Early Buddhist Art of China and Central Asia, Volume 2 The Eastern Chin and Sixteen Kingdoms Period in China and Tumshuk, Kucha and Karashahr in Central Asia (2 vols) 9789004391864, 900439186X

Citation preview

EARLY BUDDHIST ART OF CHINA AND CENTRAL ASIA

Marylin Martin Rhie - 978-90-04-39186-4 Downloaded from Brill.com02/09/2023 04:24:26PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

HANDBOOK OF ORIENTAL STUDIES HANDBUCH DER ORIENTALISTIK SECTION FOUR

CHINA EDITED BY

E. ZURCHER · S.F. TEISER · M. KERN

VOLUME 12/2

EARLY BUDDHIST ART OF CHINA AND CENTRAL ASIA VOL. 2-TEXT

Marylin Martin Rhie - 978-90-04-39186-4 Downloaded from Brill.com02/09/2023 04:24:26PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

EARLY BUDDHIST ART OF CHINA AND CENTRAL ASIA VOLUME TWO

The Eastern Chin and Sixteen Kingdoms Period in China and Tumshuk, Kucha and Karashahr in Central Asia - Text BY

MARYLIN MARTIN RHIE

BRILL LEIDEN · BOSTON · KOLN 2002 Marylin Martin Rhie - 978-90-04-39186-4 Downloaded from Brill.com02/09/2023 04:24:26PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Rhie, Marylin M. Early Buddhist art of China and Central Asia / by Marylin Martin Rhie. p. cm. - (Handbuch der Orientalistik. Vierte Abteilung, China. ISSN OI 69-9520 ; 12. Bd. = Handbook of Oriental studies, China) Contents: v. 2. The Eastern Chin and Sixteen Kingdoms Period in China and Tumshuk, Kucha and Karashahr in Central Asia. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 900411499 8 (set: v. 2 : alk. paper) I. Art, Buddhist-China. 2. Art, Chinese. 3. Art, Buddhist-Asia, Central. 4 Art, Central Asian. 5. a-cc ac. I. Title. II. Series : Handbuch der Orientalistik. Vierte Abteilung, China ; 12. Bd. N8193.C6R475 2002 704.9'48943'0951-dc21 98-31898 CIP

Die Deutsche Bibliothek - CIP-Einheitsaufnahme Handbuch der Orientalistik. - Leiden ; Boston ; Koln : Brill Teilw. hrsg. von H. Altenmiiller. - Teilw. hrsg. von B. Spuler. -Literaturangaben. Teilw. mit Parallelt.: Handbook of oriental studies

Abt. 4. China / hrsg. von E. Zurcher Bd. 12. Rhie, Marylin M.: Early Buddhist art of China and Central Asia Vol. 2. The Eastern Chin and Sixteen Kingdoms Period in China and Tumshuk, Kucha and Karashahr in Central Asia. - 2002 Rhie, Marylin M.: Early Buddhist art of China and Central Asia / by Marylin Martin Rhie. Leiden ; Boston ; Koln : Brill (Handbuch der Orientalistik: Abt. 4., China;

)

Vol.2. The Eastern Chin and Sixteen Kingdoms Period in China and Tumshuk, Kucha and Karashahr in Central Asia. - 2002. (Handbuch der Orientalistik: Abt. 4, China; Bd. 12) ISBN 90-04-11499 8 (set)

ISSN ISBN ISBN ISBN

OI 69-9520 90 04 11499 8 (set) 90 04 12847 6 (text part) 90 04 12848 4 (ill. part)

© Copyright 2002 by Koninklijke Brill nv, Leiden, The Netherlands

All rights reseroed. No part ef this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval ~stem, or transmitted in any Jonn or by a'!)' means, ekctronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission .from the publisher. Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted by Brill provided thot the appropriate fees are paid direct!Y to The Copyright Ckarance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910, Danvers, MA 01923, USA. Fees are subject to change. PRINTED IN THE NETHERLANDS Marylin Martin Rhie - 978-90-04-39186-4 Downloaded from Brill.com02/09/2023 04:24:26PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

To my husband Young

Marylin Martin Rhie - 978-90-04-39186-4 Downloaded from Brill.com02/09/2023 04:24:26PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

Marylin Martin Rhie - 978-90-04-39186-4 Downloaded from Brill.com02/09/2023 04:24:26PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements ................................................ xx111 List of maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxv Introduction ...................................................... xxvn

PART I: CHINA The Eastern Chin in the South (317-420) and Various Dynasties in the North During the Sixteen Kingdoms Period (316-439 A.D.) Chapter One BUDDHISM AND BUDDHIST ART IN THE SOUTH UNDER THE EASTERN CHIN (317-420) Aspects ef Buddhism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7

II. Buddhist Monasteries, Stupas and Images.from Literary Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. Early Eastern Chin (ca. 317-361 A.D.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I. Monasteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Images.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a. The Two "Floating" Stone Images (ca. 313 A.D.). . . . . . . . . . . i. According to the Kao-seng chuan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii. According to Tao-hsiian's Chi shen-chou san-pao kan-t'ung lu . . iii. In Tun-huang Cave 323 Wall Painting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . b. T'ao K'an's "King Asoka" Golden MafijusrI Image... . . . . . . c. Kao Li's Gilded Image with Inscription . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i. According to the Kao-seng chuan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii. According to Tao-hsiian's Chi shen-chou san-pao kan-t'ung lu . . iii. Visual Appearance of Kao Li's Image from the Texts. . . . . iv. In the Tun-huang Cave 323 Wall Painting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . d. Golden Buddha found in the River at Wu-hsing. . . . . . . . . . . . e. Ho Chuang's Shrines of the Seven Buddhas of the Past . . . . .

20 23 23 26 26 26 28 31 34 41 42 44 48 50 53 54

I.

Marylin Martin Rhie - 978-90-04-39186-4 Downloaded from Brill.com02/09/2023 04:24:26PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

VIII

TABLE OF CONTENTS

f. Seven Buddhas Painting by Wei Hsieh ................... . g. Parinirvai:ia Buddha Images ........................... . h. Amitabha Painting Made by the Monk Chih Tun .......... . B. Middl,e Eastern Chin (ca. 361-396 A.D.) .......................... . 1. Monasteries ........................................... . 2. King Asoka Relics and Stupas ............................ . a. King Asoka stupa at the Ch'ang-kan ssu .................. . b. King Asoka stupa at Mao hsien in K'uai-chi .............. . 3. Images ............................................... . a. Images Associated with Tao-an at Hsiang-yang ............ . . (Am'1tayus. ?) . ............... . 1.. 16-fioot " won d rous" image ii. Gifts from Fu Chien ............................... . iii. Buddha Sculpture with U~i:i1~a Relic .................. . b. Asokan Image of Tan-i at the Ch'ang-sha ssu ............. . c. Images by the Scholar Sculptor-Painter Tai K'uei .......... . i. Five Buddhas .................................... . ii. Wooden Buddha (Amitayus?) Sculpture ................ . iii. Bronze Buddha and two Bodhisattvas of the Hsinghuang ssu ....................................... . iv. Paintings by Tai K'uei ............................. . d. Vimalaklrti Painting by Ku K'ai-chih ............... . e. Gold Plate with 1,000 Buddhas .................... . f. Sixteen-foot Gilded Image at the Shao-ling ssu ....... . g. Images made by the Nun T'an-lo .................. . C. Late Eastern Chin (ca. 396-420 A.D.) ............................ . 1. Monasteries ........................................... . 2. Images ............................................... . a. Ceylonese Jade Buddha ............................... . b. Images associated with Hui-yuan at Mount Lu ............ . 1. T'ao K'an's "King Asoka" Golden Mafijusrl image ...... . n. Buddha's luminous "projection" (shadow) image ......... . a. Hui-yuan's cave and Buddha's "projection" image ..... . b. Cave of the Naga in Indian texts .................. . c. Dragon Cave excerpt from the Kuan fa san-mei hai ching . . . d. Accounts of the Chinese and Central Asian monks and travellers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii. Amitabha and other images at the Tung-lin ssu . . . . . . . . . .

