DK Nature Encyclopedia

Citation preview

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The essential

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N AT U R E Encyclopedia

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DK PUBLISHING, INC.

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PUBLISHING

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BOOK

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Senior Art Editors

Senior Editors

Rachael Foster, Marcus James

Hazel Egerton, Fran Jones

Art Editors

Editors

Tina Borg, Ann Cannings, Tory Gordon-Harris, Neville Graham, Jane Tetzlaff, Martin Wilson

Gill Cooling, Maggie Crowley, Ben Morgan, Veronica Pennycook Amanda Rayner, Selina Wood

US Editor Jill Hamilton US Associate Editor William Each

Editorial consultant David Burnie

US Editorial consultants Joseph DiCostanzo, Ray Rogers Authors David Burnie, Jonathan Elphick, Theresa Greenaway, Barbara Taylor, Marek Walisiewicz, Richard Walker DTP designer Andrew O’Brien Picture research Mollie Gillard, Melanie Simmonds

Special photography Frank Greenaway, Harry Taylor Production Josie Alabaster First American Edition, 1998 468 109 75 Ostrich

Published in the United States by DK Publishing, Inc

(Struthio camelus)

9 5 M a d i s o n Av e n u e , New York, New York 10016

m

Copyright ©1998 Dorling Kindersley Limited, London All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in aretrieval

system, or transmitted by any means, electronic, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the copyright owner. Published in Great Britain by Dorling Kindersley Limited. Libraiy of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data The DK nature encyclopedia. -1st American ed. P-

c

m

.

Includes index.

Summary: Covers the processes and life forms of the natural world. I S B N 0 - 7 8 9 4 - 3 4 11 - 3

1. Natural histoi-y-Encyclopedias, juvenile. 2. NatureEncyclopedias, Juvenile, (1. Natural history-Encyclopedias. 2. NatureGiant.lacewing

Encyclopedias.) I. DK Publishing. Inc. QH48.D56 1998

{Osmylus fulvkephalus)

508’.03-dc21

5 98-16657 C I P A C

i

Colour Reproduced by Colourscan, Singapore Printed in Spain by Artes Gra cas Toledo, S.A.U. D.L. TO: 1614-1999

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i

Contents How to use this book

8

Migration and navigation

46

Defense

48

Defense

50

Hunting

52

Social animal

54

Partners and parasite

56

Animal homes

58

Coping with extremes

60

Evolution of the Asian

elephant

J THE

N AT U R A I

WORL

10

How life began

12

Evolution

14

Prehistoric life

16

Rose periwinkle (Catharanthus roseus)

Mm 'WiilitU

E C O L O G Y

62

Nutrient cycle

6 4

Food chains and webs ...

66

Oceans

68

18

Seashores and tidepools

70

Cell

20

Coral reefs

72

Feeding and nutrition

22

Wetland

74

Photosynthesis

24

Rivers, lakes, and ponds

76

Respiratio

26

Coniferous forests

78

Reproductio

28

Deciduous forest

80

Courtship, mating, and parental care..30 32 Growth and development

Tropical rainforests

82

Grassland

84

Movement on lan

34

Deserts

86

Movement in ai

36

Mountains and cave

88

Movement in wate

38

Polar region

90

Rhythms of lif

40

People and plant

92

Sense

42

People and animal

9 4

Communicatio

44

People and natur

96

Mode! showing compound eyes of ahorse y

HOW

LIVING

s





WORK

s

s

e



s

s



e

r

s

d

s

n

r



n

n

s





2

s

1



D

s

fl





s

s

THINGS

Pests and weeds ....

9 8

Common star

sh

{Asterias rubens)

Animals in danger

100

Plants in danger....

102

Habitats in danger

104

Conservation

106

* .7*

-

f f :

ANIMALS

140

Invertebrate

142

Worm

144

Jelly sh and coral

146

Snails and slugs

148

Bivalve

150

Octopuses and squi

152

Common tufted mycena

{Myc£na galericiilaLa)

HOW LIVING THINGS ARE CLASSIFIE

108

Star sh and sea urchin

154

Bacteria and viruse

n

o

Arthropod

156

Single-celled organisms

11 2

Crustaceans

158

Fung

11 4

Spiders, scorpions, and mites

160 Honeybee {Apis viellifei'o)

Worker

Queen

5 a s

162

Insect

Male fern

{Dryopteris

llx-mas)

eas, and lice

164

Grasshoppers and crickets..,

166

Palm

130

Vertebrate

182

Broadleaved tree

132

Fis

184

Grasses and sedge Parasitic and epiphytic plants

134

Sharks and ray Bony sh

186

Carnivorous plant

138

Bony sh

190

d

180

s

Bees and wasp

s

128

D

Flowers and seed

s

178

s

Ants and termite

fl

126

s

Flowering plant



Butter

s

124



Conifers and cycad

s

174

s

Flie

s

122

s

Ferns and horsetail

fl

172

s

Beetle

s

120

s

Mosses and liverworts

s

170



Bugs



11 8

s

Algae and lichen

1

Dragon ies, may ies, and mantids....l68

2

11 6

s

PLANTS

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s

fl

fi

s

fi

fi

i

fi

s

s

s



s

fi

s

h

Cockroaches,

136

ies and moths

176

188

Amphibians

192

Bat

240

Salamanders and newts ..

194

Armadillos and anteater

242

Frogs and toads

196

Rabbits and hare

244

Reptile

198

Rodent

246

Tortoises and turtles

200

Bear

248

Lizards

202

Raccoons and pandas

250

Snake

204

Dogs

252

Crocodiles and alligators

206

Badgers, weasels, and otters ....

254

Cat

256

Civets, mongooses, and hyenas

258

Seals and manatees

260

Whales

262

Dolphins and porpoise

264

Verreaux’s eagle

{Aqiiila verrecnixii)

Birds

208

Elephants and hyraxe

266

Flightless bird

210

Horses, asses, and zebra

268

Seabirds

212

Rhinos and tapir

270

Ducks, geese, and swans

214

Hippos and pig

272

Wading birds Birds of pre

216

Giraffes and camel

274

218

Deer

276

Game bird

220

Cattle and antelop

278

Parrots

222

Primates

280

Owls

224

Monkey

282

Swifts and swallow

226

Apes

284

Songbird

228

Tropical bird

230

Hippopotamus {Hippopotamus amphibius) ^ebra moray eel (Gsmnomuraeyia zebra)

SECTION

Classi cation

286

Classi cation

288



s

s

s

s

e

s



s





s

s

304



Acknowledgments

s

238

s

Insectivores..

s

302



Picture credits

y

236

2

Marsupials ..



294

s

Inde

1

234



Monotremes

s

290

s

Glossary

s

232



Mammals ....



s











s

fi

fi



s





x

s

s

REFERENCE

TO

USE

Tins

BOOR

How TO USE THIS BOOK This illustrated encyclopedia of nature provides detailed information on every major plant and animal group, arranged in an easy-tofollow order. The book begins with asection on how life evolved, and looks at how living things work and

investigating the characteristics of many species. Each animal or plant entry opens with an introduction to the subject, then goes into more detail, using photographs and artworks to illustrate the facts. There is aglossary of scienti c terms and acomprehensive index to guide you directly to the subject you want.

t into their individual habitats. It then

describes the ve kingdoms of the living world, Animal and

Abbreviations used in this book

PIANT

sp.

species

spp.

species (plural)

Imperial ft

feet

m

inches

\

sq miles mph °F o

/

yards square miles miles per hour degrees Eahrenheit o u n c e s

l b

pounds

Metric n

m e t e r s

i

m

millimeters

m

c

centimeters

m

k m

kilometers

sq km

square kilometers kilometers per hour degrees Celsius

kiiih

R

grams

k.if

kilograms

COLOR

for

food.

A N N O TAT I O N ' S

Man)- photographs and artworks have explanatoiy text in ito/irletters. This points oift

cUff'ereiu color border to help you locate the section easily. This page on cats has the color used tor all the animal pages.

Most of the pages in this book look at speci c groups of animals and plants. The pages illustrated on the right, for example, look at different types of cats from pumas to tigers. The pages usually have adescription of typical animal anatomy or plant structure. They also provide further detail, such as how they move, feed, reproduce, or hunt

BORDERS

Each seclion of the book has a

PA G E S

features that arc described more fullv in the text.

\

Cats

M

M

U

.

S

● | T . E T H . \ N D . S K r i . . V . a l N u - r l h

< 1 s k u l l . 11 l.killiii

a j i n w e

llesb. Ibe ja

Cals are NAIT KE's MO.ST ef cient lumtei's.

aiicUI. l o l l e d

icse ciiniivorous (meat-eating) animals feed

I h a t

iilmosi enliielv vertebrate.s, and use n n ;md stealth lo stalk their victims silently before

g

iitlacking. .Most wild cats are solitary ;md seeretive. They are most active at night, and h; .■ acme hearing and vision to h larktiess. The 37 species in the

eat

f ;m i i l v

are often divided into

two groups —small and big cats. Small cats crttncli to eat, rest with

There

cals lie

own to eat, rest i d It, and ca r

■i r p a w ^ (but

may also be information on individual species within these groups.

o

a

r

dim light, ihi'lr

'iiL.

iheii' jiaws lucked imder them. i and can purr (but not roar). Big £

d u l l

'4 ^

IKI11..1 cal's pniiilsoprii

r

big cat species -the 1 t i g e r, jaguar, leopard, snow leopard, clouded leo|)ard, and cheetah.

Ecology pages

% \

narroned

C.VI .w.vroMi'

Fbpiisivicfeopeo

(kU.s liave lillic, imiscular Ixidie.s ilia i-nahle llu'i

The section on ecolog)' provides information on different habitats, such as coral reefs, deciduous forests, wetlands, and deserts. These pages give adescription of the habitat and explain how living things are in uenced by their surroundings as well as by the other species that live there. In this section there are also pages on the relationship between people and nature. These describe how people need plants and animals to sun’ive_, but how some living things are endangered through human interference.

.'iigili,

■e r . l l u - v and ilexiliiliiy. Unlike og.s, In are not efjiiippe for long-dislame i ning. ,M( ■si.s, and are agile d i m l x Ts t h a n k s heir .siroiig forelinil and chest le.s, and iheii iazor-sliai']) claw.s. Iliey ii.se liieir powerful liiiKlIiiuhs Ixilam .'e, ami iheii' long lail.s when lea|>iiig climbing.

wn$k€rs tor feehog oO^is dark

V-

‘iaspipg longue lor slripping esn oH bones

and some features seen in birds,

%

Giraffe (Giraffa Camelopardalis)

such as feathers.

CHARACTERISTICS

Living things do not evolve during asingle lifetime. Instead, adaptations gradually build up as one generation follows another. In giraffes, for example, natural selection favored individuals with long necks, because they can reach

Fossils are like arecord book of life on

shorter necks. In the past, giraffes with extra-long necks probabh- produced more young that survived into adulthood, so extra-long necks have slow'ly become afeature of the species as awhole.

reaching for leaves EVOLUTION

OF

ELEPHANTS

Scientists can often trace the evolution of acomplete group of species by looking at fossils. Elephants, for example, belong to a group of animals called proboscideans, which includes more than 150 species that are now extinct. The earliest proboscideans were

This species is alive today.

small animals with short tusks and trunks. As

time went bv, their tusks, trunks. and bodies became

larger.

Moerltherium lived about

Phlomla lived about

50 million years ago.

35 million years ago.

Gomphotherium lived about 20 million years ago.

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,

THE

Delnotherium lived until

2million years ago.

Asian elephant

{Kleplias maximns)

Evidence erom the present

HORSESHOE

CRAB

Evolution never starts from scratch. Instead,

it works by adapting features that already exist, turning them to new uses. This means that all living things contain built-in clues that show how they have evolved. Adolphin and achimpanzee, for example, look nothing like each other, and live in different ways. However, underneath, their skeletons share the same pattern of bones. This shared pattern shows that they have evolved in

*d.

* Shoulder blade Humerus > . ●

■■

; ■ /

,Ulna

different ways from the same distant ancestor.

Radius

.rrSi.

Short, strong nger bones (phalanges)

\

V

i

/T'l

t

Adolphin's /

is not

btit arelative

of spiders and scorpions that lives in shallow seawater. Horseshoe

crabs are “living fossils” -members of agroup that has changed little in millions of years. They are thought to have et'olved veiy slowly because they eat awide range of foods and live

f

in astable habitat.

ipper has

Size: Approximately 2ft (60 cm) long Habitat: Sandy and muddy shores

ve “ ngers."

Distribution: Indian and Paci c Oceans

Reproduction: Female lays thousands of eggs. They develop into swimming lanae.

Humerus

\ d '

Chimpanzee

Achimpanzee's arm also has three main

arm bones Ulna

Radius

bones and

ve

Diet: Mollusks, worms, and small seabed animals

ngers. Rhodesian

Gray wolf ARTIFICIAI.

its name, this animal

Despite a c r a b ,

Domed! 'H® shield (carapace) for protection |i Scienti c name: Tachypleus Iririrnlatus

Finger bones (phalanges)

three main bones and

Dolphin ipper bones

Alaskan malamute

SELECTION

Natural selection is not the only reason why animals and plants change. In arti cial selection, humans control the wav living things reproduce. Many different breeds or varieties can be produced from asingle original species. Dogs, for example, are all descendants of the gray ivolf, which

was domesticated about 12,000 years ago. Some breeds of dog were used for hunting, and others for rounding up animals or pulling sleighs. CONVERGENT EVOLUTION C

Remnants of hind limb bones,

Pygmy right whale

During the course of evoltition, things that live in similar

(Cjiperea mnrginata)

conditions often adapt in the same ways. Sometimes they become so alike that they arc dif cult to tell apart. This process is called convergent evolution. It explains why

f'L T

W

some spurges resemble cacti. Many spurges have evolved spines and water-holding stems to help them

* - a

survive in CHANGING

TRACK

Evolution does not always make animals and plants more complicated. Some living things adapt by losing features they once had. Whales, for example, evolved from four-legged ancestors that lived on land. When they took up life in the water, their hind limbs slowly disappeared and were replaced by tail paddles called

ukes. In most whales, all that remains

dry places. The wing colors of this butter y species vary from place to place.

Sharp spines protect the plant from grazing animals.

of the hind limbs is acollection of tinv bones.

Speciation New species can evolve in several different ways. Through the most common method, an original species spreads across awide area and scattered groups are kept separate. These groups breed in

isolation, and each one develops features that make it distinct.

Spurge

Cactus

{Euphorbia tescomm)

{Coiiyocactus

That is what has happened with

butter ies continue to evolve separately, they will become so different that they will be unable to interbreed. At this

stage, each type becomes anew species.

Butter

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ies and moths; 176 Dogs: 252

Elepllvnts and mTCAXES: 266

A m a z o n i a n

Agrias butter y

Prehlstoric life: 16

{Agrias claudina)

15 fi

melanotrichus)

Find out mor

the butter ies shown here. If the

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EVOLUTION

Prehistoric

N AT U R A L

WORLD

life

Since life began, more than 3.5 billion years ago, evolution has produced an enormous variety of living things. Some have been preserved as fossils that tell us about how they lived. They show that animal life underwent an explosive burst of evolution about 545 million years ago. The rst plants moved from water onto land about 440 million years ago, and by about 325 million years ago, the rst ying insects had taken to the air. However, there have also been setbacks -on at

least

ABRIEF HISTORY OF LIFE Until about abillion years ago, most living things were microscopic, single-celled organisms, such as bacteria. By about 545 million years ago, animals with hard shells and body cases had appeared. They were all invertebrates -the rst vertebrates did not appear until 45 million years later. The rst multicellular life-forms to move onto land

were probably plants. The rst land animals were arthropods, such as scorpions and centipedes. Dinosaurs become common on land

f a

(170 million years ago).

ve occasions, mass extinctions

have wiped out huge numbers of species.

'ttf-i

Dinosaurs die

Small mammals

out (65 million years ago).

become more diverse

(80 million years ago).

Birds evolve from reptiles (147 million years ago).

F

'■

'

'4^. m.'.

Invertebrates with hard cases, such as trilobites, appear in the seas (545 million years ago).

Modern humans

appear (300,000 years ago).

Plants spread onto land (440 million years ago). _

The rst bacteria appear (3.8 billion years ago

Earth forms

(4.6 billion years ago).

The

rst animals

Although animal life

The powerful, swinging

evolved about one billion

tail made aformidable

years ago, the rst animals

weapon.

to leave clear, fossilized

LIFE

remains are more recent.

IN

THE

SEA

For more than 0billion yeans, living

Fossil animals from the Ediacara

things existed only in water. The rst marine animals were all invertebrates,

Hills in Australia are about 680

million years old; those in Canada’s Burgess Shale -afamous, fossil-rich area in the Rocky Mountains -date back about 530 million years. Some of these animals had strange body forms that have not been seen since. Many zoologists

Fossil and artwork

but by 500 million years ago they had been joined by the rst vertebrates -the jawless

Anomalocaris -

sh. Some of these sh, such as Cephalaspis, had heavily armored heads. They spent

one of the strange

most of their lives on seabeds or riverbeds,

animals found in

sucking up food through their mouths.

reconstruction of

the Burgess Shale.

think that they were evolutionary “experiments

Fossil of the

that lost the struggle for survival.

sh

Cephalaspis, one of the

rst vertebrates

Model of Ichthyostega, one of the

rst vertebrates to walk on land.

Forest swamps Around 310 million

years ago, humid conditions allowed vast forests to form

> 1

on swampy ground. The trees in these forests were

all relatives of today’s club mosses and \ ■■ i.

horsetails. The forests were also home -

A?

■.-k

to giant millipedes, cockroaches, scorpions, and dragon ies, the longest with a28 in (70 cm) !Mngspan. There were no birds

1

S

A

or mammals because these had

*not yet evolved. Over millions of years, the remains of these forests formed huge deposits of coal.

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THE

FIRST FOUR LEGS

The rst vertebrates to spend part of their lives on land were species such as Ichthyostega, which were the forerunners

of today’s amphibians. These animals evolved from sh, and their bodies still had long tails and shlike scales. They

crawled out of the water on widely splayed

legs that had evolved from lobe-shaped ns. Like modern amphibians, these

early ancestors laid their eggs in water.

PREHISTORIC

LIFE

The age of reptiles

GIANT

SCORPION

Reptiles evolved from

amphibians, and the rst species appeared about 340 million years ago. Unlike amphibians, early reptiles were well adapted

'his extinct scorpion lived around 320-290 million yeans ago. It was nearly 10 times as big

as the largest scorpion alive today and had ahuge sting at the end of its tail. iLs fossilized remains were found in Scotland -

to life in dry places and they spread to many new habitats. For nearly 200 million years,

apart of the world where lush forests existed when

the scorpion

reptiles dominated life on land and certain types grew to a

phenomenal size. They also

was alive.

Aherd ofhadrosaurs -planheating dinosaurs that lived around 70 million years ago.

spread to water, while some -

the pterosaurs -evolved leathery wings and could y or glide. Euoplocephalus, aplant¬ eating dinosaur from western North America.

i

i

m a D I N O S A U R S A,

The dinosaurs were the largest, most varied group

m

of prehistoric reptiles. They ranged from animals

■V-:

about the size of achicken to giants such as the plant¬ eating Brnchiosaurus, which weighed up to .50 tons. Unlike today’s reptiles, some dinosaurs may have been warm-blooded, allowing them to be more active and

alert. Some may also have ■1 incubated their eggs and perhaps guarded their young.

i

I

Fragment of jointed leg

Scienti c name: Gigantoscorpio Size; Up to 3ft (90 cm) long Habitat: Forest

oor

Distribution: Warm regions worldwide Reproduction: Female probably gave birth to live young and may have carried them on her back Diet: Insects and other animals

PRESERVED

Armored

skin

protected this dinosaur from

predators.

Strong legs made Euoplocephalus a

I

IN

AMBER

Most fossils are preserved in rock, but prehistoric remains can be preseived in other ways. Millions of years ago, the spider, gnat, and conifer tnig below became trapped in sticky tree resin. The resin then set solid, and changed into ahard substance called amber. Animals trapped in amber are sometimes so well preserved tlrat they look as if they have just died. Under amicroscope, every structure in their bodies can be clearly seen.

n i m b l e r u n n e r.

MASS

EXTINCTION

Throughout life’s histoiy, millions of species have slowly become extinct. On some occasions, however, mass exdnctions

of vast numbers of species have occurred in arelatively short period -perhaps because of environmental catastrophes. The last mass extinction, 65 million years ago, may have been caused by ameteorite striking the

Spider (40 million years old)

Fungus gnat (40 million years old)

Conifer twig (40 million years old)

Earth. The extinctior

This crater in Arizona was formed by ameteorite that struck the Earth about 50,000 years ago.

away the dinosaurs ai many other reptiles.

Many mammoths helped woolly mammoths

The rise of mammals Mammals

had colossal tusks.

survive in the

Ice Age.

rst appeared while reptiles dominated

the land and for along time they remained small M and unobtrusive. But when dinosaurs and other S

Woolly mammoth {Mammuthus primigenius)

reptiles died out, mammals took their place. ^

Over the past 65 million years, mammals have developed ahuge range of shapes and sizes and have spread to most habitats. However, in recent times, prehistoric humans may have helped drive many species

Find out mor Mammals: 232 Reptiles: 198 S i n g l e - c e l l e d o r g a n i s m s : 11 2

to extinction -including mammoths, |^hH||||

Ve r t e b r z V t e s : 1 8 2

which died out about 8,000 years ago.

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17

HOW

LIVING

THINGS

WORK

HOW LIVING THINGS WORK JLwing THINGSDIFFERenormouslyinshape

The essentials oe liee

and size and in the lives they lead. Some are highly active and always on the move, while others seem to do very little and hardly look

This tiny crustacean, known as Cyclops, lives in freshtvater

habitats. Although only about 0.08 in (2 mm) long, it is acomplex piece of living engineering. It gets energy

alive. Despite these differences, living things all

by catching food, it grows by shedding its skin, and it

share aset of basic characteristics that make life work. One of the most fundamental of these is

veiy sensitive to its surroundings and responds very quickly.

Plants can also sense certain things in their surrounclings,

such as sunlight and touch, but they

respiration, or the release of energy from food. Another is the uptake of nutrients, which in

respond more slowly than animals. Cyclops model

turn requires the disposal of waste substances.

Living things also grow and develop as they age, and they respond to their surroundings often by moving around. Finally -and most importantly -all living things reproduce.

reproduces by scattering eggs. Like most animals, Cyclops is

(Cyclops %p.)

>

NUTRITION

NutrienLs provide Ihing things tvith the raw materials that they need. In man)' living things including all animals -they also provide the energy that is needed to make cells work. However, not all

living things get their energy from

N u t r i t i o n

Cyclops uses apair of small antennae to touch and smell food

nutrients. Plants and some

bacteria get their energ)directly from sunlight in aprocess called photosynthesis.

This mouse will

provide the energy needed to power the toad's body. /

RESPONSE SYSTEMS

For animals, rapid responses are essential for suiwival. In all but the simplest species, they are co-ordinated by nerves -cells that are special!)' adapted to carry signals from one part of the bodv to another. Aquick-acting nervous system allows achameleon

Response systems Cyclops has asingle central eye that guides it toward light

to spot ally, judge exactly how far away

Waste disposal Cyclops releases waste substances into the surrounding water

it is, and hit it with .IS

.

its sticky tongue. .

.

Jackson’s chameleon

(Chamaeleo jacksonii)

WASTE All

DISPOSAL the

chemical

●

Powerful muscles help aspringbok (Antidorcas marsupialis) escape.

processes in living things produce waste products. If these are allowed to

■M O V E M E N T

build up, they can poison living cells. ^ To prevent this from happening, waste ’ has to be expelled. Important kinds of waste include carbon dioxide gas, which many animals expel through their gills or

lungs, and substances containing nitrogen, which are often carried awav as urine.

■-●yy

Elephant droppings contain waste left over after food has been digested.

18 fl

.

Movement

Cyclops swims by moving its legs.

All living things can move in some tvay, even though it may only happen on atiny scale. Plants can move their leaves and owers, and many micro-organisms can travel from place to place. However, the best movers by far are animals. Animals are the only living things that have evolved muscles -groups of special cells that can contract rapidly to luake parts of the body move.

HOW

LIVING

THINGS

WORK

RESPIIG\TION

Growth

Cellular respiration is aprocess that is carried out inside living cells. During this process, chemical fuels are broken down and energ)' is released. Warm¬ blooded animals depend on this energy to stay warm. Some living things can carry out respiration without oxygen, but for most an oxygen supply is

{Helianthus annuus)

of

asun

ower

By the time the owerhead opens, upward growth has stopped.

e.ssential. In mammals and oilier

large land animals, oxygen is delivered to the body’s cells by breathing air. Respiration keeps asnow leopard (Panthera uncia) warm. Respiration Cells throughout the body break down nutrients to release energy.

First true leaves form and stem grows. Seed

Seed leaves

germinates.

quickly expand.

rowth

/clops periodically eds its hard outer tse, or exoskeleton.

0

lis allows it to grow. G R O ’ W T H

Most lix'ing things, apart from the ver)' smallest, grow by making extra cells. As they grow, they also develop, meaning that they take on new shapes or become capable of working in new ways. Some living things kee]i growing throughout their lives. Others, such as sun owers

1

When DNA copies itself, each strand forms acomplete new molecule.

f

V

IV

Chemicals IN

COMMAND

The processes that keep things alive are controlled by chemical instructions inside evei7 cell. These instructions, or genes, are built into asubstance called deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).

Amother hen carefully guards her newly hatched chick.

Amolecule of DNA contains two spiral strands connected by millions of molecules, called nucleotides, linked together. There are four types of nucleotides, and their precise sequence spells out the instructions that the DNA holds. When cells divide, DNA copies itself so that the instructions can be handed on.

Asingle gene is formed by along sequence of

Dwarf hamster

chemical links.

C’.HANGING

{Phodopus sp.)

GENES

00

in.structions would never

change. As aresult, each species w'ould always stay the same. But very'

. »

occasionally, DNA makes mistakes.

Feeding and nutrition: 22

characteristics that can sometimes be passed on.

Photo.swtiiesis: 24

If this happens it becomes more widespread, causing aspecies to change, or evolve.

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e

19 fl

Find out mor

Galled mutations, these mistakes create new' Sometimes, amutation turns out to be useful.

fl

Albino hamsters are white because

mutations prevent their bodies from making normal pigments.

if DNA ahvays copied itself perfectly, its

Reproduction: 28 Respiration: 26

Cells

LIVING

THINGS

WORK

Microvilli absorb

Animal

dissolved substances

cell

Atypical animal cell is just 0.0008 in (0.02 mm) across. It is surrounded by athin outer layer called amembrane,

from outside the cell.

Vesicles carry large particles

Cells are the building blocks

into the cell.

which acts as abarrier between

that make up most living things. They are usually far too small to Cytoplasm see without amicroscope, but despite their tiny size, they are remarkably complicated. Each cell is controlled by genes, which are usually held in the cell nucleus

the cell and its surroundings. Inside the cell, structures

called organelles are set in ajellylike uid called cytoplasm. The organelles carry out processes such as controlling energy ow or making proteins. Most

r

animal cells are soft and

in the form of achemical called

exible. To sun ive, they

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). The smallest living things consist of just asingle cell. Larger forms of life, such as animals and plants,

must

absorb

from

divide to make new cells. The nucleus holds most

of cells, many of which are specialized to carry out speci c tasks. All these cells work together to keep the organism alive.

of the cell's genes. Membrane

\Magni ed view of

An organelle where many proteins are made.

enzymes that break things down.

fan Acinetobacter

energy from food.

- V. b a c t e r i u m

Nucleus

. a

Golgi body gathers substances made by the cell before they are exported.

Endoplasmic reticulum makes and stores

trv

PILM4T CEI.L Plant cells have membranes but

.

much

.

forms of life.

of the cell is under pre.ssure and presses outward against the wall to keep the whole cell rigid. Unlike animal cells, plant cells contain ti bright green organelles called chloroplasts. Chloroplasts harness the ienergy in sunlight and

have cell walls and

'.Si rz

+.

^membranes, they lack nuclei and mitochondria

and have no organelles. Cells like these are called

‘prokaiyotic” in contrast with the “eukaiyotic” cells of most other living things. Prokar)'Otic cells were the

rst to evolve

after life appeared on Earth.

lled vacuole

presses the rest of the

The cell wall is

arigid jacket

/

Channels

that holds the

run between

cell in shape.

Muscle cells contain long molecules that slide together

building materials for the cell. This process is called photosynthesis.

The liquid-^

carry out photosynthesis.

Although they

i< use it to make food and

I

the cell wall. Chloroplasts /

smaller

cells titan oilier

' ■

case called acell wall. The interior

'

SIMPLE CELLS Bacteria have

are also enclosed by atough outer

chemical substances.,

cell agains

food

their surroundings. \centrioles help cells

have millions or even billions

when amuscle contracts.

Types of cell

neighboring cells. Nerve cells carry electrical signals GIANT

r

around an animal's

CELLS

body at high speed.

A.-V

A s -

A

Although most cells are microscopic, some are visible to the naked eye.

' N

For example, amarine alga called mermaid’s wine glass (Acelabulnria) has asingle mushroom-shaped cell that grows up to 3in (8 cm) long. However, the largest cells of all belong

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cells carry oxygen around many animals’ bodies..

Guard cells open and close pores in leaves.

SPECIALIZED

In single-celled organisms, one cell carries out all the

in length. An unfertilized ostrich egg consists of asingle cell that can weigh

activities needed to sustain life. Multicellular organisms,

Mermaid’s wine glass {Acetabularia)

fi

Red blood

to animals. In giraffes, some neiwc

2 0 t

/

/ ,I

cells can reach more than 13 ft (4 m)

more than 3lb boz (1.5 kg).

.ai'

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HOW

CELLS

such as animals and plants, have many kinds of cells, and each is specially shaped for the work it carries out. As well as looking different, the cells have varied life spans. In animals, for example, red blood cells last for only afew weeks before they are replaced, but nerve cells last for life.

CELLS

Creeping buttercup {Ranunculus repens)

E U G L E N A

Leaves contain cells

This tiny single-celled organism is common in fresh water throughout the world. It is very

specialized for carrying out photosynthesis.

Hoots

Creeping stems form cells that can develop into new plants.

contain

cells

specialized for carrying

/

adaptable because it can harness energy from the Sun (like aplant) or switch to eating food (like an animal). Eugfenapropels itself by its whiplike llagellum, which beats to make the cell spi j i through the water. i

'ii

water and nutrients.

Buttercup root WORKING

TOGETHER

In multicellular organisms, different types of cells are not mixed up randomly. Instead, they are organized in ways that allow them to work together. Groups of identical cells are arranged into sheets called tissues. Separate tissues are then arranged to form organs, such as leaves, roots, lungs, or eyes. Different organs often work together -such as in the root system of aplant or in the nen'ous system of an animal.

Storage cells

Vascula

store food

11

cells carry ' water and dissolved

Flagellum

made by the plant's leaves.

nutrients up the plant.

Scienti c name: Kuglena viridis Size: About 0.002 in (0.05 mm) long Habitat: Ponds and ditches

root hair

Root hair absorb water

is formed by an

and dissolved

individual cell.

Distribution: Worldwide

Reproduction: Divides in two

nutrients from

Diet: Bacteria and small food particles

the soil.

HOW MAKING

THINGS

CELLS?

number of cells, but the exact total varies

Some cells are able to move themselves,

while others can move things around them. They do this by changing shape or by waving microscopic hairs called agella and cilia. Human sperm cells, for example, swim toward an egg cell by beating their long agella. At the same time, the egg cell is carried toward the sperm by cilia that line the inside of the fallopian tube. When asperm cell meets an egg cell, the two join together to form an embiyo.

»Afrom one individual to another. In afew

ft-'.' species, evei^ individual has exactly the same number of cells once they are fully grown. One example is the tiny nematode worm Caenorhabdilis degans, which has been studied intensively by biologists. Wdien they are mature, these worms always have exactly 959 cells. Nearly athird

f t

Vof

before the main pari orII.

the

cells

are

involved

^in the nerc'ous system.

This cell has just undergone mitosis, producing two

The nucleus divides of

MANY

S. Most animals and plants have alarge

MOVE

'Vn

identical cells.

y

jNCaenorhabditis elegans lives in soil and feeds on bacteria.

Magni ed view of sperm (yellow) and cilia (green and mauve) inside auterus Animal cell dividing

C E L L S T H AT S E L F - D E S T R U C T

Cell constricts

Living things often change shape as they grow. During this process, cells sometimes “commit suicide” by digesting themselves from within. This happens when atadpole

i n c e n t e r.

changes into afrog and when acaterpillar changes into abutter y. The dead cells are not wasted. When they have been broken down, their raw materials are absorbed by The cell

other cells and reused.

cytoplasm divides after the nucleus.

CELL

Cells in atadpole's tail selfdestruct as it changes into afrog.

DIVISION

In order to grow and reproduce, living things have to make new cells. They do this by cell division. In the most common form, the cell copies its genes, its nucleus divides, and two identical cells are produced This is called mitosis. In anotlier type of division, the original cell divides, and the new cells divide again. The four new cells each have aunique mixture of genes and half the usual number of chromosomes, ailed meiosis, this is only used in sexual reproduction.

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21

Find out mor Animai.s: 140 B a c t e r i a a n d v i r u s e s : 11 0 Photosynthesis: 24 S i n g l e - c e l l e d o r g a n i s m s : 11 2

P

LIVING

THINGS

WORK

Feeding and nutrition Food is the fuel that enables animals to survive. It provides the raw materials for growth, and fuels muscles and body processes. Animals eat ahuge range of different foods, including plants, other animals, and dead remains. Each species has its own techniques for getting the food that it needs. Hunters and grazers may wander long distances in search of a meal, but some animals stay in one place and collect

Zebras are herbivores that graze on grass.

food that comes within reach. Once food has been

P l A N T- E AT E R S

eaten, it must be digested so that the animal can

Plant-eating animals are knotvn as herbivores. Plant food is often easy to nd, but it is sometimes low in nutrients. Seeds can be packed with energy-rich food, but other parts of plants -particularly stems and leaves -contain fewer nutrients that animals can use. To survive, grazing and browsing animals have to spend alarge amount of each day eating, and have specialized digestive systems to get the maximum nutrition from their food.

absorb the nutrients. Foods are often broken

down with the help of microorganisms

L'f' 1:'

'●N'

A

-

that live inside animals’ bodies. Plants contain astore Plants

of nutrients that

capture the

animats can eat.

energy in sunlight

5 ^

and use it '.-’6

to grow.

DIGESTING

Acaterpillar digests plant obtain the

energy that it needs.

^Aplant absorbs simple

PIANT

FOOD

To extracl nutrients from cellulose -the tough substance found in leaves and stems -many animals &get help from microorganisms. In ruminant mammals, 'such as sheep, antelope, and cattle, microorganisms live in alarge stomach chamirer called the rumen. After the microorganisms have broken down the cellulose, the food passes into other stomach chambers to be digested.

food to

nutrients from the soil.

Ruminant digestive system

Staying alive Living things can be divided into A two different groups according to the kinds of nutrients that they need. Autotrophs, which include plants, need simple nutrients, such as minerals from the soil. They do not need to eat food because they can get energy directly from sources such as sunlight. Heterotrophs, which include fungi and animals, cannot clo this. Instead, they get energy from nutrients in food. Without autotrophs to make food in the rst place, heterotrophs could not exist.

Remaining particles proceed through the abomasum.

After

' A

'

eating, a

Further

digestion takes place

ruminant re-chews

in the

its food to

c e c u m .

help digestion.

Microorganisms /

Reticulum collects

Absorption of water and

break down food

some food for

small molecules takes

in the rumen.

re-chewing.

place in the omasum.

Aboa constrictor can swallow an animal half

its own weight.

lake sdigestive system breaks down almost everything except the prey's fur.

O M N I V O R E S

Instead of specializing in plant or

animal food, omnivores eat almost Rat prey

anything edible that they come across. Omnivores

Meat-eaters

●^include mammals such

Animals that eat meat are known as carnivores. Compared to plants, animal food contains lots of useful nutrients. However, unlike plants, animals have many more ways of avoiding

as bears, raccoons, and

foxes, and also many birds. Compared to other animals, most omnivores

attack, so predators often have to work hard to get ameal.

are good at adapting to

Small, warm-blooded predators, such as shrews, need a constant supply of food and have to hunt much of the day.

■4 .

By contrast, alarge, cold-blooded hunter, such as apython or crocodile, uses relatively little energy for its size. Predators like these can often sunwe for many weeks between meals. 22 fi

A

fi

"

^

HOW

Apied crow (Corvus albus) feeding on aroadside casualty.

changes to their habitat. Many have learned to live alongside humans, where they can eat leftover food and animals that have been hit by cars.

Acarnivore's canine teeth

grip its prey.

AND

NUTRITION

Processing food G R E AT E R

Digestion works fastest when food is cut up into small pieces. To do mammal’s upper and lower teeth

Sharp-edgecTCi

Wolf skull

rear teeth slice /

{Cants lupus)

through meat. /

Aherbivore’s incisor

teeth grip and bite off parts of piants.

■G N

occlude (they t together precisely when the animal closes its jaws). This allows the teeth to chew or slice

through food. The teeth of other animals -such as many reptiles and sh -do not work like this. Instead,

t -

they often simply grip the food so gazelle skull that it can be caught and swallowed. Goitred

(Gazella Ridged rear teeth (molars) chew the food.

subgullurosa)

ELAMINGO

Flamingos are the only that live entirely by birds lter

this, mammals use their teeth. A

feeding. Holding the tips of their bills upside-down, they wade through the shallows, pumping water with their tongues and straining it through comblike devices called bill lamellae.

Flamingos, like pigeons, are unusual in feeding their young on a

The bug uses its

milklike

biil-like mouth to stab other insects.

they produce in their crops.

uid that

Scienti c name: Phoenicopterus ruber Size: Up to 5ft (1.5 m) long Habitat: Salty lakes and lagoons Distribution: Southern Europe, Nortli and tropical /U'rica, Caribbean islands, and Central America

Reproduction: Female lays single egg each year Diet: Crustaceans and other small animals ( ltered)

UQUID LUNCH Not all predators swallow their prey. Instead, some have special mouthparus that they use to inject digestive juices into their victims. Once these

juices have done their work, the hunter sucks up the nutritious lliiid that is produced. Animals that feed in this

way include spiders and scorpions, and also predatoiy bugs. Once one of these hunters has nished eating, all that is left of the prey is adry, lifeless husk.

F I LT E R

Water is sucked in

The victim's tissues are

lique ed by the bug's digestive juices.

FEEDERS

Filter feeders include some of the

through the sea squirt’s oral siphon.

world’s smallest animals, as well as

,,

Water i

asm.

some of the largest. They lter food particles from tvater, using special ivork like sieves.

pumped out through the atrial siphon.

Scarlet macaws (Ara macao) pecking at acliff that is rich in mineral nutrients.

'’In sea squirLs, the sieve is abasket-

9ishaped structure called a

Essential minerals

§1 iphaiynx. In other lter feeders,

All living things need mineral nutrients. Plants

"I 'different body parts carry out

The pharynx lters out particles of food that pass to

usually get them from the soil, and although they use some in tiny quantities, they cannot grow normally if any of them are in short supply. Animals get their

V; t h e s a m e w o r k . T h e s e i n c l u d e

modi ed gills in the case of

the stomach.

jmollusks, special bills in birds, ^and baleen plates in whales.

mineral nutrients from their food, and sometimes

from the uids that they drink. In some places particularly in the tropics -animals gather at places

Sea squirt lter system

where vital nutrients

Nature’s recyclers

are easy to obtain.

Some living things specialize in feeding on the dead remains of other forms of life. Known 1

Lemon fairy cup

as saprotrophs, they brea

(Bisporella citnna)

1

down organic remains so that their nutrients can be recycled. Saprotrophs include animals such

Find out mor Gvrnworous wants: 138

as earthworms, but the most abundant

F u n g i : 11 4

species by far are bacteria and fungi. Vast numbers live in soil, turning dead remains

Yellow fruiting bodies formed by fungus growing on rotting wood.

into asubstance called humus. ' x s Y t a s i

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FEEDING

I-IUNTING: 52 Partners and parasites: 56

HOW

LIVING

THINGS

WORK

Photosynthesis Plants, like other living things, need

LEAF

MOSAIC

In most plants, photosynthesis takes place in the leaves. Leaves

energy to survive. But instead of getting their energy from food, they get it directly from sunlight. This process is called photosynthesis, which means “putting together through light.' During photosynthesis, aplant traps light energy with its leaves and uses it to make asugar called glucose from water and carbon dioxide.

usually face the sun, and arc often

arranged so as not to overlap and shade one another. Some trees

51

have more than half amillion

leaves. Together, they have a huge surface for catching the light. Waterproof top surface

Glucose can be used as afuel or as abuilding block to make the substances needed for growth. Photosynthesis is one of the most important

Seen from above, Mahonia leaves fan out to catch the light.

of leaf

STRUCTURE OF ALEAF

Leaves are made up of several different types of cell. At the top is aprotective layer of transparent cells called the epidermis. Below

processes in nature. Without it, plants could not grow, and without plants, few animals would exist. How PHOTOSYNTHESIS WORKS During photosynthesis, leaves absorb sunlight. They also take up water through their roots, and carbon dioxide from the air. They use the sun’s

Epidermis

this is alayer of

tall palisade cells packed with green chloroplasts, which cany

Chloroplast Palisade cell

out photosynthesis. Beneath

energy to convert water and carbon dioxide into glucose. Oxygen is produced as awaste product.

