Islamic Empire, and from these al-Mufaddal was able to collect and record the compositions of the poets who had celebrated the fortunes and exploits of their forefathers. He, no doubt, like al-Asma‘I and Abū ‘Ubaida, also himself visited the areas occupied by the tribes for their camping grounds in the neighbouring desert; and adjacent to Kūfa was al-Hira, the ancient capital of the Lakhmid kings, whose court was the most celebrated centre in pre-Islamic Arabia, where, in the century before the preaching of the Prophet, poets from the whole of the northern half of the peninsula were wont to assemble. The date of al-Mufaddal’s birth is unknown; but he lived for many years under the caliphs of the Omayyad line until their overthrow by the ‘Abbasids in 749. In 762 he took part in the rising led by Ibrahim ibn ‘Abdallah ibn al-Hasan, the ‘Alid, called “The Pure Soul,” against the caliph al-Mansiir, and after the defeat and death of Ibrahim was cast into prison. Al-Mansir, however, pardoned him, and appointed him the instructor in literature of his son, afterwards the caliph al-Mahdi. It was for this prince that, at al-Mansiir’s instigation, al-Mufaddal compiled the Mufaddaltyat. The collection, in its present form, contains 126 pieces of verse, long and short; that is the number included in the recension of alAnbari, who had the text from Abi ‘Ikrima of Dabba, who read it with Ibn al-A‘rabi, the stepson and inheritor of the tradition of al-Mufaddal. We know from the Fikrist of Muhammad an-Nadim (A.D. 988) that in his time 128 pieces were counted in the book i and this number agrees with that contained in the Vienna ms., which gives an additional poem, besides those annotated by alAnbārī, to al-Muraqqish the Elder, and adds at the end a poem

by al-Harith ibn Hilliza. The Fihrist states (p. 68) that some

scholars included more and others fewer poems, while the order of the poems in the several recensions differed; but the correct text, the author says, is that handed down through Ibn al-A‘rabi. It is noticeable that this traditional text, and the accompanying scholia, as represented by al-Anbari’s recension, are wholly due to the scholars of Kiifa, to which place al-Mufaddal himself belonged. The collection is one of the highest importance as a record of the thought and poetic art of Arabia during the time immediately preceding the appearance of the Prophet. Not more than five or six of the 126 poems appear to have been composed by poets who had been born in Islam. The great majority of the authors belonged to the days of “the Ignorance,” and though a

every verse of this poem is cited in illustration of some phrase or meaning of a word in the national lexicons. Only one of the poets of the Mo'allagãt (see MOʻALLAQAT), al-Harith, son of

Hilliza, is represented in the collection. An interesting feature of the work to be noted is the treatment in it of the two Poets of Bakr ibn Wa’il, uncle and nephew, called al-Muraqqish, Who are perhaps the most ancient in the collection. The elder Muraagish was the great-uncle of Tarafa of Bakr, the author of the Mo‘allaga and took part in the long warfare between the sister tribes of Bakr and Taghlib, called the war of Basis, which began about the end

of the 5th century a.p. Al-Mufaddal has included ten pieces (Nos, 45-54) by him in the collection, which are chiefly interesting from an antiquarian point of view. It is probable that the compiler set

down all he could gather of this ancient author, and that his interest in him was chiefly due to his antiquity. Of the younger Muragqish, uncle of Tarafa, there are five pieces (Nos. 55-590). The only other authors of whom more than three poems are cited are Bishr

ibn Abi Khazim of Asad (Nos. 96-99) and Rabi‘a ibn Maarim

of Dabba (Nos. 38, 39, 43 and 113). The Mufaddaliyai differs from the Hamdsa in being a collection

of complete odes (qgasitdas), while the latter is an anthology of brilliant passages specially selected for their interest or effectiveness, all that is prosaic or less striking being pruned away. It is of course not the case that all the poems of al-Mufaddal’s collec. tion are complete. Many are mere fragments, and even in the

longest there are often lacunae; but the compiler evidently set down all that he could collect of'a poem from the memory of the rawis, and did not, like Abi Tammam, choose only the best por-

tions. We are thus presented with a view of the literature of the age which is much more characteristic and comprehensive than

that given by the brilliant poet to whom we owe the Hamasa, and

enables us to form a better judgment on the general level ofpoetic achievement. The Mufaddaliydat is not well represented by mss. in the libraries of the West. There is an imperfect copy of the recension of al-

Marzūqī (died 1030), with his commentary, in the Berlin collection. A very ancient fragment (dated 1080) of al-Anbari’s recension, containing five poems in whole or part, is in the Royal Library at Leipzig. In the British Museum there is a copy made

about a century ago for C. J. Rich at Bagdad of a ms. with brief glosses; and at Vienna there is a modern copy of a ms. of which the original is at Constantinople, the glosses in which are taken from al-Anb&ari, though the author had access also to al-Marziii. In the mosque libraries at Constantinople there are at least five

mss.; and at Cairo there is a modern copy of one of these, containing the whole of al-Anbari’s commentary. In America there are at Yale University a modern copy of the same recension, taken from the same original as the Cairo copy, and a ms. of Persian origin, dated 1657, presenting a text identical with the Vienna codex. In recent years a very interesting ms., probably of the 6th century of the Hegira, but not dated, has come to light. It purports to be the second part of a combination of two anthologies, the Mufaddaliydt of al-Mufaddal and the Asma‘iyat of al-Asma', but contains many more poems than are in either of these collections as found elsewhere. The commentary appears to be eclectic,

certain number (e.g., Mutammim ibn Nuwaira, Rabi‘a ibn Maqrum, ‘Abda ibn at-Tabib and Abii Dhu’aib), born in paganism, accepted Islam, their work bears few marks of the new faith. The ancient virtues—hospitality to the guest and the poor, profuse expenditure of wealth, valour in battle, faithfulness to the cause of the tribe—are the themes of praise ; Wine and the game of drawn partly (perhaps chiefly) from Ibn as-Sikkit (died 858), and matisir, forbidden by Islam, are celebrated by poets who professed partly from Abi-Ja‘far Ahmad ibn ‘Ubaid ibn Nasih, one of althemselves converts; and if there is no mention of the old idolatry, Anbari’s sources and a pupil of Ibn al-A‘rabi; and the compilathere is also little spirituality in the outlook on life. The 126 tion seems to be older in date than al-Anb&ri, since its glosses are Pieces are distributed among 68 poets, and the work represents a often quoted by him without any name being mentioned. This ms. gathering from the compositions of those who were called al- (which is the property of Mr. F. Krenkow of Leicester) appears Muqillün, “authors of whom little has survived,” in contrast to to represent one of the recensions mentioned by Muhammad the famous poets whose works had been collected into diwdns. an-Nadīm in the Fihrist (p. 68), to which reference has been At the same time many of them are extremely celebrated, and made above. among the pieces selected by al-Mufaddal several reach a very In 1885 Professor Heinrich Thorbecke began an edition of the high level of excellence. Such are the two long poems of ‘Alqama text based on the Berlin codex, but only the first fasciculus, conibn “Abada (Nos. r19 and 120), the three odes by Mutammim taining forty-two poems, had appeared when his work was cut ibn Nuwaira (Nos. 9, 67, 68), the splendid poem of Salima ibn short by death. In 1891 the first volume of an edition of the text, Jandal (No. 22), the beautiful xasib of ash-Shanfara (No. 20), with a short commentary taken from al-Anbari, was printed at and the death-song of ‘Abd-Vaghath (No. 30). One of the most Constantinople. In 1906 an edition of the whole text, with short admirable and famous is the last of the series (No. 126), the long glosses taken from al-Anbari’s commentary, was published at elegy by Abū Dhuʻaib of Hudhail on the death of his sons; almost Cairo by Abii Bakr b. ‘Omar Daghistani al-Madani; this follows

MOFFAT—MOGILEV generally the Cairo codex above mentioned, but has profited by the scholarship of Professor Thorbecke’s edition of the first half

of the work. A complete edition of al-Anbari’s text and commentary, with a translation of the poems by Sir C. J. Lyall appeared in 1919.

(C.J)

MOFFAT, ROBERT (1795-1883), Scottish Congregational-

‘st missionary to Africa, was born at Ormiston, Haddingtonshire,

on Dec. 21, 1795, Of humble parentage.

He began as a gardener,

but in 1814 when employed at High Leigh in Cheshire, offered him-

self to the London Missionary Society, and in 1816 was sent out to South Africa.

After spending a year in Namaqua Land, with

the chief Afrikaner, whom he converted, Moffat returned to Cape Town in 1819 and married Mary Smith (1795-1870), the daughter of a former employer. In 1820 Moffat and his wife left the Cape and proceeded to Griqua Town, and ultimately settled at

Kuruman, among the Bechuana tribes living to the west of the Vaal river. Here he worked as a missionary till 1870, when he reluctantly returned finally to his native land. He made frequent journeys into the neighbouring regions as far north as the Matabele country. The results of these journeys he communicated to the Royal Geographical Society (Journal xxv.~xxxviii. and Proceedings ii.), and when in England on furlough (1839-1843) he

published his well-known Missionary Labours and Scenes in South Africa (1842).

He translated the whole of the Bible and The

Pilgrim’s Progress into Sechwana. Moffat was builder, carpenter, smith, gardener, farmer, all in one, and by precept and example he succeeded in turning a horde of bloodthirsty savages into a “people appreciating and cultivating the arts and habits of civilized life, with a written language of their own.” David Livingstone was his son-in-law. He died at Leigh, near Tunbridge Wells, on Aug. 9, 1883. See also LIVINGSTONE, DAVID. See Lives of Robert and Mary Moffat, by J. S. Moffat (1885) ; and C. S. Horne, The Story of the L.M.S. (1894).

MOFFAT,

burgh and parish, Upper Annandale, Dumfries-

shire, Scotland. Pop. (1931), 2,006. It is situated 21 m. N.N.E. of Dumfries and 63 m. by the L.M.S. line from Edinburgh and Glasgow. It has been famous for its sulphur and saline waters since the middle of the 18th century, and is a popular holiday

ON THE DNIESTER

64.5

empire. The harbour is well sheltered from all winds except the south-west, but escape is difficult with the wind from that quarter, as the channel between the town and Mogador Island is narrow and hazardous. Pop. 18,401, of whom 9,836 are Muslims, 7,730 Jews, 835 Europeans.

It is one of the towns of Morocco in whick

Jews are most numerous. Trade reaches 121 millions of francs (imports 59 millions, exports 62 millions). The share of France is 70 millions, that of Great Britain 3: millions, that of the United States 5 millions,

A place called Mogador is marked in the 1351 Portulan of the Laurentian library, and the map in Hondius’s Atlas minor shows the island of Mogador, 7. Domegador; but the origin of the present town is much more recent. Mogador was founded by Mohammed ben Abd Allah in 1760, and completed in 1770. The Portuguese called it after the shrine of Sidi Megdul, which lies towards the south half-way to the village of Diabat, and forms a striking PaaS for seamen. In 1844 the citadel was bombarded by the rench. See A. H. Dyé, “Les Ports du Maroc,” in Bull. Soc. Geog. Comm. Paris (1908), XXX. 313 sqq., and British Consular reports.

MOGILA,

PETER

(c. 1596-1647), metropolitan of Kiev

from 1632, belonged to a noble Wallachian family. He studied for some time at the university of Paris, and became a monk in 1625. He is known as the promoter of the Orthodox Confession, drawn up at his instance by the Abbot Kosslowski of Kiev, approved at a provincial synod in 1640, and accepted by the patriarchs of Constantinople, Jerusalem, Alexandria and Antioch in 1642-1643, and by the synod of Jerusalem in 1672. (See ORTHODOX EASTERN CHURCH.) There are numerous editions of the Confession in Russian; it has been edited in Greek and Latin by Panagiotes (Amsterdam, 1662), by Hofmann (Leipzig, 1695), and by Kimmel (Jena, 1843), and there is a German translation by Frisch (Frankfort, 1727).

MOGILEY, a former government of western Russia now in the Ukrainian S.S.R. (q.v.).

MOGILEV

ON THE DNIEPER, a town of the White

Russian S.S.R., in 53° 55° N., 30° 18” E., on a hilly site on both banks of the river, and on the railway. Pop. (1926) 46,562. It resort. The spa lies a mile to the north of the town, and there has flour mills, a smelting industry, leather and tobacco manufacare also spas at Hartfell (34 m. N.) and Garpel (2 m. S.W.). tures and a brewery, It trades in corn, salt, sugar and fish from Dumcrieff House, 2 m. S.W., the seat of Lord Rollo, was the home the south. It has an ancient Tatar tower, a ryth century church, of Macadam, the road-builder. a cathedral built for the Roman Catholics and one built for the MOFFAT TUNNEL, begun in 1923 and completed in 1928, Greek Orthodox church by Catherine IT. of Russia and Joseph IT. is 62 m. long and pierces the continental divide 50 m. west of of Austria in 1780. Denver, Colo., at an elevation of about 9,200 ft. above sea-level. Mogilev is mentioned in the 14th century as a dependency of The 16’ 24’ tunnel, which provides for a single track standard the Vitebsk, or of the Mstislav] principality. At the beginning of gauge railroad, was driven parallel with and 75 ft. to the north of the 15th century it became the property of the Polish kings. But it an 8’ 8’ water tunnel with which it is connected at about 1,500 ft. was continually plundered—either by Russians, or by Cossacks. intervals by cross cuts. It rises on a grade of 0-3% from the In the 17th century its inhabitants, who belonged to the Orthodox eastern entrance toward the centre and then descends on 0-8% Greek Church, suffered much from the persecutions of the United and 0.9% grades to the western entrance. Greek Church. In 1654 it surrendered to Russia, but in 1661 the The railway tunnel eliminated about 30 m. of 4% grades over Russian garrison was massacred by the inhabitants. In the 18th Rollins’ pass, reduced the maximum grade of the Denver and century the town was taken several times by Russians and by Salt Lake railway from 4% to 2%, and the maximum curvature Swedes, and in 1708 Peter the Great ordered its destruction by from 16% to 12%. About 173 m. of the distance between Denver fire. It was annexed to Russia in 1772. Near here the French and Salt Lake City will eventually be saved. The water tunnel under Davotit defeated the Russians under Bagration on July 23, transports water for municipal and agricultural purposes in and 1812. It was the scene of much strife in the 1917-20 period.

around Denver from the western slope of the divide, and is designed to carry 450,000 gal. per minute. It is estimated that this water will add about 100,000 ac. of productive land to the terri-

tory adjacent to Denver. The tunnel is administered by the Moffat Tunnel Commission, and cost $15,470,000.

MOGADOR

(Es-Sueira), the most southern seaport on the

Atlantic coast of Morocco, in 31° 50’ N., 9° 20’ W., chief town of the contréle. civil of Chiadma. The town stands from ro to 20 ft. above high water on a projecting ridge of calcareous sandstone. In certain states of wind and sea it is turned almost into

an island, and a sea-wall protects the road to Saffi. On the land

side stretch miles of sand-dunes studded with broom, and beyond,

the argan forests, distinctive of southern Morocco. Approached from this side the city bursts on the view like a mirage between

sky and sea. It is the best planned and cleanest town in the

MOGILEV

ON THE DNIESTER

(Mocitev-Popotsx),

a town of the Ukrainian S.S.R., on the left bank of the river in

48° 27’ N., 27° 45’ E. Pop. (1926) 22,271.

The former trade

of the town along the Dniester has been checked by the state of armed neutrality existing at present between Russia and Rumania on the question of Bessarabia. It has several flour-mills, a distillery, a sugar refinery and a chalk factory. Mogilev, named in honour of the Moldavian hospodar Mohila, was founded by

Count Potocki about the end of the 16th century. Owing to its situation on the highway from Moldavia to the Ukraine, at the passage across the Dniester, it developed rapidly. For more: than Iso years its possession was disputed between the Cossacks, the Poles and the Turks. It remained in the hands of the Pọles, and was annexed to Russia in 1795. It suffered much during the war and civil war of 1914-20.

646

MOGUL—MOHAMMED

MOGUL,

MOGHAL,

or MUGHAL, the Arabic and Per- | were introduced into Australia. It seems that Australia may yet

sian form of the word Mongol, applied to the Mohammedan | find the Angora goat an important asset. empire in India, which was founded by Baber. In consequence MOHAMMED ek or MUHAMMAD or MAHO ; T the name is applied to all Mohammedans from the countries on | founder of the religious system called in Europe Mohammedan, the west and north-west of India, except the Pathans. The Great ism, and by himself Islam or Hanifism. He died, according to the Mogul is the name given to the Mogul emperors of Delhi. ordinary synchronism, on June 7, 632 (12 Rabia, ax. II), and MOHÁCS, a Hungarian town on the right bank of the Dan- his birthday was either 63 or 65 years earlier. A member of the ube, acts as a market for the vineyards and agricultural produce tribe Koreish, and son of Abdullah and his wife, Aminah, Mo. of the fertile alluvial lands of the district. It also engages in the hammed is said to have been a posthumous child who, after the working up of flax, hemp and wool, milling and brewing. The early death of his mother, was brought up first by his Wealthy town is famous in history as the site of two fateful battles for grandfather, ‘Abd al-Mottalib, and then by his poorer uncle, the control of the route between the river and the Mecsek moun- Abū Talib. In his youth he seems to have visited the desert t tains. In the first (Aug. 29, 1526), the Turks annihilated the acquire the habits and the language of the Bedouins, and also to Hungarian army but in the second (Aug. 12, 1687), they were have accompanied Meccan traders to Syria and south Arabia, and perhaps to Egypt and Mesopotamia. His career as a Caravan decisively defeated by the Austrians. Pop. (1920) 15,864.

MOHAIR, the hair of a variety of goat originally inhabiting

the regions of Asiatic Turkey of which Angora is the centre, whence the animal is known as the Angora goat. The typical mohair fibre is 7 to 8in. long, very lustrous owing to its physical structure (which although akin to wool is different in that the wool scales are only indicated instead of being fully developed, while the fibre is always solid), say tO shy of an 7 inch in diameter, of a soft elastic handle, and usually of a clear white transparent colour. The staples of which the fleece is formed should be uniform in length and clearly defined, naturally lending themselves to a good “spin”—a difficult attainment in the case of mohair (see WoottEN MANUFACTURE). There are many varieties of mohair, and in Constantinople, the centre of the Turkish mohair trade, a large variety of fleece is recognized. Owing to the demand for raw material exceeding the supply, from 1820 onwards there has been a great deal of crossing of the well bred Angora with the common kind of goat: in fact, it has been said that by 1863 the original Angora had practically disappeared. The growing demand for mohair further resulted in attempts on a commercial scale to introduce the goat into South Africa—where it was crossed with the native goat—the United States, Australia, and later still New Zealand. Perhaps the introduction of the Angora into Australia and New Zealand may in part be due to its value as a scrub and blackberry browser. The manufacture of fabrics from mohair—as in the case of alpaca and cashmere—was in the first instance due to the genius of the rearers of the goat. It would, indeed, be interesting to know if the present day mohair goods—often styled “alpacas”— really had their origin in the earlier products of Asia Minor. That fabrics of mohair were in use in England early in the 18th century

is obvious from Pope’s allusion: —

“And, when she sees her friend in deep despair, Observes how much a chintz exceeds mohair.”

Raw mohair was first exported from Turkey to England about 1820, and from that date onwards marked strides were made in its manufacture into useful yarns and fabrics. England has always had, and still maintains, supremacy in this manufacture. The larger part of both the Turkish and Cape clips is at least convert ed into yarn in Yorkshire mills. Quantities of these yarns are also woven into dress goods, dust cloakings, pile fabrics, imitation furs, etc., in Yorkshire, but even greater quantities of mohair yarn are exported to Russia, Germany, Austria, etc., to be convert ed into

astrakhans, ordinary braids, brush braids, etc. In the first deçade of the zoth century the mohair braid trade received a blow from the introduction of artificial silk. The history of the introduction of the Angora goat from Asia Minor into the other countries mentioned is as follows. In 1838 pure-bred Angoras were introduced into Cape Colony. These purebred goats crossed with the common goat laid. the basis of the Cape flocks. In 1856-57 other importations of pure-br ed goats were made. From 1868 to 1897 further importations were made, but these were not of the pure-bred goat. The introduction of Angoras into the United States took place in 1849. Other importations of goats from Asia Minor were made between 1857 and 1880, and interch

anges of blood also took place between the United States and Cape Colony. Between 1856 and 1875 some

i

PO

z

300 goats

y

ty we

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k

conductor probably terminated with his marriage to Khadija, daughter of Khuwailid, whom tradition represents as a wealthy

widow, 15 years his senior and 40 years of age at the time of the union. After his marriage, Mohammed appears to have been a partner in a shop in Mecca which sold agricultural produce. The Prophet’s Call.— Meanwhile he had acquired a reputation for great practical wisdom, though his education seems to have been only such as was normal in the case of the better families of his community. The word ummi, literally “popular” or “plebeian” (according to one etymology), applied to him in the Koran. is said to mean “one who can neither read nor write,” a supposition which enters into the doctrine of the miraculous

nature of the native of “the probable that At the time

Koran. But the word may mean “Meccan,” ie., Mother of the Villages” (Umm al Qura): and it is he could both read and write, but unskilfully. of his aspiration to become the legislator or mouth-

piece of the Deity, Arabian paganism in the north had gradually come under the Christianizing influence of the Byzantine empire, and in the south had fallen successively under Jewish, Abyssinian and Persian influence. In so far as Mohammed formulated a definite notion of his work, it was probably the restoration of

the religion of Abraham, or (as the Koran calls him) Ibrahim. Though we have no reason for supposing the name of Abraham or Ishmael to have been known in Mecca generally before Mohammed’s time, the biblical ethnology was not apparently questioned by those who were told of it, and there are stories, not necessarily apocryphal, of precursors of Mohammed going abroad in search of the “religion of Abraham.” One ‘feature of that system, associated in the Bible with the name of Ishmael as well, was circumcision, which was actually observed by the Meccan tribes, though with technical differences from the Jewish method; the association of monotheism with it would seem reasonable enough in view of Jewish traditions, such as Mohammed may have heard on his travels; why the doctrine of the future life śhould be coupled with it is less clear. As it was obvious that the claim to be God’s mouthpiece,

whether directly or through the intermediary of the angel Gabriel,

was to claim autocracy, Mohammed employed the utmost caution in his mode of asserting this claim. For.three years his followers were a secret society; and this period appears to have been preceded by one of private preparation, the first revelation being received when the Prophet was in religious retirement—a ceremony called Takannuth, of which the meaning is uncertain, on

Mt. Hira, near Mecca. If the traditional dates assigned to the suras (chapters) of the Koran (g.v.) are correct, the earliest revelations to the Prophet took the form of pages or rolls which were to be read by the “grace of God.” The Prophet was directed to communicate his

mission at first only to his nearest

relatives.

The utterances

were from the first a sort of rhyme, such as is said to have been

employed for solemn matter in general, ¢.g., oracles or prayers.