55 56 57

59 62 64 67 77

83 83 83 85

87 88

94 95 96 97 97 98 98 98 99 101 108 111 111 112 112 113 114 115 118 127 137

Marylin Martin Rhie - 978-90-04-39186-4 Downloaded from Brill.com02/09/2023 04:24:26PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

TABLE OF CONTENTS

IX

c. Ssu-wei (Contemplative) Prince (t'ai-tzu) Image of the Wu temple at Hsu chou . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 d. "King Asoka" image of Sun Hao rediscoverd by Wang Mi . . . . 141 e. Two 16-foot Gilded Images for the Wa-kuan ssu ............ 143 III. Remains ef Buddhist Art and Related Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. Representations of Famous and Miraculous Stupas and Images . . . . . . 1. King Asoka Stupas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a. Form and appearance of the "ling-t' a" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . b. Reliquary Stupa at the A-yii-wang ssu in Ningpo . . . . . . . . . . . . c. Other examples of the King Asoka Stupa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . d. Sources of the type and style ............................ 2. King Asoka Images ...................................... a. Summary of the earliest "King Asoka Images" from written accounts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . b. "King Asoka" images from Ch'eng-tu, Szechwan ........... i. Posture, body and drapery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii. The head. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii. The pedestal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv. The halo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v. Conclusions and importance of the King Asoka Image in China ........................................... 3. The Buddha's "Projection" Image in the "Representation of Famous Buddhist Images" Silk Painting from Tun-huang ........ B. Mirrors with Four Buddhist/Four Animal Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. The Kyoto National Museum Mirror ....................... 3. Stylistic Elements, Provenence, Sources and Dating . . . . . . . . . . . . C. Paintings and Reliefs ........................................ 1. Ku K'ai-chih and the Wa-kuan ssu Vimalakirti Painting ......... a. Ku K'ai-chih ........................................ b. Vimalakirti Painting of the Wa-kuan ssu in Chien-k'ang . . . . . . 2. Vimalakirti and Mafijusrl Relief Panels in Cave III at Lung-men a. Vimalakirti Panel in Cave III. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . b. Mafijusrl Panel in Cave III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. Tai K'uei's Painting of the "Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove" 4. Relief of ca. 425 A.D. from the Wan-fo ssu in Ch'eng-tu . . . . . . . .

145 146 14 7 14 7 149 151 153 155 156 159 161 163 164 165 167 169 I 76 I 76 180 183 187 187 187 191 193 196 198 203 206

Marylin Martin Rhie - 978-90-04-39186-4 Downloaded from Brill.com02/09/2023 04:24:26PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

X

TABLE OF CONTENTS

a. Description and identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . b. Figure and landscape style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D. Koguryo Early Tomb Wall Paintings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l. Tomb No. 3 at Anak Dated 357 AD. ........................ a. Portrait of Tongsu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . b. Portrait of Tongsu's wife . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . c. Procession scene. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Ansong-dong Great Tomb and Susan-ri Tomb ................ 3. The Tomb at Tokhungri Dated 408/ 409 AD. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a. Date and identity of the master of the Tomb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . b. Brief description of the tomb and its wall paintings . . . . . . . . . . 4. Kamshin Tomb at On-ch'on and Sashin Tomb at Maesan-ri . . . . . 5. Tomb No. 1 at Chang-ch'on, Chip-an . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a. Wall paintings of the anteroom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i. Buddha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii. Bodhisattvas ...................................... iii. Apsaras figures, reborn souls, lotus flowers and yak~as ..... b. The main (coffin) room ................................ E. Concluding Remarks on Koguryo Tomb Paintings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

208 211 215 215 218 219 221 222 223 224 225 230 232 233 234 236 237 238 238

IV. Summary Conclusions to Chapter 1 ..................................... 239 Chapter Two BUDDHISM AND BUDDHIST ART IN THE NORTH (ca. 317-439 AD.) I.

Phase I: Former Chao (319-329) and Later Chao (330-352 A.D.) .. ............. A Fo-tu-t'ung and Buddhist Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B. Remains of Buddhist Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Seated Gilt Bronze Buddha Dated 338 in the Asian Art Museum . 2. Standing Gilt Bronze Buddha in the Kyoto National Museum .... 3. Small Standing Bronze Bodhisattva (Maitreya) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C. Conclusions ...............................................

243 246 253 254 261 265 267

II. Phase II: Former Ch'in (351-385/394 A.D.), Former Yen (352-370), Western Yen (384-394), Later Yen (384-408), and the Rise ef the T'o-pa (?-398). . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 A The Fu Clan and the Rise and Fall of the Former Ch'in (352-385/394) 271

Marylin Martin Rhie - 978-90-04-39186-4 Downloaded from Brill.com02/09/2023 04:24:26PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

TABLE OF CONTENTS

XI

B. The Mu:Jung in the Northeast: the Former Yen (352-370) .......... C. The Western Yen (384-394) and the Later Yen (384-409) . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Western Yen under Mu:Jung Ch'ung and Mu:Jung Yung . . . . . . . . 2. Later Yen Founded by Mu:Jung Ch'ui . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D. Rise of the T'o-pa in Northern Shansi. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. The Early T'o-pa Leaders: Li-wei (Shen-yuan), 1-i and 1-lu (King of Tai) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. T'o-pa Shih-i-ch'ien ..................................... 3. T'o-pa Kuei ............................................ E. Buddhist Activities from Written Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Chu Seng-lang and Chu Fa-ya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Tao-an in Ch'ang-an .................................... F. Remains of Buddhist Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Standing Bodhisattva (Maitreya) in the Ku-kung po-wu-kuan, Beijing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Seated Buddha in abhayii mudrii in the Nitta Collection .......... 3. Seated Buddha with Kharo~thi Inscription from Sian . . . . . . . . . . . a. Inscription . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . b. Comparative description and stylistic dating. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i. Body and drapery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii. Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii. Pedestal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv. Date . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. Buddha in dhyiina mudrii in the Nitta Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5. Various Small Seated Buddha Sculptures and Altars ............ a. Images with some traits similar to the Kharo~thi Inscription Buddha and the Nitta dhyiina mudrii Buddha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i. Buddha with plain lion pedestal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii. Buddha in the Hamamatsu Municipal Museum . . . . . . . . . . iii. Buddha from the metal smelting storehouse, Pao-ting, Hopei iv. Buddha found near Seoul, Korea. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v. Buddha from T'ang hsien, Pao-shui ts'un, Hopei . . . . . . . . . b. Images Related to those in subgroup a) and to the small Buddha image from Pai-sung ts'un, Shih-chia-ch'uang, southcentral Hopei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Four seated Buddhas ................................ ii. Three Buddhas in the Kyoto Jumbun Kagaku Kenkyujo . . .

285 288 288 289 291 291 294 295 298 305 309 31 7 318 322 325 326 329 329 331 332 333 334 337 339 339 340 340 341 342

343 343 344

Marylin Martin Rhie - 978-90-04-39186-4 Downloaded from Brill.com02/09/2023 04:24:26PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

XII

TABLE OF CONTENTS

iii. Buddha excavated from Pei-sung ts'un, Shih-chia chuang, Hopei ........................................... iv. Buddha in the collection of the National Museum, Czech Republic ......................................... c. Images with Remaining Parts of an Altar Ensemble ......... i. Buddha with trilobed mandorla from Pao-ting, Hopei . . . . . ii. Buddha with 4-footed stand, trilobed mandorla and circular canopy in the Hopei Province Museum . . . . . . . . . . iii. Buddha with trilobed mandorla in the Tokyo Bijutsu Daigaku . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv. Buddha with 4-footed stand and trilobed mandorla in the Ku-kung Museum, Beijing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v. Buddha with 4-footed stand in the Sano Bijutsukan, Shizuoka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . d. Four Buddhas with incised designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e. Sketch of Buddha from Sian in the Sian Municipal Cultural Relics Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ( Buddha with rayed round head halo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6. Conclusions of the Small Bronze Buddhas and Altars. . . . . . . . . . . G. Concluding Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

355 356 35 7 361

III. Phase III: Later Ch'in (386-418), Ta Hsia (407-431), Southern Yen (398-410), Northern Yen (409-438), and Ear(y (Northern) Wei (398-439) ................. A. Rise and Fall of the Yao Clan of the Later Ch'in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Yao Ch'ien-na and Yao I-chung ............................ 2. Yao Hsiang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. Yao Ch'ang (r. 386-393) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. Yao Hsing (r. 393-416) ................................... 5. Yao Hung (r. 416-418) .................................... B. Ho-lien Po-po and the Ta Hsia (407-431) ........................ C. Southern Yen (398-410) and Northern Yen (409-438) .............. D. Continued Rise of the T'o-pa Wei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. T'o-pa Ssu (r. 409-424) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. T'o-pa Tao (r. 424-452). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E. Buddhist Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Kumarajiva: Life, Works, and Disciples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a. Translation of the Kao-seng chuan biography of Kumarajiva ....