Spongy

The glucose may leave the leaf and be carried

cell

around the plant. At the same time, waste oxygen escapes into the air. Glucose is The leaf absorbs

sunlight.

the palisade cells are loosely arranged spongy cells, surrounded by air spaces connected to pores on the underside of the leaf.

Ve i n

away.

vessels w

Transport vessels in the veins

carried

containing transport

take water to the leafs cells

and carty away glucose. 'stoma)

V

Membrane

Guard cell

C H L O R O P I A S T S

Photosynthesis takes place in tiny structures called chloroplasts. These ■// contain stacks of membranes that work f.’

like solar panels. Chlorophyll is stored

t

as carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus.

system cell

i t s :

:JK. Sticky, slimy, outer layer may help to protect

«●

Scienti c name: Human immunode ciency virus

bacterium.

Size: 0.01 micrometer

i

INDUSTRIAL HELPERS

Habitat: Human body; short life outside the body Distribution: Worldwide

People use bacteria to make foods, medicines, and industrial products.

Reproduction: Uses the DNA of cells that it infects to

replicate (copy) itself

Certain bacteria convert milk into

other daii7 products, such as buttermilk, yogurt, and cheese. Bacteria play an important part in waste disposal, and are also used to prodtice chemicals for the brewing, baking, and leather industries. Some bacteria are used to “grow” proteins, such as hormones and insulin,

I

which are then used in medical research.

Bacteria help to curdle milk to make cheese.

DISCOVERIES WdTH BACTERIA The French scientist Louis Pasteur (1822-9,5) was one of the rst scientists to show that bacteria

Sealed

helped break down organic matter. Lie boiled liquid in glass

remains

ask of

boiled liquid uncontaminated.

asks to kill all the bacteria and

then sealed the ends. The liquid remained unspoiled until the asks were opened and bacteria

Harmful bacteria

could enter. Pasteur ’s work

Bacteria are the main cause of infectious

led to the development of pasteurization -killing

diseases such as

bacteria in milk and other

cholera, tetanus, and

foods by heating them to very high temperatures.

typhoid. The symptoms of many of these diseases are caused by toxic proteins (toxins) which are

produced by bacteria. Antibiotic drugs and good sanitation help ght bacterial diseases. However, in certain parts of the

world, drug supplies and hygiene standards are poor, so serious epidemics spread rapidly.

produce tetanus toxins, which lead to convulsions and spasms.

The vibrant patterns of some tulips are created by viruses.

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domestic animals.

viruses

t

Flu, mumps, rabies, and AIDS are ^ just some of the diseases caused byriiTises. Unlike bacterial diseases,

few drugs can be used to ght viral infections because viruses invade

r-* sr*-.

cells. So any drug damaging the virus would also damage the host cell. Wlien an animal suffers aviral

disease, it develops anatural immunity. In the same way, injecting ahuman with

dead or subdued viruses

(vaccination) makes the body produce natural defences. I I I

fi

Va c c i n a t i o n s a r e

given to some -V

VIRUSES

c r e a t e v i r i c l s t r e a k s o f c o l o r.

fi

\

tetani bacteria

Most plant viruse.s are small and shaped either like laments (hairs) kor polygons (many-sided shapes). They cannot penetrate the rigid cell walls of plants, so they are transmitted by the piercing Imouthparts of insects. Many plant viruses cause poor ■growth. Tulip viruses, however, can produce alovely A effect. By reducing the amount of pigment in the petals, they

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Clostridium

Harmful PLANT

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BACTERIA

Find out mor Cells: 20 How LIFE BEG/\N: 12 Nutrient cycles: 64 S i n g l e - c e l l e d o r g a n i s m s : 11 2

LIVING

THINGS

ARE

CLASSIFIED

Single-celled organisms Single-celled organisms far outnumber

Paramecium

all other kinds of life. The most abundant

of these organisms are bacteria, but there is also an immense variety of more complex single-celled organisms called protists. Protists are larger than bacteria, although they are too small to see with the naked eye. Most live in water or damp places. Some protists, called algae, are plant-like organisms that make food by photosynthesis. Others, called protozoa,

Independent life This liny, slipper-shaped organism is called

Waste being expellee Nucleus

Paramecium. It lives in

ponds and puddles, and is just 0.01 in (0.25 mm) long. Although it has only asingle cell, Paramecium is well adapted for sun'ival. It darts around by lY beating tiny hairs (cilia), and it can shoot out sticky threads if attacked.

Groove leading to

mouth

Parameciuvi feeds on bacteria, which it

sweeps into agroove on one side of the cell.

behave like animals and take

Defnil of cell wall

B E AT I N C ;

in food. Several behave in

\

part like plants and in part like animals.

HAIRS

Paramecium is covered by lliousands of microscopic

hairs called cilia, which beat

like tiny oars. Thev do not all beat at once, but move in rhythmic waves that How across the cell.

Amoeba moves by

Movement

owing like aliquid.

Some single-celled organisms simply drift along in \vater, but many can propel themselves fpnvard. Amoeba moves by owing like aliquid, and takes about an hour to travel 1in (2.5 cm). Euglena moves by icking atiny whip called a agellum, and

Eugiena fucks awhiplike agellum to pull it forward

takes

about

3minutes

to

swim

Iin.

Paramecium moves much faster -it takes only 10 seconds to swim 1in.

'.A,-

^aramecium swims with aoorkscrew Bell animals

motion, spinning as it goes.

(Vodicutla)

FEELING

FOR

FOOD

Bell animals, known scienli cally as Vorlkdla, live in water, and each one is fastened in place by along, slender stalk. Rings of cilia around the top of the cell sweep particles of food into the month. If anything touches abell animtil, its sttilk suddenly coils up, pulling it out of danger.

i/ds

K l l . l . F. R P R O T I S T

oat

Some pi'otists have phenomenal appetites. The freshwater predator Dirlinium eats protists that tire much larger

near the surfaoe

of ponds and lakes.

Feeding

l.ike all living things, single-celled organisms need energ)' to survive. Desmids and diatoms collect energy directly from sunlight, and obtain their food by photosynthesis. Protozoa, or animal-like protists, cannot do this. Instead, they get their energy by eating food. Some protozoa sift particles of food

than itself. Didm/utn

into them, and attacks

immediately by stunning its prey with an explosive dart. Its mouth then expands enormously to sw'allow the cell whole. Dirliriutn can

f r o m w a t e r, w h i l e o t h e r s a r e a c t i v e

Didinium devouring a

hunters that chase microscopic prey.

Paramecium twice its size

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fl

nds

its victims by bumping

digest asingle Pammecium everv two hours.

11 2 fl

fl

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HOW

SINGLE-CELLED

Partners and parasites Because they are so small, singlecelled organisms can live in awide range of habitats. Some form symbiotic partnerships with animals, which means that they help their hosts in return for a safe place to live. Others, called parasites, feed on their hosts and

ORGANISMS

.-●N.

D I AT O M S

4 «

/

'

Withtheir intricate silica shells,diatoms among the most bcauliftil objects in are the

m f m .

V (

STV

After 14 hours, the tendril has curled around the sterr,

and starts to coil up. “General Sherman," agiant sequoia in

Gourd plant (Lagenaria dcrrmia)

\ A / ~ v

California, is the

" ’ V

largest living thing on Earth.

Giant kelp can grow 18 In (45 cm) aday,

Size

California. enormous

height of 197 ft (60 m).

coiled tightly, pulling the plant toward the stem.

and reach a

height of V98 ft (35 m).

can

After 48 hours, more tendrils have made contact, and the climber has pulled close to the stem.

G R O W T H

(110 m) in height.

Plants grow mo.st abundantly in the warm, damp tropic.s -arainforest clearing soon lls with seedlings racing for the light. The fastest-growing plants are giant bamboo (Dendromlavms gigantms) and aseaweed called giant kelp (MacrocysHs pyrifera). Giant kelp can grow 18 in (4.5 cm) in one day, but giant bamboo grows twice as fast, increasing in lieight by up to 3ft (90 cm) aday.

The heaviest tree is a

related species called the giant sequoia. The c u r r e n t r e c o r d - h o l d e r, as

/

-

grow 3ft (90 cm) aday,

reach more than 363 ft

known

the tendril has

/

Bamboo can

This tree

After 24 hours, ^

and reach a

Many plants compete with their neighbors for sunlight by growing as tall as possible. The world’s tallest plant species is the coast redwood {Sequoia sempervirem) of

“General

Sherman,” weighs an estimated 2,500 tons.

Welwitschia

(Wdwitschla mimbilis}

1

Giant sequoia

(Srquomdrndwn giganteum)

L O N G E V I T Y

The animal with the longest lifespan the giant Aldabran tortoise -can live for up to 150 years, but plants can live far longer. The oldest know'n plant is the hristiccone pine tree of Sierra Nevada some brisllecone pines are thought to be around 4,900 years old. The welwitschia plant, which lives in the deserts of southern Africa and survives largely on detv, can live up to 2,000 years.

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11 7

Welwitschias have only two leaves, which grow very slowly from acentral woody stalk.

Find out mor G a r n w o r o u s I ’ l A N T. s : 1 3 8 F l o w e r. s , v n d s e e d s : 1 2 8 Photosynthesis: 24 Plants IN danger: 102

i

Algae and lichens

ALGAL

DIVERSITY

There are many types falgae, and they range in size from single-celled species to the giant kelps that grow at arate of 18 in (45 cm) aday. Algae need moisture to survive, and they live

Most species of algae live in the sea or in lakes and ponds, but afew are capable of living in damp places on land. Unlike other plants, algae have no roots, leaves, or owers, although some of the seaweeds -algae that grow in the sea -have exible stalks called stipes, lea ike

in oceans, rivers, and lakes -and even under

snow and ice. Algae are often called plants, but some scientists think they are so primitive that they lo not belong in the plant ngdom. Instead, they are ped with other simple organisms in the protist kingdom.

structures called fronds, and branched holdfasts that

anchor them to rocks. All algae contain the green pigment chlorophyll and make their food by photosynthesis. Many algae also contain other pigments that color them brown, red, or purple. Lichens are not plants, but living partnerships between fungi and algae. Fronds Bladder wrack

Kelp forest

Brown algae

(Fucus vesiculosus]

Igae contain green chlorophyll, and also npigment fucoxanthin. This pigment mtheir brown or olive green color and hem to photosynthesize in deeper water irophyll would on its own. Many, such as cs and kelps, are tough and slippery' and ve for long periods out of water. Some id kelps have air bladders that keep

Gas- lled air bladders

keep the fronds oating near the surface ,

of the water. VM

Fronds are covered in a

; a r t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e w a t e r.

slimy mucus that keeps the seaweed

Receptacles of bladder wrack

from drying out when the tide

This bladde

goes out. /

may grow t

Male

receptacle

than 3ft 31

in length. ^

Conceptacle

Crossit

section

3 n

through conceptacle Female s e x

organs

yMale sex '■ organs

R E P R O D U C T I O N

Like most algae, brown seaweeds of the Fucus

Hard,

chalky

Red pigment in the seaweed helps it photosynthesize in deep water where there is little light.

Red

structure

algae

Almost all red algae are small- to medium¬ Algae colors the snow red.

sized seaweeds, found

OUT

in shady tidepools in temperate and tropical

IN

THE

COLD

Afew algae contain anatural antifreeze that enables them to sunive in the

polar ice caps and on the permanent snow elds of mountain slopes. The single-celled alga, Chlamydomonas nivalis, is often found in mountainous

regions. It lives below the snow’s surface where it can absorb sunlight while remaining protected from the wind. It moves through the snow by beating two tiny hairs called llagellae.

fronds are fertile areas called receptacles. These are covered in chambers called conceptacles that contain sex organs. Here, male and female sex cells are produced and released into the sea to be fertilized. The fertilized egg settles on a rock to develop into anew seaweed. Bladder wrack has both male and female plants, whereas

spiral wrack (Fucus spiralis) produces male

seas. Their red color

comes from the pigment phycoerythrin. This pigment helps the algae

Red

seaweed

(Phymatolithon sp.)

photosynthesize in the dim blue light of deep water, thereby enabling it to grow

at greater depths than other seaweeds. Some species produce chalky carbonates that make the plants rigid and abrasive.

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genus reproduce sexually. At the ends of the

Kand female cells in the same conceptacle.

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PLANTS

Red seaweed

(CoraUina

of cinalis) —'

ALGAE

VUnbranched.

AND

LICHENS

Green ai.gae

OARWEED

Most green algae live in fresh w a t e r. G r e e n s e a w e e d s a r e f o t i n d

r

in tidepools and on coastal rocks in tropical and temperate regions. Some green algae form special partnerships with other organisms. For example, lichens and coral depend on the .photo.synthesizing green algae for carbohydrates, dLand plants are believed

as astipe, and atough, Ijranclied holdfast that attaches to rocks, allowing the frond to move freely in the waleit Oanveed, othenvise known as tangle, ctm live I’or many years, and forms dense “forests” that provide shelter for many species

I''his large Irrown kelp ha.s aIlexibic slalk, known

ol'invertebrates and

sh.

5^

/

to have evolved from

/green algae because they contain the same types of chlorophyll pigments. I

Freshwater green alga {Spiwg\'ra sp.)

. u ; a e o

¥

r

m

s

...Q.ie.Some consist of just one or a few cells and can be seen

Holdfast attaches seaweed to mussel shell. Green seaweed

{Kvtrromorpha linza)

Soredia -powdery

Foliose

structures

thallus, or body

on

end of lobe

\

Flexible stalk is

1

called astipe, and

Singlestrandofcells/

only under amicroscope. Others, stich as Spiwgym, are made of long chains of cells, and form the tangled masses seen Hoating on ponds. Spiwgym reproduces Two linked strands sexually -the contenLs of the cells of one lament pass into the cells of an adjacent lament to form zygotes. These later develop into new plants.

\

Tr e e

rmm.

bark

ends In aholdfast that attaches the oarweed to rocks.

Scienti c name: {.aminaria digitala Size: Lip to 6I'l 7in (2 m) long Habitat: Lower slioreline of rockv coasts of cells

Distribution: Northwestern Europe Reproduction: The large frond produces spores that develop into threadlike plants. These plants then produce male and female reproductive structures.

Fungal threads

Asoredlum is released

surround the

into the air. If it lands in

soredlum.

asuitable location, it will develop into anew lichen.

Algal layer i

■- i . Foliose lichen

(Hypogymniu phy.sodes) Funga layer

Lichens

p

Alichen i.s made up of Cross-section afungus and either agreen alga or acyanobacterium. The algae or bacteria live beneath aprotective layer of ftingus. They provide the fungus with .sugars from photo.synthesis. In return, they receive protection from diying out and harmful levels of light. The three most common growth forms

through foliose lichen Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) grazing POLLUTION

MONITORS

Many specie.s of lichen can grow only tvhei c Ihe air is unpolluted. Since lichens are veiy sen.sitivc to industrial polhuanl.s, ihcy are often used to monitor air quality. After the nuclear accident at Chernobyl, Russia, in 1986, reindeer moss (a t)’pe of fruticose lichen) tibsorbed much

of lichen are fruticose (shrublike), foliose (lea ike), and crustose ( at and

of the radioactive fallout. Cariboit, or reindeer,

feeding on the lichen proditced ladioactive milk and meal, and had to be tlestroved.

crusty). Lichens reproduce by releasing spetres, called soredia, into the air.

Crustose lichen on quartz-rich rock HARDY COLONIZERS «

Lichens grow on all kinds of bare sttrfaces from rocks to tree trunks. They grotv veiy slowly

Find out mor Ecoi.ouv; 62

i n s o m e o f t h e w o r l d ’s h a r s h e s t e n v i i o n m e n L s . S o m e ^

P.\RTNER.s AN'D i>AR.\,srrK,s: 56

live in central Antarctica, just 4° north of the South Pole, others grow on mottntain slopes, well above

PhotosyxtiiivSis: 24

Ihe treeline. Lichens, such as the black entstose lichen (Verrucaria maura), are often found encrusted on coastal rocks.

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119

Rkproduci ion: 28

I ’ L A N T S

Mosses and liverworts V

£

Mossesandliverwortsaredelicate, owerlessplantsthatgrow

fC,

in small clumps, or cushions. Together, they belong to the group Bryophyta. Mosses and liverworts have no true roots and depend on slender growths called rhizoids to provide them with limited anchorage. The small, thin leaves have no vascular tissues for transporting water and nutrients, so the plants quickly dry out.

.

m m

i t ?

Because they are sensitive to water loss, and rely on a lm of moisture for sexual reproduction, the majority .

of bryophytes grow in very moist habitats.

.

Moss-covered tree in atemperate forest J

B R Y O P m T F. Leaves of this moss

are iong and siender, and curve in the same direction.

Rootlike rhizoids anchor

moss to ground.

H A B I TAT S

Moss and li\ envort habitats include tropical I'tiinforests, tvel, tetnpcrate Idrests, freshwater areas, and bogs. Certain types ol'mosses are found in drier envirotiments such tts lietithlands. These may dry otit and shrivel during the summer, but take up Witter atid start to grow agaiti in fall. Mosses am grow on stone walls, rock faces, trees, and bare soil.

Life cycle - v V-

The life cycle of amoss plant occurs in two stages. First, the green, leafy plant (gametophyte) bears male (antheridia) and female (archegonia) sex organs, which produce sex cells (gametes). The mobile male gametes swim through droplets of tvater on the surface of the plant to fertilize the stationaiy ' y female gametes. During the second stage, afertilized cell develops into aplant called asporophyte, which produces spores inside a capsule. Spores are released and germinate into new leafy plants.

A ! “far● . ■■■ A . ,

■-Jtcrr

Common

)

moss

{Dicrmium sp.)

Moss STRUCTUl k Although most moss plants are very short, some tropical mosses, such as Dawsonia, can reach 28 in (70 cm) tall. Moss leaves are simple -only one cell thick in most species and are usually arranged spirally around aslender stem. Rhizoids anchor the moss plant to soil, rock, or tree bark. Except for Polytrichum and related species, rhizoids do not play arole in taking up water. In some species of moss, male and female sex organs can be found on the same plant. In others, male and female plants are separate.

These thinstalked

capsules are the

sporophyte generation of the moss.

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. > » ●

f

Life cycle of moss

T .

Afertilized female sex cell

grows Into a sporophyte.

Athreadlike Thousands of

plant, the protonema, grows from the germinating

minute spores are released

from the capsule.

spore. Male and Male sex

female sex

cells swim

organs

toward the

develop on

female

the moss

plants.

h

I.nirolnyum glancum

Pseudosrh'rolxxTnt m

SPORE

Most moss capsules have a

Each kind of moss has acharacteristic

mouth covered with alid. When the

pattern of growth. Leurohiyum girturum

spores ripen, the capsule lid falls off, revealing one or two rows of intvardctin'ing teeth that block the mouth of the capsule. In dry conditions, these teeth fold outward, opening the capsule mouth and exposing the spores for dispersal by currents of air. Damp weather, unfavorable for dispersal, cau.ses the teeth to fold in and close the mouth of the capsule.

forms dense cushions tliat can be almost

pm i8

spherical in shape. Taller species, such .as Polybichum, grow into loose clumps fe or tufts. Other mosses, such as

f-

if

Polylrichitm sp.

1- P.snidosclet'opodium, spread horizontally, producing amat or tveft of branchingmoss plants. Older ptirls of these mats die away, leas ing the younger branches to grow into nets' plants.

Spore-capsule showing rows of teeth

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120 fl

DISPERSAL

C U S H I O N S , M AT S , A N D F E AT H E R S

AND

LIVERWORTS

Peat bogs

SPHAGNUM

Apeat bog is made up of a blanket of peatmoss {Sphagnum sp.) These mosses grow in areas

r V

MOSS

moss grows on l)og pools in clumps of I ■'his weLik-stemmed plants that support each oilier.

Clusters ol branches grow out from the main stem. Sphagnum leaves contain large, empty spaces that hold great quantities of water like asponge.

where the climate is cool and

there is plenty of rain. Over hundreds of years, the blanket becomes ver)' deep, with athin, li\’ing surface layer growing over thickening layers of old, dead moss plants. The lower layers become compressed to form blackish-brown peat.

m

If,

Some branches in each cluster

spread out horizontally. .

Peat Is cut and dried to use as domestic fuel in the

Outer Hebrides, Scotland.

P K . AT

P R E S E RVAT I O N

Because tliey do not have true roots, most mosses absorb /water and minerals through their leaves. This makes

Scienti c name: Sphagmnn m-ut'vum

Size: 3-5 in (7-12 cm) high

{them dependent on rainlall, which has arelativeh lotv 1mineral content. To get ail the minerals that thev need, jpeatmosses use special chemical reactions that release

Habitat: Bogs

Distribution: Throughout the Noithern Hemis])here

acid by-products into the soil. This acidity kills bacteria, thereb)- helping to presen'e human

Reproduction: Mostly asexual (vegetative) -parts ol' the moss grow into anew moss plant

and animal remtiins.

COI.ONIZERS

In 1984, the mummi ed

The remains

remains of a

became

2,300-year-old man was found in apeat bog in England.

known as “Pete Marsh."

Liverwort (Mmrhnnliii Moss growing on rock in Antarctica

popmorpha] The at plant body is called p

Mosses and livenvorts are often among the rst plants to colonize damp, bare soil. Because they need little or no soil in which to root, they are able to grow ■on bare rock, bark, or even buildings. 'The granite mosses {Andreaea sp.) grow on hard, inhospitable granites. Some mosses are also vei7 tolerant of the extremely low temperatures that occur on high mountain slopes, and in the Arctic and Antarctic.

Female branch

(archegoniophore)

athallus

Male branch (antheridiophore)

Gemmae cup

Rhizoids

growing from the underside of the thallus anchor the

plant to the ground. LIVERWORT

In medieval times, the appearance of a plant was thought to indicate the part of the body it could be used to cure. .Although there are leafy as well as at livenvorts, these bryophytes take their name from the lobed kinds that resemble the liver. Flat, lobed

the female organ, between the rays. Each sporogonia bears acapsule that releases spores. Marchantia also

Aft reproduces asextially, producing tiny buds (gemmae) that develop into new plants. Each tiny green gemma bud can grow into anew plant.

livenvorts grow on soil, trees, or wet rocks. The upper surface of some species has awaxy cuticle that helps to prevent water loss. Leah' livenvorts have extremely thin, delicate leaves, which are often red, purple, or yellow in color.

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REPRODUCTK5N

M;my species of lobed livei-wort protiuce male and female sex oigans on separate plants. In Marchanlia, these are both stalked structures that resemble tiny timbrellas. The itiale is disc-shaped and the female has nine “leaves” or rays. .After fertilization, small sporogonia develop on the tmderside of

Liverworts

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_

MOSSES

Find out mor A i . g . v e a n d l i c h e n s : 11 8 Ferns .5ND horset.mi.s: 122 Nine-rayed structure housing female sex organs, seen from below.

P l a n t s : 11 6 Rerroduction: 28

Ferns and horsetails

gi'ajS ;

.

f ' . - .

'

^

■t - -

v

Stem of dodder

Haustoriu

Stem

of

(sucker

host

plant

/■

' r t v ■. ‘ =5 7 - .

Araf esia

GIANT

ower may measure up to 3ft 3in (1 m)

'■’iSis, The world’s largest ower belongs to aplant called the giant raf esia (Rafjle.sin nrnoldii). This parasite usualU' lives on climbing plants in the forests

a c r o s s .

#

PA l U k S I T E S

i( Dodder stems wrap around and penetrate the host plant using suckcrlike liaiistoria. J-. They grow veiy quickly, absorbing water, if minerals, and food from the host. Dodder

^stems stretch from one plant to another

I

ies, which are essential

for the plant’s reproduction. Unlike most parasitic plants, the giant raf esia and its

x

relatives are usually hidden

inside their hosts. They are seen only when they ower. k

'

V Hairlike stems of dodder

attack host plant

-

M i '

*

^BREAKING IN

ower is huge and weighs up to 1.5 lb (7 kg). Its pow'erful smell attracts pollinating

I

f

Cross section of plant with dodder stems

of Southeast Asia. The raf esia

f '

in atangled, haiiiike mass.

K

r

r y

^1

Green leaves trap the sun’s energy to make food by ohotosynthesis.

Hemiparasites Plants called hemiparasites steal water and mineral

nutrients but, unlike

true parasites, they have green leaves and

can

make

therefore

their

own

food.

Some hemiparasites live off their hosts underground by growing onto their roots. Others attack them above ground and grow out of their stems. Common mistletoe (Viscum album)

is atypical hemiparasite found on trees. It grows on branches, and spreads by producing sticky berries that are carried away by birds. There are 1,200 species

Ghost orchid

(Epipogiu mnphyllu m) SAPROPHYTIC Mistletoe

grows on branches of trees such

photosynthesis, but often form partnerships

as apple,

with fungi, which help them absoih nutrients from the soil. Sapropliytes usually spend most of their lives underground until they ower. The rare ghost orchid is atypical saprophyte that grows in leaf-

hawthorn, a n d r.

litter on the

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)

136 fl

PLANTS

Some plants feed on dead plant remains rather than from aliving host. These saprophytic plants do not cany out

of mistletoe worldwide.

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PLANTS

oor of beech woods.

PA I U S I T I C

AND

EPIPHYTIC

PLANTS

Epiphytes

S TA G H O R N

Epiphytes make their own food by photosynthesis, but use other plants as living platforms to get abetter share of the light. Normally they do not harm the host plant, but in some habitats, such as rainforests, they become so

Slaghoni fernsare found high upontrees. These epiphytes grow two quite different kinds of fronds (leaves). One type spreads out like adeer’s antlers, giving the plant its name; the other is rounded and grows around the tree’s trunk. These rounded I’ronds hold the fern in

numerous that their host’s branches

place. They also I'orm abasket, which collects

collapse under their weight. In warm parts of the world, epiphytes include many owering plants such as orchids,

dead leaves that fall turn

nutrients.

Epiphytic bromeliad (Aerhmen miniata)

Scienti

c ■i

n a m e :

Plalycerium superbum

Y’

Size: Up to .5 ft (l..a m) across

Bromeliads growing on tree branches fc;;-.■h

y

Habitat: Ihimid,

J

GETTING

om above. The leaves

of

source of essential

i

in aBrazilian rainforest

aform

the fern uses tis a

of cacti. In cooler regions, c o m m o n epiphytes include mosses and ferns. n

into

compost, w'hich

bromeliads, and even some kinds

1/

FERN

tropical foiests

SUPPLIES

Distribution:

●5-

Rainforest plants innst compete for water and mineral nutrients. Bromeliads solve part of this problem by making watertanks with their leaves. When it rains, water runs

Northern Australia and New Guinea

X

down the leaves and collects in the tank. These tree-top tanks provide homes for many small animals, such as mosquito lamie and tree frogs. Rotting debris and droppings from these animals accumulate in the tank, providing

Reproduction: Releases millions

W \ Wa t e r

^collects in

of microscopic spores that drift

iformed by toverlapping

through the air

Wthespaces

nutrients for the bromeliad.

to other trees

rleaf bases. Epiphytic orchid

(Ouridium sp.) ^ I’REETOP FLOU'ERS In tropical rainforests, some of the most beautiful

owers

are often perched high above the ground. They include epiphytic orchids, which clamp their specially thickened roots around the host plant’s branches. These roots absorb water and also nutrients from Epiphytic orchid is clamped in place by

dust. There are about 18,000 species of orchid in the world, half of which are epiphytes. Some have been over-collected and are now very rare.

thickened roots.

Liverworts growing on damp plant leaves that lie close to the forest

oor

EPIPHYI.LS

bmall

g

hg kills

Hg takes root

plant

and quickly

begins to

smothers tree.

■M h o s t t r e e .

hi a

send roots down tree.

Strangler E ATA L

i

v

g (Hrw.vsp.)

nettvork of stems that slow'ly enttvines its host. Eventuallv its leaves become so dense that the host tree dies. Its

trunk slowly rots awav and the strangler takes ics place.

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137 J

leaves in the forests of Costa Rica.

EMBRACtE

Tropical siranglcr gs start life as harmless epiphytes btit become deadly when mature. Ayoung strangler g germinates high up in atree and grows along root that reaches the grotmd. The strangler then grtnvs atangled

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In dense, tropical rainforesls ihe competition for light is intense, especially near the forest oor. Here, tiny plants called epiphylls sur\ave by living on the leaves of other plants, often where it is very damp. Arange of livenvorLs, for example, are found on single

Find out mor P.VRTNERS AND PARASITES: 56 Photosa’nthesis: 24 P l a n t s : 11 6 Tr o p i c a l r. v i n f o r f . s t s : 8 2

Carnivorous plants Nearly al.l plants produce food by photosynthesis, and most obtain essential nutrients from fertile soils.

However, some plants grow in infertile areas that lack important minerals, particularly nitrates. These plants get their nutrients by catching insects and small vertebrates in their leaves. Carnivorous plants capture their victims using arange of methods, including pitfall traps, snapping traps, and sticky 9'. secretions. The insects are usually digested by special juices secreted by the leaves, or by bacterial and fungal processes.

m m ,

Carnivorous plants survive in nutrient-poor soils. N U T R I E N T- P O O R H A B I TAT S

Bogs and marshes have poor soil thal often lacks nutrients. Organisms that break dotvn plant matter, such

I I

Marsh pitcher (Hrlimnphora tatei)

/

4

^ ' 4

.The slippery rim is colored red, yellow, or purple.

the pitfall trap of the marsh pitcher are decomposed by bacteria.

digested insects. 3,.

P

C '

1

A

Immature pitcher becomes hollow

Not yet full-1 sized, the

The midrib of the leaf

lid remains

develops into atendril. Anew pitcher will start to grow at its tip.

tightly closed.

ready to trap prey.

e

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s

138 fl

- * 5 y i

Trap is similar to ypaper because the

y cannot free itself

Sticky traps

Monkey cup pitcher (Nepenthes mirabilis)

fl

t'l—*

Sundew plant i^Drosera sp.)

collect inside.

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^

UNWARY

colored rims lure insects into

r

collects rainwater. It is

THE

the traps. Inside the pitcher, loose, waxy akes covering the pitcher’s walls dog the insects’ feet, so that they tumble into the water. As the victims fall into the pitcher, they stimulate the secretion of enzymes, which digest the insects’ body tissues. Bacteria also help to decompose trapped victims. Liquid nutrients obtained from digested insects are absorbed through the pitcher’s walls.

of aleaf tendril.

opens and the pitcher

FOR

Pilcher pUuiLs catch their victim.s using pitfall traps. Their

grow on the ground, but most are climbers or epiphytes. Anew pitcher appears as aswelling at the tip

When mature, the lid/

«-

nutrients from

and northern Australia. Afew

lls with air. ^

A

in the lining of the pitcher absorb vital

tropical rainforests of Southeast Asia 1

and

A

Thin-walled cells

Pitcher development W| Some pitcher plants grow in th

closed as it develops. Once the pitcher is fully mature the lid opens, allowing water to

» /

back up the waif

1RAPS

“lid” of the pitcher stays

insects. *

insects to climb

lose their grip and fall into the s water where they drown.

L.

akes of

impossible for

smooth walls. Here, the insects n

As the tendril gets longer, the swelling gradually enlarges. The

secretes asticky droplet at its tip

wax make it

down to alower region Mth j

Insects that fall into

Each hair ♦

that attracts Loose

slippery rim. The downward¬ pointing hairs inside the pitcher guide insect ,

dfc W'l*. ■

as bacteria and fungi, cannot survive in these waterlogged soils. Without the help of bacteria and fungi, dead plants decompose slowly, keeping their nutrients locked up. Carnivorous plants survive in these conditions by absorbing extra nutrients from trapped insects.

U

color and nectar, land on the

V

r

of apitcher

These plants are the simplest of all pitfall traps. Their leaves form tall, narrow cups that ll with rainwater. At the tip of each pitcher is abrightly colored hood, covered with nectar-secreting glands. Insects, attracted by the

a

1 :

L

Cross section

American pitchers

4

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fl

PLAINTS

The leaves of sundew plants are covered with red glandular hairs that secrete droplets of clear, sticky liquid. Insects are attracted by the glistening droplets and get stuck on the hairs. As the insect attempts to escape, its struggle stimulates adjacent leaf hairs to curl around its body. As the leaf encloses its prey, the plant releases digestive enzymes that break down the z insect’s body tissues.

V

PLANTS

Trigger hairs cause trap to shut if

Each trap can digest

Ve n u s y t r a p {Dionam muscipula)

about three insects

YELLOW

touched.

before it dies..

r

TRUMPET

PITCHER

yellow trumpet pitcher has vertical traps T 'he that stand up to 3ft 3in (I m) tall. Its yellow-

green hood attracts avariety of insects. Small frogs K

occasionally hide in the trumpeLs to catch the insects -adangerous occupation since they sometimes become trapped

■

Unsuspecting insect

themselves. Dead insects

iands on iobe.

r

collect at the base of

:

the pitchers, where vascular tissues in

Venus

nutrients to

other parts of the plant.

ytrap

Some carnivorous plants, ''i such as the venus ytrap, have active traps with moving parts. Each trap is made up of two lobes, at the tip of aleaf, that are fringed with long spines. The insides of the lobes are often

ushed with

Scienti c name:

Sarracenia

HOW

AV E N U S

F LY T l ^ P

Insecte trigger the Venus

(30-100 cm) tall

WORICS

Habitat: Bogs and

ytrap by

touching the sensitive hairs inside the leaf to snap shut. The spiny edges interlock and the lobes squeeze together, trapping the prey. As the insect is pressed against glands inside the lobe, enzymes are released and the process of digestion begins. The trap takes 30 minutes to close fully.

coastal marshes of North and Carolina.

ava

Size: 12-39 in

lobe. This causes the two halves of the trap

red and contain long, sensitive hairs that trigger the trap. Venus ytraps are native to the South

the wall pass

Spines interiook to .trap struggling y.

Lobe

wetlands Distribution: Southeastern coast of US

Reproduction: Seeds shaken from capsule to ground

Bladdenvort

(Ultirulanasp.) B U T T E R W O R T S

Fly’s movement makes sticky hairs of sundew plant

Projecting bristles guide invertebrate

These small plants are found in bogs across Europe, Asia, and the Americas. Their yellow-green leaves and musty smell attract small ies. BtitterworLs release sticky secretions to trap their prey. The leaf wraps around the y, then digestive juices ooze out from hairs on the leaf s surface and cover the prey.

arch over it.

\

toward entrance.

Water sweeps

>

invertebrate into sac.

Enzymes from sac walls begin tc digest invertebrate.

Butterwort A

(Pmguinda caudata)

Sacs that are black have

recently made acatch.

B l a d d e r w o r t s Most bladderworts are submerged, aquatic plants. Some live in rainwater that collects in the “tanks” of plants called bromeliads. Many have underwater stems with small “bladders” that trap tiny, aquatic invertebrates. Each bladder has a trapdoor surrounded by touch-sensitive bristles. When aquatic larvae and insects brush these hairs, the lid of the trapdoor ips inward, creating arush of water that carries tiny invertebrates into the bladder. The lid closes and digestive enzymes are released from the plant’s walls.

Tip of leaf curls Jj around y, bringing

aS

in the y, and liquid nutrients

it closer to

^are absorbed

digestive

by the leaf.

enzymes.

Indigestible parts of the y remain stuck to the leaf T j I p f c '

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Find out mor B a c t e r i a a n d v i r u s e s : 11 0 Insects: 162 Nutrient cycles: 64 Wetiands: 74

V

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CARNIVOROUS

ANIMALS

ANIMALS

Animai. or not Many people use the word animal just to mean mammal. However, animals

Animalsmakeupthelargestofthe ve

include birds, reptiles, amphibians, and

kingdoms of nature. Despite their diversity,

world of invertebrates (animals without

all animals share certain features that set them

backbones) -from sponges and jelly sh

apart from the other four kingdoms. Unlike plants, which use sunlight to manufacture their

to crabs, insects, and star sh. Scientists have identi ed about 1.5 million animal

food, animals obtain their food by eating other living things. To do this, they use avariety of

species. Of these, more than 90

senses to detect their food, and most animals

there may be another 15

percent are invertebrates. Some scientists believe

have to move around actively to nd it. Unlike bacteria and single-celled organisms, animals have complex bodies made of specialized cells. Many animals have skeletons to support their weight, and most -but

iii4

sh, as well as the vast and varied

European

John Dory {Zeus fabe))

million invertebrates

yet to be identi ed. Slowworm

Rliinoceros beetle

(Anguis fmgilis)

(Chalcosoma atlas)

i

not all -have brains to control the

way they respond to their surroundings. PRIMITIVE ANIMALS

Long, mobile ears for pinpointing Large eyes for night¬

Sponge.s are among the simplest organisms in the animal kingdom. Their

distant sounds

time vision

bodies are made of ttvo

Senses

layers of cells and have no organs. Most sponges are

■p Without senses, animals

a/A'

Wwould not be able to

found in the sea, where they

nd

live attached to rocks or the

^food, locate each other, identify predators, or navigate.

i

seabed. They feed on tiny food particles ltered from the water. Some sponges

It is the live main senses -vision, hearing, smell, taste, and touch

htive an internal skeleton niiide of ;i brous substance

-that enable animals to suiA'ive in their habitats.

1^ Some animals have

called spongin. Bath sponges Barrel sponge {Pelrosia

are spongin skeletons without the living tissue.

additional senses, such as the infrared vision of a rattlesnake that allows it to

see the warmth of its prey. The sense organs, such as the eyes, ears, and whiskers of arabbit, are linked to a /

neivous system and brain.

i \ '

■r i r . - -

r. y Sensitive whiskers for feeling the way in dark tunnels

Finding eood Animals use an impressive variety of ways to nd food. Filter feeders, .such as barnacles, simply stay in one place and lter food from the water around them. However, most animals have to search out their food. For

animals that eat plants (herbivores), nding food is relatively easy. Animals that prey on other animals (carnivores) need special skills or weapons to catch food. Most pelicans, for example, use their huge, pouched beaks to scoop

sh from water.

BRAINS AND NERVES

Simple animals, such a hydras, ha\'e anetwork of

®

neiwe cells throughout the bod

^

but no brain. More complex animals, such as atworms, have some of Iheir neive cells concentrated

together to form aprimitive “brain,” which communicates with the rest of

the body via distinct neiwe pathways. The vertebrates (animals with

backbones) have the most complex neiwous systems, with alarge brain controlling many body processes.

Ahydra has a simple nerve

In atiatworm,

Ve r t e b r a t e s , s u c h

nerve cells in the

network

head form a

as frogs, have complex nervous systems and brains.

no brain.

with

simple "brain."

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140

Great white pelicans (Pelecanus onocrolalus) feeding

Skeletons Many animals have askeleton to hold up the body, to protect internal organs, and to provide anchorage for muscles. Skeletons

are especially important for animals that live on land. Tigers, for example, have

Spiders have to shed

internal skeletons that are made of

their exoskeletons, or

bones. Without its skeleton, atiger would be aheap of soft esh, unahle

molt, in order to grow.

to move. Other animals, such as

spiders, have external skeletons (exoskeletons) made of ahard

UId exoskeleton

after molting

substance called chitin.

Tail bones run to the

tip of atiger's tail. Ta r a n t u l a /

(Cf’miogyni.s sp.)

W

} t i g e r m u s c i . e s

About half the weight of atiger’s body is taken up by muscles that

enable it to move. Most of these muscles are

attached to die bones of the skeleton. The tiger’s muscles are controlled by its brain, which sends

n.i rapid signals along nerve cells running to each i®\ \muscle when the tiger moves. The muscles work

u'a 1by contracting and relaxing in acoordinated way,

Powerful muscles cover a

pulling certain bones as they do so. Joints between

tiger's skeleton.

ihe tiger’s bones make its skeleton highly exible. ABengal tiger chasing its prey

Pakentai. care

Movement w ?

Although most animals abandon their young

soon after reproducing, others stay and care for them. Parental care is most common ^

:V; i?'

in birds and mammals. Achimpanzee may spend up to seven years in the care of its mother before becoming fully independent. During this time it learns how to

nd food,

I

ii.,*

hoiv to avoid danger, and who

to trust in chimpanzee society J Apart from cockroaches ■ eanvJgs, and scorpions,

While plants spend their lives rooted in one spot, most animals move around in order to nd food and mates or to escape from danger. Some animals seem to spend their whole lives on the move. Young swifts may spend up to two years in nonstop ight after leaving their nest -they eat, mate, and even sleep on the wing. Like most cats, tigers are experts at stealthy movement. They creep up on their victims before making aclash for the kill. Anemones wave their

few invertebrates look

..

after their young.

, t e n t a c l e s t o t r a p p r e y. MOVING

Female

chimpanzees are devoted

\

parent

PA RT S

Some animals, such as sea anemones, do not

usually move around as

yadults. However, they A

IM

V

do have moving parts for capturing food. When submerged by the tide, sea anemones extend

II their tentacles in the water.