At an early period the production of a written communication

was abandoned for oral communications, delivered by the Prophet

in trance; their delivery was preceded by copious perspiratio n, for which the Prophet prepared (in accordance with instructions found in thé Koran) by wrapping himself in a blanket. Trusty

followers wrote down these utterances, but the phenomena which

MOHAMMED accompanied their delivery at least in one case suggested imposture to the scribe who apostatized in consequence. It is ex-

647

restore order. Accordingly he exiled himself and his flight ijra (anglicized incorrectly hejira, g.v.), initiated the Mohammedan

fraordinary that there is no reason to suppose that any official

era, July 16, aD. 622.

record was ever kept of these revelations; the Prophet treated

secret propaganda in Yathrib with this end in view.

them somewhat as the Sibyl did her leaves. Certain doctrines and practices (e¢.g., washing of the person and the garments) must have been enjoined from the first, but the doctrines to which the Prophet himself assigned most value seem

to have been the unity of God and the future life. Growth of the Early Community.—Mohammed’s

first

converts were his wife Khadija, his cousin Ali, and Abia Bekr,

a son of Abii Quhafah, his most loyal disciple, and afterwards, his first successor. The early years of his work were marked by secrecy, so that when he made his first appearance as a public reacher some time about 616, he was already the head of a

band of united followers.

First Period of Publicity—Rejecting accounts of Mohammed’s first appearance as a public preacher which are evidently

comments on a text of the Koran, we have reason for supposing that his hand was forced by ardent followers. The astute rulers of the community perceived that the claim made by Mohammed was to be dictator or autocrat; and while this was naturally ridiculed by them, some appear to have been devoted adherents of

the gods or goddesses whom he attacked. Apparently there was a war of words, followed by a resort to diplomacy and then to force; and then a period in which Mohammed’s attention was directed to foreign conversions, resulting in his being offered and

accepting the dictatorship of Yathrib. His increasing success led to serious persecution of his less influential followers, for whom he found a refuge in Axum.

But since such an alliance

was a menace to the existence of the Meccan community, a deputation was sent by the Meccan leaders to demand extradition of the exiles. To frustrate their efforts, Mohammed sent his cousin Ja‘far armed with an exposition of the Prophet’s doctrines afterwards embodied in the Koran as the Sura of Mary (No. XIX.; though with the addition of some anti-Christian matter). The Abyssinian king and his ecclesiastical advisers took the side of Mohammed and his followers, whom they appear to have regarded as persecuted Christians. The want of an Abyssinian chronicle for this period is a serious disadvantage for the study of Islamic origins. The sequel shows that regular correspondence went on between the exiles and those who remained in Mecca, whence the former were retained within the fold. The Meccan leaders, roused to fury by this diplomatic victory, blockaded the Prophet and his followers in the quarter which they occupied; as in other sanctuaries, though blood might not be shed, a culprit might be starved to death. After a time the besieged found the situation intolerable and Mohammed retracted those of his utterances which had most offended the Meccans. A revelation came acknowledging the effectiveness of

the Meccan goddesses as well as Allah, and the Meccans raised the siege. News of the reconciliation reached the Abyssinian exiles and before they could return the dispute had recommenced, because the Prophet had declared the revelation to be a fabrication of the Devil, who, it appears, regularly interpolates In prophetic revelations; such at least is the apology preserved in the Koran, whence the fabricated verses have been expunged. Since our knowledge of this episode (regarded as the most dis‘graceful in the Prophet’s career) is fragmentary, we can only guess that the Prophet’s hand had once more been forced by | the more earnest of his followers, for whom any compromise with paganism was impossible. The exiles went back to Abyssinia; and about this time both Abi Talib and Khadija died, leaving the Prophet unprotected.

He fled to the neighbouring oasis of Taif, where wealthy Mec-

cans had possessions, and opened negotiations with various Meccan magnates for a promise of protection in case of his return. This was at last obtained from one Mot‘im b. ‘Adi. The Flight to Yathrib—Avoided

by the Meccans, he was

glad to accept an invitation from the inhabitants of Yathrib,

afterwards known as al-M edina, Medina, “the City” (z.¢., of the Prophet), to come thither. as dictator, to heal the feud and

The new converts were told to carry on

A trusty

follower of Mohammed, Mus‘ab b. ‘Umair, who resembled him in appearance, was sent to Yathrib to assist in the work.

Although the transactions with the people of Yathrib had been carried on with profound secrecy, the nature of Mohammed’s contract with his new adherents was somehow divulged to the Meccan magnates, and the danger of allowing an implacable enemy to establish himself on the high-road of their northbound caravans flashed upon them. The rule which forbade bloodshed in the sacred city had at last to be suspended; but elaborate

precautions

were

to be taken

whereby

every

tribe

(except Mohammed’s own clan) should have their share in the guilt, which would thus be spread over the whole community fairly. When the committee appointed to perpetrate the crime reached Mohammed’s house, they found that it was too late; Mohammed had already departed, leaving Ali in his bed. Accompanied by Abū Bekr only, Mohammed. took refuge in a cave of Mt. Thaur. The date at which he reached Kuba, on the outskirts of Yathrib, is given as 8 Rabia I., of the year A.H. 1; the fact that he arrived there on the Jewish Day of Atonement gives us the date Sept. 20, 622. Mohammed as Despot of Yathrib.—The safe arrival of

Mohammed

at his destination marks the turning-point in bis

career, which now became one of almost unbroken success; by defeat little less than by victory. His policy appears to have been to bind his followers to himself and then to each other by every possible tie; he instituted brotherhoods between the Refugees and Helpers, which were to count as relationships for legal purposes, and having himself no sons, he contracted numerous marriages partly with the same end in view; e.g., with the infant

daughter of Abū Bekr, Ayesha (‘A’ishah), whose ability he appears to have discerned; and the unamiable Hafsa, daughter of Omar. Of his own daughters three were given to faithful allies, the one by whom his line is supposed to have been continued to our time, Fatima, was reserved for his cousin. Coming in the capacity of the prophet of the Israelitish God, Mohammed at first seems to have courted alliance with the Jews, but finding no possibility of compromising with them on religious questions or of obtaining their loyal support, he seems to have reacted towards pagan-

ism, and after about a year’s residence at Medina the direction of prayer, which till then had been towards Jerusalem, was turned southward to the pagan temple at Mecca. With this change we may perhaps couple the adoption of the name Allah for the Deity. In general any practice taken over from some other sect was modified so as to render the Muslim method absolutely distinct; but on the subject of food Mohammed was satisfied with the regulations of the Council of Jerusalem, recorded in Acts xv., which were observed by few, if any, Christian sects. The prohibition of wine, which was enacted in a.H. 3, is said to have been occasioned by the riotous conduct of one of his followers when under the influence of liquor. As the system spread outside of Medina both conversion to Islam and persistence therein were reduced to simple tests; the pronunciation of the double formula of belief in Allah and Mohammed was sufficient to indicate conversion, whilst payment of an income-tax was evidence of loyalty. The Campaigns of Mohammed.—tThe industries in which the Meccan refugees had been engaged were not of a sort which they could exercise at Medina, and hence a fresh source of revenue was sought in the attacking of Meccan caravans. After a year of futile attempts, Mohammed resolved to send an expedition to attack a caravan at the beginning of the sacred month of Rajab, a season when raiding was unknown among the Arabs. The violation of the sacred month seems to have caused considerable scandal in Arabia, but led to no serious consequence; on the other hand the shedding of blood created a feud between the Meccans and the refugees, whom they declined to identify with the people of Medina. Some months later another attack for which the Prophet had organized a party of some 300 men

648

MOHAMMED

led to the battle of Badr (Ramadan 10, a.H. 2, usually made to tory and miracles nor the validity of the Mosaic legislation does synchronize with March 17, 624) in which the Meccans number- he appear to have cast any doubt. He even allows that Israel ing about a thousand were badly defeated. The day is called in was the chosen people. The Gospel was known to him chiefly the Koran by a Syriac expression the “Day of Deliverance,” through apocryphal and heretical sources, which cannot certainly and both for internal and external politics was of incalculable be identifed; but he accepted the doctrine of the Virgin-birth advantage to Islam, whilst Mohammed in the popularity acquired the miracles of healing the sick and raising the dead, and the by his victory was able to strike forcibly at his enemies in Medina. ascension; the crucifixion and resurrection were Clearly denied The defeat at Badr naturally led to efforts on the part of the by the sect from whom he had received his information, and Meccans to avenge their dead and besides to secure the com- rejected by him, though certainly not because of any miracle merce by which they lived, from an enemy who was gradually which the latter involved. His quarrel with the Jews at Medina getting all the seaboard that lay between Jeddah and Yanbo appears to have been by no means of his own seeking, but to within his sphere of influence; and the year after Badr (A.n. 3), have arisen unavoidably, owing to his particular view of his office when Abi Sofian led a force of some 3,000 men against Medina being such as they could not accept. When he discovered their itself, part of it was under Khalid b. al-Walid, one of the greatest military incompetence he appears to have been unable to resist of Arab captains, afterwards conqueror of Syria. A battle was the temptation to appropriate their goods; and his attack on the fought under Mt. Uhud (or Ohod), north-west of Medina, wherein flourishing Jewish settlement of Khaibar appears to have been Mohammed’s forces were defeated. The Meccans considering designed to satisfy his discontented adherents by an accession their task finished when they had killed as many as those who of plunder. Yet the consciousness that his process was economihad fallen at Badr on their own side, instead of pursuing their cally wasteful suggested to him an idea which Islamic States victory went home. Two years later, they, with their allies, are only now abandoning, viz., that of a tolerated caste who the tribes Fazarah, Asad, Murrah, etc., to the number, it is said, should till the soil and provide sustenance for the Believers , of 10,000, attempted to stamp out Islam, but Mohammed resorted who were to be the fighting caste. Whereas then his former to the expedient of defending his city by a trench and employed plan in dealing with Israelites had been to banish or massacre, agents to sow dissension among the confederates. After a brief he now left the former owners of Khaibar (who had survived stay and scarcely striking a blow, the confederacy dispersed. the capture of the place) in full possession of the soil, of whose The next year (A.n. 6), Mohammed made a truce with the produce they were to pay a fixed proportion to the Islamic Meccans (the truce of Hodaibiyah), whereby he secured for his State. followers the right of performing the pilgrimage in the following Disputes with Christians occur somewhat later in the Prophet's year. The performance of the pilgrimage (a.H. 7), not only won career than those with the Jews. Mohammed’s manifesto to the important converts in the persons of Khalid and the no less world, about the time of the taking of Khaibar, appears to repreable ‘Amr b. al-‘As, but in general impressed the population with sent his definite breach with Christianity; and when in the “year the idea that Mohammed was winning. An excuse was easily of the embassies” the Christians of Najran sent a deputation to found for invading Mecca itself in the following year and the him, they found that the breach between the two systems was city surrendered with little resistance. The Medinese, however, not to be healed. Of the three alternatives open to them— prevailed upon the Prophet to maintain their city as his political conversion, internecine war, and tribute—they chose the last, capital, while making Mecca the religious centre of his system. and the Prophet’s attitude towards them became less hostile than In the following year all Arabs who were not yet converted were towards the Jews. given four months’ grace before force was to be brought to bear Mohammed’s Administrations and Reforms.—The finanupon them. In the succeeding year Mohammed himself con- cial requirements of Mohammed’s state were of the simplest ducted the pilgrimage, and delivered the important proclama- kind, for there is no trace of any governmental department havtion wherein he declared that God had completed their religion. ing been instituted by him. As despot of Medina he combined The principle insisted upon was the brotherhood of Islam; but the functions of legislator, administrator, general and judge; there is difficulty in enucleating the original sermon from later his duties in the last three capacities were occasionall y deleadditions. gated to others, as when he appointed a governor of Medina It would seem that at first Mohammed thought of himself as during his absence, or leaders for expeditions. The newly consent to his fellow-citizens only, but at the battle of Badr he verted communities he left to manage their internal affairs as appears to have formulated the rule that no one might fight on before, only sending occasional envoys to discharge special duties, his side who had not embraced Islam; and when once he had especially instruction in the Koran and the principles of Islam won fame as a successful campaigner, those who wished to share and to collect the Alms: quite towards the end of his life he his adventures had to pass the Islamic test. After the taking of appears to have sent persons to the provinces to act as judges. Mecca, paganism in general was conscious of being attacked; and What afterwards proved the main source of revenue in Islamic the city had scarcely been brought under the new régime before States dates from the taking of Khaibar; for the rent paid to the Prophet had to face a confederation of tribes called Hawazin the State by tolerated communities for the right to work their and Thaqif. The battle which ensued, known as the Day of land developed long after Mohammed’s time into a poll-tax for Honain, was a narrow victory for Islam. Emissaries were now Unbelievers (see CALIPHATE, and MOHAMMEDAN INSTITUTIONS), sent out to destroy idols, and only Taif appears to have made and a land-tax for all owners of land. Of the Prophet’s reforms any considerable resistance; against this place the Prophet first the three most important were his attempt to break down the made use of siege artillery, and afterwards took it by capitulation. blood-feud or system of tribal responsibility for homicide, whereby Although the central portions of the peninsula were practically one death regularly led to protracted wars; his abolition ofindependent, large portions of the north-west and south-east ‘were infanticide, which is condemned even in early Suras of the Koran; provinces of the Byzantine and Persian empires respectively, and, if tradition be right, the granting to women of the right to' whence any scheme for the conquest of Arabia would necessarily inherit property. The “Condition of Islam” whereby adultery was involve war with these great powers. In the year A.W. 7, on the forbidden is said to have been ridiculed at the time, on the eve of the taking of Mecca, the Prophet sent missives to all ground that this practice had never been approved. Against these known sovereigns and potentates, promising them safety if they services we must set the abrogation of some valuable practices. embraced Islam. The text of these letters, which only varied in His unfortunate essay in astronomy, whereby a calendar of twelve the name of the person addressed, is preserved (doubtless faith- lunar months, bearing no relation to the seasons, was introduced, fully) by the

Muslim Oral Tradition. At the time of his death he was in any case a retrograde step. He also permitted himself a

was organizing an expedition against Syria. _ The Jewish and Christian Communities.—The Prophet claimed throughout that his revelation confirmed the Jewish and Christian Scriptures, and on neither the truth of the Biblical his-

slight amount of bloodshed in Mecca itself, and that city perhaps never quite recovered its sacrosanct character. Of more serious consequences for the development of the community was his

encouragement of the shedding of kindred blood in the ‘cause

MOHAMMED V.—MOHAMMED AHMED IBN SEYYID ABDULLAH of Islam; his assassinations of enemies were afterwards quoted

as precedents.

No less unfortunate was the recognition of the

principle whereby atonement could be made for oaths.

domestic Prophets Life.—The Domestic Mohammed’s troubles, to which an unreasonable amount of space seems to be devoted, even in the Koran, began after the Migration, when,

probably for political reasons, he instituted a royal harem.

One

of these political motives was the principle which long survived,

that the conquest of a state was

consummated

by possession

of the former monarch’s wife or daughter; another, as had been seen, the desire to obtain the securest possible hold on his ministers. Of the members of this harem the only prominent one is ‘A’isha, married to the Prophet shortly after the Flight, when she had scarcely passed the period of infancy, but who

appears to have been gifted with astuteness and ambition that

were quite beyond her years, and who maintained her ascendancy

over the Prophet in spite of the fact that many carping criticisms

of his revelations are attributed to her. In her arms apparently he died, and on her statements we have to rely for what we know

of his last hours. The traditional description of Mohammed is “of middle height,

greyish, with hair that was neither straight nor curly; with a

large head, large eyes, heavy eyelashes, reddish tint in the eyes, thick-bearded, broad-shouldered, with thick hands and feet.” He was in the habit of giving violent expression to the emotions of

anger and mirth, and during his last years exhibited great physical and intellectual activity. Chronological Table of Chief Events in the Life of Mohammed'. 70. Birth. zog. Marriage with Khadija. 610. Commencement of Call. 613. Public Appearance. 616. Persian conquest of the nearer East. ? 617. Flight of his followers to Abyssinia. ? 618-619. Siege in Mecca. Retractation and subsequent repudiation. Death of Abii Talib and Khadija. ? 620. Flight to Taif. 622. July 16. Beginning of the Muslim era. 622. Sept. 20. Arrival at Kuba after the Flight. 632. Jan. 27. Death of his son Ibrahim. June 7. Death of Mohammed.

Family of Mohammed!.—Wives:—*Khadija (Children:— Qasim; ? ‘Abd Manaf [Tahir, Tayyib]); *Zaimad m. Abu‘l-‘As b. Rabi, d. a.m. 7; *Rugayyak, m. ‘Othman b. ‘Affan, d. an. 2; *Umm Kulthiim m. ‘Othman b. ‘Affan, d. A.H. 9; *Fāțimah, m. ‘Ali, d. a.

11; Saudah

bint Zam‘ah.

? d. AH.

54, * A'ishah

(Ayesha) bint Abi Bekr (d. aH. 56), *Hafsa bint ‘Omar (d. A.H. 45 or 47), Zainab bint Khuzaimah d. before A.H. I1, *Zainab bint Jahsh, d. A.H. 20, *Umm Salimah, d. aw. 59, *Matmiunah, d. A.H. 38, *Juwairiyak, d. Aw. 56, "Umm Habibah Ramlah bint Abı Sofiän, d. A.H. 44. Concubines:—*Safiyyah bint Huyyay, d. aH. 36, *Raihanah bint Zaid, *Māriyah the Copt. d. A.H. 15 or 16, mother of Ibrabim.

(Other names given by Ibn Sa‘d, vol. viii.)

Sources.—The literary matter ascribed to the Prophet consists

of (1) the Koran (g.v.); (2) certain contracts, letters and re-

scripts preserved by his biographers; (3) a number of sayings on a vast variety of topics, collected by traditionalists. The references in the Koran to a form of literature called “Wisdom” (hikmah) suggest that even in the Prophet’s time attempts had been made to preserve some of the last; the general uncertainty of oral tradition and the length of time which elapsed before any

critical treatment of it was attempted, and the variety of causes which led to the wilful fabrication of prophetic utterances, render the use to which No. 3 can be put very limited. It is very much

to be regretted that the number of piéces justificatives (No. 2)

quoted by the biographers is so small, and that for these oral tradition was preferred to a search for the actual documents, some of which may well have been in existence when the earliest biog-

raphies were written. Besides these contemporary documents many events were celebrated by poets, whose verses were ostensibly ‘Dates are given A.H.

.* is prefixed to names which figure on

historical. Female names are in italics.

occasions that seem to be

649

incorporated in the standard biography of Ibn Ishaq; but in the abridgment of that biography which we possess many of these are obelized as spurious, the diwan (or collection of poems) attributed to Hassan b. Thabit, however, is ordinarily regarded as authentic. Though they rarely give detailed descriptions of events, their attestation is at times of value, e.g., for the story that the bodies of the slain at Badr were cast by the Prophet into a pit. Besides this, the narratives of eye-witnesses of important events, or of those who had actually taken part in them, were eagerly sought by the second generation, and some of these were committed to writing well before the end of the rst century. The procedure whereby the original dates of the events (so far as they were remembered ) were translated into the Muslim calendar—for something of this sort must have been done—is unknown, and is unlikely to have been scientific. BrsriocrarHy.—The biography of Ibn Ishaq had circulated long before the two chief causes for the falsification of tradition had begun to have serious effects; these were the need for legal precedents, and the concept of saintliness, which gave rise to the classical works on the Evidences of Mohammed’s Mission by Abii Nu‘aim (d. A.D. 1012—r3) and Baihaqi (d. A.D. 1066). Lives of the Prophet (t indicates that the work is lost) : +Urwah b. Zubair (d. 712-713); Musa b. ‘Ukbah (d. 758-759); +Mohammed b. Ishaq (d. 768); Mohammed b. Hisham (d. 828-829), ed. Wiistenfeld (Göttingen, 1860); reprinted in Egypt by Zubair Pasha, a series of excerpts from the last; Mohammed b. Omar al-Waqidi (d. 823), portion published by Kremer (Calcutta, 1855), abridged trans. of a fuller copy by Wellhausen, Muhammad in Medina (Berlin, 1882); Mohammed b. Sa‘d (d. 844-845), an encyclopaedic work on the history of Mohammed and his followers, called Tabagat, ed. Sachau and others (Berlin, 1904-12, incomplete) ; Mohammed b. Jarir al-Tabari (see Tasart). Other writers are enumerated in the Fihrist, cf. Sprenger’s Leben Muhammads, iii. Modern Authorities: The critical study of Mohammed begins in Europe with the publication by Th. Gagnier in 1723 of the Life by Abulfeda (qg.v.). Presently there appeared an apologetic biography by Henri Cmte. de Boulainvilliers (2nd ed., Amsterdam, 1731), to which Gagnier replied in 1732 (La Vie de Mahomet, traduite, etc., ibid.). Then came the biography of G. Weil (Muhammed der Prophet, Stuttgart, 1843), without religious bias; the popular life by Washington Irving (London, 1849) is based on this. That by J. L. Merrick (The Life and Religion of Mohammed, Boston, 1850) rests on Shi'ite sources. The search for mss. in India conducted by A. Sprenger led to the discovery of fresh material, which was utilized by Sprenger himself in his unfinished Life of Mohammed (Pt. 1, Allahabad, 1851), and his more elaborate Das Leben und die Lehre des Mohammed (1861-65), and by Sir William Muir in his Life of Mahomet (London 1858-61), 4 vols.: afterwards abridged in one volume and reprinted. The biography by S. W. Koelle, M ohammed and Mohammedanism (1889), is pro-Christian, the popular work of Syed Ameer Ali, The Spirit of Islam (1896), an apology for Mohammedanism. The more notable later works include H. Grimme’s Mohammed (Münster, 1892, and Munich, 1904) ; F. Buhl’s Mohammeds Liv (Copenhagen, 1903—Danish; since translated into German) ; A. N. Wollaston’s Muhammad, His Life and Doctrines (1904); D. S. Margoliouth, Mohammed and the Rise of Islam (NY. 1905, etc.) ; Prince Caetani, Annali del? Islam, i., ii. (Milan, 1905-07); and J. T. Andrae, Die Person Muhammeds in Lehre und Glauben seiner Gemeinde (Stockholm, 1917). See further CALIPHATE, ab. init.; Koran; MoHAMMEDAN INSTITUTIONS; MoHAMMEDAN LAw; MOHAMMEDAN RELIGION ; MECCA. i (D. S. Ma.; X.)

