Edification in the Chinese Philosophy of Confucianism (Key Concepts in Chinese Thought and Culture) 9811941955, 9789811941955

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Edification in the Chinese Philosophy of Confucianism Jinglin Li Translated by Wei Guo · Hongjuan Xin

Key Concepts in Chinese Thought and Culture

Published in partnership between FLTRP and Palgrave Macmillan, the Key Concepts in Chinese Thought and Culture offer a unique insight into Chinese culture, defining and contextualizing some of China’s most fundamental and at times complex philosophical concepts. In a concise and reader-friendly manner, these short works define a variety of quintessentially Chinese terms such as harmony (hé/和) or association (x¯ıng/兴) – and examine how they first appeared and developed in Chinese culture, the impact they had on Chinese thought and why they continue to have significant meaning in China today. At a time when the understanding of different histories, languages and cultures globally is at a premium, this series provides a valuable roadmap to the concepts which underpin 21st century Chinese society.

Jinglin Li

Edification in the Chinese Philosophy of Confucianism

Jinglin Li Sichuan University Chengdu, China Translated by Wei Guo Central South University Changsha, China

Hongjuan Xin Ningbo University Ningbo, China

ISSN 2524-8464 ISSN 2524-8472 (electronic) Key Concepts in Chinese Thought and Culture ISBN 978-981-19-4195-5 ISBN 978-981-19-4196-2 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-4196-2 Jointly published with Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd. The print edition is not for sale in China (Mainland). Customers from China (Mainland) please order the print book from: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd. © Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd. 2022 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publishers, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publishers nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publishers remain neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Cover illustration: © Melisa Hasan This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore

Preface

Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press has launched the “Key Concepts in Chinese Thought and Culture Translation and Communication Project” in recent years. It’s my privilege to be invited to participate in the program of “Key Concepts in Chinese Thought and Culture Series” and undertake the research and interpretation of the term “edification.” Since the late 1980s, I have drawn on the term “philosophy of edification,” which was originally used by the American contemporary philosopher Richard Rorty (1931–2007), to illustrate the spiritual characteristics of Confucian philosophy. Confucian philosophy focuses on the realization of human existence. Compared with “knowing yourself” in Greek philosophy, the core of Confucian philosophy refers to “realizing yourself.” Zhongyong of the Book of Rites (The Great Learning & the Doctrine of the Mean)1 points out, “when we have intelligence resulting from sincerity, this condition is to be ascribed to nature; when we have sincerity resulting from intelligence, this condition is to be ascribed to instruction. But given the sincerity, and there shall be the intelligence;

1 Zhongyong and the Great Learning were originally articles in the Book of Rites and later singled out as independent books, listed among the Four Books together with Confucian Analects and the Works of Mencius. Translation of the quotations from Zhongyong and the Great Learning of the Book of Rites is all from the Great Learning & the Doctrine of the Mean translated by James Legge.

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given the intelligence, and there shall be the sincerity.”2 “Sincerity” is the realization of human or human nature while “intelligence” refers to recognition and wisdom in the sense of self-awareness. They are two aspects of a unity, supplementing each other. What the concept of edification shows is the process of realizing human existence. As the name suggests, the task of “Key Concepts in Chinese Thought and Culture Series” is to study “terminology.” However, in the system of Confucian philosophy, we cannot simply regard the concept of “edification” as a “term” paralleled with other concepts. Edification is the core concept of Confucianism; it stipulates the essence of Confucianism as a philosophy and has a systematic significance of domino effect. Therefore, understanding the spiritual essence of Confucian philosophy based on “edification” and revealing the intellectual connotation of the theme of Confucian edification through the illustration of the system of Confucian philosophy constitutes a “hermeneutic cycle” in the way of discussion in this book, which is also a method I would like to recommend you read this book. In his later years, Cheng Yi (1033–1107), a well-known philosopher in Song Dynasty (960–1279) says, “my interpretation of scriptures today is not different from that when I was 20 years old, but my current understanding is different from that in my youth.” (Writings of the Cheng Brothers ) Participating in the program of “Key Concepts in Chinese Thought and Culture Series” gives me the opportunity to systematically sort out and express my thoughts on Confucian edification over the years. At the same time, I can get close to Confucian classics again, enjoying the experience and sublimation of spiritual life. Here, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Professor Han Zhen and Editor Wang Lin who recommended and invited me to participate in this program. In the winter of 2020, Longqiwan Apartment, Hainan Province Chengdu, China

Jinglin Li

2 James Legge. The Great Learning & the Doctrine of the Mean. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2017: 184.

Publisher’s Note to “Key Concepts in Chinese Thought and Culture Series” (English Edition)

In the course of human history, Chinese civilization has always been known for its long history and remarkable breadth and depth. In a unique geographical environment and thanks to a fascinating historical development, the Chinese nation has nurtured academic traditions, humanistic spirits, values, a way of thinking, ethics, and customs unfound elsewhere in the world. All of this was expounded and sublimated by Confucius, Mozi, Laozi, Zhuangzi, Mencius, Xunzi, and other ancient sages and philosophers, and encapsulated into thousands of highly concise and profound key concepts underpinning the brilliant and rich Chinese culture. Reflective of the supreme wisdom and rational thinking of the Chinese nation, the concepts have come to be known as “key concepts in Chinese thought and culture.” They are the brainchild fostered by the Chinese nation engaged for thousands of years in independently exploring and rationally thinking about the universe, the world, social norms and ethics, ways of thinking, and values. They represent the unique and most significant hallmark of Chinese thought and civilization produced by the Chinese nation. They are the greatest intellectual legacy left by ancient Chinese philosophers to the contemporary Chinese and the most valuable intellectual wealth contributed by the Chinese nation to world civilization. The past four decades of reform and opening up have witnessed continuous growth of the Chinese economy and its comprehensive strength. As an active participant and contributor to globalization, China

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has been increasingly admired in the international community for its national conditions, history, thoughts and culture. On the other hand, its basic research has fallen behind with the development of the times. So far there exists no comprehensive and systematic collation and interpretation of the concepts that reflect its thought and culture, for introduction to overseas readers. There is no unified comprehension and interpretation of many terms, especially those reflective of the unique Chinese philosophy, humanism, values, and ways of thinking. It is even more regrettable that the lack of unified norms for the translation of such terms into foreign languages has frequently led to deviations from their actual meaning, and consequently confusion and even misunderstanding on the part of overseas readers may result. To ameliorate the above circumstances, we officially launched in 2014 the “Key Concepts in Chinese Thought and Culture Project.” Drawing on the excellent history of traditional Chinese thought and culture, the Project has focused on key concepts encapsulating Chinese philosophy, humanistic spirits, values, ways of thinking, and cultural characteristics, especially those with implications for the development of contemporary world civilization and in line with the common values of the human race. Those concepts were then interpreted in objective and concise Chinese and translated into English and other languages, for overseas readers to better understand the connotations and essence of Chinese thought and culture, and consequently to promote equal dialogue and exchanges between Chinese civilization and other civilizations of the world, so as to jointly build a community and shared future of mankind. So far, over 600 terms have been collated, interpreted, and translated by Project experts and published by the Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press (FLTRP) in six volumes in Chinese and English under the serial title of “Key Concepts in Chinese Thought and Culture.” However, due to style and volume restrictions, the historical context, semantic context, origin and evolution, academic influence and the underlying humanistic spirit, values, and modern implications haven’t been fully elaborated for some of them. To give overseas audiences a more comprehensive and in-depth understanding of them, FLTRP and Springer Nature have jointly planned the new “Key Concepts in Chinese Thought and Culture Series” (English Edition). Each volume of this series will be centered on one concept only or a couple of closely related concepts. The authors are required to examine in detail the historical context, semantic context, origin

PUBLISHER’S NOTE TO “KEY CONCEPTS IN CHINESE …

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and evolution, and academic influence, based on the research findings on ancient Chinese literature. They are expected to unfold their elaboration around important figures in the development of Chinese thought and culture, as well as their works, theories, and academic viewpoints. The series thus features comprehensive and original academic contributions offering relevant theoretical approaches and insights based on independent research by the respective authors. Integrating professional studies with popular interest emphasizes integration of corroboration and exposition and equal emphasis on Oriental and Occidental scholarship. All authors selected are young and middle-aged scholars accomplished in the study of Chinese thought and culture. It is believed that the publication of this series will make it possible for overseas readers to have a more systematic understanding of the philosophy, humanistic values, academic perspectives, and theoretical viewpoints underlying the key concepts of Chinese thought and culture, and a clearer understanding of the ways of thinking, the values and cultural characteristics of the intellectual world of the Chinese nation and overseas Chinese. We are grateful to Harmen van Paradijs, Vice President of Springer Nature Group, and Myriam Poort, Editorial Director, Humanities and Social Sciences, Springer Nature for their generous support in planning and publishing this series. August 2018

Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press

Contents

1

Confucianism: The Philosophy of Edification Philosophy and Confucianism Confucianism and Edification Three Meanings of Edification The Philosophical Significance of “ Hua” (Change)

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Teaching of the Realization of Virtue: Edification and Personality Cultivation Edification Realizes Virtue The Concept of Virtuous Nature Truth and Real Existence Nature, the Mandate of Heaven and Virtue, Happiness

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A Man Commanding Our Longingness Should Be Called a Good Man: The Foundation and Premise of Edification The Longingness and Pursuit of Ren Ren and Righteousness Existing in the Real Existence The Integration of “Enabling-Knowing” and Revealing of the Starting Point of Goodness The Nature and Reflection of Sincerity: The Process of Edification The Noumenon and Endeavor The Purification and Continuity of Life Goodness Reflected Outward

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The Teaching of Rites and Music: Edification and Lifestyles The Rules of Rites and Music as Lifestyles The Rules of Rites and Religious Lives The Change of Belief Systems and the Social Edification Way of Confucianism Confucianism and Social Belief System Reaching Different Desinations on the Same Route

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Displaying and Reaching Destiny: Edification and the Ultimate Care Perceiving Interconnection and Reaching Destiny The Way of Display, Being True to the Principles of Loyalty and Consideration for Others Exceeding, Surpassing, and Transcending Junzi (A Man of Virtue)’s Personality—“Self-Discipline”

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Conclusion: Confucian Edification and Contemporary Society

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CHAPTER 1

Confucianism: The Philosophy of Edification

Abstract Philosophy is highly specialized. The special spiritual characteristic of Confucianism, a philosophy or metaphysics, is “edification.” Confucian philosophy triggers a series of changes in people’s internal spiritual life, emotional life, and temperament through a practical process, and finally achieves the realization of individual personality and life existence, to liberate and demonstrate “dao.” This very process is edification. We can make a preliminary stipulation on the connotation of Confucian “edification” through three key words—“generalization,” “transformation,” and “real existence.” Keywords Edification · Actualization · Generalization · Transformation · Real existence

Philosophy and Confucianism Since the turn of the twentieth century, the study of Chinese traditional thought and scholarship, including Confucianism, has been roughly incorporated into the conceptual framework of western “philosophy.” If we regard philosophy as a metaphysical thinking about human existence and the world around it, the core of Confucianism is philosophy.

© Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd. 2022 J. Li, Edification in the Chinese Philosophy of Confucianism, Key Concepts in Chinese Thought and Culture, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-4196-2_1

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The goal of Confucianism is to seek and pursue dao.1 Confucius calls himself “a scholar, whose mind is set on truth”2 (Confucian Analects ) and he insists, “If a man in the morning hears the dao, he may die in the evening without regret”3 (Confucian Analects ). Confucius has been seeking and pursuing dao as the highest goal throughout his life. What is “dao”? The Book of Changes defines “dao” as “which is antecedent to the material form exists, we say, as an ideal method.”4 From this point of view, the core of Confucianism is undoubtedly metaphysics or philosophy. Therefore, although there is no term similar to “philosophy” in Chinese traditional scholarship, it’s reasonable to study Confucianism from the perspective of philosophy. However, philosophy is personalized. In essence, all disciplines closely related to human existence, such as religion, art, and philosophy, have strong personalized characteristics. Take philosophy as an example, it enjoys a history of more than 2000 years, however, there has never been a universal philosophical definition or substantive philosophical system agreed upon by all philosophers. Only through the implementations of philosophy at different levels of personality, could the contents of philosophy reveal, for instance, philosophy → Western philosophy → European philosophy → classical German philosophy → Hegel’s philosophy; philosophy → Chinese philosophy → philosophy of the pre-Qin Period → Confucian philosophy → Confucius philosophy, etc. Showing the universal metaphysical idea through different levels of personality is the existence form of philosophy as a learning. The personalized spiritual characteristic of Confucianism, as a kind of philosophy or metaphysics, is “edification.” It explains why I illustrate the spirit of Confucianism as “the philosophy of edification” or “Confucianism edification.”

1 “道” is translated into “dao” by the translators of this book, although James Legge translated it into “the way” or “Way”. 2 James Legge. Confucian Analects. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2016: 115. 3 James Legge. Confucian Analects. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2016: 115. 4 James Legge. The Book of Changes. Hunan Education Publishing House. 1993: 313.

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Confucianism and Edification The Historical Records notes, “Confucius educated his disciples with the Book of Songs, the Book of History, the Book of Rites, and the Book of Music. He had 3000 disciples or so, and 72 of them were proficient in all the six classics,”5 namely, the Book of Songs, the Book of History, the Book of Rites, the Book of Music, the Book of Changes, and the Annals. In the Western Zhou Dynasty (1046 B.C.–771 B.C.), academics and education were under the control of the government. In addition, all the recorded laws and regulations, ancient books and documents, as well as the ritual institutions of sacrificial ceremony were supervised by the government.6 Confucius (551 B.C.–479 B.C.) was born in the late Spring and Autumn Period (770 B.C.–476 B.C.), when the Zhou imperial court was in decline and the songs, histories, rituals, and music were neglected. Therefore, Confucius came forward compiling the six classics and set up private schools to educate the people. Confucius taught many disciples (“more than 3000”) with the Book of Songs, the Book of History, the Book of Rites, and the Book of Music, but only about 70 of them were proficient in all the six classics. This not only means that the Book of Changes and the Annals, as classics of education, are superior to the other four, but also shows that among the six classics, the Book of Changes and the Annals are most highly esteemed by Confucius. “The Book of Changes is about the changes of yin and yang ”7 (Zhuangzi). Originally, the Book of Changes was written for divination. Confucius later wrote Commentaries to the Book of Changes (also known as Ten Wings ) as its annotation, transforming it into a philosophical system which reveals the way of yin and yang, to embody his metaphysical concepts of “xing (human nature) and the way of heaven.” “The Annals is about morals and principles”8 (Historical Records ). Based on the history of Lu state in the Spring and Autumn Period, Confucius compiled the Annals, which focuses on righteousness, teaches people to distinguish between right and wrong, rectifies names, and embodies his ideas of ethics and values. The six classics of Confucius is an integral classic 5 Translated by the translators of this book. 6 Referring to Zhang Xuecheng. The General Meaning of Proofreading. Translated by

the translators of this book. 7 Translated by the translators of this book. 8 Translated by the translators of this book.

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system where the concepts of metaphysics and edification are interconnected. It is also the reason why Confucius paid special attention to the Book of Changes and the Annals among the six classics. Confucius educates disciples with the six arts, the core of which lies in the accomplishment of personality and the realization of human existence through edification. In the Book of Rites, Confucius said, when you enter a state, you could know what subjects (its people) have been taught by observing its people. If they are mild and gentle, sincere and good, they have been taught by the Book of Songs. If they have a wide comprehension (of things), and know what is remote and old, they have been taught by the Book of History. If they are largehearted and generous, bland and honest, they have been taught by the Book of Music. If they are pure and still, refined and subtle, they have been taught by the Book of Changes. If they are courteous and modest, grave and respectful, they have been taught by the Book of Rites. If they suitably adapt their language to the things of which they speak, they have been taught by the Annals. Hence, the failing that may arise in connexion with the study of the Book of Songs is a stupid simplicity; that in connexion with the Book of History is duplicity; that in connexion with the Book of Music is extravagance; that in connexion with the Book of Changes is the violation (of reason); that in connexion with the practice of the Book of Rites is fussiness; and that in connexion with the Annals is insubordination. If they show themselves men who are mild and gentle, sincere and good, and yet free from that simple stupidity, their comprehension of the Book of Songs is deep. If they have a wide comprehension (of things) and know what is remote and old, and yet are free from duplicity, their understanding of the Book of History is deep. If they are largehearted and generous, bland and honest, and yet have no tendency to extravagance, their knowledge of the Book of Music is deep. If they are pure and still, refined and subtle, and yet do not violate (reason), they have made great attainments in the Book of Changes. If they are courteous and modest, grave and reverent, and yet not fussy, their acquaintance with the Book of Rites is deep. If they suitably adapt their language to the things of which they speak, and yet have no disposition to be insubordinate, their knowledge of the Annals is deep.9

The effects of “mild and gentle, sincere and good,” “having a wide comprehension (of things), and knowing what is remote and old,” and 9 James Legge. Chinese Text Project. http://ctext.org.

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“being largehearted and generous, bland and honest” focus on the cultivation of human personality and existential wisdom. Although including the content of knowledge and skills, the teaching of the six arts of Confucianism emphasizes on the cultivation of people’s personality, in other words, the significance of edification. We should bear in mind that the edifying role of the six classics is rooted in its holistic “dao.” In terms of their focuses, the teaching of each classic has its own specialty. For example, the Book of Songs educates people to be mild and gentle, sincere and good, but if people stick to it overly, they might become ignorant. The Book of History guides people to have a wide comprehension (of things), and know what is remote and old, but if they stick to it overly, they might deceive others with false words. Therefore, the teaching of the six classics should be rooted in its holistic “dao.” Only in this way, could the effect of edification be achieved. As for edification, Confucius proposed, “The accomplished scholar is not a utensil”10 (Confucian Analects ). In Confucian Analects, “The Master said, ‘Let the will be set on the path of duty. Let every attainment in what is good be firmly grasped. Let perfect virtue be accorded with. Let relaxation and enjoyment be found in the polite arts.’”11 If the teaching of the six classics is based on the roots of dao, virtue, and ren,12 instead of its intellectual perspective, the effect of edification for junzi (a man of virtue) could be achieved. Confucius feels not content for being regarded merely as an erudite person by his disciples. Rather, in a holistic perspective, he regards himself as a person following “dao” all the way. He says, “I seek a unity all-pervading”13 (Confucian Analects ) and “My doctrine is that of all-pervading unity”14 (Confucian Analects ) to show his persistence in flowing “dao.” Therefore, Confucianism is based on edification. The characteristics of Confucianism are most comprehensively summarized in the Book of Han, “The school of Confucianism originally evolved from ancient officials called Situ, who assisted the ruler, conformed to yin and yang,

10 James Legge. Confucian Analects. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2016: 51. 11 James Legge. Confucian Analects. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2016: 212. 12 “仁” is translated into “ren” by the translators of this book, although James Legge

translated it into “benevolence.” 13 James Legge. Confucian Analects. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2016: 558. 14 James Legge. Confucian Analects. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2016: 119.

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and promoted edification and education. They sought relaxation and enjoyment in the writings of the six classics, and paid attention to the issues related to ren and righteousness. Following the orthodoxy of Emperor Yao and Emperor Shun, learning from the rites of King Wen and King Wu of the Zhou Dynasty, they respected Confucius as the grand school master by valuing his speeches greatly and making Confucianism the most important doctrine.”15 In the Book of Han, the spirit of Confucianism is mainly summarized from aspects of classics (the six classics), thoughts (ren and righteousness, as the representatives), cultural heritage (Emperor Yao, Emperor Shun, King Wen and King Wu of the Zhou Dynasty), the grand school master (Confucius), etc., and the philosophy and goal of its theory comes down to the phrase “value edification,” which is accurate. In short, “edification” is the essence of Confucianism as a philosophy. Western philosophy stresses the relationship between thinking and being, which is based on the perspective cognition. In the intellectual system of Confucianism, edification is a concept which gives priority to “the realization of existence.” This “priority” means that the concept of “realization of existence” plays the role of chromosome and radiation source in Confucianism. It is at the core of Confucianism. Through the concept of “edification,” we can genuinely understand the unique spiritual characteristics of Confucianism as a philosophy.

Three Meanings of Edification The supreme goal of Confucianism is to achieve dao. However, it is not simply a theoretical activity of thinking and knowing, but a series of changes in people’s inner spiritual life, emotional life, and temperament through a practical process, so as to achieve the realization of individual personality and life existence and eventually liberate and demonstrate dao. This very process is edification. We can make a preliminary stipulation on the connotation of Confucian “edification” through the three key words—“generalization,” “transformation,” and “existence.” The first meaning of edification in Confucianism is to make an individual transcend himself and become a universal and social existence. In the Phenomenology of Spirit, Hegel (1770–1831) defines edification as

15 Translated by the translators of this book.

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“a process in which individuals making themselves universal and essential existence through alienation,”16 which is also valued greatly by Confucianism. Confucianism understands human existence from the continuity and the dynamic integrity of solid qualities and accomplishments. In Confucian Analects, “The Master said, ‘Where the solid qualities are more than accomplishments, we have rusticity; where the accomplishments are more than the solid qualities, we have the manners of a clerk. When the accomplishments and solid qualities are equally blended, we then have the man of virtue.’”17 “Solid qualities” are the natural aspects of people while “accomplishments” refer to the cultural aspects. If a person values solid qualities overly, he will seem to have rusticity; if a person values accomplishments overly, he will be more likely to fall into trifles and emptiness. Neither of them is sound personality. Only with an internal continuous and harmonious relationship between accomplishments and solid qualities, could we become “junzi” (men of virtue)18 or humans with complete personality. Humans are from nature, in the meantime, humans are constantly going out of nature. Xunzi (313 B.C.–238 B.C.) holds the view that “People lose their original simplicity and human nature after being born,”19 (The Xunzi) that is, when humans are born, it is inevitable that they will walk out of the natural status and embrace the environment of civilization. However, from the view of Confucianism, accomplishments and solid qualities are two sides of the whole existence of human life, rather than two abstract elements separated from each other. “The accomplishments and solid qualities are equally blended” is also the unity of accomplishments and solid qualities in the sense of interaction, interweaving, and dynamic supplement, rather than the combination of two abstract elements. Confucianism values the system of culture and edification of rites and music. All social systems and regulations, edification of rites, and music or “accomplishments” can help people walk out of the natural world and make themselves universalized and socialized. 16 Referring to Hegel. Phenomenology of Spirit. Translated by the translators of this book. 17 James Legge. Confucian Analects. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2016: 204. 18 “君子” is translated into “junzi” (a man of virtue) by the translators of this book,

although James Legge translated it into “a superior man” or “gentleman.” 19 Translated by the translators of this book.

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However, the “walking out,” universalization or socialization does not mean departure from nature, but to transform, expand, and sublimate its “solid qualities” or natural content, and return to nature (“accomplishments”) at the level of civilization (“solid qualities”), to achieve the personality of “junzi.” This is the first meaning of edification in Confucianism. The second meaning of edification in Confucianism is the concern for the inner “transition” or “transformation” of people’s spiritual life, emotional life, and their physical existence. Richard Rorty (1931–2007), the contemporary American philosopher, puts forward the concept of “philosophy of edification” in his Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature. He believes that the mainstream of Western traditional philosophy belongs to a kind of “systematic philosophy.” Focusing on the construction of cognitive and theoretical system, systematic philosophy provides humans’ social life with a kind of “universal commonality.” There is also “edifying philosophy,” which is different from systematic philosophy. Being not the mainstream in Western philosophy, “edifying philosophy” focuses on the transformation of people’s inner spiritual life. The term “edification” from Rorty emphasizes “transformation” or the concept of “transformation.”20 As mentioned above, edification is the process that individual goes out of the natural world and becomes universalized and socialized. However, according to Confucianism, the universalization is an activity in the process of transformation, clarification, and purification of various existences, including will, emotions, feelings, expressions, and longingness of people, rather than a purely conceptual cognitive activity. Confucianism advocates that human nature is innately good and the purpose of edification is to perfectly realize the good nature of humans. When Confucians argue the issue of human nature, heart-mind is the primary concern; when Confucians argue the issue of mind, feeling is the primary concern. Human nature is expressed and reflected in people’s feelings of their minds. It is the existence and expression of human nature advocated by Confucianism. Therefore, the realization of human nature should be achieved in the transformation process of human emotional existence. On the realization of human nature, Mencius (372 B.C.–289 B.C.) puts forward “satisfying the design of his bodily organization”

20 Referring to Richard Rorty. Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature.

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while Confucians in the Song Dynasty (960–1279) stress “the changes of temperament.” Bodily organs with their functions and temperament are the physical existence of humans. Both “satisfying the design of his bodily organization” and “the changes of temperament” refer to the internal transformation of human existence. The Works of Mencius declares, “The bodily organs with their functions belong to our Heaven-conferred nature. But a man must be a sage before he can satisfy the design of his bodily organization.”21 As for “satisfying the design of his bodily organization,” “satisfying” means realizing and practicing. “A man must be a sage before he can satisfy the design of his bodily organization” means that bodily organs with their functions and temperament, as human nature, are not ready-made giving. Only a sage with complete personality can truly realize the true meaning of the bodily organs with their functions, as human nature. Zhongyong of the Book of Rites and Rituals proposes, “This sincerity becomes apparent. From being apparent, it becomes manifest. From being manifest, it becomes brilliant. Brilliant, it affects others. Affecting others, they are changed by it. Changed by it, they are transformed. It is only he who is possessed of the most complete sincerity that can exist under Heaven, who can transform.”22 In Zhongyong, “sincerity” refers to “virtues belonging to human nature.”23 “Sincerity, apparent, manifest and brilliant”24 demonstrate that the true feelings will be reflected in the bodily organs with their functions and the realization of nature must be reflected in the bodily organs with their functions and the change of temperament, which is a kind of individual self-cultivation. “Affect, change and transform” is similar to “the relation between superiors and inferiors is that between the wind and the grass”25 (Confucian Analects ), showing that the moral conduct of superiors has the social edification effect by setting examples for the people and moistening things silently.

21 James Legge. The Works of Mencius. Dover Publication, Inc. 2016: 465. 22 James Legge. The Great Learning & the Doctrine of the Mean. Liaoning People’s

Publishing House. 2017: 193. 23 Referring to Chapter 25 of the Great Learning & the Doctrine of the Mean. 24 James Legge. The Great Learning & the Doctrine of the Mean. Liaoning People’s

Publishing House. 2017: 193. 25 James Legge. Confucian Analects. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2016: 424.

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“Sincerity, apparent, manifest, brilliant, affect, change and transform”26 demonstrates a series of transition and transformation processes of human existence from inside to the outside. Focusing on “edification” or the transformation of people’s inner spiritual life, inside and out, is the second meaning of edification in Confucianism. The third meaning of edification is the “master” or possess of human nature in the sense of maintaining the integrity of human natural life. The Truth and Method written by Gadamer (1900–2002), the contemporary German philosopher, develops Hegel’s thought of edification. This affirms the significance of edification in transforming individuals into universal spiritual existence and reveals the “keeping” characteristic of edification. The so-called “keeping” characteristic means that people’s spirit, especially perceptual content, can be “preserved” in edification. According to Gadamer, the individual universalization achieved by edification cannot be understood as a simple concept or intellectual universalism. He emphasizes that the consciousness and spirit of acquiring edification “have more certain sensory characteristics.” In the process of edification, the natural content of emotions is not lost, but is completely grasped as a kind of “universal feeling,” “a sense of appropriateness,” and “common sense.” The so-called universal function of edification by Gadamer is virtually the cultivation of “a sense of appropriateness” and “common sense.”27 Confucianism understands the existence of human beings from the perspective of the internal continuity and integrity of achievements and solid qualities. Therefore, what it dwells on edification also pays special attention to the significance of “keeping” or “being.” In the perspective of Confucian edification theory, the function of “achievements” is to help people go out of the natural state of “solid qualities” and make a universal regulation. But as mentioned above, the “going out” is the realization of the inherent meaning and value in the transformation of “solid qualities” or nature, rather than the separation from nature. The Works of Mencius advocates, “The great man is he who does not lose his child’sheart.”28 “Child” here refers to a new-born infant and “great man” refers to a man with perfect personality.