HThe tentacles are armed with

Snakelocks a n e m o n e

{Anemonia viridis)

lethal stinging capstiles that trap and kill prey. Altliough adult sea anemones usually stay xed in one place, their larvae can swim. _Find

out

more

_

Apes; 284 V

O

Cats: 256 Common

chimpanzee

{Pan troglodytes)

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141 f

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ANIMALS

Invertebicates: 142 Vertebrates: 182

ANIMALS

Invertebrates Whenpeoplethinkofanimals,theyusually think of mammals, birds, reptiles, and sh. Yet these creatures make up only atiny fraction of the animal kingdom and belong to just one of the 34 major groups of animals -vertebrates (animals with backbones). The other 33 groups

Sponges

Echinoderms

(Echinodermata)

Segmented worms (Annelida)

Roundworms

(Porifera)

15,000 species

6,000 species

11,000 species

12,000 species

(Nematoda)

are known collectively as invertebrates (animals without backbones). The invertebrates are an

incredibly diverse group of animals that share

f 5

few features in common and are only distantly related to each other. They display every imaginable way of life and come in all shapes and sizes. Many are found only in the sea, but

Mollusks

(Cnidaria)

(Mollusca)

Arthropods (Arthropoda)

10,000 species

150,000 species

3-15 million species

Flatworms

(Platyhelminthes) 100.000 species

Invertebrate groups Some invertebrates are familiar -insects, crabs, worms, and

certain groups, such as insects, live on land and are extremely common worldwide.

snails, for example -but many are so tiny, inconspicuous, or numerous that biologists have not yet given them names. There are thought to be beUveen 3million and 15 million invertebrate species (far more than the 40,000 or so vertebrate species). These are classi ed into 33 groups,

Hydroid (Tubtilaria indivisa)

Feathery tentacles for catching food ^

Cnidarians

or phyla. Some of the best-known invertebrate phyla are shown above with an estimate of the number of species. AN

U N C E RTA I N

HISTORY

No one is certain when the

rst invertebrate.s

appeared. The fossil record goes back only about 600 million years, and the animal groups we know today had already evolved by then. Over time, some invertebrate groups diversi ed more than others -the phylum Arthropoda is now

^the largest, and contains at least amillion named species, most of which are insects.

Arthropods make up the largest group

Common wasp (Vespula vulgaris)

in the animal

kingdom. dAl.

OR

Magni ed view of Symbion pandora on alobster bristle RIANT?

:invcrlebrales look more like plants animals. Hydroids, for example, are mistaken for seaweed. Their “stalks

in what look like delicate, undenvater

;rs. These “ owers” are actually small lals called polyps, which live joined her in acolony. Each polyp possesses gof stinging tentacles that wave in ater to capture microscopic animals. hthe polyps eat.

Giant squid

{Architeulhis sp.)

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142

Giant squid live at depths of about 3miles (5 km).

New arrivals For biologists, the discovery of anew species of animal is anoteworthy event, and nding anew family of animals is a cause of major excitement. As recently as 1994, biologists discovered acompletely new phylum -agroup equivalent in status to the arthropods or mollusks. The only known member of the new phylum is Symbion pandora, atiny creature that lives exclusively around

the mouth of the Norway lobster and feeds on scraps of the lobster’s food.

FNVERTEBKATKS

Body symmetry

SEGMENTS

Centipedes use their iong

Apart from sponges, nearly all invertebrates have symmetrical

Many invertebrates have Ijodies divided

into .separate segments. This allows the animal to change its shape and move in complex ways. Earthworms, “taste" objects. _ for example, have separate muscles in each segment and can .squirm throtigh soil by Woodland coordinating the way the centipede muscles contract. Centipedes (Lilhobius sp.) have apair of legs on most of their segments and can run ven- quickh- to chase prey or escape from

antennae to feel around and

bodies. There are two

main types of body symmetiy: radial and bilateral symmetry. Radially symmetrical animals have circular bodies, and can be cut across the middle

: i !

(Cassiopea

in many directions to make two equal halves. All live in water and none has abrain. Bilaterally symmetrical animals have distinct front and back ends. They can be cut across the middle in only one direction to make two equal halves.

andromeda)

n>nison claw

Radially symmetrical animals can be cut

in many directions to make two equal halves

■SStj

t v. V, . F. A C I N G

Garden slug (Arion ater)

FORWARD

Most invertebrates have distinct front and rear ends. This

arrangement has man)' advantages. The sense organs are clustered at the front near the mouth, ready to meet new challenges and lind food. Body parts are specialized for movement in one direction only, making movement faster and more ef cient. This body plan is the most successful prodticed b\ hundreds of millions of tears

1 1 /

animals can be cut

of evolution, and is now fottnd in most animals, inchtding ourselves.

in only one direction to make two equal halves.

Spongy life Most invertebrates have symmetrical bodies divided into parts -legs, head,

eyes, and so on. Sponges, however, have no body symmetiw and no distinct parts. All the parts of asponge’s body appear to be the same, and there is no “right

way up.” Despite this apparent simplicity, sponges have specialized cells dedicated M .

to different tasks, and are made up of distinct layers. Some sponges grow to

titv

more than 3ft 3in (1 m) wide.

Most sponges, such as this tube sponge (Aplysina archeri), grow on the sea oor.

Seawater leaves. Pore

F I LT E R

FEEDING

The .simplest sponges have small, tube-shaped bodies, peppered with tin)- pores. Lining the inner surface of the tube are special cells

I N V E RT E B I TAT E

lb

Hind legs

Earth’s environments, but most of the main

act as extra

invertebrate groups are restricted to the seas,

called collar cells. These Cross section ol the

have whip-like hairs that beat to make w'ater

GIAN

Invertebrates are found in virttiallv all the

wall of asponge

ow

into the pores, through

Seawater enters pores.

the tube, and out of a

hole at the top. The collar Collar cell

cells also have a“collar”

of tiny tentacles that trap tiny pieces of organic

where the

antennae.

rst invertebrates evolved. Many

are microscopic and drift along with ocean currents, but others are powerful swimmers. With their bodies buoved up b)' the salty water, some invertebrates reach great sizes. Giant squid can grow up to ,59 ft (18 m) long.

Human diver shown to scale

matter as the water Hows

Hagellum

past. These food particles are then digested.

Collar

Find out mor Anim.u.s: 140 How LIVING THINtLS WORK: 18 Insects: 162 Ve r t e b i t v i ’ e s : 1 8 2

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143

Wo r m s For most people, the word “worm” describes the familiar softbodied, legless animal found in garden soil. But in fact, there are thought to be more than one million species of worms, living in a wide range of different habitats. Some, such as the earthworm, live in burrows, feeding on broken-down plant matter. Others live

in the sea or in freshwater, ltering food particles from the water

Planarian

around them. Some are predators, while many are parasitic and cause diseases that kill millions of people each year. The three most important groups of worms are atworms, segmented

—K

Planarians, or animals

If the head of a atworm

species can also reproduce asextialh', by splitting

is damaged, a fork-headed worm can regrow.

■

■5“

—

If asection r. is

cut

from

atworms, are the simplest adistinct

“head.” Their

attened and ribbonlike,

giving them alarge surface area. This is vital because they have no lungs, and they breathe and pass dissolved waste directly through their skins. There are about 80,000 species of atworms. Many live as parasites in or on other

UP

.VIosl alwornis are hermapliroditc.s —Lhey have both male and female .sexual organs -although they still paii up to reproduce sexually. Some

I

~1t

with

bodies are SPLITTIKC;

N

atworm (Bipaliuyn

Flatworms

worms, and roundworms.

into uvo. Flatworms have an amazing ability to regenerate from small sections of the “parent.” If the w'oi'm is cut into pieces, each fragment will grow into anewtvorm, complete with head and sensoiy organs.

animals. Others live in .soil or in fresh or saltwater

j

< p , -

r

—"

V

aworm, it can

develop anew

The parchment worm lives inside atough, papery tube that protects it.

head at each end.

Segmented

Parchment worm

(ChartopLerus varioprdalns)

J

W O R M S

Segmented worms, or annelids,

Fluid- lled

include the most familiar types of worm, .■% such as earthworms, leeches, and the cla ^

Feelerlike palps (sense organs)

The end of the

segments

tube sticks out above th^ mud’^ surface.

worms used as bait by anglers. Most, such as the ^

M u s c l e

parchment worm, have elongated bodies divided into uid- lled segments. Segmented worms have well-developed nervous, circulatory, and wastedisposal systems. Many species also have apair of leg-like appendages attached to evei7 segment.

Intestine

Legiike appendage The worm feeds by drawing water containing food into its tube.

Flattened head with tentacles and mouth

Cross section through asegmented worm

Cross section through alugworm hurrow

Marine nematode worm

[Draconema sp.)

Roundworms

Pile of waste

Sand falls i n t o b u r r o w.

Direction of water

ow

VNematodes, or roundworms, are

4

numerous

T, '

Pointed

tail

■|£-

' /

■ V

' I

m

at each end, and elastic, muscular walls.

m

^

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predators that crawl through networks of burrows opening out on to the seabed. When they ctcct disturbance in the

144 .

/

of sand in shallow waters

(3 mm) in length, with long, cylindrical bodies tapered

)

fl

sand. Some are active

in the world. They are found almost eveiy^where and many live as parasites in animals and plants. Some areas

water above, they lunge out and grab pa.ssing jrrey. Others, such as lugworms, feetl on organic material in the sand. They expand and

most are less than 0.125 in

m

7'.

fl

oi' burrows in soil or

of these tiny worms per square yard. Roundworms are fairly uniform in appearance -

*

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Many worms live in tultes

animals

contain more than one million

■ m

sand and mud

BURROW'S

:X possibly the most

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ANIMALS

contract their bodies to

Alugworm swallows

The lugworm squirts

sand and mud that

waste

falls into the burrow.

from its anus.

material

out

draw oxygen-rich water through the burrow.

HORSEHAIR

WORMS

Horsehair worm

Some parasitic worms, such as hoi schair tvorms, swim and lav tlieir eggs in freshwater. When the eggs hatch, the lanae live as parasites in the bodies of animals such as crabs and insects. They

PEACOCK

(Chordodes verrucosus)

he elegant, featheiy gills of the peacock fanworm act as a net, trapping panicles of food that drift past in the sea. The fatiworm’s soft body is hidden in along, protective tulte, which it makes

Horsehair worms

can grow to 3ft 3in (1 m) long.

eventtially dies. They are called horsehair tvorms becattse they are found in animal watering troughs, atid tvere once thotight to be horses’ hairs brought to life f

t

from mud and inuetts. In litnes

looks like apeanut

of danger the w'orm pulls its head and gills rapidly into

when the whole

the tube.

The thick trunk

body retracts.

FANWORM

T

will then feed on the host until it

i

X

WW-

Peanut worm

The '●■T.rSyf

Mouth

i

shape. Peanut worms, in particitlar, hav

worm’s

surrounded

mouth Is

by tentacles

hidden In the center

Not all worms have aclassic “wonniike”

of its gills..

t

f t p

pP^ bizarre btilbotts forms. Most live iti burrows ttti the seabed, have thick, muscular body walls, and bretithe

bv extracting oxygen Irotn the water through their skitis. They feed b\ extending aproboscis, which cati be up to ten times the length of the bodv, to collect particles of food from the sand.

Scienti c name: SabeUa peniriUis Size: Up to 8in {20 cm) long Habitat: Mud and sandy seabeds

Distribution: Temperate waters of Atlantic Ocean Amucous covering helps the earthworm move

and keeps it from drying out.

Reproduction: Each fanworm sheds both sperm and eggs into the sea; after fertilization, developing lanae drift with the ctirrent before settling on the seabed Diet: Filter feeder; extracts mintite organisms and other orgtmic matter from the sea

7. Circular muscles

contract and body stretches forward.

The tapeworm’s head carries aring of hooks to grip

2. Hairs anchor

segments.

Movement

■.’X" Y

' 'S'"

on to its host.

Segmented worms, such as earthworms, hav'e a uid- lled body

.\R.\S1 ITS: 56 Reproduction: 28 Se.vshores .\nd riDEPOOLs: 70

Cross section

Jelly sh and corals

of tentacle

The barbed capsule punches ahole in the prey's skin.

Poison is

injected through the hollow thread.

With bodies made up of just two layers of tissue -and only afew distinct organs -jelly sh and corals are among the simplest of invertebrates. They are classi ed as cnidarians (or coelenterates), agroup that also includes hydras and sea anemones. Most live in seawater. Some, such as jelly sh, swim freely while others, such as corals,

Skin of prey

Stinging

l i v e a n c h o r e d t o r o c k s o n t h e s e a o o r.

Many cnidarians are carnivorous, capturing their prey with the help of stinging cells called cnidocytes. The sting of some species is strong enough to paralyze or

Central mouth

Nematocyst \Coiled thread

leading to digestive cavity

■S T I N G I N G

CELLS

Small cnidarian species feed on tiny plankton, but largerjellyrish and anemones catch bigger prey, including

e v e n k i l l a h u m a n s w i m m e r.

sh iind mollusks. They immobilize

their prey using slinging cells located on their tentacles. Inside each cell is a

Anatomy

bulblike nematocyst (cnida), which contains acoiled thread sttidded with

The body of acnidarian has two “ends.” At one end is the mouth, which is surrounded by aring of tentacles studded with stinging cells. The other end may form a

Hydra

(Ily r/i .sp.)

draw the prey back towaid the predator’s mouth.

ground, or in the case of jelly sh, form.s its dome-shaped umbrella. The mouth leads into aclosed gut. There is no anus, so undigested waste passes back out through the mouth. All cnidarians are characterized by symmetrical bodies with tentacles radiating from alarge digestive cavity.

Hydras may attach themselves to rocks, shells, or

even algae.

anchors

the hydra.

Medusa

Polyp

P O LY P S

Epidermis Gastrodermis

spines. When prey makes contact with the slinging cell, it explodes outward, pushing the barbed thread into the skin of its victim. The tentacles then

stalk that anchors the animal to the

AND

If the bell stops opening and closing, the jelly sh will sink.

MEDU.SAE

Cnidarians exist in two basic forms -pohps

Mesoglea Epidermis

yand medusae. Polyps, such as hydras and sea anemones, are cylindrical in shape, and \

live anchored to the sealloor with

their months and tentacles pointing upward to trap their prey. l\ -Medusae, such as jelly sh, are umbrella-shaped ;ind their mouths

'“A \

\

jand tentacles point downward

U \

\

Mesoglea

Gastrodermis

jw'hcn they swim. Some species Ialternate between the tw'o forms

Vduring their life cycle.

Movement in

the jelly sh is coordinated by asimple nervous

In both apolyp and amedusa, the outer epidermis and inner gastrodermis are separated by ajellylike layer called mesoglea.

system

DEADLYJELLIES

The stinging cells of some ^

Jelly sh and anemones are capable of injecting poksonous ehemicals in nature. The sting

If

(C/i.(ys or« sp.) may be just anuisance to swimmers, but boxjellv sh are veiy dangerous, and can be lethal. One type of box jelly, the sea wasp (Chinmex echai), is found off the coast of Australia.

“bell” shape made by its body. The force of the water leaving its body pushes the jelly sh in the opposite direction. Becau.se its body is “elasticized,” it pulls back into shape after each contraction, ready for the next push fonvard.

The sting of the sea wasp can be lethal.

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146 fi

Ajelly sh uses a gentle form ofjet pixrpulsion to propel it through the water. force water out from the

E l l

of the sea nettle

Gentle JETS

Muscle contractions

1

some of the most

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.

A N I M AT E S

J E L LY F I S H

AND

CORALS

PORTUGUESE

MAN-OF-WAR

lie Portuguese man-of-war can be considered a single jelh rish, or acolony of individual polyps and medusae adapted for different tasks. One polyp makes up the prominent “ oat.” Other polyps catch and digest food; medusae are involved in reproduction.

T

Specialized organs detect gravity, teliing the jeliy sh if it is swimming up or down.

Hydra (Hydra fusca) budding off a ‘daughter’’ hydra R E P R O D U C T I O N

The life cycles of cnidarians are veiy complex. Most can reproduce asexually (without mating) by splitting or budding from the body, or by regenerating from fragments. At other times they reproduce sexually, b\ shedding sperm and

eggs into the water -fertilization occurs either in the water or in the

body cavity of an adult. Many species

may pass through one or two lanal stages, as well as both polyp and medusa forms.

Scienti c name: Physalia physaUs Size: Float 12 in (30 cm) long; tentacles .33 ft (10 m) Habitat: Floats on the surface of water

Distribution: Warm and tropical seas woi Idwide Reproduction: Physalia is acolony of cnidarians, which reproduce sexually Diet: Fish and crustaceans

Corai reef, Fiji, in the Paci c Ocean

SEA SKELETONS

The chalk (calcium carbonate) skeletons of corals can create m;my elaborate patterns. These distinctive shapes are formed by the different arrangement of coral

polyps within acolony. Some coral

C>1

iS'iliiSiss

skeletons are upright, resembling the veins of aleaf; others are low and crustlike or folded into Lion’s mane

{Cyanea capillata)

Corals Most corals resemble tiny sea anemones. Afew are solitary', but most live in large colonies, with each one connected to its neighbor by asheet of tissue. Corals genei-ally secrete ahard skeleton, which supports and protects the living polyps. Most hard corals are found in clear, shallow, tropical waters, where their skeletons can form huge reefs and become ahabitat in their own I'ight.

sheets. Depending on the species, coral skeletons can grotv at rates of about D p e r c e n t a y e a r.

When threatened, the

anemone

can

,expei ali the water

Ifrom its gastric Icavity, and atten bitself against i-hR rank.

Sea anemones Although sea anemones plants, they are active predators that catch

sh and small invertebrates with

stinging tentacles. Despite the fact that they are polyps, they can move slowly across Dahlia

their habitat -typically the rocky oor of ashallow sea. By taking in or expelling tvater from their digestive cavities, they are capable of dramatic changes in size. The largest anemones can measure

anemone

{red form) (Urlririna eques) Afeeding anemone with its

more than 3ft 3in (1 m) across.

tentacles extended

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fi

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fi

147 fi

')ora

coe)

look like harmless underwater Sea fan

{Gorgonia jlalxdlum)

Find out mor COR.M. REEFS: 72 M o v e . m e n t i n w. v t e r : 3 8 0(:e.\ns: 68 St.vr sm and sea urchins: 154

ANIMALS

Snails and slugs

Living on iand Most land snails and slugs come out to feed at night and spend the day hiding in dark, damp places to conserve moisture and avoid predators. They move by sliding over slime secreted by a large, muscular foot. Snails can

Snailsandslugsbelongtoagroupofanimalscalledgastropods. Although gastropods are most familiar as plant-eating garden pests, most of the 72,000 or so species live in the world’s seas and oceans. Alarge proportion are carnivorous hunters, some stunning their prey with potent toxins. Gastropods belong to agroup of animals called mollusks, together with squid, octopuses, clams, and oysters. Like other mollusks, most gastropods have soft bodies protected by shells.

withdraw into their shells when

in danger, but slugs have to rely on their sticky, offensive slime for protection. Land snails and slugs usually have eyes at the tips of long tentacles, and smaller tentacles to feel nearby objects. Unlike aquatic species, they have lungs and can breathe air.

Agastropod also has amuscular “foot” for moving, and atongue covered in ti teeth for scratching at food

There are three main types gastropod: sea snails, sea slugs, and snails and slugs

Shell made of calcium carbonate

that live on land. Breathing hole leading to lung 7entacle

Land slug {Arlon (iler) I-

In

N

Short ■■i

tentacle

S'.-.'. V. \ .

‘V

.

Vv^:

A %^

C

\

% '● 5^

Giant

Columella

Muscular foot

Atn J

{Arhnlina j

J*

EMERGING FROM ASHELL

Twisted homes

LV ) ' .

■f * '

,Snail shells are coiled into aclocktvise

spiral over the right side of the snail’s

body. Coiling makes the shell compact and

Tportable, but the snail’s body has to ttvist £around to

Snails may Idu slow movers, but tvhen threatened, they tvithdrarv their tentacles and disappear into the shell in seconds. Aquatic snails have an extra form of protection -ahard, round plate called an operculum, which blocks the shelEs entrance. When danger has passed, the snail

slowly emerges, using its muscular foot to Hip over if left upside down.

t inside. As aresult, one side of

the body is smaller than the other, and in most

species the right kidney and the right side of the heart are small or absent. The snail’s body is attached to the central axis of the shell

(the columella) by apowerful muscle j

1. The snail Is

hiding In Its shell for protection.

Trapezium horse conch

2. As the foot

3 . Te n t a c l e s

4. The snail

emerges, the

extend to check

moves off on Its

snail rolls over.

for danger.

muscular foot

(Pleiiroploca tnipeziu m) .SI.KLIA' SUM.MER

SEASHELLS

!»

The colorftti and exotic shells of marine

gastropods wash ttp oti beaches all o\er the world. While the shells of land snails are

light and delicate, those of species that live between the tides are robttsl to withstand constant

battering b\' the waves. Gastropod shells arc ttsually coiled, but there are exceptiottslimpets, for example, have shieldlike shells to de ect the relentless

The Eloise

pounding of the .sea.

{Acteoji eloisae)

Japanese wonder Fly-spotted auger (T/ialrht'yia mimbilis) {Terebra areolala)

.

fi

fl

●

148

Amass of snails remains dormant over the

summer (estivating) on afence post.

Snaits Unit live on land

are constantly losing water through e\aporation and the production of slime. Xot surprisingly, most species live in humid places and avoid fhying out bv moving around only al night. However, some species have adapted to life in hot, dry countries, and even semideserts. They survive the heat by estivating (remaining dormant) during the hottest part of the vear.

Snails and slugs obtain food in all sorts olAvays -some “graze” on algae or plants, others harpoon sh with poisonous stings, and several species drill holes though

Haduls

Snail “teeth" seen through an electron microscope

Asnail using its radula (tongue) to scrape at aleaf

G R E AT

A

detect their food.

single hing under the widest part of its shell and breathes through asmall hole that it can open

what they eat, most gastropods use aspecial tongue called aradula to scrape away at their food. The

or close. The snail feeds on carrion

radula is cotered with thousands

because it removes

of tiny, hook-shaped teeth that scratch and scoop tip matter.

algae that grow on glass.

or algae scraped from tvater plants.

It is often kept in an aquariu

g

V

m Common whelk

on shell

\

(Bucchmm undatum)

*●

nm- ●' V

Sharply pointed spiral shell

Operculum

Scienti c name: hymnam stagualls

JT‘

'

Size: Uj) to 2in (,n cm) long ■

'

●-t -

Habitat: Ponds, lakes, and slow-tlowing streams

V

.

Distribution: North America and Europe

-

t.4-

Conches, whelks, and

,’.A.

Reproduction: Female lays ribbons of jelly-covered eggs on water plants; eggs hatch into miniauire snails

winkles are all types

Diet: Carrion and algae on surface of water plants

of sea snails.

t/3

F L O AT I N G

C H I T O N S

YOUNG

Cliitons are untisual mollusks that have lived in the

Some gastropods, especiallv land snails and slugs, are hermaphrodites tthey have both male and female ft reproductive organs. The majority of

g

Earth’,s sea.s for over 500 million tcar.s. Although Irelated to the gastropods, they are placed in aclass

1of their own. Like snails and slugs, chitons have a

Isingle muscular foot and arasping tongue.

■aquatic species, however, have separate

f

Vsexes that come together to mate, Fproducing clumps of eggs within

The

SNAIL

the shells of biviilves. No matter

Barnacles

The sea snails make up the largest group of gastiopods. Unlike land snails, they often have eyes at the base of their tentacles, and they have gills rather than lungs. Sea snails breathe by drawing water o\’er the gills via atube called asiphon. Eye The water also passes Siphon over aspecial “scent” organ called the .f W .'-'*-r osphradium, which ●/ helps carnivorous and scavenging sea snails

POND

Ithough it spends all of its time in the water, the great pond snail breathes air. It has a

'

Sea snails

oating larva of asea snail

protective cases. The eggs U'picalK hatch into tiny snails, but in some species they hatch into oating lanae that can be carried great distances by ocean currents.

ift'd

However, they have at shells made up of eight overlapping plates. If achiton is ptilled from a rock, it can roll into atight ball to protect itself. Outside surface of achiton shell (Chiton marmoratus) showing eight interlocking plates TOXIC

Sea slugs

SLUGS

Vivid colors and bold

Despite their unpromising name, sea slugs and their close relatives, the sea hares and bubble shells, are

among the most beautiful of all invertebrates. There are more than 2,000 species, ranging in size from tiny creatures that can crawl between grains of sand to giants weighing over 2.2 lb (1 kg). Since they have no protective shells, sea slugs use camou age or poison to defend themselves. Unlike sea snails, they breathe through gills on their surface. Sea slugs are

Clown nudibranch (Chromodoris norrisi)

patterns make many sea slugs conspictiotis tmdenvaler. The bright display is awarning to predators that the slug’s body is poisonous or dangerous to titueh. Some sea slugs obtain their poisons in an untisual way they eat sea anemones and “steal” the anemones’

Te n t a c l e

stinging cells, incorporating them into their own skin.

also known as nudibranchs.

Homburg’s sea slug (Tritonia homherpi) Feathery gills _

Find out mor CoR.vi. Rf.r.FS: 72 IWERTl'.liR.-\TES: 142

tvi -

Move.menT ON lAXD: 34 SE.VSHORES .VND riDEROOLS: 70 ■y r

m

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149 fi

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F E E D I N G

-

4

SNAILS AND SLUGS

●

ANIMALS

Bivalves

Giant cockle

{Plagiocardiu m

pseudoUma) ^

Clams, mussels, and oysters are all 1 bivalves -so called because they hav ^

West

Arrican

tellin

(Tellino madagascaricnsis)

shells made up of two hinged plates, or valves. Most live in seawater, either on the

Shells

shore or in the depths of the oceans, but

The \ah’es of abi\'alve shell are made of

about 15 percent of the 25,000 or more species are found in freshwater. Like snails,

:jl calcium minerals embedded in organic “glue,

slugs, octopuses, and squid, bivalves are part of the large animal group (or phylum) called mollusks. Their bodies are adapted to life spent anchored to one place, or burrowing in mnd or sand and ltering food from the silt that surrounds them. Some species are harvested for food or to produce pearls used in jewelry.

'y They are joined by an elastic hinge, and m l 'j sockets or hinge teeth prevent the two halves ''■yy' from slipping apart. To close its shell, the W/l>.

BS Chorus mussel

(Choromydlus chorus)

bivalve contracts apair of adductor muscles that link the valves. Shells vary in size and shape -many are thick and ridged to deter predators, some have spines for gripping loose sand, and others are

-

brightly colored bv the food that

the bivalve ingests.

Bivalve anatomy

Shiny lining of shell

The soft, at body of abivalve is protected by the ttvo valves (plates) of the shell. Lining the inner surface of both plates is athin layer of tissue,

Muscnlnr

‘font’

called the mantle. This contains cells that secrete hard minerals that make

up the shell. The cavity within the mantle contains organs for feeding, breathing, and circulation. There is also amuscular “foot” that protrudes when the shell is open, and which the animal uses for movement and for

making burrows. Bit'alves have no heads, and there are only afew sense organs, usually on the edges of the mantle. Banded carpet shell

Siphons Muscular, bladelike foot r .

W'

Gills absorb

Alayer of tissue

Digestive gland

oxygen from

called the mantle

takes in food

t h e w a t e r.

lines the shell.

particles.

r F I LT E R

H i

p l i m M M

ms > ■ -

2.

w

FEEDING

Bivalves are nioslh' Filter feeders. The)' get food, as tvell as oxygen, through anitisctilar tube called asiphon. The siphon draws tvater and food particles through the gills, which arc covered in sticky muctis and studded with heating hairs (cilia). Food is trapped in the gills and directed to the animal’s mouth. The siphon can be stretched to reach food and water if the animal is buried in mud or sand. The banded

m

Great scallop {Pecten maximus)

carpet shell uses its muscular foot to btirrow and anchor it in the mud.

i ● (

, ' A

Shipworm (Teredo uoweg/ca)

Shipworms can measure up to 6ft 6in (2 m).

«49='-■Si

% .ft

e

fi

fl

150

BIVALVES

GIANT WITH NO BACIvBONE

are less than 0.08 in (2 mm) across, while the giant dam is one

of the largest invertebrates in the w'orkl. Living only in the

L

shallow waters of the tropical Paci c Ocean, this dam can measure up to 4ft 6in (1.4 m) acro.ss, and its thick, clefensise shells can weigh up to 882 lb (400 kg). Giant dams live permanently in one spot, anchored by their own weight.

OYSTER

ike all oysters, this bivalve uses the left valve of its shell to cement itself to muddy rocks or

other oyster shells. The Portugtiese oyster is often used in commercial farming because it is easy to rear in warm water and is

Oyster shell with pearl

larger than its relative, the edible oyster. Adductor

st-

mii^^nle

- - V

Giant clam

j' (Tridacna gigas)

_

their abdomens called cerci. Hairs on the cerci

Flattened, oval body

detect even the tiniest vibrations, so the insects

American cockroach

(Pm pin II n nmrrira nn)

AWAY

dates back 300

COCKJfOACHES AT HOME

cover delicate

hind wings. '

Archimylacris

FROM

can run off on their long legs.

HOME

...aK

The vast majority of cockroach species arc not human pests, but live as scavengers in leal'lilter,

Fertilized

under the bark of trees, and in

female

vegemtion. Some, indudi'ng Cijplocercm, are unusual because they can digest wood. Termites

American

Ihe hard egg

cockroach

purse contains about 18 eggs

Short,

are the only other insects that

mduced

can do this, and experts think

Australian

that termites evolved from

mountain

cockroach

antennae

{PnlyzosUnin xiiridisshlia)

cockroachiike ancestors.

FAST

BREEDER

One of the reasons for the success of

cockroaches is their ability to breed quickly. Afemtile American cockroach can live for up

to two years, during which she may lay about 'J Fleas spend their lives on the

bodies

■d' yf-

1,000 eggs in hard protective capsules, known as egg purses. The eggs hatch after about 45 days, and the nymphs that emerge live for about one year before reaching malnrity.

Flea life of warm-blooded

3. The power In the hind legs

animals, such as birds and

mammals. Only afew of these animals -mainly primates and aquatic mammals -are untroubled by these pests. Fleas thrive in

2. When the

produces ahuge leap. ^ i

a“forest” of fur, where they can

feed

undetected

on

the blood of their hosts.

F LY I N G

Their body parts are covered with backward-

n

falling off thei

^

move

J*'

pointing bristles 1. Like astretched elastic Rat

around.

Ilea

(Xenojmlla chmpis)

band, energy is stored in the resilin in the ea's hind legs.

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1(H fi

THEIR

LEGS

;o move from one host to another. A ea that

pointing bristles to keep them fro ^ host while they

WITH

Many species of eas are capable of jumping long diskmces to escape danger or is 0.1 in (2-3 mm) long can Jump 3ft 3in (I m) in 0.002 seconds with adegree of acceleration of about 200 gravities. Ahuman, by com])ari.son, cannot sunive acceleration of more than 20 gravities.

PLKAS,

AND

MCE

BLOODSUCKERS Fleas feed on the Itlood ol their hosts,

and although they can go withotit food for along time, ameal of host blood is tisLitilly needed belbre afemale ea can lay eggs. A ea’s monthptins are e A b d o m e n

Wings

leg for leaping

SCilLND SYSTEMS

Grasshoppers li\ econcealed in \egclalion, so they rely on sound to communicate. .Males use different “songs” to attract females, and to warn other

males to keep atvay. The)’ sing b\' scraping tiny pegs on the hindleg against stiff veins

oti the wing. Crickets sing by nibbing

Close-up of pegs on agrasshopper's leg

their forewings together. Desert locust

(Schistorerca sp.) Oak bush cricket

Long antenna

(Meconerna lhaftminum)

Crickets Like grasshoppers, crickets have long hind for jumping, and chewing mouthparts for leaves. They are mostly active at night, and long, hairlike antennae to feel their way in dark. While grasshoppers are herbivores,

legs eating use the

7 /

’,r

crickets sometimes eat other animals as

well as plants. Many females have long, pointed ovipositors (egg-laying tubes). When Lafemale lays her eggs,

Ovipositor

Front legs are tucked in to

1

make the body streamlined.

S' she uses the tip of her oviposito to stab atiny hol

for each egg i

■/

, k

%

Ta k i n g

aplant or in soil.

2. The hindlegs extend to push the locust into

\Immature acorn

the air. 1. With its HEARING

hindlegs folded,

LEGS

this desert locust

Gras.shoppcrs and crickets have keen hearing to listen to the songs of potential mates or rivals, and to detect approaching predators. The “ear” of agrassliopper or

is ready to leap.

cricket consists of athiti membrane attached to sensitive-

altdometi, but crickets have ears oti

the knees of their front legs.

A

-

\

JMagni ed fview

of

a

cricket’s "ear"

on its front leg

i :

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n

e

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fi

166 fl

Like most insects,

grasshoppers and crickets have two pairs of wings (although some species are ightless). When the insect is resting, tough forewlngs protect the delicate hindwings folded

receptors. In grasslioppers, the ears are located on the Jf

ight

beneath

like

afan. The hindwings may be brightly colored to provide a ash of color when the insect leaps into the air -this display helps to confuse predators. Some grasshoppers can close their \vings in mid- ight and dive to the ground in order to escape their enemies.

Life

AND

CKICKETS

cycle

Grasshoppers and crickets usually produce just one new generation a

year. After mating, the female lays

\

small clusters of eggs in the soil or

vegetation. Some species produce aspecial foam to protect the eggs. .■

-N

When they hatch, the young (nymphs) look like miniature adults.

They shed their skin between ve and 15 times before reaching maturity.

TREE

W E TA

are giant cricket.s toiind only in Zealand. The tree weta takes shelter W :etas

\etv

in tree holes made by beetles or moths during the da\-, and emerges to feed only at nigiu. Its uses its powerful jaws to make the holes big enougli for its kirge body. Males are aggressive, raising their heavily spined liind legs when threatened. Wetas are long-lived insects —some can sun ive for

Mating rainforest grasshoppers (Rhopsotettix consummatus)

ve years.

:X.-. i

r

■

\

A ●

Spined hind ieg

\ \

Scienti c name: Ilemideina thoracica

x . a ;

Size: Around 4in (10 cm) Habitat: Holes bored in trees

\

Distribution: New Zealand

Reproduction: .Males look after anumber of females and young. Eggs are laid on or near vegetation. Diet: Omniyorous

Moie cricket (Gryllotalpa gryllotalpa) digging aburrow

LIVING

UNDERGROUND, OVERGROUND

Grasshoppers and crickets are masters of disguise. .Many resemble leaves, and

Some grasshoppers and ci ickets luive untisual habitats and diets. Some

species live in ants’ nests or caves, while others, such as the slender 3. Wings open and ap to propei

groundhopper (Telrix sulmlatna), can

t h e l o c u s t f a r t h e r.

lives Linderground, using its sliovelshaped front legs to dig tunnels in

stvim undenvater. The mole cricket

the soil. It feeds on beetle laiv'ae, other invertebrates, and roots.

L o c u s t s Locusts are grasshoppers that hav'e a well-earned reputation as crop pests. They are usually harmless, solitaiw creatures that live well camou aged in diw places, such as deserts. Only when unusually heat')' rains cause a ush of plant growth do they begin to form groups, and then swarms, to take advantage of the food glut. Young locusts are called hoppers, and are unable to y until they grow into adults. They change color when they band together, turning bright yellow-orange and black.

\L

Hoppers have undeveloped wings and cannot

STICKS

some mimic stones or even lichen. The

most spectacular impostors, however, are the stick

gnisshoppers, which not only look like twigs, but also stvay gently as though caught in a light breeze. Stick grasshoppers look similar to true stick insects

(phasmids), but they have large, muscular hind legs like other orlhopterans.

y.

Muscular hind legs

Desert locust ● r

●

(Srhisiomra prrparia)

i ' > A '

CROP

\ S '

i ir'-'Jl -

r

f I

11

"IS

PESTS

The inigraloiy and descri locusts {Locusla migratoria and Srhisiomra ^irgatia) liave caused devastating famines in parts of .AlVica and the Middle Last by destroying vast areas of grains and other crops. A swarm can number more than 10 billion

2?^

individuals. Its path depends largelv on the direction of the winds -if the winds blow

out to sea, the whole swarm ma\’ drown. Locust swarm in Mauritania, West Africa

fi

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fl

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fl

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167 fl

fl

GRASSHOPPERS

V

South America stick grasshoppe

Malaysian stick i n s e c t

(Microcoema camposi) {Lonchodes bm>ipes) Find

out

more

An'im.m.s: 140

IxsKCUS: 162 Riksi'iiuvnoN: 26 Sen,se.s: 42

Dragon ies, may ies, AND MANTIDS

GIANT

- ■ t - -

. . . } .

DeiJCATEANDOFTENspectacularlycolored, dragon ies are familiar insects although their numbers are relatively small. Dragon ies together with damsel ies -form the order

Emperor

Odonata and are considered to be cousins of

{Auax imperator)

dragon y

may ies. They are fast- ying predators whose speed and shape have earned them the name u

A-

ANGESTORS

Dragon ies and damseldies are usually seen ying low over freshwater lakes or I'ivers where they lay their eggs. Of the .5,000 or more living species, most live in tropical or subtropical regions. Their wingspans range from 0.8 in (2 cm) to 8in (20 cm). Even the emperor dragon y, the largest British species, is dwarfed by its prehistoric relatives. Many ancestors of dragon ies from the Penn.sylvanian period had a wingspan of 25 in (65 cm), making them the largest insects e\’er knotvn.

devil’s darning needles.” Mantids belong to

the order Mantodea and have more in common with crickets. These insects

This fossilized dragon y wing and the emperor dragon y wingspan up to 4in (10 cm) -

I

■

i

The narrow, lacy wings are often brightly colored.

u

■

The male of this

species has astriking blue, green, and black coloring.

*

II I

■

■ C ■, '■ /

o

Dragon

Dragon y fossil (Typus sp.) showing the giant wingspan of an early species

y

anatomy

!

'/wings make it one of the swiftest iers in the insect Iworld. Unlike most insects, the forewings and hind

/wings beat alternately for better ight control. The dragon y’s huge multifaceted eyes often meet at the

[I,

-

V'.

W

;./; jThe dragontly’.s slender body and long, diin

h

\ - ■■

A

are shown to scale.

!

\ '

Hind wing

■. s ? -

\

f t r

Southern hawker

{Aeshna cyanea)

(

Forewing

appear to be “praying” while lying in wait for passing insects. Although it is generally thought that female mantises always eat their partners after mating, this usually happens only in captivity.

back of the head and enable it to see prey from up to 39 ft (12 m) away. The position of the legs at the front of its body pret'ents adragon y from walking but enables it to shape its legs into a“basket” to catch prey.

1

f

f

-T-.

*rv

Long abdomen with 10 segments

y ‘

Hind wing Forewing

Legs set forward on thorax

D.VMSELFLIES

Damsel ies and dragon ies arc usually classi ed as separate suborders within the order Odonata. Although they seem veiy similar there are several important differences between them. Damsel

Beautiful demoiselle

(Caloptrryx virgo)

Black-tailed skimmer (Orthetrum cancellatum) eating adamsel y

ies have thinner

Wingtips

bodies and are weaker in ight. Adamsel y’s front and hind wings are roughly equal in size

are rounded.

I'

with rounded ends. Unlike

■

r

1

the dragon y, it folds them over its

●y.

back ivhen resting.

Y 3

A :

7' &

AAbdomen is made up Hof many segments.

\

The male uses a/ pair of claspers to

V

i

A

m

m .

ih

f

hold onto the female

during mating.

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fl

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fl

fl

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fl

168 fi

fl

ANIMALS

Daytime hunters Becau.se they locate prey exclusively by sight, most adult dragon ies and damsel ies hunt during daylight hours. They feed on arange of insects, such as midges, mosquitoes, and moths. Their wings beat as much as one hundred times per second and before these insects can become airborne, they must raise their body temperature. Some species generate heat by “shivering” their ight muscles and many bask in the sun.

I V I AY F U E S .

AND

MANTIDS

Courtship and reproduction

M AY F LY

Male dragon ies claim aterritoiy near water and Fiercely defend it against all rivals. On the

a\ \’ nymjihs li\ eunck*nvatcr and can remain there for up to three tears. During early summer, the nvmphs emerge ’om the tvater and shed their skins twice before they become adults. The adults do not have aworking digestive system and cannot feed. The)- mate, lat- eggs, and A die within just afew hotirs.

M

arrival of afemale, the

male changes his

ight

pattern and performs a courtship display before grasping the female’s head with special claspers on the tip of his abdomen. The female then arches her Azure damsel

y

abdomen fonvard to bring {Coenagrion puella) their sexual organs together The female loops / her abdomen forward and fertilization takes place. in order to mate. The eggs are laid in or near water.

Three long tails help the may y balance as it

ies.

N Y M P H S

Dragon y eggs hatch into nymphs that develop in the water. The nt uiphs breathe throtigh gills on the tips of their abdomens and feed maiuK- on aquatic invertebrates, althotigh some species catch small sh. The) have aspecial lower Jaw,

Scienti c name: Epheiticra danica Size: Adults up to 1.8 in (4..5 cm) long Habitat: Streams, lakes Distribution: Europe

called amask, which shoots fonvard to

Reproduction: Female lays eggs in water bv dipping

grab prey. Nymphs shed their skins several times before emerging :ts adults between one and ve years latei'.

Diet: I.anae eat algae but adults do not feed.

her abdomen beneath the surface.