364 365 365 366 368 372 376 377 382 383 383 384 387 387 388

345 345 346 346 348 350 351 354 354

Marylin Martin Rhie - 978-90-04-39186-4 Downloaded from Brill.com02/09/2023 04:24:26PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

TABLE OF CONTENTS

XIII

b. Brief summary of Kumarajiva's translations in China . . . . . . . . 399 c. Sarira stupas of Kumarajiva . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 l

2. Other Activities ......................................... a. Monks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . b. King Asoka stupas in the North ......................... 3. Under the T'o-pa Wei from 398-439 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F. Remains of Buddhist Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l. Gilt Bronze Standing Bodhisattva (Kuan-shih-yin) in the Asian art Museum .............................................. 2. Group of Bronzes from Hopei ............................. a. Gilt bronze Apsaras from Pao-ting, Hopei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . b. Buddha with 4-footed stand from I hsien, Hopei . . . . . . . . . . . . c. Altar ensemble in the Idemitsu Art Museum ............... 3. Remains from Ch'ang-an (Sian) and the "Kuan-chung" (Shensi) Region ................................................ a. Clay relief plaque with seated Buddha in the Shensi Province History Museum, Sian ................................. b. Standing bronze Buddha formerly in the Masaki collection. . . . c. Two stone image reliefs from Sian ........................ 1. Cross-ankled Buddha relief dated 4 l l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii. Dhyanasana Buddha relief dated 411 and a group of bronze reliefs ...................................... 4. Udayana Buddha of Kumarajiva ........................... a. Early Chinese textural sources ........................... i. Excerpt (chi.ian 28) from the Ekottaragama Sutra . . . . . . . . . . . ii. Excerpt from the Kuan.fa san-mei hai ching ................ iii. Excerpt from Fa-hsien's Record ef Buddhist Kingdoms . . . . . . . . iv. Excerpt from the Fo-yu Tien-ch'u chi . ................... b. The Kumarajiva/Seiryoji Shaka image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5. Four Bronze Dlryanasana Buddha Images with Lion Pedestals ..... a. Bronze Buddha in the Rietberg Museum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . b. Gilt bronze Buddha with inscription and round rayed halo in the Metropolitan Museum of Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . c. Small gilt bronze Buddha in the Nitta collection . . . . . . . . . . . . d. Dhyanasana Buddha in the Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art .... 6. Bronze Buddha in the Hopei Provincial Museum (without halo and pedestal) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

403 403 404 405 409 410 415 416 418 420 422 423 425 426 427 430 432 432 432 438 439 440 44 l 445 445 448 45 l 452 453

Marylin Martin Rhie - 978-90-04-39186-4 Downloaded from Brill.com02/09/2023 04:24:26PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

XIV

TABLE OF CONTENTS

7. Bronze "Maitreya Buddha" from Yii-lin City dated [Liu] Sung 423 A.D............................................... 8. The Wei Wen-lang Buddhist/Taoist Stone Stele Dated 424 A.D. from Yao hsien . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a. Dedicatory inscription . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . b. Front face . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . c. Back face ........................................... d. Sides ............................................... e. Stylistic elements, dating, and importance of the Wei Wenlang stele ........................................... 9. Stone Relief Dated 424 in the Sian Municipal Cultural Relics Administration ......................................... 10. Dhyanasana Bronze Buddha Altar with Inscription dated 429 in the Ta Hsia ............................................ 11. Standing Bronze "Maitreya" Buddha in the Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art ......................................... 12. Small Seated Bronze Buddha on Lotus Pedestal in the NelsonAtkins Museum of Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13. Two Cross-ankled Maitreya Bodhisattvas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a. Stone Maitreya Bodhisattva. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . b. Bronze Maitreya Bodhisattva in the NelsonAtkins Museum of Art. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G. Concluding Remarks ........................................

455 460 461 463 468 470 470 472 474 477 480 481 481 483 487

PART II: CENTRAL ASIA The Northern Silk Road in Eastern Central Asia: Sites and Art of Tumshuk, Kucha and Karashahr

Chapter Three TUMSHUK

I.

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496

II.

Toqquz-Sarai .................................................... 499 A. Large Sanctuary 'W.' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499

Marylin Martin Rhie - 978-90-04-39186-4 Downloaded from Brill.com02/09/2023 04:24:26PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

TABLE OF CONTENTS

XV

1. Stupa Court . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. "Rooms" of the Southwest Side and Their Sculptural Remains . . . a. Small Temple ''.J" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i. Sculptures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii. Paintings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . b. Zone "S" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . c. Temple "R" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . d. Small Temple "I" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e. Northwest Side of Large Sanctuary 'W.' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Central Sanctuary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sanctuary "B" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Scattered Image Remains ................................. 2. In-situ Narrative Relief Panels .............................. North Group and Temple "D" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Temple "N". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

499 501 502 503 505 506 506 507 51 7 518 522 523 526 529 532

III. Tumshuk-Tagh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. Central Group. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B. Western Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Stupa Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a. Small standing wooden Buddha (III 7668) ................. b. Seated dhyanasana wooden Buddha (III 8034) .............. c. Lower portion of a clay standing Buddha. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . d. Other objects from Stupa Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Small Temple with Statues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. Remains from around the Small Temple with Statues . . . . . . . . . . . a. Standing wooden Buddha (III 8035) ...................... b. Fragment of a textile banner ............................ 4. Southwest ("Gandhara") Temple with Octagonal Pedestal ....... C. Eastern Group. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I. "Main Temple" and Group of Temples on the High Plateau . . . . . 2. Small "Temple of the Pedestal" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. Objects from the "Temple of the Pedestal" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a. Fragment of wall painting with teaching Buddha. . . . . . . . . . . . b. Lower torso of a standing Buddha (III 7645) ............... c. Dhyanasana monk on a circular lotus pedestal with robe covering his head (III 7660) .............................

535 536 537 538 538 540 543 543 544 548 548 549 550 551 552 554 555 555 557

B. C.

D.

E.

557

Marylin Martin Rhie - 978-90-04-39186-4 Downloaded from Brill.com02/09/2023 04:24:26PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

TABLE OF CONTENTS

XVI

d. Seated cross-ankled Buddha with circular halo and mandorla (III 7657) ........................................... e. Kneeling worshipping celestial with circular rayed halo (III 7659) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. The "Burnt Temple" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5. Objects from the Eastern Group of Uncertain Find Spot . . . . . . . . a. Wooden gilded Buddha head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . b. Dancing Deva . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . c. Buddha in bhiimisparsa mudra (III 7658). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . d. Head of a Devata. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e. Three male heads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . f. Two kneeling celestials ................................. g. Kneeling bearded male figure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . h. Wooden stupa with 13 chattras and triratna finial . . . . . . . . . . . i. Small bronze image on 4-legged stand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D. Southern Sanctuary ........................................ E. Standing Wooden Buddha from "Small Ruin in the North" . . . . . . . . .

559 559 560 560 56 l 562 564 564 564 565 565 566 567 567

IV. Conclusions: Summary and Earty Chronology ef Sites and Sculptures at Tumshuk. . . . . . A. Stupas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B. Monastery and Temple Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C. Sculpture .................................................

5 70 5 70 5 71 575

558

Chapter Four THE KUCHA OASIS

I.

