Emergent Literacy: Lessons for Success 9781597563017, 1597563013

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Emergent Literacy Lessons for Success

Emergent and Early Literacy Series Laura M. Justice, Series Editor

Clinical Approaches to Emergent Literacy Intervention Edited by Laura M. Justice, Ph.D. Sharing Books and Stories to Promote Language and Literacy Edited by Anne van Kleeck, Ph.D. Assessment in Emergent Literacy Edited by Khara L. Pence, Ph.D. Emergent Literacy: Lessons for Success by Sonia Q. Cabell, Laura M. Justice, Joan N. Kaderavek, Khara Pence Turnbull, Allison Breit-Smith

Emergent Literacy Lessons for Success

Sonia Q. Cabell Laura M. Justice Joan N. Kaderavek Khara Pence Turnbull Allison Breit-Smith Illustrations by Zehra Fazal

5521 Ruffin Road San Diego, CA 92123 e-mail: [email protected] Web site: http://www.pluralpublishing.com 49 Bath Street Abingdon, Oxfordshire OX14 1EA United Kingdom

Copyright © by Plural Publishing, Inc. 2009 Typeset in 11/13 Garamond by Flanagan’s Publishing Services, Inc. Printed in the United States of America by McNaughton and Gunn, Inc. All rights, including that of translation, reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, recording, or otherwise, including photocopying, recording, taping, Web distribution, or information storage and retrieval systems without the prior written consent of the publisher. For permission to use material from this text, contact us by Telephone: (866) 758-7251 Fax: (888) 758-7255 e-mail: [email protected] Every attempt has been made to contact the copyright holders for material originally printed in another source. If any have been inadvertently overlooked, the publishers will gladly make the necessary arrangements at the first opportunity.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data: Emergent literacy : lessons for success / Sonia Q. Cabell ... [et al.]. p. cm. — (Emergent and early literacy series) Includes bibliographical references. ISBN-13: 978-1-59756-301-7 (alk. paper) ISBN-10: 1-59756-301-3 (alk. paper) 1. Reading (Primary) 2. Literacy—Study and teaching (Primary) 3. Language arts (Primary) I. Cabell, Sonia Q. LB1525.E536 2008 372.6'044—dc22 2008031124

CONTENTS About the Authors and Illustrator Acknowledgments

vii viii

PART I: OVERVIEW

1

1 2 3

Overview of Emergent Literacy

3

Differentiating Emergent Literacy Instruction

9

How to Use this Book

21

PART II: CODE-RELATED LESSON PLANS

31

4 5 6 7

Phonological Awareness

33

Print Awareness

49

Alphabet Knowledge

69

Emergent Writing

89

PART III: ORAL LANGUAGE LESSON PLANS

109

8 9

Inferential Language

111

Vocabulary

131

References Index

151 157

ABOUT THE AUTHORS AND ILLUSTRATOR Sonia Q. Cabell, M Ed, is a doctoral candidate in reading education at the Curry School of Education, University of Virginia (Charlottesville, VA). A certified reading specialist, Cabell has worked as a second grade teacher and a literacy coach in both Oklahoma and Virginia. She currently serves as the research coordinator in the Preschool Language and Literacy Lab at the University of Virginia. Her research projects investigate aspects of emergent literacy among preschool children who are at risk for later reading difficulties. Laura M. Justice, PhD, is professor in the School of Teaching and Learning at The Ohio State University (Columbus, OH). A clinical speech-language pathologist, Justice is interested in early literacy development and intervention for children who have language difficulties. She has published a number of peer-reviewed papers on this topic as well as several books, including Clinical Approaches to Emergent Literacy Intervention. Joan N. Kaderavek, PhD, is professor in Early Childhood Education in the College of Education at the University of Toledo (Toledo, OH). She conducts research and publishes in the areas of early childhood language and literacy development, literacy interventions for children with special edu-

cational needs, and effective instructional practices for early childhood classrooms. Khara Pence Turnbull, PhD, is a research scientist at the U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences and has worked previously at the Preschool Language and Literacy Lab at the University of Virginia. She has authored or edited four books, including Scaffolding with Storybooks with Laura Justice and Assessment in Emergent Literacy, as well as several research articles. Her interests include language development and early literacy development, particularly for children who are at risk for language and literacy difficulties. Allison Breit-Smith, PhD, is a post-doctoral researcher in the College of Education and Human Ecology at The Ohio State University. Her research focuses on early language development and emergent literacy skills in children with disabilities with an emphasis on interactive book sharing. She has worked professionally for many years as a speechlanguage pathologist in the public schools. Zehra Fazal is a freelance graphic designer working out of Washington, DC. When not behind a computer, she is often found on stage, performing as an actor in the DC area and nationally.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Special thanks to Tricia Zucker, Jill Pentimonti, Anita McGinty, and Alice Wiggins for their feedback and encouragement during this project.

In loving memory of my father Mohammed, a tireless supporter of my education, and my mother Rashida, my first reading teacher. And to my dear husband Todd, who always encourages me. (SQC) To Addie and Griffin, the greatest kids in the world. (LMJ) To my colleagues who have made things happen—you know who you are. (JK) To Roberta Golinkoff and Sharon Walpole—two special women I am honored to call my mentors. (KPT) To Steve. (ABS)

PART I Overview

Chapter 1 Overview of Emergent Literacy

I

n recent years, our nation’s policymakers and educators alike have expressed concern regarding the preliteracy experiences of our youngest children. State departments of education have worked to create frameworks outlining the literacy skills children should have in place before entering kindergarten. Indeed, much focus has been placed on how to effectively implement research-based preliteracy practices in our nation’s preschools. For example, federal support under the Early Reading First Initiative seeks to create centers of excellence by providing schools with funds for literacy coaches, curricula, and ongoing training for teachers. This focus on preliteracy abilities is particularly crucial for children who live in poverty. These children are less likely to have rich literacy encounters at home and are more likely to experience reading difficulties in the later grades (Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998). There exists a body of research that addresses the following question: What kinds of encounters with literacy do children need before formal reading instruction commences to allow them to make a smooth transition into reading? In this chapter, we provide an overview of emergent literacy and focus on the foundational skills associated with later reading success.

What Is Emergent Literacy? Traditional conceptions of children’s earliest encounters with literacy involved the idea of reading readiness. It was widely believed that young children were either “ready” or “not ready”

to learn to read. Many educators held the view that children should not be explicitly introduced to literacy-related activities until a level of maturation had taken place and until they were deemed cognitively ready to learn. This notion has largely been replaced with the idea that children develop a host of written and oral abilities prior to formal reading instruction during the emergent phase. The emergent literacy perspective departs from reading readiness in two important ways. First, this perspective specifies no clear boundary between prereading and reading. Rather, literacy learning begins early in a child’s life, with the recognition that important literacy accomplishments emerge prior to formal instruction (Whitehurst & Lonigan, 1998; van Kleeck, 1990). A second way in which emergent literacy differs from reading readiness is the belief that reading, writing, and oral language develop in an interconnected fashion within informal social contexts (Whitehurst & Lonigan, 1998). As children in a literate society learn about the world around them, they glean knowledge of how print works. It is important not to confuse emergent literacy with early literacy or beginning reading. Children in the emergent stage of development are not beginning readers; they are emergent readers. As emergent “readers,” children are not decoding words. Rather, they are reading logographically, as they identify environmental print based on visual cues (e.g., stop sign says “stop”; golden arches for McDonald’s). When the same words are written without the visual cue, children can no longer read the words (Ehri, 2005; Ehri & Wilce, 1985). Consequently, individuals who work with children in the emergent literacy period of development are

4

Emergent Literacy: Lessons for Success

not teaching reading per se; rather, they are helping children to develop a foundation of precursory understandings about sound, print, and oral language that will ease their transition into the formal rigors of reading instruction. Near the end of the emergent literacy period of development, children may be using their rudimentary knowledge of letter-sound correspondences to partially decode and inventively spell some words, representing the salient sounds heard in speech (e.g., B for baby, V for elevator). However, once children are systematically using letter sounds to decode words and invent spellings, they are beginning readers in the stage of early literacy development who need very different instruction, particularly in the code-related realm. They are beginning to grasp the alphabetic principle, which is the understanding that oral and written language connect in systematic ways (see Snow et al., 1998). This book, while focused on the emergent reader, contains some lessons suitable for children who are just beyond the emergent stage (i.e., children just entering the early literacy stage). For example, lessons involving inventing spellings and phonemic awareness activities would be appropriate for beginning readers. As children move into the conventional literacy stage of development, the instructional focus shifts to developing comprehension and appropriate rate and expression of reading. The lessons in this book do not fully address the instructional goals of children in the early and conventional literacy stages. Essential instructional components for children in the early and conventional stages involve phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension (National Reading Panel, 2000). Figure 1–1 depicts the progression from emergent to conventional literacy. In sum, emergent literacy encompasses the skills, attitudes, and environments that precede formal reading ability. In this book, we focus on

emergent literacy skills, which are the written and oral abilities children develop from birth to approximately age 5. These precursory skills form a foundation on which formal reading instruction can build when a child enters kindergarten and first grade.

Key Emergent Literacy Skills The National Early Literacy Panel (2004) conducted a comprehensive meta-analysis of 234 studies and identified several strong predictors of later reading and spelling achievement during the emergent period. From the work of this panel, we may identify key predictors of later reading and spelling achievement to include: ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

Phonological awareness Print awareness Alphabet knowledge Emergent writing Oral language ■ Inferential language ■ Vocabulary

These predictors can be broadly conceptualized as two interrelated domains: code-related skills and oral language skills (Whitehurst & Lonigan, 1998; Storch & Whitehurst, 2002). Coderelated skills are those that lay a foundation to help children “break the code” of reading. These skills include phonological awareness, print awareness, alphabet knowledge, and emergent writing. These emergent literacy skills are strongly related to children’s ability to decode in the early reading phase (NELP, 2004). Oral language skills comprise both expressive and receptive language abilities, to include inferential language and vocabulary knowledge. These skills are predictive of children’s

Figure 1–1. Stages of Literacy Development.

Overview of Emergent Literacy

reading comprehension during the conventional reading phase of development. Although they are distinct categories, both code-related and oral language skills are interconnected during the preschool period (Storch & Whitehurst, 2002). Below, we provide information about each of these key emergent literacy skills.

Code-Related Emergent Literacy Skills

5

their knowledge of how print works increases in sophistication. These early understandings form the necessary foundation for later reading acquisition. A child’s print awareness reflects a growing ability to interact with print in meaningful ways (Justice & Ezell, 2001). For timely development in this area, young children benefit from immersion in print-rich classrooms, with adults mediating their interactions with print. Educators should provide children with many opportunities for learning about print as they explore print within books as well as in their environment (Adams, 1990).

Phonological Awareness Phonological awareness is an umbrella term that refers to children’s metalinguistic understandings about the sound structure of language. Phonological awareness appears to develop in a general sequence: rhyme, alliteration, words, syllables, onsetrime, and phoneme. However, this sequence is not “lock-step” and preschool children can develop sensitivities to many areas concurrently (Anthony, Lonigan, Driscoll, Phillips, & Burgess, 2003). Phonemic awareness is the most complex level of phonological awareness in which children are able to manipulate individual sounds in words (e.g., D-O-G can blend to form the word dog). A level of phonemic awareness appears to be necessary for reading acquisition and is considered an essential component of reading instruction in the early grades (NRP, 2000). Thus, phonological awareness skills should be incorporated in preschool instruction to include rhyming, alliteration, word and syllable segmentation, and if appropriate phoneme manipulation. It is important to note that many preschoolers have not yet developed sensitivity at the phoneme level, and therefore instruction in phonological awareness should be tailored to meet the specific needs of children. Print Awareness Print awareness refers to children’s early understandings of how print works in a book. This knowledge includes: print conventions (e.g., print is read from left to right and top to bottom on a page); print functions (e.g., print carries meaning); and print forms (e.g., letters make up words). As children gain more experience with books,

Alphabet Knowledge General consensus exists regarding the importance of alphabet knowledge in emergent literacy development (Adams, 1990; Snow et al., 1998). Alphabet knowledge includes children’s understandings of the shapes, names, and sounds of the letters of the alphabet. This includes knowledge of upper- and lowercase letters. Among kindergartners and preschoolers, the ability to identify letter names is one of the strongest unique predictors of later reading achievement (Adams, 1990; Badian, 2000; Scarborough, 1998). Research has not yet established a specific sequence in which children learn the letters of the alphabet. In general, children are more likely to learn uppercase letters before lowercase ones, and they are likely to know the first letter in their names more than any other letter of the alphabet (Justice, Pence, Bowles, & Wiggins, 2006). Some argue that a causal relationship exists between letter name knowledge and subsequent reading achievement. In particular, solid knowledge of letter names can help children more readily learn letter sounds, because many names contain their corresponding sounds. Treiman, Tincoff, and Richmond-Welty (1996) found that letter-name knowledge facilitates letter-sound knowledge, particularly when the letter name contains its sound and the phonological structure of the letter name is /Ci/ (e.g., B and D). Emergent Writing Young children actively explore their knowledge about how print works through emergent writing.

6

Emergent Literacy: Lessons for Success

Writing becomes a method of testing hypotheses about print as children experiment with various forms and functions. Children’s earliest writing attempts may include drawing and scribbling. As their knowledge about print grows, they write using letterlike forms. Then they begin to include letters in their writing, usually from their name. In fact, the first stable string of letters that children are able to write is usually their name (Ferreiro & Teberosky, 1982). Evidence suggests that preschool children initially view their names as logograms, or pictures, and therefore children are able to write their names without knowing letter names or letter sounds (Bloodgood, 1999; Cabell, Justice, Zucker, & McGinty, in press; Treiman & Broderick, 1998). As children’s understanding of the alphabetic principle grows, they begin to use a different strategy to write (Levin, Both-De Vries, Aram, & Bus, 2005); they invent spellings based on their knowledge of letter-sound correspondences and phonological awareness. Salient sounds heard in the speech stream are represented (LFT for elephant), including initial sounds in words (B for ball). Educators should keep a few things in mind regarding children’s emergent writing. Development of emergent writing may follow a general sequence, but it is not necessarily linear. For example, children may go back and forth between scribbling and writing with letters depending on the task (Bus et al., 2001). In addition, it is important to keep in mind the reality that children learn through active exploration of writing. Although copying from a model is acceptable, teachers should encourage children to write freely at their level of emergent writing. This experimentation with writing helps to build early understandings about print. Finally, emergent writing does not take place in a vacuum; educators must understand that writing often takes place in a social context as children interact with peers while writing (Rowe, 2008).

Oral Language Skills Children’s ability to effectively use and comprehend language is an essential precursor to reading. Children who do not develop adequate oral

language skills tend to lag behind their peers in literacy. It is important that children have structured opportunities to develop these skills. Indeed, children’s language is heavily influenced by the richness and complexity of the language they hear around them (e.g., Huttenlocher, Vasilyeva, Cymerman, & Levine, 2002). Children should be given ample opportunity to engage in rich conversations with their teachers as well as with peers, developing both inferential language and vocabulary knowledge. Inferential Language Children’s ability to comprehend language can be viewed as a continuum spanning from the literal to the inferential (van Kleeck, Vander Woude, & Hammett, 2006). Often, interactions with preschoolaged children focus on literal language (What color is this? What is Sally doing?). While building literal language is important, it is critical to later reading comprehension that inferential language is also developed that requires children to focus beyond the “here and now.” Inferencing skills can be developed in preschoolers long before they begin to read. Inferential language includes language to problem solve and reason as well as discuss cause and effect. Talking beyond the here and now can be accomplished through engaging children in discussion of the past/future; helping children to take another person’s perspective; and using language to imagine (Weitzman & Greenberg, 2002). Teachers can also model this behavior through thinking aloud about things that are puzzling, thereby making their thought processes explicit to children. The storybook reading experience is a useful context in which to develop children’s inferential language (see Chapter 3; van Kleeck et al., 2006). Vocabulary Vocabulary knowledge is critical to reading ability (NRP, 2000) and is therefore an important part of emergent literacy instruction. Some may think that children will gain enough vocabulary knowledge from daily conversations or TV-watching. However, even a preschool child’s book has more instances of rare words than a nighttime sitcom (Cunningham & Stanovich, 2003)! Written lan-

Overview of Emergent Literacy

guage, or the language of storybooks, is different from and more complex than the language we use while speaking. Therefore, reading books aloud to children can be an important vehicle for the development of vocabulary knowledge. Children learn words incidentally while listening to a book, but an explicit focus on preselected words can enhance word learning further (Justice, Meier, & Walpole, 2005). It is also important to develop children’s knowledge of the subtle distinctions between words (e.g., stomp versus march) as well as the multiple meanings of words.

7

During the preschool years, it is imperative that a firm foundation of emergent literacy skills be laid for all children. Classroom teachers, speechlanguage pathologists, reading specialists, and other educators can work together to accomplish this goal. Each child is unique and comes to school with a different knowledge base. Therefore, we must move beyond a “one size fits all” approach to teaching and learning. In Chapter 2, we discuss how educators can effectively differentiate emergent literacy instruction to meet the needs of all children.

Chapter 2 Differentiating Emergent Literacy Instruction

I

n much of this book we describe specific lessons and strategies that may be used to develop the emergent literacy skills of young children. Our belief is that all children should have every opportunity, whether at school, at home, or in a specialized clinic, to develop what we consider to be critical precursors to skilled reading. While historical perspectives of reading development espoused the notion that children must achieve some threshold of “readiness” before they are able to learn to read, such perspectives are now out of date, given what we understand about literacy development. That is, what we know today is that most if not all children develop critical understandings about reading and writing in the years prior to formal schooling, and that these understandings are vitally important to facilitating children’s later responsiveness to formal reading instruction (e.g., Catts, Fey, Tomblin, & Zhang, 2002). We also know that children who exhibit developmental vulnerabilities, including those with identified disabilities and those reared in poverty or similarly adverse circumstances, show early gaps in literacy achievement (relative to peers) that can grow larger over time, thereby presenting specific risks to later reading outcomes. As importantly, however, other sets of research findings have made it very clear that children with developmental vulnerabilities can greatly benefit from targeted, systematic opportunities to develop emergent literacy skills and understandings (e.g., Justice, Chow, Capellini, Flanigan, & Colton, 2003; O’Connor, Notari-Syverson, & Vadasy, 1998; van Kleeck, Gillam, & McFadden, 1998; van Kleeck, Vander Woude, & Hammett,, 2006). Because of

this knowledge base, and its indication of the crucial importance of preventive-oriented emergent literacy instruction, professionals can no longer sit and wait for children to achieve some level of readiness before literacy instruction proceeds. Children who have developmental vulnerabilities in the first few years of life, for whatever reasons, require our due diligence in crafting highly effective and focused emergent literacy programs and interventions if they are to enter school ready to learn. Some educators and clinical professionals become unsettled at the idea of delivering focused emergent literacy interventions to young children, particularly those youngsters who do not seem ready to benefit from such interventions. They might find it somewhat vexing to think about teaching a young child with a significant intellectual disability the letters of the alphabet, when other functional skills seem so much more critical. Yet our position is that every child has the right to learn to read, and that optimizing the early years that precede formal reading instruction provides us our best chance for achieving that goal. In the life of a child with a developmental vulnerability, timing is everything. Indeed, our position is that we won’t know what a child is capable of until we try. In fact, because of the plasticity of the developing brain, children are often capable of achieving a great deal more than we can even anticipate (see Huttenlocher, 2002). In this chapter, we discuss ways to differentiate instruction—focusing specifically on applying this concept to the types of activities included in this book—so that one can meet the needs of all learners in the classroom.

10

Emergent Literacy: Lessons for Success

What Is Differentiated Instruction? To answer this question, let’s begin by exploring the notion of instruction and asking: What is instruction? We draw from the seminal writing of Jerome Bruner (1966), who presented four features that should guide a theory of instruction (the rules that govern the most effective way of helping an individual to achieve specific knowledge or skills). A theory of instruction should: 1. Specify the context of instruction, so that a child is readily predisposed towards learning, 2. Specify the ways in which knowledge or skills should be structured, so that it can be readily grasped by a child, 3. Specify the sequence of instruction, so that a child’s learning follows the most effective sequence, and 4. Specify the types and pacing of reinforcers, both intrinsic and extrinsic, that are used over time. Within this book, we provide some detail regarding each of these, but for the most part we leave specific decisions regarding instructional contexts, structuring of knowledge, sequencing of instruction, and use of reinforcers up to the interventionist. We do this not because of a laziness on our part, but because of the critical importance of ensuring that instruction is highly individualized, or differentiated, to meet the needs of learners and, by consequence, to help all children learn as efficiently and effectively as possible. Differentiated instruction is based on the premise that children learn at different rates and in highly unique ways. Consequently, differentiated instruction relies upon the interventionist’s skill in specifying a theory of instruction that is uniquely responsive to the individual needs of each child. We draw upon principles of high-quality differentiated instruction to lay a foundation for helping interventionists consider how they can best meet the needs of highly diverse learners. This discussion is driven by Tomlinson and Germundson’s (2007) metaphor of “teaching as jazz,” whereby:

Teaching is like jazz . . . Jazz blends musical sounds from one tradition with techniques and theories from another. It uses blue notes for expressive purposes and syncopation and swing to surprise. It incorporates polyrhythm. It uses call-and-response . . . And it invites improvisation. . . . Teaching, too, makes music with the elements at the teacher’s disposal, merging them just so to ensure a compelling and memorable sound (p. 27).

Tomlinson and Germundson present this metaphor of the linkages between quality teaching and jazz in their consideration of why some curricula, even excellent curricula, fail to meet the needs of all students. It is the interventionist—the teacher, the speech-language pathologist, the reading specialist, the special educator—who must develop a theory of instruction that individualizes the learning tasks within a curriculum for each individual child. To effectively differentiate instruction, educators organize learning events so that they are aligned to where specific children are along a continuum of growth. Theoretically, this instructional technique draws upon Vygotsky’s (1978) notion of the zone of proximal development, whereby effective instruction is situated to precede development rather than trail behind it or frustrate it. High-quality differentiated instruction exhibits these two characteristics, as identified by Carolan and Guinn (2007): 1. The interventionist consistently uses scaffolding techniques that help the learner “bridge the gap between what he or she can do and what or she needs to do to succeed” at a specific task (Carolan & Guinn, 2007, p. 45). Some of the most effective scaffolding techniques involve offering highly personalized examples to pupils, drawing upon their own experiences and prior knowledge. 2. The interventionist uses a variety of means to help children meet the desired goals. Carolan and Guinn describe this characteristic as flexibility, noting that skilled differentiators use “flexible means to reach defined ends” (p. 45). Truly skilled interventionists know how to build upon the strengths of and challenges faced by individual children to allow

Differentiating Emergent Literacy Instruction

them to participate maximally in specific tasks or activities. In this way, skilled interventionists do not compromise or lower their learning goals for children who may face challenges in learning, yet they modify tasks so that they to can achieve success and growth.

Strategies for Differentiation As the previous points suggest, the skilled differentiator must have a range of strategies at his or her disposal to make learning content and goals accessible to all children. While the ends are defined (meaning that we have a similar set of goals for all children, regardless of ability or background), our means to helping children achieve these goals must be very flexible (Carolan & Guinn, 2007). As an example, let’s consider the activities presented in Chapter 4, whereby children are asked to participate in various phonological awareness activities. The skill we want all children to achieve as they participate in these activities is phonological awareness (sensitivity to the sound structure of spoken language). As a skilled differentiator, we do not adapt the goal itself as a function of the abilities of a specific child; rather, we adapt the means for helping the child achieve the goal. Achieving phonological awareness is necessary for children to progress along the pathway towards skilled and fluent reading (Stanovich, 2000); consequently, the goal itself is non-negotiable, if we intend for all children to have the opportunity to become readers. What are negotiable are the methods we use to help a child achieve this goal. We cannot provide explicit guidance on how an interventionist ought to differentiate a specific activity or lesson for a specific child, as the needs and strengths of a child are highly individualistic. But, we can provide guidance on how to approach the task of differentiating effectively; for this, we draw on the work of Tomlinson (1999) and her use of tiered activities. A tiered activity is one in which the level of difficulty of the activity is varied along a continuum, or ladder, of complexity. In using tiered activities, interventionists seek to help children with differing levels of abil-

11

ities to learn and use the same skills or achieve the same goals. In developing a tiered activity, the interventionist’s intent is for all children to achieve the same skills or learning outcomes by situating the activity within each child’s zone of proximal development so that each child is challenged appropriately (Tomlinson, 1999). In this book, we provide a set of lessons that specify a concept or skill to be developed (e.g., sensitivity to rhyme) through a sequence of activities using suggested materials. The way the lessons are presented suggests that we are advocating a “one-size-fits-all” approach. On the contrary, we intend for interventionists to give serious thought to what each child brings to a given lesson in terms of her interests, talents, and a priori exposure to and knowledge of the topic. Using the tiered activities framework of Tomlinson (1999), we suggest that the complexity of each activity be charted on a ladder of complexity (Figure 2–1). A specific lesson or task, as presented in this manual, can be placed on the ladder in reference to the abilities and skills of the children who will be participating, as in Figure 2–2.

Tomlinson’s Ladder of Complexity CHILDREN WITH HIGH SKILLS

CHILDREN WITH LOW SKILLS

Figure 2–1. Tomlinson’s ladder of complexity.

12

Emergent Literacy: Lessons for Success

Tomlinson’s Ladder of Complexity

and complete rhyming verses,” and the specific activity used is:

CHILDREN WITH HIGH SKILLS

TASK

CHILDREN WITH LOW SKILLS

Figure 2–2. A task on Tomlinson’s ladder of complexity.

Once the lesson or task is situated on the ladder, modifications can be introduced so that the lesson or task can reach a much greater range of learners. These modifications may involve: ■ Introducing new materials for children with high skills, or reducing the range of materials involved for children with low skills ■ Providing more open-ended verbal supports for children with high skills, or more closeended verbal supports for children with low skills ■ Allowing more sophisticated ways of responding for children with high skills, or more basic ways of responding for children with low skills Here, we provide an example of ways a specific activity was differentiated for children, using Tomlinson’s ladder of complexity and the Fill-In-TheRhyme activity in Chapter 4. The objective of this activity is for children to “recite nursery rhymes

Tell children that you are going to read nursery rhymes and that you are going to point to one of them when you need help completing a rhyme. For example, with the nursery rhyme “Hickory Dickory Dock,” you would say, “Hickory dickory dock! The mouse ran up the ” and then pause and point at one child at random. The child would say, “clock!” and you would continue with the nursery rhyme. Try to select nursery rhymes that you have read a few times before so that all children are familiar with the rhymes and can participate in the activity.

The ladder of complexity in Figure 2–3 shows modifications to this activity for children who are relatively advanced in their awareness of rhymes and children who have relatively underdeveloped rhyme awareness.

Tracking Children’s Progress and Monitoring Growth A key aspect of differentiated instruction is monitoring children’s progress on a specific skill or activity so that one can modify instruction in ways that continue to propel children’s learning and development forward. Data collection is therefore essential. We suggest using an activity tracking form, such as that shown in Figure 2–4, as a way for monitoring children’s participation in the activities generally, as well as the performance of specific children. In addition to keeping careful notes of how children respond to individual lessons themselves, it is also useful to monitor children’s achievement of specific objectives over time using a progress checklist. The checklists presented in Tables 2–1 through 2–6 may be used to monitor individual children’s achievements on the discrete objectives for each of the six areas of emergent literacy presented in this book. The lesson numbers corresponding to each objective are provided for ease

Tomlinson’s Ladder of Complexity CHILDREN WITH HIGH SKILLS

After the activity is complete, ask children to prepare a written list of words that rhyme with targets from the nursery rhymes (e.g., words that rhyme with dock and hill). When pointing to children to complete a rhyme verse, ask them to produce a different word that rhymes than the one that should occur (e.g., Hickory dickory dock, the mouse ran up the flock). TASK AS WRITTEN Use written nursery rhyme posters that include pictures for this activity. When pointing to children to complete a rhyme verse, point to the picture corresponding to the rhyming word you want them to fill in [e.g., Hickory dickory dock, the mouse ran up the

CHILDREN WITH LOW SKILLS

(point to picture of clock)].

When pointing to children to complete a rhyme verse, first model the answer for them and have them repeat it [(e.g., Hickory dickory dock, the mouse ran up the ______ (“say ‘clock’, Thomas”)].

Figure 2–3. Example of activity modification for children of various levels of rhyming awareness.

13

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Emergent Literacy: Lessons for Success

of use. We recommend tracking children’s performance on each objective addressed at least once in the fall, winter, and spring if providing

instruction over an academic year. When a particular objective is rated as C (competence), it need no longer be addressed for a given child.

Date:

Activity Name:

Length of Lesson:

Objective:

Overall… Most children’s engagement

Low

Medium (Variable)

High

Low

Medium (Variable)

High

was: Most children’s performance was: What modifications were made to the activity and for whom?

Which children seemed to do well?

