Doing business with Japan : successful strategies for intercultural communication 0824821270

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PohM Business#® w ith I

azuo Nishiyama

Doing Business with

Japan

Doing Business with

Japan Successful Strategies for Intercultural Communication

Kazuo Nishiyama

A Latitude 20 Book University of Hawai‘i Press Honolulu

© 2000 University of Hawai‘i Press All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America 00 01 02 03 04 05 54 32 1

Library o f Congress C ataloging-in-Publication Data Nishiyama, Kazuo. Doing business with Japan: successful strategies for intercultural communication/Kazuo Nishiyama. p. cm. “Latitude 20 book" Includes bibliographical references (p. ). ISBN 0-8248-2127-0 (pbk.:alk.paper) 1. Business etiquette—Japan. 2. Negotiation in business—Japan. 3. Corporate culture—Japan. 4. National characteristics, Japanese. 5. Intercultural communication—Japan. 6. United States—Commerce—Japan. 7. Japan—Commerce—United States. I.Title. HF5389.3.J3N57 2000 395.5’2’0952—dc21 99-30350 CIP

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Contents

Acknowledgments Introduction c h a p

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Barriers to Intercultural Business Communication

vii 1 9

Government-Business Relationship and Business Organizations in Japan

29

Establishing Business Relations with the Japanese

43

Interpersonal Communication and Sales Presentation

63

Contract Negotiation and Conflict Resolution

83

Decision Making in Japanese Business Organizations

117

Public Speaking and Presentations

135

Working for Overseas Japanese Multinationals

155

Living and Working in Japan

175

Notes Glossary of Japanese Terms and Concepts Index

201 207 211

Acknowledgments

During my research and writing, many academic colleagues gen­ erously provided me with valuable advice and assistance. I am par­ ticularly grateful to Dr. James Mak and Dr. Larry Cross for their constructive suggestions for improving the first draft of this book. I owe a special debt of gratitude to Ms. Judith Mills, who patiently and carefully edited subsequent drafts. She also has given me the advantage of her American perspective, offering very prac­ tical advice on how to adapt my writing to answer the many ques­ tions that Westerners may have about Japan and Japanese business­ people. Finally, I wish to thank my editor at the University of Hawai‘i Press, Ms. Sharon Yamamoto, and Ms. Ann Ludeman, man­ aging editor, for their expert assistance.

Introduction

apan is the second-largest economic superpower, second only to the United States. Consumers in almost every country seek out products manufactured in Japan, such as automobiles, electronic home appliances, television sets, stereo players, transistor radios, digital cameras, and compact disc players. Japanese tourist spending has become a very important factor in world economics and an extremely important “intangible export” for many tourism-orient­ ed countries. In Japan, skyscraper office towers, Western-style hotels and restaurants, freeways full of cars, high-speed trains, slick subways, supermodern international airports, highly automated and produc­ tive factories, American fast-food chains, and Western enter­ tainment and sports provide the impression that Japan is truly Westernized. However, Japan has selectively adopted only those aspects of Western culture that are useful and convenient. Despite appearances, Japan has remained “uniquely Japanese.” For this rea­ son, many uninformed Western businesspeople doing business in Japan will find it difficult and even frustrating to work with their Japanese counterparts unless they gain a good understanding of Japan and its people.

J

A brief look at its history will help explain why Japan has been interacting with other countries as it has in business and politics. The Tokugawa shogunate, founded by Tokugawa Ieyasu in 1600, viewed Christianity as subversive and foreign trade as dangerous to the stability of its feudal government.Tokugawa Ieyasu imposed the

Introduction

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seclusio n o fJa p a n fro m all fo reig n co n tact for m o re th an tw o c e n ­ tu rie s b e tw e e n 16 38 and 18 53 . H is su ccesso r,T o ku gaw a H id etad a, b an n e d all m issio n ary a c tiv ity and e x p e lle d all E uro p ean m issio n ­ aries. T h e p ersec u tio n o f C h ris tia n ity cam e to a c lim ax b e tw e e n 16 37 and 1638 w h e n som e tw e n ty th o u san d C h ristian peasants w h o rose up in revolt w e re slau g h tered at th e o ld castle on S h im ab ara P en in sula. T h e S h im ab ara revolt m ark ed th e v irtu a l en d o f C h ris tia n ity in Jap an . S ta rtin g in 16 4 0 , all Jap an ese w ere forced to reg ister at lo c al B u d d h ist tem p les so th at th e lo cal go v ern m en ts c o u ld c h e c k o n th e ir re lig io u s affiliations. T h e T o ku gaw a g o v ern ­ m en t also c lo sely c o n tro lled fo reig n trad e to p reven t lo cal vassals fro m o b ta in in g guns and o th e r w eap o n s fro m th e W est th at m ig h t b e u sed fo r subversive m ilita ry activities. In 16 33 , all Jap an ese w ere p ro h ib ite d o n th reat o f d eath fro m g o in g abroad or, i f th e y w ere alread y abroad, fro m re tu rn in g h o m e. T h e lo n g p e rio d o f c o n tin u e d iso latio n im p o sed b y the T o ku g aw a g o v ern m en t gave th e Jap an ese a stro n g sense o f self­ id en tity. T h e y cam e to v ie w th e rest o f th e w o rld , in c lu d in g th eir close c u ltu ra l and racial relatives in K orea and C h in a , as “ oth er,” settin g up an “u s” versus “th e m ” d ic h o to m y .T h e y still have a m an ia ab o ut d istin g u ish in g b e tw e e n “fo re ig n ” b o rro w in g and elem en ts regard ed as “n ativ e ” Jap an ese. Iso latio n p ro d u ced a h ig h d eg ree o f c u ltu ral and racial h o m o g e n e ity in Ja p a n .T h is p ro lo n ged separatio n fro m th e o u tsid e w o rld w as in d e e d in stru m en ta l in sp read in g u n i­ fo rm c u ltu ral p attern s th ro u g h o u t th e Jap an ese islands and p re­ v e n tin g th e m ix in g o f races fo r m a n y g en eratio n s. B y tu rn in g in w ard o n th e ir o w n reso urces, th e Jap an ese w ere able to develop fu lly th e ir o w n c u ltu ral id en tity, d istin ctive p erso n ality traits, social skills, and artistic ach iev em en ts. O n th e o th er h an d , th e lo n g iso latio n severely cu rtailed Ja p a n ’s m o d e rn iz a tio n and in d u stria liz a tio n . T h e Jap an ese w ere h u m ilia te d b y th e in d u stria liz e d W e ste rn pow ers. B y th e m id d le o f th e n in e te e n th cen tu ry, steam -p o w ered ships fro m W estern n atio n s cam e to disp lay th e ir ad v an ced eco n o m ic and m ilita ry p o w ers aro u n d th e shores o f Jap an . In J u ly 18 5 3 , a fleet o f h u g e iro n ships u n d e r th e co m m a n d o f C o m m o d o re M a tth e w C . P e rry steam ed in to U ra g a n e a r th e m o u th o f T okyo Bay. T h e Jap an ese called th ese iro n ships k u ro b u n e o r “b la c k ships,” and th e y w ere v e ry frig h te n e d at th e sight o f th e m b e llo w in g b lac k sm oke. In F eb ru ary 18 5 4 , P e rry re tu rn e d to Jap an w ith a la rg e r and m o re fo rm id ab le squadron to d em o n strate th e m ig h t and d e te rm in a tio n o f the

Introduction

U n ite d States to p ry o p en Jap an ese seaports for fo reig n ships. A fter a m o n th o f n eg o tiatio n s, th e first trea ty w as sign ed , b u t it ach iev ed o n ly lim ite d success. B y th is tim e , th e T o ku g aw a g o v ern ­ m en t le a rn e d h o w b a d ly th e C h in e se h ad b e e n d efeated b y the m ig h ty B ritish n a v y w arsh ip s in th e O p iu m W ar o f 1841 and re al­ iz e d th at th e ir sm all w o o d e n vessels and an tiq u ated shore b atteries w ere n o m atch for th e A m e ric a n steam frigates e q u ip p ed w ith h u g e m o d e rn ca n n o n s.T h e Jap an ese lead ers k n e w th at th e y w o u ld have to give in to fo reig n d em an d s i f th e y w an te d to avoid the sam e fate th at th e C h in e se h ad suffered. T o w n sen d H arris, the A m e ric a n co n sul w h o w as p e rm itte d to reside in Jap an u n d e r this a g re e m e n t, fin ally m an ag e d to n e g o tia te a full trade trea ty in 1858. T h is even t b ro u g h t ab o ut th e collapse o f th e T o ku gaw a sh ogun ate and p ro vid ed an im p etu s for th e start o f th e M e iji R e sto ra tio n o f 1 8 6 8 .T h is w as th e resto ratio n o f th e p o w er o f th e em p ero r c a rrie d o u t in th e n am e o f E m p ero r M e iji and th e estab ­ lish m e n t o f a n e w fo rm o f g o v ern m en t p attern ed after W estern m o d els. Several Jap an ese p o litic a l lead ers realized th at th e o n ly defense against th e W est w as to ado p t its su p erio r in d u strial and m ilita ry tech n o lo gy. U n d e r th e slogan R ic h C o u n try, S tro n g M ilita r y (fu k o k u k y o h e i ) , th e y w e re b e n t o n b u ild in g a ric h in d u s­ tria liz e d n atio n and a stro n g m ilitary, lik e th e ric h W estern n atio ns th at w e re c o lo n iz in g n e ig h b o rin g A sian co u n tries. T h e y w o rk ed fe v erish ly to ado p t W estern m ilita ry te ch n iq u es. In fact, Jap an b e g a n b o rro w in g alm ost e v e ry th in g fro m th e ad v an ced W estern co u n trie s. T h e Jap an ese g o v ern m en t b ro u g h t m an y ex p erts from th e U n ite d States an d E urope to Ja p a n at an ex o rb itan t cost and h ad th e m tea ch ea g e r Jap an ese students w h atev er ex p ertise and k n o w le d g e th e y h a d : in d u stria l tech n o lo g y, w eap o n ry, n av igatio n , c o m m erce and trade, railw ays, te le g ra p h , p o litic al and ju d ic ia l sys­ tem s, e d u c a tio n , m e d ic in e , cu isin e, fash io n , art and lite ratu re , re li­ g io n , and even farm in g . S o c ia l ch an ges also o c c u rre d u n d e r a n o th e r slo gan , C iv iliz a tio n and E n lig h te n m e n t (b u n m e ik a ik a ) . T h e Jap an ese b egan to im ita te W e ste rn custom s and social b eh avio r. H o w ever, to retain n atio n al p rid e and to abate a sense o f in fe rio rity in th e m idst o f m assive fo reig n b o rro w in g , th e Jap an ese c o in e d an o th er slogan, Jap an ese S p irit,W e ste rn T ech n o lo g y (w a k o n y O s a i) . It rem in d ed the Jap an ese th at re ta in in g a Jap an ese sp irit at h eart w as n ecessary for an y successful ad o p tio n o f W e ste rn tech n o lo gy. E ven today, this slo­ gan co n tin u es to b e u sed b y Jap an ese m u ltin atio n al co rp o ratio n s as

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Introduction

a v e h ic le fo r c o rp o rate p rid e and n atio n al id en tity. In th e c o rp o ­ rate c o n te x t, th e slogan m ean s th at th e Jap an ese m ust w o rk d ili­ g e n tly based o n th e Jap an ese w o rk eth ics o f d ed icatio n and self­ sacrifice, even th o u g h th e y m ay b e u sin g te c h n o lo g ic a l k n o w le d g e o f W estern o rig in . T h is w as also a p rag m atic and u tilita ria n ap proach to ad o p tin g W e ste rn te c h n o lo g y w ith o u t m a k in g drastic ch an ges in trad itio n al Jap an ese values.

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Ja p a n is a ch ain o f n a rro w islands o ff th e east coast o f th e h u g e co n ­ tin e n ta l lan d mass o f C h in a , th e K orean P en in su la, and th e fo rm er So viet U n io n . T h e islands are su rro u n d ed b y th e vast sw eep o f the P acific O c e a n o n th e east, th e Sea o f O k h o tsk on th e n o rth , the S ea o fJa p a n o n th e w est, and th e P h ilip p in e Sea o n th e so u th .T h e c o u n try has th e gen era l shape o f a crescen t and ex ten d s 1 ,8 6 0 m iles fro m th e n o rth e rn tip to th e so u th ern tip o f th e islan d chains. T h e to tal lan d area is 1 4 6 ,0 0 0 square m iles and is m ad e up o f fo ur m ajo r islands— H o n sh u , H o k k a id o , K yu sh u and S h ik o k u — and in clu d es m o re th an 4 ,0 0 0 sm aller islands. T h ese islands are c o lle c tiv e ly referred to as th e Jap an ese A rc h ip e la g o .T h e en tire lan d area, h o w ­ ever, is o n ly o n e -tw e n ty -fifth th at o f th e U n ite d States o r ap p ro x­ im a te ly th e size o f th e State o f M o n tan a. Jap an has a great v a rie ty o f to p o g rap h ic al features b ecause it has several h ig h v o lcan ic m o u n ta in ran ges ru n n in g th ro u g h th e co un try. A b o u t 67 p ercen t o f Ja p a n ’s lan d area is m o u n tain o u s; a g ric u ltu ra l lan d acco un ts for less th an 2 0 p ercen t, and o n ly 3 p ercen t is suitable for resid en tial use. A n o th e r 10 p ercen t is d evo ted to in d u strial p ro d u ctio n and in frastru cture. Ja p a n ’s p o p u latio n is estim ated to b e 1 2 5 ,6 0 0 ,0 0 0 , and the p o p u latio n d en sity is m o re th an 8 5 0 p ersons p er square m ile. A p p ro x im a te ly 7 0 p ercen t o f th e p o p u latio n lives o n th e strip o f p lain s o n th e P acific coast b e tw e e n th e n o rth e rn p art o f K yush u and H o n sh u , w h e re th e w e a th e r is m ild and w h e re m ajo r cities and in d u stria l facilities are m ost h ig h ly d evelo p ed . In fact, th ree larg e m etro p o litan reg io n s cen tered on T o kyo -Y o ko h am a, N ag o ya, and O sak a-K o b e-K yo to h o ld 45 p ercen t o f th e Jap an ese p o p u latio n . For e x a m p le ,T o k y o has 12 m illio n p eo p le liv in g in an area o f 836 square m iles, and Y o ko h am a has 8 m illio n p eo p le in an area o f 928 square m iles. O saka has 8 .7 m illio n p eo p le in an area o f 72 2 square m iles. T h e u n iq u e feature o f Ja p a n ’s p o p u latio n is h o m o g e n e ity ; 9 9 .4 p ercen t o f th e p o p u latio n are eth n ic Jap an ese, 0.5 p ercen t K oreans, and 0.1 p ercen t C h in ese. T h e K oreans and C h in ese are

Introduction

the descendants of migrant laborers who were brought to Japan at the beginning of the twentieth century and during World War II. They are alien residents of Japan, but a large majority of them have been culturally assimilated into Japanese society and have lost the ability to speak their native language. Japan is a democratic country, but Japanese democracy is not the same as that of the United States. It is influenced by Japan’s tradi­ tional culture and social customs. For example, decision making is not based on open public debate and discussion, but on consesus and intense behind-the-scene negotiations. The Japanese Diet is divided into two houses, the lower house or House of Represen­ tatives and the upper house or House of Councilors. The lower house drafts all laws and amendments, establishes budgets, and ratifies treaties. It also selects the prime minister who, in turn, selects the cabinet ministers. The upper house does not have any real power; it functions only as a check on actions of the lower house. The prime minister is chosen from among the strong leaders of the ruling party through intense negotiations among several factions within the party. Japanese politics has traditionally been controlled by career bureaucrats, not by politicians. Many influential Japanese political leaders are former high government officials. In fact, sev­ eral of the most powerful prime ministers in recent years were for­ mer vice ministers who had served under politician-ministers. Former bureaucrats-turned-politicians have extensive interperson­ al networks in both executive and administrative branches of the government, and they try to perpetuate the bureaucratic domi­ nance. In essence, Japanese politics is k a n r y o s e i j i or “politics by bureaucrats.” Japan has the highest literacy rate in the world because of its excel­ lent educational system. Attainment of this high literacy was facil­ itated by Japan’s homogeneity in language, culture, and ethnicity and by its compact land area. Having only one language is a tremendous advantage for Japan, since there is no need to use other languages in instruction and publication. The central Ministry of Education approves all textbooks, specifies exactly what subjects are to be taught, and distributes a very detailed curriculum for each course for all elementary and junior high schools. All teachers are licensed by the Ministry of Education and are required to teach using the guidelines provided by the ministry. Uniformity, not

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Introduction

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diversity, is en co u rag ed th ro u g h o u t th e Jap an ese ed u catio n al system , alth o u gh a certa in am o u n t o f d iv ersity is allo w ed at u n iv ersity-lev el ed u catio n . A ll Jap an ese ed u c a tio n a l in stitu tio n s are h ie rarc h ic ally ran k ed in q u a lity o f e d u c a tio n and p restige. B ecau se a stu d en t’s success in life is p ra c tic a lly d e te rm in e d b y w h ic h u n iv ersity he grad u ates from , h e devotes h im s e lf to s tu d y in g fro m a v e ry early age so th at h e can get in to th e best and m ost p restig io u s u n iv ersi­ ty. H is fa m ily w ill m ake fin an cial sacrifices to pro vide h im w ith a tu to r o r send h im to a j u k e n j u k u (also called y o b i k o ) o r “ en tran ce e x a m in a tio n p re p arato ry sch o o l” after re g u lar scho o l h o urs for a d d itio n al in stru ctio n . T h e Jap an ese are obsessed w ith g e ttin g in to a p restig io u s u n iv e rsity b ecause it is e x tre m e ly ad van tageo u s fo r th e m to estab lish in tim a te p erso n al relatio n sh ip s am o n g classm ates d u rin g th e ir scho o l years. T h ese p erso n al relatio n sh ip s, called g a k u b a t s u or “ scho o l cliq u es,” are im p o rtan t and p e rm an en t in terp erso n al n e t­ w o rks th at can b e u sed effectively in b o th professional and social situatio n s. W ith o u t th ese, it is v e ry d ifficult for an yo n e to succeed in Jap an ese society. Jap an ese so cie ty fun ctio n s q u ite d ifferen tly fro m W estern societies. It em p hasizes v e rtic a l in te rp e rso n al relatio n sh ip s based o n d ifferin g ranks and status based o n sex, age, ran k , and o ccu p atio n . T ypical Jap an ese in te ra c tio n ten d s to m o ve a lo n g a scale o f respectfulness o r rud en ess ac c o rd in g to th e status each p erson h olds. E xtrem e sen sitiv ity to ra n k o rd er is o ften fo u n d in a list o f co au th o rs or fo un d ers o f a n e w professional asso ciatio n . T h e list u su ally in clu d es a sen ten ce th at says A iu e o j u n or “ T h e o rd er o f n am es is alp h ab et­ ic a l” o r J u n j o f u d o or “N o o rd er im p lie d .” T h ese statem en ts are to avoid o ffen d in g an yo n e o n th e list b y w ro n g p lacem en t o f nam es and to avoid h a v in g th e readers in te rp re t th e list as a h ierarch ical order. For th e sam e reason, it is a c o m m o n p ractice to o m it all titles o f h o n o r in a list o f nam es. In this case, th e list m ust have a state­ m en t th at says K e i s h o s h o r y a k u o r “ T itles o f h o n o r are o m itted .” R e s p e c t for status is also sh ow n b y u sin g titles o f h o n o r such as s e n ­ s e i (teach er), s h a c h o (p resid en t), o r k a ich o (ch airm an ) in stead o f co m m o n h o n o rifics such as M r., M rs., o r M iss. In som e instances, th e p erso n ’s professional title alo n e is in te n tio n a lly used w ith o u t his o r h e r nam e.

Introduction

Situational ethics is an important concept in understand­ ing the ethical principles of the Japanese. Unlike the Western ethics of universal ethical principles based on Christianity, Japanese ethi­ cal principles are flexible and situational. Basically, the Japanese concept of ethics comes from the Confucian philosophy of filial piety and the Buddhist compassion toward all living beings. It also comes from the idea that both cosmic and human worlds have the division of yan and yin (good and evil, day and night, lightness and darkness, male and female). Since these two opposing forces alter­ nate with and balance each other, there is no strict good and bad or black and white dichotomy. Therefore, the Japanese believe that ethics and morality should be judged relative to social situations. Social control in Japanese society takes unique forms. H a ji or “shame before the judgment of society” is the strongest form of social control, and every Japanese is always worried about g a i b u n or “what others talk about.” For example, a Japanese mother would scold her child who did not study hard and failed a college entrance examination by saying, “I am so ashamed that you failed the examination. What do you think our relatives, neighbors, and friends will say about you!” The child is made to understand that this failure brings shame to him, every member of his family, his relatives, and even to his teachers and tutors. In extreme cases, stu­ dents have been known to commit suicide to end the agony of being branded a shameful failure. Two other common social sanc­ tions are b a c h i or “heaven’s punishment” and i n ’n e n or “karma.”The Japanese often say that heaven watches over the deeds of human beings, and it will punish one who commits evil deeds. Many Japanese also believe in the Buddhist concept of karma based on the cosmic principle of rewards and punishments for the acts per­ formed in a previous incarnation. For example, the evil deed done by an ancestor will cause deformity or a strange disease on his descendants a few generations later. In contrast, the good deed done by another ancestor will provide a very happy family life for his great-grandchildren. Westerners may dismiss these matters as superstitions, but many Japanese go to a Shinto shrine or a Buddhist temple to have a priest perform a special service to get rid of their b a c h i or bad karma. Exchanging personal favors is also an important aspect of social relationships in Japan. Recipients of favors should feel a strong sense of o n or “debt of gratitude” to those who provide

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Introduction

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favors. O n a c tu a lly refers to a “ social c re d it” fro m th e g iv e r’s p o in t o f v ie w and to a “ social d e b t” fro m th e re c e iv e r’s p o in t o f view . For e x am p le, a professor w h o ta u g h t a stud en t and also fo u n d h im a g o o d jo b has e arn e d h im s e lf “ social cred it.” O n th e o th er h an d, the stud en t ow es th e professor “ social d e b t” for th e favors th at h e has receiv ed . O n is q u ite d ifferent fro m th e W estern co n cep t o f sim p ly p a y in g b a c k a favor, since Jap an ese o n is an “u n lim ite d deb t o f g ra t­ itu d e ” th at c an n o t b e e asily rep aid . O n jin o r a “b e n e fac to r” expects rep aym en t o f this social d eb t for m any, m a n y years. In fact, g iv in g o n to m a n y p eo p le can b e a “ social in vestm en t.” In contrast, re c e iv ­ in g o n can m e a n a loss o f freed o m for th e rec ip ie n t, and h e m ay be b u rd en ed w ith it.T h is fe e lin g is expressed as g i r i o r “ sense o f o b lig ­ atio n .” T h is p a rtic u la r Jap an ese so cial cu sto m req u ires th at o n receiv ers rep ay th e ir debts o ut o f th e sense o f g ir i. O n e w h o fails to do so w ill be c alled o n -s h ir a z u o r “u n aw are o f so cial d e b t” or “u n g ra te fu l” and o stracized b y th e society. A stute Jap an ese p o liti­ cians and b u sin essm en o ften e x p lo it this o n - g ir i k a n k ei o r “ cred ito rd eb to r re la tio n sh ip ” to o b tain favors and p erso n al gains. A s ex p la in e d above, Ja p a n has a u n iq u e h isto ry and geo grap h y, a h o m o g e n e o u s p o p u latio n , d ifferent p o litic al and ed u catio n al sys­ tem s, and a h ie ra rc h ic a lly stru ctu red so ciety and cu ltu re w ith c o m ­ p le x ru les for in te rp e rso n al relatio n sh ip s. A g o o d u n d erstan d in g o f these factors is ab so lu tely n ecessary fo r W estern b u sin essp eo p le in d o in g business w ith Ja p a n .T h is b o o k provides a g u id e fo r th e b u si­ n essperson, co v e rin g such im p o rtan t to p ics as b a rrie rs to in te rc u l­ tu ral business c o m m u n ic a tio n , th e n atu re o f Jap an ese business o rgan izatio n s, estab lish in g and m a in ta in in g business relatio n s, in te r­ p erso n al c o m m u n ic a tio n and sales p resen tatio n , co n tract n e g o tia ­ tio n , d ecisio n m a k in g , p u b lic sp ea k in g an d p resen tation s, w o rk in g for overseas Jap an ese m u ltin a tio n a l co m p an ies, and liv in g and w o rk in g in Jap an .

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Barriers to Intercultural Business Communication

wo major barriers to effective intercultural communication are differences in language and in culture. Unless both participants are truly bilingual and bicultural, they will find communication very difficult and sometimes frustrating. One of the parties in an intercultural communication is usually forced to speak a foreign language. If the foreign language ability of that party is less than adequate, he or she will be handicapped. In most instances, it is the Japanese participant who must cope with this handicap because English, not Japanese, is the most common language of interna­ tional business. Serious difficulty expressing himself in English will become a barrier to communication. In addition, if he is not famil­ iar with other cultures, he will routinely use his own Japanese cul­ ture as the basis of perception and understanding. Americans routinely complain about certain Japanese communication habits: (1) The Japanese are so polite and so cau­ tious that you never know what they are thinking. They do not say anything and keep on nodding smilingly as if they are agreeing, even when they have doubts and disagreements. (2) The Japanese use vague words and ambiguous expressions and expect others to draw conclusions. (3) The Japanese are too formal and seem to always weigh the meaning of this or that. (4) The Japanese are notoriously slow in making decisions and always avoid making quick and spontaneous decisions. (5) The Japanese are always apol­ ogizing, even when there seems to be nothing to apologize for. (6) The Japanese use silence when they wish to avoid a direct answer.1

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These distinctively Japanese communication behaviors have apparently been influenced by the nature of the Japanese lan­ guage, by common Japanese communication habits in interperson­ al communication interactions, and by such Japanese cultural vari­ ables as beliefs, values, attitudes, self-perception, social organization, nonverbal gestures and postures, use of space, and concept of time. To eliminate barriers of communication with the Japanese, it is absolutely necessary to understand these important linguistic and cultural variables.

Linguistic Barriers to Communication 10

Japanese is considered one of the most complicated languages. It has three different ways of writing: k a n ji (Chinese characters), h ir a g a n a (alphabet), and k a ta k a n a (a different alphabet). The Japanese must learn to read and write more than 3,000 k a n ji characters and their combinations, h ir a g a n a , and k a ta k a n a as well. And because the Japanese language does not belong to the Indo-European family of languages, its pronunciation and syntax are quite different from those of Western languages. Thousands of English loan words are also included in Japanese vocabulary, but the pronunciation of these words is radically modified in accordance with the unique Japanese phonetic system. Language is a self-contained system and the most appro­ priate expression of the culture in which it is used. Every language has its own unique vocabulary, idioms, and cultural expressions.

The Nature of Japanese Language Japanese language has only five vowels and seventeen consonant phonemes. The vowels are either short or long. Every consonant, except one [n], is always followed by one of the five vowels.Accent and intonation patterns are very different from those in English. The basic sentence structure of a sentence is subject-object-verb. For example, “This is a dictionary” is arranged “This ( K o r e ) dictio­ nary ( jis h o ) is ( d e s u ) .” Noun-verb agreement is not important,

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because the same verb form, d e s u , can be used for singular or plur­ al objects. Quite often the subject is dropped as it is in Spanish. In addition, there are no equivalents of the English articles “a” and “the” in Japanese. Because of these differences, Japanese when speaking in English mispronounce certain words and make grammatical mis­ takes. Native speakers of Japanese cannot distinguish between [l] and [r] sounds when hearing them. For example, they cannot tell the difference between these two sounds in the pairs of words such as “light” and “right,” “club” and “crab,” and “lice” and “rice” when they hear them. And when they speak, they usually substitute English [l] and [r] with the Japanese [r] or “flapped r,” which sounds somewhere between [r] and [l]. Other sounds that do not exist in Japanese are consonant sounds such as [f] (as in fox), [v] (as in vase), [th] (as in that), [sh] (as in ship), [ch] (as in chart), [wh] (as in where), and vowel sounds such as [a] (as in cat), [a] (as in sun), [o] (as in ought), and [e] as in egg). Because the Japanese language does not have consonant clusters as English does, the word “street” may be pronounced as “sutoriito” with a vowel after each consonant. The Japanese may also omit articles, ignore noun-verb agreement, and fail to use proper English accent and intonation. Unfortunately, Japanese-accented English with grammatical mis­ takes can become a serious barrier to communication. Another important feature of the Japanese language is that it is extremely status-oriented because Japan is a hierarchical soci­ ety. For example, there are several different pronouns for “you” in Japanese: s o c h ir a , o ta k u , a n a ta , k im i, o m a e , and t e m e in order of polite­ ness. The most common pronoun, a n a ta , can never be used when talking to a person of higher status.Verb usage is also influenced by relative social status. For example, the English word “come” can be translated as o m i e n i n a r im a s u , o i d e n i n a r im a s u , ir r a s s h a im a s u , k im a s u , or k u ru . Every Japanese is expected to know how he or she should speak depending on the situation. Americans from an egalitarian society will be confused and frustrated if they have to learn and speak in Japanese according to these rules. Still one more source of confusion in Japanese-American communication is how questions are answered. In the Japanese lan­ guage, it is grammatically correct to say “Yes, I don’t agree with you” in response to the question “You don’t agree with me, do you?” This problem of communication is often amplified by the habitual use of h a i or “yes.” Japanese frequently say H a i, w a k a r i-

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or “Yes, I understand” when they hear something being said, but this may simply mean “Yes, I hear what you are saying.” It may not necessarily mean “Yes. I agree with you.” In many instances, Japanese may unconsciously transfer this particular Japanese communication habit into situations when they are speaking in English. This leads to the common complaint by American businesspeople that the Japanese frequently say “yes” when they mean “no.” Imai explains that it is not in the Japanese tradition to “call a spade a spade.”The most typical way that the Japanese imply “no” is to say “yes” and then to follow this with an explanation that may last half an hour. They use window-dressing interjections such as “But of course,” “By all means,” or “Quite right” in the affirmative tone. The second way is to be so vague, ambiguous, and evasive in reply that the other side loses track of what the issue was. The third way is simply not to answer the question and to leave the matter unattended. Other ways of implying “no” include abruptly chang­ ing the subject, criticizing the other party, or suddenly assuming a highly apologetic tone.2 To achieve successful communication, both the Japanese and their English-speaking counterparts need to understand whose cultural interpretation is being used when they try to interpret each other’s message. m a s h ita

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Common Japanese Habits in Interpersonal Communication Interactions In Western cultures, a conversation or dialogue involves two peo­ ple, a speaker and a listener, who exchange words like balls in a Ping-Pong game. But the Japanese do not carry on a conversation in this way; they are not expected “to produce a conversation joint­ ly.” More specifically, they give each other a i z u c h i or “agreeable responses” that make a conversation go smoothly. These responses are h a i (yes), e e (yes: informal), h a a (yes: formal), s o (that’s right), s o - d a (that’s it, that’s it exactly), and n a r u h o d o n e e (indeed). A i z u c h i also includes nonverbal affirmative responses like nodding and smiling. The giving of this a i z u c h i , however, does not mean that the listener really understands or agrees with the content of an utter­ ance. It simply means “Yes, I am listening to what you are saying. Please go on.”3 This habitual use of a i z u c h i by the Japanese can

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cause certain communication problems when they are speaking in English. For example, an American businessman, Mr. Smith, is talk­ ing about a business deal to be consummated with his Japanese counterpart, Mr. Kato.Their dialogue may go as follows: Smith: “Regarding the proposed contract . . . ” Kato:

“Yes, ye s.. . ”

Smith: “You don’t see any problems . . . ” Kato:

“That’s right . . . ”

Smith: “All the terms and conditions . . . ” Kato:

“Yes, indeed . . . ”

Smith: “Then, can we sign it this morning, and . . . “ Kato:

“Yes, but big problems, you know .. .”

Smith: “I thought you were saying that everything was okay! What do you mean you have problems now?” Mr. Smith was first annoyed by interruptions by Mr. Kato, then he misunderstood those seemingly affirmative responses, and finally, he became upset when he found out that those “yeses” were simply a i z u c h i or mere recognition of what was being said. For Mr. Kato, however, this was a normal pattern of dialogue. Since the Japanese are extremely concerned about inter­ personal harmony and protection of each other’s “face” in face-toface encounters, they use a variety of ingenious tactics of interper­ sonal communication. Some of these tactics are “anticipatory communication,” “self-communication,” “understatement,” and “acting as delegate.”4 “Anticipatory communication” is a commu­ nication tactic in which the speaker expects the listener or the third party to anticipate his wish, without having to ask for what he wants. The listener is expected to guess and accommodate the speaker’s needs, sparing him of any possible embarrassment. For example, when a nearly bankrupt businessman is visiting a bank loan officer, he does not ask for a loan directly but talks about the severe worldwide recession. He will walk away empty-handed unless the loan officer volunteers to help him with a loan. Thus, both of them can spare embarrassment and loss of face.

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In “self-communication,” the speaker mumbles something to himself, expecting others around him to hear what he has said. The listeners, then, either acknowledge it or pretend they did not hear anything. Unless someone is willing to recognize his message and help him, the speaker can deny that he said anything. For example, the speaker mumbles loud enough, “This room is too cold,” instead of asking someone to adjust the thermostat. “Understatement” is a device to avoid making an assertive and irreversible statement. The Japanese language allows subtle and open-ended understatements because syntactically it is not neces­ sary to state the subject, and the verb of negation or affirmation comes at the end of a sentence. For example, a Japanese business­ man can say, “This breach of contract . . . , ” and stop and wait for a listener’s reaction before going on to complete his statement after hearing the listener’s reaction. If the listener becomes very angry, he might say,“I agree with you.This breach of contract is a serious matter and we should address it immediately.” But if the listener does not seem too upset, he could change his conclusion and say, “I thought it wouldn’t be a major problem with you.” “Acting as delegate” is another common tactic in which the speaker conveys his own message as being that of someone else. He would say,“I personally don’t care, but my supervisor will never allow this,” when his supervisor is not concerned about it all.

Cultural Barriers to Effective Communication Culture is the software of the human mind that provides an oper­ ating environment for human behavior, and all members within the same environment share important characteristics of the culture.5 Every human being acquires his culture through years of socializa­ tion processes from family members, other members of society, and the mass media. Culture will have a strong influence on the indi­ vidual’s perception, communication behavior, and physical activities. The culture teaches appropriate ways of living and of interacting with others. Cultural knowledge includes experiences, beliefs, val­ ues, attitudes, meanings, hierarchies, religion, self-concept, role expectations, use of space, concept of time, and material objects.

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In business communication, for example, Japanese business­ men use standards of Japanese business ethics, Japanese business practices and conventions, Japanese social and cultural values, stereotypical images of foreign businessmen, and secondhand infor­ mation on how business is done in certain foreign countries.6 To overcome cultural barriers of communication with the Japanese, Westerners need to understand several critical Japanese cultural variables and their relationship to intercultural communication.

World View and Patterns of Thought The way people view their own physical and spiritual world is a function of their culture. The traditional Japanese view of the world, that a person must maintain a harmonious relationship with nature, is derived from both Shinto and Buddhist beliefs.The world is spiritual and organic, and it operates in a mystically ordered and spiritually conceivable manner. All living things such as animals, fishes, insects, trees, and plants, and inanimate objects such as mountains, rivers, rocks, earth, rivers, lakes, and oceans have spirits. Despite recent modernization and technological advancements in Japan, this world view has not been changed drastically. The Japanese are still superstitious and try to maintain harmony with spiritual and supernatural forces. The ordinary Japanese household has k a m id a n a (small Shinto shrine) for its guardian gods and b u t s u d a n (small Buddhist altar) for the family’s ancestors. It is common for a modern sky­ scraper to have a Shinto shrine for the god of its building site on the rooftop or in a rock garden. Before leveling off a mountain for highway construction, a Japanese construction company will ask a Shinto priest to hold a special prayer service and dedicate offerings to appease the spirit of the mountain. Medical schools hold a monthly d o b u t s u k u y o (Buddhist funeral service for animals) to comfort the souls of the experimental animals sacrificed in the pre­ ceding month. This service is attended by members of the faculty and the research staff. Many Japanese still plan certain events or activities based on old superstitions. Days designated by the old Chinese calendar for happy events and for unhappy events are still observed. For example, to m o b ik i and t a ia n are good days for weddings, signing

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contracts, ground-breaking ceremonies or dedicating a new build­ ing. B u t s u m e t s u is a very bad day for such happy events, but it is a suitable day for a funeral. Four and nine are bad numbers because their pronunciations in Japanese, s h i and k u , are homonyms for “death” and “suffering.”Japanese hospitals do not have Room 4 or Room 9.The lucky numbers are three, five, and seven, and gifts are given in these odd numbers.

Concept of Self and Role Expectations

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The Japanese person is concerned about himself primarily in his relationship to his group because his group affiliations are extreme­ ly important in Japanese culture. Every Japanese must also learn his “proper place” in a social group, institution, or society as a whole. His self-identify is not an individual identity separate from his fam­ ily, relatives, school or workplace, or society; rather, it is the fraction that he is allowed to occupy as a member of these groups he belongs to. He is expected to play a specific role or roles according to his prescribed social and occupational positions. A father is expected to work diligently as the breadwinner. A mother is expected to become a full-time homemaker and to devote herself to the housework and caring for her husband and children instead of becoming a career woman. In Japanese society, one’s proper position or status is deter­ mined by one’s position in a hierarchical structure. The Japanese differentiate ranks of s e m p a i (senior) and k o h a i (junior) by the slightest difference in age, graduation time, the time of entry into a company, and so on. S e m p a i is expected to take care of k o h a i, and in turn, k o h a i must respect s e m p a i and be willing to do anything for him. For example, in a high school tennis practice, a junior player always acts as ball boy (or water boy) and watches a senior’s play. He may not be allowed to play in a tournament, even if he is bet­ ter than the senior player.

Ethnocentrism and Nationalistic Mentality Ethnocentrism is the tendency to evaluate other ethnic groups by using one’s own group and culture as the standard for all judg­

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ments. The members of a certain ethnic group consider themselves superior to others because they believe that they are the best and that their ways are the only correct ways. Ethnocentrism comes from the feeling of superiority and blind belief in their own racial characteristics and their political system, politics, economic system, education system, religion, morality, and social customs.7 The Japanese have a very strong ethnocentric attitude.They believe that their culture is unique and superior to that of other countries, even though they have borrowed so much from other cultures. They feel that they are of a superior race despite the fact that their ancestors came from China, Korea, Mongolia, the Malay Peninsula, and other Asian countries. They are extremely national­ istic when it comes to doing business with foreigners. For Japanese politicians and businessmen, national interests have always been the highest priority in diplomacy and in international trade. They tend to see “appropriateness” or “fairness” of their actions only from the standpoint of Japan’s own national interests. They are very slow in responding to g a i a t s u or “foreign pressure,” especially on trade issues, if it will hurt any of the important domestic industries. Americans are even more ethnocentric because they know that the United States has been the major economic and military superpower of the world. They also firmly believe that American democratic ideals and social values are superior to those of other countries. Many American political leaders still seem to believe rather naively that “Americanization” is the key to solving all inter­ national conflicts, whatever they may be. In Japan-U.S. trade rela­ tions, Americans have been urging the Japanese “not to behave like Japanese any more” but follow American ways. For example, Malcolm Baldrige, former secretary of the U.S. Department of Commerce, declared that “because ‘cultural traditions’ were a major cause of their bilateral trade surplus, they simply have to be changed. . . . Japan now has the second largest economy in the free world.”8 For American politicians,“Japan bashing” was an effective way to gain votes from American constituents who were threatened by the so-called Japanese economic invasion of the late 1980s.

Differences in Cultural Values All cultures have traditional values or frames of reference that pro­ vide people with a set of rules or norms. Cultural values have

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become the basis upon which people judge their own behavior and the behavior of others. These values define what is good and bad, true and false, positive and negative.When people holding dif­ ferent cultural values try to communicate with each other, the dif­ ferences in value orientations can cause inaccurate judgments and serious breakdowns in communication. Desirable values in one culture can be negative values in another. To minimize possible communication breakdowns, all contrasting cultural values should be analyzed and explained. Several important contrasting Japanese and American cultural values are as follows:

Hierarchy vs. Egalitarianism 18

The Japanese have a strong desire to know each other’s relative social status by age, time of graduation, the year of entering a com­ pany, and the rank of institutions with which a person is affiliated. They need to recognize the ranks along a vertical social scale before they can freely engage in interpersonal communication. W hen they meet for the first time, they routinely ask direct or indirect questions to obtain status-related information. Then, they will choose proper forms of address and the appropriate level of polite language. In contrast, Americans have a strong tendency to dismiss status differences and talk to one another on equal terms. Americans feel more comfortable in calling each other by their first names. Japanese, however, feel uncomfortable if they are addressed by their first name.

Group Orientation vs. Individualism Japan is a group-oriented society in which every person belongs to a group or groups. His affiliation with a certain group gives him a social identity, support, and protection. If he wishes to succeed in life, he is expected to live and work as a group member, not as an independent individual. The Japanese are conditioned to act together from a very early age. Preschool children engage in group play, and school children study and play sports in groups and trav­ el in groups with their classmates. In high school and in college, students join clubs and circles to nurture group spirit and com­ radeship. W hen they graduate and join a work group, they are expected to follow the wishes of that group. The legendary “rugged individualism” of American culture is not only unaccept­

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able, but is regarded as “egotistic” and “selfish” in the Japanese cul­ tural context.

Harmony vs. Aggressiveness Harmony (w a ) is one of the most important Japanese cultural val­ ues. The Japanese believe that harmonious interpersonal relation­ ships should be maintained at all costs. They avoid displaying overt aggressiveness or disruptive attitudes in public. Interpersonal con­ flicts or confrontations are embarrassing to them. In contrast, Americans generally accept aggression as fun and constructive, and they often take an aggressive give-and-take as a kind of game.

Conformity vs. Defiance The stress on harmony and consensus generates social pressures for conformity on the Japanese. From an early age, Japanese children are not only conditioned to conform to the hierarchical pressures from their family members, teachers, and school administrators, but also to the horizontal pressures of their schoolmates. W hen they become adults and join work groups, they are again pressured to conform to group norms. Because the sense of their identity is anchored in group affiliation, they suppress their desire to be dif­ ferent or conspicuous in order to avoid being rejected. Consequently, they generally choose conformity rather than defi­ ance whenever they are forced to make individual choices, and they will refrain from expressing disagreement with whatever appears to be the majority’s opinion. This self-restraint is called e n r y o , which is considered an important social virtue frequently displayed in social interactions by the Japanese.9 To the Japanese, social conformity is not a sign of being a weak-willed yes-man, but the product of inner strength and self-discipline.10

Emotionalism vs. Rationality The Japanese are generally more emotional and subjective than Americans in their interactions with other people. They make important decisions based on emotions and subjective judgment of people and situations rather than on objective data and informa­ tion. For example, instead of trying to get the best price through open bidding, a Japanese businessman may decide to continue a

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business relationship with a supplier only because he is an old friend. In fact, many Japanese companies maintain business rela­ tionships based on emotional ties between old friends and associ­ ates rather than on purely rational and objective contractual ties. On the other hand, American businessmen tend to be more ratio­ nal and calculating in their business dealings with each other, even though some Americans may behave like Japanese. Americans are much more willing to separate business from friendship when they need to make a choice.

Face-saving vs. Pragmatism

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Face-saving is extremely important for every Japanese. Japanese government leaders, businessmen, educators, family heads, and even gangsters take certain actions just to save face. Japanese diplo­ mats have often been criticized for engaging in geisha diplomacy or h a p p o b ijin g a i k o or “looking-beautiful-for-everyone diplomacy.” For example, former prime minister Yasuhiro Nakasone went to Baghdad on an unofficial mission and used “friendly persuasion” on Saddam Hussein to try to get him to withdraw his troops from Kuwait. Subsequently, the Japanese government donated $13 bil­ lion to the United States to support the GulfWar. It seemed that the government sent him as an “unofficial emissary” to make Japan look good in the eyes of the Arab world, but Japan also took sides with the Western nations by providing a financial contribution. A food caterer in Nagoya will use a Toyota van to deliver lunches to a Toyota car dealer and a Nissan pickup truck to make the delivery to a Nissan dealership. Sensitivity to “face” can be illustrated with several com­ monly used expressions: k a o n i d o r o w o n u r u (having face smeared with mud); k a o w o t s u b u s h u (having face crushed); k a o g a t a ta n a i (face not honored); k a o g a k ik u (having an effective face); k a o g a h ir o i (having a widely recognized face). For example, when a col­ lege student obtains a good job through the influence of his pro­ fessor, he cannot resign from this position because he would be smearing the professor’s face with mud. Or a daughter may go through an arranged marriage and stay in an unhappy marriage in order not to dishonor the face of the go-between who happens to be her father’s immediate superior. In many instances, the Japanese are not pragmatic and realistic when it comes to face-saving.

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Conservatism vs. Social Mobility The Japanese are far more conservative and concerned with main­ taining the status quo than Americans are. They are more reluctant to make any changes that may disrupt harmonious interpersonal relationships, although they are more willing to adopt technologi­ cal changes. For example, when a Japanese company purchases new machine tools, it may hire a few young and competent engineers to assist the older managers who are no longer productive instead of simply laying off the older managers. New high school and college graduates expect to work for the same company for their entire working life. They will not look for better-paying jobs with another company because they prefer job security to the challenge of a new opportunity. Intercompany mobility is discouraged, and most Japanese companies are not w ill­ ing to hire midcareer transferees from other companies. The Japanese still respect and retain old social customs and rituals that Western observers consider no longer necessary. For example, Japanese businessmen send n e n g a j o (new year’s greeting cards) to their important clients and also make a courtesy call to thank them for the past year’s patronage and ask for their continued patronage in the new year. Japanese businesses buy talismans and other lucky charms from certain Shinto shrines that are believed to bring good luck and abundance of profits when they could use computer simulations to make more-accu­ rate forecasts.

Acquiescence vs. Rejection of Authority Since the Japanese have lived in a hierarchical society for centuries, they are conditioned to acquiesce to pressures from authority. In the feudal days of the Tokugawa era, farmers and commoners had to unconditionally obey samurai lords because defiance meant instant death. At the time of the M eiji Restoration of 1868, and again immediately after Japan’s defeat in World War II, the Japanese government and its bureaucrats took control and guided industries in rebuilding Japan. Even today, government bureaucrats and school authorities still retain their traditional power over the daily lives of Japanese citizens. Ordinary Japanese do not even dream of rejecting these authorities.This submissive behavior of the Japanese derives from the ancient Confucius teaching and traditional hier­

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archical relationships between government officials and average citizens. A Japanese citizen knows that any overt defiance or action against authority will result in official or “unofficial” punishments. If a disgruntled parent openly protests a school authority’s han­ dling of his son, the school will make it extremely unpleasant for the son to stay on. Suddenly, the child may lose all his good friends and teachers’ support, no matter how legitimate the parent’s com­ plaint might have been. In many such cases, this child will suffer from i ji m e (cruel bullying) from his classmates and even from teachers.11 Acquiescence indeed makes things go smoothly in Japan because rejection of authority can cause unpleasant conse­ quences. In short, deference to authority is an important value in Japanese culture. 22

Differences in Nonverbal Communication Behavior It is a commonly held misconception that if people cannot com­ municate with foreigners through spoken language, they should resort to gestures and body language. Most people undoubtedly believe that nonverbal behaviors are the same or at least very sim­ ilar across cultures, but this is an erroneous assumption. Many non­ verbal behaviors from different cultures carry different meanings. In fact, certain Japanese facial expressions, gestures, and body movements communicate entirely different meanings and cause misunderstandings. The following explanations deal with specific differences in nonverbal behaviors of Japanese and Americans:

Facial Expressions The so-called Japanese smile has often been a subject of discussion among Western businesspeople. Westerners generally interpret laughing and smiling as signs of happiness, joy, or agreement, but the Japanese may also “smile” when they feel embarrassed and “laugh” when they want to hide their anger. For example, when a Japanese salesclerk makes a mistake, she may “smilingly” apologize to a customer. A Japanese businessman may “laugh it off” when he smashes his new Mercedes Benz in a traffic accident, even though he really feels very angry with himself. Or a Japanese buyer may

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say,“I just cannot do business with you this time,” with a big smile and offer no further explanation. In similar situations, an American salesperson will have a “long face” as she apologizes. A very irate American motorist may show his anger openly by shouting obscene words. An American buyer will look at his business associate and, without a smile, explain why he cannot do business with him this time. The Japanese do not show “honest facial expressions” because Japanese culture emphasizes self-control over the public display of emotions. They even show “put-on smiles” for public display when they are not in a happy mood. Indeed, it is easy for Westerners to misinterpret the Japanese “smile” and “laughter” as insincere, dishonest, or even mocking.The myth of the “inscrutable Japanese” no doubt has its roots in these misinterpretations. A pop­ ular Japanese management consultant advises,“Never take ‘yes’ for an answer. Don’t take a smile for ‘yes,’ when doing business with the Japanese.”12

Eye Contact There is a bit of a “culture clash” between Japanese and Americans in interpretation of eye contact. In the dominant white-American culture, sustained direct eye contact usually means interest, honesty, sincerity, and positive attitude. The avoidance of eye contact or shifting of the eyes usually means lack of interest, dishonesty, sly­ ness, and negative attitude. In Japanese culture, however, direct eye contact means aggression, rudeness, insistence of equality, and even belligerence. For example, a Japanese college student shows respect by not looking at the eyes of his professor. In contrast, an American student maintains good eye contact with his professor for the same reason. A Japanese businessman frequently shifts his eyes during a difficult negotiation session because he feels that sustained eye con­ tact might be overbearing and rude. But this shifting of the eyes may well be interpreted by his American business associate as an indication of dishonesty or disinterest. A Japanese teenager who looks his father in the eye while being scolded will be punished more severely, because the direct eye contact with his father means that he is being belligerent and disrespectful. In contrast, an American parent insists that his teenage son look him in the eye. This is an extension of the Western belief that one cannot tell a lie while looking directly at an authority figure.

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Gestures, Body Movement, and Postures

24

Several frequently used Japanese gestures carry different meanings in other cultures.The hand gesture of beckoning with an open hand with a palm down means “come here” in Japan, but it is similar to the American gesture of “good-bye.” Pointing at the nose with the index finger means “me,” in Japan, but it may be simply “nose” in American culture. Moving the open hand back and forth in front of the face as if fanning means “no” or “no, thank you” in Japan.To Americans, it may look like chasing bugs or fanning one’s face. The Japanese tend to move about quickly, with short strides and drooping shoulders. To Americans, who tend to walk in longer strikes and with a more upright posture, the Japanese may appear insecure and unmotivated. The Japanese low posture ( t e i s h i s e i ) is perhaps the most confusing of all Japanese nonverbal behaviors. A t a m a g a h ik u i or “one’s head is low” posture is a desirable demonstration of humil­ ity frequently displayed in public by the Japanese, especially when they are greeting a person of higher status. To Westerners, this low posture looks like a sign of weakness or lack of confidence rather than deference.

Physical Appearance and Attire Even though young Japanese are getting taller, the Japanese are generally much shorter than Westerners. The stereotype of a typi­ cal Japanese businessman wearing a dark blue or gray striped suit, a white shirt, an expensive brand-name tie, and a Swiss watch and carrying a Canon camera is not entirely without substance. Although many American companies have somewhat casual dress policies, Japanese business attire continues to be formal and status oriented. The Japanese are also inclined to show off their profes­ sional status or wealth with objects that they wear. A top Japanese executive might wear a gold Rolex watch; Dunhill necktie pin, cufflinks, and belt buckle; tailor-made Armani suit; Ferragamo shoes; and Christian Dior gold-rim glasses while showing off his Cartier gold ball-point pen. The Japanese always pay close attention to what every per­ son is wearing, especially when they meet a group of people for the first time. A businessman with badly coordinated attire cannot create a favorable first impression.When dealing with the Japanese,

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Western businesspeople need to remember that wearing casual or sporty attire may create an unfavorable impression.

Interpersonal Space Every culture prescribes how people should use and organize space between people. It also assigns meanings to various personal dis­ tances. Every individual learns the appropriate interpersonal dis­ tance defined by his culture for each of a variety of social interac­ tions. He will feel uncomfortable or threatened when his space is violated, even unintentionally. Although there are no research findings on social distances for Japanese people, it appears that the Japanese, especially those who live and work in overcrowded urban centers, cannot maintain personal distances that Westerners consider desirable. Not only have the Japanese learned to maximize the use of small physical spaces, but they have also learned to use nonverbal cues such as changing their posture or body position and avoiding eye contact to compensate for the discomfort caused by smaller personal terri­ tories. Bowing distance is wider than hand-shaking distance, but when they bow to each other in a small space, they stand sideways to avoid bumping heads. In a very crowded train packed with commuters, Japanese men cross their arms in front and women hold up their handbags or shopping bags between themselves and strangers.To avoid eye contact, they try to stand shoulder to shoul­ der and never face each other. The Japanese rarely apologize to each other when they bump into or step on each other in a crowd­ ed train. Perhaps they do not want to recognize others’ presence by acknowledging the unintended mishaps. In a very busy restaurant, total strangers are routinely seated face to face at the same table with their consent. This sharing of a table is called a is ek i. Since Japanese are used to living in crowded conditions, they can toler­ ate this invasion of personal space with little difficulty.

Arrangement of Furniture and Personal Space The arrangement of furniture in an office or a home also deter­ mines interpersonal space between people who use them. A typi­ cal Japanese office is cluttered with many small desks in several rows. Each desk has a telephone, a small desktop computer, and a

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file tray. There are no partitions in front and between these desks. Office workers sit on both sides facing each other. A section chief occupies a slightly larger desk in one corner of the open room. From his desk, he can oversee what is going on in the office. He may have a small upholstered chair and a coffee table next to his desk. In this office layout, telephone conversations and other com­ munication can easily be shared among co-workers sitting nearby, and the manager can also monitor whatever business matters are being handled. He may even volunteer to assist his subordinates, if he feels that he should step in. Because of this arrangement of physical space, interpersonal communication among Japanese co­ workers and supervisors is instantaneous and involuntary at times. Because of its lack of privacy, Westerners, especially individualistic Americans, might find this Japanese office arrangement very uncomfortable and annoying. The seating arrangement at a conference table is another important aspect of Japanese corporate culture because it deter­ mines proper personal distances between participants. The seating arrangement represents the hierarchical structure or status relation­ ships of all members who are present. For example, the highestranking person sits at the head of the conference table; those of lower status sit away from him in a descending order.Violation of this protocol of seating will create uneasiness and discomfort among the Japanese participants attending a conference.

Tactile Communication Touching is one of the most sensitive of all forms of communica­ tion in interpersonal interactions. In Western culture, commonly used forms of tactile communication are patting, slapping, punch­ ing, pinching, stroking, shaking, kissing, holding, embracing, groom­ ing, and tickling.The rules of touching in Japanese culture are quite different, and the same forms may have different meanings. Touching is the first form of communication that humans experience. Parents express affection to newborn babies by cud­ dling, patting, feeling, nuzzling, and kissing. Soon the babies begin to imitate their parents; and by the time they reach adulthood, they will have acquired a wide range of tactile communication behav­ ior. In every culture, new members are being taught a large num­

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ber of specific methods of tactile communication that are consid­ ered appropriate in various social contexts. Japanese mothers tend to have more frequent and intimate body contact with their infants than do Western mothers. They still breast-feed for several months, and mothers and infants sleep in the same bedroom until the babies are a year old. They also co-bathe in the deep Japanese-style bath­ tub (fu r o ) at home. Thus, Japanese mothers and infants share the pleasures of nursing and bathing, and they communicate affection to each other through body contact rather than through verbal means.13 A mother also carries her baby on her back when doing house chores and when shopping. As the children grow older, Japanese parents have much less tactile communication with their children. Japanese teenagers avoid being “babied” (touched) by their parents in public. Japanese teenage boys, especially, feel very embarrassed if their mothers touch them in front of their friends because they are expected to show independence or manliness at an earlier age than teenage girls. Japanese parents do not show affection by hugging and kiss­ ing in front of their children, and even Japanese honeymooners hesitate to hug and kiss in public. One aspect of Japanese tactile communication that often confounds Weterners is that young Japanese women often hold hands and walk around. They even go to discos and dance togeth­ er. Male students and young adults may also walk together, arms around each other’s shoulders. This form of tactile communication by the Japanese makes Americans uncomfortable, as this behavior is often associated with homosexuality in Western culture. Social kissing, a common means of American tactile com­ munication, is still embarrassing to the Japanese. It is interesting to see Japanese visitors to Hawai‘i who look embarrassed and blush upon receiving kisses and hugs given by lei greeters at Hawaiian hula shows.To many Japanese men, the gesture signals “erotic intimacy.” Shaking hands, another common method of greeting in Western countries, has been adopted by the Japanese in recent years. However, their handshakes have been modified by the Japanese custom of bowing. Japanese people have a strong tenden­ cy to shake hands and bow at the same time, thereby failing to maintain good eye contact.They also tend to hold the other’s hand a little too long because they are accustomed to keeping on bow­

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ing for a few minutes, mumbling words of gratitude or greetings. Some Japanese women use both hands to hold the other person’s hand and keep on talking for a while.

Time Usage

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Time is another important variable, because how time is used communicates meaning. In both Japanese and Western cultures, punctuality communicates respect, and tardiness is an insult. In a highly industrialized society, time is treated as a “tangible com­ modity.” In the American business culture, time is handled as if it were a long loaf of bread that can be sliced up and sold in slices separately. A desk calendar used by American businessmen has eigh­ teen lines indicating 30-minute intervals of time from 8:00 A .M . to 5:00 p.m . A large percentage of American workers get paid hourly wages. Even professionals such as lawyers and public accountants calculate their fees on the number of hours needed for a particu­ lar case or accounting job. In comparison, Japanese businesspeople cannot handle time strictly as a tangible commodity, even though they are just as time conscious as Westerners. Because the time usage in Japan is usually determined by the status relationships between the peo­ ple involved, Japanese businesspeople must use “people-oriented time.” A top Japanese executive can have a young management trainee wait for an hour or more without giving him a legitimate excuse. A Japanese salesman making a sales call is almost always made to wait.A retail shopclerk will graciously wait on a demand­ ing customer who hops in only a few minutes before the closing time. A Japanese manager with another appointment waiting may hesitate to cut off a social conversation with a very important vis­ itor who has overstayed. This mode of time usage often angers Westerners, who take appointments and deadlines seriously. To avoid frustrations and misunderstanding, it is important to learn how the Japanese use time in a variety of specific social situations.

Government-Business Relationship and Business Organizations in Japan apanese business organizations are quite different from those in the West. Many of the major Japanese industries were started by the government shortly after the M eiji Restoration of 1868. Even today, they are directly or indirectly controlled by the government ministries and bureaucratic elites. Unlike the adversarial relation­ ship often found in the United States, the government-business relationship in Japan is one of close collaboration. This close tie is referred to as “Japan, Incorporated” by many American politicians and business leaders. They charge that Japan behaves like a huge conglomerate in which the Japanese government, particularly the Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI), functions as the corporate headquarters, and that each enterprise is a branch or division of the corporation.1 Western observers believe that bureaucratic elites in key Japanese ministries exercise virtually total control over Japanese business enterprises through close collabora­ tion and cooperation. Westerners also believe that many Japanese industries are controlled by a handful of major conglomerates called k e ir e ts u . Despite the recent push for liberalization and deregulation of the Japanese economy, government bureaucrats and big busi­ nesses continue to exert their power and influence over the run­ ning of Japan. Open and free competition among individual enter­ prises still does not exist in Japan as it does in the West. Westerners, therefore, must understand the particular government-business relationship in Japan and the culture ofJapanese business organiza­ tions when they communicate with Japanese businesspeople.

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Chapter 2

Powerful Ministries and Bureaucrats

30

“At the top of Japan’s close-knit, homogeneous hierarchy are the greatest ministries of its government and the officials who run them. By cultural heritage, education, attitudes, status, and influ­ ence, these men are spiritual heirs of the old Chinese mandarins. They are of key importance in the Japanese government.2 All Japanese ministries are staffed with elite bureaucrats who provide strong leadership and guidance for every sector of Japanese indus­ try. For example, MITI spells out its “Vision of MITI Policies,” which is MITI’s blueprint for economic development over a spec­ ified time period. Its aim is to attain a specific economic order or economic structure favorable to the national interest. MITI also chooses which industry should be vigorously promoted and which industry should be gradually phased out to maintain Japan’s com­ parative advantage against other industrialized nations. (This process is called “rationalization” of industries.) Directives from MITI, called g y o s e i s h i d o or “administrative guidance,” are followed by every industry with little defiance or resistance. To reactivate certain depressed industries, MITI often restrains “excessive” com­ petition in both domestic and international trade. Although Japan has its Fair Trade Commission and antitrust laws, the government frequently allows the establishment of legal cartels under which companies may engage in such collaborative activity as joint restrictions on production and joint reduction of capacity. The government’s support has always been the most important shield all Japanese industries have had against foreign competition. Another powerful ministry is the Ministry of Finance, which oversees bank­ ing, the stock exchange, and other financial activities. The relationship between elite bureaucrats and private industries is further strengthened through a practice of industry’s hiring of retired bureaucrats called a m a k u d a r i. Today, bureaucrats usually retire at 55 years of age, and upon retirement, they “go down” to private-sector companies that they had previously guided.They will be employed as executives or managers in sections or departments of private companies where they can continue to contribute by using their technical knowledge and expertise and the valuable personal relationships they have established over many years of government service. In some instances, these former gov­ ernment regulators go to work for the industries they once regu­

G o ve r n m e n t - B u s i n e s s Rel at i onshi p and Business Or g a n i z a t i o n s

lated.This is another important reason why Japan is able to main­ tain a smooth and collaborative government-business relationship unlike that in the United States and other Western countries.

Keiretsu or Japan's Business Conglomerates Japan’s k e ir e ts u groups have their origins in the z a i b a t s u groups that existed before the end ofWorld War II.The word z a ib a t s u literally means “financial clique,” and they were groups of various compa­ nies directly controlled by a family holding company. The most famous z a ib a t s u groups were Mitsubishi, Mitsui, Sumitomo, and Yasuda. These z a i b a t s u groups, which aided Japan’s military efforts through production of weapons, ships, tanks, airplanes, and other instruments of warfare, were abolished by directive of the Supreme Commander for the Allied Occupation Powers immediately after the end of World War II.3 However, in 1952, immediately after the end of the occu­ pation, the Japanese government canceled the ban on cross-share­ holdings and interlocking boards of directors. The powerful indus­ trial groups were quickly reassembled in a new form called k e ir e ts u . The new groups were based on major banks and trading companies that formed networks of companies. These alliances were linked by cross-shareholdings, common bank affiliations, and the use of the same trading company to procure raw materials and to distribute products. Today, there are six major groups: Mitsubishi, Mitsui, Sumitomo, Sanwa, Fuyo, and Dai Ichi Kangyo. Each of these groups has companies in each major sector of the Japanese economy such as steel, petrochemicals, banking, and high technology. In addition, several new groups such as Toyota, Hitachi, Matsushita, Seibu, Tokyu, and Daiei have come into existence since the war. The two most common classifications of Japanese indus­ trial groups are horizontal k e ir e ts u and vertical (or pyramid) k eire ts u . A horizontal k e ir e ts u is a diverse group of companies with dif­ ferent lines of business and an affiliation with the main bank. For example, the Mitsubishi Group is a horizontal k e ir e t s u that includes Mitsubishi Bank, Mitsubishi Trust and Banking, M it­ subishi Motors, Mitsubishi Electrics, Mitsubishi Heavy Industry,

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Mitsubishi Real Estate, Mitsubishi Trading Company, M eiji M u­ tual Life and Insurance, Tokio Marine and Fire Insurance, and many other major companies.4 A vertical or pyramid k e ir e ts u is a cluster of firms linked through the supply and distribution of a principal manufacturer. For example, Toyota Motors is a vertical k e ir e ts u with many parts suppliers and dealers that deal either exclusively or principally with Toyota. The parent company owns large blocks of shares in the companies belonging to Toyota Group and provides technical assis­ tance and key managerial talent if necessary. Japan Airlines, a flag­ ship Japanese carrier, is also a vertical k e ir e t s u ; it includes Japan Air Charter, Japan Asia Airways, JAL Hotel System, JAL Trading, JALPAK, Pacifico Creative Tours, International In-Flight Catering Company, and other service companies. The JAL group handles all aspects of international travelers who fly Japan Airlines to destina­ tions all over the world. Japanese manufactures of other automo­ biles and of electronics also form this type of k e ir e ts u . Japan’s trading partners have severely criticized the secretive and exclusive ways of conducting business practiced by Japanese k e ir e ts u groups. The U.S. government and businesses have been the most severe critics of these practices, because the whole concept of preferential relationships among group member companies is alien to the American tradition of fair play and open competition.

Japanese Business Organization A typical Japanese business organization is like a huge family with executives, managers, and employees having a total personal com­ mitment to the company’s goal as a group. They are not only pro­ fessional managers, clerks, engineers, technicians, machinists, and maintenance workers, but they are also “full-fledged family mem­ bers.” This Japanese organizational philosophy is k e ie i- k a z o k u s h u g i or “management familism,”5 and it has influenced Japan’s unique recruitment practices and the nature of employer-employee rela­ tionships. Recruitment of future employees is done with extreme care as if they are becoming immediate family members. Almost all Japanese companies administer a series of written examinations

G o ve r n m e n t - B u s i n e s s Rel at i onshi p and Business Or g a n i z a t i o n s

and in te rv ie w s .T h e se tests and in te rv ie w s are d esign ed to assess the c an d id ates’ g e n e ra l in te llig e n c e , m o tiv atio n to w o rk , p erson ality, m e n tal and p h ysical h ealth , and fa m ily b ack g ro u n d . C o m p an ies ro u tin e ly co m m issio n b a c k g ro u n d ch ecks b y an o utside p rivate in v estigatio n c o m p a n y (k osh in jo ) th at lo o ks in to e v ery aspect o f a c a n d id a te ’s p riv a te life. T h e m ost im p o rtan t p erso n al q u alificatio n s for Japanese em p lo yers are e x c e lle n t fo rm al e d u catio n , am icab le p erson ality, g o o d fa m ily u p b rin g in g , and h ig h m o tiv atio n to w o rk as a gro u p m em b er. T ech n ical k n o w le d g e and p revio u s w o rk e x p e ­ rie n c e are se co n d ary q u alificatio n s. Japanese business o rgan izatio n s g e n e ra lly recru it th eir em ployees d irectly from schools on ce a year. E very O ctober, e m ­ p lo ym en t exam in atio n s are given to those candidates w h o ex p ect to grad uate the fo llo w in g M arch . L arg e o rgan izatio n s n e ith e r m ake p u b lic a n n o u n c e m e n t o f e m p lo y m e n t e x am in atio n s n o r accep t ap p licatio n s fro m schools in d isc rim in ate ly . In m ost cases, p erso n n el d ep artm en ts n o tify c e rta in selected u n iv ersities, co lleg es, and h ig h schools o f th e av ailab ility o f future po sitio n s. In ad d itio n , school officials in ch arg e o f p lac e m e n t, professors, teach ers, and school p rin cip als c o n tact those co m p an ies w h e re th e ir fo rm er graduates are alread y h o ld in g g o o d p o sitio n s. W ell-estab lish ed p erso n al c o n ­ n ectio n s (called k o n e in Jap an ese) w ith these em p lo yers are e x trem e­ ly im p o rta n t in p la c in g n e w g rad u ates; n ep o tism and fav o ritism have n ev er b e e n co n sid ered u n d esirab le in Jap an as th e y are in the W est. In fact, Jap an ese business o rgan izatio n s have a n u m b e r o f g a k u b a ts u o r “ scho o l c liq u e s” based o n s e m p a i-k o h a i k a n k ei (sen io rju n io r relatio n sh ip s am o n g a lu m n i o f th e sam e u n iv ersities). It is also c o m m o n th at tw o gen era tio n s o f w o rk ers co m e fro m th e sam e fam ilies, b ecause m a n y Jap an ese c h ild ren w ish to w o rk for th e sam e c o m p a n y at w h ic h th e ir fathers o r u n cles are e m p lo yed .T h ese p ar­ tic u la r p erso n al relatio n sh ip s can b e u sed effectively to p ro m ote gro u p sp irit and to tal d e d ic a tio n a m o n g th e w o rkers. It is tru e th at d ifferent scho o l c liq u es o r fa m ily groups can b eco m e h a b a tsu (fac­ tio n s w ith in a co m p an y) b ecau se th e y ten d to treat factio n m e m ­ bers m u c h m o re favorably th an n o n factio n m em b ers. In som e instances, h a b a tsu a ra son i (in terfactio n al rivalries) can b eco m e vicio u s, b u t th e fe u d in g factio n s in th e sam e c o m p an y w ill u n ite against o utsid ers as riv al siblings do w h e n o utsid ers th reaten th e fam ily. A n o th e r im p o rtan t feature o f Jap an ese business o rgan iz a­ tio n s is th e u n iq u e e m p lo y e r-e m p lo y ee relatio n sh ip . Jap an ese m an ­ agers do n o t co n sid er w o rk ers as “ dispensable tools o f p ro d u ctio n ,”

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b u t th in k o f th e m as “fa m ily m e m b e rs” w ith g reat p o ten tial for creative and d ilig e n t w o rk for m a n y y e a rs .A ll m ajo r Jap an ese c o m ­ p an ies are still o fferin g life tim e e m p lo ym en t to n e w reg u lar e m p lo yees, and in tu r n , th e y ex p e c t th e em p lo yees to devote th e ir en tire w o rk lives to th em . B ecau se everyo n e en ters at th e b o tto m o f th e o rga n iz atio n al h ie rarc h y and w o rks his w a y up to th e top, even th e p resid en t o f a co m p a n y w as o n ce ju s t an o th er n e w re c ru it. H is salary is lo w co m p ared to th at o f his A m e ric a n or E uro p ean c o u n te rp a rt: th e salary ratio b e tw e e n lab o r and top m a n ­ ag e m e n t in Ja p a n is o n e to seven as co m p ared to one to e ig h ty in th e U n ite d States.6 In tim es o f severe recessio n o r business d o w n ­ tu r n , Jap an ese ex ecu tiv es and sen io r m an agers are also w illin g to take a te m p o ra ry p ay cu t b efo re c o n sid e rin g la y in g o ff th e ir lo w e rra n k in g sub o rdin ates. T h is co m passio n ate m an ag em en t attitu d e to w ard sub o rd in ates is th e m ost im p o rtan t facto r in m a k in g a Jap an ese business o rg a n iz atio n in to a co h esive social in stitu tio n .