MOHAMMED V. (1844-1918), Sultan of Turkey, was born

at Topqapu on Nov. 3, 1844, a younger son of the Sultan Abdul Majid (1823-1861). He led a quiet and retiring life, and suffered at times considerably from the jealousy and suspicion of his elder brother, the Sultan Abdul Hamid IJ. On the deposition of

Abdul Hamid he was invested as caliph (May 10, 1909). He was, for the most part, merely a tool in the hands of the Com-

to mittee of Union and Progress and, though he was supposed unable was he Pasha, Enver of dislike the pro-German policy on to take any effective steps to oppose him. He died at Yildiz d-Din Vahid-e brother his by d succeede July 3, 1918, and was sultan (1861-1926) as Monammen VI. Mohammed VI., the last battleBritish a on 1922, 17, Nov. inople Constant of Turkey, left ship, was declared deposed Nov. 23, and died in exile. MOHAMMED AHMED IBN SEYYID ABDULLAH born (1848-1885), Sudanese tyrant, known as “the Mahdi,” was d claime ilders, boat-bu t excellen as known family, His . Dongola in father His . Prophet the of ants descend to be Ashraf (or Sherifs), was a fiki or religious teacher, and Mohammed Ahmed devoted

MOHAMMED

650

ALI

himself to religious studies. He went to live on Abba Island on the White Nile about 150 m. above Khartum; many dervishes

pasha turned his attention southward to the vast country watered

gathered round the young sheik, whose reputation for sanctity speedily grew. He travelled secretly through Kordofan, where

his arms; in 1823 he laid the foundations of Khartum. By this time Mohammed Ali was the possessor of a powerful fleet and of an army of veterans disciplined by European officers, To obtain these money had been necessary; and in order to raise money the pasha instituted internal “reforms”’—a bizarre System of state monopolies and showy experiments in new native industries (see Ecypt: History). The viciousness of these ex-

(with ample justification) he denounced to the villagers the extortion of. the tax-gatherer and told of the coming of the mahdi who should deliver them from the oppressor. In May 1881 a certain Abu Saud, a notorious scoundrel, was sent to Abba Island to bring the sheik to Khartum. Abu Saud’s mission failed, and Mohammed Ahmed no longer hesitated to call himself Al-Mahdi al Montasir. “The Expected Guide.” In August he defeated another force sent to Abba Island to arrest him, but thereafter deemed it prudent to retire to Jebel Gedir, in the Nuba country south of Kordofan, where he was soon at the head of a powerful force; and 6,000 Egyptian troops under Yusef Pasha, advancing from Fashoda, were nearly annihilated by him in June 1882. By the end of 1882 the whole of the Sudan south of Khartum was in rebellion, with the exception of the Bahr-el-Ghazal and the Equatorial Provinces. In January 1883 El Obeid, the capital of Kordofan, was captured. In the November following Hicks Pasha’s force of 10,000 men was destroyed at Kashgil, and in the same year the mahdi’s lieutenant, Osman Digna, raised the tribes in the eastern Sudan, and besieged Sinkat and Tokar, near Suakin, routing General Valentine Baker’s force of 2,500 men at El Teb in February 1884. The operations undertaken by Great Britain in face of this state of affairs are narrated under Ecypt: Military

Operations.

It need only be added that General Gordon (g.v.)

was besieged at Khartum by the mahdi and was killed there when the town was captured by the mahdists on the 25th~26th of January 1885. The mahdi himself died at Omdurman on June 22, 1885, and was succeeded by his khalifa Abdullah.

by the Upper Nile. In 1820 the oasis of Siwa was subdued by

pedients was, however, only gradually revealed, and Mohammed

Ali seemed at once the most enlightened and the most powerful

of the sultan’s valis. To Mahmud II., whose whole policy was directed to strengthening the central power, this fact would have sufficed to make him distrust the pasha and desire his overthrow: and it was sorely against his will that in 1822, the ill-succesg of

his arms

against the insurgent

Greeks

forced him to summon

Mohammed Ali to his aid. The immediate price was the pashalik of Crete; in the event of the victory of the Egyptian arms the pashaliks of Syria and Damascus were to fall to Mohammed Ali, that of the Morea to his son Ibrahim. The part played by Mo-

hammed Ali in the Greek War is described elsewhere (see Eastern Question, TURKEY:

History;

GREECE:

History;

GREEK Inpp-

PENDENCE, WAR OF; IBRAHIM). The intervention of the Powers,

culminating in the shattering of the Egyptian fleet at Navarino (g.v.), robbed him of his reward so far as Greece was concerned; the failure of his arms in spite of this intervention gave Sultan Mahmud

the excuse he desired for withholding the rest of the

stipulated price of his assistance. This disappointment would not perhaps in itself have sufficed to stir Mohammed Ali to revolt; but-it was ominous of perils to come, which he thought it wise to forestall. In the spring of See Mahdiism and the Egyptian Sudan by F. R. Wingate (1891) ; 183r two pashas, Hussein of Bosnia and Mustafa of Scutari, Ten Years Captivity in the Mahd?s Camp (1882—92) from the MS. of Father Joseph Ohrwalder by F. R. Wingate (1892) and Fire and had succumbed to the sultan’s arms; and, since he was surrounded and counselled by the personal enemies of the pasha of Egypt, it Sword in the Sudan (1879~95) by Slatin Pasha. was likely that, so soon as he should feel himself strong enough, MOHAMMED ALI (1769-1849), founder of the present he would deal in like manner with Mohammed Ali. It was to anroyal house of Egypt, born at Kavala, a small seaport on the ticipate this peril that Mohammed Ali determined himself to frontier of Thrace and Macedonia. His father, an Albanian, was open the struggle. On Nov. 1, 1831, his troops crossed into Syria. an aga, a small yeoman farmer, and he himself began life as a Wild rumours went abroad as to his intentions. He was master petty official and trader in tobacco. In 1798 he became second in of the holy cities, and the official Moniteur Ottoman denounced

command of a regiment of bashi-bazouks, or volunteers, recruited to serve against Napoleon in Egypt. He took part in the battle of Aboukir (July 25, 1799), was driven into the sea with the Turks, and was saved from drowning by the gig of the British admiral. In 1801 he returned to Egypt, in command of his regi-

ment, and on May 9g distinguished himself at the battle of Rah-

manieh.

In the years that followed, Mohammed Ali, leader of a

compact body of Albanian clansmen, was in the best position to profit by the struggle for power between the Mamelukes and the

representatives of the Porte. In 1803 he cast in his lot with the former; in 1804 he turned against them and proclaimed his loyalty to the sultan; in 1805, the sheiks of Cairo, in the hope of putting a stop to the intolerable anarchy, elected him pasha, and

a year later an imperial firman confirmed their choice. The disastrous British expedition of 1807 followed; and while at Constantinople the prestige of the sultan was being undermined by the series of revolutions which in 1808 brought Mahmud IT. to the throne, that of Mohammed Ali was enhanced by the exhibition

at Cairo of British prisoners and an avenue of stakes decorated with the heads of British slain. In spite of his chance victories, however, he was too shrewd not to see the superiority of European methods of warfare; and as the first step towards the empire of which he dreamed he determined to create an army and a fleet on the European model. In 1808 the creation of the navy was begun with the aid of French officers and engineers. In 1811 the massacre of the Mamelukes

left Mohammed Ali without a rival in Egypt, while the foundations _ OF his enipire beyond were laid’ by the war against the Wahhabis and the conquest of the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. The

Wabhabi War indeed dragged on till 1818, when Ibrahim (q.v.), the pasha’s son, who in 1816 had driven the remnant of the Mamelukes

into Nubia, brought it to an end.

This done, the

his supposed plan of aiming at the caliphate in collusion with the sherif of Mecca. As for the pasha himself, he loudly disclaimed any such disloyal pretensions; his aim was to chastise Abdulla, pasha of Acre, who had harboured refugees from his “reforms”: to overthrow Khusrev, who had encouraged him in his refusal to surrender them; to secure the fulfilment of the sultan’s promise with regard to Syria and Damascus. Mahmud, on the other hand, was torn between hatred of the pasha and hatred of the Christian Powers which had forced him to make concessions to the Greeks. Voices urged him to come to terms with Mohammed Ali, secure peace in Islam, and turn a united face of defiance against Europe; and for a while he harboured the idea. In the end, however, his

pride prevailed; in April 1832 the Turkish commander-in-chief

Hussein Pasha left Constantinople for the front; and in May the ban of outlawry was launched against Mohammed Ali.

The events which followed during the next ten years, and their

effect on the international situation belong to the history of the Eastern Question (g.v.). So far as Mohammed Ali’s own fortunes were concerned, the Convention of Kutayah (April 8, 1833), which closed his first successful war with the Porte, gave him the

objects of his immediate ambition; and, though still nominally

only the sultan’s representative, he ruled an empire stretching from Khartum to the borders of Anatolia. Had he been as wise as a ruler as he was astute as a diplomatist, he might have con-

solidated his power. But the peoples who had welcomed him as a deliverer soon found his yoke more intolerable than that of the Turk; the Syrians broke into revolt in 1834, and four years later it was an insurrection of the Arabs of the Hauran which served as the pretext for the war which Sultan Mahmud opened

against him. Again the Egyptian arms were victorious, but the

intervention of the Powers robbed Mohammed Ali not only of the spoils of his most recent victories, but also of those secured in

MOHAMMEDAN

ARCHITECTURE

651

the hall of the mosque is prefaced, as also in the East, by a courtyard surrounded by a colonnade; it contains water-basins in which the faithful could perform their ablutions in preparation for a lofty quadrangular tower, receding in the last third in 1841. With this Mohammed Ali passes from the stage of his- prayer, and serves as minaret. Farther on the first nave rises height, its of for and way; give to soon was mind tory. He was an old man; his and that part of it which lies opposite the others, the above power of some time before his death on Aug. 2, 1849, the reins lodge (magqsira), is crowned with a chieftain’s the were held by his son and successor Ibrahim. See Cambridge mihraéb, with that point another longitudinal nave, also higher from cupola; xvii. ch. Modern History, vol. x., the rest, runs to the front of the courtyard, where a second MOHAMMEDAN ARCHITECTURE. When in a vic- than space forms a kind of portal. The immense mosque of domed the subdued ed Mohamm of torious advance the Arab followers (8th to roth century) illustrates this type in its perCórdoba ByzanTurks, aid civilized nations of Asia and Africa, Persians, arches of alternate brick-red and white keyHorseshoe fection. tines, Syrians and Copts, their own civilization was not yet much pillars, and above them rose a second slender on rested stones neighthe of those on t dependen developed and in many respects the same composition, supporting the of arches round of storey God, one the houring countries; but the greater was their faith in In the magsura, richly-decorated lobar ceiling. cedarwood inimical to every kind of idolatry. The architecture of the Mo- original the horseshoe arches, ran above the between intercalated arches, those of members by created hammedan world, therefore, was arcade, and ultimately continued the blind a form to as so mihrab themoverthrown peoples who were clients of the Arabs or had into the octagon, where the dome up magsūra the of selves turned Muslim, and the characteristic Mohammedan style wall-square of arches. The mihrãb quadrangles intersecting two from sprang civilizaunitary the in that of architecture originated in the fact , but elseglass-mosaic Byzantine with adorned still was itself Hon of Islam the earlier styles, till then kept separate by national the stucco by superseded was decoration of where this form antipathies, were fused into a new oneness. on the minbar and carvings rich the like borrowed, arabesque— buildic aristocrat In the Mohammedan world ecclesiastical and the faïence tiling on the mihrãīb at Qairuan, from the ‘Abbasid ings, such as mosques, monasteries, mausoleums, palaces and art of the East. This plan, with its slender stone pillars, horseknown is ure architect ass castles, greatly predominate. Middle-cl shoe and lobar arches, tiling and stucco arabesques, in later cenmost the is only from a few excavations. The mosque (masjid) turies was carried on into a graceful style, a kind of Maghrebine sriginal creation of the Mohammedan genius, and the most comand remains the distinctive characteristic of all Moorish rococo of means best the offers it monly encountered; consequently art in Spain till the 16th century, in Morocco and— Mudejar and nonstudying the development of architectural style. Both the of Ottoman elements—in Algiers and Tunis admixture an Christian places of worship and the Christian churches, with their with the to down present day. too were like, the or altar concentration on a holy-of-holies, ‘Abbasid Style—The new dynasty of the ‘Abbasid caliphs, reminiscent of image-worship or idolatry. Mohammed therefore founded Baghdad (762) and also Samarra (836), drew took a simple assembly-room (musalla), with a flat roof supported which support from the Arabs of Mesopotamia and the Perchief its niche a prayer; on pillars, as the place for the public Friday Khorasan, and later from Persianized Turkish merceof sians resembling a door (mihrab) showed the direction (towards Mecca) those countries, however, since the days of the in which the congregation had to prostrate themselves when pray- naries. In and Persian civilizations, building had been done n Babylonia leader and ing, while a pulpit (minbar) was used by the preacher with bricks that were merely air-dried; these were often in prayer, and a superstructure on the roof (minaret) by the sum- mainly coloured glazed bricks of the same nature (Assur, moner to prayer. The first mosques in the great camps in Mesopo- covered with Moreover, on account of the shortage of buildSusa). Babylon, on also tamia, Syria and Egypt, such as Kufa and Old Cairo, were ashlar, the vaulted style throve exceedingly, large and this plan, but on an immense scale, and in many cases the nave was ing-timber the pointed arch, the ogee arch, and the of form the taking come could faithful the that so ll, drawn parallel to the mihrab-wa led up to at the angles of the walls tambour, circular a on dome to prayer in the same ranked formation in which they went forth ults). As, however, the dis(trompe-va vaults conical š by small to battle against the unbelievers. strictly limited by the neceswas spaces available the of position seda embraced victors Beduin ‘Omayyad Style—When the the vault, the shape of the of thrust the ng equilibrati of sity entary life in the conquered lands of civilization, the Spartan and this had to be corrected irregular, very be to communism that had prevailed gave way to private economy and building tended the ‘Abbasid period; e.g., of mosques the In façades. sham by rewere period luxury, and the wooden mosques of the earlier Samarra, the Ibn Tūlūn at Dilif Abii the and Mosque great the placed by magnificent structures of stone. Tt is true that in the plan previously etc., Raqaa, of mosque the Damascus, the capital, the church of St. John erected by the mosque at Cairo, were replaced by thick pillars the but followed, was customary as used and over Byzantine emperor Justinian was simply taken false pillars at the angles, joined together by the chief mosque, while in Jerusalem the church of St. Mary columns with small first named mosque did not yet possess became the Aqsa mosque, and so in other instances; but over the pointed arches, but the between them, framed by moulded wall of panels The arches. have to rock at Jerusalem from which the angel Gabriel was said by similar, but smaller, arched discharged were friezes, carried the prophet through the heavens in a dream, an octagonal stucco’ between the windows in the crenelintervals the were as windows, and Byzantine (see style Byzantine domed building mostly in the to the small supporting power of the Romanesque Architecture), the Dome of the Rock, was erected, lated outer walls. Owing and were ascended by a spiral massive, were minarets with the smaller Qubbat-as-Silsila beside it. Except in such in- bricks, the staircase. and stone, by replaced were walls clay stances, however, existing Perso-Turkish Style—On the downfall of the ‘Abbasid wooden pillars by stone columns; examples may still be seen in the of the caliphate and its supersession, first by Turkish “mayors ‘Amr mosque (erected in 642, rebuilt in 827 and 1329) and the palace,” dynasties in Egypt and Turkish ent independ by then of ruins the from taken were al-Azhar in Old Cairo. The columns Asia Minor and Persia, India and Turkestan, Roman temples and Christian churches, but later the Mohamme- Syria, Mesopotamia,ural styles were entirely supplanted by the dans themselves imitated their acanthus capitals and joined them the older architect g vaulted style, except in north Africa. Rapidly increasin with round arches; the walls were ornamented with marble tablets, Persian no longer had mosques the ns, foundatio pious through and with inscriptions and foliate work in Byzantine glass-mosaic. in number a new, purely Persian type, Moorish Style in Spain and North Africa.—After the fall to shelter such large congregations, and n with a theological colconnectio in ed establish always —nearly East, the of the Omayyads (A.D. 750), this style disappeared from In this style the courtfavour. chief )—gained but in the West, where in 756 the ‘Omayyad ‘Abd-ar-Rahman lege (Madrasa is surrounded: not by prayer, for also for ablutions but founded a-kingdom of his own, it soon began to develop on sepa- yard, used behind which'lie the arcades, ed two-stori by but halls, pillared the rate lines, and is still a living force. The earliest examples are of of the teachers and students; from the middle and Sidi Oqba mosque at Qairuan, begun in 670 and rebuilt in the monastic cells front the to open hall, immense an mosque at Tunis. In this period each side, however, runs

1833, and in the end he had to be content with the hereditary alik of Egypt and the government of Nubia, Darfur, Kordofan, and Sennaar, conferred upon him by firmans of the sultan

oth, century, and the az-Zitiina

652

MOHAMMEDAN

roofed with a vault of ogee arches. Each of these halls serves as a lecture-room for one of the four faculties in theology and law, and one of them contains the méhrab and the minbar. These iwans, which are often twice as high as the adjacent parts of the building, are further emphasized by rectangular facades, splendidly ornamented and flanked by small minarets. A similar but slightly shorter iwdm serves as gateway, and indeed the main iwin itself is generally also the entrance to the space behind it. This latter is crowned with a dome, narrowed in at the bottom, and contains the founder’s tomb or the mékrab. With their slender minarets, their magnificent iwGns and gateways, and their lofty domes (often gilded), these mosques are among the most astonishing buildings of the East, the more so because their walls are almost always overlaid with a mosaic of dull or glazed bricks and faience plaques in glowing colours, arranged in lines of monumental and cursive script, and with flower-arabesques recalling tapestry and anglepillars going up into rope-like tori, while golden “stalactites,” i.e., rows of consoles projecting corbelwise one beyond the next, stand out from niches and under cornices and balconies. Unfortunately these fairy-tales from the Arabian Nights are now almost all in a sad state of dilapidation. The most celebrated are the Blue Mosque at Tabriz, the Masjid-i-Shah at Mashad, the gigantic madrasas of Tamerlane at Samarcand, all of the xsth century; others, incorporated in older pillar-mosques or adapted to their plan and purpose, are the Great Mosque of Veramin (1322), that of Isfahan (1xrth-z4th centuries), the sepulchral mosque of the Imam Riza at Mashad (1418), and the

ARCHITECTURE mosques of Konia, Isnik and Brussa. After the capture of Constantinople (1453), this development, originally due entirely to the severity of the climate, was combined with Byzantine traditions, and gave birth, mainly through the agency of the archi-

tectural genius Sinān, to those immense domed mosques—such as the Mahmadiya (1463-71), the Sulaimānīya (1550-56), and others at Stamboul, the Salimiya (1512-20) at Adrianople, etc which continued the plan of St. Sophia’s (see ARCHITECTURE: By.

zontine and Romanesque Architecture). A hollow dome resting on four gigantic binding-vaults was enlarged by half-domes round its circumference, and these again by smaller half-domes intersecting them, thus reaching the greatest height and volume obtain-

able by a single hollow vault, and surpassing in loftiness even the dome of St. Peter’s at Rome. However vast their proportions these buildings presented an appearance of squatness, which had to

be counterbalanced by slender, pencil-like minarets. The architectural forms are related to the Mameluke style in their detail but faience tiles also were used for the decoration of the smaller

surfaces; and in the 18th century the influence of the European

rococo style made itself felt. Indian Mohammedan Style.—In India (see InpIAN Arcurt-

TECTURE) also the Persian zwdn-and-dome mosque was the predominant type.

But since the conquerors, being but few, were

obliged to employ Indian masons, the Persian true vault was driven out by the Indian corbelled vault. In the earlier period

Masjid-i-Shah at Isfahan (c. 1600). The dome of the iwdn mosque was originally developed in an-

the Persian ogee arches formed a mere facade in front of a mosque of the Arabian type, with Hindu pillars, purged of their heathenish figural plastic decoration, and magsiira domes; the best are the mosques at Gujarat. In Delhi, apart from a few sultans’

other architectural type, the mausoleum. Reaching back to old Persian traditions, a favourite form of princely tomb in Persia from the roth to the 14th century was the sepulchral tower with a circular or polygonal ground plan, the classical examples of which resemble petrified nomad huts. A conical roof rested on a stalactite - cornice, beneath which a band of inscriptions gave the name and titles of the deceased, and below a second row of stalactites or an overhanging penthouse the wall of the tower descended straight, or in vertical ripples like folds of stuff, or in architectonic gatelike arrangements like tent-openings. The finest mausoleum of this kind is that of Mumine Khatin at Nakhichevan (Armenia), erected in 1286. In various sepulchral buildings, such as that of

parts of the Great Mosque, such as the Alai Darwaza (13th century) and the great minaret, the Qutb Minar, have been preserved; the walls, often inclined, are noteworthy. After the buildings in the Hindu manner erected by the Emperor Akbar (1556-1605) at Fathpur-Sikri, Agra and Sikandra, the Persian influence becomes stronger under the later Mogul emperors Jahangir and Shahjahan in the 17th century. The Friday mosques with pillar-halls and very squat zwdns as gatehouses, the mausoleums like the tomb of Humayiin at Delhi and the marvelous Taj Mahal at Agra, are perfectly proportioned creations of the same type as the Persian vaulted sepulchres. The most usual material

Harun-al-Rashid’s wife Zobeide at Baghdad, we may remark the transition to the second type. Here the space set apart for the sarcophagus is surrounded by galleries with ogee arches quadrangular or octangular ground-plan, the bulbous and pointed domes being raised on a tambour above the rest building, and flanked by minarets. Examples may be seen

on a often of the in the

mausoleum of Sultan Sanjar at Merv (1157), that of the Mongol Uljaiti Khodabanda at Sultantya (1316), those of Tamerlane and his family at Samarcand (15th century), etc.

Mameluke

Style—In Egypt and Syria the anti-caliphs of

the Fatimid house, who came immediately from Africa, but ultimately from Persia, had already transformed the ‘Abbasid pillarmosque in stone (Hakim Mosque, Cairo, 996). The Ayytbids (1169-1250) and Mamelukes. (1250-1517) subsequently brought the iwdn-and-dome mosque to preéminence, though with considerable alterations. The inner courtyard became appreciably smaller; the great facades of the gateway and the twdn vanished, being incorporated in a closed block with simple facades of which the features were on a large scale, and this block contained the madrasa and other subsidiary spaces. The coloured brickwork was replaced by alternate courses of white and red freestone; the ogee arches by pointed and lobar arches, frequently narrowed at the base, and often composed of artfully indented red and white

keystones; and the foliate-patterned faïence tiles by geometrical twined ornament in stucco and stone. Most of the monuments of this style are to be seen in Cairo (e.g., the “Tombs of the Caliphs,” the mosques of Sultan Hassan [1362], Quait Bey, etc.), others at Aleppo, Damascus and elsewhere. ' Ottoman Style.—In Asia Minor, under the Seljuq and early Ottoman rulers, the inner courtyard was transformed into a central

domed hall, and the zwans into lateral aisles, as in most of the

tombs like those of Iltutmysh and Mohammed

Tighlag, only

is white marble with coloured tarsia work, but red sandstone is also found. The principal architectural forms are the ogee arch, the lobar arch, and the Indian lotus dome; chatir7s—small domes with projecting roofs, carried on pillars—are widely used as ornament.