History

ef the Kucha Regi,on: Han Dynasry-Sixteen Kingdoms Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580

II. Buddhism in the Kucha Regi,on . ........................................ A. From the Preface to the Bhik.$unzpratimok.$a . ....................... B. Kuchean Monks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C. Buddhist Literature ......................................... D. Evidences from Hsiian-tsang. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

587 587 589 591 595

Marylin Martin Rhie - 978-90-04-39186-4 Downloaded from Brill.com02/09/2023 04:24:26PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

TABLE OF CONTENTS

XVII

III. Buddhist Sites and Art Remains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. Duldul-Akur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Main Temple Site and Early Sculpture Found in-situ . . . . . . . . . . . . a. Southeast Side . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Halo fragment with dhyanlisana Buddha from entrance (R) 11. Shrine (K) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a. Lower torso in loin cloth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . b. Large Buddha head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . b. Southwest Side . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Main stupa area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11. Room (E) and Objects found from Room (E). . . . . . . . . . . . . a. Seated wooden Buddha with legs pendant . . . . . . . . . . . . b. Wooden base for a niche . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii. Objects fround near the area designated "B" within Room (E) .............................................. a. Wooden panel of Dipaqi.kara Buddha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . b. Minature wooden stupa. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . c. Minature wooden tower or base of a stupa . . . . . . . . . . . d. Two "mountain" motif wooden image niches ......... e. Other wooden fragments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . c. Northwest Side ...................................... 1. "Library" Room . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a. Two female wooden statuettes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . b. Youth in loin cloth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii. Other rooms (F) and (T) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . d. Northeast Side . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i. Wall paintings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. The Long Passage and the North Stupa Complex. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. Miscellaneous Wooden Fragments of Unspecified Find Spot ..... 4. Conclusions: Duldul-Akur ................................ B. Subashi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Western Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a. Monastery (D) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i. Central Court and the Stupa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii. Reliquary boxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii. Sculptures and decorative carvings in clay and wood . . . . . . b. Temple (C), Monastery (B), and Complex (E) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . c. Large Western Stupa (H) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

600 600 601 602 602 606 606 607 608 608 609 610 61 l 61 l 61 l 613 614 615 616 617 61 7 618 619 619 620 620 621 626 626 627 628 629 629 631 632 634 635

Marylin Martin Rhie - 978-90-04-39186-4 Downloaded from Brill.com02/09/2023 04:24:26PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

XVIII

TABLE OF CONTENTS

d. Stupa of the North (A) ................................. e. Wall Paintings from "Room of the Frescoes" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Eastern Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. The Caves at Subashi .................................... 4. Brief Conclusions: Subashi ................................ C. Kizil: Early Caves (Paintings and Sculptures) ..................... 1. Reliquary Box Found by Le Coq . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Three Early Caves: Caves 118, 83 and 84 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a. Caves 84 and 83 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i. Cave 84 .......................................... ii. Cave 83 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . b. Cave 118 ........................................... 3. Cave 38 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. Cave 47 ............................................... 5. Cave 48 ............................................... 6. Cave 77 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a. Cave layout and wall paintings .......................... b. Sculptures from Cave 77 ............................... i. Lower torso of a standing Buddha ..................... ii. Standing Buddha .................................. iii. Torso of a Devata (?) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv. Torso with crown and warrior's armor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v. Four heads ....................................... 7. Cave 76 ............................................... 8. Cave 212 .............................................. 9. Cave 14 ............................................... a. Paintings on the walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . b. East side of ceiling .................................... c. West side of ceiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10. Cave 34 ............................................... 11. Cave 114 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12. Wooden Sculptures from Kizil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a. Buddha seated with legs pendant (probably Maitreya) . . . . . . . . b. Cross-ankled Maitreya Bodhisattva . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . c. Standing Buddha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . d. Dhyanasana Buddha with circular flame mandorla .......... e. Dhyanasana Buddha with plain robe and whorl-shaped hair ...

636 638 640 643 644 645 64 7 651 651 652 654 655 658 666 669 670 670 673 673 675 676 677 678 678 681 683 684 687 689 691 692 694 694 695 697 698 699

Marylin Martin Rhie - 978-90-04-39186-4 Downloaded from Brill.com02/09/2023 04:24:26PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

TABLE OF CONTENTS

XIX

f. Dhyanasana Buddha with flame mandorla. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . g. Dhyanasana Buddha with plain circular haloes and lotus pedestal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . h. Dhyanasana Buddha with circular haloes .................. 1. Dhyanasana Buddha in plain robe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . J· Dhyanasana Buddha (headless) with one shoulder bare ....... k. Standing Buddha with right arm down. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l. Standing Buddha in a niche . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13. Concluding Remarks: Kizil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D. Kumtura .................................................... l. GK Cave 20 ........................................... 2. GK Cave 21 ........................................... 3. Some Sculptures from Kumtura ............................ a. Large clay standing Buddha (after Gri.inwedel). . . . . . . . . . . . . . b. Small wooden seated Bodhisattva . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . c. Painted clay seated Devata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . d. Miniature wooden stupa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

70 l

IV. Conclusions: Kucha .......

i ...•••••.•..•••........•.•.•............

70 l 702 703 704 704 705 706 707 708 714 715 715 716 716 71 7 717

Chapter Five KARASHAHR

I.

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. Brief History .............................................. B. Karashahr (Yen-ch'i) from the Accounts of Fa-hsien and Hsi.ian-tsang. C. Buddhist Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

720 720 724 728

II.

Buddhist Remains ef the Shorchuk Ming-oi Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. Main Site ................................................. l. Ruins of the Southeast Sector ............................. a. Group A (Al-A23) .................................... b. Group B (Bl-Bl9) .................................... c. Groups C and D (Cl-Cl3; Dl-D7) ....................... 2. Ruins of the Northwest Sector ............................. a. Groups E and F (El-E3; Fl-FlO) .........................

7 30 731 732 733 754 767 776 776

Marylin Martin Rhie - 978-90-04-39186-4 Downloaded from Brill.com02/09/2023 04:24:26PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

xx

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Northwest corner of the F4 back passage: in-situ sculpture .. n. Back walls of F4 back passage: colossal ParinirvaQa Buddha and other sculpture ................................. iii. Northeast corner of the F4 back passage: in-situ sculpture .. 1v. Sculpture from the F4 cella .......................... a. Devata figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . b. Various heads .................................. i. Bearded heads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii. Frowning face . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . c. Draped female . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . d. Ascetic torso. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e. Warrior figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . j Plant forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . g. Horses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v. Sculptures from the F4 back passage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi. Sculptures in the Hermitage Museum from Temple F4 . . . . b. Group K (Kl-Kl3) ................................... c. Groups L, M, N and Q(Ll-Ll2; Ml-M6, N and Q) ......... 3. Conclusions: Temples, Sculptures and Paintings of the Shorchuk Ming-oi Main Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a. General remarks and overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . b. Temple types, plans and sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . c. Chronological summary of sculptures and paintings . . . . . . . . . B. Caves .................................................... l. Description of Caves l - l l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a. Description of Caves 5a and 5b ......................... b. Sculptures from Caves 5a and 5b . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Summary Chronology of the Caves ......................... a. Brief remarks on the plans and dating sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . b. Sculpture ........................................... c. Wall paintings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . d. Concluding Remarks on the caves at Shorchuk Ming-oi . . . . . .

802 802 804 808 81 l 81 l 814 820 837 83 7 839 840 84 l

III. Buddhist Remains ef Khora . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. The Ruins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B. Sculpture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l. Small Dhyanasana Wooden Buddha ........................ 2. Wooden panel with painted Buddha scenes and sculpted lions ....

84 3 84 3 844 844 846

1.