Which children seemed to struggle and need more practice?

Figure 2–4. Example of an activity tracking form.

Table 2–1. Phonological Awareness Emergent Literacy: Lessons for Success Pupil Progress Checklist PHONOLOGICAL AWARENESS Directions: Circle the letter that best describes how well the child meets the objective: Acquiring (A), Building (B), or Competent (C). Acquiring (A): The child needs maximal support in order to meet the objective. Building (B): The child needs moderate support in order to meet the objective. Competent (C): The child needs no support in order to meet the objective. Child’s Name:

Educator: Fall

Lesson Number

A

1

Identifies sounds in environment.

2

Discriminates between sounds.

3

Sings and identifies rhymes in songs.

4

Recites nursery rhymes and completes rhyming verses.

5

Segments individual words from sentences.

6

Differentiates words as long or short based on number of syllables.

7

Blends parts of compound words into words.

8

Recognizes which segments are missing from spoken words.

9

Segments words into syllables.

10

Identifies the beginning sounds of words.

11

Associates specific beginning sounds with words.

12

Recognizes when several words begin with the same sound.

13

Blends individual sounds to form words.

14

Invents words by substituting sounds in familiar words.

15

Identifies the final sounds in words.

15

B

Winter C

A

B

C

Spring A

B

C

Table 2–2. Print Awareness Emergent Literacy: Lessons for Success Pupil Progress Checklist PRINT AWARENESS Directions: Circle the letter that best describes how well the child meets the objective: Acquiring (A), Building (B), or Competent (C). Acquiring (A): The child needs maximal support in order to meet the objective. Building (B): The child needs moderate support in order to meet the objective. Competent (C): The child needs no support in order to meet the objective. Child’s Name:

Educator: Fall

Lesson Number

A

1

Understands that print is speech written down and print carries meaning.

2

Recognizes signs and other print forms in the environment.

3

Recognizes the difference between pictures and words as visual symbols.

4

Distinguishes between letters and words as units of print.

5

Knows the distinctive features of written names.

6

Identifies word boundaries.

7

Differentiates among letters of the alphabet.

8

Understands that print runs from left to right and top to bottom.

9

Understands the print terms letter, word, and picture.

10

Exhibits an awareness of how words may differ in length.

11

Exhibits book-handling skills and an understanding of words such as front, back, cover, illustrator, author.

12

Recognizes favorite books by the cover.

13

Understands that different text forms are used for different functions (e.g., shopping lists, recipes for cooking, letters for communication, forms for businesses and libraries).

14

Exhibits an awareness of how print is organized within storybooks.

15

Exhibits an awareness of word as a unit of printed language.

16

B

Winter C

A

B

C

Spring A

B

C

Table 2–3. Alphabet Knowledge Emergent Literacy: Lessons for Success Pupil Progress Checklist ALPHABET KNOWLEDGE Directions: Circle the letter that best describes how well the child meets the objective: Acquiring (A), Building (B), or Competent (C). Acquiring (A): The child needs maximal support in order to meet the objective. Building (B): The child needs moderate support in order to meet the objective. Competent (C): The child needs no support in order to meet the objective. Child’s Name:

Educator: Fall

Lesson Number

A

1

Identifies letters according to their shapes.

2

Sorts letters according to the way they are graphically constructed.

3

Explores the shapes and recognizes the names of some alphabet letters.

4

Demonstrates familiarity with the shapes of letters in own name as well as friends’ names.

5

Recognizes the similarities and differences between the structural print features of alphabet letters.

6

Matches printed letters with their letter names while singing the alphabet song.

7, 8

Names at least 5 to 10 letters of the alphabet.

9

Identifies printed letters in books.

10

Discriminates between upper- and lower-case letters.

11

Identifies words in the classroom with the same first letter as in name.

12

Matches printed letters with the beginning sounds in words/pictures.

13

Identifies recurring sounds at the beginning of spoken words and names the letter that relates to the sound.

14

Matches beginning sounds of objects/ pictures to their corresponding printed letters.

15

Identifies the beginning sounds and letters in the names of objects in their environment.

17

B

Winter C

A

B

C

Spring A

B

C

Table 2–4. Emergent Writing Emergent Literacy: Lessons for Success Pupil Progress Checklist EMERGENT WRITING Directions: Circle the letter that best describes how well the child meets the objective: Acquiring (A), Building (B), or Competent (C). Acquiring (A): The child needs maximal support in order to meet the objective. Building (B): The child needs moderate support in order to meet the objective. Competent (C): The child needs no support in order to meet the objective. Child’s Name:

Educator: Fall

Lesson Number

A

1, 7

Writes name to sign up for activities or to vote/state preference (with appropriate level of emergent writing).

1, 7

Writes name correctly.

2

Represents some letters of the alphabet in emergent writing.

3

Makes speech bubbles.

4

Uses print and writes emergently during dramatic play.

5

Writes from left to right and top to bottom.

6

Understands that print carries a message through journaling.

8, 10

Dictates a story or message to teacher individually.

8, 10

Actively participates in group dictation to teacher.

9, 11

Represents some letter sounds in emergent writing.

12

Produces written stories (with appropriate level of emergent writing).

13

Actively participates in teacher-led activity in which child produces written letters and words through quoted speech.

14

Demonstrates concepts needed for letter formation including top-bottom, left-right, curve, line, circle.

15

Experiments with writing tools.

18

B

Winter C

A

B

C

Spring A

B

C

Table 2–5. Inferential Language Emergent Literacy: Lessons for Success Pupil Progress Checklist INFERENTIAL LANGUAGE Directions: Circle the letter that best describes how well the child meets the objective: Acquiring (A), Building (B), or Competent (C). Acquiring (A): The child needs maximal support in order to meet the objective. Building (B): The child needs moderate support in order to meet the objective. Competent (C): The child needs no support in order to meet the objective. Child’s Name:

Educator: Fall

Lesson Number

A

1

Extends and expands understanding of a story by answering questions asked by adults throughout a book sharing experience.

2

Connects different parts or pieces of a story together.

3

Uses clues from pictures and the text to make predictions about book illustrations.

4

Uses relevant information in a poem to guess a mystery character.

5

Takes the perspectives and infers emotions of different characters while recreating a story read aloud.

6

Applies prior knowledge within the context of shared book reading of an informational text.

7

Understands different points of view and draws conclusions about others’ actions and feelings through role playing.

8

Puts together clues about an object to solve its identity.

9

Listens to and is familiar with the inferential process during book reading.

10

Uses body language and contextual clues to deduce the feelings or conditions of others.

11

Demonstrates an understanding of figurative language by answering simple questions about idioms.

12

Predicts the outcome of a science experiment using background knowledge and prior experience.

13

Uses clues in a poem to guess the label and location of an object.

14

Uses background knowledge and observation skills to make inferences about the actions of others.

15

Uses the pictures in the text and background knowledge to make predictions about what will happen next in a storybook.

19

B

Winter C

A

B

C

Spring A

B

C

Table 2–6. Vocabulary Emergent Literacy: Lessons for Success Pupil Progress Checklist VOCABULARY Directions: Circle the letter that best describes how well the child meets the objective: Acquiring (A), Building (B), or Competent (C). Acquiring (A): The child needs maximal support in order to meet the objective. Building (B): The child needs moderate support in order to meet the objective. Competent (C): The child needs no support in order to meet the objective. Child’s Name:

Educator: Fall

Lesson Number

A

1

Understands vocabulary encountered incidentally during shared storybook reading.

2

Comprehends vocabulary words targeted by teacher for use in multiple contexts including dramatic play activities.

3

Learns new action words.

4

Extends understanding of a new word to include several exemplars belonging to the same category.

5

Learns new descriptive words and sorts objects on the basis of their descriptive properties.

6

Learns the names of spatial prepositions in the context of a motor activity.

7

Understands new comparison words.

8

Learns to use circumlocution to “talk around” unknown words.

9

Learns new vocabulary and grammatical constructions.

10

Describes sequences of events in a story using adverbs.

11

Uses vocabulary to describe emotions and feelings.

12

Learns new vocabulary words by recruiting background knowledge and prior experiences.

13

Uses some infrequently used words in the context of snack time or meal time.

14

Uses some technical and specialized vocabulary in the context of a music activity.

15

Identifies antonyms from groups of familiar words.

20

B

Winter C

A

B

C

Spring A

B

C

Chapter 3 How to Use this Book

T

he lessons in this book are designed to serve as a supplement to existing classroom curricula. Classroom teachers, speech-language pathologists, reading specialists, and special educators can use these lessons to enhance a program already in place. In this chapter, we provide suggestions on how to use this book effectively. Our guidelines are not comprehensive, nor is there “one best way” to structure instruction using this book. Indeed, the danger in a book of lessons is that it will be used from the beginning to the end with all children and will not be implemented in a thoughtful manner. However, as the previous chapter recommends, the lessons prepared for children should be based on their specific needs through examination of informal and formal assessments. Here, we describe the organization of this book, specific contexts in which the lessons can be delivered, and suggestions for combining lessons to form a coherent structure for small groups.

ness and emergent writing chapters are randomly ordered. The oral language lessons are presented in the final two chapters (8 and 9): inferential language and vocabulary. These lessons are also randomly ordered, as no clear developmental sequence has been established for these skills. Each lesson plan in this book contains the following components: (a) objective, (b) grouping options, (c) materials needed, (d) lesson description, (e) variations, (f) research evidence, and (g) connection to state standards. The objectives for each lesson are specific and delineated in a chart at the beginning of each chapter of plans. The grouping options are depicted with icons representing:

Individual

Organization of this Book This book is organized into six chapters of lessons. The code-related lessons are presented in Chapters 4 through 7: phonological awareness, print awareness, alphabet knowledge, and emergent writing. Although a general developmental progression seems to exist in code-related skills, it is essential to note that these skills should not be regarded as lock-step, and children should not be required to master one before moving to the next. We have ordered the lessons in the phonological awareness and alphabet knowledge chapters to increase in difficulty; the lessons in the print aware-

Small Group

Whole Group

22

Emergent Literacy: Lessons for Success

Many plans can accommodate all grouping structures. A comprehensive list of all plans in each chapter and their grouping options are provided in Tables 3–1 through 3–6. The lesson descriptions often include some examples of what the practitioner might say. These are only suggestions and are not intended to serve as scripts. At least one variation is provided in which the lesson can be adapted to modify the level of difficulty or provide an alternative idea that would meet the objective. Next, each plan includes supporting research regarding the topic. Note that in most cases, the specific lessons themselves have not been researched; rather, the lessons were designed based on up-to-date research evidence. Finally, each lesson has been connected to a preschool or kindergarten state standard. We have tried to represent standards from a variety of states, and many of these frameworks are overlapping. This connection serves as a reminder that when planning, practitioners should ensure that all lessons should coordinate with the standards specific to their programs. We believe that the format and variety of the lessons presented promote flexibility. We encourage practitioners to first and foremost attend to the needs of their students. Through groupings and variations on the lessons, adaptability has been woven throughout to provide practitioners with options to accommodate the diverse needs of children and classrooms. The majority of the lessons in the book can be implemented repeatedly with children. We also hope that practitioners will be inspired to expand on the ideas presented and venture beyond the lessons in this book. We have attempted to provide a flexible format and frame for practitioners to structure lessons to meet children’s varied needs.

Classroom Contexts Emergent literacy skill instruction can be embedded within familiar contexts in the classroom. Children engage in meaningful interactions with literacy as adults facilitate their learning. Instruction can be embedded within daily routines and

contexts such as circle time, dramatic play time, storybook reading time, and during transitions (e.g., lining up to go to the cafeteria). In other words, a teacher does not have to take time out of the day to implement the lessons, as most can be woven into the existing classroom structure. Tables 3–1 through 3–6 provide recommendations of the classroom contexts in which the lessons can be delivered. Speech-language pathologists or reading specialists can work with classroom teachers to enhance these specific contexts (circle time, dramatic play/centers, storybook reading). These contexts were chosen because they are typical to preschools across the country. For each plan, at least one context is recommended, although it is plausible that many activities can be adapted across contexts.

Circle Time Circle time is a whole-group time at the beginning of the day in which teachers typically sing songs, discuss the calendar and weather, read a morning message, and go over activities planned for the day. This time may last 10 to 20 minutes. Many lessons in this book can easily be used during circle time. For example, the Phonological Awareness plan entitled Do You Hear What I Hear? can be used during circle time. The children practice listening to the sounds around them. The teacher leads the activity by asking children to close their eyes while a sound is made by the teacher or played on a CD. Children take turns identifying the sound. Another activity that can be used during circle time is Field Trip Recall (Emergent Writing). After a discussion about a shared experience, the teacher acts as a scribe as children share their thoughts about the field trip. The teacher writes children’s words and reads them back to the children while pointing at each word while reading.

Center Time During center time, areas are set up around the classroom in which children spend time engaging

How to Use this Book

23

Table 3–1. Phonological Awareness

Circle Time

Activity Do You Hear What I Hear?

✓

✓

✓

Are Those Sounds the Same?

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

Rhyme along with the Song Fill-in-the-Rhyme

✓

✓

✓

Take the Sentence Apart

✓

✓

✓

Long Words, Short Words

✓

✓

✓

Change Two Words into One

✓

✓

Leave a Sound Out

✓

✓

Move to the Syllables Tell Us How It Begins

✓

Beginning Sound Scavenger Hunt

✓

Blending Words Back Together

✓

✓ ✓ ✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓ ✓ ✓

✓ ✓

Invent a Word

✓

✓

Last but Not Least

✓

✓

in a variety of activities. Children may choose which centers they visit each day and the duration of time spent there. In child-selected centers, children may explore materials freely, and teachers may set up the center to provide children with opportunities for literacy learning. For example, in a dramatic play center, the lesson Print Awareness during Dramatic Play (Print Awareness) can be used. In a restaurant play scenario, the center may be enriched with literacy tools such as pads for taking orders, receipts, and pencils. The adult may also take a role by being the waiter and writing down orders. Children can then take this role if they wish. Examples of what teachers say while mediating children’s encoun-

Storybook

✓

✓

Allow Me to Introduce You

Center Time

ters with print in a dramatic play center are provided. In addition to dramatic play centers, other child-selected centers may include blocks, writing, science, and library. Center activities can also be more structured. Children may choose the center but have a proscribed task for the day. Using the lesson Writing an Invitation (Emergent Writing), children write party invitations to friends during center time after the teacher introduces the activity during a whole group time. During center time, teachers or specialists may also choose to meet with small groups of children to provide more explicit literacy instruction. (Note that teachers may refer to this structure as Small Group time.)

24

Emergent Literacy: Lessons for Success

Table 3–2. Print Awareness

Circle Time

Activity

Center Time

Speech Written Down

✓

✓

✓

Environmental Print Walk

✓

✓

✓

✓

Outdoor Words

✓

✓

✓

✓

First Letter Matching in Words

✓

✓

Find a Friend’s Name

✓ ✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

Word Winners

✓

✓ ✓

Read the Poem

✓

✓

Word Train

Storybook

✓

✓ ✓

✓

Word/Letter/Picture Sort

✓

✓

Long Word/Short Word Sort

✓

✓

Find and Seek with Your Book

✓

✓

✓

✓

Find the Book by Its Cover

✓

✓

✓

✓

Print Awareness During Dramatic Play

✓

✓

✓

Exploring Print in Books

✓

✓

✓

Word Sort/Classroom Labels

✓

✓

✓

For example, the Word/Letter/Picture Sort (Print Awareness) would be an activity ideally suited for a teacher-led small group. Children sort letters, words, and pictures on cards into categories. They will likely need teacher modeling and guidance to complete this activity.

Storybook Reading Educators typically read books aloud to young children several times per day, whether in whole group, small group, or individually. During story-

✓ ✓

✓ ✓

book reading routines, a variety of both coderelated and oral language skills can be enhanced (see Cabell, Justice, Vukelich, Buell, & Han, 2008). In terms of code-related skills, the storybook reading context may be used to build rhyme awareness [Rhyme Along with the Song (Phonological Awareness)]; develop book-handling skills [Find and Seek With Your Book (Print Awareness)]; draw attention to letter shapes and names [Let’s Read a Story (Alphabet Knowledge)]; and serve as a springboard into writing activities [What Happens Next (Emergent Writing)]. Shared reading can also be an ideal context to enhance oral lan-

How to Use this Book

25

Table 3–3. Alphabet Knowledge

Activity

Circle Time

Center Time

✓

✓

Storybook

Touch and Feel Bag

✓

✓

Straight, Curvy, or Both?

✓

✓

Simon Says with Play Dough Letters

✓

✓

Magnetic Letters

✓

✓

Mystery Letter

✓

✓

Let’s Sing!

✓

✓

Alphabet Go Fish

✓

✓

✓

ABC D-elicious!

✓

✓

✓

Reading the Alphabet

✓

✓

✓

✓

Let’s Read a Story

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓ ✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

Letter Hunt

✓

✓

Alphabet Book

✓

✓

What’s My Sound?

✓

✓

✓

✓

Match It Up

✓

✓

✓

✓

I Spy

✓

✓

✓

✓

guage abilities by recreating a story and inferring character emotions [Reenact a Story (Inferential Language)] and understanding vocabulary in a story [Friendly Definitions (Vocabulary)].

A Word about Transition Time Children transition from activity to activity throughout the preschool day. They line up for recess, take turns washing hands before lunch, and wait as snack is served to all children. Educators can take advantage of teaching opportunities with

✓ ✓ ✓

✓

children during these transition times. Although we have not included transition time as a specific context in the tables, many of the lessons in this book can be adapted to support use during transition. As part of the lesson Three, Two, One, Action (Vocabulary), children gain a deeper understanding of contrasting pairs of related action words by acting them out. While lining up for recess, some children may be asked to tiptoe while others simply walk. Some may march while others stomp. Another example uses the lesson Tell Us How It Begins (Phonological Awareness). Children may perform a task if their name begins with a specific

26

Emergent Literacy: Lessons for Success

Table 3–4. Emergent Writing

Circle Time

Activity

Storybook

Sign Up Schedule

✓

✓

What’s My Name?

✓

✓

Speech Bubbles

✓

✓

✓

Shopping List

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

Writing an Invitation

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

Daily Journal

✓

✓

Voting

✓

Center Time ✓ ✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

What Happens Next?

✓

✓

✓

✓

Guess What’s Inside

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

Field Trip Recall My Favorite . . .

✓

✓

Wordless Picture Books

✓

✓

What Did They Say?

✓

✓

✓

Chalkboard Draw

✓

✓

✓

Can I Write with This?

✓

✓

✓

sound. Sung to the tune of “If You’re Happy and You Know It,” children can line up to wash their hands for lunch if their name begins with the sound /t/. Educators should provide support for children at an appropriate level so all children can be successful. Daily Journal (Emergent Writing) can be used during a morning transition time. At the beginning of a school day, children often enter the classroom in a staggered fashion, arriving at different times. Children can be encouraged to write in a daily journal at a level of emergent writing appropriate to their development. As these examples illustrate, a number of lessons in this book may be adapted for use during transition

✓

✓

✓ ✓

✓

✓ ✓ ✓

✓

times. These types of activities help educators take advantage of every moment during the day and continually reinforce children’s literacy learning.

Structuring Comprehensive Small Group Lessons Small group settings of three to five children allow practitioners to focus on children’s specific needs or provide intensive support to those children who are struggling in the classroom. In addition to the classroom teacher, other specialists (speech-

How to Use this Book

27

Table 3–5. Inferential Language

Circle Time

Activity Embedding Questions into Storybooks

✓

✓

What’s My Story?

✓

✓

Under Cover

✓

✓

✓

Who Am I?

✓

✓

✓

What Do You Know?

✓

✓

✓

✓ ✓

✓

✓ ✓

✓

Mystery Game

✓

✓

✓

Think Aloud

✓

✓

✓

Inference Charades

✓

✓

✓

Idioms

✓

✓

Let’s Experiment: Sink or Float

✓

✓

Hide-n-Seek

✓

✓

Guess the Animal

✓

✓

Mouse Predictions

✓

✓

language pathologists, reading specialists) often work with small groups of children with similar needs. This instruction is systematic and explicit, with careful sequencing and targeted goals (see Justice & Kaderavek, 2004). A comprehensive small group lesson can be created by combining both code-related and oral language activities into the same lesson. Depending on the time frame available and appropriate for specific children, the lessons can be easily adapted for combination. Storybook reading is an ideal context in which code-related and oral language lessons may be effectively combined. Two lessons that can be

✓ ✓

✓

Dramatic Role Play

Storybook ✓

✓

Reenact a Story

Center Time

✓

✓ ✓

✓

✓ ✓ ✓

✓

✓

✓ ✓

✓

✓

combined are Exploring Print in Books (Print Awareness; Objective: Children develop an awareness of how print is organized within storybooks) and a variation of Inference Charades (Inferential Language; Objective: Children use body language and contextual clues to deduce the feelings or conditions of others). The teacher begins the lesson by reading the book, Where the Wild Things Are (Sendak, 1991), utilizing print referencing techniques including tracking print while reading and making statements about letters and words; these techniques enhance the reading experience without detracting from the overall storyline.

28

Emergent Literacy: Lessons for Success

Table 3–6. Vocabulary

Circle Time

Activity ✓

✓

A Play on Words

✓

✓

Three, Two, One, Action!

✓

✓

✓

Multiple Exemplars

✓

✓

✓

Friendly Definitions

Adjective Awareness

✓

✓

Center Time

✓ ✓

✓

✓ ✓

I Can Relate to These Words

✓

Laundry Sort

✓

✓

Talking around the Issue

✓

✓

Stressing Grammatical Words

✓

✓

✓

✓

Adverbing

✓

Expressing Emotions and Feelings

✓

Forging Links with Words

✓

Making a Rare Appearance

✓

After reading, the teacher and children engage in a discussion regarding the characters and their points of view. Then, each child takes a turn acting out specific characters (e.g., Max, Max’s mom, a wild thing) while the other children in the group guess the character. Table 3–7 presents examples of lessons from this book that can be combined to address both code-related and oral language abilities. Our aim in this chapter was to provide suggestions regarding the implementation of the les-

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

Technically Speaking . . . Which One Is Pastel?

Storybook

sons in this book. We recognize that there are many contexts during the preschool day that we have not addressed. However, we hope that this chapter provides a springboard into the possibilities for adaptation and flexibility. We encourage educators to use their background knowledge of literacy, appropriate teaching practices, and their students’ needs to create effective learning opportunities. The lessons in this book along with the suggestions for implementation can serve as a starting point.

Table 3–7. Examples of Lessons that Can Be Combined Code-Related Lesson

Oral Language Lesson

Shopping List (Emergent Writing)

Dramatic Role Play (Inferential Language)

Objective: Children learn the functions of print through dramatic play.

Objective: Children learn different points of view and draw conclusions about others’ actions and feelings through role playing.

A dramatic play center can be set up that incorporates literacy tools within a role-playing scenario. For example, the child can take the role of a doctor and write a prescription. Read the Poem (Print Awareness)

Hide-n-Seek (Inferential Language)

Objective: Children understand that print runs from left to right and top to bottom.

Objective: Children use clues in a poem to guess the label and location of an object.

Read aloud a poem to children that provides clues to a “hidden” location of an object. During the reading, point to each word as you read. Then have children guess the location of the object. What’s My Name? (Print Awareness)

Guess the Animal (Inferential Language)

Objective: Children learn letters of the alphabet through emergent writing.

Objective: Children use their background knowledge and observation skills to make inferences about the actions of others.

A child picks an animal cookie, and then pretends to be the animal. Other children guess the animal. After the animal is identified, the child writes the animal’s name, and as a group the children create a story about the animal, which the teacher writes down. Environmental Print Walk (Print Awareness)

I Can Relate to These Words (Vocabulary)

Objective: Children understand that print carries a message by recognizing signs and other print forms in the environment.

Objective: Children learn the names of spatial prepositions in the context of a motor activity.

These activities can occur outdoors and in the context of movement. As children walk outside, have them match picture cards to environmental print (e.g., stop sign, school signs). Then use a jump rope activity to help children develop vocabulary knowledge. Rhyme along with the Song (Phonological Awareness) Objective: Children listen to, sing, and identify rhymes in songs.

Technically Speaking . . . (Vocabulary) Objective: Children use some technical and specialized vocabulary in the context of a music activity.

Children listen to a rhyming song such as “Rock-a-Bye.” After listening to the song, children are encouraged to sing along and identify rhyming words. Then the teacher and children engage in a discussion about technical vocabulary such as lullaby.

29

PART II Code-Related Lesson Plans

Chapter 4 Phonological Awareness

W

ithin the toddler and preschool years, children begin to be aware of the sounds units comprising spoken language, including rime units (hat/bat) and beginning sounds shared between words (hat/hill). At the same time, children begin to recognize that words vary in syllable length,

in that some words are “short” (noon) and other words are “long” (afternoon). The 15 activities presented here can be used repeatedly as presented or with the variations suggested to build these important sensitivities in young children.

Activity

Objective

1

Do You Hear What I Hear?

Children listen to and identify sounds in their environment.

2

Are Those Sounds the Same?

Children discriminate between sounds.

3

Rhyme along with the Song

Children listen to, sing, and identify rhymes in songs.

4

Fill-in-the-Rhyme

Children recite nursery rhymes and complete rhyming verses.

5

Take the Sentence Apart

Children segment individual words from sentences.

6

Long Words, Short Words

Children differentiate words as long or short based on number of syllables.

7

Change Two Words into One

Children blend parts of compound words into words.

8

Leave a Sound Out

Children recognize which segments are missing from spoken words.

9

Move to the Syllables

Children segment words into syllables.

10

Tell Us How It Begins

Children identify the beginning sounds of words.

11

Beginning Sound Scavenger Hunt

Children associate beginning sounds with words.

12

Allow Me to Introduce You

Children recognize when several words begin with the same sound.

13

Blending Words Back Together

Children blend individual sounds to form words.

14

Invent a Word

Children invent words by substituting sounds in familiar words.

15

Last but Not Least

Children identify the final sounds in words.

34

Emergent Literacy: Lessons for Success

Do You Hear What I Hear? Objective Children listen to and identify sounds in their environment.

Grouping

After children have identified all of the sounds in the classroom, have them take turns making sounds using the items in your bag. Remind children to keep their eyes closed so that they can focus on the sound each object makes. Say, “Now we are going to take turns making sounds using some of the items in this bag. Keep your eyes closed and raise your hand when you think you can guess what is making that sound.”

Variations

Materials Needed A bag containing a bell, small musical instruments, and other common items that make sound

Take children outside in small groups and have them sit down, close their eyes to better eliminate visual distractions, and try to identify environmental sounds (e.g., traffic, birds, doors opening and closing). If you have an audio CD with sound effects, play the sound effects and have children try to guess which sound they are hearing. Remind everyone that it is important to listen quietly and to focus on the sounds that they hear.

CD player (optional) Recording of sound effects on a CD (optional)

Lesson Description Have children sit in a circle on the floor and ask them to close their eyes. Turn off the classroom lights to better eliminate visual distractions. Ask the children to sit very quietly and tell them, “We are going to listen very carefully for all of the sounds around us. When you hear a sound that no one has mentioned, raise your hand quietly and I will have you tell everyone what sound you hear.” Begin by identifying a sound that you hear (e.g., a fan blowing, rain hitting the windows, people talking in a nearby room) and describe what it sounds like. Encourage children to discuss how the sounds they identify are alike and how they are different from one another.

Research Evidence Kindergartners randomly assigned to a phonological awareness intervention including a focus on identifying, manipulating, and remembering environmental sounds (among other activities) made significantly larger gains than their peers in a business-as-usual control group on measures of phonological awareness, word reading, and letter naming speed (Nelson, Stage, Epstein, & Pierce, 2005).

Connection to State Standards Listens to and identifies sounds that are in the environment. (West Virginia Pre-Kindergarten Standards)

Phonological Awareness

35

Are Those Sounds the Same? Objective Children discriminate between sounds.

Grouping

Variations

Keyboard or xylophone

Have children determine whether spoken sounds in word pairs are the same. Call out either the same word twice or two words that differ by one sound and have children guess whether the words are the same. For example, after saying, “rake, rake,” children would guess that the sounds in the word pair are the same. After saying, “rake, lake,” children would guess that the sounds in the pair are different.

Lesson Description

Research Evidence

Play two notes on the keyboard or xylophone and have children guess whether the sounds are the same. Next, play short segment pairs (two notes in length) and have children guess whether the pairs are the same. For example, begin by playing notes C and D followed by notes C and D and ask children whether the pairs were the same. Next, play notes C and D followed by notes G and F and ask children whether the pairs were the same. Increase the difficulty of the activity by playing three or four notes per set.

Learning to focus on differences among sounds may pave the way for accomplishments in phonological awareness, which is an important facilitator of children’s later reading and spelling abilities (Bird, Bishop, & Freeman, 1995).

Materials Needed

Connection to State Standards Discriminates sounds in spoken language. (Wyoming Early Childhood Readiness Standards)

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Emergent Literacy: Lessons for Success

Rhyme along with the Song Objective

Variations

Children listen to, sing, and identify rhymes in songs.

