Early Buddhist Art of China and Central Asia, Volume 3: The Western Ch’in in Kansu in the Sixteen Kingdoms Period and Inter-relationships with the Buddhist Art of Gandhāra 9789004190191, 9004190198

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Early Buddhist Art of China and Central Asia Volume Three

Marylin Martin Rhie - 978-90-04-19019-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/09/2023 03:54:26PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

Handbook of Oriental Studies Handbuch der Orientalistik SECTION FOUR

China

Edited by

Stephen F. Teiser Martin Kern Timothy Brook

VOLUME 12/3

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Early Buddhist Art of China and Central Asia Volume Three The Western Ch’in in Kansu in the Sixteen Kingdoms Period and Inter-relationships with the Buddhist Art of Gandhāra

By

Marylin Martin Rhie

LEIDEN • BOSTON 2010 Marylin Martin Rhie - 978-90-04-19019-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/09/2023 03:54:26PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

Cover photo: Niche with Amitāyus triad, Group 6, North Wall, Cave 169, Ping-ling ssu, dated 424 a.d. (after: Heirinji sekkutsu, Tokyo: Heibonsha, 1986) This book is printed on acid-free paper.

ISSN 0169-9520 ISBN 978 90 04 18400 8 Copyright 2010 by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands. Koninklijke Brill NV incorporates the imprints Brill, Hotei Publishing, IDC Publishers, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers and VSP. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission from the publisher. Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted by Koninklijke Brill NV provided that the appropriate fees are paid directly to The Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910, Danvers, MA 01923, USA. Fees are subject to change. printed in the netherlands

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In memory of Prof. Harrie Vanderstappen and Prof. Erik Zürcher

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CONTENTS Preface .......................................................................................................................................................... Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................................... List of Illustrations ..................................................................................................................................... List of Maps and Note on Diacriticals .....................................................................................................

xix xxi xxiii lvii

Introduction ................................................................................................................................................

1

Chapter One The Western Ch’in (385-431 A.D.): History and Buddhism .....................................

7

I.

The Ch’i-fu Clan and the Western Ch’in (385-431 A.D.) ........................................................... A. Ch’i-fu Kuo-jen (r. 385-387/388): Beginning of the Western Ch’in Kingdom ............. B. Ch’i-fu Ch’ien-kuei (r. 388-412): Expansion of the Western Ch’in ................................ C. Ch’i-fu Chih-p’an (r. 412-428): Consolidation and Height of the Western Ch’in ....... D. Ch’i-fu Mu-mo (r. 427-431): Demise of the Western Ch’in ............................................

8 8 9 12 14

II.

Buddhist Activities in the Western Ch’in from Written Records .............................................. A. Sheng-chien: Buddhist Monk Translator ........................................................................... B. Fa-hsien: Early Monk Traveler to the Western Regions .................................................. C. Hsüan-kao: Famous Meditation Monk ............................................................................... D. Hui-lan: Later Traveler to the Western Regions ................................................................ E. Concluding Comments .........................................................................................................

16 16 19 21 26 28

Chapter Two Bronze Buddha Altar from Ching-ch’uan....................................................................

29

I.

Introduction ......................................................................................................................................

29

II.

Technical and Stylistic Description and Comparative Analysis ................................................ A. Buddha Image ......................................................................................................................... B. Lion Throne ............................................................................................................................ C. Mandorla ................................................................................................................................. D. Canopy ..................................................................................................................................... E. Four-footed Stand ..................................................................................................................

30 31 36 38 40 41

III. Conclusions of Dating and Region of Make from the Technical and Stylistic Analysis ........

43

IV. The “Kuei-i-hou yin” Bronze Seal and Date of the Burial ...........................................................

44

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contents

Chapter Three Ping-ling ssu Stone Caves: Introduction and Niche No. 1 ......................................

49

I.

Introduction .......................................................................................................................................

49

II.

Niche No. 1 Monumental Buddha Statue ....................................................................................... A. Description, Technical, Stylistic and Comparative Analysis .............................................. 1. Technique ........................................................................................................................... 2. Posture and Hand Positions ............................................................................................. 3. Body Form .......................................................................................................................... 4. Drapery ............................................................................................................................... 5. Head .................................................................................................................................... 6. Wall Paintings ....................................................................................................................

54 55 55 55 56 57 59 61

III. Conclusions and Significance Regarding the Niche No. 1 Buddha .............................................. A. Dating and Sources of Style .................................................................................................... B. Oldest Surviving Monumental Buddha Image in China .................................................... C. Possible King Aśoka Buddha Image and Relation to Eastern Chin in the South ............. D. Relation with the Bāmiyān East Great Buddha ....................................................................

61 61 62 63 63

Chapter Four Ping-ling ssu Cave 169: West (Rear) Wall ........................................................................

67

I.

Introduction to Cave 169 ..................................................................................................................

67

II.

West Wall (upper part) ..................................................................................................................... A. Group 18: Description, Dating and Stylistic Sources .......................................................... 1. Large Standing Central Buddha ....................................................................................... a. Proportions and Posture, Body Form and Head ....................................................... b. Drapery .......................................................................................................................... c. Mandorla and Pedestal ................................................................................................. d. Conclusions ................................................................................................................... 2. Ten Dhyānāsana Buddhas ................................................................................................ B. Group 18: Iconography of the Large Standing Buddha with Ten Dhyānāsana Buddhas 1. Group 18 Schema .............................................................................................................. 2. Buddhas of the Ten-Directions in Early Mahāyāna Sutras ........................................... 3. Group 18 as Representing Śākyamuni and the Ten Direction Buddhas from Chapter 11 of the Cheng fa-hua ching, Dharmarak a’s Translation of the Saddharmapuarīka Sūtra (Lotus Sutra) ...................................................................... a. Translation of Excerpts from Chapter 11 of the Cheng fa-hua Ching ..................... b. Application of Chapter 11 of the Cheng fa-hua ching to the Group 18 Sculptures c. Comment on the Identity of the Group 18 Configuration ....................................... C. Conclusions of Dating and Iconography .............................................................................

68 69 71 71 72 74 75 76 77 77 78

85 86 93 97 98

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III. West Wall (lower part) ...................................................................................................................... A. Group 17: Triad with Surviving Standing Bodhisattva ....................................................... 1. Description, Sources, and Dating of the Standing Bodhisattva ...................................... 2. Iconographic Considerations and Conclusions ............................................................... B. Group 16 .................................................................................................................................. 1. Five Dhyānāsana Buddhas ................................................................................................ 2. Seated Bodhisattva with One Leg Pendant ...................................................................... 3. Two (of three) Standing Buddhas .................................................................................... C. Concluding Remarks ..............................................................................................................

100 100 101 104 105 106 108 111 114

Chapter Five Ping-ling ssu Cave 169: East and South Walls .................................................................. 117 I.

East (Entrance) Wall: Group 24 ....................................................................................................... A. Description, Comparative Analysis, and Stylistic Sources .................................................. 1. Thousand Buddha Painting .............................................................................................. 2. Individual Buddha Groups Within the Thousand Buddha Painting ........................... a. Dhyānāsana Buddha Triad with Two Monks ............................................................ b. Teaching Buddha Triad ................................................................................................ c. Śākyamuni and Prabhūtaratna in the Seven Jewel Stupa .......................................... 3. Summary Conclusions ...................................................................................................... B. Dedicatory Inscription, Biography of Tao-jung, and Dating of the Group 24 Painting C. Iconography: Textual Considerations ................................................................................... D. Conclusions: Dating and Issues of Identification ................................................................

117 117 118 119 119 120 123 125 125 130 134

II.

South (Left) Wall ............................................................................................................................... A. Upper Zone: Group 23 ........................................................................................................... 1. Large Stone Seated Buddha Relief .................................................................................... 2. Row of Painted Stupas ....................................................................................................... 3. “Ping-shen” Inscription .................................................................................................... 4. Five Dhyānāsana Buddha Sculptures ............................................................................... a. Three Dhyānāsana Buddhas on the Left (East) Side .................................................. i. Brief Description ...................................................................................................... ii. Stylistic Sources and Tentative Dating .................................................................. iii. Relation with West Wall Sculptures in Cave 169 ................................................. iv. Mandorlas ................................................................................................................. b. Two dhyānāsana Buddhas on the Right (West) Side ................................................ i. Description ............................................................................................................... ii. Elements for Comparative Dating of the Two Buddhas ...................................... iii. Mandorlas ................................................................................................................. 5. Conclusions ........................................................................................................................ B. Middle Zone: Groups 22 and 21 ............................................................................................ 1. Group 22: Standing Buddha Triad ................................................................................... a. Buddha ...........................................................................................................................