780 781 783 785 785 787 78 7 788 788 788 789 789 789 790 79 l 792 799

Marylin Martin Rhie - 978-90-04-39186-4 Downloaded from Brill.com02/09/2023 04:24:26PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

TABLE OF CONTENTS

XXI

IV. Conclusions: Karashahr. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 846 Conclusions: Volume II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 848 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 7 Index ............................................................. 875

Marylin Martin Rhie - 978-90-04-39186-4 Downloaded from Brill.com02/09/2023 04:24:26PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

Marylin Martin Rhie - 978-90-04-39186-4 Downloaded from Brill.com02/09/2023 04:24:26PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

As this is the second volume in the series on the early Buddhist art of China and Central Asia, I continue to benefit from those same sources that originally supported the research for this project: most notably the grants from the American Council of Learned Societies, the yearly grants from Smith College, and the ever-present inspiration of my family and teachers, particularly Prof. Harrie A. Vanderstappen and Prof. Pramod Chandra. In specific regard to the subjects of this volume, I realize even more the great debt the field owes to the early archaeologists, explorers and scholars, such as Grunwedel, Oldenburg, Pelliot, Stein and others, who paved the way for ongoing study of the Buddhist art of the great sites of Central Asia. I am very thankful to the scholars and personnel of the museums and institutions which now care for these treasured remains of a former time: the Asian Art Museum of San Francisco, the British Museum, London, the Cleveland Museum of Art, the Freer Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C., Harvard University Arthur M. Sacl "tl

:i:

co

BUDDHISM AND BUDDHIST ART

9

4 th century the aristocracy, with their centers in the capital at Chien-k'ang ~ Ji (Nanking) and in the beautiful region southeast of the capital known as K'uai-chi fr fl§ (present-day Kiangsu province in the Hang chou region, see Map 1.2) had supported the building of temples and had, by their interest and direct patronage, helped to raise the art of "pure talk" to high levels. The increasing influence of women of the court, particularly the consorts and empress dowagers, and the rise in prominence of Buddhist nuns, also gave a certain character to the Buddhism of the South, which, however, by the end of the century began to be associated with some of the corrupt tendencies of the court and government. After 381 when Emperor Hsiao-wu ~ fft (r. 372-396) accepted the Buddhist vows and established a vihara in the imperial palace, Buddhism was even more strongly associated with the court, becoming linked in the minds of the people with court intrigues frequently related to the Buddhist nuns who were particularly influential at this time. China's first anticlerical movement occurred in the capital in the 340's. This prompted many Buddhist monks to move to outlying regions. From the second half of the 4th century the Buddhist communities became regionalized much as the political spheres were into the eastern region (part of Kiangsu and Chekiang), including the capital Chien-k'ang, and into the so-called region of the "central provinces" of Chiang chou rr ffl and Ching chou :filj ffl (part of Kiangsu and Hupei respectively) with their semi-independent military dictators (Map 1.2). A major Buddhist community in the central provinces was at Hsiang-yang Ml !Ii on the Han River ~ 71< in northern Hupei where from 365-379 the great Chinese Buddhist monk Tao-an (ca. 312-385) was the leader of a large monastic Buddhist community centered at the T'an-hsi [ch'i] ssu ~ ~ ~ . In the eastern region, besides the capital, there grew up a Buddhist community in the Shan mountains ~J LU in northern Chekiang, south of the K'uai-chi district and the bay of Hang chou (Map 1.2). Several prominent monks were known to have lived there in the second half of the 4th century, including Chu Tao-ch'ien ~ it! ffl, famous in exegesis, and Yu Fa-Ian -=f #;. Iii, noted for his asceticism and meditation, who established a monastery there. Yu Fa-Ian may also have been the first monk to attempt to go all the way to India, pre-dating the successful journey of Fa-hsien #;. IQ ca. 400 A.D. He started out by the southern sea route, but both he and his disciple died on the way in Southeast Asia. 7 ching lb. ft ~ (T22 l ). Dharmarak~a's translation of the same text, known as the Kuang-tsan ching ft Mt~ (T222), was translated in 286 with Gitamitra; it was only known in the Liang-chou region (Kansu) until it was received in 376 by Tao-an when he was at Hsiang-yang. See Zurcher (1959), pp. 63-65. Dharmarak~a also made a new translation (complete) as well as a summary of the Vimalakirtinirdefa. Ibid., I, pp. 68, 70. 7 Ibid., I, pp. 140-141.

Marylin Martin Rhie - 978-90-04-39186-4 Downloaded from Brill.com02/09/2023 04:24:26PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

lO

CHAPTER ONE

MAP 1. 2 MAIN CENlERS OF lHE EASTERN CHIN •

Cities, towns and sites

@ Gapital city 0

Contemporary city

Yeh

Hsiang-yang•

•

~

Lang-yeh•

0

Shanghai

Lake Tai\...,) WuCh9Jl (Suchou) ~ wu-hsing• H?OO/. chou

E ±I!! ~ ± if. ~ J£ $). More than likely it comes from the Pao-ting area in southcentral Hopei (Map 2.6), and, as noted by P'ei and Chi in their 1998 report, it was probably originally attached to the mandorla of a large bronze image similar to those in Figs. 2.39, 2.40a,b, 2.42 and 2.43a,b. 331 If one calculates the image proportionately with the apsaras figures on those mandorlas, then it probably was part of a mandorla that was about 40 cm (or 16") in height, perhaps from a complete ensemble nearly 2 feet high including its 4-footed stand. The figure has a marvelous rhythmic posture of angled arms and legs complemented by a counterpoint of fine parallel lines in the long, uncomplicated curves of the scarf, the small round halo and the tightly fitting plain dhoti, which looks like a skirt. Both arms are extended forward, but the left arm is bent at the elbow making a slightly more complex posture than those of Phase II (Figs. 2.39, 2.40a,b, 2.42). Both hands hold an object; each may be a lotus bud, but it is not clear. The size and shape of the bud in the left hand resembles that held in the left hand of the Kuan-yin image in the Asian Art Museum (Fig. 2.56a). On the head is a simple, plain, curved, low, band-like crown with small crown ribbons whose pointed ends project stiffiy in front of the round halo. The ribbons are not as angular as those portrayed in hats on some figures in the Tokhungri tomb paintings dated 408 AD. (Fig. 1. 72d), but they are quite close in style. The face is full and somewhat square with tiny features. The body bends a bit sinuously at the waist and the full shape of the rounded hips and thighs are revealed by the form-fitting dhoti. The tiny feet point sharply upwards from the solid core of the drapery around the ankles. The hem between the feet makes a concave depression between the legs, as though blown by the wind around the form. The long scarf is not twisted or wavy but moves with taut, tight arcs around the shoulders and upper arm and sweeps with a long, unbroken and unmodulated curve along the right side of the body. The other side of the scarf pokes :m P'ei and Chi (1998), p. 72.

Marylin Martin Rhie - 978-90-04-39186-4 Downloaded from Brill.com02/09/2023 04:24:26PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

BUDDHISM AND BUDDHIST ART IN THE NORTH

417

out from behind the head halo, ending in a straight-edged angled hem. The close, regular parallel ribbing of the scarf relates to the manner of portraying the scarves of most of the Ping-ling ssu Cave l 69 Bodhisattvas, such as seen in the images from the niche dated 420 AD. (Fig. 2.57b). Such close parallel lines are also noted in the Eastern Chin bronze mirror figures (Figs. l.37d,e,h,i) and are known in the Lou-lan wooden images of ca. late 3rd or early 4th century (Fig. 2.61), although there is a stiffer quality in this apsaras example. The pointed toes of the feet likewise relate to the Central Asian styles as seen in the Lou-lan wooden reliefs and known in the wall paintings of Kucha. In comparison with the small apsaras figures seen on the Phase II mandorlas in Figs. 2.39, 2.40a,b and 2.42 and the Phase III one in the Idemitsu Museum discussed below (Fig. 2.65), this image clearly has more angular body posture and greater modeling of the lower body, both quite remarkable features. However, a closer comparison can be made with some figures in the wall paintings of the Koguryo tombs, such as the one at Tokhungri dated 408 and with Tomb No. l at Chang-ch'on, Chip-an, which, as discussed in Chapter l, probably dates ca. first half of the 5th century, but later than the Tokhungri 408 tomb. Fig. 2.62 from the Tokhungri tomb is of an immortal in a flying posture from the ceiling of the anteroom. It has a squarish face and attention to the long, arched torso and rounded hip and thigh area, but the limbs, though bent, are more extended and less angular than the Pao-ting apsaras. In the flying apsaras from the anteroom of Chang-ch'on Tomb No. l, however, the position of the body and limbs is very similar to that of the Pao-ting image (Fig.2.63). Though there are some differences, such as the curving wavy scarves, this painted image has a similar, small, plain, round halo, small somewhat square face with delicate features, curved waist, rounded thighs (hip area is not so naturally formed), scissor-shape to the legs and angled, pointed feet. Also, both arms are bent at the elbow as the figure holds an offering in a manner resembling the posture of the Pao-ting apsaras. Since Chip-an is on the Yalu River, an area which could quite easily relate to Manchuria and Hopei, the resemblances should not be surprising. Stylistically, the Pao-ting apsaras would appear to date between the Tokhungri and Chang-ch'on Tomb No. l wall paintings. There would probably be some time lag between the usage in Hopei and its appearance in Koguryo, although both could be related to other artistic works, so one cannot be precise. However, given the similarities with the Asian Art Museum Kuan-yin and taking into consideration that the Pao-ting apsaras probably would date a little earlier than the paintings of Changch'yon Tomb No. 1, which is undated, but, as generally agreed among various Korean scholars, stylistically dates after Tokhungri and within the first half of the 5th century, it is reasonable to think that the Pao-ting apsaras dates ca. early 5th century, probably under the early Northern Wei. A flying figure in the ceiling paintings of Kizil Cave 34 (Fig. 4.67b), probably of ca. 400 or early 5th century, has a body posture and modeling