Have children modify their voices each time they encounter a rhyming word or pair of words, either by singing louder or singing more quietly. For example, when singing the song “Twinkle, Twinkle Little Star,” have children stand up each time they hear a word that rhymes with star. Sing the song slowly enough so that they have enough time to stand up and then sit back down again before they sing the next rhyming word. As another example, when singing the alphabet song, have children choose an action that they would like to do each time they hear a letter that rhymes with B (or A or I). Adjust the speed of the song so that they can complete the actions associated with the rhyming words. For example, if the children decide that they would like to turn around in a circle each time they say a letter that rhymes with A, have them sing the song slowly enough so that they can turn around twice in a row when they hear the letters J and K. Read rhyming books with a songlike quality in a way that highlights the rhyming words in a fun and engaging manner. For example, using Dr. Seuss’ famous book, Green Eggs and Ham, you might open your eyes widely while looking at the children as you stress the rhyming words box and fox, boat and goat, there and anywhere, and ham and am. After several readings of the book, encourage children to complete the rhymes in the book for you. Pause at the end of the second line and allow children to fill in the rhyming word.

Grouping

Materials Needed CD player CD with rhyming songs Rhyming book

Lesson Description Have children listen to songs that have rhyming patterns and encourage them to sing along once they know the lyrics. Emphasize the rhyming words as you teach children the lyrics. For example, when singing the song “Twinkle, Twinkle Little Star,” you might say the words star, are, high, and sky loudly and stretch the words out so that they are longer than the other words in the song. As another example, when singing the alphabet song, you might announce to the children that you are going to clap your hands when you say each letter that rhymes with B (C, D, E, G, P, T, V, Z). The next time through, you might instead let the children know that you are going to listen for letters that rhyme with the letter A (J, K) and that you are going to raise your arms above your head when you hear them.

Phonological Awareness

37

Research Evidence

Connection to State Standards

Building on research that emphasizes the importance of exposure to rhyme for supporting phonological awareness, Yopp and Yopp (2000) provide examples of rhyming songs and rhyming activities that encourage children to focus on the sound structure of language.

Hears and recites nursery rhymes, poems, jingles, and chants. (West Virginia Pre-Kindergarten Standards)

Fill-in-the-Rhyme Objective Children recite nursery rhymes and complete rhyming verses.

then pause and point at one child at random. The child would say “clock!” and you would continue with the nursery rhyme. Try to select nursery rhymes that you have read a few times before so that all children are familiar with the rhymes and can participate in the activity.

Grouping Variations

Materials Needed Book of nursery rhymes (e.g., Mother Goose Nursery Rhymes) Pictures of objects appearing in the nursery rhymes (optional)

Lesson Description Tell children that you are going to read nursery rhymes and that you are going to point to one of them when you need help completing a rhyme. For example, with the nursery rhyme, “Hickory Dickory Dock,” you would say, “Hickory dickory dock! The mouse ran up the ,” and

Give each child a set of index cards, each containing a picture that could be used to complete a nursery rhyme, and have the children hold up the appropriate picture when you point to them for help. For example, to complete “Hickory Dickory Dock,” children would hold up the picture of a clock when you pause and point at them. To complete the nursery rhyme, “Jack Be Nimble,” children would hold up the picture of a candlestick when you pause and point at them.

Research Evidence Knowledge of nursery rhymes contributes to phonological awareness and is related to children’s early reading skills (Maclean, Bryant, & Bradley, 1987).

Connection to State Standards Repeats familiar songs, rhymes, and phrases from favorite storybooks. (South Dakota Early Learning Guidelines)

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Emergent Literacy: Lessons for Success

Take the Sentence Apart Objective

Variations

Children segment individual words from sentences.

As part of a dictation activity (e.g., morning news), have children tap or clap the individual words in sentences as they speak them. Repeat each child’s sentence and have the other children in the group tap or clap with you the second time through. Have children try to count the claps or taps and announce the number of words in each sentence. For example, Sophia might say, “I (clap) helped (clap) my (clap) dad (clap) make (clap) scrambled (clap) eggs (clap) today (clap).” “Did everyone hear that? Sophia said, ‘I helped my dad make scrambled eggs today.’ Let’s all try to clap for each of the words in Sophia’s sentence. ‘I (clap) helped (clap) my (clap) dad (clap) make (clap) scrambled (clap) eggs (clap) today (clap).’ Great! Ruby, do you think you could count our claps if we do that again? Ruby said that we clapped eight times, so there must be eight words in Sophia’s sentence. Nice work everyone. Sophia, how did you help your dad with the eggs? Oh, fantastic! Sophia’s dad let her scramble the eggs with a wisk.”

Grouping

Materials Needed Sets of sticks, drums, blocks, or other instruments on which children can tap (optional)

Lesson Description Read short sentences aloud either from a book or from a dictation activity and have children tap or clap each word of the sentence as you read them. Have children focus on the sounds of the sentences and words rather than the printed word for this activity. For example, in the context of a morning meeting where children share with the class something that they did that morning or the day before, have them clap each word of each child’s piece of news as you read it back to them. Say something like, “Rubin said, ‘I missed the bus today.’ Let’s clap all of the words in Rubin’s sentence. Ready? I—missed—the—bus—today. Very good! We clapped five words in that sentence. So Rubin, obviously you were able to come to school a different way today. How did you get here? Your grandma drove you to school today.”

Research Evidence Phonological awareness progresses from a shallow level, with an understanding of larger units such as sentences and words, to a deep level, with an understanding of smaller units such as individual sounds (Pullen & Justice, 2003).

Connection to State Standards Develops understanding of word awareness. (Pennsylvania Early Learning Standards)

Phonological Awareness

39

Long Words, Short Words Objective

Variations

Children differentiate words as long or short based on number of syllables.

If children are having difficulty with this task, it may be useful to write the words on a board. This can be used as a scaffold, as words with more letters are more likely to be seen by the children as long words, whereas those with few letters will be seen as being short words. However, this can also detract from the goal of the task, which is to have children focus perceptually on the sound structure of language rather than its printed structure. Consequently, although such scaffolds may be useful to support children’s thinking about words (spoken or printed), be sure to use language that focuses children’s attention on how the words sound rather than look in print. As a visual support without print, index cards of two different lengths can be used. Hold up the longer index card for a long word and the shorter card for a short word. After modeling how to do this, provide each child with a set of two index cards (short and long) for use during the activity.

Grouping

Materials Needed None

Lesson Description Introduce the activity by explaining that some words are short words and that some words are long words, and that this is based on how many syllables a word contains. Identify for children some words that are short (that have only one syllable) while clapping for each syllable: eat, mine, dog, kite, bed, house. Identify for children some words that are long (that have two or more syllables) while clapping for each syllable: butterfly, umbrella, pencil, computer, hamburger. Now, play a round robin game in which each child has the opportunity to say a word, which the other children will identify as short or long. It may be helpful to use categories of words to stimulate children’s ability to provide words (e.g., animal, foods). Children may be prompted to clap out the number of syllables to help them identify whether words are short or long.

Research Evidence Children’s ability to think about “big” chunks of sound, including syllables and words, is a developmental achievement on the path to reading; some children will develop this awareness relatively easily, whereas others may take longer (Fox & Routh, 1975).

Connection to State Standards Listens to multisyllable words. (Virginia’s Foundation Blocks for Early Learning)

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Emergent Literacy: Lessons for Success

Change Two Words into One Objective Children blend parts of compound words into words.

Grouping

mine what compound word is created when the two components are added together. For example, you might say, “I am going to say two words and I want you to try to guess what bigger word the two smaller words make. Ok, here are the words—broom (pause) stick. What bigger word do those two smaller words make? Yes, broomstick! Let’s try another one—cat (pause) fish. What bigger word do those two smaller words make? Great, they make the word catfish.” Prepare pictures and use them as a support.

Materials Needed Paper divided into three equal sections for drawing Crayons, markers, or colored pencils

Lesson Description Choose some compound words for which it would be relatively easy to illustrate each component of the word (e.g., snowman, sandbox, butterfly, tablecloth, doorbell). Ask children to draw the component parts of compound words (for the word snowman, they would draw snow and a man, for the word sandbox, they would draw sand and a box). Then ask them, “What big word do we make when we put those two little words together?” Once you have discussed how the two parts can be joined to form the compound word, have children draw the compound word (snowman, sandbox) within the third section of the paper.

Use a puppet, such as a turtle, to make this activity more playful for children. You might say, “Toby Turtle needs your help putting a word together. He is going to say the word very slowly. He needs you to put it together and say it quickly.”

Research Evidence Children who participated in a phonological awareness program that included syllable blending activities made significant improvements in their phonological awareness, word reading, and rapid naming skills relative to their peers in a comparison condition (Nelson, Benner, & Gonzalez, 2005).

Variations

Connection to State Standards

As a whole group, say two parts of a compound word aloud (with a significant pause in between the two words) and have children try to deter-

Begins to combine (blend) parts of compound words to make a whole word. (Tennessee Early Childhood Early Learning Developmental Standards)

Phonological Awareness

41

Leave a Sound Out Objective

Variations

Children recognize which segments are missing from spoken words.

In small groups or individually, place three common items (or pictures) containing more than one syllable on the table and pronounce one of the words without one syllable. Next, have the child guess which item you are referring to and then have her tell you which syllable is missing. For example, you might place a picture of flowers, tomato, and necklace on the table and say, “I am going to say part of one of these words. Ready? Neck. Can you point to the picture for which I just said part of the word? Yes, I said part of the word necklace. Can you tell me what part of the word I didn’t say? I didn’t say ‘lace’. If children find it too easy to identify a missing syllable, have them identify a single missing sound instead (e.g., you might say “omato” instead of “tomato”).

Grouping

Materials Needed Common objects or pictures of common objects

Lesson Description As a large group, tell children that you are going to call someone’s name but that you are going to leave a sound out. They must guess which child’s name you are calling and must say the missing sound segment. For example, if there is a child named Latonya in the class, you would say, “La-ton- . . . ” and have children guess that you are talking about Latonya and provide the missing segment “ya”. For a child who has a name consisting of a single syllable, leave one sound out of his or her name (e.g., Jack becomes “ack”).

Research Evidence Children with learning disabilities (LD) who participated in segmenting activities (as well as blending and rhyming activities) outperformed their peers in similar tasks, showing the feasibility of such activities for promoting phonological awareness in children with LD (O’Connor, Jenkins, Leicester, & Slocum, 1993).

Connection to State Standards Recognizes which segment of a word is left off when spoken aloud, with assistance (e.g., “picture,” and can recognize the /p/ is left off when “icture” is said). (Washington State Early Learning and Development Benchmarks)

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Emergent Literacy: Lessons for Success

Move to the Syllables Objective

his friends to jump for each syllable for example, have the class jump together for the syllables Ja-son.

Children segment words into syllables.

Variations Grouping Have children segment words for familiar objects (or pictures of objects) in the classroom in the same way. For example, you might decide that the class will turn in a circle for each syllable in the first word [e.g., for computer, segment as com(turn) -pu- (turn) -ter (turn)] and then you will pat your heads for each syllable in the next word [for microwave, segment as mi- (pat) -cro- (pat) -wave (pat)].

Materials Needed

Research Evidence

Objects or pictures of objects having varying numbers of syllables

A clear progression appears to exist in children’s phonological awareness abilities such that they move from being able to segment sentences into words to being able to segment words into syllables to being able to segment syllables into phonemes (Fox & Routh, 1975). This developmental progression is important for children’s eventual understanding of the link between sounds (and combinations of sounds) and letters (and combinations of letters).

Lesson Description Have children segment their own names into syllables one at a time. For example, Jason would segment his name into two syllables as Ja-son and Juanita would segment her name into three syllables as Jua-ni-ta. Let each child decide whether the class should clap, jump, touch their toes, pat their heads, or perform some other action for each syllable in her name. If Jason decides that he would like

Connection to State Standards Shows growing ability to hear and discriminate separate syllables in words. (Rhode Island Early Learning Standards)

Phonological Awareness

43

Tell Us How It Begins Objective Children identify the beginning sounds of words.

Grouping

children one picture at a time and have them sort the pictures according to the appropriate beginning sound. As they sort the pictures, have them make the beginning sound out loud so that you can verify that they are attending to the beginning sound. During a transition time, ask children to line up based on the beginning sounds you say that match with their names. For example, you might say, “If your name begins with /s/, join the line.” Be sure to provide support to ensure all children are successful. This can be sung to the tune, “If You’re Happy and You Know It”: If your name begins with /s/, join the line. If your name begins with /s/, join the line.

Materials Needed

Sally’s name begins with /s/. Sally’s name begins with /s/.

Pictures of objects representing a variety of beginning sounds

Sally’s name begins with /s/. Join the line.

Lesson Description Research Evidence Tell children that you would like them to help you identify the beginning sounds of words: “Let’s listen carefully to the first sound I make when I say the word milk. Listen: mmmmmmilk. Do you hear that? Can you say /m/?” Have children repeat the /m/ sound with you and prompt them to focus on the feel of their lips and mouth as well when they say the beginning sound. Repeat this process with words containing different beginning sounds.

Variations Pick three different beginning sounds and have pictures of objects that start with each of the three beginning sounds. In a small group, show

Children with speech and/or language impairments show increased phonological awareness after participation in an intervention containing activities with a focus on beginning sounds (Laing & Espeland, 2005).

Connection to State Standards Begins to attend to the beginning sounds in familiar words by identifying that the pronunciations of several words all begin the same way (e.g., dog, dark, and dusty, [Spanish] casa, coche, and cuna). (Texas Prekindergarten Curriculum Guidelines)

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Emergent Literacy: Lessons for Success

Beginning Sound Scavenger Hunt Objective Children associate beginning sounds with words.

Grouping

A child whose sound is /s/ could collect a stamp, a sock, and soap. When the children return from their scavenger hunt, have them reveal the items they collected and ask the group to repeat each word and beginning sound after you. For example, “Tricia found a sock . . . s-s-sssock. Can you say /s/? Now say sock.”

Variations

Materials Needed A paper bag for each child in the group Access to a variety of classroom items

To make this activity more difficult, have children pick a beginning sound and then collect three items in the room that start with that beginning sound. Children will likely need individual assistance finding items corresponding to the beginning sound they have selected. After the scavenger hunt, have each child place her items on the table and have the other children guess the beginning sound. For example, “Tricia found a ruler, a rabbit, and a rainbow. What beginning sound do these words have in common?”

Lesson Description Assign a beginning sound to each child in the group (e.g., /f/, /p/, /s/) and ask her to collect three things in the classroom that start with the beginning sound, placing the items in her bag. For example, a child whose beginning sound is /p/ could collect a pencil, a pen, and paper.

Research Evidence In a randomized controlled trial, 4- and 5-year-old children who participated in an intervention that incorporated attention to beginning sounds outperformed peers in a comparison condition on measures of phonological processing and early reading and writing (Byrne & Fielding-Barnsley, 1991).

Connection to State Standards Learns that language is comprised of distinct sounds and the combinations of these sounds; discriminates sound and sound patterns. (Vermont Early Learning Standards)

Phonological Awareness

45

Allow Me to Introduce You

Children recognize when several words begin with the same sound.

to try not to repeat words that others have used. Mary might then introduce Christina by saying, “Allow me to introduce you to Crafty Christina. Christina is crafty.”

Grouping

Variations

Materials Needed

Read books that feature alliteration, such as Nancy E. Shaw’s Sheep in a Shop or Sheep on a Ship, and have children try to think of as many additional words as possible that begin with the target sound. You might say something like, “The words sheep and shop start with the sh sound. Can you think of some other words that start with sh? Yes, short, shrug, shell, shake, and shade start with the sh sound.” Prepare picture cards representing words in the book and display these on a pocket chart as children name the words.

Objective

Books that feature alliteration [e.g., Sheep in a Shop (1991) or Sheep on a Ship (1993) by Nancy E. Shaw]

Lesson Description Have children sit in a circle and explain to them that they will be introducing the person to their left to the rest of the group. The tricky part is that they must pick a word to describe their friend that begins with the same sound as their friend’s name. To begin, the adult should introduce the person to her left by saying, “Allow me to introduce you to Magnificent Mary. Mary is magnificent.” Encourage children to use positive words and

Research Evidence Children’s ability to complete alliteration tasks is a strong predictor of their later reading and spelling abilities, even when taking their IQ, mother’s education level, and receptive vocabulary abilities into account (Lonigan, Burgess, Anthony, & Barker, 1998).

Connection to State Standards Recognizes when several words begin with the same sound—alliteration. (West Virginia PreKindergarten Standards)

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Emergent Literacy: Lessons for Success

Blending Words Back Together Objective

each sound. When she knows some letter sounds, replace the tokens with letter tiles.

Children blend individual sounds to form words.

Variations Grouping

Materials Needed Tokens or chips

In a whole group activity, tell children that you are going to say each individual sound in a word that describes something they could find in the classroom and let them know that their job is to try to guess the word. For example, you could say, “/f/ pause /l/ pause /ae/ pause /g/,” and they would guess the word flag. Be sure to pause adequately between each sound so that children are required to blend the individual sounds in each word. Use a puppet to make learning more enjoyable. You might say, “Toby the Turtle needs your help to put a word together. He will say the word slowly and he wants you to say it quickly.”

Lesson Description Research Evidence Tell the child that you are going to say the sounds in a word and that you want her to help you put the word back together again. Start with consonant-vowel-consonant (CVC) words such as man, cat, tap, and hat. Pronounce the sounds with enough space between them so that the child is required to blend the individual sounds to form the target word. For example, using the word cat, you would say “/k/ pause /ae/ pause /t/.” Once the child is able to blend CVC words, move on to more difficult blending tasks, including CCVC words (skate, swim) and CVCC words (walk, park). The child can push a token on a mat for

Phonological awareness activities, such as blending, when taught in the context of other literacy activities are effective in promoting children’s reading and spelling abilities (Oudeans, 2003).

Connection to State Standards Begins to blend individual letter sounds to make a new word, with assistance (e.g., “/b/ /a/ /l/ . . . what’s the word? Ball.” (Washington State Early Learning and Development Benchmarks)

Phonological Awareness

47

Invent a Word Objective Children invent words by substituting sounds in familiar words.

word fig.” Following dig and fig, next have children substitute /g/, /j/, /p/, and /r/ for the /b/ in big in the same manner.

Variations Grouping To make this activity more challenging, have the group decide on a beginning sound they would like to use and then have a conversation with them using the target beginning sound for each word. For example, if the beginning sound is /b/, you could start by asking, “But bill be bave bor bunch boday?” (What will we have for lunch today?) “But bill bou bo buring becess? (What will you do during recess?)

Materials Needed Research Evidence None Manipulating individual phonemes is a critical ability for reading alphabetic languages (Yopp, 1992).

Lesson Description Ask children to change the first sound in each word you say. For example, using the word big, say, “I want you to change the first sound in the word big to /d/. What word does that make? That’s right, dig! Now change the first sound in big to /f/. What word does that make? Yes, it makes the

Connection to State Standards Begins to create and invent words by substituting one sound for another (e.g., bubblegum/gugglebum, [Spanish] calabaza/balacaza). (Texas Prekindergarten Curriculum Guidelines)

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Emergent Literacy: Lessons for Success

Last but Not Least Objective Children identify the final sounds in words.

Grouping

Variations

Materials Needed Picture cards

To make this activity more challenging, have children name words that end with a given final sound. For example, say, “I want you to tell me some words that end with the /n/ sound.” Again, begin with single consonant sounds and then move to vowel sounds and consonant digraph sounds such as the “tch” sound in watch, match, and pitch.

Lesson Description Have children identify the final sound that a group of three words has in common. Use picture cards for support. For example, say the words bat, hit, and mat and then ask children, “What sound do all three words end in?” Have children repeat the final sound /t/ after you. Note that the three words you present do not have to rhyme, and it is probably better if the words do not rhyme so that children will be able to concentrate on the final sounds the words have in common rather than the rhyming sound the words have in common. After you have introduced words ending in single consonant sounds, move to words ending in vowel sounds such as grow, blow, snow and tree, see, me and consonant digraph sounds such as brush, flash, and crash.

Research Evidence Phonological awareness is an important component of interventions for children at risk for reading difficulties. Categorizing words on the basis of shared final sounds is one activity that could be part of a phonological awareness training program (Catts, 1991).

Connection to State Standards Begins identifying the ending letter/sounds in single-syllable words. (South Carolina Kindergarten Standards)

Chapter 5 Print Awareness

W

ith these activities, the primary objective is to improve children’s knowledge of the forms and functions of print as well as their understanding of the role that print plays in communicating meaning. Developing an awareness of print—including its primary forms and its functions—is one of the

more defining achievements in emergent literacy development among preschool-aged children. These 15 activities can be used repeatedly with children in one-on-one, small group, or large group sessions to foster gains in this important aspect of literacy development.

Activity

Objective

1

Speech Written Down

Children understand that (a) print is speech written down, (b) print carries meaning, and (c) print runs from left to right and top to bottom.

2

Environmental Print Walk

Children understand that print carries a message by recognizing signs and other print forms in the environment.

3

Outdoor Words

Children recognize the difference between pictures and words as visual symbols.

4

First Letter Matching in Words

Children learn to distinguish between letters and words as units of print.

5

Find a Friend’s Name

Children learn the distinctive features of written names.

6

Word Train

Children develop an awareness of words through identifying word boundaries.

7

Word Winners

Children learn to differentiate among letters of the alphabet.

8

Read the Poem

Children understand that print runs from left to right and top to bottom.

9

Word/Letter/Picture Sort

Children develop knowledge of the print terms letter, word, and picture.

Long Word/Short Word Sort

Children develop an awareness of how words may differ in length.

10

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Emergent Literacy: Lessons for Success

Activity

Objective

11

Find and Seek with Your Book

Children develop book-handling skills and an understanding of words such as front, back, cover, illustrator, and author.

12

Find the Book by Its Cover

Children recognize favorite books by the cover.

13

Print Awareness during Dramatic Play

Children understand that different text forms are used for different functions (e.g., shopping lists, recipes for cooking, letters for communication, forms for businesses and libraries).

14

Exploring Print in Books

Children develop an awareness of how print is organized within storybooks.

15

Word Sort/Classroom Labels

Children develop an awareness of word as a unit of printed language.

Print Awareness

51

Speech Written Down Objective Children understand that (a) print is speech written down, (b) print carries meaning, and (c) print runs from left to right and top to bottom.

Materials Needed

at the zoo, a child may say, “I liked the monkeys.” Write the child’s words on chart paper or a sentence strip: Tyrone says, “I liked the monkeys.” Reread the sentence aloud with the children, pointing to each word. Have children choral read the sentence with you a few times. Post the sentence strips or chart paper at children’s eye level so they can reread or pretend read their words during play centers.

Chart paper or sentence strips Storybook (optional)

Grouping Options

Variations Create a group generated written story. For instance, after reading “Goldilocks and the Three Bears,” involve the children in formulating an apology letter from Goldilocks to the Bear family. Draw children’s attention to specific letters in words after reading the sentence strip. For example, you might circle the letter M and say, “I see an M, like the first letter of Maria’s name.”

Research Evidence Lesson Description After a shared experience, such as a field trip or a storybook reading, discuss the experience with the children. Pose a question to children, such as, “What was your favorite part?” Write down children’s words exactly as they say them, not correcting for grammar. (Remember, the goal is to help children to understand that the words they say carry meaning.) For example, after a field trip

Children’s knowledge of print concepts is an important and consistent predictor of later skills in word recognition (Hammill, 2004).

Connection to State Standards Begins to recognize the relationship or connection between spoken and written words by following print as it is read aloud. (Oklahoma Preschool P.A.S.S.)

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Emergent Literacy: Lessons for Success

Environmental Print Walk Objective Children understand that print carries a message by recognizing signs and other print forms in the environment.

Materials Needed Index cards with digital pictures or computer downloaded versions of environmental print available in the school or neighborhood

Grouping Options

Lesson Description Children go on a “print walk” through the school or neighborhood. Give each child a picture of one or two examples of environmental print present in the school or neighborhood. Tell the children they are “print detectives.” Each child’s job is to use his eyes and find the print during the walk using the “clue” (i.e., the

picture provided). Prompt children to (a) look at the clue and guess what it says, (b) name the letters in the clue, and (c) try to guess where they might see their sign or print example. During the print walk, prompt recognition of the individual print items. Children can be encouraged to name the letters in others’ print examples. When children return to the classroom, review the environmental print signs that they saw on the walk.

Variations Encourage the children to report new print items that they see on the way to school, so you can add items to the print detective game. Give each child a card containing a letter (instead of environmental print examples). Encourage children to find the letter in the environmental print observed during the walk. Write down the words seen by the child. Prompt the child to read (i.e., remember) the words found while on the letter walk. Have children write down the letters seen during the walk after they return to the classroom. This can be a group or individual activity. Create an in-class print walk by cutting out familiar labels and having children find a match in the classroom. For example, children may match a Cheerios label with a Cheerios box in the room.

Research Evidence Children’s beginning reading skills may improve with exposure to environmental print and adult mediation (Neuman & Roskos, 1993).

Connection to State Standards Labels signs in the environment. (Illinois PreKindergarten Standard)

Print Awareness

53

Outdoor Words Objective Children recognize the difference between pictures and words as visual symbols.

Materials Needed Cards with the picture and word written below the picture: leaf, grass, bark, stick, stone Sentence strips: “[Child’s name] found a .” Pictures of: leaf, grass, bark, stick, stone (each child gets one picture) Word cards with the words: leaf, grass, bark, stick, stone

Take children on a group walk and find his special item. After returning to the classroom, show the children two sets of index cards. The first set contains both the leaf/stone/grass/stick/bark picture and the item name underneath the picture, like the figure.

Grouping Options

Lesson Description Give children one of five index cards before taking a nature walk in their neighborhood. The index card contains a picture of one of the following: leaf, stone, grass, stick, bark (from a tree), like the figure.

Also show index cards with the name of the target words, like the figure.

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Emergent Literacy: Lessons for Success

Encourage children to find their picture plus word card as well as their word-only card. Prompt children to place their word-only card on top of their sentence strip (small pieces of Velcro can be added to the sentence strip so that the word stays in place). Model reading the

sentence by moving your finger from left to right and saying, “(Child’s name) found a leaf/stone/ grass/stick/bark.” Support the child to move his finger from left to right and read his sentence. Use words like letter, word, and sentence and point out the first letter in the child’s name.

Post the sentence strips at children’s eye level at the science center to promote emergent reading of the outdoor words.

Draw children’s attention to specific letters in words after reading the sentence strip. For example, a teacher may circle the letter S and say, “I see an S, like the first letter of Samantha’s name.”

Variations Use different words to align with the classroom theme. Instead of a nature walk, the children can hunt for items in the classroom or inside the gym (items are placed prior to the activity). More words can be added to make the task more difficult (e.g., instead of 5 possible words, 10 different items are found and matched). Have the children sort the five words (leaf/ stone/grass/stick/bark) into piles. To encourage sorting, place the five picture plus word cards on the floor or table. The children take the word-only cards (leaf/stone/grass/stick/bark) and place the words on top of the picture plus word card.

Research Evidence Concepts of print (e.g., difference between letter and word) are important early literacy skills linked to reading proficiency (Justice & Ezell, 2002).

Connection to State Standards Begins to acquire concepts of print. (Hawaii 4year-old Emergent Literacy Standard)

Print Awareness

55

First Letter Matching in Words Objective Children learn to distinguish between letters and words as units of print.

Materials Needed Index cards; half contain animal picture (with corresponding written word); remaining half are food items also containing written word below the picture

Grouping Options

The animal names and the food items should be written in the same font, so that children can more easily match the initial letters (this can be modified as the children become more proficient at letter matching). The word items can be written in all capital letters (recommended by Adams, 1990) for preschoolers or printed with the initial letter as a capital and the remaining letters as lowercase letters (e.g., Horse, Dog, Banana). Help children match the animal names to the corresponding food item while drawing attention to the initial letter. “Look, the word fly starts with the letter F; can you find another word that starts with the letter F? That’s right, this word, frog, and this word, fly, both start with the same letter. This is the letter F!”

Variations

Lesson Description Prepare matching sets of index cards. Half of the cards contain an animal picture (and the name of the animal underneath); half of the cards contain a picture of a food item with the name of the food item that is eaten by the animal. The animal name and the food item start with the same letter. The figure contains examples of animal names and possible food items.

Children can circle the beginning letter with a marker or draw attention to it with highlighting tape. Model how to do this for the word frog. Have a child circle the beginning letter in fly. Use paired words that align with the classroom theme. Children can use magnetic letters or letter cards to rebuild the words. Have a model available.

Research Evidence Initial letter knowledge is an important predictor of later reading proficiency (Lonigan, Burgess & Anthony, 2000; Schatschneider, Fletcher, Francis, Carlson, & Foorman, 2004).