Indoctrination and Training of New Employees P resto w itz asserts th at a ty p ica l Jap an ese co m p a n y is m o re lik e the U .S. M a rin e C o rp s o r an ev an g e lic al ch u rch th an a co m p an y.7 In d eed , in d o c trin a tio n and tra in in g are carefu lly d esign ed and e x e ­ cu te d for th e sole p u rp o se o f m a k in g e v e ry em p lo yee a d ed icated m e m b e r o f th e c o m p a n y w h o w ill b e w illin g to m ake a to tal c o m ­ m itm e n t and to sacrifice to w ard a c h iev em en t o f co llectiv e co rp o ­ rate goals. In Jap an , in d o c trin a tio n and tra in in g b e g in w ith an in itia ­ tio n tra in in g (sh in yU sh a in k u n ren ) and a c e re m o n y o n e n te rin g the c o m p a n y (n y u sh a s h i k i ) .T h e in itia tio n tra in in g b eg in s w ith a o n e o r tw o -w e e k cam p at a m o u n ta in resort or a B u d d h ist tem p le site leased b y th e c o m p a n y .A ll n e w recru its are req u ired to p articip ate in p h ysical, m e n ta l, and sp iritu al exercises d esign ed to h elp th e m fu lly realize w h a t th e ir ex act ro le w ill b e w h e n th e y b e g in w o rk ­ in g for th e com pany. T h e p urp o se o f this tra in in g cam p is to b u ild g ro u p sp irit and to in still g o o d w o rk eth ics and lo y alty to th e c o m p an y .A ty p ica l tra in in g ro u tin e b e g in s w ith a fiv e -m ile jo g at d aw n b efo re b reakfast, m e d ita tio n , re c ita tio n o f th e co m p an y creed , and sin g in g o f th e co m p a n y song, fo llo w ed b y lectu res o f sen io r m a n ­ agers and p ro m in e n t tra in in g consultants. T h e day ends at ab o ut

G o ve r n m e n t - B u s i n e s s Rel at i onshi p and Business Or g a n i z a t i o n s

1 0 :0 0 P.M. w ith an h o u r-lo n g g ro u p d iscussion in w h ic h th e n e w re cru its reflect u p o n w h a t th e y have le a rn e d th at day. T h is gro u p d iscussion is c alled h a n s e i k ai o r “reflectio n m e e tin g .” A n y in d iv id u a l p articip an t o r g ro u p th at failed to liv e up to th e e x p e c ­ ta tio n o f th e train ers m ust ap o lo giz e and p ro m ise to do b e tte r th e fo llo w in g day. T h ro u g h o u t th e day, th e re c ru its b re ak in to sm all groups of five to seven and e n ga ge in v a rio u s p h ysical and m en tal activ i­ ties. T h ese activ ities alw ays req u ire in trag ro u p cohesiveness and co o p eratio n , as th e y are in te n tio n a lly d esign ed to p ro m o te group sp irit and in te rd e p e n d e n c e am o n g all th e p articip an ts. P raise and p rizes are g iv en to successful grou ps, b u t th e m em b ers of u n su c­ cessful groups are ad m o n ish ed and p u b lic ly h u m ilia te d d u rin g the tra in in g session. For sp iritu al tra in in g , all train ees are req u ired to p articip ate in d a ily Z e n m e d ita tio n . T h e y m a y have to m ed ita te for a few h o u rs in th e u n h e a te d m e d ita tio n h all o f a Z en m o n a stery o n a co ld e a rly sp rin g m o rn in g . O r th e y m a y b e req u ired to b ath e in co ld w a te r u n d e r a w aterfall. Jap an ese train ers seem to b eliev e th at m e n tal to u g h n ess can b e attain ed o n ly th ro u g h self-reflectio n and in tro sp ectio n u n d e r severe co n d itio n s. G roup liv in g in a d o rm ito ­ r y and e a tin g th e sam e m eals d ay after d ay also p ro m o te strong affinities and frien d sh ip am o n g th e g ro u p m em b ers w h o p erse­ v ered th e rig o ro u s m e n tal and p h ysical tra in in g th ro u g h co o p era­ tio n and te a m w o rk . A sim ilar m e th o d is also u sed for re tra in in g m id d le m a n ­ agers. A c aricatu re o f th is typ e o f Jap an ese tra in in g w as h ig h lig h t­ ed in a p o p u lar A m e ric a n m o v ie, G u n g H o. A lth o u g h this w as ju s t a H o lly w o o d co m ed y, it p o rtrays, so m ew h at accurately, w h at goes o n in ji g o k u n o tok k u n o r “tra in in g in h e ll.” N y u sh a sh ik i o r “ e n te rin g -th e -c o m p a n y c e re m o n y ” is a u n iq u e ly Jap an ese w a y o f in d u c tin g n e w em p lo yees. It is v e ry m u c h lik e an a m a lg a m o f th e U .S. M a rin e C o rp s in d u c tio n c ere­ m o n y and an ev an g e lic al crusade. T h e p resid en t, top execu tiv es, sen io r w o rk ers, n e w recru its, and som e o f th e re c ru its’ parents atten d th e cerem o n y. It b e g in s w ith sin g in g o f th e co m p a n y song and re c ita tio n o f th e c o m p a n y creed in u n iso n . T h e m aster o f c e r­ em o n ies w e lc o m e s th e p arents, th e n presents th e n e w recru its to th e p resid en t and m an ag e m e n t. N e x t h e calls on th e p residen t, w h o gives an im p assio n ed le c tu re o n th e co m p a n y ’s p hilosophy, m o tto s, so cial resp on sib ility, and future goals, c h a lle n g in g ev ery

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n e w re c ru it to do his o r h e r u tm o st to liv e up to these h ig h ideals. T h e p resid en t also p rom ises th e parents th at h e w ill take resp on si­ b ility for th e ir c h ild re n , ed u cate and care fo r th em . T h e m aster o f cerem o n ies calls o n th e rep resen tative o f th e parents n ext. T h is rep ­ resentative first expresses th e p aren ts’ g ra titu d e and p leasure th at th e ir c h ild re n are jo in in g th e com pany. H e th en says th at th e p ar­ ents w ill sup p ort th e c o m p a n y ’s business w h e n e v e r possible and requests th at th e co m p a n y d iscip lin e and g u id e th e ir c h ild re n .T h e n th e m aster o f cerem o n ies calls th e ro ll o f n e w m em b ers, read in g each o n e ’s n am e an d th e scho o l fro m w h ic h h e o r she has ju st g rad u ated . Finally, h e calls o n th e rep resen tative o f th e n e w recru its to m ake a response sp eech c alled to ji o r “ an sw er to th e ch allen g e.” O n b e h a lf o f his fe llo w -re c ru its, h e expresses d eep g ratitu d e th at th e y have b e e n ch o sen to b e c o m e n e w m em b ers o f th e co m p an y fa m ily and p led ges to tal c o m m itm e n t and d evo tio n to th e ir w o rk . A t this cerem o n y, th e c o m p a n y lap e l p in is issued to ev e ry n e w re c ru it, and fro m th e n on, it m ust b e w o rn p ro u d ly at all tim e s.T h e c e re m o n y ends w ith an elab o rate b a n q u et w h e re all th e p a rtic i­ pants celeb rate this h ap p y and m e m o ra b le o ccasio n .8 T h e en tire c e re m o n y is in te n d e d to b u ild a stro n g e m o tio n al id e n tity w ith the c o m p a n y and a sp irit o f u n ity am o n g all th e p articip an ts.

Continuing the Spirit of Unity T h is e m o tio n a l id e n tific a tio n w ith th e co m p an y and th e sp irit o f u n ity a m o n g th e w o rk ers c o n tin u e to be n u rtu red b y c h o r e i or “m o rn in g p e p -ta lk sessions,” and b y co m p an y-sp o n so red re c re ­ atio n trip s, c u ltu ral classes, sports activities, and even m a tc h m a k in g and m a rria g e c o u n selin g. Jap an ese facto ries and offices u su ally h o ld c h o r e i ev ery m o rn in g b efo re w o rk b egin s. A fter g a th e rin g all o f his su b o rd i­ nates, th e m a n a g e r in ch arge has th e m recite th e co m p a n y m o ttos and sin g th e co m p a n y so ng to g eth er. H e talks ab o ut th e cu rren t business situ atio n and ch allen g es th e m to do th e ir best th at day. E v ery Jap an ese com pany, regardless o f its size, sponsors an an n u al c o m p a n y rec re atio n trip (ia n ryo k o ) for its m an agers and em p lo yees to a fam o us to u rist d estin atio n in Jap an o r in a fo reign co un try. A lth o u g h em p lo yees can e n jo y sigh tseein g , g o lf gam es, and fin e food and d rin k s at c o m p a n y exp en se, th e real p urp o se o f

G o ve r n m e n t - B u s i n e s s Rel at i onshi p and Business Or g a n i z a t i o n s

th e trip is to p ro m o te c am arad e rie and to stren gth en em o tio n al ties am o n g all th e p articip an ts. Top ex ecu tiv es, sen io r m an agers, m id ­ d le -le v e l m an agers, and th e ra n k and file travel to g eth er and p ar­ ticip ate in th e co m p a n y-sp o n so red d in n e r p arties, sports activities, and sig h tse e in g .T h e ra n k and file feel fo rtu n ate th at th e y can m eet and ta lk w ith th e ir h ig h -ra n k e d su p erio rs o u tsid e th e fo rm al c o n ­ fines o f th e ir offices. T h is trip is also in te n d e d to m ake th e p a rtic ­ ipants— m ost o f w h o m c o u ld n ’t afford such an exp en sive trip — feel o b lig ated to th e com pany. A n o th e r p o p u lar w a y o f n u rtu rin g close in terp erso n al rela­ tionships a m o n g th e w o rkers in Jap an is to have a co m p an y-sp o n ­ sored g o lf to u rn a m e n t and a b an q u et. T h e golfers p lay for th e pres­ id e n t’s trop h y and the p rize m oney, and m ake frien ds am o n g th eir fello w w o rkers. B ecau se g o lfin g is v e ry expensive in Jap an , a g o lf to u rn a m e n t is a b ig treat for ju n io r m em b ers o f th e co m p an y staff. Jap an ese w o rk ers, esp e c ia lly m ale w o rk ers, freq u en tly socialize am o n g them selves after w o rk . T h is so cializin g is called “ tsu k ia i " and it is an e x tre m e ly im p o rtan t m eans o f estab lish in g a n e tw o rk o f perso n al frien d s am o n g sup erio rs, fello w -w o rk ers, and subordinates. Jap an ese m an agers and w o rkers w h o do n o t p a rtic i­ pate in tsu k ia i are often stigm atized as a lo o f and un so ciab le, and th ey m iss tim e ly p ro m otio n s and transfers. M a n y large Japanese co m panies also sponsor free after-w o rk classes such as E n glish co n versatio n , flo w er arran g em en t, c o o k in g , tea cerem o n y, ju d o , ken d o , and karate. O n w eek en d s, th e y sponsor such sports activities as ten n is, softball, and b aseball for th e b en efit o f th e ir em p lo yees. L arg er m u ltin a tio n a l co rp o ratio n s h ire several fu ll-tim e E nglish teach ers and teach business E nglish to th eir em p lo yees free o f ch arge. M a n y o f these co m p an ies also have a scho larsh ip p ro g ram for a few e lite em p lo yees w h o w an t to study for a g rad u ate d e g re e in b usin ess ad m in istratio n , co m p u te r sci­ en ce, ch em istry, e le c tric a l e n g in e e r in g , o r th e lik e at a p restig io u s fo reig n in stitu tio n . S m alle r co m p a n ies p ro vide fin an cial subsidies to those w h o w ish to take E n glish classes at approved ed u catio n al in stitu tio n s. A lth o u g h a lo ve m a rria g e is co n sid ered id eal in to d a y ’s Ja p a n , m a n y y o u n g Jap an ese fin d th e ir m a rria g e p artn ers th ro u g h an arran g ed m a rria g e . O n e o f th e u n o fficial d u ties o f a sen io r Jap an ese m a n a g e r is m a tc h m a k in g fo r his sub o rdin ates. H e w ill c o n stan tly lo o k for a p rospective h usb and o r w ife for his su b o rd i­ nates and w ill v o lu n te e r to b e c o m e an h o n o ra ry g o -b e tw e e n i f he

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is asked to do so. S h a n a i k ek k on or “m a rria g e am o n g fe llo w -w o rk ­ ers” is th erefo re a v e ry c o m m o n o c c u rren ce. I f th e co u p le th at he h e lp e d n eed s c o u n se lin g ab o ut m a rita l pro b lem s in th e future, the m a n a g e r m ay act as m a rria g e co un selo r. T h ere is n o clear d ic h o to ­ m y b e tw e e n w o rk life and p rivate life in Japan. T h e co m p an y n o t o n ly supports th e w o rk e r fin a n c ia lly u n d e r an e m p lo ym en t c o n ­ tract, b u t also pro vides stro n g e m o tio n al sup p ort and satisfies the social n eed s o f e v e ry w o rker. S o m e co m p an ies even p ro vide a w e d ­ d in g h all and o p en fu n c tio n room s for an em p lo y e e ’s w e d d in g c e r­ e m o n y and recep tio n .

Compensation System and Employee Dependency 38 T h e Jap an ese system o f p a y in g co m p en satio n seem s to have b een d esign ed to m ake em p lo yees d e p en d en t o n th e co m p an y th ey w o rk for. O n e strik in g differen ce fro m th e W estern p ractice o f w ag e p aym en t is th e co n cep t o f “liv in g w a g e ” o r “n eed -b ased w ag e .” A n e m p lo y e e ’s e c o n o m ic n eed s are m et b y v ario u s allo w an ces p aid o n to p o f th e base p ay— for ex am p le, fam ily allo w an ce, c o m m u tin g allo w an ce, and h o u sin g allo w an ce; th ere is also a b o n us system .9 T h e fa m ily allo w an ce is p aid to a m a rrie d w o rk e r to h elp h im care for his d ep en d en ts. A lth o u g h th e am o u n t is n o m in a l, a fixed am o u n t is p aid to h im for his d e p e n d e n t-w ife and for his ch ild ren . T h e n u m b e r o f d ep en d en ts e n title d to receive th e allo w a n ce is lim ite d to an arb itrary n u m b er o f th ree o r four. A b e g g le n says th at th e fa m ily allo w an ce is a d ram atic ex am p le o f a n o n ratio n al rew ard b ecau se th e n u m b e r o f p eo p le in a w o rk e r’s fa m ily has n o c o n n ec tio n to th e e c o n o m ic goals o f th e co m p an y.10 T h e c o m m u tin g allo w an ce can b e seen as an o th er n o n ratio n al p ay­ m en t in asm u ch as a w o rk e r w h o lives far aw ay receiv es a h ig h er allo w an ce th an his c o lle a g u e w h o lives nearby. H o w ever, it provides an im p o rtan t in c e n tiv e for lo n g -te r m w o rk e r co m m itm en t as the average Jap an ese w o rk e r m ust spend tw o to fo ur h o u rs d a ily in c o m m u tin g fro m his h o m e in th e suburb o r a su rro u n d in g city. S u c h lo n g -d ista n c e c o m m u tin g is expen sive. T h e c o m m u tin g allo w an ce is, th erefo re, co n sistent w ith th e p o lic y o f lifetim e e m p lo y m e n t b ecause n o e m p lo yee sh o u ld feel p ressured to ch an ge his w o rk p la c e w h e n h e ch an ges his p lace o f resid en ce. M a n a g e ­

G o ve r n m e n t - B u s i n e s s Rel at i onshi p and Business Or g a n i z a t i o n s

m en t also gives o ut m o n e ta ry gifts o n o ccasions o f an e m p lo y e e ’s w e d d in g , b irth o f a ch ild , and d eath o f a fa m ily m em b er. Jap an ese co m p an ies c o m m o n ly p ay a sm all startin g salary and in crease th e p ay g ra d u a lly based o n se n io rity and le n g th o f ser­ v ic e . B ecau se h o u sin g is e x tre m e ly exp en sive in Jap an , th e h o u sin g allo w an ce is th e m ost im p o rtan t allo w a n ce for all Jap an ese w o rk ­ ers. T ypically, n e w em p lo yees are p ro vid ed w ith h o u sin g at a n o m ­ in a l ch arge in a co m p a n y d o rm ito ry. W h e n th e y get m a rrie d , th ey m ove in to ren t-free c o m p a n y h o u sin g o r live, at th e subsidized ren t, in a c o n d o m in iu m -a p a rtm e n t leased b y th e c o m p a n y .W h e n th e y reach m id d le -m a n a g e m e n t le v e l and receiv e a h ig h e r salary, th e y are g iv e n a lo w -ra te m o rtg a g e to b u y a h o use in a suburb or a n e arb y city. T h ese h o u sin g subsidies n o t o n ly h elp th e em p lo yees fin an cially, b u t also p ro vid e th e m w ith p sych o lo g ical co m fo rt and a stro n g sense o f o b lig atio n to w ard th e com pany. T h e b o n us system as p racticed in Jap an is an o th er u n iq u e Jap an ese w a y o f g iv in g m o n e ta ry co m p en satio n . B o n u s p aym en ts are th e o re tic a lly related to a c o m p a n y ’s o u tp u t o r profit d u rin g a g iv en p e rio d . B u t in Ja p a n , bo n us p aym en ts have b ec o m e alm ost as h ig h ly in stitu tio n a liz e d as a re g u la r w ag e sin ce ab o ut 1950. B o n u s p aym en ts are a c tu a lly b u d g e te d as o verh ead costs for th e com pany. E v ery sp rin g d u rin g S h u n to o r “ sp rin g lab o r offensive,” Jap an ese lab o r u n io n s rep eat n eg o tiatio n s w ith m a n ag em en t o n th e am o u n t o f th e bo n us fo r th e ir m em b ers. Jap an ese w o rk ers are g iv en a bo n us tw ic e a y e ar: at O b o n , th e m id su m m e r B u d d h ist festival in Ju ly, and at K u r e , th e en d o f a calen d ar y e a r in late D ecem b er. E ach bo n us u su a lly am o u n ts to b e tw e e n tw o and a h a lf m o n th s to th ree m o n th s o f th e base pay. A lth o u g h th e am o u n t o f bo n us p aym en t flu ctu ates a little fro m co m p a n y to com pany, it is g iv en to all w o rk ­ ers regardless o f th e c o m p a n y ’s profit. G o vern m en t w o rk ers, te a c h ­ ers and professors, p o lic e m e n , fire m e n , and even w o rk ers in c h a ri­ table o rgan izatio n s receiv e bo n uses. In fact, th e b o n us p aym en ts are an essen tial p art o f Jap an ese w o rk e rs’ an n u al in co m e and u sed fo r ex tra m o rtg a g e o r car p aym en ts, va ca tio n trip s, c u sto m ary gift p u r­ chases, and savings. T h e bo n uses are m o re lik e “ d elayed p aym en ts o f ad d itio n al w a g e s” p aid in tw o separate in stallm en ts. A b e g g le n says th at th e b o n us system is essen tially p a tern alistic in n atu re, th at it is b a sically a gift o f c o m m e n d a tio n fro m th e m an ag em en t to the em p lo yees fo r th e la tte r’s c o n trib u tio n , n o t an o b lig atio n o r d u ty.11 In m a n y co m p an ies, to m ake th e em p lo yee feel p erso n ally o b lig at­

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ed to th e c o m p a n y and ap p reciative o f th e m a n a g e m e n t’s g en ero s­ ity, th e p resid en t o r th e sen io r ex ecu tiv e holds a c e rem o n y an d p e r­ so n ally hands th e b o n us c h e c k to e v e ry em p lo yee. M o re recen tly, som e co m p an ies have b e g u n to use th e b o n us p aym en t as an in d i­ v id u a l in cen tiv e, b u t th e y keep th e am o u n t o f in d iv id u a l b onuses stric tly c o n fid en tia l to p reven t o p en co n flict am o n g th e w o rkers. O th e r co m p an ies in te n tio n a lly p ay bo n uses as g ro u p in cen tives to en c o u rag e in te rg ro u p c o m p e titio n rath er th an in d iv id u a l c o m ­ p etitio n . N e n k o jo r e t s u (p ro m o tio n b y se n io rity) and ta ish o k u k in s e id o (retirem en t fun d system ) are ad d itio n al Japanese p erso n n el m a n ­ ag e m e n t p ractices th at cause em p lo yees to c lin g to th e ir em p lo yer. A lth o u g h p ro m o tio n b y se n io rity is o ften c ritic iz e d as th e reason for m e d io c rity am o n g sen io r w o rk ers, th e m a jo rity o f Japanese co m p an ies rew ard w o rk ers o f lo n g ten u re w ith h ig h e r w ag es or salaries to h elp th e m m e e t h ig h e r fa m ily expen ses such as m o rt­ gage p aym en ts, tu itio n for c h ild re n ’s e d u c atio n , recreatio n al costs, and in stallm en t p aym en ts. E m p lo yees’ re tirem en t funds are kep t b y th e com pany, n o t b y a th ird p a rty (life in su ran ce o r trust c o m ­ p an y), and th e re tire m e n t funds are p aid o u t in a lu m p su m at th e tim e o f re tire m e n t. B ecau se this fu n d (c o m m o n ly called ich ijik in in Japan) can b e v e r y substantial fo r retirees w ith m an y years o f service, all em p lo yees co u n t h e a v ily o n this p aym en t to p ay o ff th e m o rtg a g e b alan ce o r to save up as a nest eg g. T h e lu m p -s u m p aym en t can b e b e tw e e n five and te n tim es th e re tire e ’s an n u al base pay. T h is p ay m e n t, h o w ever, can b e in je o p a rd y i f th e co m p an y has a severe fin an cial d ifficu lty or goes b a n k ru p t b efo re th e w o rk ­ er retires.

Nonregular Employees and Women Workers N o t all Jap an ese em p lo yees are re g u la r em p lo yees (seish a in ) e lig ib le for life tim e em p lo y m e n t, a u to m a tic p ro m o tio n based o n le n g th o f service, and a larg e sum o f re tire m e n t pay. M a n y are tem p o rary h ires (rin jis h a in ) and p a rt-tim e w o rk ers ( p a t o t a i m a a ) .T h e y are h ired o n ly w h e n th e y are n e e d e d to take o n an ex tra w o rk lo ad an d are la id o ff o r fired w h e n e v e r business slows d o w n . A lth o u g h m an y “te m p o ra ry ” w o rk ers are h ire d o n a p e rm an en t basis, th e y can n o t e x p ect to b e h ire d as re g u la r em p lo yees. In m an y in stan ces, these

G o ve r n m e n t - B u s i n e s s Rel at i onshi p and Business Or g a n i z a t i o n s

are w o m e n w o rk ers, w h o are n o t co n sid ered g o o d prospects for p e rm a n e n t em p lo ym en t. Jap an ese businesses have tra d itio n a lly b e e n a m a n ’s w o rld . T h ere are v e ry fe w w o m e n in business ex cep t in c le ric a l o r secre­ ta ria l jo b s. A n d b ecau se Jap an ese so cie ty still m ain tain s th at a w o m a n ’s p rim a ry ro le sh ould b e th at o f a fu ll-tim e w ife and m o th ­ er, m ost Jap an ese em p lo yers e x p ect w o m e n w o rk ers to take a te m ­ p o ra ry p o sitio n and v o lu n ta rily resign w h e n th e y get m a rrie d or have th e ir first ch ild . E ven today, an id e al and h ap p y w o m an in Ja p a n is seen as a “ g o o d w ife and w ise m o th e r” (ryOsai k en b o ). T h is tra d itio n a l id e o lo g y prevents Jap an ese fem ale u n iv ersity grad u ates fro m ta k in g o n re w a rd in g career o p p o rtu n ities.

Labor Union-Management Relationship In D e c e m b e r 19 4 5 , d u rin g th e A llie d O ccu p atio n , th e Jap an ese D ie t passed th e T rade U n io n Law , w h ic h estab lish ed a p u b lic p o l­ ic y sim ilar to th at o f th e U n ite d States. W ith in stru ctio n s from G en eral D o uglas M a c A rth u r, th e S u p rem e C o m m an d e r o f the A llie d P ow ers, th e la w w as w r itte n u sin g th e W ag n er A ct as its m o d el. H o w ever, th e Jap an ese lab o r m o v em en t flo u rish ed for o n ly a fe w years. In 19 47 , M a c A rth u r b an n ed a g en era l strike, and in 19 4 8 , to co n tro l c e rta in rad ical u n io n a ctiv ities, th e la w w as revised to a m o re restrictive T aft-H a rtle y typ e. T h e h e y d ay o f o rgan ized lab o r w as b ro u g h t to an ab rup t en d in 19 50 w h e n th e K orean W ar b ro ke o ut. T h e so -c alle d R e d P u rg e w as c a rrie d o u t on M a c A rth u r’s orders to get rid o f C o m m u n ist elem en ts in Jap an ese lab o r un io n s. T h e m o re sign ifican t reason w h y th e Jap an ese lab o r m o v e­ m en t p a ttern ed after th e W e ste rn m o d e l failed is th at it w as c u l­ tu r a lly in c o m p a tib le w ith th e h ie ra rc h ic a l Jap an e se so ciety. A c c o rd in g to L e v in e ,“ T h e co n cep t o f a m ass m o v em en t, even one based u p o n co n servative id eo lo g y, w as fo reig n to th e basic in stitu ­ tio n a l relatio n sh ip s lo n g ch aracteristic o f Jap an ese society. A h o r i­ zo n tal a m alg am atio n o f w o rk ers ran c o u n te r to a trad itio n o f v e r­ tic al lo yalties ste m m in g fro m a g e -o ld co n san g u in eal fa m ily system and feud al relatio n sh ip s.” 12 C o n seq u en tly, th e Jap an ese lab o r m o v em en t to o k an e n tire ly d ifferent d ire c tio n , alth o u g h th e fo rm al lab o r la w w as in itia lly im p o rte d fro m th e U n ite d States.

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Chapter 2

42

Jap an ese u n io n s are k ig y o k u m ia i o r “ en terp rise u n io n s” o rga n ized w ith in in d iv id u a l en terp rises and co n sistin g o n ly o f the w o rk ers o f th at en te rp rise . For e x am p le, T oyota M o to rs ’ u n io n m em b ersh ip consists o f all o f th e T oyota w o rkers. M ach in ists, e le c ­ tric ian s, sh ee t-m e ta l w o rkers, p ain ters, c le ric a l w o rkers, and even lo w e r su p erv iso ry staff b e lo n g to th e sam e u n io n . N eg o tiatio n s w ith T oyota m a n a g e m e n t over w a g e in creases, b o n us am o un ts, frin g e b en efits, and w o rk ru les are c o n d u c ted b y u n io n rep resen ta­ tives in th e sp irit o f co o p eratio n . In fact, th e T oyota u n io n w o rks c lo sely w ith m a n a g e m e n t to b eat T o yo ta’s co m p etito rs in ex ch an g e for b e tte r w ages and frin g e b en efits. L ik ew ise, N issan , H o n d a, M az d a, and M itsu b ish i have th e ir o w n sim ilar e n terp rise un io n s. W ith in th e co n tex t o f this en terp rise u n io n system , a strict­ ly co n tractu al and adversarial relatio n sh ip b etw een m an agem en t and lab o r can n o t b e estab lish ed .T h is Jap an ese style o f m an ag em en tlab o r relatio n sh ip , called n a rea i k an k ei o r “ close em o tio n al ties,” is ak in to a m arita l relationship. B ecause o f this p articu lar relationship, it is n o t u n c o m m o n th at b o th u n io n and m an agem en t rep resen ta­ tives k n o w each o th e r’s p o sitions and even reach gen eral u n d e r­ stan d in g o n issues th ro u g h o ff-th e-reco rd m eetin g s b efore fo rm al n e g o tia tio n sessions. F u rth e rm o re , it is im p o rtan t to p o in t o u t th at Jap an ese u n io n s do n o t co n d u c t th e ir o w n in d e p e n d e n t tra in in g p rogram s and c e rtific atio n o f skills. Jap an ese e n terp rises p refer to co n d u ct b o th classroom and o n -th e -jo b tra in in g u sin g th e ir o w n u n iq u e tra in in g m e th o d s.T h e re are n o stan d ard ized u n io n classifications o f sk illed w o rk ers and c le ric a l w o rkers. In m an y in stan ces, top u n io n officials are o n an “ ex te n d e d le a v e ” fro m th e en terp rise and are allo w ed to re tu rn to th e ir fo rm e r p o sitio n s w h e n e v e r th e y finish u n io n d uties. T h is situ atio n m akes it alm ost im p o ssib le for these en te rp rise u n io n m em b ers to m ove to an o th er en terp rise for a h ig h e r w ag e and b e tte r w o rk in g co n d itio n s. T h e co m pany, n o t the u n io n , pro vides tra in in g , c e rtific atio n o f skills, lo w -c o st h o u sin g, lo w -m o rtg a g e fin an c in g , m e d ic a l and den tal care, retirem en t, and in su ran ce plans. For these reasons, Jap an ese u n io n m em b ers are far m o re lo yal to th e ir em p lo yer th an th e ir co u n terp arts in W e ste rn co u n tries.

Establishing Business Relations with the Japanese h e x e n o p h o b ia o f th e Jap an ese p eo p le is w e ll k n o w n th ro u g h ­ o u t th e w o rld . S in ce th e y have liv e d and w o rk ed in a h o m o g e ­ n eo u s so cie ty for m a n y c e n tu rie s, th e y are h esitan t to accep t fo r­ e ig n ers and fo reig n w ays. T h is u n w illin g n e ss o f th e Jap an ese to o p en up th e ir c o u n try has in v ite d stro n g c ritic ism fro m th e U n ite d States and o th er tra d in g p artn ers. In p articu lar, th e Jap an ese are accused o f p u ttin g up n o n ta riff b arrie rs against fo reign im ports. N o n ta riff b arrie rs fre q u en tly p o in ted o ut b y A m erican s are (1) Jap an ese g o v ern m en t p o lic ie s and p ro ced ures d esign ed to d isc rim ­ in ate again st fo reig n im p o rts, (2) th e c o m p lex Jap an ese d istrib u tio n system , (3) th e la rg e ly c u ltu re -b a se d d ifficu lty o f a c q u irin g ex istin g Jap an ese co m p an ies, (4) th e d ifficu lty o f re c ru itin g capable Jap an ese em p lo yees to w o rk for fo reig n firm s, (5) th e le g al restrictio n s im p o sed o n U .S. law y e rs w h o w ish to p ractice in Jap an , and (6) the d ifficu lty o f d o in g business in th e Jap an ese la n g u a g e .1 B ecau se these “u n frie n d ly ” b a rrie rs have p ersisted , m an y A m e ric a n p o liti­ cians and business lead ers have a n g r ily attack ed Jap an for n o t o p en ­ in g its c o n su m er m ark et to A m e ric a n pro ducts and m ea n w h ile a c c u m u la tin g a h u g e b a la n c e -o f-tra d e surplus w ith th e U n ite d States. M a rv in W o lf, a harsh Ja p a n c ritic , accuses Jap an o f co n sp ir­ in g again st fo reig n ers for its o w n self-in terest. H e says, “Jap an ese business has co m e to b e u n iv e rsally reg ard ed w ith a n e a r-m y th ic m ix tu re o f fear and ad m iratio n , even envy. D em igo d s o f trade, the Jap an ese are seen as m y ste rio u sly e n e rg e tic, tirelessly sh rew d , p art o f an irresistib le tid e. . . . T h e Jap an ese have b rillia n tly d isgu ised th e ir co n sp ira cy in a c o n v in c in g c lo a k o f free en terp rises.”2 O th er

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Chapter 3

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Jap an o lo gists c o n ten d th at som e o f these alleg ed b a rrie rs are c u l­ tu re-b ased m isun d erstan d in gs and n o t a p ro duct o f an tifo reign co n ­ spiracy. W h e th e r o r n o t th e Jap an ese co n sp iracy exists, A m e ric a n and o th e r fo reig n co m p an ies have h ad d ifficulties in estab lish in g eq u itab le trade relatio n s w ith Jap an ese co m p an ies. Jap an ese m an agers and rep resen tatives w h o en gage in in te rn a tio n a l business sp eak fa irly g o o d E n glish and ap p ear to be W e ste rn ize d , b u t th e y still co n d u ct th e ir business in a u n iq u e ly Jap an ese w ay. B ecau se th e y are n o t as o p en and causal as W estern b u sin essp eo p le, Jap an ese b u sin essp eo p le are d ifficult to approach w ith o u t p ro p er in tro d u c tio n . T h e y are e x tre m e ly cau tio u s in c h o o sin g fo reig n business p artn ers and h esitate to en ter in to b u si­ ness relatio n s unless th e y are co n v in c e d o f th e pro sp ective p artn ers’ c re d ib ility and re p u ta tio n . T h e m an agers o f larg e and p restig io u s Jap an ese co m p an ies are esp e c ia lly d ifficult to approach: th e y ten d to b e alo o f, and th e y ad h ere to strict Jap an ese business p ro to co l. In d eed , fo reig n b u sin essp eo p le w h o h o p e to successfully co n d u ct business transactio n s w ith th e Jap an ese n e e d to have a g o o d u n d e r­ stan d in g o f p ro p er Jap an ese w ays o f estab lish in g and m a in ta in in g successful business relatio n s.

Initiating Business Contacts M a k in g th e in itia l co n tact w ith a Jap an ese co m p an y is n o t an easy task, b ecau se th e p ro p er W estern ap p ro ach can b e im p ro p er and in effective in th e Jap an ese business co n te x t. For ex am p le, th e m ost co m m o n A m e ric a n ap p ro ach es such as w r itin g a le tte r req u estin g an a p p o in tm en t, m a k in g a te le p h o n e call, and p a y in g a visit in p e r­ son are u su a lly co n sid ered im p o lite and d isco u rteo u s in Jap an . It is im p o ssib le to ap p ro ach a p rospective Jap an ese business associate b y w r itin g a le tte r o f self-in tro d u ctio n and ask in g for an a p p o in tm e n t.T h e le tte r w ill u su ally b e ig n o red o r p u t aw ay in the p e n d in g file. A p h o n e call fro m a stran ger w ill b e an sw ered c o u r­ teo usly, b u t it is u n lik e ly th at an ap p o in tm en t w ill b e giv en . E xcep t in rare in stan ces, an in tro d u c tio n o f o n e ’s o w n co m p an y or b u si­ ness b y a le tte r o r p h o n e call has little e ffe c t.W h e n w r itin g a le t­ ter, th e Jap an ese o ften start it w ith an apology, O te g a m i d e ta ih e n s h its u r e i d e s u g a o r “ I am so rry th at I have to c o m m u n icate w ith y o u

E s t a b l i s h i ng Busi ness Rel a t i on s w i t h the J a p a n e s e

b y this le tte r, b u t . . .” T h e y feel such a le tte r is to o im p erso n al. I f th e y have to in tro d u ce so m eo n e b y a p h o n e call, th e y w ill also ap o lo gize b y sayin g, O d e n w a d e s h its u r i d e s u g a o r “ I am so rry I have to ta lk to y o u over th e p h o n e, b u t . . .” b ecause th e y still feel th at a te le p h o n e call is an im p o lite m ean s o f in itia tin g a business rela­ tio nsh ip . E ven w ith to d a y ’s easy access to h ig h ly ad v an ced te le c o m ­ m u n ic atio n s tech n o lo g y, Japanese b u sin essp eo p le rarely use te le ­ p h o n e calls to in itia te an y n e w business. T h e y u su ally avoid dis­ cussin g an y serio us business m atters w ith strangers unless th e y can first m e e t w ith th e m face to face. Jap an ese b u sin essp eo p le w ith lo w e r status w ill n ever call o th e r b u sin essp eo p le in h ig h er-statu s p o sitio n s for an in itia l ap p o in tm en t: th at is a clear v io la tio n o f b u si­ ness e tiq u e tte . In a few rare situ atio n s a le tte r o f in tro d u c tio n o r a p h o n e call m ay w o rk . For ex am p le, a p erso n al le tte r fro m a sen io r professor to his fo rm e r stud en t fo r w h o m h e fo u n d th e presen t jo b w ill b e h o n o red . O r a p h o n e call fro m th e ex ecu tiv e v ic e p residen t o f a larg e firm to th e m a n a g e r o f its su b sid iary co m p an y w ill be tak en seriously. In these tw o cases, th e im p lie d m essage is “ I am too b u sy to take m y tim e and in tro d u c e this p erso n face to face, b u t I d em an d th at y o u h o n o r m y in tro d u c tio n anyw ay.” It is im p o rtan t to re co gn iz e th at Jap an ese p eo p le u su ally do n o t flatly refuse to w r ite a le tte r o f in tro d u c tio n , as th e y are c o n c e rn e d ab o ut m a in ta in in g g o o d in te rp erso n al relatio n s w ith th e ir frien d s and acq u ain tan ces. H o w ever, th e y m a y co n trad ict th em selves and m ake n egativ e co m m en ts in fo rm a lly over th e te le ­ p h o n e i f th e y have a n y d o ub t ab o ut th e p erso n th e y are in tro d u c ­ in g . T h e y are often co m p e lle d to take this se e m in g ly dish o nest actio n b ecau se th e y w ill b e h e ld responsible i f so m eth in g goes w ro n g later. It is also im p o rtan t to re m e m b er th at o b tain in g a go o d in tro d u c tio n fro m a h ig h -statu s p erson is n o t free in Jap an . It is co m m o n p ractice for th e p erso n ask in g for an in tro d u ctio n to offer a m o n e ta ry o r n o n m o n e ta ry gift to th e in tro d u c e r for this favor. T h e am o u n t o f m o n e y o r th e p ric e o f th e gift is based o n the re c ip ie n t’s social or professional status and on th e size o f th e b u si­ ness tran sactio n to b e in itia te d . A co ld call is n o t o n ly in effective b u t also d isco u rteo u s in in itia tin g a business relatio n sh ip in Ja p a n .A lm o st all Jap an ese c o m ­ p an ies w ill p o lite ly refuse to g ran t an in te rv ie w to an aggressive salesperson w h o co m es in w ith o u t an in tro d u c tio n o r ap p o in t­ m en t. I f th e salesperson insists o n m e e tin g th e m an ag er in ch arge, a y o u n g assistant to th e m a n a g e r w ill co m e o u t and p o lite ly listen

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Chapter 3

to w h a t th e v isito r has to say, th e n en d th e co n versatio n b y sayin g th at he w ill relay th e m essage to his superior. T h erefo re, it is ab so lu tely n ecessary for fo reign b usinesspeople to le a rn cu ltu rally accep tab le and effective w ays o f in itia tin g business contacts in Jap an .

Use of Shokaisha (Introducer)

46

O n e o f th e best w ays o f in itia tin g a v iab le business relatio n sh ip in Ja p a n is to o b tain a le tte r o f in tro d u c tio n (sh o k a ijo ) fro m an in tro ­ d ucer. A g o o d in tro d u c e r is a p erso n resp ected and tru sted b y b o th p arties in vo lved . N o t o n ly is h e e x p e c te d to p erfo rm th e task o f m a tc h m ak in g , b u t h e is also ex p ected to act as a m ed iato r (ck uk aisha) sh ould a co n flict arise in th e future. H e can b e a p erso n al frien d , b an ker, co m p a n y ex ecu tiv e, officer o f a ch am b er o f co m m erce, d irecto r o f a trad e asso ciatio n , g o v ern m en t o fficial, h ig h -le v e l m an ­ ag er o f an overseas subsidiary, o r business co n sultan t. A person al frie n d is th e m ost reliab le source o f in tro d u c tio n b ecause the Jap an ese p refer to do business w ith frien d s. A n d b ecau se ev ery Jap an ese m ain tain s a n e tw o rk o f m a n y close frien d s, h e can easily fin d so m eo n e am o n g his frien d s w h o can m ake a p ro p er in tro d u c ­ tio n . I f h e c an n o t fin d an yo n e, h e can ask o n e o f his frien d s to find a m u tu a l frie n d o f th e pro sp ective business associate. In this case, th e in tro d u ctio n w ill b e d o n e in tw o stages. For ex am p le, M r. T an aka asks his frie n d , M r. S u z u k i, to in tro d u ce h im to M r. Ishii, w h o in tu rn in tro d u ces M r. T an aka to M r.Y am am o to (the target o f in tro d u c tio n ), w h o is th e m u tu al frie n d o f M r. S u z u k i and M r. Ishii. A m o n g Jap an ese b u sin essp eo p le, frien d sh ip can b e m o re im p o rtan t th an a m ere business relatio n sh ip . For th is reason, th e y are in itia lly m u c h m o re in terested in th e p erso n al b ack g ro u n d s o f future business p artn ers such as th e ir age, place o f b irth , fo rm al e d u ­ catio n , and alu m n i co n n ectio n s th an in th e ir business b ackgro un d s. T h e y alw ays w an t to establish c o m m o n g ro u n d and a w a rm in te r­ p ersonal relatio n sh ip b efore th e y discuss business m atters. L ik e Jap an ese b u reau crats, Jap an ese b an kers o ften act as in te rm e d ia rie s for th e ir clien ts. T h e y can b e v e ry useful as in tro ­ d ucers, as th e y are u su ally tru sted in Jap an ese so ciety and have go o d co n n ectio n s in th e business co m m u n ity. A c c o rd in g to Jap an ese b a n k in g law , ban ks can o w n stocks in th e co m p an ies to w h ic h th e y

E s t a b l i s h i ng Busi ness Rel a t i on s w i t h the J a p a n e s e

p ro vid e fin an cin g . It is a co m m o n p ractice for b an k ex ecu tiv es to go to w o rk for c lie n t co m p an ies as m an agers o f fin an ce d ep art­ m en ts w h e n th e y are ab o ut to reach m in im u m retirem en t age. T h e y c o n tin u e to act as lia iso n w ith th e ir fo rm er em p lo yer and o ften act as g o -b e tw e e n s. Japanese b an ks also ro u tin e ly d isp atch m an agers and sup erviso rs w h e n e v e r c lie n t co m p an ies n e ed “ sp ecial assistance” on fin an cial m atters such as re stru c tu rin g lo an s and in stallin g a n e w a c c o u n tin g system . In m a n y in stan ces w h e n th e clien t co m p an ies have serio us fin an cial pro b lem s d u e to m ism a n a g em en t, Japanese b an ks d ispatch th e ir o w n m an agers and have th em take over all the a c c o u n tin g fu n ctio n s o f th e tro u b led firm s. T h is d isp atch in g o f b a n k em p lo yees is c alled sh ik k o o r “ o n lo a n ” b ecause th e y are te m ­ p o ra rily assigned to p erfo rm sp ecial assignm ents and are ex p ected to re tu rn to th e ir fo rm e r p o sitio n s in th e b anks. In som e in stan ces, a b a n k e x ecu tiv e takes over th e p o sitio n o f p resid en t and c h ie f o p e ra tin g o fficer o f a b a n k ru p t c o m p a n y to p ro tect his b a n k ’s loans and interests. B ecau se o f these close w o rk in g relatio n s, b an kers are in a g o o d p o sitio n to p ro vid e an in tro d u c tio n and ad vice. In ad d i­ tio n , larg e Jap an ese b an ks have an e c o n o m ic research d ep artm en t th at gen erates im p o rtan t d ata and in fo rm atio n o n business activ i­ ties o f m a n y Jap an ese co rp o ratio n s. B usin ess ex ecu tiv es w ith larg e , rep u tab le co rp o ratio n s can p ro vid e in valu ab le assistance in b re a k in g th e ice. T h e m ajo r fu n c­ tio n o f Jap an ese ex ecu tiv es is to ex p an d and m ain ta in p erso n al co n n ectio n s a m o n g o th er ex ecu tiv es for business p urposes. T h e y jo in p restig io u s g o lf clubs, c iv ic clubs, h o b b y clubs, and study groups to m e e t n e w frien d s and so cialize w ith th em . A successful Jap an ese e x ecu tiv e has exten sive n etw o rk s o f m an y frien d s and associates in alm o st e v e ry secto r o f Jap an ese business circles. In Ja p a n , m em b ersh ip in ch am b ers o f co m m erce confers m o re p restige th an in th e U n ite d S ta te s.T h e m em b ersh ip is u su al­ ly m ad e up o f presiden ts o r v ic e presiden ts o f sm all and m e d iu m ­ sized co m p an ies. M a n y top Jap an ese ex ecu tiv es and p o litician s are fo rm e r m em b ers o f th e Ja p a n J u n io r C h a m b e r o f C o m m e rc e .T h e stro n g frien d sh ip s d evelo p ed d u rin g days o f ju n io r ch am b er activ ­ ities seem to b e c a rrie d o n even after th ese ex ecu tiv es b eco m e m em b ers o f sen io r ch am b ers o f co m m erce. T h e y g et to g e th e r for “ a lu m n i m e e tin g s” and trade favors w ith each o th er w h e n th e y do business. V ery successful ju n io r ch am b er o f co m m erce m em b ers

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also jo in th e Y o u n g P resid en ts O rg an iz atio n in o rd er to exp an d th e ir business co n n ectio n s. F o reign b u sin essp eo p le w h o are active in ch am b ers o f co m m e rc e at h o m e sh ould take advan tage o f the stro n g ties a m o n g Ja p a n ’s ch am b ers o f c o m m erce m em b ers. A le t­ ter o f in tro d u c tio n fro m th e p resid en t o f th e ir lo c al ch ap ter w ill be v e ry useful. A m e ric a n b u sin essp eo p le sh o u ld also co n sult the A m e ric a n C h a m b e r o f C o m m e rc e in Ja p a n .T h e ch am b er has sev­ eral p u b licatio n s th at are h elp fu l in u n d e rstan d in g Jap an and the Jap an ese fro m an A m e ric a n p erspective. T rade o rgan izatio n s in Jap an are u su ally active in p ro m o t­ in g th e ir m e m b e rs’ businesses. T h e y freq u en tly o rgan ize trade show s and sem inars to e x ch a n g e in fo rm a tio n o n tech n o lo g y, m a r­ k e tin g , and co n su m er trends. T h e y also o rgan ize overseas study to urs for th e ir m em b ers to g ain b e tte r u n d erstan d in g o f in te rn a ­ tio n a l c o m p e titio n and to p ro m o te frie n d ly relatio n sh ip s w ith fo r­ e ig n trad e o rgan izatio n s. S ta ff m em b ers o f these o rgan izatio n s are fam iliar w ith each m e m b e r’s business activities, and th e y can in d i­ cate w h ic h co m p a n y m ig h t b e a suitable business p artn er o f a fo r­ e ig n com pany. For e x am p le, th e Ja p a n E lectro n ics M an u factu rers’ A sso ciatio n c o u ld b e a g o o d p lace for an A m e ric a n electro n ic c o m p a n y to v isit w h e n it w ish es to fin d a jo in t-v e n tu re p artn er in Jap an . A le tte r o f in tro d u c tio n fro m th e p resid en t o f th e U .S. E lectro n ic M a n u fa c tu re rs’ A sso ciatio n to his Jap an ese co u n terp art can b e a p ro p er w a y to in itia te a business relatio n sh ip . T h e A m e ric a n em bassy in T okyo has a business in fo rm a ­ tio n c e n te r w ith a n u m b e r o f staff m em b ers w h o are assigned to assist A m e ric a n b u sin essp eo p le w is h in g to do business in Jap an . M a n y o f th e states have offices in Ja p a n and are c o m p e tin g for d irect in vestm en t and to u rism in to th e ir o w n states. A ll o f these offices have b ilin g u a l Jap an ese staff m em b ers w h o can assist A m e r­ ic a n b u sin essp eo p le in m a k in g contacts w ith Jap an ese co m panies. S in c e th e Jap an ese have tra d itio n a lly h e ld th e ir g o v ern m en t offi­ cials in h ig h regard , a le tte r o f in tro d u c tio n fro m a p ro p er fo reign em bassy official w ill b e receiv ed v e ry favorably. T h is is o n e q u ic k w a y to establish c re d ib ility w h e n startin g a n e w business in Jap an . Today, a larg e n u m b e r o f Jap an ese co m p an ies have sub ­ sid iaries and b ran ch offices all over th e w o rld . T h e m ost effective w a y o f o p e n in g th e d o o r to successful business relatio n s w ith a Jap an ese c o m p a n y is to c o n tact th e lo c a l b ran ch m an ager, w h o can

E s t a b l i s h i ng Busi ness Rel a t i on s w i t h the J a p a n e s e

give an in tro d u c tio n to his h o m e office. H o w ever, th e first step is to w in th e trust and respect o f th at lo c al b ran ch m an ag er b y g e t­ tin g to k n o w h im p erson ally. H e w ill n ever m ake an y in tro d u ctio n unless h e is c o n v in ced th at h e and his c o m p an y w ill b en efit fro m it. H e w ill c e rta in ly b e cau tio u s ab o ut re c o m m e n d in g an yo n e b ecause h e m ust take full resp o n sib ility i f so m eth in g goes w ro n g . A ggressive A m e ric a n business ex ecu tiv es are o ften tem p ted to bypass th e lo c al b ran ch m a n a g e r and go d ire c tly to th e p resid en t or v ic e p resid en t at th e h ead office. T h is is a b ig m istake. T h e lo cal m a n a g e r can a c tu a lly destroy an y prospect o f estab lish in g a business relatio n sh ip i f h e feels th at h e has b e e n bypassed o r o verlo o k ed . Japanese top ex ecu tiv es u su a lly do n o t m ake d ecisio n s o n th e ir o w n . T h e y re ly h e a v ily o n th e ju d g m e n t o f th e ir lo cal m an agers w h e n e v e r th e y co n sid er estab lish in g a n e w business relatio n sh ip w ith a fo reig n com pany. It is, th erefo re, c ru c ial to m ake frien ds and allies am o n g th e Japanese m an agers w h o are statio n ed overseas and re p resen tin g th e ir p aren t co m p an ies. R e p u ta b le in te rn a tio n a l business co n sultan ts can b e h e lp ­ ful in estab lish in g n e w business relatio n s w ith Japanese co m panies. S ev eral A m e ric a n c o n su ltin g co m p an ies and A m e ric a n a c c o u n tin g firm s pro vid e c o n su ltin g services. L arge Japanese b an ks u su ally p ro ­ v id e sim ilar services to th e ir c lie n t co m p an ies. S e le c tin g a co n su lt­ in g c o m p a n y is n o t an easy task, b ecause n o t all co n su ltin g c o m ­ p an ies are co n sid ered tru stw o rth y and p ro fic ie n t.T h e rep u ta tio n o f an in d iv id u a l co n su ltan t and his affiliatio n sh ou ld b e carefu lly ch e c k e d b efore a co n tract is sign ed . A co n su ltan t sh o u ld b e a b u si­ ness an d / o r te c h n ic a l e x p e rt rath e r th an an E n g lish -lan g u ag e ex p ert. G e n e ra lly sp eakin g , A m e ric a n b u sin essp eo p le are pro n e to h ire speakers o f g o o d E n glish w h o m ay o r m ay n o t have profes­ sio n al and te c h n ic a l k n o w le d g e and sufficien t e x p e rie n c e . O r th ey m a y h ire A m e r ic a n -e d u c a te d Jap an ese fem ales w ith w h o m Japanese b usin essm en w ill h esitate to do business b ecause th e y are g e n e ra lly co n sid ered to o “A m e ric a n iz e d and in co m p eten t.” S o m e A m e ric a n -e d u c a te d Japanese co n sultan ts have a co n d escen d in g attitu d e to w ard th e Jap an ese w a y o f d o in g business and w ill n o t be effective at a ll.A n in te rn a tio n a l business co n sultan t sh ou ld b e b ilin ­ g u al and b ic u ltu ra l, b u t at th e sam e tim e , h e o r she m ust have sub ­ stan tial ex p ertise an d m a n y years o f e x p e rie n c e in th e p articu lar segm en t o f business for w h ic h he or she is asked to consult.

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The First Contact with Japanese Businesspeople

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G e n erally sp ea k in g ,W e ste rn e rs are m o re aggressive and self-relian t th an th e ir Jap an ese c o u n terp arts, and th e y p refer to cu ltivate th e ir o w n business co n tacts w ith o u t in v o lv in g o th ers. T h e y m ig h t th in k th at a le tte r o f in tro d u c tio n o r a p h o n e call fro m a m u tu al frien d to th e pro sp ective Jap an ese business p artn er w ill b e sufficien t to o p en th e d o o r for a n e w business relatio n sh ip . H o w ever, th e ir ta c­ tic w ill n o t w o rk w e ll in Jap an . T h e m ost effective w a y to in itiate a business c o n tact is to have th e in tro d u c e r arran g e a fac e -to -fac e m e e tin g w ith a Jap an ese b usin essm an so lely for th e p u rp o se o f a isa tsu o r “fo rm al in tro d u c tio n .” T h e in itia l m e e tin g can take p lace e ith e r at th e Jap an ese b u sin essm an ’s office o r at a restaurant. O n the office v isit, th e in tro d u c e r w ill in tro d u ce th e A m e ric a n b usin ess­ m an to th e Jap an ese m a n a g e r in ch arg e o f th e in te rn a tio n a l d iv i­ sion, y o u n g staff m em b ers, and o n e o r tw o top ex ecu tives. A lth o u g h h e w ill in tro d u c e th e A m e ric a n fo rm ally at this tim e, he w o u ld have in fo rm e d th e Jap an ese side o f th e fo reig n v isito r’s c o m ­ p an y and his p erso n al pro file b efo re this first visit.

Exchanging M e is h i or Business Cards E v ery in tro d u c tio n starts w ith e x c h a n g in g o f m e is h i (business cards); th e e x ch a n g e serves a n u m b e r o f useful and im p o rtan t fu n c­ tio ns. T h e business card n o t o n ly provides th e p erso n ’s n am e, b ut also his jo b title, c o m p a n y n am e, address, telep h o n e n u m b er, fac­ sim ile n u m b er, and e -m a il address. In Ja p a n , th e jo b title, co m p an y affiliatio n and se n io rity in ra n k o r age a c tu ally d ictate h o w la n ­ g u ag e is used, th e m an n e r o f sp ea k in g , and n o n verb al b eh avio r. In o th er w o rds, e x c h a n g in g o f m e is h i in sta n tan eo u sly clarifies the p ro p er status relatio n sh ip b e tw e e n in d iv id u als m e e tin g for th e first tim e. E v ery fo reig n b usin essp erson sh ould fo llo w th e Jap an ese cus­ to m o f e x c h a n g in g m eis h i: (1) H e sh o u ld have his business card p rin te d in b o th E n glish and Jap an ese on h ig h -q u a lity p ap er and have a sufficien t n u m b e r o f cards. (2) H e sh ould have th e m h an d y at all tim es so th at h e can h an d o n e o u t im m e d ia te ly u p o n m e e t­

E s t a b l i s h i ng Busi ness Rel a t i on s w i t h the J a p a n e s e

ing new Japanese business associates.* (3) He should not pass out his m e i s h i like passing out playing cards at a card table. (4) If he is already sitting down, he should stand up and hand the cards out to every person with a slight bow as if it were an expensive and fragile gift. (5) He should extend his card out with the Japanese side up, facing the recipient so that it can be read easily. (6) He should receive the other person’s business card with both hands with a slight bow and should scan it immediately for vital infor­ mation. (7) He should try to use the name of his Japanese coun­ terpart in the course of conversation and learn to pronounce it correctly. (8) W hen he is accompanying his superior, he should hand out his m e i s h i only after he has been introduced. When exchanging business cards, it is customary to say the person’s last name and then say “ H a ji m e m a s h i t e d o z o y o r o s h i k u ,” more or less equivalent to “How do you do! It’s nice to meet you” in English. In this situation, the most important thing to remember is to exchange cards in hierarchical order. For example, the American visitor must exchange business cards with the highest-ranked Japanese executive first, then with the second-highest-ranked man­ ager, next with the lower-ranked managers. Westerners often make the mistake of exchanging the card first with the Japanese person who happens to be standing closest. They should take time and observe how the Japanese who are present show deference to each other. One of them usually signals to the visitor nonverbally (with a hand gesture or body motion) whom he should greet first and exchange business cards with. In some instances, a young Japanese assistant hesitates or avoids exchanging his business card with a high-ranking foreign visitor in front of the executives of his com­ pany. He knows that he does not deserve to be recognized as an equal in this situation. Especially when the executives from a for­ eign company meet with the executives of his company, he will intentionally step aside and have the top executives from both sides * Many American businessmen keep business cards in their wallets in their back pockets. They should not keep m e ish i in the wallet because cards can become warped, soiled, and even smelly. They should buy a nice m e ish i ire or “small wallet” to keep their business cards in. It should be noted that m e ish i ire made by Dunhill, Guchi, Louis Vuitton or Christian Dior are status symbols among Japanese businessmen.

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greet each other first. It may seem strange to foreign executives that a young Japanese staff member who acts as interpreter does not volunteer to give his m e i s h i in front of his senior managers, but this is the proper etiquette for a young and lower-ranked Japanese busi­ nessman. However, it is acceptable for him to give out his card after his superior gives him permission to do so. If he is asked for it by a foreign executive, he usually says that he will give it to him after the formal meeting and in private.*

Japanese Names and Pronunciation 52

Even though Japanese businesspeople’s names are romanized and printed on their m e i s h i , foreign businesspeople may find them dif­ ficult to pronounce correctly unless they have studied Japanese. Except for five vowels [a], [e], [i], [o], [u] and a consonant [n], Japanese alphabet letters are usually romanized with two or three English characters. Many Americans make the mistake of bunching Japanese syllables together and pronouncing them with strong English accents. For example, N a k a s o n e , the name ofJapan’s former prime minister, should be pronounced as n a - k a - s o - n e , not “naka­ sone.” A o k i is the name of a famous Japanese golfer, and his name is often mispronounced as “A-oki.” It should be pronounced as [a] in father, [o] in horse and k i or a - o - k i. Or K a t o , a common Japanese name, should be pronounced as k a -to , not “kay-tow.” One impor­ tant piece of advice to Westerners is that they should refrain from giving new Japanese business associates English nicknames simply because their Japanese names are difficult to pronounce. It is bet­ ter to ask them how to pronounce their names correctly than to insult them by mispronouncing those names.t

* It is acceptable not to offer a business card to a young Japanese assis­ tant. He will be embarrassed if he is forced to exchange m e ish i in front of top executives of his company. t When a Japanese businessman cannot read the name on m eish i, he might ask nonchalantly, “Your name is very unusual, isn’t it?” by which he means, “I do not know how to pronounce your name. Please tell me again!”

E s t a b l i s h i ng Busi ness Rel a t i on s w i t h the J a p a n e s e

Hierarchy of Seating T h e Jap an ese p ro to co ls o f seatin g are fre q u en tly p u z z lin g for u n in ­ fo rm ed A m e ric a n b usin essp eo p le. P articip an ts in a business m e e t­ in g in Ja p a n are seated in th e ex act o rd er o f th e ir relative ran k in g . A m e ric a n s o ften m ake th e m istake o f seatin g th em selves w ith o u t b e in g in v ite d to sit d o w n o r ta k in g a seat n o n c h alan tly w ith o u t p a y in g close atte n tio n to status differences. F o r e x a m p le , th e v ic e p resid en t o f an A m e ric a n co m p a n y and his assistant are v isitin g the p resid en t o f a Jap an ese co m p a n y fo r th e first tim e. T h e A m e ric a n visito rs w ill b e m et b y y o u n g staff m em b ers o f th e p resid en t’s office (sh a ch o s h its u ) w h o sp eak E nglish an d b e esco rted to th e ex ecu tiv e m e e tin g ro o m . T h e y w ill b e asked to sit in specific ch airs for h o n ­ ored guests, u su a lly o n far ends o f th e ro o m again st th e w all and aw ay fro m th e door, and w a it for th e p resid en t to co m e in . T h e in te rp re te r u su ally sits o n a stool b e tw e e n th e A m e ric a n v ic e pres­ id e n t and th e Jap an ese presid en t. It is an u n fo rg iv ab le v io la tio n o f th e p ro to co l to sw itch seats ju s t for o n e ’s o w n co n v en ien ce. E ach seat represents a differ­ en t d eg ree o f resp ect p aid to th e p erson w h o o ccu p ies it. E ach Jap an ese e x ecu tiv e o r staff m e m b e r k n o w s his ran k relative to o th er Jap an ese p articip an ts, an d h e gives up his seat to a h ig h er-ra n k e d p erso n c o m in g in la te r and m oves d o w n to a lo w e r seat. F o reign visito rs n e e d to clo se ly observe th e u n w ritte n ru les o f p ro p er seat­ in g b y fo llo w in g th e v erb al o r n o n verb al cues g iv en b y th e Jap an ese host and to p ay atte n tio n to w h o sits w h e re on th e Jap an ese side.

Socializing for Business Contacts A n o th e r effective w a y o f in itia tin g a business co n tact is to so cialize first over a n ic e lu n c h o r d in n e r.W e ste rn e rs u su ally have a business lu n c h , b u t Jap an ese b usin essm en p refer to have a “ social din n er.” T h e Jap an ese have tw o sp ecific reasons for this p referen ce: (1) T h e y p refer to so cialize w ith th e pro sp ective business p artn ers and get to k n o w th e m p e rso n ally b efore th e y co n d u ct an y serio us business discussions. (2) S in c e th e Jap an ese w o rk d ay starts at 9 :0 0 a .m . or

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9:30 a .m . and ends at 5:30 p.m . or 6:00 p.m ., they have a much shorter work period before lunch time.* Under the usual circumstance, the introducer will make the dinner arrangement and invite the other party. He briefly explains to the other party the purpose of getting together for din­ ner, but he does not give any specific information regarding busi­ ness matters. He might simply say, “Mr. Kato, my good friend, Mr. Smith, wants to meet with you. He is the president of Innovation and Technology Company in California. Several years ago, he and I attended the Top Executive Seminar at the Harvard Business School in Boston. Now he is interested in doing business with a reputable Japanese company. I suggested that he should get togeth­ er with you first before he talks to any other company. Can you meet with him on next Tuesday?” If Mr. Kato hesitates to accept the invitation, the introducer would assure him that he will not be expected to make any commitment and that this will be just a “get-acquainted dinner” to introduce Mr. Smith. W hen Mr. Kato agrees to meet with Mr. Smith, the latter will make the arrangements for this first dinner meeting (although the introducer can advise what to do). The choice of a restaurant is very important, as it reflects Mr. Smith’s integrity and his attitude toward Mr. Kato. The restaurant should be a reputable establish­ ment with good ambience; tasty, high-quality food; and excellent personal service; it should also provide privacy. Since this dinner meeting is to be used only for socializing, substantive business mat­ ters will not be discussed. At the beginning of the dinner, everyone exchanges m e i s h i and engages in small talk. They also ask personal questions. Westerners might consider some of the questions that the Japanese ask of new business associates too personal. They may feel uneasy or even offended by these questions that pry into personal matters not related to professional qualifications and business acumen, but this is a socially acceptable way in Japan for potential business part­ ners to assess each other’s personality and backgrounds. The * Japanese businessmen spend at least an hour and a half commuting each way, so they cannot come to work early. This is the major reason why they almost never hold breakfast meetings. They may have to stay at a nearby hotel to make the early breakfast meeting scheduled for a foreign business associate’s convenience.

E s t a b l i s h i ng Busi ness Rel a t i on s w i t h the J a p a n e s e

answ ers to th ese questio n s p ro vid e th e Jap an ese w ith in fo rm atio n th at w ill h elp th e m an ticip ate th e o th er sid e’s attitu d e, w illin g n ess to co o p erate, and possible reactio n s on future business dealin gs. In short, th e y w an t to establish rap p o rt and in terp erso n al trust b y g e t­ tin g to k n o w everyo n e p erson ally. T h e y do n o t h esitate to invest lots o f tim e an d m o n e y to attain this first o b jective w h e n startin g a n e w business re la tio n sh ip .T h e Jap an ese have a strong aversion to surprises. T h e m ost c o m m o n ly asked questio n s are as fo llo w s: “W h a t u n iv e rsity d id y o u g rad u ate fro m ?” “W h e re w e re y o u b o rn ? ” “W h a t y e a r w e re y o u b o rn ? ” “D o y o u p lay golf? W h a t is y o u r h an d icap ?” “H o w m a n y tim es have y o u v isite d Ja p a n ?” “D o y o u sp eak Ja p a n e se ?” “D o y o u lik e Jap an ese fo o d ?” “H o w lo n g have y o u b e e n w o rk in g for this c o m p a n y?” “W h a t is y o u r relatio n sh ip w ith y o u r in tro d u c e r?” “W h a t is y o u r b lo o d typ e, i f I m a y ask?” T h e an sw er to each o f th e above q uestion s has c u ltu rally im p o rtan t im p lic atio n s in Jap an w h e n ju d g in g each in d iv id u a l’s p erso n al w o rth . G rad u atio n fro m one o f th e m o re p restig io u s u n i­ versities is a g o o d in d ic a tio n th at th e p erso n is in te llig e n t and co m es fro m a g o o d fam ily. G e ttin g in to a g o o d u n iv ersity in Jap an is a fa m ily affair. Parents m ust have e n o u g h m o n e y to h ire a p rivate tu to r for th e ch ild o r to send h im to a p rivate p rep arato ry school. T h e p lace o f b irth is a facto r o f c o m m o n g ro u n d . P eo p le b o rn in th e sam e c ity o r p refectu re feel a stro n g sense o f affinity. P lace o f b irth also in d icates w h e th e r th e in d iv id u a l is a so p h isticat­ ed c ity p erso n o r a c o u n try b u m p k in . A g e is an im p o rtan t facto r in Jap an ese society. S e n io rity in age m ean s th at a p erso n has exten sive p ractical k n o w le d g e , m an y years o f e x p e rie n c e , w isd o m , g o o d business co n tacts, and u su ally a h ig h e r status. S o m e Jap an ese still b e liev e in th e C h in e se h oroscopes

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or the twelve signs named after twelve different animals (rat, ox, tiger, rabbit, dragon, snake, horse, goat, monkey, rooster, dog, and pig) and use them in judging another person’s personality. Each year is named after one of the animals, and it is believed that peo­ ple born during that year inherit some of the personality charac­ teristics of that animal. Compatibility between certain animal signs is considered important for personal relationships such as marriages and joint-ventures. Having a low golf handicap and owning a membership in a famous country club indicates that the individual is rich and has a good network of high-level businessman friends. Having been to Japan many times, liking Japanese foods, and speaking Japanese show that the person likes and respects Japan and the Japanese. Japanese businesspeople always ask about the years of ser­ vice with a company, because long tenure with one company means loyalty, dedication, trust, stability, power, and influence. A person who moves from one company to another— even for pro­ motion—is often called a “migratory bird” and considered to be an opportunist who cannot be trusted. American executives proud of their career advancement through switching jobs should not volunteer to talk about frequent job-hopping even for better positions.* Many Japanese also believe in the relationship between blood type and personality. The person with type O blood is con­ sidered to be generous, bold, pleasant, and optimistic. The person with type A blood is meticulous, hardworking, intelligent, but rather timid. The person with type B blood is nervous, pessimistic, cunning, thrifty, and suspicious. The person with type AB blood vacillates between A - and B-type behaviors. Japanese businesspeople want to know all of this personal information to help them predict the reactions of new business partners. However, compatibility based on Chinese horoscopes and

* When an American businessman who has been with the company for a few years is asked of his tenure, he will answer honestly,“Oh, I’ve been with this company for a couple of years.”This is a bad answer! He should say,“Oh, I’ve been with this company for three years, but I have been in the industry for more than fifteen years.”

E s t a b l i s h i ng Busi ness Rel a t i on s w i t h the J a p a n e s e

p e rso n a lity based o n b lo o d typ es is n o t tak en as serio u sly as o th er p erso n al in fo rm a tio n . In fact, m a n y y o u n g e r Jap an ese th in k th at these are m ere sup erstitio ns. Q u ite o ften, A m e ric a n ex ecu tiv es u n k n o w in g ly v io late social taboos in th e in itia l business m e e tin g or so cializ in g situ atio n s .T h e m ost co m m o n m istakes are th e fo llo w in g : (1) T h e y ten d to “b lo w th e ir o w n h o rn ” to o lo u d and b rag ab o ut th e ir p erso n al acco m p lish m en ts. (2) T h e y b e c o m e to o frie n d ly to o fast and w an t to use a p e rso n ’s first n am e rig h t away. (3) T h e y are q u ic k to tell jo k e s th at c an n o t b e u n d ersto o d . (4) T h e y o ften praise th e ir w ives in p u b lic and even ta lk fre e ly ab o ut th e ir d ivorces, rem arriag es, fo r­ m e r w iv es, and step ch ild ren . T h ese to p ics are n o t so cially accep t­ able in Jap an . Jap an ese b u sin essm en w ill ta lk ab o ut th e ir ch ild ren , b u t v e ry little ab o ut th e ir w iv es. T h e y w ill n o t ta lk at all ab o ut a divorce o r an y girlfrien d s. T h e an sw er to th e q u estio n re g ard in g th e relatio n sh ip w ith th e in tro d u c e r is th e m ost c ru c ia l o n e; it w ill d e te rm in e h o w se rio u sly th e in tro d u c tio n sh o u ld b e taken . I f th e relatio n sh ip is a short and casual o n e, th e in tro d u c tio n is m ean in gless. In o th er w o rds, it m ust have b e e n a solid and lo n g -te rm relatio n sh ip to m ake th e in tro d u c tio n viab le.

Golf as an Icebreaker P la y in g a ro u n d o f g o lf w ith p rospective Jap an ese business associ­ ates is an e x c e lle n t iceb reak er. It is o n e o f th e p o p u lar w ays to get ac q u a in te d w ith n e w frien d s in fo rm ally. Jap an ese business e x ec u ­ tives o ften in tro d u c e each o th er o n a g o lf co urse. S in ce th e y spend b e tw e e n fo ur and six h o u rs to g eth er, th e y have am p le tim e to ta lk ab o ut th em selves and to in fo rm a lly discuss a few b u sin ess-related m atters. T h e y also tr y to see h o w o th er g o lf p artn ers react to v a ri­ ous situ atio n s, and carefu lly assess e v e ry o n e ’s p erson ality, tem p era­ m e n t, and co m p atib ility. For ex am p le, a go lfer w h o sw ears o u t lo u d w h e n h e m isses a shot o r cheats o n k e e p in g his score w o u ld n a tu ­ ra lly b e co n sid ered a b ad risk as a business p artn er. O n th e o th er h an d , a g o lfer w h o does n o t sh o w his te m p er and is ch eerfu l u n d er pressure is co n sid ered to have th e m ak in g s o f a g o o d business p art­ ner. It is v e ry im p o rta n t n o t to em barrass Jap an ese p artn ers b y

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b e a tin g th e m to o so u n d ly; n ak ed co m p etitiven ess w ill n o t be ap p reciated . In som e in stan ces, g o o d Jap an ese golfers in te n tio n a lly lose som e h o les so th at th e y do n o t sham e p o o r g o lfin g p artn ers. G o o d m an n ers on a g o lf co urse w ill w in m an y frien d s am o n g Jap an ese business associates. W h e n th e y finish th e gam e, th e players w ill all get to g eth ­ er on th e “n in e te e n th h o le ” o r c o ck tail lo u n g e and co n tin u e to socialize w ith each other. I f th e y have b e en able to establish goo d rap p o rt and frien dsh ip , th e y w ill prom ise to m eet again for an o th er ro u n d o f g o lf o r for a p re lim in a ry business discussion at th eir offices.

Personality and Status of Initial Team Members T h e m ost im p o rtan t co n sid eratio n in in itia tin g business co n tacts in Ja p a n is to select p eo p le w h o are capable o f estab lish in g g o o d rap ­ p o rt and m u tu al trust w ith th e Jap an ese side. O n th e first v isit, it is c u sto m ary in Ja p a n to send a te a m o f at least th ree p eo p le— one sen io r e x ecu tiv e, o n e m id d le m an ager, an d one y o u n g ju n io r assis­ tant. T h e sen io r e x ecu tiv e plays a c e re m o n ial ro le o f re n d e rin g cred ib ility, th e m id d le m a n a g e r takes o n th e task o f co n d u c tin g business discussions, and th e y o u n g assistant acts as in te rp re te r and co o rd in ato r. T h is te a m ap p ro ach is a stark contrast to th e o n e -m an te a m o f th e A m e ric a n sen io r e x ecu tiv e w h o represents his co m p a­ n y sin gle-h an d ed ly. S in c e th e first im p ressio n has a strong in flu en ce o n sub sequ en t in te rp e rso n al in teractio n s, fo reig n busin essp eo p le m ust presen t th e best possible “fa c e ” o f th e co m p an y th e y rep re­ sent and act p ro p e rly ac c o rd in g to Jap an ese business p ro to co l.

Personality and Attitude of Foreign Businesspeople M o st A m e ric a n co m p an ies ch o o se “p ro ud professional sales e x ec u tiv es” 3 to in itia te business co n tacts w ith Jap an ese co m panies. T h ese kin d s o f A m e ric an s, h o w ever, can n o t acco m p lish th e ir m is­ sion successfully b ecau se th e y fail to realize th e cu ltu ral differences

E s t a b l i s h i ng Busi ness Rel a t i on s w i t h the J a p a n e s e

in co m m o n p ractices o f se llin g and b u y in g b e tw e e n Jap an and the U n ite d States. O n e im p o rtan t d ifferen ce b e tw e e n Jap an ese and W e ste rn co n cepts o f se llin g is th at in Jap an , sales are b e in g m ad e th ro u g h g o o d in te rp e rso n al relatio n s w ith custo m ers, n o t th ro u g h p ersu asio n based o n facts and figures only. A n o th e r im p o rtan t dif­ feren ce is th at th e b u y e r is alw ays reg ard ed as h av in g su p erio r sta­ tus to th e salesperson, regardless o f th e circum stan ces. R u g g e d in d iv id u a lism is also fro w n ed u p o n as e g o tistical, and th e team effort, n o t th at o f a c e rta in in d iv id u a l, is v e ry im p o rtan t. In a n u t­ sh ell, am icab le and p atien t m an agers w ith g o o d h u m an relatio n s skills sh ou ld be d isp atch ed to Ja p a n , and th e y sh o u ld go ab o ut estab lish in g lo n g -te r m business relatio n sh ip s w ith th e ir Jap an ese c o u n terp arts. A m e ric a n co m p an ies sh ould avoid sen d in g m an agers w ith o ld stereo typ e im ag es o fJa p a n and th e Jap an ese. It is still tru e th at som e A m e ric a n execu tiv es have stro n g e th n o cen trism and a desire to d o w n g rad e th e sign ifican t ach iev em en ts m ad e b y Jap an in h ig h -te c h in d u stries, in te rn a tio n a l business, and fin an ce over the past few decades. T h is arro gan t attitu d e b eco m es a serio u s h in ­ d ran ce to estab lish in g g o o d rap p o rt and m u tu al respect. In Jap an , th e salesperson is alw ays ex p e c te d to assum e a lo w p osture o f h u m ility regardless o f his professional status. F o r ex am p le, a sen io r v ic e p resid en t o f a larg e Jap an ese co m p a n y b o w s p o lite ly and uses resp ect la n g u a g e to a y o u n g e r d ep artm en t h ead o f an o th er c o m ­ p an y i f h e is th ere to sell his c o m p a n y ’s products.