Marylin Martin Rhie - 978-90-04-39186-4 Downloaded from Brill.com02/09/2023 04:24:26PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

418

CHAPTER TWO

of the form remarkably similar to this Pao-ting apsaras. Such a posture is not common among the Kizil paintings and Cave 34 is a rare example. b. Buddha with 4-footed stand from 1-hsien, Hopei This gilt bronze (total H. l 6.4 cm with stand) was excavated in 1964 from Hsi-kuan ch'eng l!!i lt ~' I-hsien kz, ~' north-central Hopei, southwest of Beijing (Map 2.6). 332 The image is brilliantly gilded and still sharp and clear in its delineation. The hands in dhyana mudra are held flat in the lap with the two thumbs touching, a different form from the majority of similar images discussed in Phases I and II. The arm-chest unit is a broad, square shape and the knees project a bit beyond the pedestal. The head is long with sloping cheeks and the forehead is not overly wide horizontally like some of the Phase II group. The hairline is, however, sharp and straight, similar to many from Phase II. Both cranium and u~I)I~a have finely delineated stands of hair. Those on the cranium divide at the center and slant diagonally towards the temples. Those on the large u~I)I~a swirl diagonally around in a manner seen on some Phase II Buddhas, such as the Kukung Museum example in Fig. 2.43a. In back, according to the report by P'ei and Chi, the hair has straight lines down to the neck, 333 possibly like the 338 Buddha (Fig. 2.2e). Eyes and eyebrows are rather close together and the lower lip is somewhat pendulous, perhaps a touch of the Gupta style, as this particular feature is known in Gupta sculpture of the late 4th century. This is a feature also seen in the Nitta dhyana mudra Buddha in Fig. 2.27a. There do not appear to be any lines on the Buddha's neck in this or any of the earlier Buddha images. The collar fold is flat and somewhat semicircular, but rather drawn out to the sides (a feature of some other Phase III bronzes). It has an engraved linear vine design. 334 According to P'ei and Chi, at the back, the collar fold hangs with a V-shaped hemline, probably similar to the hemline seen on the 429 Buddha and the Metropolitan Museum Buddha (Figs. 2.89b and 2. 76d). This particular feature does not seem to appear in Phase II images. There are four squarish U-shaped folds on the chest. They are not as rigidly square as in the 338 Buddha and some Phase II Buddhas (Figs. 2.2a, 2.39, 2.40a, 2.43a, etc.), but also not elliptically U-shaped, as the bottom of the U is quite broad. There is a thin incised line next to each step fold on the chest, on the arms, and on the semi-circular step folds on the flap hanging over the feet. Such an incised line does not appear to be a feature of the small Phase II bronze Buddhas with the exception :m 3:n 3 '14

Ibid., p. 68. Ibid., p. 68.

This is called a cloud design by P'ei and Chi. Jbul., p. 68.

Marylin Martin Rhie - 978-90-04-39186-4 Downloaded from Brill.com02/09/2023 04:24:26PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

BUDDHISM AND BUDDHIST ART IN THE NORTH

419

of the relatively larger Nitta abhaya mudra Buddha and the Nitta collection dhyana mudra Buddha (Figs. 2.18a, 2.27a). The fold of cloth over the wrists is narrow and rather gently defined without a strong rim. The legs have horizontal folds, typical of many of the Phase II examples also. The pedestal (L. 6.6 cm x W 4.3 cm x H. 3.5 cm) has two lions with toothy jaws and hanging tongue, a lower rim of moderate height (narrower than the broad rim type) with incised wavy vine design. Between the two lions is a raised lotus in relief with swelling petals; the center one has a clear medial raised strip. The ensemble from Kansu also has a similar lotus in relief (Fig. 2.44a), but the ensembles from Phase II discussed above and probably mostly from Hopei province, only have incised lotus motifs or the area is left plain. In the upper comers between the lotus and lions is an offering person (according to P'ei and Chi they are standing figures), similar to the Ta Hsia Buddha dated 429 (Fig. 2.89a) and other bronzes of this type from Phase III (Figs. 2.65, 2. 76a, 2. 77, 2. 78). According to P'ei and Chi both sides of the lion seat has two holes for attaching something. This is an interesting technical point, as it relates to the 338 Buddha, the Nitta abhaya mudra Buddha and the Rietberg Museum Buddha (Figs. 2.2a, 2.18b, 2.75b), thus indicating a long period of usage for this form, probably for attaching donor figures. The 4-footed pedestal (L. 8.3 cm x W 6 cm x H. 6.6 cm) has thinner legs and straighter edges than the 4-footed stands discussed in Phase II (Figs. 2.40a,e, 2.43a and 2.45). However, the straight edge appears in the Kansu bronze (Fig. 2.44a). There is a lotus petal design engraved all around the top surface, which has a slightly convex and sloping incline from the center where there is a raised projection 1.5 cm high, 3.5 cm long and 1.6 cm wide on which the Buddha's pedestal sits. This is the standard form for the Phase II seated Buddha figures as well, as seen in those with remaining stands. This technique, which clearly is prone to separation of the image from its 4-footed stand, was changed in favor of a stand cast together with the image by the time of the 423 and 429 dated Buddhas discussed below (Figs. 2.82c, 2.89a) and seems to have become the standard in all subsequent bronzes of small size. This is a significant technical change that would seem to clearly separate the earlier from the later small bronze Buddha images with pedestal fitting on a 4-footed stand. Though this technique may have developed earlier, the 423 and 429 Buddhas, as dated images, represent a clear watershed. As seen in the Asian Art Museum Kuanyin (Fig. 2.56a), the idea of casting the stand with the pedestal seems to have been evolving around the late 4th and early 5th century. It is possible that the new technique was developed in the Ch'ang-an area or in the South and may have taken a bit more time to reach Hopei. According to the report of P'ei and Chi, there are two lugs at the back of this image: one from the neck and one at the waist of the Buddha, each with a hole for the securing

Marylin Martin Rhie - 978-90-04-39186-4 Downloaded from Brill.com02/09/2023 04:24:26PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

420

CHAPTER TWO

of the mandorla (and possibly a canopy), now lost. This placement of the lugs is somewhat akin to that on the Asian Art Museum Kuan-yin image (Fig. 2.56c). They further remark on the similarity of this image with the one in the Idemitsu Museum in Fig. 2.65. It would appear that this fine ensemble from 1-hsien in the north-central part of Hopei dates ca. early 5th century or perhaps a little earlier. It is likely to have been made under the Later Yen or Northern Yen. c. Altar ensemble in the Idemitsu Art Museum