Dragon y nymph (Aeshna sp.) grabbing athree-spined stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus) PREYING

May y swarms

cannot feed, and their sole

function is to reproduce. Most of

P R AY I N G

Ambush tecbnique of mantis

their lives -beUveen one and three

years -are spent in the water as nymphs, feeding on plants and small invertebrates. Adtilts gather in swarms over rivers to mate, although this sight is now less common due to water pollution.

NOT

Manlids are .somelimes called “praying” manti.ses becau.se their forelegs are raised as if in prayer. This posture prepares the mantis to strike out and grab its prey. The insect’s front legs tire positioned far in front of the other four “walking” legs, ready to shoot fonvard and grab apassing insect. These legs arc covered with spines to grip struggling pre)-.

May ies are relatives of dragon ies and damselllies. They are members of the order Ephemeroptera, which means “one-day wings.” The adults do not live for long,

1. The mantis waits for

Aswarm of may ies gathering

an insect to land within

over alake to mate

striking distance.

Mantids Mantids, or mantises, are solitaiy insects that do not actively hunt down their prey. Instead they ambush grasshoppers, ies, and even small birds. They are able to remain almost motionless, observing their prey until it comes into striking-

■S

2. me mantis leans forward, keeping agrip on the twig with its rear legs.

distance. To avoid detection themselves, their bodies are

camou aged to resemble twigs and leaves. The mantis is

well camou aged against the leaf.

3. The mantis shoots its front Mantis

legs forward to grip the

y.

(Sphodromrmii.'i sp.) Spines on forelegs for gripping prey.

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169

162

IiwuRTEiiiovrEs: 142 Praying mantis {Mantis religiosa)

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DRAGONFUES,

Movement in air: 36 Preiii.stork; liee: 16

Bugs People often use the word “bug” to describe any type of insect. However, zoologists use the term to describe the 80,000 or so members of the major order known as Hemiptera. This group, which is remarkably diverse in appearance and size, contains species ranging from less than 0.004 in (1 mm) to more than 4.3 in (11 cm). Bugs also have varied diets; some live as carnivores in water or on land, while

others survive by sucking sap from green plants. All have long, strawlike feeding tubes through which they suck plant and animal juices. Ty p e s o f b u g Heteropteran bugs fold their divided wings

K

at over their

bodies, forming an X-shape.

Black bean aphid (Aphis fabae) with rostrum

Some specialists divide bugs into two distinct groups. The “true bugs,” such as water boatmen, -assassin bugs, and pond skaters belong to the suborder Heteroptera. Their forewings are always divided into two parts -a leathery front and amembranous back. They are either aquatic or „terrestrial, and feed on plants

J

( / A

and other animals. The second

#■

Homopteran : bugs carry their ■ uniform wings like atent

over the body.

Leaf hopper ^ Shield hug {Carponn imperialh)

{Ciradella viridis)

FEEDINC,

The most [K'omincnt feature on abug’s head is its feeding lube (rostrum), which consists ol’ two thin channels. Enzymes are [jumped down one tube to help liquefy the insect’s food, while the other tube sucks up the food into the digestive system. Most Inigs feed on plants, and man)' are signi cant crop pests. Some feed on animtil blood or tissues, and may transmit human and animal diseases.

suborder, the Homoptera, includes aphids, scales, and cicadas. They live

Thorax

on land and feed exclusivelv on

plant juices.

SHIELDED

STINKERS

Shield bugs and their relatives are mostly

Water bugs

Backswimmers are so

Toad bugs, wate ' scorpions, and water

swim on their backs.

plant-feeding pests. Some species, such as the seed-eating chinch bu kucoptenis), cause massit edamage to Striped shield hug cereal crops worldwide. (Cmphosomri ilalirum) Shield bugs are sometimes called “stink hugs’’ because, when handled, they produce are|5ugnanl odor. This smell is proditced by s[jecial glands on the sides of the thorax and helps deter predators.

called because they

Backswimmer

boatmen are carnivorous

{Notonecla sp.)

bugs that live in fresh water. They have all developed unique ways of breathing underwater. Water scorpions {Nepa cinerea) breathe through along siphon that projects above the surface. Water boatmen take air from the surface through holes called spiracles, at the tip of their abdomens. They trap this air, in the form of tiny air ljubbles, beneath water-repellent hairs on their bodies. LIVING

ON

AFILM

Asmall number of bugs are parasites. These insects use their sucking mouthparts

ponds, lakes, and slow-llowing rivers. Some tropical and subtropical species live on the sea. Thev reh’ on

to feed on blood from birds and mammals.

the surface tension of the water to

Three species, commonly known as bedbugs, hide in clothing during the day, and are known to feed on humans at night. These inconspicuous, wingless parasites are more

keep them from sinking. Pond skaters feed mainly on invertebrates that fall into the water from the air

and overhanging plants. Ripples produced from astruggling insect alert the skater to potential food.

of Water skaters (Gerris najas) feeding on surface

r

170 fi

Bedbug {Cimex lectularius)

Bedbugs

1 -

Pond .skaters live on the surface of

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ANIM.ALS

an

inconvenience

than

athreat

-there

no evidence that they transmit disease.

is

Hoppers and cicadas

ASSASSIN

Plant hoppers and cicadas include some of the largest species of bugs. Some cicadas have wingspans of

A

BUG

s.sassin l^ug i.s ihe common

name

tor

the

■S.OOO or .so species ol carnivorous bugs that feed on other animals. The Eulyes

more than 8.5 in (22 cm). Like

all homopterans, hoppers and cicadas feed by sticking plant .sap, which provides them with sugars, minerals, and water. Although they are not as destructive to crops as some aphids, these bugs may carry viruses from plant to plant. In common with most bugs, courtship is initiated by sound signals. Cicadas, in particular a r e notorious for their piercing “song, which they make by clicking lidlike

iUusliis feeds exclusiveh’ on other insects. It ambushes

its pre)' and injecLs a paralyzing venom into its victim. This

Cicadas! (Pomponia sp.) are among the

venom helps digest the prey’s tissties, allowing lique ed food to Ire sucked up through the bug’s

loudest of

r o s t r u m .

hi

all Insects

m

Bright spots warn predators to stay away. /

l

Scienti c name; Eulyes illuslris

Size: 1.2 in (30 mm) long Habitat: Commonly fouml in forests

Some plant hoppers such as the thorn bug (Umbonia sp.) have developed elaborate camou age.

SPITTLE

Distribution: Philippines Reproduction: After hatching, nymphs (adultlike voting without wings) undei'go ve molts Aprojection on

Diet: Other arthropods

the thorax makes this

thorn bug look like part of aprickly stem.

Mother shield bug (Elasmucha grisea) protects young.

k ..a.'

.

BUGS

The immature stages (nymphs) of some

ri, .:

:fplant-sucking bugs protect themselves from predators, disease, and the environment b) enclosing themselves in afrothyjacket. sometimes called cuckoo spit. This froth is released dirough ihe anus. W'hen they reach maturity, the small adult spittle bugs leave the safety of their spit and assume amore active lifestyle, jumping from leaf to leaf.

y-"

Reproduction Unlike other insects,

S C

bugs do not undergo metamorphosis. Instead, eggs hatch out into miniature, usually wingless, replicas of adults. As these

''●

x'.

,-V-

nymphs grow, they shed their "i-')

Froth surrounding froghopper's 'an/a gives the insect the more common name of spittle bug.

hard exoskeletons several times /

before reaching maturity. In .sap¬ feeding species, such as shield bugs, the eggs are usually laid on the host plant, or injected into the plant through the female’s swordlike ovipositor (egg-laying tube). After hatching, the emerging nymphs are usually left to fend for themselves. e

Al’HID

Aphids live in large numbers on plant sap is easy to reach.

i a z y s c a i . e s

t.v

Scale insects are tiny bugs that arc pests of many tropical and greenhouse plants. The adults

●j- )ensure asteach- supply of food.

resemble scales and seldom move. -M

Although many scale bugs are destructive, some arc used to make

Cochineal

coloring

A

useful products. For example, the food dye cochineal i.s made from the bug Daclylopius coccus, and chewing gum is derived from the bug Cerococcus quercus.

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4'^

Defense 2: 50 Insects: 162

ID

PEOPI.E and ,\^T^LALS: 94 .'■)

* 1 . '

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ARMIES

Aphids have devastating effects on crops and plants. They rob plants of nutrients and also transmit plant diseases. Plant .sap is rich in sugar, but low in protein. Aphids feed until they have extracted enough protein, and get rid of the “excess” sap as sugary droplets. Other insects, such as ants and bees, feed on these droplets. Some ants even stand guard over their “ ock” of aphids to

buds, where

Adult scale bugs on leaf

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BUGS

-

●f

X

Pests and wteds: 98

Ground beetle

Beetles

{Thermophihim scxmandntum)

Thorax ,Head

Abdomen

Withmorethan360,000knownspecies,beetles account for 40 percent of all insect species, and include the brightly spotted ladybug. Beetles belong to the order Coleoptera, and range in size from the tiny feather-winged beetle, which grows to alength of 0.01 in (0.25 mm) to the titan longhorn beetle measuring 6in (16 cm). Beetles live in almost every imaginable habitat and feed on awide range of foods including plants, fungi, insects, and dead animals. Some beetles are considered pests, but others perform avaluable role by breaking down dead animal and plant matter, and returning nutrients to the soil. BEETUNG

Long legs enable beetle to run fast. .

m -

Anatomy Abeetle’s body is divided into three parts -the head, thorax, and abdomen. All beetles have biting monthparts, and antennae that they use for touch and smell. Most have two pairs of wings. The front wings have developed into tough leathery covers,

ALONG

Like all insects, beetles have

six Jointed legs used for walking, jumping, digging, or ●swimniing. Ground beetles and tiger beetles have long legs to run away from predators and to chase pre\- over soil and leaf litter. Dung beetles have toothed, spadelike legs to help them roll and buiy balls of dung. Diving beetles have

Green tiger beetle (Cirindehi rampc.slri.s)

Long legs

called elytra, that protect the delicate hindwings and the abdomen when the insect is at rest. The wings, elytra, and six legs are joined to the thorax. Red-colored elytra held clear of beating hind wings

Cardinal beetle

(Pyrochroa coccinea) 3

Dung beetle

(Geotraprs

Toothed legs

.●ilmorarius)

Legs fringed with hairs

cockchafer, are relatively poor

iers. Their front wings, or elytra, have become little more than covers that protect the insect’s delicate hindwings as it runs on the grotind. In ight, the elytra are held up, out of the way of the beating hindwings.

'Great diving beetle (Dy Iisc us margi naIis)

t

Green tiger beetle (Cidnd(da

Mouthparts

They provide little aerodynamic lift although they do help

canipestris) jA

s t a b i l i z e t h e i n s e c t i n t h e a i r.

The structure of abeetle’s

mouthparts usually re ects its diet. Many beetles have mouths that are adapted for feeding on leaves, seeds,

Large

Most beetles are able to y,

eyes

but some have fused elytra and are completely

mandibles

GLANT JAWS Male stag beetles have large, powcii'itl jaws that look like

scavengers that feed on rotting vegetation, dead animals, and dung. The carnivorous tiger beetles have sharp sickle-shaped jaws (mandibles), while

impressive jaws stiggest that these bctetles catch large prey, btit in fact they feed on honeydew atid ti ee s;ip. The jaws at eol’teti ttsed in lights

which feed on plants or

snout

bore into seeds, tend to

between mtiles over territon-, mates, or food.

Nut weevil

{Cinriilio nunnu)

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Male stag beetles can grow up to 3in (7 cm) long.

bratiched “antlers.” The

weevils and seed beetles,

have long snouts with hard, biting jaws at the tip.

Stag beetles (Lucanus cervus) ghting

ightless.

Sickle-shaped

or nectar. Others are

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ANIMAI.S

S T-

Finding amate Beetles use avariety of signals to attract a mate of the same species. Some attract mates

by their bright colors or patterns, while

CLICK

L

BEETLE

ike other dick beetles, the South American click beetle has ahard

others, such as chafer beetles, release special chemicals called pheromones. Deathwatch beetles tap the walls of their wooden burrows with their heads, while re ies use a.special

body and wing-case, short, thin legs, and

organ in their bodies to “ ash” signals to

until it rests on its

potential mates. The signals are sent out in speci c frecpiencies to lure the right partner. Fire y sending " ashes" to attract amate R E P R O D U C T I O N

toothed antennae. W'hen alarmed,

it slips to the ground and lands on its back. To right itself, it bends its body backward head and tail tips; then it lets go suddenly, springing upward with a clicking sound. The “click” is also

Most beetles undergo aform of development called complete metamorphosis. The female lays her eggs on or near afood source — tistiallv in the soil or on aplant. The lanae look completely different

Hard body and wing

tisecl to startle

Beetie digs into adung oiie, rolling It nto pellets.

brood chamber

tvpes of food so they are not in competition with their parents.

c a s e

predators.

Adung beetle’s

from the adults, and often eat other

Female beetle lls chamber

Scienti c name: Omlcolepidius limbalus Size: 0.1 6-0.7 in (4-18 mm)

with pellets of dung

Habitat: Woodlands and grassland

Most beetles show little or no care

Distribution: .South America

for their offspring. Afew species of dung beetle, however, construct brood chambers for their young.

Reproduction: l.arvae develop in wood or soil Diet: Plants, insects, dead plant or animal matter

Eggs are laid in dung, giving the young an instant food source when

they hatch.

l

i

Chafer beetles

{Hoplia raenilea)

Lunate ladybug (Uheilomenes lunata) feeding on green aphids

Shining

AND

ower chafer

(Plusiotis optima)

Leaf weevil

Frog beetle {Sagiri buqueti)

Costs

{Eupholus schoenherri)

BENEFITS

Many beetles are harmful -they eat crops, stored seeds, fabrics, and dried animal products. Others, however, are of great bene t. Some are important pollinators, others feed on animal dung or rotting plants and animals, recycling the nutrients for new generations of plants. Ladybugs are helpful to gardeners because they help to control pests such as aphids and scale insects.

Soft-bodied

V:

aphids move slowly and are vulnerable.

Jewel beetle

(Chrysochroa chinensis) COLORFUL

Longhorn beetle (Slernolomis bohemani)

C01.E0PTE1-1A

Contraiy to popular belief, not all beetles are drab. Many species, including scarabs and wood-boring beetles, have bright, metallic colors. The beetles’ colors are caused either bt’ iridescence -the

The deathwatch beetle (Xestobium rufovillosum)

effect of sunlight shining on the elytra -or by colored pigments present in the body.

can reduce structural timbers to askeleton. PESTS

Bark of elm tree shows

damage caused by large elm bark beetles.

Some beetles damage plants directly, while others cause destructittn indirectly by acting as vectors (carriers) for disease. The most celebrated example is the large elm bark beetle {Scholytus srholylus). The adults and laivae excavate bttrrows under the bark of living trees and transmit spores of the fungus CemtocysHs ulmi- the cause of Dtitch elm disease in the US. This disease has wiped out much of the elm population.

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BEETLES

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Cockroaches,

.eas,

AND lice: 164 Insects: 162 Pests and weeds: 98

AN IMAI.S

Flies

Slender X

brown spots

b o d y.

on abdomen

/i

/

diey transmit diseases and contaminate food. Mosquito

Nevertheless, many species play avital role in the chain of decomposition by breaking down dead

(Cukxap.) South American robber (Mallnphom aim)

organic matter. Flies are members of the order

Diptera, which means “two wings” -all other insects have four wings. With more than 120,000 species, they are the fourth largest insect group and can be found in almost every habitat. Many are opportunists that feed on awide variety of foods, while others, such as the female

mosquito, feast on the blood

House y (Musca dome.siica)

y

Diverse diptera Flies range in size from robber ies that may reach lengths of more than 3in (7 cm) to mosquitoes that are sometimes dif cult to see. In general, the more primitive ies, such as mosquitoes, midges, and fungus gnats, are fragile insects with delicate wings. The more advanced ies, such as bluebottles and house ies, are generally squat, sturdy, and bristly, and they y in afaster and stronger way than midges and gnats.

of human and animal hosts.

Piercing, sucking, and sponging

Bluebottle

Flies do not have biting jaws to eat solid food. Instead,

(Cainphora vkina)

their mouthparts are adapted for sucking or sponging up liquid food, such as nectar, blood, living body

Flies, such as bluebottles and other blow

(A riophdes gambiae)

ies, squirt digestive enzymes onto meat and take up the partly digested food through special spongelike mouthparts.

Cross section of

mosquito feeding

Outer

1\

tissues, or decomposing organic matter. Afemale mosquito will pierce the skin of her victim before sucking the blood.

Mosquito

^

The bluebottle has

spongelike mouthparts for absorbing food.

V

Blood vessel

A

sheath bends back. Outer sheath

The blood-feeding mosquito uses astructure called astylet to pierce the skin.

covering mouthparts ■»

Anticoagulant is pumped into the victim to stop its blood from clotting.

1 European bee Long proboscis

y

(Bombyliii.s discolor V .

U

I N S E C T A E R O B AT I C S

Flies are the most agile of all insects in the air. Many species can y

Long legs and wings

backward, sidetvat s, and upside down —some can even

take off and lan

——

tvhile tipside dotrn. Flies manage these

m & H t

Elongated

Crane

PIANT DIET ^ ●Many adult ies get uid food from plants, either b\stteking up decaving fruit or

y

(Tipiilasp.)

strttetures called halteres. These act

b\- feeding on nectar and pollen.

as gt’roscopes, helping the Ily to balance in

Mans

V

\ Close-up of halteres on crane y

meat, which entices the

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ies feed on the nectar of one

bpe of ower. Bee ics, for example, have along proboscis for extracting nectar from bmg, trtimpet-shaped owers. Many species also act as plant pollinators -some are attracted to owers that have asmell like rotting

t h e a i r. T h e l a c k o f

asecond pair of tvings allows for greater maneuverabilit)' in the air and faster wingboats.

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Thebirthwort (Aristolochia sp.) attracts ies with its

wings have been modi ed into tiny drtimsticklike

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E

scent of

feats because their hind

:

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Distinctive

Fi iES ARE GENERALLY despised because

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Large, furry body and back legs

ies.

rotting meat.

CARNIVOROUS FLIES

S TA L K - E Y E D F LY

Some adult ies are I'erocious predators. Robber ies have acute vision and are daytime hunters that live by

''his tropical y is distinctive because its eyes arc located on the ends of long stalks. In territorial battles, competing males measure each other’s size bv comparing the lengths of their et estalks. They r

chasing down other insects, usiialh- catching them it: ight. The robber \' has long, spin) legs that hold prey while piercing it with a powerful proboscis and suck

Robber

it diT. Atuft of stiff hairs on

head ma)- protect the

I

advance toward each other until their eyestalks are

atrimpillus)

I

y

y

touching and the \ with the closer-set eyes normally withdraws his challenge.

against the struggling

limbs of its victims. An Eyes on

individual robber y may patrol aregular beat in search of ]rrey.

ends of stalks

X :■

This robber y is devouring a lacewing.

\

Long, spiny legs hold the prey still.

\

Jointed legs

BLOODSUCKERS

Some adult ies are parasitic -that is, they feed exclusivelv on the blood or esh of other

animals. Examples include the tiny wingless bat y that stirvives on the blood of bats. In mosquitoes and other “biting” ies, such as

gnats and horse ies, only the females feed on blood. They do this to get extra protein

Scienti c name: Achias rolh.schildi Size: 0.1-0.2.O in (4-6 mm) Habitat: Wetlands

Distribution: Papua New Guinea

Reproduction: F.ggs are laid in tvet jtlant material where the laivae grow and pupate Diet: Plant matter

before laying their eggs. Ts e t s e y {Glossina sp.)

Horse y (Tabanus barbarus) suoking blood

Bloodsucking insects such as tsetse ies, have stomachs that

shrink when empty.

Flies and disease Throughout hisloiw, diseases spread by ies, such as malaria and yellow

Before sucking blood abdomen is empty

fever, have killed millions of

Atsetse

people. Tsetse ies {Glossina sp.) spread afatal sleeping

drink two or three

y can

times Its own

weight in blood at one sitting.

sickness that can affect both humans

and cattle. The danger from tsetse ies has prevented the development of vast areas of tropical Africa. Nonbiting, scavenging ies also transmit arange of diseases because they cany bacteria

from dung and rotting esh to food. After sucking blood -abdomen is swollen i f

Larvai.

G E N E T I C : 1 - A B O R ATO R I E S

life

Fruit

All ies undergo aprocess called metamorphosis in larvae or

form and shape. Each egg

maggots feed

hatches into a ightless “grub”

on carrion. adult

of genetics. The)' are quick and east to breed in the laboralorv, and have

“giant” chromosomes that can be examined under the microscope. Mtich of tvhat is knotvn about the

that does not resemble the

They become

adult. Unlike

ies

wa)’ genes work comes from studies

ies, the laiwae

of this

3weeks.

As it grows, the lan’a sheds its skin until it f tn

The larvae of the

leaf-mining

K

are herbivore

skin. At this stage the larva’s

■s',

1

body is reorganized and it emerges as an adult with wings.

that tunnel

through leaves.

Find

ally

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Move.meni’ in .air: 36 Color-enhanced scanning electron micrograph of amutant fruit y (Drosophila melanogaster)

IT)

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out

Foon C.ltMNS AND WEBS: 66

produces apupa with ahard

y

(Agromyzidae sp.) 'i

v and its mutant forms.

some of which have four wings.

have biting mouthparts so they can eat while they grow.

after about

ics are among the most

important organisms in the stud)’

which they change their body

Bluebottle

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FIJKS

Par tners and parasites: 56 Pe.s isand weeds: 98

ANIMALS

Butter ies and moths B u t t e r i e s AND MOTHS are unique among insects

.

w

»

SURFACE OF SCWl.ES

"

because every part of their bodies is covered by

thousands of tiny scales. In many moths these scales are drab, but in butter ies tbe wing scales are often

The wings of abuttci y are briglithcolored \vith scales lhat o\erlap like tiles on aroof. Bnlterllies get these colors in two different wtiys. Some particularly yellow and orange -are produced by chemical pigments

gaps

brilliantly colored. The 135,000 or more species in this large group of insects make up the order

stored in the wings. Others are

produced b)’ microscopic ridges

Lepidoptera (from the Greek words for “scaled

on the surface of the scales, which

wing”). All butter ies and most moths feed through along, tubelike proboscis, which normally coils neatly away when not in use. Both start life as

re ect the light in aspecial way.

caterpillars that usually feed on plants; only as adults do they live on liquid food. Butter ies and moths can generally be distinguished by the shape of their antennae and by the way they hold their wings. 'J'S 1. These butter y &eggs have been

^laid on amilk

LIFE

Antenna

Magni ed view of abutter y's wing European swallowtail

Compound

[PahiUo machaon)

eyes

Proboscis

CVCI.E

Butter ies and moths have alife cvcle that

consists of several stages. They begin life

mparsley plant.

as small, hard-shelled eggs dial are nsuallv

laid on plants. Each egg hatches into acaterpillar, which spends most of its time feeding. When fulh grown, the caterpillar's skin splits to reveal the ptipa. During this stage, the 2. The caterpillar emerges by chewing through the egg's shell.

Anatomy of abutterita The European .swallowtail belongs to afamily of large, fast-llying butter ies. It has two pairs of large wings, six working legs, compound eyes, atongue (proboscis), and long antennae that help it nd food. Hotvever, not all

butter ies and moths are built this way. Some females are wingless and cannot y. Brushfooted butter ies, or nymphalids, have only four walking legs -the other pair, held close to the head, are tiny and end in brushes. Clubbed

Feathered

antenna

antenna -'‘A ■ i

3. For about four 4. When it is ready

5. The pupa has a

weeks the caterpillar to pupate, the feeds hungrily, an caterpillar fastens periodically shed itself to astem,

hard case that is

held in place by a thin loop of silk.

'ri'

\

6. Eventually, the pupal case splits open and the adult butter y emerges.

its skin.

Sunset moth

Butter

(Chiysiridia riphraria)

y

or

moth?

k.

Most butter ies have colorful

wings and y by day, while moths are usually drab and y at dusk or during the night. However, there are some species that do not follow this simple rule. The sunset moth, for example, is as colorful as any butter y, but is actually adiurnal moth. Another way to tell Lepidoptera aptart is that most butter ies rest with their wings held upright over their back, while moths generally hold theirs at.

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Scr^--■S s L - m - -
J Chimneys disperse

■1

warm, moist

air given off by termites and their

t

fungus gardens.

i ■ ■

Workers

supply roll food (mosses into balls,

or bark) \

Te r m i t e

queen


yr-w

¥ P

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OTHER

t . .

SENSES

Although they have no external ears, most

sh can hear well

and have agood sense of smell, which helps them to navigate and detect food, predators, and mates. Fish have taste buds in the

—Barbels are

mouth, lips, ns, and skin, for identifying food and avoiding toxic

used to feel for food on the

substances. Main- bottom-dwellers, such as cat sh, also have taste butls

riverbed.

on whiskerlike projections around the mouth, called barbels.

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FISH

Find out mor Bony FISH 1: 188 Bony

sh 2: 190

Movemfnf in water: 38 Oceans: 68

Sharks and rays

Young blacktip reef shark (Carcharhiniis vidanoptems)

Although far less diverse than the bony

.7Xr\

shes, sharks and rays are successful predators found in oceans worldwide. The 800 species in the shark and ray group are cartilaginous shes. Their skeletons are not made of bone, but of strong, exible cartilage. In some sharks, part of the skeleton is strengthened with mineral deposits, particularly in the bones of the back, jaws, and braincase. Ashark’s skin is covered by tiny teethlike scales called “dermal denticles,” which give the surface asandpaperlike texture. Unlike bony sh, sharks have gill slits behind the head instead of agill cover, or operculum.

sThe

ns cannot

be folded against the body.

(■

Water passes

ythrough gill slits after foxygen has been extracted by the gills.

Tip to tail

Large pectoral ns

Atypical shark has astreamlined,

torpedo-shaped body. Its long, tapering snout

%

extends out above

its menacing mouth. It has large

pectoral

ns and aprominent

triangular dorsal fm. Sharks have a distinctive “heterocercal” tail with the

Sand tiger shark {Eugomphodus iaurus) The skin is usually

Long upper

P ^rOOTH

lobe of tail

blue or brown on

n

- 4

upper lobe longer than the lower one. Most have very keen vision and excellent taste, smell, and hearing. Sharks identify vibrations in the water and track down

the top and white

prey by detecting electric pulses.

on the underside.

Sharks have alarger brain for their body size than most bony sh.

REPLACEAIENT

Unlike most other animals witli

t

backbones, sharks’ jatvs are only loosely attached to their sktills. This enables them to take large bites out of their prey. The front teeth

Internal anatomy of ashark /

often wear out or are broken off

during feeding. They are replaced continuously by new ones growing in rows behind them. Some sharks

The heart has i

Alarge oily liver prevents the shark from sinking.

four chambers.

ma)’ lose and replace as many as

The intestine is in

The spinal column turns upward into

acompact spiral.

the tail.

30,000 teeth In alifetime.

The teeth are strong with broad, at surfaces.

Replacement teeth develop inside the jaw.

Flat as apancake The

«

life t

at body of aray is well adapted for on

the

seabed.

On

the

underside

of

a

the body are the mouth and gill slits. On the ,

S-

topoftheheadaretheeyesandspiracles;^|||^

(openings through which water i drawn to the gills). Most rays powerful jaws for crushing tough-sht mollusks and crustaceans. As rays m through the water, they ap their lar pectoral ns like wing

/

Mako shark (fsurus oxyrhinchus)

Buoyancy Unlike most bony sh, sharks and rays do not have agas- lled swim bladder to prevent them from sinking. Instead, sharks remain buoyant due to the lift provided by their winglike pectoral ns. Further lift is produced by the upper lobe of the tail fm, which tends to push the head down, so that the shark remains level. Their large oily livers, which are lighter than seawater, also help to control their buoyancy.

The majority of rays have welldeveloped eyes.,

The ray is camou aged .against the ^seabed.

V -■ 0 ^

Pectoral

Into the gills.

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Spiracles draw water

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ANIMALS

Undulate ray {Raja undulala)

Pelvic

n

SHARKS

AND

R AY S

White sharia

ANGEL

SHARK

The huge jaws of the ^vhite shark {Carcharodon carcharias) contain a

he sanch'-colored angel .shark (or monk sh) lies well camou aged on the seabed. It darts up to snatch passing sh with its long, sharp teeth. Angel sharks have veiy large pectoral ns, which make them look like rays. However, they swim like sharks using their large tails for propulsion.

T

terrifying armoiy of sharp, triangular teeth, each about 2.5 in (6 cm) long. White sharks hunt tuna, squid, turtles, seals, and dolphins, as well as other sharks. They occasionally attack humans, usually mistaking them for seals. Over the years, huge numbers of great whites have been slaughtered for food and sport. They are now aprotected species in many parts of the world.

The large muscular tail

propels the shark

Teeth of white shark

. f o r w a r d P I A N K TO N - E AT I X G

GLANTS

Surprisingly, the largest species of sharks feed on tlie smallest creatures. At up to 40 ft (12 m) long, the basking shark is the second largest shark after the whale shark {Rhincodon typus). These harmless plankton-feeders swim along near the ocean sttrface, as though basking in the sunshine. They use their long, ne gill rakers to strain out plankton from the surrounding seawater.

Scienti c name: Squativa squailna Size: Up to 7ft (2..5 m) long Habitat: Shallow, warm seas Distribution: Eastern North Atlantic

Reproduction: 7~25 young per live litter

Basking shark {Cetorhinus maximum)

Diet: Fish (e.spedally

at sh), molhisks, and crabs

fEI.EGTRIC SENSES Most underwater animals create

electrical signals as they move. Sharks and rays can sense these signals using an electrical detection system. Pores, called the ampullae of Lorenzini, on the tinderside of the shark’s snout

cells. These cells detect minute

:linn

The stingray

y Electric y

AND

POISONOUS

STINGS

^electricity. Situated on either side of the head, these can

lashes out

deliver shocks of up to 200 volts, capable of stunning prey and scaring off predators. Stingrays are armed witli one or more large spines on the tail. The venom, supplied from agland at the base of the spine, causes predators great pain, but is larely fatal.

with its tail

spine into the body of an attacker.

elds that lead

the shark toward ameal.

SHOCKS

Electric rays have evolved large organs for generating

and drives its

are connected to sensory neiwe electrical

ELECTRIC

The European stingray (Dasyatls pastinaca) has aserrated spine about 5in (12 cm) long.

Spine

eld

created by

sh

The egg cases of some dog sh are about 4in &

111 cm)

^Abandone

1

egg cases o I

‘mermaid’s purses

!

are often washed

up on the shore

:4k

j

c

Reproduction Hammerhead shark (Sphymidaesp.) HAMMERHE,AD

SH.ARKS

Hammerhead sharks hunt as individuals at night and .swim together in groups during the day. The eyes and nostrils of the shark are set far apart at either side of the “hammer.” As the shark swims along, it swings its head back and forth, searching for stingrays -its favorite prey. The hammershaped head may protect the shark from the stingray’s venomous spines. The head also seiwes as an extra n, giving the shark more lift at the front of its body.

The tail is used for balance, steering, and defense.

Most sharks give birth to fully developed baby sharks called pups. Female n ; dog shes and some other sharks, as well as skates and

rays, lay tough egg cases within which the embryos develop. The egg case is safely attached to seaweed by long, curling tendrils. Inside, the embryo absorbs its yolk sac, and hatches after about 6-9 months.

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187

y A

After 6-9 months, the

dog sh wriggles out of the case.

Find out mor CoicvL reefs: 72 Defense 1: 48 Fish: 184 P.ARTXERS .AND PAR.ASITES: 56

Bony

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C ■ bc

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sh i

LIVING

FOSSIL

The coelacanth is the last

simivor of aprimitive group of sh that were in abundance

Withmorethan24,000species,there

as far back as 300 million years

ago. This ancient sh was thought to have become extinct 90 million years ago. However, in 19.38, the rst live specimen was dredged up in atrawler’s

is an amazing variety of bony sh -from streamlined barracudas that speed through the water to at sh that lie motionless on the sea oor. Some sh cruise the surface waters

ii

of the oceans, others survive the freezing

it is

temperatures, crushing pressures, and inky

* L-'

blackness of the deepest ocean trenches. Many bony sh are erce predators archer sh shoot clown insects with ajet of water, while angler sh catch their prey with a“ shing rod” complete with “bait.

ir

i

99

net off the coast of South Africa.

Coelacanth {Latimeria chahunnae)

Camou age Many sh are camou aged to avoid detection by predators.

Plaice (Pleuronectes platessa)

'i

Some have spots or stripes ^ that help to break up their outline against rocks and plants. Surface-dwellers

are dark on top and pale

Ring pattern of juvenile sh attracts predators to taii end, preventing harm to the head.

underneath. From above, they ^

m .

blend into the darker colors of Acombination

of colors helps break up the ^ sh’s outline.

m

iS

deep water, and from below,

they merge into the shimmering

The

sh has started to

ick gravel onto itself.

surface water. Many bottomdwellers are dull in color,

resembling mud or sand.

Flat sh, such as plaice,

Emperor angel sh {Pomaranlhtfs imperator)

( . 4

biu7 themselves under sand and gravel, and change color to blend in with their background.

" f r. f ' -

r

Eyespot

-

Forceps sh (Forripiger jlavisshn us)

This

sh pokes Its long snout

between stones into mud to

BRIGHT COLORS

Only asmall part of the sh Is now visible.

nd small water creatures.

Many bony sh, particulai Kthose Ihing in coral reefs, are brighih- colored. The colors help the

Different diets Many sh, such as tuna

sh attract mates,

to defend their territories, and signal their

and barracudas, are active

presence to members of the same species.

predators, hunting down large, fast-moving prey.

Some sh have eyespots, or “false eyes,” at the rear of the body. As apredator moves to attack the “head end,” the

sh suddenly

darts off in the opposite direction.

A

Elephantnose skull

Others, including the elephant-noses (Gnathonemus sp.), use their long, ciuwed snouts to probe for tiny food particles in

mud and crevices. South American piranhas usually feed on sh, fruit, and seeds, but their razor-sharp teeth can also strip the esh from

animals in minutes. Some sh eat plants parrot sh use their beaklike mouths to scrape algae from rocks and corals. Rockling lies in

Once sighted, the rockling will pounce on prey

such as crabs, vNH

:

and other

V

n

sh.

Piranha skull

Parrot

Sharp, triangular teeth are capable of stripping esh

Horny beak, made of fused teeth, for scraping seaweed

from amammal.

o ff r o c k s

sh skull

LY I N G

IN

WAIT

Some sli, such as the pike and the ve-bearded rockling, are “lie-in-wait” predators. Pikes lurk among water plants waiting for ayoung bird or lish to approach, then dash out to snap up their prey. Apike’s ambush is aided by good camou age, astrong tail for sudden acceleration, and fonvard-

fadng eyes for

^judging distances a c c u r a t e l y.

Five barbels

Five-bearded rockling {CiUata musieJa)

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ANIMALS C

l u n i r - - ^

Flying

sh

AT L A N T I C

To escape predators, )dng sh propel themselves out of the

COD ●I

T

water by rapidly moving their strong tails from side to side. They then glide above the waves for up to 164 ft (50 m) while beating their large pectoral ns. In contrast to these

liese voracious feeders swim in schools near

!|

i

36-.50°F (2-IO°C) ,and sometimes migrate to follow' cool currents out of their normal range. Most of the millions of eggs laid b\' the female cod are eaten by other sh; only afew out of every million suivive to develop into adults.

leap from the water and actually y for short distances. Their deep body shape helps keep them steady.

r.

the water ’s surface, but look for their food on

the seabed at depths of up to 1,970 ft (600 m). They prefer cold water with temperatures of

gliders, fresh\vater hatchet sh can

,Three dorsal

ii I

ns

Pale lateral

Large pectoral ns are held out like wings when gliding.

line stands

out against dark body

AGARDEN OF EELS

f j

Garden eels live in colonies in warm,

shallow, tropical w'aters. As they sway in the current, they look more like a eld

5

-

Single I barbel Two anal

on chin

ns

of sea grass than agroup of sh. Each eel lives in aseparate burrow dug out of the sandy seabed. The eels are up to about .3 ft (0.9 m)long. By day, they extend their bodies verticallv from their burrows to feed

on drifting plankton. If danger threatens,

Scienti c name: Gadus m,orhua

Size: Up to 5ft. (1.5 m) long Habitat: Coastal ^^TUc^s up to 1,000 ft (305 m) deep Distribution: Nonh Atlantic Ocean, Baltic Sea, and

I

Barents Sea

thev swiftiv sink into their burrows.

Garden eels (Corgasin silhteri)

Reproduction: Female cod lays up to 9million eggs in Februaiy or April; eggs and the newb- hatched young oat freely in the water

Lure on the top of the head contains luminous baoteria

Teeth hinge backward to allow large prey into the mouth.

Diet: Sea worms, crustaceans, mollusks, and

to attract prey and mates.

sh,

including herring, capelin, and sand eels

Small eye, typical of all anglers

1

Leaves of mangrove tree hang over t h e w a t e r. ,

t

k angler sh {Melanocetus sp.)

5 ^1^2

^Insects are

SHOOTING DOWN PREY

attracted to

the shady

The six species of archer sh live in the mangrove sw'amps of Southeast Asia,

Model of an

environment of

the mangrove swamp, and act as sitting targets for

Atistralia, and the Paci c Islands.

These remarkable predators can shoot dotvn prey from overhanging branches with precisely aimedJets of w'ater. They can knock spiders

archer sh.

out of their webs more than

3ft 3in (1 m) awa\'. The VLarge, stretchy

presses its tongue against agroove along the roof of its mouth. On spotting its prey, it snaps its gill covers .shut, forcing a jet of W'ater out of the

stomach allows

angler sh to eat huge meals.

Deep-sea dwellers Deep-sea sh, such as the angler sh, are bizarre-looking creatures. They lurk at the bottom of the ocean at depths of more than 9,000 ft (2,750 m), waiting for the chance of ameal. Prey is attracted to alure on the

mouth to its target. P

Large eyes and excellent eyesight help the sh aim accurately.

sh’s head, which contains

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off the leaf.

Archer

sh

(Toxotes sp.)

Feeding and NUTRtnoN; 22 Fish: 184 OCE.ANS: 68

189 fi

aJet of water upwards to knock the y

Defense 2: 50

■

twciKisrsats:

Fish directs

sh

Find out mor

luminous bacteria and glows in the dark. The sh’s jaws can open remarkably wide to take in prey much larger than itself. The prey is not chewed up, but is swallowed whole.

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BONY FISH I

Bony

sh 2

SCHOOLS AND SHOAl.S

Many species o isli swim together in large groups called schools or shoals.

In the underwater world, sh are always on

Grouping helps lish lo

the lookout for predators. Many bony sh rely

navigate when migrating. It

also reduces the risk of being caught. Predators nd it hard to single out individuals, and many eyes are more likely to spot enemies. Schools confuse predators b\- darling off in all directions, or splitting in two.

have evolved spines or prickles that can in ict great damage on an unwary predator. Several species are poisonous, while some eels can deliver an electric

shock. Most bony sb reproduce by depositing their eggs and sperm in the water. The eggs are fertilized and then left to hatch and develop into sh. Although the parents usually leave the eggs and young to look after themselves, some species protect their young

Spines inject potent venom if stepped on, causing pain or even death.

in pouches, or nests, or even in their mouths. Porcupine

sh

nd

mates and lijod, and to

on camou age to hide from their enemies, others

Shoal of fairy basslets (Pseudanthias sp.) on corai reef

Defense

before it in ates.

Some

sh, including stone sh and lion sh, defend

themselves by injecting venom, while puffers have poisonous toxins that can cause illness or death

Psh gulps water

in humans. Other sh use physical weapons.

and becomes

too large for most predators

Surgeon sh have sharp structures, called lancets, in front of the tail. I threatened, the sh icks out its t;

t o s w a l l o w.

slicing the lancets into the enemy’: esh. Trigger sh have asharp spine on the back, held erect by aspur on a smaller spine called the trigger. They use the stiff spine to wedge themselves

_Spines stick out as

sh

in ates Itself

into crevices from Long-spined porcupine sh {Diodon holorantlnrs)

which they cannot be extracted.

PORCUPINEFISH AND PUFFERS

One of the mo.st ingenioirs methods ofdefen.se is that used by porcupine sh and their relatives the puffers. When

Hornlike growths

.-A

threatened, these sh in ate their bodies with water, or when at the surface, with air.

PROTECTIVE

Some

Box sh, includ

their attackers and making themselves dif cult or impossible to swallow. Porcupine sh and some jttiffers are y V also armed with sharp s]tines, which are erected when the

ARMOR

sh have asuit o

armor for protectioi

They increase greatly in size, frightening

trunk sh, arc encased in arigid s.

-:>}j

sh in ates.

jshell made of Hat, bony plates. They are inef cient .swimmers, propelling themselves forward by moving their tail and pectoral

Salmon waterfall

ns. However, they have

Wide pectoral ns for fanning and aerating the eggs.

little need to swim fast because

leaping up Pectoral

i

n

most predators are detei red bv their tough ai ruor.

Long-horned cow sh {Lacloria cornuta)

Salmon migration

Bony projections

at rear Like lampreys and slurgeons, salmon are anadromous sh -they spend most of their lives in the ocean, but migrate upriver to breed. Salmon begin their lives in rivers, before migrating to the sea. After one to four years at sea,

Bullhead

(Cottus gohio) A

mature salmon return to the river or stream of their

birth to spawn. They recognize their home stream using their sense of smell. Salmon are powerful swimmers and can leap out of the water to ascend waterfalls.