Matching of Status with Japanese Counterparts T h e status o f th e fo reig n co m p a n y rep resen tative sh ould m atch th at o f th e Jap an ese c o u n te rp a rt. A s in th e case o f in te rn a tio n al d ip lo m atic p ro to co l, it is e x tre m e ly ru d e to send a lo w e r-ra n k in g fo reig n co m p a n y official to m e e t a h ig h -ra n k in g ex ecu tiv e o f the Jap an ese com pany. T h e in itia l g re e tin g sh ould b e c o n d u cted p ro p ­ e rly b y th e h ig h e s t-ra n k in g e x ecu tiv e, i f it is at all possible. Ideally, th e p resid en t o f th e fo reig n co m p a n y sh o u ld p ay a c o u rtesy visit (hyO kei h o m o n ) to th e p resid en t o f th e Jap an ese com pany. I f th e fo r­ e ig n c o m p a n y p resid en t is n o t availab le, th e ex ecu tiv e v ic e p resi­ d en t sh o u ld rep resen t th e p resid en t. In this case, th e ex ecu tiv e v ice p resid en t sh ou ld c le a rly say th at he is re p resen tin g th e p residen t,

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w h o c o u ld n o t co m e for a g o o d reaso n. For ex am p le, h e sh o u ld say, “P resid en t S m ith regrets th at he c o u ld n o t co m e o n this trip , b u t h e sends his regards to y o u . H e n eed s to atten d an im p o rtan t ex ec ­ utive m e e tin g on a n e w p ro ject. I w ill co n vey y o u r m essage to h im w h e n I re tu rn to th e h o m e office.” H e sh ou ld n ever say, “ I am the official rep resen tative, and I a m a u th o riz e d to ta lk w ith y o u reg ard ­ in g o u r n e w business relatio n sh ip ,” even i f h e is in d e e d in ch arge o f n e w business in Jap an . As m e n tio n e d earlier, it is alw ays w ise to send a sm all te a m of rep resen tatives of d ifferen t ran ks and sp ecial­ izatio n s. T h e te a m m ay consist of an ex ecu tiv e v ic e p resid en t, a sen io r m a n a g e r (e q u iv a le n t to a Jap an ese d ep artm en t h ead ), and an assistant m an ager. T h e sen io r m a n a g e r and his assistant m ay en gage in som e specific business discussion w ith th e ir Jap an ese c o u n te r­ parts o n th e first v isit, b u t th e e x ecu tiv e v ic e p resid en t sh ould p lay o n ly a c e re m o n ia l role. In som e in stan ces, th e ex ecu tiv e v ic e pres­ id e n t m a y b e asked to so cialize w ith th e Jap an ese ex ecu tiv es of eq u al ra n k o n a golf co u rse w h ile his sub o rdin ates are e n g a g in g in p re lim in a ry business discussions.

Effectiveness of Female Executives W ith th e stro n ger e n fo rc e m en t of th e E q u al E m p lo y m e n t O p p o rtu n itie s A ct and affirm ative actio n le g isla tio n b y th e U n ite d States g o v ern m en t, m a n y p ro fessio n ally capable w o m e n n o w o c c u ­ p y top e x ecu tiv e p o sitio n s in A m e ric a n c o rp o ratio n s.T h e q u estio n arises w h e th e r an A m e ric a n fem ale ex ecu tiv e can establish and m ain tain a viab le business relationship w ith h er Jap an ese m ale co u n ­ terp art. A sim p le an sw er is th at in th e tra d itio n ally m a le -d o m in a t­ ed Jap an ese business co m m u n ity, fem ale ex ecu tiv es do n o t fare w e ll e x cep t in v e ry rare circum stan ces. O n e serio us d raw b ack for A m e ric a n fem ale execu tiv es is th at th e y are u su ally ex clu d e d from late e v e n in g o u tin gs at hostess bars and n ig h tclu b s w h e re h o n n e or tru e fe e lin g o n business m atters is revealed . T h e ir Jap an ese c o u n ­ terp arts w o r r y th at A m e ric a n fem ale execu tiv es w ill feel u n c o m ­ fo rtable and o u t o f p lace at these establishm ents. T h e y still p refer to ta lk ab o ut serio us business off and o n b e tw e e n sm all talk , d rin k in g and eatin g, sin g in g karao ke songs, and flirtin g w ith yo u n g hostesses.4

E s t a b l i s h i ng Busi ness Rel a t i on s w i t h the J a p a n e s e

I f an A m e ric a n fem ale ex ecu tiv e w ish es to b e effective, she sh ould dress co n serv ativ ely and act p ro fessio n ally in all o f h er e n c o u n ters w ith Jap an ese m ales. Sh e sh o u ld m ake sp ecial efforts to m ake c lear th at she is a b usin essw o m an , n o t a fem ale w h o en jo ys m e n ’s ad m iratio n . It is a g o o d id e a to have an o ld er A m e ric a n m an ­ ag er a c c o m p an y h e r as “ sen io r ad v iso r” and to ask h im to take on so cializ in g d uties reserved for m e n only. It is also advisable to give h im a “b ig title ” th at gives h im c re d ib ility in th e eyes o f the Jap an ese, even i f such a title does n o t exist at th e h o m e office.

Gift Giving at the First Meeting 61 It is c u sto m ary in Ja p a n th at n e w business relatio n s b e g in w ith gift ex ch an ges. T h e v alu e and th e ty p e o f gifts d ep en d o n th e size o f future businesses and th e status o f th e relatio n sh ip . For ex am p le, the ex ecu tiv e v ic e p resid en t o f an A m e ric a n co m p u ter ch ip m an u fac­ tu re r m a y b r in g a case o f exp en sive C a lifo rn ia w in e as a gift for the p resid en t o f th e Jap an ese co m p a n y to w h o m he in ten d s to sell the c o m p u te r chips. In e x ch a n g e , th e Jap an ese p resid en t presents an expen sive Italian silk n e c k tie and a b o x o f g o lf b alls w ith his c o m ­ p an y lo go . M o st Jap an ese co m p an ies have several gift item s such as n e c k tie s, m in i calcu lato rs, ala rm clo cks, electro n ic address b o o ks and business calen d ars, or p earl e arrin g s o r b ro o ch es th at are used for gift ex ch an ges. T h ere are tw o k in d s o f gifts: a sm all gift ex ch an g e d as a to k e n o f frien d sh ip and an exp en sive gift o ften called “ a gift w ith an u lte rio r m o tiv e.” T h e la tte r is o b v io u sly in te n d e d to create a sense o f o b lig atio n o n th e p art o f th e re c ip ie n t, w h o w ill b e o b lig ­ ated to m ake an ex tra effort to acco m m o d ate th e w ish es o f th e giver. I f he w o u ld lik e to can c e l this o b lig atio n , h e can re tu rn a gift o f sim ilar v alu e im m ed iately. W h ic h e v e r k in d o f gift it m ay b e, in te rn a tio n a l b u sin essp eo p le sh o u ld n o t fo rget to b rin g an ap p ro ­ p ria te gift w h e n th e y in itia te business contacts w ith th e Jap an ese. O n e last p ie c e o f ad v ice to W estern ers is th at th e y m ust n o t say h o w exp en sive th e gift ite m is b ecause it is social etiq u e tte in Jap an to v e rb a lly d o w n g rad e th e v a lu e o f th e gift. T h e Jap an ese ty p ica lly

Chapter 3

say, “ T h is is a sm all to k en o f o u r a p p re c ia tio n ” o r “ S u ch a h u m b le gift lik e this m a y n o t suit y o u r taste, b u t . . . ,” even i f everyo n e k n o w s th at it is an exp en sive one. A n d th e y ex p ect th e re c ip ie n t to d e n y th at statem en t b y s a y in g ,“ O h , y o u sh ould n o t have g iv en us such an exp en sive gift. W e re a lly do n o t deserve it !” T h is is m e re ly a social ritu a l th at e v e ry Japanese is ex p ected to en gage in . T h erefo re, it is a g o o d id e a even for fo reig n b u sin essp eo p le to fol­ lo w th is social cu sto m and b e m o d est w h e n th e y are p resen tin g gifts to th e ir Japanese co u n terp arts.

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n terp erso n al co m m u n ic atio n has b e c o m e th e m ost im p o rtan t m ean s o f co m m u n ic atio n in to d a y ’s in te rn a tio n al business. T h anks to th e trem en d o u s te c h n o lo g ic al ad vancem en ts in th e electro n ic co m m u n icatio n s m e d ia and in air tra n sp o rtatio n ,in tern atio n al busi­ n essm en are able to co n d u ct th e ir businesses v ia w o rld w id e n et­ w o rks o f fib er-o p tic lin k s for lo n g -d ista n ce telep h o n es, facsim ile m ac h in e s, In te rn e t co m p u ter n e tw o rk s, and v id e o -c o n fe re n c in g system s. T h e y ro u tin e ly send and receive b o th verb al and nonverbal m essages in stan tan eo u sly th ro u g h these m eans o f co m m u n icatio n . T h e y fre q u en tly fly to and from fo reign co u n tries to h o ld m eetin g s w ith th e ir business associates overseas. In fact, m illio n s o f in tern a­ tio n a l b usinesspeople crisscross th e Pacific and A tlan tic oceans ev ery day to h o ld fa c e -to -fa c e m eetin gs. H o w ev er, th e y still en co u n ter m a n y problem s in c o m m u n ic a tin g w ith each o th er, as th ey u su ally do n o t share th e sam e lin g u istic and cu ltu ral b ack g ro u n d s. M isu n d erstan d in g s often o ccu r b ecause o n e o r b o th sides do n o t have ad equate la n g u a g e skills and b ecause th ey, k n o w in g ly or u n k n o w in g ly , v io late each o th e r’s c u ltu ral n o rm s o r expectation s.

I

Interpersonal Communication In c o m m u n ic a tin g w ith th e Jap an ese, fo reig n b u sin essp eo p le n eed to re co gn iz e several im p o rtan t variab les th at d ire c tly affect the

Chapter 4

process and th e o u tc o m e o f in te rp e rso n al c o m m u n icatio n . T h ese variab les are c o m m u n ic a tio n skills, attitu d es, lev el o f tech n ical k n o w le d g e , c u ltu ral facto rs, p urp o se o f c o m m u n ic atio n , and c o m ­ m u n ic a tio n co n tex t.

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C o m m u n ic a tio n skills can b e c a te g o riz e d in to sp eakin g , listen in g , re ad in g , w r itin g , and th in k in g or reaso n in g. Ideally, b o th p arties e n g a g in g in in te rp e rso n al c o m m u n ic a tio n have th e sam e o r sim i­ la r le v e l o f c o m p e te n c y in these c o m m u n ic atio n skills. In in te rc u l­ tu ral c o m m u n ic a tio n , ho w ever, it is v ir tu a lly im p o ssib le to ex p ect th at tw o p arties have th e sam e p ro fic ie n c y in th e lan g u ag e o f c o m ­ m u n ic a tio n . In m ost in stan ces, o n e p a rty is fo rced to sp eak in a fo r­ e ig n la n g u a g e w h ile th e o th er p a rty speaks his o r h e r o w n n ative la n g u ag e . F o r e x am p le, in Ja p a n e se -A m erican business c o m m u n i­ catio n settin gs, th e Japanese are alm ost alw ays co m p elled to speak in E n glish b ecause v e ry few A m e ric a n s can sp eak g o o d Jap an ese. C o n se q u e n tly , th e Japanese are severely h an d icap p ed unless th ey have liv ed and w o rk e d a m o n g A m e ric an s for m an y years. T h e m a jo rity o f th e Jap an ese w h o sp eak E n glish have a rath er lim ite d v o c a b u la ry and a th ic k Jap an ese a c c e n t.T h e y m ay have d ifficu lty in p ro n o u n c in g c e rta in E n glish sounds. T h e y m ay also have d ifficu lty in u n d e rsta n d in g w h a t th e A m e ric a n b u sin essp eo p le are tr y in g to c o m m u n ic ate in E n glish at th e ir n o rm a l rate o f speech. M a n y Jap an ese b usin essm en w h o sp eak “passable co n versatio n al E n g lish ” do n o t u n d erstan d E n glish id io m s and tec h n ic al jarg o n . U n less th e y are re a lly b ilin g u a l, th e y m ust th in k first in Jap an ese and th en translate th at th o u g h t in to E n g lish .T h e y m ust go th ro u g h th e sam e process in th e reverse o rd er w h e n th e y h ear E nglish. N atu rally, this m e n tal process o f tran slatin g and retran slatin g req u ires m u ch m o re tim e for th em . W h e n A m e ric a n s en c o u n te r this situ atio n , th e y have a stro n g te n d e n c y to d o m in ate verb al in teractio n s b y ta lk in g in ces­ santly. T h e y b e c o m e im p a tie n t and even v o lu n te e r to co m p lete u n fin ish ed senten ces w h e n th e Jap an ese seem to b e s tru g g lin g w ith th e ir E nglish. T h e y m ay even th in k th at th e Jap an ese are in c o m p e ­ ten t. T h is is n o t th e p ro p er w a y to c a rry on effective in terp erso n al

I n t e r p e r s o n a l C o m m u n i c a t i o n and Sales P r e s e n t a t i o n

c o m m u n ic a tio n .A m e ric a n b u sin essp eo p le sh ou ld le a rn to b e m o re p atien t w ith n o n n ativ e speakers o f E n glish , refrain fro m d o m in at­ in g verb al in te rac tio n s w ith th e m , and avoid m a k in g a h asty and erro n eo u s ju d g m e n t o f th e ir professional q u alificatio n s based o n ly o n th e ir E n g lish -la n g u a g e co m p eten cy.

Attitudes H a v in g p o sitive attitud es is im p o rtan t for n ative speakers o f E nglish w h e n c o m m u n icatin g w ith foreigners w h o do n o t speak go o d E n g­ lish. S o m e n o n n a tiv e speakers o f E n glish , p artic u la rly Jap an ese p e o ­ p le, suffer fro m an in fe rio rity c o m p le x b ecau se o f th e ir in ad eq u ate E n g lish -lan g u ag e facility. M a n y Jap an ese b u sin essp eo p le b eco m e a p o lo getic and ten tativ e w h e n th e y sp eak E nglish. T h e y m ay even disp lay p e c u lia r and a n n o y in g v erb al habits. T h ese h ab its m ig h t be re p e a tin g o f “Y ou kn o w , y o u know ,” “ I d o n ’t kn o w , b u t . . . ,” or “A n d u h . . .” b efo re o r after each statem en t. A n d th e y m ig h t fre­ q u e n tly in te rje c t “ I’m so rry ” w h e n e v e r th e y m ake a m istake in p ro n o u n c in g d ifficult E n glish w ords. T h e y m a y also shift th e ir eyes and lo o k aw ay w h e n th e y sh ou ld b e m a k in g g o o d eye co n tact. S o m e o f th e m sm ile n e rv o u sly and even sh ow jit t e r y b o d y m o v e­ m en ts w h e n th e y get e x cite d . S u c h p o o r c o m m u n ic a tio n b e h av io r can b e grossly m is­ u n d ersto o d b y th e average A m e ric a n w h o has n ever h ad to c o m ­ m u n ic ate in a fo reig n lan g u ag e. In th e U n ite d States, p eo p le are so m etim es c a te g o riz e d in d ifferent social classes b y th e typ e o f E nglish th e y speak. It is g e n e ra lly assum ed th at “ standard A m e ric a n E n g lish ” is sp oken b y th e ric h and th e ed u cated , “ co llo q u ial A m e ric a n E n g lish ” b y lo w e r-m id d le-c la ss w o rk ers and lab o rers, and “ substandard A m e ric a n E n g lish ” w ith fo reig n accents b y the u n e d u c a te d and b y n e w im m ig ran ts. N ist lab eled these typ es o f E nglish as “A m e ric a n so cial class-lects” w ith d ifferin g so cial accep ­ tan ce and p restige. H e classifies th e m as “A cro lect,” “M e sile c t,” and “B asilect.” 1 It is u n fo rtu n a te, b u t th e k in d o f b ro ken E n glish spo­ k e n b y th e Jap an ese, sa tiric a lly called “Jap lish ,” can b e categ o riz ed as “ substandard E nglish.” D esp ite th e fact th at m an y Jap an ese b u si­ n essp eo p le m ay sp eak fu n n y E n glish , A m e ric a n busin essp eo p le sh ould ap p reciate th e ir effort in tr y in g to c o m m u n icate in E nglish.

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E nglish is n o t th e ir n ative la n g u ag e . U n d o u b ted ly, h av in g positive attitud es w ill facilitate b e tte r o u tco m es o f in terp erso n al c o m m u n i­ catio n w ith th e Jap an ese.

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A c c u rate assessm ent o f th e k n o w le d g e le v el o f th e o th er p arty is an im p o rtan t p rereq u isite for successful in terp erso n al co m m u n ic a ­ tio n . In in te rc u ltu ra l c o m m u n ic a tio n , it is id e al th at b o th p arties have th e sam e lev el o f te c h n ic a l o r professional k n o w le d g e in b o th lan g u ag es ab o ut th e sub ject u n d e r discussion. T h is id e al is p racti­ c a lly n ever realized . T h e Jap an ese m ig h t have g o o d k n o w le d g e o f it in Jap an ese, b u t th e y m ay n o t k n o w all o f th e te c h n ic a l te rm i­ n o lo g y and id io m a tic expressions in E nglish. In this case, th e sub ­ je c t m ust b e e x p la in e d in n o n te c h n ic a l la n g u ag e o r referen ce m ust b e m ad e to w r itte n m ate rials m o re frequen tly. O n th e o th er h an d , it is possible for a Jap an ese e n g in e e r and a fo reig n e n g in e e r to o ver­ co m e each o th e r’s la n g u a g e in a d e q u a c ie s i f th e y have co m m o n in terests and a sim ilar le v e l o f te c h n ic a l k n o w led g e.

Cultural Factors In all in te rp e rso n a l c o m m u n ic a tio n situ atio n s in Jap an , so cial role relatio n sh ip s a m o n g in d iv id u a l p articip an ts are c ritic al. Jap an ese p eo p le act and react in c e rta in w ays ex p e cted o f th em acco rd in g to th e ir resp ective so cial po sitio n s. T h e y ten d to b e fo rm al and reserved , and th e y are alw ays co n sciou s o f th e ir status in relatio n to th at o f others. In co n trast, W estern ers are u su ally in fo rm al, frie n d ­ ly, and h u m o ro u s in th e ir in te rp e rso n al in teractio n s. T h e y often u n k n o w in g ly v io la te th e rath e r c o m p lic ated Jap an ese so cial e ti­ q u ette. T h e m ost im p o rtan t Jap an ese c u ltu ral facto r is to re c o g ­ n ize th e so -called status gam e th at is alw ays p layed o u t in in te rp e r­ sonal c o m m u n ic a tio n situ atio n s. T h e Jap an ese ro u tin e ly en gage in d ich o to m o u s b eh avio rs— th e resp ectful and p o lite b eh av io r to w ard a p erso n o f su p e rio r status, and th e c o n d e scen d in g and even ru d e b e h av io r to w ard a p erso n o f in fe rio r status. T h e Jap an ese call each

I n t e r p e r s o n a l C o m m u n i c a t i o n and Sales P r e s e n t a t i o n

other by their titles and use an appropriate level of politeness when speaking to superiors. For example, Mr. Sato, a section chief (k a ch o ) calls Mr. Tanaka, his department head (b u c h o ) by using the latter’s title—Tanaka b u c h o (Department Head Tanaka)—but Mr. Tanaka calls Mr. Sato by saying k a ch o (Section Chief) or Sato-kun.* At a Japanese office, it is impolite even for a senior manager to call his subordinate by his last name only. He rarely uses the subordinate’s first name unless he is scolding him for a big mistake. For this rea­ son, almost all Japanese businesspeople will feel uncomfortable if their new Western business associates call them by their first name or nickname. At the same time, they feel uneasy calling their Western counterparts by their first name, even if they are invited to do so. The Japanese language also has a rich and elaborate vocab­ ulary of status-indicative expressions. For example, there are sever­ al different pronouns referring to “you” and “I,” and different verb forms used in specific situations. Although choice of polite expres­ sions may not be so important when speaking in English, Japanese businesspeople still feel uncomfortable if status differences are total­ ly ignored. Indeed, it is important to recognize the status-con­ sciousness of the Japanese at all times by speaking to them politely. The second cultural factor is excessive concern of the Japanese over maintaining smooth and pleasant social relationships; this concern makes them respond in indirect and vague ways.They often use prolonged silence when they are unsure of what to say. Sometimes, if a question is difficult or embarrassing to answer, they even pretend that they did not hear it. The Japanese tend to display two different faces— s o t o z u r a (face toward outsiders) and u c h iz u r a (face toward insiders). Just to be polite, they may smile and nod frequently to show a “happy and pleasant face” to outsiders.They may also say “yes” if they feel pres­ sured to do so when, in fact, they do not mean “yes.” This answer is called a k ara h e n j i or “empty answer.” They also nod frequently when they are listening, and this nodding is called a i z u c h i or “agreeing signal.” Japanese businesspeople may use these conve­ nient social responses when they are forced to listen to unreason­ able demands from persons of higher status.They never try to con­ * K u n is a suffix used after the surname of a person of lower status by a superior. S a m a or sa n is used for a person of superior status by an inferior.

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front and reason w ith th e m as m ost A m e rican s w o u ld do in such situatio n s. In g la rin g contrast, h o w ever, this sm ilin g face o f the sam e Jap an ese can tu rn in to a stern and fie rc e -lo o k in g one. Jap an ese m e n use im p o lite la n g u a g e and gestures w h e n th e y scold “ social in fe rio rs” such as th e ir sub o rd in ates, salesclerks, and ser­ vants. For e x am p le, an irate Jap an ese m a n ag er m ig h t sh o w u c h iz u ra and scold his sub o rd in ate b y sh o u tin g lo u d ly and b y p o in tin g at h im w ith his in d e x fin ger. A m e ric a n sub o rdin ates w o rk in g u n d er a Jap an ese m a n a g e r w ill fin d these tw o d ifferent faces d istu rb in g and co n fu sin g, to say th e least. T h e th ird c u ltu ral facto r is d ifferen ces in ro le ex p ectatio n s. C u ltu re assigns specific roles to e v e ry m e m b e r o f a society, and c u l­ tu ral differences in ro le ex p ectatio n s cause d ifficu lties in in te rp e r­ sonal in te rc u ltu ra l c o m m u n ic a tio n . For e x am p le, a Jap an ese sen io r ex ecu tiv e and an A m e ric a n sen io r ex ecu tiv e p lay different roles. A t w o rk , th e Jap an ese ex ecu tiv e is ex p e c ted to p lay th e ro le o f a m ild -m a n n e re d g e n tle m a n w h o acts as m ed iato r o r facilitato r o f d ecisio n s. H e spends m ost o f th e w o rk d a y m e e tin g w ith his c o l­ le a g u e s and sub o rd in ates and e n te rta in in g im p o rtan t clien ts. I f he is asked, h e help s his su b o rd in ates w ith p rivate m atters such as a rra n g in g m arria g e s, fin d in g jo b s, re c o m m e n d in g g o o d schools, c o u n se lin g o n fa m ily p ro b lem s, and so on. A t h o m e, th e Jap an ese ex ecu tiv e alm ost n ever p erfo rm s an y h o use ch o res for his w ife. H e w ill n ever go to a su p erm a rk et w ith his w ife b ecau se h e n ever w an ts to b e seen b y his acq u ain tan ces p u sh in g aro u n d a sh o p p in g cart. H e has his w ife take fu ll ch arge o f fa m ily fin an ces and the c h ild re n ’s ed u catio n . In contrast, th e A m e ric a n ex ecu tiv e is a to u g h , self-relian t, and co n fid en t in d iv id u a l w h o aggressively takes o n diverse tasks and m akes d ecisio n s on his o w n . A t th e sam e tim e , he is frien dly, g o o d -h u m o re d , and straigh tforw ard in his d ealin g s w ith b o th su p e­ rio rs and in ferio rs. H e also v o lu n te e rs to h elp his w ife and ch ild ren w h e n e v e r h e can fin d tim e to do so.T hese differences in role ex p e c ­ tatio n s can cause c o m m u n ic a tio n d ifficulties. For ex am p le, a v isit­ in g Jap an ese e x ecu tiv e w an ts his A m e ric a n co u n terp art to go o ut so cializ in g after w o rk . B u t th e A m e ric a n ex ecu tiv e flatly declin es, sayin g, “ I have to go h o m e b ecause m y w ife is c o o k in g a n ice d in ­ n e r for m e to n ig h t.” T h e Jap an ese e x ecu tiv e finds such an answ er u n fath o m ab le. In this situ atio n , h e w o u ld n ever have to go h o m e to his w ife b u t w o u ld , in stead , so cialize w ith his business associate.

I n t e r p e r s o n a l C o m m u n i c a t i o n and Sales P r e s e n t a t i o n

T h e fo u rth c u ltu ra l facto r is c o n cealm en t o f em o tio n s. It is n o t th at th e Jap an ese do n o t have em o tio n s, b u t th e y ten d to c o n ceal th e ir em o tio n s in fo rm al fa c e -to -fa c e en co u n ters w ith strangers and are n o t g en ero u s w ith co m p lim en ts. W estern ers w h o do n o t u n d erstan d this Jap an ese c u ltu ral trait fin d th e Jap an ese to b e u n fe e lin g , p o k e r-fa c ed , and even cold.

Purpose of Communication In all in te rp e rso n a l en co u n ters, th e p u rp o se o f co m m u n icatio n in e v ita b ly controls b o th th e v erb al and th e n o n verb al b eh av io r o f th e p articip an ts. In in te rc u ltu ra l c o m m u n icatio n , ho w ever, the sam e p urp o se o f c o m m u n ic a tio n m ay n o t p ro d u ce th e sam e c o m ­ m u n ic a tio n b eh avio r. In th e Jap an ese business c o n tex t, th e co n ten t o f th e fa c e -to -fa c e c o m m u n ic a tio n often does n o t in d icate its p u r­ pose. Jap an ese b usin essm en are n o t as p u rp o se -o rie n te d and lo g i­ cal as th e ir A m e ric a n co u n terp arts; th e y are m o re co n c e rn e d ab o ut sm o o th in te rp e rso n al relatio n s th an ab o ut efficien t co m m u n ic a ­ tio n . T h e Jap an ese spend m u c h m o re tim e in sm all ta lk , and th ey in te rru p t business discussions w ith freq u en t tea or coffee breaks. T h e y m a y ch an ge th e sub ject o f d iscussion ab ru p tly w h e n th e y feel th at social ten sio n has b e e n created a m o n g th e p articip an ts. T h e y w ill n o t ad h ere to th e p urp o se o f c o m m u n ic atio n clo sely i f th ey feel it w ill create an u n e asy atm o sp h ere o f d isag reem en t o r c o n ­ fro n tatio n . N ev erth eless, th e Jap an ese do n o t favor h u m o ro u s state­ m en ts o r jo k e s in a serio us business m e e tin g . W estern ers should refrain fro m g iv in g u n restrain ed praise and co m p lim en ts and fro m u sin g e m o tio n al appeals, stro n g vo ices, o r an im ated b ig gestures b ecause such b eh a v io r w ill u n d o u b te d ly em barrass and even offend th e Jap an ese.

Communication Context In in te rc u ltu ra l in te rp e rso n al co m m u n icatio n , re c o g n iz in g the co n te x t o f c o m m u n ic a tio n can b e e x tre m e ly im p o rtan t. F o r e x a m ­

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p le, an A m e ric a n b usin essm an c o n d u c tin g a business m e e tin g in T okyo is e x p e c te d to c o n fo rm to th e Jap an ese style o f c o m m u n i­ c atio n , w h ile a Jap an ese b usin essm an in N e w Y o rk is e x p ected to go a lo n g w ith th e A m e ric a n style. D isregard o f e ith er o f these c o m m u n ic a tio n co n texts can cause serio us c o m m u n ic atio n d iffi­ cu lties. T h e A m e ric a n b usin essm an d o in g business in T okyo is e x p e c te d to e n ga ge in c e rta in verb al and n o n verb al ritu als p e c u lia r to Jap an ese c o m m u n ic a tio n settings. H e m ust e x ch an g e g reetin g s and business cards w ith several o f his n e w Jap an ese business associ­ ates. H e m ust shake hands and bow , sm ilin g p o litely. H e m ust even “ a p o lo g iz e ” fo r his in tru sio n , e sp ecially w h e n h e is m e e tin g w ith a sen io r Jap an ese ex ecu tiv e. B ecau se g ift g iv in g is an in stitu tio n a liz ed cu sto m o f Jap an in estab lish in g and m a in ta in in g business rela tio n ­ ships, h e is ex p e c te d to presen t a p ro p er gift o n his first visit. H e m ay have to e n ga ge in sm all ta lk for a lo n g e r tim e th an h e is accus­ to m e d to b efo re h e is in v ite d to ta lk ab o ut business m atters. In ad d itio n , h e w ill have to p ay close atte n tio n to w h e re h e sits and to w h e n , to w h o m , and h o w m u c h h e can talk . O n e strik in g dif­ feren ce b e tw e e n Jap an ese and A m e ric a n w ays o f d o in g business is th at Jap an ese b usin essm en p refer to m e e t in fo rm a lly in restaurants and hostess bars and o n g o lf courses. T h e y often en gage in business discussions in te rm itte n tly w h ile e atin g, d rin k in g , and p la y in g golf. T h e y w ish to avoid th e fo rm al co n tex ts o f a co n feren ce ro o m esp e c ia lly w h e n th e y n e e d to discuss sensitive issues. L ik ew ise, th e Jap an ese b usin essm an w o rk in g in N e w Y ork m ust adapt to th e A m e ric a n style o f c o m m u n icatio n . H e m ust k n o w th at h e w ill m e e t o n ly those A m e ric a n business associates w h o are d ire c tly in vo lved in th e business at h an d. H e can n e ith e r im press th e m w ith an ex p en sive gift, n o r e x p ect to b e in v ited to h ig h -class restaurants, hostess bars, and g o lf co urses for business dis­ cussions. C o n se q u e n tly , h e m ust b eh ave in a m o re busin esslike m an n e r and m ust p resen t his id eas c le a rly fro m th e v e ry b e g in n in g d u rin g his fo rm al office visit. H e w ill b e e x tre m e ly d isap p o in ted i f h e exp ects to have “ afte r-h o u r so cials” to float his ideas aro un d and o b tain reactio n s in fo rm ally. H e n e e d n o t b rin g an y expen sive gift w ith h im b ecause m ost A m e ric a n b usin essm en w ill in te rp re t it as a fo rm o f a b rib e . In o th er w o rds, he m ust d istin g u ish business and social co n tex ts o f c o m m u n ic a tio n w h e n h e is d o in g business in the U n ite d States.

I n t e r p e r s o n a l C o m m u n i c a t i o n and Sales P r e s e n t a t i o n

Means of Communication D esp ite th e ad v an cem en t o f e lectro n ic m ean s o f co m m u n icatio n such as in te rn a tio n a l telep h o n es, facsim iles, and co m p u ter n e t­ w o rks, Jap an ese b usin essm en still seem to p refer fa c e -to -fa c e c o m ­ m u n ic a tio n . T h e y h esitate to discuss im p o rtan t m atters over the te le p h o n e or send a facsim ile m essage m a in ly b ecau se th e y feel it is im p o lite to ta lk over th e te le p h o n e o r send an im p erso n al w r it ­ ten m essage and b ecause th e y sim p ly do n o t trust a telep h o n e c o n ­ versatio n o r th e w r itte n w o rd alone. I f a facsim ile is used , th e Jap an ese u su ally m ake a p h o n e call first and te ll th e o th e r p a rty th at a m essage is co m in g , th e n call ag ain late r to discuss th e m essage over th e p h o n e. T h is is an ap p ar­ en t effort to m ake th e im p erso n al facsim ile m essage m o re p erso n ­ al, alth o u g h th e p h o n e call seem s w asteful. Jap an ese b usin essm en v a lu e th e use o f all five h u m an sens­ es. In ad d itio n , th e y re ly even m o re h e a v ily o n th e ir sixth sense (k an) o r “in tu itio n ” in in te rp e rso n al c o m m u n icatio n . A p o p u lar sayin g o ften q u o te d am o n g th e m is “ I ch o o k ik eba j u o s h i m ” or “K n o w in g ten h e a rin g o n ly o n e ”— m e a n in g th at an astute b u si­ n essm an “is e x p e c te d to have stu d ied e n o u g h to u n d erstan d a response fro m c o n te x tu a l in fo rm a tio n , rath er th an n e e d in g to ask directly.”2 In d eed , to th e Jap an ese, k an is an o th er m ean s o f c o m ­ m u n ic a tio n . In o th e r w o rds, th e y feel th at th e y n eed to have fac e to -fa c e co n tacts to o b tain “tru e m e a n in g s” fro m n o n verb al aspects such as th e v o cal to n e, facial expressio n , gestures, and b o d y m o v e­ m en t o f th e o th e r business associates in in te rp re tin g w h a t has b een c o m m u n ic ate d .

Meanings in Communications G e n erally sp eakin g , W estern ers d ep en d h e a v ily on lan g u ag e sym ­ bo ls, and th e y ten d to fo rget th at m ean in g s o f w ords are le arn e d and person al. In o th er w o rds, th e y fail to reco gn iz e th at p eo p le attach m ean in g s to th e w ords th e y use based o n th e ir p erso n al e x p e rie n c e and th at p eo p le can c o m m u n icate w ith o n e an o th er o n ly to th e e x te n t th at th e y share th e sam e o r sim ilar ex p e rie n c e .

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For e x am p le, to an A m e ric a n b usin essm an , th e w o rd “u rg e n t” m ean s th at he m ust take actio n im m ed iately. B u t to a Jap an ese b usin essm an , it m a y m e a n th at h e w ill b e req u ired to take actio n w ith in a fe w days. A c o llo q u ia l A m e ric a n E n glish expressio n , such as “p u t it o n th e b a c k b u rn er,” is d ifficu lt to u n d erstan d for a Jap an ese b usin essm an w h o has n ever liv ed in th e U n ite d States. O n th e o th er h an d , H a i, w a k a rim a sh ita o r “Yes, I u n d erstan d ” u ttered fre q u e n tly b y th e Jap an ese b usin essm an m ay n o t m ean th at h e is u n d e rstan d in g , ag re e in g , or ap p ro vin g. It m ig h t sim p ly m ean , “ I h ear w h a t y o u are sayin g.” C le a rly , som e m ean in g s are n e ith e r tran sm ittab le n o r transferable across cultures. G o o d in tercu ltu ral co m m u n icato rs m ust le a rn to lo o k for w h at has b e e n c o m m u n i­ cated , n o t sim p ly w h a t has b e e n said. M a n y W estern b u sin essp eo p le also seem to suffer fro m the fallacy o f “ I to ld y o u .” T h e y assum e th at w h a t is b e in g to ld or w r it ­ ten to th e Jap an ese business associates o n ce sh ou ld b e u n d ersto o d w ith o u t d ifficulties. T h e y fail to realize th at all n o n n ativ e speakers o f E n glish , in c lu d in g th e Jap an ese, n e e d to h ear o r read th e m es­ sage in E n glish and th e n translate it in to Jap an ese b efo re th e y can u n d erstan d it. T h is fallacy can b e c o m e a serio us p ro b lem in in te r­ c u ltu ral in te rp e rso n al co m m u n ic a tio n . T ellin g o r w r itin g so m e­ th in g does n o t alw ays g u aran tee th at th e in te n d e d m essage has b e e n ac c u ra te ly c o m m u n ic ate d . O n e effective w a y to o verco m e this p ro b lem is to have a fo llo w -u p te le p h o n e call. For ex am p le, an A m e ric a n e x ecu tiv e w h o has sent an im p o rtan t le tte r in E nglish to his Jap an ese c o u n te rp a rt and has n o t receiv ed an y re p ly for m o re th an a w e e k sh o u ld call th e Jap an ese ex ecu tiv e to c h eck w h e th e r or n o t an y w o rds, phrases, o r p aragrap h s in th e le tte r n eed to b e e x p lain ed .

Sales Presentation M a n y in te rn a tio n a l b usin essm en have h ad d ifficulties sellin g to Jap an . D esp ite stro n g p o litic a l pressures fro m th e U n ite d States g o v ern m en t and o th e r fo reig n g o v ern m en ts, Jap an has n o t really o p en ed its d oors to fo reig n p ro d ucts and services as yet. M a n y A m e ric a n businesses have b e e n un successful at sellin g to Jap an , as

I n t e r p e r s o n a l C o m m u n i c a t i o n and Sales P r e s e n t a t i o n

th e y do n o t have th e d e te rm in a tio n , th e k n o w -h o w , and the p atie n c e to succeed . A s a c o n seq u en ce, Ja p an has h ad a h u g e trade surp lus w ith th e U n ite d States since th e 1970s. O n e reason w h y in te rn a tio n a l b usin essm en , p artic u larly A m e ric a n b usin essm en , have n o t fared w e ll in sellin g to Jap an is th at th e y do n o t k n o w th e te c h n iq u e s o f “ c u ltu ra lly accep tab le salesm anship.” Jap an ese te c h n iq u e s differ fro m A m e ric a n in atti­ tu d es, m an n ers, strategies, and th e la n g u a g e o f sales p resen tation s.

Salesman's Attitude In Jap an , a salesm an takes th e attitu d e o f su b serv ien ce and o f h u m ility to w ard his c lie n t, o f w h o m h e is ask in g a “b ig favor.” H e is v e ry p o lite, and h e is even w illin g to take som e v erb al abuse from his clien t. H e is ex p e c te d to w a it p a tie n tly fo r a lo n g tim e even w h e n he has a co n firm e d ap p o in tm en t. T h is attitu d e co m es from th e su p e rio r status ascrib ed to th e b u y e r.W h a te v e r k n o w le d g e and skills h e m ig h t have, h e w ill n ever b eh ave as a p ro u d professional, b u t as a sin cere, even h u m b le, p e rfo rm e r o f services and favors that th e clie n t seek s.3 H e is also th e focal p o in t o f th e sale and m ust p e rso n ally atten d to m ost o f th e pro b lem s, in c lu d in g tech n ical o n es, in stead o f h a v in g o th e r specialists h an d le th em . In contrast, an A m e ric a n salesm an has th e attitu d e th at all business transactio n s sh ou ld b r in g m u tu a l b en efit to b o th th e sell­ er and th e b u yer, and th at th e ir relatio n sh ip is m o re o r less e g a li­ ta rian . F o r ex am p le, w h e n h e sells c o m p u ter chips at a co m p etitiv e p ric e , h e b eliev es th at th e b u y e r w ill realize a g o o d profit b y u sin g th em . C o n se q u e n tly , his attitu d e is m o re aggressive and d em an d in g and his m an n e r far less a p o lo getic th an th at o f th e Jap an ese sales­ m an . H e exp ects his clie n t to keep th e ap p o in tm en t w ith h im . H e o p e n ly show s his d isap p o in tm en t and displeasure i f h e is n o t treated w ith c o u rte sy and respect. E ven m an y A m e ric a n salesm en w h o have w o rk e d for a w h ile in Jap an rep o rt th at th e y w ere fre­ q u e n tly an g ered b y th e Jap an ese w a y o f trea tin g a salesm an, despite k n o w in g th at this is sim p ly a re flectio n o f th e statu s-o rien ted Jap an ese society. T h e A m e ric a n salesm an w h o w ish es to be suc­ cessful in se llin g in Jap an w ill have to take a less aggressive and less d e m a n d in g attitud e.

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Gift of Acquaintance

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P re se n tin g a g ift to a pro sp ective c lie n t o n th e first v isit is a w ell established social cu sto m am o n g Jap an ese b usin essm en . It is called o ch ik a z u k i n o s h ir u s h i o r “ a to k e n g ift o f a c q u a in tan c e ” and is n o t co n sid ered a b rib e in Jap an . U n lik e A m e ric a n co m p an ies, Jap an ese co m p an ies do n o t have a specific w r itte n p o lic y th at in structs th eir ex ecu tiv es, m an agers, o r em p lo yees n o t to accep t an y gift in ten d ed to in flu e n c e p u rch asin g d ecisio n s. E ven i f th e y have such a policy, th e y do n o t s tric tly en fo rce it unless a g ift is so o u trag eo u sly expen sive th at it w ill result in m isuse o f m an ag e rial p rero gative b y its re c ip ie n t. H o w ever, th ere is an u n w ritte n ru le called teid o m o n d a i o r “m atter o f d eg ree,” w h ic h m ean s, “Y ou can receiv e a m o d erate n u m b e r o f gifts, b u t y o u w ill b e re p rim an d ed i f y o u receiv e too m u c h and to o o ften.” In o th er w o rds, e v e ry Jap an ese busin essm an sh ould k n o w th e b lu rre d b u t c ritic a l lin e b e tw e e n a b rib e an d a to k e n gift o f acq u a in tan ce. A lth o u g h in te rn a tio n al b u sin essm en m ig h t feel th at th e gift g iv in g im p o ses u n n ecessary exp en se and m ig h t fro w n u p o n th e p ractice as a sh ad y one o r a b rib e to c u rry favor fro m th e p erso n in ch arge, th e y can n o t ig n o re this cu sto m e n tire ly w h e n se llin g to th e Jap an ese. T h e typ e and th e v a lu e o f a gift c o m m u n icate sin c e rity and a p p re c ia tio n .T h e Jap an ese are v e ry careful in c h o o sin g a p rop­ er g ift; a gift th at is e ith e r to o sm all or to o extrav agan t w ill in su lt th e p rospective clie n t. In te rn atio n a l b usin essm en sh ould co n sult w ith th e ir Jap an ese in tro d u c e r w h e n ch o o sin g an ap p ro p riate gift. T h e y can also go to th e gift sectio n o f a Jap an ese d ep artm en t store and ask a salesperson fo r ad vice. T h e gift o f acq u ain tan ce can b e a silk n e c k tie , a d o zen g o lf balls, a b o ttle o f S co tch w h isky, or a car­ to n o f cigarettes.

Get-Acquainted Time A n o th e r apparent d ifferen ce is th at o f th e le n g th o f “ g e t-a c q u a in t­ ed tim e ” n e e d e d b efo re a serio u s business discussion takes p lace. In Ja p a n , b usin essm en d rin k tea and e n ga ge in sm all ta lk b y e x ch a n g ­ in g p erso n al in fo rm a tio n and d iscussin g cu rren t in te rn a tio n al n ew s, th e w eath er, and sim ilar topics. I f th e y w ish to discuss b u si­

I n t e r p e r s o n a l C o m m u n i c a t i o n and Sales P r e s e n t a t i o n

ness im m e d iate ly , th e y u su ally ap o lo gize b y sayin g, S a sso k u s h i g o t o n o o h a n a s h id e m o s h iw a k e g o z a im a s e n g a . . . o r “ I am so rry th at I have to rush in to th e business discussion rig h t away, b u t . . .” T h is ap o l­ o g y is a u n iq u e Jap an ese c u sto m ;W estern b u sin essm en feel n o n eed to e n ga ge in a le n g th y so cial co n versatio n and to ap o lo gize for b r in g in g up business m atters im m ed iately. A fter all, b o th p arties k n o w th at th e y are g e ttin g to g e th e r for a business discussion. H o w ever, Jap an ese b usin essm en m ay n o t even allo w an aggressive salesm an to m ake his sales p resen tatio n i f th e y feel th at he has v io ­ la te d this im p o rtan t p ro to co l. In som e in stan ces, th e y w ill in te n ­ tio n a lly digress to th e social co n versatio n again b y ask in g h im questio n s to ta lly u n re late d to th e business at h an d. W h a t an A m e ric a n salesm an has to do, th en , is to learn b o th verb al and n o n verb al cues that signal th e m essage from his Jap an ese clie n t, “N o w w e can ta lk business.” T h e Jap an ese clien t m ay say, K o n k a i n o g o y o k e n w a . . . or “Y our business this tim e is . . . ” O r h e m a y give o ut subtle n o n verb al cues such as k e e p in g silen t for a fe w m in u tes, h a v in g b r ie f eye co n tact w ith th e salesm an, or ask in g i f he n eed s an o th er cup o f tea. B e in g p atien t and sensitive is, in d e e d , a v e ry im p o rtan t step for a salesm an tr y in g to establish p erso n al c re d ib ility in Jap an .

Soft-sell Approach T h e in itia l ap p ro ach is an o th er c ritic a l step in d e te rm in in g th e suc­ cess o r failu re o f an y sales p resen tatio n . T h e Jap an ese sales approach is alm ost alw ays a “ soft sell” rath e r th an a “hard sell.” T h is is again based o n th e c o m m o n ly accep ted business p h ilo so p h y in Jap an th at th e b u y e r is k in g . T h e Jap an ese g e n e ra lly d islike th e typ ica l A m e ric a n ap p ro ach o f lo g ic a l reaso n in g and aggressive tactics to p ersuad e th e pro sp ective clie n t. O n e c o m m o n m istake th at an A m e ric a n salesm an m akes in Ja p a n is th at he “b lo w s his o w n h o rn ” to o lo u d ly. H e talks as i f h e is th e m ost tru stw o rth y salesm an in the w o rld , th e p ro d u ct h e is se llin g is th e best, and n o b o d y else can su p p ly it at his p ric e . H e w ill ru n th ro u g h his professional ach iev e­ m en ts and ex p lain th e m e rits o f b u y in g his p ro d u ct w ith o u t g iv ­ in g th e Jap an ese c lie n t a ch an ce to respond. I f th e c lie n t does n o t resp on d im m e d iate ly , h e m ay even “le c tu r e ” o n th e m erits o f b u y ­ in g now . S u c h aggressive b eh avio r, w h ic h is q u ite co m m o n and

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accep tab le in th e W est, w ill b e lo o k e d d o w n u p o n as v e ry ru d e b e h av io r in Jap an . M a rc h ap tly su m m arizes th e ch allen g es for the W e ste rn seller as follow s:

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Extrovert, stereotyped salespeople may find it a little more challenging than usual to manage introverted, skeptical, unfriendly Japanese buyers.The Japanese dis­ dain of salesmanship, if you do launch out into product rhetoric, may be offensive. . . . In particular, you may need to speak less, use or tolerate silence more, give your Japanese buyer more personal space (don’t physi­ cally crowd him), expect that he knows his job (even if on first sight he does not inspire with confidence), and is only doing what he must do, and don’t expect to become friends, or even friendly, too quickly.”4 T h e salesm an sh ould n o t push to o h ard from th e b e g in ­ n in g in a “ty p ic a l A m e ric a n w a y ” b ecause d o in g so w ill m ake it hard fo r h im to establish rap p o rt w ith th e Jap an ese.

Offensive Sales Tactics C o m m o n sales tactics u sed in th e W estern business c o n tex t— such as “N ev er take ‘N o ’ for an answ er,” th e “Yes, b u t” te c h n iq u e , the “ T ake it o r leave it,” th reat, and th e relia n ce o n “th e p rin ted w o rd ”— are co n sid ered v e ry offensive in Jap an . W estern ers, espe­ c ia lly A m e ric an s, are ta u g h t c o m p e titio n and p ersisten ce from an e a rly age and u rg e d n o t to fear co n fro n tatio n in in terp erso n al d eal­ in gs. In sports, classroom s, o r b usiness, th e y are train ed to b e ag gres­ sive and w in at all costs. T h e fo llo w in g are possible Jap an ese reac­ tio n s to these tactics:

"Never Take 'No' for an Answer" For e x am p le, an A m e ric a n salesm an w h o receives “n o ” w ill im m e ­ d ia te ly b e g in to arg u e and tr y to ch an ge this “n o ” in to “yes.” H e fails to realize th at n o m atter h o w lo g ic a l and p lausib le his a rg u ­ m en t m ig h t b e, he w ill n ever p ersuad e a Jap an ese b u y e r b ecau se in

I n t e r p e r s o n a l C o m m u n i c a t i o n and Sales P r e s e n t a t i o n

Ja p a n , an aggressive and arg u m en tativ e m an is n ever tru sted . It is also tru e th at so -c alle d lo g ic a l tru th w ill n o t b e re a d ily accep ted . K obayashi exp lain s th at “th e Jap an ese have a d eep -ro o ted susp icio n o f w h a t is c le a rly d efin ed o r stated. T h e y b eliev e tru th is in th e g ray zone.”5 C o n seq u en tly, it is n o t w ise to ask to o m an y “w h y ” and “h o w -c o m e ” questio n s and to insist on clear answ ers i f the Jap an ese b u y e r is u n w illin g to co m ply. A co m m o n Jap an ese reac­ tio n to such a salesm an w ill b e K a r e w a to te m o rik u tts u p p o i o r “H e is to o arg u m en tativ e.”

"Yes, But" Technique T h is te c h n iq u e also sounds to o arg u m en tativ e to th e Jap an ese b uyer. W h a t it a c tu a lly m ean s is, “Yes, y o u m ay b e rig h t, b u t y o u w ill ch an ge y o u r m in d i f y o u listen to m y reaso n in g.” In th e sta­ tu s-o rie n te d Jap an ese society, it is alw ays d isco u rteo u s to argue w ith an yo n e w h o has a h ig h e r status— and a b u yer alw ays has a h ig h e r status. A rg u m e n t c le a rly v io lates th e w id e ly accep ted p h i­ lo so p h y o f Jap an ese b usin essm en th at th e cu sto m er is alw ays rig h t. T h e salesm an can offend his Jap an ese c lie n t i f he keep s o n u sin g this te c h n iq u e .

"Take It or Leave It" T h is is a h ig h -h a n d e d te c h n iq u e to force th e Jap an ese side to agree w ith th e p ro p o sitio n o r fo rget th e d eal alto geth er. W h e n sellin g to th e Jap an ese, it is n o t a g o o d tactic. N o t o n ly w ill it destroy an a m i­ cable in te rp e rso n al relatio n sh ip , b u t it also provides n o flex ib ility. Q u ite o ften, an im p a tie n t W estern salesm an m a y tr y to pressure the Jap an ese to accep t an offer b y sayin g, “ I f y o u w o n ’t take this final offer, I guess I’ll have to d eal w ith one o f y o u r co m p etito rs. T h at c o m p a n y seem s to b e v e ry in terested in d o in g business w ith us.” S u c h a statem en t w ill b e ta k e n as a th reat and w ill offend and an g er th e Jap an ese b uyer. M o reo v er, h e w ill lose face in front o f his fel­ lo w b usin essm en .

"The Printed Word" T h is tactic uses a v o lu m in o u s w r itte n d o cu m en t in E n glish to o v e rw h e lm a Jap an ese b uyer. A n u n e th ic a l salesm an can clev erly

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use this strategy, k n o w in g th at it w ill take th e Jap an ese b u y e r days to read and translate all th e p ages o f th e d o cu m en t. To get th e sales co n tract sign ed q u ic k ly — th e salesm an ’s in te n t— h e assures th at it is “ a standard co n tract.” H e even p rom ises th at th e term s o f th e c o n ­ tract can b e c h an ged later, w h e n in fact th e co n tract is w ritte n in his favor and is m ad e le g a lly b in d in g b y th e Jap an ese b u y e r’s sign a­ ture. M a n y Jap an ese b usin essm en are p rone to b e trap p ed b y this sales ta c tic b ecause th e y u su a lly do n o t co n sult an a tto rn e y b efore sig n in g a co n tract. T h ese offensive tactics m ay b r in g q u ic k profits to the clev er salesm an w h o uses th e m , b u t h e w ill n ever b e able to estab ­ lish a lo n g -te r m business relatio n sh ip w ith th e Jap an ese.

78

Proper Steps in Sales Presentations T h ere are six d ifferen t steps in a sales p resen tatio n : ap p ro ach , atten ­ tio n , n e e d , satisfactio n , close, and fo llo w -u p . E ach o f these steps m ust b e p lan n ed and e x ec u te d p ro p e rly w ith g o o d k n o w le d g e o f th e ir c u ltu ral im p licatio n s.

Approach E ven th o u g h an ap p o in tm en t has b e e n m ad e a fe w w eek s in ad vance, it is alw ays w ise to re c o n firm it th e d ay or even a few h o u rs b efore th e ap p o in tm en t. T h e clie n t m a y b e o u t o f to w n on an e m e rg e n c y business trip and th e ap p o in tm en t w ill have to be resch ed u led , e sp ecially i f h e is a b u sy ex ecu tiv e. It is also im p o rtan t to c h e c k h o w m u c h tim e it w ill take to get to his office (and to facto r in such v a riab les as traffic co n gestio n o r m issed train c o n ­ n ectio n s). It is advisable n o t to take a ta x i d u rin g m o rn in g and aftern o o n rush h o u rs, w h e n traffic can b e te rrib le in b ig Jap an ese cities such as T o kyo ,Y o ko h am a, and O saka. U p o n arriv al at th e Jap an ese c lie n t’s office, a fo reig n b u si­ n essm an m ust first c h e c k w ith th e recep tio n ist. T h e v isito r is u su ­ a lly ex p e c te d to w a it u n til a m ale assistant co m es and escorts h im to a co n feren ce ro o m . T h e p erso n e sc o rtin g th e v isito r w ill in d i­ cate w h ic h seat h e sh o u ld o ccup y, an d th e secretary w ill b rin g a cup o f Jap an ese g re e n tea o r coffee for h im and an o th er cup for

I n t e r p e r s o n a l C o m m u n i c a t i o n and Sales P r e s e n t a t i o n

her manager. The visitor should not drink the tea until the host comes and offers it to him.* W hen the Japanese client comes in, the visitor should stand up, shake hands, and exchange m e i s h i . T h e n , they sit down to chat and try to establish rapport by engaging in small talk for a while. This process relaxes both men psychologi­ cally before they begin a serious business discussion.

Attention Transition to attention is not easy; the salesman must analyze the prospective client’s mood to determine whether he should contin­ ue to engage in informal chitchat or get down to business right away. If the Japanese client seems ready to talk business, the sales­ man humbly presents information regarding the company’s recent business activities with an annual report and other printed materi­ als. Important data and information should be presented on over­ head transparencies or on flip charts. Many foreign companies ignore the importance of having these items of corporate infor­ mation translated into Japanese. Knowing that most Japanese busi­ nessmen understand English, they feel that they can get by with only English. However, they must realize that Japanese is still the language of business transactions in Japan. Besides, using Japanese will create a strong impression that his company is serious about doing business with the Japanese client and will draw favorable attention to the company’s image, credibility, and reliability.

Need Once the prospective client is convinced that he should listen to the sales presentation, the salesman can begin to discuss his specif­ ic proposal. He must find out what his client’s needs are by tact­ fully asking questions. Often a Western businessman does not listen carefully to what is being said and instead rushes to explain his pro­ posal. He should be patient and slow down, and wait for reactions to each point of his presentation. Generally speaking, the Japanese

* This is not a cup of coffee or tea offered to a visitor to drink while waiting in a typical American business context. In Japan, the visitor should not help himself before he is offered it by the host.

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do n o t resp on d im m e d ia te ly lik e W estern ers, and th e y do n o t v o ice o b jectio n s q u ickly. B ased on w h a t h e has fo u n d o u t, th e salesm an m ust c le a rly id e n tify specific n eed s and tr y to m e e t th e m at the c lie n t’s request.

Satisfaction

80

O n c e th e n eed s are w e ll d efin ed , th e salesm an m ust satisfy th e m b y p ro v id in g a sp ecific proposal o r sales co n tract. T h e p rospective b u y e r m ay have questio n s ab o ut p ric e , quality, delivery, p aym en t, service, w arran ty, a d v ertisin g allo w an ce, and so on. T h e salesm an n eed s to b e p rep ared to an sw er all o f these q uestion s satisfactorily. In th is step, th e salesm an sh ou ld em p hasize th e b en efits and ad v an ­ tages o f d o in g business w ith h im so th at th e c lie n t can v isu alize w h a t th is business tran sactio n w ill b r in g h im and his com pany. T h e salesm an sh o u ld k n o w th at th e Jap an ese are v e ry m e tic u lo u s and d e m a n d in g o f g o o d service and o n -tim e delivery. A t this stage, the salesm an ’s a b ility to m ake a firm c o m m itm en t o n th e spot is v e ry im p o rtan t. A n ex cu se lik e “ I’ll have to c h e c k on th at w ith the h o m e o ffice” w ill n ever h elp h im close a business d eal in Jap an .

Close T h e close is th e m ost d ifficult p art o f an y sales p resen tatio n b ecause th e salesm an m ust in itia te it. It is even m o re difficult to close a sale w ith th e Jap an ese, w h o are e x tre m e ly relu ctan t to m ake a fin al p u r­ ch asin g c o m m itm e n t o n th e spot. A fter h av in g seem ed agreeab le all a lo n g th e w ay, th e y m ay su d d e n ly b e c o m e v ag u e and evasive. T h ere are tw o reasons for this b e h av io r: (1) T h e p erso n w h o has b e e n liste n in g to th e sales p resen tatio n is n o t th e real d ecisio n m aker. (2) O n e in d iv id u a l ex ecu tiv e o r m an ag er can n o t m ake a c o m m itm e n t, even th o u g h h e m ig h t have b e e n p erso n ally p e r­ suaded. In Jap an ese business o rgan izatio n s alm ost all m ajo r d e c i­ sions are m ad e b y consensus. C o n seq u en tly, to o aggressive an ap proach m ay b ackfire o n a salesm an. I f h e tries to o hard to push a sale, h e m ay g et a “relu ctan t y e s ” w h ic h really m ean s “no.” Instead o f p u sh in g, h e m ust e x p la in or an sw er q uestion s fairly and tactfu l­ ly u n til th e Jap an ese side feels p s y c h o lo g ic a lly co m fo rtab le and re ad y to accep t th e pro p osed sales co n tract.

I n t e r p e r s o n a l C o m m u n i c a t i o n and Sales P r e s e n t a t i o n

A t this stage, an aggressive A m e ric a n salesm an, assu m in g th at th e sale is m ad e, is lik e ly to ask, “W h ic h p aym en t schedu le w o u ld y o u p refer— a th irty -d a y n et o r a six ty -d a y cred it p lan ?” in stead o f sayin g, “ I f y o u w an t to b u y th is p ro d u ct, I w ill offer y o u tw o p aym en t plans.” T h is te c h n iq u e seem s to w o rk w e ll w ith an A m e ric a n c lie n t w h o n eed s a little p ush, b u t it w ill n o t w o rk w ell w ith th e Ja p a n e se .T h e y m a y feel o ffen d ed b y this sales tr ic k . In m ost instan ces, th e y w ill say, “ I’ll call y o u la te r w h e n w e d ecid e.” T h e salesm an sh ould n o t re a d ily accep t this answ er, b ecause th e ch an ces are th e y w ill n ever call b ack. H e m ust p o lite ­ ly insist th at h e n eed s to k n o w w h e n h e can call b a c k for a d efi­ n ite answ er. I f h e can n o t get an y p o sitive in d ic atio n o f th e ir w ill­ in gn ess to do business, h e sh ou ld stop ch asin g th e Jap an ese clien t. 81

Follow-up W h e n th e sale is co n c lu d e d , th e salesm an sh ould tactfu lly reassure th e clie n t th at h e has m ad e a w ise d ecisio n w ith such statem en ts as “ I’m sure th at y o u m ad e th e rig h t d ecisio n ,” “W e w o n ’t b e able to offer this p ro d u ct at th e sam e p ric e n e x t m o n th ,” and “ I’m sure th at y o u w ill have a lo t o f satisfied custo m ers.” T h e salesm an can send a le tte r o f ap p reciatio n to th e clie n t an d / o r m ake a telep h o n e call and offer fu rth e r assistance. H e m ig h t say, “M r. T an aka, I called to th a n k y o u for th e o rd er y o u gave m e yesterday. P lease call m e i f y o u n e e d an y m o re assistance. It w as in d e e d a p leasure d o in g business w ith y o u r esteem ed com pany.” G ood fo llo w -u p alw ays assures the clie n t th at h e m ad e th e rig h t d ecisio n and also helps h im ra tio n al­ ize his actio n . In o th er w o rds, it is in su ran ce again st th e c lie n t’s reversin g his d ecisio n .

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Contract Negotiation and Conflict Resolution

e g o tia tin g co n tracts an d re so lv in g d isp utes across c u ltu ral and lin g u is tic b a rrie rs re q u ire g o o d c u ltu ra l k n o w le d g e , b etter c o m m u n ic a tio n skills, an d a g re a t d eal o f p atien ce and p ersev er­ an ce. N e g o tia to rs, m e d iato rs, an d arb itrato rs m ust u n d erstan d h o w c u ltu re and la n g u a g e affect th e process and th e o u tco m e o f th e ir efforts. D esp ite th e fact th at Jap an e se m u ltin a tio n a l co rp o ratio n s are e n g a g in g in business activ itie s all o ver th e w o rld , Jap an ese b u sin essm en still use th e ir u n iq u e c u ltu re -b o u n d w ays, esp ecially w h e n it co m es to co n tract n e g o tia tio n and co n flict reso lu tio n . M a n y fo re ig n b usin essp eo p le fin d th at th e n e g o tia tio n tactics o f se e m in g ly a m icab le Jap an ese b u sin essm en are u n b u sin esslik e, a m b ig u o u s, in sin c e re , and even d e c eitfu l. Ja p a n is an A sian c o u n try, b u t th e Jap an ese style o f n e g o ­ tia tio n is v e r y d ifferen t from n e g o tia tio n styles in C h in a and K orea, Ja p a n ’s closest A sian n e ig h b o rs. In co n trast to th e aggressive h a g g lin g ty p ic a l o f C h in e s e an d K o reans, th e Jap an ese p refer to e n g a g e in m o re sub tle and lo w -k e y e d b a rg a in in g .1 T h e v e rtic al n atu re o f Jap an ese so ciety, w h ic h p laces a h ig h v a lu e o n savin g face and av o id in g in te rp e rso n a l co n fro n tatio n s, has also d isco u r­ ag ed th e Jap an ese from ad o p tin g th e A m e ric a n style o f aggressive b a rg a in in g and co n fro n tatio n . It go es w ith o u t sayin g th at a g o o d u n d e rsta n d in g o f u n iq u e Jap an ese w ays is th e m o st im p o rta n t p re ­ re q u isite fo r successful d ealin g s w ith th e Jap an ese.

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Chapter 5

Negotiation

84

N e g o tia tin g w ith th e Jap an ese can be a difficult and fru stratin g e x p e rie n c e for W estern ers and o th er A sians alike. T h e attitudes of Jap an ese n e go tiato rs to w ard n e g o tia tio n and th e ir d istinctive n e g o tia tio n tactics are based o n th e tra d itio n al Jap an ese business c u ltu re and social custom s. To b e g in w ith , th e w o rd “n e g o tia tio n ” and its usu al Jap an ese tran slatio n , k o sh o have sig n ifican tly different m ean in gs. W h e re a s “n e g o tia tio n ” u su a lly suggests discussion, co n ­ cession, and co n feren ce in th e W estern c u ltu re, k osh o has n uan ces in Jap an ese of fig h tin g , co n flict, strategy, arg u m en t, and debate. C o n seq u en tly, th e Jap an ese fre q u e n tly en ter in to n e g o tia tio n ses­ sions e x p e c tin g to b e g iv e n a hard tim e , and th e y feel th at th ey m ust a rm th em selves in ad v an ce.2 T h e Jap an ese are also n o t accus­ to m e d to n e g o tia tin g a co n tract ac c o rd in g to an ite m iz e d agen da. T h e y p refer to solve co n tractu al issues o r pro b lem s th ro u g h in fo r­ m al h a n a s h ia i o r a series o f “m u tu a l co n su ltatio n s” aw ay fro m a n e g o tia tio n table. T h e y are u su ally n o t c o n c e rn e d ab o ut specific item s o f th e co n tract u n d e r co n sid eratio n , b u t ab o ut first reach in g a b ro ad a g re e m e n t b y estab lish in g a tru stin g relatio n sh ip b e tw e e n th e tw o p arties. T h e y alw ays w an t to establish a w a rm n in g e n k a n k ei or “in te rp e rso n al re la tio n sh ip ” rath e r th an a r ig id co n tractu al o b lig atio n to o n e an o th er. S o m e Jap an ese b usin essm en are even w illin g to en ter in to a co n tract w ith o u t carefully c h e c k in g its details w h e n th e y fin d th e ir business associates to b e w a rm (a ta ta k a i) and sin cere (seijitsu ). D esp ite th e rap id W este rn iza tio n o f Jap an ese so ciety d u r­ in g th e past several decades, Ja p a n ’s h isto rical and cu ltu ral roots still in flu e n c e th e Jap an ese n e g o tia tio n style. A s w e have seen, th e T o ku gaw a sh ogun ate successfully m ain ta in ed self-im p o sed seclusio n fro m d irect fo reig n co n tacts for m o re th an 2 5 0 years (1 6 1 6 -1 8 6 7 ). D u rin g this p e rio d , Ja p a n ’s p o p u latio n b ecam e v e ry h o m o g en o u s, and th e Jap an ese p eo p le d evelo p ed th e ir u n iq u e c u l­ tu re and social custom s. B ecau se ric e fa rm in g w as th e m ost im p o r­ tant e c o n o m ic a c tiv ity in Ja p a n for m a n y cen tu ries, ric e -fa rm in g c u ltu re persists in a m o d ifie d fo rm even in to d a y ’s in d u strializ ed Jap an . U n lik e th e in d iv id u a listic h u n tin g and g a th e rin g cu ltu re o f th e W est, ric e fa rm in g in Ja p a n re q u ire d close co o p eratio n and the

C o n t r a c t N e g o t i a t i o n and C o nf l i ct Res ol ut i on

p a rtic ip a tio n o f m a n y groups o f fam ilies and frien d s fro m th e v il­ lage. R ic e c u ltiv a tio n ta u g h t th e Jap an ese to d e-em p h asize in d iv id ­ u al n eed s and desires in favor o f g ro u p interests. T h is attitu d e o f g ro u p -c e n te re d n e ss and m u tu a l assistance is still p erp etu ated in schools and at w o rk p laces in Jap an . In ad d itio n , th e sm all and m o u n tain o u s g e o g rap h y o f Jap an and th e dense p o p u latio n have in flu e n c e d th e Jap an ese to th in k o f o th ers’ n eed s and feelin gs in social in teractio n s and business d ealin gs. In classroom s, liv e ly dis­ cussions are n o t p art o f th e Jap an ese stud en ts’ e x p e rie n c e . Q u ie t lis­ te n in g and o b e d ie n c e are rew ard ed rath e r th an d eb atin g skills and in d e p e n d e n t th in k in g . L ik ew ise, Jap an ese b usin essm en are n o t rew ard ed for th e ir e lo q u e n c e and v erb al skills. T h e y alm ost alw ays avoid th e co m b ative o r d e b a tin g style o f n e g o tia tio n o ften u sed b y A m e ric a n b usin essm en . T alkativeness is also co n sid ered a n egativ e trait for a resp ectab le Jap an ese b usinessm an. A n o th e r im p o rta n t in flu e n c e o n Jap an ese n e g o tia tin g style is th at Ja p a n is a v e rtic a lly stru ctu red so ciety based o n th e tra d i­ tio n a l te a c h in g o f C o n fu ciu s. A t th e in te rp erso n al lev el, age, sex, e d u c a tio n , o c c u p atio n , and relatio n sh ip are th e bases o f status dis­ tin c tio n . P eo p le at all levels feel u n co m fo rtab le i f status distin ctio n s are ig n o re d in in te rp e rso n a l in te rac tio n s. T h ese status distin ctio n s also affect h o w p articip an ts beh ave in business n ego tiatio n s. C o n seq u en tly, th e Jap an ese alw ays p lay a “ status gam e,” w h ile the W estern ers m a y go o u t o f th e ir w a y to establish in terp erso n al equality. It is c ru c ia l to un d erstan d w h y and h o w th e Jap an ese n e g o ­ tiate th e w a y th e y do. T h ere are several im p o rtan t co n sideratio n s and effective tactics for successful n ego tiatio n s w ith th e Japanese.

Preparing for Negotiation To prepare for effective n ego tiatio n , o ne m ust (1) d eterm in e the p urp o se o f the n ego tiatio n ; (2) assess the situation; (3) select appro­ p riate n ego tiatio n tea m m em b ers; (4) gath er p ertin en t in fo rm atio n and data; (5) m ake an agenda; and (6) w o rk o ut concession strategies. T h e typ e and scope o f p rep aratio n n eed ed for d e te rm in ­ in g th e p urp o se o f th e n e g o tia tio n h in g es o n w h e th e r it is a n e w

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co n tract n e g o tia tio n or re n e g o tia tio n o f an o ld co n tract. I f it is for a n e w co n tract, it is o n ly n ecessary to pro vide a lo t o f in fo rm atio n and m aterials to im press th e pro sp ective Jap an ese business associ­ ates. O n th e o th er h an d , i f it is a re n e g o tiatio n , it is n ecessary to p ro vid e n e w in fo rm a tio n and data th at w ill h elp ren eg o tiate the sp ecific term s o f th e e x istin g co n tract. T h e secon d step is to assess th e situ atio n accurately. It is essential to assess th e relative p o w er relatio n sh ip first. A larg e and p o w erfu l Jap an ese c o m p a n y can b e m o re d e m an d in g th an a m e d iu m -siz e d o r a sm all com pany. T h e b u y e r-s e lle r relatio n sh ip is an o th er im p o rta n t factor. A s w e have seen, in Ja p a n ’s business w o rld , b u yers alw ays o u tra n k sellers. M a rc h ex p lain s, “A m o n g the Jap an ese, this d ifferen ce in status is c le a rly m ark ed b y th e d eferen ­ tial b e h av io r o f th e seller, w h o uses h o n o rific lan g u ag e, and c o n ­ versely, b y th e m ild ly h a u g h ty m an n ers o f th e b u yer.” 3 T h is m eans th at th e Jap an ese b u y e r u n ila te ra lly co n tro ls th e w a y th e n e g o tia ­ tio n p ro ceed s and ex p ects m u c h m o re resp ect and deferen ce fro m th e seller. O n th e o th er h an d, i f th e Jap an ese side is sellin g, the Jap an ese n e go tiato rs w ill act w ith h u m ility and utm o st courtesy. It is also im p o rtan t to reco gn ize th at som e Jap an ese co m p an ies v alu e th e p restige o f d o in g business w ith a b ig and fam o us m u ltin a tio n ­ al c o m p a n y o ver sh o rt-te rm p ro fitability. T h e th ird step is to care fu lly select th e n e g o tia tio n tea m m em b ers. M o st W e ste rn b usin essm en , esp ecially A m e ric a n e x ec u ­ tives, feel th at th e y sh o u ld b e able to h an d le an y n e g o tia tio n sin ­ g le-h an d ed ly. T h is “ I can go it a lo n e ” attitu d e can b e a severe d isad vantage; a sin gle n e g o tia to r w ill b e o u tn u m b ered b y a larg er Jap an ese n e g o tia tio n te a m w h o se m em b ers are assigned specific tasks. N o m a tte r h o w ta le n te d a p erso n m ig h t b e, o n e A m e ric a n ex ecu tiv e can h a rd ly fo llo w several th in g s th at are g o in g o n d u rin g a n e g o tia tio n session. It is also v e ry im p o rtan t to m atc h ran ks o f those w h o are selected to p articip ate. I f a sen io r v ic e p residen t, v ic e p resid en t o f th e in te rn a tio n a l d ep artm en t, and d irecto r o f m ark etin g are e x p ect­ ed to co m e fro m th e Jap an ese side, th e A m e ric a n side sh o u ld send ex ecu tiv es o f th e sam e ra n k to th e n e g o tia tio n table. It is an utm o st in sult to th e Jap an ese i f y o u n g , ju n io r A m e ric a n m an agers are assigned to represent th e ir co m p an y in Jap an . U n fo rtun ately, w o m en and m in o rity ex ecu tiv es are n o t e a g e rly accep ted in Ja p a n ’s b u si­ ness circles as b o n a fide rep resen tatives as yet.

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As for characteristics of a good bargainer, Graham and Sano claim that those characteristics identified by American exec­ utives such as thinking under pressure, product knowledge, and verbal skills are of secondary importance in Japanese negotiations. They suggest that listening ability, interpersonal orientation, w ill­ ingness to use team assistance, self-esteem, high aspirations, attrac­ tiveness, and influence at headquarters are particularly important when negotiating with the Japanese.4 Listening ability is especially critical when negotiating across cultural and linguistic barriers. It may be difficult for Westerners to accurately understand what Japanese negotiators are explaining in poor English unless they lis­ ten patiently and pay very close attention.* Interpersonal orienta­ tion means that bargainers take a flexible approach instead of stub­ bornly clinging to their culture-bound ways of negotiating. They should be able to “play the chameleon” if the situation requires it. Willingness to use team assistance is not a trait that most Americans will cherish, but it makes a substantial difference in international negotiation, particularly when negotiating with team-oriented Japanese negotiators. Not only does the team approach alleviate the burden on the one or two individuals in charge, but the inclu­ sion of several technical or financial experts in the team also helps establish personal relationships with their Japanese counterparts. Self-esteem or belief in one’s own ideas is an important personal asset because negotiators are often required to work and act in ambiguous situations without the benefit of having the immediate help of their superiors and subordinates. They are also required to bridge the gap between their home office and the Japanese busi­ ness associates. High aspirations regarding the deal to be negotiated are important. Negotiators must show their enthusiasm and long-term commitment personally if they hope to gain respect and support from their Japanese counterparts. This does not mean that negotia­ tors ought to be peppy and talkative, but they need to show sin­ cere interest and enthusiasm. In addition, negotiators should be refined, courteous, and intelligent people who are not ethnocen-

* Not all Japanese negotiators speak “broken English,” but they may not speak logically and coherently like Westerners because they are usually translating Japanese thoughts into English.

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tric and are free of racial prejudice. In Japan, n i n g e n s e i or “human­ ness” is considered a more important trait than business acumen. The Japanese feel more comfortable doing business with “friends” rather than with calculating business partners.* Influence at headquarters is a particularly important char­ acteristic. For international businessmen, the toughest part of their negotiations in a foreign country is selling the agreement to head­ quarters. Because they understand the situation much better than the people at headquarters, they are frequently compelled to make proper concessions based on their own judgment. However, they are often criticized for not presenting the home office’s view strongly enough and for making unnecessary concessions. There­ fore, it is critical that the negotiators selected to represent the com­ pany have real influence at headquarters so that they can effective­ ly negotiate and successfully implement the fruits of their effort. If it is necessary to hire an interpreter, it is always advisable to hire a professional interpreter instead of asking the Japanese side to pro­ vide the interpreting service. Finally, it is best not to include legal counsel on the initial negotiation team unless legal opinions are absolutely necessary during the negotiation. The presence of lawyers can cause uneasiness and suspicion among the Japanese negotiation team members. Japanese companies usually have their secretariat office ( b u n s h o k a ), not lawyers, draw up contracts and agreements. They hire lawyers only when they need to solve legal disputes. The fourth step in negotiation preparation is to gather specific pertinent information and data. It is absolutely necessary to learn as much as possible about a potential Japanese business partner through their corporate pamphlets, recent stock market reports, and trade newspapers and journals. The investigation should include information regarding the company’s market share, ranking within its industry, financial status, and plans for future expansion. In addition to getting background information on those who are actually participating in the negotiation sessions,

* Japanese businessmen often complain that Westerners, particularly Americans, are too focused on the logical, rational, and legal aspects of contract negotiation and ignore the emotional, intuitive, and human aspects of establishing business relationships.