This is an extraordinary work as an ensemble (total height 28.1 cm), including 4-footed stand, seated Buddha with rectangular pedestal (cast as one with the image and hollow inside up to the Buddha's head), an elaborate flame mandorla with various images, and two separate standing Bodhisattvas with their own halos and lotus pedestals attached to the ensemble by a curved, horizontal stem inserted into the rectangular base (Fig. 2.65). 335 Attached separately to the mandorla is a standing Bodhisattva at the Buddha's right and a standing monk at his left. Behind the Buddha's left shoulder is a flying apsaras - the one presumably once behind his right shoulder is missing. Seven seated dhyanasana Buddhas - undoubtedly the Seven Buddhas of the Past - each with round halo and lotus seat, make an arc at the upper edge of the mandorla. This is the earliest example among the bronze images to show the Seven Buddhas of the Past. The main Buddha image, probably Sakyamuni with the Seven Buddhas, is stylistically very similar to the Buddha in Fig. 2.64 and in many respects also relates to those in Figs. 2.75a, 2.76a, 2.77 and 2.78a, which, however, probably date a little later. The Idemitsu Buddha appears to be more developed than the Phase II small bronze Buddhas. It is quite close to the 1-hsien Buddha in Fig. 2.64 in regard to the rather broad expanse of the chest, the incised lines along the step folds, and the fine-strand creases of the hair. Also, the pedestal is similar with lions having their tongues hanging out and the area between the lions filled with the lotus in relief and two (in this case kneeling) offering figures in the upper comers. The pedestal with this configuration appears to be the type favored in Phase III and is different from the Phase II images which mostly have a plain space between the lions. Sometimes the lions of the Phase II bronzes have the hanging tongue, but just as often the lions merely have double rows of incised, bared teeth. These factors may be variable or abruptly change, but they are general indicators of differences between Phase II and III bronze Buddha ensembles. Possibly some motifs may phase out and then later be revived; or there may be certain traditions of representation that persist within local regional schools of bronze image making. These are factors which can be further studied as new materials may emerge. 33·1

Tokyo National Museum (1987), No. 5, p. 76 where it is dated to the 16 Kingdoms period, 5th century.

Marylin Martin Rhie - 978-90-04-39186-4 Downloaded from Brill.com02/09/2023 04:24:26PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

BUDDHISM AND BUDDHIST ART IN THE NORTH

421

The four-footed base shows what are probably some developed characteristics, notably the more curvilinear design of the inner edges with the new addition of sharp scroll points as a design, a feature stylistically close to the example in the Asian Art Museum Kuan-yin (Fig. 2.56a), but a bit more elaborate and refined. The incised markings on the sides show a rather well defined vine motif with curved clusters of leaves similar to some "white" leaved vine motifs in Kizil and Kumtura (Figs. 4.56c, 4.85a). The convex upper surface, which has sharp comer angles, has abbreviated and quite forceful designs of lotus petals which are particularly close to the design of the lotus of some of the Bodhisattva figures in the wall paintings of the anteroom of Tomb No. l at Chang-chon (Fig. l. 75h,i), discussed in Chapter l as dating ca. first half of the 5th century. The base of the rectangular pedestal has a wave design as seen in some Phase II images and in the Kansu ensemble (Figs. 2.47, 2.48, 2.44a). It is in the mandorla that we see most complex arrangement of figures, so far not seen in remaining bronze ensembles of the earlier period. The Seven Buddhas conform to the style of the main Buddha, except that they sit on lotus pedestals and have round halos. The form is generally similar to the transformation Buddhas of the Phase II mandorlas (Figs. 2.43a, 2.43d), though the images are broader and more sturdy in proportion and the lotus seat is more semi-circular with a lower pod. However, the lotus petals have a raised medial line, similar to the example in Fig. 2.43e. The flying apsaras figure has the pose and shape closely resembling those of the Phase II examples, and is not quite as developed in form as the Pao-ting apsaras in Fig. 2.60. However, rather than the pointed head halo of the Phase II examples, it has a round halo with the addition of an single incised line inside the rim like the Pao-ting apsaras. The monk image is slender and straight with quite plain robes with long hanging hems from the arms and some widely spaced, asymmetrically curved folds across the front. 336 He holds a lotus bud in both hands in front and stands on a small lotus pedestal. It is important as an early monk representation from the northeastern area of the early Phase III date; it appears more elegant and developed than those in the mandorla of the Tokyo Bijutsu Daigaku example from Phase II in Fig. 2.42. The standing Bodhisattvas are most interesting, although they appear a bit coarse. The one opposite the monk has tiny hands folded one over the other. The two outer Bodhisattvas seem to each hold the end of the belt (or some other object) in the left hand and a lotus bud in the right hand. The feet are very small and the heads are proportionately large. The crowns are mainly a band around the short, squarish top 136 The appearance of this monk is surprisingly similar to monk images of the Northern Ch'i period, which gives pause to possibly consider that some elements of Northern Ch'i imagery may be a "revival" of some traditional motifs and styles from an earlier time in this area.

Marylin Martin Rhie - 978-90-04-39186-4 Downloaded from Brill.com02/09/2023 04:24:26PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

422

CHAPTER TWO

knot. There is a rather angular shape to the upper chest. The legs are stiff, but the garment differentiates them by widely spaced U-shaped creases over each one. The arms are thin, adding to the childish proportions of the figures. A simple band necklace with central point appears on all three and the scarf follows the edge of the upper arms, has a slight loop at the elbows and falls stiffiy along the sides of the legs with a slightly diagonal flair. The Bodhisattvas in the Chang-ch'on Tomb No. l anteroom wall paintings bear some resemblance to the stiff, straight forms and the broadly creased Ushaped folds over the legs, though the painting medium allows for more freedom in the expression (Fig. l. 75h). The Bodhisattvas in the Idemitsu Museum ensemble appear more developed than the standing Bodhisattvas in the Phase II mandorla in Fig. 2.43b. The two outer Bodhisattvas are cast as one with the pod and their lotus pedestals. The lotus pedestal is attached separately by a long stem to the base of the rectangular pedestal of the Buddha. As noted in Chapter l, the lotus petals of the Maiijusri panel in Lung-men Cave III (possibly after Tai K'uei) are similar. The individual mandorla of each of the two separate Bodhisattvas consists of a single flat piece with tapered sides that do not reach all the way to the lotus pedestal. (This seems to be a standard, as the same is true of the Bodhisattva dated 453 in Fig. 2.56e). The tops have a similar cut-out flame pattern as the main, large mandorla. These flame patterns are one of the most extraordinary fea tu res of this work. They are cut-out to simulate real flames. This is the earliest example among the Hopei bronzes to show a flame-edged mandorla. They also have incised line markings to complete the design of each flame. The Bodhisattva's individual mandorla has an incised lotus design behind the head of the Bodhisattva and a wave pattern as filling along the outer border of the two sides. The larger mandorla also has incised lines marking the interior area. It seems like lotus pod designs in the central head halo of the Buddha and parallel rayed lines in a large concentric circular band surrounding the inner head halo, forming a variant of the rayed halo, and one which resembles the halo of the King Aaoka images (Fig. 1.21 e), except that the rays are contiguous and have no gaps or spaces between them. This ensemble represents the earliest known bronze example, probably from the Hopei area, of the flame halo design, which is notably different from the flame halo designs from South China and from the cave temple images of Kansu.