138 138 138 140 143 145 146 146 147 149 150 151 151 152 153 154 154 155 155

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contents b. Bodhisattva .................................................................................................................... c. Conclusions ................................................................................................................... 2. Group 21: Two Individual Dhyānāsana Buddhas .......................................................... C. Lower Zone: Group 20 ........................................................................................................... 1. Seated Buddha (A) ............................................................................................................. 2. Seated Buddha (B) ............................................................................................................. 3. Seated Ascetic Buddha (C) ................................................................................................ 4. Standing Buddha (D) ........................................................................................................ 5. Seated Buddha (E) ............................................................................................................. 6. Dating ................................................................................................................................. 7. Iconographic Considerations: More on the Five Buddhas ............................................ D. Summary Conclusions (South Wall) ....................................................................................

157 160 160 161 161 163 163 165 165 165 166 167

Chapter Six Ping-ling ssu Cave 169: North Wall (I) ................................................................................ 169 I.

North (Right) Wall: Upper Zone ..................................................................................................... A. Group 1 .................................................................................................................................... B. Group 2 .................................................................................................................................... C. Group 4 ....................................................................................................................................

169 169 171 171

II.

North Wall: Middle Zone ................................................................................................................. A. Group 6: Niche with Amitāyus Sculpture Triad .................................................................. 1. Image Analysis ................................................................................................................... a. Buddha Amitāyus ......................................................................................................... b. Mandorla of Amitāyus ................................................................................................. c. Attendant Bodhisattvas ................................................................................................ 2. Textual Considerations ..................................................................................................... a. Early texts: Later Han, Three Kingdoms and Western Chin .................................... 1) Pratyutpanna-samādhi Sūtra (T 418) ................................................................. 2) [Larger] Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra ............................................................................ a) [Ta] A-mi-t’o ching (T 362) ............................................................................. b) Wu-liang ch’ing-ching p’ing-teng-chüeh ching (T 361) .................................. c) Wu-liang shou [fo] ching (T 360) .................................................................... i. Chu Fa-hu Theory ....................................................................................... ii. Buddhabhadra and/or Pao-yün Theory .................................................... iii. Terminology of the Wu-liang Shou Ching ................................................ d) Brief Synopsis and Some Pertinent Factors with Respect to Group 6 ......... i. Summary of the Text (Shang) ..................................................................... ii. Summary of the Text (Hsia) ....................................................................... 3) Mahālalitāparipcchā Sūtra .................................................................................. a) Lao nü jen ching (T 559) .................................................................................. b) Fo-shuo lao mu ching (T 561) .......................................................................... c) Lao mu nü lui ying ching (T 560) ....................................................................

173 173 175 175 178 181 183 184 184 189 190 192 195 195 198 201 201 202 203 205 205 205 205

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4) Vimalakīrti-nirdeśa ............................................................................................... a) Wei-mo chieh ching (T 474) ............................................................................. b) Wei-mo chieh so shuo ching (T 475) ............................................................... 5) Saddharmapudarīka Sūtra (Lotus Sutra) .......................................................... a) Cheng fa-hua ching (T 263) ............................................................................. b) Miao fa lien hua ching (T 262) ........................................................................ 6) Brahmaviśe acintīparipcchā Sūtra ..................................................................... a) Ch’ih hsin fan-t’ien so wen ching (T 585) ........................................................ b) Ssu i fan t’ien so wen ching (T 586) .................................................................. 7) Bhadrakalpika Sūtra (T 425) ................................................................................ b. Eulogies, Images and Biographies from the South during the Eastern Chin (317-420) ........................................................................................................................ 8) Eulogy on Amitābha by Chih-tun ........................................................................... 9) Biography of Chu Fa-k’uang .................................................................................... 10) Images by Tai K’uei ............................................................................................... 11) Biographical excerpts: Hui-yüan, Seng-chi and other monks at Lu shan ........ c. Period ca. 400-425 in North and South China ........................................................... 12) Fo-shuo A-mi-t’o-ching ([Smaller] Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra) (T 366) .................. 13) Ta chih-tu lun (T 1509) ......................................................................................... 14) Kuan fo san-mei hai ching (T 643) ....................................................................... 15) Avata saka Sūtra (Hua-yen ching) (T 278) ....................................................... 16) Kuan-shih-yin p’u-sa shou-chi ching (T 371) ...................................................... a) Biography of T’an-wu-chieh ........................................................................... b) Summary Synopsis of the Text ........................................................................ c) Some Major Points ........................................................................................... d) Questions of Terminology in Relation to Group 6 ....................................... 17) Kuan Wu-liang-shou [fo] ching (T 365) .............................................................. a) Translation of the Kao-seng chuan Biography of Kālayaśas ......................... b) Brief Synopsis and Some Pertinent Points of Terminology ......................... c) Textual Issues .................................................................................................... i) Central Asian Origination (or compilation) ........................................... ii) Chinese “Compilation” ............................................................................. d) Terminology Used in the Kuan ching and Cave 169 Group 6 Inscriptions d. Summary and Conclusions Regarding Textual Comparisons and Survey of the Amitābha/Amitāyus Text Translations in China up to ca. 425 with Respect to the Group 6 Inscriptions ................................................................................................... 3. Amitābha/Amitāyus and Sukhāvatī in the Art of Mathurā and Gandhāra Prior to the Mid-5th Century A.D. ................................................................................................. a. Mathurā Inscribed Amitābha Buddha ........................................................................ b. Triads of a Seated Buddha with Two Standing Bodhisattvas ................................... i. Mathurā and Gandhāra ............................................................................................ c. Triads within Complex Stele Scenes ...........................................................................

206 206 206 207 207 207 209 209 209 209 210 210 211 213 213 215 215 216 216 217 217 218 221 224 225 226 226 228 230 231 232 232

233 238 238 242 242 247

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contents i. Mohammad Nāri (larger) Stele: Problems of Identification ................................. ii. A Stele in the Peshawar Museum: Possible Sukhāvatī Scene with Amitābha and the Two Great Bodhisattvas ................................................................................. d. Afghanistan, Central Asia and South India ............................................................... 4. Summary Conclusions Regarding the Iconography of the Group 6 Amitāyus Triad

248 249 253 254

Chapter Seven Ping-ling ssu Cave 169: North Wall (II) .......................................................................... 257 I.

North Wall: Middle Zone (continued) ............................................................................................ A. Group 6: Wall Paintings and Inscriptions ............................................................................ 1. Wall Paintings inside the Group 6 Niche ........................................................................ a. Ten Direction Buddhas ................................................................................................ i. Discussion of the Style ............................................................................................ ii. Identification of the Ten Buddhas ......................................................................... iii. Buddhabhadra and the Translation of the 60-chüan Hua-yen ching ................. a) Early Records of the Translation ........................................................................... b) Translation of the Kao-seng chuan Biography of Buddhabhadra .................. c) Buddhabhadra’s Translation of the Hua-yen ching and the Paintings of the Ten-Direction Buddhas in Group 6 ................................................................. b. Other Images near the Ten-Direction Buddhas ........................................................ i. A Guardian and an Offering Figure ...................................................................... ii. Śākyamuni Buddha and Maitreya Bodhisattva .................................................... iii. Stylistic and Iconographic Considerations in the Context of the Group 6 Niche ..................................................................................................................... 2. Group 6: Main Inscription and Surrounding Wall Paintings ....................................... a. Main Inscription ........................................................................................................... i. Description and Translation .................................................................................. ii. Regarding the 420/424 Date Issue ......................................................................... b. Donor Figures ............................................................................................................... i. First Row of Donors ................................................................................................ ii. Second Row of Donors ........................................................................................... iii. Row of Eight Donors inside the Niche .................................................................. c. Other Figures and Inscriptions above the Main Inscription .................................... i. Small Standing Monk ............................................................................................. ii. “Yao-wang fo” ......................................................................................................... a) Textual Considerations ...................................................................................... b) Concluding Remarks Regarding “Yao-wang fo” ............................................. iii. “? ? chih p’u-sa” ....................................................................................................... iv. “Chieh-yin fo” ......................................................................................................... v. “Ch’ing hsin shih Chin ch’eng Wen Wen chih hsiang” ...................................... vi. “Ch’ing hsin nü Wen ch’i” .....................................................................................