Horse—Hay Dog—Dog Biscuit

Connection to State Standards

Frog—Fly Baboon—Banana Goat—Grass Bear—Berries

Recognizes that words are made up of letters (e.g., c-a-t). (Ohio Early Learning State Standard)

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Find a Friend’s Name Objective Children learn the distinctive features of written names.

he is holding. As he looks for the matching name, the children sing a song together (to the tune of “Row, Row, Row Your Boat”) as follows: Find, find, find my name.

Materials Needed

Can you find my name? Look at letters in my name.

Poster board signs with students’ names; names are printed in varying colors and fonts

Grouping Options

Can you find my name? When the child in the center finds the matching name, a different child is given a sign with a classmate’s name and the game starts over. Draw the child’s attention to the first letter in the classmates’ names. For example, say, “Lakisha’s name begins with the /l/ sound. Listen: LLLLakisha.”

Variations

Lesson Description Prepare two copies of each child’s name on an 81⁄2-by-11-inch piece of paper or card stock. Each child’s name should have a unique color/design/ font. Here are some examples (Note: Using Word Art is an easy way to produce names with different-looking fonts.).

As the children become proficient in matching their classmates’ names, the signs can be changed to all have black letters. Finally, with practice and support the children may be able to find their classmates’ names by looking at the letters even when all names are printed using the same font. For children who need additional assistance, attach each child’s picture to his written name. After children find a matching name, model how to write it down on chart paper. Children can also write the names down.

Research Evidence A child’s own first initial is often the first letter learned; it may provide a bootstrap for learning additional letters (Justice, Pence, Bowles, & Wiggins, 2006).

Have children form a circle; each child holds up the sign with his name. Provide one child with a sign for a classmate’s name and have him stand in the center of circle. The child in the center tries to find the child whose name matches the sign that

Connection to State Standards Recognizes the printed form of his name in a variety of contexts. (Iowa Pre-Kindergarten Standards)

Print Awareness

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Word Train Objective Children develop an awareness of words through identifying word boundaries.

little fuzzy cat funny clown running happy girl skipping big blue bird

Materials Needed Index cards with individual words Sentence strips containing word combinations with associated picture A cutout of a train All materials are used with a felt board (using Velcro to attach to board)

Grouping Options

Lesson Description Prepare paired copies of identical sentence strips. The sentence strips contain one-, two-, and threeword combinations. One sentence strip contains a corresponding illustration. The matching sentence strip does not have a picture and is cut into individual words. The teacher places Velcro strips on the back of the long sentence strips and each word of the cut-up sentence strips so that the cards can be placed on a felt board. Here are some examples of one-, two-, and three-word combinations: blue house brown dog

After making a number of one-, two-, and threeword strips, make a train with an engine and two train cars (Note: Picture of train and train cars can be downloaded from the Internet using clip art.). Each part of the train has Velcro on the back (so that it can be placed on the felt board), along with a piece of Velcro on the front (so that the word cards will adhere to the train cars). First, introduce the activity by pointing to one of the one-, two-, or three-word strips. Say, “I am going to point to each word on this card and read the words. This card says, ‘Blue house.’ And look, here is a picture of a blue house!” (Point to the picture of the blue house.) “This is the part we read; this says ‘Blue house.’” (Move your finger from left to right and point to each word as you read the sentence to the children.) Next say, “Now let’s take these words apart.” (Hold up individual word cards. One says blue and the second card says house.) “(Child’s name), can you come up here and put the word blue underneath the word blue on this long strip? (Help the child to match the word card to the word blue on the long strip.) “(Child’s name), can you match this word, house?” Encourage children to take turns matching the individual words to the words in the one-, two-, or three-word strip. The individual word card is placed directly below the word on the one-, two-, or three-word strip.

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When the children can complete this activity, introduce the “Word Train.” Say, “How many words do we have on this long strip? Let’s count: one, two!” Point to each word and count the word as you point. Children are encouraged to count with you or to count on their own (if able to do so).

Caution

Say, “Look, we can put these words on the word train. How many pieces of train do we need? Two pieces of train!” Move the word blue, and stick it on the engine of the word train. Then take the word house and place on the second train car. The third train car is removed from the felt board.

Variations

Avoid using this activity within a lesson in which you have children clap or tap out syllables (for phonological awareness skill building). The word train activity is designed to draw children’s attention to the concept of word. An individual word can contain multiple syllables. Building children’s concept of word is important, as is increasing children’s phonological awareness of syllables. However, both activities should not be completed together as it can be confusing to move between the two tasks within one lesson.

The one-, two-, and three-word phrases can be created to carry through classroom themes or favorite storybooks. For example, if the book of the week is The Gingerbread Man, the phrases could be: hungry fox fast gingerbread boy grandmother

Research Evidence

Cycle through this activity by (a) taking turns “reading” the one-, two-, and three-word phrases (e.g., moving finger from left to right), (b) matching the individual words underneath the one-, two-, and three-word phrases (pointing and drawing children’s attention to the letter names in the words), (c) counting the words, and (d) moving the words to the word train.

Researchers have long recognized that the child’s recognition that words are basic units of print is a watershed event in the pathway to becoming a reader (Lomax & McGee, 1987).

Connection to State Standards Shows the one-to-one correspondence between a spoken word and a printed word. Recognizes the concept of letters, words, and sentences by segmenting spoken and print sentences into individual words. (Idaho Fall Kindergarten Standards)

Print Awareness

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Word Winners Objective Children learn to differentiate among letters of the alphabet.

Materials Needed Letter cards Words with and without the “winning” letter and an associated picture

The word cards that do not start with the letter of day are the “losers.”

A real trophy or a picture of a trophy Cutout “medals” (can be cut from construction paper or sticky notes)

Grouping Options

Lesson Description Several letters are the “winners” of the day (e.g., D and S). Pick letters that are visually dissimilar. Children look at word cards (with associated pictures) and find the pictures/words that contain the winning letters (letters can either be initial [easier] or within the word [more difficult]). Stick cutout medals onto the words that are the winners. Words that contain the winning letters can be placed in a container that looks like a trophy or in a pile next to a real trophy.

Variations Remove the written word and use only the picture to focus attention on the beginning sounds of words. For instance, for winners of the day D and S, use pictures of these words: day, dog, dime, dig, sun, sad, sag, and slide. Foils (i.e., losers) may include: five, cat, farm, gift, jog, lime, noon, and pie. Use pictures of these words (without any words on the pictures). Focus children on saying the pictured word (such as day) and thinking about the initial sound (/d/) and the letter associated with that sound (D).

Research Evidence Scanlon and Vellutino (1996) report a high correlation (r = .56) between letter identification and reading achievement; children who enter beginning reading instruction knowing more letters tend to develop reading skills more quickly than children knowing fewer letters.

Connection to State Standards Identifies some alphabet letters by their shapes, especially those in his own name. (Iowa PreKindergarten Standards)

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Read the Poem Objective

Variations

Children understand that print runs from left to right and top to bottom.

Change the song or rhyme to align with the classroom theme. To illustrate, for a week in which the theme is lakes and ponds, the song “Row, Row, Row Your Boat” may be used. Print the song in large print, with several pictures placed throughout the song to help children match printed words to spoken words (e.g., boat, stream, dream). Point to words as the song is sung as a chorus. Also, look for poems that represent the cultural identity of children in the classroom. Many cultures have traditional nursery rhymes or poems, and children will appreciate having these rhymes or poems shared in their classrooms.

Materials Needed Familiar nursery rhymes or songs Large tablet, poster, or chart paper

Grouping Options

Research Evidence

Lesson Description Write out a familiar nursery rhyme, finger play, or song on chart paper. Add small picture symbols next to common nouns. Recite or sing the text slowly while pointing to the words. As the activity becomes familiar to the children, help the children point with you. Children can take turns leading the group as they sing or recite the text.

Understanding basic concepts of print, such as how it is organized from left to right, may free children’s cognitive resources so that, when learning to read, they can focus on more sophisticated concepts such as recognizing letters and words (Justice & Ezell, 2004).

Connection to State Standards Understands that pictures and symbols have meaning and that print carries a message. (Illinois Pre-Kindergarten Literacy Standards)

Print Awareness

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Word/Letter/Picture Sort Objective

Variations

Children develop knowledge of the print terms letter, word, and picture.

Words and pictures can be selected to align with a classroom theme. For instance, during a dentist theme, use such words as dentist, molar, cavity, appointment, and hygiene as well as pictures related to a dentist office in the sorting activity.

Materials Needed 5–10 pictures 5–10 words 5–10 letters

Grouping Options

Research Evidence Children who reside in homes of poverty may develop print awareness more slowly than other children due to limited experiences with print; supporting print awareness among children of poverty is an important goal of early intervention (Chaney, 1994).

Connection to State Standards Begins to distinguish print from pictures. (Ohio Early Learning Standards)

Lesson Description Create three categories for sorting: (a) letters, (b) pictures, and (c) words. Help children sort cards into one of three categories, either a word, letter, or picture. Each category has a “header” that serves as the category header. See examples in the figure.

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Long Word/Short Word Sort Objective Children develop an awareness of how words may differ in length.

dren clap out the words. You may say, “Let’s clap out the word computer; how many claps? Wow, that’s a long word, isn’t it?”). Compare the size of the word strips. Emphasize that the long words have more sounds and letters than the short words.

Materials Needed Word strips (Half of the cards have one-syllable words; half of the cards have words of three or more syllables) Word strips attach to felt board.

Grouping Options Variations Words can be selected to align with classroom themes. For instance, for the theme “healthy body,” use these words:

Lesson Description Make strips with words. Half of the cards should have short words (one syllable); half should be three or more syllables. All words should be in the same size/type font. Here are some examples: ■ Short words: shoe, cup, chair, pen, lamp, car, bus, cat, dog, pen, map, milk (one-syllable words) ■ Long words: spatula, computer, dictionary, motorcycle, elephant, hippopotamus, dinosaur, macaroni, magazine (three or more syllable words) Have the children decide which words are long words and which are short words. Have the chil-

■ Short words: fit, sleep, eat, run, play, nurse, fresh, health, milk, fruit ■ Long words: vegetables, exercise, nutrition, physician, vitamins, minerals, medicine

Research Evidence Professionals interested in improving literacy skills should focus on teaching written language abilities such as print awareness and book handling (Hammill, 2004).

Connection to State Standards Shows interest and understanding of the basic concepts and conventions of print. (Kentucky Pre-Kindergarten Learning Benchmark)

Print Awareness

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Find and Seek with Your Book Objective Children develop book-handling skills and an understanding of words such as front, back, cover, illustrator, and author.

A letter A word The first word of a sentence The last word of a sentence The first and last words on a page

Materials Needed Storybooks (Each child can bring a favorite book from home or select a book from the classroom library)

Grouping Options

Punctuation marks A capital letter A lowercase letter The back of the book

Variations Once children can find these items, you can ask them to find words that they recognize or to “read.” Various levels of emergent reading are acceptable, including labeling pictures, describing the action in the illustrations, or “pretend” reading.

Research Evidence Lesson Description Allow each child to pick out a favorite book. Sit with the children and ask each child to show you (in the book he is holding): The front of the book The title of the book Where you begin reading

Integrating explicit conversations about print concepts into shared reading interactions accelerates young children’s knowledge of how print works (Justice & Ezell, 2004).

Connection to State Standards Tracks or follows print when listening to a familiar text being read. (Idaho Fall Kindergarten Standards)

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Find the Book by Its Cover Objective

“Where is the title of the book?”

Children recognize favorite books by the cover.

“Can you show me where we read the author’s name?”

Materials Needed

“Which way do we read this book?” (Child positions and opens book correctly.)

Index cards with pictures of books available in the classroom Well-stocked classroom library

Grouping Options

Variations Children can also be prompted to predict what will happen in the book. Use a dictation task to put children’s thoughts into writing. Label a large sheet of paper at the top with, “What do you think will happen?” Allow each child to share a prediction by writing the child’s name and his prediction (e.g., Juan thinks the lion will get out.). As the book is shared, pause to confirm specific predictions.

Research Evidence Lesson Description Scan the covers of books (or download pictures of books from the Internet). Reduce the size of the picture to fit on an index card or Rolodex card. Prior to naptime (or other times when children choose books to look at independently), have the children select a book from the card selection and then find the actual book in the classroom library. When the child returns the card to you (following his selection of the real book), ask one or more questions. For example:

Integrating explicit conversations focused on print within book-shared routines is beneficial not only for children who are developing typically, but also for children who have language-learning disabilities and are developing knowledge of print relatively slowly (Lovelace & Stewart, 2007).

Connection to State Standards Selects favorite books and poems and participates in shared oral reading and discussions. (Ohio Early Learning Standards)

Print Awareness

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Print Awareness during Dramatic Play Objective Children understand that different text forms are used for different functions (e.g., shopping lists, recipes for cooking, letters for communication, forms for businesses and libraries).

Materials Needed Writing materials (pens, pencils, markers, stamps/stamp pads, stationary, envelopes) Various kinds of paper (folders, forms, pads) Different kinds of reading material (religious, magazines, books, newspapers, phone books, catalogs) Miscellaneous props to stimulate play routine [clothing, hats, pictures, phones, computer keyboards (nonworking are okay), adding machines or cash registers]

Grouping Options

play. As the children become familiar with the play routine, gradually fade your participation. Use vocabulary and conversation that explains the use of literacy objects. For example: ■ (In a doctor’s office play routine) “Hello, Mrs. (child’s name), I need to ask you how you are feeling today. I’m going to write down what you tell me in this folder so I remember what you tell me.” ■ (In a restaurant or McDonald’s play routine) “Can I take your order? I’m going to write down your order on this tablet.” ■ (In a bank or library play routine) “If you want me to give you money (a library card), you will need to sign your name on this form for my records.” ■ (In a veterinary clinic play routine) “Can you write your pet’s name on this form for me?” (Child writes emergently; i.e., scribbling, pictures, letter shapes are all acceptable.) ■ (In a store play routine) “I need to look for popcorn. Can you see any boxes in our store that have this word on it? It starts with the letter P.” ■ (In a kitchen) “This cookbook says to add an egg. Oh, egg starts with an E, like your name, Eliza!” ■ (In a police station play routine) “Hey, your hat says Police. That starts with a P!” Home Play Routines

Lesson Description Create a dramatic play center with a number of literacy-related items. See suggestions below. Sit at eye level with the children in the dramatic play area. Play along with the children and model using provided items to enhance their literacy

Phone books, computer keyboards,TV guides, magazines, paper for shopping lists, recipes, pencils Office Play Routines Cell phones, computer keyboards, order forms, office supply catalogs, sticky notes, stamps, stamp pads, pencils, pens, highlighters

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Doctor’s or Veterinarian’s Office Play Routines File folders, papers with a body outline, prescription pads, pens, pencils, stamps and stamp pads, scale, yardstick, magazines, pretend credit cards or insurance cards, pretend money

Research Evidence Children who experience literacy-enriched play with adult guidance are able to read more out-ofcontext words (words not embedded within their supporting context) than children who do not have access to this type of adult guidance (Vukelich, 1994).

Variations Change dramatic play centers frequently, and align centers with a classroom theme. Model different play routines even when using the same materials. For example, an office can be a bus station or an airport. A veterinarian’s office can be turned into a dog grooming business or a hospital.

Connection to State Standards Begins to visualize, represent, and sequence an understanding of text through a variety of media and play. (Ohio Early Learning Standards)

Exploring Print in Books Objective Children develop an awareness of how print is organized within storybooks.

Materials Needed Storybook

Grouping Options

or words as you read, (b) track print from left to right, and (c) point to print that is embedded in the illustration. Make verbal references to print. Ask questions about: (a) letters (“Do you know what letter this is?” “Does anyone see an uppercase A on this page?” or (b) words (“What do you think this says [e.g., There is a speech bubble that says ‘Ouch!’ within the illustration]?”). Be sure to only use these techniques in a way that does not detract from the overall storybook reading experience! Allow children to demonstrate their bookhandling skills by asking them to show you: (a) the front of the book, (b) the title, (c) the author’s name, (d) which way to read (left to right). Also ask them, “Where do I read, here [point at illustration] or here [point at top of text section]?”

Variations

Lesson Description Use nonverbal cues to alert children to print as you read. Occasionally, (a) point to the letters

At times you can make mistakes such as: (a) turning the pages the wrong way, (b) holding the book upside down, and (c) “forgetting” where to read. Let the children correct you and show you the correct way to turn pages or hold the storybook.

Print Awareness

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Research Evidence

Connection to State Standards

Print referencing results in significant gains in early literacy skills for preschool children who have language impairment; this technique can be used in one-on-one or large-group reading interactions to achieve significant advances in children’s developing print knowledge (Lovelace & Stewart, 2007).

Demonstrates awareness that language is made up of words, parts of words, and sounds in words. (Iowa Pre-Kindergarten Standards)

Word Sort/Classroom Labels Objective Children develop an awareness of word as a unit of printed language.

Materials Needed Index cards with written words matching labeled objects in classroom

Note: Many preschool classrooms have objects in the classroom labeled, but children are rarely encouraged to use the labels in a way that enhances literacy development.

Grouping Options Variations Draw children’s attention to the labeled objects throughout the day. Ask children to find letters they recognize. Ask, “Do you see any other labels with that letter?” Ask children to find labels that start with the first letter in their name.

Research Evidence Lesson Description Tell the children they are going to be “detectives.” Each child is given an index card that matches a labeled item in the classroom. Children look for and match their card to the labeled item.

Relatively simple refinements to classroom environments, focused on heightening print richness and increasing children’s exposure to print, can have relatively profound influences on children’s early literacy achievements (Katims, 1991).

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Emergent Literacy: Lessons for Success

Connection to State Standards Picks out and labels specific letters from their name when looking at book titles or labels. (Nebraska Early Learning Guidelines)

Chapter 6 Alphabet Knowledge

W

ith these activities, the primary objective is to increase children’s knowledge of the alphabet by promoting their knowledge of the distinctive features of individual letters as well as the name of each letter and its corresponding sound(s). These

15 activities can be used repeatedly with children in one-on-one, small group, or large group sessions to foster gains in this important aspect of literacy development.

Activity

Objective

1

Touch and Feel Bag

Children identify and name letters according to their shapes.

2

Straight, Curvy, or Both?

Children sort letters according to the way they are graphically constructed.

3

Simon Says with Play Dough Letters

Children explore the shapes and recognize the names of alphabet letters.

4

Magnetic Letters

Children become familiar with the shapes of letters in their own names as well as their friends’ names.

5

Mystery Letter

Children recognize the similarities and differences between the structural print features of alphabet letters.

6

Let’s Sing!

Children match printed letters with their letter names as they sing the alphabet song.

7

Alphabet Go Fish

Children name at least 5 to 10 letters of the alphabet.

8

ABC D-elicious!

Children correctly name and sort letters of the alphabet.

9

Reading the Alphabet

Children recognize and identify printed letters in books.

10

Let’s Read a Story

Children recognize and discriminate between upper- and lowercase letters during book reading.

11

Letter Hunt

Children identify a word in their classroom with the same first letter as in their names.

12

Alphabet Book

Children match printed letters with the beginning sounds in words/pictures.

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Emergent Literacy: Lessons for Success

Activity

Objective

13

What’s My Sound?

Children identify recurring sounds at the beginning of words and name the letter that relates to the sound.

14

Match It Up

Children match beginning sounds of objects in pictures to their corresponding printed letters.

15

I Spy

Children identify the beginning sounds and letters in the names of objects in their environment.

Alphabet Knowledge

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Touch and Feel Bag Objective Children identify and name letters according to their shapes.

side on the magnetic board. If the child guesses correctly, she may leave the letter on the magnetic board; otherwise, the letter goes back into the bag for the next child’s turn. Each child takes one turn and play continues until all children have had several turns.

Grouping Variations

Magnetic board (or cookie sheet)

After showing and discussing theme-related objects, place them into the bag. In order for children to keep the item they not only have to guess the object but also say the first letter in its name. Instead of using uppercase letters, use only lowercase letters in the bag for children to touch and feel. When most children can name both forms of letters, combine upper- and lowercase letters for increased difficulty. Provide support for children by limiting the number of letters used in the bag at one time. Display the potential letters on the cookie sheet (e.g., B, M, S, T).

Lesson Description

Research Evidence

Pour magnetic letters into a bag. Make sure children cannot see through the bag to the letters. One at a time, have each child reach into the bag and select a letter. While holding the letter inside the bag, tell the child to feel the letter with her fingers without looking at it. Then ask the child to guess the letter. After the child guesses, ask her to pull the letter out. If the child’s guess differs from the correct letter, compare the similarities and differences between the features of the magnetic letter and the child’s guess by placing both side by

Children who know the names of many letters at a young age start off in a strong position and are better prepared for formal reading instruction (Lonigan, Burgess, & Anthony, 2000).

Materials Needed Opaque bag (one children cannot see into) Magnetic letters (uppercase)

Connection to State Standards Identifies at least 10 letters of the alphabet, especially those in their own name. (Alabama Performance Standards for 4-year-olds)

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Emergent Literacy: Lessons for Success

Straight, Curvy, or Both? Objective Children sort letters according to the way they are graphically constructed.

Grouping

turns, have each child select an alphabet letter. Ask the child to identify whether or not the letter is made only of straight or curvy or a mix of straight and curvy lines. Then have the child find and place the letter into the corresponding container.

Variations Include lowercase letters as well as uppercase letters in the neutral container for children to sort. Ask children to name each letter they select and sort or provide its sound. Create two- and three-letter word cards that have only letters with straight lines (e.g., HI), curvy lines (SO), or both (SEE). Then have children sort the word cards into the corresponding box.

Materials Needed Uppercase letters of the alphabet (any kind; e.g., foam, plastic, sandpaper, letter cards) Three containers (such as plastic/cardboard boxes, envelopes)

Lesson Description Label one container “Straight Lines,” another container “Curvy Lines,” and the third container as “Both.” Include pictures on the container corresponding to each label (see figure). Place all of the alphabet letters in a neutral container. Taking

Research Evidence Explicitly and repeatedly drawing children’s attention to print features facilitates orthographic awareness (Lafferty, Gray, & Wilcox, 2005).

Connection to State Standards Associates the names of letters with their shapes. (Alaska Early Learning Guidelines)

Alphabet Knowledge

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Simon Says with Play Dough Letters Objective Children explore the shapes and recognize the names of alphabet letters.

Says by asking children to perform actions while identifying letters. For example say, “Simon Says, skip to the letter A,” or “Simon Says, rub your belly to the letter N,” or “Simon Says, crawl to the letter R.” As children become more advanced at identifying letters, remove the phrase “Simon Says.”

Grouping

Materials Needed

Variations

Laminated alphabet cards

Play Simon Says with letter sounds rather than letter names. For instance say, “Simon Says, hop on one foot to the letter that makes the /s/ sound,” or “Simon Says, fly like an airplane to the letter that makes the /b/ sound.” Incorporate children’s names or words into the Simon Says directions. Examples of directions might include, “Simon Says, waddle like a duck to the first letter in David’s name,” or “Simon Says, walk backwards to the first letter in Carolyn’s name.”

Play dough Open space in classroom

Lesson Description Create large cards with alphabet letters printed in a bubble font and laminate (see figure for example). Sitting in a circle or at a table, lay a deck of alphabet cards facedown in front of the group. Instruct each child to draw one card, turn it over, and name the letter. Then give each child a ball of play dough. Tell the children, “Today we are going to play Simon Says with letters you make out of play dough. Each of you will form long snakes out of your play dough. Then you’ll place your ‘snakes’ over the straight or curvy lines of the letter on your card. Once everyone is finished you may choose where to put your card in this area. Then we’ll play Simon Says.” While children construct their letters out of play dough, talk about the similarities and differences in shapes among the letters and help any children having difficulty forming the letters out of snakes. After the letters are formed and the cards are placed, begin playing Simon

Research Evidence Children who explore letters using multiple senses (auditory, visual, tactile, kinesthetic) demonstrate greater knowledge of the alphabetic principle compared to children who employ only one or two senses (auditory, visual) in letter learning (Bara, Gentaz, Colé, & Sprenger-Charolles, 2004).

Connection to State Standards Begins to recognize, name, or identify some letters of the alphabet. (Delaware Early Learning Foundations for School Success)

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Magnetic Letters Objective Children become familiar with the shapes of letters in their own names as well as their friends’ names.

Grouping

Materials Needed

After a correct response, point to the first letter written on the name card and ask, “Who can find this letter? Look at all of your letters and see if you can match it to this one. When you find the matching letter, put it on your cookie sheet.” Model looking for the letter among your magnetic letters, select it, and place it on your cookie sheet. Offer assistance to those children having difficulty by limiting the number of letters they’re choosing from. Then ask children to name the letter. Reinforce responses by saying, “Yes, this is the letter L. It is the first letter in Lisa’s name.” Continue having the children find each letter on the name card, placing the letters on their cookie sheets, and then naming the letters. When finished matching the letters on the card, read the letters on the cookie sheet together, pointing to each one and saying, “Wow, we did a great job matching letters. Now let’s read the letters in Lisa’s name. L-I-S-A. Lisa” (sweeping from left to right).

Uppercase magnetic alphabet letters Cookie sheets Name cards (index cards with each child’s picture and written name on front and magnetic strip on back)

Lesson Description Place the name cards of the participating children in a bag. Give yourself and each child a cookie sheet and set of magnetic letters. Tell the children, “Today we’re going to play a matching name game. I have all of your name cards in this bag. One by one I’m going to pull them out and we’re going to match each name using our letters and cookie sheets.” Reach into the bag and draw a name card. Place the card on your cookie sheet. Point to the picture and ask the children to identify the person in the photograph, saying, “Who is this?”

Variations Include other name cards of children in the classroom or name cards of adults working in the school. Index cards of familiar words and pictures as well as theme-related vocabulary could also be incorporated. Highlight not only the letter name but also the beginning sound of the child’s name on the card. Point to the first letter on the name card and say, “Let’s listen to the first sound in Lisa’s name. L-L-L- (drawing out the L sound) -isa. What sound do you hear at the beginning of L-L-L-isa’s name?” Then have the children search for the magnetic letter matching the sound. When children become skilled with uppercase letters, switch to lowercase or combine upper- and lowercase letters together.

Alphabet Knowledge

75

Research Evidence

Connection to State Standards

Personal names are among the first printed words in which young children attend to the visual aspects of letters such as shape and direction (Treiman, Cohen, Mulqueeny, Kessler, & Schechtman, 2007).

Shows progress in associating the names of letters with their shapes and sounds. (Alabama Performance Standards for 4-year-olds)

Mystery Letter Objective Children recognize the similarities and differences between the structural print features of alphabet letters.

Grouping

represents a clue. For example, an E has four parts and a Z has three parts. Tell the children, “I have a mystery letter. I am going to draw a clue on this paper. I want you to look at the clue and think about the letters that look like this drawing. Then I want you to guess a letter and solve the mystery!” For example, if the mystery letter is B, tell the children, “This mystery letter has three parts or three clues. The first clue is a straight line (draw a straight line [|] on the chart paper). What letter could this be?” As each child suggests a letter, talk about how that letter either shares or does not share the first clue. For instance, if a child guesses S, talk about how the mystery letter has a straight line and S has a curve. Then draw the second and third clue discussing similarities and differences between suggestions and the clues until one of the children guesses the correct letter.

Materials Needed Variations Bag of uppercase alphabet letters (plastic letters, letter cards, magnetic letters) Chart paper Marker

Lesson Description Out of view from the children, draw an uppercase letter from the letter bag. Look at the letter and determine how many parts it has to it. Each part

Use lowercase letters as the mystery letter or combine upper- and lowercase. If combining upper- and lowercase, explicitly tell children, “This mystery letter is lowercase.” Then discuss similarities and differences between children’s suggestions in terms of case and structural features of letters. Replace the letters in the bag with themerelated mystery word cards. Select one word card and provide clues as above for each letter in the word. Then have children guess the mystery word.

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Research Evidence

Connection to State Standards

The sequential order in which strokes of letters are written facilitates letter identification (Parkinson & Khurana, 2007).

Identifies similarities and differences in letters. (Arizona Early Learning Standards)

Let’s Sing!

Children match printed letters with their letter names as they sing the alphabet song.

on the placemat and support children in doing the same. After the children can point and sing with the alphabet mat, have children match letters to the mat, a few at a time.

Grouping

Variations

Objective

Vary the pictures according to the classroom theme or even use names of children in the classroom or adults in the school. Encourage children to make their own placemats cutting out pictures from magazines, books, newspapers, and so on. After singing the alphabet song using the letter names, sing the same song using the names of the theme-related pictures.

Materials Needed Research Evidence Alphabet placemats (one per child) (see page 77)

Lesson Description Create alphabet letter placemats. Under each letter include a theme-related picture (see below for example of environmental theme). Tell children, “Let’s sing the alphabet song. As you sing, point to each letter on your alphabet placemat.” Then lead children in singing the alphabet song. While singing each letter name, point to the printed letter

Recitation of the alphabet when paired with explicit focus on visual graphemes increases children’s knowledge of alphabet letter names (Justice, Chow, Capellini, Flanigan, & Colton, 2003).