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it is necessary to obtain personal background information about the key executives of the company through the Japanese “W ho’s W ho” books and informal sources.* In Japan, it must be remem­ bered that w h o is involved is more important than w h a t is being done in any business transaction, and knowing a lot about key executives will make a good impression on the Japanese negotia­ tion team members. It is also necessary to know the Japanese com­ pany’s group affiliation (k e ir e ts u ) and a main bank that the compa­ ny has been dealing with. In many instances, representatives of both the parent company and the main bank will participate in an important negotiation as observers. The fifth step is to work out an agenda. One side can pre­ pare the agenda or both sides can do it jointly. It is more prudent to work it out jointly through a series of informal sessions because Japanese negotiators dislike surprises. The agenda should list all issues to be negotiated. To prevent time from being wasted on minor issues, major issues should be listed first. However, if the major issues are expected to cause serious difficulties, the minor ones should be listed first so that negotiators can handle the easyto-handle issues early in the process. Mutual concessions on the minor issues, in turn, could build an atmosphere of goodwill and cooperation, and at the same time, these concessions could be used to balance concessions on the major issues. It is always wise to pre­ pare two agendas: a general agenda to be presented to the other side and a detailed agenda for one’s own use. The latter includes detailed notes and a contingency strategies about what to do at each step of the way. It is also necessary to recognize that the Japanese may not stick to the agenda and discuss each item sequen­ tially as Americans generally do. They often deviate from the agen­ da when they find it difficult to follow and return to a particular agenda item later. The key is to be flexible and not to insist on strictly following the agenda. The sixth step—to work out concession strategies—is the most difficult step for American negotiators.They commonly make

* In some instances, other foreign companies that have dealt with that Japanese company can be valuable sources of information, but they might also provide biased and subjective information. A reliable introducer can also be a valuable source of information.

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th e fo llo w in g m istakes: T h e y m ake u n n ecessary co ncessions alo n g th e w ay, assu m in g th at th e Jap an ese side w ill re c ip ro c a te .T h e y also b e liev e th at co n cessio n o n each ag en d a ite m w ill le a d to a q u ic k c o n clu sio n o f th e n e g o tia tio n . A n o th e r m istak e is caused b y im p a­ tie n c e and an in c lin a tio n to “ split th e d ifferen ce” w h e n th e n e g o ­ tia tio n bogs d o w n ; th e Jap an ese o ften p lay o n this im p atien ce and g e n ero sity o f th e A m e ric an s to g ain an advantage. S till an o th er m istake is th at A m e ric a n te a m m em b ers o p e n ly arg u e am o n g th em selves in front o f th e ir Jap an ese co u n terp arts. It w o u ld b e b e t­ ter to take b reaks and caucus w h e n e v e r th e y have d isagreem en ts. T h e Jap an ese side w ill use in tra te a m disputes to tr y to p ut a w ed g e b e tw e e n th e A m e ric a n te a m m em b ers and take advantage o f an u n se ttlin g situ atio n . Jap an ese n e go tiato rs n ever m ake a co n cessio n o r reco n sid er a n y th in g w ith o u t first ta k in g a b reak and re a c h in g a consensus a m o n g them selves.

Manipulation of Situational Factors O n c e p rep aratio ns for n e g o tia tio n are co m p leted , n ego tiato rs m ust co n sid er situ atio n al factors such as w h e re th e n eg o tiatio n s are to be h e ld , tim e lim its, and p la y in g o n aud ien ces. T h e lo c a tio n o f th e n eg o tiatio n s can b e th e m ost im p o r­ tant situ atio n al factor. It has b o th p ractical and p sych o lo g ical im p li­ catio ns on th e process and th e o u tco m e o f n eg o tiatio n . I f the n e g o tia tio n is h e ld in o n e ’s o w n te rrito ry , th e h o m e te a m w ill have “h o m e c o u rt ad v an tag e” : (1) T h e h o m e te a m m em b ers have access to all th e n ecessary in fo rm a tio n and reso urces close by. (2) T h e y can g et approval o r disapproval o n th e p ro b lem s th at th e y d id n o t an ticip ate. (3) T h e y can take care o f o th er business m atters and have th e ir o w n facilities available w h ile h a n d lin g th e n eg o tiatio n s. (4) T h e y can o b tain ad d itio n al assistance fro m th e ir sup p ort groups in c o lle c tin g n ecessary d ata and m aterials for th e o n g o in g n e g o tia ­ tio n . (5) T h e y have th e p syc h o lo g ic a l ad vantage o f h av in g th e o th er side co m e to th e m . (6) T h e y can save tra v e lin g tim e and avoid p ay­ in g lo n g -d ista n c e te le p h o n e charges. H a v in g th e n e g o tia tio n h e ld in th e o p p o n en t’s te rr ito ry also has som e ad vantages: (1) T h e v isitin g tea m m em b ers can devote th e ir full atte n tio n to th e o n -g o in g n e g o tiatio n w ith o u t in te rru p tio n s fro m th e ir offices. (2) T h e y can w ith h o ld in fo rm atio n

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o r c o m m itm e n t, statin g th at th e y have to ask th e h o m e office. (4) T h e y m a y have th e o p tio n o f g o in g over th e ir o p p o n en t’s h ead to an ex ecu tiv e w ith a h ig h e r m a n a g e ria l p o sitio n in th e la tte r’s c o m ­ p an y i f n o satisfacto ry answ ers are fo rth c o m in g . (5) T h e b u rd en o f p rep aratio n is o n th e o th er side. D e c id in g o n th e lo c a tio n is p a rtic u la rly im p o rtan t w h e n n e g o tia tin g w ith th e Jap an ese b ecau se th e y alw ays w an t to g ain the p syc h o lo g ic a l ad vantage over th e v isitin g fo reign ers. T h e y are q u ite w illin g to spend a larg e sum o f m o n e y for th e ir guests’ e n te rta in ­ m en t to g ain this advantage. T h e y m ig h t say, “ T okyo is lo v ely this tim e o f year. C h e r r y trees w ill b e in full b lo o m .Y o u can do som e sigh tseein g w h ile y o u are o n this trip .” T h is is o n e o f th e ir tactics to m an ip u late th e n e g o tia tio n settin g. T h e visito rs sh ou ld n o t be to o w illin g to accep t lavish e n te rta in m e n t and sh o u ld avoid b e c o m in g to o o b lig ated to th e Jap an ese host (alth o u g h it is im p o ­ lite and u n d ip lo m a tic to give a flat refu sal).T h e visito rs sh o u ld also b e cau tio u s n o t to m istake th is Jap an ese h o sp itality for frien d sh ip ; it is sim p ly standard p ra c tic e .5 I f possible, it is a g o o d id ea to can ­ c el o u t th e o b lig atio n b y c o u n te rin g w ith a sim ilar in v itatio n . For e x am p le, th e v isitin g A m e ric a n n e go tiato rs can host an A m e ric a n style d in n e r p a rty at th e ir h o te l in e x ch a n g e for th e g eish a p arty h o sted b y th e Jap an ese side. I f n e ith e r side is w illin g to give in o n th e lo catio n , it is a g o o d id e a to suggest a n e u tra l lo c a tio n lik e H a w a i‘i. In ad d itio n to h a v in g b e a u tifu l b each es and g o lf co urses, H a w a i‘i is a co n v en ien t lo c a tio n for c o n su m m a tin g m a n y tran s-P acific business deals. A t an y rate, b a rg a in in g over lo c a tio n is best h an d led in a subtle and in d ire c t m an n e r th ro u g h in fo rm a l talks. I f it is n ecessary to travel to Jap an , ho w ever, one can red u ce th e h o m e co u rt ad vantage o f th e Jap an ese side. O n e g o o d strategy is to h o ld m e e tin g s at y o u r h o te l co n feren ce ro o m and in v ite the Jap an ese n e g o tia tio n tea m to call o n y o u . It is also w ise to p ay for restaurant and b ar expen ses in stead o f h a v in g th e Jap an ese side pay for e v e ry th in g . T im e lim its are an o th er e x tre m e ly c ritic a l facto r to be co n sid ered . Toki w a k a n en a ri or “ T im e is m o n e y ” is a co m m o n say­ in g am o n g Jap an ese b usin essm en , b u t th e y do n o t h an d le tim e in th e sam e efficien t w a y as W estern ers do. T h e y b ec o m e v e ry c a u ­ tio u s and are w illin g to take lots m o re tim e w h e n it co m es to an in te rn a tio n a l business n e g o tia tio n . T h e y also p lay a status gam e b y m a n ip u la tin g tim e usage and th e re b y te stin g th e p atien ce o f busy

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W estern ers, p a rtic u la rly A m e ric a n s, to th e lim it. In fact, m an y A m e ric a n b u sin essp eo p le co m p lain b itte rly th at th e clo c k m oves m u c h m o re slo w ly in Jap an . T h e Jap an ese side m a y in te n tio n a lly d elay a d ecisio n for n o ap p aren t reasons to squeeze o u t co ncessions w h e n th e A m e ri­ can side pushes to co n su m m ate a d eal. Ja p a n -b o u n d A m e ric a n b u sin essp eo p le are often advised n o t to te ll th e Jap an ese side th e ir sch ed u led d ep artu re fro m Ja p a n b ecau se th e y w ill b e tak en ad v an ­ tage o f i f th e y reveal a ru sh ed tim e s c h e d u le .A lo n g e r stay in Jap an w ill c o m m u n ic a te a stro n g m essage o f c o m m itm e n t, w h ic h in tu rn , w ill in flu e n c e th e Jap an ese n e g o tia to rs’ b eh av io r d u rin g the n e g o tia tio n sessions. In som e in stan ces, A m e ric a n re lig io u s or n atio n al h o lid ays are u sed as a lever. O bviously, it is n o t a g o o d id ea to a llo w th e Jap an ese side to sch ed u le a d ifficult n e g o tia tio n rig h t b efo re Easter, T h a n k sg iv in g , o r C h ristm as b ecause th e y k n o w th at A m e ric a n b u sin essp eo p le w ill rush h o m e to spend th e h o lid ays w ith th e ir fam ilies. It is also u n w ise to sch ed u le n e g o tia tio n ses­ sions in Ja p a n d u rin g lo n g Jap an ese h o lid ays. For ex am p le,Jap an ese offices close d u rin g th ree lo n g an n u al h o lid ays: th e G o ld en W e e k (A p ril 2 9 th ro u g h M a y 5), O b o n (B ud d h ist h o lid ays— A u g u st 15 th ro u g h 17), and N e w Y ear’s h o lid ays (D ecem b er 2 7 th ro u g h Ja n u a ry 5). S till an o th e r co n sid eratio n in sch ed u lin g n e g o tiatio n sessions is th at th e fiscal calen d ar for Jap an ese businesses and g o v ­ e rn m e n t offices b e g in s in A p ril and ends in M arch . P la y in g o n a u d ien ces can b e an effective strategy w ith the Jap an ese, b u t o n ly i f it is o rch estrated w e ll. Jap an ese b u sin essm en are so c o n c e rn e d ab o ut a g o o d co rp o rate im ag e th at th e y can be pressured in to ta k in g actio n s based o n this co n c e rn rath er th an on p ractical business co n cern s. U n d e r c e rta in circum stan ces, th e y m ay even o v erlo o k o b vio us d isadvantages or m in o r pro b lem s and c o n ­ clu d e a business d eal ju s t to u p h o ld th e p u b lic im ag e o f th e ir c o m ­ pany. T h e Jap an ese are sensitive to in te rn a tio n al and lo cal mass m e d ia, co m p etito rs, th e ir m ain b an ks, g o v ern m en t m in istries, trade associations, and th e g e n e ra l p ub lic.T o d ay, a n ew s scoop o n a la rg e scale Ja p a n -U .S . business tran sactio n th at is b e in g n eg o tiated can in flu e n c e its o u tco m e. It is d ifficult th e n for e ith er p arty to d en y th e alread y p u b lic iz e d a g re e m e n t o r business ven tu re. S in ce Jap an ese c o rp o ratio n s m ust face k e e n c o m p etitio n fro m d o m estic rivals, th e y are e x tre m e ly m in d fu l o f w h a t th e ir co m p etito rs w ill th in k i f th e y can n o t co n su m m ate th e p u b liciz ed deal. T h e y so m e­ tim es take h asty actio n s ju s t to sh ow o ff to th e ir co m p etito rs. In

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fact, this “m e -to o ” attitu d e caused floods o f d irect cap ital in vest­ m en ts fro m Jap an in to U .S. real estate m arkets d u rin g th e e c o ­ n o m ic b u b b le years o f th e late 1980s. A c c o rd in g to Van Z an d t, fo reig n b usin essm en fin d th at th ere are th ree p arties w h e n th e y n e g o tia te in Jap an : th e Jap an ese co m pany, th e fo reig n com pany, and th e Jap an ese g o v e rn m e n t.6 T h e n e g o tia tio n w ill b e several tim es m o re difficult w h e n th e g o v ­ e rn m e n t p articip ates even in d irectly. A t tim es, th e g o v ern m en t m ay p lay a face-sav in g ro le and d e n y th e a p p licatio n for lic e n sin g or o p e n in g a n e w fo reig n v en tu re i f th e Jap an ese co m p an y w an ts to b a c k o u t o f an a g re e m e n t alread y reach ed . S o m etim es, th e Jap an ese c o m p a n y ’s b a n k w ill also b e c o m e an o th er p arty to th e n e g o tiatio n , a lth o u g h th e b a n k rep resen tative w ill n o t p articip ate in actual n e g o tia tio n sessions. T rade associations also ap p ly pressure to p re­ v en t in tro d u c tio n o f n e w fo reig n businesses o r p ro ducts th at w ill n e g a tiv e ly affect th e status quo o f Ja p a n ’s d o m estic m arket. For e x am p le, stro n g p o litic a l pressure fro m trade associations kep t larg e fo reig n d isco u n t stores and fo reig n ric e , apples, o ran ges, and b e e f o u t o f Jap an u n til v e ry recen tly. A lth o u g h th e Jap an ese p u b lic has h ad a stro n ger v o ic e in recen t years and advocates in tro d u c in g fo r­ e ig n p ro d ucts, Jap an ese co n sum ers do n o t have en o u g h p o w er to h elp e lim in a te th e d irect o r in d ire c t restrictio n s o n th e im p o rtatio n o f fo reig n p roducts. F o reign b u sin essp eo p le m ust le a rn to m a n ip u ­ late th ese au d ien ces to th e ir ad vantage i f th e y w ish to c a rry o ut successful business n eg o tiatio n s in Jap an .

Understanding Unique Negotiation Tactics Several Jap an ese n e g o tia tio n tactics m a y b e co n sid ered u n e th ica l and u n accep tab le in th e W estern business co n tex t. O n e such tactic is to g ain p syc h o lo g ic a l ad vantage over th e o p p o n en t b y d ecep tio n . M a rc h claim s th at Jap an ese n eg o tiato rs still fo llo w th e ad v ice o f S u n T su , a fo u rth -c e n tu ry C h in e se m ilita rist, o n th e art o f w a r :“ To d efeat th e e n e m y p s y c h o lo g ic a lly is th e su p erio r strategy. T h e w a r­ r io r ’s w a y is one o f d ec e p tio n . T h e k e y to success is to cap italize u p o n y o u r p o w er to do th e u n e x p e c te d , w h e n a p p earin g to be u n p rep ared .”7 To im p le m e n t th is ta c tic, Jap an ese n ego tiato rs p a tie n tly co n d u c t “in te llig e n c e w o rk .” In ad d itio n to fo rm ally re q u e stin g w r itte n m aterials, th e y w ill m ake an ex tra effort to

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o b tain m o re in fo rm a tio n v ia in fo rm a l m ean s b efo re n e g o tiatin g . A Jap an ese m a n a g e r in ch arge m ay suggest p la y in g a g am e o f g o lf o r h a v in g a n ic e d in n er, and h e w ill n o t spare ex p en se o r stint on tim e for these ta sk s.T h e n h e w ill n o n c h a la n tly ask a m e m b e r o f th e o th er sid e’s n e g o tia tin g te a m w h a t he th in k s ab o ut th e u p c o m in g co n tract, top m a n a g e m e n t’s attitu d e, th e u rg e n c y o f th e p en d in g d eal, ex iste n c e o f co m p etito rs, and th e lik e. O th e r Jap an ese n e g o tia tio n tactics in c lu d e p ad d ed offers, c o n tin g en t offers, sh ifting b lam e, v ic tim m en tality, in d u lg e n t d ep en ­ dency, e m o tio n -d re n c h e d p erso n al ap p eal, and m a in ta in in g in te r­ p erso n al h arm o ny. Jap an ese n eg o tiato rs ro u tin e ly use p ad d ed offers w h e n th e y do n o t k n o w w h a t to ex p e c t fro m fo reig n b u yers o r sellers, as th e y feel it is safer to leave ro o m to m an eu ver. Jap an ese m erch an ts fre q u e n tly use K a m a o k ak eru (try in g to d raw o u t tru e in ten tio n s b y m a k in g an o u trageo u s offer) w h e n b a rg a in in g for p ric e a re d u c tio n .W e ste rn e rs b e c o m e susp icio us i f th e Jap an ese, after m a k in g an o u trageo u s offer and ju s tify in g it, sh am elessly ch an ge it to a m o re realistic o n e w h e n th e y e n c o u n te r a stro n g o b je c tio n .T h is tactic is a stark contrast to th e A m e ric a n n e g o tia to rs’ straigh tfo rw ard and h o n est d isclo sure o f in fo rm a tio n . T h e W estern tactic o f sayin g, “Y ou te ll m e w h a t y o u w an t, and I ’ll te ll y o u w h a t w e w an t,” w ill n o t w o rk in Jap an . “Y ou go first” o r th e co n tin g e n t offer is a tactic freq u en t­ ly used b y th e Jap an ese. T h e y w ill n ev er disclose th e ir o w n n e g o ­ tia tin g p o sitio n s first w ith o u t k n o w in g th e o p p o n en ts’ p o sitio n s. In o th er w o rds, th e y w ill m ake co ncessions o r co m pro m ises o n ly i f th e o p p o n en ts do so first. T h e Jap an ese ab h o r m a k in g u n ila teral co n cessions o r “ g iv in g up so m e th in g for n o th in g .” 8 I f th e y are fo rced to m ake a co n cessio n , th e y w ill, to save face, d em an d at least a to k e n co n cessio n in re tu rn . S h iftin g th e b lam e o n to th e o th er side is an o th er face-sav ­ in g d evice alm ost alw ays u sed b y th e Jap an ese w h e n e v e r n e g o tia ­ tio n s b o g d o w n . H isto rically, th e Jap an ese have alw ays b lam ed fo r­ e ig n ers w h e n e v e r th e y h ad to face up to serio us in te rn a tio n a l c o n ­ flicts.9 T h is te n d e n c y is based o n th e sense o f rig h tn ess ro o ted in th e w id esp read co n v ic tio n th at th e Jap an ese are, as a race, d ecen t, h o n o rab le, and in n o c e n t p e o p le .T h e m ost co m m o n fo rm o f b lam e is atta c k in g th e la c k o f s e i ’i (sin cerity) o f th e o p p o sin g party. T h e assu m p tio n is th at an y pro b lem s c o u ld b e solved i f th e o p p o n en t

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w ere sincere and w illin g to co o p erate. T h is arg u m en t is based on th e ir sub jective assessm ent o f th e situ atio n rath er th an an o b jective analysis o f th e data and in fo rm a tio n .10 A n o th e r Jap an ese attitu d e is h ig a is h a ish ik i o r “v ic tim m e n ­ tality.” “W h e n th e Jap an ese are th re ate n e d o r attack ed b y o th ers, th e y see it im m e d ia te ly as un fair. T h e y see th em selves as w eak , defenseless, and v ic tim iz e d .” 11 B ecau se o f this attitu d e, th e Jap an ese are u n y ie ld in g and w ill refuse to m ake an y co n cessio n s even u n d er stro n g fo reig n pressure. Ja p a n ’s response to th e co n tin u ed b ash in g ab o ut u n fa ir trad e p ractices b y A m e ric a n p o litical an d business lead ers takes th e fo rm o f v ic tim m en tality. T h e Jap an ese p eo p le feel th at Ja p a n has b e e n m ad e a scap ego at b y th e U n ite d States and A sian c o u n trie s fo r e c o n o m ic , p o litic al, and even social p ro b ­ lem s. For this reason, th e y have a stro n g te n d e n c y to b lam e the o th er side w h e n n eg o tiatio n s b e c o m e d ead lo ck ed o r b reak off. T h e y m ay co m p lain to th e o th er side b y sayin g, “A m e ric a n n e g o ­ tiato rs are to o d e m a n d in g and have no p atien ce at all. W e co u ld reach an a g re e m e n t i f th e y w ere reasonable and u n d erstan d in g o f Ja p a n ’s situ atio n .” A u n iq u e ly Jap an ese n e g o tia tio n tactic is th e use o f a m a e o r “in d u lg e n t d e p e n d e n c y ” in n e g o tia tin g w ith a m o re p o w erfu l o p p o n en t. In Ja p a n -U .S . trad e n eg o tiatio n s, th e Jap an ese g o v ern ­ m en t co n tin u es to use a m a e to ap p eal for u n d erstan d in g o f Ja p a n ’s “frag ile status” and asks g e n ero sity o f th e “p o w erfu l” U n ite d States. L eb ra ex p lain s th at this use o f a m a e is a fo rm o f status m a n ip u la ­ tio n . “ It is n o t u n c o m m o n th at a Jap an ese n ego tiato r, ap p aren tly w ith o u t b a rg a in in g p o w er, succeed s in n e g o tia tio n e n tire ly b y h u m b lin g h im self, b y b o w in g lo w and b e g g in g persistently.” 12 H e succeed s b y cau sin g th e o th er p a rty to feel g u ilty for k e e p in g h im in such a sh am eful posture. In th e Jap an ese cu ltu ral c o n tex t, this h u m b le p osture has a strong persuasive ap p eal. W h e n a p erso n o f su p e rio r status assum es a h u m b le p osture and asks for th e h elp o f an in fe rio r, his persuasive ap p eal is o v e rw h elm in g . In ad d itio n , a flat refusal o f such a disparate req u est m ad e b y th e h ig h -statu s p erson at a h ig h cost o f face o ften calls fo r re ta lia tio n in th e Jap an ese social co n tex t. N a n iw a b u sh i o r an “ e m o tio n -d re n c h e d p erso n al ap p eal” is a sim ilar e m o tio n al d evice to arouse em pathy. T h e o rig in o f n a n i­ w a b u s h i traces b a c k to th e sto ries to ld b y street en tertain ers th at b ec am e p o p u lar am o n g th e c o m m o n fo lk d u rin g th e latte r decades

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o f th e T o ku g aw a sh ogun ate. T h e ty p ic a l th em es w ere sad p ligh ts o f b ro k en loves and separated fa m ily m em b ers, and ex p lo its o f y a k u z a * w h o se g o o d deeds w e re g lo rifie d . N a n iw a b u sh i in to d a y ’s business co n te x t refers to m a k in g d ecisio n s based m o re o n em o ­ tio n a l feelin gs and less o n o b jective reaso n in g. M a rc h exp lain s th at n a n iw a b u s h i consists o f th ree phases: th e o p e n in g (k ik kak e), w h ic h gives th e gen era l b a c k g ro u n d o f th e sto ry and tells w h at th e p e o ­ p le in vo lved are th in k in g o r fe e lin g ; an acco u n t o f c ritic a l events ( s e m e ) ; and expressio n o f so rro w (u rei) at w h a t has h a p p e n e d .13 In som e w ays, th is is v e ry sim ilar to “ c r y in g o n so m eo n e’s sh oulder.” It is still an effective tactic in Jap an . W estern ers m ay th in k th at it is n o t a v e ry persuasive tactic, b u t th e y sh ou ld b e aw are th at the Jap an ese m ay use this n a n iw a b u s h i tactic against th em . It is rep o rt­ ed th at this tactic w as successfully used b y th e ex ecu tiv e v ic e pres­ id e n t o f A llie d Im p o rt C o m p a n y o fJa p a n w h e n h e h ad to b reak the im passe d u rin g th e fin al stage o f n e g o tia tio n w ith Safew ay Sto res.14 H a rm o n y (w a) is o n e o f th e im p o rtan t cu ltu ral valu es o f Jap an ese society. Jap an ese n e go tiato rs o ften avoid sayin g “n o ” to m a in ta in in te rp e rso n al h a rm o n y in fa c e -to -fa c e c o m m u n icatio n . T h is is in sharp contrast to th e can d o r o f A m e ric a n n ego tiato rs w h o m ig h t say, “T ell m e yes o r te ll m e n o — b u t give m e a straight answ er.” 15 C o n seq u en tly, A m e ric a n n eg o tiato rs co m p lain ab o ut th e d ifficu lties o f g e ttin g clear feed b ack fro m th e Jap an ese n e g o tia ­ tors, esp e c ia lly w h e n th e n e g o tia tio n is n o t g o in g w e ll. Instead o f sayin g “y e s ” or “no,” th e Jap an ese use subtle n o n verb al signals such as av o id in g eye co n tact, p ro lo n ged silen ce, and scratch in g the h ead . O r th e y m ay m ake am b ig u o u s statem en ts lik e “ It can b e v e ry d ifficu lt” o r “W e ’ll th in k it o ver carefully, and le t y o u k n o w o u r an sw er later.” B o th o f these statem ents a c tu ally m e a n ,“ O u r answ er is ‘no,’ b u t w e w o n ’t say so b ecause w e d o n ’t w an t to cause ill fe e l­ in g s rig h t here.” Jap an ese n eg o tiato rs also use th e d u al ap p ro ach o f ta te m a e (official stance) and h o n n e (tru e m in d ). In fo rm al n e g o tia tio n ses-

* Y akuza is a criminal element in Japanese society that engages in such illegal activities as extortion, racketeering, loan sharking, drug trafficking, prostitution, and gambling. However, y a k u z a bosses were once revered as kindhearted men and friends of the poor like Robin Hoods of Notting­ ham during the samurai era of the nineteenth century.

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sions, th e Jap an ese w ill reveal w h a t o u g h t to b e said rath er th an w h a t th e y re a lly m ean . For e x am p le, th e Jap an ese co m p a n y ’s ta te m a e is th at th e y still w ish to m ake a d eal, b u t th e h o n n e is th at th e y are no lo n g e r in terested in th e d eal. T h is seem s h y p o critic a l, b u t this is h o w th e Jap an ese avoid sayin g “n o ” in th e in terest o f m a in ta in in g in te rp e rso n al h arm o n y. T h e Jap an ese seem to ex p ect W estern ers to u n d erstan d w h a t th e y re a lly m ean b y o b serv in g the subtle b u t clear verb al and n o n verb al cues and in n u en d o es. O n th e o th e r h an d , h o n n e m ay b e expressed d ire c tly in som e instances. T h e Jap an ese w ill give a “flat n o ” w h e n th e y re al­ ize th at th e y are in m u c h h ig h e r p o sitio n s in th e ir status rela tio n ­ ship w ith o th ers. For ex am p le, an irate Jap an ese m an ag er o f a larg e c o m p a n y can b e c o m e v e ry ru d e and b lu n t w h e n h e talks to a staff m e m b e r o f its fo reig n su b sid iary com pany. C le ar “y es” o r “n o ” answ ers can b e u sed b e tw e e n close frien ds and fa m ily m em b ers w h e n th ere is n o d an g e r o f h u rtin g o th ers’ feelin gs.

Conducting the Negotiation O p e n in g a n e g o tia tio n session w ith Jap an ese n ego tiato rs req u ires a fe w im p o rtan t social ritu als. First, th e Jap an ese side prefers to take a lo t m o re tim e fo r a isa tsu (g reetin g) and in tro d u c tio n o f each m em b er. T h e y m a y n o n c h a la n tly ask q u estio n s ab o u t b o th the p erso n al and professional b ack g ro u n d s o f each m em b er o f the o p p o sin g team . T h e y w ill e n ga ge in n o n task -so u n d in g social c o n ­ versatio n to fin d o u t w h e th e r th e o p p o sin g te a m m em b ers are tru stw o rth y and sincere and have a co o p erativ e a ttitu d e .T h e y n eed to establish an am icab le in te rp e rso n al relatio n sh ip and a p leasant atm o sp h ere b efo re g e ttin g d o w n to business. T h e y u su ally spend ten o r tw e n ty m in u tes o n this k in d o f co n versatio n , d rin k in g tea or coffee and ch attin g . D u rin g th is p e rio d , a fe w top Jap an ese execu tiv es m ay ap p ear for a few m in u tes ju s t for a isa tsu and have a cup o f te a w ith th e v isito rs.T h e se execu tiv es do n o t u su a lly p articip ate in th e actu ­ al n e g o tia tio n sessions, b u t th e ir ap p earan ce at this tim e is a clear sign al th at th e Jap an ese side is serio us ab o ut th e n e w d eal to be n e g o tia te d .T h e ir fu n c tio n is m a in ly c e re m o n ial, and th e y ex ch an g e m e is h i w ith th e v isito rs and e n ga ge in sm all ta lk for a few m in u tes.

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T h e y m ay also pass th e ir in tu itiv e ju d g m e n t o n th e v isitin g n e g o ­ tiato rs and ta lk ab o ut th e ir first im p ressio n s to th e Jap an ese n e g o ­ tia tin g te a m m em b ers late r. O n c e th e Jap an ese n e go tiato rs are satisfied w ith th e n o n ­ task so u n d in g, th e y w ill in itia te th e discussion o f business. It is w ise n o t to rush th e m in to this secon d stage o f n e g o tia tio n ; failu re to establish tru stin g p erso n al relatio n sh ip s w ith th e Jap an ese n e g o tia ­ tio n te a m m em b ers at this stage m a y result in m isu n d erstan d in gs, d isto rted p ercep tio n s, h o stility, u n e x p e c te d p o stp o n em en t, and even ab an d o n m en t o f th e n e g o tia te d d eal. In d iscussin g th e ag en d a item s, it is n ecessary to reco gn ize th at th e Jap an ese u su a lly take a h o listic ap p ro ach o r n o n seq u en ­ tia l ap p ro ach . G rah am and San o la b e l th is p a rtic u la r Jap an ese ap p ro ach “ co n v ersatio n al m e an d ers.” 16 T h e Jap an ese u su a lly b e g in w ith th e g e n e ra l issue, ta lk in g u n sy ste m a tic a lly aro u n d it and m e a n d e rin g w ith o u t regard to th e ag en d a o r structure. W estern b u sin essp eo p le, w h o b e liev e th at th ere is a set o f issues and th at each issue sh ou ld b e settled in d ep en d en tly, m ay b e frustrated and an n o yed w ith th e la c k o f a lo g ic a l seq u en ce. T h e y m ust p lay alo n g w ith th e Jap an ese b y b e in g p atie n t and a c c ep tin g th e ir w a y o f h an ­ d lin g th e ag en d a item s. A t this stage, g o o d co m m u n ic a tio n is a v e ry c ritic a l factor. B o th o f th e o p p o sin g n e g o tia tio n team s m ust p erfo rm th e fo llo w ­ in g tasks: (1) fin d o u t w h a t settlem en t th e ir o p p o n en t w o u ld be w illin g to accep t; (2) reveal to th e o p p o n en t w h at settlem en t w o u ld b e accep tab le to th e m ; (3) in flu e n c e th e o p p o n en t b y m eans o f persu asio n o r th reat to accep t th e offer; (4) p ro vide th e o p p o ­ n e n t w ith ju stific a tio n s for a c c e p tin g th e p roposed settlem en t. T h ese tasks are n o t easy to acco m p lish , esp ecially w h e n e ith er p a rty suffers fro m a la n g u a g e h an d icap . In n e g o tia tin g w ith the Jap an ese, it is erro n eo u s to assum e th at e v ery Jap an ese n eg o tiato r has a professional co m p e te n c e in E n glish . N everth eless, to avoid em b arrassm en t, som e o f th e m m ay n o t o p e n ly ad m it th at th e y can ­ n o t n e g o tia te c o m p le x issues in E n glish . Invariably, aggressive A m e ric a n n e go tiato rs o v e rw h e lm th e Jap an ese side b y o n e-sid ed lo g ic a l arg u m en ts and stro n g co n ten tio n s. B ecau se th e Jap an ese ty p ic a lly sh o w little p h ysical and v erb al activity, th e A m erican s, w h o can e asily d o m in ate th e verb al in te rac tio n , assum e th at th ey are w in n in g th e n e g o tia tio n . In reality, h o w ever, th e Jap an ese are “b e in g o u t-ta lk e d , n o t o u t-n e g o tia te d .” 17 T h e ty p ica l Jap an ese

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reactio n to this ta c tic is to insist th at th e sam e p o in ts be rep eated o r to b e c o m e to ta lly unresponsive. I f th e y w ish to solve this p ro b lem , th e A m e ric a n n e g o tia ­ tors m ust re co gn iz e th at it takes m o re tim e fo r th e Jap an ese to resp on d to q u estio n s in E n g lish .T h e y sh o u ld n o t v o lu n te e r to sup ­ p ly w o rds, phrases, and senten ces w h e n th e Jap an ese are still stru g ­ g lin g to express th e ir th o u g h ts in E n g lish .T h e y m ust le a rn to allo w lo n g pauses and silen ces w ith o u t g e ttin g frustrated o r im p atien t. T h e y sh ou ld n o t use c o llo q u ia l expressions and sh ou ld refrain from jo k in g aro u n d ju s t to b e frien d ly. I f th e Jap an ese n ego tiato rs are h a v in g d iffic u lty in u n d e rsta n d in g w h a t has b e e n talk ed ab o u t, the A m e ric a n s m a y have to rep eat th e sam e ex p lan atio n s a fe w tim es. In all instan ces, w ritte n e x p lan atio n , grap hs, figures, p ictu res, and slides are e x tre m e ly useful in o v erco m in g c o m m u n ic atio n d ifficu l­ ties. A m e ric a n n eg o tiato rs sh o u ld care fu lly p lan th e ir E nglish c o m m u n ic a tio n and sh ou ld a llo w am p le tim e for q u estio n s and clarificatio n s. D u rin g th e n e g o tia tio n , c e rta in “ signposts” o r verb al and n o n verb al m essages c o m m u n ic ate th e p aram eters w ith in w h ic h n e g o tia tio n can take p lace. S ig n p o stin g is used to test each p a rty ’s stren gth o r w eakn ess and m in im u m and m a x im u m p o sitions. F o r e x am p le, th e Jap an ese side m ay stro n gly o b ject and th reaten to can ­ c el th e en tire n e g o tia tio n i f th e A m e ric a n side asks for a larg e lu m p -s u m p aym en t. F ro m this n egativ e re actio n , th e A m e ric a n side can p erceive th at this is a h ig h -r is k and te n sio n -raisin g issue. T h is signpost w arn s th e A m e ric a n s th at in sistin g o n a larg e lu m p -s u m p aym en t w ill b e a source o f possible co n flict. E ffective n e go tiato rs n e e d to d evelo p flex ib le co m m u n ic a ­ tio n strategies to co p e w ith possible co n flicts and to lo o k for sign ­ posts o f “ give p o in ts” and “m ust p o in ts.” T h e ir strategy m ust be based o n p rio r fa c t-fin d in g research and in fo rm al co n sultatio n s. T h e y w ill have to d e te rm in e w h a t th e b a rg a in in g issues are and arran g e th e m in o rd er o f im p o rtan ce. T h e less im p o rtan t issues, the “ give po in ts,” can b e used as trade-offs. A t th e sam e tim e, n e g o tia ­ tors m ust fin d th e o p p o n en ts’ “m ust p o in ts,” p o in ts th e y w ill n o t give aw ay easily. T h e n eg o tiato rs m ust get aro un d those p o in ts and tr y to g ain as m u c h as th e y can. T h e y m ust also b e flex ib le en o u g h to m o d ify th e ir n e g o tia tio n strategy i f th e y later fin d o u t th at the o p p o n en ts have c h an g ed th e ir “m ust p o in ts” o r th at th e y th e m ­ selves in a c c u ra te ly estim ated th e o p p o n en ts’ positions.

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A ll p arties in vo lved in n e g o tia tio n are m o tiv ated to co m p ete and co o p erate at th e sam e tim e .W h ile th e o p p o sin g p arties figh t for the best attain ab le p o sitio n , b o th p arties m ust w o rk to g eth er to reach a m u tu a lly accep tab le ag re e m e n t. T h e id eal result o f n e g o tiatio n sh ould n o t b e “w in n e r take all,” b u t a “w in - w in situ atio n .” H o w ever, it is n o t alw ays possible to co n d u ct am icab le n e g o tiatio n sessions and reach a p erfect ag re e m e n t. In n e g o tia tin g across c u l­ tu res, in te rp e rso n a l co n flicts are b o u n d to develop b ecause th e p ar­ ties do n o t share th e sam e p ercep tio n s o f w h at is ap p ro p riate and w h a t is in ap p ro p riate. T h e o th er side has different cu ltu ral values, social custom s, standards o f eth ics, and business p rin cip les and p rac­ tices. E th n o c e n trism , racial stereo typ es, and p reju d ices b eco m e even m o re c ritic a l factors w h e n ju d g in g honesty, sin cerity, and tru stw o rth in ess. N e g o tia to rs n e e d to avoid ill-c o n c e iv e d and u n scru p u lo u s tactics such as p o la riz e d c o m m u n ic atio n , m isd irect­ ed c o m m u n ic a tio n , d ecep tiv e c o m m u n ic a tio n , and p seu d o -lo g ic al argum en ts. P o lariz ed c o m m u n ic a tio n m akes th e n e g o tia tio n a w in lo se situ atio n . It c le a rly show s th at th e o p p o sin g p o sitio n s are m iles ap art and suggests th at a settlem en t can b e reach ed o n ly at the exp en se o f th e o th er party. It n o t o n ly creates ten sio n , b u t it also creates a h ig h -r is k situ atio n . In an e m o tio n a lly ch arg ed situ atio n , an A m e ric a n e x ecu tiv e m a y b e te m p ted to b eh ave ag gressively as i f h e w e re n e g o tia tin g in th e U n ite d States and say, “Y ou ju s t take o u r offer o r leave it! Y o ur excu se fo r n o t a g re e in g to it n o w is to tally u n accep tab le.Y o u are so evasive and to o slo w in d ecisio n m ak in g . A s y o u kn o w , w e d o n ’t have to d eal w ith y o u . T h ere are m an y C h in e se and K o rean co m p an ies w a n tin g to ju m p at this business d eal.” S u c h statem ents m ake m u tu a l co o p eratio n n e a rly im possible. T h e y disp lay an e th n o c e n tric attitu d e and an u n w illin g n e ss to accep t d ifferen t Jap an ese business p ra c tic e s.T h e A m e ric a n n e g o tia ­ to r m ust re co gn iz e th at th e im p o sitio n o f A m e ric a n w ays w ill in v ite n egativ e results. W h a t is c alled “reaso nable and p ro p er” in n e g o tia tin g a co n tract in th e A m e ric a n business co n tex t can be offensive in o th er cultures. M isd ire c te d c o m m u n ic a tio n takes several different form s. O n e c o m m o n ty p e is an attem p t to m ake th e o th er p a rty feel

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g uilty. Sup p o se th at a jo in t ven tu re b e tw e e n an A m e ric a n co m p a­ n y and a Jap an ese c o m p a n y does n o t w o rk , and a m e e tin g is called to restru ctu re th e p revio u s ag re e m e n t. T h e A m e ric a n side tries to m ake th e Jap an ese side feel g u ilty b y o p e n ly statin g, “W e feel that y o u have n o t liv e d up to o u r a g re e m e n t. T h is v en tu re has failed b ecause y o u did n o t assign c o m p eten t m an agers. Y ou spent too m u c h m o n e y for e n te rta in m e n t for n o th in g . W e d o n ’t th in k this n e g o tia tio n w ill result in a n y th in g w o rth w h ile .” T h is fo rm o f m is­ d irected co m m u n ic a tio n m akes th e Jap an ese side e x tre m e ly d efen ­ sive and an gry. T h e Jap an ese are q u ic k to take offense even at an u n in te n d e d slight. T h e y ten d to in te rp re t o b jective ob servation s and co n stru ctive criticism s as p erso n al attacks o n th e m and on the w h o le Jap an ese race. S o m e o ld er Jap an ese still e x p e rie n c e feelin gs o f aw kw ard n ess or in fe rio rity , and th e y are easily in tim id a te d w h e n d e a lin g w ith W estern ers. D ecep tiv e c o m m u n ic a tio n is an o th er u n e th ica l tactic to g ain a strategic ad vantage over an o p p o n en t b y ex ag g e ratio n , fic ti­ tio u s exam p les, actu al lies, o r b lu ffin g .T h e se attem p ts to in flate the b a rg a in in g p o sitio n create serio us draw b acks. O n ce th e actu al p o si­ tio n is k n o w n , th e d e c e iv in g p a rty w ill b e fo rced to retreat fro m th e in flated p o sitio n . H e w ill lo se c re d ib ility and fin d it d ifficult to o b tain co ncessions fro m th e o th er party. A n o th e r c o m m o n fo rm o f d ecep tiv e c o m m u n ic atio n is th e in te n tio n a l p ilin g up o f sm all “ give p o in ts” and issues ta n g e n ­ tia lly related to th e m ain issue. T h is strategy is d esign ed to o ver­ w h e lm th e o p p o n en t b y th e sh eer w e ig h t o f m a te ria l p resen ted. It w ill n ever b e effective, b ecause th e o p p o n en t w ill q u ic k ly re c o g ­ n ize th e p e rip h e ra l n atu re o f those irre le v an t m aterials, disco un t th e ir im p o rta n c e and q u estio n th e sin c e rity o f th e d e c e iv in g party. In to d a y ’s h ig h -te c h in fo rm a tio n society, it is v irtu a lly im p o ssib le to d eceiv e an o p p o n en t w ith false in fo rm atio n and in flated data. R e tr ie v a l and v e rific a tio n o f th e in fo rm a tio n and data are easy and in stan t fro m e v e ry c o rn e r o f th e w o rld . P se u d o -lo g ic a l arg u m en ts are often used in n e g o tiatio n b y W estern ers. A m e ric a n n e go tiato rs are e sp ecially fo n d o f lo g ic a l argu m en ts. T h e y have b e e n ta u gh t to d efen d th e ir co n ten tio n s b y assertin g th em selves at h o m e, at scho o l, and at w o rk . T h e y ten d to use w h a t th e y see w ill b e persuasive arg u m en ts and ex p ect to ach iev e th e ir goal even i f th e y have to m ake up a sto ry at tim es. It is e n tire ly possible th at th e ir arg u m en ts are flaw lessly sup p orted

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w ith p ro p er d ata and in fo rm a tio n , b u t th e Jap an ese w ill b eco m e skep tical o f such argu m en ts. In Ja p a n , h a v in g a rep u tatio n for b e in g r ik u ts u -p o i or “ o v erly lo g ic a l” n e g a tiv e ly affects th e n e g o tia to r’s re p u ta tio n for in te g r ity and tru stw o rth in ess b ecause th e Jap an ese are averse to aggressive lo g ic a l a tta c k s.T h ro u g h o u t th e ir so cializa­ tio n fro m e a rly ch ild h o o d , th e y have b e e n ta u g h t to h o ld b ack w h a t th e y re a lly w an t to say fo r th e sake o f m a in ta in in g in te rp e r­ sonal h arm o n y. T h e p se u d o -lo g ic a l arg u m en ts o r “ arg u m en ts for a rg u m e n t’s sake” so m etim es u sed b y A m e rican s w ill n o t w o rk w ith th e Jap an ese.

Coping with Frustrations at the Negotiation Table 102 A t th e stage o f e x c h a n g in g ta sk -related in fo rm atio n , m a n y p ro b ­ lem s e m e rg e fro m th e co n trastin g n e g o tia tio n styles o fW estern ers and Jap an ese. B ecau se these pro b lem s are caused b y differen ces in business p ractices and social custo m s, it is n o t easy to co p e w ith th e m w ith o u t e x ercisin g c u ltu ra l em p ath y and m en tal flex ib ility. W estern ers fre q u e n tly co m p lain th at th e Jap an ese are slo w er and m o re d elib erate and th at it takes th e m a lo n g tim e to m ake co n cessio n s.W estern ers also co m p lain th at th e Jap an ese retreat in to v agu e statem ents o r silen ce w h e n co m p licatio n s develop and m ake fre­ q u e n t referrals to su p erio rs o r th e h ead o ffic e .T h e y also fin d som e o f th e Jap an ese n o n verb al b eh avio rs to b e c o m p lex and co n fusin g. T h e m ost serio us p ro b lem th at b u sy W estern n ego tiato rs m ust co p e w ith is a m u c h slo w er style o f b a rg a in in g in Jap an . It does n o t m ean th at Jap an ese n e go tiato rs are n o t co n sciou s o f tim e and d ead lin es, b u t th e y w an t to b e cau tio u s and th o ro u g h . U n lik e W e ste rn n e go tiato rs, th e y are n o t u sed to m a k in g a d eal or sig n in g a co n tract w ith a lo t o f co n tin g e n c ie s. I f th e y fin d an y u n c le ar or d o u b tfu l p o in ts, th e y w ill ask th e o p p o n en ts to restate and clarify th e m ag ain and ag ain u n til th e y are fu lly satisfied. T h e y w ill also take a te a m ap p ro ach and alw ays tr y to reach a consensus am o n g th em selves b efo re resp o n d in g to an y th in g . I f th e y are pressured to m ake a q u ic k d ecisio n , th e y w ill b e c o m e skep tical o f th e o p p o ­ n e n ts’ in te n tio n and act even m o re slow ly. It is also im p o rtan t to re co gn iz e th at th e Jap an ese are m o re lik e ly to m ake concessions to w ard th e en d o f n e g o tia tio n in stead o f ta k in g th e seq u en tial and

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lo g ic a l ap p ro ach p referred b y th e W e ste rn n ego tiato rs. O bviously, th e W estern ers m ust n o t rush th e Jap an ese to accep t th e ir w a y o f m a k in g co n cessio n s, even th o u g h th e n e g o tia tio n m ig h t n o t be p ro gressin g as q u ic k ly as th e y w ish . A n o th e r m a jo r p ro b lem for W estern n ego tiato rs is th at Jap an ese n e go tiato rs w ill m ake v a g u e statem en ts, pause frequen tly, and stop ta lk in g w h e n th e y ru n in to difficulties. In contrast, A m e ric a n s g e n e ra lly b e c o m e m o re aggressive and arg u m en tativ e and tr y to p ersuad e th e Jap an ese side w ith threats, p ro m ises, and lo g ic a l reaso n in g. S u c h aggressive tactics w ill b ac k fire ; th e y w ill cause th e Jap an ese side to sh o w even m o re p atien ce and p ersev er­ an ce and m o re in d ifferen ce to tim e p ressu res.T h is Jap an ese b eh av ­ io r is a sh o w o f b o th d efian ce and an xiety. T h e o n ly so lu tio n for this p ro b lem is to create a pleasan t and am icab le atm o sp h ere b y re d u c in g all social ten sio n s c o m in g fro m th e o n g o in g b arg ain in g . It is alw ays a g o o d id e a to take a lo n g coffee b reak to en gage in social co n versatio n o r to resch ed u le sub sequ en t n e g o tiatio n ses­ sions o n an o th er day. O n ce so cial ten sio n s em erg e fro m o p en co n ­ flicts over d ifficult issues, it w ill b e im p o ssib le to p ro ceed u n til the am icab le atm o sp h ere is re k in d le d . H a v in g a n ice d in n er o r ta k in g a day o ff fro m n e g o tiatio n s to p lay a ro u n d o f g o lf w ill d efin itely h elp red u ce th e social ten sio n s. T h e Jap an ese feel m o re co m fo rt­ able m a k in g n egativ e statem ents in in fo rm al situatio n s. S o m etim es, th e y even reveal th e ir “tru e m in d ” sm ilin g ly and h a lf-jo k in g ly u n d e r th e preten se o f b e in g a little d ru n k .T h is does n o t m ean th at th e y are dish o nest o r c u n n in g ; th e y are sim p ly tr y in g to save face for b o th sides. S till an o th er cause o f fru stratio n can b e th at Jap an ese n e g o tia tin g te a m m em b ers u su ally have little o r n o a u th o rity to m ake o n -th e -sp o t d ecisio n s. T h ere are several reasons w h y th ey n e e d to co n fer w ith su p erio rs at th e h o m e office. In Jap an , all m a jo r business d ecisio n s are m ad e th ro u g h r in g i o r “g ro u p d ecisio n m a k in g .” F u rth er, Jap an ese n eg o tiato rs are n o t u su ally g iv en a u th o rity to m ake even m in o r co ncessions th at have n o t b een approved p rio r to n e g o tia tio n . T h e y ab h o r ta k in g p erso n al risks to e x p e d ite th e d e c is io n -m a k in g process, even i f th e y th em selves b e liev e in th e m e rit o f d o in g so. T h e y are e x tre m e ly cau tio u s and w o rrie d ab o ut d isru p tin g in te rp e rso n a l h a rm o n y b y ta k in g the cred it fo r “ selfish” p erso n al ach iev em en t. In fact, even th e c h ie f Jap an ese n e g o tia to r w ill h esitate to m ake decisio n s o n his o w n ,

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unless he h appens to b e th e fo u n d er and th e m a jo rity sh areh o ld er o f th e co m p a n y h e represents. T h e m ost fru stratin g e x p e rie n c e for W e ste rn n eg o tiato rs is for th e Jap an ese side to say, “B y th e way, w e ’ll n e e d to call T okyo ju s t to m ak e sure,” w h e n th e W estern ers th o u g h t th at th e y c o u ld fin ally close th e d eal after h ard b arg ain in g . I f W e ste rn n e go tiato rs w ish to avoid th is last-m in u te surp rise, th e y sh o u ld n o t push th e Jap an ese o p p o n en ts to o hard to squeeze o u t a p o sitive answ er. T h is “p o sitive an sw er” can o n ly b e “Jap an ese yes,” w h ic h re a lly m ean s, “ I say ‘y e s’ for n o w b ecau se y o u force m e to, b u t I still have to c h e c k w ith th e h o m e office.” It is w ise to fo l­ lo w an o ld Jap an ese sayin g, is o g a b a m a w a re, o r “ I f y o u are in a h u rry, take a lo n g e r w ay.” It is also n ecessary to k n o w w h o th e real d e c i­ sion m akers are and n o t to assum e th at th e Jap an ese rep resen tatives have e n o u g h a u th o rity and resp o n sib ility to co n su m m ate a deal. W estern ers m ust realize th at th e y are n e g o tia tin g n o t o n ly w ith th e Jap an ese n eg o tiato rs sittin g across th e table, b u t also w ith th e ir c o lleag u es and su p erio rs in Jap an . Jap an ese n o n verb al b eh avio rs at th e n e g o tia tio n table can b e p u z z lin g to W estern ers. M a rc h claim s th at for th e Jap an ese, n o n verb al expressions are strategies fo r c o n c e alin g , fo r av o id in g c o m m u n ic a tio n , and for b e c o m in g in visible. “ T h e Jap an ese are e x c e p tio n a lly skillful at n o n d isclo sure, at m ask in g and restraint o f em o tio n s; th e y are in d e e d h ard to read , e sp ecially for th e in e x p e ri­ e n c e d W e s te r n e r .. . . N o n d isclo su re is d e e p ly in g ra in e d in Jap an ese cu ltu re. . . . L e a rn in g to p u t a ‘fa c e ’ over o n e ’s tru e feelin g s and em o tio n s is p art o f g ro w in g up for e v e ry Jap an ese.” 18 S o m e o f th e m ost p u z z lin g o f Jap an ese n o n verb al b eh av ­ io rs are u n iq u e Jap an ese facial expressions, gestures, and postures. T h e Jap an ese are train e d to p u t o n an im passive o r sto ical face in fo rm al situatio n s. T h e y alm ost n ever sm ile at strangers, and th e y u su a lly lo o k aw ay w h e n th e y have acc id e n tal eye co n tact w ith one an o th e r.T h is is sh ira n k a o o r “k n o w in g -n o th in g face,” w h ic h is used w h e n th e y w ish to avoid p erso n al in v o lv em en t. For ex am p le, d u r­ in g a co n tract n e g o tia tio n w h e n o p en co n fro n tatio n b eco m es u n b e a ra b ly ten se, th e Jap an ese m ay use sh ira n k a o and to ta lly ig n o re w h a t th e o p p o n en ts are tr y in g to do. In response to aggressive p e r­ suasion, th e y m ay give “y e s ” answ ers th at do n o t m ean “y e s ” o r ju s t keep on n o d d in g w ith m ean in gless grun ts. In terp retatio n o fJa p a n e se eye co n tact is an o th er p ro b lem . In W e ste rn c u ltu re, sustain ed d irect eye co n tact u su ally in d icates th at p eo p le are in terested , h o n est, and positive. In Jap an ese cu ltu re,

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h o w ever, sustain ed d irect eye co n tact m ean s aggressio n , ruden ess, in sisten ce o n e q u a lity , an d even b e llig e re n c e . C o n seq u en tly, Jap an ese n e go tiato rs fre q u e n tly close o r shift th e ir eyes d u rin g n e g o tia tio n . T h is Jap an ese b e h av io r is fru stratin g for W estern ers b ecause th e y re ly u p o n h a v in g g o o d eye co n tact for d irect feed ­ b ack . L a c k o f d irect eye co n tact m akes it difficult fo r th e m to d e te rm in e w h e th e r o r n o t th e y have b e e n successful in p ersu ad in g th e ir Jap an ese o p p on en ts. O n rare o ccasions w h e n th e Jap an ese w an t to sh o w an g e r o r displeasure, th e y use a steely, h o stile stare to express th e ir fe e lin g s .T h e y so m etim es use n u s u m i m i o r “ sn atch in g lo o k ” at th e eyes o f th e o p p o sin g n ego tiato rs. Instead o f e n g a g in g in d irect eye co n tact, th e y also use y o k o m e o r “lo o k in g o u t o f the c o rn e r o f th e eyes.” U n d o u b te d ly , atta c h in g m ean in g s to vario u s fo rm s o f Jap an ese eye co n tact based o n W e stern in terp retatio n s w ill cause m isu n d erstan d in gs. T h e Jap an ese use th e ir m o u th s rath er exp ressively in n o n ­ v erb al c o m m u n ic a tio n . O p e n in g th e m o u th w id e w h ile liste n in g is to b e avo id ed in Jap an ese social e tiq u ette. N o t o n ly it is im p o ­ lite , b u t it also suggests stupidity, b o red o m , o r la c k o f m en tal a le rt­ ness; th e Jap an ese u su a lly close th e ir m o u th s firm ly in fo rm al situatio n s. To express b e w ild e rm e n t, an x iety, o r difficulty, th ey m ay fo rm th e m o u th in to an “ O.” T h e y m ay lite ra lly drop th e ir jaw s w h e n th e y h e ar so m e th in g re a lly u n b eliev ab le. W h e n th e y are v e ry up set, th e y w ill close th e ir m o u th s v e ry tig h tly and stare at the p eo p le w h o have o ffen d ed th em . Y o u n g Jap an ese w o m e n often co ver th e ir m o u th s w ith th e ir hands to h id e im m o d erate la u g h te r o r g ig g lin g . Jap an ese sm iles and la u g h te r c a rry m o re th an un iv ersal m ean in g s o f h appiness, jo y, or ag re e m e n t. A few fo rm s o f Jap an ese sm iles and la u g h te r co n vey e n tire ly d ifferent m ean in gs. O n e e x a m ­ p le is th e sm ile o f em b arrassm en t, w h ic h m e a n s,“ I’m sorry, I m ade a m istake. I sm iled b ecause I w a n te d to h id e m y em b arrassm en t.” A n o th e r ex am p le is th e la u g h te r o f co n tem p t, w h ic h m ean s, “You m ust b e k id d in g .Y o u can n o t po ssib ly m ake such a stup id d e m a n d !” A Jap an ese n e g o tia to r m ig h t “h a lf-jo k in g ly ” o r “la u g h in g ly ” protest th e un reaso n ab le d em an d in o rd er n o t to sq u arely co n fro nt and offend th e g u ilty party, b u t h e is d ead serio u s and really upset. A n o th e r p u z z lin g Jap an ese sm ile is th e tsu k u ri w a ra i o r “m ad e-u p sm ile,” w h ic h m ean s, “ I am sm ilin g b ecau se I d o n ’t w an t to d am p ­ en th e pleasan t atm o sp h ere o f this n e g o tia tio n .Y o u sh o u ld n ’t th in k th at I am a g re e in g w ith y o u .”

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C e rta in Jap an ese gestures and postures can also p uzzle the u n in fo rm e d W estern er. T h e h an d gesture m e a n in g “m e ” is p o in t­ in g to o n e ’s nose w ith th e in d e x fin ger. “N o , I d o n ’t agree w ith y o u ” o r “T h a t’s n o g o o d ” is sh ow n b y m o v in g th e o p en rig h t p alm sid ew ays as i f fan n in g . Jap an ese m e n clasp th e ir hands tigh tly, p lace th e m o n th e table, an d le a n fo rw ard w h e n th e y are serio us. T h e y p u t b o th elb o w s on th e table and sup p ort th e ir ch in ( h o h o z u e ) w h e n th e y are b o red o r tired . T h e y cross th e ir arm s in front o f the b ody, le a n b ack w ard , and close th e ir eyes w h e n th e y have to listen to a lo n g p resen tatio n .W estern ers n e e d to reco g iz e th at these n o n ­ v erb al b eh av io rs do n o t m ean th at th e y are to ta lly in atten tiv e or sleep in g. In fact, th e y are p ro b ab ly c o n c e n tratin g on w h a t is b e in g p resen ted. Finally, s id e -ta lk in Jap an ese am o n g Jap an ese n ego tiato rs can b e v e ry an n o y in g to th e ir W e ste rn co u n terp arts. W h e n the W e ste rn n e go tiato rs e n c o u n te r th is situ atio n , th e y sh o w an n o yan ce e ith e r b y n egativ e facial expressions o r b y fid g e tin g .T h e y m ay even in te rru p t th e s id e -ta lk b y sayin g, “E xcuse m e, co u ld y o u sp eak in E nglish? W e d o n ’t u n d erstan d w h a t y o u are sayin g.” N o m atter h o w a n n o y in g it m ay b e, it is ab so lu tely u n w ise to in te rru p t the Jap an ese n e g o tia to rs’ sid e -ta lk and ask for in te rp re tatio n o f w h at th e y have b e e n ta lk in g ab o u t. Instead, i f th e Jap an ese te a m m e m ­ bers ta lk am o n g th em selves to o m a n y tim es, it is a g o o d id e a to suggest a recess and ask th e m to co m e b a c k as soon as th e y can reach a consensus am o n g them selves. T h e tr a in in g v id e o m a d e b y In te rc u ltu ra l T ra in in g R e so u rc e s exp lain s th at freq u en t sid e -ta lk can b e a sign o f go o d progress in n e g o tia tio n . It also ex p lain s, “Jap an ese are n o t o n ly co n ­ c e rn e d th at th e y do n o t m isrep resen t th e fe e lin g o f th e ‘g ro u p ’ to w h ic h th e y b e lo n g , b u t th e y also m ust p ay sp ecial h eed to th e ran k and h ie rarc h y o f th e co n te x t in w h ic h th e y fin d them selves. For these reasons it is fre q u e n tly n ecessary to co n fer w ith o th er tea m m em b ers b efo re sp eakin g , to be sure th at w h at o n e says has th e full sup p ort o f co lleag u es and su p erio rs.” 19

After the Negotiation O n ce v erb al ag reem en ts have b e e n reach ed , it is tim e to start w o rk in g o n a w ritte n co n tract. In th e W estern business co n tex t, the

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ex act w o rd in g o f term s and co n d itio n s is o f ab solute im p o rtan ce. In th e Jap an ese business c o n te x t, estab lish in g so lid in terp erso n al relatio n sh ip s w ith each m e m b e r o f th e o p p o sin g n e g o tia tio n tea m is co n sid ered m u c h m o re im p o rtan t. Jap an ese b usin essm en do n o t lik e to sign a le n g th y A m e ric a n -s ty le co n tract w ith carefu lly w o rd ­ ed clauses reg a rd in g all circum stan ces, c o n tin g en cies, and specific le g a l actio ns to b e tak en in case o f b re ac h o f th e c o n trac t.T h is p ar­ tic u la r Jap an ese attitu d e does n o t m e a n th at th e Jap an ese ig n o re co n tracts; th e y ju s t have a d ifferent ap proach to th e im p le m e n ta ­ tio n o f w r itte n contracts. It is a c o m m o n ly accep ted p ractice in Jap an to b e g in p ro ­ d u c tio n o r start se llin g b efore th e fin al co n tract is sign ed i f b o th p arties feel th at th e y have reach ed verb al u n d erstan d in g s. It is also tru e th at m a n y Jap an ese sign co n tracts w ith o u t h av in g th eir la w y e rs re v ie w th em . T h e y do so b ecause th e y b eliev e in th e d o c ­ trin e o f j i j o h en k o o r “ c h an ged circum stan ces.”20 M o st Jap an ese b usin essm en assum e th at rig h ts and d uties u n d e r th e co n tract, even w h e n w r itte n d o w n , are p ro visio n al o r ten tative rath er th an ab so lu te .T h e y b eliev e that th e specific item s o f a co n tract are alw ays o p en to re n e g o tia tio n w h e n e v e r e c o n o m ic circum stan ces ch an ge drastically. T h e y ask for revisio n s o r m o d ificatio n s o f a co n tract n o t based o n th e term s o f th at p a rtic u lar co n tract b u t o n the “ stro n g frie n d sh ip ” established d u rin g th e n e g o tiatio n . T h e y also insist o n co m p ro m ises b y p ro m isin g n a g a i tsu k ia i o r “ a lo n g -te rm relatio n sh ip .” T h e ir p rem ise is th at b o th p arties to a co n tract should h elp each o th er d u rin g an e c o n o m ic d o w n tu rn . T h e y m ay say, “Y ou m ust h elp us n o w w h e n w e are in a serio us tro u b le .W e ’ll be sure to re tu rn y o u r favor d u rin g o u r lo n g -te rm relatio n sh ip .” H o w ever, som e dish o nest Jap an ese b usin essm en use this p ro m ise o f n a g a i tsu k ia i as a “tr ic k ” o r b ait to g a in an u n fair advantage over th e o th e r party, h a v in g n o in te n tio n o f stan d in g b eh in d it. I f W e ste rn b u sin essp eo p le w a n t to avoid co n tractu al dis­ p utes w ith th e ir Jap an ese c o u n terp arts, it is ab so lu tely n ecessary to have a co n tract in b o th E n glish and Jap an ese w ritte n b y b ilin g u a l atto rn eys w h o are fam iliar w ith b o th W estern and Jap an ese b u si­ ness law s. T h e ir atto rn eys m ust m ake sure th at ev e ry im p o rtan t clause is e x p la in e d to and u n d ersto o d fu lly b y th e Jap an ese side. It is u su a lly n ecessary to have a professional tran slato r translate the o rig in a l E n glish la n g u a g e co n tract in to Jap an ese as referen ce. In case o f a co n tractu al d isp ute, th e E n glish co n tract takes p reced en ce over th e Jap an ese tran slatio n o f th e o rig in a l co n tract.

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Signing Ceremonies

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T h e Jap an ese love cerem o n ies and celeb ratio n s. Ju st lik e th e sign ­ in g o f a m a jo r trea ty b e tw e e n tw o n atio n s, Jap an ese co m p an ies h o ld a fo rm al sig n in g c e re m o n y w h e n sealin g a m ajo r business d eal. A m e ric a n firm s m ay co n sid er it a w aste o f tim e and m oney, b u t th e sig n in g c e re m o n y plays a n u m b er o f im p o rtan t cu ltu ral fu n ctio n s in Ja p a n .T h e c e re m o n y allo w s th e top ex ecu tiv es o f b o th sides to m e e t and sign th e co n tract. T h is sig n in g is n o t o n ly the official approval o f th e co n tract, b u t also serves as p u b lic n o tice o f th e actio n . T h e p articip an ts o f a ty p ic a l Jap an ese sig n in g cerem o n y in c lu d e th e c h a irm a n o f th e b o ard , th e p resid en t, sen io r v ic e pres­ id en ts, v ic e presiden ts, d iv isio n m an agers, sectio n chiefs, and ju n io r staff m em b ers o f th e com pany. In ad d itio n , ra ih in o r “ guests o f h o n o r” are in v ite d to p a rtic ip a te .T h e y m a y in c lu d e b an k m an agers, ex ecu tiv es o f sup p liers, lo c a l p o litician s, a d v ertisin g a g e n c y m an ­ agers, officials o f trade associations, and T V and n ew sp ap er rep o rters. S o m etim es, th e trade attach e o f th e fo reig n em bassy o f th e fo reig n p a rtn e r’s c o u n try is in v ite d to w itn ess th e celeb ratio n . A t th e sig n in g cerem o n y, to p execu tiv es o f b o th co m p a­ n ies give fo rm al c o n g ra tu la tio n speeches b efo re th e actu al sign in g. Im m e d ia te ly afterw ard , gifts are ex ch a n g ed to co m m em o rate the o ccasio n . T h e gift does n o t have to b e an exp en sive o n e, b u t it sh ould m atc h th e size o r th e im p o rta n c e o f th e co n tract en tered in to. For e x am p le, th e A m e ric a n side m a y give an o il p ain tin g o f N e w Y o rk skyscrapers and th e Jap an ese side m ay recip ro cate w ith a sam urai h e lm e t rep lica in a glass case. T h e sig n in g c e re m o n y is u su a lly fo llo w ed b y an elab o rate c o c k tail re c e p tio n w h e re all th e p articip an ts can m in g le and so cial­ ize. A t th e re c e p tio n , n ew s rep o rters w ill in te rv ie w th e ex ecu tives. M a n y Jap an ese co m p an ies h o ld a sp ecial g o lf to u rn a m e n t after the sig n in g c e re m o n y for m o re so cializin g , and co m m em o rativ e g o lf tro p h ies and p rizes are g iv e n to all p articip an ts. It is co m m o n p rac­ tic e to take m a n y p ictu res o f th e im p o rtan t execu tiv es and the h o n o red guests at th e cerem o n y, th e c o c k tail party, and d u rin g the g o lf to u rn a m e n t. T h ese p h o to grap h s are p u t in to a n ice p h o to alb u m and sent to th e im p o rtan t p articip an ts w ith a fo rm al le tte r o f ap p reciatio n . T h is p erso n al to u c h w ill w o rk w o n d ers w h e n the co n tract is im p le m e n te d . N o w th at all p articip an ts are rem em b ered

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b y th e ir n am es and faces, th e y w ill b e able to establish b e tte r p e r­ so n -to -p e rso n relatio n sh ip s.

Follow-up Communications for Personal Relationships O n ce th e co n tract is sign ed , W e ste rn b usin essm en ten d to p u t it aside and fo rget to n u rtu re th e p erso n al relatio n sh ip s. T h is is a b ig m istake, b ecause Jap an ese b usin essm en alw ays w an t to stay in c o n ­ stant p erso n al co n tact w ith th e ir business associates. T h e y w ill n o t just p ic k up a te le p h o n e o r send a facsim ile m essage to send g re e t­ in gs. Instead, th e y p refer to m ake p erso n al visits as freq u en tly as possible in o rd er to get ac q u a in te d again w ith th e in d iv id u als in ch arge and to in fo rm a lly o b tain feed b ack reg ard in g th e o n g o in g business. M o st Jap an ese co m p an ies d o in g business w ith fo reign co m p an ies m ake it a p ractice to m ake h y o k e i h o m o n or a “ co u rtesy v is it” to th e h ead q u arters o f th e fo reig n p artn ers. E ven i f it is to be o n ly an an n u al c o u rte sy v isit w ith o u t an y p articu lar business p u r­ pose, th e y b e liev e th at n u rtu rin g th e p erso n al relatio n sh ip is c ru ­ c ial to c o n tin u in g a successful business relatio n sh ip . S o m e Jap an ese co m p an ies sponsor an an n u al g o lf to u rn a m e n t and in v ite th e fo r­ e ig n p artn ers to p articip ate. O th e r co m p an ies m ay host th e g o lf to u rn a m e n t o n alte rn ate years in Ja p a n and ask th e fo reig n p artn ers to recip ro cate in th e ir h o m e co un try. D u rin g these g o lf to u rn a ­ m en ts, th e ex ecu tiv es fro m b o th sides w ill re n e w frien dsh ip s and ta lk ab o ut pro b lem s o f d o in g business to g eth er u n d e r th e p reten se o f so cializ in g o n th e g o lf c o u rse .T h e Jap an ese ex ecu tiv es m ay n o n ­ ch a la n tly m ake requests o r suggestio n s o n c e rta in p e n d in g issues, h o p in g th at th e ir fo reig n co u n terp arts w ill take th e m up and lo o k in to th e m w h e n th e y re tu rn to th e ir offices. A lth o u g h it m a y n o t b e n ecessary for fo reign co m panies to adhere to th e trad itio n al Jap an ese cu sto m o f gift g iv in g , it is im p o rtan t to re m e m b e r th at all Jap an ese co m p an ies give o u t o c h u g e n (m id su m m er gifts) and o se ib o (yea r-en d gifts.) T h ese gifts are tokens o f g ratitu d e to clien t co m p an ies o r in d iv id u als th at have g iv en th e m lots o f business o r fav o rs.T h e gifts are also used to m ake the recip ­ ients feel o b lig ated to co n tin u e th e o n g o in g business relationships. N o w ad ays m a n y Jap an ese have ad o p ted th e W estern cu sto m o f

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sen d in g C h ristm as cards to fo reign business p artn ers. G ift g iv in g and sen d in g C h ristm as cards are im p o rtan t p rerequisites for co n ­ tin u in g successful business relatio n s w ith th e Japanese. O n e o th er im p o rtan t co n sid eratio n is n o t to sw itch the ex ecu tiv es or th e m an agers w h o have b e e n in ch arg e o f d o in g business w ith Jap an . Ideally, th e sam e execu tiv es and staff m em b ers w h o n e g o tia te d th e o rig in a l co n tract sh o u ld co n tin u e to d eal w ith th eir Japanese counterparts. I f th e y are transferred to an o th er dep art­ m en t, th e y sh ou ld b e in c lu d e d in future m eetin g s as observers or advisors. I f this is in c o n v e n ie n t for som e reaso n, it is a g o o d id e a to in v ite th e m to th e so cial events g iv e n in h o n o r o f th e v isitin g Jap an ese asso ciates.T h e Jap an ese n e g o tia tio n tea m m em b ers w ill be d isap p o in ted i f th e y can n o t m a in ta in p erso n al relatio n sh ip s w ith th e ir “ o ld frien d s.” T h e y fin d it d ifficult to start a n e w business relatio n sh ip all over ag ain w ith “ strangers.” T h e y also w an t to c o n tin u e re ly in g o n those fo reig n c o u n terp arts w h o rem em b er k u ch iy a k u so k u o r “u n w ritte n verb al u n d e rstan d in g s” o b tain ed d u r­ in g th e o rig in a l n e g o tia tio n sessions.

Conflict Resolution In th e W e ste rn business c o n te x t, co n trac tu al disputes are alm ost alw ays h an d led b y atto rn eys and settled in c o u rt. B usinesses file suits and co u n tersu its to settle th e disp utes, even th o u g h th ey m ig h t have h ad years o f frie n d ly and co o p erativ e business rela tio n ­ ships. In contrast, Jap an ese businesses p refer to settle th e ir disputes th ro u g h m u tu a l c o n su ltatio n (h a n a sh ia i ) , m e d ia tio n (ch u k a i) or arb itratio n (ch u sa i) w ith o u t g o in g to co u rt. T h e y rarely sue each o th er b ecau se th e ir business relatio n sh ip s have alw ays b e e n p erso n ­ al and sub jective in n atu re. T h e Jap an ese g e n e ra lly fin d litig a tio n distasteful and d estructive, and th e y even feel ash am ed to have cre­ ated such a situ atio n in th e first p la c e .T h e y w o u ld rath er co m p ro ­ m ise and settle e v e ry d isp ute o ut o f c o u rt to avoid th e p u b lic em b arrassm en t and b ad p u b lic ity o f a lo n g le g al b attle. T h is av o id ­ an ce b eh a v io r is ro o ted in th e a ll-in c lu siv e clause w ritte n in all Jap an ese co n tracts, “A ll item s n o t fo un d in this co n tract w ill be d e lib e rate d and d e c id e d u p o n in a sp irit o f h o n esty and trust.”