257 257 257 258 258 259 262 262 264 269 269 269 270 272 274 274 274 276 276 277 280 281 283 283 283 283 287 287 287 289 289

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d. Images and Inscriptions below the Second Row of Donors ..................................... i. Standing Buddha ..................................................................................................... ii. Male Donor “Ch’i-fu ? Lo-shih chih hsiang” ........................................................ 3. Group 6: Summations and Conclusions ......................................................................... a. Inscriptions .................................................................................................................... i. Main Inscription ..................................................................................................... ii. Monk and Lay Donor Inscriptions ....................................................................... a) Monk Donors ..................................................................................................... b) Lay Donors .......................................................................................................... b. Artistic Elements ........................................................................................................... i. Sculptures ................................................................................................................. ii. Paintings .................................................................................................................. c. Iconography and Textual Sources ............................................................................... i. Amitāyus Triad ....................................................................................................... ii. Paintings Inside the Niche (other than donors) ................................................... iii. Paintings of Iconic Images Outside the Niche (other than donors) .................. a) Yao-wang fo ........................................................................................................ b) Chieh-yin fo and ? ? chih-p’u-sa ....................................................................... d. Textual Aspects and the Iconographic Program of Group 6 .................................... e. Significant Points with Respect to Cave 169 ............................................................... B. Group 7: Two Large Standing Buddha Sculptures .............................................................. 1. Image Analysis .................................................................................................................... 2. Mandorlas ........................................................................................................................ 3. Comments on Dating ........................................................................................................

289 290 290 290 290 290 291 291 292 294 294 295 296 296 297 298 299 299 300 302 304 304 307 308

North Wall: Lower Zone ......................................................................................................................... A. Group 9: Three Standing Buddha Sculptures ....................................................................... B. Group 10: Wall Paintings (far left) ........................................................................................ 1. Under Layer ........................................................................................................................ 2. Upper Layer ........................................................................................................................ C. Group 11: Wall Paintings (center left) .................................................................................. 1. Topmost Level .................................................................................................................... 2. Second Level from the Top ............................................................................................... 3. Third Level from the Top .................................................................................................. 4. Lowest Level ....................................................................................................................... D. Group 12: Wall Paintings (center right) ............................................................................... 1. Main Seated Buddha ......................................................................................................... 2. Buddha’s Attendants and Kneeling Brahmin-like Figure .............................................. 3. Above the Buddha Group: Buddhas, Donors, and a Five Buddha Painting ................ 4. Summary of the Five Buddha Configurations in Ping-ling ssu Cave 169 ................. 5. Other Representations of the Five Buddhas in China prior to ca. 400 ...................... E. Group 13: Wall Paintings (far right) ...................................................................................

309 309 312 312 313 313 314 314 317 318 319 319 320 321 326 327 328

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contents F. Conclusions: Wall Paintings of Groups 11, 12 and 13 ...................................................... 1. Artistic Style and Dating .................................................................................................. 2. Iconographic Considerations .......................................................................................... 3. Donor and Other figures ................................................................................................. G. Group 14 ............................................................................................................................. 1. Row of Three Seated Buddha Sculptures ....................................................................... 2. Sutra Writing and Wall Paintings .................................................................................. a. Translation of the Wei-ts’eng-yu ching (T 688) ....................................................... b. Wall Paintings .............................................................................................................. 3. Fragment of Large Standing Buddha Sculpture ........................................................... 4. Concluding Comments on Group 14 ............................................................................ H. Group 3: Buddha Niche ........................................................................................................ I. Groups 15 and 19: Thousand Buddha Panel Paintings .....................................................

II.

329 329 330 331 331 331 333 334 337 337 338 338 341

Conclusions: North Wall ................................................................................................................. 343

III. Cave at Yeh-chi kou (Wild Pheasant Gulch) ................................................................................ 344 IV. Summary Conclusions: Ping-ling ssu under the Western Ch’in ............................................... A. Earliest Period: ca. 375-ca. 400 ............................................................................................. B. Middle Period: ca. 400-420 ................................................................................................... C. Late Period: ca. 420-431 ........................................................................................................

345 345 347 348

Chapter Eight The Five Buddhas and Sets of Multiple Buddhas in the Art of Gandhāra and Afghanistan and their Relation to Cave 169 at Ping-ling ssu and the Five T’an-yao Caves at Yün-kang ..................................................................................................................................................... 355 I.

Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 355

II.

Taxila (Gandhāra).............................................................................................................................. A. Dharmarājikā: Stupas K1, N4 (and J1) ................................................................................ B. Main Stupas at Jauliāñ and Mohā Morādu ....................................................................... 1. Jauliāñ ................................................................................................................................. a. Layout and Scheme of Main Images ......................................................................... b. Small Pilaster Buddhas ................................................................................................ 2. Mohā Morādu .................................................................................................................. a. Stupa Drum/Dome ...................................................................................................... b. Podium Images ............................................................................................................. 3. Dating ................................................................................................................................. a. Sculptures of the Jauliāñ Main Stupa ........................................................................ b. Sculptures at Mohā Morādu ..................................................................................... 4. Conclusions: Jauliāñ and Mohā Morādu Main Stupas ..............................................

358 359 364 364 365 368 370 371 373 374 374 376 378

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C. Miniature and Subsidiary Stupas at Mohā Morādu and Jauliāñ ................................... 1. Stucco Stupa from Cell 9 at Mohā Morādu ................................................................. 2. Subsidiary Stupas at Jauliāñ ............................................................................................ a. Stupa A15 ...................................................................................................................... i. Description and Discussion of the Iconography of the Images ..................... ii. Iconographic Interpretation ............................................................................... iii. Technique, Inscriptions and Dating of the Images ......................................... b. Stupa A11 ...................................................................................................................... i. Iconography .......................................................................................................... ii. Date ........................................................................................................................ c. Stupas A2, A20 and D5 ............................................................................................... d. Stupas A16, D4 and D1 ............................................................................................... i. Stupa A16 .............................................................................................................. ii. Stupas D4 and D1 ................................................................................................. iii. Style and Date of Stupas D4 and D1 .................................................................. a) Niches ................................................................................................................ b) Pilasters ............................................................................................................. c) Lotus Pedestals ................................................................................................. d) Individual Images ............................................................................................ iv. Conclusions and Iconography of Stupas D4 and D1 ....................................... 3. Further Comments on Jauliāñ and Mohā Morādu ............................................... D. Pippala: Stupa K ................................................................................................................

378 379 383 383 384 385 387 390 391 392 392 395 395 396 399 399 399 400 400 400 402 403

III. Peshāwar Valley (Gandhāra) ........................................................................................................... A. Thareli: Area C106 ................................................................................................................. 1. Area C106: Data ................................................................................................................ 2. Dating ................................................................................................................................. 3. Iconographic Considerations .......................................................................................... B. Takht-i-Bāhī ............................................................................................................................ 1. South Stupa Court X ........................................................................................................ 2. Niche-shrines in the Lower Stupa Court ....................................................................... a. Niche/shrines 1-9 on the Processional Path ............................................................. b. Niche/shrines 24-18 along the South Wall of the Lower Stupa Court ................. c. Niche/shrines 25-28 on the North Wall of the Lower Stupa Court ...................... d. Niche/shrines 29-37 on the North Wall of the Lower Stupa Court ...................... e. Niche/shrines M8-M1 along the East and South Walls of the Lower Stupa Court ............................................................................................................................. f. Niche/shrines M14 and M11 ...................................................................................... g. Niches on the Perimeter of the Lower Stupa Court Considered as a Totality .... 3. Southeast Stupa Court XIVii ........................................................................................... 4. Court XX (Court of the Three Stupas) ........................................................................... a. Stupa P37 ....................................................................................................................... b. Four Monumental Stucco Standing Buddhas .......................................................... 5. Conclusions: Takht-i-Bāhī ................................................................................................

404 404 405 406 406 407 408 409 409 410 410 410 410 411 411 411 413 414 416 416

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contents C. Sahrī Bahlōl Site B .................................................................................................................. 1. Stupa with Five Buddhas ................................................................................................. 2. “Main Stone Stupa” with Four Buddhas ........................................................................ D. Ali Masjid ................................................................................................................................ 1. Medium-sized Stupa ......................................................................................................... 2. Stupa No. 6 ........................................................................................................................ E. Conclusions: Peshāwar Valley ..............................................................................................