26 James Legge. The Great Learning & the Doctrine of the Mean. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2017: 193. 27 Referring to Gadamer. Truth and Method. 28 James Legge. The Works of Mencius. Dover Publication, Inc. 2016: 35.

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Great man not only has highly developed rationality, but also owns the innocence of an infant. Confucianism values the edifying function of the rules of rites or the rules of rituals and music. When discussing the rules of rites, Confucianism proposes that “In ceremonial usages we should go back to the root of them (in the mind), and maintain the old (arrangements of them), not forgetting what they were at first”29 (The Book of Rites ). Although “going back to the root of them (in the mind) and maintaining the old (arrangements of them)” is similar to Laozi’s “the simple child again, free from all stains” and “return to simplicity” (The Laozi), it does not mean that people need to return to nature in real sense. As it is stated in the Doctrines of Rites Compiled by Dai De, “Rites all started with natural feelings, formed with achievements, and became prosperous by the integration of natural feelings and achievements.”30 Confucianism regards “the realization of feelings and achievements” as the ideal state of civilization. The so-called “feelings” refers to “solid qualities” or the natural aspect of humans. “Feelings” and “accomplishments” are not two separated and ready-made elements. Only through the transformation and sublimation of “achievements” can the inherent value of man’s simple natural nature (morality and emotions) be realized and truly owned by man’s existence. It is called “the realization of feelings and achievements.” As mentioned above, “The great man is he who does not lose his child’s-heart.” Only by realizing and opening the infantlike nature at the level of civilization, and maintaining the infant-like innocence, can such a man be called a man with a perfect personality.

The Philosophical Significance of “Hua ” (transformation) By integrating the theoretical levels marked by the three key words— “generalization,” “transformation,” and “being,” the concept of “edification” can be understood more comprehensively. Rorty emphasizes the significance of “edification” to change and transform people’s spiritual life. However, the so-called main points of edification focus on the

29 James Legge. The Book of Rites (English-Chinese). Zhongzhou Guji Publishing Company. 2016: 211. 30 Translated by the translators of this book.

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change of spiritual life through continuous conversations rather than “discovering objective truth.” What he advocates is a kind of relativism, a philosophical thought of non-fundamentalism or non-essentialism. Hegel admits that there is a universal noumenon and his concept of edification focuses on the universalization of human existence. Gadamer’s idea of “keeping” is also of value for reference in the sense that education must lead to the change of emotional life and maintain its authenticity through sublimating the natural content including human emotions. The concept of “edification” in Confucianism pays special attention to the notion hua (transformation) in philosophy. The philosophical significance of hua is to realize the “reality” of existence under the premise of the internal transformation and change of human existence, to moralize the world and achieve harmony between humans and nature in the way that humans help nature to nourish the world and finally establish a transcendental foundation for human existence. This is a genuine metaphysics. Obviously, this is fundamentally different from Rorty’s idea of “edification” of non-fundamentalism and relativism. At the same time, this metaphysical transcendental foundation is developed and realized through the process of hua, which is a series of self-transformation of individual existence. Therefore, it is fundamentally different from “systematic philosophy,” the metaphysical concept of abstract substantiality rejected by Rorty.

CHAPTER 2

Teaching of the Realization of Virtue: Edification and Personality Cultivation

Abstract From the perspective of Confucianism, wisdom is the consciousness of human nature and the world around at different levels of personality cultivation. The cultivation of personality is prior to “knowing.” Confucianism proposes the thoughts “starting low in studies but rising high in penetration,” “doing the utmost to know the nature and Heaven,” and “to fully grasp their fate, men should make a thorough understanding of the principles of all things and perceive their inner nature; to be excellent, men are taught to cultivate themselves.” In this sense, “realizing virtue” has transcended the morality of empirical and normative meaning and is embedded with the significance of cosmology and metaphysics. Keywords Teaching of the realization of virtue · Personality cultivation · Matter of facts · Expectation · Starting low in studies but rising high in penetration

Edification Realizes Virtue Confucian edification, with the cultivation of virtue and personality of junzi (a man of virtue) as the core, can be called edification for virtue

© Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd. 2022 J. Li, Edification in the Chinese Philosophy of Confucianism, Key Concepts in Chinese Thought and Culture, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-4196-2_2

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realization. It is worth noting that Confucianism attaches equal importance to both edification and “learning.” It is said in the Book of Rites that “If he wishes to transform the people and to perfect their manners and customs, must he not start from the lessons of the school?”1 That is to say, “learning” is a necessary process for edification. This edification tradition with “learning” as the focus is originally proposed by Confucius. Confucius calls himself “fond of learning.”2 Among all his disciples, he only commends Yan Hui as “fond of learning.”3 It shows that Confucius values “learning” greatly. The “learning” in Confucianism takes the realization of virtue as its premiere task, instead of focusing on cognition. For example, in Confucian Analects, “The Master says, ‘A youth, when at home, should be filial, and, abroad, respectful to his elders. He should be earnest and truthful. He should overflow in love to all, and cultivate the friendship of the good. When he has time and opportunity, after the performance of these things, he should employ them in polite studies.’” “Zixia says, ‘If a man withdraws his mind from the love of beauty, and applies it as sincerely to the love of the virtuous; if, in serving his parents, he can exert his utmost strength; if, in serving his prince, he can devote his life; if, in his intercourse with his friends, his words are sincere--although men say that he has not learned, I will certainly say that he has.’”4

“Learning” generally includes two aspects, “accomplishments” and the cultivation of virtue. Confucius taught his disciples the six classics and six arts. The six classics as illustrated are the Book of Songs, the Book of History, the Book of Rites, the Book of Music, the Book of Changes, and the Annals. The six arts are the six skills of rituals, music, archery, charioting,

1 James Legge. The Book of Rites (English-Chinese). Zhongzhou Guji Publishing Company. 2016: 221. 2 Referring to Confucian Analects. 3 Referring to Confucian Analects. Confucian Analects, “The Duke Ai asked which of

the disciples loved to learn. Confucius replied to him, ‘There was Yan Hui; HE loved to learn. He did not transfer his anger; he did not repeat a fault. Unfortunately, his appointed time was short, and he died; and now there is not such another. I have not yet heard of anyone who loves to learn as he did.’” 4 James Legge. Confucian Analects. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2016: 13.

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writing, and mathematics. These are what Confucius says about “accomplishments,” which cover the fields of knowledge, skills, classics, literature, art, etc., in modern times. Yan Hui’s “fond of learning,” reflected by “he did not transfer his anger; he did not repeat a fault,” which is praised by Confucius, is a superb personality and spiritual freedom.5 Compared with the above-mentioned “accomplishments,” the personality of not transferring his anger and not repeating a fault and the virtue of filial piety, fraternal respectfulness, sincerity, and truthfulness, are the main contents of “learning.” “Accomplishments” should be employed when people have time and opportunity, after “learning.” In Confucian Analects, “There were four things which the Master taught: letters, ethics, devotion of soul, and truthfulness.”6 When explaining the relationship between the four aspects, Cheng Yi (1033– 1107) says teaching people to learn letters and cultivate ethics is to preserve people’ s devotion of soul and truthfulness (Writings by the Cheng Brothers ). Therefore, we can see that the purpose of “accomplishments” lies in the cultivation of virtue. Moreover, virtue is the essential foundation for the knowledge and skills of people to realize their original value and true significance. In Confucian Analects, “The Master says, ‘Let the will be set on the path of duty. Let every attainment in what is good be firmly grasped. Let perfect virtue be accorded with. Let relaxation and enjoyment be found in the polite arts.’”7 And also, “the Master says, ‘The accomplished scholar is not a utensil.’”8 The similar thoughts can be found in the Book of Rites when discussing learning, “Great power of method needs not be restricted to the production of one article.”9 “Let relaxation and enjoyment be found in polite arts” has similar meaning with “accomplishments” illustrated previously. Arts and letters are important parts of learning. However, they should not be the sole focus of it. “Tool” 5 People who lack moral education can’t control their minds and emotional desires. They often get angry with others and make the same mistakes again. On the contrary, Yanzi “did not transfer his anger; did not repeat a fault” shows a free realm of independence and self-control. 6 James Legge. Confucian Analects. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2016: 233. 7 James Legge. Confucian Analects. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2016: 51. 8 James Legge. Confucian Analects. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2016: 15. 9 James Legge. The Book of Rites (English-Chinese). Zhongzhou Guji Publishing

Company. 2016: 231.

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is tangible. “Great power of method” transcends tangible “tool” and connects all things, so it is said that “Great power of method need not be restricted to the production of one article.” People can become experts or specialists in a certain field for their knowledge and skills, which can be called “tools.” “The accomplished scholar is not a utensil” is not a denial of expertise. “Let relaxation and enjoyment be found in the polite arts” means that people should treat all forms of civilization, including knowledge, skills and rules, with a leisurely and natural attitude rather than a dogmatic and stubborn attitude. For arts and letters, scholars should not excessively ignore or be obsessed with them. They should pay attention to it but not immerse themselves in it. This can be called as “Let relaxation and enjoyment be found in the polite arts.” For one thing, human beings should “employ accomplishments” to break away from their natural state and open themselves to the realm of civilization. For another, civilization is based on the differentiation of the integrity of the natural world. Therefore, people often become stubborn after learning such tangible knowledge as skills, institution, and culture. People are blinded by local phenomena and can’t see the overall picture and correct truth clearly. “It’s harmful when one’s mind is confused by enigmas and only see one-sided knowledge of things”10 (Xunzi). Covering the reality of things’ existence leads to incomplete integrity of life. It is what the ancient people called “deceit” or “mind of enigmas.” This is the negative effect that “accomplishments” will inevitably bring to people’s minds and their existence. Confucianism takes “breaking the deceit and comprehensively understanding things” as the way to regulate people’s hearts and minds: they should not only show the infinite possibility of life in the learning of arts and letters, but also dispel the inevitable concealment of the reality of life carried out by art and letters in the actual activities of civilization development to sublimate the simple and true human nature, transform it in the level of civilization and realize it dynamically and integrally. This is based on the form of integration transformation and the realization of

10 It’s harmful when one’s mind is confused by enigmas and only see one-sided knowledge of things…Attention should not be limited only to likes or dislikes, the beginnings or the ends of things, the things at hand or those far away, the extensive or the shallow aspects of things, the ancient or the present. Instead, all things need to be arrayed and then judged by a fixed standard (The Xunzi). Translated by the translators of this book.

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integrity, namely “dao.” However, “dao” is not an abstract form. It is represented by “virtue” and “ren.” “Let the will be set on the path of duty. Let every attainment in what is good be firmly grasped. Let perfect virtue be accorded with. Let relaxation and enjoyment be found in the polite arts” concisely reveals the basic way of edification in Confucianism. This learning approach initiated by Confucius is inherited and carried forward by Confucians of later generations. It constitutes an internal spiritual tradition of Confucian philosophy. The Great Learning is regarded as “the introduction to virtue cultivation” by Confucians of later generations (remarks from Cheng Yi). In the Great Learning, the three guiding principles, eight creeds, and the theoretical system of “studying things to acquire knowledge, cultivating their persons, regulating their families, ordering well their own states and making the whole kingdom tranquil and happy,” generalize the general program, in which self-cultivation of mind is reflected in social and political ethics in Confucianism. This learning approach is based on illustrating virtue and cultivating persons.11 Confucianism from the Han Dynasty (202 B.C.–220) to the Tang Dynasty (618–907) focused slightly more on politics. However, its intellectual discourse did not go beyond the structure of this theory. During the Song Dynasty, Confucianism turned its focus to temperament and education, which highlighted the cultivation of virtue. For example, Zhang Zai (1020–1077) says, “If a man is cultivated, he can exhaust the esoteric change of things to know the pattern of its movement and change by the light of nature. If not, taking great pains to consider cannot reach the same goal. Therefore, it is the vast and far-reaching virtue of junzi, instead of the thorough study of the pattern that matters.”12 “Exhausting the esoteric change of things to know the law of its movement and change” and “mastering the law of changing things” are the utmost of “acquiring knowledge.” Therefore, the ultimate achievement of human wisdom should be rooted in the cultivation of virtue, rather than wisdom 11 The Great Learning & the Doctrine of the Mean states, “what the Great Learning teaches, is to illustrate illustrious virtue; to renovate the people; and to rest in the highest excellence. The point where to rest being known, the object of pursuit is then determined; and, that being determined, a calm unperturbedness may be attained to. To that calmness there will succeed a tranquil repose. In that repose there may be careful deliberation, and that deliberation will be followed by the attainment of the desired end. Things have their root and their branches. Affairs have their end and their beginning. To know what is first and what is last will lead near to what is taught in the Great Learning.” 12 Translated by the translators of this book.

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alone. The relationship between virtue and knowledge is also a core part of Cheng-Zhu Neo-Confucianism. When talking about learning, Cheng Yi says, “When people cultivate themselves, they should hold in awe and veneration; when they pursue academic progress, they should study the pattern of things thoroughly”13 (Writings by the Cheng Brothers ). On the relationship between the two, he says that “When learning the way of sages and working on selfcultivation, Confucians should hold in awe and veneration”14 (Writings by the Cheng Brothers ). Therefore, holding in awe and veneration is the fundamental way to pursue the universal path and acquire knowledge. When discussing learning, Zhu Xi (1130–1200) regards people’s selfconsciousness of dao as the self-examination and self-consciousness on the premise of self-cultivation and emphasizes that self-cultivation could be found in the process of acquiring knowledge and is prior to acquiring knowledge.15 The thoughts about Confucian “learning” concept during the Song Dynasty specifically highlighted Confucian spiritual tradition which regards self-cultivation as the priority.

The Concept of Virtuous Nature(De) Confucian edification focuses on the cultivation of human virtuous nature. However, its concept of character is different from that in Western philosophy. The ancient Greeks were in pursuit of excellence. The outstanding qualities in all aspects of people, such as wisdom, bravery, agility, and superb skills, can be regarded as “virtuous nature.” The political virtuous nature that Greek philosophers pay special attention to is mainly about the eloquence and intellectual ability of politicians.16 By contrast, the cultivation of the personality of junzi (a man of virtue) is the focus of virtuous nature valued in Confucianism. When discussing the difference between junzi and the petty man, Confucius says, “The mind of the superior man is conversant with righteousness; the mind of

13 Translated by the translators of this book. 14 Translated by the translators of this book. 15 Referring Li Jinglin. Zhu Xi’s Theory of Emotion and Its Creative Reconstruction

of Pre-Qin Confucian Temperament. 16 Referring to Zhu Qi. Edification of Ancient Greece—From Homer to Aristotle.

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the petty man is conversant with gain”17 (Confucian Analects ). Mencius says, “He who rises at cockcrowing and addresses himself earnestly to the practice of virtue, is a disciple of Shun. He who rises at cockcrowing and addresses himself earnestly to the pursuit of gain, is a disciple of Zhi. If you want to know the difference between Shun and Zhi, it is simply the interval between the thought of gain and the thought of virtue.”18 The difference between the disciples of Shun and those of Zhi is the disparate choice they made between virtue and gain. In this regard, Dong Zhongshu (179 B.C.–104 B.C.) expresses his thought more briefly and straightly, “Junzi earnestly practices virtue rather than pursuing gains, illustrates his thoughts clearly rather than advocating his contributions”19 (The Book of Han). Confucianism stresses the choice between virtue and gains and takes it as the standard to distinguish junzi from the petty man. Here, virtue refers to the moral principles proposed by Kant. From this perspective, “the virtuous nature” of Confucianism is narrower than that of Greek philosophy. At the same time, “morality” of Confucianism is a kind of holistic concept which transcends the difference between the matter of facts and expectations, theoretical rationality, and practical rationality, rather than the narrow moral and ethical concepts of Western philosophy in the sense of disciplinary and departmental differentiation. Confucian philosophy understands humans from the perspective of the whole realization of human beings, instead of the perspective of rationality or “knowing” alone. Therefore, the relationship between humans and the surrounding world in Confucianism is shown as a “relationship between heaven and humans”20 on the premise of the realization of the existence of external things and ego, rather than a “subject-object relationship” in the sense of relative treatment between thought and existence. The “relationship between heaven and humans” is that heaven and humans are reflected in each other as a whole, rather than binary separation. In the 17 Translated by the translators of the book. 18 James Legge. The Works of Mencius. Dover Publications, Inc. 2016: 464. 19 Translated by the translators of this book. 20 Notes by the translators of this book: “天人合一” in this book is translated into “harmony between nature and humans” or “harmony between heaven and humans,” according to the context. In both versions, “天” is regarded as the natural world. “天” is translated into “Heaven” by James Legge. The capitalized “H” in Legge’s version shows his understanding of “天” as the almighty God.

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first chapter of Zhongyong of the Book of Rites, it’s said that “What Heaven has conferred is called the Nature; an accordance with this nature is called the Path of duty; the regulation of this path is called Instruction.”21 The Book of Changes states, “The method of Qian is to change and transform, so that everything obtains its correct nature as appointed (by the mind of Heaven); and (thereafter the conditions of) great harmony are preserved in union. The result is what is advantageous and correct and firm.”22 When discussing taiji, people, and things, Zhu Xi says, “Taiji is the good and the principle of everything. Everyone and everything embody its taiji”23 (Classified Conversations of Zhu Xi). It means that human nature and the innate laws of things are all from nature, mandate of heaven, and way of heaven. What people and things get from nature and mandate of heaven is not a part or a certain element, but the whole of them. Taiji is “the highest harmony.” “Taiji is embodied by everyone and everything.” People and things can comprehend the whole of the mandate of heaven, the way of heaven, and taiji by themselves, so they have their own values. The perspective from which to understand value is the idea that people and things have their own values, rather than the objective perspective of “usefulness” to people. This concept of value is a general one that goes beyond the distinction between the matter of facts and values. Confucian concepts of virtuous nature and morality are based on this. From this perspective, the so-called Confucian concepts of virtuous nature and morality are broader than that of Western philosophy. The difference between “broadness” and “narrowness” reveals a unique Confucian understanding of virtuous nature and morality. Confucianism follows the approach of virtuous nature cultivation and virtue to pursue the universal path and establish its metaphysical system. It is related to its unique understanding of virtuous nature and morality.

Truth and Real Existence The concept of “sincerity” can best express the metaphysical spirit of the integration of Confucian truth and expectations.

21 James Legge. The Great Learning & the Doctrine of the Mean. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2017: 87. 22 James Legge. The Book of Changes. Hunan Education Publishing House. 1993: 5. 23 Translated by the translators of this book.

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In Chapter 20 of Zhongyong of the Book of Rites, it is said that Sincerity is the way of Heaven. The attainment of sincerity is the way of men. He who possesses sincerity is he who, without an effort, hits what is right, and apprehends, without the exercise of thought; he is the sage who naturally and easily embodies the right way. He who attains to sincerity is he who chooses what is good, and firmly holds it fast. To this attainment there are requisite the extensive study of what is good, accurate inquiry about it, careful reflection on it, the clear discrimination of it, and the earnest practice of it.24

In Chapter 25 of Zhongyong of the Book of Rites, it is also said that Sincerity is that whereby self-completion is affected, and its way is that by which man must direct himself. Sincerity is the end and beginning of things; without sincerity there would be nothing. On this account, the superior man regards the attainment of sincerity as the most excellent thing. The possessor of sincerity does not merely accomplish the selfcompletion of himself. With this quality he completes other men and things also. The completing himself shows his perfect virtue. The completing other men and things shows his knowledge. But these are virtues belonging to the nature, and this is the way by which a union is affected of the external and internal.25

“Sincerity” is “the way of Heaven.”26 It is also the essence of human nature, showing the virtues of human nature and reflecting the unity of nature and humans. The idea that “sincerity is the way of Heaven” is suitable for people and things. “Sincerity is the end and beginning of things; without sincerity there would be nothing.”27 Therefore, natural things are fundamentally sincere. People’s “sincerity” can be seen from the personality of the sage, who naturally conforms to the way of heaven

24 James Legge. The Great Learning & the Doctrine of the Mean. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2017: 180. 25 James Legge. The Great Learning & the Doctrine of the Mean. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2017: 196. 26 James Legge. The Great Learning & the Doctrine of the Mean. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2017: 180. 27 James Legge. The Great Learning & the Doctrine of the Mean. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2017: 196.

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and concentrates on the joy at present. When humans reach the highness of the sage, they can see the whole picture of the way of heaven. “Sincerity” also embodies the meaning of “truth.” As it is said, “Sincerity is consistent with objective facts without fraud”28 (Classified Conversations of Zhu Xi). Sincerity marks the truth of existence. The meaning of “truth” emphasizes “reality”: humans and things own “truth” in their natural senses, rather than the objective “truth” in the sense of general coincidence theory. In Shangshu Yini, Wang Chuanshan (1619–1692) states, “The original meaning of ‘sincerity’ is the ‘truth’ of existence, which is the inherent attribute of things, just as water can moisten external things and naturally flows downhill while fire truly embodies the nature of hot and burns upwards. It is born and unstoppable. Water has the nature of moistening and downhill while fire has the nature of hot and uphill. Without the nature of moistening and downhill, water cannot be called water. Without the nature of hot and uphill, fire cannot be called fire.”29 Water “really” or truly embodies the nature of moistening and downhill while fire “really” or truly embodies the nature of hot and uphill. This is the truth of existence. For the meaning of truth, “sincerity” means that things truly possess their nature. According to Hegel, the meaning of truth is that things are “what they should be.”30 The concept of “sincerity” refers to both truth and “expectation.” In this sense, natural things should also have their “expectation” and their own “value.” The existence of natural things is the unity of its reality and “expectation.” The reason why we ignore the “expectation” meaning of a natural thing is that the natural thing is the thing-in-itself while its “expectation” is inseparable from itself. The activities of animals are quite regular. The reason why we do not regard this activity of obeying the rules as a “moral” behavior is that it is completely out of instinct rather than choices. There is no intentional violation of this regularity. Animals affirm and achieve their own existence in this instinctive activity. The “truth” in the factual sense of natural things is reflected as its “expectation” in its natural existence. In the view of Confucianism, the integration of “being” and “expectation” in the sense of the way of heaven is precisely

28 Translated by the translators of this book. 29 Translated by the translators of this book. 30 Referring to Hegel. Shorter Logic.

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the pre-existing basis of all values, including man. The unity of truth and expectation is the “value” of Confucianism. “Sincerity is the way of Heaven.”31 From this perspective, the nature of a human being is also in himself, and his nature possesses himself. The sincerity runs through people and the things. The natural thing is the thing-in-itself, and its “nature” is inseparable from itself. The sincerity or the nature of people is different. “The attainment of sincerity is the way of men.” “The attainment of sincerity” means that there must be a process of pursuing sincerity. There are more illustrations in the Works of Mencius, “Sincerity is the way of Heaven. To think how to be sincere is the way of men.”32 Mencius says that “thinking how to be sincere” is the way of men to stress that “the attainment of sincerity” must be realized through “thinking.” It is the same as “He chooses what is good and firmly holds it fast”33 illustrated in Zhongyong. People can think and have self-consciousness to make their “nature” separated from individual existence as a common form and become a general form different from individuals. Therefore, people tend to “lose this mind and not know to seek it again”34 (The Works of Mencius ) and “the one side denies what the other affirms.”35 Moreover, people often think that they are correct while others are wrong; people often think themselves noble and despise others. Therefore, they often fight against each other, even violate human rights, commit genocide, and impose destructive weapons on others. That phenomenon is not only a negation of people themselves, but also a threat to the existence of the surrounding world. Therefore, if people want to affirm what they believe, they must go through a detour that is “cultivating to the utmost the shoots of goodness” addressed in Zhongyong. It is said in Zhongyong of the Book of Rites that “Next to the above is he who cultivates to the utmost the shoots of goodness in him. From those he can attain to the possession

31 James Legge. The Great Learning & the Doctrine of the Mean. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2017: 180. 32 James Legge. The Works of Mencius. Dover Publication, Inc. 2016: 398. 33 James Legge. The Great Learning & the Doctrine of the Mean. Liaoning People’s

Publishing House. 2017: 180. 34 James Legge. The Works of Mencius. Dover Publication, Inc. 2016: 478. 35 James Legge. The Works of Mencius. Dover Publication, Inc. 2016: 398.

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of sincerity.”36 Among Confucian scholars, there must be a superior man who was born to be “sincere.” However, this is only ideal and illusory. In reality, people need to go through the way of “cultivating to the utmost the shoots of goodness” before realizing “sincerity” and returning to their nature. “The attainment of sincerity is the way of men.… He who attains to sincerity is he who chooses what is good, and firmly holds it fast.”37 In this regard, the way of “cultivating to the utmost the shoots of goodness” is the moral cultivation route of choosing what is good and firmly holding it fast.

Nature, the Mandate of Heaven and Virtue, Happiness As stated above, in Confucianism, virtuous nature is defined as the realization of the moral character of junzi through the route of “choosing what is good and firmly holding it fast.” It seems narrower than the concept of morality of Greek philosophy. However, it should be emphasized that the Confucian concepts of virtuous nature and morality also include the significance of “excellence” and “happiness” in Greek philosophy. The goal of Confucian edification is to make people and things realize or return to their innate human nature and the mandate of heaven.38 Confucian thoughts about human nature and its attributes and functions can be divided into broad and narrow senses. Human nature and the mandate of heaven in the broad sense means all that people get from nature. Following the order of nature is called “the mandate of heaven” and acting in accordance with what people get from nature is called “human nature,” which is the same as “What Heaven has conferred is called nature” in Zhongyong. Human nature and the mandate of heaven in a broad sense can generally be divided into two aspects: the moral provisions of ren and righteousness (or ren, righteousness, propriety and wisdom) and the physical existence and its utilitarian aspect. Human nature and the mandate 36 James Legge. The Great Learning & the Doctrine of the Mean. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2017: 193. 37 James Legge. The Great Learning & the Doctrine of the Mean. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2017: 180. 38 As for human nature and mandate of heaven, refer to a detailed discussion in the third part of this book.

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of heaven in the narrow sense makes a distinction under the one in the broad sense, namely, regarding the moral provisions of ren and righteousness (or ren, righteousness, propriety, and wisdom) as human nature and the physical existence and its utilitarian aspect as the mandate of heaven. Borrowing illustrations from Kant, human nature in the narrow sense can be called as the principle of morality; the mandate of heaven in the narrow sense can be called as the principle of happiness. In the view of Confucianism, although lust and utility are indispensable for human existence and happiness, they do not have their own independent significance and positive values for human existence. Confucianism strictly distinguishes between human beings and animals and regards those who violate moral principles as “animals.” A society based solely on the principle of utilitarianism will also lead to “When benevolence and righteousness are stopped up, beasts will be led on to devour men, and men will devour one another,”39 the state of beasts or unethical state. Today, the international community condemns the serious deprivation of human rights as “crimes against humanity.” Those who look like humans but act like animals and those who call themselves humans but commit “crimes against humanity” result from completely departing from morality and upholding the principle of self-interest. The sage advocated by Confucianism is also called “a perfect Daoist” by Daoism. The “perfect Daoist” is a real and true person. “Animals” and “anti-humans” refer to the human beings whose actions violate the essence of being a human being. They are no longer “humans” in the real sense. It cannot correctly be so ascribed to the mandate of heaven because of the utilitarian aspect contained in these behaviors and its negative values. “Establishing the heaven-ordained being” plays a role of creative transformation and integrated assignment in human existence. From the social level, an ethical community must take morality and righteousness as the highest principle. Then, it can transform, enlighten, and sublimate all its institutional, literary, meritorious, and utilitarian achievements, to form the value of humanity and even establish a benevolent government. From the perspective of individual personality, people must practice the procedure of human duty based on the morality of junzi. Only in this way, can the substances, such as knowledge, skills, achievements, appearance, and dignified beauty be transformed and sublimated, hence, realize their

39 Referring to the Works of Mencius.

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true meaning as the nature of human beings, and constitute the internal elements of junzi’s personality. Confucius’ theory of “let relaxation and enjoyment be found in the polite arts” shows this spirit. “Preserving the pure heart and cultivating the goodness to follow the order of the heaven and nature” is not only an activity of dynamic creation, but also a process of assigning value and meaning. The basis of creation and meaning assigning is the principle of morality and virtuous nature. Confucianism does not directly attribute people’s wisdom, literary attainments, achievements, and successes to virtue, because it does not have its own independent and ready-made significance as “human nature.” On the premise of the narrow distinction of life, based on morality and virtue, “the mandate of heaven” that serves as the principle of happiness is transformed creatively and is endowed with the positive value as “heaven-ordained being.” It is both the harmony between humans and nature and the realization of “sincerity” or men’s real existence. In this sense, the Confucian concept of virtuous nature and morality has a broad meaning transcending truth and expectation, including the excellence, virtue, and happiness of human beings.