Connection to State Standards Recites letters of the alphabet in home language. (Alaska Early Learning Guidelines)

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Alphabet Go Fish Objective Children name at least 5 to 10 letters of the alphabet.

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fish!” The child requesting the letter must then choose a card from the pile in the middle. Offer assistance to those children who have difficulty identifying or naming the letter by linking the letter to a person’s name or providing choices. Each child takes one turn and play moves to the left. The player with the most matches wins.

Variations

Materials Needed Two sets of matching alphabet letter cards

As each child makes a match, ask her to provide a word that begins with that letter. For instance, say, “Great job, Ryan! You made a match with the letter J. Tell me a word that begins with the letter J.” Play Go Fish using letter sounds rather than names. For example, have children ask, “Sarah, do you have a /h/ sound?” In this way, children must not only recognize the graphic representation of the letter but also recall its corresponding sound.

Lesson Description Research Evidence Shuffle the alphabet cards and deal each child seven cards. Have children hold the cards in their hands hiding the letters from view of other players. Place the rest of the cards face down in the “fish pond” and mix them up. This will be the group of cards children draw from during the game. Select a player to start. During each turn encourage children to ask other players for a letter they have in their hand by saying the child’s name and the question, “Billy, do you have a Y?” If the player asked has the specified letter, she must give the matching letter to the child requesting. If the player does not have the letter, then she says, “Go

Working in collaborative groups helps children develop a better understanding of the concept being taught, such as the names of alphabet letters (Mathes, Torgeson, & Allor, 2001; Vermette, Harper, & DiMillo, 2004).

Connection to State Standards Identifies 10 or more letters. (District of Columbia Prekindergarten English Language Arts Standards and Learning Activities)

Alphabet Knowledge

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ABC D-elicious! Objective Children correctly name and sort letters of the alphabet.

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letter drawn from the bag. Provide support to children who have difficulty naming letters using various techniques, such as offering choices or relating the unknown letter to a familiar word. Once the child names the letter have her place it in the corresponding letter box on her chart. After placing at least 10 letters on their charts, talk about the letters all the children found as well as the ones they didn’t find. Then allow the children to eat the Alpha-Bits!

Variations

Materials Needed Alphabet chart (see figure on page 80) Post Alpha-Bits cereal

In addition to naming the Alpha-Bit letter, ask children to say a word that starts with the same letter. Create a table with the letters of the alphabet at the top. As each child names her Alpha-Bit, make a tally mark under each letter. Count the tallies and then discuss the letters drawn the most number of times compared to the least number of times. These tallies could then be graphed as well.

Small brown bag

Research Evidence Lesson Description Introduce the lesson to the children by showing them the box of Alpha-Bits. Tell the children, “Today we are going to see what letters we can find in this cereal. Then we’re going to eat the letters!” Give each child an alphabet chart and pour a small amount of Alpha-Bits cereal into individual brown bags. Distribute a bag to each child. Next, have the children either one at a time or all at once close their eyes, reach into their bag, and take out an Alpha-Bit. Ask each child to name her

One of the most powerful predictors of later reading success is children’s ability to quickly and accurately name the letters of the alphabet (Kirby, Parrila, & Pfeiffer, 2003; Scarborough, 1998).

Connection to State Standards Identifies some individual letters of the alphabet. (Georgia’s PreK Program Content Standards)

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Alphabet Knowledge

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Reading the Alphabet Objective Children recognize and identify printed letters in books.

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with the letter M. There’s mischief, malls, makes, mommy, and mad. I can’t believe how many Ms are on this page. What is the name of this letter again?” Offer support and provide positive feedback to all responses. M is for mischief. Mischief in malls makes mommy mad (Stewart, 2007, p. 13).

Variations

Materials Needed Any alphabet letter book [e.g., Alphabad: Mischievous ABCs (Stewart, 2007); Animal Action ABC (Pandell, 1996); Eating the Alphabet: Fruits and Vegetables from A to Z (Ehlert, 1989); Eric Carle’s ABC (Carle, 2007); The Alphabet from A to Y with Bonus Letter Z (Martin & Chast, 2007)]

After children name the recurring letter in the above lesson, ask them to provide another word that starts with the same letter (e.g., “Yes, the name of this letter is M. This sentence has five words in it that start with the letter M: mischief, malls, makes, mommy, mad. Who can think of another word that starts with the letter M?”) In addition to having children name the letters, ask them to provide the corresponding sound (“Yes, the name of this letter is M. What sound does the letter M make?”). Use a big book for whole group shared reading and use highlighter tape to highlight the letters. Children can then revisit the book during center time.

Lesson Description

Research Evidence

Select an alphabet letter book to read to the children. While reading, pause and highlight the names of the letters either before or after reading the text. For example, before reading a page, stop and point to the showcased letter (see M in text below) and ask children to name it (e.g., “Let’s look at this letter. It’s the same letter as the first letter in Michael’s name. What’s the name of this letter?”). Another way to emphasize letter names includes drawing attention to recurring letters. For instance, when you have finished reading the text, point to all of the words that begin with the same letter [see example text below from Alphabad: Mischievous ABCs (Stewart, 2007)] and say, “Look at all of these words that begin

Print-salient books such as alphabet books provide adults with unique opportunities to emphasize letter names, sounds, and letter-sound relationships in words, which significantly increases children’s alphabetic knowledge (Brabham, Murray, & Bowden, 2006).

Connection to State Standards Shows alphabetic knowledge: Child names most letters (e.g., When shown a letter can accurately say its name). (Florida’s Voluntary Prekindergarten Education Standards)

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Let’s Read a Story Objective Children recognize and discriminate between upper- and lowercase letters during book reading.

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sentence like this one in spinning” or “Point to all of the lowercase Ss on this page.” Provide support and positive feedback to all children’s responses. The spider didn’t answer. She was very busy spinning her web (Carle, 1984, p. 4).

Variations

Materials Needed Storybook

Lesson Description Select a storybook to read to the children. While reading, point to upper- and lowercase letters in the text [see example text below from The Very Busy Spider (Carle, 1984)]. Draw children’s attention to the two forms of letters by making comments, asking questions, and requesting children to find upper- and lowercase letters. Form focused comments during book reading might include, “Look at this big letter at the beginning of this sentence. This is an uppercase S (She). See how it’s bigger than the other letters,” or “Let’s look at this word. This word begins with a lowercase S (spinning). See how this letter is smaller than the uppercase S? They’re the same letters but different sizes.” Examples of questions could be, “Do you see another word on this page that begins with an uppercase S?” or “Which one of these (point to the uppercase S and then the lowercase S) is uppercase?” Requests about print might consist of, “Find another lowercase S in this

Determine a target upper- or lowercase letter before reading such as an uppercase T. Tell children that you are going to read the story and point to (track) the words as you read. Every time you point to a word with a capital T they are to raise their hand or perform some agreed-upon action. Create a two-column chart of one target letter such as A. At the top of the chart write the uppercase letter (A) in one column and at the top of the second column write the lowercase letter (a). After reading the storybook, encourage children to look through the book again. Write down any words they find with upper- and lowercase As in the appropriate columns.

Research Evidence Shared book reading, in which adults go beyond the text and discuss print forms with children, increases children’s print concept knowledge (Justice & Ezell, 2002; Justice, Weber, Ezell, & Bakeman, 2002).

Connection to State Standards Becomes aware that there are differences in upper- and lowercase letters. (Delaware Early Learning Foundations for School Success)

Alphabet Knowledge

83

Letter Hunt Objective Children identify a word in their classroom with the same first letter as in their names.

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“Let’s use my first name, Emily. The first letter in my name is E. Now I have to hunt for words in our classroom with E as their first letter. I found one! Look above the door. It says “Exit.” The first letter in the word Exit, E, is the same as the first letter in my name, Emily. I’m going to use some tape and stick my name card next to the word “Exit.”

Variations

Materials Needed Index cards with children’s pictures and names on one side (one card per child) Tape (or some sort of adhesive)

As children identify words in the classroom with the same first letter as in their name, write the word on a blank index card. Use those word cards and their name cards to play a beginning letter matching game. Send home a short note to parents asking them to send in print items from home with the same first letter as in their child’s name. For example, Paul could bring in a Pop Tarts box, Belle could bring in a Band-Aid, and Tim could bring in a Target ad. Then place the environmental print items throughout the classroom in corresponding centers for children to explore.

Lesson Description Sitting in a circle, place the index cards of children’s names in the group in the middle. Have each child identify and select her written name. Ask each child to tell you the first letter in her name, providing support to those who have difficulty. Tell the children, “We are going on a letter hunt today! Your job is to hunt for a word in this room that has the same first letter as your name. When you find that word, let me know and we will put your name next to the word you found.” If needed provide an example. Tell the children,

Research Evidence Children’s names can be effectively used as a dynamic teaching tool (Bloodgood, 1999).

Connection to State Standards Finds specific letters in words in the environment. (District of Columbia Prekindergarten English Language Arts Standards and Learning Activities)

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Alphabet Book Objective Children match printed letters with the beginning sounds in words/pictures.

bird under this picture. B-I-R-D. Bird” (sweeping from left to right). Also write any words they suggest or know on each letter page. This book can be completed over a number of weeks as children learn letter names and sounds.

Grouping Variations

Writing utensils

Provide children with pictures beginning with two or three different alphabet letters and their corresponding letter pages in the alphabet book. Have children sort and glue the pictures onto the correct letter pages rather than have them search and cut out pictures on their own. Support children who make incorrect picture to letter matches by verbally highlighting the beginning sounds of the words and the sounds of the alphabet letters. Ask children to label their own pictures, allowing for different levels of emergent writing. Depending on ability, children may scribble, write letterlike forms, or write letters. Create a class alphabet book. Give each child one or two letter pages to complete. Put all of the pages together to make a book for the classroom. Display the alphabet book in the book corner for all children to read.

Lesson Description

Research Evidence

Put together a blank alphabet book for each child. Label each piece of paper or page with a letter of the alphabet. Have children cut out and glue pictures from magazines, coloring books, and so forth, that begin with each letter of the alphabet. Encourage children to draw illustrations that begin with the corresponding letter. Write the label below all illustrations and pictures and talk about the letters and beginning sound in the words. For example, say, “Wow, you found a picture of a bird for the letter B. Bird starts with the letter B. The letter B makes a /b/ sound. Let’s write the word

Pairing written letters with words beginning with their corresponding sounds establishes powerful associations on which children can build connections between letters and sounds (de Jong, 2007; Hulme, Goetz, Gooch, Adams, & Snowling, 2007).

Materials Needed Paper Stapler Magazines, coloring books, advertisements, and so on Glue

Connection to State Standards Makes some letter-sound matches. (Arizona Early Learning Standards)

Alphabet Knowledge

85

What’s My Sound? Objective Children identify recurring sounds at the beginning of words and name the letter that relates to the sound.

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Materials Needed Writing surface (e.g., board, paper)

Write the words on the board, pointing out the beginning sound and letter in each word and have the children read the words with you.

Variations Ask children to look around the room and find classroom objects or think of classmates’ names that have the same sound as the one selected. For example, other words provided from the example above might include room, red, ramp, Richard. Picture cards could also be used to provide a visual support for children. Flip the task so that children must identify the word among the three that does not belong or have the same beginning sound as the other two (e.g., rain, rat, mouth). Tell children, “I’m going to give you three words. Two words go together because they have the same first sound. The other word does not belong. See if you can figure out which word does not have the same first sound as the other two. Which one of these words is not like the other two?”

Lesson Description Research Evidence Silently select three words that all begin with the same sound (e.g., rain, rat, rocket). Tell the children, “Let’s play a game of What’s My Sound? In my head I’m thinking of a sound. I’m going to give you three words that all start with this sound. I want you to think about the first sound in each of these words and guess my sound. Ready?” Then say each word and draw out its first sound. Ask children to make the sound. When a child guesses the sound correctly ask her to name the letter.

Training on letter names and letter sounds facilitates children’s word recognition abilities (Levin, Shatil-Carmon, & Asif-Rave, 2006).

Connection to State Standards Recognizes the same beginning sounds in different words. (Georgia’s PreK Program Content Standards)

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Match It Up

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a correct response, ask children to name the letter. Then write the name of the pictured object on the board or on a piece of paper next to the letter and picture. Ask children for other words that start with the same sound ( “What are some other words, like mouse, that begin with the /m/ sound?”)

Materials Needed

Variations

Pictures of familiar objects (e.g., light, baseball, mouse)

Use a word instead of a letter (e.g., mouse). Do not read the word to the children but tell them, “This word (point to Mouse) matches one of these pictures. I’m going to tell you each picture’s name and I want you to match the name with this word. Ready?” Then point to each picture and say its name (“Light, baseball, mouse.”). Ask the children, “Which picture goes with this word? Think about the beginning letters in each name and see if it matches the beginning letter in this word (point to Mouse).” Provide support and feedback to children emphasizing beginning sounds and letters in names and how they are different or similar to the printed word. Replace the letter with a picture and the pictures with letters. For example, in the lesson above, use a picture of a mouse and place three different letters below. Tell children, “This is a picture of a mouse. Can you find the letter here (sweeping across letters) that has the same sound as the first sound in mouse?”

Objective Children match beginning sounds of objects in pictures to their corresponding printed letters.

Printed alphabet letter cards, with each corresponding to the beginning letter in the name of the pictured object (L, B, M) Writing surface (board, paper)

Lesson Description Show a printed alphabet letter card to the children (such as M). Place three pictures, including the one corresponding to the letter, below the card (light, baseball, mouse). While pointing to the letter card, tell the children, “Today we’re going to play a matching game. We’re going to match the sound of this letter with the name of one of these pictures. Ready? What picture begins with the /m/ sound?” Invite children to select the picture card and pair it with the letter card. After

Alphabet Knowledge

87

Research Evidence

Connection to State Standards

Children who receive concurrent letter-sound correspondence instruction demonstrate greater growth in literacy related skills compared to those children taught letters and sounds apart from one another (NRP, 2000).

Recognizes matching sounds and some printed letters. (Connecticut’s Preschool Curriculum Framework: Cognitive Development, Language and Literacy)

I Spy Objective Children identify the beginning sounds and letters in the names of objects in their environment.

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ever guesses correctly will choose the next object. Ready?” Then begin play with the familiar phrase, inserting the letter at the end (e.g., “I spy with my little eye something that begins with the letter P.”). As children offer suggestions write the words on the board and review each one for how it’s the same or different than the one named.

Variations

Materials Needed Six to eight various classroom toys or objects Dry erase board or piece of paper

Play I Spy as described above using a book. Select pictures or words on pages and have children guess the item spied. Instead of letters, spy objects according to their beginning sound. Say, “I spy with my little eye something that begins with the /p/ sound.” When children make suggestions help them compare and contrast the beginning sound in the item guessed to the one said by emphasizing the sounds. (“You guessed dog. Dog starts with a /d/ sound. /D/ is different from /p/. When I make /p/ I put my lips together and make a puff of air. Let’s see if you can spy a picture that starts with a /p/ sound.”)

Lesson Description Sit in a circle and place the gathered objects in the center. Introduce the activity by telling the children, “We’re going to play a game of I Spy. In my mind, I’m going to choose one of the objects and think about the first letter in its name silently. When I’m ready, I’ll say, ‘I spy with my little eye something that begins with the letter . . . ’ Then I want you to guess which object I spied. Who-

Research Evidence Preschool instruction that is either adult led or adult-child led facilitates children’s growth in skills related to the alphabetic code, whereas child led instruction facilitates children’s growth in language (i.e., vocabulary, grammar; Connor, Morrison, & Slominski, 2006).

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Connection to State Standards Knows 10 or more letters by sight and by name and understands that letters make up words and have corresponding sounds. (California Desired Results Developmental Profile–Revised)

Chapter 7 Emergent Writing

T

he primary objective of these activities is to increase children’s abilities to express themselves with written language. Objectives emphasize children’s growth in representing the letters and sounds of the English language through writing (i.e., orthography) as well as representing their own thoughts and ideas in writing (composition). Although objectives do not focus specifically on improving motor aspects of writing (e.g., eye-hand coordination), when implementing these lessons,

the interventionist should provide supports to children to facilitate their motor abilities, including showing children how to grip a pencil, modeling how to write certain letters and words, and use writing tools that are appropriate for children (such as pencils and markers with wide grip). These 15 activities can be used repeatedly with children in one-on-one, small group, or large group sessions to foster gains in this rapidly developing and exciting aspect of young children’s literacy development.

Activity

Objective

1

Sign-Up Schedule

Children understand that print carries a message through writing their name.

2

What’s My Name?

Children learn letters of the alphabet through emergent writing.

3

Speech Bubbles

Children understand that print carries a message by making speech bubbles.

4

Shopping List

Children learn the functions of print through dramatic play.

5

Writing an Invitation

Children learn that text is written from left to right and top to bottom by writing invitations.

6

Daily Journal

Children understand that print carries a message through journaling.

7

Voting

Children write their own name to vote/state preference.

8

What Happens Next?

Children understand that print carries a message through teacher dictation.

9

Guess What’s Inside

Children begin to identify correspondences between letter names and letter sounds.

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Activity

Objective

10

Field Trip Recall

Children understand that print carries a message through teacher dictation of shared experiences.

11

My Favorite . . .

Children represent some letters and letter sounds in their emergent writing.

12

Wordless Picture Books

Children understand that print carries a message by producing stories.

13

What Did They Say?

Children produce written letters and words through quoted speech.

14

Chalkboard Draw

Children learn concepts needed for letter formation including top-bottom, left-right, curve, line, circle.

15

Can I Write with This?

Children learn concepts of print by experimenting with writing tools.

Emergent Writing

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Sign-Up Schedule Objective Children understand that print carries a message through writing their name.

Materials Needed Medium for writing (e.g., chalkboard, whiteboard, poster board, chart paper) Writing tools (crayons, pencils, markers) Sign-up sheet should be placed at child level and easily accessible to facilitate children’s name writing.

Grouping Options

child is happy with his attempt (even if the name writing is not conventional), accept the emergent version. If the child wants his name the “grown-up way,” write the child’s name while modeling and prompting the letters as you write each letter of the child’s name. Emphasize the first letter in the child’s first name if he is just beginning to recognize and name letters. Later, as the child develops more letter knowledge, prompt and reinforce all the letters in his name. Throughout the day, refer back to the list, reminding the children that they “wrote down their name so everyone can remember whose turn it is to play with .” Point to each child’s name and comment on the letters in the child’s name as you draw attention to the schedule. Post the schedule at children’s eye level so they can find and point to the names on the schedule.

Variations

Lesson Description When a new toy, book, dramatic play center, or other desired play opportunity is introduced into the class, set up the classroom so that children must “sign up” to reserve playtime. Have each child write his name in the appropriate time slot. Remember the goal is to have the child recognize that print carries meaning. Emphasize the function of name writing, “This time will be your special time to play with , because you wrote your name on this schedule. Now you don’t have to worry about missing your special time!” Accept the child’s name writing attempt. If the child scribbles or draws you can say, “Children write their name in lots of different ways!” If the

Use this technique to solve scheduling/organizing issues in other contexts (e.g., “Who is going to come to the class party next week?” Post the chart and refer back to the sign-up list reminding the children that lists help us “remember things.” Draw children’s attention to specific letters in classmates’ names. Have children locate their name or other children’s names on the list.

Research Evidence Practicing name writing is a facilitative context for children’s letter learning; the letters in a child’s name are the first letters typically learned (Bloodgood, 1999).

Connection to State Standards Uses drawing and writing skills to convey meaning and information. (Illinois Early Learning Standards)

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What’s My Name? Objective Children learn letters of the alphabet through emergent writing.

Materials Needed Stuffed animals, animal figures, or Beanie Babies

opportunity to name an animal using his level of emergent writing. Support children’s writing at their level of emergent writing; for example, children who are using invented spelling are supported to sound out the sounds in their animal’s name. Scribbling or drawing is accepted for children who are performing at beginning levels of emergent writing. During group time the children “read” their animals’ names to the class.

Paper or cardboard cut into “labels” String or yarn Markers or crayons

Grouping Options

Variations Each child writes a story about an adventure with his animal. Write down the child’s story as he dictates it or have the child emergently writes his story. The children take turns reading their stories to the class. The children’s stories are bound into a class book; the children are allowed to take the class book home and share the book with their families. Note: Have the children sign up to reserve the book to take home for a weekend!

Research Evidence Lesson Description Show the children Beanie Babies (or stuffed animals) that need a name. Each child has an

Writing letters facilitates children’s development of letter recognition (Hulme, 1979; Naka & Naoi, 1995).

Connection to State Standards Understands that print holds meaning. (Montana’s Early Learning Guidelines)

Emergent Writing

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Speech Bubbles Objective Children understand that print carries a message by making speech bubbles.

Materials Needed Medium for writing (e.g., chalkboard, whiteboard, poster board, chart paper) Writing tools (crayons, pencils, markers) Children’s book with speech bubbles; examples of books include: ■ Willems, M. (2007). Today I will fly. New York: Hyperion. ■ Willems, M. (2007). My friend is sad. New York: Hyperion. ■ Freedman, D. (2007). Scribble. New York: Knopf Books for Young Readers. ■ Yorinks, A., & Sendak, M. (2006). Mummy? Scholastic. (Note: The monsters in this book are a little scary!) Sticky notes or white stick-on labels to make speech bubbles

explain how speech bubbles represent the speakers’ dialogue. Have the children take turns guessing what the speaker is saying. Draw the children’s attention to the print contained within the speech bubble and point to the text within the speech bubbles during the shared reading. Read the book several times. Emphasize concepts of print such as word, letter, sentence, and exclamation point. You should track the text within the speech bubble by pointing to the print with a left-to-right motion. To introduce the concept of speech bubbles in a writing activity, show the children pictures of action scenes (e.g., a dog is running away and a child is chasing the dog). Draw or stick on (using sticky notes or stick-on labels) a speech bubble coming from the child’s mouth. Have the children dictate as you write (or have them emergently write) their ideas about the dialogue that could be placed in the speech bubble. Have the children take turns reading their ideas to the group. Encourage the children to point to the text within the speech bubble as they share the dialogue. Use words to describe the writing including letter, word, and sentence. The figure shows an example of a speech bubble.

Action pictures on which speech bubbles are attached

Grouping Options

Lesson Description As an introduction to the concept of speech bubbles, read a book containing speech bubbles and

Have the children emergently read their speech bubbles during center time.

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Variations

Research Evidence

Take a picture of each child on the playground, during an art activity, or during a field trip. Cut speech bubbles out of paper (or from a stick-on label) and glue or stick the speech bubble next to the child’s mouth in his picture. Have each child emergently write or dictate his “dialogue” inside the speech bubble. Draw the children’s attention to punctuation, including periods (.), exclamation marks (!), and question marks (?) as appropriate.

The frequency with which children participate in teacher-child managed literacy-focused instructional experiences in the classroom is positively associated with their growth in alphabet knowledge (Connor, Morrison, & Slominski, 2006).

Connection to State Standards Understands that thoughts and ideas can be written down. (Montana’s Early Learning Guidelines)

Shopping List Objective

Safari

Children learn the functions of print through dramatic play.

Materials Needed

Signs (e.g., Don’t feed the animals! Danger!), tickets, clipboard for selling tickets, pen/pencils, time schedule, clock face with movable arms, pretend money, forms for recoding reservations for safari, National Geographic magazines

Literacy tools aligned to dramatic play center theme. The following are examples:

Grouping Options

Tool Bench/Workshop Tool-related magazines, labeled tools with labeled storage area (for print matching), diagrams of motors with labeled parts, ruler, measuring tape, writing pads and pencils Library Books, magazines, newspapers, “check-out area” with stamps, cards, sign-up list for library materials Doctor’s Office Magazines and books in waiting area, prescription pads and pencils, chart with body parts labeled, phone, phone book, note cards, Rolodex

Lesson Description Begin the thematic unit by reading books associated with the theme. Read the book several times and discuss literacy routines associated with this theme (e.g., selling tickets, taking money, following schedule [safari theme], measuring, writing

Emergent Writing

down measurements, ordering supplies [workshop theme]). Introduce the materials to the children and have the children discuss and share how the objects can be used during choice time in the dramatic play center. Use a sign-up list to allow the children to reserve their time in the dramatic play center. Assign a teacher or adult to sit at eye level in the dramatic play center for the first several days after the new materials are introduced. The adult models and expands the children’s play to incorporate the literacy materials. As the children begin to demonstrate independent use of the literacy objects, adult participation is faded. Adults monitor the children’s play and elaborate and expand the children’s use of the literacy props as appropriate. For example, at the doctor’s office, the adult can play the role of the doctor and model how to write a prescription during the visit. Then, children can take turns playing the doctor’s role.

Variations When children are using the literacy props independently, videotape the children during the dra-

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matic play routine. Later, let children view their recorded play. You should lead a “meta-discussion” on the use of the props. For example, you can say, “Oh look, Jasmine is writing down the telephone number so she can remember who to call,” or “Samuel is making a mark to show us that he sold one ticket to the zoo.” After several exposures to this process, encourage the children to explain why they used the literacy props in particular ways.

Research Evidence Dramatic play that includes literacy tools facilitates emergent literacy development (Neuman & Roskos, 1990a, 1990b, 1992, 1993, 1997).

Connection to State Standards Uses pretend writing in play as a purposeful activity. (Nebraska Early Learning Guidelines)

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Writing an Invitation Objective Children learn that text is written from left to right and top to bottom by writing invitations.

Materials Needed Colored paper cut into folded invitation size cards Markers (metallic or smelly markers are fun) Stickers and stamps in a party theme Posted vocabulary words with accompanying pictures Storybook that includes a plot about a party or party invitation

Grouping Options

lary such as letter (“Does anyone see the letter P on this invitation?”), number (“Does anyone see any numbers on this invitation?”), and sentence (“Oh, look at this sentence; it says ‘Come to my Birthday Party!’”; track the print from left to right while reading). Following the reading and discussion (or on a subsequent day), introduce information about a classroom party. The party can be connected to a current theme (e.g., holiday, season, or an event coordinated with a classroom activity). Announce that each child may write an invitation to his family to invite family members to the party. Engage the children in the writing activity by (a) showing the children the writing tools and paper (folded invitation-sized paper) and (b) providing decorative materials (theme-based stickers, stamps, etc.) in the classroom’s writing center. Show the children the signs that will be posted in the writing center to provide possible text that can be included in the invitation. The figure shows examples of possible text.

Lesson Description Begin this activity by reading a book and discussing the use of invitations to invite people to a party. An example of a storybook on this topic is I am Invited to a Party! (Willems, 2007). Following the book reading, discuss sending and receiving party invitations. Read a sample invitation. The invitation can be enlarged on a copy machine or drawn onto large poster-size paper. Read the invitation and discuss it with the children. Discuss the purposes of particular elements (address, phone number, date, etc.). Use vocabu-

Inform the children that they can make their invitations any way they would like. They can use “their own kind of writing (scribbles, pictures),” or they can write using “grown-up writing.” Emphasize that there is no right or wrong way to make an invitation. Place the writing materials prominently in the writing center with the signs posted at child eye level. Spend time at the writing center, sitting with the children as they write. Support and encourage children to make an invi-

Emergent Writing

tation in any way he wishes. Use words such as write, letters, words, sentence as appropriate. If children ask how to spell a word, it is appropriate to tell them how to spell conventionally. However, most preschoolers are not at a level of conventional spelling, so drawing or scribbling is also appropriate and encouraged. During free-choice time and/or center time, encourage (but don’t force!) the children to come to the writing center. Have the children share their invitations during group time. A preprinted flyer containing the party invitation information is sent home with the children’s invitations.

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themes. Sit at eye level at the writing center during free time or choice time. Encourage children in any attempts or efforts to participate in writing activities.

Research Evidence The ability of preschoolers to write their name and copy phrases correlates with reading decoding skills at 7 years of age (Blatchford, Burke, Farquhar, Plewis, & Tizard, 1987).

Connection to State Standards Variations Vary the materials and vocabulary in the writing center frequently to coordinate with classroom

Understands that the purpose of writing is communication. (Kentucky Early Learning Standards)

Daily Journal Objective

Lesson Description

Children understand that print carries a message through journaling.

Journal writing can be a daily activity. It is an excellent activity to use during the morning transition time (as children enter into the classroom). Children are encouraged to either (a) write anything they want, or (b) write about a topic that is suggested (e.g., emergently writing about a recent classroom event, their weekend, an upcoming event). Move around and/or sit with children as they write in their journals. Inform the children that they can write in their journals any way they like. They can use their own kind of writing (scribbles, pictures), or they can write using grown-up writing. Emphasize that there is no right or wrong way to write in their journals. Support and encourage children as they write. Use words such as write, letters, words, sentence as appropriate. If children ask how to spell a word, it is appropriate to tell them how

Materials Needed Small notebooks labeled with the children’s name; notebooks are stored so that they are easily accessible to the children

Grouping Options

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to spell conventionally; some children may ask you to write to dictation. Drawing, scribbling, letterlike shapes, or a combination of emergent writing forms also is appropriate and encouraged.