417 417 418 426 426 428 430

IV. Afghanistan: Haa ........................................................................................................................ A. Great Stupa (TTK) ................................................................................................................. B. Tapa Kalān .............................................................................................................................. 1. Stupa TK67 ........................................................................................................................ 2. Stupa TK86 ........................................................................................................................ 3. Stupas TK97 and TK100 ................................................................................................... C. Tapa-i-Kafarihā ...................................................................................................................... 1. Stupa K43 ........................................................................................................................ 2. Gallery K45 ........................................................................................................................ D. Bāgh-Gai .................................................................................................................................. 1. Stupa B31 ........................................................................................................................ 2. Stupa B51 ........................................................................................................................ 3. Structure B56 and Stupa B55 ........................................................................................... 4. Stupas B76 and B77 .......................................................................................................... E. Chakhil-i-Ghoundi ................................................................................................................ 1. Stupa C5 ............................................................................................................................. F. Pratès ..................................................................................................................................... 1. Stupa P8 .............................................................................................................................. 2. Stupa P29 ........................................................................................................................... G. Gar-naō .................................................................................................................................... H. Concluding Comments: Haa ...........................................................................................

431 432 434 434 435 435 436 436 437 438 439 440 442 445 446 446 447 447 448 448 449

V.

Afghanistan: Shotorak ...................................................................................................................... 451 A. Stupa D3 .................................................................................................................................. 451 B. Stupa D4 .................................................................................................................................. 452

VI. Afghanistan: Bāmiyān ...................................................................................................................... A. Cave 24 .................................................................................................................................... B. Cave 129 .................................................................................................................................. C. Cave 152 .................................................................................................................................. D. Cave 164 .................................................................................................................................. E. Cave 51 ....................................................................................................................................

453 454 454 455 455 455

VII. Summary Conclusions ..................................................................................................................... A. Sets of Multiple Buddhas in Gandhāra and Afghanistan ................................................. B. Significant Factors Regarding the Reading of Images on Stupas .................................... 1. Unified Scheme .................................................................................................................

456 456 457 458

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2. Individual Side Scheme .................................................................................................... 3. Chronological Lineal Presentation ................................................................................. 4. Non-chronological Lineal Presentation ........................................................................ 5. Spatial Interpretation ....................................................................................................... C. Summary of the Development of the Five Buddha Configurations in Gandhāra and Afghanistan ..................................................................................................................... D. Importance of Ping-ling ssu Cave 169 in Relation to the Five Buddha Iconography 1. Relation with Gandhāra and Afghanistan ..................................................................... 2. In China .............................................................................................................................

458 458 459 460 461 464 465 466

VIII. The Five T’an-yao Colossal Image Caves at Yün-kang ............................................................... 467 A. Layout and Brief Description of the Five T’an-yao Caves ................................................ 468 B. New Theory of the System of Arrangement and Identity of the Main Images of the Five T’an-yao Caves ............................................................................................................... 473

Chapter Nine Mai-chi shan: Early Caves ............................................................................................ 481 I.

Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 481

II.

Early History of the Site .................................................................................................................. 482

III.

Caves 78 and 74 ................................................................................................................................ A. General Description and Layout .......................................................................................... 1. Cave 78 ............................................................................................................................... 2. Cave 74 ............................................................................................................................... B. Image style, Sources and Dating .......................................................................................... 1. Seated Buddhas ................................................................................................................. 2. Standing Bodhisattvas ...................................................................................................... 3. Mandorla and Halo Designs ........................................................................................... 4. Paintings on the Pedestal of the Main Buddha in Cave 78 ......................................... 5. Small Niches with Cross-ankled and Contemplative Bodhisattvas ........................... 6. Dating of Caves 78 and 74 ............................................................................................... C. Iconographic Considerations ...............................................................................................

IV.

Caves 169 and 69 .............................................................................................................................. 500 A. Cave 169 .................................................................................................................................. 501 B. Cave 69 .................................................................................................................................... 504

V.

Conclusions: Early Caves at Mai-chi shan ................................................................................... 504

484 484 484 486 487 487 490 491 492 494 495 496

Conclusions: Volume III ........................................................................................................................... 507

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contents

Appendix I: Communication Routes during the Sixteen Kingdoms Period ..................................... 513 Appendix II: Table of Texts Regarding Amitāyus and Sukhāvatī ....................................................... 515 Bibliography ................................................................................................................................................ 519 Index ............................................................................................................................................................ 535

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preface

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PREFACE A preface to the third volume of Marylin Martin Rhie’s monumental history of early Chinese Buddhist art might strike some as tardy and superfluous. Erik Zürcher (1928-2008), the modern master of the field of early Chinese Buddhism, already contributed the opening words to the first volume (1999), which covered the Later Han, Three Kingdoms, and Western Jin periods. The second volume of the series (2002) proceeded to the Eastern Jin (in the south of China) and Buddhist art in the north through the year 439. This third volume shifts the focus to the period of the Western Qin in Gansu. But beyond the change in historical and geographical concentration, this third volume deals with new subjects and brings to bear perspectives that differ significantly from those of the earlier volumes. Hence, a brief benediction at the start may not be out of place. The Western Qin kingdom (385-431), which history books usually subsume under the Sixteen Kingdoms of north China in the fourth and fifth centuries, was centered in the area of modern Lanzhou in eastern Gansu and occupied a position of prime importance in the history of Buddhism. The artistic and religious models produced there are nothing short of magnificent. While an ethnicallyHan regime ruled in the southeast, this part of the Hexi corridor was ruled by the Qifu clan, a Xianbei group who partly followed Sinitic models. Under the Western Qin the area underwent a renaissance of artistic production, especially visible at the complexes of cave-temples at Binglingsi and Maijishan. Here we find the first monumental Buddha statue known to survive in the Middle Kingdom, as well as early examples of motifs and iconographies that would later become central to Chinese Buddhism, including the Buddhas of the ten-directions, groups of five Buddhas, the thousand-Buddha motif, the deities of pure land Buddhism, the Buddha of healing (Bhai ajyaguru), and the Buddha of the future (Maitreya). As in her earlier work, in this volume Professor Rhie offers the reader an unprecedented vision of how stylistic similarities in the three-dimensional modeling of drapery and other elements of Buddhist statuary cohere across vast stretches of time and space. Combining the appreciation of aesthetic detail and an encyclopedic knowledge of artistic expression that spans Eastern and Western Asia, the author argues, where appropriate, for the flow of influence. From her unrivalled perspective, eastern Gansu in this fifty-year period mediates between Chinese influences from southeast China and Central Asian and Indian influences from the west. Her account engages virtually every relevant element of visual and artistic analysis, including the style and construction of statuary and garment, bodily poses, color, iconographic arrangement and identification, and architectural design. For the study of Buddhist art of the earlier period, the relative paucity of other forms of evidence makes this method of stylistic analysis the best (and essentially the only) resort. For the time and place under discussion in this volume, however, textual sources are relatively numerous, and the author has not been afraid to delve deeply into them. Her forays into the study of Buddhist scripture and historical records are expert, constituting a springboard not only for new interpretations but for a new approach to her material. For anyone interested in the art and mythology of the Lotus Sūtra, various pure land sūtras, or the Flower Garland (Huayan) Sūtra, the analysis offered in this book opens up new avenues of research. Combining mature and astute visual analysis with close readings and new interpretations of the texts, this volume of Professor Rhie’s work is a model for future scholarship. Stephen F. Teiser Marylin Martin Rhie - 978-90-04-19019-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/09/2023 03:54:26PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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acknowledgements