CHAPTER 3

A Man Commanding Our Longingness Should Be Called a Good Man: The Foundation and Premise of Edification

Abstract The concept of edification in Confucianism, based on the “doctrine of good human nature,” aims to inspire people’s internal nature, rather than the forced indoctrination of external teaching theories. Although human nature is also from the mandate of Heaven, it lies in people’s minds. People must practice the procedure of human duty to establish his Heaven-ordained being, which can not only realize the noble personality, but also implement the mandate of Heaven. This is the premise of Confucian edification. Keywords Human nature is innately good · Nature · The mandate of Heaven · Heaven-ordained being · The harmony between Heaven and human

The Longingness and Pursuit of Ren The metaphysical basis and theoretical premise of Confucian edification lies in the “doctrine of good human nature.” The mainstream of this theory follows the theory that humans are good by nature from the school of Si-Mencius. The Works of Mencius says, “A man who commands our longingness is what is called a good man. He whose goodness is part of himself is what is © Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd. 2022 J. Li, Edification in the Chinese Philosophy of Confucianism, Key Concepts in Chinese Thought and Culture, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-4196-2_3

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called a real man. He whose goodness has been filled up is what is called a beautiful man. He whose completed goodness is brightly displayed is what is called a great man. When this great man exercises a transforming influence, he is what is called a sage. When the sage is beyond our knowledge, he is what is called a spirit-man.”1 These six sentences summarize the complete system of Confucian edification from within. “A man who commands our longingness is what is called a good man” is mainly about the root of men’s moral goodness. The connection between “goodness” and “liking” here emphasizes that the realization of good human nature is achieved by people themselves, not by external forces. Confucian Analects states, “Is virtue a thing remote? I wish to be virtuous, and lo! virtue is at hand.”2 “Is the practice of perfect virtue from a man himself, or is it from others?”3 And, “is any one able for one day to apply his strength to virtue? I have not seen the case in which his strength would be insufficient. Should there possibly be any such case, I have not seen it.”4 According to Confucius, people have seven feelings and six sensory pleasures. The satisfaction of their feelings, pleasures, and utilitarian requirements is subject to various external conditions. What cannot be commanded or pursued by people themselves is regarded as “the mandate of heaven.” Ren can be pursued by people immediately if they want to, showing that ren is the only thing that people can get on their own without depending on external forces. This is the innermost possibility of man, indicating the essence of man. As mentioned earlier, there are broad and narrow senses for Confucian thoughts about nature and the mandate of heaven. This is the basis for the narrow distinction between nature and the mandate of heaven. The Works of Mencius says, “For the mouth to desire sweet tastes, the eye to desire beautiful colors, the ear to desire pleasant sounds, the nose to desire fragrant odors, and the four limbs to desire ease and rest—these things are natural. However, there is the mandate of heaven in connexion with them, and the superior man does not say of his pursuit of them, ‘it is my nature.’ The exercise of love between father and son, the observance

1 James Legge. The Works of Mencius. Dover Publication, Inc. 2016: 479. 2 James Legge. Confucian Analects. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2016: 240. 3 James Legge. Confucian Analects. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2016: 395. 4 James Legge. Confucian Analects. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2016: 112.

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of righteousness between sovereign and minister, the rules of ceremony between guest and host, the display of knowledge in recognizing the talented, and the fulfilling of the Heavenly course by the sage are the mandates of Heaven. However, there is an adaptation of our nature for them. The superior man does not say, in reference to them, ‘it is the mandate of Heaven’.”5 In the broad sense, the desires of people’s mouth, eyes, ears, nose, and the moral provisions of ren, righteousness, propriety, and wisdom are inborn, which can be called “nature” or “the mandate of Heaven.” Junzi calls the former “the mandate of heaven” and the latter “nature,” which is the meaning of “the mandate of heaven” and “nature” in a narrow sense. This distinction between nature and the mandate of heaven in a narrow sense is based on the fundamental difference between people’s way of achieving them. The Works of Mencius says, “Seek and you will find them. Neglect and you will lose them. Men differ from one another regarding them-some as much again as others, some five times as much, and some to an incalculable amount--it is because they cannot carry out fully their natural powers.”6 Added in the Works of Mencius, “Benevolence, righteousness, propriety, and wisdom are not infused into us from without. We are certainly furnished with them. In addition, a different view is simply owing to want of reflection.” Hence, it is said, “Seek and you will find them. Neglect and you will lose them. Men differ from one another in regard to them--some as much again as others, some five times as much, and some to an incalculable amount--it is because they cannot carry out fully their natural powers.”7 Moral characters such as ren, righteousness, propriety, and wisdom are innate and can be achieved by people themselves without seeking external forces. (“In that case, seeking is of use to getting, and the things sought for are those which are in ourselves.”) As a result, it is called “human nature.” The desire and the pursuit of achievements are subject to various external causes and forces rather than those that can be directly obtained by people. (“In that case, the seeking is of no use to getting, and the things sought are without ourselves.”) Therefore, it is called “the

5 James Legge. The Works of Mencius. Dover Publication, Inc. 2016: 450. 6 James Legge. The Works of Mencius. Dover Publication, Inc. 2016: 478. 7 James Legge. The Works of Mencius. Dover Publication, Inc. 2016: 402.

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mandate of heaven.” This is the logical basis for the thought of Mencius that ren, righteousness, propriety, and knowledge are “not infused into us from without.” We are certainly “furnished with” them. Based on this, Confucius believes that the goodness of “good human nature” is from the heaven and innate in people themselves. Confucius and Mencius believe that ren and righteousness are innate desires that are from people themselves and can be pursued by people themselves. It is similar to the so-called free will from Kant. However, in Confucianism, the self-reliance and self-cause of moral goodness is an existence with innate content, not a theoretical hypothesis. Confucius says, “I wish to be virtuous, and lo! virtue is at hand” (Confucian Analects ). Mencius says, “A man who commands our longingness is what is called a good man,” “Seek and you will find them. Neglect and you will lose them” and “Seeking are of use to getting.” Therefore, ren and righteousness are reasonable liking that can be sought by people themselves. “Reasonable liking” and “accessibility” can explain each other, but there are differences between the two. Relatively speaking, “accessibility” is mainly about the reflection of people. It is illustrated in previous citations from the Works of Mencius that “Benevolence, righteousness, propriety, and knowledge are the innate qualities of people rather than being obtained externally, but people don’t pay attention to thinking and understanding it. Therefore, you can get it once you pursued it and you will lose it once you give it up.”8 “Benevolence, righteousness, propriety, and wisdom are not infused into us from without. We are certainly furnished with them.” It refers to the rational and conscious ability of people. “Reasonable liking” is more about the expression of people’s real feelings. Zhang Shi (1133–1180),9 the Confucian scholar of the Song Dynasty, once says, “reasonable desire is the origin of movement. People have the innate and inborn nature, with the moral character of benevolence, righteousness, propriety, and wisdom, and it is manifested in sympathy, shame and disgust for evil, humility in words, distinguishing right from wrong, and so on, which is called reasonable desire.”10 Zhang Shi understands the meaning of “A man who commands our longingness is what is called a good man”

8 James Legge. The Works of Mencius. Dover Publication, Inc. 2016: 401. 9 Referring to Zhang Shi. Zhang Shi’s Collection. 10 Translated by the translators of this book.

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from the perspective of four starting points,11 showing the influence of Mencius.12 The Works of Mencius states that Thus, all things which are the same in kind are like to one another…The sage and we are the same in kind…Therefore, I say, Men’s mouths agree in having the same relishes; their ears agree in enjoying the same sounds; their eyes agree in recognizing the same beauty - shall their minds alone be without that which the similarly approve? What is it then of which they similarly approve? It is, I say, the principles of our nature and the determinations of righteousness. The sages only apprehended before me that of which my mind approves along with other men. Therefore, the principles of our nature and the determinations of righteousness are agreeable to my mind, just as the flesh of grass and grain-fed animals is agreeable to my mouth.13

It illustrates the connotation of human nature from the perspective that humans are the same in kind. When elaborating on “all things which are the same in kind are like to one another,” Mencius says, “Our hearts are similar” and “Truth and the code of conduct make us happy, just like the meat of cattle, sheep, pigs and dogs satisfies our desire for good food.” “The similarities of our hearts” is a rational judgment and choice. “Truth and the code of conduct make us happy” is the awareness of emotions. Mencius says, “The principles of our nature and the determinations of righteousness are agreeable to my mind, just as the flesh of grass and grain-fed animals is agreeable to my mouth.” It not only refers to rational consciousness, more importantly, it emphasizes that ren, righteousness, propriety, and wisdom are inherent in people’s emotional life and are truly owned by people’s existence.14

11 “四端” is commonly translated into “four principles” or “four initiators.” The translators of this book refer it into “four starting points.” 12 Translated by the translators of this book. 13 James Legge. The Works of Mencius. Dover Publication, Inc. 2016: 450. 14 The silk book of the Five Phases also stresses that the characteristics of eyes, ears,

nose, mouth, hands, and foot are enjoying the same sounds, agreeing in recognizing the same beauty; the nature of mind must be in favor of righteousness. “The nature is from people’s mind, so it’s in favor of righteousness.”

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Ren and Righteousness Innerly Existing in the Real Existence The concept of good human nature in Confucianism is based on the meaning that ren and righteousness are inherent in the real existence of human beings. It includes two integrated aspects: understanding “the determinations of righteousness” from people’s feelings and understanding “the determinations of righteousness” from “qi” (vital force). Understanding a “pattern” from the perspective of people’s feelings means being reasonable and considerate. It shows that “pattern” is not an abstract concept but a concrete concept that can be reflected through feelings and felt by people. The Works of Mencius says, From the feelings proper to it, it is constituted for the practice of what is good. This is what I mean in saying that nature is good. If men do what is not good, the blame cannot be imputed to their natural powers. The feeling of commiseration belongs to all men; so, does that of shame and dislike; that of reverence and respect; and that of approving and disapproving. The feeling of commiseration implies the principle of ren; that of shame and dislike, the principle of righteousness; that of reverence and respect, the principle of rites; and that of approving and disapproving, the principle of wisdom. Ren, righteousness, propriety, and wisdom are not infused into us from without. We are certainly furnished with them. A different view is simply due to the want of reflection. Hence, it is said, ‘Seek and you will find them. Neglect and you will lose them.’ Men differ from one another in regard to them--some as much again as others, some five times as much, and some to an incalculable amount--it is because they cannot carry out fully their natural powers.15

The feeling of commiseration, the feeling of shame and dislike, the feeling of reverence and respect, and the feeling of approving and disapproving are the four starting points called by Mencius. The four starting points, in short, refer to the fact that all men have a mind that cannot bear to see the sufferings of others.16 In reality, people are in a state of differentiation and often think twice before they act. However, in a critical state of human life as “a child 15 James Legge. The Works of Mencius. Dover Publication, Inc. 2016: 401–2. 16 Referring to the Works of Mencius.

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about to fall into a well,” people’s feeling of pity comes out naturally and intuitively at that moment. In the Works of Mencius, the section “all men have a mind which cannot bear to see the sufferings of others” has highlighted “the feeling of distress.” It says, “They will feel so, not as a ground on which they may gain the favor of the child’s parents, nor as a ground on which they may seek the praise of their neighbors and friends, nor from a dislike to the reputation of having been unmoved by such a thing.”17 It shows that people’s feeling of distress is the intuitive expression of people’s minds without any consideration of interests and worries and pure actions without any artificial interruptions. In the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644), Confucian scholar Wang Yangming (1472–1529) wrote Questions on the Great Learning and further illustrated this concept. He states, “If a man saw a child almost fall into the well, he would naturally raise his fear and compassion, that is to say, his ren was innately integrated with the child. This indicates that the ren of people is integrated with other humans.” When a man “saw birds and animals crying and trembling for fear,” he could not bear to stare. When a man “saw flowers, plants and trees trampled and broken,” he was bound to form the feeling of distress. When a man saw that “the bricks and tiles were broken or smashed,” he was bound to feel sorry. These indicate that the ren of people is integrated with objects.18 According to Confucianism, although humans are in the state of differentiation and the organic whole between humans and objects may be hidden, it is still there and can be pursued and acquired once people reflect on themselves. In the system of human nature and the mind of Confucianism, “feeling” is the emotional activity of people’s mind, which must be associated with its real form of qi or “body,” showing a dynamic characteristic of existence. Dai De (ca. 99 B.C.–37 B.C.) in his masterpiece, the Book of Rites Compiled by Dai De says, “People are embedded with five feelings, happiness, anger, longingness, fear and worry. Although you want to hide your happiness, people will see it when you are happy; although you want to hide your anger, people will see it when you are angry; although you want to hide your longingness, people will see it when you are longing; although you want to hide your fear, people will see it when you are scared; although you want to hide your worry, people will see it when

17 James Legge. The Works of Mencius. Dover Publication, Inc. 2016: 201. 18 Translated by the translators of this book.

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you are worried. Those five feelings implicit inside of you are explicit in your behavior, that is, you cannot hide your feelings.” It is said that people’s feelings of “happiness, anger, longingness, fear and worry” are all with qi (vital force), reflected in people’s body and appearance and integrated with people’s morality. The reason why learning, thinking, and feeling in morality can be expressed in behavior is that it is accompanied by existential power, which Confucianism calls qi. Mencius once said, “I’m good at fostering the Great Spirit” (The Works of Mencius ), proposing the theory of “fostering the spirit.” Of course, the theory is created with an innate basis rather than out of nothing. Collected Annotations of Mencius written by Zhu Xi explains that “The Great Spirit that a man was born with will diminish if he doesn’t foster it, and Mencius is the only one who remains the same as he was born because he is good at fostering the Spirit.” Zhu Xi cites from Cheng Yi that “man is an integral part of heaven and the Great Spirit is what heaven and man both have, and if the Spirit is fostered without damage, it will abound everywhere.” Those quotations express the same idea that born with the Great Spirit, a man will remain unchanged if he carefully fosters it.19 Mencius has proposed the concept of “talent” to prove that man is born good-natured. The Works of Mencius has comprehensively explained “talent” using the example of the growth of trees in Niu Mountain. The Works of Mencius states, “the trees of the Niu mountain were once beautiful. Being situated, however, in the borders of a large state, they were hewed down with axes and bills;—and could they retain their beauty? Still through the activity of the vegetative life day and night and the nourishing influence of the rain and dew, they were not without buds and sprouts springing forth but then came the cattle and goats and browsed upon them. When people see the bare and stripped appearance of the mountain, they may think it was never finely wooded. However, is this the nature of the mountain? And to what properly belongs to man;—shall it be said that the mind of any man was without ren and righteousness? The way in which a man loses his proper goodness of mind is similar to the way in which the trees are denuded by axes and bills. Hewed down day after day, can it—the mind—retain its beauty? However, there is a development of its life day and night, and in the calm air of the morning, just between

19 Translated by the translators of the book.

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night and day, the mind feels in a degree those desires and aversions which are proper to humanity, but the feeling is not strong, and it is fettered and destroyed by what takes place during the day. This fettering taking place again and again, the restorative influence of the night is not sufficient to preserve the proper goodness of the mind; and when this proves insufficient for that purpose, the nature becomes not much different from that of the irrational animals, and when people now see it, they think that it never had those powers which I assert. However, does this condition represent the feelings proper to humanity?”20 The trees of Mountain Niu were once finely wooded, but they became bare and stripped because people hew down trees, and the cattle and goats came and browsed upon them. People also have the “talent” which cultivated the ren and righteousness, but it is usually hidden by people’s fettered and destroyed desires. The “restorative influence of the night” or the “calm air of the morning” here refers to a state of being in which the human heart coexists with the “heart of ren and righteousness,” that is, the “proper goodness of mind,” when the human heart is not affected by the external environment. It is the real existence of human beings or the nature of qi. The so-called “talent” by Mencius is an existential whole based on the “restorative influence of the night” or the “calm air of the morning,” which shows its “proper goodness of mind” or “ren and righteousness.” This is people’s innate talent or the “talent” that can help people cultivate their virtue. It is thus clear that the good nature of people understood by Confucianism is not only a logical and theoretical setting but also has innate content and an existential basis. This “good” nature is the inborn kindness rather than merely the pursuit of kindness.

The Integration of “Enabling-Knowing” and Revealing of the Starting Point of Goodness When Confucianism discusses human nature in the theory of heartmind and nature (including the theory of temperament), it says that human nature is the expression and existence of emotions in people’s heart, reflecting people’s nature dynamically from emotional activities.

20 James Legge. The Works of Mencius. Dover Publication, Inc. 2016: 407–8.

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This theory of human nature stresses content more than form. Therefore, Confucianism affirms the existence of man’s innate moral emotions. However, these moral emotions should be understood as some modal expressions of the current situation based on the integrated structure of “enabling-knowing” of the human heart-mind, rather than readymade moral elements such as “instinct” understood by Western irrational philosophy. The School of Si-Mencius has clarified the feeling of commiseration, the feeling of pity and the feeling of shame and dislike by using the concept of “the starting point.” It highlights the unique way Confucians understand moral emotions. Mencius believes that people are born with the moral qualities of ren, righteousness, propriety, and wisdom, and he has proposed the “four starting points” to illustrate it: All men have a mind which cannot bear to see the sufferings of others.... When I say that all men have a mind which cannot bear to see the sufferings of others, my meaning may be illustrated thus: even now-a-days, if men suddenly see a child about to fall into a well, they will without exception experience a feeling of alarm and distress. They will feel so, not as a ground on which they may gain the favor of the child’s parents, nor as a ground on which they may seek the praise of their neighbors and friends, nor from a dislike to the reputation of having been unmoved by such a thing... The feeling of commiseration is the principle of ren. The feeling of shame and dislike is the starting point of righteousness. The feeling of modesty and complaisance is the starting point of rites. The feeling of approving and disapproving is the starting point of knowledge (wisdom). Men have these four starting points just as they have their four limbs... Since all men have these four starting points in themselves, let them know to give them all their development and completion, and the issue will be like that of fire which has begun to burn, or that of a spring which has begun to find vent. Let them have their complete development, and they will suffice to love and protect all within the four seas. Let them be denied that development, and they will not suffice for a man to serve his parents with.21 (The Works of Mencius )

21 James Legge. The Works of Mencius. Dover Publication, Inc. 2016: 201–2.

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The “starting points” here contain the meaning of starting clue and beginning. The starting clue refers to people’s different emotions in different environments. People’s emotions are inspired by different circumstances and vary in different environments. Therefore, although Mencius has illustrated the theory of four starting points with simple words, they have very broad and rich meanings in the Works of Mencius. The beginning refers to the initial form of morality that can be developed to educate the world. According to Confucianism, the current emotional expression of people’s feelings (principles) has an inherent moral direction, which can cultivate people’s moral character and show the effect of edification at different levels and degrees. Therefore, although the four starting points mentioned by Mencius are matched with the four virtues of “ren, righteousness, propriety, and wisdom,” the so-called “starting points” have wider meanings that are not limited to the “four.” Mencius’ starting points of goodness initially develop from the Transcription of Five Phases from the Mawangdui silk manuscript, written by Zisi (483 B.C.–402 B.C.). It advocates that “junzi is a man of all goodness. If men cultivate themselves, they will be junzi; or they will be what they are.” “‘Men who cultivate themselves will be junzi or they will be what they are.’ Men who practice the starting points of goodness and master them are junzi or they will be what they are. Shrinking from hurting others is the principle of ren; refusing things that are in contempt is the principle of righteousness. Men who cannot practice those two principles cannot be called junzi but what they are. If one masters shrinking from hurting others, ren will be spread over the world; if one masters refusing things that are in contempt, righteousness will be seen everywhere in the world. Once ren is spread, with the help of righteousness, the sincerity runs through one’s mind, then he can be called junzi.” The saying “men who practice the starting points of goodness and master them are junzi” means that men must practice the starting points of goodness and break through their own limitations, can they obtain the virtues of junzi. Here, “shrinking from hurting others” and “refusing things that are in contempt” are current emotional expressions, the starting points of ren and righteousness. Junzi advocates ren and righteousness as virtues to influence and change the world. Mencius also regards the development of the starting points of goodness as the fundamental way to cultivate people’s virtue. Mencius says that the emotional feelings of people are the starting point of goodness, which not only refers to the four starting points mentioned in the Works of Mencius but

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also includes the moral expressions of being kind to relatives, filial piety and fraternal duty,22 shrinking from injuring others, self-respect, and the sense of shame.23 After a detailed review of the Works of Mencius, it can be found that many of the feelings and situations can be summarized as “starting points,” such as the feeling of pity, refusing to do evil things, the feeling of commiseration, the feeling of shame and disliking, the feeling of modesty and complaisance, the ability to judge right and wrong, filial piety and fraternal duty, being kind to relatives, respecting the elders, self-respect, shrinking from injuring others, refusing to digging holes and jumping over walls, cultivating respectable behaviors, ignoring impolite calling, refusing food handed out in contempt, etc. We can also develop virtue on this basis and establish a reasonable human relations order. According to Confucianism, the so-called “principles” mentioned above are based on an existing structure of the original integration of the “enabling-knowing” of the people’s heart-mind, so it has its innate moral orientation. Confucian views on emotions vary, including happiness, anger, sorrow, and joy, or longingness, disliking, happiness, anger, sorrow, and joy, or happiness, anger, sorrow, fear, love, disliking, and desire. However, this does not mean that there are some abstract so-called “natural emotions” without value orientation. According to Confucianism, people’s moods and intentions related to objects can be attributed to two orientations of “liking and disliking.”

22 As in Liang Hui Wang, “Treat with the reverence due to age the elders in your own family, so that the elders in the families of others shall be similarly treated; treat with the kindness due to youth the young in your own family, so that the young in the families of others shall be similarly treated - do this, and the kingdom may be made to go round in your palm.” 23 As in the Works of Mencius, “all men have some things which they cannot bear; extend that feeling to what they can bear, and benevolence will be the result. All men have some things which they will not do; extend that feeling to the things which they do, and righteousness will be the result. If a man can give full development to the feeling which makes him shrink from injuring others, his benevolence will be more than can be called into practice. If he can give full development to the feeling which refuses to break through, or jump over, a wall, his righteousness will be more than can be called into practice. If he can give full development to the real feeling of dislike with which he receives the salutation, “Thou,” “Thou,” he will act righteously in all places and circumstances.” The “principles” here include the feeling of pity, the feeling of shame and self-respect, etc.

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The Book of Rites states that “It belongs to the nature of man, as from Heaven, to be still at his birth. His activity shows itself as he is acted on by external things and develops the desires incident to his nature. Things come to him more and more, and his knowledge is increased. Then, manifestations of liking and disliking arise. When these are not regulated by anything within, and growing knowledge leads more astray without, he cannot come back to himself, and his Heavenly principle is extinguished. Now there is no end of the things by which man is affected; and when his likings and dislikes are not subject to regulation (from within), he is changed into the nature of things as they come before him; that is, he stifles the voice of Heavenly principle within, and gives the utmost indulgence to the desires by which men may be possessed.” It has summarized people’s feelings toward external things to “liking and disliking.”24 The Book of Rites summarizes “people’s feelings” to “joy, anger, sadness, fear, love, disliking, and liking”25 and added, “The things that men greatly desire are comprehended in meat and drink and sexual pleasure; those which they greatly dislike are comprehended in death, exile, poverty, and suffering. Thus, liking and disliking are the great elements in men’s minds.”26 Therefore, although expressed differently, people’s feelings toward external things can be generally summarized to the two orientations of “welcome and reject,” namely, the welcome of external things and the rejection of external things. Xunzi also has the same thought that liking and disliking are the great elements in men’s minds. It is said that “the feelings of liking, disliking, joy, anger, sadness and happiness shown in people’s nature are called emotions.” And he adds, “when people have feelings of love and hate, but there are no corresponding ways for them to express their feelings, it will be chaotic”27 (Xunzi). It can be seen that liking and disliking are the fundamental ways for people to treat external things, while happiness, anger, sadness, and joy are the emotional reactions of their actions in the mind. Therefore, people’s emotional performance can be generally summarized as “liking and disliking.” 24 James Legge. Chinese Text Project. http://ctext.org. 25 James Legge. The Book of Rites. Zhengzhou Zhongzhou Guji Publishing Company.

2016: 183. 26 James Legge. The Book of Rites. Zhengzhou Zhongzhou Guji Publishing Company. 2016: 183. 27 Translated by the translators of this book.

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As cited earlier in the Works of Mencius, “And so also of what properly belongs to man; shall it be said that the mind of any man was without ren and righteousness? The way in which a man loses his proper goodness of mind is similar to the way in which the trees are denuded by axes and bills. Hewed down day after day, can it--the mind retain its beauty? However, there is a development of its life day and night, and in the calm air of the morning, just between night and day, the mind feels in a degree those desires and aversions which are proper to humanity….”28 This means that people are born with “proper goodness of mind” or the “ren and righteousness.” When people’s minds are in the natural state without being affected by the external environment, the corresponding actions of “liking and disliking” are innate with the natural moral orientation. This “proper goodness of mind” or the “ren and righteousness” includes “intuitive ability” and “intuitive knowledge.” It has been illustrated in the Works of Mencius that “The ability possessed by men without having been acquired by learning is intuitive ability, and the knowledge possessed by them without the exercise of thought is their intuitive knowledge. Children carried in the arms all know to love their parents, and when they are grown a little, they all know to love their elder brothers. Filial affection for parents is the working of ren. Respect for elders is the working of righteousness. There is no other reason for those feelings they belong to all under Heaven.”29 Children carried in the arms all know filial affection for parents and love their elder brothers or the principle of ren and righteousness. It is the reflection of “ren and righteousness” or “proper goodness of mind”30 cited previously from the Works of Mencius. The “proper goodness of mind” or “ren and righteousness” includes “intuitive ability” and “intuitive knowledge.” The moral expressions of existence are called “ability,” and the conscious awareness of its reflexivity is called “knowing.” The ability and knowing are intuitive, mainly because they are inborn and innate, without having been acquired by learning or the exercise of thought. The “intuitive ability” and “intuitive knowledge” are derived from people themselves instead of others. When discussing “good honor,” the Works of Mencius says, “And all men have in themselves that which is truly honorable. Only they do not

28 James Legge. The Works of Mencius. Dover Publication, Inc. 2016: 426. 29 James Legge. The Works of Mencius. Dover Publication, Inc. 2016: 456. 30 James Legge. The Works of Mencius. Dover Publication, Inc. 2016: 422.

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think of it. The honor that men confer is not a good honor. Those whom Zhao the Great ennobles he can make mean again.”31 The original integration of “enabling-knowing” is regarded as an existing structure of people’s innate heart. It is worth noting that this integration of “enabling-knowing” takes “ability” as the subject of existence. For one thing, “wisdom” or “knowing” is a conscious awareness and judgment function based on the existence of human heart rather than an independent cognitive activity separated from people’s feelings. In the structure of “four starting points,” compassion governs the four ends and becomes integrated. “The mind of right and wrong” is an internal provision of the ren of compassion, not an independent principle. This is similar to the thought proposed by Zhu Xi that “The feeling of commiseration is the source, from which the feeling of shame and dislike, the feeling of modesty and complaisance, and the feeling of approving and disapproving arise. The feeling of commiseration connects all the other three feelings.”32 For another, as the subject of the existence of human heart, “emotions” have an inevitable correlation with “knowledge” in the original sense and cannot be understood as an irrationality opposite to rationality. With the internal integrated structure of “enabling-knowing,” one’s consciousness (or ren and righteousness) has the innate moral orientation that “its liking and disliking are similar to his” when responding to objects with emotions, and it is structurally manifested as various “starting points” with the characteristics of diversified contexts or conditions. When people unexpectedly see a child about to fall into a well, they will without exception experience a feeling of pity; when people see birds and animals crying and trembling for fear, they could not bear to handle; when people see flowers, plants and trees trampled and broken, they are bound to feel compassionate; when people are with their parents, they should be filial; when people visit the elders, they should feel modest and compliant. The situations mentioned above are all regarded as reflections of people’s feelings through the original integration of “enabling-knowing,” as well as the expression of their emotions in different situations, rather than some ready-made moral instincts or moral emotions.