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For b o th le g a l and c u ltu ral reasons, litig a tio n b y W estern b u sin essp eo p le w ill u su ally en d up in a m iserab le failure. Ja p a n ’s le g a l system is based o n c iv il law , rath e r th an o n th e co m m o n la w tra d itio n o f B rita in and th e U n ite d States. Jap an has o n ly 14 ,4 33 la w y e rs (one for e v e ry 8 ,5 6 7 Jap an ese citizen s) co m p ared to m o re th an 7 0 0 ,0 0 0 in th e U n ite d States (one for ev e ry 356 A m erican s). For th e m ost p art, these Jap an ese la w y e rs are train ed specialists in c rim in a l defense and civ il litig a tio n . Ja p a n ’s le g al system p ro h ib its u n lic e n se d fo reig n la w y e rs fro m e n g a g in g in le g a l p ractice and also p ro h ib its th e m fro m fo rm in g p artn ersh ip s w ith Jap an ese law yers. E ven A m e ric a ’s p o w erfu l and g lo b a lly n e tw o rk ed in te rn a tio n a l la w firm s ran in to ad am an t o p p o sitio n fro m th e sm all b u t g ro w in g n u m b e r o f Jap an ese la w y e rs w h o sp ecialize in in te rn a tio n a l c o r­ p o rate law. C u ltu ra l reasons for sh u n n in g A m e ric a n la w firm s’ activities in c lu d e fears th at Ja p a n ’s n o n litig io u s so ciety w ill b e co r­ ru p ted b y co m b ativ e A m e ric a n “ o v e rla w yerin g ,” relu ctan ce o f Jap an ese la w y e rs to file law su its o n sp ecu latio n b ecause Ja p a n ’s co urts offer little o p p o rtu n ity for le g a l m a n e u v e rin g and th e b e lie f o f Jap an ese law y e rs th at th e ir m issio n is to p ro tect fu n d am en tal h u m an rig h ts and realize social ju s tic e in stead o f p ro tectin g b u si­ ness in terests.21 In this co n te x t, litig a tio n is o b v io u sly n o t th e best so lu tio n for co n tractu al disputes.

Mutual Consultation T h e v e ry first step o f re so lv in g an y and all business disputes in Ja p a n is to e n ga ge in m u tu a l c o n su ltatio n . Instead o f im m e d ia te ly h ir in g le g a l co u n sel, those in d iv id u als w h o n eg o tiated th e o rig in a l co n tract w ill call an in fo rm a l m e e tin g to discuss th e p ro b lem s.T h is h a n a s h ia i can b e e asily arran g ed b ecause th e y u su ally keep up th e ir frie n d ly p erso n al relatio n sh ip s b eyo n d th e business relatio n sh ip . H o w ever, th e in itia l d iscussion o f disputes sh ould b e c o n ­ d u cted at j i m u reb eru (staff m e m b e rs’ level) w ith o u t an y execu tiv es present. T h is is an im p o rtan t m ean s o f savin g face for th e e x ec u ­ tives w h o approved th e o rig in a l a g re e m e n t, w h ic h m ay have to be ad ju sted o r ren e g o tiate d . O n ly after th e staff m em b ers have co m e up w ith a fe w m u tu a lly accep tab le so lution s w ill th e y co n sult the top ex ecu tiv es for ad v ice and en d o rsem en t o f th e best altern ativ e.

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It would be impolite and also ineffective to pin down the top Japanese executives who appear to be in charge and talk to them directly. Important decisions will require group consensus in Japanese companies.*

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If informal mutual consultations do not work, a mediator ( c h u k a i s h a ) will be asked to help resolve the dispute. The mediator can be the introducer, an attorney, an influential politician, a senior banker, an executive director of a trade association, or an interna­ tional business consultant. He must be known as a neutral and fairminded person who can easily establish interpersonal relations, who is considered highly trustworthy, reliable, and knowledgeable, and who has many years of experience in international business. Ideally, he also should be a bilingual and bicultural person. He will find it difficult to mediate an international dispute if he has to rely on an interpreter. An effective mediator must be able to manage the medi­ ating process properly. He should know when face-to-face contact between the parties to a conflict is preferable and when it is to be avoided. Early in the mediation process, it is useful for him to call a joint meeting with both parties to make accurate assessment of their level of disagreement and of their actual positions. He can observe how receptive the parties are to each other and determine whether or not further face-to-face meetings can facilitate better understanding between them. He also needs to conduct private sessions with each party separately to understand their respective positions. Just listening to each of the bitterly contesting parties gives them a chance to openly vent their hostilities. In this way, the mediator functions as a tension reliever. Once hostilities are out in the open, the mediator helps each party overcome or modify the negative feelings in order to resolve the conflict. Then, he conveys information very selectively after careful evaluation of every pertinent fact. He must pick key

* See chapter 6 for detailed discussion on group decision making.

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phrases, ideas, and co n cep ts and presen t th e m to b o th sides. Su g g estio n s and reco m m en d atio n s sh ould b e p resen ted ten tativ ely rath e r th an absolutely, and o verstatem en ts sh ou ld be avoided. A t this stage, th e b ilin g u a l a b ility o f a m e d ia to r plays a v e ry c ritic a l role. For e x am p le, a statem en t b y th e A m e ric a n side such as “W e have several pro b lem s th at w e n e e d to address im m e d ia te ly ” m ay cause serio u s tro u b le i f it is translated d ire c tly in to Jap an ese w o rd for w o rd . In th e Jap an ese la n g u a g e , th ere is o n ly o n e w o rd , m o n d a i, for b o th “p ro b le m ” and “trou ble.” T h e m e d iato r m ust k n o w w h e th e r m o n d a i is to b e used to im p ly “p ro b lem ” o r “tro u b le.” T h e w o rd “im m e d ia te ly ” c an n o t b e translated lite ra lly in to Jap an ese and co n veyed to th e Jap an ese side b ecause th e m e a n in g o f “u rg e n c y o f a c tio n ” is co lo red b y th e relative status relatio n sh ip b e tw e e n the tw o p arties. I f th e Jap an ese side is th e b u yer, th e m ed iato r can n o t rush th e m to take im m e d ia te actio n . H e m ust b e v e ry sensitive to la n g u a g e usage and to th e sp ecific situ atio n . C o n tro l o f d e trim e n ta l ru m o rs is esp ecially c ritic a l in m u ltin a tio n a l settings. N e g ativ e ru m o rs can b e one o f th e m ost serio us obstacles to co n flict reso lu tio n . B ecau se m ost ru m o rs are e x agg eratio n s o r d isto rtio n s o f facts, grou ndless accusatio ns, care­ less statem en ts, o r p erso n al o p in io n s, th e y o ften create u n w a rra n t­ ed fears and distrust in th e m in d s o f those in vo lved in th e co n flict. A lth o u g h an e x p e rie n c e d m e d ia to r so m etim es uses ru m o rs to his ad vantage, such use can b e risky. M o st o ften th e m ed iato r n eed s to c lo sely m o n ito r and stop all d e trim e n ta l ru m o rs im m ed iately. H e sh ould take co u n term easu res to dispel an y ru m o rs b y flo o d in g the c o m m u n ic a tio n ch an n els w ith cred ib le c o u n terev id en ce and b y d isc re d itin g th e d isru p tin g p arties as irresp o n sib le and u n reliab le. In ce rta in situ atio n s, h e can c o u n te r d e trim e n ta l ru m o rs b y o p en ly d iscussin g th e m w ith b o th parties. A g o o d m e d ia to r co n stan tly en co u rag es th e o p p o sin g p ar­ ties to reevalu ate and m o d ify th e ir p o sitio n s. H e w ill pro b e the p o sitio n s w ith th e m , search in g for p o in ts o f p o ten tial co m pro m ise. H e o ften plays d e v il’s ad vocate to stim u late in te rn a l in q u irie s and discussion o f altern ativ e so lution s, sh o w in g b o th p arties a n u m b er o f d ifferent o p tio n s for a so lutio n . H e also tries to fin d allies am o n g m em b ers o f each p a rty w h o are in c lin e d to ado p t m id d le -g ro u n d p o sitions. T h e n h e en co u rag es those allies to b eco m e supporters w h o , in tu rn , co n v in ce o th ers to accep t his reco m m en d atio n s. For e x am p le, he w ill fin d o n e o r tw o top Jap an ese execu tiv es w h o seem

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to be m o re frie n d ly and sym p ath etic to w ard th e p ro b lem at h an d and d ip lo m a tic a lly en tice th e m to act as his in sid e supporters. T h e m e d ia to r n eed s to co n v in ce th e in d iv id u als in vo lved th at th e y can shift th e ir p o sitio n s w ith o u t lo sin g face. T h is is an e x tre m e ly im p o rtan t co n sid eratio n w h e n m e d ia tin g a disp ute w ith th e Jap an ese, b ecau se th e y are alw ays v e ry co n sciou s o f face-sav in g. In ad d itio n , he m ust p ersuad e b o th p arties th at th e y w ill have to give up som e p o in ts to reach a m u tu a lly accep tab le settlem en t. F in ally, h e m ust co n vin ce b o th p arties th at th e fin al settlem en t th at h e m e d ia te d is th e best so lu tio n u n d e r th e circum stan ces.

Arbitration 114 A rb itra tio n is an o th er fo rm o f co n flict reso lu tio n th at involves a th ird party. A rb itratio n grants th e th ird p arty th e p o w er to study th e co n flict and reach a se ttle m e n t.T h e re are tw o typ es o f arb itra­ tio n : b in d in g and n o n b in d in g . B in d in g arb itratio n req u ires th at b o th p arties ag ree to b e b o u n d b y th e settlem en t w o rk ed o u t b y an arb itrato r, w h ereas th e n o n b in d in g arb itratio n allow s e ith er p a rty to reject th e settlem en t. T h ere are three im p o rtan t assum ptions regardin g arbitration: 1. C le a r p ro ced u ral standards w ill have b e e n w o rk ed o ut and ag reed u p o n in ad van ce b y b o th sides. 2. Ju d g m e n t w ill b e m ad e based o n th e facts o f th e case after each side has p resen ted all m aterials relev an t to th e case. 3. T h e p arties in vo lved w ill accep t th e d ecisio n o f the arbitrator. 22 A rb itra tio n o f an in te rn a tio n a l disp u te o ften creates u n iq u e p roblem s. In th e first p lace, an arb itrato r in o n e c o u n try m ay n o t b e able to ren d er a tr u ly ratio n al and c o m p le te ly fair d e c i­ sion for th e p a rty fro m th e o th er co un try. F o r in stan ce, a Jap an ese ju d g e m ay b e p re ju d ic e d again st th e fo reig n co m p an y and m ay favor th e Jap an ese com pany. It is also tru e th at p ro ced u res and rules o f co n d u c t m ay differ. T h erefo re, all co n tracts b e tw e e n co m p an ies fro m tw o d ifferent c o u n trie s sh ou ld in c lu d e an arb itratio n clause

C o n t r a c t N e g o t i a t i o n and C o nf l i ct Res ol ut i on

th at d elin eates specific le g a l p ro ced u res and actio n s, ju risd ic tio n , p aym en t o f fees and expen ses, and th e c o u n try in w h ic h arb itra­ tio n takes p lace. In Japan, th e Japanese C o m m e rc ia l A rb itratio n A sso ciatio n (JC A A ) co n d u cts h e a rin g s o n disputes, b u t g e ttin g satisfacto ry arb itratio n is tim e c o n su m in g and d ifficult. T h e JC A A acts m o re lik e a m e d ia to r and tries to in d u c e o u t-o f-c o u rt settlem ents fro m b o th p arties. It is rep o rted th at o n ly 1 p ercen t o f all cases b ro u gh t to th e JC A A results in b in d in g arb itratio n . A rb itratio n is n o t a w e ll established and accep tab le m ean s for Japanese business e n te r­ p rises as yet. F o reig n b u sin essp eo p le m ay w ish to see th e Japanese le g al system o p erate lik e th e W estern le g a l system , b u t it is dan gero u s to assum e th at W e ste rn le g a l codes and p ractices w ill b e ap p lied in so lv in g in te rn a tio n a l business disputes in Japan. T h e Japanese g o v ­ e rn m e n t also p ro m otes th e use o f a less d isrup tive m ean s w h e n it co m es to se ttlin g in te rn a tio n a l disputes. A lth o u g h it m a y b e possi­ b le to h ire A m e ric a n la w y e rs in T o kyo w h o sp ecialize in th e le g al aspects o f in te rn a tio n a l business, th e y can n o t fu n ctio n as efficien t­ ly and effectively in Japan as th e y can in th e ir o w n co un try. T h erefo re, th e best ad v ice to fo reig n b u sin essp eo p le is to avoid fil­ in g la w su its; u n d e r c u rre n t circu m stan ces, th e Japanese ap p ro ach o f se e k in g a reso lu tio n th ro u g h co o p eratio n an d co m pro m ises seem s th e o n ly p ru d e n t w a y o f so lv in g co n tractu al pro b lem s w ith th e Japanese.

115

Decision Making in Japanese Business Organizations h e process o f rin g i o r g ro u p d ecisio n m a k in g in Jap an ese b u si­ ness o rgan izatio n s has alw ays b e e n a p o p u lar sub ject o f acad e­ m ic in vestigatio n . R in g i is co n sid ered u n iq u e ly Jap an ese b ecause it is so d ifferent fro m th e c o m m o n p ractices o f d ecisio n m a k in g in W estern business o rganizatio n s. A n o th e r Jap an ese m eth o d o f d eci­ sion m a k in g co n sid ered p e c u lia r b y W estern ers is k a igi o r “m eetin g .” A lth o u g h k aigi appears sim ilar to th e business m e e tin g co n d u cted in W estern business o rgan izatio n s, it is co n d u cted q u ite differently. M a n y W estern scholars and busin essp eo p le are v e ry c ritic a l o f Jap an ese d e c isio n -m a k in g processes as in tu itiv e and irratio n al. G lazer says,

T

In business situations, the Japanese are unable to act ana­ lytically. To them, a subjective interpretation of problems is considerably more important than economic consider­ ations. Their approach is intuitive, as opposed to American businessmen’s approach, which is based on rea­ soning, propositions, and logical inferences from objective data. In Japan, decisions are made not on the basis of facts but on the basis of moods, because the Japanese are pri­ marily concerned with harmoniously working out prob­ lems without causing interpersonal frictions.1 B a ir y exp lain s,

Americans are accustomed to seeing a line of author­ ity in a business with final accountability concentrated

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in one man who is perceived as “outstanding,” but in Japan, authority is delegated to one who “stands in” rather than “out.” A Japanese will not run the risk of taking over the responsibility and making independent decisions.The function of a Japanese leader is that of a “mediator” or of a “harmonizing agent.” Since the responsibility does not rest on any one person, but in the group, there is no delegation or line of authority. Distribution of authority and responsibility is also made according to the seniority and chronological age of executives. Therefore, senior members tend to assume more important roles and positions, although they may not necessarily be the most capable members.The notion of “decision by a majority” does not exist in the traditional Japanese process of decision­ making or rin g i-s eid o , because every member con­ cerned must approve the proposal; it must be a unan­ imous decision. There is no decision, in the American sense, which is obtained through reasoning. The word “decision” should be replaced by “confirmation,” as this process is confirmation of something which has already been approved informally by every member of the organization.2 A d am s also ex p lain s, “Perhaps n o o th er sin gle facto r in Japanese g o v e rn m e n t and business seem s q u ite so in co m p reh en si­ b le to th e W estern er, w h o se w h o le life co n d itio n s h im to th e m a k ­ in g o f q u ic k d ecisio n s, for w h ic h h e th e n assum es resp on sib ility.” H e also quo tes th e rep o rt o f C a p ta in E llis Z ach arias o f th e U n ite d States w a rtim e N aval In te llig e n c e , w h o sa y s,“N o Jap an ese, reg ard ­ less o f ra n k and p o sitio n , is so co n stitu ted th at as an in d iv id u al, is w illin g o r able to assum e resp o n sib ility for im p o rtan t decisio n s w ith o u t th e b en efit o f le n g th y and rep eated discussions sufficient to co n v in ce h im th at h e does n o t c a rry th e resp o n sib ility alo n e.” 3 D e M e n te ap tly d escrib es th e Jap an ese style o f k a igi as “ta lk in g th in gs to d eath.” H e says, “ O n e o f th e Jap an ese custom s th at fo reign ers o ften fin d fru stratin g, an d so m etim es regard as a m a lic io u s p lo y to g ain an advantage, is th e ir p ractice o f h o ld in g w h a t W estern ers regards as excessive n u m b ers o f m eetin g s to dis­ cuss business o r o th e r p ro p ositio n s, and to g e n e ra lly d rag o u t dis­ cussions over in o rd in a te ly lo n g p erio d s o f tim e.”4

Dec i s i on M a k i n g in J a p a n e s e Busi ness O r g a n i z a t i o n s

T h e above criticism s b y W e ste rn scholars are n o t based on to ta lly in ac c u rate o b servation s o f Jap an ese b u sin essm en ’s b eh avio r, b u t th e y do reflect a ju d g m e n t o f th e Jap an ese fro m th e ir o w n c u l­ tu re -b o u n d c r ite r ia o f ra tio n a lity and efficiency. T h e ir criticism s c o u ld also b e based o n th e ir n aive assu m p tio n th at th e w ays o f th in k in g o r th e n atu re o f in te rp e rso n al relatio n sh ip s am o n g Jap an ese b usin essm en w ill ch an ge o r b e c o m e to ta lly W estern ized as th e result o f th e rap id e c o n o m ic and in d u strial g ro w th p attern ed after th e in d u stria liz e d n atio ns. W estern ers m ust reco gn iz e th at this se e m in g ly absurd and irra tio n a l d e c is io n -m a k in g b eh av io r o f th e Jap an ese can b e le g itim a te and ratio n al in th e Jap an ese c u ltu r­ al co n tex t. N o d a claim s th at “Jap an ese u n iq u en ess” has b e e n e x a g g e r­ ated b y W e ste rn scholars b ecau se o f th e co n fusio n b e tw e e n fo rm al and in fo rm a l p ractices. In fact, Jap an ese en terp rises, lik e e n te rp ris­ es in o th e r ad v an ced c o u n trie s in th e fre e -w o rld eco n o m y, m ust give p r io r ity to e c o n o m ic ra tio n a lity i f th e y h o p e to realize prof­ its. D u rin g its th o usan d s o f years o f h isto rical d ev elo p m en t in iso latio n , Jap an has d evelop ed a so ciety th at is d e c id e d ly m ore h o m o g en eo u s th an m ost o th er co u n trie s.T h is h o m o g e n e ity in race, la n g u a g e , c u ltu re, and lifestyle facilitates estab lish m en t o f in fo rm al ties am o n g in d iv id u als. In o rgan izatio n s w h e re in d iv id u als w o rk to g e th e r co n tin u o u sly for a lo n g tim e , in fo rm al cu sto m has far m o re p o w er th an th e fo rm al system in re g u la tin g th e d a ily activ i­ ties o f th e system ’s m e m b e rs.5 T h erefo re, it is im p o rtan t to e x a m ­ in e th e n atu re and fu n ctio n s o f Jap an ese so ciety th at have created and p e rp e tu a te d th e p a rtic u la r typ e o f in terp erso n al relatio n sh ip s and d e c is io n -m a k in g p ractices in Jap an ese business o rgan izatio n s.

Decision Makers in the Japanese Business Organization U n lik e th e ir W e ste rn co u n terp arts, Jap an ese ex ecu tiv es and m a n ­ agers are n o t in d e p e n d e n t d ecisio n m akers. D esp ite th e fact th at th e y m ay h o ld co m p arab le jo b titles o f top ex ecu tiv es, m an agers, and sup erviso rs fo u n d in a W e ste rn business o rgan iz atio n , th e y n e ith e r exercise th e sam e a u th o rity n o r take o n th e sam e resp o n ­ sibility. T h ere are elev en m a n a g e ria l ran ks w ith in a Jap an ese o rg a­

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nization: chairman ( k a i c h o ) , president ( s h a c h o ) , vice president ( fu k u s h a c h o ) , senior executive managing director ( s e n m u t o r i s h i m a r i y a k u ) , executive managing director ( j o m u t o r i s h i m a r i y a k u ) , director ( t o r i s h i ­ m a r i y a k u ) , general manager ( b u c h o ) , deputy general manager ( b u c h o d a i r i ) , section chief ( k a c h o ) , deputy section chief ( k a c h o d a i r i ) , and supervisor ( k a k a r ic h o ) . In Japan, the chairman’s function is not identical to that of the chairman of the board or the chief executive officer in Western countries. The chairman has held the position of president for several years before taking this position.* The important difference is that he is no longer the decision maker as he has relinquished all authority and decision-making power to his successor, the presi­ dent ( s h a c h o ) . He now has an honorary position for a few years before retirement and is expected to play an advisory role only. The president’s official title in Japanese is d a i h y o t o r i s h i ­ m a r i y a k u s h a c h o (president and representative director). He is the highest-ranking executive and has the authority given by the Board of Directors ( T o r i s h i m a r i y a k u kai) to legally represent the company. The senior managing director ( s e n m u t o r i s h i m a r i y a k u ) is second in command and has more power and authority than other lower-ranked directors. He is assigned to coordinate the entire operations of the company and reports directly to the president. He officially represents the company during the president’s absence. The executive managing director ( j o m u t o r i s h i m a r i y a k u ) is the top executive of a division within the company and also reports to the president.All of the above executives are the regular members of T o r i s h i m a r i y a k u k ai, the legal decision-making body defined by the Japanese Commercial Law. The title of director ( t o r i s h i m a r i y a k u ) also applies to a low-ranked director who could also be the general manager ( b u c h o ) .+ The general manager is responsible for overseeing day-to­ day operations of his division and is assisted by his deputy general

* Promotion to the position is similar to “being kicked upstairs” or semi­ retirement. It is customary that the chairman continue to serve as part­ time s o d a n y a k u (advisor) for an additional year or two years before full retirement. t A low-ranked director without authority or power to make crucial decisions is called hiratori or a person with the title of director but without executive privileges.

Dec i s i on M a k i n g in J a p a n e s e Busi ness O r g a n i z a t i o n s

m a n a g e r (b u ck o d a ir i). T h e sectio n c h ie f (k a ch o) is in ch arge o f his sectio n , th e first-lev el m a n a g e m e n t u n it, and w o rk s u n d er th e g e n ­ eral m an ager. H e is assisted b y th e d e p u ty sectio n c h ie f (k a ch o d a iri) and th e sup erviso r (k a k a rich o) .T h e sectio n c h ie f is th e busiest p e r­ son in th e o rga n iz atio n san d w ic h e d b e tw e e n th e g en era l m an ag er and his im m e d ia te subordinates. U n lik e in W e ste rn businesses, th e m em b ers o f th e B o ard o f D irecto rs in m ost Japanese b ig businesses are n o t o utside directo rs. In stead, th e y are in sid ers w h o have ach iev ed th e ir p o sitio n s w ith in th e c o m p a n y h ierarch y, and th e y c o n c u rre n tly h o ld reg u lar w o rk ­ in g p o sitio n s. E ven au d ito rs are n o t e x te rn a l directo rs, b u t are ch o ­ sen fro m a m o n g sen io r d irecto rs w ith in th e h ig h e r ex ecu tiv e ranks. A ll ex ecu tiv es are c o n tin u a lly m in d fu l o f th e ir relative status in a c o m p le x h ie ra rc h y o f in te rp e rso n a l relatio n sh ip s th at has b een established over m a n y years o f w o rk in g to g eth er. M a n y execu tiv es and m an agers w h o have ach iev ed th e sam e ran k are h esitan t to act as equals. P rev io u s s e m p a i-k o h a i (se n io r-ju n io r) relatio n sh ip s can n ever b e fo rg o tten . E ven w h e n e x ecu tiv e p o sitio n s are reversed, n e w ly ap p o in ted ex ecu tiv es are ex p e c te d to treat th e ir senio rs (in age and se n io rity ) w ith resp ect an d deferen ce. T h e B o ard o f D irecto rs o f a Japanese co m p an y is n o t e x a c tly a v o tin g b o d y in a W estern sense b ecau se d ecisio n s are h ard ly ever m ad e b y m a jo rity ru le . L ik e w ise, a Japanese co m p an y p resid en t w ill n o t m ake m a jo r d ecisio n s o n his o w n unless h e can o b tain a co m p lete consensus th ro u g h th e process o f rin g i. In rare in stan ces w h e n th e p resid en t is th e fo u n d er o r o w n er o f th e c o m ­ pany, he m ay use tsu ru n o h ito k o e (one screech o f th e crane) or a p ro clam atio n o f his o w n d ecisio n . In som e o th er in stan ces, a to -r in g i (a fte r-th e -fac t consensus) is u sed to e x p e d ite d ecisio n m ak in g . F o r e x am p le, th e o w n e r-p re sid e n t o f a fa m ily -o w n e d co m p an y m ay m ake a d ecisio n based o n in tu itio n fro m his years o f business e x p e ­ rie n c e . T h e n h e w ill ask his sub o rd in ates to w rite up a r in g i p ro ­ posal and have th e m ju s tify th e actio n th at he has taken o n his o w n in itiativ e. In such a case, r in g i is so ugh t as a fo rm a lity to au th o riz e th e d ecisio n p re v io u sly reach ed . In a n u tsh ell, d ecisio n s in Japanese business o rgan izatio n s are based o n som e fo rm o f a consensus b efo re o r after th e actio ns are taken . F ro m th e Japanese p o in t o f view , m a jo rity ru le d ecisio n m a k in g o ften destroys th e so lid arity o f th e group. O b ta in in g a g re e m e n t fro m e v eryo n e is still th e m ost w id esp read fo rm o f trad itio n al d ecisio n m a k in g in Japan u n d er alm ost all circum stan ces.

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T h is u n an im ity, h o w ever, does n o t n ecessarily m ean th at a d ecisio n w as reach ed after th o ro u g h d eb ate and fo rm u latio n b y all th e m em b ers o f th e m an ag e m e n t. In som e cases a d ecisio n was p u sh ed a lo n g b y one or tw o p eo p le w ith great in itiativ e, and the re m a in d e r o f th e m em b ers expressed co n sen t later. In o th er cases, th e fin al d ecisio n m ak e r proposes a p lan th at all m em b ers agree to fo llo w after h a v in g expressed a v a rie ty o f d ifferin g o p in io n s. It is c o m m o n ly assum ed th at d ecisio n m a k in g b y co n sen ­ sus in Japan m ean s n o o n e in d iv id u a l w ill take resp o n sib ility for a d ecisio n b ecause th e resp o n sib ility is d iv id ed am o n g all m em b ers. H o w ever, g e ttin g a consensus is separate from attrib u tin g responsi­ b ility for success o r failure. E ven in cases w h e n a d ecisio n is m ade b y all m em b ers, i f th e result is a serio us failure, th e co m p an y pres­ id e n t, e ith e r alo n e o r w ith a sm all g ro u p o f sen io r directo rs, w ill take resp o n sib ility for th e failure. In o th er cases, a ju n io r d irecto r w h o has h ad n o actu al in flu e n c e in a fin al d ecisio n m ay b e forced to resign . O f co urse, it is q u ite co m m o n for resp o n sib ility to be sh o u ld ered b y th e p erso n (s) responsible for ad v an cin g a g iv en d e c isio n .6 A severe p u n ish m en t c o m m o n ly used against an ex ecu tiv e or a m a n a g e r responsible fo r a m a jo r m istake is s a s e n (d em o tio n plus transfer) o r s h im a n a g a s h i (e x ile to a rem o te islan d ).T h e g u ilty p arty w ill su d d e n ly b e tran sferred to a m iserab le p o sitio n at a p ath etic b ran ch office w ith in Japan o r in a fo reig n co un try.

Ringi or Group Decision Making R in g i lite ra lly m ean s “ c ircu late a proposal, discuss, and d ecid e.” T h is

is still th e m ost co m m o n process o f d e c is io n -m a k in g in Japan, a lth o u g h som e in n o vative d e c is io n -m a k in g processes are b e in g in tro d u c e d th ro u g h c o m p u te riz a tio n o f office p ro ced ures. R in g i process b e g in s w ith k ia n sh a (plan in itia to r), u su ally a lo w e r o r m id ­ d le -ra n k in g m a n a g e r (sup erviso r o r sectio n ch ief), w h o is p u t in ch arge o f d raftin g a r in g is h o (proposal). B efo re d raftin g this d o c u ­ m e n t, he discusses th e g en era l id e a in fo rm a lly w ith k e y execu tiv es, m an agers, and sup erviso rs. O n ly after g e ttin g fairly p o sitive in itia l reactio n s from th em w ill h e draft th e proposal d o cu m en t, w h ic h in c lu d e s th e req u est fo r a d ecisio n , su p p o rtin g data and in fo rm a ­

Dec i s i on M a k i n g in J a p a n e s e Busi ness O r g a n i z a t i o n s

tio n , d e ta ile d ex p lan atio n s, and ju stific atio n s. T h is in fo rm al discus­ sion is c alled n e m a w a s h i, w h ic h lite ra lly m ean s “tw istin g th e tree roots aro un d .” In p ractice, n e m a w a s h i refers to h o ld in g m an y fac e to -fa c e in fo rm al, b e h in d -th e -sc e n e discussions ab o ut a proposal am o n g all th e p eo p le w h o w o u ld b e c o n c e rn e d w ith o r in vo lved in im p le m e n tin g an y d ecisio n to b e m ad e later. In o th er w o rds, the proposal is tu rn e d aro u n d and aro u n d , v ie w e d and d elib erated fro m e v e ry an gle, b efo re it is b ro u g h t o u t in to th e o p en as an o fficial or fo rm al proposal. T h e act o f n e m a w a s h i is an alo go us to tw istin g a p lan ted tree aro u n d to cu t o ff b o th erso m e roots o r “ o b jectio n s” so th at it can be u p ro o ted easily. N e m a w a s h i th e n is a so u n d in g b o ard for u n o ffic ia lly testin g th e responses to an id e a w ith o u t ex p o sin g o r e n d a n g e rin g an yo n e b efo re m a k in g a c o m m itm en t. It is a lo b ­ b y in g m e c h an ism used b y an y in d iv id u a l o r gro u p w a n tin g to get a p ro ject th ro u g h th e system .7 O n ce a r in g i proposal is co m p le ted , th e in itia to r w ill c ir­ cu late it to e v e ry e x ecu tiv e and m an ager, w h o w ill b e asked to approve it after careful review . T h e c irc u latio n is e x ecu ted in reverse o rd er o f each in d iv id u a l’s h ie ra rc h ical p o sitio n , b e g in n in g w ith th e lo w e st-ra n k e d sup erviso r, to m id d le m an ag em en t, top m a n a g e m e n t, and fin ally to th e p resid en t. T h e co ver sh eet o f the proposal has m a n y sm all boxes for h a n (seal o f approval) to be affixed b y all those w h o w ill re v ie w and approve it. T h e p ro p er o rd er o f c irc u la tio n is stric tly ad h ered to b ecause sk ip p in g an y p e r­ son on th e h ie rarc h ic al la d d e r w ill cause serio u s p ro ced u ral and in te rp e rso n al pro b lem s. I f an y o f th e m an agers o r ex ecu tiv es have questio n s o r o b jectio n s, th e in itia to r w ill have to an sw er th e m in p erson . I f h e can n o t w in e v e ry o n e ’s approval, th e proposal w ill be h e ld b a c k for a lo n g tim e and w ill n o t reach th e p resid en t’s desk. T h e d ec isio n can b e d elayed in d e fin ite ly u n til th e p erso n w h o is o b je c tin g receives c o n v in c in g ju stific a tio n based o n n e w d ata and in fo rm a tio n . I f th e in itia to r can n o t o verco m e th e o b jectio n s b y h im self, h e w ill have to ask his im m e d ia te su p erio r o r so m eo n e w h o is in flu e n tia l in to p m a n a g e m e n t to h elp h im . W h e n all the seals o f approval are o b tain ed successfully, th e d o cu m en t w ill be h a n d -d e liv e re d to th e p resid en t fo r his ap p ro val.T h is fin al approval fro m th e p resid en t, called k essa i, is th e last step in th e rin g i d ecisio n ­ m a k in g process. Sup p o se th at a Jap an ese m an u factu rer has d ecid ed to b u ild an ele c tro n ic co m p o n e n t fa c to ry in H a w a i‘i.A sectio n c h ie f w ill be

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asked b y his su p erio rs to b e g in a r in g i process. H e b eco m es th e plan in itia to r, w h o in tu rn assigns to his sub o rdin ates th e task o f g ath ­ e r in g p e rtin e n t in fo rm a tio n and n ecessary d ata to w rite up a rin g i proposal. A s th e p rep aratio n o f this d o c u m en t progresses, h e w ill have in fo rm a l n e m a w a s h i m e e tin g s w ith those w h o are d ire c tly or in d ire c tly in vo lved in th e p ro ject. D u rin g this process, h e tries to fin d e x a c tly w h o w ill b e su p p o rtin g or o b je c tin g to this p ro ject. For e x am p le, th e m a rk e tin g d ep artm en t h ead is su p p o rtin g it b ecause h e b eliev es th at an in creased lo c a l p ro d u ctio n o f ele c tro n ­ ic co m p o n en ts w ill m e a n a m u c h la rg e r m ark et share in th e U n ite d States and e lim in a tio n o f th e w o rrie s over im p o rt quotas and taxes. T h e p ro d u c tio n m a n a g e r is v e h e m e n tly o b je c tin g to an y attem p t to transfer p ro d u ctio n s overseas, as h e is afraid o f th e h o llo w in g o f th e c o m p a n y ’s m a n u fa c tu rin g sector and th e loss o f e m p lo ym en t am o n g skilled fa c to ry w o rkers. H e is also w o rrie d ab o ut th e q u a l­ ity o f w o rk ers in H a w a i‘i, b ecause alm o st all assem b ly-lin e w o rkers w ill b e fo rm e r p in eap p le fa rm w o rkers. T h e v ic e p resid en t o f fin an ce is h esitan t ab o ut in v estin g a h u g e su m o f m o n e y in an y n e w p ro ject at this tim e b ecause Ja p a n ’s e c o n o m y has b e e n slu ggish for th e past several years. T h e in itia to r’s task is to o verco m e these o b jectio n s. H e m ust co lle c t reliab le in fo rm atio n to p ersuad e the o b je c tin g p arties th at an ticip ated n ega tiv e effects o f overseas p ro ­ d u c tio n are n o t real p roblem s. H e m ust also co n vin ce th e v ic e p resid en t th at this is th e best tim e to invest in H a w a i‘i b y p o in tin g o u t th at th e State o f H a w a ii w ill p ro vid e tax in cen tiv es and special funds for tra in in g n e w fa c to ry w o rkers. I f he can n o t w in full sup p ort o f th e p ro d u ctio n m an ag er and th e v ic e p resid en t, h e w ill have to so licit o th er supportive ex ecu tiv es o r m an agers to act as allies. H e m ay ask th e p erso n n el m an ager, his g o o d frie n d , to assist h im in p ersu ad in g th e p ro d u c­ tio n m a n a g e r in stead o f a rg u in g or c o n fro n tin g h im face to face. H e c o u ld p erhaps co n tact th e h ead o f th e fin an ce d iv isio n , w h o h ap p ens to b e a g rad u ate o f th e sam e u n iv e rsity and a w e e k e n d g o lf p artn er, and b e g h im to h elp p ersuad e th e v ic e p resid en t on the m e rits o f in v estin g at th is o p p o rtu n e tim e. In th e Jap an ese business o rga n iz atio n , k a sh i-k a ri k a n k ei (g iv e -a n d -ta k e relatio n sh ip ) am o n g its m em b ers is a v e ry im p o r­ tant social asset, and it gives p o w er and a u th o rity to an in d iv id u al w h o can a c cu m u la te favors.8 In th is case, th e p erso n n el m an ag er and th e h ead o f th e fin an ce d iv isio n can ask favors o f th e p ro d u c-

Dec i s i on M a k i n g in J a p a n e s e Busi ness O r g a n i z a t i o n s

tio n m a n a g e r and th e v ic e p resid en t o f fin an ce b ecau se th e y have alread y established an a ll-im p o rta n t k a sh i-k a ri k a n k ei th ro u g h e x c h a n g in g m a n y p erso n al favors in th e past. A lth o u g h th ere w ill b e fo rm al p resen tatio n s at a co n fer­ en ce table or in in d iv id u a l offices, th e in itia to r w ill have co n d u c t­ ed m ost o f th e n e m a w a s h i over d rin k s, d in n ers, o r g o lf gam es. It is ab so lu tely n ecessary fo r h im to secure a firm c o m m itm e n t fro m each and e v e ry in d iv id u a l ex ecu tiv e and m an ag er in this m an n er b efo re p ro c e e d in g . O th e rw ise , his efforts w ill n ev er result in u n a n ­ im o u s approval o f his rin g i proposal. It is in d eed an illo g ic a l and in e ffic ie n t d e c is io n -m a k in g process co m p ared to a m o re lo g ic a l and co n fro n tatio n al W e ste rn style o f d ecisio n m a k in g , b u t rin g i is c u ltu ra lly ap p ro p riate and th e m ost suitable m eth o d o f d ecisio n m a k in g in th e co n te x t o f Jap an ese co rp o rate cu ltu re.

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Kaigi or Business Meeting K a ig i in Jap an ese business o rganizatio n s appears o n th e surface to be

sim ilar to a business m e e tin g or co n feren ce in W estern business o rganizatio n s. H o w ever, it differs from a ty p ical W estern -style m e e t­ in g in its p urp o se and p ro ced ure, th e p articip atio n o f those atten d ­ in g , and the co n ten t o f w h at is b ro u gh t up for o p en discussion. G e n e ra lly sp eakin g , th e p u rp o se o f a W estern -style b u si­ ness m e e tin g is to facilitate d ecisio n m a k in g in fa c e -to -fa c e situ a­ tio ns. In contrast, th e Jap an ese m e e tin g is an o ccasio n to fo rm ally c o n firm w h a t has b e e n alread y d e c id e d in fo rm a lly th ro u g h in te n ­ sive n e m a w a s h i . In m a n y in stan ces, Jap an ese p articip an ts go th ro u g h th e ritu a l o f ask in g q u estio n s and d e b a tin g certa in p o in ts, b u t th ey are m e re ly sayin g w h a t has b e e n discussed and ag reed u p o n to o b tain sh o d a k u (approval) fro m all o th e r p articip an ts. T h is typ e o f m e e tin g seem s to w o rk in Jap an ese business o rgan izatio n s b ecause o f th e w id esp read use o f n e m a w a s h i . In th e W estern cu ltu ral co n ­ te x t, it is n o t co n sid ered a b etrayal to ch an ge o n e ’s m in d d u rin g the discussion ab o ut w h a t has b e e n in fo rm a lly ag reed o n p rio r to the m e e tin g i f a m u c h b e tte r id e a o r n e w c o m p e llin g ev id en ce is p re ­ sented. In th e Jap an ese c u ltu ral c o n te x t, h o w ever, such c h a n g in g o f o n e ’s m in d is a serio u s so cial in frac tio n and b etrayal o f in te rp e r­

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sonal trust b ecause an y a g re e m e n t reach ed d u rin g in fo rm al co n ­ sultatio n s is co n sid ered a firm c o m m itm en t. T h e co m m itm en ts m ad e d u rin g n e m a w a s h i are n o t ten tative c o m m itm en ts o r p erso n ­ al o p in io n s th at W e ste rn b u sin essp eo p le u su ally tr y to o b tain w h e n g o in g th ro u g h th e process o f “to u c h in g th e bases.” T h e lead ersh ip ro le o f a Jap an ese ch airp erso n is different fro m th at o f his W estern c o u n te rp a rt. T h e c h airp e rso n ’s m ain role is n o t to aggressively take d irect co n tro l over th e d e c is io n -m a k in g process, b u t to m ed iate th e co n se n su s-b u ild in g process am o n g all p articip an ts. In fact, his assistant, w h o is th e se c o n d -ra n k in g p erso n , does m ost o f th e ta lk in g and d ire c tin g o th er p articip an ts to co n ­ trib u te to th e o n g o in g discussion in a p re d e te rm in e d order. E ach p articip an t u su a lly presents a b r ie f rep o rt p rep ared in advance and asks for e v e ry o n e ’s approval. In rare in stan ces, h e m ay en co u n te r stro n g o b jectio n s, b u t he u su a lly receiv es o n ly a few questio n s for clarific atio n . H e has p ro b ab ly ta lk e d to e v e ry p articip an t ab o ut his rep o rt and o b tain ed in fo rm a l c o n c u rre n c e b efo re th e m eetin g . T h ere w ill n o t b e o p en discussion o f issues, u n in h ib ite d expressio n o f diverse o p in io n s, o r serio us e v alu atio n o f altern ativ e so lution s. I f so m eo n e, esp e c ia lly a ju n io r p articip an t, w ish es to v o ice his o p in io n , he w ill p reface his rem arks b y sayin g, “ I m ay b e m a k ­ in g a ju d g m e n t based o n m y lim ite d k n o w le d g e o n th is sub ject, b u t . . . “ o r “P lease c o rre c t m e i f y o u th in k I am w ro n g , b u t . . . “ B ecau se h e is e x tre m e ly c o n c e rn e d ab o ut cau sin g loss o f face or d isru p tin g in te rp e rso n al h a rm o n y b y m a k in g “fo o lish statem ents,” h e n eed s to take a ten tative ap p ro ach and also sh ow h u m ility. O th e r p articip an ts are also h esitan t to v o ice fran k o p in io n s o r dis­ ag reem en ts, b ecau se even co n stru ctive c riticism s o n sp ecific poin ts are often ta k e n as p erso n al attacks o r insults. A ll p articip an ts ten d to lo o k for subtle v erb al o r n o n verb al cues and tr y to u n d erstan d h o w th e o th er p articip an ts feel ab o ut w h a t is b e in g discussed. In contrast, an A m e ric a n c h airp erso n gu id es, stim ulates, and co n tro ls th e discussion. H e m akes c erta in th at th e ag en d a is fo llo w ed , and h e en co u rag es each p articip an t to v o ice different o p in io n s and o b servation s w ith o u t h e sita tio n .W h e n it is necessary, h e w ill v o lu n te e r to ex p lain , clarify, o r m ake in te rn a l su m m aries o f w h a t has b e e n discussed. A s he is accu sto m ed to u sin g a “to p d o w n ” ap p ro ach , h e is in to tal co n tro l and retain s his d ecisio n ­ m a k in g pow er. O th e r p articip an ts are in d e p e n d e n t th in k ers and are w illin g to v o ic e stro n g o p in io n s and even o b jectio n s— at least in th e ir o w n areas o f sp ecializatio n — w ith o u t fear o f rep risal.

Dec i s i on M a k i n g in J a p a n e s e Busi ness O r g a n i z a t i o n s

T h e b eh av io r o f Jap an ese p articip an ts at a co n feren ce table can be e x p lain ed b y differences in o rie n ta tio n to w ard tim e usage and b y c e rta in c u ltu ral factors. K um e says that Jap an ese tim e o rie n ­ tations are “p re sen t-o rie n te d , c ircu lar th in k in g , g rad u al b u ild -u p , and gro u p loyalty,” w h ile A m e ric a n tim e o rien tatio n s are “fu tu reo rie n te d , lin e a r th in k in g , sense o f urgen cy, and in d iv id u alism .”9 O n e A m e ric a n m a n a g e r w o rk in g for a Jap an ese m u ltin a ­ tio n a l c o m p a n y observed th at Jap an ese m an agers seld o m disagree w ith o th e rs :“ I f I ta lk to an o th er A m e ric a n , at least w e w o u ld argue o r discuss b a c k and fo rth for te n , fifteen m in u tes ab o ut so m eth in g u n til h e re a lly un d erstan d s it. B u t w e d o n ’t have m u ch b ack and fo rth b e tw e e n Jap an ese and A m e ric an s. Jap an ese w o u ld , sort of, agree b efo re th at.” 10 A s th e above statem en t show s, th e Jap an ese w o u ld rath er reach a d ecisio n o utsid e th e co n feren ce ro o m th an have o p en and h o n est discussions. I f differences surface, th e Jap an ese w o u ld w ait u n til u n a n im ity o f o p in io n is re ac h e d or suggest ten tative a g re e ­ m en ts th at w ill n e e d to b e co n firm e d in sub sequ en t m eetin g s. T h e y alm ost n ever m ake h asty d ecisio n s to save tim e o r m eet d ead lines. Jap an ese b usin essm en also use d e c is io n -m a k in g c rite ria d ifferent fro m those u sed b y W estern b usin essm en . D e M e n te says th at Jap an ese c u ltu re co m pels th e Jap an ese to th in k su b jectiv ely as in “fu zzy lo g ic ” th at takes u n k n o w n , irra tio n a l, and u n p red ictab le facto rs in to co n sid eratio n .

Westerners go all out to make rational, logical presen­ tations, as briefly and concisely as possible. They pre­ sume that if a presentation is, in fact, rational and logi­ cal, which includes the belief that it makes good sense to both parties, that it will result in a quick, positive response. But Japanese perception of what is acceptable and desirable, even what is understandable, does not begin and end with objective reasoning. It begins and often ends with a very personal, emotional reaction that takes into account every individual involved in the discussions or who might be involved in the project if it is implemented.”11 O bviously, th e above o b serv atio n does n o t ap p ly to all sit­ u atio n s, b u t it is n ecessary to re co gn iz e th at “Jap an ese lo g ic ” is n o t

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the same as the Western logic derived from traditional Aristotelian principles. It is easy for Westerners to win an argument and lose a deal with the Japanese.

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Successful participation in a decision-making meeting involving Japanese businessmen requires different strategies of communica­ tion based on good understanding of Japanese culture, social cus­ toms, and business practices. A productive international business meeting calls for careful planning, good leadership, and active par­ ticipation of the participants. If the meeting is to be held in Japan, the chair must work out specific strategies far in advance. He must know the exact purpose of the meeting, select his team members, plan the agenda, and coordinate with the Japanese side.* Chairing a business meeting in Japan has cultural con­ straints that need to be dealt with. Seating should be strictly according to each participant’s relative status, not by work group or area of specialization.The order of speaking and of asking questions should also be based on the relative status of the Japanese repre­ sentatives. It is an insult to seat people indiscriminately and to ask anyone to speak up; instead the highest-ranked person should be asked to respond first. If he does not wish to answer the question himself, he will appoint one of the subordinates to respond. It is a serious mistake to direct questions to a younger Japanese partici­ pant simply because he has an excellent command of English or technical expertise. In a typical Japanese-American business meeting conduct­ ed in English, American participants tend to talk too much, their Japanese counterparts, too little. The chairperson must control the flow of communication from both sides and not allow the meet­ ing to degenerate into a one-sided discussion. At the same time, he should be careful not to embarrass any Japanese participant by forcing him to speak if he is unwilling or not prepared to speak.

* Refer to chapter 5 for detailed information regarding selecting team members and making an agenda.

Dec i s i on M a k i n g in J a p a n e s e Busi ness O r g a n i z a t i o n s

T h e c h a irp e rso n ’s resp o n sib ilities in c o n d u c tin g a business m e e tin g w ith th e Jap an ese can b e su m m ariz ed as follow s: 1. Start th e m e e tin g b y m ake o p e n in g rem arks and g re e t­ in gs. In th e W estern c u ltu ra l co n tex t, th e ch airp erso n is ex p e c te d to b e h u m o ro u s an d in fo rm a l; in th e Jap an ese cultural co n tex t, he is ex p ected to be fo rm al and reserved. 2. B riefly explain the purpose and the agenda o f the m eeting. 3. C o m e in p rep ared an d in tro d u ce each m e m b e r w ith his p ro p er title , sp ecial professional q u alificatio n s, and the sub ject h e has b e e n assign ed to cover. B e v e ry careful n o t to m isp ro n o u n ce Jap an ese n am es and titles. 4. C o n tro l th e flo w o f c o m m u n ic atio n fro m b o th sides and facilitate eq u al p artic ip atio n . M a k e allo w an ce for la n g u a g e d ifficu lty o f th e Jap an ese p articip an ts and give m o re tim e to th e m w h e n th e y resp on d in E nglish. A llo w s id e -ta lk in Jap an ese a m o n g th e Jap an ese p a rtic i­ pants i f it seem s n eed ed . 5. K eep th e gro u p o n co u rse b y fo llo w in g th e ag en d a as m u c h as possible, b u t b e flex ib le i f th e Jap an ese side does n o t stric tly fo llo w th e agen d a. 6. S u m m a riz e and c la rify th e m ajo r item s o f discussion fro m tim e to tim e d u rin g th e m e e tin g . I f c e rta in E nglish w ords or expressions seem d ifficult for th e Jap an ese to u n d erstan d , rephrase o r use sim p ler expressions to avoid m isu n d erstan d in gs. 7. M e d ia te and solve an y co n flicts and riv alrie s and m a in ­ ta in an am icab le and co o p erativ e atm o sp h ere for the m e e tin g . (A s th e Jap an ese are sensitive to m o o ds o r fe e l­ in gs, th e y m a y stop p a rtic ip a tin g i f in terp erso n al co n ­ flicts appear.) 8. H elp th e p articip an ts reach m u tu a lly ag reeab le decisio n s b y consensus. N e v e r force d ecisio n s o n th e Jap an ese side b y m a jo rity ru le.

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P articip an ts to a business m e e tin g in Jap an also n eed to be sensitive and u n d erstan d h o w Jap an ese p articip an ts w ill b eh ave d u rin g th e m e e tin g . T h e Jap an ese are h esitan t to v o ice stro n g p e r­ sonal o p in io n s. T h e y o ften use in d ire c t and am b ig u o u s w ays o f c o m m u n ic a tin g w h e n th e y are fo rced to o p e n ly m ake o b jectio n s o r n egativ e co m m en ts. A t th e sam e tim e , th e y also w o r r y ab o ut m a k in g th em selves lo o k fo o lish b y sp ea k in g o u t in p o o r E n glish or sayin g th e w ro n g th in g at th e w ro n g tim e. A n o th e r c o m m o n frustratio n for W estern ers tr y in g to q u ic k ly fin ish a business d eal in Ja p a n is th at th e y are o ften asked to rep eat th e sam e p resen tatio n for d ifferent groups o f p eo p le w h o m ay o r m ay n o t b e d ire c tly in vo lved in th e d ecisio n to b e m ade. In som e in stan ces, th ere w ill be “ o b servers” sittin g silen tly in sid e the m e e tin g ro o m and ta k in g n o tes o r ju s t listen in g . T h e y are n o t u su ­ a lly in tro d u c e d to th e v isitin g W e ste rn p articip an ts. T h e y m ay be o utsid ers such as b an kers o r g o v ern m en t officials o r ju n io r staff m em b ers w h o are b e in g g iv e n “liv e tra in in g sessions” o n in te rc u l­ tu ral n e g o tia tio n . W estern ers m a y feel an n o yed b y th e p resen ce o f these p eo p le, b u t th e y sh o u ld n o t ask th e Jap an ese side to o p en ly id e n tify th em . I f th e y re a lly w an t to k n o w w h o these p eo p le are, th e y can ask so m eo n e in p rivate. I f th e Jap an ese b usin essm an ch airs th e m e e tin g , h e m ay n o t lo o k as skillful and assertive as his W e ste rn c o u n terp art. H e w ill n e ith e r le a d th e discussion n o r co n tro l p a rtic ip atio n acco rd in g to th e co m m o n W estern p ractice o f c o n d u c tin g a business m eetin g . Jap an ese p articip an ts w ill m ost lik e ly read w h at th e y have p rep ared in ad vance rath e r th an fre e ly d iscussing issues at h an d. T h e resp o n sib ilities o f W e ste rn p articip an ts are as fo llo w s: 1. F in d o u t th e ex act p u rp o se o f th e m e e tin g , co llect n e c ­ essary data and in fo rm a tio n ; prep are v isu al aids such as charts, grap hs, figures o r slides, and h an d o u ts in Ja p a n e se ; and prep are th e p resen tatio n acco rd in g to the c h a irp e rso n ’s specific in stru ctio n s. B ecau se th e Jap an ese side n a tu ra lly w an ts w r itte n m aterials for future analysis, it is im p o rtan t to pro vid e as m u ch in fo rm atio n as possi­ b le in p rin te d fo rm . 2. A tten d th e m e e tin g w ith an o p en m in d and flex ib le attitud e. B e p atien t even i f th e Jap an ese p articip an ts do

Dec i s i on M a k i n g in J a p a n e s e Busi ness O r g a n i z a t i o n s

n o t resp on d im m ed iately. N e v e r tr y to h elp th e m w ith th e ir E n glish b y p u ttin g w ords in to th e ir m o uth s. 3. B e p atien t and liste n p o lite ly even i f th e Jap an ese p ar­ ticip an ts sp eak in b ro k en E nglish. N ev er ju d g e th e b u si­ ness a c u m e n o r q u alificatio n s o f an yo n e b y his lan g u ag e co m p eten cy. 4. R e s p e c t th e d ifferent p o in ts o f v ie w or different in te r­ p retatio n s o f th e sam e issue. R e fra in fro m d o m in a tin g th e discussion and tr y in g to w in argu m en ts. 5. M a in ta in th e g ro u p -c e n te re d attitu d e and assist the ch a irm a n in ru n n in g th e m e e tin g efficiently.

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U n d e rsta n d in g th e d yn am ics o f d ecisio n m a k in g is v e ry im p o rtan t. E sp ecially in business m e e tin g s w ith th e Jap an ese, group d e c is io n -m a k in g processes do n o t n e c e ssa rily go in an o rd erly and ratio n al fashion. T h e Jap an ese p articip an ts o ften ram b le, discuss irrelev an t m atters, and evade to u c h y q u e stio n s.W h e n th e y m eet for th e first tim e , th e y are in itia lly u n e asy and h esitan t. T h e y ten d to sp eak p o lite ly and te n ta tiv e ly and to e n ga ge in sm all talk. T h e y are q u ic k to ag ree w ith each o th er and are w illin g to la u g h at jo k e s th at are n o t even funny. T h e tim e re q u ire d fo r releasin g this p r i­ m a ry ten sio n d ep en d s o n th e c o m p o sitio n o f th e gro u p , th e status relatio n sh ip s am o n g th e gro u p m em b ers, and th e n atu re o f the d ecisio n th e y are seek in g . M o re tim e m ay b e req u ired i f th ere are great d ifferen ces in status, age, o cc u p atio n al in terests o r sp ecializa­ tio n , and c u ltu ral b ack g ro u n d s. G e n erally sp eakin g , th e Jap an ese are sub jective and p e r­ sonal and te n d to spend m u c h m o re tim e in releasin g p rim a ry social ten sio n . In co n trast, A m e ric an s are in c lin e d to be m o re o b jective and less p erso n al in th e ir attitud es to w ard business d eal­ in gs and spend less tim e for this purp o se. O n ce th e p rim a ry social ten sio n has b e e n released, the g ro u p is re ad y to w o rk o n th e task at h an d . T h e y m ust im p lic itly agree o n th e g ro u p ’s h ie ra rc h ic a l stru ctu re and roles, apart fro m the fo rm al status roles assigned b y th e o rg a n iz atio n al h ierarch y and agen d a. B ecau se all m em b ers strive for re c o g n itio n o f th e ir p e r­ sonal and professional q u alificatio n s, b o th p erso n ality clashes and

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ro le co n flicts in e v ita b ly o ccur. P articip an ts all have a p erso n al stake in th e d ecisio n and fig h t to p ro tect th e ir o w n interests. A t this secon d stage, se co n d ary social ten sio n s arise from actu al co n fro ntatio ns o ver specific issues. If th e seco n d ary social ten sio n s rise above an accep tab le le v e l of to leran ce o r th resh o ld of d isco m fo rt, u n h ap p y p articip an ts w ill stop c o n trib u tin g to the gro u p effort. T h e Japanese ten d to b e m o re sensitive th an W estern ers to se co n d ary so cial ten sio n s and w ill b ec o m e a m b ig u ­ ous and n o n c o m m ita l and m ay even d isd ain fu lly w ith d ra w fro m th e discussion. Sub stan tive ta sk -o rie n te d discussions w ill b e h alted , and th e g ro u p d e c is io n -m a k in g process w ill co m e to a standstill. I f this h ap p ens, th e c h airp erso n sh o u ld call for a b re ak for coffee or tea so th at th e p articip an ts have a ch an ce to in fo rm a lly iro n o u t the possible causes o f such ten sio n s. O n ly after social ten sio n s subside b e lo w e v e ry o n e ’s lev el o f to le ran ce sh ou ld th e ch airp erso n call the m e e tin g b a c k to order. T im e is one o f th e m ost c ritic a l factors in flu e n c in g group d yn am ics in d ecisio n m a k in g . A lth o u g h Jap an ese b u sin essm en v a lu e tim e as m u c h as th e ir W estern c o u n terp arts, th e y are less co n ­ c e rn e d w ith th e pressure o f d ead lin es, and th e y have a stro n g aver­ sion to b e in g ru sh ed in to m a k in g decisio n s. T im e -c o n sc io u s A m e ric a n s w ill often fin d th em selves in an aw k w a rd situ atio n i f th e y insist th at th e Jap an ese m ak e q u ic k d ecisio n s. I f th e y pressure th e Jap an ese side p ersisten tly, th e y m ay get a q u ic k d ecisio n o n the spot, b u t this d ecisio n w ill b e o v e rtu rn e d or ig n o red later. Finally, ta k in g accu rate m in u tes o f a business m e e tin g is im p o rtan t to avoid m isu n d erstan d in gs. In som e cases, th e Jap an ese side m ay ask for p erm issio n to use a tape reco rd er o r v id eo reco rd er to reco rd th e en tire p ro ceed in gs o f a business m e e tin g c o n d u c te d in E nglish. A lth o u g h this is a cu m b erso m e m eth o d o f ta k in g m in u tes, Jap an ese p articip an ts w ill feel m o re co m fo rtab le i f th e y can liste n to th e reco rd in gs ag ain later. I f W estern ers feel u n co m fo rtab le ab o ut this re c o rd in g o f th e en tire m e e tin g , th ey sh ould tr y to h elp th e Jap an ese side take g o o d n o tes b y rep eatin g th e im p o rtan t p o in ts o f e v e ry a g re e m e n t in sim p le E nglish. T h e y can even v o lu n te e r to take th e m in u tes and give th e Jap an ese p ar­ ticip an ts a co p y for th e ir reco rd. A m e ric a n b u sin essp eo p le o ften ask th e ir Jap an ese c o u n te r­ parts to sign and re tu rn a co p y o f th e m in u tes to have th em co n ­ firm all th e item s o f an ag re e m e n t. W h ile this is a g o o d business

Dec i s i on M a k i n g in J a p a n e s e Busi ness O r g a n i z a t i o n s

p ractice in th e U n ite d States, it can b e m isin terp reted as an im p o ­ sitio n or sign o f distrust b y th e Jap an ese b ecause th e y co n sid er k u ch iy a k u so k u (verbal g e n tle m e n ’s ag reem en ts) and fu n i k i (atm o s­ p h ere o f th e m e e tin g ) ju s t as im p o rtan t as w ritte n d o c u m e n tary ev id en ce. T h e y w ill sign th e co p y w ith o u t carefu lly re a d in g it and co m p lain late r w h e n pro b lem s arise. In sum m ary, it is e x tre m e ly im p o rtan t th at W estern b u si­ n essp eo p le realize th at th e y m ay n e e d to m ake co n cessio n s to the Jap an ese style o f m a k in g d ecisio n s and c o n d u c tin g business m e e t­ in gs in o rd er to get a lo n g in Jap an .

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n te rn a tio n al b u sin essp eo p le are fre q u e n tly called u p o n to m ake speeches for v a rio u s professional and c iv ic o rg a n iz atio n s.T h e y are also asked to m ake o ral p resen tation s to custo m ers, p eers, and h ig h ­ er m an ag e m e n t. P u b lic sp ea k in g can b e an effective m ean s o f re a c h in g a larg e n u m b e r o f p eo p le in o n e settin g, an d m a k in g p re ­ sentatio ns is an e x c e lle n t m ean s o f in tro d u c in g tec h n ic al in fo rm a ­ tio n . T h e tra d itio n o f p u b lic sp ea k in g in th e W est dates b ack to the days o f A risto tle (3 8 4 -3 2 2 B .C .), and p u b lic sp eak in g is ta u g h t in all in stitu tio n s o f h ig h e r le a rn in g in W estern co u n tries. M a n y W e ste rn b u sin essp eo p le are e x c e lle n t speakers, and th e y have no p ro b lem in m a k in g speech es and p resen tatio n s to au d ien ces w ith sim ilar c u ltu ral b ack g ro u n d s. H o w ever, it is a m istak e to assum e th at th e W e ste rn style o f sp ea k in g is also suitable for Jap an ese a u d i­ ences. T h e W estern style m ay sound to o aggressive and a rg u m e n ­ tative for Jap an ese listen ers. T h e active h an d gestures and b o d y m o vem en ts th at are e n c o u ra g e d in th e W est m a y b e co n sid ered im p o lite b y th e Jap an ese b ecause th e y do n o t share th e sam e trad i­ tio n s o f p u b lic sp eakin g. In Jap an , th e te a c h in g o f p u b lic sp eak in g w as first in tro ­ d u ced in th e e a rly 1870s b y Y u k ic h i F u k u z aw a.1 H e p ro m o ted the art o f p u b lic sp ea k in g b y d em o n stratin g it b efo re v ario u s groups. H e also p u b lish ed m a n y b o o ks and articles to p ro m o te p u b lic sp ea k in g and W e ste rn le a rn in g . H o w ever, th e stu d y o f p u b lic sp ea k in g did n o t flo u rish in Ja p a n b ecause th e Jap an ese p eo p le had

I

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liv ed for c e n tu rie s in a feu d alistic so cie ty w h e re p u b lic deb ate on d em o cratic id eals w as fo rb id d en . In th e ir h ierarch ical so ciety w h e re p o liten ess and h u m ility w e re e n c o u rag ed , p u b lic disp lay o f o n e ’s in te llig e n c e and ex p ertise w as co n sid ered in ap p ro p riate. E ven today, p u b lic -sp e a k in g courses are n o t a p art o f th e c u rric u la o f se co n d ary and p o stseco n d ary e d u c a tio n in Jap an . T h is does n o t m e a n th at th e Jap an ese do n o t e n ga ge in p u b lic sp eakin g , b u t it m ean s th at th e ir style o f p u b lic sp ea k in g m ust c o n fo rm to Jap an ese social custom s and con ven tion s. W e ste rn speakers m ust u n d erstan d different Jap an ese c u l­ tu ral ex p ectatio n s so th at th e y can m ake n ecessary adju stm en ts and m o d ificatio n s in w h a t th e y say and h o w th e y speak to a Jap an ese au d ien ce. T h e y m ust p ay m o re atte n tio n to th e p u rp o se, o ccasio n , and au d ien c e and m ust o rgan ize and d eliv er a sp eech in a c u ltu r­ a lly accep tab le m an n e r in Jap an .

Purpose, Occasion, and Audience Analysis N o sp eaker sh ould accep t a request for p u b lic sp eak in g w ith o u t first le a rn in g ab o ut th e p u rp o se, o ccasio n , and au d ien ce. T h ese variab les d ictate h o w th e speaker sh o u ld o rgan ize and d eliv er his speech. H e m ust fin d o u t w h e th e r th e sp eech is to in fo rm , p e r­ suade, m o tiv ate, in sp ire, im press, co n tro l, in stru ct, co m m em o rate, or en te rtain . H e also sh ould k n o w w h a t th e o ccasio n is so th at h e can give an ap p ro p riate speech. A n A m e ric a n business e x ecu tiv e asked to give an in fo rm a ­ tive sp eech m ust fin d o ut m o re d e ta ile d in fo rm atio n b efo re accep t­ in g th e request. H e m ust ask w h a t th e p urp o se o f this m e e tin g is. I f it is a sem in ar on in v estin g in th e U n ite d States sponsored b y the U .S. D e p artm en t o f C o m m e rc e , h e n eed s to prepare a w e ll-o r g a ­ n iz ed sp eech w ith th e m ost c u rre n t trad e in fo rm atio n and statis­ tics. I f it is a sem iso cial o ccasio n such as a business lu n c h e o n fo ru m o r a c o m m em o rativ e d in n e r party, h e o u g h t to be m a k in g a less serio us sp eech w ith som e h u m o r. H e is e x p ected to in fo rm and en te rta in at th e sam e tim e. I f th e o ccasio n is th e an n iv ersary p arty

Publi c S pe a k i ng and P r e s e n t a t i o n s

o f a jo in t-v e n tu re co n tract sig n in g , h e sh ou ld give a sp eech ap p ro ­ p ria te fo r this m ilesto n e. I f it is a classroom situ atio n at a Jap an ese u n iversity, h e n eed s to ch an ge his sp eech ac c o rd in g ly even i f he speaks o n th e sam e sub ject. O n c e th e p urp o se and th e o ccasio n o f th e sp eak in g e n g a g e m e n t b e c o m e clear, th e sp eaker m ust m ake an earn est effort to an alyze th e au d ien ce. O n e ap p ro ach to au d ien ce analysis is called “ d em o g rap h ic au d ien c e analysis.” T h is analysis is based on th e assu m p tio n th at d em o g rap h ic ch aracteristics o f th e m em b ers o f an au d ien c e such as age, sex, m a rita l status, o ccu p atio n , so cio eco ­ n o m ic status, p o litic a l p a rty p referen ce, re lig io n , and eth n ic and c u ltu ral b a c k g ro u n d w ill in flu e n c e th e w a y th e y resp on d to a m es­ sage. It is alw ays useful to fin d o ut th e average age or th e age ran ge o f th e au d ien ce. It can b e assum ed th at o ld er p eo p le are g en era lly co n servative and m o re e x p e rie n c e d , w h ile y o u n g e r p eo p le are m o re lib e ra l b u t less e x p e rie n c e d . O ld e r p eo p le m a y also b e m o re p rag m a tic, cau tio u s, and re lu c tan t to ch an ge th an y o u n g e r ones, w h o te n d to b e m o re id ealistic, o p tim istic, and adven turo us. A s a g e n e ra l ru le , a y o u n g au d ien c e w ill resp on d to ch allen g es and e x c itin g n e w id eas w h ile an o ld e r au d ien ce w ill resp on d m o re favorably to appeals to tra d itio n and to m o d erate refo rm s w ith g o o d p ractical ju stificatio n s. A g e m ay also in d icate th e a u d ie n c e ’s professional and so cial status. T h e speaker is n a tu ra lly req u ired to m ake a v e ry p o lish ed sp eech to a g ro u p o f o ld er Jap an ese business ex ecu tiv es and give a less fo rm al sp eech to a gro u p o f y o u n g Jap an ese c o lle g e students. It can also h elp to k n o w i f one is to speak to an au d ien ce th at is m ad e up p rim a rily o f m e n o r o f w o m en . It is often suggest­ ed th at m e n are g e n e ra lly lo g ic a l and an alytical, w o m e n , em o tio n al and sub jective. Jap an ese m e n te n d to stress n atio n al and in te rn a ­ tio n a l eco n o m ics, career ad v an cem en t, and in terest in sports, w h ile Jap an ese w o m e n are m o re c o n c e rn e d ab o ut ed u catio n , h ealth care, fa m ily affairs, and social ju stic e . It is also im p o rtan t to rem em b er th at risq u e h u m o r and sexist la n g u a g e are o ften co n sid ered taboo in m ix e d au d ien ces. In ad d itio n , m a rrie d m e n and w o m e n have different person al co n cern s and interests fro m those o f single m en and w o m e n , w h o are still free o f fam ily ob ligation s. O c c u p atio n , so cio e co n o m ic status, p o litical p arty p refer­ en ce, and r e lig io n are o th er im p o rta n t factors to co nsider. P eople

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in business and in d ustry, g o v ern m en t serv ice, and ed u catio n have d ifferent valu es, attitu d es, and p reo ccu p atio n s. Jap an ese b usin ess­ m e n are w e ll in fo rm e d ab o ut th e w o rld eco n o m y and in te rn a ­ tio n a l p o litics, w h ile Jap an ese g o v ern m en t officials are a lo o f and co n servative in th e ir attitud es. Jap an ese teach ers are m o re co n serv ­ ative and h esitan t to take o n n e w ch allen g es th an th e ir W estern c o u n terp arts. T h e p erso n al valu es o f w e ll-e d u c a te d , u p p e r- and m id d le-class p eo p le are d ifferent fro m those o f less-ed u cated , lo w er-cla ss p eo p le. N atu rally, a sp eaker is ex p ected to ta lk about h ig h ly in te lle c tu a l subjects and d em o n strate his ex p ertise and k n o w le d g e to an au d ien c e w ith h ig h so cio eco n o m ic status, b u t he sh ould avoid ta lk in g ab o ut te c h n ic a l subjects u sin g te c h n ic a l ja rg o n to a gro u p o f n o n sp ecialists. P erso n al co m m en ts o n p o litics should b e m ad e w ith care, b ecau se favorable co m m en ts o n one p o litical p a rty can b e tak en as n egativ e co m m en ts ab o ut an o th er p o litical party. A n astute speaker sh ou ld avoid m a k in g stro n g co m m en ts on r e lig io n as w e ll.T h e Jap an ese u su a lly w o rsh ip b o th S h in to gods and B u d d h ist saints, and som e o f th e m atten d C h ris tia n ch urch es. E th n ic and c u ltu ral b ack g ro u n d s are im p o rtan t factors to re co gn iz e w h e n sp ea k in g to Jap an ese au d ien ces. B ecau se the Jap an ese are e th n o c e n tric and p ro u d o f th e ir cu ltu ral h e ritag e , W e ste rn speakers m ay cause u n n e c e ssary in terp erso n al frictio n and em b arrassm en t i f th e y m ake p re ju d ic ia l statem ents against Jap an . A n o th e r m e th o d o f a n a ly z in g th e a u d ien ce is called “p u r­ p o se -o rie n te d analysis.” It attem pts to fin d o u t w h y th e m em b ers o f an au d ien c e w an t to listen to th e sp eech. E v ery m e m b e r o f the au d ien c e has his o r h er o w n p u rp o se o r e x p ectatio n w h e n co m in g to listen to a c e rta in speaker. T h e sp eaker can n o t take it for g ra n t­ ed th at w h a te v e r he talks ab o ut w ill b e accep tab le to th e en tire au d ien ce. H e m ust tr y to p ro vid e th e a u d ien ce w ith th e in fo rm a ­ tio n and d ata th e y are in terested in . F o r ex am p le, i f th e A m e ric a n C h a m b e r o f C o m m e rc e in T okyo sponsors a sem in ar o n A m e ric a n business law s and ta x a tio n , th e au d ien c e m ay in c lu d e several top ex ecu tiv es o fJap an e se m u ltin a tio n a l co m p an ies, h ig h -le v e l b u re a u ­ crats, business m ag az in e rep o rters, and tax acco un tan ts. T h e y all w an t to h e ar ab o ut those aspects o f A m e ric a n business and tax law s th at th e y co n sid er im p o rtan t. K n o w in g in advance th e different reasons w h y v a rio u s m em b ers o f th e a u d ien ce are a tte n d in g the sem in ar w ill a llo w th e speaker to d esign his sp eech to satisfy th e ir resp ective n eeds.

Publi c S pe a k i ng and P r e s e n t a t i o n s

Finally, the speaker also needs to k n o w th e lev el o f the a u d ie n c e ’s exp ertise. I f th e au d ien ce kn o w s n o th in g ab o ut th e sub­ je c t, he sh ould ex p lain basic ideas in sim ple lan g u ag e. O n th e o th er h an d , i f the au d ien ce is a group o f professionals o r experts o n the sub ject, h e should m ake his sp eech sufficien tly c h a lle n g in g and in fo rm ative w ith the m ost recen t and reliable in fo rm atio n and data.

Choosing a Topic W h e n th e sp eaker has co m p le te d th e a u d ien ce analysis, h e w ill have to d ecid e his to p ic. A t tim es th e p ro b lem o f c h o o sin g a to p ic is solved b y th e p erso n o r th e o rga n iz atio n th at has in v ited h im to speak, b u t h e w ill still have to d efin e e x a c tly w h a t h e is g o in g to ta lk ab o ut. H e m ay b e assigned to o b ro ad a to p ic o r h e h im s e lf m ay have to o m a n y th in gs he w an ts to ta lk ab o ut u n d e r th e assigned to p ic. H e m a y also have to focus his o w n ideas and in terests o n th at to p ic .T h e re are th ree basic c r ite r ia to co n sid er in ch o o sin g a to p ic: 1. Is it ap p ro p riate for th e speaker? H e sh ou ld have e n o u g h k n o w le d g e and e x p e rie n c e o n th e to p ic to q u alify h im to speak. H e m ust b e in terested in th e to p ic, b ecause his en th u siasm and in terest w ill b e in ev itab ly c o m m u n ic a te d to his au d ien ce. In ad d itio n , h e should b e able to co lle c t n ecessary in fo rm atio n and data to sup ­ p o rt his sp eech and his co n ten tio n s ob jectively. 2. Is th e to p ic suitable for th e au d ien ce? T h e speaker w ill n e e d to fin d to p ic th at m atch es th e a u d ie n c e ’s in terest b ecause his p rim a ry goal is to satisfy th e a u d ie n c e ’s n eed s and ex p ectatio n s. I f th e au d ien ce is m ad e up o f several groups w ith d ifferent d em o g rap h ic ch aracteris­ tics, h e m ust attem p t to satisfy th e v ario u s gro u p s’ needs and ex p ectatio n s b y ta lk in g ab o ut to p ics o f each o n e ’s in terests an d co n cern s. 3. Is it ap p ro p riate for th e o ccasio n and th e allo tted tim e? In alm ost all in stan ces, th e o ccasio n d ictates th e to p ic. A

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jo y o u s to p ic sh o u ld b e ch o sen for a h ap p y o ccasio n , and a serio us to p ic fo r a stu d y session. It is im p o rtan t to n o te th at th e allo tted tim e in flu en ces th e to p ic. It is selfd efeatin g to p ic k a to p ic th at req u ires a co n siderab le tim e to e x p la in w h e n o n ly five o r ten m in u tes are allo t­ ted for th e speech.