Secular Architecture.—The tendencies in the development of the mosque appear in every detail in secular architecture. Of the palaces of the caliphs at Damascus, Baghdad and Cairo, as of many others built in later times, we know only from descriptions. We are, however, acquainted with several of the country houses (bādiya) of the ‘Omayyads in the desert to the east of the Dead sea, including Qusair ‘Amra with its vaulted baths adorned with

frescoes in the later antique style. Another old Persian type (hira) is to be found at Mshatta, in the same region, and in Ukhaidir and the ‘Abbasid residence at Samarra in Mesopotamia. They are rectangular castles, from whose entrance one proceeds through a

number of anterooms to the hall of audience. Next come the prince’s apartments and the harem; behind is a garden, and perhaps soldiers’ quarters on both sides. With the downfall of the

‘Abbasids, cities gradually assumed a type which, with its castles and its narrow, irregular streets, resembled mediaeval European towns.

Fine examples of such fortresses in a style closely akin

to the European are to be seen in the castles of Aleppo and Baalbek. The Alhambra, in Spain, is another such; the rooms of the castle are grouped in an irregular but very intimate style around courts and gardens, but—as in the Alcdzar at Seville and in Moroccan palaces—are clearly divided into reception-rooms, harem and mashuar

(offices); the decoration is extraordinarily

rich and luxurious. Subsequently the plan of dividing the palace up into a system of courts and pavilions surrounded by gardens, as in the Safawid castles at Isfaham and the Old Sarai at Stam-

MOHAMMEDAN ARCHITECTURE

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1. Dome of Rock (Mosque of Omar), Jerusalem, erected over the rock at Jerusalem from which the angel Gabriel was sald to have carried the prophet through the heavens in a dream. It is an octagonal domed

building in the Byzantine style; bullt by Abdalmalik, A.D. 691,

with later additions

oY

GALLOWAY

2. Hall of Justice In the Alhambra, Granada, Spain. This hall is at the eastern end of the royal palace bullt chiefly between 1248-1354

ARCHITECTURE

in the reign of Al Ahmar and his successors. Richly modelled geometric plaster decorations, brilliantly painted and gilded, are carried out in the series of courts, halls and apartments

3, Cairo.

In the upper right (with dome and two slender minarets of the

mosque of Muhammed Ali), is the Citadel, built by Saladin in 1166.

The domed buildings In the foreground are the tomb mosques known as the Tombs of the Mamelukes (c. 15th century)

MOHAMMEDAN

ART

653

bul, was introduced from Persia; the living-rooms, small and adorned with frescoes (often erotic) and tiling, were grouped

hand, there ruled the Sassanids, whose power rested upon their hosts of cavalry from the interior of Persia, and who cultiground one or more central zwéms. In India, at Delhi, Agra, vated, side by side with the Zoroastrian religion of their fathers, Lahore and Gwalior, separate pavilions were built on the castle ancient oriental traditions only faintly touched by Hellenistic walls, with a view over the valley and the cool river on one side, influences. When, on the death of the fourth elected caliph and over arcaded gardens on the other. From these private apart- ‘Osman in 661, the early communism of Islām came to an ments access was gained through a small door to an open hall end, the whole of Tripoli, Egypt, Syria, Mesopotamia, Armenia, yith a gallery, on which the ruler gave public audience; this hall Georgia and Persia were already under the sway of Islām, (diwan-t samm), which was set apart for the grandees, was sur- which was soon extended to the rest of North Africa and Spain, rounded by a courtyard where minor reviews were held, and to Turkestan and the lower Indus valley. Until the middle of which the common folk were admitted. It was reached from the the roth century all these lands were ruled by the Arabs; but gate on the town side by a passage flanked by offices and shops, even under the first dynasty of the Umayyads (661—750) the leading to an outer court with soldiers’ quarters and a gateway Christian Syrians and Copts began to gain a considerable invith a bandstand (naggara khadna). fluence in intellectual life, followed by the Persians under the Caravanserais—fortified hostelries for travellers—are generally ‘Abbasid dynasty (750-945), and the Ostrogoths under the Umaybuilt on the plan of the zwan mosque, the cells serving as stables yad caliphs of Spain (independent after 755); for the Arabs and guest-rooms; bazaars are covered streets with shops, having themselves owned few traditions of culture equal to the needs pillars with round-arched vaulting in the West, and long rows of of a universal empire. With the decay of their empire, the ‘Abogee-arched vaults in the East. Most of the bridges disappeared basid caliphs were forced to maintain their power with the help long since, but Isfahan and Julfa are joined by two very beautiful

examples dating from the 17th century, with a two-storied superstructure and pavilions. . Few hospitals have survived, though at one time there must have been a great number. The magnificent Miristan of Sultan Qalawiin at Cairo (1285) is essentially a monument of the Mameluke madrasa-style. Pump-rooms (sabil) were often philanthropic foundations; in Egypt they usually included an elementary school

on the upper floor, beneath which was the latticed pump-room proper, and in front of it a basin. The Ottomans, however, particularly in the 18th century, transformed them into delightful pavilions with immense overhanging roofs and a basin on each of the four sides. Private houses are of extraordinarily varied types, but in all cases the living-rooms and reception-rooms are separate from the women’s apartments. In the Mediterranean region the latter are generally on the upper storey, with windows closed with musharrabiya, but in the East they are in a second court. Here also, ever since the best period of Samarra, the walls are broken by stucco niches to hold lamps, glasses, bottles, books, etc., while the West prefers painted wooden wainscoting with built-in cupboards. Furniture is almost wholly lacking. The methods of securing protection from the heat are interesting: in the West, where water is more plentiful, there are half-darkened inner halls containing springs; in dry Mesopotamia and Persia there are subterranean summer apartments with air-shafts like conningtowers; in India, quarters are transferred to lofty terraces exposed to the wind and surrounded by small ponds. For architectural ornament see MOHAMMEDAN ART, See also, PERIODS OF ART. BIBLIOGRAPHY -—Saladin-Migeon, Manuel d’Art Musulman (2nd ed., 1926); E, Diez, Die Kunst der islimischen Vélker (1915) and Churasanische Baudenkmäler (1918); G. Marcais, Manuel d’Art Musulman (1927) ; P. Coste, Monuments modernes de la Perse (1867) ; F. Sarre, Reise in Kleinasien (1896) and Denkmäler Persischer Baukunst (1910) ; Schubert-Soldern, Baudenkmdler von Samarkand

(1898); A. Musil, Qusejr ‘Amra (1907); F. Sarre and E. Herzfeld,

Archäologische Reise im Euphrat- und Tigrisgebiet (1911) and Ausgrabungen von Samarra (1924 etc.); V. A. Smith, History of Fine Art in India and Ceylon (x911); C. Gurlitt, Konstantinopel (1912); . L. Bell, Palace and Mosque at Ukhaidir (1914); R. L. Devonshire,

LEgypte Musulmane et les Fondateurs de ses Monuments

R. E. Brunnow and A. von Domaszewski, Provinzia Arabia

(1926); (Stras-

bourg, 1904—09). (H. Gor.) MOHAMMEDAN ART. At the death of the prophet Mo-

mmed in 632, his conquering Bedouin hosts already stood on the frontiers of the highly civilized empires of Byzantium and Persia. During the previous four centuries these empires had

passed through great vicissitudes, and of the tradition of ancient

Hellas but feeble remnants survived. In Byzantium Christianity,

a Importation from the East, prevailed; court, civil service and army, however, were intermixed with descendants of the barbarian tribes which had come during the migration of the Nations, and in the Semitic provinces the Monophysite spirit rose up against the “idolatry” of the Greeks. In Persia, on the other

of mercenaries from the nomadic Turkish tribes of the north, but

from the middle of the 9th century onwards these Turkish mercenaries began to create “lieutenancies” enjoying an even greater degree of independence, with the result that after 945 the caliphs found themselves reduced to a position resembling that of the popes. In the middle of the 11th century western Asia was overrun by new hordes of Turkish nomads, who founded the Seljuk empire, which, however, soon disintegrated into a number of small states. In the first quarter of the 13th century the Mongols and their kindred peoples of horsemen from Central Asia pushed as far as Syria, Asia Minor and Hungary. Other Turkish tribes followed, notably the hosts of the great conqueror Timir (Tamerlane, c. 1400) in Turkistan. In 1300 the Ottomans founded the Ottoman Empire, and in 1502 the Kizilbash, of the Persian Shi'a sect, founded the Persian empire under rulers of the Safawid house; these two empires remained unaltered till a few decades ago. In 1526, in India, which had previously lain under the domination of a series of Afghan and Turkish dynasties, descendants of Tamerlane founded the Mogul empire, which was ultimately destroyed by England in 1803. In Africa, on the other hand, the leadership soon fell to the nomadic Berber tribes, which formed, in addition to a number of small states, the orthodox kingdom of the Almorawids (1087—1147) and that of the Almohads (1147-1230) in the far West, and, after the loss of Spain in 1492, the kingdoms of the Marinids, Sa‘dites and Sherifs of Sijilmasa. Egypt was ruled from 969 to 1171 by the Shiite anticaliphs of the Fatimid dynasty—Berbers likewise—and before and after that period by mercenaries (mostly of Turkish race), including the Ayyubids (1169-1250), who were Kurds, and the Mamelukes (1250-1517), who were overthrown by the Ottoman Sultan Selim I. Origins and Nature of Mohammedan Art.—In a world enclosed between desert and steppe and ruled by nomadic races, Mohammedan art inevitably followed an entirely different path from that of the West. Western classical art developed among settled tillers of the soil and in towns, and consequently it is intellectual; it loves the clear structural consistency of architecture, and carries it on into architectural ornament; it prefers the more or less naturalistic sculpture and relief, the portrayed figure, and reproduces them in industrial art. The art of the nomads, on the other hand, proceeds from the tent and the loom, and for that reason the tectonics of Mohammedan architecture are also limited to the primary forms, though it frequently resolves them into delightful shapes, and adorns all the wall-surfaces with purely geometrical decoration resembling rugs over the framework of a Kirghiz tent. Their decorative art is based on pure ornament, script, arabesque and intertwined bands. As in early Irish, Scandinavian and also Romanesque art, representations of human beings and animals are combined with fillet and arabesque ornament, and in plastic art they appear only in low relief. Only in painting do they acquire an independent life under antique Sassanian and eastern Asiatic influences, but even so they are partly in the nature of calligraphy, against the background of an equally conventional, tapestry-like landscape. Except in the most recent

654

MOHAMMEDAN ART

Arabian world period, naturalism never existed. Added to this, the Chrisof figural art—already perceptible in eastern

and the barbarian migrations. In the earliest monuments particularly the great frieze in relief at Mshattā, the prevailing fea.

early period of Islam the ‘Omayyads the Mamelukes of Egypt and Syria, though under es it was dynasti h Turkis and ‘Abbasids and most of the Shitite and gs. buildin public only excluded from re seldom Plastic Art.—Plastic art on the larger scale therefo t with them brough Seljuks the Thus ces. influen outside under fell Buddhist art from eastern Turkestan a plastic tradition akin to the few extant of central Asia; this tradition is represented by the etc., angels, , dragons eagles, double lions, of statues and reliefs stucco few a by and d, Baghda from the city walls of Konia and we find plaques depicting scenes of court life. Apart from these, there and here ed scatter relief low in human and animal figures entire through the decorative carving on rafters and beams of the Mogul period from the rith to the rath century. Under the emperors in the 16th and 17th centuries Indian influence appears an in the elephant-statues of Fatehpur-Sikri and Delhi, and Sassani Shah ‘Ali Fath of reliefs rock the in influence in the roth century to of Persia. Other plastic art, however, is entirely restricted in birds and ts elephan lions, of figures chiefly small-scale works, glazed stoneware or bronze, strongly conventionalized as the or nature of the material required, and used as water-vessels appearand dress ian Mongol with a smoking appliances; a madonn ance, made of faïence, is an exception. Painting.—Figure-painting is much more important. It is true that it was excluded from public, political and religious edifices. In the private apartments, however—bathroom and harems especially—painting was tolerated by the clergy, and found its expression in frescoes, illustrated erotic and edifying books, and household vessels, goblets, bottles, etc., adorned with figures. Even the caliphs decorated the private apartments in their palaces in this way. Thus between 712 and 715 the Umayyad al-Walid had the bathrooms in his desert castle of Qusair ‘Amra painted throughout with frescoes in the later antique style, depicting birth and death, the three ages of life, hunters and hunting animals, musicians and dancing-girls, women bathing, the caliph on the throne, the emperors overthrown by Islam, and so on. This latter group betrays the influence of Sassanian art, which dominates the harem frescoes reconstructed out of scanty remnants in the ‘Abbasid residence at Samarra (836-876). Here we find dancinggirls in every possible pose, naked and in flowing robes, with diadems and long braided hair, with floating veils, bowls and winejars; huntresses and horse-women, priests and watriors, and animals of every kind, in a heraldic style on medallions composed of intertwining tendrils and bands in endless repetition, symmetrical and hieratic. In the Alhambra at Granada (13th—14th cent.) we

branches of grapes, and diversified with all kinds of animals ang

had a dislike representations in the tianity—which absolutely prohibited figural and under the Berber dynasties of Africa and

meet with the last Moors of Spain represented as noble knights and troubadours in roof-paintings of an almost Gothic style; and in the frescoes and faience tiling of the castles of Isfahan and Ashraf, displaying exquisite calligraphy, and betraying strong Eastern Asiatic influence, we see the amorous and oenophilous sentiment of the courtly youth of the Safawid era. In India, the Mogul rulers of the 16th and 17th centuries had their harem apartments painted throughout with frescoes, though these were

discarded about 1700 by the orthodox emperor Aurangzéb; but

wall-paintings, some with Buddhist subjects, have been preserved in the bedroom of Akbar’s soon-abandoned residence at FatehpurSikri, and we know from a few contemporary miniatures the semiEuropean paintings that Jahangir caused to be executed at Agra.

ture, as in Byzantine and Romanesque art, is the spiral tendri

springing from the vine, its spaces filled in with vine-leaves and

large rosettes. In the frescoes and in the “third style” of the stucco wall-facings in the ‘Abbasid residence at Samarra we find the same motif, though already again greatly conventionalized

however, we encounter a new type of ornament tn. traceable to the wood-carving of the nomad tribes of consisting of very denatured palm-leaves, whose con. became an independent style, a complex of free curves Turks and the Arab dynasties that took their artistic notions from them (roth to 16th century), this developed into

Beside it, doubtedly the north, tours soon Under the

a purely abstract art of decoration, carried to the furthest possible

extent; its leading motifs are the fillet, the arabesque and the

palm-leaf.

The first is the most important and is derived from

the northern nomadic art. Plain or twisted, with herring-bone or

circular patterns, it divides every area into border and central field,

angle and centre medallions, friezes, etc. It curves into circles and wavy lines, imitates the shapes of architectural vaults, piles up

tendril-wise in vaulted arcades and forms complicated trellis patterns. This developed into the twined pattern of stars and rosettes

favoured during the Mameluke

period, which presents designs

which, immensely numerous though they are, are always mathe-

matically accurate. The intervening spaces are filled with poly-

gons of every shape, stars, garlands, rosettes, often plain or in

simple patterns that secure their whole effect through colourcontrast, and frequently decorated with rich arabesques diversified with palm-leaf motifs. The early twining vine-leaf, the palm-leaf, the “tree of life” of the ancient east, are combined in an inextricable dramatic unity, enriched since the Mongol period with completed palm-leaves and even with distortions of these into diabolical masks, houses, etc., and Chinese cloud-strata and shreds. Thus western Asia, especially Persia, was dominated by the arabesque, in delicate spirals, often of the shape of snail-shells, with little rolled-up and not uncommonly pinnate leaves, and rosettes, and palm-leaves radiating outwards. -It served also as a background for decorative figures of phoenixes and Chinese dragons,

hunting animals and birds, musicians and dancing-girls, but most

of all for ornamental inscriptions. The clumsy early Arabic script, the “Kufic,” with its numerous vertical and oblique strokes, produced an extraordinarily monumental effect, and for that reason, it continued to be employed as a decorative writing, and developed into a new form, used with special frequency in Persia—the “floral”? Kufic, in which the top of the characters blossom into floral tendrils. This was also combined with the trellis ornament,

a notable example being the stucco-work in the Alhambra at Granada. The later cursive naskhi, with its wealth of curves and twists, also proved a highly decorative script, the final letters of words being generally crossed with the long strokes of the initial letters like an ornament.

They were also frequently used to pro-

vide a delicate background to the heavier characters of the Kufic. The shikasta, and the animal figures which were artfully formed from the characters of some sentences (generally from the first sūra of the Koran) were confined, however, to the Per-

sian book-designer’s art. After the 16th century Mohammedan

ornament began to decay. As early as the 13th century niches framed by arches and pillars, vases with bouquets of flowers,

hanging lamps, cypresses, etc., had appeared sporadically; these now came into favour as decorative motifs, and their semr

naturalism drove out the wealth of abstract ornament. ' (See also PAINTING.) Architectural Ornament.—Since tectonic arrangement in . Ornament.—Ornament is the centre of Mohammedan art. It architecture was confined to the broad lines, a wide field was prehas supplanted all the other possibilities offered by different individual technics. Utilizing them all, dependent on none, it is a self-

contained world of form, which embraces indifferently the walls of «mosques and castles, the backgrounds of figure-paintings, the details. of sculpture, glasses, pots and vases, furniture and bronze

sented for ornament.

In the ‘Omayyad period preference we

given to the glittering glass mosaic

and deep-shadowed pierced

stone filigree-work, both common in Byzantium. With the victory of the sun-dried brick under the ‘Abbasids, these were supersede

likeimplements, arms and jewellery, bookbindings and calligraphy, a by stucco facing sometimes moulded in the flat, sometimes wonin and Samarra of style third vast,storehouse of forms,.turning every technique, every material wise cut in high relief, as in the

to its own uses in the most perfect taste. The motifs from which, this ornament grew came from the later antique, the ancient East,

derful inscriptions in floral Cufic from Persia, all originally. richly

painted. Later, in the Turkish and Mongolian periods, stucco gv*

MOHAMMEDAN

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S p of a carved stone sarcophagus, from the tomb of Bairam Quli Khan

942 (A.D. 1534). 2. Persian ays oe near Bukhara, Turkistan. Dated 14th cent. Hamburg Museum fiir

Vein, an Inlaid candlestick with handles,

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BY COURTESY

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reunde, 3. Horn or “oliphant”

(ivory), carved with interlaced orna-

are of : probably Mesopotamian, 10th—12th cent. The metal mounts late, er date. 4. Bowl with graffito designs, “Amol” pottery, 10th~1L2th

THE

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MUSEUM;

Persian,

PRhOTOGRAPHS,

17th

cent.

6.

F.

BRUCKMANN

(2, 8, 9,

11)

Bottle,

siliceous

glazed

cent. 5. Pottery and glass window, in black and earthenware, Turkish, 16th cent. 7. Stonethick falence. Ht. 25.5 cm. 9. white. & Albarello, Syria, 14th cent.;

Persia or Turkistan, 7th—Sth cent. Bronze duck, perhaps an incense burner, 10. Enamel glass mosque Bobrinsky collection, St. Petersburg (1912). cent. (Moscow) lamp. 11. Helmet, Iron, Mongolian, middle of 16th

MOHAMMEDAN yay to the cheaper substitute for the more costly mosaic, in freegone or brick, but most often in faience tiling. The less imporrant parts of the rough core of the wall, often quite carelessly puttogether, were overlaid with a particoloured mosaic of glazed

bricks of varied shapes, making all kinds of twined patterns and

formalised Cufic words endlessly repeated; while the major portions were covered with mosaics of tiles cut skilfully to the exact

shapes of the prevalent patterns, in harmonious colour-schemes, particularly blue, or in combinations of faience ornament on a stucco ground

(in relief) or friezes of inscriptions

in incised

succo in the intervals of faience mosaic. Admirable also are the

script friezes of glazed tiles with dark blue characters on a ground

of golden-brown arabesques. With the decay of ornament after

the 16th century, this type of mosaic was generally supplanted by square faïence tiles with the decoration simply painted on them.

Apart from one or two magnificent portions of buildings, Syria, Egypt and the West were content with coloured stucco-work and mosaics of particoloured stone plaques, generally white and red or white and black. (For plan ARCHITECTURE.) Furniture—Another reason in the almost complete absence tem, in Mohammedan places

and tectonics see MOHAMMEDAN

for this rich wall-decoration lies of furniture, in our sense of the of worship and dwelling-houses.

This, like the custom of sitting on the floor, was due to the no-

madic habit. Household crockery was kept in stuccoed recesses in the walls, or on wooden shelves and in cupboards built into

the walls; of the latter there is at Berlin a fine example from Aleppo, with biblical paintings in the Persian style. Furniture, in

our sense, was represented in private houses by small, low, round ot oblong tables, and in India also by beds (charpoy). Persons of

consequence used the zakht, but sat on it in the same posture as

on the floor; chairs came into use in the 17th century only in the

highest circles. In the mosques the Koran was placed on a desk

(kurst) like a campstool, and was often kept in a small circular cabinet; the pulpit (minbar) was a domed box at the top of a staircase, reached through a doorway that could be closed. A feature of most of these objects is the manner in which they are decorated with tasteful tarsia-work of small boards, richly carved and inlaid with mother-of-pearl, ivory, etc. This was necessary owing to the wood available and the danger of warping. The harem doors were worked in like fashion, often with rich bronze ornamentation, and the balcony-railings (musharabiya), made of small curved wooden pales. (See also INTERIOR DECORATION.) The remaining objects in the house comprised rugs and cushions, jewel-cases and boxes, together with table utensils, lamps, smoking equipment, open charcoal-pans (as stoves) and warming-pans, candle-sticks, etc., in bronze, faience, glass, ivory and other materials. (For rugs and woven fabrics, see TEXTILES.) Ceramics.—The Mohammedan ceramic art built upon ancient oriental traditions, enriched them for its own religious purposes with a new and highly effective technique, and pursued its development under growing influences from eastern Asia. The use of the coloured glazed brick was inherited from Babylon, as was the unglazed earthenware in the barbotin style (in which the pattern is made by applying bands of clay) with the “‘tree of life”

and “naked goddess” (Astarte) motifs, enriched with Hellenistic and Sassanian elements, laurel and acanthus leaves, stubs of palm-

leaves, and later wreathed medallions centred with animal figures, griffins, eagles and the like. Examples are to be seen in the pottery of Samarra, though this is almost entirely in tiny shards. Echoes of this barbotin technique appear in the ware of Mosul down to

the 14th century, and in the Ghabri ware of Persia, in the sgraffito manner, often with lively painting, until c. 1200. Contempotaneously, in Samarra, we find the first lustre-ware. Islam in its

early days was puritanical enough to proscribe gold—like silk—

as a worldly luxury, and for that reason, in later times, faïence painted with a gold lustre changing to green, brown and violet was used as a substitute; in the earliest examples the forms of the magnificent golden and silver vessels of the Sassanian epoch can stil be plainly traced. This style rose high in favour, particularly

in the Seljuk and Mongol periods, but disappeared at the begin-

nung of the ryth century.