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS In my series of books with Brill, this volume is the first work focusing on the early Buddhist art from the Kansu region of northwest China. It has taken some years to go into this very complicated yet extremely important area, which will be continued in Volume IV. The prolific remains of Buddhist art from this region during the Sixteen Kingdoms period (317-439 A.D.) bring special relevance not only to the art of China, but also that of Central Asia and Gandhāra, and indeed impact the realm of Buddhism and the translation of Buddhist texts into Chinese during this active, foundational time for Buddhism in China. Many have been helpful along the way in this endeavor to uncover some of the underlying issues, causes and sources of what we can still see on the ground in Kansu, and I am immensely grateful to all my teachers, including Prof. Pramod Chandra, Prof. Herlee Creel and Prof. Edmund Kracke, and for all the support and advice of scholars and friends, particularly from Prof. John Rosenfield, over the years. I received invaluable assistance regarding some of the hard areas of the translations presented in this book, most especially from Prof. Paul Harrison and Dr. Jan Nattier concerning the early Chinese translations of Buddhist texts relating to Amitābha, and from Myeong Beop Sunim of the Unmunsa temple in Korea for reading over and resolving some passages in several sutra translations. Prof. Maria Heim and Prof. Andy Rotman were very helpful with issues regarding the Pali materials. My appreciation also goes to Prof. Jamie Hubbard and Prof. Peter Gregory for their collegial assistance, as well as to the speakers and members of the Five College Buddhist Seminar, from whom I gained much useful knowledge during the many interesting and insightful discussions over the past four or five years. I continue to utilize the translations of some historical texts which were assisted by Prof. Xuan Hu, Prof. Changchi Hao and also by Dr. Yang Wei when she was at Smith College. I am particularly thankful to Dr. Kurt Behrendt for generously sharing some of his photographs of Stupa A15 at Jauliāñ in Gandhāra, as well as some of his field notes on other stupas at that site. Further, I fondly remember the conversations I had with several Chinese scholars, particularly Teng Yü-hsiang and Chang Pao-hsi at the Research Institute in Lan chou. Smith College provided support for defraying some photographic expenses, and I am particularly thankful to Dick Fish, who has patiently and expertly produced the majority of my many photographs, and now scans, for publication. Also, Stacey Finkelstein of the Smith College photo staff has generously prepared some prints for this book. My appreciation goes to Susie Bourque, Smith College Provost during the years I was writing this book, and to Prof. John Davis and Prof. Barbara Kellum, who served as consecutive chair persons of the Art Department during that time, for their understanding and support for my work and for allowing me to take several necessary leaves which were crucial to completing this volume. As always, the staff at Brill Academic Press has been wonderful to work with, and Patricia Radder has, as usual, been the most efficient, understanding and pleasant editor one could possibly imagine. I am also extremely thankful to Birgitta Poelmans for her expert and kind care and advice in shepherding this book through the process of production. To Prof. Stephen Teiser at Princeton, the editor of this book since the death of Erik Zūrcher, I have sincere and deep gratitude for his careful reading of the manuscript and for his pertinent and knowledgeable suggestions which improved the manuscript. My husband, Young, has been an ever-present source for consultation and expertise on all matters of Marylin Martin Rhie - 978-90-04-19019-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/09/2023 03:54:26PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

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acknowledgements

language, text translation, history and religion, and for resolving various problems that come up. His unflagging interest in and support of this project have been a major factor in its seeing the light of day. I am also delightedly appreciative of our daughter, Sonya Rhie Quintanilla, whose knowledge in Indian art and languages has been a joy to seek out on occasions. Finally, this book is dedicated to the memory of two professors who passed away while this volume was being written, and who both were so influential in the underlying causes for this work: Prof. Harrie Vanderstappen, my teacher of East Asian art and ever-interested enthusiast concerning my work on Chinese Buddhist art, and Prof. Erik Zürcher, the famous scholar of early Chinese Buddhism, who saw the value in my work, supported the project for publication with Brill, and who, in his last message to me again expressed his most uplifting encouragement for my work. I hope this book lives up to both their expectations, though this would certainly be a very tall order. Wilbraham, Massachusetts October 18, 2009

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list of illustrations

xxiii

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Early Buddhist Art of China and Central Asia Volume III Color Plates Plate I

Plate II Plate III Plate IV

Plate V Plate VI

Plate VII

Plate VIII Plate IX Plate X Plate XI Plate XII

Plate XIII Plate XIV

Altar with dhyānāsana Buddha, mandorla, canopy and 4-footed stand, from Chingch’uan hsien, eastern Kansu, gilt bronze, total H. 19 cm, Kansu sheng po-wu-kuan, Lan chou Approach to the cave temple site of Ping-ling ssu on the Yellow River, Kansu province (photo M. Rhie, 1982) Entrance to the cave temple site of Ping-ling ssu showing the colossal Buddha and Cave 169 above the colossal Buddha’s right shoulder, Kansu (photo M. Rhie, 1982) The two eastern (left) seated Buddhas of the five-Buddha group, Group 23, South Wall, Cave 169, Ping-ling ssu, painted clay, ca. 410-415 A.D. (after Heirinji sekkutsu, fig. 13) Triad with Amitāyus, Mahāsthāmaprāpta and Kuanyin, Group 6, North Wall, Cave 169, Ping-ling ssu, dated 424 A.D. (or 420) (after Heirinji sekkutsu, fig. 21) Kuan-shih-yin p’u-sa (Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva), right attendant to Amitāyus, Group 6 niche, North Wall, Cave 169, Ping-ling ssu, dated 424 (or 420) (after Heirinji sekkutsu, fig. 24) Group 12 wall paintings showing seated Buddha in abhayā mudrā and row of seated Buddhas above, including the circular grouping of four Buddhas and a cross-ankled Maitreya Bodhisattva, North Wall, Cave 169, Ping-ling ssu, ca. 425 A.D. (after Heirinji sekkutsu, detail of fig. 36) View from the monastery of Jauliāñ, Taxila, Gandhāra (photo M. Rhie, 1975) Stucco stupas on the west side of the Main Stupa, Jauliāñ monastery, Taxila, Gandhāra, with the large early Stupa of A15 in the center (photo M. Rhie, 1975) Approach to the Main Stupa, northwest corner, Mohā Morādu, Taxila, Gandhāra (photo M. Rhie, 1975) Detail of the miniature stucco stupa in Cell 9, Mohā Morādu, Taxila, Gandhāra (photo M. Rhie, 1975) View of the South Stupa Court (foreground), Lower Stupa Court and Vihara, on the central axis, monastery of Takht-i-Bāhī, Peshawar region, Gandhāra (photo M. Rhie, 1975) View of the monastery site of Sahrī Bahlōl, Peshawar Valley, with large, still unexcavated mound, Gandhāra (photo M. Rhie, 1975) View of the Western Cliff at the Yün-kang cave temple site, near P’ing ch’eng (presentday Ta-t’ung), northern Shansi province (photo M. Rhie, 1982)

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xxiv Plate XV Plate XVI Plate XVII Plate XVIII Plate XIX Plate XX

list of illustrations Cave 20, one of the five T’an-yao caves, Yün-kang, ca. 460’s A.D. (photo: M. Rhie, 1987) Colossal standing Buddha, Cave 18, one of the five T’an-yao caves, Yün-kang, ca. 460’s (photo M. Rhie, 1982) Colossal standing Buddha, Cave 16, one of the five T’an-yao caves, Yün-kang, ca. 480 (photo M. Rhie, 1982) Western cliff, Mai-chi shan, near T’ien-shui, eastern Kansu (photo M. Rhie, 1992) Seated Buddha of the back (main) wall, Cave 78, western cliff, Mai-chi shan, eastern Kansu, Western Ch’in (after Bakusekizan sekkutsu, fig. 5) Niche with the Contemplative Bodhisattva, Cave 74, western cliff, Mai-chi shan, eastern Kansu, Western Ch’in (after Chang (1994), p. 88)

Black and White Illustrations Chapter 1 Fig. 1.1 Fig. 1.2

Map of Eastern Kansu and Adjacent Areas during the Western Ch’in (385-431 A.D.) Map of the Main Routes from Ch’ang-an to Central Asia during the Sixteen Kingdoms Period (317-439 A.D.)

Chapter 2 Figs. 2.1a-f

Fig. 2.2

Fig. 2.3 Fig. 2.4

Fig. 2.5

Seated dhyānāsana Buddha with mandorla, canopy and 4-footed stand, excavated in 1975 at Yü-tu hsiang, Ching-ch’uan hsien, eastern Kansu, gilt bronze, total H. 19 cm, Buddha/pedestal unit H. 8.5 cm, now Kansu sheng po-wu-kuan collection, Lan chou: a) front view (CKMSCC, Sculpture, Vol. 3, pl. 101) b) angle view showing underside of canopy (gift of Lan chou Museum) c) side view (Matsubara (1995), pl. 12b) d) back view (Matsubara (1995), pl. 12a) e) Buddha/pedestal unit (Matsubara (1995), pl. 13a) f) side view of Buddha/pedestal unit (Matsubara (1995), pl. 13b) Seated Buddha, dated Later Chao Chien-wu 4th year (338 A.D.), gilt bronze, H. 15½", W. 9⅝" (39.4 x 24.5 cm), courtesy Asian Art Museum of San Francisco, Avery Brundage Collection (B60B1034) Standing Bodhisattva, probably Maitreya, gilt bronze, H. 17.8 cm (7"), Ku-kung po-wu-kuan, Beijing (CKMSCC, Sculpture, Vol. 3, pl. 27) Seated Buddha in dhyāna mudrā with Kharo &hī inscription on back of pedestal, ca. 360’s-370’s, gilt bronze, found in Sian, H. 5½", W. of pedestal 3¼", Depth of pedestal 2", now in collection of the Sian Municipal Cultural Relics Association (after Han (1998), fig. on p. 21) Seated Buddha in dhyāna mudrā, ca. 3rd quarter of the 4th century (Phase II), Sixteen Kingdoms Period, gilt bronze, H. 15.2 cm (after Matsubara (1966), pl. 6)