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A g o o d sp eaker co n d u cts th o ro u g h research and co llects su p p o rt­ in g in fo rm a tio n n o m atter h o w e x p e rie n c e d and k n o w le d g e ab le h e m ay be. N o t o n ly m ust h e k n o w ab o ut th e to p ic fro m his v ie w ­ p o in t, b u t h e m ust also k n o w it fro m th e a u d ie n c e ’s perspective. K n o w in g th e a u d ie n c e ’s v ie w p o in t is c ritic a l w h e n a speaker o f o n e c u ltu re is sp ea k in g to an au d ien c e o f an o th er cu ltu re. For e x am p le, an A m e ric a n g o v ern m en t official ta lk in g to a gro u p o f Jap an ese b usin essm en ab o ut th e trad e im b alan ce w ith Jap an m ay v ie w this p ro b lem as an “ e c o n o m ic in v asio n ” o r “trade w ar,” b ut th e Jap an ese m ay see it as n o th in g m o re th an an “ e x tre m e ly suc­ cessful p e n e tra tio n o f Jap an ese goods in to A m e ric a n co n su m er m arkets.” T h ere are several fo rm s o f e v id en ce and sup p ort for a sp eech such as statistics, ex am p les, testim on y, an alo g ies, and e x p la­ natio ns: Statistics are n u m e ric a l listin gs o r g ro u p in gs su m m arize m a n y in stan ces o r o ccu rren ces. T h e y are essen tial for in fo rm ative speeches and v e r y useful su p p o rtin g ev id e n ce for persuasive a rg u ­ m en ts. H o w ever, statistical in fo rm a tio n sh o u ld b e translated in to e asy -to -u n d e rsta n d te rm s for th e au d ien ce. I f statistics are u sed in a sp eech , it is e x tre m e ly im p o rtan t to presen t th e m in Jap an ese standards o f m easu rem en t o r th e m e tric system . D o llars, feet, m iles, and p o un d s m ust b e translated in to y e n , cen tim eters, k ilo m eters, and k ilo g ram s b ecau se A m e ric a n m easu rem en ts are m ean in gless to th e Jap an ese au d ien ce. It is also im p o rtan t to c le arly id e n tify the sources o f an y statistics.T h e Jap an ese ten d to have b lin d co n fid en ce in th e o fficial statistics p ro vid ed b y g o v e rn m en tal offices and m ajo r b an k s’ research d ep artm en ts. M e m b e rs o f a Jap an ese au d ien ce are

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lik e ly to ask for p rin te d statistical tables so th at th e y can reex am in e th e in fo rm a tio n m o re carefu lly w h e n th e y re tu rn to th e ir offices. E xam ples are d escrip tio n s o f events, in stan ces, o r e x p e ri­ en ces, e ith e r real o r h y p o th e tic a l. E xam ples can b e u sed effectively to ex p lain a sp ecific p ro b lem , situ atio n , o r c o n d itio n th at is d iffi­ cu lt to d escrib e verbally. T h e severe p ro b lem o f air p o llu tio n in Los A n g e le s can b e u sed as an e x am p le o f in c re asin g air p o llu tio n p ro b ­ lem s in b ig cities in Ja p a n .T h e seriousness o f d ru g abuse and ju v e ­ n ile d e lin q u e n c y am o n g teen ag ers in N e w Y o rk can b e ex p lain ed b y m a k in g up a h y p o th e tic a l e x am p le w ith v iv id descrip tio n s. It m ust b e re c o g n iz e d , h o w ever, th at W estern speakers m ay have a real d ifficu lty in m a k in g suitable ex am p les from th e ir o w n e x p erien ces for Jap an ese au d ien ces, w h o se professional an d social life th e y do n o t share. T estim o ny is th e re p o rtin g o f a p e rso n ’s o p in io n o r an e y e ­ w itn ess’s acco u n t. T h e p erson w h o se statem en t is u sed as testim o ­ n y m ust b e a d e q u a te ly q u alified . H e o r she m ust b e a w id e ly re c ­ o gn ized a u th o rity o r an e x p e rt w ith p ro p er q u alificatio n s. A t the sam e tim e , th e te stim o n y m ust b e accep tab le and b eliev ab le to the au d ien ce. For e x am p le, te stim o n y b y th e U .S. am bassador to Jap an o n th e future o f U .S .-Jap an relatio n s w ill b e seen as cred ib le and reliab le. T estim o n y b y a fam o us Jap an ese astronaut o n th e feasib ili­ ty o f h a v in g a p e rm a n e n t space station w ill c e rta in ly b e b eliev ab le to th e Jap an ese au d ien ce. A n alo g ie s are co m p ariso n s o f tw o th in gs th at are sim ilar in essential ch aracteristics. T h ere are fig u rative and lite ral an alo gies. E xam ples o f figu rative an alo g ies are “ T h e N ik o n has a len s as w id e and b rig h t as th e h u m an e y e ” o r “Ja p a n ’s ju d o ch am p io n is as stro n g as a b u ll.” L iteral an alo g ies are co m p ariso n s o f th in g s o f the sam e class: “ T h e C a d illa c E ld o rad o is T oyota’s L exus in th e U n ite d States” o r “R o u g h -w a te r k a y a k in g o n th e C o lo rad o R iv e r is lik e th e th r illin g ad v en tu re o f sh o o tin g th e H o z u rapids.”

O rgan izing the Speech Ideas and m ate rials in a sp eech m ust b e o rg an iz ed in a m an n er th at is fam iliar and accep tab le to th e p a rtic u la r au d ien ce to w h ic h the

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sp eech is d irected . In m a n y in te rc u ltu ra l sp ee c h -m a k in g situatio n s, h o w th e sp eech is o rga n iz ed b eco m es a c ritic a l factor. For e x a m ­ p le, it is possible th at a sp eech o rga n ized in a ty p ica l A m e ric a n p at­ te rn m a y n o t b e ap p ro p riate for Japanese au d ien ces. C o n seq u en tly, it is n ecessary for an A m e ric a n speaker to adapt his sp eech to the Japanese au d ien c e , w h ic h has d ifferent ex p ectatio n s to w ard p u b lic sp eakin g. G e n e ra lly sp eakin g , a sp eech has th ree m ajo r p arts: an in tro d u c tio n , a b ody, and a c o n clu sio n . T h e in tro d u ctio n gives the au d ien c e a b r ie f p re v ie w o f w h a t th e sp eech is a b o u t.A g o o d in tro ­ d u c tio n w ill h elp th e speaker acco m p lish th e fo llo w in g : (1) capture th e atte n tio n and in terest o f all m em b ers o f th e au d ien ce, (2) estab ­ lish rap p o rt and c re d ib ility w ith th e au d ien ce, (3) e x p lain to the au d ien c e h o w th e sp eech relates to th e ir n eed s, (4) tell th e m the p u rp o se o f th e sp eech , (5) in fo rm th e m o f th e m ain to p ics and subtopics in a seq u en tia l order. O p e n in g rem arks in th e in tro d u c tio n can b e a referen ce to th e o ccasio n , a c o m p lim e n t for th e au d ien ce, referen ce to th e c o m ­ m o n e x p e rie n c e o f th e sp eaker and au d ien ce, referen ce to cu rren t o r h isto ric a l events, a startlin g statem en t, a q u estio n , a q u o tatio n , or a jo k e . T h e ty p e o f in tro d u c tio n dep en ds la rg e ly u p o n th e sp eak­ e r’s p erso n al p referen ce, th e o ccasio n , th e co n ten t o f th e sp eech, and th e c u ltu ral c o n te x t in w h ic h th e sp eech is given . In Ja p a n , it is ap p ro p riate th at a speaker b e g in his rem arks b y a p o lo g iz in g o r h u m b lin g h im self. T h is ap o lo g y is a social ritu a l th at e v e ry Jap an ese speaker is ex p e c te d to p erfo rm b ecau se h u m il­ ity is co n sid ered a v irtu e in th e Jap an ese c u ltu ral co n tex t. T h e sp eaker m ay b e g in w ith such ty p ica l self-effacin g in tro d u c to ry rem arks as: Takai tok oro kara o h a n a s h i w o s u r u n o w a k y o sh u k u d e s u g a o r “ I h esitate to address y o u fro m a h ig h p lace (an elev ated p o d i­ u m ), b u t . . . ” W a ta k u sh i n a d o g a m in a sa m a n i o h a n ia s h i s u r u n o w a or “ I re a lly d o n ’t d eserve th e h o n o r o f sp ea k in g to y o u , b u t . . . ” T h ese ritu a listic Jap an ese rem arks m ig h t b e m isin terp reted b y a W estern au d ien c e as sh o w in g th e sp eaker’s la c k o f co n fid en ce and au th o rity. H o w ever, th e Jap an ese sp eaker is m e re ly sayin g w h at h e is ex p e c te d to say in this co n tex t. T h is does n o t m ean th at W e ste rn speakers sh o u ld use these a p o lo getic rem arks, b u t th ey o u g h t b e m o re co n servative and fo rm al w h e n ta lk in g to Jap an ese au d ien ces. W estern ers sh ou ld refrain fro m startin g a sp eech w ith b o istero us h u m o r o r ex cessiv ely in fo rm a l rem arks as th e y w o u ld do in th e ir o w n culture. In m ost in stan ces, use o f h u m o r is u n w ise

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b ecause h u m o r fro m one c u ltu re m a y n o t b e h u m o ro u s in an o th ­ er cu ltu re. For e x am p le, an A m e ric a n sp eaker’s h u m o r is alm ost im p o ssib le fo r Jap an ese p eo p le to u n d erstan d unless th e y have liv ed o r w o rk e d am o n g A m e ric an s for a lo n g tim e. Jap an ese m ay n o t la u g h at th e sp eaker’s jo k e a n y w a y b ecause th e y co n sid er it im p o ­ lite to la u g h at so m eo n e w h o is an h o n o red guest speaker. It is m o re ap p ro p riate to b e g in b y re c o g n iz in g all im p o rtan t p eo p le in th e a u d ien c e in a strict o rd er o f relative social ran k in g s in d iv id u a l­ ly o r as a group. T h e fo llo w in g c o u ld be a p ro p er in tro d u c to ry re m a rk to a Jap an ese au d ien ce:

“Thank you for your kind introduction. President Shimada, Vice President Tanaka, Honored Guests, Ladies and Gentlemen. I am John Smith, Senior Vice President of Asia Pacific Consulting Group. It is my great pleasure and honor to be here this morning to participate in the Asian Pacific Economic Development Seminar sponsored by your esteemed organization. For the past twenty years, I have been actively involved in the study of economic developments in several Asian countries. This morning I wish to share with you my humble opinion on the dynamic economic develop­ ments in China,Vietnam, Indonesia, and Malaysia . . . ” T h e b o d y is th e m ain sectio n o f th e sp ee c h .T h e re are sev­ eral w ays to arran g e th e m a jo r p o in ts in th e b o d y o f th e sp eech. In c h o o sin g th e m ost ap p ro p riate p atte rn o f o rgan iz atio n , th e sp eak­ er sh ou ld reevalu ate th e in fo rm a tio n o b tain ed fro m th e p rio r a u d i­ en ce an alysis, th e o ccasio n , and th e p u rp o se and adapt it to th e sit­ u a tio n and to th e specific n eed s o f th e au d ien ce. A sp eech can be arran g ed in a ch ro n o lo g ic al p atte rn , g e o g rap h ical p attern , to p ical p atte rn , p ro b le m -so lu tio n p attern , cau se-effect p attern , and m o ti­ v ated seq u en ce p attern . T h e ch ro n o lo g ic al p atte rn (also called th e “tim e seq u en ce p attern ) is u sed w h e n th e speaker w ish es to o rgan ize his sp eech in th e seq u en ce o f th e past, th e presen t, and th e future. T h is is an e x c e lle n t p atte rn to use w h e n ta lk in g ab o ut a co m p a n y ’s history. For e x am p le, a sp eech o n th e c o m p a n y can b e arran g ed as follow s: “w h e n th e co m p a n y w as fo u n d ed b y w h o m , and w h at it w as d o in g ; w h a t it is d o in g n o w ; and w h a t it plans to do in th e future.” T h is is an effective p atte rn o f o rga n iz atio n for a Jap an ese au d ien ce

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b eacau se Jap an ese b usin essm en are g e n e ra lly in terested in th e h is­ to ry o r h e rita g e o f a business o rgan izatio n . T h e G eo grap h ical p atte rn (also called th e space seq u en ce p attern ) is suitable fo r such to p ics as geograp h y, travel, tran sp o rta­ tio n , and p lan n in g . T h e m ain p o in ts are arran g ed in term s o f p h ys­ ic a l lo c a tio n , m o v in g fro m east to w est, fro m th e cen ter to th e o u t­ side, or fro m c ity to c ity and c o u n try to co un try. For ex am p le, an A m e ric a n e x ecu tiv e in ch arge o f in te rn a tio n a l o p eratio n s can talk ab o ut several successful overseas o p eratio n s in H o n g K o n g, S in ­ gap ore, M alaysia, T h a ila n d , and C h in a in o rd er o f g eo g rap h ical p o sitio n s o n th e m ap o f A sia. T h e to p ic al p atte rn o f arra n g e m en t is u sed fo r a sp eech th at can be c a te g o riz e d in to separate to p ics and subtopics. It is a co n v en ien t p atte rn to use w h e n a sp eaker w ish es to ta lk ab o ut v ar­ io u s aspects o f a co u n try, com pany, or o rgan iz atio n . T h e speaker can o rgan ize an in fo rm ativ e sp eech on H a w a i‘i b y co v e rin g such to p ics as H aw aiian h isto ry, geo grap h y, c lim ate, e d u catio n , in d u s­ trie s, p o p u latio n , re lig io n s, and so on. O r h e m ay arran g e a p ersu a­ sive sp eech o n th e b rig h t future o f an e x tre m e ly successful co m p a­ n y b y in tro d u c in g th e m ost recen t in n o vative activities in several d ep artm en ts such as R e se a rc h and D e v elo p m en t, P ro d u ctio n , A c c o u n tin g and F in an ce, P erso n n el, and Sales and M ark e tin g . T h is is th e m ost w id e ly u sed fo rm o f sp eech o rgan izatio n . T h e p ro b le m -so lu tio n p atte rn can b e used effectively for persuasive speeches in te n d e d to propose n e w so lution s o r ch an ges. T h is ap p ro ach req u ires th at a speaker first d efin e th e p ro b lem , th en discuss advantages and d isadvantages o f several so lution s, and fin al­ ly advocate one so lu tio n as th e best, u sin g reliab le in fo rm atio n and data. For ex am p le, i f a speaker w ish es to p ersuad e top m an ag em en t to p urch ase a n e w co m p u te r system , h e has to presen t th e serio u s­ ness o f th e p ro b lem caused b y th e o ld co m p u ter system c u rre n tly in service and suggest altern ativ e so lution s su ch as re p airin g , u p g ra d in g , or b u y in g a n e w system . Finally, th e best so lu tio n — b u y in g th e n e w c o m p u ter sys­ te m — is ad vo cated , based o n th e th o ro u g h an alysis o f th e m erits and d e m e rits o f all so lution s. T h e cau se-effect p atte rn is based on a ch ain o f cause-effect relatio n sh ip s and th e assu m p tio n th at e lim in a tio n o f certa in causes w ill b r in g ab o ut desirab le effects. T h e sp eaker w h o uses this p at­ te rn m ust first estab lish th at th e desirab le effects are d ire c tly relat­ ed to th e causes th e ir au d ien c e is c o n c e rn e d a b o u t.T h e n , h e advo ­

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cates th at th e e lim in a tio n o f th e causes w ill p ro d u ce desirable effects in th e future. For ex am p le, a sp eech o n th e p ro b lem o f in te rn a tio n a l d ru g cartels can b e o rga n ized as follow s: “ T h e ille g a l activities o f in te rn a tio n a l d ru g cartels are u n d e rm in in g th e social m o res and p ro m o tin g v io le n t c rim es in all in d u strializ ed n atio ns; th e in d u stria liz e d n atio n s o f th e w o rld are su fferin g fro m th e ra m ­ p an t ille g a l activities o f th e d ru g cartels; th erefo re, to reg ain social stab ility and establish d ru g -fre e in te rn a tio n a l co m m u n ities, all the in d u stria liz e d n atio n s m ust p o o l th e ir reso urces to e lim in ate these d ru g cartels.” T h e m o tiv ated seq u en ce p atte rn (also called th e p sych o ­ lo g ic a l p ro gressio n p attern ) is co n sid ered th e m ost effective p attern o f o rg a n iz atio n for persuasive sp ee c h e s.T h e seq u en ce has five steps th at fo llo w th e p syc h o lo g y o f p ersu asio n , and it is d esign ed to m o tiv ate th e au d ien c e to m ove to w ard im m e d iate accep tan ce o f th e sp eaker’s appeal. It consists o f an atte n tio n step, n eed step, sat­ isfactio n step, v isu a liz a tio n step, and actio n step, and each o f these steps has sp ecific fun ctio ns: 1. A tte n tio n step— g ain th e a u d ie n c e ’s a tte n tio n and arouse in terest b y sh o w in g th e im p o rtan ce o f th e to p ic, m a k in g a startlin g statem en t, o r te llin g a d ram atic story. 2. N e e d step— sh o w th at th ere is a serio us p ro b lem w ith th e e x istin g situ atio n and th at ch an ges are u rg e n tly n eed ed . 3. Satisfactio n step— satisfy th e n eed s (n e w ly created b y th e speaker) b y p ro v id in g a v iab le so lu tio n to th e p ro b ­ le m . S u p p o rt th e p ro p osed so lu tio n b y o fferin g en o u g h ex am p les, statistics, and testim ony. 4. V isu aliza tio n step— p ro vid e a v iv id im ag e o f w h a t w ill h ap p en i f th e a u d ien c e adopts th e so lutio n . 5. A c tio n step— co n v in ce th e au d ien ce to take im m ed iate actio n . T ran sitio n s are w o rds, phrases, senten ces, o r rh eto rica l questio n s th at jo in subtopics and id eas in a sp eech . T h e y are lik e signposts, and used w h e n a sp eaker co m p letes a m ain id e a o r a

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sub to p ic b efo re m o v in g to th e n e x t o n e; th e y sh o w th e au d ien ce th e c o n n ectio n s am o n g th e subtopics. A tran sitio n al statem en t is also u sed w h e n th e sp eaker m oves fro m th e in tro d u ctio n to th e b o d y o f th e sp eech. T ran sitio n s in c lu d e such phrases as “ I f I m ay illu strate m y p o in t, . . . ,” “ T h is p o in t raises an o th er q uestion s o f . . . , ” “N ow , le t us lo o k at . . . , ” “ In o th er w o rds, . . . , ” “ In co n ­ trast, . . . ,” and “ In sum m ary, . . .” C le a r tran sitio n s are m a n d a to ry in all sp eech m ak in g . T h is is esp e c ia lly tru e w h e n sp ea k in g to Japanese au d ien ces w h o se E n glish is lim ite d . W h e n sp ea k in g th ro u g h an in terp reter, e a s y -to id e n tify transitio n s are ab so lu tely n ecessary b ecause th e in te rp re te r n eed s to fo llo w th e flo w o f th e sp eech and m ake tim e ly ad ju st­ m en ts. In a seq u en tia l in te rp re tin g session, th e in te rp re te r dep en ds o n clear tran sitio n s or v erb al cues g iv e n b y th e sp eaker to start in te rp re tin g w h a t th e sp eaker has just said. In th e co n c lu sio n , th e fin al p art o f th e sp eech , th e speaker su m m arizes o r restates th e m ain id eas to ensure th at m em b ers o f th e a u d ien c e w ill u n d erstan d th e m essage and resp on d to it as the sp eaker has in te n d e d . T h e co n c lu sio n takes v ario u s form s d ep en d ­ in g o n th e p urp o se o f th e sp eech. It co u ld b e a su m m ary o r reca­ p itu la tio n o f th e m ain id e a, a ch alle n g e , an ap p eal, o r a q u o tatio n b y a fam o us au th o rity. It sh o u ld also reflect th e p urp o se o f the sp eech and th e in tro d u c to ry rem arks. It is g o o d to rem em b er th at Japanese speakers alw ays en d a sp eech b y th a n k in g th e au d ien ce. T h e m ost c o m m o n e n d in g is G o s e ich o a r ig a to g o z a im a s h it a or “ T h a n k y o u for y o u r p atien ce.” T h is statem en t again reflects the se lf-h u m ility th at w as sh ow n in th e in tro d u ctio n .

Use of Visual Aids and Handouts V isu al aids are ab so lu tely n ecessary w h e n sp eak in g to Japanese au d ien ces b ecau se th e visuals can su p p lem en t v erb al m essages th at c o u ld o th erw ise b e d ifficult for th e m to u n d erstan d . B ecau se p e o ­ p le n o w liv e in a v isu a l age, a d d in g v isu al im ag es also im proves clarity, in terest, re te n tio n , and cred ib ility. T h e m ost co m m o n form s o f v isu a l aids are o b jects, m o d els, p h o to grap h s, d raw in g , charts, grap hs, figures, d iagram s, transp aren cies, slides, v id eo tap es, co m p u t­ e r-g e n e ra te d g rap h ics, and h a n d o u ts.T h ese v isu al aids are e x tre m e ­

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ly useful in p resen tin g statistical data, n u m e ric a l co m pariso n s, trends, increases an d decreases, and p ic to ria l descrip tio n s. H o w ever, p o o r h a n d lin g o f th e m can b e c o m e a h in d ran ce rath er th an an aid to effective sp eakin g. A g o o d sp eaker sh o u ld k n o w h o w to prep are and present v a rio u s typ es o f v isu a l aids. O b jects are e x ce lle n t v isu al aids to use w h e n d iscussing e q u ip m e n t, to o ls, and m ach in es. F o r ex am p le, w h e n ta lk in g ab o ut p re v e n tin g in ju rie s in fo o tb all gam es, the sp eaker can sh o w va rio u s typ es o f safety e q u ip m e n t c u rre n tly used b y A m e ric a n professional fo o tb all team s to dem o n strate th e ir m e r­ its. M o d e ls can b e used w h e n actu al o b jects are to o larg e o r too heavy. For e x am p le, a sm all-scale m o d e l o f th e C o n co rd e, a sup er­ sonic je tlin e r , m ig h t be used. P h o to g rap h s are effective v isu al aids for sh o w in g o b jects, p eo p le, and sports activities. T h e y can b e sh o w n in slides, en larg ed to p o ster-size p rin ts, o r co p ied o n to transp aren cies b y a co lo r co p i­ er. D iag ram s and sketch es, w h ic h are in ex p en siv e and easy to m ake, are altern ativ es to p h o to grap h s. G raphs are a g o o d w a y to sim p lify and c la rify statistics. L in e grap hs are u sed to sh o w trends, p ie charts to sh ow d istrib u tio n , and b ar grap hs to sh o w co m pariso n s. C h arts are p a rtic u la rly useful fo r su m m a riz in g larg e b lo cks o f in fo rm atio n , and d ifferent co lo rs can b e used for lin es o r phrases to accen tu ate th e differences. T ran sp aren cies p rep ared in ad van ce can b e sh o w n w ith an o verh ead p ro jecto r, o r b la n k tran sp aren cies can b e p laced on the p ro jecto r so th at a sp eaker can w r ite d o w n m ain p o in ts w h ile sp eakin g. S lid es can b e effective w h e n ta lk in g ab o ut scenic spots, arch itectu re, and art o b jects. V id eo ta p es are m o re cu m b erso m e b ecause th e y req u ire p lay b ac k e q u ip m e n t. V id eo tap es also req u ire careful e d itin g and h a n d lin g . It is a g o o d id e a to dub th e vid eo tap es w ith a Ja p an ese-lan g u ag e n arra tio n so th at Japanese au d ien ces do n o t have to stru g g le w ith a fast-p aced E n glish n arratio n . R e c e n tly , c o m p u te r-g e n e ra te d g rap h ics have b e c o m e p o p u lar in p lace o f o th er tra d itio n a l v isu al aids. T h ese grap h ics can in c lu d e a n yth in g fro m sim p le d iag ram s to so ph isticated charts and graphs. I f n o ta­ tio n s and ex p lan atio n s are w r itte n in Japanese, all o f these v isu al aids w ill b e in valu ab le in fa c ilita tin g g o o d co m m u n ic atio n w ith Japanese aud ien ces. T h e re are several tips for u sin g v isu al aids effectiv ely: (1) P rep are v isu a l aids w e ll ah ead o f tim e and use th e m w h ile p rac­ tic in g th e sp eech. (2) M a k e sure th at v isu al aids are larg e en o u g h

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for everyo n e in th e au d ien c e to see. (3) A vo id passing o ut an y o f th e v isu a l aids and o th er p rin te d m a te ria l to en sure th at everyo n e is liste n in g to th e sp eech in stead o f lo o k in g at th e p rin te d v isu al aids. (4) D isp lay ap p licab le v isu a l aids o n ly w h ile d iscussing th em . (5) M a in ta in g o o d eye c o n tact w ith th e au d ien ce and do n o t lo o k at th e v isu a l aids ex ce p t for a fe w seconds to c h e c k th at th e y are sh o w n co rrectly.

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W r itin g a sp eech and p re p a rin g v isu a l aids is o n ly one h a lf o f the task o f sp eech m a k in g . T h e sp eech m ust b e d eliv ered effectively to co m p lete th e o th er h a lf o f th e task. T h ere are b asically fo ur m e th ­ ods o f sp eech d e liv e ry : im p ro m p tu sp ea k in g , m an u scrip t sp eak in g , e x tem p o ra n eo u s sp ea k in g , and m e m o riz e d sp eakin g. F o r im p ro m p tu sp ea k in g speakers m ake n o fo rm al p rep a­ ratio n u n til a fe w m in u tes b efo re th e y b e g in to talk . T h e y m ay jo t d o w n a fe w w o rd s or id e as, b u t th e y m ake sp u r-o f-th e m o m en t o r o ff-th e -c u ff rem arks o r statem ents. A m erican s are adept at im p ro m p tu sp ea k in g , b u t th e y sh o u ld b e careful n o t to m ake the b lu n d e r o f m a k in g a sp eech to o casual and in fo rm al w h e n address­ in g a Japanese au d ien ce. E xtem p o ran eous sp eakin g requires that speakers p lan care­ fu lly and rehearse several tim es u n til th e y feel co n fiden t that th ey can d eliver the speech w ith o u t difficulty. T h e y m ay use notes to rem in d them selves o f the sequen ce and m ain points, b ut th ey do not n eed to fo llo w ex ac tly w h at th e y have p lan n ed to say. T h e y can be flexib le in th e use o f altern ative w ords and phrases. T h is is co n ­ sidered th e best m eth o d o f d eliv ery b ecause th e speaker can m ain ­ tain go o d eye co n tact and receive direct feedb ack from the audien ce. M a n u sc rip t sp ea k in g is based on m e tic u lo u sly w o rd ed m an uscrip ts. T h is m e th o d o f sp ea k in g is h ig h ly reco m m en d ed for im p o rtan t speeches such as a p resen tatio n to th e Japan F ed eratio n o f E m p lo yers o r a sp eech fo r th e Japanese Press C lu b o n sensitive trad e issues w h e re a w ro n g ch o ic e o f w ords o r phrases can cause serio us m isu n d erstan d in gs. In such situ atio n s, th e m an u scrip t is u su a lly g iv e n to th e m em b ers o f th e au d ien ce in advance so th at

Publi c S pe a k i ng and P r e s e n t a t i o n s

th e y can stu d y it b efo reh an d . Sp eakers re ad in g fro m a m an u scrip t m ay suffer fro m th ree disadvantages: (1) T h e y can n o t m ain ta in g o o d eye c o n tact w ith th e au d ien ce. (2) T h e y so un d m o n o to n o u s as th e y are re a d in g th e m an u scrip t. (3) T h e y can n o t sp o n tan eo u sly adjust and resp on d to au d ien c e reactio n s. T h e y can allev iate som e o f these p ro b lem s i f th e y have th e ir m an u scrip t p rin te d o u t in larg e ty p e and trip le sp aced , and m ake n o tatio n s in different co lo red pens to in d ic ate places o f em phasis and pauses. T h is is th e m ost co m m o n m e th o d o f d e liv e ry am o n g Japanese speakers b ecause th e y are e x tre m e ly w o r r ie d ab o ut m a k in g m istakes in p u b lic ­ sp ea k in g situations. M e m o riz e d sp ea k in g is d ifficult for o rd in ary speakers b ecause th e y m ust m e m o riz e an en tire sp eech and d eliv er it w ith ­ o u t an y m istakes. In e x p e rie n c e d speakers m a y fo rget c e rta in k e y w ords o r start w ith th e w ro n g b e g in n in g sen ten ce, th ereb y lo sin g th e ir train o f th o u g h t and cau sin g an em b arrassin g situ atio n . To avoid such a disaster, speakers are ad vised to h o ld o n to a fe w notes o u tlin in g th e m ain points.

Voice and Vocal Habits V oice is im p o rtan t b ecau se it reflects th e sp eaker’s attitu d es, fe e l­ in gs, en th usiasm , co n fid en ce, and c o m p eten ce. G o o d d e liv e ry also m ean s th at th e sp eaker can b e h eard , can be c le a rly u n d ersto o d , and has n o a n n o y in g v o cal habits. N ative speakers o f E n glish m ay n o t have pro b lem s w ith a rtic u la tio n , in to n a tio n , stress p attern s, and p itc h , b u t th e y m ay n e e d to adjust th e ir v o lu m e and rate o f sp eak­ in g w h e n ad d ressin g a Jap an ese au d ien ce. M a n y Jap an ese co m p lain th at A m erican s sp eak to o lo u d ly and to o ra p id ly and do n o t en u n c iate clearly. B ecau se sp eak in g too lo u d ly is co n sid ered im p o lite and boastful in th e Jap an ese p u b lic ­ sp ea k in g c o n te x t, sh o u tin g sh ou ld n ever b e used even in a h ig h ly ch arg ed e m o tio n a l situ atio n . Sp eakers m ust also slo w d o w n co n ­ sid erab ly and artic u late each w o rd and e v e ry phrase v e ry clearly. C o m m o n vo cal habits such as “ a n ’ u h ,” “u h h u h ,” “w h a ch u m a call,” “y o u know ,” “y o u see,” and “ an y w ays” sh o u ld b e avoided b ecause th e y are v e ry d istra ctin g sounds. In ad d itio n , co llo q u ial

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expressions and slan g sh o u ld n ever b e u sed w h e n sp eak in g to n o n ­ n ative speakers o f E nglish.

Facial Expressions, Gestures, Posture, and Body Movements

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T h e n o n verb al aspect o f sp eech m a k in g is ju s t as im p o rtan t as the v erb al m essage. Sp eakers c o m m u n ic a te n o n v erb ally th e ir in n e r feelin gs such as attitu d es, en th usiasm , disin terest, satisfactio n , or dis­ satisfaction. T h e y can em p hasize, n eg a te, o r even co n trad ict th eir v erb al m essages th ro u g h n o n verb al b eh avio rs. F acial expressions such as sm ilin g and la u g h in g are the m ost visib le and im p o rtan t n o n verb al b eh avio rs. In p u b lic -sp e a k ­ in g situ atio n s, A m e ric a n s are affable and frien d ly, w e a rin g b ig sm iles. In contrast, th e Jap an ese are m o re reserved and stoic in the sam e situ atio n s b ecause th e y are e x p e c te d to b e fo rm al and se ri­ ous. C o n seq u en tly, o v erly frie n d ly o r casual facial expressions m ay offend Jap an ese listen ers, esp e c ia lly w h e n th e speakers are dis­ cussin g serio u s to p ics o r sensitive issues. Jo k es or fu n n y an ecd o tes, o ften u sed in so cial situ atio n s in th e W est to b reak in terp erso n al ten sio n s, are co n sid ered ru d e and in ap p ro p riate in Ja p a n .T h is does n o t m ean th at Jap an ese p eo p le d islike pleasan t facial expressions, b u t th e y m ay b e c o m e suspicious o f a sp eaker’s tru stw o rth in ess i f th e sp eaker appears o v erly affable and to o frien d ly. It is advisable to m a in ta in a ce rta in am o u n t o f m o d e sty and fo rm a lity in p u b lic ­ sp ea k in g situ atio n s in Jap an . G estures— u sin g th e hands to d escrib e th e shape o f so m e­ th in g , p o in tin g a fin ger, u sin g a fist o r arm s— are u sed to au g m en t th e v erb al m essage. U sin g gestures in p u b lic sp eak in g req u ires v ita l­ ity, p ro p er tim in g , and c o o rd in atio n w ith th e spoken m essage. A lth o u g h gestures are effective as a m ean s o f rein fo rcin g th e spo­ k e n m essage, th e y sh ou ld n o t b e u sed ex cessively o r aim lessly. W ro n g and u n tim e ly gestures are n o t o n ly d istractin g , b u t also an n o y in g and d estructive. For ex am p le, speakers sh ou ld n ever use th e in d e x fin g e r to p o in t at th e m em b ers o f Jap an ese aud ien ces. T h e y sh ou ld also avoid b ig h an d gestures such as th ro w in g th eir arm s up h ig h and w a v in g th e ir hands.

Publi c S pe a k i ng and P r e s e n t a t i o n s

Postures an d b o d y m o vem en ts are also im p o rtan t in p u b ­ lic -sp e a k in g situatio n s. P ro p er sp ea k in g postures and b o d y m o v e­ m en ts v a ry a m o n g cultures. In Ja p a n , a self-effacin g lo w posture (teis h is ei) is ap p ro p riate, b u t in th e W est, an erect p osture sh o w in g self-co n fid en ce is called for. Jap an ese speakers u su ally rem ain stan d in g b e h in d th e p o d iu m on th e p latfo rm , w h ile A m e ric a n speakers w ill co m e d o w n in front o f th e p o d iu m and m ove ab o ut clo ser to th e au d ien ce. T h e y m ay even w a lk b ac k and fo rth lik e a ta lk -sh o w host and address m em b ers o f th e a u d ien ce in d iv id u ally. T h ese n o rm a l W e ste rn b eh av io rs w ill b e v ie w e d as im p o lite and d istra ctin g in Jap an . W estern ers m ust re co gn iz e th at th e y n eed to restrain th em selves and b eh ave co n serv ativ ely w h e n sp eak in g to a Jap an ese au d ien ce. 151

Tips for Effective Presentations M a k in g oral p resen tatio n in m u ltin a tio n a l business co n tex ts differs co n sid erab ly fro m o th er typ es o f p u b lic sp ea k in g .T h e p resen tatio n u su a lly has m o re n a rro w ly d efin ed and specific o b jectives, and it is g iv en to a m u ch sm aller n u m b er o f p eo p le .T h e basic p urp o se o f the p resen tatio n is to secure a favorable response from th e executives and m an agers w h o have th e d e c isio n -m a k in g pow er. It can b e used for re c o m m e n d in g accep tan ce o f a b u d g et, m a k in g a proposal for in n o vatio n s, and p ro p osin g a so lutio n for serio us p erso n n el m an ­ ag em en t p ro b lem s.T h ere are specific req u irem en ts in p rep arin g and d e liv e rin g a p resen tation to acco m p lish its in ten d ed purpose. A u d ie n c e an alysis fo r a p resen tatio n req u ires th at a sp eak­ er in vestigate th e sp ecific b a c k g ro u n d in fo rm atio n o f each m e m ­ b e r o f th e a u d ien c e such as c u rre n t status and p o sitio n , preferen ces, in terests, resp o n sib ility and au th o rity, p erso n al stake, attitu d es, and p erson ality. Sup p o se th at th e au d ien c e is m ad e up o f th e v ic e pres­ id e n t o f fin an ce, th e d ire c to r o f m ark e tin g , th e m an ag er o f the h u m an reso urces d ep artm en t, and th e su p erviso r o f facilities m an ­ ag em en t. T h e sp eaker m ust c h e c k o ut each p erso n ’s b ac k g ro u n d so th at h e can prep are and d eliv er his p resen tatio n acco rdin gly. A n o th e r aspect o f this au d ien c e analysis is to ac c u rate ly assess w h ic h m e m b e r is th e actu al d ecisio n m aker. T h e speaker m ust

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alw ays re m e m b e r th at it is n ecessary to p ersuade th e m ost p o w er­ ful p erso n and w in his support first w h e n sp eak in g to a sm all group o f Jap an ese execu tiv es o r m an agers. It is n o t easy to fin d o u t to w h o m th e p resen tatio n sh ou ld b e d ire c te d , h o w ever, ju s t b y lo o k ­ in g at th e relative ranks o f th e m em b ers o f an au d ien ce. It is p os­ sible th at th e h ig h est-ra n k e d Jap an ese ex ecu tiv e c o u ld be presen t ju s t as an o bserver, and his im m e d ia te sub o rdin ate ac tu ally has the d e c is io n -m a k in g pow er. In som e in stan ces, th e speaker w ill be asked to m ak e th e sam e p resen tatio n to a few o th er gro u p s i f the in itia l g ro u p m em b ers are n o t to ta lly satisfied and w an t o th ers to get in vo lved . R e s e a rc h for a p resen tatio n sh ou ld b e exten sive and c o m ­ p lete. B ecau se im p o rta n t d ecisio n s w ill b e m ad e o n th e in fo rm a ­ tio n and data g iv en in th e p resen tatio n , th e speaker m ust co n d u ct th o ro u g h research and m ust co lle c t e n o u g h accu rate and factual su p p o rtin g m aterials to ad vocate his co n ten tio n s. A t th e sam e tim e, h e m ust re co gn iz e th at som e m em b ers o f th e a u d ien ce m ay have co n sid erab le professional k n o w le d g e and ex p ertise o n th e sub ject o f his p resen tatio n . T h e m ost persuasive typ es o f su p p o rtin g e v i­ d en ce are official g o v ern m en t statistics, c u rren t data and in fo rm a ­ tio n fro m research in stitu tes, c o rp o rate an n u al rep o rts, and research rep o rts fro m business consultants. T h e average tim e for a p resen tatio n m ay b e o n ly tw e n ty o r th irty m in u tes, b u t th e sp eaker m ust cover a lo t o f m aterial w ith in this lim ite d p e rio d . In som e cases, h e w ill send o ut a p a c k ­ et o f su p p o rtin g m aterials to th e m em b ers o f th e au d ien ce to lo o k at b efo re c o m in g to th e p resen tatio n . T h e p resen tatio n its e lf th en b eco m es th e sp eaker’s analysis o f th e m a jo r p o in ts and his re c o m ­ m e n d a tio n based o n his in te rp re ta tio n o f th e p e rtin e n t in fo rm a ­ tio n and data u sed in th e proposal. T h e speaker w ill n eed to p re­ pare a v a rie ty o f v isu al aids to m ake each m ajo r p o in t c le arly and con cisely. H e also n eed s to b e p rep ared to h an d le specific q uestion s for c la rific a tio n and have an o p en m in d to receiv e co m m en ts and co n stru ctive criticism s. In o rg a n iz in g a p resen tatio n , it is possible to use th e sam e p attern s o f o rga n iz atio n u sed fo r o th er p u b lic sp eakin g . H o w ever, th ree basic p attern s are m o re suitable for p resen tation s: p sych o lo g ­ ic a l pro gressio n p atte rn , o p en proposal p attern , and lo g ic a l p ro b ­ le m -s o lu tio n p a tte rn .2

Publi c S pe a k i ng and P r e s e n t a t i o n s

T h e p syc h o lo g ic a l pro gressio n p attern is an ad ap tatio n o f M o n ro e ’s M o tiv a te d S e q u e n c e .3 It consists o f five steps to m o tiv ate th e au d ien c e to w ard th e sp eaker’s goal: (1) arouse th e a u d ie n c e ’s in terest; (2) expo se th e p ro b lem ; (3) satisfy th e n eed s o f th e a u d i­ e n c e ; (4) h elp th e au d ien c e v isu a liz e th e result; and (5) m ove the au d ien c e to act o n th e sp eaker’s re c o m m en d atio n . T h e o p en proposal p atte rn is sim ilar to d ed u ctiv e reaso n ­ in g , in w h ic h speakers start w ith a g e n e ra l co n clu sio n and th en p ro vid e sp ecific reasons to support this co n clu sio n . T h e speaker m ay u rg e th e au d ien c e to accep t th e p ro p o sitio n o n th e basis o f d esirab ility, valid ity, p racticality, m o rality, leg ality, and so on. T h is p atte rn o f o rga n iz atio n is m ost suitable for those listen ers w h o are fam iliar w ith th e sp eaker’s sub ject. It can also b e u sed effectively in m a k in g a n e w proposal o r p re sen tin g a so lu tio n . T h e lo g ic a l p ro b le m -so lu tio n p attern is an ad ap tatio n o f th e reflective th in k in g an alysis o f Jo h n D ew ey.4 It is based on th e assu m p tio n th at a ratio n al p erso n tends to go th ro u g h the reflective th in k in g process in d e c id in g his o r h e r so lu tio n to a c o m ­ p le x p ro b lem . T h e five m a jo r steps are (1) d efin in g a p ro b lem ; (2) e x p lo rin g th e p ro b lem ; (3) su gg estin g several possible so lution s; (4) id e n tify in g c r ite r ia for a so lu tio n ; and (5) selectin g th e best s o lu tio n .W h e n u sin g th is p atte rn , th e speaker m ust m ake sure th at th e m em b ers o f th e a u d ien c e w ill ap p ly th e sam e c rite ria for th e ir o w n ev alu atio n o f th e re c o m m e n d e d so lu tio n . A p p licatio n o f dif­ feren t c r ite r ia c o u ld result in d isag reem en t b e tw e e n th e speaker and th e listeners. W h e n u sin g th e above p attern s o f o rgan iz atio n , th e sp eak­ er m ust re m e m b e r th at these are based o n trad itio n al W estern lo g ic , and his p resen tatio n s o rga n ized in this m an n er m a y sound too arg u m en tativ e and co m b ativ e to Jap an ese listen ers w h o are n o t fam iliar w ith th e rh e to ric a l tra d itio n o f W estern cultures. C o n s­ eq u en tly, th e sp eaker sh o u ld soften his lo g ic a l arg u m en ts and p ro ­ v id e g o o d e x p lan atio n s fo r each m ajo r p o in t for th e Jap an ese a u d i­ en ce. H e m ay b e able to w in an arg u m en t easily again st th e Jap an ese, b u t h e m ay have d ifficu lty in p e rsu ad in g th e m to accep t th e W estern lo g ic w h o le h e arte d ly . D e liv e ry o f a p resen tatio n is d ifferen t fro m th at o f o th er fo rm s o f p u b lic sp eakin g. It is c h arac te riz ed b y a co n versatio n al style o f sp ea k in g and use o f rep o rt la n g u ag e. It sh o u ld alw ays

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in c lu d e a q u e stio n -a n d -a n sw e r p e rio d d u rin g o r after th e p resen ­ ta tio n . In h a n d lin g th e q u e stio n -a n d -a n sw e r p e rio d , W estern speakers sh o u ld k n o w th at Jap an ese listen ers m ay n o t ask an y q u es­ tio ns. T h e y are u su a lly h esitan t to ask q uestion s in p u b lic b ecause th e y are c o n c e rn e d ab o ut v io la tin g th e social etiq u e tte o f sp eak in g up. F o r ex am p le, a ju n io r Jap an ese m a n a g e r w ill n ever ask q uestion s unless h e can o b tain im p lic it approval fro m his su p erio r in the sam e au d ien ce. T h e speaker sh o u ld p o lite ly ask th e h ig h est-ran k ed Jap an ese ex ecu tiv e to resp on d first. I f h e does n o t have an y q u es­ tio n s h im self, h e m ay e n c o u ra g e o n e o f his sub o rdin ates to respond. T h e speaker sh o u ld also stay b e h in d a fe w m in u tes after th e p resen tatio n , b ecau se th e Jap an ese ten d to ask q uestion s in p r i­ vate after o th ers have left. F in ally, th e m ost im p o rta n t tip is th at th e speaker talks slo w ly and c la rify each m a in p o in t one at a tim e. G o o d u n d e r­ stan d in g o f th e c o n ten t and o f th e sp ecific proposal is an im p o rtan t p rereq u isite for a successful p resen tatio n .

Working for Overseas Japanese Multinationals

h e rap id g lo b aliz atio n o f th e Jap an ese eco n o m y has m ad e a larg e n u m b e r o fJa p a n e se co m p an ies in to m u ltin atio n al en tities th at e m p lo y fo reig n m an agers, c o m p u ter en g in e e rs, tech n ical ex p erts, fa c to ry w o rk ers, restaurant w o rk ers, and co n stru ctio n lab o rers. M a n y Jap an ese co m p an ies, p a rtic u la rly in lab o r-in ten siv e m a n u fa c tu rin g sectors, have estab lish ed overseas sub sid iaries and jo in t ven tu res to cap italize on ch eap lab o r and to co m p ete in lo cal m arkets.T o d ay, it is estim ated th at m o re th an 7 5 0 ,0 0 0 lo c al p eo p le are w o rk in g for Jap an ese m u ltin a tio n a l co m p an ies in fo reig n c o u n ­ tries. T h e n u m b e r o f these fo reig n w o rk ers w ill co n tin u e to g ro w as m o re and m o re Jap an ese co m p an ies relo cate th e ir m an u factu r­ in g o p eratio n s overseas. D esp ite th e fact th at th ese Jap an ese co m p an ies pro vide g o o d em p lo y m e n t, a larg e p ercen tag e o f fo reig n ers have d ifficu lty w o rk in g fo r th e ir Jap an ese em p lo yers b ecau se th e Jap an ese co m p a­ n ies are n o t tr u ly m u ltin a tio n a l w ith regard to o rg an iz atio n al stru c­ tu re, h u m an reso urce m a n a g e m e n t p o licies, and co m p en satio n . B ecau se Ja p an has successfully attain ed th e status o f th e seco n d strongest e c o n o m ic p o w er in th e w o rld , Jap an ese em p lo yers feel ju stified in m a in ta in in g u n iq u e ly Jap an ese m an ag em en t p ractices w ith little ad ap tatio n to th e c h a n g in g n atu re o f m u ltin atio n al o p er­ ations in fo reig n co u n trie s. E ven to d ay Jap an ese co m p an ies alm ost n ever h ire host n atio n als o r th ird -c o u n try n atio n als for k e y m a n ­ a g e ria l p o sitio n s. I f th e y do, th e y do n o t h ire these fo reign ers as s e is h a in (reg u lar p e rm a n e n t em p lo yees) b u t o n ly as sh o k u ta k u (co n ­ tract em p lo yees), n o m atter h o w p ro fessio n ally o r te c h n ic a lly q u a l­

T

Chapter 8

ified th e y m ay be. In ad d itio n , m ost o f these co m p an ies are still fin a n c in g th e ir overseas o p eratio n s th ro u g h b ran ch es o f Jap an ese b an ks w ith w h ic h th e y have h ad lo n g -te rm business relatio n s. N o n -Jap an ese m an agers and w o rk ers em p lo yed b y Jap an ese m u lti­ n atio n al co m p an ies n e e d to k n o w th e u n iq u e features of typ ica l Jap an ese m u ltin a tio n a l co m p an ies and sh o u ld u n d erstan d several c ritic a l issues and p ro b lem s th at th e y m ay en co u n ter. T h e y also n e e d to realize th at th e Jap an ese m u ltin a tio n al co m p an ies are v e ry slo w in “lo c a liz in g ” th e ir overseas o p eratio n s even th o u g h som e o f these co m p an ies have alread y b e g u n to ado p t a m o re g lo b al approach.

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The Corporate Structure of Japanese Multinationals U n lik e m u ltin a tio n a l c o rp o ra tio n s fro m W e s te rn c o u n trie s , Jap an ese m u ltin atio n als are n o t tru e m u ltin atio n als w ith regard to th e ir o rga n iz atio n al structure, p erso n n el m an ag em en t p o licies, and o p eratio n p ra c tic e s.T h e y are m o stly w h o lly o w n ed sub sidiaries u n d e r v e r y tig h t co n tro l of th e ir h ead q u arters in Jap an , and th ey have little au to n o m y in th e m a n a g e m e n t of lo c a l o p eratio n s.T h ese overseas sub sid iaries are also co n sid ered to have sub o rdin ate status in th e o verall co rp o rate stru ctu re regardless of th e ir size or prof­ itab ility. F u rth e rm o re , if th e c o m p a n y is a larg e m a n u fa c tu rin g co m pany, it is su p p o rted b y m a n y Jap an ese su b co n tracto rs th at have b u ilt th e ir facto ries in th e in d u stria l area close to th e p aren t com pany. T h e overseas sub sid iaries even use th e sam e system of su b c o n trac tin g th at th e y have established b a c k in Jap an so th at th e y can c o n tin u e to do business w ith th e sam e sub con tracto rs. F o r e x am p le, H o n d a A m e ric a h ad som e fo rty -e ig h t of th e ir Jap an ese su b con tracto rs b u ild th e ir facto ries in th e U n ite d States and c o n tin u e to sup p ly im p o rtan t parts to th e m as th e y h ad b een d o in g in Ja p a n .1 Jap an ese co m p a n ies have a m u ch la rg e r n u m b e r of Jap an ese ex p atriates in th e m a n a g e m e n t cadre th an A m e ric a n or E uro p ean c o m p a n ies’ fo reig n sub sid iaries, and alm ost all k e y m an ­ a g e ria l and e n g in e e r in g p o sitio n s are o c c u p ie d b y Jap an ese m an ­ agers d isp atch ed fro m th e p aren t c o m p a n y for a fixed p e rio d o f

Wo r k i ng f or Ov e r se a s J a p a n e s e M u l t i n a t i o n a l s

tim e. In m a n y instan ces, lo w e r su p e rv iso ry p o sitio n s are also o c c u ­ p ie d b y th e Jap an ese e x p atriates. A ty p ica l o rg an iz atio n al ch art o f an y Jap an ese m u ltin a tio n a l w ill sh o w th at top m an ag em en t and su p erv iso ry p o sitio n s are reserved for Jap an ese n atio n als. In those c o u n trie s w h e re g o v ern m en tal reg u latio n s req u ire h ir in g lo cal m an agers, th e y w ill u su ally create c o -m a n a g e r p o sitio n s even th o u g h actu al c o n tro l is in th e hands o f th e Jap an ese co u n terp arts. (T h e y are so m etim es referred to as “ sh ad ow m an agers.”) Jap an ese m u ltin a tio n a l co m p an ies seem to b eliev e th at th e ir w ays o f o p eratio n are far su p erio r, p a rtic u la rly in th e m a n u ­ fa c tu rin g sector. M o st Jap an ese m an u factu rers in tro d u ce Jap an ese m ach in ery, m a n u fa c tu rin g m eth o d s, and ty p ica l Jap an ese m a n a g e ­ m en t in to th e ir overseas o p eratio n s. S e th i, N a m ik i, and S w an so n la b e le d this ap p ro ach “ a c c u ltu ra tio n o r cu ltu ral tran sfo rm atio n approach.” It calls for c re a tin g a n e w co rp o rate cu ltu re w ith in th e ir fo reig n sub sid iaries, b ecau se in d o c trin a tio n o f n o n -Jap an ese w o rk ers is a n ecessary p re c o n d itio n fo r th e successful in tro d u c ­ tio n o f Jap an ese m a n a g e m e n t p ractices. N o n -Jap an ese w o rkers are e x p e c te d to q u ic k ly acq u ire Jap an ese c u ltu ral valu es, w o rk eth ics, and th o u g h t processes. T ypically, Jap an ese m u ltin atio n als take a n u m b e r o f m easures to see th at these ex p ectatio n s are m et, in c lu d in g h ir in g c e rta in typ es o f em p lo yees, p ro v id in g in tensive in d o c trin a tio n and e d u c a tio n , and g iv in g h o m e office tra in in g to select e m p lo yees.2

Recruitment and Indoctrination in Japanese Multinationals Jap an ese m u ltin atio n als carefu lly select and screen n e w em p lo yees th ro u g h a series o f p erso n al in te rv ie w s to ensure th at n e w hires w ill have a p o sitive attitu d e to w ard Ja p a n and th e Jap an ese m a n ­ ag e m e n t system . T h e em p lo yees are ex p e cted to have “Jap an eselik e ” p e rso n a lity traits such as p ersev eran ce, o b ed ien ce, discip lin e, lo yalty, flex ib ility, and g ro u p -o rie n te d n e ss.T h e co m p an ies p refer to h ire w o rk ers w ith no p rio r w o rk e x p e rie n c e b ecau se th e y do not w ish to h ire those w o rkers w h o m ig h t have d evelo p ed u n h ealth y w o rk habits. T h is sam e h ir in g p ractice has b een co m m o n ly ado p t­ ed in Jap an w h e n re c ru itin g n e w Jap an ese em p lo yees.3

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L ik e th e ir co u n terp arts in Ja p a n , n e w ly re c ru ite d w o rkers are g iv e n exten sive tra in in g n o t o n ly in jo b -re la te d skills, b u t also in co rp o rate h istory, trad itio n s, and cu ltu re. D u rin g th e tra in in g p e rio d of th ree to six m o n th s, Jap an ese m u ltin atio n als o b lig e th e ir n e w em p lo yees to le a rn th e sh a ch o k u n (p resid en t’s teach in g s), sO ritu n o s e is h in (fo u n d er’s m o tto ), and sh a k a (co m p an y song). T h ose co m p an ies th at w e re established b y c h arism atic presiden ts w ill alw ays in c lu d e in th e tra in in g m aterials th e acco un ts o f the fo u n d e r’s p erso n al p h ilo so p h y o f m a n a g e m en t, th e in itia l hardships, and th e sub sequ en t g lo rio u s c o rp o rate h isto ry and trad itio n s.T h ese are translated in to lo c a l lan g u ag es and referred to freq u en tly to in still these id eals in th e m in d s o f lo c a l em p lo yees. D u rin g th e d aily chO rei (m o rn in g p e p -ta lk session), em p lo yees are req u ired to recite th e p resid en t’s tea ch in g s and th e fo u n d e r’s m o tto and to sin g the c o m p a n y so ng as a p art o f th e c o n tin u o u s in d o c trin a tio n o f the em p lo yees in to Jap an ese c o rp o rate cu ltu re. In ad d itio n , m an y Jap an ese co m p an ies en c o u rag e th e em p lo yees to stu d y th e Jap an ese la n g u a g e and c u ltu re e ith e r b y p ro v id in g th em w ith in -h o u se tra in in g courses o r su b sid izin g tu itio n p aym en t. T h e Jap an ese m u ltin atio n als also select and send e m p lo y ­ ees to Jap an to b e train ed at th e ir h ead q u arters for th ree m o n th s to o n e y e a r.T h e aim s o f this tra in in g in Jap an are n o t o n ly to have the em p lo yees go th ro u g h in ten siv e te c h n ic a l train in g , b u t also to have th em im m erse th em selves in th e Jap an ese co rp o rate cu ltu re. T h e y are also ex p e c te d to b e c o m e p e rso n ally acq u a in ted w ith th e ir Jap an ese co u n terp arts and to b u ild in te rp e rso n al n etw o rk s th ro u g h w o rk in g to g e th e r and so cia liz in g after w o rk . U p o n re tu rn in g to th e ir o w n jo b s, th e y are assigned to p lay th e role o f stro n g advo ­ cates o f th e p ro p er Jap an ese w a y o f w o rk in g and d o in g th in gs and to tea ch o th ers w h at th e y le a rn e d in Jap an . R e c e n tly , several m a jo r Jap an e se m u ltin a tio n a ls have b e g u n lo c al m a n a g e r-d e v e lo p m e n t p ro gram s fo r y o u n g staff m e m ­ bers from fo reig n co u n trie s. T h e y carefu lly select b e tw e e n tw e n ty and th irty n e w grad u ates w ith m aster’s d egrees or d o cto rates from p restig io u s u n iv ersities in in te rn a tio n a l business, fin an ce, co m p u ter scien ce, ch em istry, or e n g in e e rin g . T h ese recru its go th ro u g h tw o o r th ree years o f in ten siv e te c h n ic a l tra in in g at h ead q u arters. T h e y are also e x p ec te d to stu d y th e Jap an ese la n g u ag e and cu ltu re d u r­ in g th e ir stay in J a p a n .W h e n th e y successfully co m p lete this tra in ­ in g , th e y w ill b e sent b a c k to th e ir h o m e c o u n tries to w o rk as m an agers and sup erviso rs in th e sub sid iaries o f these m u ltin a tio n ­

Wo r k i ng f or Ov e r se a s J a p a n e s e M u l t i n a t i o n a l s

als. For ex am p le, M atsu sh ita E lectric C o m p an y has started a lo cal m a n a g e r-d e v e lo p m e n t p ro g ram to cu ltivate n o n -Jap an ese m a n a g e ­ m en t ta len t fo r th e ir sub sid iaries. E ach y e a r th e y re c ru it te n or tw e n ty n e w g rad u ates w ith m aster’s d egrees fro m p restig io u s A m e ric a n u n iv ersities and give th e m in ten siv e te c h n ic a l tra in in g and pro vid e th e m w ith o p p o rtu n ities to stu d y th e Jap an ese la n ­ g u ag e and c u ltu re as w e ll. T h e y w ill b e assigned to w o rk for M atsu sh ita’s sub sid iaries in th e U n ite d States, and th e y are e x p e c t­ ed to b e c o m e “ c u ltu ra l b rid g e s” b e tw e e n th e Jap an ese m a n a g e ­ m en t and A m e ric a n w o rkers. T h is is a n e w p ro g ram o f lo c a liz in g m a n a g e ria l staff ad o p ted b y m a n y o th er Jap an ese m u ltin atio n als such as Sony, H ita c h i, F u jitsu ,T o sh ib a, and N ip p o n Steel. T ran sferrin g o f th e Jap an ese co rp o rate cu ltu re in tact has n o t b e e n w ith o u t problem s. F u k u d a reports that it has n o t alw ays b e e n feasible o r effective to in tro d u ce Jap an ese id eo lo g ies and m an ­ ag em en t practices in to host co u n tries b ecause o f differences in c u l­ tu ral values and social custom s. H e fo un d that th e attem pts in the U n ite d States and B rita in had la rg e ly failed b ecause o f vast differ­ en ces in c u ltu ral values. E ven in East A sian co u n tries such as So u th K orea, T aiw an , Sin gap o re, and H o n g K o n g, Jap an ese subsidiaries co u ld n o t im p le m e n t ty p ica l Jap an ese-style m an ag em en t practices. M a n a g e m e n t o f th e Jap an ese sub sidiaries failed to reco gn ize that even g eo g rap h ical p ro x im ity and sim ilar racial and cu ltu ral h eritag e do n o t m ake o th er A sians th in k and behave e x a c tly lik e th e Jap an ­ ese. F u k u d a ’s research also fo un d th at th e vast m a jo rity o f H o n g K o n g C h in ese d id n o t really w an t to w o rk for Jap an ese co m panies th at d em an d to tal lo y alty in re tu rn for jo b secu rity; th ey w o u ld rath er w o rk for A m e ric a n co m p an ies, w h ic h p ay th e m h ig h er w ages and p ro m ote th e m faster. H e c o n clu d ed th at Jap an ese subsidiaries should m o d ify th e ir m an agem en t approach b y ad o p tin g som e lo cal custom s and business practices b ecause th e Jap an ese style w as n e i­ th e r applicable n o r accep tab le to all o th er A sian s.4

Japanese Expatriate M anagers and Overseas Assignments A ll o f th e Jap an ese m an agers and sup erviso rs assigned overseas are d isp atch ed fro m th e h ead q u arters “ o n lo a n ” or sh ik k o, and th ey

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c o n tin u e to m a in ta in close official ties w ith th e ir fo rm er sections o r d ep artm en ts at h o m e. In essence, th e ir assign m en ts are m o re lik e a p ro lo n ged overseas business trip as th e y are u su ally e x p ected to re tu rn to th e ir o ld p o sitio n s w h e n th e y co m p lete th e overseas assignm ents. H ow ever, n o t all o f these Japanese expatriates are h appy vo lu n teers for overseas assignm ents. In m an y instances, th ey are n o t ch o sen for th e ir e x ce p tio n a l m a n a g e ria l skills o r th e ir fo re ig n la n g u a g e c o m p eten ce, b u t sim p ly b ecause it is th e ir tu rn . T h e y are u su a lly g iv e n little ad vance n o tic e — th ree m o n th s o r le ss.T h e y m ay go th ro u g h an in ten siv e la n g u a g e co urse and som e cro ss-cu ltu ral tra in in g , b u t th e y are g e n e ra lly ex p e c te d to p rep are th em selves to take o n th e assign m en t w ith o u t m u c h tra in in g .W iv e s and ch ild ren w h o are to acco m p an y these m an agers m ay receiv e a fe w o rie n ta ­ tio n sessions. F u k u d a fo u n d th at m a n y firm s d o in g business abroad have n o t faced th e p ro b lem o f tra in in g Jap an ese ex p atriate m an ­ agers, a lth o u g h alm o st all Jap an ese firm s sponsor in ten siv e lan g u ag e tra in in g (u su a lly E n glish ), ra n g in g fro m tw o m o n th s to o n e y e a r in d u ra tio n .5 M a jo r m a n u fa c tu rin g firm s and fin an cial in stitu tio n s o ften use em p lo yees w ith g rad u ate d eg rees fro m fo reig n u n iv ersi­ ties u n d e r a co m p a n y-sp o n so red stu d y-ab ro ad p ro gram . H o w ev er th ere are to o fe w y o u n g em p lo yees w ith b o th g o o d tech n ical k n o w le d g e and fa m ilia rity o f th e so cio c u ltu ral en v iro n m en t o f a fo reig n c o u n try to co ver even a fractio n o f all fo reig n assignm ents. G e n e ra lly sp eakin g , Jap an ese ex p atriates b e lo n g to e ith er th e ju n io r m a n a g e m e n t g ro u p o r th e sen io r ex ecu tiv e group. J u n io r m an agers are in th e ir late tw e n ties o r early th irties, and so m etim es th e y la c k ad eq u ate business e x p e rie n c e . T h e y are assigned to overseas p o sitio n s b ecau se th e y are still y o u n g and psy­ c h o lo g ic a lly flex ib le e n o u g h to m ake n ecessary p erso n al adjust­ m en ts in a fo reig n en v iro n m en t. Q u ite o ften , th e y are m an ag em en t train ees w h o are b e in g g iv e n th e o p p o rtu n ity to le a rn th e lan g u ag e and business p ractices d u rin g th e ir fo reig n assignm ents. O n aver­ age, th e y are assigned for a th re e -y e a r p e rio d , a lth o u g h som e o f th e m m ay stay for five years o r m o re. T h e y rare ly w ish to rem ain abroad for a lo n g tim e b ecau se th e y fear th at th e y m ay lose th e ir p erso n al ties w ith those at th e h o m e office. N ak an e says, “ T h e absence o r loss o f ta n g ib ility fro m th e m a in b o d y for an ex ten d ed p e rio d o f tim e in v a ria b ly m ean s th e ero sio n o f a ll-c ritic a l social assets. . . . G ro up u n ity is m a in ta in e d in th e Jap an ese cu ltu re b y stro n g em p hasis on e m o tio n a l c o m m itm e n t. A n ap p eal to em o tio n , th o u g h m ost effective, req u ires co n stan t fa c e -to -fa c e co n tact.” 6

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T h e y o u n g m an agers w o r r y ab o ut m issin g a tim e ly o p p o rtu n ity to get p ro m o ted w h ile th e y are aw ay sin ce p ro m o tio n is g en era lly based o n se n io rity b a c k in Jap an . S e n io r Jap an ese ex ecu tiv es assigned abroad are u su ally in th e ir m id -fo rtie s o r e a rly fifties. P rio r to overseas assignm ents, th e y u su a lly are o n ly sectio n chiefs o r d ep artm en t heads at th e h o m e office. In overseas ven tu res th e y are assigned to top m an ag em en t p o sitio n s and g iv e n b ig titles such as c h ie f ex ecu tiv e officer, p resi­ d en t, sen io r v ic e p resid en t, and g e n e ra l m an ager. S o m e o f the sen io r m an agers are a m a k u d a ri, d escen d in g to an overseas sub sid iary fro m “h eaven ,” th e h o m e office. T h e y are o ften sent d o w n b ecause suitable m a n a g e ria l p o sitio n s are n o t available to th e m in Jap an . T h e y are assign ed to top overseas p o sitio n s n o t n ecessarily b ecause o f th e ir e x ce p tio n a l professional co m p eten cy, b u t b ecause o f th e ir exten sive p erso n al ties w ith m a n y k e y p eo p le at th e h o m e office. T h e y m ay also have p u b lic relatio n s skills co n sid ered co n v en ien t for e n te rta in in g im p o rtan t clien ts w h o w ill v isit fro m Jap an . In fact, those w h o are in th e ir m id -fifties are g iv en titu la r p o sitio n s in overseas sub sid iaries b efo re th e ir re tire m e n t as a rew ard for th eir m a n y years o f d ed icated service. C o n seq u en tly, even these sen io r m an agers w o rk in g fo r overseas sub sid iaries do n o t have th e sam e a u th o rity and in flu e n c e th at th e ir c o lleag u es in Jap an w ith sim ilar m a n a g e ria l titles m ay have. In short, th e overseas Jap an ese m u ltin a ­ tio n als are n e ith e r a u to n o m o u s n o r sem iau to n o m o u s o p eratio n s, b u t are lo c k e d in a tig h t h ie ra rc h ic a l re latio n sh ip w ith th e ir p aren t co m panies. Jap an ese m an agers o n fo reig n assignm ents n eed to cope w ith p erso n al pro b lem s such as th e ir c h ild re n ’s e d u catio n and re n t­ in g th e ir h o use o r ap artm en t in Jap an . P ro v id in g th e ir ch ild ren w ith Ja p a n e se -sty le e d u c a tio n in fo reig n c o u n tries is a serio us dis­ in c e n tiv e o f overseas assign m en t for Jap an ese m an agers. T h ose ju n io r m an agers w ith y o u n g c h ild re n u su ally send th e m to the overseas Jap an ese schools established b y th e Jap an ese M in is try o f E d u catio n and th e M in is try o f F o reign A ffairs; these are fin an ced b y d o n atio n s fro m lo c a l Jap an ese businesses and b y tu itio n in co m e. T h ere are m a n y such schools in fo reig n cities w ith larg e Jap an ese p o p u latio n s. I f th ere is no such scho o l, these ex p atriates w ill u n w illin g ly send th e c h ild re n to lo c a l schools. I f th e y do so, th ey w ill use th e serv ice o f sp ecial schools th at p ro vide Jap an ese e d u c a ­ tio n o n w e e k e n d s (these schools are c alled h o s h u g a k k o o r k yo ik u j u k u ) . T h e m o th ers m a y also tu to r th e ch ild ren at h o m e on

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Jap an ese subjects u sin g scho o l m aterials fro m Jap an . M a n y Jap an ese parents send th e ir ju n io r -h ig h -s c h o o l-a g e ch ild ren b a c k to Jap an in care o f th e ir relatives, w h o w ill lo o k after th e c h ild re n ’s ed u c a tio n ­ al n eeds. It is e x tre m e ly im p o rtan t for th e m to b e able to en ro ll in Jap an ese schools b a c k h o m e w h e n th e y retu rn . T h e sen io r m an agers m ay have h ig h -sc h o o l o r c o lle g e -a g e ch ild re n w h o do n o t w ish to d isrup t th e ir ed u catio n in Jap an b y jo in in g th e ir fathers. It is p a rtic u la rly im p o rtan t th at th e h ig h sc h o o l-ag e c h ild ren stu d y h ard to prepare th em selves for co lleg e en tran ce ex am in a tio n s. T h e c o lle g e -a g e c h ild ren w ill n o t w an t to m iss th e o p p o rtu n itie s to establish life lo n g frien dsh ip s and p erso n ­ al c o n n ectio n s am o n g th e ir classm ates at a Jap an ese u n iv e rsity b y tran sfe rrin g to a fo reig n un iversity. T h e y are also co n c e rn e d ab o ut m issin g a tim e ly jo b -h u n tin g o p p o rtu n ity in Jap an i f th e y are aw ay in th e ju n io r o r sen io r year. C o n seq u en tly, som e o f th e sen io r m an ­ agers are fo rced to take t a n s h i n f u n i n o r “ assign m en t w ith o u t fam ­ ily m e m b e rs” and le a d a lo n e ly life overseas b ecau se th e ir w ives n e e d to stay b a c k in Ja p a n and care for th e ch ild ren . S till an o th er d isin cen tiv e for Jap an ese m an agers facin g overseas assign m en t is th at th e y w ill have to ren t th e ir h o u se or ap artm en t. A lm o st all Jap an ese h o m e o w n ers lo ath e re n tin g th e ir fa m ily h o m es to strangers b ecau se th e y have in vested a lo t o f m o n e y in th e m . In ad d itio n , ren tal law s in Jap an are d isp ro p o r­ tio n a te ly in favor o f ren ters. T h e ren ters can ask for a larg e su m o f ta ch in o k i ryO or “re lo c atio n c h a rg e ” fro m th e lan dlo rds and even refuse to m ove o u t i f th e y can prove th at it w ill cause a hardship.

Compensation and Managerial Functions A ll Jap an ese ex p a tria te m an agers are g iv e n gen ero u s co m p en satio n w h ile th e y are o n overseas assignm ents. B ecau se o f th e stro n g ye n (en d a k a ), even th e ir o rd in a ry co m p en satio n co u ld b e a substantial am o u n t. In som e in stan ces th e y receiv e tw o separate p aych eck s— o n e p a y c h e c k fro m th e overseas su b sid iary th e y w o rk for, w h ic h covers n ecessary liv in g expen ses plus an overseas allo w an ce, and an o th er p a y c h e c k g iv e n to th e m in Jap an , w h ic h co u ld am o u n t to base p ay plus sem ian n u al b o nuses. M a n y m ajo r Jap an ese m u ltin a ­ tio n als give overseas m an agers so -c alle d n et p ay after taxes to

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ensure th at th e y have am p le in c o m e to le a d a co m fo rtab le p erso n ­ al life. In ad d itio n , even ju n io r e x p atriate m an agers and sup erviso rs are p ro vid ed w ith co m p a n y h o u sin g , a co m p an y car, an e n te rta in ­ m en t exp en se acco u n t, a sp ecial overseas allo w an ce, an ed u c a tio n ­ al allo w an ce, and h o m e leave. T h ose sen io r m an agers assigned to top m a n a g e m e n t p o sitio n s receiv e g o o d p ay and b o n uses, and th e y are u su ally g iv e n h o m e leave e v e ry tw o years i f th e d u ratio n o f th e ir assign m en ts is m o re th an th ree years. T h e y are p ro vid ed w ith a plush c o n d o m in iu m o r a b ig h o use to liv e in , a fu ll-size d elu x e c o m p a n y car, and m em b ersh ip s at ex clu sive c o u n try club s and p restig io u s c iv ic clubs; a v e r y gen ero u s exp en se acco u n t is p ro v id ­ ed b ecause th e y m ust p e rso n ally take care o f a larg e n u m b er o f im p o rtan t visito rs fro m Ja p a n , in c lu d in g top m an ag em en t fro m the h o m e office. T h ese lu x u rie s are essential in k e e p in g a g o o d c o rp o ­ rate im a g e in th e lo c a l business co m m u n ity. T h e case o f C . Itoh and C o m p a n y (A m e ric a ) is a go o d e x am p le o f this p a rtic u la r Jap an ese p ractice:

The Japan staff also received a family allowance— 30 percent of the base salary for the wife, 10 percent for each child of school age and above, and 5 percent for each child under school age, not to exceed 50 per­ cent of the base salary. The allowance was paid, if nec­ essary, directly to the family members who remained in Japan. Itoh (Japan) paid an allowance in yen to children of Japan staff attending college in Japan. . . .This fami­ ly allowance was not available to American staff, since their salaries are paid according to what is practiced generally in the U.S. business environment.7 T h e ap p aren t d isp arity b e tw e e n th e co m p en satio n and a llo w a n c e s g iv e n to h o n s h a - h a k e n (h o m e -o ffic e -d is p a tc h e d ) Jap an ese m an agers and sup erviso rs and th at g iv en to g e n c h i saiyO (lo cally h ire d m an agers and em p lo yees) * has o ften b e e n a cause o f

* " G e n ch i s a i y o ” refers to those people hired locally as local employees based on local labor practices. They do not enjoy the extra benefits that are given to those dispatched from Japan. The majority of them are Japanese nationals or other Asians who are either naturalized citizens or legal residents of the country in which they are working.

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in te rp e rso n al je alo u sy , dissatisfaction, o r h ard fe e lin g s.T h is d isp ari­ ty is even m o re d istu rb in g for those lo c a lly h ired Jap an ese e x p a tri­ ates, b ecau se th e y are p aid m u c h less and g iv en few er allow ances. T h e y feel th at th e y are m o re fam iliar w ith lo cal cu ltu re and social custom s, la n g u a g e , and business co n d itio n s th an th e ir Ja p a n -d is ­ p atch ed c o u n terp arts. B esid es, th e y c la im to have a lo n g -te rm c o m m itm e n t and a stro n g sense o f lo y a lty to th e Jap an ese sub ­ sid iary th e y w o rk for.