Variations Make comments, draw simple pictures, and correspond with the children via their journals. Children can share with their peers by emergently reading from their journals during center time.

Research Evidence Early writing ability—including both name writing and invented spelling—is consistently associated with future abilities in spelling, decoding, and reading comprehension (Frost, 2001; NELP, 2004).

Connection to State Standards Produces marks, pictures, and symbols that represent print and ideas. (Kentucky Early Learning Standards)

Voting Objective

Lesson Description

Children write their own name to vote/state preference.

Begin a voting activity by reading a book or completing a classroom activity in which the children make choices. In the example below, the children were read the book Pancakes, Pancakes! (Carle, 1990); a classroom activity was completed in which the children made pancakes and tested various flavors of pancake syrup.

Materials Needed Any medium for writing (chalkboard, whiteboard, poster board, chart paper, etc.) Any writing tools (crayons, pencils, markers, etc.) Writing should be at children’s eye level and positioned to allow children to write.

Grouping Options

As a classroom activity, the teacher and children make and eat pancakes. Pancakes are served with three different kinds of syrup (such as strawberry, maple, blueberry). Children “vote” on their favorite syrup flavor using different colored markers representing the three syrup flavors. Children are encouraged to write at their own level of emergent writing.

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In the example above, the colored markers coincided with the syrup flavors (maple syrup = brown, strawberry syrup = red, blueberry syrup = blue).

Variations Voting can also be used to teach early mathematical concepts, including graphing and one-to-one correspondence.

Research Evidence Other activities could include voting on: ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

Preference for red, yellow, or green apples The favorite book from a particular author Snack choice Activity choice during free time Favorite (holiday, food, toy, season)

Children are encouraged to write their name using emergent writing. In some instances, colored markers can be used as a “symbol” of their vote.

Children’s abilities to write their own names are positively correlated with other achievements in emergent literacy, including knowledge of print concepts and knowledge of letter names and sounds (Bloodgood, 1999).

Connection to State Standards Uses drawing and writing skills to convey meaning and information. (Illinois Early Learning Standards)

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What Happens Next? Objective Children understand that print carries a message through teacher dictation.

Materials Needed Storybooks with narrative plot (a story with a beginning [initiating event], middle [main character attempts to solve the problem], and end [conclusion]) Large chart paper

Write down children’s words as they say them along with the child’s name (e.g., “Hassib says: ”). Continue reading and stopping to solicit sentences until all the children have contributed a sentence. After the book is completed, reread the sentences aloud with the children, pointing to each word. Have children choral read some of the sentences with you. Post the chart paper at children’s eye level so they can reread or pretend read their words throughout the day.

Variations

Markers

Grouping Options

In the morning, share “classroom news.” Write down the day’s activities and/or ask the children to contribute information (like the weather or upcoming important events) and write to children’s dictation. Refer to the text in the classroom news throughout the day.

Research Evidence Preschoolers who participate in adult-child joint writing interactions show significant gains in early literacy development (Aram & Biron, 2004).

Lesson Description Connection to State Standards Read a narrative storybook several times to the children. After the children are familiar with the story, stop the book at a particular point and ask, “What happens next?”

Participates in creating narratives by dictating, drawing, or writing. (Idaho First Quarter Kindergarten Standards)

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Guess What’s Inside

Writing tools (pens, pencils, markers, crayons)

ter name and the letter sound that starts the item. For example, “Oh my, you pulled out a hat; that starts with an H, doesn’t it. H is the first letter in Henry’s name. Let’s say hat. Listen to that first sound, /h/. /h/ is the first sound in hat!” Have children take turns finding the printed name (without the picture) that matches the word plus picture card. Use words like word, letter, sound. Next, encourage the children to make a list of the items in the box (drawing, scribbling, or letter-strings are acceptable). Some children will attempt to copy the words on the cards. Finally, put all the items back in the box. Have the children pull the items out a second time, but this time the children check off the item on their list. Use words such as write and word. Refer to the initial sound of each item. Allow the children to take turns pulling out the items and checking the words off their list.

Grouping Options

Variations

Objective Children begin to identify correspondences between letter names and letter sounds.

Materials Needed A box or bag containing familiar objects (Objects can begin with the same sound or varying sounds.) Cards with the names and pictures of the objects Corresponding cards with names (no pictures) of the objects Individual writing pads for each child

The box or bag can be changed to coordinate with a classroom theme. Examples include a cauldron for Halloween or Santa’s bag for Christmas. Rather than individual lists of objects, make a class list using chart paper at the front of the room. Write down the words, sharing the pen with children.

Research Evidence Lesson Description Place 5 to 10 objects inside a box or bag. Have the children take turns pulling the “secret” items out of the bag or box. Items can (a) start with the same sound (e.g., boat, ball, button, beet), (b) relate to a classroom theme (such as a bat, witch hat, broom, pumpkin), or (c) start with different sounds. After the child pulls an item, have him (or another child) find the card that contains the picture and name of the item. Discuss the initial let-

“Sound talk” has demonstrated efficacy for facilitating phonemic awareness in small-group lessons in young children (Ukrainetz, Cooney, Dyer, Kysar, & Harris, 2000).

Connection to State Standards Independently engages in writing behaviors. (Early Learning Standards for North Carolina)

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Field Trip Recall Objective Children understand that print carries a message through teacher dictation of shared experiences.

children take turns reading their sentence, tracking the print from left to right. Post the sentence strips or chart paper at children’s eye level so they can reread or pretend read their words during free play.

Materials Needed Variations Any medium for writing (chalkboard, whiteboard, poster board, chart paper, etc.) Any writing tools (crayons, pencils, markers, etc.) Photographs of the children during a field trip or classroom activity

Grouping Options

Children can write in their journals in response to the teacher’s question. Draw attention to the features of words that are written by thinking aloud. In response to the question, “What does the firefighter do?” a child may state, “Puts out a fire.” You can point out that the word fire is part of the bigger word firefighter. The same activity can be done using a shared storybook experience rather than a field trip.

Research Evidence Preschoolers who participate in adult-child joint writing interactions regularly over time show significant gains in early literacy development, including emergent writing (Aram & Biron, 2004).

Lesson Description

Connection to State Standards

After a field trip, discuss the experience with the children. Ask the children a question such as, “What does the firefighter do?” Write down children’s words. Reread the sentences aloud with the children, pointing to each word. Have the

Child can (a) choose a topic for writing related to shared or personal experience, (b) generate related ideas with assistance, (c) dictate or produce “writing” to express thoughts. (Ohio Early Learning Standards)

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My Favorite …

Children represent some letters and letter sounds in their emergent writing.

writing, children are encouraged to find pictures in magazines that illustrate their favorite item. Children share their writing with peers during center time.

Materials Needed

Variations

Medium for writing (e.g., chalkboard, whiteboard, poster board, chart paper)

Children can write about their favorites in their journals. Have the starter sentence written out for children on a sheet of paper (“My favorite fruit is a . . . ”). Children can illustrate their favorite thing (e.g., banana) and then label their drawing according to their level of emergent writing. Children may scribble, write initial sounds, or spell inventively.

Objective

Writing tools (crayons, pencils, markers) Photograph or picture demonstrating the category to be discussed (such as sports, food, toys, TV shows, books)

Grouping Options Research Evidence Participation in regular opportunities to practice writing can improve preschool-aged children’s emergent writing skills in relatively short periods of time (Justice, Chow, Capellini, Flanigan, & Colton, 2003)

Lesson Description

Connection to State Standards

In coordination with a classroom theme, ask the children to complete the following sentence: “My favorite (sport) is . . . ” Along with emergent

Demonstrates an interest in using writing for a purpose. (Louisiana Standards for Programs Serving Four-Year-Old Children)

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Wordless Picture Books Objective Children understand that print carries a message by producing stories.

Materials Needed Wordless picture book; examples include: ■ Bang, M. (1996). The grey lady and the strawberry snatcher. New York: Aladdin. ■ Briggs, R. (1986). The snowman. New York: Picture Puffin. ■ Blake, Q. (1995). Clown. London: Jonathan Cape. ■ Baker, J. (2004). Home. New York: Harper Children’s. ■ Keats, E. J. (1999). Clementina’s cactus. New York: Viking Press. ■ Mayer, M. (1985). Frog goes to dinner. New York: Dial. Medium for writing (e.g., chalkboard, whiteboard, poster board, chart paper) Writing tools (crayons, pencils, markers)

times. At first, you are presenting your ideas about the story. Progressively, the children are asked to share their ideas about the story. Next, tell the children, “I want you to tell me a sentence about each page and I will write it down.” Write down children’s words as they say them along with the child’s name and the page number. Allow all the children to contribute at least one sentence. (Note that a page can have more than one sentence). After the book is completed, reread the sentences aloud with the children, pointing to each word. Turn the pages to the appropriate page so the text and illustration are coordinated.

Variations The children’s sentences can be photocopied, with the children’s sentences for each storybook page on a separate photocopied sheet. The children are encouraged to illustrate the text with their own drawings. Children take home their books and emergently read the story to their families. Bind the completed story into a class book and place in the book area for children to use during centers.

Grouping Options Research Evidence Dictating children’s stories can promote not only emergent writing skills but also other aspects of emergent literacy development, such as phonological awareness (Aram & Biron, 2004).

Connection to State Standards Lesson Description Share a wordless picture book with children. Discuss that the book has no writing and say, “You get to make up the story.” Share the book several

Child can (a) use symbols to represent words and ideas, (b) tell about experiences and discoveries, both orally and in writing, and (c) include their own invented, emergent writing. (State of Maine Early Childhood Learning Guidelines)

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What Did They Say? Objective Children produce written letters and words through quoted speech.

Materials Needed A storybook with dialogic speech (Dialogic speech is quoted speech. For example, in a story, a character may say, “Stop thief!” In this example, the words stop and thief are considered dialogic speech.) Chart paper Highlighting marker

the yellow highlighting. Go back and repeat the dialogic speech, pointing to each line as the children say each word. Have the children take turns pointing to the lines. Use language like word and sentence. Finally, go back and write the words in the yellow highlighted lines. Repeat the choral reading and point left to right as you read. Here is another example. After reading the book The Gingerbread Boy (Egielski, 1997), say, “What did the Gingerbread Boy say? Let’s show what he said. ‘Run, run, run.’” Make three marks on the text as you say, “Run, run, run.” Coordinate making marks with your or the child’s verbal production of words. Say, “We made three lines. Each line shows one of our words, doesn’t it?”

Regular marker

Variations Grouping Options

Highlighting words can be completed in conjunction with children’s reciting of nursery rhymes or finger plays. Use a big book with the whole group and highlighting tape. Place the book in the book area for use during center time. Write some of the dialogue in speech bubbles using a sticky note. Place the sticky note speech bubble above the illustration of the character so children can understand that the character is saying the words in quotation marks.

Lesson Description Research Evidence Share a storybook with dialogic speech. Discuss that dialogic speech is the character talking. After repeated readings, encourage the children to choral read the dialogic speech in the book: “What does the Big Bad Wolf say? I’ll huff, and I’ll puff, and I’ll blow your house down!” Next, tell the children, “Let’s make a line for each word that the wolf says in this story.” Use a highlighting marker to make a line for each word in the dialogic speech. Have the children choral read the dialogic speech slowly as you coordinate

Print-specific deficits (e.g., difficulty with concepts of print, letter identification) are predictors of reading problems (Scarborough, 1998).

Connection to State Standards Indicates an awareness of letters that cluster as words by use of spacing, symbols, or marks. (Ohio Early Learning Standards)

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Chalkboard Draw Objective Children learn concepts needed for letter formation including top-bottom, left-right, curve, line, circle.

Emphasize the directional words: top, bottom. Keep this activity short and do not force children to participate.

Materials Needed Chalkboard and small pieces of chalk or chart paper posted on the wall with small crayon pieces

Grouping Options

Variations As children gain skill and are interested, teach other basic marks (e.g., left-to-right lines, curves, circles), varying the songs to support the motion. For example:

Lesson Description

Thumb and fingers make a mark, make a mark, make a mark.

Children are positioned at the chalkboard and given a small piece of chalk. Blackboards are better than white boards because they offer some resistance. Small pieces of chalk encourage the use of the pincer grasp (oppositional use of the thumb and fingers). Alternately, children can draw on chart paper posted on the wall and use small crayons. Completing this activity on the vertical plane (blackboard) is easier for children than writing on the horizontal plane (tabletop). Children make large vertical lines, while singing the following (sung to the tune of “London Bridge Is Falling Down”):

Thumb and fingers make a mark, left to right we go! Thumb and fingers make a mark, make a mark, make a mark. Thumb and fingers make a mark, I can make a line. Thumb and fingers make a mark, make a mark, make a mark. Thumb and fingers make a mark, I can make a curve.

Thumb and fingers make a mark, make a mark, make a mark.

Thumb and fingers make a mark, make a mark, make a mark.

Thumb and fingers make a mark, top to bottom we go!

Thumb and fingers make a mark, I can make a circle.

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Research Evidence

Connection to State Standards

A child benefits from facilitating the mechanics of writing in that with improved mechanical skills he has more “cognitive resources” to allocate to the linguistic aspects of writing (e.g., composition or orthography; Dunsmuir & Blatchford, 2004; Kellogg, 1996).

Shows interest in writing. (Hawaii Emergent Literacy Standards)

Can I Write with This? Objective

Lesson Description

Childre learn concepts of print by experimenting with writing tools.

Have the children take turns drawing items out of bag or box. Discuss each item and decide if it is possible to write with the item. Place the items in a “yes” pile or a “no” pile (mark the piles with an index card with the words yes and no and a happy and sad face). Use vocabulary such as write, draw, letter, and word. Have the children take turns writing with the literacy tools.

Materials Needed A collection of familiar objects that cannot be used for writing (e.g., scissors, ruler, hammer, spatula, hairbrush) A collection of various writing tools (e.g., pens, pencils, markers, chalk, paintbrush, crayons, picture of a computer) A bag or box in which the items are hidden Paper

Grouping Options

Variations Children participate in a survey that asks them to identify their preferred tool for writing. At the top of a large sheet of paper, list several items available to children in the classroom (such as crayon,

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pencil, marker). Ask children to sign their name under the preferred tool. When all children have responded, calculate the number of children responding for each tool, and report which tool is the favorite of the classroom.

cal awareness, even when controlling for knowledge of letter-sound relationships. As a result, some experts contend that teaching name-writing abilities may, in turn, lead to improved phonological awareness (Blair & Savage, 2006).

Research Evidence

Connection to State Standards

Children’s ability to write their own names is significantly associated with their abilities in phonologi-

Begins to experiment with writing tools. (New Hampshire Early Learning Guidelines)

PART III Oral Language Lesson Plans

Chapter 8 Inferential Language

I

nferential language is a relatively underemphasized aspect of young children’s language development; yet as van Kleeck and colleagues (2006) point out, language comprehension spans a continuum from literal to inferential comprehension, and the achievement of skilled language comprehension (as well as reading comprehension) relies on one being proficient along the entire continuum. It is also possible that by explicitly fostering children’s comprehension of inferential language, more

literal abilities will be improved through the generalization process. By some accounts, working on more complex language goals during intervention or instruction can facilitate achievements in less complex language goals; if this is the case, then focusing on inferential language may have positive impacts for literal language as well. The 15 activities presented here can be used repeatedly as presented or with the variations suggested to build inferential language abilities in young children.

Activity

Objective

1

Embedding Questions into Storybooks

Children extend and expand their understanding of a story by answering questions asked by adults throughout a book sharing experience.

2

What’s My Story?

Children connect different parts or pieces of a story together.

3

Under Cover

Children use clues from pictures and the text to make predictions about book illustrations.

4

Who Am I?

Children use relevant information in a poem to guess a mystery character.

5

Reenact a Story

Children take the perspectives and infer emotions of different characters while recreating a story read aloud.

6

What Do You Know?

Children learn to access and apply their prior knowledge within the context of shared book reading of an informational text.

7

Dramatic Role Play

Children learn different points of view and draw conclusions about others’ actions and feelings through role playing.

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Activity

Objective

8

Mystery Game

Children put together clues about an object to solve its identity.

9

Think Aloud

Children listen to and become familiar with the inferential process during book reading.

10

Inference Charades

Children use body language and contextual clues to deduce the feelings or conditions of others.

11

Idioms

Children demonstrate an understanding of figurative language by answering simple questions about idioms.

12

Let’s Experiment! Sink or Float

Children predict the outcome of a science experiment using their background knowledge and prior experience.

13

Hide-n-Seek

Children use clues in a poem to guess the label and location of an object.

14

Guess the Animal

Children use their background knowledge and observation skills to make inferences about the actions of others.

15

Mouse Predictions

Children use the pictures in the text and their background knowledge to make predictions.

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Embedding Questions into Storybooks Objective Children extend and expand their understanding of a story by answering questions asked by adults throughout a book sharing experience.

Grouping

Materials Needed Storybook

of his closet?” In addition, generate questions for children to infer parts of a story using pieces of information from the text. Provide the children with one or two story clues and then ask them to make their best guess. Some children may be able to do this independently, whereas others may need support. Examples of questions asking children to draw conclusions could be, “At the beginning of the book it says, ‘Skippyjon Jones woke up and slept with the birds.’ Now on this page he says, ‘I am not a Siamese cat . . . I am a Chihuahua!’ What does Skippyjon like to make-believe about himself?” and “Here it says, ‘With a walk into his closet, his thoughts took him down a lonesome desert road, far, far away in old Mexico . . . ’ What do you think Skippyjon is doing in his mind?” Then write each question on a sticky note. Determine points in the text at which to stop and ask the questions and place the sticky notes on the corresponding pages. Once preparation has been completed, read the storybook asking the children the embedded questions and offering assistance as needed.

Sticky notes

Variations Lesson Description Select a storybook to read to the children. Prior to reading the book aloud, prepare for the experience by prereading, reflecting on and considering the book’s story events. Next, create several questions that will encourage the children to think beyond the pictures and text. In particular, construct higher-level language questions that ask children to provide explanations or make conclusions about portions of the story. For instance, explanation questions may begin with why and elicit responses from children that contain words such as because, so that, or since. Using the book Skippyjon Jones (Schachner, 2003) as an example, questions eliciting explanation might include, “Uh-oh, Skippyjon Jones is in trouble with his Mama. Why is he in trouble?” and “Hmmm, why do you think Mama wants Skippyjon to stay out

In addition to higher-level language questions, mix literal questions into the book reading experience. Questions that ask children to label (e.g., “What is that?”), describe actions (e.g., “What is he doing?”), or complete sentences (“His mama said, ‘You are not a bird, you are a .’”) help children of varying abilities participate in book sharing. These types of questions have perceptual salience, which makes answering them less demanding. Insert comments not directly related to the text into the shared book reading. In this way, children are not required to respond but rather simply listen. The focus of the comments might include the character’s feelings (e.g., “I bet Skippyjon felt very sad when his mama put him in time-out.”) or similarities and differences between objects or ideas (such as “I don’t think it’s too far off for Skippyjon, a kitten, to pretend he’s a

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Chihuahua. Both kittens and Chihuahuas are small and have pointy ears and tails. They both look a lot alike.”).

impairments. These youngsters scored higher on measures of vocabulary and inferential language than children in a control condition.

Research Evidence

Connection to State Standards

Van Kleeck and colleagues (2006) embedded questions focused on inferential language into book reading interactions for children with language

Begins to answer questions related to a story that has been read or told to him/her. (Delaware Early Learning Foundations)

What’s My Story? Objective Children connect different parts or pieces of a story together.

Grouping

represent major parts in the story. Place storyrelated items from each story into their own bag. Give each child a bag. Tell children, “You each have a bag. Inside the bag are objects that go with a story we’ve read together. We’re going to take turns taking an item out of the bag, looking at it, and thinking about the story that goes along with it.” As each child removes an object, encourage her to name it as well as tell what she remembers about it from the story. After each child has emptied the items from her bag, ask each one to guess the title of the story that the objects represent. If children have difficulty, show them the actual books, read the titles, and allow them to look through the pictures to match the book to the objects.

Materials Needed

Variations

Four to five different story-related items from three or four books previously read to the children

In each child’s bag include an item unrelated to the others but that goes along with one of the objects in another child’s bag. Have children identify the object that doesn’t belong and tell why it doesn’t fit with the other items. Then have that child give the item to another child who has similar objects. Have children create a story bag at home from a story read with their parents that includes story-related items and a copy of the book cover. Ask the children to bring the bags to school for other children to guess.

Three or four paper bags

Lesson Description Collect at least four or five different items from three or four books you’ve previously read to the children. If possible, the items for each book should

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Research Evidence

Connection to State Standards

Bridging various elements of a story to one another is an important component of inferencing and text comprehension (van Kleeck, 2006).

Begins to recognize books by their covers and identifies the beginning, middle, and end of stories and books. (Building Blocks to Colorado’s Content Standards)

Under Cover Objective Children use clues from pictures and the text to make predictions about book illustrations.

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describe the contents of the picture under cover. Before the children guess, provide them with a model by thinking aloud. For example, “I think the picture might show a mouse with a frown on his face because the story said that the mouse was very angry.” Encourage children to use the clues they see as well as hear in the text to guess the picture. In this way, children must use the clues they hear in the book to predict what they might see in the picture. Reveal the picture when a child correctly predicts the picture under cover.

Variations

Materials Needed Storybook Piece of paper or fabric Tape

Lesson Description Select and read aloud any storybook in which the illustrations correspond well with the text. Before reading the book, preselect four or five pictures in the book and cover a part of them with a piece of opaque paper or fabric using tape so that children can only see a piece of the picture. Then read the text on the page and ask children to guess and

Instead of covering part of the picture, cover the entire illustration. Have children use the text from the book to help describe the picture. Draw children’s attention to the most important words on the page to help them guess the picture. Have children draw their own pictures of what they think the covered picture might be. Encourage the children to describe their pictures. Then compare the children’s drawings to the actual illustration on the page. This would be most effective with a highly descriptive text. Accept any plausible drawings; avoid a “one right answer” approach.

Research Evidence Drawing conclusions about information not perceptually salient is important to reading comprehension as well as children’s ability to participate in classroom discourse (Nystrand, 2006).

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Connection to State Standards Makes predictions from pictures and titles. (Georgia’s PreK Program Content Standards)

Who Am I? Objective Children use relevant information in a poem to guess a mystery character.

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So the king sent his men to see me. They tried and tried and then said with a sigh, “Oh my, he won’t go back together.”

Variations After reading the poem to the children, ask them to draw a picture of the mystery character. Encourage children to share and explain their pictures with one another, asking, “What made you draw that?” In this way, children must verbalize the clues in the poem they used to inform their pictures. As a class, choose a character and create a mystery poem. Present the class poem to another classroom for the children and teacher to solve.

Materials Needed

Research Evidence

Fairytales Chart paper

Lesson Description After reading various fairytales to children, create poems about the characters and write them on chart paper. Read the poems to the children and ask them to guess the fairytale character. If the children have difficulty, make a list of the things you know about the character from the poem or offer the children a number of fairytale characters to choose from. Example: I sat on a wall and had a great fall.

Children with language-learning disabilities often demonstrate more difficulty identifying relevant information in text compared to peers; this can significantly affects their ability to make inferences and comprehend written information (Wright & Newhoff, 2001).

Connection to State Standards Listens to, responds to, and discusses a variety of literature including fairy tales, folk tales, legends and myths, rhymes and poems, fiction and nonfiction. (Building Blocks to Colorado’s Content Standards)

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Reenact a Story Objective Children take the perspectives and infer emotions of different characters while recreating a story read aloud.

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the book say that ‘The wolf was slouchy.’ How do you think you should make/draw him? It also says, ‘The wolf was very hungry.’ Show me how you’ll act as a hungry wolf.” Use the book during rehearsals of the reenactment to encourage children to use the character’s language from the book or repetitive phrases. To reinforce the idea of perspective taking even further, have children change roles and perform the story several times to help them understand the differences and similarities between characters.

Variations

Materials Needed Storybook Small brown paper lunch bags

Videotape each reenactment. Replay the video for the children to watch or even make copies of the videos to send home with the children. Encourage children to create a new or different character in the story. Discuss the character’s actions and feelings. Incorporate that character into the reenactment.

Various art-related materials

Research Evidence Lesson Description After reading a story several times to the children, encourage them to first orally retell and then reenact the story. Allow children to select character roles. Provide them with materials for constructing a puppet out of a paper bag that resembles the character they are playing. Talk with each child about the character’s facial expressions, how he or she feels and acts, as well as what he or she says in relationship to what’s written in the story. For example, you might say to a child who chooses to be the wolf in the reenactment of The Three Little Pigs (Marshall, 2000), “The words in

Awareness and understanding of others’ facial expressions as well as thoughts and feelings is an important skill for making inferences, because it encourages the reader to go beyond the text and pictures and think about motivations and purposes of characters’ actions (Ford & Milosky, 2003).

Connection to State Standards Relates their own experiences and feelings with those of a character in a book. (Building Blocks to Colorado’s Content Standards)

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What Do You Know? Objective Children learn to access and apply their prior knowledge within the context of shared book reading of an informational text.

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Materials Needed Informational book Big chart

Lesson Description Select an informational text to read with the children [e.g., What’s out There? A Book about Space (Wilson, 1993)]. Create a KML (or modified KWL) chart (see example in figure) by making three columns on a large piece of paper. Label the first column “K” and write the question, “What do you know about . . . ?” Label the second column “M” and write the question, “What might you learn about . . . ?” Label the third column “L” and write the question, “What did you learn about . . . ?” Then begin the activity by showing the children the cover of the book and asking, “What do you think this book is about?” When the children guess the topic, turn to the chart and say, “Before we read, let’s talk about and write down all of the things we already know about . What do you know about ?” If chil-

dren have limited background knowledge on a specific topic, encourage them to think of related information within the topic’s broader category. Also write each child’s name beside the statement she provided under the K column. Next, tell the children, “Now we’re going to take a quick peek through the book to find out what we might learn about .” Take the children fairly quickly through the book “at a glance,” showing them pictures and charts and reading headings. Close the book and ask children to predict what they might learn from reading this text. Write all ideas and corresponding names under the “M” column. Tell children, “As I’m reading, I want you to listen for what you said you wanted to learn about. Victor, you said you wanted to learn about the moon. I want you to listen for the word moon as I read and stop me when you hear that word. Theodore, you said you wanted to learn something about the sun. So as you listen to me read the story I want you to stop me when you hear and learn something about the sun. Each person is responsible for what she is learning about, but others can help. So Victor, you’re listening for moon but others can listen for moon too and help you. The same goes for Theodore. Theodore, you’re listening for sun but others can listen for sun too and help as I read the story. Then we’ll write down what you’ve learned in the third column under ‘L.’” Read the book, checking the chart as you go. Remind the children to listen for each piece of information they wanted to learn about. If, as you read along, children do not say anything, then remind them what they were listening for. Say, “Let’s remember and check our chart. Victor said he wanted to learn about the moon. Did you hear me read something about the moon? What did you learn?” Then go to the L column on the chart and write down what children tell you they have learned about the topic. Revisit the K column for similarities and differences between children’s prior and learned knowledge summarizing all of the new information learned.

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K What do you know about space?

M What might you learn about space?

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L What did you learn about about space?

There are stars in space. — Jack

About the moon. —Victor

The Earth has 1 moon. — Libby

There’s a moon in space. — Sara

Something about the sun. — Theodore

The Earth spins around and around. —Emma

It’s black out there. — John

Why there is night and day. — Jenna

The sun is made up of gases. —Victoria

Variations

Research Evidence

Create a class book of information known and learned on a topic after completing the KML chart. Encourage each child to write or illustrate a page depicting a concept. Place the book in the classroom library for children to read. Add an “S” column to the end of the chart and write the question, “What do you still want to know?” After completing the L column ask children to tell you anything they would still like to know about that wasn’t answered during the book reading. Record children’s responses.

Informational texts, although read infrequently in the classroom (Yopp & Yopp, 2006), offer adults many unique opportunities to explicitly teach and actively engage children in strategies of text comprehension, such as drawing on prior knowledge to develop higher-order inferential language skills (Duke, 2004; NRP, 2000).

Connection to State Standards Connects information and events in books to reallife experiences. (Georgia’s Pre-K Program Content Standards)

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Dramatic Role Play Objective Children learn different points of view and draw conclusions about others’ actions and feelings through role playing.