3. Remains from Ch'ang-an (Sian) and the "Kuan-chung" (Shensi) Region The group of images in this sub-section have been found in the Ch'ang-an or Shensi area or are of unknown provenance yet seem most likely to have come from that area because of similar traits. Ch'ang-an was the capital of the Later Ch'in and under the

Marylin Martin Rhie - 978-90-04-39186-4 Downloaded from Brill.com02/09/2023 04:24:26PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

BUDDHISM AND BUDDHIST ART IN THE NORTH

423

rule of Yao Ch'ang (r. 386-393) and Yao Hsing (r. 393-416) the Later Ch'in was supportive of Buddhist activities, the most stupendous being the support given by Yao Hsing to the great monk Kumarajiva (see section E. l above). From ca. 402 until the death of Yao Hsing in 416, Ch'ang-an was the center of major Buddhist activities in China. Many monks went there and great attention was given to the work of Kumarajiva, including by Hui-yuan at Lu shan in the South. It is certainly reasonable to expect that Buddhist images would also have been made in Ch'ang-an at that time. However, little may have survived the devastation that followed the defeat of the Later Ch'in by the Eastern Chin (Liu Yu) in the 8th month of 417, which was in tum followed a little more than a year later (11th month of 418) by the conquest of Ho-lien Po-po and his control over the city and the territory of the Later Ch'in. These circumstances make what seems to be a clear cut-off period from around 416 until dated works from the 420's indicate renewed activity in Ch'ang-an and the Kuan-chung area. Here we will discuss what seem to be works compatible with the ca. 400-416 period, during the reign period of Yao Hsing. a. Clay relief plaque with seated Buddha in the Shensi Province History Museum, Sian

This small plaque now in the Shensi sheng li-shih po-wu-kuan ~ jffi 1'i' !fl _t 1t1J: 4fo §1;1' in Sian is a very sophisticated and beautiful image (Fig. 2.66a and Color Pl. VII). According to the museum information it comes from Sian and dates to the Northern Wei period, 386-534. 337 The plaque is about four inches high and made of light tan, almost white, clay which is very fine. In places there still remains the white color of the undercoating and the clay has darkened a bit in a few areas, particularly on the halo (indicated by the pencil shading in the sketch in Fig. 2.66b, which I made in 1992 from direct observation of the image). The figure of the seated Buddha is in moderately high relief and is executed with exceedingly refined details and complex fold patterns in the sanghatL The halo is relatively plain with only a few delicate, raised, rib-like rims to indicate the outlines of the zones of the various halos. The faint shapes of slightly raised, plain lotus petals appear in the round head halo (Fig. 2.66b). Some of the rims of the encompassing halos are a bit broken, as is the top of the outer edge of the mandorla, which, however, was clearly originally in a tapered point. There is a small hole near the central axis at the top of the circular head halo. I do not know what the function of this hole would be; it did not seem to penetrate through the back. The lotus seat of the image appears as though tilted up; the lotus petals appear like a lumpy, smooth shape without clear linear design, rather resembling the crenellated edge of a pie crust. The form and m This plaque has not been introduced as yet as far as I know. The information comes from the label at the museum.

Marylin Martin Rhie - 978-90-04-39186-4 Downloaded from Brill.com02/09/2023 04:24:26PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

424

CHAPTER TWO

smooth surface of the petals somewhat resemble the lotus petals in the Bodhisattva's small pedestal in the Idemitsu Museum ensemble (Fig. 2.65). Against the smooth background of the halo and subdued lotus seat the Buddha captures the main attention. The figure is seated cross-legged with right hand in the vitarka mudra and the left hand raised and turned inward holding an edge of the robe. This is an early occurrence of the vitarka mudra in Chinese art, but it does seem to occur in some images of the Kansu region of this time, as will be seen in Volume III. The little finger of the right hand is slightly bent, adding to the naturalism of the well-portrayed hand (Fig. 2.66b). The long-fingered elegance of the hands resembles the hands of the sages in the Nanking tomb tiles of the Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove painting, discussed in Chapter I as probably following the famous painting of that subject by Tai K'uei (d. 395) (Fig. 2.66c). The face is quite long with prominent pointed chin and somewhat deep eye sockets. The eyes are nearly slit-like. The long nose and mouth are now mostly damaged. The hair is smooth and the u~i:iI~a is low. There is a delicate but distinct curved crease in the hair at the edge of the forehead on each side, a manner similar to that observable in the standing Buddha from Mathura of ca. 3rd century in Fig. 2.66d. The neck is not long; it gracefully curves into the rather broad but gently sloping curved shoulders. Both feet are shown above the drapery in the padmasana and are slightly tilted forward showing the soles of the feet more prominently, rather than being perfectly horizontal. A similar form for the feet occurs in the wall painting of the Buddha figures in the triad on the lower part of the north and south walls of Cave 272 at Tun-huang, which will be assessed further in Volume III, and is generally accepted as an early cave at Tun-huang. In general, the shape of the limbs is clear, but the rounded volume has a distinctly flattened surface to the curved shape and the drapery folds tend to glide over the junctures with little or no shift in direction, a feature of the style easily seen in the depiction of the right arm. This style is pointed out here as it will appear in other works of this time and in images discussed in Volume III. The rolling, softly rounded, parallel drapery folds in this clay image are a marvel of artistic workmanship and skillfully delicate technique. They are mostly all soft rib folds, probably deriving from Gandharan sculptural techniques. However, the technique is not a smooth background with raised rib folds or strips, but a continuously rolling movement of concave-convex design without any sharp break or shaping. The effect is an easy naturalism to the folds despite the closely parallel configuration. This technique is probably related to stucco and clay sculptural forms of Hac;lc;la and Central Asia. It appears in some of the halo figures from Rawak (Style II) and also occurs in the small standing bronze Buddha of the former Masaki collection presented below (Fig. 2.67). The strong tendency of naturalism in this image also appears in the cloth held up by

Marylin Martin Rhie - 978-90-04-39186-4 Downloaded from Brill.com02/09/2023 04:24:26PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

BUDDHISM AND BUDDHIST ART IN THE NORTH

425

the left hand. There is no stylized pattern, but only fluttering edges of the cloth. Around the neck the folds are circular, without any twist and there appears to be a small flap behind the left shoulder, but it is not prominent. The garment as it falls on the lotus seat has very few folds in contrast to the parallel configuration of folds over the Buddha's body. The triangular wedge of cloth in the center beneath the crossed feet has a small border hem with a zigzag shape. The elements of naturalism in the garment again remind one of the Seven Sages tiles possibly following Tai K'uei's work. There are also considerable stylistic links with some works from sites in Kansu province which will be brought out in Volume III. This clay plaque can tentatively be dated around the late 4th - early 5th century, perhaps from the time when Kumarajiva was in Ch'ang-an. Even though it was discovered in Sian, it may have originated elsewhere. The light colored clay may eventually be a clue to it's original place of make. For the moment, this piece stands as a superb glimpse of the exquisite artistry in some early Chinese Buddhist sculpture of this time.

b. Standing bronze Buddha formerly in the Masaki Collection This small bronze standing Buddha was in the collection of the former director of the Tokyo Bijutsu Daigaku, Mr. T. Masaki, but its present whereabouts is not known. 338 It is considerably related to late Kushana styles, but nevertheless has a Chinese appearance, particularly in the face. It does not appear to be a specific style that was popularly adopted in China in this period, perhaps because it is so naturalistic. It is not until the mid-8th century in China and Japan that we see such "rolling wave" style of drapery folds used in images with great power and success. This image, however, does not appear to be T'ang. Its closeness in style to the small clay plaque from Sian (Fig. 2.66a) seems to suggest a similar time and place for this image, ca. early Phase III , possibly from Ch'ang-an. The image stands quietly with feet close together. The shoulders are wide, but their specific shape does not show under the forceful design of thick, concentrated, soft, parallel, loose, rib folds that descend in arcs down the length of both arms and dominate the asymmetric alignment of folds in the Indian mode on the upper torso. Rather similar rolling, soft, rib folds can be seen in a stone Buddha excavated from the monastery site at Chatpat, Swat (Fig. 2.68a), a Kushana site. 339 This stone image is ascribed by :ntt It has been discussed by N. Kumagai, "Chugoku shoki kondo butsu no ni-san ni shiryo" lJ] Wl ~ jiJ -ft "1 .:::. • .:::. "1 - ~(Two or Three Materials of Early Chinese Gilt Bronze Buddhas), Bijutsu Kenkyii, No. 203 (March, 1959), p. 30, where he dated the image to no later than the 4th century. The image was also mentioned by B. Rowland in Rowland ( 194 7), p. 16, where he likens it to Gandharan style. 33' 1 A. H. Dani, "Chakdara Fort and Gandhara Art," Ancient Pakistan, Vol. IV (1968-69), pp. 22-23 and

q, 00

25.

Marylin Martin Rhie - 978-90-04-39186-4 Downloaded from Brill.com02/09/2023 04:24:26PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

426

CHAPTER TWO

the excavators (A.H. Dani) to "Period III", that is, 3rd-7th century, though this image is clearly prior to the mid-5th century style of images from the site. Vertical and rather loose, fluttering hems fall from the arms and down the legs of the bronze Buddha in Fig. 2.67. The naturalism of these hems relate to Ha