The ‘Abbäsid caliphs also imported

ART

655

porcelain, from China (Sung dynasty), and caused its white, yellow and green overflow-glazing and its stippled, fish and other designs to be imitated in earthenware. With the Seljuks came a new wave of far eastern influence, the chief centre of the industry under their rule being Rhagae, the forerunner of Teheran. The “mināi” ware shows chiefly bowls, beakers, tankards and bottles

in spirited painting and gilding on a white ground, often with rich fgure-compositions arranged in bands. There are also vessels

of similar types as well as such akin to the bronzes, in animal and human form; their design is left white, generally on a ground of violet lustre, and shows the classical arabesque and palm-leaf motifs, sphinxes and birds with crowned women’s heads, peacocks, elephants, scenes of court life and war, and, above all, horsemen with their characteristic pigtails and their garments adorned with arabesques. After the destruction of Rhagae by the Mongols, Sultānābād and Veramin became the centres of the ceramic industry in the 13th and r4th centuries. Favourite types were not only mini and lustre ware, but also faïence in green and dark blue tones, in many cases with moulded ornamentation, and tiles richly decorated in lustre. From the 16th century onwards, Chinese white porcelain with blue and grey designs was imported in large quantities and became a regular type; its decoration was copied and freely developed, but porcelain itself could not be successfully manufactured,

and a kind of semi-faience,

closely resembling it, was made instead. Persian pottery forms the basis of that of Syria, Egypt, Spain and Asia Minor. In the area of the Arab civilisation, figure-motifs disappeared at an early period, and bands of script or arabesque, arranged radially or in rings, became the prevalent form. In Spain, under Christian rule, this art developed still further, and absorbed Gothic motifs; the 14th and 1sth century wares of Malaga (whence the name “majolica”) and of Paterna and Manises, two suburbs of Valencia, exercised a very strong influence on the majolica ware of the early Italian renaissance. On the other hand, in the Ottoman pottery of Kutahia and Isnik (““Damascus” and “Rhodos” ware), which flourished from the 15th century onwards, relatively naturalistic tulips, carnations, roses, lilies, cypresses, etc., and also figure subjects, were preferred for purposes of decoration, cobalt blue, turquoise, green and manganese violet being used as colours, generally on a white ground. (See also PotTERIES AND PORCELAINS.) Glass and Crystal Ware.—Unlike pottery, glass-making was inherited from Hellenic antiquity, and was centred in Syria and Egypt. The Fatimid period produced narrow-necked bottles, tankards and beakers, and scent-bottles ornamented with externally applied bosses, threads and bands, or with spiral tendrils and animal figures moulded into the glass. In addition, imitations were made (“Hedwig glasses”) of rock-crystal vessels with ornament consisting of figures and circular tendrils, of Sassanian origin; many of these came early into the possession of religious or noble houses in Europe, and have thus been preserved. The most marvellous work, however, was produced at Aleppo in Syria, under the Ayyubid and Mameluke dominations. Bottles, beakers, goblets and above all hanging lamps for mosques, were covered with bands of arabesque and script and with medallions in enamel colours (white, red, blue and yellow) and gold; the subjects included figures of horsemen and others, and the coats of arms of the court offices. The celebrated ‘Luck of Edenhall” was a goblet. of this type. Modern Persian glass originated in the industry promoted by Shah ‘Abbas the Great (c. 1600). (See GLASS.) Metal-work.—Here again oriental traditions, particularly those of the Sassanian empire and the Far East, predominate. Most of the work is in bronze, iron being still used almost only for weapons. The use of gold and silver also was limited, because it was forbidden by the Koran; and although the prohibition was often ignored, the great value of such objects led to their early destruction and melting down. Mohammedan jewellery of the early period is therefore of extreme rarity, being represented only by a few buckles, bracelets, etc., of the Fatimid and Mongol periods, and such pieces as the Gerona silver chest (akin to the similar ivory coffers) in Spain and the Berlin silver tankard of the 13th century, with its embossed reliefs. of Sassanian animal friezes.

656

MOHAMMEDAN

, Bronzes.—Such animals in the Sassanian style, lions, dragonsin

also cast sphinxes, peacocks, doves, cocks and the like, were counterceramic their like served, bronze in three dimensions, and sought after larly particu were They etc. , braziers basins, as parts, from Egypt in the later ‘Abbasid, Fatimid and Seljuk periods, and

It was they became the prototypes of similar European forms. mirror, bronze round the ced introdu who the Seljuks, apparently, s face the reverse of which shows in low relief either two sphinxe by a ounded y—surr potter mindz the of manner the to face—in the of s symbol ical astrolog the twined pattern, or two friezes with plannearest five the and moon (sun, bodies y heavenl seven chief a band of ets) and the twelve signs of the zodiac, surrounded by the earlier script; this goes back ultimately to Chinese origins. In low relief, period, mugs, etc., were ornamented with animals in the later but this was quickly supplanted by engraving. Under and the Mosul) of Atabegs Ortoqid the ularly Seljuks (partic ion, Mamelukes, engraving became almost the only form of decorat inlayof ue techniq richer yet the for basis a as serve to but only d, ing: small silver plates and wires, themselves delicately engrave d were hammered into the ribs and surfaces, which were hollowe bowl Ortoqid an this of place In edges. the out and undercut at in the provincial museum at Innsbruck has the spaces filled in with cellular enamel. This was a method of evading the prohibi tion of precious metals, just as gold lustre was in pottery. The ornament consisted of friezes and medallions in lattice and aras, besque work, the interstices being filled with figures of warrior hunters, musicians, animals and astrological symbols. These were superseded later by Mameluke coats of arms and inscriptions. In the rsth century the technique was imported from Syria to or Venice, where productions of the same kind, alla damaschina al’ azzimina were made right into the 16th century by Mohammedan masters, and were in great demand. In the East the process is still common, but both technically and artistically it has decayed. In the 15th century, however, there was a renascence of pure metal-engraving, but the design—inscriptions and arabesques in the Timirid and Safawid styles—was not cut into the material, but left free in the manner of a relief, the background being etched in black. Decoration was applied to bowls and basins, mugs and vases, mortars, braziers and warming-pans, candlesticks and smoking-utensils, inkstands and jewel-cases, Koranholders, mosque-lamps, and kursis. These are generally in the simplest possible forms—spherical, cylindrical, prismatic—and are developed by cutting off corners, adding projections, narrowing and channelling the walls, and by reduplication; the subjects include motifs of vegetation and animal life—the former mainly in the necks and feet of vessels, the latter for handles and ears, feet and sometimes small spouts. (See BRONZE.) Weapons.—Ancient Mohammedan weapons of any artistic value are comparatively rare: most of the extant pieces date from the 17th or 18th or even early rgth century, while the period from the 14th to the 16th is represented by a fair number of fine examples. Mohammedan swords were famous even in antiquity for their wonderful blades of “Damascene” and “Toledo” steel. This high standard was attained by a laborious process of repeatedly welding together pieces of iron of different qualities, but its ultimate explanation lies in the peculiar process used for smelting the Indian raw material—a method whose results have been surpassed only by those of the modern Bessemer process. The earlier blades are all straight; curved sabres and daggers do not become common until after 1500. The blades were ornamented with inlaid work of gold and silver threads, arabesques, blessings and— on the celebrated “Mongol blades”—also phoenixes and dragons in the Chinese manner; at a later period the inlay was confined to the part near the hilt, the remainder being adorned with engraved reliefs. For the handle and guards, gold and cellular enamel were used, as on the magnificent “Boabdil” swords named after the last Moorish king in Spain (15th century), with their hooked guards, and many Ottoman and Persian daggers and sabres of the ryth and 18th centuries; nephrite, ivory and silver plating with jewelled ornament were also used, especially for daggers. The scabbards had ornaments to match the hilts, and were covered with nielloed silver plating, leather, snake-skin or ray-skin.

ART

Battleaxes and maces are also found, though these were often mere

symbols of command and high position. The former display no; only inlay, but also in many cases engraved relief and even filigree work. The heads of the maces were often made of rock crystal

but more frequently were cast solid, in a smooth pear-shape, with grooves or bosses, richly inlaid. Shields were round with a boss of inlaid în the centre: in Egypt under the Mamelukes they were iron, elsewhere generally of leather, with painted lacquer surface

The armour, of Sassanian origin, consisted of a mail shirt, arm-

pieces and greaves, a round breastplate, and a pointed helmet consisting of several spangles riveted together. Not until a late

period did a coat of four plates (chér-dina), and even a cuirass in the Spanish manner, become

common.

From the 1sth century

onwards the helmet was made in one piece, though there were in addition a number of movable parts such as nosepieces, cheek.

pieces, neckpieces, etc. The decoration, however—grooves or medallions between radiating ribs on a broad frontlet—betrays the original construction. The earlier pieces (r5th century) were

broad and protuberant, and came so low down over the forehead that eye-notches were necessary, the reason for this shape being that the turban was worn under the helmet; the later examples fitted closely, and were pointed or hemispherical with spikes at-

tached, nosepieces and crests. The usual ornamentation in the early helmets, most of which are ascribed to western Turkistan, con-

sists of silver-wire inlay; later, in Persia, it is generally iron engraving, sometimes combined with inlaid work; and in the grooved Ottoman storm helmets, black etching. An offshoot of the last-named is the “Zischagge,” often richly worked, which was used in the 17th century in Hungary, Poland, and even Germany. Bookbinding and Lacquering.—Koran manuscripts, and

also rich miniature books were all bound in leather, the edges being protected by a flap. A very old binding from Egypt shows inlaid work, but apart from this the usual decoration up to the rsth century consists of stamping with beaded edges, medallions in the centre, and in the corners triangular ornaments of unobtrusive script, plait and palm-leaf patterns. From the 16th century onwards, however, this decoration is transferred to the inner side of the cover, in finely-detailed filigree-work against a brightlycoloured background. On the outside it is replaced by opulent stamped gilding which has indeed a similar composition but is formed of arabesques and bands of clouds, and even of decorative figure-groups; sometimes also the outside is covered in the Chinese manner with lacquer-work, which in the early period shows occasional dragons and phoenixes, and later flowers and romantic and genre scenes. From the end of the 18th century this technique was in high favour, and was applied not only to bookbindings, but also to writing-cases, jewel-cases, toilet accessories, and even shields and bows. (See also BOOKBINDING; LACQUERING.) Development and Influence Elsewhere.—When the great civilizations of Egypt and Babylon ceased to exist, the culture of Hellas had conquered the Orient with Alexander’s victorious progress. Islim was only one factor in the recovery of the East brought about by the Aramaic, Coptic, Persian and Arab stocks, parallel to which proceeded the migration of the nomads of central Asia and eastern Europe and the Germanic nations whom they pushed before them. This migration took its rise from the frontiers of China, and in the later thrusts of the Turks and Mongols it also overran the area of the Arabian civilisation; and beside and behind it came the peaceful influence of the Far East. Thus of in its early period Mohammedan art continues the assimilation Hellenistic and ancient Oriental motifs begun by the later Perthe sians, and from the ‘Abbasid era it falls almost wholly under

tradition of the Sassanian empire. With the rise of the Turkish

dynasties the nomad character becomes increasingly marked, and

from the Seljuk period onwards the influence of Eastern Asia grows in strength, particularly from the Mongol to the Safawid period. Meanwhile Islam fused all these influences into a completely individual abstract style, which reached its zenith, artistically and technically, between

the roth and 16th centuries.

by & Thereafter decadence begins, veiled in the 17th centurytendency travagance of external splendour, but betrayed by a towards some degree of naturalism and an increase of European

MOHAMMEDAN

CAMPAIGNS

influence, and leading to complete decay by the middle of the roth the ways of the chief enemies of the empire. century. During its greatest period, however, the influence of the THE FIRST RUSH Mohammedan culture extended through India as far as Java, to Unfortunately the main military problem of the epoch is not China, to the Sudan, and to the whole of Russia. The European witure of the middle ages and the Renaissance was very largely how the armies of the Caliphs fought indecisively with those of and carpets, ivories

the Emperors from A.D. 800 to 1000, but how the first rush of Mohammed’s earliest followers, a century and a half earlier, broke down the Roman Eastern frontier, which had stood suc-

tical and princely treasure-houses of Europe; in the period from the Crusades to the conquest of Granada the borrowings consisted mainly of Mameluke weapons and glass, azziminia bronzes, Toledo blades and majolica-ware from Spain, albarellos, etc., and bookbindings. In the east the Tatars brought their culture and art, especially weapons and clothes, to the Russians. Further, through the Turkish wars various Mohammedan utensils and objets d’art—

cessfully ‘for 600 years against enemies much more formidable, the Parthian and the Persian monarchies. On this neither the jejune annals of Theophanes and Nicephorus, nor the miraculous tales of Al-Wakidi and Al-Beladhuri give us any real assistance.

1922); F. Sarre, Islamische Bucheinbinde (Leipzig 1924); F. Sarre, Die Keramik von Samarra (1925); E. Herzfeld, Die Malereien von (H. Goz.) Samarra (1927).

been disbanded at the peace, for financial reasons. The recovered provinces had not settled down again to the habit of obedience; their population had been serving an alien master for many years, they had never been strong in “Roman” sentiment, and they

drived from it.

Mohammedan

brocades

(coffers and “olifant” horns), glasses and aguamanils, etc., found their way from Spain, sicily and Fatimid Egypt into the ecclesias-

We

can only be certain that the destruction was not wrought

either by heroic single combats, such as those which the Arab annalists describe, nor by the miracles of sand-storm and tempest stuffs, costumes, rugs (“Polish rugs”), sabres, helmets, etc.—be- with which they sometimes diversify their narratives. As far as came naturalised in Hungary and Poland, and even in Austria, Wwe can reconstruct any outline of the campaigns of 632-641, the situation would seem to have been as follows. The old Roman Saxony, Bavaria and Prussia. BBLIOGRAPHY.-—Saladin-Migeon, Manuel d’Art Musulman (Paris military line of defence against the East had never been properly 1907, 2nd. ed. 1927) ; F. Sarre, and F. R. Martin, Meisterwerke muh. restored since the disasters of the reign of Phocas; and the garKunst in München roro (Munich 1912) ; E. Diez, Die Kunst der islam- rison-armies of Syria and Mesopotamia had never been reconstiischen Völker (1915); E. Kühnel, Islamische Kleinkunst (1925); S. tuted on their old scale. When Heraclius imposed peace on the Lane-Poole, Tke Art of the Saracens in Egypt (1888) ; G. Schmoranz, vanquished Persians in 629, he got back the Eastern provinces in Aliorientalische Glasgefdsse (Vienna 1898); H. Wallis, The Godman Collection (1901); F. Sarre and E. Mittwoch, Metall in F. Sarre Col- a state of complete dilapidation—they had been in the hands of lection (Leipzig 1906) ; The Burlington Fine Arts Club Exhibition of the enemy for more than ten years. The empire was bankrupt, the Fayence of Persia and the Near East (London 1908) ; F. R. Martin, and the army with which the last victories over the Persians had ilkere Kupferarbeiten aus dem Orient (Stockholm 1912) ; H. Riviere, been won was an extemporized and heterogeneous levy, largely La céramique dans Part musulman (1913); R. Meyer-Riefstahl, The Parish-Watson Collection of Muhammedan Pottertes (New York composed of barbarian auxiliaries. A great part of it must have

MOHAMMEDAN

CAMPAIGNS.

Among the military

cataclysms which have changed the course of world-history on were torn by virulent religious quarrels between the “orthodox” the largest scale, none is so little known to us in detail as the and the many sectarians. That active or passive dislike for the outburst of the first Mohammedan invaders from their Arabian restored imperial government was rife is shown by the tame subdeserts. That. they smashed in a few years the old Sassanian mission of many sections to the next invader, and by the not inkingdom of Persia, tore Syria, Egypt and Africa from the East- frequent cases of actual treachery. The first Roman fortress Roman Empire, and even after their first wild rush was over, which the Arabs attacked—Bostra—was surrendered by an apospushed their conquests as far as India on one flank and Spain on tate governor. the other, is certain. But the details are wrapped in obscurity, When the Muslim—bands of light horse with their modest zmand the very dates of important battles and sieges are doubtful. pedimenta carried on camels—came up against Transjordania, This comes from the fact that we have no solid contemporary they were attacking from the rear a province which had always in history written by the witnesses of the cataclysm. From the side earlier days been attacked from the front in serious war. Previous of the conquerors there is nothing earlier than the chronicle of Arab raids had been mere Bedouin razzias: Syria’s earlier dan- ` Al-Wakidi, written a full century after the Arab conquest of gers had been from Parthian and Persian attacks from the northSyria and Persia, when the early campaigns of the Muslim had east, on the front along the Euphrates, become a heroic legend, and were decorated with exploits and marClearly then this new attack was delivered against a disorganvels which make them not much more utilizable as solid history ized group of provinces, with an apathetic or even disloyal poputhan the Chanson de Roland or the Romance of Fulk Fitzwarren. lation, and under-garrisoned by an army which had recently been The Persian kingdom left memories of Sapor and Chosroes, mixed up with those of earlier and more fabulous kings, in much later epics—but no serious account of its own downfall. At Constan-

tinople the Jater 7th century and the earlier 8th century show the biggest blanks in chronicle-writing in the whole history of the Fast Roman realm. We have to depend for our knowledge of the Saracen invasion, as seen by the Christian witnesses, on Theophanes and Nicephorus, both of whom wrote at the beginning of the gth century, some 130 years or more after the loss of Syria

and Egypt. They had no great desire to linger over the details of ancient disasters, nor had they any military interests. All that we get from them is curt mentions of battles and sieges, which are not always easy to identify with the military operations described

by the romantic Al-Wakidi. Matters become quite different as regards information when

we have passed the year 800: the series of contemporary Arab Chronicles begins and military details of value can be extracted | from them of the organization of the armies of the oth century Caliphs. Still more useful are the elaborate descriptions of Arab Warfare in the Tactica of the Emperor Leo the Wise (886-912),

destroyed and reconstructed. The immense forces which the Arab

romancers describe as arrayed against them never existed, and the Syrians and Egyptians made no more attempt to defend themselves against the Muslim than they had against the fireworshipping Persian twenty years back. The resistance was entirely that of the Roman army, assisted by the strong walls of many towns which had been fortified in earlier and more prosperous ages. The army, such as it was, was weak in numbers; its main strength lay in the heavy cavalry which had replaced the ancient legions during the last two centuries; infantry had sunk into decay many generations back. The Arabs had not been a formidable foe in earlier centuries, because of their inveterate tribal and family feuds, which made

combination impossible. It required the genius of Mohammed to |

unite old enemies, and bind them together by a fanatical fighting creed. Even after his death, when early victories ought to have

bound them together, there was grave danger of disruption, which was only prevented by the tact and moderation of his successors

the caliphs Abu-Bekr and Omar. With alittle less self-denial on

the part of their leaders, the Arabs might have relapsed into their

the notes on the Byzantine Empire of his son Constantine Por- habitual petty quarrels, and the creed of the prophet might have phyrogenitus (912-959) and the Manual on Military operation made no figure in history. But spirited exaltation prevailed over of Nicephorus Phocas (963-969), all of which deal at length with ancient jealousies—invasions of Syria and Persia began, and suc-

MOHAMMEDAN

658

cess was, from the first, so brilliant, that their feuds were for

the moment silenced, and a strong conviction of their own invincibility came upon the Muslims. CONQUEST OF SYRIA

Details are wanting—we only know that in all the earlier battles the Romans had the worst of the game. That the conquest of Syria nevertheless took seven years (632-638) was only due to the fact that the Arabs, formidable in the charge, had no skill in siegecraft. Hence the long sieges of Damascus and Antioch, and the possibility of isolated strongholds like the seagirt Aradus holding out long after the bulk of the country had been overrun. In truth the invaders were not very numerous-— if the regular Roman troops were also very limited in strength. And it was only gradually that the Arabs recruited their ranks with new hordes from the more recently converted corners of their own peninsula, and presently with renegades of all sorts, adventurers to whom plunder was all attractive, or disloyalists who thought Monotheism less repulsive than the theological formulae of their local enemies of the governmental faction. It was the special luck of the Arab invaders that of the two realms which they invaded, Persia was ruled by a boy of 14 newly elected as a compromise at the end of the bitter civil war, while in the Roman empire was reigning a worn-out veteran. Heraclius had been a brilliant leader in the old Persian campaigns, but he was now over sixty, and already smitten with the dropsy which ultimately proved fatal to him. He was in Syria for one year of the War only, and then retired to Constantinople, taking with him the “True Cross,” which he had brought back to Jerusalem in triumph only five summers before. In the last period of his illness he appears to have been suffering intermittently from mental affliction. His brother Theodore and his son Constantine failed to replace him in a satisfactory fashion, and in five years more all Syria fell into the hands of the Muslims (633-638). Egypt, where the population was still more hostile and discontented, and where many of the officials behaved with absolute treachery, was

lost in two more years (639-41).

Only the great harbour at

Alexandria was defended with any resolution. After Heraclius’ death an expedition from Constantinople recovered it for a moment, but lost it within the year (646), and no Christian army

was to be seen again in Egypt till the age of the Crusades. In the first years of the Arab conquest of Roman and Persian _ territory, the military system adopted appears to have been that of establishing great garrison-centres in a limited number of places selected for their strategical importance—Basrah and afterwards the more famous Kufa were the original bases on the Persian side, Damascus that on the Syrian; Fostat (Old Cairo) was the military centre of Egypt. Though detachments might be made to hold places of less importance, the armies were generally organised in and started,from one of these base-camps. The organisation was at first tribal. North Arabian and South Arabian sections being formed in each great camp, and ere long many bodies of “clients,” newly converted Syrian or Persian renegades, who were admitted to share the fortunes of the original invad-

ers. In the second generation there was little difference between the original Muslims and their adopted comrades. When the first rush of Conquest was over, and permanent dynasties, first the Ommayads and then the Abbasides, had replaced the elective Caliphs of the early years, the first signs of a change in military organisation were soon seen. The Caliph, like all oriental princes, took to keeping large bodies of royal guards, who both guaranteed the safety of his person, and formed the solid nucleus of any army with which he took the field. These mercenaries were at first Arabs, but before the end of the Ommayad dynasty strangers had already begun to replace them, and the Abbasides of the long-lived second caliphate line, regularly employed Soudanese Blacks, Persians, and above all Turks. The native Arabs had been found too factious and independent: the Turks, useful tools under a strong sovereign, ended by becoming their employers’ masters, when the later Abbasides sank into de-

_ bility, and like the Praetorian guards of Rome and the Mamelukes in' Egypt, they became king-makers. But this disgrace was still

CAMPAIGNS far off in 750, when the first Caliph of the second dynasty mounted the throne. THE

CALIPHS’

ARMIES

The Byzantine writers, who had two centuries of Arab Warfare behind them when they wrote their accounts of the Caliphs armies, have to distinguish between two sorts of collisions with the Saracen enemy. Comparatively rarely, and hardly ever after the year 800, the Caliph himself took the field with his household troops in addition to the levée en masse of the Muslims of Syria

Mesopotamia and Iraq. More usually the wars consisted of raids into the upland of Asia Minor by the Emirs of the frontier towns —Tarsus, Mejafarkin, Antioch, Mardin or Malatia, which it was the duty of the military governors of the East-Roman themes

to ward off, or to avenge by similar raids into Cilicia or North Syria. The emperors Leo and Constantine in their books describe the Saracens as composed almost entirely of mailed light horse armed with lance and javelin—only occasionally do we hear of black Soudanese archers—and unencumbered by wheel transport—all their baggage was carried by camels. They moved with extra. ordinary rapidity, and the governor who had to face a raid would do better by not attempting to follow their track, but rather by

besetting the routes by which they must return to their own country. They had only the choice of a limited number of passes, and if provision was made for blocking each of these, the

enemy must infallibly be intercepted.