31 James Legge. The Works of Mencius. Dover Publication, Inc. 2016: 416. 32 Translated by the translators of this book.

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When the idea appears, they will take action immediately. It does not have the discontinuous characteristics of “thinking before acting” of general empirical behaviors and cannot be seen as an empirical emotion formed by accumulated habits. Then, people’s subtle feelings in different situations constituted the principles of people’s real moral achievements. The proper goodness of mind of people may be hidden in some situations; their body may be in a state of differentiation, and the organic whole between human beings and the world may be hidden, but it is still there and can appear in some situations from time to time. There is neither the ready-made concept of inborn moral emotions nor the so-called “natural emotions” without innate moral orientation in the theory of heart-mind and nature of the school of Si-Mencius, which is the mainstream of Confucianism. Therefore, the Confucian concept that men are born good-natured can be proven.

CHAPTER 4

The Nature and Reflection of Sincerity: The Process of Edification

Abstract Confucian thoughts of individual cultivation and edification focus on “transformation” or “change.” The target of “transformation” or “change” is the individual existence of human being. The driving force and the creative origin of this “transformation” or “change” are rooted in the rules of “ren” and “dao” for human existence. This “transformation” or “change” makes the natural existence of human beings reflected as a kind of openness and generalization. Repressing the outgoings of virtue is impossible, and what truly is within will be manifested without. Keywords Repressing the outgoings of virtue is impossible · What truly is within will be manifested without · Endeavor · Neoumenon

The Noumenon and Endeavor The highest goal of Confucian philosophy is to pursue dao. Pursuing dao is a physical and mental experience and practical possession, rather than a simple theoretical cognition. Therefore, there are endeavors and practice approaches in Confucianism. The preface to the History of Confucianism in Ming Dynasty written by Huang Zongxi (1610–1695) says, “The goodness of a man is not what he was born with but the result of his cultivation through moral © Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd. 2022 J. Li, Edification in the Chinese Philosophy of Confucianism, Key Concepts in Chinese Thought and Culture, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-4196-2_4

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practice.”1 It shows that dao or noumenon should be achieved through people’s moral practice rather than the target of cognition. What Huang Zongxi says properly points out the learning spirit of Confucianism that the noumenon should be proven through practice. Confucianism pursues dao. To pursue dao, we should “know the way.” However, this “knowing” should be based on “the practice of the way.” This thought is well illustrated in Xunzi, “A person who knows the way and discerns it and puts it into practice embodies the way. The person with emptiness, unity and stillness is called the person of great pure understanding. He can perceive each of the myriad things with a form, assign each being perceived to its proper place, and make each being assigned to its proper place not lose its proper position.”2 “Knowing the way” here includes knowing and practicing. Discerning is the meaning of knowing in a narrow sense; practicing is the practice of dao. The two are integrated. “Practicing dao” could be a real and practical experience. It should be realized through the cultivation of morality. Emptiness, unity, and stillness are the natural realms of spirit through practice. In addition, the great pure understanding is the wisdom of life achieved by these spiritual realms. Therefore, the unity of practicing and knowing is based on practice. Neither “Discerning” nor knowing is an independent principle. When discussing intelligence and sincerity, Zisi says, “When we have intelligence resulting from sincerity, this condition is to be ascribed to nature; when we have sincerity resulting from intelligence, this condition is to be ascribed to instruction. However, given the sincerity, there shall be the intelligence; given the intelligence, there shall be the sincerity.” Sincerity is the way of heaven. This also shows “virtues belonging to human nature.”3 “Having intelligence resulting from sincerity” is the self-consciousness of nature through the realization of nature; “Having sincerity resulting from intelligence” is the realization of nature through the self-consciousness of nature. “Having intelligence resulting from sincerity” and “Having sincerity resulting from intelligence” are two

1 Referring to the Case of Ming Confucianism—The Original Writing of Huang Lizhou. Translated by the translators of this book. 2 Translated by the translators of this book. 3 James Legge. The Great Learning & the Doctrine of the Mean. Liaoning People’s

Publishing House. 2017: 180.

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approaches with different dimensions. However, without the realization of human nature, dao could not be learned. Meanwhile, without corresponding self-consciousness, human nature could not be achieved. The mutual realization of intelligence and sincerity is shown by the practice of the realization of human nature. “Intelligence” is the meaning of understanding during the realization of human nature, which is interlinked with the “knowing” based on the practice of dao. When answering his disciples’ question of ti dao, Zhu Xi also says, “Ti refers to practicing in the phrase of ‘observing and practicing’. The term ‘ti dao’ means practicing merits such as goodness in person after observing others’ merits. Therefore, what men of virtue express is that no man is of non-dao if he can practice in person those merits. He can have those merits internalized if he sees on others. If one prevents himself from doing something of non-dao, he is practicing the merits in another way.” Practicing dao in his words is to immerse oneself in this practice. People need to practice dao by themselves, so that they can possess it in a real sense.4 The learning of human nature and way understood by Confucianism is a kind of self-consciousness of human nature and way. This noumenon or dao is an ideological approach that can be realized through practice, making dao understood by Confucianism bear more of the ideological characteristics of “specific concept” mentioned by Hegel. The Book of Changes says, “But if there be not the proper men (to carry this out), the course cannot be pursued without them.”5 The Book of Changes illustrates, “The seeing their spirit-like intimations and understanding them depended on their being the proper men; and the completing (the study of) them by silent meditation, and securing the faith of others without the use of words, depended on their virtuous conduct.”6 “Them” here refers to dao. Dao is proven by people’s practical achievements of morality and personality cultivation. In addition, dao is also expressed through practice to the manifestation in different situations. This is what Confucius wants to express by saying “A man can enlarge the principles which he follows; those principles do not enlarge

4 Referring to Zhuxi’s Reading Method, edited by Song Zhanghong, Xu Xi. Translated by the translators of this book. 5 James Legge. The Book of Changes. Hunan Education Publishing House. 1993: 335. 6 James Legge. The Book of Changes. Hunan Education Publishing House. 1993: 315.

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the man”7 (Confucian Analects ). The Book of Changes also says, “The successive movement of the inactive and active operations constitutes what is called the course (of things). That which ensues as the result (of their movement) is goodness; that which shows it in its completeness is the natures (of men and things). The benevolent see it and call it ren, the wise see it and call it wisdom. The common people, acting daily according to it, yet have no knowledge of it.”8 There are many different things in the universe, each of which is different in position, time, and suitability. “Dao” is revealed at different levels by these different things. For people, dao is innate and runs through individual existence. In different situations and levels, it will perform differently according to people’s self-consciousness and self-cultivation. Its universality is shown as a mutual “communication” of internal differences, rather than the “identity” of abstract homogeneity. This is shown in Confucian thoughts. According to Confucianism, “affable, but not adulatory”9 is the necessary quality for junzi (Confucian Analects ). When discussing people’s behaviors, Confucians say, “(We have) all regulations controlled (by authority) in its proper place. (We have) reaction proceeding from the central and correct position”10 (The Book of Changes ). When discussing the truth and dao, Confucians say, universality and particularity. It is also the same as the so-called “The successive movement of the inactive and active operations constitutes what is called the course (of things). That which ensues as the result (of their movement) is goodness; that which shows it in its completeness is the natures (of men and things). The benevolent see it and call it ren, the wise see it and call it wisdom. The common people, acting daily according to it, yet have no knowledge of it”11 cited above from the Book of Changes. When it comes to philosophy, people today often talk about noumenon with phenomenon and entity with attribute. Confucian theory of noumenon or “dao” is about “practice,” that is, a series of processes of existential transformation it needed to prove dao and achieve the realization of ontology. This is a static and epistemological approach to 7 James Legge. Confucian Analects. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2016: 307. 8 James Legge. The Book of Changes. Hunan Education Publishing House. 1993: 296. 9 James Legge. Confucian Analects. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2016: 471. 10 James Legge. The Book of Changes. Hunan Education Publishing House. 1993: 269. 11 James Legge. The Book of Changes. Hunan Education Publishing House. 1993: 296.

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discuss ontology with phenomenon and entity with attribute. Confucianism advocates that the noumenon can be realized and demonstrated through practice, naturally, it cannot deviate from the dimension of cognition. However, its focus lies in the realization of life existence. The practice theory of Confucianism is full of profound and rich content. The study of Confucius takes “ren,” or the so-called “dao” as the core; “loyalty and consideration” as the way of practicing ren and the practicing process of pursuing dao. Loyalty and consideration are the achievements made through the cultivation of loyalty, so as to achieve the ren of one’s own internal and external unity. This way of loyalty and consideration includes the unity of doing one’s best and achieving goals. It stipulates the basic ideological framework of Confucian practice theory. After Confucius, Zengzi and Zisi made internal adjustments on this basis. The practice theory upheld by them focused more on moral and emotional practice. Zengzi’s theory emphasizes “keeping indeed of the most importance”12 and self-examination. In addition, there is a saying “I daily examine myself on three points” (Confucian Analects ). In the Great Learning, the way of loyalty and consideration is based on self-cultivation and illustrating illustrious virtue.13 The moral practice of self-cultivation and illustrating illustrious virtue mainly includes the investigation of things, the extension of knowledge, cultivating sincere thoughts, and rectifying hearts. Zhongyong takes “sincerity” as its core and emphasizes the pursuit of sincerity, so as to realize human nature of suitable ways.14 In the Transcription of Five Phases from the Mawangdui silk manuscript, 12 As for practicing passion-effort, the works of Mencius says, “Yet, what Meng Shishe maintained, being merely his physical energy, was after all inferior to what the Zengzi maintained, which was indeed of the most importance.” This is so-called “holding principles,” which means grasping main points and reflecting on the moral basis of their own behavior in order to lead their vast. 13 The principle with which, as with a measuring square, to regulate one’s conduct is ren exercise in essence. More exactly, it is the reflection of ren exercise in politics. 14 Zhongyong says, “Sincerity is the way of Heaven. To think how to be sincere is the way of man.” “The possessor of sincerity does not merely accomplish the self-completion of himself. With this quality he completes other men and things also. The completing himself shows his perfect virtue. The completing other men and things shows his knowledge. But these are virtues belonging to the nature, and this is the way by which a union is effected of the external and internal.” “Sincerity” is the “virtue of morality,” that is, the essence of nature. “Think how to be sincere” is the approach to realize “nature.” In the sense of approach, “sincerity” is completing people themselves and other things, and it is another expression of benevolent exercise, which values “benevolence” more.

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school of Zisi proposes the theory of “self-discipline,” which means to abandon the perception and feelings of external things and pay more attention to the internal mind in the moral practice theory.15 When discussing the practice of self-cultivation, Mencius paid more attention to self-examination, proposing to “seek the lost mind”16 and “Let a man first stand fast in the supremacy of the nobler part of his constitution,”17 which means to realize people’s innate nature of goodness through exhausting all his mental constitution and knowing his nature to know heaven and preserving mental constitution and nourishing one’s nature to serve heaven so as to cultivate his personal character. Mencius also proposes to pursue a way of nourishing one’s vast, flowing passion-nature, so as to establish the existential basis of morality. Compared to the thought of the school of Si-Mencius, the practice theory of Xunzi pays attention to the external modeling role of etiquette and advocates “changing people’s evil nature through people’s efforts18 (The Xunzi). This not only regards the realization of human beings as an open process toward future and social activities letting people pursue sincerity and forget their evil nature (The Xunzi), but also devotes itself to the ways of cultivating people’s morality modestly and exclusively, so as to achieve the free state of the Great Pure Understanding.19 Confucianism in the Song and Ming Dynasties highlighted mind, nature, and education, especially the cultivation of people’s morality and the significance of practice theory. The practice theory of the Confucian school of idealist philosophy of the Song and Ming Dynasties emphasizes more on the refinement of the investigation of things, the extension of knowledge, and the exploration of external things. At the same time, it also emphasizes cultivating sincere thoughts and keeping respect. The practice theory of mind theory pays more attention to “Let a man first 15 Referring to Li Jinglin. The fourth chapter of the Philosophy of Edification. 16 The works of Mencius, “The great end of learning is nothing else but to find the lost

mind.” 17 Mencius regards mind as the “great part” of people, the senses of hearing and Refer

toing as the “little part.” “Let a man first stand fast in the supremacy of the nobler part of his constitution” says that reflection is the moral code for people’s minds. Benevolence, righteousness, propriety, and knowledge are rooted in people’s hearts, so it can realize the freedom of people’s hearts without being affected by the external things. 18 Translated by the translators of this book. 19 Referring to the Xunzi.

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stand fast in the supremacy of the nobler part of his constitution”20 (remarks from Lu Xiangshan), cultivates sincere thoughts, rectifies hearts, cultivates people’s morality through external things (remarks from Wang Yangming), and illustrates the main points directly. It also stresses “practical experience”21 (Chuanxi Lu, Instructions for Practical Living ) and exhorts scholars with “without referring to books, one’s talk is empty and groundless”22 (Xiangshan Quotations ). To sum up, although Confucian practice theory is full of rich content, it can be summarized as the unified and inseparable internal and external dimensions stipulated by Confucian way of loyalty and consideration. Confucian practice theory includes the two dimensions of “selfimprovement” and “the improvement of the world,” which are inseparable. Without self-improvement, the improvement of the world can’t be achieved. In addition, the self-improvement cannot be called realized without the improvement of the world. However, there are different emphases on both sides of self-improvement and the improvement of the world. As for self-improvement, Confucianism stresses the realization of the integrity of individual life; as for the improvement of the world, it focuses on the role of junzi’s virtue in edifying the world. Therefore, we should discuss them separately.

The Purification and Continuity of Life Zhongyong of the Book of Rites states, “It is said in the Book of Songs, ‘The ordinances of Heaven, how profound are they and unceasing!’ The meaning is, that it is thus that Heaven is Heaven. Again, ‘How illustrious was it, the singleness of the virtue of King Wen!’ indicating that it was thus that King Wen was what he was. Singleness likewise is unceasing.”23 The phrase is quoted from the Book of Songs 24 to praise the virtue of King Wen. As a sage king revered by Confucianism, King Wen has the significance of being a model of ideal personality. “Was the singleness

20 Translated by the translators of this book. 21 Translated by the translators of this book. 22 Translated by the translators of this book. 23 James Legge. The Great Learning & the Doctrine of the Mean. Liaoning People’s

Publishing House. 2017: 206–7. 24 Referring to the Book of Songs: Sacrificial Odes of Zhou: The Ordinances of Heaven.

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of the virtue of king Wen”25 and “Singleness likewise is unceasing”26 are the praises for King Wen in Chinese classics. “Singleness”27 refers to the singleness of human life, purification or the purity of existence; “unceasing”28 refers to the uninterrupted birth continuity or sameness of the life course. The pure aspect of singleness is its nature; the continuous aspect of singleness is its time and its diachronie. These two aspects are closely related and inseparable. The “singleness” and “sameness” focus on the realization of the wholeness of individual life. I would like to start with its “singleness.” The so-called “singleness” is relative to the multiplicity. The reality of human beings is not an aggregation of multiplicity. The various manifestations of the individual’s existence are refined by the establishment and coherence of its intrinsic ontology and are unified into one. That’s why it is called “singleness.” This “singleness” or purity of life is rooted in the heart’s selfconsciousness and possession of the heavenly course or essence. “What Heaven has conferred is called the nature,”29 “the nature” is originally from heaven but lies within human beings. Therefore, the first thing to do is to reflect on oneself and seek within oneself, to realize that one’s own heart has its own nature. The practice approach of the school of SiMencius and the school of mind emphasizes this meaning. The so-called “the way” in Confucianism is not only the form of the body, but also the virtue of “the daily renovation”30 and “production and reproduction,”31

25 James Legge. The Great Learning & the Doctrine of the Mean. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2017: 207. 26 James Legge. The Great Learning & the Doctrine of the Mean. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2017: 207. 27 James Legge. The Great Learning & the Doctrine of the Mean. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2017: 207. 28 James Legge. The Great Learning & the Doctrine of the Mean. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2017: 207. 29 James Legge. The Great Learning & the Doctrine of the Mean. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2017: 87. 30 James Legge. The Great Learning & the Doctrine of the Mean. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2017: 21. 31 James Legge. The Great Learning & the Doctrine of the Mean. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2017: 297.

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which is the essence of creation or creativity.32 The “way” is embedded in human existence, understood as the nature of human beings and considered as a morally creative origin. The Works of Mencius states, “What belongs by his nature to the superior man are ren, righteousness, propriety and wisdom. These are rooted in his heart; their growth and manifestation are a mild harmony appearing in the countenance, a rich fullness in the back, and the character imparted to the four limbs. Those limbs understand to arrange themselves, without being told.”33 Mencius’ words are a good expression of this point. “Benevolence, righteousness, propriety and wisdom”34 are inherent in the mandate of heaven and are the innate provisions of human nature. “Their growth and manifestation,”35 “a mild harmony appearing in the countenance,”36 “a rich fullness in the back,”37 come from “the four limbs,”38 which is the speech body that manifests itself through the inner emotions and the physical reality of the human beings. The self-realization of one’s own nature is not a cognition of the object but a realization of the inner search of the body. Human nature is revealed by the mind, “benevolence, righteousness, propriety and knowledge. These are rooted in his heart.”39 It will trigger and promote a series of transformation and sublimation of human emotions and physical existence, so that they will be continuously refined and call the body to be used and developed into a creative activity of the body (human nature).

32 The Book of Changes, “Hence that which is antecedent to the material form exists, we say, as an ideal method.” “The successive movement of the inactive and active operations constitutes what is called the course (of things) … rich possessions are what is intended by ‘the greatness of its stores’; the daily renovation which it produces is what is meant by ‘the abundance of its virtue’. Production and reproduction are what is called (the process of) change.” 33 James Legge. The Works of Mencius. 34 James Legge. The Works of Mencius. 35 James Legge. The Works of Mencius. 36 James Legge. The Works of Mencius.

Dover Publication, Inc. 2016: 460. Dover Publication, Inc. 2016: 460. Dover Publication, Inc. 2016: 460. Dover Publication, Inc. 2016: 460.

37 James Legge. The Works of Mencius. Dover Publication, Inc. 2016: 460. 38 James Legge. The Works of Mencius. Dover Publication, Inc. 2016: 460. 39 James Legge. The Works of Mencius. Dover Publication, Inc. 2016: 460.

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Confucianism often emphasizes “self-discipline” from the perspective of “virtues cannot be disguised,” “what truly is within”40 must be “manifested without”.41 The Great Learning of the Book of Rites says, “What is meant by ‘making the thoughts sincere’ is the allowing of no selfdeception, as when we hate a bad smell, and as when we love what is beautiful. This is called self-enjoyment. Therefore, the superior man must be watchful over himself when he is alone…. The other beholds him, as if he saw his heart and reins…. ‘What truly is within will be manifested without.’ Therefore, the superior man must be watchful over himself when he is alone.”42 Zhongyong also states, “On this account, the superior man does not wait till he sees things, to be cautious, nor till he hears things, to be apprehensive. There is nothing more visible than what is secret, and nothing more manifest than what is minute. Therefore, the superior man is watchful over himself when he is alone.”43 From the perspective of moral cultivation work, the Confucian saying “self-discipline” has two meanings. Firstly, for one’s original subtle motivation, he is the only one who notices it. Therefore, one should carefully control himself from the very beginning and do nothing that will denature it.44 These two passages from the Great Learning and Zhongyong on “self-discipline” demonstrate this point. Secondly, it highlights the independent self-determination of the “mind,” which is not bound by external norms, objects, or the free spirit of self-domination. The Book of Rites states, “But that in (the instituting of) rites the paucity of things 40 James Legge. The Great Learning & the Doctrine of the Mean. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2017: 38. 41 James Legge. The Great Learning & the Doctrine of the Mean. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2017: 38. 42 James Legge. The Great Learning & the Doctrine of the Mean. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2017: 35, 38. 43 James Legge. The Great Learning & the Doctrine of the Mean. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2017: 90. 44 Confucianism places special emphasis on the significance of the work of effectively grasping at first thought. In the Book of Changes, it is said that “The superior man, (thus represented), by his self-reverence maintains the inward (correctness), and in righteousness adjusts his external acts (21),” and Song Confucians take “his self-reverence maintains the inward (correctness) (21)” as the work of restraining evil thoughts and remaining sincere. Wang Yangming’s disciples also say that “The truth is known while being alone” (Wang Yangming. “Two Songs in Answer to the Question of the Truth”, Wang Yangming’s Complete Works, vol. 20), and that this is where one should use one’s efforts. Both are related to this meaning.

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was (also) considered a mark of distinction, arose from the minds (of the framers) being directed inwards. Extreme as is the energy (of nature) in production, it is exquisite and minute. When we look at all the things under the sky, they do not seem to be in proportion to that energy. In such a case, how could they keep from considering paucity a mark of distinction? Hence, the superior men, (the framers), watched carefully over the solitude (of their own thoughts).”45 In the Book of Rites, Confucius talks about “fundamental principles of ceremonies and music,” “music without sound,” “ceremony without embodiment,” “mourning without garb,” and “The three points that have no positive existence.” Kong Yingda (574–648) explains, “These three are all said to be in the heart, and there is no shape on the outside, so it is called nothing.” The Five Phases theory of the school of Si-Mencius thus goes even further in explaining the meaning of “self-discipline” from the perspective of “not letting the action of the five physical senses affect the heart and making the heart alone.”46 The “physical senses” refer to the ritual forms and artifacts of the ritual. The cultivation of virtue must surely follow the norms of rituals. However, the achievement of virtue and the true spirit of rituals (fundamental principles of ceremonies and music) is precisely to enable people to dissolve the external formal meaning of rituals and return to the inner nature and uniqueness of the mind, so as to achieve the individual’s independence, uniqueness, and solitude of the mind to the way of heaven. This is what Confucianism emphasizes as the work of “self-discipline.”47 The concept of “self-discipline” intensively expresses the spirit of Confucianism and its ideological connotation of reflecting on the work of connoting the original mind and nature. Zhongyong advocates “This sincerity becomes apparent.” Xunzi has a more detailed explanation saying, “The way for junzi to reform people is like this: if he is not sincere, he cannot be self-disciplined; if he cannot be self-disciplined, morality cannot be manifested in his daily actions.”48 It is said that sincerity can be self-disciplined and self-disciplined can be

45 James Legge. The Book of Rites (English-Chinese). Zhongzhou Guji Publishing Company. 2016: 205. 46 Translated by the translators of this book. 47 Referring to Li Jinglin, “The Philosophy of Civilization”, Chapter IV & Discussion

on the silk book of the Five Phases, chapter of the “self-discipline.” 48 Translated by the translators of this book.

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apparent. Why can self-disciplined be apparent? “Sincerity” means actuality and no delusion. “Self-discipline” is a manifestation of the inherent nature of sincerity. Confucianism understands human virtues in the overall sense of the unity of the internal and external, the physical and mental and the sensible and knowledgeable. It believes that the inherent virtues and moral choices of people will affect and transform their emotions, temperaments, and behaviors, and express them through the latter. This refers to the meaning that sincerity can be self-disciplined and self-disciplined can be apparent. The “appearance” has two meanings, firstly, the way and human nature are rooted in the heart and shaped in human emotions. Mencius’ “a mild harmony appearing in the countenance,”49 “a rich fullness in the back,”50 Confucianism in the Song Dynasty’s “restoring one’s acquired temperament to its innate nature through the civilization”,51 is about the “appearance” of this meaning. Secondly, it refers to the role of junzi’s virtue in exemplifying and reforming the world. We will explain the second meaning of “appearance” in the following section. The creative transformation of the human mind over the heaven’s way and the nurturing of the physical body will take shape in the emotional and physical existence of human beings and will lead to a continuous purification of their life existence. The Great Learning of the Book of Rites states, The point where to rest being known, the object of pursuit is then determined; and, that being determined, a calm unperturbedness may be attained to. To that calmness there will succeed a tranquil repose. In that repose there may be careful deliberation, and that deliberation will be followed by the attainment of the desired end. Things have their root and their branches. Affairs have their end and their beginning. To know what is first and what is last will lead near to what is taught in the Great Learning.52

49 James Legge. The Works of Mencius. Dover Publication, Inc. 2016: 460. 50 James Legge. The Works of Mencius. Dover Publication, Inc. 2016: 460. 51 Translated by the translators of this book. 52 James Legge. The Great Learning & the Doctrine of the Mean. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2017: 6.

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“The point where to rest being known”53 is “to rest in the highest excellence,”54 more specifically, is that “as a sovereign, he rested in ren. As a minister, he rested in reverence”55 and other choices and adherence to the actual moral principles. The “determined,”56 “a calm unperturbedness”57 and “a tranquil repose,”58 are true states in which the choices of goodness are manifested in the actual existence of emotions. The “careful deliberation”59 and “the attainment of the desired end”60 are a matter of wisdom, namely, thinking wisely and knowing and attaining the way. Dai De says, “True wisdom should have a look that is difficult to guess; true ren should have a look that makes people admire; true bravery should have a look that is difficult to yield; true loyalty should have a look that is approachable; true integrity should have a look that is difficult to pollute; true quietness should have a look that is trustworthy.”61 The Book of Rites states, “A filial son, cherishing a deep love (for his parents), is sure to have a bland air; having a bland air, he will have a look of pleasure; having a look of pleasure, his demeanor will be mild and compliant.”62 The transcription of Five Elements from the school of SiMencius specially emphasizes ren, righteousness, propriety, knowledge, and sages (five virtues). It is only when the emotions of the heart are real that they can be truly owned by the heart and gain their own moral

53 James Legge. The Great Learning & the Doctrine of the Mean. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2017: 6. 54 James Legge. The Great Learning & the Doctrine of the Mean. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2017: 6. 55 James Legge. The Great Learning & the Doctrine of the Mean. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2017: 24–5. 56 James Legge. The Great Learning & the Doctrine of the Mean. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2017: 6. 57 James Legge. The Great Learning & the Doctrine of the Mean. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2017: 6. 58 James Legge. The Great Learning & the Doctrine of the Mean. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2017: 6. 59 James Legge. The Great Learning & the Doctrine of the Mean. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2017: 6. 60 James Legge. The Great Learning & the Doctrine of the Mean. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2017: 6. 61 Translated by the translators of this book. 62 James Legge. Chinese Text Project. http://ctext.org.

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values. As it says in the discussion of “ren”—“ren thinking is refined. When being refined, it can be inspected; when being inspected, it can be peaceful; when being peaceful, it can be warm; when being warm, it can be joyful; when being joyful, it can be observant; when being observant, it can be full of love; when being full of love, it can be jade-like; when being jade-like, it can be formed; when being formed, ren will appear.”63 The self-discipline, the point where to rest being known, careful thinking and intelligent apprehension leads to a series of emotional goodness, such as stability, stillness, peace, warmth, joy, affection, love, etc. This (A series of emothinal goodness) manifest themselves in the beauty of grooming, such as a graceful appearance, a rich back, a contented body, a gentle character as well as a pleased, virtuous and jade-like look. This series of creative transformations from the inside to the outside make the individual existence constantly tend to be pure and unmixed and obtain a kind of holistic perfection. There is a saying in the Great Learning of the Book of Rites that “Riches adorn a house, and virtue adorns the person. The mind is expanded, and the body is at ease”,64 which gives a vivid interpretation of this concept of transformation of virtuous work of life. Xunzi says, “Junzi learns like a molt, rapidly changing and improving. That’s how they learn to walk, stand, sit, look and speak. When they see a good deed, they do it immediately. When they have a problem, they ask for suggestions, without hesitation.”65 Xunzi takes cicadas as an example to illustrate vividly that the forms and practices of junzi’s learning are the overall transformation and essential sublimation of the existence of life. Confucianism has much alike to illustrate moral cultivation. The focus is on the transformation and sublimation of the totality of human existence brought about by the ontology of human heart-mind and the self-consciousness of virtue, not merely on the abstract discussion of the relationship between the elements of moral norms, motives, and behavior. The ultimate in purity of life or purification is the sage’s “widespread virtue and ren.” “The mind of the sage is straightforward, the surface and the inner essence are clear and thorough…the so-called ren, ‘follow

63 Translated by the translators of this book. 64 James Legge. The Great Learning & the Doctrine of the Mean. Liaoning People’s

Publishing House. 2017: 38. 65 Translated by the translators of this book.