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list of illustrations Fig. 2.6

Fig. 2.7 Fig. 2.8

Fig. 2.9 Fig. 2.10 Fig. 2.11

Fig. 2.12

Fig. 2.13 Fig. 2.14

Fig. 2.15 Fig. 2.16 Fig. 2.17a Fig. 2.17b Fig. 2.18

Fig. 2.19 Fig. 2.20

Figs. 2.21a, b

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Seated dhyānāsana Buddha with mandorla from Pao-ting, Hopei (Phase II), gilt bronze, total H. 13.4 cm, image H. 9 cm, pedestal W. 4.5 x D. 2.6 cm (after P’ei and Chi (1998), color pl. 1) Seated dhyānāsana Buddha with mandorla (Phase II), gilt bronze, H. 12 cm, Tokyo Bijutsu Daigaku (after Matsubara (1966), pl. 7a) Altar with dhyānāsana Buddha, mandorla, canopy, and 4-footed stand (Phase II), gilt bronze, total H. 19 cm, Hopei Provincial Museum (after CKMSCC, Sculpture, Vol. 3, pl. 35) Altar with dhyānāsana Buddha with mandorla and 4-footed stand (Phase II), gilt bronze, H. 19.5 cm, Ku-kung po-wu-kuan, Beijing (after Matsubara (1995), pl. 14) Seated Buddha in dhyāna mudrā with 4-footed stand, from Hsi-kuan ch’eng, I-hsien, Hopei, gilt bronze, H. 16.4 cm (after P’ei and Chi (1998), color pl. 2) Altar with seated Buddha in dhyāna mudrā with large mandorla, 4-footed stand, separately attached Bodhisattvas, probably from Hopei, early 5th century, gilt bronze, H. 28.1 cm, now in Idemitsu Museum, Tokyo (after Tokyo National Museum (1987), No. 5) Standing Bodhisattva (probably Kuan-shih-yin), China, gilt bronze, H. 5¾", W. 2⅜", D. 2¼" (H. 14.6 cm), early 5th century (ca. 400 A.D.), courtesy Asian Art Museum of San Francisco, The Avery Brundage Collection (B60B638) Seated Buddha in dhyāna mudrā, gilt bronze, H. 5" x W. 3", courtesy Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, Kansas City, Missouri (Purchase: Nelson Trust 51-25) Seated Buddha in dhyāna mudrā, inscribed and dated Sheng-kuang 2nd year (429) of the Ta Hsia, gilt bronze, Ôsaka Municipal Museum, Ôsaka, Japan (photo: Harrie A. Vanderstappen) Seated Buddha in dhyāna mudrā, inscribed and dated 437 A.D. ([Liu] Sung Yüanchia 14th year), gilt bronze, H. 29.2 cm (after Matsubara (1995), pl. 18) Seated dhyānāsana Buddha from Ching-ch’uan hsien, eastern Kansu (see Figs. 2.1af), detail of Buddha/pedestal unit and mandorla (after Matsubara (1995), pl. 11) Fragment of a seated Buddha, clay, from a small shrine in the courtyard of Complex C, Kara-tepe, near Termez, southern Uzbekistan (after Stavisky (1988), pl. VIII) Drawing of the seated Buddha in Fig. 2.17a (drawing: M. Rhie) Fragment of a mandorla with seated dharmachakra Buddha on lotus pedestal with rayed body and head halos, from the entrance area, site (R), Duldul-Akur, Kucha, wood, H. 8.5 cm, W. 10.5 cm, Musée Guimet, Paris (after Koutcha, III, fig. 60) Mandorla from the Ching-ch’uan altar in Fig. 2.1a (after Matsubara (1995), pl. 13c) Detail of wooden lintel with Buddha niches, L. A. area, Lou-lan (Hedin’s site F, Stein’s site II), ca. 3rd century A.D., carved poplar wood, total Length of lintel 107 x W. 22 x Depth 6.5 cm, Folkens Museum Etnografiska, Stockholm, detail of 3rd Buddha from the right (photo: M. Rhie) Hat ornament with Buddha image and disk pendants, gold, Northern Yen (407436), from the tomb of Feng Hsü-fu (d. 415 A.D.), Pei-p’iao, Liaoning (northeastern China), 2¾ x 3⅜ in. (6.8 x 8.4 cm) (after Watt, et al (2004), no. 37) a) back b) front Marylin Martin Rhie - 978-90-04-19019-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/09/2023 03:54:26PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

xxvi Fig. 2.22a Fig. 2.22b Fig. 2.23 Fig. 2.24a Fig. 2.24b Fig. 2.25

list of illustrations Topside of the canopy of the Ching-ch’uan altar in Fig. 2.1a Drawing of Fig. 2.22a (drawing: M. Rhie) Topside of the canopy of the Hopei Provincial Museum altar in Fig. 2.8 (after Chi (2002), p. 40) Detail of the 4-footed stand of the Ching-ch’uan altar in Fig. 2.1a (after Juliano and Lerner (2001), no. 47) Drawing of Fig. 2.24a (drawing; M. Rhie) Bronze seal with recumbent horse and “kuei-i” seal, from the Ching-ch’uan hoard of bronze objects, eastern Kansu (after Liu Yü-lin (1983), fig. 5, p. 76)

Chapter 3 Fig. 3.1 Fig. 3.2

Fig. 3.3 Fig. 3.4

Fig. 3.5

Fig. 3.6 Fig. 3.7

Fig. 3.8

Fig. 3.9 Fig. 3.10 Fig. 3.11 Fig. 3.12 Fig. 3.13

Map of the area near Ping-ling ssu, eastern Kansu province (after Ping-ling ssu shih-k’u (1953), unpaginated, first foldout) View of the site at Ping-ling ssu, showing the Twin Sister’s Peaks, from the river flooding the valley floor at the foot of the caves (after Ping-ling ssu shih-k’u (1982), p. 18 [lower]) Drawing of Ping-ling ssu, Ch’ing dynasty, formerly Yang Fa-tai collection, now Ping-ling ssu shih-k’u wen-wu pao-kuan so collection (after Teng (1986), fig. 21) Panoramic view of the upper part of Ping-ling ssu cliff with the colossal seated Buddha and Cave 169 (at the Buddha’s right), prior to flooding of the valley (after Chang (1994), p. 57) Drawing of the cave site at Ping-ling ssu by Hsia Tung-kwang, detail showing Niche No. 1 in its original location at the entrance to the valley and near the river (after Ping-ling ssu shih-k’u (1953), 3rd foldout) Niche No. 1 with view of the colossal Buddha and Cave 169 in the distance, Ping-ling ssu (after Chang (1982), fig. 6) Niche No. 1 at Ping-ling ssu, front view prior to the removal of the two Ming period standing attendant Bodhisattvas (after Ping-ling ssu shih-k’u (1953), top figure of 3rd page from end of figure plates) View of Niche No. 1 prior to removal of the Ming dynasty stucco on the standing Buddha and the two Ming dynasty standing attendant Bodhisattvas (after Chang (1986), fig. 1) Standing Buddha, Niche No. 1, Ping-ling ssu, H. 4 m, stucco over stone core, original image, early Western Ch’in, ca. 375-385 A.D. (after Chang (2003), fig. 9) Detail of upper body, Niche No. 1 Buddha in Fig. 3.9 (after Chang (2003), detail of fig. 9) Detail of lower body, Niche No. 1 Buddha in Fig. 3.9 (after Chang (2003), detail of fig. 9) Standing Buddha of Niche No. 1, Ping-ling ssu, stucco over stone core, ca. 375-385 A.D., Western Ch’in (after Chang (1982), fig. 7) Standing Buddha, inscribed “made nine images”, gilt bronze, ca. first half of the 4th century A.D., H. 15.8 cm, Kyoto National Museum (after Matsubara (1966), pl. 3b) Marylin Martin Rhie - 978-90-04-19019-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/09/2023 03:54:26PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