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ANIMALS

. - y W I ■ t-

-it

-

BONY FISH 2

V

Breeding and courtship Many sh go through dramatic courtship rituals to attract amate. Some species, such as the three-spined stickleback, change color and perform elaborate dances. Others make sounds or spread their ns to show off special markings. The male sockeye salmon {Oncorhynchus nerka) indicates that he is ready to mate by changing from silver to red. 1. The male zigzags pie also develops hooks on his jaw and aprominent hump. toward afemale to attract her attention.

2. He then displays his red belly and leads the female

ZEBRA

alike most species of moray eel, which have long, sharp teeth, the zebra niora)' eel and many o ts tropical relatives have tlallened, blunt teeth adapted for crushing their hard-bodied pre\'. Moray eels hide in crevices and caves aniotig utidenvater rocks and coral reefs. If provoked,

they can in ict serious bites to divers. The zebra

4. The female

provoke her to lay eggs.

lays up to 100 eggs, which the

riverbed.

Go

EEL

u

3. The male strikes female’s tail to

to his nest on the

M O R AY

male fertilizes and then

guards.

tnoray’s bold black and white markitigs break up the sh’s outline.

lV

Scienti c name: Gymnomtmena zebra

Size; Up to .5 ft (1.5 ni) long Habitat: Coastal waters and coral reel's

up to 250 ft (75 m) deep

- 5 ;

Distribution: Indian and Paci c Oceans

Si;"

Reproduction: Female lays alarge numbei' of eggs which oat to the surface; the eggs

Courtship behavior of the three-spined stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus)

hatch to produce transparent lana

Seahorse

{IIil)j)

ir

t ●h

T

'r

Cichlid M O U T H - B R O O D E R S

{Melaiwrhrninis

Some sh, such as cichlids, give the ultimate protection to their offspring. The female keeps

joaiijohmonar)

the eggs and young in her motith or throat, where they receive agood supply of oxygen-rich tvater. Occasionally, she blow's the babies out of her nioiuh. This gives both the mother and young achance to feed. UiUil they become independent, the young return to her mouth at night or if danger thi eatens. LOOKING

AFTER

THE

EGGS

Some sh lay millions of eggs, which are left to fend for themselves. Despite the hu ge numbers, onh afew suni\e to develoir into adults. Other sh, such as the bullhead, lay only afew hundred eggs, which the male guards erceh' For up to amonth. He fans the eggs until they hatch.

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191

Find out mor

Col RLSHIP, M.VTiNt;, .and P.ARF.N'T.AI. CARR: 30 Fish: 184 M1GR.VTIOX AND n.\\'ig.\tion: 46

Amphibians

a

Eryops lived in the swamps

P

^of Texas, about 200

●VIoST AMPHIBIANS CAN live on both land and in water -

V

million years ago. It grew to alength of 6ft 6in (2 m). i

the name “amphibian” comes from the Greek words amphi” and “bios” meaning “double life.” .\mphibians a

undergo aprocess called metamorphosis as they develop

E A R LY A M P H I B I A N S

from tadpoles or larvae into adults. There are three

groups of amphibians: frogs and toads, salamanders and newts, and caecilians. All amphibians are “cold-blooded, which means that their body temperatures vary with their surroundings. Most species return to the water to

Amphibians «ere tlie rsl \ertebi;ues to live both on land and in water. Early amphilrians may have evolved from lobe- nned sh or from lung sh, which can breathe air. Thev moved out

9 5

of the w'ater because there w'ere few enemies on hind and

good food supplies. Early terrestrial amphibians developed strong limbs for walking arotind on land.

mate and lay their eggs, but some make nests on land. The common frog has complex lungs.

Legless caecilians

Oxygen absorbed

'' rthrough the skin into

Caecilians are legless, wormlike amphibians. Some species have tiny scales embedded in the rings on their bodies. Caecilians live / in the tropics, spending their lives in

the bloodstream Carbon dioxide

expelled

water or underground. They use their

/

blunt heads to dig in the mud for worms, termites, and lizards, and they have sharp teeth for cutting and holding their prey. Some caecilians lay eggs that hatch into laiwae, others produce live young.

B R E AT H I N G

C a e c i l i a n

{Den/iophi.s mexiran uT) American bullfrog {Itana catesbeiana)

A

Large eardrum

Large, bulging eyes

Most adult amphibians can breathe through their skin as well as through their lungs. Some can also lake in oxygen through the lining of their mouth. Mucous glands under the skin keep the surface

Blood

Mucous

oapillaries

glands

Cross section of skin

damp, allowing oxygen to pass through easily. About 200 species of salamander have no lungs and breathe onh' through the skin and mouth. Amphibian laivae breathe

y

■/.w-y,?!'.:

m

f !

through gills. These gills are eshy and feathen- with a large surface area and agood blood supply to take in

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oxygen from the water.

Swimming

.4

Salamanders, newts, and aquatic caecilians swim like sh, using “S-shaped” movements. Many salamanders and newts have

well-developed, attened tails for .swimming. Frogs and toads have webbed feet, but they do

■-y-/■■■■■■

not bend their bodies when

they swim. Their hind legs kick out to propel their bodies

h

through the water. Tadpoles, Eyes and ears

SENSE

Most frogs, toads, newts, and salamanders have good eyesight, but caecilians have tiny eyes and are almost blind. Cave

salamanders have lost the use of their eyes, but land-living salamanders need good eyesight to spot slow-moving prey. Frogs have large eyes that help them to look out for danger and food. Many amphibians,

such as frogs and toads, have very sharp hearing that helps them identify mating calls and approaching predators.

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however, swim by lashing their

^

tails from side to side.

Creatures that

African

live in water have

clawed toad

(Xenopus aveiy good sense laevis) of touch. Aquatic ampliibiaus use a lateral-line system aset of sensitive organs along the sides of the body that respotrd to movements in the W'ater. Many species smell by means of apair of liny holes, called the Jacobson’s organ, in the roof of the mouth. Caecilians have a

scnsoiy tentacle on the head, which may help them to smell or nd their way around.

192 fi

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ANIMALS

y ●5

Salamanders and newts

swim by moving their body in “S-shaped” waves.

AMPHIBIANS

A v o i d i n g P R E D AT O R S Amphibians make an ideal meal for apredator because they have no fur, feathers, or scales. They are prey to awide variety of animals, including lizards and mammals. Many species have skin colors

t

^and markings that help to Jcamou age them against

'their surroundings, others

^escape attack by diving into

water. Most adult amphibians have poison glands. These glands ooze an unpleasant-tasting substance that can poison apredator.

Frog in ating its body, making itself dif cult to swallow

1. Embryos are developing

inside the eggs., / ^ T. -

V

n

^

^

r

v

«

^

color to re ect heat. C O L O R S

Ampliibian.s have e\ ol\’ed awide range of shapes and colors to suit their environment. Many species change color to attract amate in the breeding season or to regtilate their body temperatnre. They become pale-colored in warm weather and darker in cold, wet weather. Some amphibians have bright colors and patterns to warn predators that they are poisonous. 3. The outside gills have grown over and lungs form inside. After nine weeks, the back legs appear. The tadpole changes to ameat-eating diet.

^ ● * , \*

»

* » * %

r

In hot sunshine, White's tree frogs (Litoria caerulea) are alight green

4. The front legs appear about 12 weeks after

hatching. The eyes become more

prominent, and the mouth gets wider.

»

2. On hatching, tadpoles have aweak tail, and gills outside the body. After 10 days, they begin

Frog spawn

Life-cycles

Most amphibians mate and lay 'iii

to swim and feed. \

their eggs in water. They lay their eggs singly in clumps or in strings of clear jelly called spawn. The larv'ae undergo aseries of changes, called metamorphosis, before becoming adults. Tadpoles, the lan ae of frogs and toads, look very different from the adults. In the early stages, they breathe through gills, or spiracles, and have no legs. Before they become adults, they develop lungs and legs and lose their tails.

The tail will soon start to recede. 5. About 16 weeks after

BREEDING me. r

s . .

Golden toads (Bufo periglenes) at abreeding pool

M I G R AT I O N

Each spring, mant' salamanders, newts, frogs, and toads migrate up to .'i miles (5 km) from their liibernation sites to the ponds or streams where they breed. To nd the way, they use familiar landmarks, scent, the position of the sun, and the Earth’s magnetic eld. Erogs may “home in” on the calls of other frogs when they near the breeding site. Amphibians often rettirn to the pond or

hatching, the tail has gone. The tiny frog is about 0.4 in (1 cm) long and is ready to

I

leave the water.

O i

V1

stream where they grew up. European tire

salamanders mating LIVE

When the toad draws its back

The toad

oats and glides

The toad draws its knees

legs up, it holds its arms by its

forward with its arms and

up ready for the next kick.

side to form astreamlined shape.

legs stretched out

YOUNG

Although most amphibians lay eggs, some species such as the European re salamander (Salamandra salamandm) give birth to live young. After mating, the fertilized eggs develop inside the female’s body for about eight numths. She can give birth to as inany as 60 young, which are like tiny adults, but with gills. The lan’ae develop lungs and lease the water after three months. Find out mor Frogs and to.ads: 196 Lizards; 202

Rivers, lakes, and ponds: 76 Salamanders and ne:wts: 194

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193

ANIMALS

Salamanders and newts Salamanders are mostly small, long-tailed amphibians that live in avariety of damp habitats. Some live permanently in water, others live entirely on land -there are even afew species that prefer dark, damp caves. Whether terrestrial or aquatic, they all breed in the water. They often have smooth, slimy skin with ns along the edges of their tails to help them swim. Salamanders have adapted to living in cold areas by hibernating in winter. In warmer regions, they estivate (remain dormant) during hot, dry periods. Salamanders and newts undergo aprocess called metamorphosis in their development from larvae to adults. Courtship and mating

Spotted salamander {Ainhysfoma mncnlatum) WHERE

Courtship behavior of Female

Most male salamanders lay apacket of sperm, called aspermatophore, on land that the female picks up with an opening called the cloaca. The eggs are fertilized internally and laid on land. Male newts deposit their spermatophore in water. The male attracts the female with his prominent crest. He may also perform acourtship

the great crested newt Male's crest

grows in the breeding

Male produces secretions from

special glands.

SAIAMANDERS

LIVE

Salamander.s and newts liave porous skin that allows water and air to pass through it. In hot, diy conditions, the skin must be kept moist to avoid drt'ing out. Most species live in damp places, or only emerge at night when it is cooler and wetter. Aquatic species live in streams, lakes, ponds, and caves. Terrestrial species lurk below rocks and logs or burrow into the soil -afew climb trees.

s e a s o n

Female is attracted

The female takes the

by the secretions

spermatophore into her body.

of the male.

dance or release special scents, called pheromones. He then guides the female over the spermatophore by nudging against her side.

The male newt is attracted to the egg¬ carrying female, by her swollen belly.

The male lashes his silvery tail to waft secretions towards the female.

The male lays nis spermatophore and guides the female over it.

V

Eggs and development Gills are

Development of the

great crested newt

forming behind the head.

j /

7. Day 1-the egg cell has divided into two celis.

, r

Salamanders and newts undergo aperiod of larval development called metamorphosis. Terrestrial salamanders lay their eggs on land. The larval development occurs inside the eggs, and the young, when hatched, look like tiny versions of the adults. Aquatic salamanders and newts lay their eggs in water. Tadpole-like larv'ae, which later lose their gills, hatch out of the eggs. Some salamanders do not lay eggs, but give birth to fully formed young.

2 .

■. r

*

i %

i .

The tadpole still has feathery. external gills.

Day 12 the egg has developed into an embryo with ahead, tail, and

small bumps where the legs will grow.

Eye is not yet fully developed

Salamander in the unken re ex position

Defense To deter predators such as birds and snakes, salamanders and newts have many defense tactics. Some keep still and adopt the “tinken re ex” position, holding the tail and chin upright to show off their brightly colored undersides. Many have poisonous skin and are brightly colored to warn predators. Spanish ribbed newts {Pkurodeles lualll) have sharp ribs tipped with toxic substances that give predators ashock.

3. Day 14-the newt tadpole makes ahole in the jelly and wriggles out.

Some salamanders can shed their tails if attacked.

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194

AND

NEWTS

Feeding

FIRE

Salamanders and newts are carnivores

1

that feed on slow-moving animals, such

T

SALAMANDER

his terrestrial salamander has brightly colored

spots or stripes on its body. The markings warn potential predators that the salamander’s skin glands produce asecretion that will irritate their mouth and eyes if they attempt to eat it. The

as snails, slugs, and worms. They mov I slowly toward their prey, then make a quick grab with their sharp teeth and jaws. Some species can ick the tongue forw^ard to capture small prey. Salamanders need little food because they move slowly. When they do feed, they can store alarge part of their meal

poison is even powerful enough to kill small mammals. Eir j

_

salamanders hunt their Mandarin

as fat. Giant salamanders feed mainly at night, relying on smell and touch to detect prey.

salamander

{Tylototrilon veirucosus)

prey by night and shelter during the day.

AMPHIUMAS AND SIRENS

1Poison

These North American amphibians look like eels. They live buried in

glands are located on top

sand or mud at the bottom of water,

of the head.

and feed on frogs, snails, worms, and

sh. Ainphiumas have lungs and four tiny legs. Sirens retain their gills

throughout their lives, and have small, weak front legs, but no hind legs. Sirens may estivate (remain dormant) during hot, diy periods.

Scienti c name: Salamandra salamandra

Size: Males up to 7in (17 cm) long; females up to

12 in (30 cm) lon Habitat: Damp areas in forests and on mountains Distribution: Europe (excluding the UK), northwestern Africa, parts of southwestern Asia

Greater siren {Siren lacerlina)

Reproduction: Female gives birth to 10-50 tadpoles in the water, after about 8months’ gestation

LUNGLESS

Diet: Slow-moving invertebrates, such as earthworms

SALAMANDERS

Most salamanders and newts breathe both

4;

through their skin and lungs, but there k are also about 250 species that have no lungs at all. Lungless salamanders breathe only through their skin and mouth lining. Some live in fast- owing streams, where the water is rich in oxygen. Land-living species must keep their skin moist at all times so oxygen can pass to the blood from the lm of water on top of the skin.

im

Frilly gills allow to breathe underwater. 7 ft*.

{Eurycea lucifuga) front legs —GUIs have disappeared

Five toes on

because the newt can

back legs

now breathe through its lungs as well as through its skin.

J ...aw.'SN**

I

J

%

S TAY I N G

YOUNG

Some water-dwelling salamanders, such 4

Great crested newt

(Triturus cristalus)

as the axolotl and olm, do not develop ^ J i

fully into adults. They retain some of their lan'al features, including gills and alateral line, despite being sexually mature and able to breed. This condition is called

neotony, and may have a genetic or environmental

\ i F

iS

h

1Axolotls may

■L

be albino like this one, or

black, yellow, or speckled.

cause, such as alow level of iodine in the water, or alow 5. The male newt Is now

fully grown. Great crested newts reach sexual maturity at 3-4 years. The female lays up to 300 eggs which she wraps individually in the leaves of water plants.

water temperature. The axolotl develops into an adult if given hormones, or if iodine is added

to the water; the olm

does not change if treated the s a m e w a y.

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195

Find out mor Axolotl

{Ambystoma mexicanum)

r I

the axolotl

Four toes Oh

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SALAMANDERS

Amphibians: 192 Defense 2: 50 (iROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT: 32 Movement in water: 38

Frogs and toads

Jumping .and swimming

Frogs and toads are by far the largest and most

Short-legged frogs and toads walk, crawl, or make

diverse group of amphibians. There are more than 3,900 different species, many of which live in tropical rainforests. Their wide variety of shapes, sizes, and colors helps them adapt to arange of habitats including deserts,

make long jumps. In order to leap, afrog quickly straightens its legs and pushes itself forward in an arc through the air. When swimming, the frog pulls its hind legs up to its body then kicks them out backward. It propels itself through the water using its webbed feet.

short hops, while long-legged species leap or

grasslands, and mountains. Frogs and toads can live both

on land and in water. Those that live mainly in water tend to have long, slender bodies, while those that spend most of their time on land have rounder bodies and short legs. Nearly all frogs and toads are meat-eaters and have large mouths for swallowing their food whole. 7. Ihe frog presses its feet back against the ground to push

Green toad

Unlike other amphibians, aduil frogs and toads

{Bufo viri(lis)

have no tail

European

itself forward.

common frog (Rana temporaria) KEYING

FROGS

In the rainfore.sts of

Southeast Asia,

some tree frogs glide between trees to escape predators. They spread their webbed feet wide and can “ y”

up to 49 ft (15 m) from one tree to another.

Their big feet and long webbed toes act like

parachutes, helping to

JbROG OR TOAD?

slow their descent.

Frog.s and toads share many characteristics, and it is often dif cult to tell them apart. Many biologists use the word “frogs” to refer to both frogs and toads. Frogs and

THK.

toads have evolved different characteristics to suit their

TREE

shuf e of ihe back feet. Their heels

have aspecial hard scraper, or scoop, to move the soil out of the way.

FROGS

These frogs have small, lightweight bodies that help them to balance on branches and ,leaves. The sticky pads on their long, thin ngers and toes give them agood grip, tvhile the loose skin around their

bellies enables them to cling tightly to tree trunks. Tree frogs also have large, forward-facing eyes that help them to judge

tdistances when climbing or attacking prey.

Red-eyed tree frog {Apalyrhnis cnlUdryns)

Tree frogs are agile climbers. They curl their toes around branches

for extra grip.

Spadefoot toad (Pelobatr.s fuscu.s)

Feeding

fl

fl

mealworm

the size of their prey depends on the size of their mouth. Most

eat insects, slugs, snails, and worms, but larger species may eat mice, birds, young snakes, and even other frogs and toads. Frogs tend to be more active hunters than toads and often

catch ying insects by icking out their long, sticky tongues. Toads usually creep up slowly on ameal, then snap it up. 3. As the toad swallows, it blinks.

Its eyeballs push downward, squeezing food down its throat. '

196 fi

watching a wriggling

swallow their food whole, so

and branches.

fl

1. Green toad

All adult frogs and toads

Each nger- and toe-pad produces asticky mucus that “glues" the frog to smooth, slippery leaves

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BURROWERS

Some frog.s and toads burrow into the ground to escape predators, to lie in wait for apassing meal, or to avoid e.xlreme temperatures. Burrotving frogs dig down backward into the soft ground with asideways

environments. In general, frogs have smooth skins, long back legs, webbed feet, and live in or near water. Toads tend to have diT, warty skins, little or no webbing between the toes, and prefer to live on land.

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ANIMALS

2. The toad snatches up the worm with its sticky tongue.

FKOGS AND TOADS

Camou

age

DARWIN’S

'A

Frogs and toads have many enemies, including snakes, birds, and spiders. Their skin colors and markings help to camou age them against their

his strange-lookiiig frog is amouthliroodcM'its tadpoles develop inside its mouth. The lenmle lays her eggs on bare ground. After about 15 days, males gather round and gulp down several ^ggs each. The males’ vocal sacs act as amirseiy tmtil the tadpoles have nielamorphosed into tiny frogs.

T

Isurroundings. Some species can change color, others have fringes to disguise their shape. The Alrican square-marked toad is so well camou aged that it simply “disappears” against the bark and leaves on the forest

African square-marked toad {Biifo regularis)

FROG

From above, the Darwin’s frog looks like agreen leaf.

The vocal sac runs

oor.

right along the underside of the Chilean

DEFENSE

male frog's body.

four-eyed

Although frogs and toads cannot bite or sting

frog

their enemies, they use several other devices

(Pkurodema bibroni)

to avoid predators. When threatened, the £ Chilean four-eved frog turns its back to revetil K poisonous glands that look like Staring eyes. This confuses and Startles an attacker, giving the frog achance

p X /

I

s

A

2. As the frog takes off, it straightens its body into a streamlined shape. The frog leaps with its legs at full stretch.

-

j h

Scienti c name: Rhinoderma rlanviiiii It startle tactics do not work.

Size: 1in (2..a cm) long

the glands produce afoultasting poison, which will repel most predators.

F R O G C A E E I N G

Frogs were probabh' the rst animals to develop atnie voice. They call by moving air across aseries of vocal cords to their

large, in atable throat potich. Each species of frog has its own

/

Habitat: On land near forest streams Distribution: Sotithern Chile and

southern Argentina

The eyes are closed for protection.

Reproduction: Eggs laid on land hatch and complete their development in male’s vocal sac Diet: Insects

distinctive call. Males call to attract females and to u-arn off other males.

Once in the water, the frog is safe from many enemies. The throat pouch, or vocal sac, is formed from stretchy skin on the 1the

oor of

T v&

mouth. j

Male frogs are

-

/

/

.1 f

Ij

h'VSWBBg

smaller than females.

a-:'

3. The front legs act as abrake

Painted reed frog [Hypnoims mrirmomtns)

and cushion the

Mating and egg-laying

impact of landing.

Most frogs and toads mate in the water, with the male clasping the female with his forelegs. The female’s eggs are fertilized by

CARING

the male as she releases

THE

them. Some frogs and toads lay their eggs in clumps, others lay long strings of eggs. The surrounding jelly protects the embryos fro ● predators and keeps them from drying out. Many frogs and toads lay large numbers of eggs amillion

in

toads leave their

eggs to hatch by themselves. Some ●●

●

● ●

I

»♦

#

● .●

ts

«

*A

*

●'V ●,.

●

■

«

●

alifetime.

a

s

●●

c

●«

'>●«

European

common frog (Ran atrmporaria)

●

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197 .

●

species guard their eggs, keeping them moist and protet ting them from predators, ‘

Male midwife toad

The male midwife toad

●●●*

●

FOR

EGGS

Not all frogs and

-as many as aquarter of

Poisonous, warty glands protect this toad from predators.

(Alyte.s obslelricans) carries astring of eggs on his back, wrapped around his legs. When the eggs arc ready to hatch he relcttses them into water.

Find out mor Amphibians: 192 Hunting: 52 Tropical rainfc5Rk.s ts: 82 . VERTHBR.-VrK,S: 182

ANIMALS

Reptiles

Reptile ancestors The First reptiles lived about 340 million years ago. They developed from amphibians that crawled out

Snakes, uzards, tortoises, turtles and crocodiles

of the water onto land. Reptiles dominated the Earth from about 250 to 65 million years ago. Dinosaurs inhabited the land, and ying reptiles called pterosaurs ruled the sky.

are all reptiles. Inside their bodies, reptiles have a bony skeleton with abackbone. On the outside, they have acovering of tough, protective scales, that keeps their bodies from drying out. They lay eggs with waterproof shells or give birth to live young. Their young are usually born on land and look like tiny versions of their parents. Reptiles are able to live in many different environments on land. They are most common in warmer places because they rely on their surroundings for warmth. Since they do not need to eat to keep warm, reptiles can survive well in barren

Reconstruction ot

Hylonomus, an early reptile ancesto

Hylonomus was only 8in (20 cm) long.

_

areas, such as deserts, where there is little food. LIVING

SCAIA SKIN Areptile’s scale.s are thickenings of the outside layer of skin and are mostly made of ahorny stibstance called keratin. Human

on afew islands off the coast of New

Zealand. They are active in cool temperatures and live, move, and grow very slowly. _Atuatara breathes only aonce every seven seconds when moving, and once an hour when resting.

nails are made of asimilar material. Some

reptiles have scales with bony plates called osteoderms. The scaly skin protects the reptile’s body from di'ying out and from damage caused by predators. The outside skin is shed from time to time to allow T u a t a r a

reptiles to grow and to replace worn-out skin. The scales may be smooth, bumpy, or ridged and can form crests or spines.

(Sphenodon punctatus) Nostril

Snake's forked tongue picks up tiny scent particles in the air.

Each scale is made of the

Crosssection of reptile skin

FOSSIL

laras are the .sole survivors of agroup of Piles tlial lived during the days of the dinosaurs. Today, these reptiles live only

hard material keratin.

The tip of each fork is pressed against the Jacobson's organ in the roof of the mouth.

Senses Reptiles rely on their senses of sight. smell, and hearing to Osteoderm

Lower layer of skin contains nerves and blood vessels ^ .

● “ v : M■NC

'-''

»

v.

nd

food

and

avoid

danger. Some reptiles have poorly developed senses. Burrowing reptiles, for example, have poor eyesight and snakes cannot hear very well. But some reptiles have special senses. Snakes, and some lizards, taste and smell the air

Zl snake’s scales may overlap for extra protection. T E M P E R AT U R E

The scales pull apart when

with their tongue and asense organ in the roof of the mouth called the Jacobson’s organ. Pit vipers, and some pythons and boas, have heat

the skin stretches.

on their faces to detect

CONTROL

Reptile.s are cold-blooderl, or ectothermic, which inean.s that they depend on the sun or on warm surfaces to heat their bodies. B\-

moving between warm and cool places, reptile.s can control their body temperature. Areptile often basks in the stm to absorb enough energ)’ for hunting and then digesting its food. As the day becomes hotter, the reptile will move into the shade to cool down.

Turtles bask in the sun to warm their bodies

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198

Jacobson's

organ “tastes" and “smelts"

chemical particles in the air.

'N

Eggs Reptiles usually dig holes in the sand or

Ground

Inside an egg

(■p y t h o n e g g

Embryo

soil or make nests in which they lay

Amnior

eggs. Some guard the eggs until they hatch. Most reptile eggs have soft, leathery shells but tortoises,

if

crocodiles, and geckos lay

Yo l k

eggs with hard shells.

3Inside the egg, the . S r

The shell of areptile egg protects the embryo but also

%embiyo is cushioned ■by awater- lled sac

Galapagos marine iguana submerged in water

Most reptiles, such as snakes and crocodiles, are carnivores. Many lizards eat meat in the form of insects. Ahouse

gecko, for example, can eat half its own weight in small insects in just one night. Some lizards are herbivores -the

Galapagos marine iguana (Amhlyrhynclms cristatus) feeds only on seaweed, and tortoises feed mainly on plants.

Matamata

called the amnion.

D I E T

allows it to breathe.

Alligator egg

turtle egg

Leopard gecko hatching

H A T C H I N G

To help them break free of the egg, baby lizards and egg tooth on the tip of the upper lip. This drops off soon after hatching. Tuataras, tortoises, turtles, and crocodiles have ahorn\

●it

I

snakes have asharp, pointed

1. Agecko develops for 2-3 months before the egg splits open.

2. Five minutes later, the

3. After about 20

baby gecko starts pushing its head out of the egg.

minutes, the gecko’s head emerges.

growth that does the same Job. Krom the moment they hatch, most young reptiles have to fend for themselves.

Crocodiles may earn' their

young to water and protect them from predators, but they do not feed them.

The stripes on this young leopard

4. The gecko rests brie y before struggling free.

5. In just 40 minutes, the young gecko is free of its shell.

Leopard gecko (Eublepharis macularius]

gecko's body will gradually change into spots as it grows older. ——

I.IVE

Looking after turtle eggs in Sri Lanka PROTECTING REPTILES

The future of many reptiles is in danger. Their habitats have often been destroyed,

and they have been hunted for food or to make objects such as leather bags and tortoiseshell combs. Laws now protect

some species, such as turtles, whose eggs may be moved to safety.

YOUNG

Some lizards and snakes give birth to fully formed young. Their eggs are protected inside the female’s body, and the developing young may get their food from the yolk sac or sometimes from the mother. Many reptiles

that live in cold places give birth to live young, probably because the eggs a r e

warmer inside the mother’s body than they would be in the soil. Reptiles that live in watery places produce live young. T. i z a r d w o r m h e a d s

/\ female slowworm (Anguis fragilis) and her newborn young

Worm lizards Neither lizards nor snakes, worm lizards are strange reptiles.

IThey burrow underground to hunt for insects, which they

Hound head

^ nd by touch. Worm lizards tunnel by pushing their

heads through the soil. They have different burrowing

techniques according to the shape of the head.

Their eyes are under the skin and their nostrils

^close when they burrow.

Keel head

Amphisbaenid

Pjjp. {Amphisbaena fuliginosa) The pattern /

Chisel head

on this worm

lizard helps it blend with its forest habitat.

Find out mor A.m\lvi.s in danger: 100 Crocodiles .and ai.ligators: 206 Deserts: 86 Snakes: 204

Shovel head

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r e p t h . e s

ANIMALS

To r t o i s e s a n d t u r t l e s These hard-shelled reptiles belong to agroup called chelonians. There are more than 250 species of chelonian,

including tortoises, turtles, and terrapins. The shell protects their soft bodies from predators and adverse weather, and it can also provide camou age. Most tortoises and turtles lack teeth. Instead, their jaws have sharp edges Carapace that can tear food. Tortoises usually live on land, while turtles live

Horny scutes

in the water. Freshwater turtles

are known as terrapins. All reproduce by laying eggs

FOSSIL

Bony layer

Fossilized remains show that turtles may have lived

on Eai'th as early as the rst dinosaurs, about 200

> < * '

million years ago. They have not changed

on land, usually in sand,

much over the years, and still look similar to

leaf litter, or other animals’ burrows. Tortoises can live

their ancient fossil relatives. However, early turtles hiid small teeth and could not withdraw their heads inside their shells.

Neck

for more than 100 years.

R E L AT I V E S

Chelonians are ihe oldest living group ol reptiles.

vertebra

Head pulled in sideways

Starred tortoise

(Geochelone elegans) SHELL ARMOR has starllke

patterns on

The strong shell of achelonian consists

its knobbly of ^two parts -adomed carapace covering carapace. the back, and aHat plastron tinder the

belly. The shell is made from bony plates that are fused to the ribs and vertebrae to

^form asolid box of armor. It is covered by Tlarge scales called scutes, made of ahorny

Head retracted

straight back

material known as keratin. Growth rings

Shells and legs The shape of achelonian’s shell nsiially re ects its emdronment. Land-

living tortoises have either high-domed or knobbly shells to protect them from predators. They need strong, thick legs, like pillars, to support their

on the plates help to determine the age of achelonian.

NECK

POSITIONS

Chelonians are divided into nvo group.s according to the wa\- they dratv their heads

The

into their shells. Side-necked chelonians

at shell of this red-eared slider

bend their necks sideways, curling their heads under the upper shell. Most straight¬

(Trachemys elegans scripta) is a typical feature of most aquatic turtles.

necked turtles and tortoises ha\e shortei' ●

V

necks and can pull their heads straight back into the shell.

weight. Turtles tend to have Hatter, lighter shells,

B R E AT H I N G

which are streamlined

Achclonian’s ribs form part of its shell so, unlike other reptiles, it is unable to move its

for easy movement. Their

ribs and pump air in and out of the lungs. Instead, mtiscles at the tops of the legs and in the abdomen draw fresh air into the lungs

long front legs are wing¬

shaped to enable them to “ y” through the water.

and expel stale air. Turtles can also breathe

through the skin, the lining of the Spiny soft-shell turtle

throat, and through an opening

(/\ halone spin ifera)

near the anus. Some can sunive underwater for weeks

without coming to the surface to breathe.

<


Vo u t p a c e PLSdators. Ss,

,

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ANIMALS

BIRDS

AV E R Y VA R I E D D I E T

BROWN

Emus, oslriches, and rheas all have varied

diets. They feed on the leaves, roots, llowers,

r

fruits, and seeds of plants, as well as on

arange of small animals, such as frogs,

KIWI

'he nocturnal kiwi is one of the most reclusive

I

ightless birds, and is rarely seen in the wild.

Kiwis have poor eyesight, but an excellent sense of smell, which they use to nd food. They nest in underground burrows dug out with their strong

lizards, snakes, birds, and insecLs. Ostriches

in captivit)’ have stvallowed aremarkable range of items, including coins, pieces of wire, alarm clocks, combs, rope, and gloves.

claw's. Relative to

Emus (Dromaius novaehollandiae) grazing

her body, the female kiwi

lays the largest eggs

The biggest eggs

The ostrich’s egg is the largest of any Ihdng bird, at up to 8in (20 cm) long, and 5lb (2.3 kg) in weight. It is equivalent in volume to 24 chickens’ eggs. The shell, although only 0.06 in (1.5 mm) thick, can support the weight of ahuman. The largest egg ever laid was 15 in (39 cm) long and belonged to the extinct elephant bird; it was equivalent

Ostrich

Elephant

of all birds.

I '

Powerful claws

are used both to dig burrows and to dig out food, such as earthworms from the ground

in volume to 220

Scienti c name: Aplmyx australis

chickens’ eggs.

Size: Up to 20 in (.aO cm) long Habitat: Forest, scrub, and farmland Distribution: New Zealand

Cassowary Chicken

bird egg

Reproduction: Female irsually lays one egg up to 5in (IScm) long,which is incubated for ll-12weeks

Feathers are shaggy because ightless birds

Diet: Earllnvorms, insect grubs, .spiders, and fruit

do not need to have

asmooth

ying

surface to

GIANT EXTINCTIONS

their feathers.

Two large groups of ightless birds became extinct due to hunting and habitat destruction. The 11 species of moa from New' Zealand ranged from hen-sized birds to the giant inoas, while the seven species of elephant bird from Madagascar and southern Africa were all giants. The dodo, alarge, ightless pigeon from Mauritius, w'as extinct by th J r a ' 1600s-killed off b M

Giant moas

stood up to 11 f t e i n

(3.5 m) tall.

Flic

ii; b.

introduced animals,

S.v

M'

t

)■

H u m a n

Caring the

male

D o d o

{Raphus cundlalus)

fathers

Elephant bird Giant moa {Aepyornis {Dinornis rnaximus) rnaximus)

Many male ightless birds incubate the eggs and care for the young. For example, male rheas mate with aharem of 2-12 females, then

rhea

protects his offspring, defending them ercely against predators.

Greater

rhea

(Rhtia anu'.ricana)

build anest on the ground. The females lay the eggs in the nest, returning every 2-3 days to lay more eggs. Once they have nished laying their eggs, they depart to mate with another male, lea\dng the male to look after the eggs and young. Y oung rheas are looked after .

s

by their father for

up to ve months.

Find out mor Birds: 208 Movement on land: 34 PA R i t O T S : 2 2 2 Seabirds: 212

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FLIGHTLESS

●'

Rockhoppcr penguin {Eudyptes chi-ysocom^

Seabirds Many seabirds spend much of their lives out on

Supreme seabirds

the open oceans, and return to land only to breed and raise their young. They nest in colonies along

;Of all seabirds, penguins are the most fully adapted for life in the water. They have lost the power of ight completely and their wings

the shoreline or on cliff ledges away from predators. Most seabirds have webbed feet to help them swim, and bills adapted to catch slippery prey.

have been modi

surface water is full of

sh, and the shoreline

provides worms, crabs, and other shell sh.

than other birds to reduce

Some seabirds can remain at sea for more

;buoyancy and to make diving easier. Their bodies hat e

than ve years without coming back to land. Skin when normal

A L L - W E AT H E R

OlTFi

become

lying normally Insulating layer (blubber)

smooth

and

streamlined

to reduce the water’s drag, and their thick pltimage enables them to sunlve in very cold waters.

r

Penguins have adense covering otfealhers, which provides waterprooling and protection from the cold.

Feathers

ed intct

attened ippers to propel ;them through the water. Penguins have heavier bones

The sea is arich source of food for birds -the

Flattened

ippers aid

Beneath the skin is atliick

Salt glands above

layer of fat (blubber) lhal

the eye

insulates the penguin.

a

To m a k e i t s f e a U i e r s m o r e

Salty

runs down

Fluffy

waterproof the bird applies a special oil with its bill. In hot

aftershafts

weather, blood vessels in the

open

blubber swell, bringing body

Feathers

heat to the skin’s surface.

Skin when hot

ruf ed

uid

grooves in

SAt.T

the bill.

G L A N D S

King penguin

Seabirds have

d i v e s u n d e r w a t e r.

large salt glands, c onn ec te d t o t he nos t ri l s, which remove salt from seawater.

Blood vessels

\V

Although seabirds need some salt in

swell

their diets, too mticli can be harmfttl. The 'A

Swimming

excess salt runs out of the nostrils and down

Most seabirds land on the

grooves in the bill, before dripping off the bill tip.

water’s surface to feed, rest,

or preen. Only afew can swim any distance. Penguins can swim long distances underwater, but every so often they leap in and out of the water. This technique (called “porpoising”) enables the penguin to breathe while traveling at high speeds. Penguins are the fastest swimmers of all birds; gentoo penguins {Pygoscelis papua) can reach speeds of up to 19 mph (30 kmh). ■

King penguin {ApUmodyle.i patagonlcHs)

Powerful ippers propel the penguin through the water.

-

Seabird cities Many seabirds nest in huge, noisy colonies on cliffs. Colonies provide safety in numbers -there are plenty of eyes to watch for danger, and the

●

I

■■ -a Fleavyblotching

■' . ' H . o n

cream

background

mass of birds makes it hard for

predators to pick out asingle target. Various groups of seabirds

GUILLEMOT

■A ■/

dividing the seabird “city” vertically like an apartment building. Gan nets and kittiwakes nest near the top, while shags

guillemot, does not build a

“'.y nest. Instead it lays asingle

.jegg on avery narrow cliff

'4 ledge. The egg’s pear shape

“helps to prevent it from rolling

and cormorants nest lower down.

Intricate marking Sparse scribbles o on buff backgroun grey backgroun

Kittiwakes nesting close together

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212

EGG.S

The common murre, or

nest at different levels on acliff,

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ANIMALS "«iri^-n£r

off the ledge. Individual colors and markijigs on each egg help the parent bird recognize it among thotistmds of ollicrs.

Prion using both feet to skim over ocean surface

Brown pelican plunge-diving

AT L A N T I C

PUFFIN

^“ith iheir brightly colored bills and feet,

from midair

w .Atlantic puf ns are among the world’s most distinctive seabirds. They have webbed feet and

small wings, which they use like ns to propel

. i " '

themselves through the water. Puf ns breed in large colonies, and raise theii chicks in the safety of

" T v

Albatross feeding from

hull dipping

Storm-petrel pattering on

the ocean surface

down to ocean

webbed feet across

surface in

ocean surface

ight

Wunderground burrows. Scienti c name: Fralerrula arrtira

Feeding Seabirds catch food in avariety of ways. Gulls y close

Size: Up to 12 in

to the surface ;^nd snatch prey from the water. Gan nets

diving underwater from ocean surface

their feet underwater, where they seize

The puf n

{31 cm) long;

carries

weight up to 1lb2oz (510 g)

sh

cross-wise

and brown pelicans plunge into the water from great heights to catch sh. Air-sacs under their skin cushion them from the impact as they hit the water. Cormorants dive from the ocean surface, propelling themselves with

Cormorant

in its beak.

Habitat: Rocky coasts

Distribution: North Atlantic

sh. Penguins

Reproduction:

and auks are deep divers, chasing small sh and other

Female lays

single egg,

marine animals as they “ y” through the water.

IjiUev' which hatches after 40 days Diet: Small

sh

A L B AT R O S S F. S

.Migration

Albatro.sses breed mainly on ,sul>Antarctic islands, then glide across the open ocean until they return to land to breed again. The wandering albatross has the longest wingspan of any Irird at up to 11 ft (3.4 m). It glides dose to

Route

●Breeding colony

the water’s surface and often

circumnavigates the globe in search of food. Its long, narrow wings are ideally suited for soaring for hours on end without awingbeat.

Wa n d e r i n g a l b a t r o s s {Diomedea exulcm.s)

Migration PENGUINS Common

THE

murre

OF

NORTH

Althotigh they are not related, the auks of the northern hemisphere bear astriking resemblance

(Uriri nalge)

(both in appearance and in swimming techniques) to the penguins of the southern hemisphere. Auks include mtirres, razorbills, and puf ns. Like penguins. they live in large, dense!)- populated colonies.

Some seabird.s make migrations that require astonishing powers of navigation. The Manx sheanvater (PuJJinuspuf nm) migrates from breeding colonies in the North Atlantic to the waters off eastern

South America. One of these birds

migrated from the Welsh island of Skokholm to the coast of Brazil in In water, penguins look dark from above, and pale from below for camou age.

only 17 days, traveling almost 6,200 miles (10,000 km).

Find out more Birds: 208 MlGR/VriON AND NAVIGATION: 46

Webbed feet and

O C FA N S : 6 8

stiff tail steer like

Seashores and tidepoois: 70

arudder.

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SEABIRDS

ANIMALS

Ducks, geese, and swans Knowtn collectively as waterfowl, ducks,

Anatomy

geese, and swans form alarge group of

Waterfowl have broad, boat-shaped bodies with attened bellies to improve buoyancy on the water. The plumage is dense, with a well-developed layer of down that provides good insulation in cold water. Some ms and geese, have pthem reach down

mainly aquatic birds. They are excellent

swimmers, with strong legs and large, webbed feet to propel them through the

Long neck helps goose to redch for

water. Swans and geese spend much of their

food

time on land, while some ducks live on the

rfood.

water for most of the year, coming ashore

Most

waterfowl

land, although swans emore easily.

only to breed and to rest. There are about

150 species of waterfowl throughout the world, ranging from the Hottentot teal, at

1ft (30 cm) long, to the trumpeter swan

Short, pointed wings for strong, fast ight

that reaches lengths of 6ft (1.8 m). For centuries, humans have hunted waterfowl

for their meat, eggs, and feathers. Broad bill adapted for grazing

“Nail" for

tearing tough grass

Goose skull

Bulky, boat-shaped body for swimming

Legs set near center of body make walking easier.