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what my mind desired, without transgressing what was right.’ …although the form is human, heaven’s principle is….The sages have nothing but heavenly principles”66 (Classified Conversations of Zhu Xi). The actual existence of human beings is originally a kind of fixed presence with contingency, but the heart of the sage, purely in the heavenly principle, with virtue and ren, has already been transformed, free from the limits of its contingency, and has become a kind of present field in which the way and the heavenly principles are based on the full extent of the inevitable display. Song Confucians particularly emphasized the scene of the sage. For example, Huang Tingjian (1045–1105) praised Zhou Dunyi (1017– 1073) for his open-mindedness and frankness of heart.67 Cheng Yi praised Cheng Hao (1032–1085) for being pure in character and gentle in disposition.68 Both of them spoke of the virtue of the sage from the perspective that the heavenly truth is illuminated, overflowing, and present in its entirety in the form of individual’s actuality. The essence is rooted in human heart and transforms into reality and reveals itself in the acquired essence and purified form and actuality as a fully individualized and sensual manifestation. The previous quotation from the Works of Mencius states, “A man who commands our longingness is what is called a good man. He whose goodness is part of himself is what is called real man. He whose goodness has been filled up is what is called beautiful man. He whose completed goodness is brightly displayed is what is called a great man. When this great man exercises a transforming influence, he is what is called a sage. When the sage is beyond our knowledge, he is what is called a spirit-man.”69 A good man understands what he commands and reveals it truthfully. The unity of truth and goodness, “What truly is within will be manifested without,”70 fullness and brilliance, is beauty. The individualization of dao is the actuality of the present moment and the surge of life, which is expressed as a kind of beauty of the transformation realm and spirit freedom. 66 Translated by the translators of this book. 67 Referring to History of the Song Dynasty, vol. 427. 68 Referring to the Collected Works of the Cheng Brothers, vol. 12. 69 James Legge. The Works of Mencius. Dover Publication, Inc. 2016: 490. 70 James Legge. The Works of Mencius. Dover Publication, Inc. 2016: 38.

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Secondly, we come to its “sameness.” The so-called “sameness” refers to the continuity of the life course of human beings and the virtues they display outwardly and the individual’s past, present, and future actions. Hence, human life can acquire a coherence that can be universally understood, so that they can be recognized and affirmed as “this one,” which is distinct from the others. Zhongyong of the Book of Rites says, “entire sincerity there belongs ceaselessness.”71 Zhu Xi proposes, “Since there is no falsehood, there is no interruption.”72 “Ceaselessness” means continuous and uninterrupted. Confucian Analects states, “The Master says, ‘Such was Hui that for three months there would be nothing in his mind contrary to perfect virtue. The others may attain to this on some days or in some months, but nothing more.”73 The virtues of ordinary people are always intermittent and not continuous. A virtuous person such as Yan Hui could only have nothing in his mind “for three months.”74 The general practice of ren by common people can only last for “some days or few months”75 intermittently. Yanzi (Yan Hui)’s ability of “for three months there would be nothing in his mind”76 is already rare and valuable, moreover, it was conducted continuously. However, after a long period of Yan’s continuity, there is still a break. Therefore, Yanzi is called a man of virtue instead of a sage. In the course of human life, there must be an interval between one matter and another. Although there is a time and space gap between this good deed and the other good deed, there can be an essential or meaningful continuity at the same time. Confucianism refers to this essential or meaningful continuity as “entire sincerity there belongs ceaselessness.” This continuity is entrusted by the aforementioned creative role of the essence rooted in human hearts.

71 James Legge. The Great Learning & the Doctrine of the Mean. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2017: 199. 72 James Legge. The Great Learning & the Doctrine of the Mean. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2017: 196. 73 James Legge. Confucian Analects. Liaoning People’s 74 James Legge. Confucian Analects. Liaoning People’s 75 James Legge. Confucian Analects. Liaoning People’s 76 James Legge. Confucian Analects. Liaoning People’s

Publishing House. 2016: 178. Publishing House. 2016: 178. Publishing House. 2016: 178. Publishing House. 2016: 178.

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Confucian Analects illustrates, “The Master says, ‘TS’ze, you think, I suppose that I am one who learns many things and keeps them in memory?’ Tsze-Kung replied, ‘Yes - but perhaps it is not so?’ ‘No,’ was the answer; ‘I seek a unity all pervading.’”77 Confucian Analects states, “The Master says, ‘Sin, my doctrine is that of an all-pervading unity.’”78 Confucius commends on himself that “At fifty, I knew the decrees of Heaven. At sixty, my ear was an obedient organ for the reception of truth. At seventy, I could follow what my heart desired, without transgressing what was right”79 (Confucian Analects ). Zhu Xi explains “At sixty, my ear was an obedient organ for the reception of truth” as “a man listens to others’ voices and accept those without violation to his own mind. After reaching the supreme good, a man can realize the truth without thinking.”80 Confucius would not agree if his disciples only regarded him as a knowledgeable person. He emphasized that he had “the doctrine of an all-pervading unity” internally. He just followed what his heart desired, employed these virtues in the right way and naturally conformed to the way of heaven, without deliberate thinking. It reflected as a kind of moral freedom and continuity in behaviors. This continuity in behaviors for ideal personality is determined and given by its nature of “the doctrine of an all-pervading unity.” When talking about practice theory,81 Confucianism always demonstrates the relationship of internal and external aspects of cultivation practice with the thought “by his self-reverence maintains the inward (correctness), and in righteousness adjusts his external acts.”82 “By his self-reverence maintains the inward (correctness)” means that people can maintain his inward correctness through self-reverence. “In righteousness adjusts his external acts” means that people treat external things with 77 James Legge. Confucian Analects. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2016: 543. 78 James Legge. Confucian Analects. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2016: 119. 79 James Legge. Confucian Analects. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2016: 38. 80 Translated by the translators of this book. 81 The Book of Changes states, “‘Straightness’ indicates the correctness (of the internal principle), and ‘square,’ the righteousness (of the external act). The superior man, (thus represented), by his self-reverence maintains the inward (correctness), and in righteousness adjusts his external acts. His reverence and righteousness being (thus) established, his virtues are not solitary instances or of a single class.” 82 James Legge. The Book of Changes. Hunan Education Publishing House. 1993: 23.

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their feelings. In addition, their inward feelings can be reflected through practice, so they should adjust their behaviors according to righteousness. Confucianism stresses the important meaning of practice toward people’s moral cultivation. However, practice is not only an accumulation of experience and the cultivation of habits. The role of transforming and assigning values and meaning can only have empirical and accidental significance through the accumulation of experience. When interpreting the Book of Changes, Cheng Yi says, “People can maintain their inward correctness through self-reverence. People can adjust their external acts through righteousness. Righteousness can only be felt by others through observing their behaviors because it is not an external thing. Once men’s self-reverence and righteousness is built, their noble virtues can be cultivated. Instead of pursuing openness and straightforwardness on purpose, they reach the goal naturally. Virtues cannot be isolated because they are applicable to everything and beneficial to everything.” It interprets the relationship of internal and external aspects of cultivation practice from the perspective that there is a subtle relationship between the origin of things and its reflection. “Correcting people’s behaviors through obeying righteousness” refers to the conformity of behaviors to righteousness, which belong to the external category. However, the “external” refers to the expression of righteousness rooted internally. The basis of righteousness is inward rather than outward. By people’s self-reverence, correctness will be maintained with ren, righteousness, propriety, or wisdom rooted internally. With their manners reflected as a circulation, the connectivity of life is obtained. This is what Cheng Yi calls as “righteousness lies inward rather than outward.” Mencius’ theory of fostering the Spirit also shows this idea. The Great Spirit Mencius proposed is a spiritual state of the harmony between humans and nature based on qi and realized by the existence of men themselves. The Works of Mencius states, “This is the passion-nature: It is exceedingly great and exceedingly strong. Being nourished by rectitude and sustaining no injury, it fills up all between heaven and earth. This is the passion-nature: It is the mate and assistant of righteousness and reason. Without it, men are in a state of starvation. It is produced by the accumulation of righteous deeds; it is not obtained by incidental acts of righteousness. If the mind does not feel complacency in the conduct, the

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nature becomes starved.”83 “Nourishing vast, flowing passion-nature” should be based on the inward moral principles of righteousness and ren, without leaning to the long-term nourishing of “qi” or appearance. As for “obtaining by incidental acts of righteousness,” “incidental acts” means sneak attacks, which are the accidental conformity between behaviors and righteousness, in other words, following “righteousness” is an external rule. Such behavior is intermittent rather than continuous, so it has no moral value. “The accumulation of righteous deeds” is opposite to “incidental acts.” It stresses that righteousness and ren lie inside “vast” and the continuous cultivation of morality. “Without it, men are in a state of starvation.” “If the mind does not feel complacency in conducts, the nature becomes starved.” “Starvation” means emptiness. “Incidental acts of righteousness” lost its developing basis for lacking the support of “righteousness.” Qi cannot be over the maximum volume or the damage will be reflected on behaviors that result in the lack of moral necessity or continuity. In contrast, “the accumulation of righteous deeds” focuses on the inward connectivity of righteousness in real existence, thus, leading to continuous creation with unceasing singleness of vast. Confucius and Mencius often reveal the significance of this moral creation with the metaphor of water. The Works of Mencius states, “The disciple Xu says, ‘Zhong Ni often praised water, saying, Water! Water!’ What did he find in water to praise?” Mencius replies, “There is a spring of water; how it gushes out! It rests not day nor night. It fills up every hole, and then advances, flowing onto the four seas. Such is water having a spring! It was this which he found in it to praise. But suppose that the water has no spring. In the seventh and eighth when the rain falls abundantly, the channels in the fields are all filled, but their being dried up again may be expected in a short time.”84

Added in the Works of Mencius There is an art in the contemplation of water. It is necessary to look at it as foaming in waves. The sun and moon being possessed of brilliancy, their light admitted even through an orifice illuminate. Flowing water is

83 James Legge. The Works of Mencius. Dover Publication, Inc. 2016: 190. 84 James Legge. The Works of Mencius. Dover Publication, Inc. 2016: 316.

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a thing that does not proceed till it has filled the hollows in its course. The student who has set his mind on the doctrines of the sage, does not advance to them but by completing one lesson after another.85

Water flows continuously day and night, because of “having a spring.” The same is true for people’s morality and life. Taking dao as the goal and insisting on its nature of an all-pervading unity, the real existence of appearance and temperament, as well as practical actions will change accordingly. That shows the continuous creation and flowing water of innate morality and life. This creation of power is directly cultivated through real practice and demonstration, rather than pure normative external cognition.

Goodness Reflected Outward The second meaning of “sincerity becoming apparent” is the edification role of junzi’s morality to the world. It can be summarized as “goodness in appearance”86 in the Transcription of Five Phases from the Mawangdui silk manuscript. As cited in the Works of Mencius A man who commands our longingness is what we call a good man. He whose goodness is part of himself is what is called a real man. He whose goodness has been filled up is what is called a beautiful man. He whose completed goodness is brightly displayed is what is called a great man. When this great man exercises a transforming influence, he is what is called a sage. When the sage is beyond our knowledge, he is what is called a spirit-man.87

It summaries the whole system of edification. The first sentence discusses the humanist and metaphysical basis of edification while the following five sentences talk about the process of edification. This process includes internal and external aspects. The sentences “He whose goodness is part of himself is what is called a real man. He whose goodness has been

85 James Legge. The Works of Mencius. Dover Publication, Inc. 2016: 463. 86 Translated by the translators of this book. 87 James Legge. The Works of Mencius. Dover Publication, Inc. 2016: 490.

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filled up is what is called a beautiful man. He whose completed goodness is brightly displayed is what is called a great man” are the external aspects. In Confucian Analects, it is said, “The relation between superiors and inferiors is like that between the wind and the grass. The grass must bend, when the wind blows across it.”88 In the Works of Mencius, it is said, “Wherever the superior man passes through, transformation follows; wherever he abides, his influence is of a spiritual nature.”89 Both the thoughts mentioned above propose that edification in general sense should be turned into social edification that produces changes in customs and manners. In terms of social edification, Confucianism emphasizes that the teachings of virtue are of great importance to the government. Rulers should not only show their love for people in material resources, but also in “cultivating people with virtue.” The teachings of virtue have shown the concept of two-way interaction of virtuous subjects. For one thing, Confucianism emphasizes that only when virtue is truly excellent within and manifested properly outside, can it form social edification effect that can influence people unconsciously. In Zhongyong of the Book of Rites, it is said, “This sincerity becomes apparent. From being apparent, it becomes manifest. From being manifest, it becomes brilliant. Brilliant, it affects others. Affecting others, they are changed by it. Changed by it, they are transformed. It is only he who is possessed of the most complete sincerity that can exist under Heaven, who can transform.”90 In Xunzi, it is said, “The way for junzi to reform and reform people is as follows: if he is not sincere, he cannot be cautious when he is alone; if he cannot be cautious when he is alone, morality can’t be expressed in his daily actions; if morality cannot be expressed in his daily actions, people will not obey him even if he advocates from the heart, in face or the speech; even if people are forced to obey him, they are doubting and hesitating…. Sincerity is the quality of junzi and the root of politics. Only when junzi insists on sincerity, will people alike gather. When junzi loses his sincerity, people alike will also scatter. Insisting on sincerity and gathering people alike, it will be easy for junzi

88 James Legge. Confucian Analects. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2016: 424. 89 James Legge. The Works of Mencius. Dover Publication, Inc. 2016: 461. 90 James Legge. The Great Learning & the Doctrine of the Mean. Liaoning People’s

Publishing House. 2017: 193.

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to influence others. When it is easy for junzi to influence others, the style of being cautious when alone will become popular. When the style of being cautious when alone becomes popular, people’s sincerity will be formed.”91 In the concept that the inner changes will be reflected in people’s appearance, the personality achievement of junzi and social edification are two aspects that are integrated and inseparable. Sincerity, which is something individualized that is deeply reflected in dao, is the real “selfsatisfaction.” At the same time, it is also a “unique satisfaction” relying on nothing. This is the internal aspect of edification. Promoting the trend of cautious refers to the external edification effect of the moral personality of junzi. It is regarded as the principle of exercising government by Confucianism, different from severe punishment and simple command without virtue basis. It is the so-called idea of “can’t be cautious” and “can’t take actions according to morality” proposed by Xunzi that “Even if a man is internally virtuous and shows it on his face, expresses it in his speeches, others will still not obey him; Even if others obey him, they must be hesitant.”92 Zhongyong of the Book of Rites cites the words of Confucius, “Among the appliances to transform the people, sound and appearances are but trivial influences.”93 Dai De also says, “If we guide people with moral education, moral education will be popular among people, then people will be healthy and happy. If we use mandates to force people, mandates will be popular among people, then people will constantly feel sad.”94 It means that moral edification is the root to exercise government while “sound and appearances” and mandates should be the last resorts. If only “sound and appearances” are pursued while effects of moral edification are ignored, the government shall not have the effects of cultivating its people through the top-down model. Therefore, the ruler should take “virtue education” as the first principle of government, then, his decrees would be able to obtain its value as “the education from the imperial level.” In this regard, people will naturally be convinced,

91 Translated by the translators of this book. 92 Translated by the translators of this book. 93 James Legge. The Great Learning & the Doctrine of the Mean. Liaoning People’s

Publishing House. 2017: 245. 94 Translated by the translators of this book.

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moreover, even when the punishments and rewards are not conducted, edification will be widely practiced. The “appearance” of this unique form is the actual manifestation of the “way” in itself and the transformation of the actual existence of people. Thus, it is capable of transcending the form of “sound and appearances,” without words or faith, without sound or smell, similar to the breezes in spring, to be smooth and soundless. It also has the effect of directly perceiving people’s hearts, making “the relation between the superior and the inferior similar to that between the wind and the grass,” that is, “the grass must bend, when the wind blows across it.”95 Once “being sincere and reverential, the whole world is conducted into a state of happy tranquility”96 (Zhongyong of the Book of Rites ). For another, the basis of virtue education is the “way” or the course of humanity, which should be shared by junzi and common people. Therefore, Confucianism does not focus only on junzi or putting junzi before common people. The Chu bamboo slips Respecting Virtue and Righteousness discovered in Guodian village, Jingmen city, Hubei province, state that everything in the universe has its “way” and that all people should act according to the way. For instance, Dayu followed the way of water to manage the waters, Zaofu followed the way of horse-riding to control the horses, Houji followed the way of earth to cultivate crops. When junzi carries out edification, he should also follow the way. Therefore, “To teach is not to change the way but to educate. To teach and learn is to follow the way and ethics to fulfill oneself”, instead of “changing the way” or “changing the ethics.”97 Zhongyong of the Book of Rites says “The path is not far from man,”98 “the superior man governs men, according to their nature, with what is proper to them.”99 The explanation from Classified Conversations of Zhu Xi is that “Junzi deals with others the way they’ve been dealt

95 James Legge. Confucian Analects. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2016: 424. 96 James Legge. The Great Learning & the Doctrine of the Mean. Liaoning People’s

Publishing House. 2017: 242. 97 Referring to Li Ling. Proofreading to Chu Bamboo Slips Found in Guodian. 98 James Legge. The Great Learning & the Doctrine of the Mean. Liaoning People’s

Publishing House. 2017: 119–20. 99 James Legge. The Great Learning & the Doctrine of the Mean. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2017: 122.

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with.”100 The spiritual essence of junzi’s education is to realize the innate “way” in human beings themselves. In addition, the way to realize it is through “virtue education,” not through external decrees or indoctrination. Confucianism speaks of “to love all men,” instead of perfunctory love. Its essence is “to love others with virtue.” The emphasis is on the achievement of human virtue and the realization of transcendent value. This is also reflected in the way it governs. Confucian Analects states, The Master says, ‘If the people be led by laws, and uniformity sought to be given them by punishments, they will try to avoid the punishment, but have no sense of shame. If they be led by virtue, and uniformity sought to be given them by the rules of rites, they will have the sense of shame, and moreover will become good.’101

Confucian Analects also states, “The Master says, ‘In hearing litigations, I am like any other body. What is necessary, however, is to cause the people to have no litigations.’”102 It is said that the essence of government is to awaken people’s inner moral consciousness and the cultivation of virtue. The Great Learning summarizes Confucianism as the program and way of politics. It states to renovate people, to rest in the highest excellence, to improve the cultivation, to manage families well and govern the country well. In the end, it also comes down to “from the son of Heaven down to the mass of the people, all must consider the cultivation of the person the root of everything besides.”103 The meaning of “virtue” is that the path is to practice in the heart and attain in the self. The virtue education of junzi is to make people “selfgain” in the way and beautify their human nature. In a world cultivated by Confucianism, “What truly is within will be manifested without,”104 both the ruler and common people, teachers and students, are regarded as subjects who follow the way, manifesting themselves as a realization of their own values, rather than objects by other forces. The goal of the edification of rulers, is not only making rulers the sovereign, but also 100 Translated by the translators of this book. 101 James Legge. Confucian Analects. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2016: 37. 102 James Legge. Confucian Analects. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2016: 418. 103 James Legge. Confucian Analects. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2016: 35. 104 James Legge. Confucian Analects. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2016: 38.

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helping the common people live “under a true sovereign”105 (The Works of Mencius ). Confucianism advocates “What truly is within will be manifested without,”106 to achieve the realization of the value of the integration and equality of man, self, and things through the way of achieving oneself from inside to outside. It is also the way that Confucianism implements its edification. The Book of Changes states, “The superior man (emblemed here) by the yellow and correct (color), is possessed of comprehension and discrimination. He occupies the correct position (of supremacy), but (that emblem) is on (the lower part of) his person. His excellence is in the center (of his being), but it diffuses a complacency over his four limbs, and is manifested in his (conduct of) affairs: --this is the perfection of excellence.”107 That is to say, the inner virtues of junzi should not only be shown in “a mild harmony appearing in the countenance,”108 “a rich fullness in the back,”109 “the four limbs,”110 and in all forms, but also be “manifested in his (conduct of) affairs”111 and extended to the outer kingly achievement of ruling the country and leveling the world, so that the virtues of junzi can be fully realized.

105 James Legge. The Works of Mencius. Dover Publication, Inc. 2016: 454. 106 James Legge. Confucian Analects. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2016: 38. 107 James Legge. The Book of Changes. Hunan Education Publishing House. 1993: 23. 108 James Legge. The Book of Changes. Hunan Education Publishing House. 1993:

460. 109 James Legge. The Book of Changes. Hunan Education Publishing House. 1993:

460. 110 James Legge. The Book of Changes. Hunan Education Publishing House. 1993:

460. 111 James Legge. The Book of Changes. Hunan Education Publishing House. 1993: 23.

CHAPTER 5

The Teaching of Rites and Music: Edification and Lifestyles

Abstract Maintaining the integrity of traditional rules of demeanor and the continuity of its historical inheritance and reform and improving and edifying it according to human lifestyle have become the basic ways for Confucianism to implement its edifying concept. Mourning and sacrifices are important parts of the rules of rites. The ceremonies of mourning and sacrifices have reflected the unity and continuity of the internality of relative affection and the universality of giving honor to the most honorable. The way for Confucianism to establish the foundation of transcendental value is returning to the origin through relative affection, to reach the essence that conforms to the creatures of Heaven and earth. Keywords The rules of rites and music · Lifestyle · The ceremonies of mourning and sacrifices · Relative affection · Giving honor to the most honorable

The Rules of Rites and Music as Lifestyles In ancient times, China was regarded as a nation that valued greatly the rules of rites, which can be seen everywhere in ancient China. Among all the schools, Confucianism paid special attention to the rules of rites. In essence, the rules of rites are the social lifestyles in ancient China. © Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd. 2022 J. Li, Edification in the Chinese Philosophy of Confucianism, Key Concepts in Chinese Thought and Culture, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-4196-2_5

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The Book of Rites states, Ceremonies (might be said to) commence with the capping; to have their root in marriage; to be most important in the rites of mourning and sacrifice; to confer the greatest honor in audiences at the royal court and in the interchange of visits at the feudal courts; and to be most promotive of harmony in the country festivals and celebrations of archery. These were the greatest occasions of ceremony, and the principal points in them.1

The ceremonies, such as capping, marriage, mourning, sacrifice, conferring the greatest honor, betrothing, archery, and country festivals, covered all the ancient Chinese social lives of the individuals, married couples, families, clans, societies, political, and religious lives. This system of rites showed the lifestyles of ancient Chinese people and reflected the ways and means of realizing the transcendental values of the ancient human beings. In the view of Confucianism, “the rules of rites” is not only a sign that human existence is different from the natural world, but also the code of conduct that humans should follow all the time. The Book of Rites states, The parrot can speak, and yet is nothing more than a bird; the ape can speak, and yet is nothing more than a beast. Here now is a man who observes no rules of rites; is not his heart that of a beast? But if (men were as) beasts, and without (the principle of) rites, father and son might have the same mate. Therefore, when the sages arose, they framed the rules of rites in order to teach men, and cause them, by their possession of them, to make a distinction between themselves and brutes.2

The rules of rites are the signs that distinguish human beings from animals and any other natural existence. With the rules of rites, humans can be called the civilized existence. The rules of rites are in every aspect of human lives. Without the rules of rites, humans cannot exist; and without following the rules of rites, humans cannot be called humans. When explaining the rules of rites, ancient Chinese said, “The rules of

1 James Legge. Chinese Text Project. http://ctext.org. 2 James Legge. The Book of Rites (English-Chinese). Zhongzhou Guji Publishing

Company. 2016: 5.

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rites equal to practice”3 (Shuo Wen). Practice refers to the conduct taken by humans. It can be seen that the rules of rites are regarded as the codes of conduct for humans. Moreover, the rules of rites can be said to be the way of human existence. In Confucius: the Secular as Sacred,4 American scholar Fingarette (1921–2018) calls men as ceremonial beings.5 His idea is based on the Western thought that men are different from the other natural existences (animals). Meanwhile, the differences in the rules of rites and behaviors become the markers for different circles of culture and groups of humans. In this way, we can assume that the rules of rites originate from human existence or social lives, meanwhile, it is the code of conduct for human existence and lives. The Book of Changes illustrates, Heaven and earth existing, all (material) things then got their existence. All (material) things having existence, afterwards there came male and female. From the existence of male and female there came afterwards husband and wife. From husband and wife there came father and son. From father and son there came ruler and minister. From ruler and minister there came high and low. When (the distinction of) high and low had existence, afterwards came the arrangements of propriety and righteousness.6

Zhongyong of the Book of Rites states, The way which the superior man pursues, reaches wide and far, and yet is secret. Common men and women, however ignorant, may intermeddle with the knowledge of it; yet in its utmost reaches, there is that which even the sage does not know. Common men and women, however much below the ordinary standard of character, can carry it into practice; yet in its utmost reaches, there is that which even the sage is not able to carry into practice. Great as Heaven and earth are, men still find some things in them with which to be dissatisfied. Thus, it is that, were the superior man to speak of his way in all its greatness, nothing in the world would 3 Translated by the translators of this book. 4 Referring to Herbert Finglett. Confucius: The Secular as Sacred, translated by Peng

Guoxiang, Zhang Hua. 5 Referring to Herbert Finglett. Confucius: The Secular as Sacred, translated by Peng Guoxiang, Zhang Hua. 6 James Legge. The Book of Changes. Hunan Education Publishing House. 1993: 353.

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be found able to embrace it and were he to speak of it in its minuteness, nothing in the world would be found able to split it.… The way of the superior man may be found, in its simple elements, in the intercourse of common men and women; but in its utmost reaches, it shines brightly through Heaven and earth.7

Both the rules of rites and the way of junzi are originated from human daily lives, so a cultural concept with this feature of the rules of rites, fitting in human lives, can form the significance of edification. The cultural concept of Confucianism, based on this form of rites, can play the role of improvement and edification to social lives. The Book of Rites states, Therefore the instructive and transforming power of ceremonies is subtle; they stop depravity before it has taken form, causing men daily to move towards what is good, and keep themselves farther apart from guilt, without being themselves conscious of it. It was on this account that the ancient kings set so high a value upon them.8

The edifying significance of rites and music is discussed in the Book of Rites, The former kings, on occasions of great sorrow, had their rules according to which they expressed their grief; and on occasions of great happiness, they had their rules by which they expressed their pleasure. The manifestations, whether of grief or joy, were all bounded by the limits of these rules. In music the sages found pleasure, and (saw that) it could be used to make the hearts of the human good. Because of the deep influence which it exerts on a man, and the change which it produces in manners and customs, the ancient kings appointed it as one of the subjects of instruction.9

Both rites and music are originated from internal and emotional human lives. Therefore, music’s function of “producing the change in manners and customs” is also applicable to “rites.” The rules of rites or the rules 7 James Legge. The Great Learning & the Doctrine of the Mean. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2017: 116. 8 James Legge. Chinese Text Project. http://ctext.org. 9 James Legge. Chinese Text Project. http://ctext.org.

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of ritual music are traditional Chinese social lifestyles, with the practicing and edifying functions of producing the changes in manners and customs and imperceptibly influencing humans. As for Confucian interpretation of ancient rules of rites, it mainly reveals its emotional and intellectual connotations from the emotional lives of the rules of rites. It also defines the essence of “the rules of rites” and the principle of framing the rules with the unity of emotions and convention and the continuity of achievements and solid qualities (culture and nature) and reflects the spirit of valuing feelings and qualities. This interpretation of ancient rules of rites inspires a rational or humane transformation of ancient music and rules of rites. What become the basic ways for Confucianism to implement its edifying concept are maintaining the integrity of traditional rules of demeanor and the continuity of its historical inheritance and reform and improving and edifying it according to human lifestyles.