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Materials Needed Theme-related costumes, props, materials

Lesson Description Create a dramatic play space for role playing. Add props and materials to the setting to encourage children to make believe or assume the identities

of different people. Using the veterinary office as an example, stock the dramatic play area with costumes defining each role, such as a white lab coat for the veterinarian, scrubs for the veterinary assistant, suit jacket for the receptionist, and stuffed animals for pet owner (e.g., cat, dog, bird). Also include various literacy props such as a calendar for appointments, signs for the waiting room, notepads for writing prescriptions, and a notebook for receipts. After setting up the dramatic play space, deliberately model each role and explicitly talk to the children about the actions and feelings of each person. To facilitate this discussion, draw on children’s prior knowledge and create a character web by drawing the person and writing down how that person acts, feels, and looks and what she says (see example in figure). For example, tell children, “Let’s talk about each of the people in our veterinary office. First, let’s pretend I’m a pet owner and my cat Fluffy is sick. How do you think I might feel? . . . Yes, I might feel very worried. Have you ever had a sick pet before? How did it make you feel? . . . When I’m worried I might wring my hands like this. How do you act or what do you look like when you’re worried about something? . . . What might I say to the veterinarian?” Then complete the character web by writing down children’s responses.

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Do this for each role in the dramatic play area. Post these webs in the dramatic play space. As children assume various roles during play, frequently join in expanding and elaborating on thoughts, feelings, and facial expressions.

Variations Match the dramatic play area to the classroom theme. As you discuss each child’s role in dramatic play, have children dress up and use a camera to take a digital picture of them. Then use this picture to talk about what the person might say as well as how the person might act or feel. Place these pictures within the play space. Videotape children role playing in the dramatic play area. Have children watch the video and comment on their roles.

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Research Evidence Explicit teaching of roles and perspective taking within meaningful and authentic contexts encourages children to make inferences about others’ actions and feelings as well as encourages literacyrelated behaviors (Morrow & Gambrell, 2004).

Connection to State Standards Takes a role in a play situation with other children where they have agreed. (California Desired Results Developmental Profile Revised)

Mystery Game Objective

Box with top, bottom, and one side removed for hiding object out of view

Children put together clues about an object to solve its identity.

Fabric to cover one opening of the box

Lesson Description Grouping

Materials Needed Book-related objects

Construct a Mystery Game box by removing the top, bottom, and one side of a box. Then secure fabric on one end of the box to resemble a puppet theater (see figure). Place a book-related object such as a stuffed frog from Froggy Gets Dressed (London, 1992) into the Mystery Game box, being careful to keep the object from the children’s view. Then tell the children, “Today we are going to play the Mystery Game. In this box, behind this curtain, is an object that goes with the story we just read, Froggy Gets Dressed. I’m going to tell you a couple of clues about this item but not tell you its name. I want you to think about the clues and see if you can solve the mystery by guessing

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the object. Ready?” Present the clues, one at a time, to the children. When one of the children solves the mystery correctly, open the curtain and reveal the item. Discuss with children how they came to their guesses, as in, “How did you know it was a frog and not a bunny?” or “I said it lived on land and in water. How did you know it was a frog and not an alligator?”

item through the back opening or ask the child clue-focused questions such as, “What does this item do?” When one of the children guesses the object correctly, prompt the child giving the clues to open the curtain and reveal her personal item. Instead of providing the clues for the mystery object, have children ask yes or no questions about the item. Answer each question and encourage children to draw conclusions about the questions asked and responses to guess the identity of the object.

Research Evidence A similar activity using mystery boxes was part of a successful preservice teacher education training program for improving children’s strategic use of questioning as well as inferencing skills (Rule, 2007).

Variations Play the Mystery Game using objects children bring in from home. Have a child place an item in the box and give clues about the object to the other children. Encourage the child to tell about the item’s appearance, use, and features. If the child has difficulty, encourage her to look at the

Connection to State Standards Gains information through listening experiences with adults or peers who speak and/or read. (Building Blocks to Colorado’s Content Standards)

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Think Aloud Objective Children listen to and become familiar with the inferential process during book reading.

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Materials Needed Storybook

Lesson Description Select a storybook to read to the children. Before reading the book, model making a prediction about what the book will be about using the think aloud strategy. Tell children, “At the library the other day I found this book. I wanted to read it because its cover looks very interesting. One of the things I like to do when reading is make guesses about what happens in the book. I do this by thinking about what I read and looking at the pictures. For this book, the title is and I see a and a and . On the back cover I see . When I open the book and just flip through it I see . When I look at all of this information together it makes me think of . So I’m predicting the story will be about .” Then begin reading the book to the children, telling them, “As I read I’m going to check my prediction to see if what I predicted actually

happens. I’m going to do this through thinking out loud or telling you my thoughts as I read.” Model the think aloud strategy when you come to information that confirms, adds to, or negates your prediction. You might say, “Hmmm, I predicted the story would be about and so far it is. The story surprised me though because I did not think would happen so I’m going to make a new prediction. Given what we read and what I already know about , I predict will happen next.” Continue to model this process several times throughout the book reading experience revising and reflecting on the predictions made. After reading, summarize your thoughts by saying, “Before we began reading, I predicted . Then we read part of the story and I predicted and . Now that the story is over, I think my predictions were pretty close (or not close) to what actually happened in the story. I know this because .” In this way, throughout the book sharing, the teacher models the think aloud strategy for the children by putting together pieces of information from the text, pictures, and prior knowledge to make predictions.

Variations Include students in the think aloud process after they internalize and become more familiar with the strategy. Begin to include them in simple global predictions about the book. Ask them, “What do you think the book is about?” and “What makes you think the book is about ?” Record children’s predictions on a piece of chart paper and encourage children to revise their predictions as they hear the text read. Before reading the book to the children, preselect various points in the book to stop and ask children to make more specific predictions about story events. Summarize the events that happened earlier and ask, “So far, happened.

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What do you think will happen next?” Help children reflect on their predictions and verify or refine as needed.

to be especially helpful for facilitating early elementary students’ reading comprehension (Pressley & Afflerbach, 1995; Schellings, Aarnoutse, & van Leeuwe, 2006).

Research Evidence Connection to State Standards Think alouds during book reading model the inferential process by walking children through temporal and causal relationships present in a story. This type of strategy instruction has been shown

Makes predictions from what is seen in illustrations or heard from stories. (Arizona’s Early Learning Standards)

Inference Charades Objective Children use body language and contextual clues to deduce the feelings or conditions of others.

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ing like this for a few minutes. Then ask, “How do you think I feel?” Allow children to respond and then follow up with questions: “How did you know?” and “What do you think made me feel hot?” Then write feelings or conditions on strips of paper and draw pictures illustrating the feeling next to the written word (see example in figure). Place the strips of paper in a bag. Tell children, “Let’s play charades. In this bag I have feelings words and pictures written on pieces of paper. I want you to choose a piece of paper and act out the feeling. Use your body only. Keep your voice silent.” Have children come up, one by one, select a strip of paper, and then act out the word. As children guess, ask follow-up questions.

Materials Needed Strips of paper with pictures and corresponding feelings written on them Bag

Variations Lesson Description Play a game of charades in the classroom. Begin the lesson by acting warm or hot from some sort of exercise or the weather. Fan yourself, wipe your forehead, and take big breaths. Continue act-

Have children create the strips of paper by drawing a feeling or condition first. Then help each child to write the word on the strip that corresponds with the picture. Play inference charades using the child-created paper strips.

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Play inference charades with theme-related or book-related vocabulary. For example, after reading the storybook, Where the Wild Things Are (Sendak, 1991), create paper strips with book characters and actions such as Max, Max’s mom, a wild thing, the dog, and sailing. Have children act out the character or action from the story for others to guess.

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to make evaluative inferences, which positively influences later reading comprehension (Lindsey & Colwell, 2003).

Connection to State Standards Uses information gained through one modality and applies it to new context via another modality. (Alaska Early Learning Guidelines)

Research Evidence High levels of pretend and physical play relate to children’s emotional competence and ability

Idioms Objective Children demonstrate an understanding of figurative language by answering simple questions about idioms.

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Materials Needed Books with idioms [e.g., Ack!—There’s a Bug in My Ear! (and other sayings that just aren’t true) (Klingel, 2008) or Even More Parts: Idioms from Head to Toe (Arnold, 2004)]

Lesson Description Select a book containing several idioms such as those mentioned above. Choose an idiom from the book you know you want to teach. Think

about those idioms heard or said frequently by others in the classroom or community and whether or not the saying is transparent or opaque. Opaque idioms may be more difficult for children to understand. Introduce the idiom using the book. Then make up a story about the idiom. Using an example from Ack!—There’s a Bug in My Ear! (Klingel, 2008), introduce the lesson by saying, “Today we are going to talk about idioms. Idioms are funny sayings that mean something different from what they say. This book is full of idioms or funny sayings. Let’s take a look at one of the idioms in this book—ants in your pants.” Then read the pages in the book relating to the idiom ants in your pants. After reading, make up a story about the idiom that demonstrates its real meaning. For the idiom ants in your pants, you might say: One night, Tommy went out to dinner with his family. He sat down at the table and started wiggling and squiggling in his chair. An hour went by and Tommy wiggled and squiggled so much that he fell off his seat! While Tommy was getting up from the floor, his mom asked, “What’s wrong, do you have ants in your pants?” Tommy laughed and said, “No! I’m just starving! Let’s eat!” Just then, their food came.

Following the story, develop and ask a set a questions relating to the idiom in the story. For the above example, you might ask children, “Where

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did Tommy go with his family? What was Tommy doing? Why did Tommy’s mom ask him if he had ‘ants in his pants’? What does ‘ants in your pants’ mean?” These questions should help support comprehension of the idiom.

Variations Create an idiom chart. Make three columns on a piece of chart paper. Write the idiom “ants in your pants” in the first column. In the second column write “Real Meaning.” Tell children, “Now, let’s think about this funny saying. ‘Ants in your pants’ doesn’t really mean you have little black bugs in your pants, right?! It means that you’re not able to sit still and that you’re very jumpy or restless. Show me how you’d look if you had ants in your pants!” As children act out the idiom, take digital pictures of them and place them in the second column. In the third column, write, “I have ants in my pants when . . . ” Then ask children to complete the sentence by giving examples of times

when they wiggle and squiggle. Record each child’s answer, writing their names next to the response. Create a book of idioms. Use the chart paper from the variation above or write an idiom at the top of every page and have children draw pictures of the meaning. Construct either one big book for the classroom or individual books for each child.

Research Evidence When idioms are presented within the context of a story, children demonstrate greater comprehension than idioms presented in isolation (Qualls, O’Brien, Blood, & Hammer, 2003).

Connection to State Standards Participates in group discussions. (Arkansas Early Childhood Education Framework)

Let’s Experiment! Sink or Float Objective

Materials Needed

Children predict the outcome of a science experiment using their background knowledge and prior experience.

Book—Who Sank the Boat? (Allen, 1982) Container of water Various items to place in water (e.g., penny, pencil, paper clip, balloon)

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Tray and towel for collecting wet items Worksheet

Lesson Description In preparation for this lesson, create a worksheet with three columns. In the first column include

Inferential Language

pictures and the names of all items to be placed in the water. Label the second column, “My guess: Float (F) or Sink (S).” Label the third column, “What happened: Floated (F) or Sank (S).” Then read the book, Who Sank the Boat? (Allen, 1982) to the children. In this book, a group of animals go for a boat ride and end up sinking their boat. After reading the book and trying to figure out the animal responsible for sinking the boat, introduce the science experiment. Give each child a worksheet and tell them, “We just read a book about floating and sinking. Now we are going to do a science experiment with water and objects that will either sink or float. Here we have some water and some objects. Before we put each one in the water I want you to guess if it will float or sink.” Show the children each item. Encourage the children to make a guess about whether the object will float or sink in the water. Have the children write their guesses, either “F” or “S,” in the second column on their sheet. Then allow a child to place the item in the water. Observe the object and ask, “What happened?” Then have the children record either “F” or “S” in the third column. Go back to the children’s predictions and compare what they guessed to what really happened. After placing all items in the water ask questions such as, “How many guesses did you get correct? Did any objects surprise you? Which objects did you think would float but actually sank? Which objects did you think would sink but actually floated?”

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Variations Have students create a picture of the items tested that sank and floated. Give each child a piece of paper with a water line drawn on it. Then tell them to draw the objects that sunk below the water line and draw the objects that floated on or above the water line. Encourage students to bring in objects from home and test them for sinking and floating. Use a piece of chart paper to record the item, children’s predictions, and what actually happened. The same or a similar lesson using literature as an introduction to a science experiment and prediction can be done with many storybooks.

Research Evidence Science experiments and hands-on activities provide preschool children opportunities to use higherlevel language skills such as prediction, explanation, and inferential language (Conezio & French, 2002).

Connection to State Standards Uses language to express needs and feelings, share experiences, predict outcomes, and resolve problems. (Florida’s Voluntary Prekindergarten Education Standards)

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Hide-n-Seek Objective Children use clues in a poem to guess the label and location of an object.

ing where we type. Where in the room could that be?” After a couple of guesses allow children to hunt for and find the object. Example:

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What you seek has stars and stripes. It’s resting proudly where you type. It’s has three colors, red, white, and blue. It’s not too far from the sticky white glue.

Materials Needed

To make the game a bit more difficult, have children hunt for the object directly after reading the poem. When one or several children have found the object, return to a group and ask questions such as, “What clues in the poem helped you figure out what to look for? What clues in the poem helped you figure out where to look?”

Object to hide Poem about object Chart paper

Lesson Description Hide an object in the room. Then construct a poem about the object and its location. Write the poem on a piece of chart paper. Tell the children, “Today we are going to play hide and seek. I hid an object in this room but I’m not going to tell you what it is or where it is. Instead, I’m going to read this poem to you. This poem has clues about what I hid and where I hid it. See if you can figure out this mystery!” Then read the poem tracking the print as you read. When finished, ask children questions to help them narrow down what to look for by asking (using the example below), “Hmmm, the poem says the object has stars and stripes and is red, white, and blue. What do you think it could be?” Have children make guesses and support those guesses for which stars, stripes, and red, white, and blue do not apply. Then say, “The poem also says the object is rest-

Variations Place the poems and objects in a center. Encourage children to take turns reading the poems and playing hide and seek with the objects. Use theme-related objects for hide and seek. Incorporate some of the descriptive words about the object from storybooks read or text discussed into the poem. Have children search the room for the objects.

Research Evidence Class discussions geared towards solving problems and higher-level language skills have positive effects for improving children’s listening and reading comprehension (Chinn, Anderson, & Waggoner, 2001).

Connection to State Standards Uses language to problem solve. (Arkansas Early Childhood Education Framework)

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Guess the Animal Objective Children use their background knowledge and observation skills to make inferences about the actions of others.

zebra, then comment, “Hmm, Brian is stomping slowly around the room with heavy feet. A zebra is like a horse and they run very fast with light feet. I wonder if we can think about animals that are big and heavy.” Allow children to eat their animal crackers after a correct guess.

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Materials Needed Animal crackers

Have children, after pretending to be the animal on the animal cracker, make up a story about where they live. Encourage children to talk about what they would do, what they would eat, and where they would sleep. Write these stories down and create an “Animal Cracker Story Book.” Instead of having children act like the animals, have them provide clues about the animal for others to guess. For example, if a child chooses an elephant-shaped cookie, the child could say, “This animal is big, has a trunk, and likes to eat peanuts.”

Lesson Description Research Evidence Embed an inferential language game into snack time. Tell children, “We’re going to play a game with our animal crackers today. We’re going to take turns choosing a cookie. Without speaking, I want you to pretend to be the animal on the cookie by moving your body and acting like the animal. Then we’ll guess the animal. Once we guess the animal, you may eat the cookie!” Continue playing the game for several rounds, making comments about children’s guesses. For example, if one child selects an elephant-shaped cookie and stomps heavily and slowly about the room and another child guesses the animal to be a

The ability to make inferences requires that children use information from the world to make connections between different events, actions, and states (Pressley, 2000).

Connection to State Standards Takes on pretend roles and situations, using the appropriate language, tone, and movements. (Alaska Early Learning Guidelines)

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Mouse Predictions Objective Children use the pictures in the text and their background knowledge to make predictions.

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could it be or does it look like?”). After the seventh mouse goes out to the pond but before he figures out that the object is an elephant, ask students to predict what the seventh mouse might find: “Let’s see. Let’s look at each part each mouse found (flipping back through the book showing the parts of the elephant). The first mouse found this (pointing to the tail). The second mouse found this (pointing to the trunk). The third mouse . . . Now let’s put all of these parts together. What might this be? What do think the seventh mouse is going to find?” After reading the book, reinforce the idea that the children used the pictures and information they already knew to make predictions about the book.

Variations Materials Needed Book Seven Blind Mice

Lesson Description The book, Seven Blind Mice (Young, 2002), describes how six mice on different days experience something strange at the edge of a pond. Each day one of the mice encounters something different and returns to the group to tell the others what he found. One mouse believes he comes across a snake, another a pillar, and another a cliff. On the last day, the seventh mouse goes to the pond running up, down, and all around. Piece by piece, he puts the parts of the other mice’s experiences together and concludes that the something strange is an elephant. To work on inferential language with this book, stop each time one of the mice comes back to the group and ask the children a question. For example, when the first mouse sees the tail of the elephant at the pond and he believes it’s a rope, ask children to guess what else the pictures could be (e.g., “The mouse believes this is a rope (pointing to the picture). What else

Create a class book similar to Seven Blind Mice. Instead of an elephant, have children suggest a different animal or thing for each mouse to encounter. Then determine the parts of the animal or object. Have each child illustrate a page of the book representing the part of the animal or object. While reading, record children’s predictions on chart paper. Compare and contrast children’s predictions to the pictures in the text and the mouse’s perceptions.

Research Evidence Scientific studies of storybook reading interventions with children who are at risk demonstrate positive effects for increasing language skills (Lonigan, 2006).

Connection to State Standards Attends to a story. (Connecticut’s Preschool Curriculum Framework)

Chapter 9 Vocabulary

V

ocabulary development represents one of the most exciting aspects of language development during the toddler and preschool years. Perhaps this is because children’s gains can be so readily observed, as with the 3-year-old child who unexpectedly notes that he likes the color “lavender” and whose parents wonder where that word came from! Although children do learn many words inci-

dentally in their interactions with others, children do need a great deal of intentional vocabulary instruction to achieve the great store of words they must acquire to go on and be successful readers. The 15 activities presented here provide explicit approaches to ensuring that children have many opportunities to learn a variety of new words on a regular basis.

Activity

Objective

1

Friendly Definitions

Children understand vocabulary that they encounter incidentally during shared storybook reading.

2

A Play on Words

Children comprehend vocabulary words targeted by their teacher for use in multiple contexts, including dramatic play activities.

3

Three, Two, One, Action!

Children learn new action words.

4

Multiple Exemplars

Children extend their understanding of a new word to include several exemplars belonging to the same category.

5

Adjective Awareness

Children learn new descriptive words and sort objects on the basis of their descriptive properties.

6

I Can Relate to These Words

Children learn the names of spatial prepositions in the context of a motor activity.

7

Laundry Sort

Children understand new comparison words.

8

Talking around the Issue

Children use circumlocution to “talk around” words they do not know.

9

Stressing Grammatical Words

Children learn new vocabulary and grammatical constructions.

Adverbing

Children describe sequences of events in a story using adverbs.

10

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Activity

Objective

11

Expressing Emotions and Feelings

Children use vocabulary to describe emotions and feelings.

12

Forging Links with Words

Children learn new vocabulary words by recruiting their background knowledge and prior experiences.

13

Making a Rare Appearance

Children use some infrequently used words in the context of snacktime or mealtime.

14

Technically Speaking . . .

Children use some technical and specialized vocabulary in the context of a music activity.

15

Which One Is Pastel?

Children identify antonyms from groups of familiar words.

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Friendly Definitions Objective Children understand vocabulary that they encounter incidentally during shared storybook reading.

Grouping Options

Materials Needed Storybooks

Lesson Description One way to introduce children to new vocabulary is to use a didactic-interactional style to teach them the meanings of words encountered incidentally during the course of shared storybook reading. Using a didactic-interactional style, like the term implies, means teaching vocabulary in an interactive manner. Adults can use this strategy with children by providing a definition, synonym, or example of potentially unfamiliar words in storybooks. For example, an adult who encounters the word mechanic in a storybook might provide a definition by saying something like: “Mechanic is a new word for us. A mechanic is a person who fixes cars and trucks.” As another example, an adult who comes across the word spectacles while reading might provide a synonym by saying something like: “Another word for spectacles is glasses.” The goal of using a didactic-interactional style is to promote comprehension of potentially new and unfamiliar words—as they arise—so that children are better able to understand and enjoy the storybook.

Variations To enhance children’s participation in the vocabulary learning experience, have children repeat the new word aloud and use themselves for extra reinforcement. For example, after defining the word mechanic, ask: “Can you say the word mechanic? Mechanic is kind of a big word, isn’t it? Let’s practice using our new word some more by naming some things a mechanic could fix. A mechanic could fix a car’s brakes. Can you tell me what else a mechanic could fix? What a great idea . . . Julie said that a mechanic could fix a truck’s tires.”

Research Evidence Children make more significant gains in vocabulary development when teachers use a didacticinteractional reading style as compared to reading a book from beginning to end without didactic interaction (Brabham & Lynch-Brown, 2002).

Connection to State Standards Understands an increasingly complex and varied vocabulary. (Rhode Island Early Learning Standards)

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A Play on Words Objective Children comprehend vocabulary words targeted by their teacher for use in multiple contexts, including dramatic play activities.

Grouping Options

ties for children to use the target words in a dramatic play activity. Building on the scientist theme, children could pretend to be scientists by dressing up in “lab coats” as they examine slides under microscopes, study leaves and other small objects with magnifying glasses, and pour liquid into test tubes. An important role for the adult during the dramatic play activity is to reinforce the newly learned vocabulary words by modeling appropriate use (e.g.,“I am going to place my slide under the microscope so that I can take a closer look at the tiny objects.”) and to encourage children to use the vocabulary words as they play (“Sara, ask Scott if you can take a turn looking at the slide.”).

Variations Materials Needed Objects representing each of the target vocabulary words A dramatic play setting incorporating the target vocabulary words

Lesson Description Prepare for the activity by targeting several potentially new and unfamiliar words corresponding to a particular curricular theme or unit. For example, in a classroom whose weekly theme is scientists, target words might include slides, test tube, microscope, and magnifying glass [see Wiggins (2006) for a selection of dramatic play themes and target vocabulary words]. In a small group, large group, or whole group setting, introduce each of the words to children by providing a definition of the word as well as by showing children objects representing each of the words. Using the word magnifying glass, you might say: “This is a magnifying glass. It is a piece of glass that magnifies objects, which means that it makes things look bigger so that you can see them better.” After introducing the target words, provide opportuni-

You can also introduce action words to children and reinforce children’s use of these words during the dramatic play activity. Building on the scientist theme, you might target the actions combine and measure by saying, “Let’s combine the yellow liquid with the blue liquid and see what color liquid we end up with. Cindy, could you measure one cupful of the yellow liquid as I measure one cupful of the blue liquid? We can measure one cupful of liquid by filling the cup up to the number one line right here.”

Research Evidence Introducing young children to new words in conjunction with objects representing the words and opportunities to use the words is an effective way to promote vocabulary development (Wasik & Bond, 2001).

Connection to State Standards Understands increasingly complex and varied vocabulary used in language and the environment. (Wisconsin Model Early Learning Standards)

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Three, Two, One, Action! Objective Children learn new action words.

Grouping Options

one walks around the room while group two tiptoes around the room; group one claps while group two cheers). Next, discuss with the children how the two actions are different. For example, using the action pair clap-cheer, children might comment that the cheering group was louder than the clapping group or that the clapping group used only their hands, whereas the cheering group used their hands and their voices.

Variations

Materials Needed Index cards preprinted with pairs of action words

Lesson Description Prepare several index cards containing pairs of action words that are similar but that differ in degree (e.g., walk-tiptoe, clap-cheer, march-stomp, talk-whisper, sit-squat, hum-sing). After introducing and demonstrating a pair of actions, have the entire group practice performing each of the actions in turn. For example, you could say, “Everyone watch as I walk around the room. This is what we do when we need to get from place to place. Now watch me as I tiptoe around the room. We tiptoe when we want to move around very quietly without anyone hearing us. When it is naptime and Mrs. Jones needs to talk to me, she tiptoes across the room so that she doesn’t wake anyone up. Let’s try each of these actions now.” After the group is familiar with both actions, divide them into two groups and have each group perform one of the actions (for example, group

Once children are familiar with all of the action pairs, the class can play Simon Says with the new words. Select action words from the pile of preprinted index cards and call out actions for the game. For example, “Simon says clap. Simon says whisper. Now sing.” As another variation, children who are able to read the words on the index cards can act as Simon too. Remind Simon to say “Simon says” before announcing some of the actions and not others.

Research Evidence Action words may be more difficult for children to learn than words for concrete objects because adults do not often “teach” action words to children. Instead they tend to use action words to regulate children’s behavior (e.g., “Sit right here.”), anticipate upcoming events, or describe events that have already occurred (Tomasello, 1992).

Connection to State Standards Understands and uses increasingly complex and varied vocabulary for objects, attributes, actions, and events. (Tennessee Early Childhood Early Learning Developmental Standards)

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Multiple Exemplars Objective Children extend their understanding of a new word to include several exemplars belonging to the same category.

Grouping Options

different purposes, they are all spoons.” Next, ask the children how they think each of the spoons could be used. Holding up the baby spoon, you might say, “What could someone use this spoon for? Yes, we could use this spoon to feed a baby. Why wouldn’t we use this spoon to stir the batter for a cake?” As another example, you might show the children three different kinds of scales—a food scale, a scale from the science area of the classroom, and a scale that a person can stand on—and discuss the functions and appearances of each type of scale in a similar way.

Materials Needed Common household objects with the same label (e.g., spoons, scales) Magazines, catalogs, grocery store flyers with pictures

Variations

Scissors

Have children choose a word for which they would like to find multiple exemplars. For example, one child might choose the word car, another child might choose the word radio, and another child might choose the word light. Next, have children cut out pictures from magazines, catalogs, and flyers that represent the word they have picked. After checking that the pictures are accurate representations of the same word, have children glue the pictures onto a piece of construction paper and help them label the construction paper with the correct category label (e.g., trucks, beds, phones). If children are not able to think of a category, help them to choose a category for which they might find multiple exemplars (houses, toys, tables).

Glue Construction paper

Lesson Description Begin by explaining that some things can have the same name even though they may look different from one another and we can use them in different ways. As an example, you might show the children four different kinds of spoons, a measuring spoon, a large wooden spoon, a stainless steel tablespoon, and a baby spoon, and say, “I have four spoons here. Even though they may look different from one another and we can use them for

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Research Evidence

Connection to State Standards

Children who learn multiple exemplars for a word are more likely to form a correct representation of that word than children who learn a label for only one instance of a word (Gentner & Namy, 1999).

Refines and extends understanding of known words. (Texas Prekindergarten Curriculum Guidelines)

Adjective Awareness Objective

Lesson Description

Children learn new descriptive words and sort objects on the basis of their descriptive properties.

In this activity, begin by introducing groups of objects that share a descriptive property and contrast those objects with a group of objects that share a different descriptive property. For example, you might say: “Let’s take a look at some things that are soft. This cotton ball is soft and so is this feather. This stuffed animal is also soft. Would you like to feel these soft things? Now let’s take a look at some things that are hard. This marble is hard and so is this bowl. This rock is hard, too.” After introducing the objects and allowing the children to explore them, place the objects into a bag along with other items that share a descriptive property. Have the children select one object at a time and sort the objects into two piles. You might say something like: “Now I’d like you to pick one item from the bag and decide whether it is hard or soft. Okay, you picked a dish sponge. Is it hard or soft? How do you know it is soft?”

Grouping Options

Materials Needed Several groups of objects that can be sorted on the basis of their descriptive properties Examples include:

Variations ■ Dark/light—purple or black crayon/white or yellow crayon ■ Heavy/light—balloon filled with sand/ balloon filled with air ■ Long/short—long piece of yarn/short piece of yarn ■ Shiny/dull—shiny penny/dull penny ■ Rough/smooth—piece of sandpaper/piece of plain paper ■ Hard/soft—marble/cotton ball

With a small group of children, assign each child one adjective and provide him with a basket or bag to collect items in the classroom corresponding to the assigned adjective. Ask the children not to reveal their adjective to the other children as they search. After a few minutes, have the children gather at a table and ask one child at a time to show his objects to the other children in the group —again, without revealing the assigned adjective.

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the new word’s meaning and can help children to understand whether the word is a proper name or an adjective (Hall & Bélanger, 2005).

Encourage all children in the group to look at and feel all of the objects and then have them guess which adjective describes the items in each basket or bag. Finally, have the child who gathered the objects reveal the adjective he was assigned to the rest of the group.

Connection to State Standards

Research Evidence

Understands descriptive words (e.g., color, size, shape). (Utah Pre-Kindergarten Guidelines)

The number of objects to which a new word is extended provides important information about

I Can Relate to These Words Objective Children learn the names of spatial prepositions in the context of a motor activity.