list of illustrations Fig. 3.14a Fig. 3.14b

Fig. 3.15 Fig. 3.16

Fig. 3.17

Fig. 3.18

Fig. 3.19 Fig. 3.20a

Fig. 3.20b Fig. 3.21 Fig. 3.22

Fig. 3.23

Fig. 3.24 Fig. 3.25 Fig. 3.26 Fig. 3.27

Fig. 3.28

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Relief with standing Buddha, gray schist, H. 29 cm, Gandhāra, probably ca. 4th century, private collection, Japan (after Kurita (2003), I, fig. 223) Relief with the seven Buddhas and Maitreya Bodhisattva, stone base for holding a stone statue, in situ in shrine “c”, Southeast Stupa Court XIVii, Takht-i-Bāhī, Gandhāra, ca. first half of the 4th century (after Behrendt (2006), fig. 51) Eastern Great Buddha, 38 meters, Cave 155, Bāmiyān, Afghanistan, possibly 4th century (after Higuchi (1983-1984), II, pl. 51) Standing Buddha (R.9), Style I, inner southwest wall, Rawak Stupa Court, Khotan, clay, over life size, ca. late 3rd to early 4th century A.D. (after Stein (1907), I, detail of fig. 62) Standing Buddha inscribed “King Aśoka image” (A-yü-wang hsiang) from a hoard of stone sculptures found while broadening the Hsi-an lu Road, Ch’eng-tu, Szechwan, dated 551 A.D., H. 11.48 cm (after Chung-kuo wen-wu (1999), fig. 29 on p. 15) Standing Buddha, “from the small ruin to the west of the Pelliot ruin,” TumshukTagh, Tumshuk, Northern Silk Route, Central Asia, wood, H. 22 cm, Museum für Indische Kunst, Berlin (MIK III 8031) (photo: Y. Rhie) Maitreya Buddha, bronze, dated corresponding to 443 A.D., Northern Wei, H. 53.5 cm (21"), private collection, Japan (after Matsubara (1966), pl. 12) Maitreya Bodhisattva teaching in Tu ita Heaven, front wall lunette, Cave 38 (Cave of the Musicians), Kizil, Kucha, ca. 3rd quarter of the 4th century A.D. (after KlimburgSalter (1989), pl. XVI, fig. 17) Detail of Maitreya Bodhisattva in Fig. 3.20a Detail of Buddha, wall painting, forecourt, Cave 165, Bāmiyān (after Higuchi (19831984), I, pl. 35.2) Mirror with design of Four-Buddhist/Four-Animal groups, ca. first half of the 4th century (before mid-late 5th century A.D.), bronze, Dia. 24.1-24.3 cm, formerly in the Kongōrinji, detail of Group “C” (after: Nara National Museum (1996), No. 9) Mirror with design of Four-Buddhist/Four-Animal groups, ca. first half of the 4th century (before mid-late 5th century A.D.), bronze, Dia. 24.1-24.3 cm, formerly in the Kongōrinji, detail of Group “D” (after: Nara National Museum (1996), No. 9) Two colossal Buddha heads, clay, M II, Miran. Shan-shan kingdom, eastern Central Asia (after Stein (1921), I, fig. 121) Fragment of a wall painting of Buddha with patched robe, from Niya, Southern Silk Road, Central Asia, ca. early 4th century A.D. Dīpa*kara Buddha, from Swat, mid-4th century A.D., stone, formerly Spink and Son, Ltd., London (photo: M. Rhie) Wall painting fragment with seated Buddha in a panel, from Temple A (Inv. 94-KRD 61:43-01), Kara-dong, near Keriya, Southern Silk Road, ca. 2nd half of the 4th century (after Debaine-Francfort and Idriss (2001), No. 24, p. 93) Buddha head, probably from Temple “J”, Toqquz-Sarai, Tumshuk, Northern Silk Road, hardened clay, H. 11 cm, Musée Guimet, Paris (after Toumchouq, I, fig. 119)

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list of illustrations

Chapter 4 Fig. 4.1a Fig. 4.1b Fig. 4.2 Fig. 4.3 Fig. 4.4 Fig. 4.5 Fig. 4.6 Fig. 4.7 Fig. 4.8 Fig. 4.9 Fig. 4.10

Fig. 4.11

Fig. 4.12 Fig. 4.13 Fig. 4.14 Figs. 4.15a, b Fig. 4.16

Fig. 4.17

Fig. 4.18 Fig. 4.19

View of the colossal Buddha with Cave 169 at the Buddha’s right, Ping-ling ssu, eastern Kansu (after Heirinji sekkutsu, fig. 192) Plan of Cave 169, Ping-ling ssu, eastern Kansu (after Heirinji sekkutsu, p. 247) Diagram of image placements and Groups on the West Wall, Cave 169, Ping-ling ssu (after Heirinji sekkutsu, p. 247, with modifications) View of the upper portion of the West Wall, Cave 169, Ping-ling ssu, relief sculptures of stone core with stucco (after Heirinji sekkutsu, fig. 5) View of Group 18, upper portion of West Wall, Cave 169, Ping-ling ssu, images stone core with stucco (after Heirinji sekkutsu, fig. 6) Drawing of the standing Buddha and seated Buddhas of Group 18, upper portion of West Wall, Cave 169, Ping-ling ssu (drawing: M. Rhie) Drawing in Fig. 4.5 with the addition of identifying numbers Standing Buddha at the center of Group 18, West Wall, Cave 169, Ping-ling ssu, stone core with stucco (after Heirinji sekkutsu, fig. 7) Drawing of the standing Buddha in Fig. 4.7 (drawing: M. Rhie) Detail of the lower portion of the standing Buddha in Fig. 4.7 Standing Maitreya Buddha (inscribed) with large mandorla, gilt bronze, H. 5" (12.7 cm), Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, Kansas City, Missouri (Bequest of Lawrence Sickman F88-37/7) Detail of the teaching Buddha, wall painting, Cave 84 (Treasure Cave B), Kizil, Kucha, early 4th century, Museum für Indische Kunst, Berlin, III 8444 (after Kijiru sekkutsu, III, fig. 195) Standing Buddha, clay and stucco, from Haa, Afghanistan, Kabul Museum, H. nearly life-size (photo M. Rhie, 1975) Jātaka scenes and meditating monks, detail of ceiling, right side of left passage, Cave 77 (Cave of the Statues), Kizil, Kucha (after Kijiru sekkutsu, II, fig. 27) Panel with seated Buddha and monks, Cave 212 (Cave of the Seafarers), Kizil, Kucha, Museum für Indische Kunst, Berlin (after Le Coq (1922-1933), VI, pl. 3a) Drawing of modes of wearing the Buddha’s robe as seen in 4th-early 5th century seated Buddha images in China Relief of a standing Buddha and worshippers (Inv. No. 655), from Niche Q1, Great Stupa 4, Butkara I, Swat, Pakistan, schist, ca. mid-4th century (after Faccenna (1962 and 1964), II, 2, pl. CCIV) Standing Buddha from the stupa court, Western Group, Tumshuk-Tagh, Tumshuk, Northern Silk Road, wood, H. 8 cm, Museum für Indische Kunst, Berlin (III 7668) (after National Museum, Seoul (1991), No. 2, p. 80) Fragment No. 161 (lower legs and drapery of a standing clay figure), group photo, from Toqquz-Sarai, Tumshuk, Northern Silk Road (detail after Toumchouq, I, fig. 41) Seated Buddha in abhayā mudrā, ca. 3rd quarter of the 4th century (Sixteen Kingdoms period), gilt bronze, H. 21.4 cm (8.4"), formerly Nitta collection, Japan (after National Palace Museum (1987), pl. 57)

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list of illustrations Fig. 4.20 Fig. 4.21