The Rules of Rites and Religious Lives Shuo Wen states, “Just like humans walk in shoes, humans worship gods for blessings.”10 From the perspective of philology, the original meaning of the word “li” (the rules of rites) is related to the ceremonies of sacrifices. In ancient times, the ceremonies of sacrifices were indispensable parts of practicing the rules. Therefore, the rules of rites in ancient China were closely related to human religious lives. The ceremonies of sacrifices, which were especially valued by Confucianism were directly related to the religious beliefs and systems of faiths. The Book of Rites says, “Of all the methods for the good ordering of men, there is none more urgent than the use of ceremonies. Ceremonies are of five kinds, and there is none of them more important than sacrifices.”11 This is also illustrated from the citation of Confucius in Zhongyong, “He who understands the ceremonies of the sacrifices to Heaven and Earth, and the meaning of the several sacrifices to ancestors, would find the government of a kingdom as easy as to look into his palm!”12

10 Translated by the translators of this book. 11 James Legge. Chinese Text Project. http://ctext.org. 12 James Legge. The Great Learning & the Doctrine of the Mean. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2017: 153.

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It is worth noting that this set of sacrificial rules of rites and the spiritual world and belief systems appeared before the birth of Confucius. It is a part of the whole ancient society, not inclusive of Confucianism. The metaphysical system of Confucianism interlocks with and plays the role of edification to social lives through the reflection and sublimation of this social religious belief and the rules of rites and music system and endows it with transcendental significance. This social edifying way is called “conforming to nature and creating edification with divine morality so as to influence the world and enlighten the humans.” Confucianism is a philosophy rather than a religion. However, it plays the role of edification which is similar to religion in Chinese society. A vital feature of ancient Chinese social religion is that it attaches importance to the divine morality of the belief rather than the image. The religious belief during the period before Confucius has its own system of gods, including the spirits of heaven, the spirits of earth, and ghosts, which constitute a system of polytheism with the supreme god of heaven dominating the other gods. There are extensive sacrificial rules of rites and objects recorded in the Book of Rites. The principles of sacrifices are “recompensing” and “going back in their thoughts to the beginning (of all beings)” or the nature of “repaying” and “recollecting the nature of existence.” All objects with the meaning of “nature” and “beginning” for lives can be included in the sacrificial ceremony. Heaven and earth, sun and moon, mountains and rivers, the land and grain, the ancestral temple, the five sacrifices of the house, ancestors, the spirits of heaven, the spirits of earth as well as ghosts are all included in the sacrificial ceremony. The section of “Sacrificial Ceremony,” introduces the scene and rules for sacrificial ceremonies in the last month of the Chinese lunar calender. The sacrifices extensively range from the ancestors of farming to the animal gods like cats and tigers, as well as the gods of embankment and canal. Cats and tigers, as the predators of mouse and wild pig respectively, help people keep the crops from being eaten and are therefore regarded by humans as the animal gods. It is the way that humans offer sacrifice to the ancestors in the ancient time. Due to the order of the world of men, this system of gods also forms its own order. In this system, the son of heaven can be called “the supreme priest.” The son of heaven is the only one who has the right to sacrifice (or present oblations) to heaven or heaven and earth. The rulers present oblations, each to (the spirit presiding over) his own quarter; to (the spirits of) its hills and rivers. Great officers present the oblations of the five sacrifices

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of the house. (Other) officers present oblations to their ancestors (The Book of Rites ). Then, the sacrificial system with strict order was formed. The gods in the system including the spirits of heaven, earth spirits, and ancestors could all be classified to the “heaven” and “ruler” as the god. However, the “heaven” and “rulers” were the ethical system of human society from top to bottom. Only the son of heaven had the right to sacrifice (or present oblations) to heaven and earth. The significance of sacrificing (or presenting oblations) to heaven and earth was also connected with sacrificial activities in different statuses. In addition, it gave the divine and transcendental significance of connectivity between humans and nature to sacrificial activities. The belief in gods in ancient China was closely related to the concept of astronomy and calendar. Ancient Chinese humans proposed the thought of following the law of heaven, which embodies two meanings. The first is about political affairs and calendars related to farming. The second is about sacrificial ceremonies and activities related to the heaven, the sun, the moon, and the stars. Confucianism stated the deeds of Yao and Shun, especially the significance of their ways of exercising government toward “the thought of following the law of nature.”13 In fact, all human sacrificial activities to the heaven, the sun, the moon, and the stars are related to calendar and farming. The Book of Documents proposes that “Men perform heaven’s duty.” In the views of ancient Chinese, “All things created by heaven have their own laws and rules” (The Book of Songs ). Agricultural arrangements and all the ethical activities, including the set of positions, the selection of rulers, and the establishment of sacrificial system performed by the rulers were duties of the heaven. “Heaven” and “the will of heaven” were about ethics, human affairs, and political affairs. In ancient China, there was the inauguration of the first day of each month, which also reflected and extended this tradition. The son of the heaven (the ruler) has the right to sacrifice (or present oblations) to

13 For example, Confucian Analects: “The Master says, ‘Great indeed was Yao as a

sovereign! How majestic was he! It is only Heaven that is grand, and only Yao corresponded to it.’” The Classic of History: “Emperor Yao… He commanded the Xis and Hes, in reverent accordance with (their observation of) the wide Heavens, to calculate and delineate (the movements and appearances of) the sun, the moon, the stars, and the zodiacal spaces, and so to deliver respectfully the seasons to be observed by the human.”

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heaven, announce the beginning of the new year, make arrangements of agricultural affairs, political affairs, and implement according to the calendar. These activities were regarded as “performing the duties of the heaven.” Therefore, his political conduct was also endowed with a sacred meaning originating from and derived from “heaven.” Here, the sanctity of heaven and the content of personality are not the existence of another heavenly world, but are displayed in this system of farming, politics, and human relations. In conclusion, the religious thoughts before Confucius included two aspects in unity: for one thing, the heaven referred to realistic and natural laws as well as ethical rules and principles; for another, this ethical and natural human order, as an overall system, has “heaven” as the sacred root running through it. Kwang-chi Chang (1931–2001) summarizes the characteristics of the origin of Chinese and Western civilizations with “continuity” and “disruptiveness.”14 The so-called “disruptiveness” and “continuity” refer to the relationship between civilization and nature. “Continuity” refers to the succession between humans and nature or between civilization and nature, that is, there is always an internal relationship between humans and their origin, nature. The religious belief system before Confucius embodies such a characteristic of “continuity” and an internal relationship theory. However, as for the views from the contemporary time, the internal continuity between civilization and nature is a holistic view of the universe. Under this context, all parts of the universe are regarded as an organic whole with internal relevance and a continuous life process. This continuous and holistic cultural and cosmological view cannot promise that there is a creator God apart from the universe and human existence.15 The concepts of heaven, ruler, and supreme god in the Shang and Zhou Dynasties did not refer to the ultimate god who created the world. The myths about the origin of the universe in China also embodied “the origination theory of transformation rather than creation.” This process of the

14 Referring to Kwang-chi Chang. “Continuity and Disruptiveness: A New Draft of the Origin of Civilization” and “Origin of civilization of a Nation from the Perspective of Bronzes in Shang and Zhou Dynasties.” 15 Referring to the third volume of Collected Works of Du Weiming.

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universe’s origin was shown as a chaotic separation and the deformation and transformation of existing things.16 The creation concept derived from the civilization of “disruptiveness” includes the world of gods and the world of humans while the two worlds are separated. The supreme god of the heaven and rulers in the Shang and Zhou Dynasties are in space and time and human world as the light source of its divinity and the basis of transcendence; The ruler “performing the duties of the heaven.” The divinity of the supreme god of heaven runs through and is reflected in nature and human relations. In the Shang and Zhou Dynasties, the supreme god of religion is neither a “unique God,” nor a creator outside this world. This divine morality is reflected in the ancient Chinese social lives as the rules of rites and music system.

The Change of Belief Systems and the Social Edification Way of Confucianism Kant divides religion into “religion in pursuit of grace” and “religion with morality.” The former hopes to get eternal happiness only by praying for god’s help; the latter adheres to the principle that humans can only become better persons with constant efforts, instead of praying for god’s help. Kant believed that only the religion with morality could be called “real religion.”17 In essence, the religious belief system in the Shang and Zhou Dynasties had the idea that divinity was inherent in man. Divinity was inherent in human existence, so that human nature should also have divinity or “goodness.” However, in the religious belief system of the Zhou Dynasty, this inherent meaning of divinity was mainly manifested as the concept of “moral principles and social manners,” that is, the rules of rites and music system originated from heaven did not reach self-consciousness in terms of “virtue.” The concept of “human nature” in the Zhou Dynasty was basically understood as the desire from lives. The so-called

16 Referring to Zhang Guangzhi. “Continuity and Disruptiveness: A New Draft of the Origin of Civilization” and “Origin of civilization of a Nation from the Perspective of Bronzes in Shang and Zhou Dynasties.” 17 Referring to discussion of the religious nature of Confucianism from Kant’s “moral religion,” published in Confucian Tradition and Edification Mentality edited by HarvardYenching Institute, Phoenix Publishing and Media Group, Jiangsu Education Publishing House, 2005.

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“restraining nature” was just the control of desire derived from the virtue of reverence.18 In Zuozhuan, it is said, “The Book of Zhou says that ‘Great Heaven has no partial affections; it helps only the virtuous.’”19 In the Book of Documents, it is said, “When he is all-devoted to this virtue, he may pray to Heaven for a long-abiding decree in his favor.”20 The two typical thoughts show that in the religious thoughts of the humans in the Zhou Dynasty, for one thing, the supreme god of heaven is the origin of “virtue” or “the highest excellence.” For another, humans belong to utilitarian existence, for their virtue of reverence and good deeds are based on the utilitarian purposes. In this belief system, the real foundation of moral self-discipline which constitutes the “moral religion” is not yet set up. When heaven and the supreme god could not maintain the internal consistency or unity of virtue and happiness, the belief of heaven and the supreme god will be wavered, even to the edge of collapse. What shows this thought is that among the poems reflecting the times of two fatuous rulers, King Li (?–828 B.C.) and King You (795 B.C.–771 B.C.) in the Book of Songs, there are a large number of poems doubting heaven.21 What Confucianism does is transform the spiritual connotation that the divinity inherent in the belief system of the Zhou Dynasty lies in man into a kind of consciousness of virtue or human nature. In this way, the self-consistency and inevitability of its theory can be established and its essence as a “moral religion” can be realized. At the same time, based on the concept that men are born with good human nature, Confucianism made a humanistic interpretation of the traditional rules of rites and music system, especially the sacrificial rules of rites, and guided humans to review the awe of his own nature, strength, and heart in response to gods, so as to edify the society. As stated earlier, ancient Chinese social religion stresses the “divine morality” of the belief object rather than its personality. The divine morality is essentially an ethical and regular system. In the views of people in the Zhou Dynasty, this set of “moral principles and social manners” comes from heaven or the decrees of heaven. Confucius inherits this

18 Referring to Xu Fuguan. Chinese History of Human Nature Theory. 19 Translated by the translators of this book. 20 Translated by the translators of this book. 21 Translated by the translators of this book.

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concept but makes an internal distinction between “righteousness” and “destiny” for the concept of destiny, which governs the principles of human relations and world. In the Works of Mencius, it is said, “Confucius went into office according to propriety and retired from it according to righteousness. Regarding his obtaining office or not obtaining it, he says, ‘that is as ordered.’”22 The “decrees of heaven” called by people in the Zhou Dynasty include “virtue” and “blessing.” Heaven graciously distinguishes the virtuous and punishes the guilty. The consistency of human virtue and blessing is guaranteed by heaven and the mandates of heaven. “Heaven” is the origin of the highest excellence; humans “pray to heaven for a long-abiding decree in his favor”; it is aimed for blessing. Confucius also regards heaven as the law and origin of the highest excellence. It is the same as people in the Zhou Dynasty. However, in the views of Confucius, the mandates of heaven include two interrelated aspects: boundaries of human behaviors and the outcomes of pursuing success. The former belongs to righteousness and the latter belongs to the appointments of heaven. In Confucian Analects, it is said, “Death and lives have their determined appointments; riches and honors depend upon Heaven.”23 It is also said, “If my principles are to advance, it is so ordered. If they are to fall to the ground, it is so ordered.”24 Confucian Analects states, “Junzi takes office and performs the righteous duties belonging to it. As to the failure of right principles to make progress, he is aware of that.”25 Both the so-called “heaven” and “the mandates of heaven” refer to the blessing or/and the effects of human behavior. For one thing, the decision is not in the hands of humans but in the heaven or the decrees of heaven. For another, the decision of ren and righteousness for humans is internal, instead of external, and lies in humans themselves, not in other humans.26 In the views of Confucius, practicing ren and righteousness is the only thing that can be pursued 22 James Legge. The Works of Mencius. Dover Publication, Inc. 2016: 403. 23 James Legge. Confucian Analects. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2016: 424. 24 James Legge. Confucian Analects. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2016: 526. 25 James Legge. Confucian Analects. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2016: 671. 26 In Confucian Analects, the Master says, “Is virtue a thing remote? I wish to be

virtuous, and lo! virtue is at hand.” Confucian Analects also requires: “Is the practice of perfect virtue from a man himself, or is it from others? Confucian Analects states: “is any one able for one day to apply his strength to virtue?”

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and acquired through human will and strength and realized internally, so it sets requirements for human essence and nature. The value of human behaviors lies in the choice of ren and righteousness. The outcome of human behaviors cannot be predicted by humans, so it can be called in the “heaven” or “the mandates of heaven.” There is a dynamic and internal unity between “heaven” and “the mandates of heaven.” Human moral choices and behaviors both reflect human understanding and consciousness to their responsibilities and endow their behaviors with positive and negative significance. Humans perform their duty and get what they deserve. The outcome is both the realization of the mandate of heaven and the complement of personality and existence, which is “having the true idea of what is heaven’s appointment” or “knowing the mandate of heaven.” In this sense, Confucius regards “having the true idea of what is heaven’s appointment” or respecting “the mandate of heaven” as the fundamental way to distinguish the superior man and the petty man.27 This understanding of the relationship between righteousness and the decrees of heaven produces an internal transformation in value of “the mandate of heaven” in the Shang and Zhou Dynasties: the way of pursuing blessing through practicing righteousness and virtue is regarded as fundamental human ability and the connotation of human nature. This is what Confucius calls “ren.” It is also the “characteristic element of humanity.”28 Confucius’ completely new explanation of “humans” sets the ideological tone and value orientation of Confucian theory of human nature. Then, the school of Si-Mencius establishes the theoretical system of good human nature based on it.29 The divinity contained in the continuous civilization of the Shang and Zhou Dynasties lies in human

27 Confucian Analects: “Without recognizing the ordinances of Heaven, it is impossible to be a superior man.” Confucian Analects: “Confucius says, ‘there are three things of which the superior man stands in awe. He stands in awe of the ordinances of Heaven. He stands in awe of great men. He stands in awe of the words of sages. The petty man does not know the ordinances of Heaven, and consequently does not stand in awe of them. He is disrespectful to great men. He plays sports of the words of sages.’” 28 The words of Confucius are cited from Zhongyong. 29 This is discussed in detail in Chapter Three of this book, “A Man Commanding Our

longingness Is What Is Called a Good Man: The Foundation and Premise of Edification.”

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spirit. Through the interpretation of Confucianism, it reaches the essential consciousness. In addition, the moral self-discipline foundation of the social belief system was established. Based on it, Confucianism made a new humanistic interpretation and systematic construction of the rules of rites in ancient social lives and the related god world. General religious edification has its own ritual system in practicing. Confucianism also pays special attention to the role of the rules of rites. “The important rules are 300, and the smaller rules 3000”30 (The Book of Rites ). Before the birth of Confucius, the music and rules of rites in the Zhou Dynasty became parts of human lives as a complete system, from individual, family, to politics, society, and even religious lives. Confucianism reconstructs this civilization according to circumstances in each era. It also focuses on the humanistic interpretation of this ritual and music tradition to construct its transcendental metaphysical foundation. The rules of rites or the rules of rites and music are the lifestyles of traditional Chinese society and the sacrificial rules of rites are directly related to the religious concept and god’s belief system of traditional society, so it is specially valued by Confucianism. Confucianism does not negate the god’s world and belief system pointed by these sacrificial rules of rites. At the same time, Confucianism revealed its significance and led its spirits through a kind of humanistic reflection and the construction of righteousness, showing a unique way to connect the sacred world, to realize its ultimate care through a kind of humanistic reflection and the construction of righteousness. Reflection of Confucianism on “the rules of rites” and the construction of righteousness system in it also make it an inward change. Confucianism emphasizes that the significance of the rules of rites is not to pray to gods for blessings but to return to the origin and think of the origin of human lives. Confucianism believes that the rules of rites and the polite studies are established in harmony with (men’s) feelings, which are based on human nature and feelings. The essence of the rules of rites and its internal dynamic source of development are based on the continuity and unity of the equally blended accomplishments and solid qualities and nature. Therefore, the significance of sacrifice is to pursue sincerity and respect. It is also reflected in the words of Zengzi, who says that “Let there be a careful attention to perform the funeral rites to parents and let 30 James Legge. The Book of Rites (English-Chinese). Zhongzhou Guji Publishing Company. 2016: 207.

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them be followed when long gone with the ceremonies of sacrifice--then the virtue of the human will resume its proper excellence”31 (Confucian Analects ). Confucian theory of the rules of rites is based on the theory of “three foundations of Li (rites).”32 Dai De in his masterpiece explains, “Heaven and earth are the foundation of human birth; ancestors are the foundation of the same race; sages are the foundation of well-governed society. Therefore, as for the rules of rites, serving heaven and earth, respecting ancestors and sages, are the three foundations for the rule of rites.”33 Heaven and earth are the origins of the things in the world; ancestors are the origins of the same race; sages are the origins of moral and ethnic rules. From the perspective of immediacy, my life is from my parents, while the origin is from heaven and earth. However, human lives are not merely natural existence but should be constructed through human relations and cultivated through morality. Therefore, sages are one of the three foundations. These are the so-called three foundations, which are not parallel. When discussing the significance of the son of heaven sacrificing to heaven, the Book of Rites says, All things originate from Heaven; man originates from his (great) ancestor. This is the reason why Ji was associated with God (at this sacrifice). In the sacrifices at the border there was an expression of gratitude to the source (of their prosperity and a going back in their thoughts to the beginning of (all being).34

The Book of Rites also states, The superior man, going back to his ancient fathers, and returning to the authors of his being, does not forget those to whom he owes his life, and therefore he calls forth all his reverence, gives free vent to his feelings, and exhausts his strength in discharging the above service;-as a tribute of gratitude to his parents he dares not but do his utmost.35 31 James Legge. Confucian Analects. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2016: 18. 32 Translated by the translators of this book. 33 Translated by the translators of this book. 34 James Legge. Chinese Text Project. http://ctext.org. 35 James Legge. Chinese Text Project. http://ctext.org.

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In ancient society, only the son of heaven has the right to sacrifice to heaven. The right of sacrificing to heaven marks and gives the essential meaning to sacrifice. In Confucianism, the rules of rites and the polite studies are established in harmony with (men’s) feelings, which are based on human nature and human feelings. The significance of the rules of rites is not to pray to gods for blessings but to return to the origin and think of the origin of human lives. The pursuit of the origin is realized through “worshiping ancestors and revering heaven,” starting from giving an honor to the most honorable, from inside to outside, from near to afar. Finally reaching the harmonious state with living things in heaven and earth. In Confucianism, the pursuit of the origin is started from loving and caring families. The sacrifice upheld by Confucianism is transferred from praying to gods for external blessings to the inner peace with sincerity so as to reach the harmony between humans and heaven. The Book of Rites states, “Sacrifice is not a thing coming to a man from without; it issues from within him and has its birth in his heart… Hence, in the sacrifices of such a man, he brings into exercise all sincerity and good faith, with all right-heartedness and reverence; he offers the (proper) things; accompanies them with the (proper) rites; employs the soothing of music; does everything suitably to the season. Thus, intelligently does he offer his sacrifices, without seeking for anything to be gained by them--such is the heart and mind of a filial son.”36 “Things” (sacrifices) and their external forms are the focus of the humans who praise god for blessings. Although the “things” (sacrifices) and their external forms are of importance to the sacrifice of a filial son, he focuses more on “it issues from within him and has its birth in his heart,” “bringing sacrifice into exercise all sincerity and good faith, with all right-heartedness and reverence” and follows the “dao” through inner sincerity. Therefore, the significance of sacrifice is not only in external things, but also in the realization of inner sincerity, rather than seeking the blessing of the gods. Meanwhile, Confucianism also understands the rules of rites from the continuity and unity of accomplishments and solid qualities with feelings as the essence. As it is stated in the Book of Rites Compiled by Dai De, “Rites, all start with natural feelings; formed with achievements; and

36 James Legge. Chinese Text Project. http://ctext.org.

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become prosperous by the integration of natural feelings and achievements. Therefore, the most complete rules of rites give full play to the feelings and rituals they want to express; the rules of rites second to it fail to fully express their feelings and rituals; the most inferior rules of rites are to return the feelings to be expressed to the original state, so as to conform to the simplicity of ancient times. The rules of rites embody accomplishments, qualities, righteousness and etiquette.”37 Qualities refer to the requirements of rites while etiquette refers to the form. Feelings are the contents while righteousness is the essence. The righteousness of the rules of rites is reflected and realized in the unity and continuity of feelings and rituals. In Historical Records, it is said, “Confucius has observed and studied the rules of rites in the Xia and Shang Dynasties and believed they can last for a hundred generations. He advocates that he will always adhere to the rules of rites in the Zhou Dynasty without regrets, for those rules followed the integration principles of accomplishments and solid qualities.”38 Solid qualities refer to human natural lives; accomplishments are reflected as the creation of human relations. “Fulfillment of emotion and convention” is the perfect significance of the rules of rites. From the perspective of logic and structure, the rules of rites can be seen as the integration of accomplishments and solid qualities.39 “Rites, all started with natural feelings; formed with achievements; and became prosperous by the integration of natural feelings and achievements.”40 Hence, from historical perspective, the rules of rites are a process from qualities to accomplishments and from sketchy to elaborate. Qualities and accomplishments are contained in each other, with “qualities” marking the natural side of human existence and “accomplishments” showing the disclosure of human natural lives in its spiritual level. When discussing the qualities and accomplishments of the rules of rites, Confucius says, “The different rules for the mourning rites were established in harmony with (men’s) feelings”41 (The Book of Rites ). In addition, “The

37 Translated by the translators of this 38 Translated by the translators of this 39 Translated by the translators of this 40 Translated by the translators of this

book. book. book. book.

41 James Legge. Chinese Text Project. http://ctext.org.

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rules of rites recognize these feelings of men and lay down definite regulations for them”42 (The Book of Rites ). This highlights the fundamental significance of feelings and qualities to rituals and forms. Hence, the provisions of natural feelings and achievements are understood as the disclosure and realization of human natural existence (“quality”) in its spirits and humanistic consciousness (“accomplishments”). In the belief system of the Zhou Dynasty, the concept of “social edification” (rules of rites and ritual music) originated from heaven and was also given the internal significance of human nature. Accordingly, the belief system of the decrees of heaven, ghosts, and gods were also given a new significance. In Confucian Analects, it is said, “To give oneself earnestly to the duties due to men, and, while respecting spiritual beings, to keep aloof from them, may be called wisdom.”43 It shows the social edifying thought of Confucianism, “laying down instructions in accordance with (this) spirit-like way.” The goal of edification in Confucianism lies in teaching humans with human relations, guiding them to be kind, and making them “the subjects under a true sovereign.”44 “Giving oneself earnestly to the duties due to men” pointed out this goal, “respecting spiritual beings, to keep aloof from them” showed the edifying way to realize this goal. The so-called “keeping aloof” means going against approaching ghosts and gods in a casual way. There is a hierarchy between humans and god. It is a utilitarian attitude that approaches and fawns on so as to please the gods. Although people from the Zhou Dynasty regard heaven or god as the origin of human morality and ethics, their attitude of “praying to heaven for a long-abiding decree in his favor” is utilitarian. The religious beliefs of ordinary humans are also highly utilitarian. The purpose of folk divination, prayers, and sacrifice activities is to pray for gods for blessings. The belief of gods in ancient Chinese society includes many gods with the Supreme God dominating the others; different members of different social classes in the society have specific sacrificing targets. There is a regular rule of sacrifice. Different social classes have specific

42 James Legge. Chinese Text Project. http://ctext.org. 43 James Legge. Confucian Analects. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2016: 196. 44 Referring to the sector of “Goodness Reflected Outwards” in Chapter four “The

Nature and Reflection of Sincerity: The Process of Edification” of this book.

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sacrificing targets. A sacrifice which is not proper to offer, yet is offered, is called a “licentious sacrifice.” Confucian Analects states, “The Master said, ‘For a man to sacrifice to a spirit which does not belong to him is flattery.’”45 “Licentious sacrifice” is pleasing the gods for blessings. Profaning the gods refers that humans with the intention of pursuing interests to approach and please gods through the means of worshiping, enshrining, profits, and interests, which debased the gods to the utilitarian gods in favor of flattery, profits, and interests, losing its innate transcendence and divinity. Approaching and pleasing gods through flattery will inevitably result in profane, so it’s not supported by Confucius. In contrast, “keeping aloof” is to put the belief targets of ancient Chinese society, heaven, and gods, to their right positions and reestablish their divine significance. It is thus clear that the attitudes of Confucius, “The subjects on which the Master did not talk, were: extraordinary things, feats of strength, disorder, and spiritual beings”46 (Confucian Analects ). In addition, “while respecting spiritual beings, to keep aloof from them,”47 doesn’t deny ghosts or gods, but aims to avoid making humans form the utilitarian heart of pursuing the blessings of gods and ask humans to focus on their nature, hearts, and strength. Confucius stresses that humans should follow the course of humanity, work in the ways that men perform their business, establish their inner sincerity, and respect gods and heaven, rather than transgress the order and approach to the gods for pursuing blessings. This contributes a transition from within in the belief of gods and the supreme god of heaven since ancient times. Confucianism establishes its philosophical and ideological systems through rational reflection on the social rules of rites and music and the related belief system before Confucius. Through this reflection and ideological construction, the traditional belief system realizes its essential transformation as “moral religion,” which constitutes the basis of transcendental values and beliefs in Chinese society with over 2000 years’ history. At the same time, Confucianism also implements its edification concept in society and human lives based on it.

45 James Legge. Confucian Analects. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2016: 65. 46 James Legge. Confucian Analects. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2016: 230. 47 James Legge. Confucian Analects. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2016: 193.

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Confucianism and Social Belief System Reaching Different Desinations on the Same Route The system about righteousness is philosophy rather than religion. In modern society, religious clergies can only preach in specific religious places while the philosophy of Confucianism can be taught in the halls of learning in university together with the philosophy of Kant and Hegel. However, as mentioned earlier, the Confucian academic system is closely related to social lives. In his Commentaries to the Book of Changes, Confucius explains that he loves the Book of Changes when he grows older to his disciple Zigong, “My understanding of the Book of Changes is totally different from that of the religious ancestors. Those who study the Book of Changes should first master the divination methods to be familiar with the divination of numbers. Then, they should be familiar with the virtue of numbers in the Book of Changes, till consciously obey the morality of numbers in the application of divination, to finally realize the way of being moral ren. Knowing only about the divination might lead people to be witches; knowing the magic of numbers but not knowing the virtue and righteousness of numbers might lead people to be historians. Neither principle nor number is my primary concern. Is the later generations questioning Confucius because of the Book of Changes ? I am pursuing virtue all along the way. If compared with the officials in charge of rites, we are reaching different desinations on the same route.”48 “Reaching the same destination via different routes” proposed by Confucius can help us understand the connectivity between Confucian edification and social lives and the edifying way of “laying down instructions in accordance with (this) spirit-like way.” The Book of Changes was originally about divination. Confucius wrote Commentaries to the Book of Changes, based on which he established his metaphysical system of “human nature and the way of heaven.” Divination is a way for the ancient humans to predict the will of gods and make plans for the future. The work of officials in charge of rites represents the values of religious beliefs in ancient society and the utilitarian aspect of lives of common people. Confucius does not deny the belief system in ancient society with the contents of gods, the supreme god of heaven, sacrificial rules, and divination. Confucius claimed that “70 48 Translated by the translators of the book.