Flattened bill is dabbled

Webbed feet propel goose through water.

through surface

UP-ENDING

water.

To reach food under die water,

Barnacle goose

many waterfowl “up-end” into a vertical position. Their buoyant bodies allow them to

Dabbling duck skull Slender bill with lamellae

to grip

sh underwater

with just over half of their bodies submerged. From this position they reach down to

nd food,

using their legs and Tk feet to keep their Merganser skull A D A P TA B L E

{Branta leucopsis)

oat

heads

under

DIVING

Some waterfowl I

t h e w a t e r.

BILLS

specialize in diving I

Waterfowl have broad, cone-shaped bills that are attened from top to bottom. There is ashield-shaped horny tip on the upper

f o r f o o d . To d o 5

mandible, called the “nail,” which is harder

this, they reduce ;●! their buoyancy by | squeezing out the air trapped between their

V;

than the rest of the bill. Arow of toothlike

projections, called lamellae, are found along the sides of the bill. The tongue is covered with horny spines that help the bird to grasp food. Some species have modi ed bills that help them cope with specialized diets.

feathers. Their feet, set at the back of their bodies,

Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) searching for food Mute

propel them under the water. Among the deepest divers is the old squaw (Clangula hyemalis), which can dive to 180 ft (5.5 m).

f

Common merganser (Mergus merganser) diving

swan

(Cygnus olor)

Powerful wing strokes help

Swan takes off

feet across surface o f t h e w a t e r.

swan Into the air.

gain extra lift.

Swan patters with

Ta k i n g o f f

into the wind to \

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^

Some ducks, especially the dabbling ducks, can take off very rapidly, ying up almost vertically. They push downward tvith their feet and ap their wings so strongly that the tips often hit the water. By contrast, the pochards, eiders, and sea ducks, as well as the heavy swans, n e e d t o r u n a c r o s s t h e w a t e r,

pattering with their feet, before they can become airborne.

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2 1 4

D U C K S , G E E S E , A N D S WA N S

Eclipse plumage -male has drab feathers for

temporary camou age.

Molting

COMMON

Wa t e r f o w l a r e u n u s u a l b e c a u s e

all their main

ight feathers

molt at the same time. Most

ducks, geese, and swans are unable to y while their new feathers grow. During this vulnerable period, male ducks which have bright

GOLDENEYE

liis dumpy, large-licadcd sea duck ha.s golden yellow irises in the eyes of both sexes. These birds are mostly silent, btil make soft, nasal calls dtiring display. Numbers of common goldeneyes

T

have declined in manv areas due to forest

clearance and the disappetirance of their nesting holes.

feathers for the rest

of the year, molt into taspecial “eclipse plumage. These temporary feathers

Row of drooping, black-and-white shoulder feathers

are similar to the Mandarin

duck

(Aix gaknculala)

females’ drab

plumage and help camou age the

Normal plumage male has brightly

males

predators.

colored feathers.

from

Scienti c name: liurephala dangida Size: 18-20 in (46-.n0 cm)

Habitat: Spends summer beside inland water in northern forests; winters on estmiries and inland lakes Distribution: North America and Asia

Reproduction: Female lays 8-12 eggs in atree hole lined with chips of rotten wood and down Diet: Mainly shelHish. crustaceans, and insects COURTSHIP

D I S P I AY

Most ducks

nd anew mate

each winter, and the males

use their bright plumage in dramatic courtship displays. They often interrupt these displays to chase away rivals. The performances include aseries of ritualistic

movements, accompanied by special calls. This elaborate sequence is unique for each species. The ducks are already

paired w'hen they reach their breeding grounds in the spring.

lowering his head in acourtship display

Snug nests Most waterfowl nest on the ground among vegetation and near w'ater. The female makes ahollow in the

earth, then constructs anest from

vegetation before adding alining of dow'ny feathers plucked from h e r b e l l y. T h i s l a y e r o f d o w n

keeps the eggs warm while the mother goes off in search of food. Before leaving, she covers the eggs with m o r e down, which helps disguise them from hungty predators. Humans use the soft dow'ny under-feathers of the eider

duck to make quilts, sleeping bags, and winter jackets.

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Nest and eggs of common eider (Somateria mollissima)

Female mute swan (Cygnus olor) carrying cygnets on her back FAST

LEARNERS

Waterfowl hatch with their e)’es open, and after their camottllaged. down)’ plumage lias dried out, they are able to stand, walk, and swim

almost immediately. They soon leave the nest, following their mother to asafe stretch of water

where they feed for themselves right away. This is avital period in which the young learn from their mother (and their father in the

case of geese and swans), following her wherever she goes. Find

out

more

Birds: 208 Migration and na\'iG/\tion: 46 Movement in air: 36 Rivers, lakes, and ponds: 76

Long, down-

Wading birds

curved bill

The term wading birds refers to agroup ^

Anatomy

of unrelated birds that live in avariety of watery habitats, ranging from rivers and shorelines to swamps and marshes. Some, such as herons, have long legs and necks, and can wade deep into the water without getting

Wading birds have specialized beaks for reaching apardcular type of food.

Many have long, slender bills that they use to probe in soft mud for buried invertebrate prey. Waders may also have long legs with widely spaced toes that help them walk on marshland, mud, or other soft ground without ^sinking. Some have webs of skin B between their toes, which help them balance and

their feathers wet. Many wading birds have long bills, adapted for avariety of feeding methods, from the stabbing spears of herons to the

ltering

devices of amingos. Others probe soft ground

Scarlet ibis

(Kudocimus rube))

for food, and some, such as oystercatchers, have strong beaks used to hammer or pry open shells.

obtain food. Most have keen Long, widely spaced toes help bird to balance.

Herons

aheron

eyesight that helps them watch out for predators.

S T O R I ^

Storks live mainlv in tropical and subtropical areas. Some specie.s have the umi.siial haltit ol defecating on their legs to cool themselves -as the urine evaporates from their legs,

There are about 65 species of herons. They usually live close to the water and often nest in groups. Many are solitaiy feeders that hunt by waiting patientlv before suddenly seizing their prey. Their necks are highly specialized with a distinct S-shape. When darts

its

prey, the kink in

heat is lost from their bodies. Most storks feed

iT'

on sh, frogs, insects, and small mammals. The giant marabou stork from Africa is

. Neck neld back

In S-shape

that feeds on dead

V ,

A

neck out to catch

V ,

/>

the neck acts

like aspring, giving the thrust

extra

strength and force. Herons wade In

wetlands, lake edges. and coastal regions.

other aquatic animais.

Different

bills

Many waders feed together

The common curiew’s (Numenius arquata) iong downcurved bili enabies it to probe for prey. To u c h - s e n s i t i v e c e l l s o n t h e b i l l

help it identify different types of prey.

on estuaries and mud ats.

Individual species have developed bills of various lengths and shapes. They can feed on different prey and avoid Iffulllir EiT IlMif IftBipk Lesser F I LT E R

FELDERS

open cockles gnd

mussels.

plovers, usually pick or probe for food on, or just below, the muddy surface. Others, such as oystercatchers, have blunter, more blade-like

V

bills, which can pi7 open bivalve mollusks such as

mussels. Deeper probers, such as curlews, use their long, sensitive bills to feel for buried creatures.

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hammers

Birds with shorter bills, such as

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The strong bill of the oystercatcher (Haematopus ostralegus)

jH competing for the same food.

amingos (Phoeniconalas minor) feed together.

Flamingos live in large colonies, sometimes containing thousands of birds. They wade into salty lakes and hold iheir bills upside down in the water. This enables them to lter algae and small pUints and animals from just beneath the water’s surface. Their tongues pump water into their bills, forcing the water through comblike plates called lamellae, which sieve suspended food particles from the water.

L

I

A N I M A L S

f : r

●

,

'

BIRDS

CR.AXES

PIED

Cranes have \’eiv long legs and are the tallest Hying birds in the world the sarus crane (Gnrs antigone) stands at 5It 9in (1.76 in). Cranes

r

using remarkable dances, which are peiforined during courtship

Cranes dance to attract

mates.

They usually stay with

Red-crowned cranes

AV O C E T

I''he pied avocet is the most widespread of the

four species of avocets. It feeds by sweeping its long, slender, upctirved bill sideways through shallow water or watery' mud. It lters small worms,

connntinicate with one another

insects, and crustaceans from the water with a

ceremonies and to communicate

complex system of “teeth” inside its bill. Pied

with one another. They are also renowned for their trumpeting calls. In most species the long ivindpipe is coiled within the breastbone -the extra length probably sen-cs to amplif}' the calls.

avocets breed in colonies; their chicks run

around and feed soon after hatching. Bill adapted for ltering prey

(Gms jagonensis)

the same

partner all their lives.

Scienti c name: Rmiwiro.'ilra avosetta Size: 17-18 in

(42-45 cm) Habitat: Lakes, salt

Flocks togethe | z

pans, and estuaries

^ 5

It-rN

Outside the breeding season ■ waders usually form huge ocks along the coasts. They feed, y, and roost together to increase their

Distribiition: Parts of

Europe, Asia, and

V

AlVica

Reproduction:

i

chances of sinwival. Predators, such as

Female produces 3-4 eggs; incubation

3 , 1

23-25 davs

peregrine falcons, nd it harder to pick out a \dctim from alarge, tightly packed ock. Some species, such as red knots and dunlins (Calidris alpina), perform amazing coordinated aerial maneuvers, which

A ock of red

Diet: .-\quatic insects,

knots takes

womis, and

to the air.

crustaceans

l o o k l i k e w a v e m o v e m e n t s i n t h e a i r.

■■

.

. V -

[■A

The oystercatcher's eggs are dif cult to see among pebbles on the beach.

JACANAS The African jacana is renowned for its long legs, toes, and claws that enable it to tvalk over lilypads and other oating plants without sinking. Despite its long legs, the jacana can swim and will occasionally y. .Vlale Jacanas make simple nests on top of oatingvegetation. After mating, the male incubates the clutch of eggs, and

Camoueiage Like many waders, oystercatchers lay eggs that are well camou aged against their surroundings. They

lay clutches of three or four eggs in ashallow dip on the shoreline. The pear-shaped eggs have pointed ends that t neatly together in the nest. The chicks hatch covered in down that blends in with their background. They look for their own food soon after hatching.

feeds and rears the chicks.

African jacana (Actophilornis africanus) on Illy pad

takes food from near

Ared knot (Calidris canutus) often feeds in groups probing for

The ruddy turnstone (Arenaria inferpres) lifts Individual rocks or clumps of weed to nd

or on the surface.

food near the surface.

small crabs and mollusks.

The common plover (Charadrius hiaticula)

N AT U R A L

SPOONS

Spoonbills have long, straight, attened bills with broad, s[)atulashaped tips. Unlike herons, w'hich rely on their eyesight to nd food, these birds use their sense of touch. They sweep their unique bills from side

■■' eTp

2®, .rp ,

■

¥ A i

to side in shallow waters,

detecting small

sh

and crustaceans with

special touch-

^r-

sensitive cells.

Find out mor African

Spoonbill {Platalea alba)

Courtship, kLVTiNG, .and ●

V

i‘AREN rAL care: 30 Seashores and tidepooi.s: 70 Wetlands: 74

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WADING

Hooked tip acts like scissors to strip off

Birds of prey

To r a i t o o t h s e v e r s t h e

spinal cord of Its prey.

With their hooked bills, large wings, and sharp talons, birds of prey make formidable hunters. Most hunt awide

range of creatures, which they kill with their powerful feet. Birds of prey are called raptors, from the Latin word rapture,

which means “to seize.” Their lethal talons can pierce tough animal hides, strike birds in mid ight, and snatch sh 'om water. As adults, they have few enemies except other birds of prey and humans. This diverse group includes condors, hawks, eagles, falcons, and vultures. Vultures are unusual carrion the esh of d because they depend mainly o n animals -rather than killing prey themselves. j

Andean condor bill

Saker falcon bill

(Vullur gtyphu.s)

{Falco cherrug)

B I L L S

Although they are u,suall)' hooked, the bills of birds

of prey are adapted I'or catching speci c prey, ^ The Andean condor, for example, has adeeply hooked bill to rip into the hides of large dead animals, such

Feathers fan out for landing.

C

■

Built

to

kill

With the exception of vultures

and afew other species, birds of prey survive by hunting down and killing other animals. Their bodies are built for hunting. They have well-developed wings for active ight and soaring, and sharp vision (up to eight times as acute as human eyesight) for locating prey. Once they have spotted potential prey, they seize it with their strong legs and sharp talons, then use their powerful, hooked bill to tear up the esh.

loes

as

well as talons exert force.

i

Powerful

feet for tightly gripping prey

Bald eagle courtship display

Amale eagle dives down to

LEGS

The female

meet his partner.

Once joined, the eagles spiral downward before

eagle turns

AND

Gripping small prey

FEET

Most birds of prey have powerful legs jipg Qf and feet with sharp claws, or talons.

Verreaux’s eagle has strong legs and feet, with long talons for seizing prey such as

talons exert

'3

force. _

rabbits. Abird’s toes and talons are used

in different ways depending on whether it is gripping large or small prey. UNUSUAL

Many birds of prey perform

T V:

dramatic aerial displays during courtship, while established pairs also perform for each other to strengthen the bond. During the courtship display of the

..H-5™.

bald eagle {Haliaeetus leucocephalus), the male Ilies above the female, who turns on her back in midair as he passes over her. They extend their legs and link talons before tumbling downward over each other in aseries of cartwheels, letting go before they reach the ground.

Osprey (Pandion haliaetus) catching a sh

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218 fl

Gripping large prey BIRDS

OF

PREY

Ospreys catch and eat sh. Their pale bellies help camou age them as they hswoop down to seize sh

Dramatic displays

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.

ANIMALS

Kj from the water. Horny p’j spines on their toes, long pi talons, and aspecial toe

. - * ' t a

1/ that can swivel backward, 'all help ospreys to grip their slippery, struggling prey. Unlike other birds of prey, secretary birds hunt on the ground. They have long legs and run through the grass to catch snakes.

Va r i e d d i e t s The prey, or diet, of these large birds varies greatly. Some eat mammals and birds, others feed on insects or

sh. Several

species have more unusual tastes. The European honeybuzzard {Pemis apivorus) eats honeycombs, and wasp and bee

GOLDEN

The sparrowhawk

I■'his y^ eaglemajestic is on

prey to afavorite plucking site before eating it.

Large eyes for spotting prey

of ihe largest '

and most powerful birds of prey. It has a wingspan of np to

and the snail kite {Rostrhamus sociabilis) uses

7ft 6in (^..Sni),

its long, hooked bill to eat freshwater snails.

EAGLE

takes its blackbird

laiwae, the lammergeier {Gypaetus barbatus) drops bones onto rocks to expose the marrow inside,

enabling it to soar effortlessly. Golden eagles prey on many

id

»

kinds of animals, and

fully grow'ii birds can pick Up prey weighing up to 10 lb (4.5 kg).

V

4

Huge talons

Scienti c name:

Aquila chrysaelos Size: Female up l.o 3R(90 cm) long; male slightly smaller Habitat: Mountains, and other open wild habitats

Hunting technique

Distribution: North America, Europe, North Africa,

of peregrine falcon

Middle East, and northern Asia

{falco pe.re^rinus) E u r a s i a n

Reproduction: Female lays 1-3 eggs in nest on rocky ledge or in tree; eggs hatch after about 45 days

sparrowhawk {Accipiter nisus)

the taicon dives at up to 124 mph (200 kmh) or more, making it the fastest bird in the world.

Diet: Small mammals and carrion

Hunting techniques Birds of prey hunt in many different ways. The peregrine falcon is aspectacular

■t '

hunter that dives on its bird prey from great heights in abreathtaking “stoop.

Asparrowhawk hunts by stealth, ying low along one side of ahedge, out of view of small birds on the other side. Without

warning, it ies over the hedge and seizes the victim from safety with its talons. Strong beak to rip open the bodies of

large animals.

The falcon hits a

Bald head keeps bird free from becoming matted with blood as it feeds.

grouse with great force in midair. Its

powerful feet and sharp talons stun or kill its prey.

Common buzzard (Buteo buteo) in search of prey H O V E R I N G

Some birds of prey, particularly kestrels, have mastered the art of hovering in midair while searching for prey. They use their sharp eyesight to scan the ground for voles or mice. Their heads remain steady while their bodies, wings, and tails are constantly making tiny adjusting movements to maintain their position in the air.

SCAVENGERS

Vultures are specialized carrion-eaters. Their broad, rectangular wings help them soar high in the sky as they look out for carrion far below. They have deep, strongly hooked beaks with sharp edges for cutting and tearing skin and esh, and rough tongues for rasping esh from bones. Vultures lack the strong feet and sharp talons of other birds in this group because they do not kill or carry off live prey.

Vu l t u r e t e a r s

pieces of esh from adead goal

_Find out mor Birits: 208 Hunting: 52 Movement in air: 36 White-backed

vulture

(Gyps bengnlensis)

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BIRDS OF PREY

Owi,s: 224

Game birds Generally hunted for sport

Game bird anatomy Hill partridge {Arborophila

i

Hooked bill

breastbone, enable them to take

off rapidly, especially when in danger. Rounded

/

wings used in short ights

brilliant colors to attract mates, while

i

others, such as the willow ptarmigan, change color with the seasons. Most game birds have strong, blunt claws with three forward-facing toes used for scratching at food on the ground. Some roost in trees to avoid predators. SKIN

Game birds have plump bodies that are supported by their strong, sturdy legs. Their large feet have tough, blunt claws that they use for scratching at seeds and other food on the ground. They also use their hooked bills to dig up roots and buried insects. Although game birds do not make long ights, their powerful breast muscles, attached to alarge keel on the

torqueola)

hence their name, game birds live mainly on the ground. They are strong runners that rarely y, except when they burst from cover to escape danger. From the order Galliformes, these plump birds feature aversatile range of plumage displays. Males sport

Strong claws for scratching at food

SIGNALS

During courtship, many game birds rely on changing skin

Food passes through the esophagus.

1colors to attract mates or to

fWiirn off rivals. The temminck's

Irtigopan, for example, has a brightly colored llap of skin called aliippet that dramatically fexpands after meeting amate,

Digestive organ secretes

enzymes which help break

fAt the height of the courtship

down foods.

displa)', two lleshv horns above 1the head become erect.

Well-developed gizzard Is able to digest tough foods.

Te m m i n c k ’ s t r a g o p a n (Tragopan Irmminckii) TOUGH

Fleshy lappet /

DIGESTIVE

Ihe wings ap rapidly producing a

SYSTEMS

Game birds have agizzard which is specially adapted to grind tough foods stich as insects and grains. This muscular part of the stomach has afolded inner lining that helps the bird crush and digest its

expands over breast during courtship. Mountain

peacock-pheas

{Polypier Imil inopinatum)

Spurs may be used in ghting.

ARMED

WITH

f t

loud noise that startles the

predator.

food. Game birds also swallow

grit tmd small stones, which help grind the food.

me body IS held at asteep angle for a near-vertical ascent.

SPURS

Males of some grou|ts of game birds, such as turkeys and pheasants, have o n e or more spurs on each leg. It is generally thought that spurs act as weapons in lights between males, or that thc\' sene to attract females -the larger the spur, the greater the male’s litness. Some species, stich as the .Malayan peacock-pheasant [Polyplectron malacense), can have as manv as seven spurs.

Sensing danger, the pheasant rockets into the air.

Explosive

tai^eoff

When in danger, game birds can rocket to safety from

the ground or atree. Their broad wings and powerful ight muscles enable them to accelerate upward, while the noisy whirring sounds of their wings may frighten off the predator. The ring-necked pheasant {Fhasianus colchicus) is able to rise faster than any other bird of comparable size and weight. Game birds tend not to y long distances, since they prefer

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to run to cover when threatened.

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ANIMALS

BIRDS

REDJUNGLEFOWL

Pheasant alternates burst

of noisy, apping ight with glides, before returning to cover.

he red jimglefbwl is the wild ancestor of the domestic thicken, its wide diet enabling it to live in arange ol habitats. In spring, the males male with several females, enticing their males with dramatic dis|tlays of their magni cent plumage. The I'emales nesl on the gronnd, ..hidden in dense iindergrotvth. Jnnglefowl often congregate in large numbers at feecling sites, scratching the ground in search of plants, roots.

T Wing shape and powerful breast

muscles give fast ight, but the bird soon

tires.

and invertebrates.

Mates have colorful

plumage.

Courtship displays

iS.-li

,The strutting display of the male sage grouse (Centrocercus urophasianm) ,is typical of many grouse attempting

Scienti c name: Callus galhis

Size: Males 26-30 in (65-75 cm) long; females 16-18 in (42-46 cm) long

to attract females at communal

Habitat: Forest edge, open wood, scrubland

grounds (leks). They fan their long, sharply pointed tail feathers upward

Distribution: Norlheast India and Southeast Asia

Reproduction: Lays 4-9 eggs in ahollow in the ground. Kggs incubated for 18-20 days Diet: Seeds, plant foods, and insects

and in ate huge air sacs beneath their necks. At the height of this remarkable demonstration, the male shows off his

bright yellow neck patches, then suddenly

empties his air sacs, causing an incredible noise that sounds like awhip cracking.

Male sage grouse during courtship

Mound-builders

Crosssection of incubation mound

Asmall family of game birds are known as mound-builders because they incubate their eggs inside mounds of vegetation and sand, rather

Sandy soil covers incubating eggs.

Incubation temperatures inside the mound are

about 93°F (34V).

than under their bodies. As the

vegetation rots, it gives off heal, which keeps the eggs warm. Some species use their sensitive bills Sixteen eggs laid by the gray partridge (Perdix perdix)

as thermometers to monitor the

temperature inside the nest, and make adjustments by adding or removing sand. Some species lay their eggs in holes on sandy beaches heated by the sun or in soils near volcanic areas.

CHAMPION

Rotting vegetation gives oft heat to warm the eggs.

Summer

plumage

Malleefowl

Willow ptarmigan {LarropiLs larropus)

(Leipria orellaia)

EGG

L AY E R S

Some game birds are renowned for the huge number of eggs that they lay. The gray partridge regularly lays up to 16 eggs in a clutch, and may lay as many as 20 eggs -the largest single clutch laid regularh' by any bird. The northern boinvhile (Colin.us virginianus) has laid as many as 28 eggs on rare occasions. Domestic chickens mav

J l

CAMOUFLAGE

THROUGH

THE

YEAR

Willow ptarmigans molt their feathers three times ayear, revealing different plumages for each season. In summer, their reddish-

W i n t e r

y~'i

Fall plumage

plumage

brown color helps conceal the females against the foliage surrounding their nests. White plumage in winter hides the birds against the snow, while in spring and fall their patchy appearance provides superb camoullage against the melting snow, rocks, and vegetation.

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GAME

lay up to ,860 eggs ayear, usually for human consumption.

Find out mor Bird.s; 208

Courtship, m.-vtixg, .vnd P.AREXT.AL care: 30 Defexse 2: 50

P a r r o t s

Parrot anatomy One of aparrot’s most distinctive features is its hooked bill. Both parts of the bill hinge against the skull, allowing aparrot to open its bill wide when it feeds. Most parrots have small eyes, which are often surrounded by apatch of bare skin. A .parrot’s feet are short but powerful,

Some of the world’s most colorful, noisy, and endangered birds belong to tbe parrot family. There are about 330 species of parrots, and nearly all of these live in warm places. They feed almost entirely on plant food, such as fruit, seeds, pollen, and sugary

^with two toes pointing fomard and one pointing backward. In many species, males and females look the same, although males are often slightly bigger.

nectar. Parrots are strong iers and good climbers. They often clamber

around in the treetops, using their bills to grasp branches while shifting their sturdy feet. They use their feet to hold up food -afeature that is unique in the bird world. The smallest parrots are the pygmy parrots of Southeast

Asia, which can be just 3in (7.5 cm) long. The largest are the brilliantly

Peach-fronted parakeet {Amtinga aurea) Crest raised

to signal alarm

Short legs for / stability while climbing and perching

Most parrots are brightly colored, and

Large feet with

many are

exible toes to

colored macaws.

green.

grip branches

S'ti

Diet and feeding

Wk-

Almo.st all parrots are herbivores (planteaters), typically feeding high up in trees, where they

I

, Hinged beak allows parrot to open its mouth wide to pick fruit.

●

COLORFUL

SIGNAI,

Bill has

Cockatoos are unusual parrots because

scissoiiike

of the feathery crests on their heads. They can raise and lower these crests to signal alarm or aggression to eacli otlier. Unlike most parrots, these Irirds are plainly colored. The sulphur-crested cockatoo (Cacatua galeiita) is ptire white except for its yellow crest.

cutting edges.

search for fruit, nuts,

and other seeds. They collect food with their bills but often hold nuts in their

feet w'hile they crack open the hard shells. Afew species of parrots have

Amazon parrot {Amazona sp.)

given up life in the trees and feed on the ground. Budgerigars, for example, live in the diy grasslands

of Australia, where they often gather on the ground in huge ocks.

HOL.DING FOOD

.Vlany birds grip their food with their feet, but

parrots are the only birds that can hold food up to their bills. Using one foot to perch on abranch, the

parrot lifts the food up with its other foot. The eshy toes work like ngers. Fleshy toes fold around food and hold it tightly.

FEEDING

AT

FLOWERS

Some parrots specialize in feeding on lowers, often gathering in large ocks diere trees are in bloom. Small, brillianti)' 1colored parrots called lorikeets feed on

kpollen and nectar inside

owers. Their

^tongueshavebrushliketipsthattheyuse to lap up their food. Lorikeets live in

Brush-tipped tongue mops up pollen and nectar.

Australasia and islands in the Paci c

Ocean. They are aggressive birds and often squabble at feeding sites.

Ye l l o w - s t r e a k e d l o r y

(Chalcop.dtta scintillala)

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ANIMALS

Powerful feet allow I parrot to perch on one leg.

Parrot behavior Compared to many other birds, parrots are constantly active, noisy, and very' sociable. Instead of living on their own, they generally gather together in ocks. When parrots y, they keep in contact rvith each other by screeching loudly as they speed over the treetops. Communication is important because it helps them nd food that is sometimes widelyscattered. When one parrot locates food, its excited calls soon attract Fischer's lovebirds (Agapornis together in Tanzania, Africa

the rest of the

scheri) gather

ock.

SCARLET

MACAW

his spectacular bird is one of the world’s largest parrots. like other macaws, it feeds mainly on fruit and nuLs high in the forest canopy,

T

and is rarely seen _ near the ground.

(M

-Vlacatrs are sociable birds.

They travel in pairs or small

groups, often making I loud, screeching noises as they y. Capture by humans and deforestation has

made this species scarce.

Treetop nests Afew parrots nest in branches or on the ground, but for most species, life begins

The macaw's brilliant

'X-z

colors have made it

atarget for trappers.

inside ahollow tree. The parents search for asuitable hole high up in atree trunk, often taking over old nest holes made by woodpeckers. Parrots sometimes enlarge the hole, but they do not use any

Scienti c name: Ara macno

Size: Up to 2ft 10 in (86 cm) long Habitat: Tropical rainforest at lotv altitude

nesting material. The female lays 2-5 pure white eggs. In all species (except

Distribution: Central America, tropical South .America

cockatoos), she alone incubates the eggs.

Reproduction: Nests in tree holes; female lays Uro or three eggs, which hatch after 20-28 davs

Diet: Fruit, large nuts

Orange-bellied parrot -A? {Neophrma chrysogaster) '’

■V j T i

N E S T I N G M O N K PA R A K E E T S

The monk parakeet from South America Iruilds an unlined, domed nest made

of twigs, perferably thorny, tvith alow upward-slanting entrance. Each pair builds its nest up against the next, gradtially forming alarge colony in atree. The birds use the colony as acommunal roosting place, which makes it the permanent center for all their activity.

Hatching and early development

(MyiopsiUa monachm) H A T C H I N G

to hatch. Newlv hatched

parrots are blind and have rst

few days, but later the father also helps. The young often stay with their parents until the next breeding season.

long beak to tear up meat.

Ttvo of the tvorld’s strangest parrots are found in Netv Zealand. The kakapo (Strigops habroplilus) feeds at night and is the only parrot that does not y. It is now extremely rare. The kea (Nestor nolabilis)

I

no feathers. The mother

bird feeds them for the

The kea uses its

The kakapo has broad wings but cannot y. U N U S U A I . PA R R O T S

Parrot eggs take 2-14 weeks

Parrots are blind

when they

rst

hatch.

After one week, gray feathers begin to grow.

At four weeks, green feathers start to grow.

Parrots in danger

is much more common. It is bold and

inquisitive, and is the only parrot that feeds partly on animals and theii' remains.

Caged rose-ringed parakeets (Psittacula krameri) on sale in India

Parrots have been kept as pets for centuries.

This is partly because they are brightly colored and partly because some can imitate human speech. Afew species -including budgerigars and cockatiels -breed very successfully in captivity, but many others are

Find out mor Animals: 140 Birds: 208

collected from the wild. Over-collection and

Movement in air: 36

deforestation have brought several species

' Ve r t e i i r. a t e s : 1 8 2

to the brink of extinction.

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PARROTS

Owls

Tawny owl (Strix aluco) has a at face that channels

sound to Its ear openings.

W h e n THE SUN SETS, most birds stop feeding and nd asafe place to spend the night. Owls are different because many species emerge at dusk and set off to nd food. These stealthy hunters track

Skull of boreal owl

{Aegolms funrrcus) Lower ear cavity

down food with acombination of excellent vision and

hearing. Once they have located their prey, they use their sharp claws to grasp the animal. Some owls catch creatures as small as moths, but the largest -called eagle-owls -can tackle prey the size of asmall deer.

Although most owls are nocturnal, afew hunt by day. One such animal is the snowy owl. It lives in the Arctic where it is never completely dark during the summer months

Higher ear cavity/

Sight and sound g To make asuccessful attack

^

an owl must pinpoint the exact position of its prey. Most nd prey by sight and sound, although some, such as the barn owl, can locate small animals just by sound. The shape of an owl’s face channels sounds

toward the ear openings, and into the skull, where the inner parts of each ear differ in size and position. This arrangement helps an owl locate the source of any sound with extraordinary precision.

/

Rock eagle-owl {Bubo bengalensis)

LOOKING AROUND

Instead ol'lteing round, an owl’s eyes are shaped like funnels, with the widest part set deep inside the head. This shape

Owls have broad

wings that help them to y slowly as they search for prey.

■t

means that the eyes cannot swivel in their

A"

sockets and the owl must Itirn its head to look around. Owls can swivel their heads

4WV

through more than 180 degrees to look

I-

over their shoulders.

Cape eagle-owl {Bubo capemis)

X

r. '

Fanned-out feathers

control speed of descent

NightTIME

STRIKE

All owls are carnivorous,

and rely on their

“rexceptionally keen senses

,yand almost silent ight to

p■swoop on their victims. The

rock eagle-owl, for example, ies fairly close to the groitnd before attacking asmall mammal. Like most owls, if it hears the

sound of potential prey, it glides downward and swings its feet foiward. The owl grabs the animal with its talons and

I C S

wide and hisses at the intruder. Some owls

roost in gardens and even in cit)' parks, but because they are so well hidden, people veiy rarely notice Collared scops-owl (Otus lempiji) roosting

FEATHERS

C l o s e

the owl opens its eyes

they are Ihere.

.

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Many owls have velvety I'Sfw fringes around their i - i i

^1;

ight feathers that help to silence the wings as they move through the air. This stops wing noise interfering with the owl’s hearing, and makes it easier to catch prey.

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ANIMALS

b)

ies

away to atree, where it can

eat without being disturbed.

Sharp talons grab prey before it can

m

escape.

.

r- 'A'Uf

Feeding

BARN

Once an owl has caught its prey, it

usually carries the dead animal to atree before eating it. Owls have large mouths and most can swallow mice and small

birds in asingle gulp. When owls catch larger animals they feed like birds of prey, tearing up food with their hooked bills and powerful talons. In Africa, Pel’s shing-owls feed on pike, bream, and cat sh, always starting at the head end. They also eat frogs and crabs.

OWL

■'his owl is one of the

T most

widespread

birds in the world, but because it is nocturnal it is not seen ver)' often. Unlike other owls, the barn owl has

aheart-shaped face, formed by aring around each eye. It usually hunts by ying low over open ground. Powerful talons for

s n a t c h i n g p r e y. — Little owl

(Athene noclua) with centipede prey

Pel’s shing-owl (Scotepelia peli) has spiny toes that grip its prey. AV. A R I E D

Scienti c name: Tylo alba

DIET

Size: Female up to 13 in (.33 cm); male slightly

Owls are well known for attacking mice, but their

smaller

diet includes many other kinds of animals. Some species are fast enough to catch other birds in ight while many smaller owls catch moths in midair. In many places, earthworms make up

Habitat: Open ground, grassland, farmland, often

near building Distribution: Worldwide, e.xcept far north and south

most of the little owl’s diet. How'ever, if it is

Reproduction: Nests in tree holes or in buildings; female lays and incubates 4-7 eggs, which hatch after

forttinate enough to catch one, it will even sw'alknv awriggling centipede.

about 30 day Diet: Small mammals, such as mice, voles, and shrews

Inside an owl pellet OWL

PELLETS

Ow'ls cannot chew' their food,

so they usually swallow it whole.

Hipbones

After feeding, they cotigh up any

indigestible remains in asoft lump,

Jaws

Matted fur

Shoulder blades

' t

called apellet. Owl pellets are like arecord book because they show exactly w'hat the bird has eaten. On the left, apellet has been pulled apart. The remains show that the owl has been feeding on voles.

NESTING UNDERGROUND

The American burrow'ing owl lives in open assland where there are no trees I t

underground, and although it can dig with its feet and beak, it often takes over tunnels

made by prairie dogs. Burrowing ow'ls a

r

e

active during the day as well as

at night. They often stand outside Barn owl chicks

Raising

afamily

Unlike most birds, owls start

incubating their eggs as soon as the

their tunnels like sentries, watching for signs of danger.

rst one is laid. This

more-

Hunting: 52 Senses: 42

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out

Birds of frf.y: 218

all fail to sunlve.

s

nest in hollow trees or in ruined

Bums: 208

the same size, they might

s

type of hole they use varies from one species to another. Some owls

_Find

survival. If the chicks were all

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NESTS

Most owls nest In holes, but the

southwest. It nests in saguaro -cacti, using holes made by gila woodpeckers {Melanerpes uroj/ygialis).

ones stand agood chance of

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R E A D Y- M A D E

in the deserts of the American

chick often dies, but the older

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Elf owl nesting in asaguaro cactus

buildings, but smaller species often use holes that have been made by woodpeckers. The tiny elf owl (Mkralhene xuilneyi), the smallest species of ow'l in the world, lives

Burrowing owl (Speolyto cii nicutaiia)

means that their eggs hatch in sequence, producing chicks a few days apart. The oldest chick is always the biggest and the youngest the smallest. If food is scarce, the youngest

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O W L S

Swifts and swallows Swifts,swallows,andnightjarsare acrobatic

Anatomy

iers that can twist and turn in

Swifts and swallows have small bodies with

long, slender wings. Their streamlined

the air with amazing speed and agility. Although they are not closely related, these

shape helps them to turn quickly and brake easily when chasing fast- ying insects. Swifts can beat each wing at adifferent rate, which helps them to

birds look similar and obtain food in the

same way. They prey on ying insects, which they catch with great skill in midair. Many swifts and swallows are migrants that travel huge distances between their breeding sites and wintering quarters. Some are well adapted to living near people and build their

maneuver at high speed. Swallows also Alpine swift {Apus melba]

nests on walls, chimneys, or under roofs. Swifts

have forked tails and some have long tail streamers that make them more

agile. Male barn swallows have extra long tail streamers to attract females. Narrow wings

are the most aerial of all birds -some even roost

while

European nigh^ar (Ca/rrimulgus europaeus)

ying.

Sensitive

bristies help to trap insect prey.

Long, pointed wings for fast and powerful ight

Swallow chasing insect in midair

G.APING

MOUTHS

Aerial insect-eaters have very small,

fragile bills that open wide to reveal huge, Barn swallow

gaping mouths. The wide gape allows them to trap as many insects as possible while in ight. Some species, such as the European nightjar, have afringe of touch-sensitive

{Hirundo mstica) Aforked tail helps Swift uses its

the swallow

claws to cling to sheer edges.

change position.

bristles around the bill. The bristles trap insects and funnel them into the mouth.

Ta i l s t r e a m e r

HELPLESS ON THE GROUND

'Swifts spend most of their time in the air. They are

■'? unable to walk, and if they accidentally touch the

5^ ground they nd it almost impossible to y off again. This is because their tiny legs and feet are too weak

^to support them when they try to take off from the Common swift

ground. However, their four sharp claw's are well adapted for clinging onto tree hollows, walls, and

{Apus apus)

other vertical surfaces.

30 98

m ft

Feeding in midair

Common swifts catch

Swifts and swallows feed on

25 m

different insects, and usually hunt

82

at varying heights. This helps them to avoid competing for the same weather, many insects stay close to the ground or over water, and house martins {Delichon urbica)

small insects, such as aphids and moths.

ft

20

m

66

ft

food. However, in cold, wet

House

martins

'

feed mainly on small les and aphids.

49

ft

ON Bank swallows

and bank swallows {Riparia riparia)

1 0 m

trawl for Insects

need to y lower than usual to

33

ft

such as may ies.

5

m

{Hirundo mstica) eat ies during the summer in North America,

but feed mainly on other insects during winter in South America.

16ft

Barn swallows

eat larger insects such as bluebottles.

‘■'Ground level

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Abam swallow swoops down to drink from agarden pond.

1 5 m

catch them. Barn swallows

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ANIMALS

THE

WING

Various species of swift and swallow, notably the common swift {Apus apus), spend most of their lives in the air. Once young swifts have left the nest, some may y for up to tw'o years before landing to breed and build their own nesLs. They mate, collect nest material, and even sleep in the air. Swallows obtain nearly all their food while ying and often take adrink on the wing. However, in bad weather they may land to catch insects on the ground.

SWIFTS

AND

SWALLOWS

STANDARD-WINGED NIGHTJAR he standard-winged nightjar roosts and nests on the ground b)- day and Hies in search of insect prey at night. Males

T

have greatly elongated wing feathers, ^ which grow up to 20 in (50 cm) in length. Tliey use their spectacular feathers during courtship displays, which take place at dusk. When the breeding

season is over, the lon feathers fall out

Nest

/ /

/

/

sites

The common swift and the

house martin often nd nesting sites in cities, towns, and villages.

They collect mud pellets to make shallow, cup-shaped nests, tvhich they stick to walls or under the eaves of houses. Bank swallows make their nests by digging

House martin

o u t b u r r o w s i n t h e s o f t e a r t h o f r i v e r b a n k s o r c l i ff s . G r e a t

(Delichon urbica) feeding young in nest

dusky swifts have the most spectacular nesting sites -they nest in rocky crevices behind waterfalls, and have to y through the cascading water every time they visit the nest.

Scienti c name: Mncrodipknyx longipennis Size: 11 in (28 cm)

Habitat: Open woodland, .savanna, coastal plains, sandv or stonv wasteland

Distribution: Africa, from Senegal to western Ethiopia EDIBLE

Reproduction: l.ays one or two eggs on bare ground

NESTS

Diet: Small ying insects, such as beetles and moths

The ediblc-nesl swiftlets of Southeast Asia build their

nests in large colonies on

Migration routes of barn swallows

the roofs and w'alls of

caves. They use their sticky saliva to make cup-shaped nesLs.

a?

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A

r

As the saliva dries, the nesLs stick to

I

some countries, such as Borneo,

\

people collect

/ : / ■

these nests to make

^Summer breeding grounds

an oriental

Winter feeding grounds

delicacy called “bird’s nest soup.”

g

Migrants

Edible-nest swiftlet

{Ae.rodramus furiphaga)

Many swifts and swallows are long-distance migrants. They breed in temperate parts of the Northern Hemisphere during summer, and in winter y south to tropical

PA 1 . M S W I F T S

Some .species of swifts build their nests on palm leaves. African palm stvifts use sticky saliva to stick their nests to the tindersides of leaves.

countries where food is more abundant.

They also glue their eggs to the nest to stop them from falling out. Other species, such as the pygmy swift (Tachornisfurcata) hang

bag-shaped nests from palm trees, glueing the tip of the “bag handle” to the palm. Apalm swift (Cypsiurus parvus) on its nest under acoco paim leaf

Brown colors

S

(

the trails. In

Before each migration, swallows form ocks that will travel thousands of miles together. When returning to their breeding grounds, their amazing navigational skills enable them to locate their old nesting sites.

camou age the nightjarSUPERB

CAMOUKIAGE

Nightjars have soft, loose plumage and intricate patterns in mottled brown, buff, gray, cream, and black. These markings provide superb camou age because they mimic the bird’s surroundings of dead leaves, bracken, and heather. By day,

nightjars remain very still on the ground, while at night they lly around catching insects.

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227

Find out mor Birds: 208 Defense 2: 50 Migration and navigation: 46 Movement in air: 36

i

I!'

I

ANIMALS

House sparrows (Passer domesticus) grow up to 5.5 in (14 cm) long.