And he would be caught

when loaded with plunder, and therefore unable to move with the same rapidity with which he had started. Of course if he

should besiege a town, and not merely practise the normal circu-

lar raid, the circumstances would be altered, and an attempt

should be made to fall upon him when he had settled down before the walls of the besieged place. But this would be exceptional. The last great formal invasion of Asia Minor was that of the Caliph Al-Mutassim in 838, who penetrated as far as Amorium in Phrygia—but even this was only a raid on the very largest scale, in revenge for an irruption of the emperor Theophilus into Northern Syria in 836;—not a serious attempt to win new territory from the East-Romans. Al-Mutassim’s father Haroun-alRaschid had gone still further into Asia Minor in his campaign of 806, having taken Angora, and seen the waters of the Black Sea at Heraclea; but he too had made no attempt at annexation, and contented himself with imposing an ignominious peace on the Emperor Nicephorus. It may be said indeed that the famous defence of Constantinople by Leo the Isaurian in 717—718, when the formidable attack by sea and land of Muslemah and Soliman had suffered a decisive repulse, marks the end of the first period of Arab invasions, when the conquest of the whole eastern world was still inspiring the hopes of the Muslims. In later wars the Jehad might be preached, and the enthusiasm of “True Believers” might be called upon for a desperate effort: but their rulers were no longer fanatics, and preferred a favourable peace to the continuance of an effort which had failed. In the ninth century the strength of the Caliphate began to decline, in the tenth it was so reduced that the East-Romans launched campaigns against it, and reconquered Cilicia, North Syria, and part of Mesopotamia. This falling off in offensive was caused by decay at the heart—a succession of weak caliphs, engaged in civil war with pretenders, lost control over the outlying provinces, whose governors became practically independent, and only assisted their sovereigns when it was convenient to them with men or money.

At Baghdad itself the Turkish royal guards were

continually indulging in mutiny, and not infrequently deposing 4 sovereign in order to finger the accession donative of his suc-

cessor.

The authority of the Abbasides was really confined to

Iraq, and sometimes when a specially arrogant governor or vizier was asserting himself, it did not even extend to the walls of thet

palace. After the Seljuk Tribes had swept over western Asia the later eleventh century; swamping the provincial dynasties

which had preserved a nominal allegiance to the Caliphate, the phantom at Baghdad became a perfectly negligible quantity. The only wonder is that the line of the Abbasides continued to survive

in lineal succession, till the Tatars of the 13th century starved the

MOHAMMEDAN ast bearer of the title to death in his own

MOHAMMEDAN

INSTITUTIONS—MOHLER

rae house (1258). | . W. C. 0.)

INSTITUTIONS: see Istamic Instt-

"MOHAMMEDANISM: see Istam. IONS.

MOHAMMEDAN LAW: see Istamic Law.

MOHAMMERAH, a town and port of South-west Persia situated in Lat. 30° 25’ Long. 48° 10’ on the right bank of the Karun river (g.v.) at the point where it enters the Shatt al Arab

(g.v.). Until the beginning of the 19th century the old village

of the same name lay on the left bank of the Karun on the island

of Abadan (g.v.) opposite the present town.

The place first came into prominence in 1837, when it was attacked and demolished by the Turks on the ground that it was becoming a thriving commercial port to the detriment of Basra.

Persia claimed an indemnity of one million pounds sterling: the Turks on the other hand claimed that both Mohammerah and

Abadan were Turkish territory. The British and Russian Govemments intervened to prevent war and by the Treaty of Erzerum (1847), Mohammerah and its anchorage, and Abadan

island were allocated to Persia.

One of the principal difficulties

in effecting this settlement was the fact that in 1765 the Karun,

which had hitherto entered the Persian Gulf by a separate channel via Marid, Qubban and the Khor Musa, left that channel and followed a small canal which had been dug to connect Marid with Mohammerah by the Bahmishir, then a branch of the Shatt al Arab, thus depriving Persia of the advantages of independent

access to the Persian gulf. On the inclusion of Mohammerah and district in Persian territory they were constituted, administratively, a deputy-governorship

under the provincial Governor

of Arabistan (Khuzistan) with in practice they were farmed Shaikh of the Muhaisin section Arabs inhabiting the region. Sir

headquarters at Shushter; but out, or delegated to the ruling of the Chaab, the Shia tribe of Khazaal Khan G.C.1.E., K.C.S.L.,

659

eastern California and South-western Nevada” in the U.S. Geological

Survey, Water Supply Paper No. 224.

MOHAWK.

This easternmost tribe of the Iroquois (g.v.) or

League of Five Nations, formerly in and about Mohawk valley, New York, now live to the number of over a thousand on reservations in Ontario. They were one of the smallest tribes of the confederacy, but perhaps the most aggressive, and Hiawatha, one of

the two founders of the league, was a Mohawk.

MOHEGAN

and MOHICAN.

These cognate tribes, of Al-

gonkin affinities, occupied -respectively eastern Connecticut and much of the Hudson valley in New York. They were similar to the other Algonkin of the middle Atlantic and New England coast. Fenimore Cooper’s Last of the Mohicans notwithstanding, mixed blood remnants of both tribes survive, respectively near Norwich, Conn., and Stockbridge, Mass., whereas other elements have lost their identity among the Delaware, Iroquois or other tribes.

MOHI, BATTLE OF: see SAJo, BATTLE oF THE. VON (1805-1872), German botanist, was

MOHL, HUGO

born at Stuttgart on April 8, 1805, and was educated at Tübingen and at Munich. In 1832 he became professor of botany in Tubingen, a post which he retained until his death on April 1, 1872. Von Mohl was concerned chiefly with the structure of the higher forms, including both rough anatomy and minute histology. The word “protoplasm” was his suggestion; he recognized under the name of “primordial utricle” the protoplasmic lining of the vacuolated cell, and first described the behaviour of the protoplasm in cell-division. He also held the view now generally adopted of growth of cell-wall by apposition. He first explained the true nature of pits, and showed the cellular origin of vessels and of fibrous cells; he was, in fact, the true founder of the cell theory. His early investigations on the structure of palms, of cycads, and of tree-ferns permanently laid the foundation of all later knowledge of this subject: so also his work on Jsoetes (1840). His later anatomical work was chiefly on the stems of dicotyledons and gymnosperms.

the present titular Shaikh, has always maintained most cordial The most notable of Von Mohl’s numerous papers were republished relations with British representatives in the Persian gulf and Mesopotamia. A British vice-consulate has been established at in Vermischte Schriften (1845). His important Die Vegetabilische Zelle appeared in 185r (Eng. trans. 1852). See J. Sachs, History of Botany Mohammerah since 1891. (1890) ; De Bary, Botanische Zeztung (1872), p. 5613; Proc. Roy. Soc., During the Anglo-Persian War of 1857 the town was assaulted xxiii. r. and taken by the British force under Sir James Outram and MOHL, JULIUS VON (1800-1876), German Orientalist, occupied until the conclusion of peace. ; brother of Hugo von Mohl (g.v.), was born at Stuttgart on Oct. Mohammerah is connected by river with Ahwaz (105 m.); good. 25, 1800. Having studied theology at Tiibingen (1818-23), he motor roads connect the town with Ahwaz (80 m.), Basra (25 abandoned the idea of entering the Lutheran ministry, and in m.), Abadan (9 m.). It is in telephonic communication via 1823 went to Paris, at that time, under Silvestre De Sacy, the Ahwaz with the rest of Persia, but not with Basra owing (1928) great European centre of Oriental studies. From 1826 to 1833 to diplomatic difficulties. he was nominally professor at Tiibingen, but continued his studies The only local product of importance is dates, which are ex- in London and in Oxford. In 1826 he was charged by the French ported in considerable quantities from the date-groves which line government with the preparation of an edition of the Shah Nama the Shatt al Arab and Bahmishir rivers. It is, however, a port (Livre des rois), which became his life-work. The first volume of considerable importance, its imports averaging for the past appeared in 1838; the seventh and last was left unfinished at his three years over one million pounds sterling; exports about death, being completed by Barbier de Meynard. He resigned his £200,000: representing respectively about 45,000 and 22,000 tons. chair at Tiibingen in 1834, and settled in Paris. In 1844 he was 146 ships entered the port in 1925-6 of which 141 were British. nominated to the academy of inscriptions, and in 1847 he became The average rainfall at Mohammerah is 8 in. per annum, as com- professor of Persian at the Collége de France. He served for pared with about double that amount at Masjid, Sulaiman, 120 many years as secretary, and then as president of the Société miles north. The climate is hot but not unhealthy. Asiatique. His annual reports on Oriental science from 1840 to MOHAVE. The Yuman tribe farthest upstream on the 1867, collected after his death under the title Vingt-sept ans Colorado river, where Arizona, California, Nevada adjoin. Simi- histoire des études orientales (Paris, 1879), are an admirable lar to the Yuma, they suffered somewhat less from Caucasian history of the progress of Eastern learning during these years. He contacts, and in roro over 1,000 remained. (See Kroeber, Bur. died in Paris on Jan.:3, 1876. Am, Ethn. Bull. 78, 1925.) His wife Mary (1793-1883), daughter of Charles Clarke, had MOHAVE DESERT, a name applied to that arid section passed a great part of her early life in Paris, where she was very of the “Great basin” which lies just north of the Colorado desert intimate with Madame Récamier. For nearly 40 years her house (9.v.). It includes much the greater part of San Bernardino was one of the most popular intellectual centres in Paris. She county and the eastern portions of Los Angeles and Kern counties, died in Paris on May 14, 1883. Madame Mohl wrote Madame Calif., and embraces an area of some 15,000 sq. miles. The Mo- Récamier, with a, Sketch of the History of Society in France have desert is about 2,000 ft. above the sea in average altitude, but the entire area consists of a series of more or less nearly parallel ‘ranges and intervening minor desert valleys. The mean annual rainfall is between 3 and 4 in.; the midday temperature dur-

(1885) ; and M. C. M. Simpson, Letters and Recollections of Julius and Mary Mohl (1887).

ing the summer ranges between 70° and 125° F. See W. C. Mendenhall, “Some Desert Watering Places in South-

Roman Catholic theologian, was born at Igersheim, Wiirttemberg,

(London, 1862). See

Kathleen

MOHLER,

O‘Meara,

Madame

JOHANN

Mohl,

ADAM

her Salom

and

(1796-1838),

Friends

German

MOHMANDS—MOI

660

on May 6, 1796. He studied at Tiibingen, where, after taking orders, he began to lecture in 1822, becoming full professor in 1828. His most famous work, Symbolik (1832), defending Catholic doctrine against Protestant theologians, was perhaps the most effective of the polemical writings of its time, and provoked replies from Baur, Marheineke and Nitasch. The feeling aroused in Tiibingen by the controversy induced Mohler to remove (1835) to the Catholic atmosphere of Munich. He was dean of Wirzburg when he died (April 12, 1838). Mohler wrote Die Einheit in der Kirche oder das Prinzip des

tician Guldberg in a study of the dynamics of the atmosphere and subsequently extending his investigations to the subject of

storms, the meteorology and oceanography of the northem At. lantic, the climate of Norway, and use of the hypsometer, He died at Oslo on Sept. 12, 1916. MOHR, KARL FRIEDRICH (1806—1879), German pharmacist, was born at Coblenz on Nov. 4, 1806, the son of a chemist. He studied under L. Gmelin, and, after five years at Heidelberg Berlin and Bonn, returned to Coblenz to assist his father, He

gave up business in 1857, and devoted himself to research work

Katholicismus (Tiibingen, 1825); Athanasius der Grosse u. d. until 1863 when he returned to the university at Bonn, where he Kirche seiner Zeit (2 vols., Mainz, 1827), besides the Symbolik died, on Sept. 28, 1879. Mohr was the leading scientific pharmaimprove(Eng. trans. by J. B. Robertson, 1843; 8th. ed., 1871-72, and Neue cist of his time in Germany; he was the author of many Untersuchungen der Lekrgegensatze zwischen den Katholiken u.

Protestanten (1834). His Gesammelte Schriften u. Aufsätze were edited by Döllinger and his Patrologie by Reithmayr, in 1839.

See J. Friedrich, J. A. Möhler (Munich, 1894); Gestalten aus dem modernen Katholicismus (1926).

MOHMANDS,

a Pathān

(Afghān)

Vigener,

tribe holding

Drei

about

1,2008q.m. of hilly country N.W. of Peshawar, in the North-west Frontier Province of India. This tract is hot, infertile and almost treeless, the hills being sparsely covered with low scrub, stunted palms and coarse grass. Water is scarce in summer, yet the lowlands are malarious. The harvests depend entirely on the rainfall. The whole of this region was claimed by the amir of Afghanistan, but in 1893 he handed over most of it under the Durand Agreement to the Indian Government, which, however, gave a guarantee to the Mohmand clans, whose lands fell within the Durand line, that they should not lose by their severance from Kabul. These are known as the Assured Clans. Owing to their poverty, even

more than to their pugnacity, the Mohmands have always been persistent raiders into British territory, and their forays necessitated punitive expeditions in 1851-52, 1854, 1864, 1879 and 1880, culminating in the campaign of 1897, when they joined in the general upheaval along the north-west frontier. Descending in force the Mohmands burnt Shabkadar, a village in British territory. Immediate counter-measures being imperative, British forces advanced from the Malakand and Peshawar to effect a junction in Bajaur, a brigade being detached northward to attack the Mamund valley. This brigade was strongly opposed and retired with loss. It resumed the offensive, however, and defeated the Mamunds. Meanwhile the main force, heavily attacked, had repulsed the Mohmands. Those in the hilly hinterland submitted. But the Mamunds were not yet subdued and their valley had to be re-occupied, though they soon came to terms. British losses in their valley amounted to 282 men out of 1,200. The Mohmands played some part in Afghan history after they

ments in analytical processes.

He invented the pinch-cock, the

cork-borer, Mohr’s balance for the determination of specific gravities and other pieces of apparatus. His methods of volymetric analysis were expounded in his Lehrbuch der chemischanalytischen Titrirmethode (1855). His Geschichte der Erde, eine Geologie auf neuer Grundlage (1866), also obtained a wide circulation. Ina paper “Über die Natur der Wärme,” in the Zeitschrift

für Physik (1837), he gave one of the earliest general statements of the doctrine of the conservation of energy. See

Kahlbaum’s

Monographien

aus

der Geschichte

der Chemie,

0. 8

MOHS,

FRIEDRICH

(1773—1839),

German mineralogist,

born at Gernrode in the Harz mountains, was professor at Graz and at Freiburg, and, lastly, professor of mineralogy and superintendent of the imperial cabinet at Vienna from 1826 onwards,

His great work was the Grundriss der Mineralogie (Eng. trans., Treatise on Mineralogy, by Wilhelm Haidinger, 1825). He died at Agardo, near Belluno, Italy, on Sept. 29, 1839.

MOHUN,

CHARLES

MOHUN,

4th Baron (c. 1675-

1712), duellist, was the son of the 3rd Baron Mohun, who died in 1677 as the result of a wound received in a duel. The boy had no regular guardian, and before he was seventeen had become notorious for rowdyism, had fought a duel and had been tried on

a charge of murdering William Mountfort, the rival of his friend, Richard Hill, who was in love with the actress Mrs. Bracegirdle. By an overwhelming majority he was found not guilty by his

peers. This verdict has been severely criticized, notably by Macaulay, who saw in it merely a gross instance of class favouritism. But a careful examination of the evidence (in the State Trials) justifies the decision, and establishes the presumption that the fight was fair. In 1699 Mohun was tried for another alleged murder, but was acquitted unanimously. His boon companion, Edward Rich, earl of Warwick (1673-1701), who was tried on a separate indictment for the same crime, was found guilty of On Nov. 15, 1712, Mohun forced the 4th duke of manslaughter. had driven off the older inhabitants of their present seats in Kafiriwhom he had been at law for some years, into with Hamilton, stan early in the 16th century. They joined in the great revolt of in Hyde Park in which both combatants were duel desperate a the Roshania sect in 1586 against the Mughals, and after its in Esmond. On Lord suppression retained their Jands. Under the Abdali rulers of killed. Thackeray has utilized this incident 1628 in favour of his greatin created barony, the death Mohun’s Kabul a Mohmand chief became sa#bahdar, “governor,” of Sirhind extinct. province. More aristocratic by instinct than the Afghans to the grandfather John Mohun (c. 1592-1640), became of My Lord Mohun and the Earl History and Life Whole The See south, the power of their chiefs of clans is well-developed, but of Warwick (1711); J. Evelyn, Diary and Correspondence, Historical they have never recognized any supreme head of the whole tribe, Mss. Commission, rzth Report, appendix v. (Dartmouth mss.); G.C and even within the clan faction is strong, succession to its head- Boase and W. P. Courtney, Bzbliotheca cornubiensis (1874-82); ship being often divided and disputed. The Mohmands rule over noe State Trials; and Colley Cibber, Apology, ed. R. W. Lowe 1889). a considerable mixed population of Hindus and Mohammedan MOHUN, MICHAEL (c. 1625-1684), English actor, played traders and tenants, largely no doubt converts from the tribes they dispossessed. Their shrines are useful as sanctuaries for at the Cockpit in Drury Lane before the Civil War. He served m murderers, etc., but they are not especially fanatical. A through the king’s army, and emigrated. At the Restoration he returned trade in females kidnapped from Swat, etc., assists some clans to with Charles II. and played a great variety of parts, usually as live, in spite of priestly censure, and there is a similar trade in second to Charles Hart. `

hides, rice, etc., but it is mostly in the hands of non-Mohmands. MOHN, HENRIK (1835-1916), Norwegian meteorologist, was born at Bergen on May 15, 1835, and was educated at the Cathedral School in that town and at the university of Oslo. In 1861 he became observer at Oslo university, where in 1866 he was elected professor of meteorology and from 1866-1913 was director of the Norwegian meteorological institute which he had been largely instrumental in founding. He carried out much valuable meteorological work, collaborating in 1876~8 with the mathema-

MOHUR, a Persian gold coin, used in India from the 16th century. Between 1835 and 1891 a gold coin, also called 4

“mohur,” was struck by the Government of British India and was of the nominal value of 1s rupees. On the establishment a gold standard in India in 1899 the British sovereign W83 declared legal tender and the mohur was superseded,

oe

MOI, a name used collectively for the hill tribes of Tongking

in Indo-China who are probably of mixed race with Mongolian, Indonesian and Caucasian blood (see MAN). Generally speaking

MOIDORE—MOJSISOVICS their polity is one of pure democracy, the chief, if any, being elected. In marriage patrilineal endogamy is reported to be the

rule, though exogamy Is permitted in some groups. There are traces of polyandry, and of a matrilineal system of genealogy

and inheritance. A man works for his bride in her father’s house, and the heir of a dead man marries his widow.

They seem to be

VON

MOJSVAR

661

vine-clad hills on the bank of the Tarn; it is divided into two parts by the lateral canal of the Garonne, which crosses the Tarn by an aqueduct a short distance above the town.

The abbey-

church of St. Pierre (15th cent.) has a porch of the 12th century, decorated with the finest Romanesque carving. St. Martin, the oldest of the other churches of Moissac, dates from before the

Buddhist by religion, but venerate stones. The dead are in some

year 1000. Moissac has paper mills, and trade in wines, fruit (grapes, peaches, etc.), vegetables and agricultural produce.

takes the form of a diving test to see which can stay under the

MOISSAN, HENRI (1852-1907), French chemist, was born at Paris on Sept. 28, 1852. He was educated in Frémy’s laboratory and attended lectures by Sainte-Clair, Deville and Debray. In 1879 he was appointed to a junior post in the Agronomic institute, Paris, and was subsequently (1886) pro-

places buried, in others exposed on platforms. Trial by ordeal longer. Like the Karens they have a quasi-Biblical legend of the Creation, and they have a legend about Amazons who smelt copper. They shave the heads of their children habitually, and their own when in mourning, a trace, perhaps, of Hindu influence. Their medicine-men practise legerdemain, and cure sickness by “extracting” the cause in the form of “dirt.” They have separate buildings for the unmarried, and the approaches to their villages are made under tunnels of thorn which can be cut down to block the way. They use a flexible sawing thong to make fire, pistonbellows, the gourd organ, and as weapons the crossbow and the gun-arrow, both of which may be used with poison.

MOIDORE,

a corruption of the Portuguese moida d’ouro,

literally, money of gold, the name of a gold Portuguese coin, coined from 1640 to 1732. This was of the sterling value of 13s. 54d. It is the double moida d'ouro, of the value of 4,800 reis in 1688,

that was current in western Europe and the West Indies for a long period after it ceased to be struck. It was the principal coin current in Ireland at the beginning of the 18th century, and spread to the west of England. At the same period it was current in the West Indies, particularly in Barbados. It was rated at 27s.

MOIR, DAVID

MACBETH

(1798-1851), Scottish phy-

sician and writer, was born at Musselburgh on Jan. 5, 1798. He studied medicine at Edinburgh university, and practised at Musselburgh until his death on July 6, 1851. He contributed prose and verse to the magazines, and particularly, with the signature of “Delta,” to Blackwood’s. A collection of his poetry was edited in 1852 by Thomas Aird. The famous Life of Mansie Wauch, Tailor (1828) shows his gifts as a humorist. He also wrote Outlines of the Ancient History of Medicine (1831), and Sketch of the Poetical Literature of the Past Half Century (1851).

MOIRE. Atextile fabric possessed of a distinctive “watered” or shaded ribbed effect produced by various methods of “finishing.” A moiré or “watered” finish is generally applied to fine ribbed silk fabrics of the poplin type, though similar effects are also sometimes produced in cotton fabrics. Although a ribbed weave is more conducive to the development of a moiré or watered effect, similar effects can also be obtained with other weaves in fabrics of comparatively close and firm texture, and more especially in those produced from silk, artificial sik and mercerised cotton. The moiré effect results entirely from the varying angles at which the rays of light are reflected from the surface of the fabric. Moiré effects are produced from two distinctly different methods of finishing. One of these produces the true moiré effect, known

as “moire antique” and “moire Anglaise,” which is a purely physical phenomenon. This “moire antique” effect is obtained by first damping the material and folding it with the face side inward,

and with the two selvedges running together side by side. The cloth is then passed between heated cylinders and under considerable pressure. This is the more permanent of the two styles. The second is an imitation produced mechanically by means of engraved copper rollers. (H. N.)