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out of 100 divinations practiced by me are correct.” He is very familiar with divination and able to use it freely. This is also illustrated in the Xunzi, “Practicing divination before making a big decision does not mean to pursue blessings but is seen as the ornamentation for political affairs. Therefore, junzi regards it as ornamentation. However, common people regard it as the concrete proof for the existence of gods.”49 Although “Junzi regards it as ornamentation” are different in meaning from “Common people regard it as the concrete proof for the existence of gods,” the target and content are the same. In this regard, it can be said that Confucius is “on the same route” with the four prominent officials in charge of rites. However, there are fundamental differences in the goal and significance pursued by Confucianism and the way of the four officials. It shows the “different goals” of the two. In the thoughts of “seeking the virtue”50 and “observing the righteousness,”51 the “virtue” and “righteousness” refer to the philosophy and the orientation of morality embodied in the Book of Changes. “The same route” shows the close connectivity between the edifying way of Confucianism and social belief systems while “different destinations” show the difference or heterogeneity between the edifying way of Confucianism and social belief systems. “Different destinations” refer to different significance, which endows Confucianism with the independent and complete theoretical characteristics as a philosophy. “The same route” refers to the same content, which endows Confucianism with internal response and pertinence to social lives and its belief system, giving Confucianism a practical and edifying significance. Edification should conform to and affect the styles of the social and spiritual lives of humans. Generally, religions also have their own set of rules and ritual systems, hence, they can directly affect the lives of believers. However, the etiquette, ceremonies, and belief systems of Confucianism are inherent from ancient Chinese society. It does not start all over and create a unique etiquette and ritual system. This makes its edification different and distinctive from general religions. Generally speaking, the group of believers for a certain religion is set. However, with the inherent etiquette and belief system of ancient

49 Translated by the translators of the book. 50 Translated by the translators of the book. 51 Translated by the translators of this book.

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Chinese society, Confucianism edifies humans in social lives. China’s inherent etiquette system, as a general style, penetrates the social lives in all respects. Therefore, the edification of Confucianism has the universal significance to the whole society, which cannot be compared to any religious edification. This is the first point. Secondly, general religious ceremonies and ritual systems often lag behind the historical changes of social lives, including a kind of stability and exclusivity. However, the etiquette, the system of music, and the rules of rites in Chinese society constantly change in response to the changes of the times. It forms a continuous historical variability and openness and inclusiveness to other religions through the interpretation, edification, and promotion of Confucian metaphysics. This is proven in the sayings that “The three rulers belonging to different ages did not share the same rules of rites. The five emperors belonging to different times did not enjoy the same music.” This is another fundamental difference between Confucianism and other religions or religious systems. Thirdly, the inherent system of gods of the society based on which Confucianism practiced its edification was controlled by the supreme god and showed different levels of personal characteristics due to the differences of social individuals. The metaphysical system established by Confucianism also highlighted a spirit of communicating differences. Through the way of “worshiping ancestors and revering heaven,” humans achieved the internal connection between humans and heaven or humans and the way of heaven from the near to the distant, which shows a unique way of recalling the origin. Practicing the law of heaven in this differentiated system embeds the internal characteristics for individual differences, in the mean time, it also has distinct rational and humanistic characteristics due to different levels of differentiated procedures, which are not limited to irrational fanaticism. Confucian edification of “laying down instructions in accordance with (this) spirit-like way” still has important practical significance toward the construction of the belief system in the contemporary Chinese society.

CHAPTER 6

Displaying and Reaching Destiny: Edification and the Ultimate Care

Abstract The Confucian way of being true to the principles of our nature and the benevolent exercise of them to others is a “communicative” principle under the premise of “restrictive” individual positions, which means it is limited. What is beyond each step of “displaying” forms an expansion and transformation of the existed meaning, meanwhile will sublimate itself to a new level. Such sublimation and transformation of the existence constitutes what Confucius calls “reaching,” and the direction of “reaching” is the unity of the universe and men, or “dao.” The realization of dao by “displaying and reaching” expresses a spirit of unity of reality and transcendence. Keywords Displaying · Reaching · The way of being true to the principles of our nature and the benevolent exercise of them to others · Completing oneself and completing others

Perceiving Interconnection and Reaching Destiny The fourth part of the book is devoted to the process of civilizing humans where sincerity and courtesy meet. “Sincerity meets courtesy,” focuses on the integration of the inside and the outside. According to Zhongyong of the Book of Rites, “sincerity meets courtesy” is called “a union being © Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd. 2022 J. Li, Edification in the Chinese Philosophy of Confucianism, Key Concepts in Chinese Thought and Culture, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-4196-2_6

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effected of the external and internal.”1 A union being effected of the external and internal involves the relationship between the inside and the outside, others and the self, as well as the world and humans. It is a flat or horizontal relationship. However, from the Confucian perspective, such a unity of others and the self, the world and humans, and the inside and the outside, should imply another kind of relationship, namely, the relationship of the unity of heaven and humans, which is called “the combination of heaven and humans” in the words of Confucians in the Song Dynasty. The combination of heaven and humans is closely related to the ultimate orientation of the individuals and manifests a three-dimensional and vertical relationship between heaven and humans. In Confucianism, the combination of heaven and humans should be realized through the integration of oneself with the external world. At the same time, the integration of oneself with the external world should be based on the combination of heaven and humans. In addition, it can be done only if the former takes the latter as its intrinsic purpose. They are inseparable from each other. According to the Book of Changes, “The six lines, as explained (by the Duke of Zhou), bring forth and display (its meaning), and everything about it is (thus) indirectly exhibited.”2 Bringing forth and displaying everything, in sub-commentary written by Kong Yingda (574–648) means extensive knowledge of Qing of all things, and the meaning of “displaying” involves a horizontal dimension. “A union being effected of the external and internal”3 means the self and the world becoming one, and “displaying the truth Qing of all things.”4 In Confucian Analects, it is said, “The Master said, ‘alas! there is no one that knows me.’ Zi Gong said, ‘What do you mean by thus saying that no one knows you?’ The Master replied, ‘I do not murmur against

1 James Legge. The Great Learning & the Doctrine of the Mean. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2017: 199. 2 James Legge. The Book of Changes. Hunan Education Publishing House. 1993: 13. 3 James Legge. Confucian Analects. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2016: 196. 4 Qing means being real, namely “bring forth and display (its meaning), and everything

about it is (thus) indirectly exhibited,” which means the same thing with “But these are virtues belonging to the nature, and this is the way by which a union is effected of the external and internal. Therefore, whenever he-the entirely sincere man-employs them, that is, these virtues, their action will be right.”

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Heaven. I do not grumble against men. My studies lie low, and my penetration rises high. But there is Heaven-that knows me!’”5 Confucius says that although no one really knows about him, he neither murmurs against heaven nor grumbles against men, instead, he follows his calling and destiny, showing a spirit of submitting to the will of heaven being content with one’s fate.6 “Reaching destiny” means answering one’s calling, which identifies the characteristics of the combination of the universe and humans. Combining the two analyses above, we can conclude that the Confucian way to realize its domestication approach of ultimate concern with the phrase, “displaying and reaching destiny.” Generally, the ultimate concern of religious doctrines usually emphasizes the individual faith to heaven. For instance, Christianity highlights the way of faith in which individuals meet each other. Since Buddhism is supramundane, Zen Buddhism especially advocates to behave and act in accordance with the truth in all cases and live in the moment, reaching Buddha through epiphany, attaining Buddhahood in the way of sudden enlightenment. Although Daoism is not considered a religion, its discussion of dao is abundant in its spiritual contact with the universe, thinking less of the living world. Followers of Buddhism and Daoism prefer to seek their own freedom and liberation, leaving behind human decency. That is why Confucianism in the Song Dynasty often criticizes Buddhism and Daoism for being “selfish.” Confucianism follows the path of “displaying and reaching destiny” to realize its ultimate concern. It is quite different from the beliefs of other religions. Confucius spent his whole life seeking the truth, with “hearing the right way”7 as the highest goal of his life. Transformation and shaping are what we call change. The pursuit of dao should reach up to the universe. Confucius says that “My studies lie low, and my penetration reaches destiny. But there is Heaven - that knows me!”.8 In addition, he also says, “The progress of the superior man is upwards; the progress

5 James Legge. Confucian Analects. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2016: 522. 6 Referring to the Book of Changes, “He rejoices in Heaven and knows its ordinations;

- and hence he has no anxieties. He rests in his own (present) position and cherishes (the spirit of) generous benevolence; - and hence he can love (without reserve).” 7 James Legge. Confucian Analects. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2016: 115. 8 James Legge. Confucian Analects. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2016: 522.

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of the petty man is downwards”9 (Confucian Analects ). Also, he calls himself “At fifty, I knew the decrees of Heaven”10 (Confucian Analects ). Such realms of “reaching” dao to learn the truth are manifested in a three-dimensional and longitudinal form. Confucius’ concept of “hearing the right way”11 is to be enlightened by dao with one’s mind or to prove dao in a reversed way. As the Works of Mencius states, Mencius said, ‘He who has exhausted all his mental constitution knows his nature. Knowing his nature, he knows Heaven. To preserve one’s mental constitution, and nourish one’s nature, is the way to serve Heaven. When neither a premature death nor long life causes a man any doublemindedness, but he waits in the cultivation of his personal character for whatever issue; this is the way in which he establishes his Heaven-ordained being.’12

That also proves the point. However, what Confucianism means by “heart-mind” is not just an inner spiritual entity. The mind should be manifested in all things, involved in the rules of human nature and ethics, and implemented in the practical unfolding of different horizontal scopes and levels. Confucius uses being true to the principles of human nature and the benevolent exercise of them to others as the way to practice ren. Therefore, Zengzi says, “The doctrine of our master is to be true to the principles of our nature and the benevolent exercise of them to others, this and nothing more”13 (Confucian Analects ). Zhongyong of the Book of Rites quotes from Confucius that “When one cultivates to the utmost the principles of his nature, and exercises them on the principle of reciprocity, he is not far from the path,”14 which means that Confucius’ dao has ren as its content. Being true to the principles of human nature and the benevolent exercise of them to others involves the relationship between 9 James Legge. Confucian Analects. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2016: 521. 10 James Legge. Confucian Analects. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2016: 41. 11 James Legge. Confucian Analects. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2016: 115. 12 James Legge. The Works of Mencius. Dover Publication, Inc. 2016: 448. 13 James Legge. Confucian Analects. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2016: 122. 14 James Legge. The Great Learning & the Doctrine of the Mean. Liaoning People’s

Publishing House. 2017: 122.

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the difference and coherence of the outside and the inside, others and the self as well as the world and humans. When Confucius talks about nature and ren, he says, “Not to do to others as you would not wish done to yourself”15 (Confucian Analects ). “Wishing to be established himself, seeks also to establish others”16 (Confucian Analects ). It concerns the relationship between humans and the self. The Great Learning talks about being true to the principles of human nature and the benevolent exercise of them to others in the way of government, from the cultivation of one’s morality to the establishment of the ethical system of the family, the state, and the world.17 For the school of Si-Mencius, being true to the principles of human nature and the benevolent exercise of them to others means “treat with the reverence due to age the elders in your own family, so that the elders in the families of others shall be similarly treated; treat with the kindness due to youth the young in your own family, so that the young in the families of others shall be similarly treated”18 (The Works of Mencius ). “He is affectionate to his parents, and lovingly disposed to humans generally. He is lovingly disposed to humans generally, and kind to creatures”19 (The Works of Mencius ). It is said that completing oneself to complete others, so that dao is in harmony with the external and internal world and the appropriate timing. It is also said that the nature of oneself to fulfill the nature of humans and all things, so as to praise the transformation of the universe, expand to human nature and even the internal and external things. The Confucian way should be carried out externally at the level of humans, the ethics, and the material world, which can be called “displaying.” Human nature originally derives from one’s destiny and fate,20 is manifested in human minds, and develops in the feelings of joy, anger, sorrow, 15 James Legge. Confucian Analects. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2016: 399. 16 James Legge. Confucian Analects. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2016: 203. 17 The ruler has a principle with which, as with a measuring square, he may regulate

his conduct. 18 James Legge. The Works of Mencius. Dover Publication, Inc. 2016: 143. 19 James Legge. The Works of Mencius. Dover Publication, Inc. 2016: 476. 20 Zhongyong of the Book of Rites, “what Heaven has conferred is called the Nature.”

The Works of Mencius, “to the mind belongs the office of thinking. By thinking, it gets the right view of things; by neglecting to think, it fails to do this. These-the senses and the mind-are what Heaven has given to us.”

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and happiness to respond to all things,21 from the inside to the outside, so that there is dao, “displaying” the integration of the outside and the inside. Therefore, “displaying” originally implies one of the “reaching,” which is the achievement of the truth, feeds on the horizontal “displaying” and lays the foundation for it. In addition, the two are mutually affected, forming one. As for “displaying and reaching destiny,” the word “and” reveals the dynamic internal unified relationship between the two dimensions of “displaying” and “reaching.” Based on these, Confucianism can distinguish itself from Buddhism, Daoism, and Christianity, to highlight its own value and metaphysical characteristics of achieving transcendence through the fulfillment of human nature.

The Way of Display, Being True to the Principles of Loyalty and Consideration for Others As mentioned earlier, Confucianism’s “displaying” of “a union being effected of the external and internal” is achieved through the way of being true to the principles of human nature and the benevolent exercise of them to others. Chapter 25 of Zhongyong says, Sincerity is that whereby self-completion is affected, and its way is that by which man must direct himself. Sincerity is the end and beginning of things; without sincerity there would be nothing. On this account, the superior man regards the attainment of sincerity as the most excellent thing. The possessor of sincerity does not merely accomplish the self-completion of himself. With this quality he completes other men and things as well. The completing of himself shows his perfect virtue. The completing of other men and things shows his knowledge. But these are virtues belonging to the nature, and this is the way by which a union is affected of the external and internal. Therefore, whenever he-the entirely

21 Zhongyong of the Book of Rites, “While there are no stirrings of pleasure, anger, sorrow, or joy, the mind may be said to be in the state of Equilibrium. When those feelings have been stirred, and they act in their due degree, there ensues what may be called the state of Harmony. This Equilibrium is the great root from which grow all the human acting in the world, and this Harmony is the universal path which they all should pursue. Let the states of equilibrium and harmony exist in perfection, and a happy order will prevail throughout Heaven and earth, and all things will be nourished and flourish.”

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sincere man-employs them, -that is, these virtues, their action will be right.22

In the Works of Mencius, it is said, All things are already complete in us. There is no greater delight than to be conscious of sincerity on self-examination. If one acts with a vigorous effort at the law of reciprocity, when he seeks for the realization of perfect virtue, nothing can be closer than his approximation to it.23

Mencius weighs “to be conscious of sincerity on self-examination”24 and “acts with a vigorous effort at the law of reciprocity.”25 Zisi explains the ways of integrating oneself with external things by completing oneself to complete others. Both are about being true to the principles of human nature and the benevolent exercise of them to others. However, Confucius speaks of being true to principles of human nature and the benevolent exercise of them to others, mainly in terms of the relationship between others and oneself. However, Zisi and Mencius extend it to the relationship between heaven and humans themselves and give it a cosmological significance. Being true to the principles of human nature and the benevolent exercise of them to others are about existence and value realization, instead of cognitive perception. Mencius’ “sincerity” means the actuality of what it is. Zisi and Mencius take “sincerity” as its core, amplifying on the way to achieve loyalty, thoughtfulness, and pursue the universal path from the perspective of completing oneself to complete others, which further highlights the significance of this realization theory. When it comes to the realization of humans, the difference cannot be ignored. That “a union being effected of the external and internal” is realized by being true to the principles of human nature and the benevolent exercise of them to others is a “universality” under the premise of individual differences, instead of some homogeneity or abstract universality in the cognitive sense. From this perspective, the term “displaying” 22 James Legge. The Great Learning & the Doctrine of the Mean. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2017: 199. 23 James Legge. The Works of Mencius. Dover Publication, Inc. 2016: 450. 24 James Legge. The Works of Mencius. Dover Publication, Inc. 2016: 450. 25 James Legge. The Works of Mencius. Dover Publication, Inc. 2016: 450.

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more accurately expresses the spiritual qualities of the Confucian way of being true to the principles of human nature and the benevolent exercise of them to others. The Confucian principle of being true to the principles of human nature and the benevolent exercise of them to others achieve internal and external connection by responding to the principle of all things, thus, achieving the realization of the righteousness of external and internal unity. Confucius advocates “loving others.” Mencius advocates “caring for one’s family, loving humans and all things,” to achieve the one and the same rule with humans and the world by responding to things with sentiments. However, this love is not the love of “to love all equally,” but the “love with gradations,” which has the connotation of differences. The Works of Mencius points out, “Now, Yang’s principle is ‘each one for himself,’ which does not acknowledge the claims of the sovereign. Mo’s principle is ‘to love all equally,’ which does not acknowledge the peculiar affection due to a father. But to acknowledge neither king nor father is to be in the state of a beast.”26 Yang Zhu’s “each one for himself” and Mohism’s “to love all equally” are two extreme manifestations of real ethical life: the former is extreme individualism while the latter leads to a kind of asceticism in Mohism. “Ren” in Confucianism encompasses the two “ends” of “each one for himself” and “to love all equally.” However, it follows the way of being true to the principles of human nature and the benevolent exercise of them to others, which is the natural gradations from self to next of kin, from next of kin to other humans, from other humans to all things in the world, expanding to a kind of “to love all equally” layer after layer. In life, each one has his own individual place in the world. Their relationship with the surrounding world has its own differences in distance, thickness, and order. Human emotions also have natural gradations. To hold on to this sense of true feelings, there should be “loyalty” and “sincerity,” which is the premise for the realization of men’s moral achievements and even existence. Mohism’s “to love all equally” and to abolish these natural gradations, is an abstract principle that cannot be implemented in human existence. In addition, human beings’ paranoia about individual existence and disparity will lead to the other extreme—“each one for himself.”

26 James Legge. The Works of Mencius. Dover Publication, Inc. 2016: 22.

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Confucianism believes that both will result in a non-ethical (beast) state of human beings. By practicing ren through being true to the principles of human nature and the benevolent exercise of them to others, Confucianism seeks both to preserve the natural gradations in ethics and relationship of the law of things and to exclude paranoia about the selfishness of these gradations. This kind of “love” is the “method” that encompasses the individual’s differences, instead of the “sameness” of abstract homogeneity. The school of Si-Mencius advocates “sincerity,” “completing oneself to complete others” to reach the “right actions.” Another way of putting it is in Zhongyong that those who are extremely sincere can give full play to their human nature and make all humans and things prosperous. “To give its full development to his own nature” can “give their full development to the natures of animals and things”27 (Zhongyong of the Book of Rites ). The words “cheng” (becoming) and “jin” (making the most) mean achieving and accomplishing. When people make efforts to complete themselves and others and give full play to their own and others’ nature, they should never impose their own nature on other people or things, instead, they should fulfill it by others’ own nature. In this way, the right actions at all times can be achieved. It means that the “appropriateness,” the reason, and the nature of the matter can be adapted to the situation. These are the “right actions” in Zhongyong. These belong to the “method” under the premise of the realization of the differences in humans and things. Confucius uses being true to the principles of human nature and the benevolent exercise of them to others as the way to practice ren.28 The “way” does not just mean a method, but also the hard work to realize ren. Zisi advocates completing oneself to complete others. He further highlights the significance of the practice theory of being true to the principles of our nature and the benevolent exercise of them to others. Why do humans advocate “achieving oneself” to “achieving all things,” “fulfilling one’s own nature” to “fulfilling that of other’s and things”? 27 James Legge. The Great Learning & the Doctrine of the Mean. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2017: 190. 28 The Works of Mencius: “Now the man of perfect virtue, wishing to be established himself, referring also to establish others; wishing to be enlarged himself, he refers also to enlarge others. To be able to judge of others by what is nigh in ourselves-this may be called the art of virtue.”

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There are differences in human existence. There are also natural gradations in the response of human minds. These should be affirmed and not dismissed. Nevertheless, humans know and can make distinctions, so it tends to be partial to these gradations. In addition, the paranoia builds barriers to hold back humans to know about the world. The paranoia is called the “beclouding” by the Confucians. Confucius draws a conclusion that “Six words to which are attached six beclouding”29 (Confucian Analects ). Mencius says, “The senses of hearing and seeing do not think, and are obscured by external things”30 (The Works of Mencius ). Xunzi says, “All things in the world have differences, and when there are differences, they form a blockage to each other,” suggesting that all the differences of desires and evil, consistency, proximity, breadth and shallowness, ancient and modern times, could be “blocked” by human hearts, so he proposed to “uncover the blockage” (The Xunzi). Humans tend to be paranoid about themselves and to be selfconscious, adding their own will to others and things. This paranoia is a false attitude of values. For example, according to Zhuangzi, there was a fable about Shu, the ruler of the Southern Ocean and Hu, the ruler of the Northern Ocean, seeking to repay the virtue to Hundun, the ruler of the Center. Shu and Hu knew, “Humans are granted with seven orifices to see, hear, eat, breathing, etc., while this (poor) ruler alone is granted none. As a result, they decided to help Hundun to be the same as humans by digging the orifices in his body. They dug one orifice in the body of Hundun every day; and at the end of the seventh day, Hundun died.”31 Shu and Hu indeed made an oversight (Shu and Hu in Chinese form a word, meaning oversight), because they ignored the differences between individuals. Forcing the seven orifices of humans on Hundun is similar to “forcing one’s will on others.” It manifests a kind of self-centered paranoia, eliminating the difference between the self, other humans, and things. And it is called “insincerity without real substance.” To achieve something for oneself and to achieve something for everything outside oneself, is to see the realization of values of others and the self, humans and things, as two equal and mutual aspects. For one thing,

29 James Legge. Confucian Analects. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2016: 631. 30 James Legge. The Works of Mencius. Dover Publication, Inc. 2016: 418. 31 Translated by the translators of this book.

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from “achieving something for everything outside oneself” to “achieving something for oneself,” is not to interfere with “things” from the perspective of human beings, but to achieve the perfection of one’s virtue with the utmost sincerity, so that one’s response to things is natural and no longer separated from them. The outcome is the dissolution of men’s egocentric positions and the realization of the equality of men and material existence. Hence, men should achieve something for themselves, then men can achieve something for everything outside themselves. That is at the same time a process of work to achieve the equality of the others and the self, the world and humans, and the physical humanity through uncovering the blockage. Some scholars argue that “forcing one’s will on others” is a positive expansion derived from “not to do to others as you would not wish done to yourself.”32 It is a misunderstanding of the Confucian way of being true to the principles of human nature and the benevolent exercise of them to others. Confucianism’s being true to the principles of human nature and the benevolent exercise of them to others starts from oneself and extends to others. The key lies in the word “self.” The requirement for “self” is “sincerity” or “loyalty.” Putting oneself in the shoes of others is a continuous process of “uncovering the blockage.” In other words, dissolving the paranoia of selfishness, so as to ensure that others and the self, humans and the world can achieve something within their own limits. Only in this way, can humans be in harmony with the outside and the inside and relate to things without being separated. Therefore, whenever Confucianism talks about being true to the principles of human nature and the benevolent exercise of them to others, it emphasizes the restrictions and requirements on oneself rather than on others, just as Zhongyong quotes from Confucius, When one cultivates to the utmost the principles of his nature, and exercises them on the principle of reciprocity, he is not far from the path. What you do not like when done to yourself, do not do to others. In the way of the superior man there are four things, to not one of which have I yet attained. To serve my father, as I would require my son to serve me: to this I have not attained; to serve my prince as I would require my minister to serve me: to this I have not attained; to serve my elder brother as I would 32 James Legge. Confucian Analects. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2016: 399.

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require my younger brother to serve me: to this I have not attained; to set the example in behaving to a friend, as I would require him to behave to me: to this I have not attained.33

The Great Learning of the Book of Rites talks about the principles for regulating human behaviors that What a man dislikes in his superiors, let him not display in the treatment of his inferiors; what he dislikes in inferiors, let him not display in the service of his superiors; what he hates in those who are before him, let him not therewith precede those who are behind him; what he hates in those who are behind him, let him not bestow on the left; what he hates to receive on the left, let him not bestow on the right:-this is what is called ‘The principle with which, as with a measuring square, to regulate one’s conduct.’34

For this reason, Confucianism places special emphasis on the restrictive nature of individual’s “subordination” to the world in real ethical relationships. For instance, in Confucian Analects, “The Master says, ‘He who is not in any particular office has nothing to do with plans for the administration of his duties.’ Zengzi says, ‘the superior man, in his thoughts, does not go out of his place.’”35 Zhongyong of the Book of Rites states, “The superior man does what is proper to the station in which he is; he does not desire to go beyond this.”36 “The superior man, in accordance with this, does not go in his thoughts beyond the (duties of the) position in which he is.”37 Confucian “displaying” of the “right actions” will not abstract and merge all things into an undifferentiated “sameness.” On the contrary, it is only when we are able to be compatible with our status and try to do what we are supposed to do, to know where to stop and properly grasp the limits of our own position, can we respond to nature, timing, and appropriateness of others and other things. 33 James Legge. The Great Learning & the Doctrine of the Mean. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2017: 122. 34 James Legge. The Great Learning & the Doctrine of the Mean. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2017: 57–8. 35 James Legge. Confucian Analects. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2016: 515. 36 James Legge. The Great Learning & the Doctrine of the Mean. Liaoning People’s

Publishing House. 2017: 125. 37 James Legge. The Book of Changes. Hunan Education Publishing House. 1993: 235.

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By maintaining the limits of one’s own position and “the right actions” and responding to the reason of things, one can know about everything. What it embodies is an equal wisdom that demands the objective realization of all human nature.

Exceeding, Surpassing, and Transcending Dao of Confucianism is the transcendent and metaphysical “one and the same rule.” In the Book of Changes, it is said, “Hence that which is antecedent to the material form exists, we say, as an ideal method.”38 It is also said, “All the movements under the sky are constantly subject to this one and the same rule”39 and “those who can seek from one and the same rule…get one is complete.”40 The Book of Changes talks about heaven’s way as “one and the same rule” and the transcendent body. For human beings, heaven’s way is manifested as a supreme realm that reaches up to heaven. Confucian’s “displaying” of “a union being effected of the external and internal” is to reach the goal of reaching and attaining this transcendent and metaphysical “one and the same rule” or the combination of heaven and humans. However, we could not understand the “displaying” and “reaching” as a kind of chronological cut-off. In the Book of Changes, “The Master says, ‘In all (the processes taking place) under Heaven, what is there of thinking? what is there of anxious scheming? They all come to the same (successful) issue, though by different paths; there is one result, though there might be a hundred anxious schemes. What is there of thinking? what is there of anxious scheming?’”41 Still, in the Book of Changes, it is said, “In (all these operations forming) the I, there is no thought and no action. It is still and without movement; but, when acted on, it penetrates forthwith to all phenomena and events under the sky.”42 The heaven’s way has no thought, no action or anxiety, but owns a metaphysical “one and the same rule.” For one thing, this “one

38 James Legge. The Book of Changes. Hunan Education Publishing House. 1993: 499. 39 James Legge. The Book of Changes. Hunan Education Publishing House. 1993: 317. 40 Translated by the translators of this book. 41 James Legge. The Book of Changes. Hunan Education Publishing House. 1993: 323. 42 James Legge. The Book of Changes. Hunan Education Publishing House. 1993:

307–8.

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and the same rule” (“being subject to this one and the same rule”43 ) or “coming to the one end” “consistency” must be achieved through “different paths (routes)” and “anxiety,” namely, the mutual intercommunication of differences (display). For another, with this transcendent “one and the same rule” as the first and inner foundation, its continuous operation in the whole course of practicing ren through being true to the principles of our nature and the benevolent exercise of them to others, our response to the “the right actions at all times” of humans and things can be sublimated, transformed and has moral values and spiritual lights of universality. In Chapter 22 of Zhongyong, it is said, It is only he who is possessed of the most complete sincerity that can exist under Heaven, who can give its full development to his nature. Able to give its full development to his own nature, he can do the same to the nature of other men. Able to give its full development to the nature of other men, he can give their full development to the natures of animals and things. Able to give their full development to the natures of creatures and things, he can assist the transforming and nourishing powers of Heaven and Earth. Able to assist the transforming and nourishing powers of Heaven and Earth, he may with Heaven and Earth form a ternion.44

The previous quote from Chapter 25 of Zhongyong, discussing the way of completing oneself to complete others and the way of integrating oneself with external things, only talks about the “displaying.” This chapter talks about the extreme sincerity that can give full play to their own nature, thus giving full play to the nature of all humans and all things and making the whole prosperous. About helping earth to cultivate life, he can be ranked as one of the three with heaven and earth, namely, from “displaying” to the “reaching” of the realms of heaven. We can make use of this chapter to understand the intrinsic unity of the two aspects of “displaying” and “reaching.” From the perspective of actuality, the “displaying” of “the way of integrating oneself with external things” achieved by the extension of being true to the principles of human nature and the benevolent exercise of

43 James Legge. The Book of Changes. Hunan Education Publishing House. 1993: 499. 44 James Legge. The Great Learning & the Doctrine of the Mean. Liaoning People’s

Publishing House. 2017: 190.