Grouping Options

Materials Needed Balls Jump ropes

up a line of jump ropes and balls in one area of the playground or gym and scattering cones in another area of the playground or gym. Next, have the children enact simple motions that include spatial prepositions. For example, you might say, “First, let’s stand behind the line. Is everyone behind the line? Look to both sides of you and make sure that your friends are behind the line. Now let’s jump in front of the line and then behind it again. Great! I like how everyone jumped in front of the line and then jumped back behind it again. Now can anyone figure out how we might walk under the line? Wow, that’s a great idea. We could have two people pick up a jump rope and have a third person walk under it. Let’s try it! Do you think we could go over the jump rope in the same way? Be careful to hold it close to the ground so that your friends can jump over it safely. Now everyone hold your ball up in the air . . . and now place it down on the ground. Is everyone’s ball down on the ground? Okay, now let’s walk around the cones. Now stand next to your cone . . . and now stand behind your cone.”

Cones

Variations Lesson Description This activity should take place outdoors or in a gym so that children have plenty of space to move around. Prepare for the activity by setting

For an indoor activity, provide each child with a stuffed animal and a box or basket. Next, ask children to place their animal in the box, outside of the box, on the box, under the box, next to the

Vocabulary

box, in front of the box, behind the box, and so on. Children can also take turns asking others in the group to act out certain actions involving spatial prepositions as they become more familiar with them.

139

and addresses the motor needs of young children, which is especially important for children with developmental disabilities (Murata, 2003).

Connection to State Standards Research Evidence Integrating language activities and motor activities can be beneficial to language development

Uses language to understand the arrangement, order, and position of objects such as: behind, on top of, next to, bottom, underneath, beside, in front of, and so on. (Vermont Early Learning Standards)

Laundry Sort Objective Children understand new comparison words.

Grouping Options

As you help children sort the laundry, emphasize the comparison words. You could say, “These pants are dark and these pants are light. Let’s find all of the dark clothing and place it over here and let’s also find all of the light clothing and place it over there. Jodi, is this shirt dark or light? That’s right, it is light, so we’ll put it over here. Ben, can you tell me about this sweater? Great, it is dark, so let’s place it here in the dark pile. Does anyone ever see his or her parents separating laundry into dark and light piles? Hmm, I wonder why they do that. Does anyone have an idea?”

Materials Needed Selection of clothing in various sizes, styles, and colors

Lesson Description Explain that you are going to pretend to sort laundry to be washed and that you would like to make piles of certain types. Say, “We are going to pretend we are sorting laundry into different piles using some special comparison words.” Some of the piles you could use include big/small, long/short, dark/light, patterned/solid, loose/tight, heavy/light.

Once all of the laundry has been sorted into one of two piles, mix the clothing up again and have the children help you sort it into two different piles. For example, you could say, “Okay, now that we have sorted the laundry into piles of light and dark clothing, let’s mix it all together again

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and see if we can sort the laundry according to whether it is solid or patterned. Solid clothing has one color only, like this red T-shirt. Patterned clothing has stripes, a plaid design, shapes, or some other design. This striped tie is patterned.

Variations For a more active variation, have children try to move their bodies to illustrate comparison words. You could say, “Let’s all try to make ourselves tall. Stretch your arms and stand on your toes so that you can be as tall as possible. Now let’s make ourselves short. George, how could we make ourselves short? Ok, now let’s do something fast. What could we do that is fast? Yes, let’s sing the ABC song so

that it sounds fast . . . and now let’s sing the ABC song so that it sounds slooooooow.”

Research Evidence Preschoolers taught how to use descriptive terms for items having the same property (e.g., color, shape) are able to extend these descriptor terms to other items in the same category (Weisberg, 2003).

Connection to State Standards Understands comparison words (e.g., little/big). (Utah Pre-Kindergarten Guidelines)

Talking around the Issue Objective Children use circumlocution to “talk around” words they do not know.

Grouping Options

Materials Needed Twenty index cards containing pictures of objects that children would recognize, and for which they may or may not know the names (e.g., hanger, coat rack, saucer, goggles, banister)

One sheet of paper with thumbnail images of each of the 20 items to serve as a key

Lesson Description Explain to children that you are going to practice talking about words that you either do not know or cannot remember. You might say something like, “Have you ever wanted to talk about something but you didn’t have the right word? Or maybe you knew the word, but you couldn’t remember it. We’re going to practice describing things so that other people can understand us, even if we can’t think of the right words to use.” Give each child two index cards and say, “I’m going to describe an item that one of you has on your index card. After I describe the item, if you think I am talking about your item, hold up your index card. Okay, let’s begin. First, I want to know who has the piece of equipment you wear over your eyes when you go swimming so that you can see under water without water getting into your eyes. Who thinks they have a picture of those? Oh, I see Marlo is holding

Vocabulary

her card up. Marlo, do you know what those are called? No, that’s okay. They are called goggles. If you ever want to talk about goggles, but you forget the word, you can describe when, how, and where you would wear them and that should help the person you are talking to better understand what you are talking about.” Continue by describing the other items in a similar way and emphasize in your discussion the idea that it is okay to describe when, where, and how you might use a particular item if you can’t remember or don’t know the right word. “Now I’d like to know who has the piece of wood that hangs above a stairway. It is something that you hold onto so that you can go up and down the stairs safely. Oh look, Elena is holding her picture up. Elena, what do you have there? It is called a banister. How did you know that I was talking about your picture? Yes, that’s right. You could see that the item in your picture was made of wood and that it looked like something we might hold onto when we climb up and down the stairs.”

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ing one of the thumbnail images on the key. You could say something like, “Now I would like you to take turns describing the pictures that your friends have. Remember to talk about when, how, and where you might find or use the item. If you already know the name of the item, just pretend that you have forgotten the name. Try to provide lots of clues so that your friends can correctly guess which picture you are describing. Don’t look at your friend’s pictures, or they might just see where you are looking and know which item you are describing. Instead, focus on providing a clear description of the item and let them try their best to guess which item you are describing.”

Research Evidence Children sometimes coin new words to fill gaps in their vocabulary (Clark, 1993).

Connection to State Standards Variations After children are familiar with how to use circumlocution strategies, have them take turns describ-

Distinguishes between real and made-up words. (Washington State Early Learning and Development Benchmarks)

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Stressing Grammatical Words Objective Children learn new vocabulary and grammatical constructions.

Grouping Options

Materials Needed Index cards with sentences containing an assortment of function words (e.g., She is sad, It is blue, Karl will drive, Amy will swim, Anne should cook, Lisa should clean, Pat can run, Paul can skip)

Lesson Description Vocabulary words for grammar, also called function words, can be difficult for children to master because they are usually short words spoken quickly and without emphasis. The goal of this lesson is to emphasize grammatical words by placing them at the beginnings or ends of utterances, lengthening them, and saying them loudly and with varied pitch. Children who regularly omit function words when speaking (e.g., “When we going to lunch?”) might especially benefit from this type of activity. To begin, tell the child that you are going to say a sentence and that you would like for him to turn your sentence into a question. For example, you could say, “Tony, I am going to say a sentence and I want you to make my sentence into a question. If I were to say, ‘He is eating,’ you could say, ‘Is he eating?’ [Emphasize the word is by lengthening it, saying it louder than the other two words, and using varied pitch when saying the word.]

Let’s try one. Here’s my sentence. ‘He is tall’. Can you make that into a question and ask me the question? ‘He is tall.’” The child responds, “Is him tall?” Say, “Great question! You made my sentence into a question. I said ‘He is tall,’ and to change that into a question, you would say, ‘Is he tall?’” When requesting that children change sentences into questions, focus on one function word at a time. In the previous example, even though the sentence included two function words (is, he) and Tony incorrectly used the objective pronoun him instead of the subjective pronoun he, you would reinforce him for using the target function word (is) appropriately in his question. To address the incorrect use of him without taking the focus away from the target word, simply recast his question using the proper pronoun as you praise him for his appropriate use of the target function word.

Variations As an alternate activity, have children change your sentence from a positive sentence to a negative sentence. Continue to emphasize the target function word as you read the sentence by saying it loudly, with varied pitch, and by lengthening the word. For example, you might say, “Now instead of changing my sentence into a question, I would like for you to try to change my sentence into a sentence that uses the word not or no so that you can disagree with me. If I were to say, ‘Hiro can sing,’ you would disagree with me by saying, ‘Hiro cannot sing.’ Let’s try another one. ‘Dogs can fly.’ Now you make up a sentence that disagrees with my sentence. Very good, you said ‘Dogs cannot fly,’ so you disagreed with me. Let’s try another one. ‘Trees are purple.’ Can you disagree with my sentence? You said, ‘Trees are green.’ Remember that I would like you to use the word no or not to disagree with me. Can you try again? I said, ‘Trees are purple.’ Okay, that was better. You used the word not that time when you said, ‘Trees are not purple.’ I think you’ve got the hang of it now.” Puppets can be used to make the activity more playful.

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Research Evidence

Connection to State Standards

Grammatical morphemes can be made more salient by pronouncing them so that they are loud, long, and have dynamic pitch changes (Fey, Long, & Finestack, 2003).

Uses new vocabulary and grammatical constructions. (Vermont Early Learning Standards)

Adverbing Objective Children describe sequences of events in a story using adverbs.

Grouping Options

Materials Needed Storybook with a plot that lends itself well to a discussion of sequence of events (e.g., Goldilocks and the Three Bears, The Princess and the Pea) White paper folded into three sections (one per child) Crayons, colored pencils, or markers for drawing

Lesson Description After reading a storybook that lends itself well to a discussion of sequence of events, tell children that you are going to have them reenact different parts of the story and that you would like for them to concentrate on what happened first, what hap-

pened second, what happened third, what happened next, and what happened last. You could begin by having the children recall the story’s events by saying something like, “Before we reenact the story The Princess and the Pea, let’s talk about what happened first in the story. Carlos, can you tell us what happened first in the story? Ah, you think the prince and the princess got married first? That actually happened last in the story—at the very end. Let’s hold your idea for a few minutes and I’ll let you tell me what happened last. Do you remember what happened first—at the very beginning of the story, even before the prince and princess were married? Yes, now you’ve got it. The prince was looking for a princess to marry and he couldn’t find the perfect one. Juan, now that we know what happened first, can you tell us what happened next? What happened after the prince was looking for a princess to marry and he couldn’t find the perfect person? Yes, after that, the princess came to the door and she said that she was a real princess and needed a place to rest for the night.” Once you have discussed the plot of the story with the children and have emphasized the sequence of events in the story using adverbs such as first, second, third, next, finally, and last, have the children reenact the story themselves. Select one child to play each character in the story and prompt them to act out the sequence of story events. For example, you could say, “We are going to begin by having Carlos play the role of the prince. Carlos, remember how we discussed the event that happened first in the story? Would you mind pretending to be the prince so that you can act out the first part of the story for us? After

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you act out the first part of the story, we will have Julia play the role of the princess and we’ll have Nancy play the role of the prince’s mother so that we can act out the second part of the story.” After children have acted out the entire story, have them change roles so that all children have the opportunity to act out one or more parts of the story.

Variations As an alternate activity, or in addition to reenacting the sequence of events in a story, have children illustrate a story in three parts. Give each child a piece of white paper that has been folded into three equal sections. Label the top of each section with the words first, next, and last. Explain to children that you would like them to illustrate the story you have just read in three different parts. If the story you read together has more than three distinct parts, let the children know that you would like them to draw the first and last story events and that they can choose their favorite event from the middle of the story to illustrate under the word next. As children illustrate each of the story parts, you might remind them of the story’s first and last events and then ask children to tell you which of the events occurring in the middle of the story they liked best and why.

Research Evidence Explicit teaching strategies can be used to support children’s ability to use language to talk about events occurring beyond the here-and-now. Adverbs are one of several specific language forms that can be supported through explicit teaching (Justice & Kaderavek, 2004).

Connection to State Standards Uses increasingly complex and varied vocabulary and language. (Wisconsin Model Early Learning Standards)

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Expressing Emotions and Feelings Objective Children use vocabulary to describe emotions and feelings.

Grouping Options

try to talk about our feelings and emotions with one another.” As you move over to the dramatic play area and play along with the children, encourage them to express how they are feeling throughout their conversational exchanges. For example, if the waiting room is crowded, the pet owner might become frustrated that she will have to wait a long time to see the doctor. The receptionist might be apologetic for the long wait and encourage the pet owner to remain calm. The pet owner might also be anxious if her pet is sick and she does not know what the problem is. The doctor and assistant might later express that they are happy that the pet is healthy after performing a routine checkup or they might express that they are sad if they discover that the pet has a disease and is unhealthy.

Materials Needed A dramatic play setting that lends itself well to several emotions and feelings (e.g., veterinary office: table, stuffed animals, doctor equipment— thermometer, stethoscope)

Lesson Description Explain to children that you are going to have a veterinarian’s office in the dramatic play center. Ask for volunteers to play the doctor, doctor’s assistant, animal owner, and receptionist and advise children that you will have them rotate roles so that everyone has the chance to play each of the roles. You might introduce the activity by saying something like, “Today we are going to have a veterinary office in the dramatic play center. We are going to need volunteers to play the receptionist (the person who makes an appointment for the pet owner, checks the pet owner in on arrival, and lets the doctor and assistant know when the pet and owner have arrived), a pet owner, a doctor, and a doctor’s assistant. When we move over to the dramatic play center we are going to focus on how everyone is feeling and we are going to

Variations Shared storybook reading is another great way to introduce vocabulary to children so that they can talk about feelings and emotions. There are many books designed to help young children understand various feelings and emotions, and they can be read in larger groups or as a whole group activity. One series of books designed for young children and preschoolers is Feelings for Little Children by Elizabeth Crary and Shari Steelsmith (1996) (When You’re Happy and You Know It, When You’re Mad and You Know It, When You’re Silly and You Know It, When You’re Shy and You Know It). Each of these books encourages children to sing along to a familiar tune (“When you’re happy and you know it . . . ”) and to act out actions related to each of the themes. For example, “When you’re mad and you know it, shake it out!” Having children act out actions corresponding to each of the feelings and emotions should help to make the feeling and emotion words even more salient than they would be if they were used without the accompanying actions.

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Research Evidence

Connection to State Standards

Children’s ability to talk about feelings and emotions changes in measurable ways over the 3rd and 4th years of life (Brown & Dunn, 1992).

Uses new vocabulary with increasing frequency to express and describe feelings and ideas. (Virginia’s Foundation Blocks for Early Learning)

Forging Links with Words Objective Children learn new vocabulary words by recruiting their background knowledge and prior experiences.

Grouping Options

Materials Needed List of words targeted for instruction by the classroom’s curriculum or program

Lesson Description The goal of this activity is to engage in discussion with one or a few children at a time and to call on children’s prior experience to help them learn new vocabulary words. If the weekly theme happens to be space and astronomy, target vocabulary words might include constellation, planet, astronaut, discover, soar, and telescope, among others. One way to begin a discussion using the vocabulary words targeted in the space and astronomy weekly theme is to select a book about space and astronomy that includes several pictures (e.g., The Magic

School Bus Lost in the Solar System by Joanna Cole [1992]; There’s No Place Like Space: All about Our Solar System by Tish Rabe [1999]). As you encounter pictures depicting the target words, try to connect the vocabulary to children’s background knowledge and prior experiences to make the activity personal for them. For example, you might say, “Look at this shooting star soaring through the sky. When you play with the airplanes we have, you make them soar through the sky too. Stars can soar and airplanes can soar. What else do you think could soar? Yes, that’s right. Rockets can soar too.” As another example, when using the word discover, you might say, “These astronauts are trying to discover new things about Mars. We use the word discover here in the classroom too. Where do you hear us use the word discover? Yes, over in the science and discovery center. Discover means to learn about something new or to find something for the first time. These astronauts are trying to learn something new about Mars just like we try to learn new things about the items in our science and discovery center in the classroom.”

Vocabulary

Variations A great opportunity to recruit children’s prior experiences in the context of a whole group activity is to incorporate shared experiences into discussions whenever possible. Field trips are memorable shared experiences on which you might draw. As an example, after the class has visited a pizza restaurant as part of a field trip, you could introduce new vocabulary as you have the children reflect on what they did and what they saw as part of the adventure. To introduce the word sanitize, you could say, “Remember the sign at the pizza restaurant above the sink that said, ‘All workers must wash and sanitize their hands’? The word sanitize was right there on the sign above the sink for a good reason. What do you think it could mean? Sanitize means to make clean. It is very important that the workers at the pizza restaurant make their hands clean, or sanitize their hands, before they handle the pizza dough. We also have to wash and sanitize our

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hands here in the classroom before we prepare and eat our snacks. Maybe we could even put a sign over the sink in the dramatic play area so that all of the workers in the kitchen remember to wash and sanitize their hands before preparing food for the customers.”

Research Evidence Vocabulary instruction can be effective when adults introduce words in the context of children’s prior knowledge and experiences (Beck, McKeown, & Kucan, 2002).

Connection to State Standards Links new learning experiences and vocabulary to what is already known about a topic. (Texas Prekindergarten Curriculum Guidelines)

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Making a Rare Appearance Objective Children use some infrequently used words in the context of snacktime or mealtime.

Grouping Options

we get ready for lunch. Assistant is another word for helper. Would the two of you mind assisting me with the table?” Yet another way to use a rare or infrequent word in an informative way is to use the word in such a way that children can rely on their previous experience to infer the meaning of the word. For example, to use the word beverage, you might say, “We have two beverage choices today—milk and orange juice. Cody, what kind of beverage do you like with your snack?”

Variations

Materials Needed Eating utensils Assortment of food or snacks

Lesson Description Plan for this activity by creating a list of the words that you use often during meal and snacktimes. For each of the words you use regularly, think of a less frequently used word that you could use in its place (e.g., helper—assistant, forks and spoons—utensils, drink—beverage, ketchup and mustard—condiments, large plate—platter). Plan to use each of the rare or infrequent words in ways that help the children understand the meaning of the words. One way you might make the meaning of a rare word accessible to children is to use the word while pointing to or holding up the object you are describing (while pointing to the ketchup and mustard, you could say, “Would you please pass me the condiments?”). Another way to use a word in an informative way is to provide a definition. For example, when asking for helpers to set the table, you could say, “I’d like to have Jamie and Tricia be my assistants today as

In addition to using rare and infrequent words in the context of meal and snack activities, try to incorporate these kinds of words in a variety of other classroom routines. When it is time for children to choose the classroom center where they would like to play, ask them to make a selection instead of a choice. As another example, instead of using the word cabinet or cupboard in the dramatic play area, you could use the word pantry. Other substitutions you could try in the dramatic play area include using the word currency for money and occupation for job. In the library area, you might use the words fiction in place of make-believe or pretend, nonfiction in place of real or true, periodical in place of magazine, and novel in place of a long book with chapters.

Research Evidence The frequency with which adults use rare words in conversations with children is related to children’s own vocabulary knowledge (Beals, 1997).

Connection to State Standards Demonstrates understanding of an increasingly rich vocabulary. (South Dakota Early Learning Guidelines)

Vocabulary

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Technically Speaking… Objective Children use some technical and specialized vocabulary in the context of a music activity.

Grouping Options

and soothing and they help to make us feel relaxed and sleepy.” Next, play examples of an anthem (e.g., “The Star Spangled Banner”), a march (such as “When the Saints Go Marching In”), and a symphony (like Beethoven’s 5th Symphony) and discuss the musical pieces in the same way as the lullaby, emphasizing the technical/specialized vocabulary words and explaining how the musical pieces are examples of the target words.

Variations

Materials Needed CDs representing various types of specialized vocabulary for music

Lesson Description Explain that you are going to learn how to talk about different kinds of music using special words by saying something like, “Today instead of singing some of our regular songs, we are going to listen to several different kinds of music and learn some new and special words to talk about the music.” Begin by playing a lullaby such as “Rock-a-bye Baby” and ask the children to listen carefully to the song. After listening to the lullaby, discuss with the children how a lullaby is a kind of song that you can play to help ease a baby to sleep. Emphasize that lullaby is a special word that you can use to talk about a particular kind of song. “The song we just heard is a special kind of song called a lullaby. Can you say lullaby? What do you think makes a lullaby different from other kinds of songs? That’s right. Lullabies are songs we use to help babies fall asleep because lullabies are soft

As an alternative to discussing specialized and technical words in the context of a music activity, think about some other classroom activities that offer the potential for introducing this kind of vocabulary. For example, introduce technical and specialized words related to the classroom computer as children choose to work at the computer center. Some words you might introduce include monitor, CPU, software, hardware, minimize (windows), maximize (windows), port, cable, and tray. Another classroom activity with opportunities for introducing technical and specialized vocabulary is the art center. Technical and specialized words include watercolors, tempera paint, oil pastels, and charcoal pencils.

Research Evidence The frequency with which adults introduce specialized and technical vocabulary is positively associated with one’s level of education (Torr & Scott, 2006).

Connection to State Standards Demonstrates understanding of an increasing number of technical and specialized words (e.g., pediatrician is a child’s doctor). (Washington State Early Learning and Development Benchmarks)

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Which One Is Pastel? Objective Children identify antonyms from groups of familiar words.

Grouping Options

opposite means different. Take a look at these four crayons (the adult shows the children three black crayons and one pastel crayon (e.g., pink, yellow, light green). Which one is pastel ? That’s right, this crayon is pastel. How do we know this crayon is pastel ? Because these three crayons are dark in color. They are black. That means that this crayon left over must be pastel ! A pastel color is a light color such as pink or light green, and pastel means the opposite of a dark color. Do you see any more pastel colors in this box of crayons?”

Variations

Materials Needed Groups of objects or pictures containing three representations for a synonym and one representation for an antonym (e.g., three black crayons and one pastel-colored crayon; tiny ant, tiny pebble, tiny piece of rice, and enormous elephant)

Lesson Description This lesson makes use of young children’s tendency to use the word learning principle of Novel-Name Nameless Category (N3C). Using the principle of N3C, children are able to infer which of a group of objects (or attributes or actions) is represented by a novel word by eliminating the objects, attributes, or actions they already know as potential candidates corresponding to the novel word (e.g., Mervis & Bertrand, 1994). To teach children novel antonyms for familiar words using this principle, the adult would show children a group of four pictures or objects, with each group containing representations of a familiar synonym and one representation of an antonym presumed to be a new vocabulary word. The adult might say, “We are going to talk about words that mean the opposite of words we already know. Remember that

To make this activity more challenging, the adult can use three different objects that have only the target property in common (such as a tiny ant, tiny pebble, tiny piece of rice). For example, the adult might say, “Look at this ant, this rock, this piece of rice, and this elephant. Which one of these is enormous? That’s right. The elephant is enormous. How do we know that? We know the elephant is enormous because the ant is tiny or small, the pebble is tiny or small, and the piece of rice is also tiny or small. That must mean that the elephant is enormous. Enormous means the opposite of tiny or small. . . . Enormous means very big. Can you think of anything else you know of that is enormous?

Research Evidence Preschool teachers have successfully used the principle of N3C as one strategy to teach new vocabulary words to children (Schwanenflugel et al., 2005).

Connection to State Standards Understands synonyms (words that mean the same thing) and some antonyms (words that mean the opposite thing). (Washington State Early Learning and Development Benchmarks)

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Index

A A Play on Words, 131, 134 ABC D-elicious!, 69, 79–80 Activity tracking form, 14 Adjective Awareness, 131, 137–138 Adverbing, 131, 143–144 Allow Me to Introduce You, 33, 45 Alphabet Book, 69, 84 Alphabet Go Fish, 69, 78 Alphabet knowledge description of, 5 lesson plans, 25, 69–88 tracking of progress, 17 Alphabetic principle, 4 Are Those Sounds the Same?, 33, 35

B Beginning Sound Scavenger Hunt, 33, 44 Blending Words Back Together, 33, 46

C Can I Write with This?, 90, 107–108 Center time, 22–28 Chalkboard Draw, 90, 106–107 Change Two Words into One, 33, 40 Circle time, 22–28 Classroom contexts, 22–28 Code-related skills alphabet knowledge. See Alphabet knowledge description of, 4–5 emergent writing. See Emergent writing phonological awareness. See Phonological awareness print awareness. See Print awareness

Do You Hear What I Hear?, 22, 33–34 Dramatic Role Play, 29, 111, 120–121

E Early literacy, 3 Embedding Questions into Storybooks, 111, 113–114 Emergent literacy description of, 3–4 early literacy vs., 3 key skills associated with, 4–5 reading readiness vs., 3 Emergent writing description of, 5–6 lesson plans, 26, 29, 89–108 tracking of progress, 18 Environmental Print Walk, 29, 49, 52 Exploring Print in Books, 27, 50, 66–67 Expressing Emotions and Feelings, 132, 145–146

F Field Trip Recall, 22, 90, 102 Fill-in-the-Rhyme, 33, 37 Find a Friend’s Name, 49, 56 Find and Seek with Your Book, 24, 50, 63 Find the Book by Its Cover, 50, 64 First Letter Matching in Words, 49, 55 Forging Links with Words, 132, 146–147 Friendly Definitions, 25, 131, 133

G Guess the Animal, 29, 112, 129 Guess What’s Inside, 89, 101

H Hide-n-Seek, 29, 112, 128

D Daily Journal, 26, 89, 97–98 Differentiated instruction, 10–12

I I Can Relate to These Words, 29, 131, 138–139

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I Spy, 70, 87–88 Idioms, 112, 125–126 Inference Charades, 27, 112, 124–125 Inferential language description of, 6 lesson plans, 27, 29, 111–130 tracking of progress, 19 Instruction differentiated. See Differentiated instruction theory of, 10 Invent a Word, 33, 47

K KML chart, 118–119

L Last but Not Least, 33, 48 Laundry Sort, 131, 139–140 Leave a Sound Out, 33, 41 Lesson plans alphabet knowledge, 25, 69–88 classroom contexts for, 22–28 combining of, 29 emergent writing, 26, 29, 89–108 explanation about, 21–22 inferential language, 27, 29, 111–130 phonological awareness, 23, 29, 33–48 print awareness, 24, 29, 49–68 vocabulary, 28–29, 131–150 Let’s Experiment! Sink or Float, 112, 126–127 Let’s Read a Story, 24, 69, 82 Let’s Sing!, 69, 76–77 Letter Hunt, 69, 83 Literacy development stages of, 4 emergent. See Emergent literacy Long Words, Short Words, 33, 39 Long Word/Short Word Sort, 49, 62

M Magnetic Letters, 69, 74–75 Making a Rare Appearance, 132, 148 Match It Up, 70, 86–87 Mouse Predictions, 112, 130 Move to the Syllables, 33, 42 Multiple Exemplars, 131, 136–137 My Favorite . . . , 90, 103 Mystery Game, 112, 121–122 Mystery Letters, 69, 75–76

O Oral language skills description of, 4–7 inferential language. See Inferential language vocabulary. See Vocabulary Outdoor Words, 49, 53–54

P Phonemic awareness, 5 Phonological awareness definition of, 5 lesson plans, 23, 29, 33–48 need for, 11 tracking of progress, 15 Print awareness description of, 5 lesson plans, 24, 29, 49–68 tracking of progress, 16 Print Awareness during Dramatic Play, 23, 50, 65–66 Progress tracking, 12–20

R Read the Poem, 29, 49, 60 Reading readiness, 3 Reading the Alphabet, 69, 81 Reenact a Story, 25, 111, 117 Rhyme along with the Song, 24, 29, 33, 35–36 Rhyming awareness, 12–13, 37

S Scaffolding techniques, 10 Shopping List, 29, 89, 94–95 Sign-Up Schedule, 89, 91 Simon Says with Play Dough Letters, 69, 73 Skills. See Code-related skills; Oral language skills Small group lessons, 26–28 Speech Bubbles, 89, 93–94 Speech sounds, 4 Speech Written Down, 49, 51 Storybook reading, 23–28 Straight, Curvy, or Both?, 69, 72 Stressing Grammatical Words, 131, 142–143

T Take the Sentence Apart, 33, 38 Talking around the Issue, 131, 140–141 Technically Speaking . . . , 29, 132, 149

Index

Tell Us How It Begins, 25, 33, 43 Think Aloud, 112, 123–124 Three, Two, One, Action!, 25, 131, 135 Tiered activities, 11 Tomlinson’s ladder of complexity, 11–12 Touch and Feel Bag, 69, 71 Tracking of progress, 12–20 Transition time, 25–26

U Under Cover, 111, 115–116

V Vocabulary description of, 6–7 lesson plans, 28–29, 131–150 tracking of progress, 20 Voting, 89, 98–99

W What Did They Say?, 90, 105 What Do You Know?, 111, 118–119 What Happens Next?, 24, 89, 100 What’s My Name?, 29, 89, 92 What’s My Sound?, 70, 85 What’s My Story?, 111, 114–115 Which One Is Pastel?, 132, 150 Who Am I?, 111, 116 Word Sort/Classroom Labels, 50, 67–68 Word Train, 49, 57–58 Word Winners, 49, 59 Wordless Picture Books, 90, 104 Word/Letter/Picture Sort, 24, 49, 61 Writing, emergent description of, 5–6 lesson plans, 26, 29, 89–108 tracking of progress, 18 Writing an Invitation, 23, 89, 96–97

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