Songbirds Xherearemorethan4,000speciesofsongbirds

-

a

n

a

m

'^srrion crows (Corvus

^corone) grow up ^to

18

in (46 cm) long.

e

also given to most of the passerines, or perching birds. Songbirds have well-developed voiceboxes, called syrinxes, which enable most of them to produce beautiful sounds although some, such as the crow, utter harsh notes. In most species, the male is the main singer. He sings to attract G R E AT

females during the courtship season and to warn intruders to stay out of his territory. Many songbirds have small bills

adapted to feed on avariety of foods, including insects and seeds. Some, such as the shrike, feed on small animals. Chaf

RANGE

OF

SIZE

Most songbirds are small and compact with small bills. They range in size from the tiny short-tailed pygmy-tyrant (Myiomis e.caudatus), which weighs le.ss than 0.2 oz (5 g) and is less

than in (7 cm) long, to the common raven (Conms corax), tvhich grows tip to .57 in (65 cm) and weighs up to Ib 5oz (1.5 kg).

nch

This edging will learn to produce a loud, musical song.

(FringiUa rodehs)

Perching feet Songbirds are also known as perching birds. This is because they are able to grip slender perches such as Uvigs, reeds, or grass stems with their feet. Songbirds have feet with three toes pointing forward, and one pointing

Small head with

powerful bill

backward. Their feet maintain

a rm grip even when they are asleep. When they prepare to sleep,

t-x

they lower their body by bending Goiildian

Learning to sing Each kind of songbird has its own

their legs. As they do this, their leg

nch

(tendons tense and their claws

{Chloebia goiddiae) ' i t ' *

distinctive song. Young chicks learn to sing by listening to adults of the same species. Some learn the basics of their song within the rst two

tii

ii

mm

ex,

Itriggering alocking mechanism,

jTheir four toes automatically grip fast and lock around the perch.

Toes clamp around perch when bird rests its weight

months of their lives. Others, such

as the chaf nch, can take as long as

on foot.

ayear. The northern mockingbird (Mimm polyglottos) is unusual in that it is able to add new

elements to its song repertoire throughout its life.

'7li

Tendons pull /Three toes point tight, drawing forward, hind toe In the toes points backward.

Hind toe is longer than front toes.

REMARK.ABLE

S-S'

SYRINX

Songbirds produce varied songs using their syrinxes. This unique structure is positioned at the junction of the windi^ipe

Syrinx

(trachea) and the two bronchi

(tubes leading to the lungs). The syrinx has athin membrane that vibrates to produce complex sounds. The membrane is

triggered by air moving through the syrinx. Special muscles control the syrinx action, enabling the birds to produce avariety

.The windpipe helps amplify sounds

made by the syrinx.

Lungs

of different sounds.

Marsh warbler in song

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.MIMIC

European marsh warblers (Acrocephalus palustris) are the most accomplished bird mimics in tlie wild. They are capable of reproducing the sounds of as many as 99 other European species, and 11 ?> .M'rican species. They hear the .songs of other birds along their migration routes, and also in their winter feeding grounds. Marsh warblers copy arich medley of uty phrases, ringing notes and nasal sounds from other birds. By combining these sotmds, they can produce an amazing range of imitated songs and calls.

White-throated dipper (Cinclus cinclus) enters the water and moves forward and downward by moving its wings.

.3^i t #

M O U N TA I N B L U E B I R D

T

Dives last an

average of

One of the fe

'

mountain

bluebird is ^ of

the

ihrusli family. The female is duller than her beatitiful blue

■

mate, and lias only

songbirds that is able to dive underwater is the dipper. It lives along shallow, fast-running rivers and catches

atrace of color

on her gray-brown plumage. The male has aquiet warbling song. Bluebirds prefer

most of its prey underwater. To propel itself foivvard and downward in the water, it makes

small

he

amember

3seconds.

W.Al.KIN s J I UNDERWATE ^

icking movements with its wings.

It also walks along the ri\ er bed, gripping rmly onto stones with its large claws.

.. /'

open areas, such as mountain meadows that are

Shrike’s iarder

dotted with trees.

In winter, the)' migrate

Shrikes have strong legs and feet

as far south as Mexico.

and sharp claws for holding prey. Some members of the shrike family have the nickname “butcher birds.”

Scienti c name: Sialia currucoidcs

This is because they impale and store small prey on thorns and

Size; Up to 7in (18 cm) lon Habitat: Woody and grassy moiiiuaiii

barbed wire. Some even squeeze

their victim between twigs. This

Distribution: Mexico, and along western US u|) U) southern Alaska

“larder” provides astore of food

Reproduction: Nest iisuallv built in tree hole; female

for the birds, especially during cold weather when prey is hard to nd.

Diet: Insects, and fruit during winter

lavs ve or six eggs, which hatch after about 14 days

Northern shrike (Lanius excubitor) with prey

Intricate nests During the breeding season, songbirds spend much of their time makin i

Nests are made

European starling

of reed

{Stur?

owers,

grasses, and feathers. V

elaborate nests. Many, such as the warblers, :i

'X

build neat cup-shaped nests. Others, such ; as penduline tits, weave intricate hanging « nests using grasses and mosses. To keep i

predators away, they conceal the way into j

the nest by building afalse entrance Other ingenious nest-builders includ

|

4%

harp bill helps starling probe for different types of food.

1.

Ti t e n t e r s

|

through aslit just

tailor birds (Orthoiomiis sp.). They sew

THE

S'A.'

above the

together leaves using strips of plant bers

false

in their bills. This forms asnug cavity in

SUCCESSFUL

S TA R L I N G

i I

entrance. ^

Common starlings are well adapted to life in towns and cities, tts well as rural

which to build their nests.

areas. Althottgh they originally came from Asia, they were Reed warblers

introduced to countries

(Acrocephalus scirpaceus) build

such as the USA in the 19th

cetilury. Today, starlings live in many parts of the world. They comjrete with native species for nest-holes and for food. Starlings have a

nests between dried stems in reed beds. .

HELPLESS

YOUNG

When songbirds htitch, they are naked, blind, anci helpless. They are cared for and fed by their parents until they are old enough to fend

r

varied diet, which includes seeds, worms, and insects.

%

f'l t-H:

m

.V

for themselves. The

young excrete their feces in neat gelatinous .sacs, which their paretus can easily pick up and drop well helps keep their nests clean and deters preckitors.

Marsh warbler removing

Find out mor

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fecal sac from nest

Although this looks like the main entrance, it only leads to asmall, empty chamber.

Animai. iiOMihs: 58

away from the nest. This

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SONGBIRDS

This hanging nest belongs to the penduline tit (Remiz pendulinus).

,.MATING,AND I’ARENTAI. GARK: 30 Dei'ense 2: 50

Tropical birds

Small head has along, erect, bristly crest.

Tropical rainforests are home to arich variety of birds. The warm, wet climate of these regions is ideal for the growth of thick, lush vegetation that provides plenty of leaves, fruits, and insects for birds to feed on, and bushes and trees to nest in. Birds are found at

all levels of the tropical rainforest. Toucans live high in the forest canopy where there is more light, warmth, and fruit. Birds such as the trumpeter hornbill tend to stay within the middle layers of the forest. Here, they remain hidden from predatory birds that swoop through the trees in search of food. On the forest oor, larger birds, such as cassowaries, push their way through the dense undergrowth to

nd seeds,

Huge, lightweight bill has serrated edges to cut through large fruit.

berries, and fruits.

Hoatzin {Opisthoroviu^ honzirt) THE

1OUCANS bills, toucans are found only in the tropical forests of Central and South America.

They use their bills to reach fruit on the tips of branches

or to pluck young birds from deep / within anest cavity. The brightly colored bill probably helps the toucan to recognize others of its own kind. Rhinoceros hornbill

Bony casque helps signal the bird's status.

toucan

huge bills. These bills

\-X,

mean the birds can reach

'.zS

gP food on the ends of slender branches that would not

®support their A pweight. Despite

Wi.

strengthened by bony struts

*their size, the bills

heet have two toes pointing forward and two backward giving a rm grip on tree trunks and branches. N E C TA R

arc hollow and

extremely light.

SPECIALISTS

Honeyguide ieads the honey badger to abees’ nest.

/

Various groups of tropical birds have specialized bills for feeding on nectar. They include the sunbirds of southern .Asia and Africa, the honeyeaters of Australasia,

Honey badger (Mellivora capensis)

and \arious parrots. Mtiny nectar-feeders have bills that can reach inside owers. Hummingbirds have along, thin bill and an equally long, thin tongue to push inside tubular-shaped llow'ers and lap up the nectar. . The hummingbird

hovers as it feeds

'

BILLS

Mans’ tropical birds, including toucans and the hornbills

Hollow bill.

(Ramphusio.'i tucanus)

BIG

5^ of Africa and Asia, have

\

{Buceros rhinoceros) Ked-billed

H O AT Z I N

Hoatzins live in groups along quiet I'iverbanks in Amazonia. They feed mainly on mangrove leaves and have ahuge crop (storage organ) that grinds up the tough leaves. Young hoatzins are good swimmers and drop into the w'aler below their nest when danger threatens. They then climb back, using special claw'S on the front of their wings to haul themselves up the tree.

Famous for their massive

Honeyguide waits while the honey badger breaks into the

bees’

nest

W O R K I N G

S

T O G E T H E R

Honeyguides have developed mutually bene cial relationships with vai'ious mammals, including honey badgers and humans. To a t t r a c t t h e a t t e n t i o n

Long bill can probe deep into tubular

of ahoney badger, the bird chatters noisily and icks its tail. It then leads the honey badger to abees’ nest and waits silently while its “helper” breaks open j, the nest to get at the honey. When the nest is open, the bird swoops down to feed on the larvae and w'ax. Honeyguides are among the few birds able to digest wax.

:

owers

t o o b t a i n n e c t a r.

Sparkling violet-car {Colibri coruscaus)

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ANIMALS

BIRDS

Courtship displays

RESPLENDENT QUETZAL

Many tropical birds, including some manakins from Mexico and South America, perform spectacular courtship displays. Pairs or trios of males are watched by females as they hop along abranch, then take turns leaping

Female

espite its brilliant colors, the resplendent quetzal is well camoullagecl in the leafy shade of the upper canopy. The male’s tail

D

up and uttering their feathers. The subordinate males eventually y away, leaving the

Male leaps

dominant male to mate with the females.

and

coverts can grow up to

utters

.'I ft 3in (1 m) long; he utters his long tail during courtship displays. This specLacular bird is is now rare due Lo

feathers.

Male birds-of-paradise perform either alone or in groups. They fan out their feathers and \dbrate their

the destruction of its cloud forest habitat.

bodies, while making loud calls.

Although legally protected, some qtietzals are still captured for the caged-bird trade.

Femalt in the

Scienti c name: Pharomackrus m.odnno

b o w e r.

Blue-backed manakms (Chtroxtplua pareola)

Size: Up to 1ft 3in (38 cm) long, excluding tail

BOWTERBIRDS

Habitat: Humid cloud forest, mainly at an altitude

Male bowerbirds are the supreme architects of the bird world. They build structures called bowers from sticks and vegetation to entice females to mate with them. Some species such as the satin bowerbird, paint the walls of their bowers with apaste of chewed fruit or charcoal. They apply the “paint” with a“brush

of about 4,000-10,000 ft (1,200-3,000 m) Distribution: Southern Mexico to Panama

Reproduction: Female lays two pale blue eggs in atree hole. Both parents share incubation. Diet: Mainly fruit, but young also eat insects and other invertebrates and small vertebrates

consisting of awad of plant libers held in the bill. They even decorate the bower with brightly colored owers, feathers, and stones. T U R A C O S

Turacos are distant relatives of cuckoos

that live in the forests and open woodlands of Africa, where they feed mainly on fruit. The feathers of the red-crested turaco

contain pigments called turacin and turacoverdin. These

collects

copper-containing pigments (give the feathers their red

blue objects. / Satin bowerbird (Ptilonorhynchus violacms)

!? and green colors. It takes about ayear for the young to acquire the full adult plumage.

Akiapolaau

{Hemignathus

Helmeted hombill (Buceros vigil)

Threatened tropicai. birds Many tropical birds, such as the helmeted hornbill from Indonesia and Malaysia, are threatened by the destruction of their forest

munroi)

home. The parrot family is the most threatened group, with more than 70 species at risk. Island birds face the additional threat of introduced SDCcies —the

liwi {Vesliaria coccinea)

; e

rs,

nd

.A

Hawaiian FINCHES The

Hawaiian

nches

are thought to have evolved from

asingle ancestor. Each of the 28 species has adifferently shaped Akohekohe (Palmeria dolei) bill, adapted for eating different types of food. The bill of the akiopolaau is unique, with astraight, stout lower mandible used to hammer into soft bark, and along, curv^ed upper mandible that extracts the exposed insect larv'ae. liwis feed on nectar and have bills matching

have green body plumage and red on the wings and crest.

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out

more

Animals in danger: 100 Birds: 208 Flightless birds; 210 Tr o p i c a l r. \ i n f o r e . s t s : 8 2

231 fl

ash

the bird takes off.

(Tauraco erylhwlophus)

b i l l s t h a t e n a b l e t h e m t o f e e d o n i n s e c t s a n d n e c t a r.

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teathers

Red-crested turaco

the shape of certain owers, while akohekohes have

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TROPICAL

ANIMALS

Mammals Bats, kangaroos, W'HALES -and even humans -fall into the class of animals known as mammals. What sets this

diverse group apart from other animals is that the female of each species suckles her young on milk produced in mammary glands. Mammals are also endothermic (warm-blooded) and most have acovering of hair. The 4,000 or more species of mammal -which are found on land, in the air, and in water -are divided into three European common shrew (Sorex araneus)

groups according to the way they reproduce. Placental mammals, such as gorillas, give birth to well-developed young. Marsupials, found in Australasia and the Americas, produce young that complete their development in a pouch. Monotremes, found only in Australasia, lay eggs.

MAM.MAL

EVOLUTION

Mammals evolved I'rom mammal-like reptiles, called therapsids, about 220 million years ago. The rst mammals were small, shrewlike insect eaters. They siuv'ived in aworld dominated by dinosaurs because they were endothermic (warm-blooded) and able to remain

active and feed at night when the temperature fell. Mammals became more diverse and widespread O.'i million years ago when the dinosaurs died out. The hare's large external .ears pick up the sounds of approaching predators.

European brown hare

{Lrpus europaeus)

The thick fur of the Arctic fox (Alopex lagopus) insulates it in freezing conditions.

Keeping warm Short, waterrepellent

Because of their warm blood, mammals

are generally able to maintain aconstant body temperature regardless of how cold it is. Most species are also kept w a r m by acovering of fur. Thousands of hairs, made of atough protein called keratin, grow from pits (follicles) in the skin to

fur covers the seal’s streamlined

the ear inside the skull. External ears can

The thick fur of the beaver

cold air and water, while longer guard hairs form an outer covering. Animals in cold climates generally have thicker

EARS

Most mammals have external ears, or

pinnae, that direct sound into the part of

body.

form alayer of fur. Short underfur traps alayer of air next to the skin to keep out

EXTERNAL

has long guard hairs.

usually be moved in order to pinpoint the preci.se location of asound. This enables mammals, many of which have agood sense of hearing, to detect noises made by an approaching predator or ])otential prey, or to listen for calls made by another member of the same species.

fur than those in warm climates. Dog teeth from upper jaw Lanine

Incisors for

teeth

for gripping and killing prey

gnawing bones and

grooming

V

coat

Molar

Carnassial Premolar

premolar .MAMMAL

Incisor Canine

TEETH

Unlike other animals, mammals have teeth that Molars

for

chewing food and crushing thick bone Carnassial teeth /

(modi ed cheek teeth) for slicing through esh

Skull of wolf(Cani,s lupu.T)

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232

vaiy according to their use. The chisel-like incisors are used for cutting, the canines for gripping and tearing, and the premolars and molars for grinding and crushing. The shape and size of these teedi varies according to the animal’s diet. In meat-eating mammals, such as dogs, pointed canines are used for killing prey, while carnassial teeth are used to slice through llesh.

'is

MAMMALS

uterus

Reproduction

Ilow

MARSULL\1.S

MONOTREMES

In all mammals fertilization takes place inside the female’s body. The fertilized egg divides many times and eventually becomes afetus. In placental mammals the fetus develops inside the uterus nourished by the placenta, an organ

Unlike ihe majority of mammals, marsupials, which include koalas, kangaroos, and opossums, do not have aplacenta. They give birth to tiny, poorly developed young that nd their way to apouch

/y

V,

in the mother ’s skin, then

attached to the wall of the uterus

Gorilla

and connected to the fetus

(Gorilla srorilla)

III

by an umbilical cord. The blood supplies of

^develops inside the ●);7 uterus for about I' 260 days until it is

come into close contact j inside the placent i allowing food and oxygen to be passed

attach to ateat to complete their development. The three species of monotremes -the two species of echidnas and the duck-billed

’Mi The baby gorilla

the mother and baby

jrlatypus -lay eggs. Alter the eggs hatch, the young feed on their mother’s milk.

ready to be born. Placenta

to the fetus and tvaste to

be removed. The fetus grows inside the uterus until it is ready to be born.

AND

REPRODUCE

Coppery brush-tailed possum (Trichosurus vulpecula) with offspring in her pouch

BR.-\INYANIMM.S

Gorilla fetus is

Mammals have larger brains, relathe to their body size, than

linked to the

other vertebrates. In addition, a

placenta by an

larger part of the brain is taken up b\' the cerebrum, tire “thinking” part of the brain. This is veiy noticeable in primates, agroup that includes monkeys, apes, and humans. With larger brains, mammals have more complex

umbilical cord.

S U C K L I N G

Female mammals produce anutritious

uid called

milk to feed their young during the earlv part of

behat ior than other animals.

They can also learn and adapt their behavior to suit changing

their lives. Milk is made

by mammaiy glands in the skin and when the young mammal sucks, milk is

released through projections called teats. Stickling is an Important part of parental care. Milk is rich in proteins and fats. which speed growth, and contains antibo ies that protect the young mammal against disease.

Young monkeys suck t h e i r m o t h e r ’s t e a t s to release the milk.

circunrstances.

Japanese macaque monkeys {Macaca fuscata) washing food to remove dirt

SMALLEST

MAMMAL

Kitti’s hog-nosed bat is the world’s smallest mammal. Found in limestone

caves in southwest Thailand, this tiny bat is 1..S in (3.S mm) long, and weighs just 0.07 oz (2 g). Small mammals lose body heal veiy rapidly and some, such as shrews. cal almost constantly to generate heat. When resting, Kitti’s hog-no.sed bats go into astale of torpor -during w'hich body temperature falls -in order to save energ)'.

L o w e ’s m o n k e y

{Cercopithecus lowei)

Kitti’s hog-nosed bat

(Craseonycteris thonglongyai)

Largest mammal With an average length of 86 ft (26 m) and a weight of about 120 tons, the blue whale is the largest animal that has ever existed on Earth. On land, the size of all mammals is

_,limited by how much weight their limbs can

"^he sea, however, their weight is supported by water, which allows many species of whales to grow to alarge size. Also, larger mammals lose body heat more slowly -an advantage in cold marine environments.

Marine

mammals

streamlined

have

bodies that help them move easily in water. -Find

out

more

Mi\RSUPlAl.s; 236 Monotremes: 234 Pri.vl\tes: 280 Whales: 262 Blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus) breathing at the water’s surface

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23.S

ANIMAl.S

Body is covered

Monotremes

with soft fur

Smail eyes

Mostmammalsreproducebygivingbirthtoliveyoung. Monotremes are unique in being the only mammals that lay eggs. There are three species of monotreme: the duck-billed platypus, and the short- and longnosed echidnas. Their soft-shelled eggs hatch after only ten days, and the naked, underdeveloped young are dependent on their mothers for feeding and protection. Although monotremes are regarded as “primitive” animals because they lay eggs

- V

m I

Large biil is very sensitive feet for swimming

to touch.

they have all the other features of mammals Duck-billed piatypus

-warm blood, fur, and young that suckle.

This semiaquatic mammal lives in burrows by ponds and streams in S W I M M I N G

e a s t e r n A u s t r a l i a a n d Ta s m a n i a .

The platypus is well adapted for SH’imming and diving. It

It is territorial by nature and each platypus tries to secure

h a s a s t r e a m l i n e d b o d y, w i t h

by “rowing” with its broad

platypus is 18-24 in (45-60 cm) long, including its bill and tail.

front feel -pulling rst on

The ducklike bill, which is

one side, then on the other to

soft and pliable, is used to probe for prey on river

webbed front feet. It swims

propel itself through the water. Its partialh' tvebbed back feet are used

beds. It is sensitive to weak electrical elds

Duck-billed platypus {Ornithorh'iurhiis anaihim)

generated by prey. Oval-shaped nesting chamber

from the ankle of each hind foot..

astretch of river for itself The

dense, waterproof fur and

as rudders to steer through the water.

Hoiiow spurs project

Grass and eucalyptus leaves line the nesting c h a m b e r

4'a.

VENOMOUS

SPUR

The male platyjrus is one of the few venomous mammals.

It has aspur, connected to avenom gland, on the ankle of each hind foot. The

After leaving the water, the platypus ,grooms itself

platypus erects the spur to inject venom into its victim. The spur is prolrably used both to deter rivals and as

adefense against predators. The platypus uses its rear claws as a c o m b .

Burrows The platypus uses its powerful front legs to dig burrows in the banks of

Young suckle milk that seeps from milk-secreting glands in their mother’s fur.

rivers or ponds. Both sexes excavate tunnels for shelter, but only the female builds the breeding burrow with anesting chamber at the far end. Platypuses breed from August to October, and the female usually lays tw'o eggs, 14 days after mating. To keep the eggs moist, the female carries wet leaves into the chamber with her tail.

She then incubates the eggs for ten days. When they hatch, the blind and naked young are 1in (2.5 cm) long. Four months later, they are 13 in (33 cm) long, covered with fur, and ready to venture outside.

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234

The tunnel of a

breeding burrow generally follows the slope of the bank. It can be

up to too ft (30 m) long.

The female

platypus builds two or three plugs of earth to prevent water and

predators from entering the tunnel.

The entrance

usually lies above -., the waterline.

MONOTREMES

Spiny anteaters Both species of echidna have muscular bodies covered with fur and spines. The head narrows to aslim snout. They have no teeth, but the back part of the narrow tongue is horny and rubs against the inside of the mouth to grind up food. Echidnas have poor eyesight but an

Broad, beaverlike

LONG-NOSED

T

hooked by spines on the tongue and pulled

active mainly at dusk and at night. It moves with ease

into the

across most terrain and can swim

using its snout as asnorkel.

Sharp, hollow spines

nosed relative, and has more hair, but fewer,

Once found, the worm is

Australia, Tasmania, and New Guinea. It is solitary and

fat reserves

he long-nosed echidna is larger than its shorl-

shorter spines. It feeds almost exclusively on earthworms, which it nds by snif ng the ground.

acute sense of smell. The short-nosed echidna lives in

rail for storing

ECHIDNA

...iiiyi

"u'J

-".i

mouth.

Snout is

cover the back and

two-thirds

The egg has

sides, growing out through t h e d e n s e \V coat of fur. ',

the length i

asoft shell.

of the f

-V'.

as

head., -'

i

Large

i

feet The female

echidna lays a 7,g/e egg into her pouch. After 7-10

days, the baby hatches.

Small

Scienti c name: '/.aglossus bruijn Size: Mead and body length 18-.S5 in (45-90 cm) Habitat: Humid mountain forests Distribution: New Guinea

Reproduction: Breeds in July. Single egg transferred to temporary abdominal pouch. Mter hatching, the young echidna remains in the pouch for 6-8 weeks. Diet: Earthworms

Nostrils and mouth are at the end of hairless snout.

Echidnas use

their strong legs and claws to dig Into soft earth with

Very long claw for scratching

claws tor digging

between its

Short-nosed echidna

spines

(Tachyglo.wu.i aculeatus] ANT

amazing speed. A

The echidna sits on top of amound of earth.

DIEl

The short-nosed echidna feeds almost

exclusively on ants and termites, which it locates bv smell. Once it

nds anest.

Within aminute, the echidna is almost out

the echidna breaks it open with its broad front feet and

at claws. It

of sight, leaving only

uses its snout to probe into rotten

logs and to plow through soil to

its erect

uncover nesLs. Ants and termites are

spine

.swept up by the echidna’s tongvie, which can be up to 7in (18 cm)

'

above the

-

soil's surface.

long and coated with sticky saliva. The echidna forages for termites with its pink, sticky tongue.

Only the echidna's spines remain visible.

U N D E R W AT E R

The platypus sweeps its bill from side to side

H U N T E R S

The platypus hunts cray sh. insect larvae, and snails, which

At dawn and dusk, the

live near the riverbed.

platypus leaves its burrow to hunt for food. It dives to the bottom of the

stream or pond and can stay undenvater for up to ve minutes. Its eyes and ears close undenvater,

sealed by afold of skin. The platypus locates its prey by

probing the mud with its bill. It snatclies up prey and stores it in cheek pouches. When these are full, the

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235

ECHIDNA

DEFENSE

If threatened, an echidna erects its

spines and rolls up into aspiky ball. On soft ground it may dig straight down into the soil. Elowever, this

does not protect it from dingoes, which can dig out the buried echidna. An echidna may also avoid predators b\' using its spines and feet to wedge itself into a crevice so it cannot be dislodged. Find out mor Animal iiome.s: 58 Mammal.s: 232

platypus surfaces and grinds

Movement in water: 38

the food up between horny plates in its bill.

R i t P R O D U C Ti O N : 2 8

Austraiasian and

Marsupials

AMERICAN MARSUPIALS

Australian marsupials, such as the spotted

XhiSdiversegroupofpouchedanimals

cuscus, evolved in isolation from the rest

of the world. This diverse group is made

contains more than 270 species, most of which

up of 16 families and includes wombats,

live in Australasia and South America. They range in size from the tiny Pilbara ningauis -which may

Spotted c u s c u s

[Spilocuscus maculatus)

weigh as little as 0.07 oz (2 g) -to large kangaroos weighing 198 lb (90 kg). Marsupials reproduce in adifferent way from other mammals. Young are born in an immature state and complete their development in the mother’s pouch.

kangaroos, bandicoots, opossums, and the koala. American marsupials are less diverse and include three families: shrew

opo.ssums, opossums, and the monito del monte

(colocolo). Most Ecuadoria

are small, groundor tree-d^velling omnivores, and many are good climbers.

'

opossum

(Caluromys lanatus)

Reproduction

READY

Most mammals develop

Ayoung wallab)’ or kangaroo may spend up lo II months developing in its mother’s pouch.

in their mother’s uterus, receiving nourishment via

TO

L E . AV E

After amonth or so, its hind limbs and tail

have grown and it is still attaclied to the nipple. Several months later, the joey (young kangaroo

the placenta. Marsupial

)r wallaby) looks like asmall adult and mav

embi^os remain in the uterus for only abrief

push its head out of the poucli or leave the poticlr temijortirily. Eventually.

period. For example, when akangaroo is born, it is underdeveloped

^it lea\-es the pouch permanenth but continues to put its head in to suckle,

apart from its mouth and

until it is weaned.

forelimbs. It crawls up its mother ’s abdomen and

Red-necked

climbs into apouch, where

|

it stays for several months

Virginia opossum (Didelphis virginiana) with brood 1.,-VRGE BROOD

{Macropus

Kangaroos and wtillabies usuall}' give birth to one baby at atime. Other marsupials, especially the smaller species, such as opossums, pygniy possums, anti dasyurids,

P

have larger broods. The cat-sized Virginia opossum is North America’s only marsupial. Female Virginia opossums often have litters of over 20 young. Most t)ffs|tring do not

m

m

:

wallaby

ru fogriseus)

to continue its development.

m c;.

sunive because their mothers do not have

enough nipples to feed the entire litter.

The joey/ sticks its

m

head out of its mother ’s

1. The blind newborn 2. Inside the pouch,

pouch.

wallaby crawls up its the newborn attaches

&

mother’s stomach fur itself to anipple and

■■ V

to reach her pouch s t a r t s t o f e e d .

●■●●icd'l

MARSUPIAL MOVEMENT

Most kangaroos and wallabies cannot walk. Instead, they use their powerful hind legs and long feet like springs to hop. Some tree-dwelling marsupials

glide betw'een branches by extending amembrane that stretches between

Wallaby looks directly forward as it leaps.

It leans forward as It takes off

from the ground.

their legs. The water opossum (Chironecles minimus) can .stvim using its webbed hind feet, while marsupial moles {Noloiyrles lyphlop.s . have shovellike feet tt) tunnel

through soil.

m

■ X

m

How awallaby

■

makes amove

\

m

Wa l l a b i e s c a n t r a v e l

at great speed and for long distances when leaping.

Wallaby pushes off the ground with Its large back feet.

Raised tall acts as acounterbalance.

^ . - ^ ' 4 '.y

●is

m a s s .

»V.

)

.

n

2 3 6 a

t

ANIMALS

k .

MARSUPIALS

Tree-dwellers

RED

Some marsupials, including many opossums, possums, tree kangaroos, and the koala, are adapted for life in the trees. Many have grasping hands and sharp claws to grip tree bark, and

I

some have aprehensile (gripping) tail

PPP that acts as an extra “foot” while climbing. Tree kangaroos, such as the Doria’s tree kangaroo, live in rainforests where they feed

on leaves and fruit.

in (2 m) tall Habitat: Scrub and

gro und-d we 11 ingre 1ati ve s.

grassland Distribution: Australia

Long,

branches.

usually blue-gra\’ in color. By day, small herds of kangaroos shelter under trees, vA emerging in the et ening to feed. Male red kangaroos can reacli speeds of mph (.56 kmh) over short distances.

Size: Males up to 6ft 6

hind limbs than their

cushioned pads on feet grip

males nsualh' have reddish-brown fur, and

may be hvice the size of the females, which are

Maewpus rufus

They have longer

claws and

T The

Scienti c name:

7.i

I'orelimbs and shorter

cun/ed

KANGAROO

■'he red kangaroo is the largest of all marsupials.

r

K O A I A S

Reproduction: Single young born which

A', I

These tailless marsupials live in the eucalyptus trees of eastern Australia. Their diet of eucalyptus leaves is not particularly nutritious, so they rest for up

climbs into its mother’s ■■T'vik '■■ 1

for eight months Diet: Grass

to 18 hours adav on forked branches to Doria’s tree

consert'c energw Koalas use their strong

kangaroo {Dendrolagiis dorian ns)

legs, sharp cUuvs, and grasping hands to grip tree trunks. They climb by bringing up their hind legs in aseries of jumps.

pouch, where it remains

m Koala

{Phascolarctos cinereus)

Tail may be up to/ 3ft 3in (1 m) long.

Feeding Marsupials have varied feeding habits. Many are herbivorous: the honey possum uses its brush-tipped tongue to extract nectar from owers, while kangaroos

]

graze on grass and other plants. Omnivorous marsupials

feed on fruit, insects, small vertebrates, and carrion. The Australian numbat {Myrmecobius fasdalus) feeds on ants

and termites. It rips up their nests with its sharp claws and extracts the insects with its long, sticky tongue. Common wombat (Vombatus ursinus) with baby BURROWTiRS

Resembling small bears, wombats use

ktheir pow'erful front legs to dig burrows up to 100 ft (30 m) long. By resting in their burrows during the day, they keep cool in summer and

Honey possum

warm in winter. Booclies, small

(Tarsipes rostratus)

IN

relatives of kangaroos, live in burrows in large social groups.

Long whiskers help the Ta s m a n i a n d e v i l d e t e c t

objects and nd its way around at night.

Sharp teeth and powerful jaws to rip apart meat and skin and crush bones.

Short legs for foraging in dense

undergrowth

Ta s m a n i a n d e v i l

(Sarcophilus harrisii) T h e Ta s m a n i a n devil is the size

of asmall dog.

MARSUPIAl.

CARNIVORES

Many carnivorous marsupials belong to the Australasian dasyurid family. The majority of clasyurids Back legs

are small, mouselike animals that eat mainly insects and other invertebrates, but may also catch small lizards and mammals. The Tasmanian devil is alarger

are extended forward,

ready to land.

dasyurid that feeds on reptiles, mammals, and carrion, including dead sheep and wallabies. It eats all parts of the animal, including the skin and bones.

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237

Find out mor Gras.sl/\nds: 84 Ma-MiMALS: 232 Movemb;nt on land: 34 Reproduc.tion: 28

INSECTIVORES

Insectivore anatomy The greater moonrat, from Southeast Asia, is atypical insectivore. It has a attened head and asmall brain,

The THIl® LARGEST order of mammals -the

fairly small ears and eyes, and along, highly mobile snout with sensitive whiskers. The moonrat also has

insectivores -includes some members that

sharp cheek teeth so that it can easily bite through the

retain primitive features. Most are small, nocturnal, solitary, and feed mainly on

tough outer casing of insects. Like most insectivores, this

,animal depends on smell

invertebrates, especially insects. They are found on land and in semiaquatic habitats with the exception of Australasia and parts of South America. The group includes about

and touch, rather than

sight and sound, to nd its prey.

400 species in six families -tenrecs and otter

Short, dense underfur covered by long,

shrews; solenodons; hedgehogs and moonrats;

snout

and

and feet with

ve toes

r;

European hedgehog (Erinaceus mrofjams)

European hedgehog. I'r

Underwater insectivores Otter shrews, desmans, and water shrews

fe

I

are adapted for life in ponds and streams.

i 2. if the predator retreats, the hedgehog begins to unroll.

When they dive, their dense fur traps air,

3. The head emerges ‘‘t

which provides insulation. The water

and the hedgehog sniffs its surroundings.

Prickly defenses Hedgehogs live in Europe, Asia, and Africa, and defend

themselves against predators with their shai-p spines.

shrew’s large feet are fringed with stiff hairs to propel it underwater, while the tail acts

4. It turns over to protect its soft underparts.

During the course of evolution, the soft hairs on the backs of their ancestors modi ed to form stiff.

(Neomys fodiens) diving underwater

5. The hedgehog returns

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also immobilize Mth

Water shrew

hedgehog tucks in its head, feet, and toil, arches its back.

and rolls into atight ball, protecting its soft underparts.

as arudder. Water shrews bite prey, such as frogs and sh, which they possibly poisonous S2

sharp spines, each 0.75-1.25 in (2-3 cm) long. If ahedgehog is threatened, it erects its spines to deter the enemy. As afurther line of defense, the

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{Echinosorrx gymnurus)

Short legs .—

cover this rolled-up ^

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Greater moonrat

sharp teeth

Some insectivores have specialized features, such as the defensive spines of hedgehogs. 1. Thousands of spines ^

coarse hair

Sensitive

shrews; golden moles; and moles and desmans.

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ANIMALS

INSECTIVORKS

S TA R - N O S E D

MOLE

'his North American mole is distinguished from other moles by the eshy tentacles at the end TITWELING

BY

of its snout that act as sensitive feelers. Star-nosed

\Shrews form aline

C A R AVA N

When they are old enough to leave the nest, some species of shrew travel around in ;i type of “caravan,” or line. The rst shrew grasps its mother’s rump with its teeth, and the others copy, each holding

moles spend less lime burrowing than other moles.

by hanging onto each other tightly.

They are good swimmers, and use their spadclike front legs as paddles when they hunt for prey.

onto the shrew in Ironl. The mother then sets off, with her offspring

Te n t a c l e s a c t a s

!sensitive feelers.

following, to explore their surroundings or to move to it new nest site. Cross section through amole burrow

Amole patrols the tunnel, which acts like atrap for its prey

Main nest is lined

with vegetation.

Large molehill is formed where avertical tunnel reaches the.

'■’'T

Scienti c name: Condylum crislula

Size: Head and body length, up to 5in (13 cm); tail length, up to 3.25 in (8.5 cm) Habitat: Riverbanks, lake shores, marshes, and wot

elds

Distribution: Eastern Canada and the USA

Reproduction: Females produce asingle litter of 2-7

if.

()ft'spring each year, between mid-April and mid-June Diet: Insects, earthworms, crustaceans, small

SOTENODON

sh

SNOUT

Solenodons have remarkable long,

exible snouts.

They use them to search crevices in dead wood for food such as insects, earthworms, and small vertebrates.

Once it has trapped an animal, the solenodon uses its

Life

toxic saliva to immobilize its prey. The two species of solenodon, found on the Caribbean islatids of Cuba

underground

and Hispaniola, are among the most endangered of

Since moles spend most of their lives underground, they are specially designed for burrowing. They have long, cylindrical bodies covered with

all mammals. They are hitnted by species introduced

to the islands, in particular cats, dogs, and mongooses. rEuropean mole

short, dense fur, broad, spadelike

{Talpa eiiropaea)

forelimbs, ahighly sensitive, mobile snout with whiskers, and small eyes and ears. Moles dig extensive burrow systems up to 3ft 3in (1 m) deep,

I m m m

■k f

Spadelike forelimbs, with long claws and powerful muscles, are adapted for digging.

with acentral nest, interconnecting tunnels, and

vertical shafts. They devote much of their time to maintaining these burrows. They feed on earthworms, insect larvae, and slugs that fall into the tunnels.

A

'.V.

7-V Haitian solenodon

(Solenodon paradoxus) TREE

SHREWS

Although called shrewts, tree shrews are more closehrelated to primates and belong to aseparate mammal

Common

order. These small, sqtiirrellike mammals live in the tropical forests of Southeast

tree shrew

(Tupaia plis)

(Sunrus etruscu.s)

root

MAMMAE

the pygmy tvhite-toothed shrew is the

southern Europe, Asia, and northern .Africa.

oor, using their to

.FST IAND

shrew's live in forests and scrubland in

They search for food by day and night, feeding

snouts and clawed feet

.1

M'ith ahead and boch length ofjust 2in

smallest ground-lit ing mammal. These

among the branches of trees. ^Most species forage on the

Ifront

' K

I(5 cm), and atail length of 1in (2..5 cm),

Asia and are excellent climbers

forest

SMAl

Pygmy white-toothed shrew

on insects, spiders, and other invertebrates.

out

prey from leaf litter. ^Find

out

more

__

Anteateies rVNI) ARVLU Ll.O.S: 242 Mammai„s: 232 Monotreme.s: 234

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Eurasian long-eared bat

Bats

{Ph’coliis auritus)

Althoughsomemammalscanglide,bats are the only ones that are capable of sustained, apping ight. There are about 925 species of bats, which belong to the order Chiroptera. Bats live in both temperate and tropical parts of the world and are divided into two groups. Microchiropterans make up the majority of species. They are mainly insect-eaters, but also include species that feed on fruit, pollen,

Old world fruit Tent-building bat (Uroderma bilohalum) (Pteropus sp.)

bat

T H E A D S

Bats have avariety of head shapes and

features, some ol'wliieh arc specially adapted to help them hunt prey. Some insect-eating bats have large ears that detect an insect’s tlapping wings; others have elaborate noseleafs that help with echolocation. Pollen-feeding bats, such as the frtiit bats, usually have long snotits and verv long longties.

sh, blood, and small mammals.

Megachiropterans, or fruit bats, include the largest bats that feed on fruit and nectar. Most bats are

nocturnal. Fruit bats use their keen eyesight to navigate and nd food in the dark, while other species use aform of “animal radar called echolocation.

Franquet’s fruit bat

\

Forearm _Clawed thumb

r

bone

{Epomops franqueli)

\The wing’s membrane (patagium) is supported by the nger, arm, ieg, and

^Upper arm

tail bones.

Anatomy ●Si

m. nib r

Bats’ wings are

Large eyes

modi ed forelimbs,

t

covered by an extension of the skin called the

patagium (wing membrane). The rst nger, or thumb, is short

KJ. \

and has aclaw that is used for

grooming, crawling, climbing, and

Lightweight body covered in fur

Clawed foot

Noctule bat

(Nyrtalus iwriida)

sometimes handling food. When ying, bats use their chest and upper arm muscles to pull their wings down, and their back muscles to raise the wings. Other muscles retract and extend the wings.

FRUIT BA TS

Fruit bats, or Hying

foxes, are found in tropical and subtropical parts of Australia, Asia, and Africa. Most eat

fruit, although some species feed on owers, nectar, and pollen. These bats usually have doglike faces with asnout, simple ears, and large e)es that enable them to see in dim light. Unlike other bats that use echolocation

to navigate and lincl food, uit bats rely on their excellent senses of smell and vision.

/

Echolocation

Abat uses its broad wings to de ect up insects toward

I

month. :»

Bats use echolocation to ;-.l

navigate and to hunt in the

'"1 C

Some bats, such as horseshoe bats, focus sounds through an outgrowth called anoselea /

dark. To do this, abat produces ultrasonic sounds in its laiynx (voicebox), which are sent out

in pulses or clicks through its

3. it

returning echoes

●I } X

P O L L I N AT O R S

Ultrasonic pulses "s travel through air. \ \ \

Echoes bounce off

moving prey.

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on banana

ower

owers. These bats,

w'hich live in tropical and subtropical regions, use their long longues to feed on ower nectar and pollen. As they feed, their fur becomes

dusted with pollen. When they visit another onto the (lower’s stigma and pollinates it.

240 fi

Pollinating bat feeding

Some bats pollinale

ower of the same species, the pollen falls

they get nearer to their target.