Fig. 4.22a Fig. 4.22b Fig. 4.23

Fig. 4.24 Fig. 4.25a Fig. 4.25b

Fig. 4.26a Fig. 4.26b Fig. 4.27 Fig. 4.28 Fig. 4.29

Fig. 4.30 Fig. 4.31 Fig. 4.32 Fig. 4.33 Fig. 4.34

Fig. 4.35

Fig. 4.36

xxix

Detail of Maitreya teaching in Tu ita Heaven, wall painting, left wall of left passage, Cave 77 (Cave of the Statues), Kizil, Kucha (Kijiru sekkutsu, II, (1984), fig. 19) Standing Buddha with mandorla and lotus pedestal, from Cave 76 (Peacock Cave), Kizil, Kucha, wood, H. 16.5 cm (6½"), Museum für Indische Kunst, Berlin, III 8152 (photo: Y. Rhie) Jātaka, right side of the ceiling, main room, Cave 38 (Cave of the Musicians), ca. 3rd quarter of the 4th century, Kizil, Kucha (photo: Feng Fei) Jātaka, left (west) side of ceiling, Cave 14, Kizil, Kucha, ca. late 4th-first quarter of the 5th century (after Hsin-chiang (1997), fig. 25) Group 18, West Wall, detail of seated Buddhas on south side of the standing Buddha (nos. 9 and 1 on diagram in Fig. 4.6), Cave 169, Ping-ling ssu (after Heirinji sekkutsu, fig. 8) Diagram of Groups 17 and 16, lower portion of the West Wall, Cave 169, Ping-ling ssu (after Teng (1994), text fig. 15) View of Group 17 and part of Group 16, the lower portion of the central part of the West Wall, Cave 169, Ping-ling ssu (after Chang (1982), fig. 31) Group 17 standing Bodhisattva with view of the side of the thousand Buddha panel (Group 19),West Wall, Cave 169, Ping-ling ssu (after China Pictorial, 1978, No. 11, fig. on p. 31) Group 17 standing Bodhisattva, clay, stucco and pigments, West Wall, Cave 169, Ping-ling ssu (after Heirinji sekkutsu, fig. 43) Drawing of the standing Bodhisattva in Fig. 4.26a (drawing M. Rhie) Detail of head and upper torso of standing Bodhisattva, Group 17, West Wall, Cave 169, Ping-ling ssu, clay and stucco with pigments (after Teng (1994), fig. 17) Detail of wall painting, main wall, main chamber, Cave 83 (Treasure Cave C), Kizil, Kucha, ca. early 4th century (after Feng (1982), fig. 49) Vertical jamb fragment with two standing Bodhisattva niches, Lou-lan, L.B.II, ca. 3rd century A.D., carved poplar wood, 72 x 22 x 6 cm, Folkens Museum Etnografiska, Stockholm (After Bergman (1935), pl. IV, fig. 4) Detail of Buddha altar with mandorla and 4-footed stand (Phase II), gilt bronze, H. 19.5 cm, Ku-kung po-wu-kuan, Beijing (after Matsubara (1995), pl. 14) Kneeling worshippers (monks?), in situ, small Temple “I”, Toqquz-Sarai, Tumshuk, clay (after Toumchouq, I, fig. 8) Wall painting, Cave 7, Kizil, Kucha (after Kijiru sekkutsu, I, fig. 7) Head of standing Bodhisattva, Group 17, West Wall, Cave 169, Ping-ling ssu (after CKMSCC, Sculpture, 9, fig. 3) Portrait of Chin, master of the tomb, north wall (west side), antechamber, tomb at Tŏkhungri, North Korea, dated 408/409 A.D. (after Tokufunri kōkuri hekiga kofun (1986), color pl. 12) Detail of standing Bodhisattva, probably Kuan-shih-yin, gilt bronze, H. 5¾" (14.6 cm), ca. early 5th century, Asian Art Museum of San Francisco, Avery Brundage Collection (B60B638) Detail of Eastern Great Buddha, Cave 155, Bāmiyān, Afghanistan (after Higuchi (1983-1984), II, pl. 52.2) Marylin Martin Rhie - 978-90-04-19019-1 Downloaded from Brill.com02/09/2023 03:54:26PM via Universite degli Studi di Milano

xxx Fig. 4.37 Fig. 4.38 Fig. 4.39

Fig. 4.40 Fig. 4.41 Fig. 4.42 Fig. 4.43

Fig. 4.44 Fig. 4.45a

Fig. 4.45b Fig. 4.46 Fig. 4.47 Fig. 4.48 Fig. 4.49 Fig. 4.50

list of illustrations Triad of standing Buddha and two standing Bodhisattvas, each in a pillared shrine, stone, Gandhāra, Shitennoji collection, Ôsaka (after Miyaji (1992), text fig. 133) Detail of four of the five dhyānāsana Buddhas of Group 16, West Wall (lower part), Cave 169, Ping-ling ssu, stone core, (after Heirinji sekkutsu, fig. 45) Top part of incense burner with four seated dhyānāsana Buddhas, discovered in 1974 in Chü-yung hsien, Kiangsu, Eastern Chin, bronze, H. 15 cm, Kiangsu sheng Chenchiang po-wu-kuan (after Ho (1993), fig. 31) Contemplative Bodhisattva, Group 16, West Wall (lower part), Cave 169, Ping-ling ssu, clay with pigments (after Heirinji sekkutsu, fig. 46) Detail of head of Contemplative Bodhisattva in Fig. 4.40 (after CKMSCC, Sculpture, Vol. 9, p. 15) Detail of upper zone of wall painting, lunette, right wall, main chamber, Cave 118, ca. early 4th century, Kizil, Kucha (after Le Coq (1922-1933), IV, pl. 2) Wall painting of the Rudrāyana Avadāna, from the main wall, main chamber, Cave 83 (Treasure Cave C), early 4th century, Kizil, Kucha, Museum für Indische Kunst, Berlin, MIK III 8443 (after CKMSCC, Painting, Vol. 16, fig. 69) Contemplative Bodhisattva holding a lotus flower, schist, Gandhāra, H. 67.3 cm (26½"), Matsuoka Museum of Art, Tokyo (after Kurita (2003), II, fig. 151) Cross-ankled Maitreya Bodhisattva, from Cave 76 (Peacock Cave), Kizil, Kucha, wood, H. 16 cm (6.2"), courtesy Staatliche Museen Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Museum für Indische Kunst, MIK III 8147 Lower torso of a standing figure, from small Temple “I”, Toqquz-Sarai, Tumshuk, hardened clay, H. 13 cm (5.1"), Musée Guimet, Paris (photo: M. Rhie) Standing Buddha in plain robe, from Govindnagar, Mathurā, light sandstone, Gupta period, ca. late 4th-early 5th century (after Sharma (1984), fig. 135) Seated Buddha, Mathurā school, Gupta period, ca. 4th-early 5th century, sandstone, Cleveland Museum of Art (photo: M. Rhie) Group 16 showing Contemplative Bodhisattva and left standing Buddha, West Wall, Cave 169, Ping-ling ssu, clay with pigments (after Teng (1994), color fig. 43) Two standing Buddhas, Group 16, West Wall, Cave 169, Ping-ling ssu, clay with pigments (after Heirinji sekkutsu, fig. 48) “Dancing Deva”, Eastern Group, Tumshuk-Tagh, Tumshuk, painted clay, H. 72.2 cm (28.4"), Museum für Indische Kunst, Berlin MIK III 8948 (after Hartel and Yaldiz (1982), no. 46)

Chapter 5 Fig. 5.1 Fig. 5.2 Fig. 5.3

View of the East and South Walls (with the West Wall at the lower right), Cave 169, Ping-ling ssu (after Heirinji sekkutsu, fig. 9) Diagram of East and South Walls with image groups (after Heirinji sekkutsu, p. 247, with additions) Drawing of the thousand Buddha wall painting with three inset image groups, Group 24, East Wall, Cave 169, Ping-ling ssu (after Teng (1994), fig. 23 on p. 15)

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list of illustrations Fig. 5.4a

Fig. 5.4b

Fig. 5.5 Fig. 5.6

Fig. 5.7 Fig. 5.8a Fig. 5.8b Fig. 5.9 Fig. 5.10 Fig. 5.11

Fig. 5.12

Fig. 5.13a

Fig. 5.13b

Fig. 5.14a

Fig. 5.14b Fig. 5.15a Fig. 5.15b

xxxi

Detail of the left (north) side of the thousand Buddha wall painting, with triad configuration, Group 24, East Wall, Cave 169, Ping-ling ssu (after Heirinji sekkutsu, fig. 15) Detail of the right (south) side of the thousand Buddha wall painting, showing triad with teaching Buddha and Śākyamuni and Prabhūtaratna with inscriptions, Group 24, East wall, Cave 169, Ping-ling ssu (after Heirinji sekkutsu, fig. 15) Detail of triad with dhyānāsana Buddha, thousand Buddha wall painting, Group 24, East Wall, Cave 169, Ping-ling ssu (after Teng (1994), color pl. 27) Niche with Buddha and two monks, Fayaz-tepe, near Termez, southern Uzbekistan, marl limestone, H. 75 cm (29½"), National Museum of Uzbekistan History, Tashkent (after Borodina (1987), fig. 18) Head of a Buddha with head halo of circular bands, fragment of wall painting from small Temple “I”, Toqquz-Sarai, Tumshuk (after Toumchouq, I, fig. 49) Detail of triad with teaching Buddha, thousand Buddha wall painting, Group 24, East Wall, Cave 169, Ping-ling ssu (after Teng (1994), color pl. 28) Drawing of triad in Fig. 5.8a Seated Buddha in relief panel, from Site 5, Nāgārjunako