MOISSAC, a town of south-western France in the department

of Tam-et-Garonne, 17 m. W.N.W. of Montauban on the South-

em railway between Bordeaux and Toulouse. Pop. (1926) 3,807. The town owes its origin to an abbey probably founded in the

7th century by St. Amand, the friend of Dagobert. After being devastated by the Saracens, the abbey was restored by Louis of Aquitaine, son

of Charlemagne.

Subsequently

it was

made

dependent on Cluny, but in 1618 it was secularized by Pope Paul V., and replaced by a house of Augustinian monks, sup-

pressed at the Revolution. The town, which was erected into a commune in the 13th century, was taken by Richard Coeur de

Lion and by Simon de Montfort.

Moissac stands at the foot of

fessor of toxicology and of inorganic chemistry (1889) at the School of Pharmacy, and of inorganic chemistry at the Sorbonne (1900). He was awarded the Lacase prize in 1887 and the Nobel prize for chemistry in 1906; he died in Paris on Feb. 20, 1907. Moissan’s first research was on a biological problem and dealt

with the interchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide in leaves, but he soon went over to inorganic chemistry. His early work in this field was on the oxides of the iron group metals, and of chromium; he also made a careful study of the chromous salts. In 1884 he turned to the study of fluorene and prepared several new compounds, including phosphorus and organic derivatives. In 1885 he found that potassium fluoride could be dissolved in certain proportions in liquid hydrofluoric acid to give a solution which conducted electrolytically and which remained liquid at low temperatures. A year later by electrolysing this solution in a platinum tube using platinum-iridium electrodes he obtained for the first time the wonderfully active fluorine gas. He made a full study of the properties of the gas and of its combinations with other elements. In 1892 Moissan developed the electric arc furnace as a means of obtaining very high temperatures for experimental work; by its aid he prepared many new compounds, especially carbides, silicides and borides, and melted and volatilized substances which had previously been regarded as infusible. He

prepared tiny artificial diamond: (see Gems, ARTIFICIAL) by cool-

ing very rapidly a solution of carbon in molten iron, and also discovered carborundum (silicon carbide). He studied the chemistry of the carbides and the action on them of water, and was led by the results to suggest that petroleum formation may be due to a similar process occurring in the earth. Moissan also prepared the hydrides of calcium, sodium and potassium, and found them to be non-conductors of electricity.

His published works include Le four électrique (1897) and Le Fluor et ses composés (1900), besides numerous papers, mainly in the Comptes rendus of the Société Chimique. A Traité de Chimie minérale (5 vols.) was published under his direction in 1904-06. See À. Stock in Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft (vol. xl., 1907); P. Lebeau, “Henri Moissan,” in the Bulletin de la Société chimique de France (vol. iii., 1908); W. Ramsay, “Moissan Memorial Lecture,” in the Journal of the Chemical Society (vol. ci., 1912).

MOJI, a town of Japan, on the Kyushu side of the Shimonoseki Strait. It is the starting-point of the Kyushu railway, and as there is abundance of coal in its neighbourhood, it has become

a town of considerable importance. Pop. (1925) 95,087. It is the first Japanese port of call for many steamers from Europe. MOJSISOVICS VON MOJSVAR, JOHANN (1839-1907), Austro-HunAUGUST GEORG EDMUND garian geologist and palaeontologist, was born at Vienna on Oct. 18, 1839. He studied law in Vienna university and in 1867 entered the Geological institute, becoming chief geologist in 1870 and vice-director in 1892. He retired in 1900, and died at Mallnitz on Oct. 2, 1907. He paid special attention to the cephalopoda of the Austrian Trias. With Melchior Neumayr (1845-90) he conducted the Beiträge sur Paläontologie und Geologie Oester-

reich-Ungarns. In 1862, with Paul Grohmann and Dr. Guido von Sommaruga, he founded the Austrian Alpine club. His publications include Das Gebirge um Hallstatt Dolomitrisse

von Südtirol und Venetien

(1878-80);

(1873-76); Die Grundlinien

der

Geologie von Bosnien-Herzegowina (1880) with E. Tietze and A. Bittner; Die Cephalopoden der mediterranen Triasproving (1882);

662

MOKANNA—MOLE

Die cephalopoden der Hallstétter Kalke (1873-1903) ; and Beztrage zur Kenntniss der obertriadischen Cephalopodenfaunen des Himalaya (1896).

MOKANNA (al-Moganna’, the Veiled), the name given to Hakim, or ‘Ata, a man of unknown parentage, originally a fuller in Merv, who posed as an incarnation of Deity, and headed a revolt in Khorasan against the caliph Mahdi. For about three years he sustained himself in the field against the troops of the caliph and for two years longer in his fortress of Sanam;

then,

reduced to straits in 779, he and his followers took poison and set fire to the fortress. He is a hero of Moore’s Lalla Rookh.

MOKHA

(Mocha, properly Makha), a town in Arabia on the

alto).

Maes Garmon

(the battlefield of Germanus) associated

with early Christian legend, is about a mile west of Mold. Mold castle, probably built by Robert Monthault (zemp. William

Rufus), often changed hands in Welsh border-warfare.

MOLDAVIA,

S.F.S.R.,

created

an

autonomous

in 1925.

Area

republic 8,288

of the Russian

sq.km.

Pop, (1926)

567,306. It is situated on the left bank of the Dniester river i the Ukrainian S.S.R. between 48° 12’ and 46° 32’ N. and 2° 30 and 30° 06’ E. Autonomy was granted to the region because refugees from Bessarabia, after the occupation of that country by the Rumanians, expressed a desire for cultural independence.

The population consists of Ukrainians 48-5%, and Moldavians

Red Sea coast 13° 19’ N. and 43° 12’ E. Formerly the chief port 30-1%, the rest being Jews, Germans, Bulgarians, Poles, Czechs for the Yemen coffee export, it has much diminished in importance. and Greeks. Its surface consists of a plateau sloping gently from The coffee grown in the mountain districts of Haraz, Uden, and north-west to south-east, deeply dissected by small streams with Ta‘iz is now shipped at Hodeida or Aden, though the article retains ‘steep banks. The great number of ravines thus cut in the spongy the trade name of “Mocha.” The town lies in a small bay 40 m. loess are unfavourable to agriculture, especially as the heavy rainN. of Perim at the southern entrance to the Red Sea. The neigh- storms of June and July often wash the surface soil away. The bouring country is an arid plain, the town being supplied with soil is chiefly black earth. The climate is extreme and most rain water by an aqueduct from the village of Muza, situated 16 m. E. falls in very heavy storms during the growth of crops, so that the This is probably the Muza of the Periplus, a great seat of the Red harvest is often damaged by these floods. Sea trade in antiquity, which like other old Tehama towns, Agriculture thus labours under heavy disadvantages and has formerly seaports, has long since been left by the receding sea. more than the usual element of chance: this has tended to prevent MOKSHANY, an agricultural town of Russia, in the prov- progress, and to lower social conditions. The chief crops are ince of Penza, in 53° 25’ N., 44° 35’ E. Pop. (1926) 9,786. maize, wheat, rye and sunflower seed. Sugar beet, makhorka Mokshany was built in 1535 as a fort to protect the country tobacco, fruits and vines are also cultivated. The number of from the raids of the Tatars and the Kalmucks and is supposed cattle is poor compared with that in the rest of the Ukraine and to occupy the site of the Meshcheryak town of Murunza, men- diminished markedly after the bad harvest of 1924. Peasant intioned as early as the oth century. dustries to supplement the uncertain harvest are widespread and MOLASSES, the syrup obtained from the drainings of raw include the preparation of foodstuffs, flour-milling, oil-pressing sugar or from sugar during the process of refining. In American and wine-making, the making of leather goods, especially boots usage the word usually applies to both forms of the syrup, but in and shoes, purses, etc., and the preparation of homespun garments. English usage the second form is more usually known as “treacle” Clay and alabaster are also worked, and household utensils, wood, (see SUGAR). The word, which in early forms appears as melasses, metal and pottery made. Manufactures are little developed. molassos, etc., is from the Port. melago, or Fr. mélasse, cf. the Balta was at first declared to be the temporary administrative late Lat. mellaceum, syrup made from honey (mel).° The geo- centre and a hope was expressed that ultimately Kishinev and logical term “molasse” (Lat. mollis) is applied to the soft green- the surrounding district would be detached from Bessarabia and ish sandstone of the district between the Jura and the Alps. joined to the republic, and that Kishinev would then become the MOLAY, JACQUES DE (d. 1314), last grand master of administrative centre. In 1928, however, Birzulav (Birzula), a the Knights Templars, was born at Molay (Haute-Saône), about small town of 9,973 inhabitants, in 47° 45’ N., 29° 30’ E, was the middle of the 13th century. He entered the order in 1265 declared the administrative centre. The railway net is comparaat Beaune in the diocese of Autun, and set out for the East to tively good, but roads are poor, and become impassable in flood take part in the defence of the Holy Land against the Saracens. time, those on the ravine slopes being sometimes completely About 1295 he was elected grand master of the order. After the washed away. The literacy rate is low and this militates against Templars had been driven out of Palestine by the Saracens, De efforts to introduce scientific improvements to prevent the washMolay took refuge with the remnant of his followers in the ing away of the surface of ravines. (See Brack EARTH AREA.) island of Cyprus.- Here, he received a summons (in 1306) from The system of agriculture is mainly the traditional three-field Pope Clement V. to go to Paris. De Molay left Cyprus with a system and agricultural implements are old fashioned and, in a retinue of 60 followers, and made a triumphal entry into Paris. population of fugitives, often lacking altogether. The migration On Oct. 13, 1307 every Templar in France was arrested, and a of refugees into an area where the allotment of land to each prolonged examination of the members of the order was held. De peasant was already small, especially in view of the meteorological Molay, probably under torture, confessed that some of the charges risks in this region, has created a very difficult problem. The lack of diplomatic relations between Russia and Rumania brought against the order were true. He was kept in prison for several years, and in 1314 he was brought up with three other and the consequent closing of the Dniester for trade between the dignitaries of the Temple before a commission of cardinals and two countries complicates the situation, and the region, which others to hear the sentence (imprisonment for life) pronounced. suffered severely during the war and civil war of 1914-20, and De Molay then withdrew his confession. The king immediately the famine conditions of 1921 and 1924, is in an unsettled social gave orders that De Molay and another of the four, who had also and economic condition. For the history see RUMANIA. MOLDAVIA, a former principality of south-eastern Europe, recanted, should be burnt as lapsed heretics. The sentence was constituting, after its union with Wallachia on the gth of Novemcarried out on March 11 (or roth), 1314. For the charges brought against the Templars and the famous ber 1859, a part of Rumania (g.v.).

process in connexion with them, see Temprars; J. Michelet, Procès MOLDAVITE: see TEKTITE. des Temp.iers (1841-51) and Lavocat, Procés des frères et de Pordre MOLE, LOUIS MATHIEU, Comte (1781-1855), French du Temple @aprés des piéces inédites publiées par M. Michelet (1888) ; E. Besson, “Etude sur Jacques de Molay” in Mémoires de la soc. statesman, was born in Paris on Jan. 24, 1781. His father, a d’émulation du Doubs (Besancon, 1876) ; H. Prutz, Entwickelung und president of the parlement of Paris, was guillotined during the Untergang des Tempelherrenordens (Berlin, 1888). Terror, and Molé’s early days were spent in Switzerland and

MOLD (formerly Mould, Welsh Y Wyddgrug), market town of Flintshire, north Wales; on the L.M.S. railway (Chester and Denbigh branch), rı m. from Chester. Pop. of urban district (1931) 5,133. At the north end of the town, Bailey Hill, partly natural and partly artificial, was an early fortification, and in old

Tecerds is known as Moaldes, Monhault, or Monthault (de monte

in England with his mother, a relative of Lamoignon-Males-

herbes. After his return to France Napoleon attached him to the

staff of the council of state, and subsequently gave him many

high offices.

Except for a short term of office as minister of

marine he was in opposition under the Restoration. He was for-

eign minister, without real power, for a few months in 1830, and

MOLE—MOLECULE in 1836 he became prime minister and foreign minister. Personal and political differences rapidly arose between Molé and his chief colleague Guizot, and led to an open rupture in March 1837. Molé, supported by Louis Philippe, held his ground against the

general hostility until the beginning of 1839, when the chamber was dissolved, but Molé resigned on March 31, 1839. After the

revolution he sat in the Constituent Assembly, and in 1849 in the

Legislative Assembly, where he was one of the leaders of the Right until the coup d’état on Dec. 2, 1851, drove him from public life. He died at Champlatreux (Seine-et-Oise) on Nov. 23, 1855.

See P. Thureau-Dangin, Histoire de la monarchie de juillet (1884g2); and Robert Cougny, Dict. des parlementaires français (1891).

MOLE, MATHIEU of Edouard Molé

(1584-1656), French statesman, son

(d. 1614), who was

for a time procureur-

général, was educated at the University of Orleans.

Admitted

conseiller in 1606, he was président aux requêtes in 1610, pro-

cureur-général in succession to Nicolas de Bellièvre in 1614, and he took part in the assembly of the notables summoned at Rouen in 1617. He fought in vain against the setting up of special tribunals, or commissions, to try prisoners charged with political offences, and for his persistence in the case of the brothers Louis and Michel de Marillac he was suspended in 1631. In 1641 he was appointed first president of the parlement. In the long conflict between Anne of Austria and the parlement, Molé played a conciliatory part. In the popular tumult known as the day of the barricades (Aug. 26, 1648) he sought out Mazarin

663

terminating in broad, naked, shovel-shaped feet, the paims directed

outwards; the hind-feet are long and narrow, and the toes have slender claws. The body is densely covered with soft, erect, velvety fur, generally black, with a greyish tinge. Albino and other colour varieties are known. The food of the mole consists of earthworms, in pursuit of which it forms underground excavations, The mole is most voracious and, if deprived of food, succumbs in from ten to twelve hours. Moles take readily to the water. The sexes come together about the second week in March, and the young—generally from four to six in number—are brought forth in about six weeks. Much misconception has prevailed with regard to the structure of the mole’s “fortress,” z.e., the large breeding hillock, which 1s generally placed in bushes, or amid the roots of a tree; a good

account, however, is given by Adams (Mem. Manchester Lit. and Phil. Soc. 1903, vol. 47). Moles are disliked on account of the way in which they spoil lawns and pastures, and they destroy large numbers of the useful earthworm; but they are useful in aerating and turning the soil. The mole is the most important wild fur-bearing animal of the British Isles (see Fur). The geographical distribution of the mole is very wide.

MOLECULE, CHEMICAL.

The chemical molecule is us-

ually defined as the smallest part that exists free in the gaseous form of a chemical substance. A very large number of chemical substances, however, have never been obtained in the gaseous form, and, in fact, many substances are incapable of existence exand the queen to demand the release of Pierre Broussel and his cept in the solid form. The compound chemical substance, alum, colleagues, whose seizure had been the original cause of the out- for example, decomposes on melting and exhibits no trace of volbreak. Next day the parlement marched in procession to repeat atility; it can be subdivided mechanically almost an infinite Molé’s demand. On their way back they were stopped by the number of times without any change in chemical properties apcrowd. “Turn, traitor,” said one of the rebels to Molé, seizing pearing, though it can be ultimately resolved by chemical processes him by the beard, “and unless you wish to be massacred, either into the five elementary substances, potassium, aluminium, sulbring back Broussel or bring Mazarin as a hostage.” Many magis- phur, oxygen and hydrogen. Obviously there must be some stage trates fled; the remnant, headed by the intrepid Molé, returned in the subdivision of alum at which further subdivision will deto the Palais Royal, where Anne of Austria was induced to stroy the individual substance and reveal the presence of the elementary constituents: this ultimate stage is the stage of the release the prisoners. Molé failed to prevent the outbreak of the first Fronde, but molecule. A molecule thus represents the limit of subdivision of he negotiated the peace of Rueil in 1651. He refused honours and a substance at which the chemical properties are wholly retained. Chemical science is not directly concerned with the absolute rewards for himself or his family, but became keeper of the seals, and therefore retired from the presidency of the parlement. He sizes of either molecules or atoms, all molecular and atomic weights being multiples of an arbitrary unit. The element selected died on Jan. 3, 1656. The Mémoires of Molé were edited for the Société de V/histoire de as the standard was originally hydrogen, as the lightest known France (4 vols., 1855) by Aimé Champollion-Figeac, and his life was gas. For purposes of convenience (accessibility of measurement, written by Baron A. G. P. de Barante in Le Parlement et la Fronde etc.), the modern standard is the gas, oxygen, which is approxi(1859). See also the memoirs of Omer Talon and of De Retz. mately 16 times as heavy as hydrogen. Taking oxygen. as 16, the MOLE, (x) a small animal of the family Talpidae (see below), atomic weight of hydrogen is 1-008, which for most practical (2) a mark, or stain, and particularly a dark-coloured raised spot purposes is taken as unity. Though chemistry is concerned only on the human skin. This word, O.E. mál, is probably cognate with these relative weights, it is possible on chemical considerawith Lat. maculus, spot. Its meaning of stain is seen in the cor- tions to obtain some very approximate idea of the absolute rupted form “iron-mould,” properly “iron-mole,” a stain pro- weights of molecules and atoms. If one grain by weight of the duced on linen or cloth by rust or ink, (3) a large structure of colouring miatter, fluorescein, is dissolved in 354 gallons of water, rubble, stone, or other material, used as a breakwater or pier the yellow colour is just perceptible in a single drop of the (see BREAKWATER). This word comes from Lat. moles, a mass, solution. This drop contains 1/500,000,0ooth part of the original large structure. The ‘Mole of Hadrian” is the mausoleum of that fluorescein. Though this dilution is at the visual limit of fluorescein detection, it is still very far from the molecular stage. If emperor, now the castle of St. Angelo, at Rome. In zoology the name of mole is applicable to the common mole the single drop, however, is diluted with water a further four (Talpa europaea), a small, soft-furred, burrowing mammal, with million million times, a drop of the resulting solution would conminute eyes, and broad, strong fore-limbs, adapted for digging, tain a molecule of fluorescein, and it is known by chemical analybelonging to the order Insectivora and the family Talpidae. In sis that the fluorescein molecule is 332 times as heavy as a a wider sense may be included under the same term the other Old hydrogen atom. World moles, the North American star-nosed and other moles, In the early days of chemical science the distinction between the African golden moles of the family Chrysochloridae; and, in atoms and molecules was not appreciated. John Dalton, the astill looser sense, to the Asiatic zokors, the African strand-moles, founder of the atomic theory, in 1808 regarded the atom as the Snes to the order Rodentia, and the Australian marsupial smallest ultimate weight of both elements and compounds. He mole. thus referred, for example, to the ultimate particle of the comThe common mole is about six inches long, with a tail of pound of nitrogen and hydrogen as an atom of ammonia. The one inch. The body is long and cylindrical, and, owing to the term atom is no longer used in connection with compound parforward position of the front limbs, the head appears to rest ticles, and is reserved solely for the ultimate particles of elements. between the shoulders; the muzzle is long and obtusely pointed, Dalton assumed that the elementary gases were composed of terminated by the nostrils; the minute eyes are almost hidden by individual atoms, and that chemical combination occurred simply the fur; the ears are without conches, opening on a level with atom to atom. In the same year J. L. Gay Lussac discovered the the surrounding skin; the fore-limbs are short and muscular, ‘law of simple multiple proportions by volume,” which, in modern

664.

MOLE-RAT—MOLESWORTH

terms, states that the gaseous volumes of substances taking part

in a chemical change and the total change of volume, if any, are small integral multiples of a common factor of these volumes. In a very great number of cases it was known that the volumes

of gases taking part in chemical changes were equal, and in 1811 Amadeo Avogadro put forward the hypothesis that equal volumes of gases under the same conditions contain the same numbers of particles. Avogadro used the term molecule in the sense in which Dalton had used the term atom, and distinguished the gas particle by the term integral molecule. The simple term molecule is now reserved solely for gas particles and ultimate particles of compounds. By means of this hypothesis as to gas particles, Avogadro was enabled to discern that the gas particles of nearly all the elements were made up of more than one ultimate particle or atom, the majority of the elements possessing diatomic particles or molecules. The molecules of hydrogen and chlorine, for example, were deduced to be double, on the ground that the gaseous hydrogen chloride they formed had double the volume of the hydrogen or chlorine used in the combination. Similarly, oxygen had a diatomic molecule, because the volume of water vapour was double the volume of oxygen used or obtainable from it, and nitrogen likewise, because ammonia gas was double the volume of nitrogen obtainable from it. Avogadro’s hypothesis and his deductions therefrom were disregarded, and confusion about atomic and molecular weights prevailed in chemistry for nearly half a century. But the hypothesis was revived in 1858 by another Italian, Stanislao Cannizzaro, who showed that all known physical and chemical facts confirmed its validity, and that the inferential distinction made possible between atoms and molecules reconciled all the contradictory experimental results accumulated ‘since the beginning of chemistry as a science. Avogadro’s hypothesis, that equal volumes of gases under the same conditions of temperature and pressure contain the same number of molecules, necessarily involves that the weights of equal volumes of gases are the relative weights of their molecules or that the ratio of densities of gases is the ratio of their molecular weights. The method of density is the fundamental method of determining molecular and atomic weights in chemistry, the atomic weight of an element being the smallest weight of it ever found in its molecular weight or in the molecular weight of any of its compounds. The method of gas or vapour density for determination of molecular weight is, however, inapplicable to the cases of elements and compounds that are not vaporizable under experimental conditions, and other methods have to be resorted to. Minimum values for molecular weight can be obtained for the majority of non-volatile compounds by the method of equivaients. For example, fluorescein combines by replacement of hydrogen with alkalis to form salts in the proportion of 332 parts of fluorescein to one equivalent of an alkali metal. As a molecule cannot contain less than one atom of hydrogen, the least molecular weight of fluorescein is 332. This method is in common use to determine the molecular weights of organic acids by the formation of silver salts. If the basicity of the acid is known, 2.e., the number of hydrogen atoms that are replaceable, the true molecular weight is equal to the apparent molecular weight multiplied by the basicity. This method of equivalents may be used for all compounds, whether they contain hydrogen or not. All that is required is the percentage composition of any one constituent of a compound, the minimum molecular weight being a hundred times the atomic weight of the constituent divided by the percentage of it in the compound. | . Investigation of the properties of solutions has disclosed that an internal pressure called the osmotic pressure is set up in liquids by the presence of dissolved substances, such that this pressure is approximately equal to that exertable by the same weight of the substance if it existed as a gas and occupied the same volume as the solytion. Comparison of osmotic pressures thus furnishes a method of determining relative molecular weights, by reference to such properties as are dependent on osmotic pressures. These properties are lowering of the vapour pressure of the Solvent,

elevation of its boiling point, depression of its freezing point, and lowering of its solubility for other substances, Comparisons of

molecular weights by these methods are seldom more thay approximately correct, but they are invaluable in deciding which

multiple of the equivalent weight is the molecular weight. A limi.

tation to this method is the fact that many substances are de. composed or dissociate into smaller parts on solution. Substances that dissociate on solution form electrolytes, solutions that con-

duct electricity and give rise to abnormally high osmotic Dressures. S. A. Arrhenius in 1884 showed that the abnormality was

due to ionization, each ion contributing to the osmotic pressure

an amount equal to that of the non-ionized molecule, and the electrical conductivity being proportional to the number of ions,

Measurements of conductivity thus supplement the osmotic pres-

sure method and enable determinations of molecular weight to be made even for substances which dissociate on solution. Where only the equivalent weight of a compound is known valuable indications as to the true molecular weight may often be obtained by analogy with other similar compounds. These analogies are usually based on resemblances in composition, in valency of the constituent atoms, in constitution and the spatial distribytion of the atoms or groups of atoms, and in crystalline form

(isomorphism).