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T h e g e n e ra l Jap an ese attitu d e to w ard fo reign ers can cause serio us co n flicts and p syc h o lo g ic a l strain b e tw e e n Jap an ese m an agers and lo c a l staff in Jap an ese m u ltin atio n als. T h e Jap an ese m an agers ten d to b e liev e th at Jap an ese m a n a g e m e n t p ractices are c u ltu re -u n iq u e and th at n o fo reig n ers w ill ever fu lly u n d erstan d th e p ro p er Jap an ese w a y o f d o in g business. B ecau se alm ost all o f th e m h ad lit ­ tle o r n o e x p e rie n c e w o rk in g w ith n o n -Jap an ese co lleag u es or sub o rd in ates befo re, th e y o ften la c k cro ss-cu ltu ral co m m u n icatio n skills and are at a loss as to w h a t to do, e sp ecially w h e n th e y have to sup ervise W estern ers. A t th e sam e tim e , th e y are afraid o f b e in g id e n tifie d b y th e ir co lle ag u e s in Ja p a n as g a i k o k u b o k e (foreign c o u n try fool) o r g a i j i n k a b u re (q u asi-fo reig n er)— th at is, so m eo n e w h o has ac q u ire d th e b ad habits o f a “p e c u lia r” fo reig n co un try. T h e y feel th e stro n g n e e d to stay “Ja p a n e se” even i f th e y th in k th at th e y sh ou ld ado p t o r adapt to th e p ro p er w ays o f d o in g th in g s in a fo reig n c u ltu ral en v iro n m en t. T h e y also realize th at th e ir career ad v an cem en t is m o re o ften tie d to h o w th e y are v ie w e d and eval­ u ated b y th e su p erio rs and c o lleag u es at th e h o m e office th an to g o o d p erfo rm an ce at th e overseas p o sts.T h is p sych o lo g ical am b iva­ le n c e causes th e d ev elo p m en t o f k o sh ik a k e k o n jo o r “tem p o rary-sta y m e n ta lity ” th at is n o t o n ly co u n te rp ro d u c tiv e b u t also d etrim en tal to m a in ta in in g g o o d m o rale am o n g th e lo c a lly h ired staff. T h e p o o r attitu d e and b eh a v io r o fJap an ese su p erio rs often causes d ifficu lties for lo c a l em p lo yees o f Jap an ese m u ltin atio n als. T h e m ost d istu rb in g m atter for lo c al m an agers and sup erviso rs is

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th at th e y w ill n o t be tru sted o r g iv e n to p m an ag e rial p o sitio n s no m atter h o w c o m p eten t and q u alified th e y m ay b e. E ven i f th e y are g iv en to p p o sitio n s and b ig titles, th e y w ill n o t b e g iv en an y real a u th o rity and p o w er to m ake in d e p e n d e n t d ecisio n s. T h e y w ill be c lo sely w a tc h e d b y th e h o m e -o ffic e -d isp a tc h e d m an agers, w h o are assigned to gu ard again st an y actio n s th at are n o t approved b y the h o m e office. T h ese “ sh ad o w m a n a g e rs” keep a close w atch on e v e ry th in g and a n y th in g th at is g o in g o n b y re q u irin g th e fo reign m an agers to sub m it o ral and w r itte n rep o rts frequen tly. T h e y are alw ays h a v in g in fo rm a l c o m m u n ic a tio n sessions in Japanese w ith fello w -Jap an ese e x p atriates, and th e y m ake freq u en t rep o rts to th e ir su p erio rs in Jap an . N o n -Jap an ese m an agers w o rk in g for Jap an ese m u ltin atio n als fin d it d ifficult to co p e w ith this situ atio n , esp e c ia lly i f th e y are accu sto m ed to h a v in g o p en co m m u n icatio n and ta k in g in d e p e n d e n t actio n. A n o th e r d istu rb in g m a tte r is th at th e Jap an ese m an agers and sup erviso rs do n o t m in g le w ith th e ir n o n -Jap an ese c o u n te r­ parts. T h e y c o n tin u e to so cialize w ith each o th er after w o rk and even o n w eek en d s and discuss im p o rtan t business d ecisio n s in fo r­ m a lly am o n g th em selves. U n less th e lo c al staff can sp eak go o d Jap an ese and b e c o m e p art o f th e so cializ in g grou p, th e y w ill b e left o u t o f th e in fo rm a l b u t c ru c ia l co m m u n icatio n n etw o rk s. T h e Jap an ese m an agers also spend a lo t o f tim e e n te rta in ­ in g freq u en t visito rs fro m Ja p a n , ta k in g th e m sigh tseein g , go lfin g, d in in g , n ig h tc lu b b in g , and sh o p p in g. L o cal staff o ften co m p lain th at th e ir Jap an ese su p erio rs p u t a p r io r ity o n so cializ in g b ecause th e y en te rta in th e ir guests d u rin g th e w o rkday. E x p atriate Jap an ese m an agers d evelop stro n g attach m en ts to lo c al Jap an ese c o m m u n ities. T h ose Jap an ese m an agers statio n ed in larg e cities w ith a larg e Jap an ese e x p atriate p o p u latio n o rgan ize Jap an ese b u sin essm en ’s clubs such as Jap an ese ch am b ers o f c o m ­ m erce, g o lf clubs, ten n is clubs, M a h -Jo n g g clubs, and o th er social clubs am o n g them selves. T h e y h o ld g o lf to u rn am en ts, ten n is m atch es, and d in n e r p arties atten d ed o n ly b y Jap an ese b u sin essm en and th e ir fa m ily m em b ers. T h e w iv es g et to g e th e r am o n g th e m ­ selves for v a rio u s social a ctiv ities and m a in ta in little co n tact w ith lo c a l residents. In ad d itio n , it is n o t u n u su al to fin d Jap an ese c o m ­ p an ies c o n cen trated in a few d o w n to w n office b u ild in g s, and Jap an ese restaurants and karao ke bars th at cater ex clu siv ely to Ja p a n -

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ese b usin essm en in th e n e arb y business districts. In o th er w o rds, the Jap an ese fam ilies liv in g in th e sam e lo c a lity fo rm a “little T o kyo ” and co n tin u e to liv e as i f th e y w ere in Jap an . For these reasons the Jap an ese have ac q u ire d a b ad re p u ta tio n for b e in g “ clan n ish .” To alleviate this cliq uishn ess o f th e Jap an ese ex p atriates, som e Jap an ese m u ltin atio n als sponsor Jap an ese-style co m p a n y ­ w id e social events at th e ir overseas sub sid iaries to p ro m o te g o o d ­ w ill and frien d sh ip b e tw e e n th e Jap an ese m an ag em en t and the lo c a l m an agers and em p lo yees. T h ese events in c lu d e an n u al c o m ­ p an y p icn ics, C h ristm as p arties, g o lf to u rn am en ts, and an n iversary d in n ers p aid fo r b y th e com pany. T h e co o rd in ato rs for these events tr y to facilitate in fo rm a l co n tacts a m o n g those w h o are atten d in g so th at th e y can g et to k n o w each o th er personally. 166

Language and Cultural Barriers to Communication A s it w as m e n tio n e d earlier, alm ost all Jap an ese m u ltin atio n als have c o m p an y-sp o n so red E n glish classes o r give fin an cial assistance to those em p lo yees w h o w ish to stu d y E n glish o r o th er fo reig n la n ­ guages. T h o se w h o are to be assigned to overseas sub sid iaries are u su a lly g iv e n several w e e k s o f in ten siv e E n glish lessons b efore d ep artu re. H o w ev er, th e average Jap an ese b usin essm an does n o t have a g o o d co m m a n d o f E n glish . H e m ay have a th ic k Jap an ese accen t, and it m ay even b e d ifficult to u n d erstan d w h at he is say­ in g . E ven i f h e speaks som e E n glish , h e is lik e ly n o t to co m p reh en d spoken E n glish v e ry w e ll. H e m ay fin d it d ifficult to u n d erstan d E n glish sp oken at a n o rm a l speed. O b v io usly, this is a c ritic a l w e a k ­ ness in fa c e -to -fa c e co m m u n ic a tio n . H e m ig h t have b e e n sent abroad o n th e erro n eo u s assu m p tio n th at an y b o d y can le a rn E n g ­ lish (or a n y o th er la n g u a g e ) w ith in several m o n th s i f h e is th ro w n in to a fo reig n en v iro n m en t. T h e iro n y o f this situ atio n is th at his p o o r co m m an d o f E n glish n o t o n ly m akes in terp erso n al co m m u ­ n ic a tio n e x tre m e ly d ifficult, b u t also m akes his sub o rdin ates do ub t his effectiveness as a m an ager. In E n g lish -sp e ak in g c o u n trie s such as th e U n ite d States, C an ad a , E n glan d , A u stralia, and N e w Z eala n d , w h e re sp eakin g g o o d E n glish m ean s a h ig h le v e l o f a c c u ltu ratio n and p ro p er e d u ­

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c atio n , p eo p le w ith th ic k fo reig n accen ts are o ften lo o k e d d o w n u p o n as p o o rly e d u cated o r n e w im m ig ran ts. A lth o u g h these o ver­ seas Jap an ese b u sin essm en are n e ith e r p o o rly ed u cated n o r n e w im m ig ra n ts, th e y are n o t to ta lly free from this stigm a n o m atter h o w sligh t th e ir fo reig n accen t m ay be. E n g lish -sp eak in g sub ­ o rd in ates m a y sh ow disrespect to w ard Jap an ese m an agers w h o sp eak “fu n n y E n glish .” T h e y m ay even p o ke fun at th e ir m an ag ers’ m isp ro n u n cia tio n , im p ro p er accen ts, o r p o o r g ram m ar b e h in d th eir b acks w h e n th e y feel u n ju stly rep rim an d ed .T o m ake m atters w orse, alm ost all Jap an ese m an agers are ap p reh ensive and ap o lo getic ab o ut th e ir p o o r E nglish and even d o u b t th e ir a b ility to c o m m u n icate in E nglish. S o m e o f th e m m a y tr y to co ver up th e feelin gs o f in a d e ­ q u a c y b y “p ro u d ly ” sp ea k in g b ro k en E n g lish .T h e ir attitu d e can b e, “ I f y o u d o n ’t u n d erstan d m y E n glish , y o u stu d y Jap an ese.” M a n y o f th e Jap an ese m an agers are th erefo re co m p elled to d ep en d u p o n th e ir b ilin g u a l secretary o r staff assistant to in terp ret and translate th e ir oral in stru ctio n s and w ritte n m essages. T h is h e a v y d e p e n d e n c e o n th e b ilin g u a l staff ten ds to red u ce th e m a n ­ ag ers’ effectiveness, fo r such d e p en d en ce is an o p en adm issio n th at th e y are d efic ie n t in c o m m u n ic a tio n co m p eten cy, w h ic h is o n e o f th e m ost im p o rtan t m a n a g e ria l skills. T h is n eed for d ep en d en ce on th e b ilin g u a l staff m ay also d isrup t th e o rgan iz atio n al h ierarch y b ecause th e Jap a n e se -sp e a k in g assistants can b eco m e to o im p o rtan t to th e m a n a g e rs’ survival. In tu rn , this can create hard feelin gs or even je a lo u s y am o n g those lo c al m an agers and em p lo yees w h o can n o t sp eak Jap an ese. A sim p le w a y to o verco m e this lin g u istic b a rrie r is to assign o n ly E n g lish -sp e ak in g m an agers and sup erviso rs to overseas p o sitions. H o w ever, it is n o t an easy task fo r m an y Jap an ese m u lti­ n atio n als, e sp e c ia lly for those sm aller sub co n tracto rs, to find e n o u g h em p lo yees w h o have b o th te c h n ic a l co m p eten ce and ad e­ q uate la n g u ag e facility. E ven th o u g h e v e ry Jap an ese busin essm an has stu d ied E n glish for at least te n years b efore h e g rad u ated from c o lle g e and co n tin u e d to stu d y after g ra d u atio n , he m a y n o t be w e ll-tra in e d in spoken E nglish. T h e in su la rity o f Jap an ese so ciety also m akes it d ifficult for th e m to p ractice E nglish w ith n ative speakers. M o st Jap an ese b usin essm en have h ad few o p p o rtu n ities to sp eak E nglish u n til assigned to th e ir overseas posts. B esid es, th e y feel aw kw ard n ess o r iw a k a n (a sense o f in c o m p atib ility ) w h e n

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m e e tin g fo reign ers. M a rc h claim s th at th e Jap an ese still have a g a i j i n (fo reign er) c o m p le x again st E n g lish -sp e a k in g C au casian s, w h o m th e y co n sid er (often re lu c tan tly ) m o re ad v an ced , w ealth ier, m o re c o sm o p o litan , m o re self-assured, b e tte r-p ro p o rtio n e d , b e tte r­ lo o k in g , and m o re se x u a lly attractiv e.8 C o n seq u en tly, th e y ten d to b e shy and h esitate to sp eak E n glish even th o u g h th e ir E nglish m ay b e q u ite goo d . A n ap p aren t so lu tio n to th is p ro b lem w o u ld b e for Ja p a n ­ ese m u ltin atio n als to h ire y o u n g Jap an ese m en and w o m e n w h o have b e e n e d u cated in th e E n g lish -sp e ak in g c o u n tries in th e W est. H o w ever, these W e ste rn -e d u c a te d and c o m p eten t Jap an ese in d i­ v id u als are n o t n e c e ssa rily w e lc o m e d b y m ost Jap an ese m u ltin a tio n a ls.T h e y are co n sid ered “to o W e ste rn iz e d ” and n o lo n g e r “real Ja p a n e se ” in th o u g h t and actio n . Jap an ese co rp o ratio n s still p refer to h ire n e w grad uates d ire c tly fro m p restigio us Jap an ese u n iversities and th en in d o c trin a te th e m in to th e ir resp ective co rp o rate cultures. T h e y fear th at h ir in g W e ste rn iz e d re c ru its m ig h t d isru p t th e tra d itio n a l w o rk c u ltu re and th e n atu re o f in terp erso n al rela tio n ­ ships w ith in th e o rga n izatio n . In som e in stan ces, h av in g b ilin g u a l a b ility and b ic u ltu ra l k n o w le d g e can b e c o m e a lia b ility in stead o f an asset in tra d itio n -b o u n d and e th n o c e n tric Jap an ese business o rgan izatio n s. T h is la n g u a g e b a rrie r creates still an o th er p ro b lem for n o n -Ja p a n e se -sp e a k in g lo c a l m an agers w h o fre q u e n tly n eed to c o m m u n ic ate w ith Jap an ese co u n terp arts over im p o rtan t issues. W h e n it co m es to to u c h y issues, th e Jap an ese su d d en ly start dis­ cussions in Jap an ese am o n g th em selves. W h e n th e n o n -Jap an ese­ sp ea k in g side asks for in te rp re ta tio n , th e Jap an ese m an agers m ay give th e m ab b reviated o r “ e d ite d ” in fo rm atio n o n ly and say th at th e y w ill e x p la in th e w h o le th in g later. T h e lo c al m an agers n a tu ­ ra lly suspect th at th e Jap an ese m an agers are k e e p in g secrets fro m th e m b y in te n tio n a lly sp ea k in g in Jap an ese. T h e y m ig h t be co rrect in this assu m p tio n , b u t it is m o re lik e ly th at th e Jap an ese do n o t w an t to use E nglish w h e n ta lk in g to each o th er unless all o f th e m are e q u a lly c o m p eten t and w ill feel co m fo rtab le in d o in g so. T h e o n ly w a y for th e lo c a l m an agers to fin d o u t w h a t w as actu ally ta lk ed ab o ut in Jap an ese is to ask o n e o f th e ju n io r m an agers on th e Jap an ese side w h o speaks g o o d E n glish to ta lk to th e m in p r i­ vate after th e fo rm al m e e tin g over a cup o f coffee o r a few drin ks.

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Personnel Management Policy and Reward System T h e Jap an ese style o f p erso n n el m a n a g e m en t and rew ard system w ill in v a ria b ly b e c o m e th e source o f frustratio n s for n o n -Jap an ese m an agers and em p lo yees w o rk in g for Jap an ese m u ltin atio n als. M o st Jap an ese businesses still p refer to h ire o n ly Jap an ese n atio nals and Jap an ese ex p atriates alread y liv in g overseas. I f th e y n eed to re c ru it fo re ig n e rs, th e y are m o re lik e ly to h ire descendants o f Jap an ese im m ig ran ts and o th e r A sians w h o se cu ltu re is sim ilar to th at o f Jap an . T h e y give p referen tial trea tm en t to m ale em p lo yees over fem ale em p lo yees. T h e rew ard system is still based o n sen io r­ ity and gro u p effort rath e r th an o n in d iv id u al ach iev em en ts. It goes w ith o u t sayin g th at th is Jap an ese p erso n n el m an ag em en t p o lic y and rew ard system do n o t go w e ll w ith those fo reig n em p lo yees w h o se c u ltu re is based o n in d iv id u a lism and e g alitarian ism . In fact, m a n y Jap an ese m u ltin atio n als o p e ra tin g in th e U n ite d States have b e e n sued b y th e ir ag g rie v e d em p lo yees and h ad to p ay m illio n s o f do llars in actu al and p u n itiv e d am ag es; som e have b e e n fo rced to p ay h u g e fines for v io la tin g th e U .S. E qual E m p lo ym en t O p p o rtu ­ n ity A c t.9 Jap an ese p e o p le ’s feelin gs to w ard fo reig n ers seem to ran ge fro m a m ild sense o f un easin ess to a stro n g d islik e, d e p e n d in g on th e n atio n ality, eth n icity, c u ltu re, h isto ry, and e co n o m ic p o w er o f th e c o u n try th e fo reig n ers co m e from . G en erally sp eakin g , the Jap an ese have m o re p o sitive feelin gs to w ard C au casian A m erican s and E uropeans, b u t th e y have a stro n g d islike to w ard racial m in o ri­ ties. T h e y even h o ld a sense o f s u p e rio rity over o th er A sian n e ig h ­ bo rs such as C h in e se and K oreans w ith w h o m th e y sup p osedly share th e sam e e th n ic ity and a sim ilar c u ltu ral h e rita g e .T h e s e fe e l­ in gs h e ld b y th e Jap an ese u n fo rtu n a te ly have b eco m e th e fu n d a­ m e n tal causes o f d isc rim in a to ry treatm en t o f fo reig n m an agers and em p lo yees. O rd in arily, alm ost all fo reig n m an agers are h ired as s h o k u t a k u o r “n o n re g u la r staff” fo r a sp ecified co n tract p e rio d , and n o n -Jap an ese em p lo yees are h ire d sim p ly as ju s t w o rk ers, w ith o u t the p riv ile g e o f lifetim e em p lo ym en t. A s ex p lain ed before, the for­ e ig n m an agers w ill n ever b e p ro m o ted to top p o sitions w ith real resp o n sib ility and au th o rity. T h e y m ust b e co n ten t w ith n u m b er tw o o r n u m b e r th ree p o sitio n s no m atter h o w lo n g and h o w hard

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th e y m ig h t have w o rk e d for th e ir Jap an ese em p lo yer. T h e y should realize th at th e y w ill b e e x c lu d e d fro m top m an ag em en t m eetin g s unless th e y are flu en t in Jap an ese and able to c o m m u n icate w ith th e Jap an ese ex p a tria te m an agers w ith o u t an y difficulty. T h e y m ay receive relativ e ly g o o d pay, b u t th e y w ill p ro b ab ly n o t be g iv en the special allow ances and gen ero us en te rtain m en t expenses th at th eir Jap an ese co u n terp arts receive. E ven i f th e reg u lar em p lo yees do n o t have Jap an ese m an agers as th e ir im m e d ia te su p erio rs, th e y w ill be e x p e c te d to ab id e b y strict w o rk ru les and w o rk d ilig e n tly at all tim es. T h e y also w ill b e e x p e c te d to w o rk s tric tly as te a m m e m ­ b e rs, n o t as in d iv id u als se e k in g to g ain p erso n al m e rit.

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Sex Discrimination and Racial Discrimination in the Workplace B ecau se Jap an ese so cie ty has lo n g b e e n in flu e n c e d b y C o n fu cian tea ch in g s o n p ro p er social relatio n sh ip s, Jap an ese w o m e n have for c e n tu rie s p layed sub o rd in ate roles to m e n . E ven after m an y decades o f W e ste rn iza tio n , Ja p a n has n o t c h an g ed in to an e g alitarian so ci­ e ty as y e t. D esp ite th e fact th at th e E qual E m p lo ym en t o p p o rtu ­ n ity A ct b ec am e effective on A p ril 1, 19 8 6 , d isc rim in atio n against w o m e n still seem s to persist at w o rk p laces in Jap an . T h is la w req u ires th at em p lo yers “ en d eav o r” to give eq u al o p p o rtu n ity and trea tm en t to m e n and w o m e n , b u t th ere are no p en alties le v ie d against those em p lo yers th at do n o t en d eavo r to fo llo w th e law .10 W o m e n are co n sid ered less d ep en d ab le, less professional, and less capable. T h e y also feel stro n g social pressures to p lay th e tra d itio n ­ al roles o f ry o s a i k e n b o or “ g o o d w ife , w ise m o th er.” C o n seq u en tly, m ost w o rk in g w o m e n are ra re ly g iv e n p erm an en t p o sitio n s w ith resp o n sib ilities n o m atter h o w w e ll e d u cated and h o w pro fessio n ­ a lly c o m p eten t th e y m ig h t b e. T h is sex d isc rim in atio n ap p aren tly exists in Jap an ese m u ltin a tio n a l co m p an ies o p e ratin g in fo reign c o u n trie s as w ell. In th e U n ite d States, several Jap an ese m u ltin atio n al c o m ­ p an ies have b e e n sued for sex d isc rim in a tio n , sexual h arassm ent, and racial d iscrim in atio n and have had to p ay h u g e sum s o f m o n ey for actual and p un itive dam ages. N o neth eless, few A m erican w o m en

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are re c ru ite d for responsible m a n a g e m e n t p o sitio n s w ith Jap an ese sub sid iaries in th e U n ite d States. T h e y are u su ally h ired as e x ec u ­ tive secretaries and ad m in istrativ e assistants to h elp th e ir Jap an ese bosses in w r itin g and e d itin g le tte rs, m e m o s, and rep o rts in E n g ­ lish . T h e y are also e x p e c te d to do som e d o m estic ch o res at the office such as se rv in g coffee o r te a , w a sh in g cu p s, ru n n in g erran d s, and h e lp in g w ith n o n w o rk -re la te d p erso n al m atters. I f d o in g these ch ores b o th ers A m e ric a n fem ale em p lo yees o f a Jap an ese firm , th ey sh ould p o lite ly e x p la in to th e ir bosses th at A m e ric a n ex ecu tiv e sec­ retaries and ad m in istrativ e assistants are n o t ex p ected to p erfo rm these c h o re s.T h e y have im p o rtan t o fficial duties to p erfo rm as p ro ­ fessionals. H o w ever, th e y c o u ld v o lu n te e r to serve coffee o r tea for im p o rtan t visito rs i f n o o th er p erso n can h elp w ith this chore. T h e y c o u ld also v o lu n te e r to h elp th e Jap an ese bosses in case o f a fa m ily e m e rg e n c y o r o th e r situ atio n s w h e re im m e d iate assistance is necessary. S e x u a l h arassm en t has b e c o m e a serio us p ro b lem for Jap an ese m u ltin a tio n a l co m p an ies in th e U n ite d States. Jap an ese m e n do n o t seem to k n o w h o w to co n d u ct th em selves p ro p erly w ith y o u n g W estern w o m e n .T h e y have a different m in d -set regard ­ in g sexu al m ores based o n th e Jap an ese co n cep t o f w o m e n .11 T h e ty p ica l Jap an ese business en te rta in m e n t in clu d es d rin k in g , d in in g , and sex. M a n y b usin essm en fre q u e n tly go to hostess bars and places for m a le -o n ly en te rta in m e n t. S o m e o f th e m are e x tre m e ly cu rio u s ab o ut th e b o d ies o f C a u c a sia n w o m e n and m ay have a sexual fantasy. T h e p o p u lar H o lly w o o d d e p ic tio n o f sex u ally lo o se, fu n lo v in g , b lo n d e and b lu e -e y e d w o m e n c o u ld have le d th e m to b e liev e th at th e y can ap proach A m e ric a n w o m e n at w o rk for sex ­ u al favors. F req u en t co m p a n y-sp o n so red socials and sp ecial din n ers for o vertim e w o rk o r w e e k e n d w o rk create m an y o p p o rtu n ities for Jap an ese m an agers to b e c o m e frie n d ly w ith th e ir fem ale secretaries and assistants. T h e y m ay te ll sex jo k es and ask v e ry p erso n al q u es­ tio n s ab o ut a w o m a n ’s age, m a rria g e , b o yfrien d s, dress size, and leisu re a c tiv ity and even ask h er to go o ut for d in n er after w o rk . W h e n th e y get d ru n k , th e y m ay even “ a c c id e n ta lly ” to u ch the w o m e n close to th em . A sim p le p iece o f ad v ice is to d raw th e lin e fro m th e b e g in n in g and n o t to to lerate an y sexual h arassm ent. I f sexual h arassm ent persists, it m a y b e c o m e n ecessary to give the Jap an ese m an agers a co p y o f A m e ric a n law s reg ard in g sexual harass­ m en t and h elp th e m u n d erstan d th e serio us co n seq u en ces o f th e ir

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s e e m in g ly in n o c e n t sexu al advances. It is an e x ce lle n t id e a to h elp th e co m p a n y d raw up a set o f ru les o n p erso n al co n d u ct at the w o rk p la c e ; these sh o u ld b e p u b lish ed in b o th E n glish and Jap an ese and d istrib u ted to e v e ry m a n a g e r and em p lo yee in o rd er to avoid co stly law su its against sexual h arassm ent and o th er m isco n d u ct. R a c ia l d isc rim in a tio n has also b e e n a serio us p ro b lem w ith overseas Jap an ese m u ltin a tio n a l co m p an ies. Several o f these c o m ­ p an ies o p e ra tin g in th e U n ite d States have b e e n fo u n d liab le for le g a l fees, fines, actu al and p u n itiv e d am ages, and co m p en satio n to th e ag g rie v e d e m p lo y e e s.T h e ro o t o f th is p ro b lem can b e traced to th e h isto ric al fact th at Ja p a n h ad 2 5 0 years o f seclusio n im p o sed b y th e T o ku g aw a sh ogun ate. D u rin g this p e rio d o f seclusio n , the Jap an ese d evelo p ed an in su lar m en tality, x en o p h o b ia, and e th n o cen trism . Ja p a n ’s g e o g ra p h ic iso latio n and its p ro lo n ged process o f c u ltu ral and racial h o m o g e n iz a tio n le d th e m to b eliev e th at th ey are a u n iq u e and sup erio r people. From the M e iji p erio d o f 1868 to 1912 u n til th e en d o f W o rld W ar II in 19 4 5 , state S h in to ism re in ­ forced th e su p e rio rity co m p lex am o n g the Jap an ese.12 M o re recen t­ ly, Ja p a n ’s e m e rg e n c e as an e c o n o m ic su p erp o w er has rein fo rced th e sense o f s u p e rio rity over o th er rac e s.T h is su p e rio rity co m p lex , in tu rn , b eco m es th e root o f d isc rim in a tio n to w ard ce rta in eth n ic groups based o n th e ir racial o rig in s. M a n y Jap an ese have som e p re ju d ic e against E uropeans and w h ite A m erican s, b u t th e y have m u c h stro n ger p re ju d ic e against A rabs, So uth east A sians, and A fri­ cans. C o n seq u en tly, it is d ifficult fo r th e Jap an ese to accep t m e m ­ bers o f o th er races as equals in m a n y w o rk -rela te d s itu a tio n s.W ith a fe w e x ce p tio n s, m o st o f th e Jap an ese m u ltin a tio n a l co m p an ies are staffed w ith East A sians w h o se p h ysical features, cu ltu re and custom s, and w o rk eth ics are co n sid ered sim ilar to those o f the Ja p a n e se .T h e Jap an ese g e n e ra lly feel u n co m fo rtab le and ap p reh en ­ sive w o rk in g in tr u ly m u ltira c ia l and m u ltic u ltu ra l so cial settings. It has n o t b e e n u n c o m m o n in th e past to see a Jap an ese m u lti­ n atio n al co m p a n y w ith top m a n a g e m e n t p o sitio n s o cc u p ie d b y the Jap an ese m an agers from Jap an , lo w e r-ra n k in g p o sitio n s staffed b y lo c a l resid en t Jap an ese, C h in e se , o r K oreans. In som e co m p an ies, th ere is a “to k en C au casian ,” “to k e n b lack ,” o r “to k en C h ic a n o ” in a m a n a g e m e n t p o sitio n . U su ally, these p eo p le are g iv en such p o si­ tio n s m a in ly to c o m p ly w ith lo c al a n tid isc rim in atio n law s and for p u b lic relatio n s. N everth eless, to d ay m a n y Jap an ese are m a k in g an earn est effort to w ard h ir in g n o n -Jap an ese as m an agers and su p er-

W orking

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M ultin a tio n a ls

viso rs b ecau se th e y are aw are th at ch an ges n eed to b e m ad e to m e e t th e in c re asin g d em an d o f m a k in g th e ir overseas o p eration s tr u ly m u ltin a tio n a l. D esp ite such efforts, it m ay take a fe w m o re d ecad es o f in te rn a tio n a liz a tio n o f Jap an ese so ciety b efo re Jap an ese b u sin essp eo p le can w illin g ly accep t and trust fo reign ers as d ep en d ­ able and tru stw o rth y co lleagu es.

Employment Contract and Job Description In Ja p a n , th e k in d o f e m p lo y m e n t co n tract fo un d in W estern co u n ­ trie s, o n e w ith sp ecific jo b d escrip tio n s, is v e ry u n c o m m o n . F o r e x am p le, a j i r e i o r “le tte r o f ap p o in tm e n t” sim p ly says,“Y ou w ill be assigned to th e M a rk e tin g D ep artm en t.” T h e n e w em p lo yee w ill n e e d to le a rn w h a t h e o r she is ex p e c te d to do b y g o in g th ro u g h an o rie n ta tio n , classroom tra in in g sessions, and o n th e -jo b -tra in in g . M o st overseas Jap an ese m u ltin atio n als m ay have e m p lo ym en t c o n ­ tracts p a tte rn e d after th e lo c al business cu sto m , b u t th ese contracts are o ften treated as m ere fo rm alities. In m an y in stan ces, th e c o n ­ tracts have im p lic it “u n w ritte n segm en ts” th at sh o u ld b e u n d e r­ stood and co m p lie d w ith w ith o u t a sk in g ad d itio n al co m p en satio n . For ex am p le, an A m e ric a n sen io r m a n a g e r’s e m p lo ym en t co n tract m ay call for a fiv e -d a y w o rk w e e k , b u t w h e n a Jap an ese ex ecu tiv e fro m th e h o m e office visits for an im p o rtan t m e e tin g , the A m e ric an m a n a g e r m ay b e re q u ire d to sh ow up for a m e e tin g , even th o u g h it m ay b e h e ld on a S atu rd ay aftern o o n . H e m ay also b e ex p ected to p lay g o lf o n S u n d ay and so cialize w ith th e Jap an ese guest. S o m etim es an e m p lo y m e n t co n tract m ay b e arb itrarily c a n celed b efo re its e x p iratio n . W h e n this h ap p ens, th e Jap an ese m an agers u su a lly do n o t give specific reasons for can cellatio n w ith th e ex cu se th at d o in g so m a y h u rt th e feelin gs o f th e dism issed. T h e y often use in fo rm a l in te rm e d ia rie s, n o t law yers, to p ersuade th e em p lo yee to resign , as is th e cu sto m in Jap an . In som e instances, th e y m ay m ake up a se e m in g ly le g itim a te excu se o r even use an o u trig h t lie so apparent th at th e ta rg e te d em p lo yee can see the real reason fo r dism issal. For ex am p le, th e Jap an ese p erso n n el m an ­ ag er m ay say, “W e w ill n e e d to cu t som e p o sitio n s b ecause the

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c o m p a n y is h a v in g a serio u s fin an cial difficulty,” w h e n in fact the business is g o in g w e ll. In o th er w o rds, th e o fficial reason for dis­ m issal m ust b e m ad e so cially accep tab le to avoid loss o f face fo r the dism issed em p lo yee. L ifetim e e m p lo y m e n t is an attractive o p tio n for an y em p lo yee. M a n y lo c al p eo p le jo in overseas Jap an ese m u ltin atio n al co m p an ies w ith an ex p e c tatio n th at th e p ractice o f lifetim e e m p lo y m e n t w ill ap p ly to th e m , too. It is tru e th at som e Jap an ese co m p an ies even p ro m ise overseas em p lo yees life tim e ten ure. H o w ever, it is n aive to assum e th at th e Jap an ese co m p an y w ill keep this p ro m ise; in stead , th e c o m p a n y w ill ado p t th e lo c al e m p lo y ­ m en t p ractices o f h irin g , layoffs, and dism issal w h e n it b eco m es co n v en ien t to do so. T h e Jap an ese co m p an ies do n o t h esitate to ap p ly th e co n cep t o f j i j o h e n k o o r “ d o c trin e o f ch an ged c irc u m ­ stan ce” to an e m p lo y m e n t c o n tra c t.13 T h is m ean s th at th e co n tract can b e m o d ifie d o r c a n celed i f th e circu m stan ces have ch an ged fro m th e tim e o f th e in itia l co n tract. In o th er w o rds, it is u n w ise to b e liev e th at an overseas Jap an ese m u ltin atio n al co m p an y w o u ld ad h ere to th e u n iq u e e m p lo y m e n t system o f Jap an w h e n d o in g business overseas. D esp ite these d raw b acks, overseas Jap an ese m u ltin atio n al co m p an ies are still g o o d em p lo yers for asp irin g n o n -Jap an ese w o rk ers w h o are w illin g to le a rn and adjust to Jap an ese co rp o rate c u ltu re, u n iq u e in te rp e rso n al relatio n sh ip s, and different w ays o f d o in g business. T h e Jap an ese m u ltin atio n als are d e fin ite ly aw are th at th e success o f th e ir overseas o p eratio n s req u ires g o o d m an ­ agers, sup erviso rs, and w o rk ers fro m th e lo cal co m m u n ities in w h ic h th e y o p erate. A b ig ch alle n g e for n o n -Jap an ese p eo p le w o rk in g u n d e r Jap an ese m a n a g e m e n t is to take u p o n th em selves th e task o f b e c o m in g a b ic u ltu ra l p erso n and a “ cu ltu ral b r id g e ” b e tw e e n Ja p a n and th e ir o w n co un try.

c

Living and Working in Japan

ap an is a v e ry W e ste rn ize d c o u n try in A sia. T h e larg e m etro p o l­ itan cities o f Ja p a n are ju s t lik e those o f th e U n ite d States and o th er W e ste rn c o u n trie s in ap p earan ce. N ev erth eless, m a n y decades o f stro n g W e ste rn in flu e n c e have n o t re a lly ch an ged th e basic Jap an ese n atio n al ch aracteristics. T h e g o v ern m en t is b u re au c ratic ; th e im m ig ra tio n law s are stric t; roads and h ig h w a ys are co n g ested ; liv in g acco m m o d atio n s are exp en sive and d ifferen t; h o m e ap p li­ ances and fu rn itu re are sm a ll; food h ab its are d ifferen t; social cus­ to m s and in te rp e rso n al relatio n sh ip s are u n iq u e ly Jap an ese; and businesses are ru n ac c o rd in g to Jap an ese ru les. M a n y fo reign ers c o m in g to liv e and w o rk in Jap an , e sp e cially W estern ers, n aiv ely assu m in g th at it is a m o d e rn c o sm o p o litan co u n try, are n o t w e ll p rep ared to e n c o u n te r th e vast c u ltu ra l d ifferen ces th e y w ill have to face. T h e y w ill u n d o u b te d ly e x p e rie n c e severe cu ltu re shock, and th e y w ill n e e d to m ake p h ysical, m en tal, and p sych o lo g ical ad ju stm en ts. H is to ric a lly sp ea k in g , th e Jap an ese have alw ays h ad a n egativ e attitu d e to w ard fo reign ers and lo o k e d at th e m w ith suspi­ c io n and distrust. To th e m , all fo reig n ers are g a i j i n . T h e y still frow n u p o n in te re th n ic m arriag e s. D esp ite th e rap id A m eric a n iz a tio n o f Jap an ese society, th e Jap an ese still c lin g to th e ir old w ays. T h e y m ay d rin k C o c a C o la , eat M c D o n a ld ’s h am b u rgers, e n jo y H o lly w o o d m o vies, go to T okyo D isn eylan d , and p lay T V gam es, b u t th e y also d rin k g re e n tea, eat ra w fish, e n jo y w a tc h in g sum o m atch es, go to k a b u k i plays, and p lay Jap an ese chess gam es. Insights in to vario u s

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aspects o f life in Jap an and th e u n iq u e ch aracteristics o f th e Ja p a n ­ ese p eo p le w ill b e ab so lu tely n ecessary for th e fo reign ers resid in g in Ja p a n .

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D esp ite th e fact th at th e Jap an ese g o v ern m en t has b e e n m a in ta in ­ in g d ip lo m atic and trad e relatio n s w ith fo reig n c o u n tries, it has n o t c h an ged th e x e n o p h o b ic attitu d e th at cam e fro m th e m an y in te r­ n atio n al co n flicts in its lo n g h isto ry. U n lik e th e U n ite d States and som e o th er W estern c o u n trie s,Ja p a n does n o t give citizen sh ip au to ­ m a tic a lly to bab ies b o rn in Jap an o f parents w h o are n o t Jap an ese citizen s. It also im p o ses v e ry strict ru les o n p e rm an e n t resid en t sta­ tus and even m o re strin g e n t co n d itio n s for n atu raliz atio n . W o rk visas are n o t easy to o b tain . A ll ap p lican ts for w o rk visas n eed to presen t a certificate o f e m p lo y m e n t and a le tte r o f g u aran tee fro m th e em p lo yer in Jap an . In ad d itio n , th e y n eed to have h o s h o n i n or “ g u aran to rs” w h o are Jap an ese n atio n als w ith g o o d professional and social stan d in g to g u aran tee in w r itin g th e ir fin an cial support and p ro p er p erso n al co n d u ct. A ll fo reign ers w h o in te n d to spend at least th ree co n secu tive m o n th s in Jap an m ust rep o rt to lo cal g o v ­ e rn m e n t a u th o ritie s and o b tain a C e rtific ate o f A lie n R e g is tra tio n w ith in n in e ty days o f arriv al. F o reign ers six teen years o f age and o ld er are re q u ire d to c a rry th e ir A lie n R e g is tra tio n C ard at all tim es. A n y fo re ig n e r w h o w ish es to leave Jap an te m p o ra rily w ill n e e d to o b tain a re e n try p e rm it regardless o f th e reasons for and d u ratio n o f th e stay o u tsid e th e co un try. W h e n th e fo reig n er leaves Jap an p erm an en tly, th e C e rtificate o f A lie n R e g is tra tio n m ust b e relin q u ish ed . D u ratio n o f th e p e rm itte d stay varies d ep en d in g o n th e ty p e o f visa, b u t th e p e rio d o f th e stay stam p ed in to the passport b y th e im m ig ra tio n o fficer le g a lly o verrid es an y p rio r re c ­ o m m e n d a tio n w ritte n b y a Jap an ese em b assy o r co n su lar official overseas. T h e o fficer can d e n y e n try to p eo p le su fferin g fro m e p i­ d e m ic illn ess and m en tal sickness, p eo p le lik e ly to b ec o m e p u b lic ch arges, ex co n v icts, narco tics users, pro stitutes, d ep o rtees, terrorists,

Living

and

W orking

in J a p a n

and o th er u n d esirab les. I f th e fo re ig n e r w ish es to ex ten d his stay, he m ust b e g in th e ex te n sio n process b y su b m ittin g th e n ecessary d o c ­ u m en ts lo n g b efo re th e p e rio d o f th e stay a u th o riz ed b y th e visa exp ires. It is im p o rta n t to k n o w th at v isa status can n o t b e ch an ged after one arriv es in Jap an . T h e ap p lican t m ust leave Jap an w h ile w a itin g for a n e w visa. It is possible, h o w ever, to go to a n earb y fo reig n c o u n try w h e re Jap an ese co n su lar serv ice is available and ap p ly for th e visa status ch an ge. F o r e x am p le, an A m e ric a n E n g ­ lish te a c h e r w h o en tered Ja p a n as a to u rist w ill n o t b e allo w ed to stay o n in Ja p a n and ap p ly for a w o rk visa. B u t h e o r she m ay go to K o rea o r H o n g K o n g to ap p ly fo r it and ree n te r Jap an o n ce the w o rk v isa is gran ted . Jap an ese g o v ern m en t officials, sensitive to signs o f disre­ spect, e n cro ach m en t, and falseh o o d , o ften give th e im p ressio n th at th e y are co ld , u n frien d ly, and a rro g a n t.T h e y have trad itio n ally b een a u th o rita ria n and fo rm al w h e n th e y are o n official d u ty and in u n i­ fo rm . C learly, th e y are n o t m em b ers o f a Jap an ese g o v ern m en t w e l­ c o m in g c o m m ittee. T h e y are in sp ecto rs w h o se o fficial d u ty is to p ro tect th e ir c o u n try fro m u n d esirab le fo reign ers. It is alw ays w ise to d eal w ith th e m w ith p o liteness, h u m ility, and resp ect, even th o u g h som e o f th e m m a y have lim ite d co m p eten ce in E nglish. D e m a n d in g p ro m p t atte n tio n or sp ecial atten tio n m ay an tago n ize th em . L ik e w ise, o verly frie n d ly verb al o r n o n verb al b eh avio rs to w ard th e m m ay arouse susp icio n. N e v e r argue w ith th e m u n d er an y circu m stan ce, and b e q u ic k to ap o lo giz e i f so m eth in g goes w ro n g . U n lik e th e situ atio n in som e A sian c o u n tries, a b rib e is n ever o p e n ly accep ted in Jap an . I f o n e n eed s a sp ecial favor fro m a Jap an ese g o v ern m en t o fficial, an a rra n g e m en t m ust b e w o rk ed o ut in strict p riv a c y th ro u g h a “p ro p er ch an n el.”

Transportation Systems in Japan Ja p a n has d ev elo p ed th e w o rld ’s best mass transit system b ecause it has alw ays n e e d e d efficien t tran sp o rtatio n to c a rry m illio n s o f passengers and m illio n s o f tons o f cargo th ro u g h o u t th e co un try. Ja p a n has th e w o rld ’s m ost efficien t passen ger train system o f

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s h i n k a n s e n or “b u lle t-tra in ” n etw o rk s ru n b y Jap an R a ilw a y s (JR )

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and d o m estic a irlin e o p eratio n s. In m etro p o litan areas, th ere are co n v en ien t subw ays and m o n o rails. In ad d itio n , buses, m in ib uses, and taxis p ro vid e a d d itio n al m ean s o f tran sp o rtatio n . E ven w ith all these c o n v en ien t m o d es o f tran sp o rtatio n , fo reign ers can get in to tro u b le unless th e y le a rn h o w to use th em . T h e b u lle t-tra in system is th e m ost co n v en ien t m ean s o f g ro u n d tran sp o rtatio n for lo n g -d ista n c e travel. F req u en t b u lle ttrain services c a rry m illio n s o f passengers b e tw e e n m ajo r cities. For e x am p le, for th e T o k y o -K y o to -N a g o y a -O sa k a sector, th e b u llet train s ru n at fiv e -m in u te in tervals d u rin g p eak h o u rs .T h e y stop for ab o ut th irty or fo rty seconds at each stop for p assen ger lo a d in g and u n lo a d in g . Passengers n e e d to b e alert and p rep ared to get o ff or get o n v e ry q u ic k ly .A ll train s have th ree classes o f service: g reen car o r reserved first class (g u rin s h a ) , reserved (sh iteisek i ) , and u n reserved (ji y u s ek i ) . T h e y are also d iv id e d in to n o n sm o k in g cars (k in en s h a ) and sm o k in g cars (k itsu en sh a ). T h e g re e n cars are all reserved and v e ry co m fo rtab le, and soft d rin k s, h o t o r co ld to w els, and read in g m aterials are p ro vid ed , b u t th e tic k e t is v e ry expen sive. T h e Jap an R a ilw a y system offers an ex cu rsio n pass called “Ja p a n R a ilw a y Pass” th at is available o n ly to fo reign ers v isitin g Ja p a n on ho liday. T h is pass m ust b e p urch ased overseas and e x ch a n g e d for co up o n s at d esign ated places u p o n arriv al in Jap an . It pro vides a sub stan tial d isco u n t and c o n v en ien ce for trav elin g over m a n y sectors o f th e Jap an R a ilw a y system d u rin g th e sp eci­ fied p e rio d o f tim e o f o n e w e e k , tw o w eek s, o r th ree w eek s. It is advisable to m ake seat reservatio n s and b u y th e tickets in advance and to go to th e c o rre c t train p latfo rm at least ten m in u tes early. D o m estic airlin e lin k s are also v e ry exten sive, and freq u en t sch ed u led services are available to alm ost all cities in Jap an . T h e th ree m ajo r c a rrie rs—Jap an A ir L in es, A ll N ip p o n A irw ays, and Ja p a n A ir S y ste m — m o n o p o liz e airlin e services w ith in Jap an . F o reign airlin es are n o t allo w ed to fly b e tw e e n d o m estic d estin a­ tio ns. F o reign visito rs w h o fly in to Jap an o n n o n -Jap an ese airlin es can n o t fly to an o th er d o m estic d estin atio n w ith in Jap an ex cep t in transit to a fo reig n d estin atio n . S in ce Ja p a n is a sm all co u n try, m ost fligh ts are o n e or tw o h o u rs and are ru n m u ch lik e co m m u ter air­ lin e s in th e U n ite d States and E urope. D a ily telev isio n n ew s p ro ­ v id es in fo rm a tio n o n sch ed u les and seat av ailab ility for v ie w e rs ’ co n v en ien ce. T h e airlin es n o w sell fligh t co up o n s and tickets fro m

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m a n y c o n v en ien ce stores in b ig cities. C o n seq u en tly, air travel is b e c o m in g a c o m m o n m ean s o f tran sp o rtatio n . T ak in g subw ays is a v e ry co n v en ien t and efficien t w a y to travel in b ig cities. T h e ro ad traffic is so heavy, esp ecially d u rin g p e a k c o m m u tin g h o urs, th at it b eco m es im p o ssib le to travel b y a p rivate car or ta x i. F o r ex am p le, th ere are exten sive n etw o rk s o f tw elv e d ifferent su b w ay lin e s in th e T okyo m etro p o litan area for th e co n v en ien ce o f m illio n s o f co m m u ters c o m in g fro m th e sur­ ro u n d in g cities. T h ese lin es are c o lo r c o d ed for easy id en tificatio n , and each train stop has th e station n am e in b o th Japanese ch ar­ acters and ro m a ji (E nglish ch aracters). T h ere are m an y v e n d in g m ach in es for tic k e t p urchases (also c o lo r co ded) for th e co n ve­ n ie n c e o f passengers. T h e su b w ay lin e s also sell train passes for a ce rta in n u m b e r o f rid es. E lectric train s also serve short an d lo n g distances and are an o th er co n v en ien t and d ep en d ab le m ean s o f tran sp o rtatio n . Just lik e sub w ays, these trains are c o lo r co d ed acco rd in g to th e typ es o f service. T h e train services are c a te g o riz ed in to superexpress (tok k yu ) , sem isu p er express (j u n k y u ) , express (k yuk o), and lo cal (k akuek i) .A serio us p ro b lem for fo reign ers w h o do n o t speak Jap an ­ ese is to k n o w w h ic h ty p e o f train to take. In som e cases, train s th at leave fro m th e sam e p la tfo rm do n o t stop at all th e sam e stations a lo n g th e w ay. It is alw ays w ise to read th e d estin atio n sign o r ask th e train staff o n d u ty w h ic h train to take. F o reign ers w h o get lost sh ould n o t ask a passerby for h elp, b u t go to th e In fo rm atio n D esk. Jap an ese p eo p le are g e n e ra lly v e ry shy and rath er co ld to strangers. A c au tio n m ust b e g iv e n to those fo reign ers w h o n eed to travel d u rin g m o rn in g and e v e n in g ru sh h o u rs in b ig cities. T h e c o m m u te r trains are tig h tly p acked . N o p r io rity is g iv en to w o m en o r sen io r citizen s d u rin g rush h o urs. Y o u n g w o m e n (esp ecially y o u n g C au casian w o m e n ) b itte rly co m p lain ab o ut th e “w a n d e rin g h an d s” o f som e w e ird Jap an ese m e n in co n gested train s. O n rain y days, w e t u m b rellas and w e t c lo th in g m ake it v e ry un p leasan t to rid e th e co n gested trains. S o m e tim e s, th e last c o m m u ter trains le a v in g th e c ity cen ters at m id n ig h t have d ru n ks w h o m isb eh ave and act fo o lish ly in p ub lic. T h e stereo typ ical im ag e o f Jap an ese b e in g p o lite and h u m b le does n o t ap p ly in these situations. In te rc ity buses have b e c o m e a p o p u lar m ean s o f tran s­ p o rtatio n for th e y o u n g and th e th rifty. T h ese buses travel d u rin g th e late n ig h t and e a rly m o rn in g h o u rs w h e n h ig h w a y traffic is n o t

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heavy. For ex am p le, an in te rc ity bus b e tw e e n T okyo and O saka leaves late at n ig h t and arrives in th e e a rly m o rn in g o f th e fo llo w ­ in g day. C ity buses pro vid e short trip s w ith m an y stops for lo cal residents and co m m u ters. T h e fare is p aid in advance o r at th e tim e o f e x it in to th e fare b o x. S o m etim es it is d ifficult to see h o w m u ch fare to p ay unless th e passen ger can read th e d estin atio n s w ritte n in k a n ji and is fam iliar w ith th e lo cality. O th e r buses are for sigh tseein g and e x cu rsio n trip s for g ro u p travel. T h ese buses are v e ry p o p u lar w ith schools and w ith business and c iv ic o rgan izatio n s b ecau se th e y are eq u ip p ed w ith k arao k e e q u ip m e n t and a sm all refrig erato r. Stu d en ts on school ex cu rsio n s and to urists on gro u p to urs rid e th ese buses to to u rist d estin atio n s and e n jo y them selves. A ll Jap an ese taxis have m eters stan dardized b y th e lo cal g o v ern m en t; fares are based o n k ilo m e te rs d riv en and tim e spent w a itin g in h e a v y traffic. O th e r ch arges ad d ed to th e m etered fares are h ig h w a y to ll ch arges and “m id n ig h t ex tra ch arg es” o f 30 p e r­ cen t for ta x i rid e s b e tw e e n 1 1 :0 0 p.m . and 5 :0 0 a .m . T h e taxis are o f tw o kind s: k o jin ta k u sh i (o p erated b y th e o w n e r-d riv e r) and k aish a ta k u sh i (co m p an y o w n e d and o p e ra te d ).T h e fo rm er is often c le a n e r and pro vides m o re co u rte o u s service, b ecause th e d riv er h im s e lf is th e o w n er. K a i s h a ta k u sh i drivers are h ired on fixed p ay plus co m m issio n , b u t th e y are w e ll-tra in e d and p ro vide th e p ro p er service re q u ire d b y th e co m p a n y th e y w o rk for. N o w ad ays th ere is a n e w ty p e o f ta x i c alled w a g o n s h a (station w a g o n taxi) for passen­ gers w h o have a lo t o f b ag gag e. O rd in a ry Jap an ese taxis do n o t have e n o u g h tr u n k space. A lm o st all taxis in Jap an use liq u id n a t­ u ral gas (propane) for fuel and have a h u g e gas storage ta n k in the tr u n k .T h e left b a c k d o o r o f all Jap an ese taxis is o p en ed and closed a u to m a tic a lly w ith a le v e r b y th e driver. A n o th e r fo rm o f a u to m o b ile tran sp o rtatio n is h a i y a (h ire), a larg er, clean er, d elu x e Jap an ese o r fo reig n car w ith a chauffeur. T h e fare for th is service is e ith e r a fixed fee for p o in t-to -p o in t ser­ v ic e o r is based o n tim e spent d riv in g and w a itin g . A lth o u g h h a i y a pro vides a m u c h m o re co m fo rtab le rid e and v e ry co u rteo u s ser­ v ic e , it is used o n ly b y top business ex ecu tiv es and h ig h -ra n k in g p o litician s b ecause it is far m o re exp en sive th an a ta x i rid e. B efo re u sin g a ta x i o r a ch au ffeu red car, it is w ise to fin d o u t in advance th e ap p ro xim ate fare to th e d estin atio n . For ex am p le, th e ta x i fare

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fro m T okyo In te rn atio n a l A irp o rt to d o w n to w n T okyo is ab o ut $ 2 0 0 , and th e h ire ch arge is m o re th an $ 4 0 0 . In tern atio n a l passen­ gers are advised to take e ith e r a lim o u sin e bus o r airp o rt express train s w h o se fare is ab o ut $ 3 0 or $ 4 0 . To avoid p a y in g to o m u ch for g ro u n d tran sp o rtatio n , it is w ise to c h e c k th e in -flig h t m ag a­ z in e for a irp o rt-c ity transfer fares, sch ed u les, and travel tim e. It is also advisable to c a rry a b ilin g u a l m ap o f th e area w ith th e d esti­ n atio n s w r itte n in Japanese and to have th e b u ild in g n am e and o th er lan d m ark s in ad d itio n to th e address. M o st Japanese ta x i d ri­ vers do n o t u n d erstan d E n glish , and th e y w ill b e frustrated and m ay b e c o m e d isco u rteo u s i f th e y can n o t u n d erstan d th e in stru ctio n s. D riv in g a p rivate car in Japan is n o t o n ly exp en sive b ut also req u ires c o p in g w ith o th er in co n v en ien ces. B efo re ru n n in g o u t to b u y a car in Japan, it is im p o rtan t to co n sid er m an y factors such as d riv in g co n d itio n s, in su ran ce, p ark in g , and traffic re g u la ­ tio ns. A b o o k le t, R u l e s o f t h e R o a d , p u b lish ed b y th e Jap an A u to ­ m o b ile A sso ciatio n w ill answ er m an y questions. First o f all, a fo reign d riv e r’s lic e n se is n o t v alid for d riv in g in Jap an . A p p licatio n for a Jap an ese licen se is m ad e at th e lic e n se office nearest to o n e ’s resid e n c e .T h e m in im u m age for o b ta in in g th e licen se is eig h te e n . It is re la tiv e ly easy to o b tain i f th e ap p lican t has a v alid fo reig n d riv e r’s licen se. I f n o t, h e o r she is re q u ire d to take tw o w ritte n tests in E nglish and tw o d riv in g tests. Jap an ese p eo p le u su ally atten d d ri­ v e r-tra in in g schools to p rep are for these tests. A n A m e ric a n -m a d e car w ith its ste e rin g w h e e l o n th e left side is in co n v en ien t and even d an gero u s to use in Ja p a n b ecause th e Jap an ese d rive o n th e left side o f th e ro a d .A ll Jap an ese cars are m ad e for th e Jap an ese m ark et and have th e ste e rin g w h e e l o n th e rig h t-h a n d side o f th e car. P a rk in g is alw ays a p ro b lem in Jap an b ecau se p ark in g spaces are n o t o n ly v e ry sm all b u t also exp en sive to ren t. T h e Jap an ese la w req u ires th at a car b u y e r sh o w w ritte n p ro o f certified b y th e lo c a l p o lic e th at h e o r she has an off-street p a rk in g space. C o n d o m in iu m ap artm en ts do n o t u su ally pro vide free p ark in g spaces even for residen ts; th e y g e n e ra lly p ay $ 3 0 0 -$ 5 0 0 a m o n th for a p a rk in g space. C ity streets are e x tre m e ly n a rro w w ith n o sidew alks, and th e m ain streets are cro w d ed w ith m a n y m in itru c k s, m o to rcycles, scoo ters, b ic y c le s, and p ed estrian s. T oday Jap an uses in te rn a tio n al traffic signs, b u t th ere are few E nglish signs, and street addresses are to o sm all to see. P en alties for traffic v io latio n s and d ru n k en d riv in g

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are v e ry severe: p u n ish m en t in c lu d e s im p riso n m en t, stiff fines, or suspension o f o n e ’s d riv e r’s licen se.

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Ja p a n is th e m ost d ev elo p ed c o u n try in A sia, and b ig cities lik e T okyo, Y o ko h am a, K yoto, N ag o y a, O saka, and K obe have m an y e x c e lle n t W e ste rn -sty le h o tels, c o n d o m in iu m ap artm en ts, and h o uses suitable for W estern ers. T h ere is a w id e ran g e o f h otels: d elu x e W e ste rn -sty le h o tels, business h o tels, m o tels, and Jap an ese in n s (ryo k a n ). A ll o f these h o tels are re q u ired to m ain ta in certain standards o f p h ysical facilities and services d esign ated b y the Jap an ese g o v e rn m e n t.W e ste rn -sty le c o n d o m in iu m ap artm en ts and h o uses are also available in th e c ity and in th e suburbs. H o w ever, these acco m m o d atio n s are v e ry ex p en sive b ecau se real estate p rices in Jap an are p ro h ib itiv e ly h ig h , esp e c ially in cen tral u rb an areas. G ood h o tels in Jap an co m pare favorably w ith first-class h o tels in th e U n ite d States and E u ro p e.T h ese h o tels have spacious, clean room s and p ro vid e guests w ith m an y am en ities such as E n g lish -lan g u ag e T V ch an n els, E n glish n ew sp ap ers, te a and coffee, a m in ib ar, b ath ro b es, to ile trie s, and slippers. M a n y o f th e d elu x e h o tels have a h ealth spa, b e a u ty salon, ten n is co urts, sw im m in g p o o l, and even a business cen ter, b u t ro o m rates are v e ry h ig h , and guests have to p ay ex tra for e v e ry service. M eals at h o tel restaurants are v e ry exp en sive, and a 10 p ercen t c o n su m p tio n ta x and 10 p e r­ cen t serv ice ch arge are ad d ed to th e b ills au to m atically. T h ere are W e ste rn -sty le business h o tels w h o se rates are reaso nable, b u t room s are v e ry sm all, and o n ly m in im u m services are available. For ta ll and b ig W estern ers, th e room s m ay b e too sm all and th e b eds to o short and narrow . T h e business h o tels u su ­ a lly have co ffee-sh o p ty p e restaurants and sn ack bars fo r sim ple m eals and d rin k s as w e ll as v e n d in g m ach in es th at dispense co ld can n ed b eer, soft d rin k s, snacks, and to ile try item s. M o te ls in Jap an are n o t th e sam e as those fo u n d in the U n ite d States and E urope. R a th e r, th e y are “love h o te ls” w h ere co up les can spend a fe w h o u rs to g e th e r o r have an o v ern ig h t stay. T h e y are u su a lly n ear th e h ig h w a y ex its and b u sy c ity districts w ith

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n ig h tc lu b s and hostess bars and are n o t suitable for m o to rists w h o w an t re g u la r acco m m o d atio n s. Jap an ese in n s are q u ite d ifferent fro m W estern -style ho tels in acco m m o d atio n s and m e a l se rv ic e .T h e room s do n o t have beds. In stead , futons o r larg e Jap an ese cush io n s are p laced o n th e floor for sleep in g. Futo n s are stored in th e ro o m ’s closet and are taken o u t at b e d tim e and p u t b a c k in th e m o rn in g b y th e ro o m m aid . D in n ers are u su ally served in th e ro o m , alth o u g h som e Jap an ese in n s serve all m eals in a larg e d in in g ro o m . A lth o u g h guests can e n jo y co u rte o u s Ja p a n e se -sty le service in such in n s, th ere are a few disadvantages and in co n v en ien ces. O n e th in g th at u su ally b o th ers W estern ers is th at th ere is little privacy. It is lik e liv in g in a sm all h o use w ith a b u tle r and a m aid w h o tr y to atten d to y o u r ev ery n eed . A n o th e r th in g is th e use o f a larg e c o m m u n ity b ath o r o b u ro , w h ic h is u sed b y all th e guests. A lth o u g h th ere are separate baths for m e n and w o m e n , m a n y W estern ers h esitate g o in g n aked am o n g th e c u rio u s Jap an ese guests. S o m e d elu x e room s have a sm all b ath in th e ro o m , b u t th e m a jo r attractio n o fJap an e se inns is th e larg e c o m m u n ity b ath in w h ic h th e guests can le isu re ly take a lo n g bath. M o st o f these Jap an ese in n s are in h o t sp rin g resorts w h e re th ey can use ab un d an t h o t sp rin g w a te r c o n ta in in g m e d ic in a l m in erals. B efo re g e ttin g in to th e b ig b ath , th e b ath ers m ust w ash th em selves clean in th e w a sh in g area, e q u ip p e d w ith sh ow erh eads; th e y also take a sh ow er ag ain after h a v in g soaked th em selves for a w h ile . N u d ity in this situ atio n is co n sid ered c o m p le te ly n o rm al in Jap an . Jap an ese in n s ch arg e th e ir guests o n a p er p erso n , n o t a p er ro o m basis; th e p ric e in c lu d e s d in n e r and breakfast. I f th e ch arge for o n e n ig h t is, say, $ 3 0 0 , th e ch arge for fo ur p eo p le w o u ld be $ 1 ,2 0 0 even i f th e y o c c u p y th e sam e ro o m . M eals are Jap an esestyle w ith ra w fish, g rille d fish, co o k ed m eats and v eg etab les, p ic k ­ les, seaw eed , to fu (ferm en ted so yb ean curd ), ric e , and m iso soup. S o m e o f these fo o d item s m ay n o t lo o k p alatab le to W estern ers, b u t th e y are q u ite tasty o n ce o n e gets u sed to e atin g th em . W e ste rn -sty le h o uses and c o n d o m in iu m ap artm en ts ( m a n s h o n ) are available fo r ren t, b u t th e y are sm aller and cost a lo t m o re th an those in th e W e st.T h e se are for g a i j i n o n ly ; o rd in ary Jap an ese fam ilies c an n o t afford to liv e in th em . For ex am p le, a c o n d o m in i­ u m o r a h o use ad eq u a te for a fa m ily o f fo ur in a cen tral lo catio n in T okyo w o u ld cost $ 1 5 ,0 0 0 to $ 3 0 ,0 0 0 a m o n th . In ad d itio n , te n ­ ants n e e d to p ay an in itia l lu m p -s u m p aym en t th at in clu d es an

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ad vance p aym en t o f ren t o f th ree m o n th s, sh ik ik in (n o n -in terest­ b e a rin g deposit) o f th ree m o n th s’ ren t, reik in (m o n eta ry gift) to the lan d lo rd o f th ree m o n th s’ ren t, and a real estate ag en t fee eq u iv a­ le n t to o n e m o n th ’s re n t.A ll o f these p aym en ts add up to a to tal o f ten m o n th s’ ren t i f th e a g e n t’s fee is in c lu d e d . T h e dep o sit is u su al­ ly refun d ed at th e en d o f th e ren tal co n tract m in us fees for dam ages, b u t som e lan dlo rds do n o t m ake an y refun d unless th e prem ises are “lik e n e w ” w h e n vacated . M a in ta in in g a larg e W estern -style c o n d o m in iu m o r a h o use w ith a ir-c o n d itio n in g an d h e a tin g un its w o u ld b e v e ry exp en sive b ecau se u tility ch arges are q u ite h ig h and all th e u tilitie s in c lu d in g w a te r are p aid b y th e tenants. To solve this d ifficult h o u sin g p ro b lem , m ost fo reig n businesses and o th er o rg a­ n izatio n s u su a lly pro vid e h o u sin g for ex p a triate staff and th e ir fam ­ ilies in Jap an . T h e y e ith e r b u y h o u sin g u n its o r have lo n g -te rm leases w ith th e lan d lo rd s and sublet th e m to th e ir staff m em b ers. Jap an ese co m p an ies h ir in g em p lo yees fro m fo reig n c o u n tries u su ­ a lly p ro vid e subsidized h o u sin g b ecau se it is alm ost im p o ssib le fo r th e fo reig n staff to ren t an ap artm en t o r h o use o n th e ir o w n . C o lle g e students liv in g in Ja p a n u su ally stay at a studen t d o rm ito ry o r g e s h u k u (ro o m in g h o use for students). A g e s h u k u is o ften o p erated as a fa m ily business, and th e p ro p rieto r provides a sm all ro o m w ith a desk, m eals, and so m etim es la u n d ry service. T oilet fac ilitie s are u su a lly shared. M a n y fo reig n students are e n c o u rag e d to cho o se h o m estay w ith Jap an ese fam ilies, b u t th ey sh ould n o t ex p e c t to e n jo y p riv a c y and p erso n al freed o m . N ative speakers o f E nglish can tea ch E n glish to th e ch ild ren o f host fam ­ ilies and earn som e in co m e. In all cases o f h o u sin g o r ro o m ren tal, it is n ecessary to have a rep u tab le Jap an ese in d iv id u a l o r em p lo yer v o u c h in w r itin g for tim e ly p aym en t o f ren t and take fu ll resp o n ­ sib ility fo r an y d am ages or co m plain ts. It is also im p o rtan t to k n o w in advan ce th at Jap an ese h o m e ap p lian ces such as w a te r h eaters, refrig erato rs, and bath tub s are m u c h sm aller th an those fo u n d in W estern h o m es. F u rn itu re can also b e sm aller unless it is im p o rte d fro m W estern co u n tries. A m e ric a n s used to h a v in g larg e h o m e ap p lian ces and fu rn itu re m ay have d iffic u lty in m a k in g ad ju stm en ts. T h e y w ill fin d th e re g ­ u la r Jap an ese re frig e rato r v e ry in c o n v e n ie n t as it is ju s t to o sm all fo r all th e fo o d and b everages th at th e y w an t to store. A n d b ecause e le c tric c u rre n t in Ja p a n is 6 0 cycles and 100 volts, ap p lian ces m ade in o th er c o u n trie s w ill n e e d transform ers.

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Shopping and Dining S h o p p in g and d in in g in Jap an can b e a lo t o f fun , alth o u gh things are g e ttin g expensive b ecause th e Jap an ese y e n has g ain ed value against o th er w o rld cu rren cies in recen t years. T h ere are m an y large d ep artm en t stores, d isco un t stores, sup erm arkets, and sp ecialty shops w h e re shoppers can b u y a w id e v a rie ty o f Jap an ese-m ad e products as w e ll as im p o rte d lu x u r y m erch an d ise from all over the w o rld . D e p artm en t stores in b ig cities are a d elig h tfu l p lace to go sh o p p in g b ecause th e y offer n o t o n ly a h u g e v a rie ty o f m e r­ ch an d ise b u t also have m a n y restaurants, coffee shops, and special ex h ib itio n s to d e lig h t shoppers. T h ese d ep artm en t stores c a rry b ra n d -n a m e m erch an d ise o f all k in d s and u su ally in c lu d e a cos­ m etics sales floor, je w e lr y d ep artm en t, and to y d ep artm en t; in ad d i­ tio n , th e y also in c lu d e sp ecialty stores and su p erm ark et sections w ith fresh fruits, v eg etab les, fish, m eats, and cakes and p astries; u su ­ a lly th ere is a sm all am u sem en t p a rk o n th e to p floor. Sh o p p ers can lite ra lly spend h o u rs at such d ep artm en t stores. U n lik e in o th er A sian c o u n trie s, b a rg a in in g is n o t p rac tic e d in these stores alth o u gh it m ay b e d o n e in sm all stores o n th e streets. In ad d itio n to d ep art­ m en t stores, th ere are d isco un t stores for electro n ics, cam eras, and v id e o reco rd ers. B a rg a in h u n tin g can b e fun i f th e shoppers k n o w w h a t th e y are b u y in g . S u p erm ark ets have all sorts o f food item s th at are n e a tly arran g ed . B ecau se m eat, fresh fish, and fruits o f go o d q u a lity are v e ry exp en sive, these item s are sold b y 100 gram s (3.5 o u n ces), n o t b y p o un d s o r kilo gram s. N e ig h b o rh o o d sp ecialty shops are g o o d places to b u y th in gs b ecause th e y pro vide p erso n ­ alized service to re g u la r custo m ers in c lu d in g free d e liv e ry service. D in in g in Ja p a n is v e r y en jo yab le. T h e vast n u m b er o f restaurants offers a larg e v a rie ty o f c u lin a ry e x p erien ces. T h ere are tens o f th o usan d s o f restaurants in th e b ig cities th at serve e v e ry ­ th in g fro m au th e n tic F ren ch cu isin e to Jap an ese d elicacies. Inva­ sions o f A m e ric a n fast-fo od ch ain s lik e M c D o n a ld ’s, K en tu ck y F ried C h ic k e n , D o m in o ’s P izza, S iz z ler S teakh o u se, R e d Lobster, and D u n k in ’ D o nuts gives an ap p earan ce th at th e Jap an ese have ad o p ted all o f these A m e ric a n foods, b u t th e y also eat m an y differ­ en t k in d s o f foods in c lu d in g So u th east A sian , M id d le E astern, E uro p ean , R u ssia n , and P o lyn esian . F o reign residen ts sh ou ld le arn to e n jo y v a rie tie s o f u n iq u e Jap an ese cu isin e in ad d itio n to those

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w e ll-k n o w n and alread y p o p u lar Jap an ese dishes in m an y parts o f th e w o rld . T ypes o f restaurants ran g e fro m those serv in g to p -class Jap an ese cu isin e to in fo rm a l sushi bars and b o istero us n e ig h b o r­ h o o d e a tin g and d rin k in g places. A ll o f these restaurants are lic e n se d b y th e lo c a l g o v ern m en t and fo llo w its strict h ealth and h y g ie n ic standards. It is q u ite safe to eat and d rin k at these estab ­ lish m en ts. S u c h dishes as te m p u r a , y a k ito ri, su k iy a k i, s h a b u s h a b u , and t e p p a n y a k i are ap p reciated b y alm ost everyo n e, b u t for o th er Jap an ese d elica cies, th e taste m ay n e e d to b e acq u ired b y tr y in g th e m a few tim es. S a s h i m i is fresh ra w fish filleted in to sm all slices and attractiv ely arran g ed o n a dish w ith sh redded d a ik o n (Japan­ ese rad ish ), a b it o f sliced cu cu m b er, carrots, and seaw eed. T h ere are m a n y typ es o f s a s h i m i , b u t th e m ost p o p u lar ones are slices o f y e llo w -fin tu n a (m a g u r o ), b o n ito (k atsuo), salm on (shak e), flo u n d er (h ira m e), sea b re am ( t a i ) , scallops (k aibashira), o cto p us (tako), and c u t­ tlefish (ika). S o m e o th er u n iq u e ra w seafood dishes are i k e z u k u r i (a w h o le liv e fish sliced u p ), o d o r i (“ju m p in g ” sh rim ps), and sea u rch in ( u n i ) . T h ese dishes m a y sound u n a p p e tiz in g and even c ru e l to W estern ers, b u t th e y are real d elica cies for th e Jap an ese. O th er, m o re -e x o tic dishes are b ro ile d eels ( u n a g i ) served w it h a sw eet, d e lic io u s soy sauce, and puffer fish ( fu g u ) served as s a s h i m i o r in a tasty b ro th w ith vegetables. E atin g this puffer fish m ay require som e co urage, because it has a poisonous liv er and ovaries. C hefs p repar­ in g it m ust b e train ed and licen sed b y the lo cal chefs’ association to elim in ate an y ch an ce o f p o iso n in g b y im p ro p er preparation. T h e ex isten ce o f all these “w e ird Jap an ese fo o ds” does n o t m e a n th at th e fo reig n resid en ts m ust force th em selves to eat th em . T h ere are m a n y o th er palatab le dishes to ch o o se fro m am o n g o th er Jap an ese foods. For cu sto m ers’ co n v en ien ce, m ost restaurants e ith er offer m en u s w it h c o lo r p ictu res o f p o p u lar dishes o r sh ow q u ite realistic plastic m o d els o f item s in th e sh ow w in d o w s. For those w h o do n o t w a n t to c o o k b u t have m eals at h o m e, n eig h b o rh o o d restaurants p ro vid e d e m a e (d e liv e ry service). In fact, custo m ers can ord er a w id e v a rie ty o f dishes co o ked fresh fro m a n earb y restaurant and have th e m d eliv ered to th e ir h o m es w ith in tw e n ty o r th irty m in u tes. Jap an ese h o u sew ives keep a list o f restaurants th at pro vide this serv ice so th at th e y can o rd er g o o d dishes for u n ex p ected guests o n short n o tic e . T h is is sim ilar to th e d e liv e ry service o f D o m in o ’s P izza restaurants fo u n d in m a n y c o u n tries ex cep t th at

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these Jap an ese restaurants can d eliv er a co m p lete lu n c h o r d in n er for a p a rty o f several peo p le.