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them to others can be seen as an expansion and “exceeding” of the horizontal scope of individual existence. The quotations from Chinese classics that “Wishing to be established himself, seeks also to establish others,” “treat with the reverence due to age the elders in your own family, so that the elders in the families of others shall be similarly treated; treat with the kindness due to youth the young in your own family, so that the young in the families of others shall be similarly treated,” “self-cultivation, to manage family and state affairs and to put the country in order,” “caring for one’s family, loving the humans and all things,” are all “displaying.” In terms of actuality, a person, a family, a shi (a separate code name shared by the tribe), a surname (surname is initially on behalf of the same bloodline), a clan or even a yi (countryside and county), a township or a state, are all actualities that have their own limitations. In addition, this definiteness at different levels of the actuality is at the same time embedded in an existential structure beyond itself. For instance, “caring for one’s family” is the extension of human existence as an individual beyond oneself to one’s parents, parents of others, others, and other things. Each of its own “exceeding” has its own limits in the sense of actuality. From this perspective, the realms of “displaying” are often spatial, flat, and have the definiteness in existence. Confucianism’s being true to the principles of human nature and the benevolent exercise of them to others starts from oneself and extends to others, as a kind of outward expansion of the finite nature of existence, which can be seen as “exceeding” the limits of one’s own existence. This exceeding, in terms of actuality, manifests itself in the ever-expanding scope of the world of human existence. Between different humans, humans and things, different things, among the different categories, although there is an order, they are intertwined and form a common domain. It is only through the foundation and sublimation of “reaching” that the “method” and its overall meaning can be clearly revealed. For example, Confucianism places special emphasis on filial piety. Confucianism often takes filial piety as the beginning of being true to the principles of human nature and the benevolent exercise of them to others. Confucianism’s concept of filial piety is based on the integration of both serving and respecting. In Confucian Analects, “Ziyou asks what filial piety is. The Master says, ‘The filial piety nowadays means the support of one’s parents. But dogs and horses likewise can do something in the way of support;-- without reverence, what is there to distinguish

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one support given from the other?’”45 In the Book of Rites, “Zengzi says, ‘there are three degrees of filial piety. The highest is the honoring of our parents; the second is the not disgracing them; and the lowest is the being able to support them.’”46 In Confucian Analects, it is said, “Zixia asks what filial piety is. The Master says, ‘the difficulty is with the countenance. If, when their elders have any troublesome affairs, the young take the toil of them, and if, when the young have wine and food, they set them before their elders, is THIS to be considered filial piety?’”47 What is “the difficulty with the countenance”? The Book of Rites says, “A filial son, cherishing a deep love (for his parents), is sure to have a bland air; having a bland air, he will have a look of pleasure; having a look of pleasure, his demeanor will be mild and compliant.”48 When a filial child serves his parents, a bland air, a look of pleasure, and pleasure in his face are the results of his inner love and respect, which is called “the countenance.” One’s care for one’s parents and elder brothers is surely supposed to be shown in material things such as food, clothing, housing, and transportation, but should not stop there. If we hire a caregiver, he might do a better job at the level of material support but he does not have the value and intention of being “filial” in himself. If one takes care of one’s parents but stops at “only serving them,” one’s behavior only has the meaning of finite existence. It is superficial, discontinuous, being not enough to fulfill the meaning of “filial piety.” It is why Confucius opposes the understanding of filial piety by “only serving them.” When a filial child treats his parents, his love and respect cannot be hidden, thus, being revealed from the bottom of his heart to his expressions and manners, giving his existing actions the meaning of moral continuity and universality, its universal meaning beyond “displaying” can be realized. Therefore, the “exceeding” in each step of “displaying” also connotes and expresses an elevation and transformation of the existing meaning. For example, the “displaying” of “caring for one’s family” is the expansion

45 James Legge. Confucian Analects. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2016: 44. 46 James Legge. Chinese Text Project. http://ctext.org. 47 James Legge. Confucian Analects. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2016: 45. 48 James Legge. The Book of Rites (English-Chinese). Zhongzhou Guji Publishing

Company. 2016: 177.

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of the individual and his one and the same rule with his parents and relatives, showing its ethical meaning and value of “being filial.” The meaning of filial piety has given a universal definition to the limited existence of individuals and their parents and relatives. Therefore, every current “displaying” with a limited time and space scope will sublimate itself to a new level with a function of transforming the current existence. This sublimation and transformation of actuality gives universal meaning to the finite reality of the present. We named this function “chao ke,” which means surpassing and outweighing. The “exceeding” mentioned previously is manifested as a kind of actual limitation and restriction. This “surpassing and outweighing” connotes a transformation from the quantitative expansion of the real scope of existence to the qualitative transformation of universalization. By the effect of “surpassing,” we can obtain a “generality” nature with humans and things beyond mutual boundaries. When Confucianism talks about the work of inferring the truth of things and explores the patterns of everything, it means that by exploring one thing today and one thing tomorrow, we can achieve a certain epiphany and coherence. We are not able to study patterns of everything, however, through limited and restricted knowledge, we can “surpass and outweigh” the boundaries of humans and things and reach a realm of edification. This is the reason. This manifests as the “generality” of the “surpassing and outweighing.” Its effects on individual existence can be expressed by the concept of “realm” to which we often refer. This realm has a three-dimensional nature and an empowering effect on individual existence (revealing and giving meanings). Therefore, the actual “displaying” always has an inherent sense of “transcending,” which is the “reaching” put forward by Confucius. What is revealed in this realm of “reaching” is the metaphysical “one and the same rule” or the “sincerity” of the way of heaven. As for “displaying and reaching destiny,” the word “and” reveals that dao must be realized through the interconnection of individual existence; the way of heaven reached by displaying, is at the same time reversed to be the foundation for the existence of the individuals. The two dimensions, “displaying” and “reaching,” although distinct, constitute the values and metaphysical system of Confucianism. The values and metaphysical system not only highlight a practical character from daily ethics to transcendence, but also embody a spirit of equal values of giving full play to one’s own nature and achieving something each one for himself before achieving something for everything outside oneself.

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Junzi (A Man of Virtue)’s Personality---“Self-Discipline” The purpose of Confucian civilization is to achieve the perfection of junzi’s personality. Confucianism often uses the concept of “selfdiscipline” to summarize the characteristics of junzi’s personality, emphasizing that a person should be able to “cultivate a friendly harmony, without being weak,”49 “stand erect in the middle, without inclining to either side”50 (Zhongyong of the Book of Rites ), “be affable, but not adulatory”51 and “stand out alone among others”52 (The Book of Rites ). Confucianism in the pre-Qin Period on “self-discipline” and the study of “self-discipline” in the silk book of the Five Phases highlight more of the meaning that “not letting the action of the five physical senses affect the heart, but to follow the heart’s desires alone.”53 The independence and uniqueness of junzi’s personality must be based on the realm of “reaching” and “the unity of the universe and man” in order to be realized. In the Book of Changes, Confucius explains, “The dragon lies hid (in the deep)--it is not the time for active doing.”54 The Book of Changes states, The Master says ‘There he is, with the powers of the dragon, and yet lying hid. The influence of the world would make no change in him; he would do nothing (merely) to secure his fame. He can live, withdrawn from the world, without regret; he can experience disapproval without trouble of mind. Rejoicing (in opportunity), he carries his principles into

49 Referring to Confucian Analects, “the Master says, ‘the superior man is affable, but

not adulatory; the petty man is adulatory, but not affable.’” James Legge. The Great Learning & the Doctrine of the Mean. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2017: 110. 50 James Legge. The Great Learning & the Doctrine of the Mean. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2017: 110. 51 James Legge. The Great Learning & the Doctrine of the Mean. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2017: 471. 52 James Legge. Chinese Text Project. http://ctext.org. 53 Referring to Section 3, Part 4 of this book. Translated by the translators of this

book. 54 James Legge. The Book of Changes. Hunan Education Publishing House. 1993: 7.

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action; sorrowing (for want of opportunity), he keeps with them in retirement. Yes, he is not to be torn from his root (in himself). This is ‘the dragon lying hid.’55

Still, the Book of Changes illustrates, “The superior man, in accordance with this, stands up alone and has no fear, and keeps retired from the world without regret.”56 The metaphor for the virtue of junzi in the Book of Changes is that “he can live, withdrawn from the world, without regret,”57 which emphasizes the independence of “junzi” who is not swayed by external things and circumstances and changes the world instead of being changed by it. “He can experience disapproval without trouble of mind,”58 further explains the sentence “he can live, withdrawn from the world, without regret.”59 At this point, junzi who has reached the state of a sage has an inner principle that dominates his manners, so he does not act in accordance with all the trends, does not bow down to the world, but “stands out alone among others”60 and is independent and impartial. Hence, his vision and experience must be different from those of normal humans and encounter the situation where no one understands him. From this perspective, it is quite normal that the thoughts and actions of junzi and sages are difficult to be understood by common people. As a result, it is understood by Confucianism as a dominant characteristic of junzi’s free personality that junzi feels not resentful or furious even if being misunderstood by the secular society. The Book of Changes uses “he can live, withdrawn from the world, without regret”61 and “he can experience disapproval without trouble of mind”62 as metaphors to compare the virtues of dragons and junzi.

55 James Legge. The Book of Changes. Hunan Education Publishing House. 1993: 7. 56 James Legge. The Book of Changes. Hunan Education Publishing House. 1993: 127. 57 James Legge. The Book of Changes. Hunan Education Publishing House. 1993: 7. 58 James Legge. The Book of Changes. Hunan Education Publishing House. 1993: 7. 59 James Legge. The Book of Changes. 60 James Legge. The Book of Changes. 61 James Legge. The Book of Changes. 62 James Legge. The Book of Changes.

Hunan Education Publishing House. 1993: 7. Hunan Education Publishing House. 1993: 24. Hunan Education Publishing House. 1993: 7. Hunan Education Publishing House. 1993: 7.

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Confucius also says that “Is he not a man of complete virtue, who feels no discomposure though men may take no note of him?”63 (Confucian Analects ). “The superior man accords with the course of the Mean. Though he may be all unknown, unrewarded by the world, he feels no regret. It is only the sage who is able for this”64 (Zhongyong of the Book of Rites, quoted from Confucius). The above-mentioned are great evidences to this point. The great philosophers and sages in history have often been prophets and mavericks with no one else to turn to, for the same reason. In fact, those who are more knowledgeable than common people in the world often feel lonely. For example, the so-called “geniuses” often lament for “never being understood.” Feeling lonely constantly makes geniuses feel painful, in this regard, it is hard to ask them not to resent others or feel angry about the society. The talent and knowledge of geniuses are often limited either in literature and art, or in mathematics and science. However, their personal characters are often partial and incomplete. At the same time, the characters are overflowing and easily dying down after its peak. Geniuses are often far less capable than common people out of their fields of expertise, hence, there is the term called “scientific idiot.” Artistic and literary geniuses often encounter bottlenecks such as “using up one’s literary talent or intelligence.” There are too many examples of the madness of poets and the suicides of Nobel Laureates in literature. Such geniuses often lack normal personal lives. They seem to be special envoys sent by heaven to realize a certain aspect of human civilization, and they are “recalled” by heaven upon the completion of their task. Humans cannot live well without talents or knowledge, however, talents and knowledge are derived from the gifts of nature. This natural talent often focuses on one aspect, separating the owner from other humans and things and making the owner easy to fall into the pain and loneliness of life. Junzi should attain the full realization of humanity through “my studies lie low, and my penetration rises high.”65 Through this “reaching” practice and sublimation, one’s characters could transform oneself into the 63 James Legge. Confucian Analects. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2016: 3. 64 James Legge. The Great Learning & the Doctrine of the Mean. Liaoning People’s

Publishing House. 2017: 113. 65 James Legge. Confucian Analects. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2016: 522–

3.

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structural content of virtuous life, so that it can be free from the bondage of the natural causes and effects, thus achieving freedom. Although junzi often encounters the situation of “not being understood,” he is still able to be without regret, fury, complaints, or anger. The emotions could be controlled and derived from junzi’s character. As quoted earlier from Confucian Analects that “The Master said, ‘Alas! there is no one that knows me.’ Zigong says, ‘What do you mean by thus saying--that no one knows you?’ The Master replies, ‘I do not murmur against Heaven. I do not grumble against men. My studies lie low, and my penetration rises high. But there is Heaven - that knows me!’”66 “Not murmuring against Heaven or grumbling against men”67 here means “He can live, withdrawn from the world, without regret,”68 and “Who feels no discomposure though men may take no note of him?”.69 From this, the independence of junzi’s personality, which is “He can live, withdrawn from the world, without regret”70 and “Who feels no discomposure though men may take no note of him?”71 can be realized only when it reaches the metaphysical realm of the form of harmony between heaven and humans. In Confucian Analects, it is said, “The Master says, ‘Without recognizing the ordinances of Heaven, it is impossible to be a superior man.’”72 Confucius advocates that “There are three things of which the superior man stands in awe,”73 the first kind is “in awe of the ordinances of Heaven”74 and Confucius considers it as the primary measure to distinguish junzi from the petty men.75 In his later years, Confucius also concludes, “At fifty, I knew the decrees of Heaven. At sixty, my ear was an

66 James Legge. Confucian Analects. Liaoning People’s 67 James Legge. Confucian Analects. Liaoning People’s 68 James Legge. Confucian Analects. Liaoning People’s 69 James Legge. Confucian Analects. Liaoning People’s

Publishing House. 2016: 522.

70 James Legge. Confucian Analects. Liaoning People’s 71 James Legge. Confucian Analects. Liaoning People’s 72 James Legge. Confucian Analects. Liaoning People’s 73 James Legge. Confucian Analects. Liaoning People’s

Publishing House. 2016: 7.

Publishing House. 2016: 7. Publishing House. 2016: 7. Publishing House. 2016: 3. Publishing House. 2016: 3. Publishing House. 2016: 731. Publishing House. 2016: 601.

74 James Legge. Confucian Analects. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2016: 601. 75 Referring to Confucian Analects, “Confucius says, ‘There are three things of which

the superior man stands in awe. He stands in awe of the ordinances of Heaven. He stands in awe of great men. He stands in awe of the words of sages. The petty man does not

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obedient organ for the reception of truth. At seventy, I could follow what my heart desired, without transgressing what was right.”76 Knowing “the decrees of Heaven”77 and revering it marks the establishment of one’s inner transcendent principle of the highest good value, thus being able to attain the completion of one’s personality and moral freedom. Nowadays, humans are used to understanding the realization of the “self” in terms of the confrontation between individuality and universality. Such self and individuality, without its own universal regulations, often become self-indulgent. At the same time, the universality of the value principle becomes more abstract, resulting in useful or utilitarian agreements outside of individual differences, losing the meaning of truth. Two consequences are brought about: one is the prevalence of moral and value relativism, the other is the loss of individual existence as a universal and transcendent ground. Individuals become more emotional and are easy to be influenced by the popular fashion led by the information from the advance modern media. The true self and individuality cannot be truly understood or achieved under the premise of this idea of abstract selfishness confronted with co-existence. On the contrary, Confucianism emphasizes the supreme universality and transcendence of moral principles while paying special attention to the formation of individual independence and uniqueness. In Confucianism, the independence of junzi’s personality is never an abstract selfishness. The study of junzi must reach heaven, the course of nature, and the way of heaven. Therefore, “understanding the mandate of heaven” is the premise of being junzi. Ideas like not being understood or “only the heaven understands me” indicate that junzi’s knowledge of the mandate of heaven is an internal truth achieved while being alone. Therefore, the independence and uniqueness of such junzi’s personality based on the way of heaven and the mandate of heaven determine that men’s understanding and self-awareness of heaven, the mandate of heaven, and the way of heaven must be an openness and interchangeability under the premise of the “Du Zhi” (the truth achieved while being alone) within the individuals, rather than a common or homogeneous cognition.

know the ordinances of Heaven, and consequently does not stand in awe of them. He is disrespectful to great men. He plays sports of the words of sages.’” 76 James Legge. Confucian Analects. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2016: 41. 77 James Legge. Confucian Analects. Liaoning People’s Publishing House. 2016: 41.

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Wang Yangming has a good explanation of the intrinsic relevance of this “unique knowledge” to “the mandate of heaven.” He creates poems like “The truth is known while being alone, and there is no more truth other than that”78 and “Being nobody provides a good time to find the truth, which is the root of the universe.”79 His disciple Wang Longxi (1498–1583) also says, “The truth is known while being alone. Way of heaven is acquired while being alone. The essence of the truth of heaven is supposed to be left unknown…truth achieved while being alone is the essence, and “self-discipline” is the way.”80 This notion of “The truth is known while being alone” aptly characterizes the “knowledge” of the mandate of heaven and the way of heaven. The truth from “heaven,” “the way of heaven,” and “the mandate of heaven” is of universal transcendent essence. However, it is not an object of cognition that is readily available and laid out somewhere for abstract recognition. Its manifestation to the human heart must be a kind of “transparency” that is opened through an individual’s inner truth, instead of a kind of “sameness” in the sense of cognition.81 This is also the reason why the ancients always define that “sage” is “transparency.” Therefore, the highest knowledge or the true wisdom of human beings must be the “the truth known while being alone” obtained from the heart alone. “Only heaven understands me” and “the truth achieved while being alone” are the two conditions to reach transparency. Hearts and Minds of junzi are always open to others and the world at large. The truth known while being alone is both self-awareness and self-understanding while at the same time, a kind of acquisition that is one’s own. Through the process of civilization and the foundation of transcendence, nature as an individual actuality can be realized and retained as its own individual characters, with independence and uniqueness that are not influenced by external forces. The unique knowledge of human mind about the actuality

78 Referring to Wang Yangming. “Two Songs in Answering Questions about Conscience”. The Complete Works of Wang Yangming, vol. 20. Translated by the translators of this book. 79 Referring to Wang Yangming. “Four Songs of Chanting Conscience to Show the Disciples”. The Complete Works of Wang Yangming, vol. 20. Translated by the translators of this book. 80 Referring to the Case of Ming Confucianism, vol. 12. 81 For example, “Analytical Dictionary of Characters: Sage, Method”, referring to Duan

Yucai. Analytical Dictionary of Characters.

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and the creative realization of dao in the life of an individual are two aspects of the same process. This achievement reached through the characters of junzi is alone but not lonely. Junzi in the world, must be aware of the timing, place, and duties of different positions. Nevertheless, he can always hold a heart of ren and work together with other humans and things. In this regard, we have the status described as “All things are already complete in us”82 (the Works of Mencius ). Joys can be achieved through the integration of heaven, earth, and all things. It shows the performance of the highest level of edification that “He feels no discomposure though men may take no note of him,”83 “Do not murmur against Heaven. I do not grumble against men,”84 “He can live, withdrawn from the world, without regret,”85 and “It is only the sage who is able for this.”86

82 James Legge. The Works of Mencius. 83 James Legge. The Works of Mencius. 84 James Legge. The Works of Mencius. 85 James Legge. The Works of Mencius.

Dover Publication, Inc. 2016: 450. Dover Publication, Inc. 2016: 3. Dover Publication, Inc. 2016: 522–3. Dover Publication, Inc. 2016: 7.

86 James Legge. The Works of Mencius. Dover Publication, Inc. 2016: 113.

CHAPTER 7

Conclusion: Confucian Edification and Contemporary Society

Abstract In recent years, Confucianism and academia have revived among humans, and the cultural identification of Chinese toward traditional culture is gradually awakening. The reason is that the root of Confucianism lies in the human and the core lies in edification. Its carrier is not only the system. The implementation of edification makes Confucianism deeply rooted in the social and spiritual life of Chinese. It’s suggested to take the opportunity of the revival of Confucianism among humans to rebuild the contemporary form of Confucianism and integrate the two levels of “culture” and “blood,” therefore, there will be a bright future for the development of Chinese culture and Confucianism. Keywords Iconoclasm · Confucianism among the human · Culture

To sum up, although Confucianism is a “philosophy,” it maintains a close relationship with social lives and is the foundation of the edification in Chinese culture. However, since the early twentieth century, Confucianism has undergone significant changes in both its role in social culture and academic forms. The change of Confucian role in social culture is first reflected in its deconstruction with the real social system. According to Yu Yingshi (1930–2021), “The characteristic of traditional Confucianism is that it © Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd. 2022 J. Li, Edification in the Chinese Philosophy of Confucianism, Key Concepts in Chinese Thought and Culture, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-4196-2_7

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comprehensively arranges the world order, so it can be implemented only through institutionalization.” Therefore, institution becomes the carrier of Confucianism in reality. In traditional society, the phenomenon of no separation of religion and governments or even Caesaropapism existed for a long time. The existence of Confucianism largely depended on the political system at that time. Since the collapse of the political system, China’s traditional social system has entered the process of comprehensive disintegration in modern times. Confucianism is not a religion. It could not be held within its own religious system after the separation of religion and governments, such as Christianity. The complete disintegration of the traditional social system has made Confucianism lose its place and become a kind of “wandering soul” without body.1 At the same time, China’s cultural consciousness since modern times has been dominated by radicalism and iconoclasm; under the impact of Western culture, the traditional etiquette and customs of Chinese society have been seriously damaged, and a complete set of modern social lifestyle (new etiquette and customs) with cultural soul and vitality has not been reconstructed in a historically continuous way. In this way, Confucianism has been alienated from social lives in modern times. Accordingly, thoughts in Confucianism also experienced a process of modern transformation. This transformation played an important role in the communication and dialogue between Confucianism and Western intellectual thoughts at the modern academic level and the participation of Confucianism in the creation process of world academic thoughts. However, at the same time, it also brought some urgent problems to be solved for the reconstruction of contemporary Chinese culture and beliefs. Philosophy is a kind of historical knowledge. Therefore, the ideological production of philosophy in each era should be reflected as a unity of creativity and continuity or modernity and history. Confucianism pays great attention to the historical continuity of thoughts. Confucianism enjoys a long tradition of classical interpretation. Facing the problems of the times, adapting to the modern lives through the reconstruction of classics and the meaning system, and forming an ideological domain and argumentation system with contemporary significance are the ways to develop thoughts or “expound ideas” of Confucianism in each era. 1 Referring to Yu Yingshi. “Dilemma of Modern Confucianism” collected in the Theory of Modern Confucianism.

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The principle interpreted by these ways should be transferred from the classics and traditions rather than the outside. Therefore, it can make the spirit of ancient classics and culture maintain the integrity and continuity of their own lives, constantly renew themselves, focus on the current life, and constitute a living ideological and cultural tradition leading the social spiritual life in each era. Since modern times, facing the superior place of Western culture and academic disclosure, incorporating the Western academic discipline division model and conceptual framework has become a necessary way for the modern transformation of traditional Chinese academic thoughts. The “movement of systematizing national cultural heritage” in early Republic of China advocated the classification research of traditional Chinese academic thoughts with Western modern disciplinary models and academic norms, to form a discipline system of modern significance. “Chinese philosophy” is a discipline formed in the process of academic transformation. This research method represents a general tendency of Chinese contemporary ideological and academic research. Under this ideological and academic background, the principles of theoretical interpretation and historical tradition in the study of modern Chinese Confucianism have been external to each other for a long time. The principles and methods of its interpretation are not internally transferred or established from Confucian classics and traditions, but “borrowed” from Western philosophy and other fields. An academic and cultural concept is always associated with special historical traditions and forms its overall life significance, from which it obtains its own unique content. However, while classifying ancient classics such as the Book of Changes, the Book of Rites, Confucian Analects, and the Works of Mencius, we deduce their propositions and concepts, and put them into corresponding categories of philosophy, such as ontology, cosmology, axiology, life theory, and epistemology, so as to make a new system construction according to the division and category framework of Western philosophy. Its content is abstracted into some fragmented historical data. The so-called Confucian philosophy formed from it gradually degenerates to single academic knowledge, losing its spiritual characteristics and academic identity as Confucianism, and flowing into historical knowledge in a past tense form (in fact, it also means the lack of authenticity), instead of being rooted in the current ideological and spiritual values. Therefore, it is impossible for the so-called Confucian philosophy to fit and lead the spiritual life of contemporary Chinese society.

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In short, an important problem faced by Confucianism in the modern transformation process of its academic thoughts and role in modern Chinese social culture is its alienation from social lives. We have quoted the article of Yu Yingshi, “the Dilemma of Modern Confucianism” to vividly describe the modern situation of Confucianism as the “wandering souls” who lost their shelters. Confucianism in China and Its Modern Destiny (1968), written by American scholar Joseph Levenson (1920–1969), compares the “exhibits in the museum” to the modern fate of Confucianism. Levenson believes that Confucianism has become part of history and the historical collection or display in a museum in modern China.2 In the twentieth century, most Chinese scholars took a pessimistic attitude toward the modern fate of Confucianism. However, a cultural tradition that has lasted for thousands of years could not be easily cut off. Since the beginning of this century, Chinese cultural consciousness has undergone a fundamental change, that is, from the mainstream trend of iconoclasm in the twentieth century to the affirmation and recognition of tradition. Since the Reform and Opening-up, the independent space of social life has been gradually expanding in China. Accordingly, from the end of the last century to the beginning of this century, the edification and learning among humans have gradually sprung up. In recent years, the lectures and practices of Confucianism among humans have been further and widely developed, forming a trend. All kinds of folk academies, teaching rooms, private schools, academic organizations, and pulpits bloom everywhere; various non-governmental academic and cultural activities are vigorously carried out, such as scripture reading, lectures, seminars, and gatherings. The principle interpreted by the academic research of Confucianism and traditional thoughts has changed from monism to pluralism. This gives scholars opportunities to make choice more freely, so that their research work can be integrated with their own interests and even the recognition of their values. It is gradually possible that scholars can uphold the traditional principle of “learning for oneself,” express their own ideas, and do their own research independently. It makes Confucianism and other academic thoughts of the college gradually form the function of edification and possess the possibility of adapting to the general society and human lives. 2 Referring to Joseph Levenson. Confucianism in China and Its Modern Destiny. China Social Sciences Publishing House, 2000.

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Although there are still many disputes about the emergence of the socalled mainland Neo-Confucianism in recent years, it is indisputable that the national tradition and cultural care among the contemporary Chinese scholars are gradually strengthening, and a large number of scholars who can practice Confucian values are emerging. Why did the cultural consciousness of the Chinese change so much in the short term and the folk Confucian society rise so rapidly? My understanding is that the root of Confucianism lies among the people and the core lies in edification. In addition, its carrier is not only the system. The implementation of edification makes Confucianism deeply rooted in the social and spiritual life of Chinese humans. Historically speaking, the existence of cultural life lies in its endless creation. This creation can be summarized into two lines: the first line is “culture.” Confucianism is constantly creating academic and theoretical thoughts in each era. Confucianism has different features in each era. It has continued its own tradition in a creative way, which is called as “tracing back and making innovations” by the modern Neo-Confucianism. The other line is “blood.” Blood vessel is reflected as the historical continuity of social lives and individual spiritual life, as well as the existence and edifying effects of classes or groups “practicing truth in person” in society. Tradition is a living process of continuous creation. With such a creative process, Confucianism can really fit in with the common people, so as to lead the spiritual direction of social lives. The edifying tradition of Confucianism has been disrupted in modern China, yet, it has never been cut off. We should rebuild the connection between Confucianism and social lives in a reasonable way, that is, we should integrate the two lines of “culture” and “blood.” Only in this way, can the “soul” of Confucianism return to its “body,” and the edification of Confucianism can play its due role in contemporary Chinese society and become the spirit of the time, thus, making a bright prospect for the future development of Chinese culture.