(J. D. M. S.)

MOLE-RAT, the name of a group of blind burrowing rodents, typified by the large grey Spalax typhlus of eastern Europe, Western Asia and Egypt, which represents the Old World family Spalacidae. The mole-rats are characterized by the want of distinct necks, small or rudimentary ears and eyes, short limbs pro-

vided with powerful digging claws, and a rudimentary tail; they make burrows in sandy soil, and feed on bulbs and roots. Bamboo-

rats (Rkizomys) from India and Burma, and Tachyoryctes from

East Africa, differ by the absence of skin over the eyes, the pres-

ence of short ears, and a short, sparsely-haired tail. They burrow among tall grass, or at the roots of trees. Another group is

the African family Bathyergidae, which contains the Naked Molerats of East Africa (Heterocephalus). (See RODENTIA.)

MOLESKIN, a term employed not only for the skin of a

mole but also, from a real or fancied resemblance, for a stout,

heavy cotton fabric of leathery consistence, woven as a satin twill on a strong warp. It is much worn by working-men, and is used for gun-cases, carriage-covers, and other purposes in which a fabric capable of resisting rough usage is desirable. MOLESWORTH, MARY LOUISA (1839-1921), Scottish writer, daughter of Major-General Stewart, of Strath, N.B., was born in Rotterdam on May 29, 1839, and was educated in Great Britain and abroad. In 1861 she married Major R. Molesworth. Her first novels, Lover and Husband (1869) to Cicely (1874), appeared under the pseudonym of “Ennis Graham.” Mrs. Molesworth is best known as a writer of books for the young, such as

Tell Me a Story (1875), Carrots (1876), and The Cuckoo Clock (1877). She died in London on July 20, 1921. MOLESWORTH, ROBERT MOLESWORTH, ist VisCOUNT (1656-1725), was the son of Robert Molesworth, a Cromwellian who made a fortune in Dublin. He supported William of Orange and in 1695 became a prominent member of the Irish privy council. In 1716 he was created a viscount. He was suc-

ceeded by his two sons, John, 2nd viscount (1679-1726), and Richard, 3rd viscount (1680-1758), the latter of whom saved Marlborough’s life at the battle of Ramillies and rose to be a field-marshal. The 3rd viscount’s son Richard Nassau (1748-93) succeeded to the title, which has descended accordingly. A great-grandson of the 1st viscount, Joumw Epwarp Nassav

MoLesworTH (1790-1877), vicar of Rochdale, was a well-known High Churchman and controversialist; and two of his sons be-

came prominent men—WzrLi1am Nassau MoreswortH (1816-

90), author of History of England 1830-1871 (1871-73), History of the Reform Bill (1865), and History of the Church of England (1882); and Str GUILFORD MOLESWORTH (b. 1828), an eminent engineer and economist. MOLESWORTH, SIR WILLIAM, Barr. (1810-1855), English politician, son of the 7th baronet, was born on May 23, 1810 in London. After succeeding to baronetcy in 1823, he studied at Edinburgh, Cambridge, Offenbach, Rome and Naples. On the passing of the Reform Act of 1832 he was returned to parliament

MOLFETTA—MOLIERE for the eastern division of Cornwall. He made the acquaintance of Grote and James Mill, and in April 1835 founded, in connction with Roebuck, the London Review, as an organ of the

“Philosophic Radicals.”

After the publication of two volumes

he purchased the Westminster Review, and for some time the

665

and that he perfidiously advised Jean Poquelin to release his grandson from the shop and send him to the celebrated college of the Jesuits at Clermont. This story is extremely improbable. Noblesse oblige. Louis Cressé was himself an upholsterer. The college of Clermont, moreover, was hardly a preparation for the

united magazines were edited by him and J. S. Mill. From 1837 stage. It is more reasonable to believe that Jean Poquelin, of to 1841 he sat for Leeds, and acquired considerable influence in his own initiative and from a wise belief in the value of learning, the House of Commons by his speeches and by his tact in presiding decided that his son should have as good an education as possible over the select committee on transportation. But his Radicalism in preparation for his duties at the court. There is no sign in made little impression either on the house or on his constituency. Molière of any vocation for the stage till he left college as a From 1841 to 1845 he had no seat in parliament, occupying his young man of 20. The utmost we can say of him in early boyleisure time in editing the works in Latin and English of Thomas hood is that he had special opportunities of frequenting the Hobbes of Malmesbury, a recreation which cost him no less than theatre. One of the friends of Jean Poquelin, also an upholsterer, {6,000. In 1845 he was returned for Southwark, and retained was one of the masters of the Confrérie de la Passion, and in the that seat until his death. On his return to parliament he devoted theatre of the Hotel de Bourgogne, which was owned by the special attention to the condition of the colonies, and was the Confrérie, the masters had a private box reserved for them and ardent champion of their self-government. In January 18 53 Lord for their friends. This box was known as Ze paradis, and paradise Aberdeen included him in the cabinet as first commissioner of

works, the chief work by which his name was brought into promi-

it may well have been for the young Molière.

There he would see,

as a child, the tragedies of the period and the famous buffoons,

Turlupin, Gaultier-Gargouille and Gros-Guillame, then at the height of their popularity. The father of Moliére himself, moreover, inherited two boxes within the enclosure of the famous ber 22. He married in 1844, but had no children, and the baron- fair of St. Germain, the home of the théâtre de la foire, where in etcy passed to a cousin. the first half of the 17th century Bary and Orvietan delighted The titles of his speeches and works are given in the Bibl. Cor- the crowd with their burlesques. nubiensis, vol. i. and ili. See also Mrs. Grote’s The Philosophical RadiMarie Cressé died in 1632, when Molière was only ten years cols (1866) and Mrs. Fawcett’s Life (1903). old, and a year later Jean Poquelin married Catherine Fleurette. MOLFETTA, a seaport and episcopal see of Apulia, Italy, in There is no evidence in support of the allegation that Catherine the province of Bari, 16 m. N.N.W. of Bari by rail. Pop. (1921), in any way disliked or neglected the children of Marie Cressé, 46,242. The old cathedral of S. Conrad is Romanesque. The old and critics who have assumed that she served as a model for the town is surrounded by walls; the new town is more spacious, and odious step-mother in Le Malade Imaginaire betray more ingeis an active seaport. The town was given by Charles V. to nuity than common sense. Catherine died within three years of the duke of Termoli in 1522, and was sacked by the French under her marriage, so that Molière knew her only between the ages of Lautrec in 1529. In 1640 the fief passed to the Doria, then to to and 13. It is difficult to establish when exactly he went to the Spinola family. Two miles south-west is the Pulo di Molfetta, Clermont. The evidence is conflicting. Clearly, however, his a large circular depression in the plain, on the edge of which was education was at no time neglected. There can be no doubt of the an important neolithic settlement. pride and affection with which Jean Poquelin regarded the eldest nence at this time being the construction of the new Westminster

bridge; he also was the first to open Kew Gardens on Sundays. In July 1855 he was made colonial secretary but he died on Octo-

MOLIERE (1622-1673), the name taken by the great French actor and dramatist, Jean Baptiste Poquelin. He was born in Paris, probably in Jan. 1622. His certificate of baptism is dated Jan. 15 of that year, in the parish of St. Eustache. The place of his birth is disputed. Part of his boyhood and early youth was passed in a house known as the maison des singes at the corner of the Rue St. Honoré and the Rue des Vieilles Etuves, but in 1622 his father may have occupied another house in the same street. The maison des singes no longer exists, but there is extant the drawing of a pillar of the house which stood at the angle of the street, decorated with sculptures representing a group of monkeys playing about an orange tree. The monkey was traditionally the emblem of the comic actor. If Molière was not born n the maison des singes, his destiny was at least symbolically determined for him when his father moved to it a few years later. Jean Poquelin, Molière’s father, came of an old family of

Beauvais which for generations had been engaged in the same

trade. Jean Poquelin, upholsterer, and the son of an upholsterer,

married Marie Cressé, the daughter of an upholsterer, and in

1631, when Molière was only nine years old, succeeded his uncle as valet tapissier de chambre du roi. Six years later he arranged that his son should have the reversion of this office. The young

Molière was to go the way of his ancestors. There was nothing

which pointed to unusual genius in the family, though Marie Cressé was clearly a woman of taste and method. She had a Bible, 4 copy of Plutarch’s Lives, excellent furniture and a plentiful

supply of linen. Jean Poquelin was of a shrewd and amiable disposition, with a faith in education which reminds

us of M.

Jourdain. But the books in his house belonged to his wife, and

his supreme ambition was, undoubtedly, that his son should suc-

ceedhim in the family business. The biographers of Molière look for early signs and influences that might have turned him.towards the theatre, but the evidence is extremely suspect. Grimarest (1705) tells us that Louis Cressé,

the maternal grandfather of Moliére had a passion for the stage

child of his first marriage. The college at Clermont was attended by the sons of the best families in France, and Jean Poquelin

must have had considerable influence, or the young Molière must

have shown considerable promise, to secure admission. Molière at Clermont acquired a thorough grounding in the humanities. Terence is said to have been his favourite dramatist, and Lucretius was his chosen philosopher. Special attention was paid to the French language, and the masters cultivated in their pupils a love of poetry and the theatre, encouraging them to compose and to produce ballets and plays. The attendance of Molière partly coincided with that of his future patron, the Prince de Conti, though the prince was nearly eight years younger. Tradition, questioned in this as in so many other points by modern research, obstinately affirms that, with Chapelle, his friend in later years, and with Cyrano de Bergerac and others, he studied philosophy under the celebrated Gassendi. Gassendi, to the scandal of his contemporaries, was a champion of Epicurus and the most formidable adversary of Descartes. Whether Moliére was actually a member of the group of privileged youths who had private lessons from Gassendi may be doubted, but there is no doubt at all concerning his studies in philosophy. He is said to have translated Lu-

cretius. The translation is unhappily lost, but its existence is attested by several independent witnesses and is hardly open to doubt. The plays are enough to show that Molière was thoroughly familiar with the philosophic learning of the time. There is, on the other hand, nothing to justify the legend that Molière was ever at the Sorbonne, or that he studied theology. On leaving Clermont, however, he almost certainly studied law and was probably called to the bar in 1641.

MADELEINE BEJART The formal and academic education of Moliére was now complete, and he was presumably expected to devote himself henceforth to his father’s business. The question when exactly Moliére first met Madeleine Béjart, a meeting which was decisive for his

666

MOLIÈRE

career, has been much disputed. The likeliest hypothesis is that he met her in Paris immediately on leaving college. The Béjarts were near neighbours of the Poquelins in the Rue St. Honoré. Madeleine was already perhaps an actress, and certainly a subject of lively interest to her neighbours. She was 24 years of age. Four years previously she had been the mistress of the brilliant and adventurous Comte de Modéne, and she was the mother of a child formally acknowledged by the count. She was clearly in no respect a safe companion for the inheritor of a respectable middle-class tradition; and, if Molière were already acquainted with her in 1642, Jean Poquelin would be glad of the very suitable opportunity which soon occurred of sending him away from Paris for a time. In 1642 Louis XIII. went to Narbonne, and, according to Grimarest, Jean Poquelin arranged for his son to accompany the royal household as valet tapissier and thus fulfil the duties which had been so carefully reserved for him by the arrangement made in 1637. There is no good reason to doubt the statement of Grimarest, and we may, therefore, assume that Moliére had on this occasion his first view of the provinces where he afterwards wandered as an actor for 13 years. The precautions of Jean Poquelin were in vain. Molière returned to Paris probably in the late summer of 1642, where he almost immediately abandoned his father’s business, and adopted a theatrical career. On Jan. 6, 1643, he signed a document surrendering his right to the reversion of the post of valet tapissier secured to him six years previously, and acknowledging the receipt from his father of 630 livres. The money was to be spent for a purpose which for the moment was unspecified, but which was revealed six months later in the celebrated contract signed in the house of the Béjarts on June 30, 1643, by the founders of the Illustre Théâtre, a document which the Comédie Française regards as the first of its charters.

The enterprise with which Molière thus became identifed was due to the initiative of the family of which Molière may henceforth be regarded as an adopted member, and particularly of Madeleine who was the leading spirit in the new company. Her father, Joseph Béjart, an official in the Department of Forestry, had died earlier in the year, leaving a widow with five children and a number of debts. Three of his children, Joseph, Madeleine and Geneviéve, joined the new company, and the other members ~ of the troupe were of a similar standing, persons of small degree in the estimation of Jean Poquelin and of a Bohemian inclination. Madeleine, who was to be the friend and adviser of Molière for 30 years, and always the business man of the company, was of an amiable and free disposition—generous, affectionate, loyal in her friendships, able and prudent in the management of her affairs. There is no proof that she was at any time his mistress, and it is clear, despite everything that has been written to the contrary, that she never attached any importance to that aspect of their relationship—if, indeed, it ever existed. Her affection

for Moliére was from the first maternal rather than passionate. This brings us to the most obscure of the many problems which confront the biographer of Moliére, and it may be well to dispose of it as briefly as possible before following him into his theatrical career. On Feb. 20, 1662, nearly 20 years after Molière first made the acquaintance of Madeleine Béjart, he married a young girl of 19,. who subsequently became one of the most celebrated members of his company. The girl, known to her contemporaries as Armande Béjart, was generally said to be - the daughter of Madeleine. His enemies went further than that. The anonymous, biographer who in 1688 published a life of Armande under the title of La Fameuse Comédienne, insinuates

that Madeleine, at the time when Armande was born, was too promiscuous in her loves to be sure of the paternity of the child, and Boulanger de Chalussay, author of Elomire Hypocondre, a libellous comedy on Molière published in 1660, is still more explicit. He definitely suggests that Moliére was the father of Armande. A third witness is Montfleury, a rival actor of the Hotel de Bourgogne, whe wrote to Louis XIV: in 1663 and accused::.Mohére of marrying the daughter of his mistress, leaving

the. king to draw his own:conclusions. m] Pp y oa

‘

dear and immediate. The libellous Elomire Hypocondre was sup-

A ba

The king’s answer was

i

pressed, and Louis stood godfather to the first child of Molière and his young wife. No one of credit believed in 1662 that Armande was the daughter of Molière, but it is equally true that no one, so far as we know, disputed the allegation that she was

the daughter of Madeleine. His enemies wished to believe it ang his

friends

the more

did not

surprising.

trouble

to

A hundred

deny

it.

The

sequel is aj

and fifty-nine years late

in 1821, Beffara, an ex-commissioner of police, searching amo i the registers of Paris, discovered the marriage certificate of Moliére in the parish of St. Germain l’Auxerrois. In this certificate Armande is given not as the daughter, but as the sister, of Madeleine, by Joseph Béjart and Marie Hervé. This discovery seemed to dispose once for all of any doubt as to the parentage of Ar-

mande, and it was reinforced in 1863 by the discovery of a legal document dated March 10, 1643, in which Marie Hervé, the widow of Joseph Béjart, renounced for herself and her children

an inheritance which, as we have seen, consisted mostly of liabilities. In this document reference is made to four children of Joseph and to an “infant not yet baptised,” the infant, of course, being Armande, who was thus, in a legal document signed and witnessed 19 years before her marriage, stated to be the sister and not the daughter of Madeleine. These documents, which seemed for a moment to settle the question, have, in the opinion of many respectable critics, only made it more mysterious. Marie Hervé, in the act of renunciation dated 1643, describes all her children as minors. Joseph and Madeleine, however, had already attained their full legal majority. Marie Hervé, moreover, when Armande was born, was at least 33 years old and she had not had a child during the eight previous

years. More remarkable is the fact that Moliére, who might have produced these documents and thus silenced his -enemies once and for all, never apparently made the least allusion to them, but acquiesced in the tradition, unquestioned for 160 years after his marriage, that Armande was the daughter of Madeleine. The inference has been drawn that the documents were not such as would have borne too close an inspection. The hypothesis which has won most support, though it is contemptuously dismissed by some scholars, is that Madeleine, for reasons variously given, which cannot be discussed within the limits of this article, was at the time of the birth of Armande anxious to avoid confessing her maternity and that she therefore induced her mother to acknowledge the child as her own. It is unlikely that the real facts of the case will ever be ascertained. Neither the gossips of the time nor the critics of a later generation help us very much to determine the attitude of Madeleine herself to the marriage, but it is clear that throughout her life she takes a very special interest in Armande. Armande received at her marriage a dowry of 10,000 livres, which purported to come from Marie Hervé. But Marie Hervé was at that time penniless. It was almost certainly Madeleine, the only rich member of the family, who supplied the money, and ten years later she left to Armande the whole of her fortune. No satisfactory explanation has been given why Madeleine should thus favour the youngest of her sisters at the expense of all the other members of the family. On the other hand no convincing reason has been given why Madeleine, if Armande was her daughter, should have wished to conceal the fact.

In the face of all this conflicting evidence, the just critic must

apply the principles of English equity. The documents must be accepted until they are definitely proved to be falsifications of the truth, and according to the documents Armande is the sister of Madeleine. THE

FIRST

THEATRICAL

VENTURE

The Ilustre Théatre—The contract between the members of the Zllustre Théâtre was of a kind that had been familiar to the theatrical fraternity since Charles VI. had accorded his royal

protection to the Conjréres de la Passion in 1502. Each of the associates contributed to the funds of the company, and enjoyed

in return a share in the profits and properties. No member might

withdraw or be dismissed except at» four months’ notice. The plays were cast and the affairs of the theatre managed by a majority vote of the company. Madeleine Béjart was, by a special

MOLIERE

667

ovision, entitled to choose her own part in every play, and it |having failed in Paris, decided to go into the provinces. We do not was stipulated that the heroes should be impersonated alternately | know exactly how he, or more probably the Béjarts, contrived Molière and two other members of the company. The com- to arrange the matter, but in Jan. 1645, within six months of its pany leased for three years a tennis court near the Porte de bankruptcy in Paris, we find all that remained of the company in Nesle, at a rental of 1,900 livres. While, however, the necessary the service of the Duc d’Epernon, governor of Guienne, at or gructural alterations were being made, the company visited near Narbonne. The second stage in the theatrical progress of Rouen, and it was probably in that city in Nov. 1643 that Moliére Moliére had begun, and for the next 13 years he was to wander made his first appearance as a professional actor. In December from place to place in the southern provinces of France. This is the company returned to Paris and urged on the work at the the most legendary period of a legendary life. Every town within tennis court. In particular, Léonard Aubry, of the king’s Office reach of his activities has since been anxious to claim a piece of of Works, was urgently pressed to complete in good time the him or contribute to his Odyssey, and the real facts are difficult ving of the road in front of the theatre. to establish. His itinerary has been painfully reconstructed from The history of the Jilustre Théédtre is obscure. Its repertory the marriage and baptismal certificates of friends or members of consisted mainly of tragedies long since forgotten, and the only the company, from applications for licences to perform, from reauthentic evidence we have of its fortunes is a record of financial ceipts given on account of taxes levied for the poor, from eviembarrassment. In Dec. 1644 we find the company indebted to dence of his association with noble protectors or local authorities. Francois Pommier for 2,000 livres, and Marie Hervé, who made The evidence is always intricate and sometimes contradictory, herself responsible for this debt, had pledged her house to an- and it is impossible to do more than indicate the general results. other creditor of the company for 1,100 livres. In Dec. 1644 the The following is a list of the towns which were certainly visited receipts and assets of the company were all earmarked for its by Moliére in the years indicated: Narbonne, 1645; Toulouse, creditors, and the lease of the theatre was cancelled on the r4th Albi and Carcassonne, 1647; Nantes, 1648; Toulouse and Narof the month. Undaunted by these crushing reverses, the com- bonne, 1649; Narbonne and Agen, 1650; Grenoble and Lyon, pany moved to the tennis court of the Croix Noire on the Quai 1652; Lyon and Montpellier,.1653; Montpellier and Lyon, 1654; des Ormes, without, however, changing its fortunes. In March Montpellier, Lyon, Avignon and Pézenas, 1655; Pézenas, Narof the following year Moliére, who had previously pawned two bonne, Bordeaux and Béziers, 1656; Béziers, Lyon, Dijon and handsome ribbons with a milliner for 2ọr- livres, undertook to Avignon, 1657; Lyon, Grenoble and Rouen, 1658. The above list make good any deficit that might be incurred on their sale. He includes only the towns for which documentary proof can be was unable to discharge this debt until 15 years later, on May 13, quoted, and no doubtful or merely probable cases are included. 1659, two days after the first performance in Paris of L’Etourdi. The Duc d’Epernon, with whom we find Moliére at the beginThe financial troubles of the company culminated in March 1645 ning of his provincial career, was the first person of distinction in the imprisonment of Moliére for debt at the suit of the master- effectively to recognize and encourage the genius of Moliére. The chandler who supplied the theatre with candles. Francois Pom- actor, Dufresne, was titular head of the new company, and Mademier likewise obtained a warrant against him, and he seems also leine was its tragic star. In 1653 Moliére found a more celeto have been detained at the suit of a certain linen draper for brated protector in his old schoolfellow, the Prince de Conti. By the sum of 240 livres. that time Moliére was undoubtedly the leader of the company. Too little is known of the work of the Jilusire Théétre to jus- He acts as its representative, and with Madeleine is, in effect, its tify a discussion of its dramatic achievements. The biographical responsible manager. It had recently been strengthened by the interest of the venture lies rather in the attitude of the two acquisition of two new members, Mademoiselle de Brie and families who were principally concerned. That of the Béjarts is Mademoiselle du Parc, and it would seem that the patronage of clear enough. Marie Hervé, signatory of the act of association, the Prince de Conti, and the pension granted as a result of it, was with three of her children in the company, supported the enter- at the outset due less to the genius of Moliére than to the charms prise to the limit of her resources. She regarded Molière as in of Mademoiselle du Parc, of whom the prince’s secretary became a sense one of the family, and treated bis liabilities as being on opportunely enamoured. The prince was at this time at the height the same footing as those of her own children. What was the of his brilliant career. Moliére spent a good deal of time in his attitude of Jean Poquelin? He had finally acquiesced in his society, and they read and discussed plays together. The sequel son’s adventure, and had even supplied him with the money to to the friendship was unfortunate. The Prince de Conti became buy a share in the company. But he made no effort to help his suddenly regenerate, and, from being the gayest of his peers, was son while the company still persisted in an enterprise which to him shortly to come before the world