Socializing with Japanese Friends and Neighbors T h e Jap an ese are g e n e ra lly n o t v e ry so ciab le w ith fo reign ers. E ven to d ay th e m a jo rity o f Jap an ese have n o t h ad th e e x p e rie n c e o f m e e tin g and ta lk in g w ith p eo p le fro m o th er co u n tries. T h e y are relu ctan t to strike up a co n versatio n w ith strangers unless th e y are p ro p e rly in tro d u c e d b y m u tu a l frien d s or acq u ain tan ces. T h e g en ­ eral attitu d e to w ard fo reign ers is am b ivalen t and even n egativ e at tim es. A ll fo reign ers are c a te g o riz e d as g a i j i n , and all C au casian s are called h a k u ji n (w h ite p eo p le) regardless o f n atio n ality. K oreans and C h in e se are called d a i s a n g o k u j i n (th ird -c o u n try p eo p le). Jap an ese m ake a clear d istin ctio n in asso ciatin g w ith these d ifferent k in d s o f o utsid ers. T h e y g e n e ra lly treat h a k u ji n (esp ecially A m e ric a n s and B ritish ) b e tte r th an o th er races. Im m ig ran t w o rk ­ ers fro m Iran , C h in a , th e P h ilip p in es, M a la ysia, and S o u th A m e ri­ can c o u n trie s are lo o k e d d o w n u p o n b ecause th e y are h ired to do m e n ia l jo b s th at Jap an ese w o rk ers are u n w illin g to do. T h e ir jo b s are c alled “ 3 -K jo b s ” — k ik en (d an gero us), k ita n a i (d irty), and k itsui (strenuous). T h ese im m ig ra n ts are o ften d iscrim in ated against b o th at w o rk and in social situatio n s. T h e y m a y have d ifficu lty in re n t­ in g an ap artm en t o r m a y b e treated u n fa irly at stores and lo c al g o v ­ e rn m e n t offices. E ven in this rath e r un p leasan t social clim ate, it w o u ld b e w ise fo r all fo reig n residen ts in Ja p a n to tr y to so cialize w ith Jap an ese n eig h b o rs and m ake n e w frien ds. H o w ever, th e y m ust le a rn Jap an ese social custom s an d p ro p er p ro to co l b efo re ju m p in g in to estab lish in g in te rp e rso n al co n tact w ith th em . F o reig n ers n eed to le a rn d ifferent fo rm s o f g re e tin g , so cial m an n ers, and g ift-g iv in g custom s. Jap an ese is a h ig h ly sta tu s-o rie n ted lan g u ag e , and it has several d ifferent le v e l o f p o liteness. L o w er-statu s p eo p le speak p o lite ly to h ig h er-statu s p eo p le. W o m e n are e x p ected to use m o re p o lite fo rm s o f sp eech th an m e n .A sim p le g re e tin g such as “ G ood

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m o rn in g ” can b e said in at least th ree d ifferent w ays — O h a y o g o z a i m a s u , O hayO , and O h a y o — an d ch o o sin g a w ro n g fo rm o f g re e tin g can b e c o m e a cause o f em b arrassm en t. W h e n g re e tin g th e la n d ­ lo rd , it is p ro p er to say O h ayO g o z a i m a s u ; to a frien d , O h ayO ; and O h a y o to a d e liv e ry m an . E ven th o u g h a m in o r m istake m ad e b y fo reign ers is u su a lly to le rate d , it is b e tte r to k n o w h o w to say sim ­ p le g reetin g s properly. A m e ric a n s liv in g in Ja p a n are often su rp rised th at the Jap an ese n ever sm ile at th e m even w h e n th e y h ap p en to catch each o th e r’s eyes in an elev ato r or o n th e street. In th e U n ite d States it is q u ite c o m m o n to sm ile o r even say “h e llo ” ju s t to b e frien dly, b u t in Jap an p eo p le ig n o re th e presen ce o f strangers. F ro m early c h ild h o o d Jap an ese c h ild re n are ta u gh t n o t to ta lk to strangers, and m a n y o f th e m ten d to have ta ijin k y o fu s h o o r “p h o b ia o f in te rp e r­ sonal relatio n s.” 1 It m ay seem th at th e Jap an ese are un so ciab le and u n frien d ly, b u t th e y can tu rn in to so ciab le and frie n d ly in d iv id u als i f th e y m e e t n e w frien d s th ro u g h a p ro p er in tro d u ctio n and in p ro p er social co n tex t. For e x am p le, th e Jap an ese residents o f a h ig h -class c o n d o m in iu m c o m p le x w ill w e lc o m e a n e w A m e ric a n fa m ily i f th e resid en t m a n a g e r p ro p e rly in tro d u ces th em . O r an A m e ric a n w o m an can m e e t and m ake frien ds w ith Jap an ese w o m e n in th e sam e c o o k in g class offered b y th e W estern food sales sectio n o f a d ep artm en t sto re.T h e Jap an ese n eed to k n o w w h o and w h a t n e w c o m e rs are b efo re th e y b e c o m e frie n d ly and sociable. T h is is w h y th e Jap an ese ask th e k in d s o f p erso n al questio n s th at W estern ers m ay co n sid er an in vasio n o f p erso n al p riv acy: “H o w o ld are y o u ? ” “W h e re w ere y o u b o rn ? ” “W h a t u n iv ersity did y o u o r y o u r h usb and (w ife) g rad u ate fro m ?” “H o w m u ch m o n e y does y o u r h usb and m a k e ?” “H o w m u c h d id y o u p ay for y o u r n ic e h an d ­ b a g ?” “W h e re are y o u g o in g to d a y ?” T h e Jap an ese do n o t n eces­ sarily ex p e c t tru th fu l answ ers to all such questio n s so W estern ers can be evasive. For ex am p le, W estern ers w h o do n o t w an t to an sw er a q u estio n ab o ut th e ir age c o u ld reply, “ I’m n o t to o yo u n g , b u t o ld e n o u g h to have a te n -y e a r o ld d au gh ter.” To th e q u estio n o n salary th e y c o u ld say,“ I w ish h e m ad e a lo t m o re. Jap an is a v e ry expen sive c o u n try to liv e in .” T h e an n o y in g “W h e re are y o u g o in g to d a y ?” can b e a n sw e re d ,“ O h ,ju s t d o w n th e street.’’ A m b ig u ity and w h ite lies are accep tab le fo rm s o f d en ial in Jap an . T h e y should n ever flatly refuse to an sw er o r sh o w an n o yan ce n o n v erb ally no m atter h o w m e d d leso m e th e questio n s m ay sound.

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T h e Jap an ese are also q u ic k to give co m p lim en ts o n a fo r­ e ig n e r’s Ja p a n e se -la n g u a g e a b ility and w h a t h e o r she is w e a rin g . T h e co m p lim en ts, c alled o s e i ji o r “ social co m p lim en ts,” are a fo rm o f ritu a listic c o m m u n ic a tio n .T h e Jap an ese c o m p lim en t each o th er frequen tly, b u t th e y do n o t re a lly m ean w h a t th e y are sayin g. For e x am p le, alm ost all Jap an ese say to a fo re ig n er w h o speaks a little b ro k en Jap an ese, “Y ou sp eak g o o d Jap an ese.” T h e fo reig n er m ig h t b e te m p te d to say, “ O h , th a n k y o u . I have w o rk ed h ard o n m y Jap an ese.” T h is in n o c e n t an sw er is a v io la tio n o f so cial e tiq u ette b ecause it does n o t sh o w h u m ility . T h e fo reig n er sh o u ld say, “ O h , b u t m y Jap an ese is still v e ry po o r.” A W estern w o m an should an sw er a c o m p lim e n t o n h e r n e w dress such as “W h a t a b eau tifu l dress y o u are w e a rin g ! It m ust have b e e n v e ry ex p en siv e” w ith a response lik e , “ O h , d o n ’t m e n tio n it. It w asn ’t expen sive.” She sh ould n ever say,“ O h, th a n k y o u .Y o u th in k it lo o k s g o o d o n m e? It cost m e a b u n d le !” A m o n g th e o th er im p o rtan t so cial m an n ers are th e fo l­ lo w in g : 1. D o n o t call lo u d ly an d w ave to p eo p le w a lk in g at a distan ce. 2. D o n o t call a p erso n o f h ig h e r status b y his o r h e r first nam e. 3. D o n o t act to o frien d ly, and refrain fro m slap p in g or to u c h in g o th ers o n th e b ack. 4. D o n o t shake hands in d is c rim in a te ly ; b o w in stead w h e n it is m o re ap p ro p riate to do so. 5. D o n o t m a in ta in d irect eye co n tact for a lo n g tim e d u rin g co n versation . 6. D o n o t ta lk lo u d ly in a crow d. 7. D o n o t cross y o u r legs w h e n ta lk in g to a sup erio r. 8. D o n o t p u t y o u r feet up o n a d esk o r an o th er p iece o f fu rn itu re and sh o w th e soles o f y o u r shoes.

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9. D o n o t w e a r shoes in to a Jap an ese house. 10. D o n o t b lo w y o u r nose w ith a h a n d k e rc h ie f and th en p u t it b a c k in to y o u r p o ck et; use facial tissue in stead. 11. D o n o t p o in t a fin g e r at an o th er person . 12. D o n o t h u g o r kiss Jap an ese frien d s in p u b lic even for frie n d ly g reetin g s. 13. D o n o t kiss b ab ies o r to u c h y o u n g ch ild ren to sh ow affection.

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14. D o n o t dress to o casu ally and w ear lo u d -c o lo re d shirts o r dresses u n b e c o m in g to y o u r age or social status. 15. D o n o t eat w h e n w a lk in g aro un d. 16. D o n o t sm ile and g reet p erfect strangers w ith a casual “H e llo " U n d e rsta n d in g th e u n iq u e cu sto m o f gift g iv in g is v e ry im p o rtan t in so cia liz in g w ith th e Jap an ese. T h ere are tw o m ajo r g ift-g iv in g occasio ns in Jap an : O c h u g e n (m id su m m er gifts) are e x ch a n g e d aro u n d th e m id su m m e r B u d d h ist festival o f O b o n in J u ly ; O s e i b o (y e a r-e n d gifts) are g iv e n at th e en d o f D ecem b er. B usinesses give gifts to th e ir c lie n t co m p an ies o r in d iv id u als to th a n k th e m for th e ir p atro n age. R e la tiv e s , frien d s, and n eig h b o rs also ex ch an g e gifts o n these tw o o ccasions. L arge d ep artm en t stores offer a h u g e v a rie ty o f g ift item s d u rin g these g ift-g iv in g seasons and p ro vid e g ift-w ra p p in g and d e liv e ry service. T h e gifts are n o t u su a lly g iv en in p erso n , b u t sent v ia ta k k y u b in o r “h o m e d eliv ery service.” T h is is in d e e d a co n v en ien t serv ice, b ecause th e givers do n o t have to c a rry aro u n d th e ir gifts and p erso n ally d eliv er th e m to each o f th e receivers. It also pro vides secrecy w h e n g iv in g a gift to so m eo n e w o rk in g for a com pany, g o v ern m en t office, o r e d u c a ­ tio n a l in stitu tio n . For e x am p le, a salesm an can go to a d ep artm en t store an d p ic k an expen sive gift, th e n have it sent to th e h o m e o f th e p u rch asin g m a n a g e r o f his c lie n t c o m p an y v ia ta k k y u b in , and o th ers in th e co m p a n y w ill n o t k n o w ab o ut this gift.

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In ad d itio n , gifts are g iv e n on o th er occasio ns such as b irth d ays, m a tric u la tio n s, g rad u atio n s, w ed d in g s, and th e lik e. C o n d o le n c e gifts (m o n e y o r flow ers o r b o th ) are g iv en for fu n er­ als, and sym p ath y gifts for illness, h o sp italizatio n , fire, and o th er dis­ asters. V is itin g a relative or frie n d also req u ires a sm all gift called t e m i y a g e , w h ic h is a b asket o f fru it, a b o x o f co o k ies, a can o f g reen tea, o r a b o ttle o f sake o r w h iskey. It is a social in fractio n n o t to b r in g alo n g a gift even w h e n g o in g o n ly for tea o r lu n ch . A n e w fa m ily m o v in g in to a n e ig h b o rh o o d sh o u ld call on th e n eig h b o rs w ith a sm all gift and in tro d u ce th em selves and ask for assistance in p e rs o n .W h e n d o in g th is, it is g o o d to ask th e la n d ­ lo rd or th e resid en t m a n a g e r to co m e a lo n g b ecau se h e or she can give a p ro p er in tro d u c tio n to th e n eig h b o rs. T h ere are a few im p o rtan t social custom s to re m e m b e r in this social co n tex t: (1) A gift o u g h t to be w rap p e d n e a tly w ith p ro p er p ap er and p resen ted w ith b o th hands. (2) T h e gift is n o t u su a lly o p en ed in front o f the g iv e r.2 I f it is a food ite m , it is n o t eaten th en and th ere. (3) O k a e s h i o r “re tu rn gifts” are o ften g iv e n w h e n th e v isito r is leav in g . I f the receiv er does n o t have a n y th in g to re tu rn , a p ro p er g ift sh ou ld be o rd ered and d eliv ered fro m a rep u tab le d ep artm en t store w ith in a fe w days. Id e ally it is at least slig h tly g re a ter in v alu e and q u a lity th an th e gift receiv ed . Jap an ese p eo p le alw ays give gifts w h e n th e y are askin g for a favor, and th e y give an o th er g ift w h e n th e favor is d o n e. I f it is n ecessary to refuse d o in g a favor, th e receiv er o f th e gift can re c i­ p ro cate it w ith a d ifferent gift o f eq u al valu e. It is e x tre m e ly im p o ­ lite to flatly refuse to accep t a gift o r to re tu rn th e sam e gift, even i f th e gift w as g iv e n w ith an u lte rio r m o tive.

Education for Foreign Residents U n lik e E n g lish -sp e a k in g c o u n trie s such as th e U n ite d States, B rita in , C an ad a, and A u stralia, Ja p a n does n o t have a lo n g h isto ry o f e d u c a tin g fo reig n ers in its schools. O n ly a sm all n u m b e r o f fo r­ e ig n students cam e to stu d y in Jap an b efo re th e 1970s, w h e n it e m e rg e d as an e c o n o m ic su p erp o w er in A sia. B esid es th e d ifficu l­ ty o f m a ste rin g th e la n g u a g e , Jap an ese so ciety has n ever b e e n o p en

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to fo reign ers. U n til recen tly, fo reig n students have h ad n o ch o ice b u t to atten d A m e ric a n o r C an ad ian in te rn a tio n a l schools th at are n o t accred ited b y th e Jap an ese M in is try o f E d u catio n . Today, b ecause o f th e in flu x o f fo reig n b usin essp eo p le, d ip lo m ats, and w o rk ers, m a n y in te rn a tio n a l schools and som e Jap an ese schools have o p en ed th e ir d oors to fo reig n residen ts. T h ere are ab o ut tw e n ty -fiv e schools th at offer ed u c atio n al p ro gram s in E nglish fro m n u rse ry to se co n d ary lev el. O f these, th irte e n are in th e T okyo and Y o ko h am a area; th e o th ers are in Sapporo, S en d ai, N ag o ya, K yoto, N ara, O saka, K obe, H iro sh im a , F u k u o k a, and O k in aw a. In ad d itio n , th ere are F ren ch , G erm an , In d o n esian , C h in ese, and K orean schools in T okyo, and G erm an and N o rw e g ia n schools in K obe. A t th e u n iv e rsity lev el, th ere are m an y co lleg es th at offer “in te rn a tio n a l p ro gram s” w ith in stru c tio n in E nglish. A t th e trad e scho o l le v e l, th ere are Jap an ese la n g u a g e schools; m artial art schools te a c h in g subjects such as ju d o , ken d o , and aik id o ; and cu ltu ral schools te a c h in g subjects such as ik eb an a, tea c e rem o n y (sad o ) , and tra d itio n a l d a n c in g and m usic. T h e fo llo w in g in fo rm atio n w ill be h elp fu l in u n d e rsta n d in g h o w these schools, u n iv ersities, and o th er ed u c a tio n a l in stitu tio n s are o p erated . M a n y o f th e in te rn a tio n a l schools in Ja p a n are fo rm er m issio n schools established in th e late n in e te e n th c e n tu ry for the p u rp o se o f sp read in g C h ris tia n ity am o n g th e y o u n g Jap an ese, b u t to d ay these schools are secu lariz ed and accep t n o n -C h ris tia n stu­ dents. O th e r in te rn a tio n a l schools have b e e n estab lish ed b y e d u ­ catio n a l fo u n d atio n s in affiliatio n w ith A m e ric a n , B ritish , o r C a n a ­ d ian ed u c atio n al in stitu tio n s for th e express p u rp o se o f p ro v id in g e d u c a tio n for fo reig n resid en ts in Jap an . S o m e o f th e m ost fam ous C a th o lic schools are S ain t M a r y In tern atio n al S ch o o l and St. Jo sep h In tern atio n a l Sch o o l in Y o ko h am a, and In tern atio n al Sch o o l o f th e Sacred H e a rt, S eisin In te rn atio n a l S ch o o l, and S ain t M a u r In te rn atio n a l S c h o o l in Tokyo. O th e r fam ous n o n sectarian schools are th e A m e ric a n S ch o o l in Ja p a n , th e B ritish Sch o o l in T okyo, the C a n a d ia n A c a d e m y in K obe, and th e Y o ko h am a In tern atio n al Sch o o l. T h ese schools p ro vid e b ilin g u a l and m u ltic u ltu ra l e d u c a ­ tio n fro m p resch o o l lev el to sixth g rad e, n in th g rad e o r tw elfth g rad e, w ith in stru c tio n g iv en m a in ly in E n g lish .3 A dm issio n to these schools is v e ry co m p e titiv e ; th ere are o n ly a lim ite d n u m b er o f vacan cies, and b o th fo reig n students and Jap an ese retu rn ees

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(k ik ok u sh ijo )* co m p ete for th em . T u itio n and fees are v e ry h ig h

b ecause m a n y o f th e fa c u lty m em b ers o f th ese schools are h ired fro m overseas and receiv e h ig h w ages and b ecause lan d for school b u ild in g s is v e ry exp en sive in Jap an . A d m issio n standards vary, b ut ap p lican ts are selected based o n th e ir p ro ficien cy in E n glish , p revi­ ous ed u c atio n al records, and p lac e m e n t test results. F o r c o lle g e -le v e l e d u c a tio n , th ere are a few b ran ch cam ­ puses o f fo reig n u n iv ersities in Ja p a n th at cater to b o th fo reig n and Jap an ese students. T em ple U n iv e rsity has a b ran ch in T okyo, M in n e so ta S tate U n iv e rs ity in N iig a ta , and M ic h ig a n U n iv e rs ity in O tsu. In ad d itio n , th ere are k ok u sa ib u or “in te rn a tio n al d iv isio n s” o f w ell-e stab lish e d Jap an ese u n iv ersities w h e re fo reig n students can stu d y th e ir subjects in E n g lish .T h e m ost w e ll k n o w n o f these p ro ­ gram s are th e in te rn a tio n a l d iv isio n o f S o p h ia U n iv ersity, In ter­ n atio n al C h ris tia n U n iv ersity, W ased a U n iv ersity, K eio U n iv e rsity in T okyo, N an z an U n iv e rs ity in N ag o y a, K ansai G aid ai U n iv e rsity in O saka, and In tern atio n a l U n iv e rsity o fJa p an in N iig ata . R e c e n tly som e A m e ric a n u n iv ersities have b e g u n o fferin g ex ten sio n courses in business ad m in istra tio n .T h e se schools w o u ld b e b etter su ited for fo reig n students w h o do n o t have a g o o d co m m an d o fJap an ese.T o reach th e c o m p e te n c y in Jap an ese re q u ire d fo r c o lle g e -le v e l w o rk w o u ld take several years for those w h o do n o t have an y b a c k ­ g ro u n d in Jap an ese. S tu d en ts w h o take th e in te rn a tio n al p rogram s offered b y these u n iv ersities have th e advan tage o f (1) le a rn in g ab o ut Ja p a n in th e actu al c u ltu ral co n te x t o f Jap an ; (2) stu d yin g and so cia liz in g w ith students fro m o th er fo reig n c o u n tries; and (3) tran sfe rrin g credits to in stitu tio n s b a c k h o m e. A d m issio n can be re la tiv e ly easy for g o o d students w ith h ig h m o tiv atio n , and m an y scholarships are also available th ro u g h th e Jap an F o u n d atio n and o th er sources. F o r those w h o w ish to stu d y th e Jap an ese lan g u ag e or o th er sub jects in Jap an ese m a rtial arts, m usic, and art an d cu ltu re, th ere are m a n y ch o ices o f trad e schools (s e n m o n g a k k o ) . A d m issio n

* “ K ik o k u sh ijo ” refers to those Japanese students who were educated in English at overseas schools when their parents were on a foreign assign­ ment. They prefer to attend international schools over Japanese schools because they are usually not good in Japanese and have acquired Western manners.

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to these schools is m u c h easier th an to c o lleg e o r u n iv e rsity p ro ­ gram s. A n yo n e w h o can p ay th e tu itio n and fees w ill b e ad m itted . F o reign students w h o w ish to p u rsu e careers in te a c h in g Jap an ese m a rtial arts o r tra d itio n a l Japanese m u sic, arts, and art and cu ltu re can take co urses in th e subjects o f th e ir ch o ice. T h ese students u su a lly have h ad years o f tra in in g b a c k h o m e at b ran ch schools and are in v ite d to th e h ead q u arters in Ja p an for adv an ced study. T h ese schools are also licen sed b y th e lo c al g o v ern m en t, and offer ap p ren ticesh ip s and in ten siv e tra in in g . F in ally, m a n y Jap an ese la n ­ g u ag e schools have re c e n tly sp ru n g up in several b ig cities for those fo reign ers w h o co m e to stu d y Jap an ese and w o rk p art-tim e . T h e Jap an ese g o v ern m en t allow s fo reign ers to w o rk tw e n ty h o u rs a w e e k i f th e y atten d a lic e n se d Jap an ese la n g u ag e school. 194

Finding Jobs in Japan D esp ite J a p a n ’s c o n tin u in g e c o n o m ic recessio n sin ce 1 9 9 1 , Jap an ese co m p an ies and ed u c a tio n a l in stitu tio n s are still h ir in g fo r­ e ig n ers for va rio u s p o sitions. T h ere are fo ur m ajo r jo b catego ries: business professionals, lab o rers, sports stars, and E n glish teachers. R e c r u itm e n t o f fo reig n staff m em b ers and w o rk ers is u su ally co n ­ d u cted th ro u g h overseas rep resen tatives or e m p lo ym en t agen cies. In alm ost all cases, such e m p lo y m e n t is o n a sh o k u ta k u (co n tractu ­ al) basis for a fixed p e rio d o f tim e and n o t o n a p e rm an e n t e m p lo y ­ m en t basis. T h e in itia l co n tract is u su a lly for o n e year, and it is a u to m a tic a lly re n e w e d i f th e em p lo yer chooses to do so. A typ ica l Ja p a n e se -sty le e m p lo y m e n t co n tract is a sim p le o n e: it stipulates o n ly k e y clauses w ith o u t specific jo b d escrip tio n s. T oday m an y Jap an ese em p lo yers have b e g u n to use an A m e ric a n -s ty le co n tract w ith d e ta ile d e m p lo y m e n t co n d itio n s and jo b d escrip tio n s, b u t th e y o ften in te rp re t and im p le m e n t th e co n tract in a so m ew h at Jap an ese w a y w h e n it is co n v en ien t to do so. In m an y instances, w h e n u n e x p e c te d ch an ges o c c u r in e c o n o m ic co n d itio n s o r o th er situ atio n s, Jap an ese em p lo yers do n o t h esitate to ch an ge th e c o n ­ tractu al term s w ith little regard to th e san ctity o f a w ritte n le g al c o n tra c t.4 Jap an ese em p lo yers o ften e x p e c t th at em p lo yees w ill be w illin g to do m o re th an w h a t th e co n tract calls for i f an y ad d itio n al

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w o rk n eed s to b e d one. T h e c o n d itio n s w ritte n in to an e m p lo y ­ m en t co n tract can differ ac c o rd in g to th e p o sitio n and th e n atu re o f w o rk o f a fo reig n em p lo yee. E x ecu tiv e and m a n a g e ria l p o sitio n s in Japanese co m p an ies are n o t u su a lly available to fo reign ers unless those p o sitio n s req u ire h ig h ly sp ecialized professional k n o w le d g e o r te c h n ic a l skills th at can n o t b e filled w ith e q u a lly c o m p eten t Japanese n atio n als. T h is m ean s th at th e fo reig n n atio n als w ill b e h ired o n a co n tract as lo n g as no Japanese rep lacem en ts can b e fo un d . T h e y are o ften e x p e c t­ ed to act as “tu to rs” for th e ir Jap an ese c o lleag u es and sub o rdin ates, and th e ir actio n s are c lo sely m o n ito red . A ro b o tics e n g in e e r w h o w o rk e d for a Jap an ese c o m p a n y exp lain s his frustratio n : “ In som e cases, in te g ra tio n in to a Jap an ese w o rk in g g ro u p is im possible. R eg a rd le ss o f th e reaso n (the p erso n in q u estio n w asn ’t p ro p erly in tro d u c e d , his allian ces to o th er gro u p s are suspect, his group is n o t w e ll resp ected ), in v o lv em en t w ith th at in d iv id u a l is o n p e r­ ceiv ed b en efit to th e group. T h e g ro u p d o esn ’t feel an y resp o n ­ sib ility to th e in d iv id u a l and is often suspicious o f his m o tives. C o n seq u en tly, Jap an ese are o ften p erceiv ed as h arsh and w ith ­ h o ld in g .”5 F o reign ers sh ou ld b e aw are th at th e y w ill n o t b e g iv en real d e c is io n -m a k in g a u th o rity even in th e ir o w n area o f ex p ertise. T h e y w ill n o t fin d an y e x p lic it w r itte n ru les and p ro cedures th at th e y can follow , a lth o u g h th e y w ill b e assign ed a m e n to r (sew a n in ). T h is m e n to r can b e o n e o f th e W e ste rn ized ju n io r m an agers w ith a fa irly g o o d co m m a n d o f E n glish , b u t th e fo reig n er sh ou ld n o t p ut c o m p le te tru st in h im o r co n fid e in h im b ecau se h e sim p ly w ill n o t b e allo w e d to keep a secret. B esid es, h e c o u ld b e an o u tsid er h im s e lf a m o n g o th ers in his d ep artm en t. F o reign ers sh o u ld n ever p u b lic ly c ritic iz e an y Jap an ese staff m e m b ers n o m atter h o w in c o m p ete n t and un reaso n ab le th e y m ay seem . T h e y w ill b e ostra­ cized i f th e y are straigh tfo rw ard and h o n est in ex p ressin g th e ir o p in io n s o f o thers. F o reign em p lo yees at th e m a n a g e m en t lev el are ex p ected to so cialize w ith o th er Jap an ese m an agers in th e even in gs and on w eek en d s, and th e y are lik e ly to b e d rag ged in to h a b a ts u a ra so i or “factio n al fights.” B ecau se m a n y business m atters are discussed and d e c id e d in fo rm a lly d u rin g so cial h o urs, it is alm ost im p o ssib le to catch up w ith w h a t has b e e n g o in g o n w ith o u t sp en d in g m an y even in gs in d in in g room s and hostess bars and p la y in g golf. F o reign

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professionals m ust b ew are o f u n k n o w in g ly g e ttin g in vo lved in in te rp e rso n al riv a lrie s am o n g d o m in an t factio n s w ith in th e c o m ­ pany. T h e y sh o u ld q u ic k ly id e n tify th e in d iv id u a l m em b ers o f e v e ry factio n and d ip lo m a tic a lly d e c lin e to take sides w ith an y fac­ tio n . T h e y sh o u ld rem ain o utsid ers and alw ays p lay “fo reign ers,” and just p e rfo rm th e ir assigned tasks and duties. T h e rap id e c o n o m ic d ev elo p m en t in recen t years forced Ja p a n to im p o rt fo reig n lab o rers (g a ik o k u jin ro d o sh a ) to solve acute lab o r sh ortage in th e c o n stru ctio n , fa rm in g , fishery, and service in d u stries. It is estim ated th at th ere are m o re th an 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 lab o r­ ers fro m th e P h ilip p in es, Iran, M ala ysia, B an glad esh , In dia, C h in a , and even fro m S o u th A m e ric a . M a n y o f these te m p o ra ry fo reign w o rk ers are ille g a l w o rk ers w h o se approved official te rm o f stay has e x p ire d .T h e Jap an ese em p lo yers feel c o m p elled to h ire th e m (even w ith a fear o f b e in g fin ed fo r v io la tio n o f th e im m ig ra tio n la w ) b ecause th e y can n o t fin d e n o u g h Jap an ese n atio n als w illin g to w o rk fo r lo w p ay and u n d e r d ifficult w o rk co n d itio n s. T h e m a jo r­ ity o f these m e n are w o rk in g in h e a v y c o n stru ctio n w o rk , o n farm s as d o m estic an im al keep ers and fru it p ickers, and in sm all facto ries as m an u al lab o rers. A lm o st all o f th e fo reig n w o m e n w o rk in the service in d u stry as g o lf cad d ies, c le a n in g w o m e n , w aitresses, cooks, b ar hostesses, and even as p ro stitu tes.T h ere are m an y rep o rted cases o f F ilip in o w o m e n w h o w ere p ro m ised g o o d jo b s, b u t fo rced to e n ga ge in p ro stitu tio n b y th e ir Jap an ese e m p lo ym en t agents. A ll these fo reig n lab o rers face d isc rim in a tio n at w o rk . T h e y are p aid substandard w ages and g iv e n few frin g e b en efits. T h e y also face d isc rim in a tio n w h e n th e y w ish to ren t an ap artm en t. Jap an ese lan d lo rd s are w o r r ie d ab o ut c re a tin g a b ad rep u ta tio n in th e n e ig h ­ b o rh o o d b y re n tin g to strange fo reig n ers w h o se lan g u ag e, food h ab its, and social custom s are vastly d ifferent fro m those o f the Jap an ese ten an ts. In Ja p a n ’s h o m o g en o u s society, fo reig n lab o rers b e c o m e v e r y v isib le w h e re v e r th e y liv e, e sp ecially w h e n th e y live in groups o f several in d iv id u als. So m e o f th e pro b lem s stem fro m th e fo reig n w o rk e rs’ ig n o ra n ce o f th e Jap an ese lan g u ag e and cus­ tom s. U n sc ru p u lo u s Jap an ese e m p lo y m e n t agen ts so m etim es tr y to e x p lo it th e m i f th e y are ig n o ra n t ab o ut lab o r law s and w o rk rules ap p licab le to th e m . Jap an ese em p lo yers m ay even take advantage o f th e ir w o rk ers i f th e y k n o w th at th e y are stayin g in Jap an ille g a lly b eyo n d th e a u th o riz e d te r m o f th e ir w o rk visa. F o reig n w o rkers

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W orking

in J a p a n

sh ould b e careful n o t to p u t th em selves in a d ifficult p red ica­ m en t. T h e y sh o u ld d eal o n ly w ith b o n a fide e m p lo ym en t agents and sh o u ld m a in ta in th e ir le g a l status as la w -a b id in g tem p o rary w o rkers. Ja p a n ’s sports o rgan izatio n s activ e ly re c ru it b aseball players, sum o w re stle rs, and so ccer (fo o tb all) players fro m fo reig n c o u n ­ tries. Jap an ese professional b aseb all team s h ire h o m e -ru n h itters and p itch ers fro m A m e ric a n m a jo r le a g u e team s to au g m en t th e ir tea m s’ p erfo rm an ce. H o w ever, based o n a le ag u e ag reem en t, no te a m can p lay m o re th an tw o fo reig n players p er gam e. T ypically, m ost A m e ric a n b aseball players co m e to Ja p an on a short co n tract. S u m o w restlers fro m H a w a i‘i, M o n g o lia , and B raz il have reach ed top ran ks and are e n jo y in g th e lim e lig h t in Ja p a n .T h e trem en d o u s p o p u la rity o f th e Jap an S o ccer L eag u e m ad e th e le a g u e o w n ers re c ru it m a n y ta le n te d fo reig n players fro m E uro p ean and S o u th A m e ric a n c o u n trie s to h elp th e ir Jap an ese team m ates p lay b etter and m o re e x c itin g gam es. T h ese sports talen ts fro m fo reig n c o u n ­ trie s are “ sports m e rc e n a rie s” w h o are p aid and treated w e ll as lo n g as th e y can p e rfo rm at th e ir best. O n ce th e y b eco m e u n p ro d u ctive, th e y w ill b e dism issed alm ost im m ed iately. T h e H o lly w o o d m o vie M r. B a s eb a ll, sta rrin g T om S e lle c k , su m m arizes m an y o f th e typ ica l frustratio n s th at fo reig n sports ta len t faces in Jap an . Jap an ese u n iv ersities, co lleg es, h ig h schools, and ju n io r h ig h schools n o w h ire n ative speakers o f fo reig n lan g u ag e w ith the e n c o u ra g e m e n t o f th e Jap an ese M in is try o f E d u catio n . U n iv ersities and co lleg es h ire m a n y E n glish in stru cto rs to teach E nglish c o n ­ v ersatio n , p ro n u n c ia tio n and in to n a tio n . T h ose w h o w an t to teach at th e c o lle g e o r u n iv e rsity le v e l m ust b e n ative speakers o f E nglish and have a m aster’s d e g re e o r a b a c h e lo r’s d eg ree fro m an accred ­ ite d fo reig n u n iv e rsity o r c o lleg e. R e c e n t ly th e Jap an ese M in is try o f Ju stic e a u th o riz e d Jap an ese u n iv ersities to h ire fo reig n citizen s o n a p e rm a n e n t basis, b u t in p ractice, th e y offer o n ly tem p o rary p o sitio n s for a o n e -y e a r te r m w ith a re n ew al o p tio n fo r an o th er year. In spite o f this co m m o n e m p lo y m e n t p ractice, a g o o d n u m ­ b e r o f E nglish teach ers re m ain w ith th e ir em p lo yers for te n years o r m o re b y re n e w in g th e ir co n tract y e a r after y e a r.6 Jap an ese h ig h schools and ju n io r h ig h schools are n o w h ir­ in g E n glish tea ch ers u n d e r th e Jap an L an g u ag e T eachers P ro g ram (JLT) sponsored b y th e Jap an ese M in is try o f E d u catio n and the

197

C hapter 9

198

Jap an ese M in is try o f F o reign A ffairs. T h e q u alificatio n s for this p ro g ram are th at p rospective teach ers have a fo u r-y e ar co lleg e d eg ree, have g o o d co m m a n d o f th e la n g u a g e th e y w ill b e tea ch in g , and are u n d er th irty -fiv e years o f age. A n o th er re q u ire m e n t is th at th e y are g e n u in e ly in terested in Jap an ese cu ltu re and w illin g to h elp b rid g e th e c u ltu ral gap b e tw e e n Jap an and th e ir o w n co un try. T h e largest n u m b e r o f jo b s available in this p ro g ram is for E n glish teach ers, a lth o u g h it has re c e n tly created a sm all n u m b er o f te a c h in g p o sitio n s for n ative speakers o f C h in e se , K o rean , and o th er East A sian lan g u ag es. It is estim ated th at som e 2 ,5 0 0 E nglish teach ers are c u rre n tly te a c h in g in Jap an ese h ig h schools and ju n io r h ig h schools. T h ese E n glish tea ch ers are n ative speakers o f E nglish fro m th e U n ite d States, B rita in , C a n a d a , A u stralia, o r N e w Z e a ­ lan d . T h e y are u su ally recen t grad u ates fro m u n iv ersities in th eir resp ective co u n tries. R e c r u itm e n t is co o rd in ated th ro u g h Jap an ese em bassies and co n sulates so th at ap p lican ts can ap p ly for th e p o si­ tio n s in th e ir h o m e c o u n try .T h e y are assign ed to ru ra l h ig h schools o r ju n io r h ig h schools as assistant E n glish teach ers to h elp Jap an ese E nglish tea ch ers th ere. S o m e o f those w h o can sp eak g o o d Ja p a n ­ ese m a y b e assigned to th e in te rn a tio n a l d ep artm en ts o f lo c al g o v ­ e rn m en ts as c o o rd in ato r for in te rn a tio n a l relatio n s, w h o se duties in c lu d e co o rd in a tin g visits o f fo reig n visito rs and p la n n in g and e x e c u tin g in te rn a tio n a l p ro gram s. T h ere are a larg e n u m b e r o f p rivate E nglish co n versation schools that h ire thousands o f native speakers o f E nglish. For e x am ­ ple, o n e p riv a te E n glish co n versatio n scho o l has 2 2 0 b ran ch es th ro u g h o u t Ja p a n w ith a to tal stud en t e n ro llm en t in excess o f 6 0 ,0 0 0 .T h e scho o l hires h u n d red s o f n ative speakers o f E nglish to tea ch students fro m k in d e rg a rte n lev el to b u sin ess-ex ecu tiv e level. W o rk in g as an E nglish te a c h e r in Ja p a n can pro vide an e x ce lle n t o p p o rtu n ity to le a rn th e Jap an ese la n g u a g e and to e x p e rie n c e the c u ltu re and custom s o fJa p a n .W a g e s and b en efits are fairly g o o d for m a n y o f these teach ers. In all cases, it is im p o rtan t to m ake sure th at th e Jap an ese em p lo yers pro vid e free h o u sin g o r sub sidized h o u sin g b ecause ap artm en t o r h o u se ren tal fees are so exp en sive, esp ecially in larg e cities lik e T okyo and O sak a. It is also im p o rtan t to b e aw are th at E n glish teach ers are “gold fish in a b o w l” (cann o t avoid the c u rio u s eyes o f Jap an ese p e o p le ), and th at th e y can n o t b e to o in d e ­ p e n d e n t o r lib e ra l in attitu d e an d b eh avio r.

Living

and

W orking

in J a p a n

T h ere is an o th er w a y to liv e and w o rk in Jap an for y o u n g adults fro m A u stralia, N e w Z eala n d , an d C an ad a. C u rren tly, Jap an has a m u tu a l a g re e m e n t w ith these c o u n tries th at allo w s y o u n g m e n and w o m e n b e tw e e n e ig h te e n and tw e n ty -fiv e years o f age to w o rk in Ja p a n for o n e y e a r o n a sp ecial “w o rk in g h o lid ay s” visa. T h e m a jo r o b jectiv e o f this visa is to p ro m o te m u tu al u n d erstan d ­ in g and g o o d w ill b e tw e e n p articip an ts and th e host n atio nals th ro u g h fa c e -to -fa c e c o n tact in w o rk situatio n s. M a n y y o u n g A ustralian s, N e w Z ealan d ers, and C an ad ian s liv e in Jap an o n this visa. L ik e w ise, m a n y y o u n g Jap an ese m e n and w o m e n liv e in these c o u n trie s o n th is m u tu al a g re e m e n t b e tw e e n th e ir go v ern m en ts.

199

Notes

c h a p t e r

1

1. J. C. Condon, W ith r esp ect to th e J a p a n e s e : A (Yarmouth, Me.: Intercultural Press, 1984), pp. 39-40.

g u i d e f o r A m erica n s

2. M. Imai, S ix teen w a y s to a v o id s a y in g n o : A n in v ita tio n to e x p er ie n ce J a p a n e s e m a n a g e m e n t f r o m th e in sid e. (Tokyo: Nihon Keizai Shimbun, 1982), pp. 6-8. 3. O. Mizutani, J a p a n e s e : T h e sp o k en la n g u a g e in J a p a n e s e Ashby (Tokyo:The Japan Times, 1981), pp. 81-83. 4. T. S. Lebra, J a p a n e s e p a tte r n s Hawai‘i Press, 1976), pp. 123-124.

o f b e h a v io r

life,

trans. J.

Honolulu: (University of

5. G. M. Chen, and W. J. Starosta, F o u n d a tio n s o f in tercu ltu ra l (Needham Heights, Mass.: Allyn and Bacon, 1998), p. 25.

co m m u ­

n ica tio n

6. K. Nishiyama, J a p a n -U .S . Kendall/Hunt, 1995), p. 3.

b u sin ess co m m u n ica tio n

(Dubuque, Iowa:

7. Ibid.,p. 21. 8. U.S. Department of Commerce, press release (Dec. 8, 1981) (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Commerce, 1982), pp. 4-5. 9. Lebra, J a p a n e s e p a tte r n s

o f b eh a vior,

pp. 28-30.

10. E. O. Reischauer, T h e J a p a n e s e (Cambridge, Mass.: Bellnap,1988), p. 166.

to d a y : C h a n g e a n d co n tin u ity

11. K. Schoolland, S h o g u n ’s g h o s t : T h e dark s id e (New York: Bergin and Garvey, 1990), pp. 107-117.

o f J a p a n e s e ed u ca tio n

Not es to Pages 23-71

12. M. Imai, N ev er tak e y e s f o r a n a n sw er : A n in s id e look a t J a p a n e s e b u sin ess f o r fo r e i g n b u sin es sm en (Tokyo:The Simul Press, 1975), p. v. 13. Lebra, J a p a n e s e p a tte r n s c h a p t e r

o f b eh a vior,

pp. 137—139.

2

1. E.J. Kaplan, J a p a n :T h e g o v e r n m e n t - b u s in e s s rela tio n sh ip — A g u i d e f o r th e A m e rica n b u s in e s s m a n (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Commerce, 1972), p. 14. 2. C.V Prestowitz, Jr., p. 218.

T rading p la c e s

(New York: Basic Books, 1988),

3. K. Miyashita and D. W Russell, K e ir e t s u : I n sid e th e (New York: McGraw Hill, 1994), pp. 31—32.

h id d en J a p a n e s e

co n g lo m e ra tes

202

4. G. S. Kikuchi, “What are k eiretsu and why do some U.S. compa­ nies dislike them?” in J a p a n — W h y it w ork s, w h y it d o e s n ’t: E co n o m ics in e v e r y d a y life, ed.J.Mak et al. (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1998), pp. 185-186. 5. A. M. Whitehill, and S. Takezawa, East West Center Press, 1968), p. 104.

T h e o t h e r w ork ers

6. E.T. Hall and M. R. Hall, H id d en d iffe r e n ces : D o in g (New York: Anchor Books, 1987), p. 85.

(Honolulu:

b u sin ess w ith th e

Ja p a n ese

7. Prestowitz,

T rading P laces,

p. 293.

8. T. P. Rohlen, F o r h a rm o n y a n d s tr e n g th : J a p a n e s e w h ite -co lla r o r g a n i­ z a tio n in a n th ro p o lo g ica l p e r s p e c t iv e (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974), pp. 34-40. 9. Nishiyama,J a p a n -U .S . 10. J. C. Abegglen, 1958), p. 27.

b u sin ess co m m u n ica tio n ,

T h e J a p a n e s e fa c t o r y

pp. 52-54.

(Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press,

11. Ibid.,p. 67. 12. S. B. Levine, I n d u stria l rela tio n s University of Chicago Press, 1958), p. 18. c h a p t e r

in p o s tw a r J a p a n

(Chicago, Ill.:

3

1. R. L. Tung, B u s in e s s n eg o tia tio n s Mass.: Lexington Books, 1984), pp. 16-20.

w ith th e J a p a n e s e

(Lexington,

2. M. J. Wolf, T h e J a p a n e s e co n sp ir a cy : T h e p l o t to d o m in a te in d u s tr y w o r ld w id e — a n d h o w to d e a l w ith it (New York: Empire Books, 1983), pp. 13-15.

Not es to Pages 7 3 - 9 6

3. R. M. March, H on orin g th e cu stom er: M ark eting a n d sellin g to th e (New York: John Wiley, 1991), p. 11.

J a p a n ese

4. C. Brannen and T. Wilen, D o in g b u sin ess w ith J a p a n ese m en. (Berkeley: Stone Bridge Press, 1993), pp. 72-81. c h a p t e r

4

1. J. Nist, “The language of the socially disadvantaged” in Intercultural com m u n ica tion : A reader, 2 n d ed ., ed. L. A. Samovar and R. E. Porter, (Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth, 1976), pp. 204-217. 2. C.V Prestowitz, Jr., Trading p la ces: H o w w e are g iv in g o u r fu tu r e to (New York: Basic Books, 1989), pp. 89-119.

J a p a n a n d h o w to reclaim it

3. R. M. March, H on orin g th e custom er , pp. xv-xvii. 4. March, H on orin g th e custom er , p.11. 5. K. Kobayashi, J a p a n :T h e m ost m isu n d erstood co u n try (Tokyo: Japan Times Publishing, 1985), p. 54. c h a p t e r

5

1. J. L. Graham and Y. Sano, S m art bargain in g: D o in g b u sin ess w ith th e (New York: Harper Business, 1989), p. 17.

J a p a n ese

2. R. M. March, T h e J a p a n ese n egotia tor: S u b tlety a n d stra tegy b ey on d (Tokyo: Kodansha International, 1988), pp. 84-85.

W estern lo gic

3. Ibid., p. 130. 4. Graham and Sano, S m art bargaining, pp. 41-44. 5. Hall and Hall, H idden differences, p. 109. 6. H. Van Zandt, “How to negotiate in Japan,” H arvard B u sin ess , Nov.—Dec. 1972, pp. 45-46.

R e v ie w

7. March, T h e J a p a n ese negotiator , pp. 29-30. 8. M. Blaker, J a p a n ese in tern ation al n egotia tion s ty le (New York: Columbia University Press, 1977), pp. 177-179. 9. Ibid.,p. 202. 10. March, T h e J a p a n e se negotiator , p. 129. 11. March, ibid., p. 26. 12. Lebra, J a p a n ese p a ttern s o f b eh a vior , pp. 80-81. 13. March, T h e J a p a n e se negotiators, p. 22.

203

Not es to Pages 9 6 -1 2 7

14. Graham and Sano,

S m a rt b a rga in in g,

p. 24.

15. Ibid., p. 8. 16. March,

T h e J a p a n e s e n egotia tor,

p. 165.

17. March, ibid., p. 9. 18. March, ibid., pp. 141-142. p art

19. W ork ing w ith J a p a n : A p ra ctica l g u i d e to b u sin ess su ccess. N eg o tia tin g 1: W h at to ex p ect. (Videotape lecture manual) (Carmel, Calif.:

Intercultural Training Resources, 1992). 20. March,

T h e J a p a n e s e n egotia tor,

p. 112.

21. I.V Hall, C a r tels o f th e m in d : J a p a n ’s York: W. W Norton, 1998), pp. 21-33. 204

22. K. Nishiyama, C o m m u n ica tio n Sanshusha, 1981), pp. 188-189. c h a p t e r

in te lle ctu a l clo s e d s h o p

in in tern a tio n a l b u sin ess

(New (Tokyo:

6

1. H. Glazer, T h e in tern a tio n a l Tuttle, 1968), pp. 51-56.

b u sin essm a n in J a p a n

2. M. Bairy, “Japanese ways,” in D o in g b u sin ess Ballon, (Tokyo: Charles Tuttle, 1967), pp. 23-27. 3. T. F. M. Adams and N. Kobayashi, T h e (Tokyo: Kodansha International, 1969), p. 70.

(Tokyo: Charles

in J a p a n ,

ed. R. J.

w o r ld o f J a p a n e s e b u sin ess

4. B. L. De Mente, J a p a n e s e e tiq u e tt e a n d (Lincolnwood, Ill. : Business Books, 1991), p. 166.

e th ic s

in

b u s in e s s

5. K. Noda, “Big business organization,” in M o d e rn J a p a n e s e o r g a n i­ ed. Ezra F. Vogel (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1975), pp. 115-116.

z a tio n a n d d ecisio n -m a k in g,

6. Ibid., 121-122. 7. De Mente, J a p a n e s e

etiq u ette,

8. Nishiyama,J a p a n -U .S .

p. 277.

b u sin ess co m m u n ica tio n ,

p. 73.

9. T. Kume, “Managerial attitudes toward decision-making,” in ed. W. B. Guydkunst, L. P. Stewart, and S.T.Toomey (Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage 1985), p. 235. C o m m u n ica tio n , cu ltu re, a n d o r g a n iz a tio n a l p ro cess,

10. Ibid., p. 243. 11. De Mente, J a p a n e s e

etiq u ette,

166.

Not es to Pages 135-191

c h a p t e r

7

1. Nishiyama,J a p a n -U .S .

p. 203.

b u sin ess co m m u n ica tio n ,

2. Ibid., p. 256. 3. A. H. Monroe, P r in cip les a n d Foresman & Company, 1949), p. 315.

typ es o f sp eech

4. H. L. Ewbank and J. Auer, D iscu ssio n Crofts, 1941), p. 70. c h a p t e r

(New York: Scott

a n d d e b a te

(New York: F. S.

8

1. P. Magnusson, J. B. Treece, and W C. Symonds, “Honda: Is it an American car?” B u s in e ss W eek, Nov. 28, 1991, pp. 104-107. 2. S. P Sethi, N. Namiki, and C. L. Swanson, T h e f a l s e p r o m is e (Boston, Mass.: Pitman, 1984), pp. 192-194.

o f th e

J a p a n e s e m ira cle

3. R. M. March, W ork ing f o r a J a p a n e s e co m p a n y : I n sig h ts in to th e m u lti­ n a tio n a l w o r k p la ce (Tokyo: Kodansha International, 1992), p. 115. Nishiyama,J a p a n -U .S . b u sin ess co m m u n ica tio n , p. 49. 4. J. K. Fukuda, J a p a n e s e m a n a g em en t in E a st A sia a n d Kong:The Chinese University Press, 1993), pp. 118-124.

b eyon d

(Hong

5. Ibid.,pp. 146-149. 6. C. Nakane, J a p a n e s e Press, 1973), pp. 130-132.

s o c ie t y

(Berkeley: University of California

7. Sethi, Namiki, and Swanson, F a lse p ro m ise , pp. 67-68. 8. March,

T h e J a p a n e s e n ego tia to rs,

pp. 41-48.

9. Sethi, Namiki, and Swanson, F a lse p ro m ise , p. 139; and March, T h e pp. 116-121.

J a p a n e s e n ego tia to r,

10. G. S. Roberts, S ta y in g o n th e lin e : B lu e -co lla r w o m e n in co n te m p o ­ (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1994), p. 173.

rary J a p a n

11. Brannen and Wilen, D o in g

b u sin ess w ith J a p a n e s e m en ,

12. T. Hamada, A m erica n e n ter p ris e in University of New York Press, 1991). p. 213. 13. March, c h a p t e r

T h e J a p a n e s e n egotia tor,

Japan

pp. 99-105.

(Albany, N.Y.: State

p. 112.

9

1. Lebra, J a p a n e s e p a tte r n s

o f b eh a v io r,

2. Brannen and Wilen, D o in g

p. 218.

b u sin ess w ith J a p a n e s e m e n , pp.

94-98.

205

Not es to Pages 192-197

3. 1 1th ed .

The American Chambers of Commerce in Japan, L iv in g (Tokyo: IBI, 1993), pp. 167-168.

4. March,

T h e J a p a n e s e n egotia tor,

in J a p a n

pp. 111-123.

5. P. Gercik, O n track w ith th e J a p a n e s e :A c a s e -b y -c a s e a p p ro a ch to b u ild ­ in g s u cce ss fu l re la tio n sh ip s (New York: Kondansha International, 1992). 6. I. P. Hall, C a rtels o f th e m in d : J a p a n ’s York: W. W Norton, 1998), pp. 80-108.

206

in te lle ctu a l clo s e d s h o p

(New

Glossary of Japanese Terms and Concepts

a isa tsu —formal

introduction, greeting, 50, 97 a iu eo j u n —alphabetical order, 6 a iz u ch i —nodding, signal of agree­ ment, 12, 13, 67 a m a e —indulgent dependency, 95 am ak udari —heaven descend, 30, 161 atatak ai —warm, 84 a to -rin g i —after-the-fact-consensus, 121 b a ch i —heaven’s punishment, b u ch o —general manager, 67,

7 120,

121 b u ch o d a iri —deputy

general man­

ager, 120, 121 b u n sh o k a —secretariat office, 88 b u tsu m etsu —funeral day, unlucky day, 16 ch o rei —morning

pep talk session,

36, 158 chuk ai —mediation, 110 ch u k a ish a —mediator, 46 ch u sa i —arbitration, 110 ch u sa ish a —arbitrator, 112

d a isa n go k u jin —third-country

peo­

ple, 187 d e m a e —delivery service, 186 en d a k a —strong yen, 162 e n r y o —self-restraint, 19 f u g u —puffer fish, 186 fu k u s h a ch o —vice president, fu n ik i —atmosphere, 133

120

g a ia ts u —foreign pressure, 17 g a ib u n —what others talk about, g a ijin —foreigner, 168, 175, 183,

187 ga ik o k u b ok e —foreign

country

fool, 164 g a ik o k u jin ro d osh a —foreign

labor­

ers, 196 ga ik o k u k abure —quasi-foreigner,

164 ga k u b a tsu —school cliques, 6, 33 g e n c h i s a iy o —locally hired, 163 g e s h u k u —students’ rooming house,

184 g i r i —sense of obligation, 8 g y o s e is h id o —administrative guid­

ance, 30 d a ih y o to rish im a riya k u s h a ch o —pres-

ident and representative direc­ tor, 120

7

h a b a tsu —faction

pany, 33

within a com­

G lossary of J a p a n e s e

Terms and

h a b a tsu arasoi —interfactional

208

rival­ ries, 33, 195 h a iy a —deluxe chauffeur-driven car, 180 h a ji —shame, 7 h a k u jin —white people, 187 h a n —seal of approval, 123 h a n a sh ia i —mutual consulting, 84, 110, 111 h a n sei kai —reflection meeting, 35 happO b ijin g a ik o —looking-beautiful-for-everyone diplomacy, 20 h iga ish a ishik i —victim mentality, 95 h ira ga n a —alphabet, 10 h ira m e —flounder, 186 h ira tori —low-ranked director, 120 h o h o z u e —supporting chin with hands, 106 h o n n e —true feeling, 60, 96, 97 h o n sh a h a k en —home-office-dispatched, 163 h o s h o n in —guarantor, 176 h o sh u ga k k o —supplementary school, 161 h yok a i h o m o n —courtesy visit, 59, 109 ia n ryo k o —company

recreation trip, 36 ich ijik in —one time retirement money payment, 40 ijim e —cruel bullying, 22 ika —cuttlefish, 186 ik ez u k u ri —sliced-up live fish, 186 i n ’n en —fate, 7 iso ga b a m a w a re —If you are in a hurry, take a longer way, 104 jig o k u n o tok k un —training

in hell,

35 j i j o h en k o —changed

circum­ stances, 107, 174 jim u reb eru —staff members’ level, 111 ji r e i —letter of appointment, 173 jo m u to rish im a riya k u —director, 120 ju k e n ju k u ju k u —entrance exami­ nation preparatory school, 6

C oncepts

ju n jo f u d o —no order implied, 6 ju n k y u —semisuper express, 179 k a ch o —section chief, 67, 121 k a ch o dairi —deputy section chief,

120, 121 k aibashira —scallop, 186 k a ich o —chairman, 6, 120 k aigi —meeting, conference,

117,

118 k a ish a ta k u sh ii —company-owned

taxi, 180 k ak aricho —supervisor, 120, 121 k ak uek i —local train, 179 k am a w o k ak eru —making an out­

rageous offer, 94 k an —intuition, 71 k anji —Chinese character, 10, 180 k a n ryo s eiji —politics by bureau­

crats, 5 k ao g a h iroi —having

a widely rec­ ognized face, 20 k ao g a kiku —having an effective face, 20 k ao g a tatan ai —face not honored, 20 kara h en ji —empty answer, 67 k a sh i-k a ri k ank ei —give-and-take relationship, 124, 125 k atak ana —alphabet, 10 k a tsu o —bonito, 186 k eiei k a z o k u sh u gi —management familism, 32 k eiretsu —conglomerate, 29, 31, 32, 89 k eish o sh o rya k u —titles of honor omitted, 6 k essa i —final approval, 123 k ia n ch a —plan initiator, 122 k igy o k u m ia i —enterprise union, 42 k ik en —dangerous, 187 kikkake —opening of a story, 96 k ik ok ush ijo —returnee children, 192, 193 k itanai —dirty, 187 k itsui —strenuous, 187 k oh a i —-junior, 16

G lo ssa ry of J a p a n e s e Terms and

k ojin tak u sh ii —owner-driver

taxi,

180 k ok u saibu —international

division, 193 k on e —personal connection, 33 k o sh in jo —investigation company, 33 k osh o —negotiation, haggling, 84 k oshik ak e k o n jo —temporary-stay mentality, 164 k u ch iya k u sok u —verbal agreement, 110, 133 k ure —late December, 39 k yoik u ju k u —education center, 161 k yuk o —express, 179

ob u ro —big

bath for public bathing, 183 o ch ik a z u k i n o sh iru sh i —token gift of acquaintance, 74 o ch u g en —midsummer gift, 109, 190 o d o ri —-jumping shrimp, 186 o k a esh i —return gift, 191 o n —debt of gratitude, 7, 8 o n -g ir i k ank ei —creditor-debtor relationship, 8 o n -s h ir a z u —ungrateful, 8 o n jin —benefactor, 8 o seib o —year-end gift, 109, 190 o seiji —social compliment, 189 p a to ta im a a —part-time

m a gu ro —yellow-fin tuna, m a n sh o n —condominium

186 apart­

ment, 183 m eish i —business card, 50, 51, 52, 54, 79, 97 m e ish i ire —small wallet for busi­ ness cards, 51 m o n d a i —problem or trouble, 113 n a ga i tsuk iai —long-term

relation­ ship, 107 n a n iw a b u sh i —emotion-drenched personal appeal, 95, 96 n a rea i k ank ei —close emotional ties, 42 n e n g a jo —new year’s greeting card, 21 n em a w a sh i —informal consultation, 123, 124,125,126 n en k o jo r e ts u —promotion by seniority, 40 n in g e n k ank ei —interpersonal rela­ tionship, 84 n in g e n s e i —humanness, 88 n u s u m i m i —snatching look, 105 n yu sh a shik i —entering company ceremony, 34 o b o n —midsummer

val, 39, 190

Buddhist festi­

C oncepts

worker, 40

ra ih in —guest of honor, 108 reik in —monetary gift to landlord,

184 rik u tsu -p o i —overly logical, 102 rin g i —group decision-making,

103, 117, 121, 122 decision-mak­ ing system, 118 rin g ish o —proposal asking for a decision, 122 rin jish a in —temporary hire, 40 ro m a ji —romanized Japanese char­ acter, 179 ryok a n —Japanese inn, 182 ry o s a i k en b o —good wife and wise mother, 41, 170 rin g i s e id o —group

sa d o —tea ceremony, 192 sa sen —demotion plus transfer,

122 s eijitsu —sincere, 84 s eish a in —regular employee,

40,

155 sem p a i —senior, 16 sem p a i-k o h a i k ank ei —senior-junior

relationship, 33, 121 s e n m o n ga k k o —trade school, 193 s en m u to rish im a riya k u —managing

director, 120

209

G lossary of J a p a n e s e

Terms and

s en se i —teacher, 6 sew a n in —mentor, 195 s h a ch o —president, 6 s h a ch o k un —president’s teachings,

158 s h a ch o sh itsu —president’s secretari­

at office, 53 shak a —company song, 158 sh a k e —salmon, 186 sh a n a i k ek kon —marriage among

fellow-workers, 38 shik ik in —deposit, 184 shik k o —temporary assignment,

47,

159 sh im a n a g a sh i —exile

210

to a remote island, 122 sh in k a n sen —bullet-train, 178 sh in yU sh ain k u n ren —initiation training, 34 sh ira n k a o —knowing-nothing face, 104 sh o k u ta k u —contract employee, 155, 169, 194 sh o d a k u —approval, 125 sh o k a ish a —introducer, 46 s h u n to —spring labor offensive, 39 so d a n ya k u —advisor, 120 so ritsu n o seis h in —founder’s motto, 158 s o to z u ra —face toward outsiders, 67 ta ch in ok i ry o —relocation

charge,

162 tai —sea bream, 186 taia n —happy day, 15 ta ijin k yofu s h o —phobia

of inter­ personal relations, 188

C oncepts

ta ish ok u k in s e id o —retirement

fund system, 40 ta k k yu b in —home delivery service, 190 ta n sh in f u n i n —assignment without family members, 162 ta tem a e —official stance, 95, 97 teid o m o n d a i —matter of degree, 74 teis h is ei —low posture, 24, 151 te m iy a g e —small gift, 191 toji —answer to the challenge, 36 toki w a k a n en a ri —time is money, 91 tok k yu —superexpress, 179 tom ob ik i —friendly day, 15 to rish im a riya k u kai —board of directors, 120 to rish im a riya k u —director, 120 tsuk iai —forced socializing, 37 tsu k u ri w arai —made-up smile, 105 tsu ru n o h ito k o e —one screech of the crane, 121 u ch iz u ra —face toward insiders, u n a g i —eel, 186 u n i —sea urchin, 186 u rei —expression of sorrow, 96 w a —harmony, 19, 96 w a g o n s h a —station wagon

67

taxi, 180

y a k u z a —criminal element, 96 y o b ik o —entrance examination

preparatory school, 6 out of the cor­ ner of the eyes, 105

y o k o m e —looking

z a ib a tsu —financial

clique, 31

Index

Americanization of Japan: fast-food chains, 1, 175, 185 Arbitration: binding and nonbinding arbitration, 113; unique problems in arbitrating international disputes, 114—115;Japan Commercial Arbitration Association, Japanese legal system, 115 Barriers to intercultural communica­ tion: lack of foreign language ability, 1 Business cards, protocol of exchanging, 50-52, 54 Business meeting (kaigi):Japanese atti­ tude toward decision-making meetings, consensus-building process by informal consultations, leadership role of a chairperson, lack of open discussions, 115-116; different decision-making criteria, Japanese logic, 127 Business relations with the Japanese, establishing: xenophobia and homogeneous society, 43; initiating business contacts, 44-46; use of introducer, 44; first contact with Japanese businesspeople, 50 Christianity, 1; persecution of Christians, 2 Compensation for Japanese expatriate managers: generous compensation and allowance for a good corporate

image for home-office-dispatched managers, 163-164 Conflict resolution: litigation distasteful and destructive, all-inclusive clause in Japanese contract, 110; legal and cultural reasons for shunning “overlawyering,” 111 Confucian philosophy and teaching, 7, 21,85,170 Contract negotiation: subtle and lowkeyed bargaining, avoidance of interpersonal confrontation, 83; mentality of rice farming culture, 84; status game in negotiation, 85 Contractual disputes, avoiding: Japanese-style contract, doctrine of changed circumstances, long-term relationship, necessity of using bilingual attorneys or professional translators, 107 Cultural barriers to communication: world view and patterns of thought, 15-16; concept of self and role expectations, 16; ethnocentrism and nationalistic mentali­ ty, 16-17, sense of superiority, 172 Cultural values, Japanese and Ameri­ can differences in: hierarchy vs. egalitarianism, 18; group orienta­ tion vs. individualism, 18; harmony vs. aggressiveness, 19; conformity vs. defiance, 19; emotionalism vs. rationality, 19-20; face-saving vs. pragmatism, 20; conservatism

Index

vs. social mobility, 21; acquiescence vs. rejection of authority, 22 Decision making: Japanese style of decision-making, 117—119; no independent decision makers, ranks and functions of executives and managers, board of directors’ authority and Japanese Commercial Law, 120; no external auditors, major decisions by ringi process, ato-ringi (after-the-fact consensus process, responsibility for failures, 121-122

212

Education for foreign residents: difficult to enter local schools, international schools in big cities for foreigners and Japanese returnees, 192; foreign university branch campuses, international divisions of Japanese universities, Japan Foundation scholarships, language schools, culture and martial art schools, 193-194 Employment contract: simple letter of appointment, implicit unwritten segments, arbitrary cancellation of contract without specific reasons, 174; no lifetime employment for overseas employees, doctrine of changed circumstances, becoming “cultural bridge,” 174 Female executives, effectiveness of: male-dominated Japanese society, evening outings, hostess bars, 60; dress conservatively and act profes­ sionally, older male assistant, 61 Follow-up communications: courtesy visits, nurturing personal relation­ ships, gold tournaments, midsum­ mer gifts and year-end gifts, 109; Christmas cards, unwritten verbal agreements, 110 Frustrations in negotiating, coping with: cultural empathy and mental flexibility, slower and more delib­ erate team approach, 102; vague statements and frequent pauses, no authority to make decisions on-the-spot, 104;“Japanese yes,” puzzling nonverbal behaviors, 104,

Japanese smiles and laughter, 105; side talk in Japanese, 106 Gift-giving: token of friendship, gift with an ulterior motive, social eti­ quette in gift giving, 61; social rit­ ual, 62; home delivery service; gift-giving occasions, 190-191; social customs of gift-giving, 191 Government-business relationship: close collaboration, Japan, Incorporated, 29 Group decision-making (ringi): plan initiator, drafting of ringi proposal, 122; informal discussions and con­ sultations (nemawashi), obtaining seals of approval, final approval, 123; give-and-take relationship (kashi-kari kankei), 124-125 Harris,Townsend, 3 Hierarchy of seating, 53 Hotels:Western-style hotels, business hotels, motels, high room rates and amenities, 182; Japanese inns and Japanese-style service, nudity and hot spring bath, nudity, per person charge, meal service, 183 Interpersonal communication: person­ al questions, 55-57; communica­ tion skills, 64-65; attitudes, 65-66; level of technical knowledge, 66; cultural factors, 66-69; purpose of communication, 69; communica­ tion context, 69-70; means of communication, 71 Interpersonal relationships with local staff: career advancement and for­ eign assignment, psychological ambivalence and temporary stay mentality, difficulties with local staff, 164;“shadow managers,” excessive socializing, strong attach­ ments to local Japanese communi­ ties, 165-166 Japanese bureaucrats: bureaucratsturned-politicians, politics by bureaucrats, 5; elite bureaucrats, 30; bureaucrats’ control, 21, 29 Japanese business organization: man­ agement familism, recruitment, 32;

Index

nepotism and favoritism, 33; indoctrination and training of new employees, 34—36; continuing the spirit of unity, 36—38; compensa­ tion system and employee dependancy, 38—40; racial discrimina­ tions, 172 Japanese communication habits, 9—10; anticipatory communication, self­ communication, understatement, acting as delegate, 13—14 Japanese educational system: Ministry of Education, 5; uniformity not diversity, 6; school cliques, 6 Japanese geography: total land area, topography, 4 Japanese ethics: situational ethics, 7 Japanese expatriate managers: selec­ tion and assignment, poor English ability, “three-year mentality,” junior managers and qualifications, 160; senior executives and their managerial skills, personal and family problems, 161; assignment without accompanying family members, 162 Japanese government authorities: xenophobic attitude, work visa dif­ ficult to get, Certificate of Alien Registration, 176; sensitive to signs of disrespect, suspicious of overly friendly behaviors, 177 Japanese language: writing system, pronunciation, status-orientation, grammatical structure, 10—12 Japanese names and pronunciation, 52 Japanese politics: Japanese democracy, Japanese Diet, politics by bureau­ crats, 5 Japanese population: population of large urban areas, homogeneity, 4; descendants of migrant laborers, alien residents, 5 Japanese society: racial homogeneity, 2; sensitivity to rank and order, 6; superstitions, 7 Japanese tourist spending, 1; intangi­ ble export, 1 Japanese work ethics, 4 Japan’s business conglomerates: finan­ cial cliques, 31; vertical or pyramid keiretsu, horizontal keiretsu, 32 Jobs in Japan: no detailed job descrip-

tions, few executive and managerial positions, no decision-making authority for foreigners, assignment of a mentor, interpersonal rivalries, 195; foreign laborers, discrimina­ tion at work, illegal workers and unscrupulous employment agents, 196; sports talents, scholars and English teachers, 197; private English language schools, 198; “working holiday visa,” 199 Labor union-management relationship:Trade Union Law of 1945 by the Allied Occupation, Red Purge, 41; enterprise unions, close emo­ tional ties, off-the-record meetings and negotiation, non-standard union classifications, 42 Language and cultural barriers: poor command of English, excessive dependance on bilingual staff, feel­ ing of awkwardness, 166—167; westernized young Japanese and tradition-bound organization, 168 Living and working in Japan: strict immigration laws, expensive living accommodations, negative attitude toward foreigners, 175 Living accommodations:Western-style houses,Western-style condomini­ um apartments, high rent and other expenses, students’ accommoda­ tions, home appliances, 183—184 Meanings are in people, not in words: people attach meanings, 71;“Yes, I understand” (Japanese); fallacy of “I told you” (Westerner), 72 Mediation: choosing an effective mediator, face-to-face meetings, 112; bilingual ability of the media­ tor, control of detrimental rumors, searching for points of potential compromise, 113; concern for face-saving, 114 Meiji Restoration, slogans of: Civilization and Enlightenment; Rich Country, Strong Military; Japanese Spirit,Western Technology, 3 Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI), administrative

213

Index

guidance, retired bureaucrats, 29; legal cartels, 30 Mutual consultation: informal meet­ ing without legal counsel, initial discussion of disputes at staff members’ level, 111

214

Negotiation, conducting: nontask sounding, 97—98; discussing the agenda, good communication, 98—99; signposting, flexible communication,“give points and must points,” 99 Negotiation, preparation for: purpose of negotiation, 85—86; assessment of the situation, 86; selection of negotiation team members, 86—87; characteristics of a good bargainer, 87; negotiation preparation, 88—89; working out an agenda, 89; work­ ing out concession strategies, 89—90 Nontariff barriers: government poli­ cies discriminate foreign compa­ nies, complex distribution system, culture-based difficulty, difficulty of recruiting, legal restrictions, and difficulty of Japanese language, 43; Japanese business protocol, 44 Nonverbal aspect of speech making: facial expressions, gestures, 150; posture and body movements, 151 Nonverbal communication, differ­ ences in: facial expressions, 22—23; eye contact, 23; gestures, body movement, and postures, 24; physi­ cal appearance and attire, 24—25; interpersonal space, 25; arrange­ ment of furniture and personal space, 25—26; tactile communica­ tion, 26—28; time usage, 28; mask­ ing and restraint of emotion, 104 Nonregular employees (Japanese com­ panies), 40-41 Offensive sales tactics: never take “no” for an answer, 76-77;“yes, but” technique, 77; take it or leave it, 77; printed word, 77-78 Opium War of 1841, 3 Organizing a presentation: psycholog­ ical progression pattern, open proposal pattern, logical problemsolution pattern, conversational

style of speaking, 153; questionanswer period, 154 Overseas Japanese Multinationals, working for: globalization of Japanese economy, 155; organiza­ tional structure, personnel man­ agement policies, 156 Participating in a business meeting: understanding of Japanese culture, social customs, and business practices,Americans talk too much, 128; chairperson’s responsibilities, 129; behaviors of Japanese partici­ pants, 130;Western participants’ responsibilities, 130-131; dynamics of decision-making process, 131; primary social tensions, secondary social tensions, 131-132; pressure of deadlines, taking accurate min­ utes, 132; understanding Japanese attitude toward signing of a con­ tract, 133 Perry, Commodore Matthew C., 2 Personal favors, exchanging of: debt of gratitude, 7; social credit, social debt, 8 Personality and status of initial team members: personality and attitude, 58-59; matching of status and ranks, 59-60 Personnel management policy and reward system: preferential treat­ ment of male employees, seniority and group effort, violation of the U.S. Equal Opportunity Employment Act, dislike of racial minorities, 169-170 Presentations, tips for effective: audi­ ence analysis, 151-152; research, time limit, 152 Proper sales presentation: approach, 78-79; attention, 79; need, 79-80; satisfaction, 80; close, 80-81; follow­ up, 81 Public speaking:Yukichi Fukuzawa and Western learning, 135; purpose and occasion of speaking, 136-137; audience analysis and cultural backgrounds 137-138; choosing a topic, 139-140; collecting support­ ing information, 140-141; apology a social ritual, 142

Index

Racial discrimination: historical reasons for discrimination, strong prejudice against Arabs, Southeast Asians, and Africans, token ethnic minority, unwillingness to accept foreigners, 172—173; hesitance of socializing with foreigners, 187 Sales presentation: difficulty of selling to Japan, 72; salesman’s attitude, 73; gift of acquaintance, 74; getacquainted time, 74—75; soft-sell approach, 75—76 Sex discrimination: discrimination against women,“good wife, wise mother,” 41, 170; sexual harass­ ment and sex mores, 170—171 Shopping and dining: department stores, discount stores, supermar­ kets, speciality shops, 185; a variety of culinary experience,American fast-food chains, Japanese delicacies, delivery service, 186 Signing ceremonies: importance of signing ceremonies, typical Japanese signing ceremony, gift exchanges, elaborate cocktail party, photographs, 108 Situational factors (in negotiating), manipulation of: “home-court advantage,” 90; opponent’s territo­ ry, 90—91; neutral territory, 91; time limits and timing, 91—92; playing to audiences, 92; government intervention, 93; face-saving, 93 Social control: shame, what others talk about, heaven’s punishment, fate, reincarnation, 7 Socializing for business contacts: social dinner, 53; introducer’s role, small talk and business card exchange, 54; personal questions, 55—57; golf as icebreaker, 57—58 Socializing with Japanese: reluctant to associate with foreigners, social customs and protocol, gift-giving customs, 187; proper language usage in greeting, 187—188; person­ al questions, 188; important social manners, 189-191 Speech delivery, methods of: impromptu speaking, extempora-

neous speaking, 148: manuscript speaking, 148-149; memorized speaking, 149 Speech organization: chronological or time sequence pattern, 143; geographical or space sequence pattern, topical pattern, problemsolution pattern, 144; motivated sequence pattern, 145; transitions, 145-146 Tokugawa shogunate: 1;Tokugawa Ieyasu, 1;Tokugawa government, 2-3; seclusion of Japan, 2; self­ identity, 2, 84, 96; ethnocentrism, insular mentality, xenophobia, 172 Traditional Japanese values, 4 Transportation systems: bullet-train system, Japan Railways, domestic airline links, 178; subways, electric trains, intercity buses, 179; city buses, taxis, deluxe limousine ser­ vice, 180; driving a private car, parking, narrow roads, traffic viola­ tion and penalties, 181-182 Unacceptable communication strate­ gies, avoiding: ethnocentrism, racial stereotypes, prejudices, polarized communication, 100; misdirected communication, 100-101; decep­ tive communication, 101; pseudo­ logical arguments, 101-102 Unique Japanese negotiation tactics: use of Sun Tsu’s psycholog­ ical strategy, intelligence work, 93; padded offers, 94; contingent offers (you go first), shifting of blame, 94; victim mentality, use of amae and humility, 95; emotion-drenched personal appeal, 95-96; interper­ sonal harmony, 96 Visual aids and handouts, use of: com­ mon forms of visual aids, 146; tips for using visual aids effectively, 147-148 Voice and vocal habits: voice and speaker’s attitude, slower speech, avoiding distracting vocal habits and slang, 149-150

215

About the Author

K azuo N ish iy a m a is professor o f in te rc u ltu ral c o m m u n ic atio n at th e U n iv e rsity o f H a w a i‘i. H e has extensive exp erien ce liv in g and teaching throughout Asia. H e is the author o f Japan-U.S. Business Communication and Welcoming the Japanese Visitor: Insights, Tips, Tactics.