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,v.

into the internal ear.

to the brain, which creates a

“sound picture” of the bat’s surroundings. When bats detect prey, the number of pulses produced increases as

S:'

Ears channel

pulses bounce off static objects and moving prey, and returning echoes are picked up by the bat’s ears. These echoes are relayed

fh-

lb

month or nose. These ultrasonic

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ANIMALS

— BREEDING

VA M P I R E

Most bats breed once ayear

[and usually give birth to single ^offspring. In many species, Bfemales gather to give birtli

Band bring up their young in anurseiy colon). Mothers 'leave

the

infant

bats

huddled

together in the nursery', while they go in search of food. W’hen thev return, each infant makes Infant bat roosts close

unique sounds that enable its mother to pick it out from the

to its mother.

huddled mass.

B AT

■'he vampire bat feeds exclusively on blood, usually that of domesticated animals such as cattle and horses. At night, the bat leaves its roost to nd sleeping prey. Its razor-sharp incisor teeth painlessly cut and remove asmall circle of hairless skin. Blood otvs freely, aided by the bat’s salha (which prevents blood from clotting), and is lapped up by the bat’s grooved tongue. r

I

i

T -

'P

>

■Lr.

\

Scienti c name: Desmodus rotundvs

Size: Head and body length up to 3.5 in (9 cm); weight up to 1.8 oz (50 g)

A

J.-1

Habitat: Tropical and subtropical forests, temperate woodland and scrub, and deserts

m

§

i

Distribution: Mexico, northern Argentina, central Cliile, Uruguay, islands of .Vlargarita, and Trinidad Reproduction: Breeds throughout the year and produces single young

Roosting

Diet: Fresh blood, mainly from domesticated animals

Most bats feed at night and rest during the day in roosts. Fruit bats roost in trees. Many insect-eating species roost in caves and mines,

rock overhangs, tombs, ruins, and buildings. Inside a roost, bats sleep hanging upside down. They also wash and groom themselves by hanging from one foot and using the other as a“comb.” Bats need to roost in damp places so they do not di7 out. TENT-BUILDING

Cluster of Rousettes

Bat uses echolocation

fruit bats (Rousettus sp.) roosting in cave

to detect ripples in water made by sh.

i r -

Fisherman bat

{NodiHo leporinus)

B AT S

These bats from Central and South .'Vmerica create atentlike roost under the FISHERMAN

leaves of palm and banana trees. They partially bite through the rib and veins of aleaf, so that its edges bend over to provide protection from the sun, rain, and wind, as well as from predators. Several bats may roost under the folded

Long toes

and sharp claws pull

bats catch

sh that swim

just below the surface of

sh out of

lakes and rivers. These

water.

Bats swoop silently to avoid alerting prey.

Tent-building bats roosting

B AT S

Fisherman, or bulldog,

leaf, using the bitten holes as toe holds.

bats have long legs, large feet, and long attened toes, ending in sharp claws. They rake their feet through the water, grab the sh, and lift it quickly to their mouths where

they hold it with their teeth. The bats either

carry the

Flesh eaters While most bats are insect eaters, afew species, such as the false vampire bat, are carnivores that prey on small mammals, birds, lizards, frogs, and even other bats. False vampire bats hunt at night ying close to the ground through trees

sh back to

the roost or eat it while

in

ight.

Great false vampire bat

{Megaderma lyra)

and undergrowth, before swooping silently to catch prey on the ground. They kill their victim with abite on the head

Find out mor

or neck, then carry it back to

Flowt.rs and seeds: 128

the roost to be eaten.

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Mice are tasty prey for esh-eating bats.

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B AT S

Unlike other bats, esh-eating bats use both sight and echolocation to nd prey.

Mammals: 232 Mountains and caves: 88 Movement in air: 36

Armadillos and anteaters Armadillos, anteaters, and sloths make up the order of

Bony plate on rear protects armadillo as it digs.

mammals called Xenarthra. All 29 species live only in Central and South America, but the nine-banded armadillo also lives in southern

North America. The animals that make up this order are quite distinct. Armadillos are burrowing animals, anteaters are ground- and tree-dwellers, while sloths spend most of their lives hanging upside down in trees. Two other groups -the pangolins and aardvarks -are unrelated to the xenarthrans, despite having much in common with them. Like

w

Burrow

of

pink fairy armadillo

.'1

c .

anteaters, they use their long, sticky tongues to feed on ants and termites. c,-.>

Armadillos

i

G r a s s l i n e s t h e b u r r o w. Bands of

Armadillos are distinguished by their protective body armor, formed by bands of hinged bony plates capped with horn. The head is protected by ashield consisting of several plates; only the belly remains unprotected. The 20 species of armadillos in arange of habitats including forests,

bony plates protect the body.

Pink fairy armadillos

(Chlamyphorus truncatus)

i S t

— N

deserts, and savannas.

Most species rest in burrows during the day, emerging at night to feed on

IWID

BORROWERS

Armadillos dig into the ground to nd food,

small vertebrates, invertebrates.

make burrows, and

escape predators. They

plants, and

loosen the earth with

c a r r i o n .

their front feel, then kick the soil out backward with their hind feet.

screaming hairy armadillo (Chaetophractus vdlerosus)

Long, bristly tail covers body when

Fairy armadillos spend

asleep.

most of the dav

.,rl>

Anteaters

the anteater is

Large claws for nding food and digging tunnels

underground. As they dig aburrow, they block the entrance with their

armor-plated rear.

Of the four species of anteater, three are mainly forest-dwellers, while the fourth, the giant anteater, lives in grassland and swampy areas. It ,

Forepaw of giant anteater kI.

is unmistakable with its long, ..M

p i

probing snout, small eyes

N||g and ears, and striped coat.

itf

1Long, strong claws of

Anteaters have agood sense

of smell and constantly sniff the Uiant

air to

anteater

Powerful front legs and sharp claws break open

{Myrmecopham fridaciyla)

ant and termite nests.

V

Agiant anteater can/ extend its long, sticky tongue to probe Into an ants' nest.

.

uses its front claws to open the nest and feeds brie y before moving on.

TONGUE

Anteaters consume about ;t0,()00 insects aday. The giant anleater’s tongue is about 2ft (60 cm) long, and is covered with backward¬ pointing spines and sticky saliva. As the anteater icks its tongue into anest, ants and termites become trapped and but crush their prey with horny projections in the

Agiant anteater can ick its tongue in and out

8

mouth, and with their muscular stomachs.

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third ngers. C L A W S

The giant anteater uses the long curt'ed daws on its front feet to dig into ant and termite nests and to defend

itself. When moving, the anteater protects its claws by walking on the knuckles of its front feet with its claws

tucked inward —this gives it alimping gait.

jk are drawn into the mouth. Anteaters do not have teeth,

150 times aminut

fi

second and

an ant or termite nest, an anteater

may return later for more food. STICKY

/

nd food. Once it has found

It does not demolish the nest as it

^

!

ANIMALS

Ants are trapped by the spines and saliva on the anteater's tongue.

TREE-LIVING

AND

A N T K AT E R S

Baby clings

A N T E AT E R S

to its

The silky an tea ter (Cyclopes didactylus) and tlie two species of tamandua are all treedwellers. They use their long daws for breaking open insect nests, defending themselves, and climbing. They also have aprehensile tail, which acts as an “extra leg” when moving through the trees. Silky anteaters are nocturnal and rarely descend from the forest canopy. They feed mainly on ants. Tamanduas may be active |r u : -

GIANT

back- -

■'his sheep-sized insect-eater is the largest of the armatlillos. The giant armadillo iwoids the daytime lieat by resting in aburrow', but emerges r

into the center of termite mounds on the forest

oor, seemingly oblivious of the bites ol

the angiy termites.

Southern tamandua (Tamandua tetradactyla) breaks into an ants' nest. DEFENSE

the threebanded

Xenarthrans have many defense tactics. The giant anteater rears up on its hind legs and slashes at predators with its long claws. Sloths a\’oid detection

f f

armadillo rolls into a

by using camou age and remaining motionless during the day. If attacked, they bite and lash out

tight ball.

with their claws. Despite its armor, an armadillo’s underside is soft and vulnerable. To escape attack,

Three-banded

I

at night to feed. It u.ses its powerfttl claws to dig

in tree hollows, emerging to p feed on ants, termites, and bees. |

If threatened,

ARMADILLO

mother’s

by day or night. They often rest |

Middie claw

may be 8in (20 cm) long the largest in the animai

kingdom.

Scienti c name: lYiodontes maxhmis

Size: Body 3ft 3in (1 m) long; tail 20 in

armadillo

some species run away, others burrow rtipidly, and

(.31 cm) long

(Tolypeutes tridnetus]

the three-banded armadillo curls tt|t into aball.

Habitat: Forest

Green algae may grow in the grooved hairs of the sloth's

coat, helping to camou age it.

Distribution: \'enczuela to northern Argentina

Reproduction: I'emale produces Ior 2offsjrring Diet: Ants, worms, termites, spiders, and snakes

n

Sloths eat,

Long claws grip around

mate, and

give birth upside down.

branch.

Palethroated three-toed

Aardvark (Orycteropus afer)

sloth

Aardvark

{Bradypus tridaclylus)

The aardvark is asolitaiy mammal found in the savanna and open forests of Africa. It can dig a

burrow very quickly, and spends most of the day resting inside it. At night, the aardvark travels long distances in search of food, snif ng the ground with its piglike snout. It uses its strong feet and large claws to dig into ant and termite nests before extracting the insects with its sticky tongue and crushing them in its mouth.

‘

.

Sloths can

PA N G O L I N S

Pangolins, also called scaly anteaters, use their short limbs and long claws to dig

their heads

Overlapping, horny scales protect the upper side of the body. ■ ^

Central and South

three toes on their

hind feet and two or

three on their front feet, depending on the species. Each toe ends in along claw. Sloths spend most of the day upside down, hanging by their claws from abranch. At night they move slowly through the trees to feed on leaves. Every week or so, they they move with dif culty on the ground. Long, salivacoated tongue extends into insects' nests.

Malayan pangolin (Manis javanica)

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243 fi

species of sloth live in the

descend from the trees to defecate, but

the pangolin defends itself from attacking insects by closing its nostrils; it also has protective membranes over its eyes. If attacked by larger animals. the pangolin will run for shelter or curl up into atight ball, protected by its sharp scales

e

ve

America. They have

hanging upside down.

in the horny stomach. As it feeds.

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The

Prainforests of

around them while

They have no teeth, but grind up their insect prey tvith small stones

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Sloths

-

■AVI

through a 270° angle. so they can see all

out termite mounds and ant hills.

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rotate

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ARMADILLOS

Find out mor Defknse 1: 48 Feeding and nutrition: 22 Mammals: 232 Tr o p i c ; a l R / M N F O R E . s t s : 8 2

Rabbits and hares

Long ears listen for possible danger.

XhesEeast,GROUND-DWTLLINGmammalsarefound

Rabbit anatomy Rabbits have sharp eyesight and their bulging eyes help give

in most parts of the world. In some countries, such as

Australia, rabbits were introduced to be hunted. Rabbits,

them all-round vision to scan their

hares, and asmaller group called the pikas, belong

surroundings. Their large ears are ,very sensitive to sound and act as an

to the order Lagomorpha, or “hare-shaped” mammals. They feed on soft plants and grasses, but also eat the bark of young trees and shrubs when other food is in short supply. Rabbits and hares have large hind limbs for bounding and they depend on speed to

escape predators. Pika

4

‘l? Rearly warning system by detecting approaching danger. Rabbits can

also pick up the scent of nearby enemies using their slitlike

nostrils. Rapid escape is important. Their hind legs, longer than the front legs,

^

look like guineapigs,

^enable them to race to ^their burrows or the

widi short legs adapted for rocky terrain.

cover of vegetation. Skull of rabbit

European rabbit {Oiyctola^us

Incisor teeth grow continuously.

cuniculus)

Long hind legs help rabbits to

Rabbits

EVER-GROWING TEETH

have a

Rabbits, hares, and pikas have long, sharp incisor teeth which grow constantly throughout their life. They use these teeth to gnaw and crop grass and other vegetation. Their teeth also enable them to graze veiy dose to the ground. Their large premolar and molar cheek teeth at the back ol’ their jaw grind the food before it is swallowed.

good

run from

s e n s e

predators

of smell.

Cross section through arabbit w

a r r e n

Entrance leads to tunnels

Jack rabbits Jack rabbits are generally larger than rabbits and

have black tips on their ears.

They do not burrow, but rest

in aslight dip on the ground shaped by their

bodies. This dip in the soil or vegetation is called a“foi

n .

The 30 species ofjack rabbits are faster and more powerful than rabbits. They reach speeds of ttp to 50 mph r u n n e r s

(80 kmh) over short distances in order to

nd cover and

escape predators. In Europe jack rabbits are called hares. Warrens in stony soil last longer than those dug in sandy soil. Most tunnels

are only wide enough for one rabbit.

\Anest

is

made

of grass and fur.

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ANIMALS

Burrowing Most species of rabbits dig burrows to provide protection from predators during the day, to shelter in cold

weather, and to give birth. The type of burrow made depends on the species and on whether the soil is soft and

sandy, or hard and stony. Some species of rabbit make their homes in existing burrows. European rabbits live in large colonies in asystem of burrows called a

warren. Each warren has many entrances and may contain burrows u]) to 10 ft (3 m) deep and 150 ft (45 m) long.

Breeding in rabbits European rabbits breed regularly Iand have large litters -some giving birth to as many as 30 offspring I

]each year. The young are born underground in nests lined with hair and grass. Newborn rabbits are called kittens. They are hairless, helpless, and blind until their eyes

^open after about 10 days. The doe

(female rahbit) leaves her young in the nest, returning for just afew minutes each day to feed them. Young rabbits leave the nest tvhen they are about three weeks old.

Tiny newborn domestic rabbits stay warm in their fur-lined nest.

BLACK-TAILED JACK RABBIT

I

ike most animals that live

jin the desert, the jack rabbit

takes shelter I'rom the intense

daytime heat and becomes active at night when the temperature drops. Its long ears detect predators, and also give oil heat, helping to keep thejack rabbit cool. Jack rabbits use their

powerful hind limbs to ru

^

if danger threatens. The

“

i

/

can bound across the desert at

speeds of u]t to ?>b niph (.56 kmh) for short distances. Scienti c name;

Ij'jHls ratifornicus Size: 18-24 in (46-61 cm )

L.EVERETS

Young brown hares are called leverets. Thev are born in the open and at amore advanced stage than babv' rabbits. They have fur, their eyes are open, and they

Habitat: Desert,

are able to move around soon after birth.

Reproduction: Gestation jjeriod 40 days. Female produces four or more

semiclesert, and prairie Distribution: Western United States

About three days after birth, each of the leverets is moved to its own hiding place, usually concealed b\ vegetation. Each

litters avear

Diet: Grass in summer;

day at sunset, the leverets return to the original birth site, where they suckle from their mother.

twigs and shrubs in winter Leverets stay under cover in dense vegetation.

TWILIGHT

When pursued, hares run in azigzag line to throw predators off their scent.

European brovvm hare {Lepus europants)

emerge at dusk, datvn, or during the night to feed on grasses, shoots, ,and other vegetation,

to detect nearby enemies. Yr/i eu

1 rM

M

it

Some hares I grind their teeth to indicate danger.

COLOR

feet on the ground to warn others of danger.

snow'shoe hare has agray-bi ownish coat in spring and summer, but as winter ttpproaches it becomes

^thicker and turns while. This change provides f/tf Snowshoe hare

camou age against the snowy landscape, and helps protect hares I'rom attack by predators such as lynxes.

{Lepu ® americanus)

■^is gray-brown.

f

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7,1 I

they still need to be alert. Their large eyes enable them to see well

in dim light so that they nd their way around. They can also sense predators approaching from behind, even as they feed.

(Ocholona sp.)

Pikas Pika.s live among rock debris in remote

mountainous areas of North

America and most of Asia. They are active, busy animals that forage during daylight hours. Pikas ti.sually live alone or with amate. They make territoiy, and if danger threatens they quickly disappear into rock crevices. During the summer and fall months they “han^est” plants and hoard them in haypiles to provide food during the lean winter

SI

\ White winter coat helps to conceal hare from predators.

±

y

n

2 4 5 t

months.

.lit k'-f

fi

Iagainst predators, but

characteristic sounds to defend their Summer coat

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Rabbit feeding at nigh

iFeeding under the Icov'er of darkness gives Ithem some protection

CHANGE

Hares living in northern regions show a remarkable adaptation to changing seasons. The

Hares drum their back

FEEDERS

Most rabbits and hares

H a r e ’s e a r s m o v e l i k e a r a d a r

s

:

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;

RABI5ITS AND MAKES

Pika calls out to deter enemies

from entering its territory. Find

out

An'imvi.s:

more 140

An4mai, homes: 38 Defense 1: 48 Senses: 42

ANIMALS

Rodents Rats and mice are among the many animals that belong to the order Rodentia -the most numerous,

diverse, and widespread group of all mammals. The three main types are squirrel-like rodents, mouselike rodents, and cavylike rodents. They are able to survive in arange of habitats from hot, dry deserts to waterlogged marshes. Typically, rodents are small and compact, and have two pairs of constantly growing,

chisel-like incisor teeth. Some species produce large

Black-tailed prairie dogs emerging from their burrows

numbers of offspring, and may even breed several

SOCIAI. RODENTS

times ayear. They are very protective of their young,

Many rodents, especially ground-dwellers, live in social groups. For example, black-tailed prairie dogs (Cynomys

and many species build special burrows or nests from grass,

ludnvicianus) live in underground burrotvs in small groups called coteries. Each coterie consists of amale,

several females, and their young. Tunnels connect coteries with one another to form huge prairie dog

leaves, or sticks.

“towns,” containing thousands of individuals.

Tail is covered in

protective

Norway rat (Rdllu.s non'cpiru.s)

scales.

Mole rats have very ooor eyesight.

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V V*-'

MoUSELIKT RODENTS

Common rodents, such as mice and rats, belong to th

^

mouselike group of rodents, together with lemmings, voles, hamsters, and gerbils. They make up aquarter of all mammal species. Most are small, nocturnal animals that generally feed seeds. They produce large numbers of offspring during their relatively short lifespan. Some species of rats and mice are regarded as pests because they raid human food stores and spread disease. o

Naked mole rat

These hairless rodents live in complex tunnel systems, and behave in asimilar way to social insects such as bees.

Asingle breeding female, or “queen,” produces “castes” of workers and nonworkers. Workers, which make up the majority, dig tunnels, feed and defend the colony, and look tifter the youtig. Nonworkers stay close to the queen.

n

Gray squirrel {Srivrus raroUnnisis)

(Heterocephalus glaber)

N A K E D M O I . E 1 TA . T S

SQUIRREI.-I.IKE RODENTS Fatniliar tree-dwellitig squirrels arc members ol this

C AV Y U K E R O D E N T S -

group, as well as groutid squirrels, pntirie dogs, and marmots. All have distinctive heads, long, cylindrical bodies, and bushy ttiils. Tree squinels have keen

rA

^Cav)'like rodents form the most

■

.J

....A'

cdiverse rodent group. They include agoutis, gitinea

Sk. pigs, porcupines, and

eyesight, useful forjtidging distatices when

fe

the largest rodent the capybara. Most have large heads, plump bodies, short tails, and slender legs. They produce stnall litters of well-developed young. Although most of

jumping Ifom branch to branch. Flying scjuii rels cttn glide longer dlstttnces, ttsing amctnbratte (ptuagium) tluit extends between

Dr,

w

their fore- atid hitid limbs.

NyN-.':-

'W.

’

Capybara

(Hydrorhaeris liydrochanis)

a

these animals live on land,

the capybara spetids much of its life in or near rivers or swampy areas.

s

Bushy tail helps squirrel to balance while jumping -

from tree to tree.

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>

RODENTS

Fast breeders

DESERT JERBOA

Rodents are fast breeders. Many, especially

^,mouselike rodents, have ashort gestation

m . 35

T

“inside their mother), and produce large litters.

Most young are able to breed at avew early age. The house mouse {Mus musculus) can breed at just six weeks old and have up to 10 litters ayear, with between ve and seven young in each litter. Its gestation period is 20 days.

1/ I

r

Blind, naked mice I are born in straw nests.

he.sc desert rodents walk and hop on their

long hitui legs, and cati leap several yards to escitpe predators. They ttse their front feet to hold food and to dig bttrrows where they rest dttring the heat of the day, einerghig at night to feed on seeds atid other vegetation. Their large eyes enable them

period (the time taken for babies to develop

to see in dim light, while their ears help them

detect approachitig etiemies. Jerboas rarely drink since they get the wttter they tieed from their food. Large eyes for seeing in dim light

Fur starts to

grow at around six days old.

’ / f

m / . &

Scienti c name: Jarulus orieutalb Size: Ilead ;uk1 body length up to 6.d in (16 cm);

Development of house mice

tail length up to 10 in (2:~i cm Habitat: Flat saiuly deserts and rocky valleys

At 14 days old, young mice stan leaving their nests

Distribution: North A

ica and Vliddle [vast from

Morocco to Israel

Reproduction: Bl eed twice ayear, with between 2-6

young in each litte Diet: Seeds, grains shoots, and roots

Most rodents feed on plant food,

including seeds, owers, leaves, stems, and roots. Some may also catch and eat

insects, spiders, and other invertebrates. Rodents feed by holding food with their forepaws and gnawing it with their

V

\

/

incisor teeth. Many store food for future use. Some species, such as golden hamsters

[Mesocricetus sp.), carry food in their cheek pouches and store it until they reach

The hamster empties huts

the relative safety of their nest.

from its cheek pouches using its front paws.

Razor-sharp incisor teeth

GNAWING

TKKTl

1

Undergrouhd

Arodent’s upper and lower incisor teeth grow continuously throughout its life. Its upper teeth are ke|tl razor-sharp for gnawing by rubbing them against its lower teeth. Beliind the incisors is agap called the diastema. The rodent’s lips

entrahce to

are drawn into this gap while it is gnawing to

lodge

keep hard, inedible materials out of its mouth Cheek teeth grind tip food before it is swallowed.

Avent allows fresh

air in, and stale air out of the lodge.

Cross section through abeaver lodge

Apond is created by the dam.

Food is kept in aseparate store.

Skull of rat

Dam is made from

sticks, branches. stones,

Dam builders Beavers (Castorsp.) are large rodents that live in small family groups in or near streams and rivers. They have webbed feet, astreamlined body, and a at, scaly tail that acts as arudder, pushing and steering them through the water. Beavers use their large front teeth to cut down trees and branches, which are used to build dams across streams. These dams create

ponds in which the beavers build nests called “lodges” from sticks and mud.

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247

Beavers live in

lodges surrounded by water to help protect them from predators.

and

Find out mor Ammai, homes: 58 Movement in air: 36 Pe.sts and weeds: 98 Reproduction: 28

mud.

yVNIMALS

Bears

Brown bear

(i’rsii.s arrlos)

Xhe polar bear and brown bear are tbe

r'-

m m m m m

world’s largest land carnivores. There are

seven species of bear, plus the panda, which has recently been reclassi ed a s

Small rounded

rnimM.

'SM

aclose relative. Most bears live in the

Northern Hemisphere, although some species, such as the sloth bear and the sun bear, also inhabit the south. Bears

that live in cooler climates sleep in

dens during winter, but those in warmer climates are active all year

Snout with

round. The number of bears in the

sensitive

world has been considerably reduced

Strong body

as aresult of habitat destruction

thick hair

p, nose

covered with

and hunting, and they now live mainly in remote areas. Bear waiks / on the soles

Five sharp claws

of its feet.

Mixed feeders

Bear anatomy

Most bears are omnivores,

All bears share the same basic features. They have strong, heavily built bodies with powerful legs. Each of their feet has ve sharp claws, which they use for digging, tearing food apart, and climbing. Their strong jaws contain aset of relatively

which means they eat both plants and meat. Tliey generally feed on whatever they can Find, including plants, fruits, honey, insects,

sh,

and carrion (dead animals). Because of

unspecialized teeth, which enables them to eat awide range of food. Bears walk on the soles of

. N

their poor eyesight and hearing, bears

.their feet, ustially shuf ing along at asteady pace, ■but they can move quickly when in pursuit of prey. They can also stand on their hind legs.

m

usually detect their food by smell. Those

m k L

that live near tourist areas feed on food

American black bear (Ursus americanus) feeding on dandeiions FISHIXC, BE.VR.S

scraps left by \isitors and can

become adanger. American black bears are mainly forest dwellers that feed on plants, fruits, and insects.

Brown Ijears take advantage of' the .summer migrations ot salmon

.swimming upriver to Itreeding sites. Normally solitaiy, the bears gather in groups by the sides of rivers as

the salmon migration begins. The

Sioth bear (Ursus ursinus) sucks up termites using its tips and long tongue.

bears wade into the shallow's to catch

the large sh w'ith their teeth or claws. They then retui nto the riverbank where they skilirtilly lillet and eat their catch.

White or

Bears catch salmon as they leap from the water, Kodiak Island, Alaska

cream rings around eyes

,SOUTH .V.MERIC,A,N BE/VR

fe Spectacled bears get their name from

fe the white or cream rings around their eyes. They are the onl\' bears that live in South America and are I'otind in the humid forests and

1 E K . M I T E E AT E R S

HB grasslands on the lower slopes of

The sloth bear, found in India and Sri Lanka, feeds mainly on insects, particitlarly termites. It has long, exible lips and along

tongite, but lacks fotir tipper incisor teeth. To feed, the bear uses its

extra-long claw's to break open atermite raotmd. Forming its lips into alube, it blow's the dirt oil the termites, and then, using its longue, noisily sucks them up through the gap in its front teeth.

the y\ndes .Mountains. Active at

night, they feed on fruit and other Spectacled bear

(Tremarctos oniaiits)

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2 4 8

Hp vegetation, effortlessly climbing

■Hr high trees in search of food. By da they rest in rough nests in the tree

ff bi anches or under atangle of roots.

BKARS

By opening its mouth, the bear reveais its large

BEAR. EIUGS

Bears are aggressive animals and males compete with

canine teeth.

each other for females

during the mating season. Bear ghts are usually

BROWN

K

BEAR

nown in parts of North

America

as the grizzly bear, the brown bear is alarge, powerful animal. It

violent and, in some cases, can result in a

death. When they are young, play ghting between males helps improve their ghting

feeds on small Young bear, play ghting, stands up to

skills. Female bears

mammals,

make itself

also kill an animal

look bigger.

as big as amoose. Abrown

with cubs avoid large males and any other potential threats, including humans.

sh, insects,

and plants, but can

bear

can

run

veiw fast over short

distances, and may stand up on its back legs to get abetter vietv of its surroundings.

Asiatic black bear

(Ur.su.s thibetanus) American black bear mother watches over her cubs.

Family life Male and female bears only associate during the mating Females then give birth in asecluded den the following spring. Smaller species have one or two ;that are born ver)' small, helpless, and almost

Standing on its hind legs, the bear warns o ff e n e m i e s .

s e a s o n .

naked. Cubs remain with their mother

during the rst, and often

the second, winter after

their birth. During

^this period they are

Iprotected from

Cubs develop quickly, but remain with their mother until nearly full-grown.

Scienti c name: t/rau,s arclo.'i

Size: Average of 8ft (2.4 m) in lengt Habitat: Tundra, alpine meadows, woodla:ids, and forests

Distribution: Northwestern North America, Europe, and Asi

Reproduction: Female produces alitter of up to four cubs. Gestation period 26-3.5 week

enemies and

Diet: Tubers, fruit, insect grubs, rodents,

learn to fend for themselves. The

deer, and carrion

sh, young

male plays no part in their upbringing.

V\TNTER SLEEP

Bears that live in cooler parts of the world -except for

male polar bears -enter aperiod of dormancy during the

winter months. They remain relatively inactive in order to consert'e energ)' for when food is in short supph’. In summer and early fall bears prepare for their winter sleep by eating enough to build tip fat reserves. Thev then make their deti in atree hollow.

Polar bear

(TV,su,s maritimus)

Polar bear swimming underwater ICY SWIM

Despite the cold water, polar bears can stvim for hours across open water from one piece of pack ice to Ablack bear spends winter in aden lined with dry vegetation.

another, at speeds of up to 4mph (6.5 kmh). Protected by thick,

water-repellent ftir, they swim using their oarlike front feet. Polar bears

Arctic

survivor

have longer necks than most bears,

The polar bear is one of the few mammals that is able to sundve the harsh, freezing conditions of the Arctic. It is protected

so they are able to stvim with their head and shoulders above the water.

They also .swim undenvater and beneath ice sheets to catch seals.

against the biting cold by an insulating layer

of fat, called blubber. For additional warmth, its dense, white fur consists of hollow hairs

Growth and devei.opmf.nt: 32

the sun onto its black, heat-absorbing skin.

Polar regions: 90

The white fur also provides camou age in snow and icy conditions, concealing the

Racc:oons and pand.as: 250

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a

bear from seals and other potential prey.

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that conduct warming ultraviolet rays from

Rhvth.ms of life: 40

Raccoons and pandas

Foxlike face with

large ears and eyes

Xhese TV\'0 groups of mammals share

Ringtail (Bassariscus aslulus)

so many of the same characteristics that,

in the past, they have been classi ed in the same family. Today, many scientists divide

m

m

the raccoons into two subfamilies: one

includes the common raccoon, cacomistle, ringtail, and kinkajou, the other contains the lesser panda. The giant panda is generally placed in the bear family. All members of the raccoon family live in the Americas, except for the red panda, which together with the giant panda, is found in remote parts of Asia. Scientists Long, ringed believe that because the two species of panda evolved in the same habitat, they

Like all members of the

raccoon family, ringtails have

A N D R E L ATr V T S

'p/

tail

Members of the raccoon family, which includes the ringtail, are

small animals with foxlike faces, limber bodies, and long tails,

which are ringed in many species. They have short legs with

ve toes on each foot, which they use for climbing trees and catching prey. Most species are solitaiy hunters that search for foocl at night, both on the ground and in trees. Apart

Mainly nocturnal, the lesser panda Lesser panda

ve toes on each foot.

Raccoons

developed similar features. spends most of the day in the trees.

{AHums fulsens)

from the kinkajou, most species have distinctive coat patterns with brown, red, gray, or white colors. LESSER

I’ANDA

I.ike the giant panda,

Skull of raccoon

‘tlie lesser panda feeds

OMNIVORE TEETH V

on bamboo. It also has

Most raccoon species are omnivores -they cat both animals and plants. Typically, they have incisors at the front of their

an extra “thumb” on

Jaws for gripping and tearing

its paw -not as welldeveloped as that of the giant panda’s. Lesser pandas eat fruits, plants, and insects. They are nocturnal, usually solitaiy,

.fc wl their prey. Their long canines pull at plant roots or dig into

animal Ilesh. At the back of the

Jaw, attened cheek teeth grind vegetation or crush insects.

animals that live in the

forests of Nepal, Myanmar,

incisor teeth enable

and China. They are agile

raccoon to grip and

animals that climb trees

tear at food.

using their sharp claws to reacli the higher branches. Thick fur coat keeps raccoon warm during winter months.

Agile, catlike body

I'y ●vita

Raccoon success Notorious for their inquisitive

r

Raccoon

{Procynn lotor) ,..^A

nature, raccoons are highly successful inhabitants of North Raccoons raiding atrash can

and Central America. They can eat almost anything and

URBAN BANDITS

Raccoons are commonly referred

live anywhere, even close to, or in, people’s homes. In

i*'

their natural habitat they usually feed alone, using their dextrous forepaws to pick up and hold prey such as cray sh and frogs from swampy pools. Their amazing ability to

m

fi

fi

fi

lo as bandits because of their “masked” faces and because

they raid food stores, garbage dumps, and farmers’ crops.

fdestruction behind them.

total area they inhabit is extending.

fl

r

They are nocturnal animals that sometimes congregate at food sources, often leaving atrail

sundve means that the

'

^

fi

A.NIMAI.S

The\- have adapted so well to living near humans that they even take food from people.

RACCOONS AND

PA N D A S

Ring-tailed coati

KINKAJOU

(Nasua na.u(a)

Short-haired anti with astocky body and short legs, this tree-dweller has aprehensile (grasping) tail. This acts as an extra limb which helps the animal to move through the trees. Kinkajous rest during the day and

r

'Coatis rummage for food using their long, sensitive snouts.

Coatis

emerge at night to feed on fruit, often in small

groups. They have long, narrow tongues which

Goads are expert foragers that live in the forests of Central and South America. They hunt for food during the day, using their

reach for nectar

long snouts to probe the forest oor, and their strong claws to dig up plant roots and tubers. They also climb high into tree canopies in search of fruits. The females form social groups and hunt together with their young. The males are solitary, and are only permitted near the females during the mating season.

Tails may be used to

help balance In trees.

in

owers.

Scienti c name:

Polos axms Size: Body length 16-22 in (40-56 cm)

Habitat: Tropical forests Distribution: Central and

RINGTAILS

Found in

parts of South ,-Vmerica

n- areas of western US,

Reproduction: 1or 2 voting born ayear. Gestation 112-118 days

ringtails favor rocky areas and are able to climlr cliffs with ease. They usually

feed on mice, birds, grasshoppers, and other small prey. They pounce on their

D i e t : F r u i t , n e c t a r,

insects, and small

victims, killing them with asingle bite,

invertebrates

then slice up their food using their cheek teeth. Ringtails were once tamed by miners to rid their

camps of mice and other pests. Ringtail kills its prey instantly.

Giant panda Giant pandas are recognized by their bearlike shape and distinctive black and white markings. They live in remote

Giant panda

{Ailuropoda midanolmca) The giant panda is one of the

-#

Female

pink and hairless.

y

panda nurses single cub.

Cub Is born

1t%

areas of mountain forests in central

rarest mammals in the world.

■

China, among the bamboo thickets. They feed on bamboo shoots and

Mi

roots while in asitting position, which frees their front feet

to wrench off pieces of

SLOW BREEDERS

bamboo. As bamboo is

not particularly nutritious

Vt'

giant pandas lead a

A. f m r K

leisurely lifestyle in order t o c o n s e r v e e n e r g y.

The giant panda is an endangered species -there

are

Giant pandas produce only afew offspring in their lifetime. Femtiles usually breed eveiy ttvo

years. The birth of twins is not uncommon but the mother is not usually able to rear both. This low breeding rate has contributed, along with loss of habitat and human persecution, to the decline in panda numbers in the wild. Captive breeding in zoos has also met with little success.

now

fewer than 1,000

EXTRA

left in the wild. ■\

THUMB

The giant panda’s forepaws are unusual because they have an extra “thumb.” This

;W\isamodi edwristbonethatisenlarged. It acts like athumb and can touch each

of the panda’s other digits, in much the same way that people can touch each of their lingers with their thumb.

IThis enables the panda to grip bamboo stems while it is feeding. Find out mor Animals in danger: 100 Panda sextra digit

fl

e

fi

fi

fi

fl

fl

is also known as a “false thumb.

Bears: 248 Mammals: 232 Social, animals: 54

Dogs

Long, pointed ears

Xhe term “dog” is most often used

Large, forward-

Slender,

Long, bushy tail is

muscular

used for balance and communication.

to describe one of the many breeds of domestic pet. However, there ar 34 other related species of doglike carnivores that include foxes,

wolves, coyotes, and jackals. Known

collectively as canids -because they ^

belong to the family Canidae these animals are found worldwide.

^

Some dogs, such as wolves, are carnivorous, while bat-eared foxes

mainly eat insects. Many are opportunist feeders that eat whatever is available, including lizards, birds, small mammals,

carrion, and fruit. Their excellent hearing and keen sense of smell make them

Long legs enable dog to run fast.

ef cient hunters.

DESIGN Adog’s anatom

tIV

Nonretractable

over long distances. Most canids, including the dhole

(an Asiatic tvild dog), have alithe body with abushy tail. They have

long legs and walk on their toes, which increases

their stride length and speed. The long snout has

Howling warns rival wolf packs to stay away.

ahighly sensitive nose, and the jatvs contain 42

Living in packs

WSome canids are solitaiy, while

'p others, such as red foxes, are sociable but

teeth (a dhole has 40), including four stabbing “canines” that pierce through esh. Adog has

large, fonvard-facing eyes and pointed ears that can be moved to pick up sounds.

nd food on their

own. Gray wolves {Cams lupus) live and hunt in social groups, or packs, that can contain 20 or

more

members. Living in agroup enables wolves to hunt large prey

cooperatively, to share care of their young, and to protect each

I

- t

other from attack by other wolves. Each pack defends aterritory

large enough to provide suf cient food, and its boundaries are

scent-marked with urine to ward off rival packs.

SI*

K ' I a Va w i , A

KEEPING ORDER

Wolf packs have distincl

‘ S T-

social hierarcliies. One

Each African hunting dog (Lycaon pictus) plays adistinct role i n

pair of male and female

bringing down the wildebeest.

wolves dominates the

wliole pack, and are the only animals tvho breed.

Defensive teeth posture

Below them, there is a

with teeth bared

Submissive greeting posture with

clear-cnt organization

ears, tail, and body iowered

of dominant and subordinate animals.

SfVii A

postures and behat iors -

Vi-!' ,

such as baring the teeth or lotvering the ears.

I

These indicate threat or submission, and make sure that even- animal

■at

knotvs its place.

I f \

il

Offensive threat posture

Play posture indicates that this is not

with ears and tail erect

athreat but the wolf wants to play.

-

o

fl

fi

y

fi

252 fl

Hunting strategies By hunting together in packs, gray wolves, African hunting dogs, and dholes are able to kill prey larger than themselves. African

hunting dogs hunt at least once aday and

This hierarchy is maintained by recognized

J ^

aBBfr re ects its ability t S U MV pursue prey at speed

claws provide grip when running.

fi

^

ANIMALS

pursue prey tirelessly over long distances until it is exhausted. After bringing down a prey animal cooperatively, the pack shares the kill and allows pups to feed as well. Feeding as apack keeps most other predators away from the kill -although lions and hyenas are usually able to drive the dogs away.

Red

fox

D I N G O

(Vulpes vulpes) H ^ -

as the Australian wild dog, the A!'Iso known dingo is aferal species -adomesticated

Using Its hind legs the fox springs into the air.

species that has become wild again. It is descended from the earliest tamed dogs, and was introduced to Australia about

4,000 years ago. Dingos usually hunt alone but form packs to hunt for prey larger than themselves, such as kangaroos.

P O U N C I N G

The ten species of tailpine foxes, which include the red fox, swift fox (Vulpes velox), and the kit fox (Vulpes macrotis), have aspecial strateg)’ for catching rodents and other small pre\-. Once the prey animal is spotted, the fox leaps in the air and lands on top of it. The untsaiy rodent is taken b\- surpi ise, and is squashed b\' the fox’s front paws before it can jump out of the way.

Adog’s

The fox stretches out its

Scienti c name;

front paws, dives onto the prey, and squashes it.

Can is Jam iHaris

ahuman has

Size: Bodv4ft(1.2 m) Tail 10-12 in (2.4-.S0 cm)

Habitat: From tropical forest to semiarid regions

dinner

All canids have akeen sense of smell, sight, and hearing, which they use to track down their prey. The average dog has 200 million scent receptors in its nasal folds, wherea.s

Distribution: .Vustralia

Reproduction: Female

produces litter of 4-5 offspring; gestation is nine \veeks

ve million. Red foxes htitii

rodents and rabbits by listening and watching. At night, foxes locate earthworms by listening for the rasping sound that worms make as they move along the soil’s surface. Red foxes have also moved into inner city areas where they forage at night for scraps of food.

Diet: Small mammals, lizards, invertebrates,

kangaroos

Bush dog {Speolhos venaticus) Atrashcan is aprime food source for the urban fox.

BREEDING

lost canids breed once ayear. Their offspring, called pups or cubs, are born blind and helpless, often in aconcealed den. After weaning, wolves, wild dogs, and dholes feed their young on regurgitated ’food, while foxes cany food to their dens. Usually, both parents look after pups. The African black-backed jackals {Canis mesomelas) live in family groups but gain extra assistance from juvenile jackals who act as “nannies.” Ablaok-backed jackal with pups Long mane stands up to make the wolt look larger if it

BUSH

DOG

The bush dog, tvhich lives in the forests of Gentral and South America, looks more like abadger than adog. Its small ears, short legs, and stumpy tail enable it to move easily through the dense vegetation of the forest oor. Bush dogs live and hunt in packs of up to 10 individuals. The) hunt large rodents such as agouti and pacas. Being capable swimmers, they also pursue capvbaras (large, semiaquatic rodents) into tvater.

is threatened.

Maned wolf

These very different dogs belong to the

(Chrysoryon brach'iurns) LONG LEG

same

j

The solitaiy an M elusive maned tvol

S

lives in the ope grasslands of Sout

H S

.America. Its long leg

V

are not an adaptatio for fast movement

■ 1

1

to see over the tops of tall grasses as it moves around its territory. The maned tvolf is mainly active at night when it goes in search of small prey such as small mammals, birds, help the wolf see above

fl

t

s

h

n

n

f

.

fi

d

reptiles, insects, eggs, and fruit. It stalks and potmees on prey in much the same tvay as afox.

S

species.

Chihuahua

Instead, they enable i

fi

fl

DOGS

I

tall grass.

The greyhound has been bred for hunting and racing. There are about 400 breeds of domesticated dogs (CanisJamiliaris). They range in size from the Irish tvol iotmd, at 3ft ,3 in (1 m) tall, to the chihuahua, at just

Coping with e.xtrl.mes: 60

8in (20 cm) tall. All are descendaiiLs of the

SOCLAL .ANI.VLALS: 54

gray wolf (Canis lupus).

253

Find

out

Hunting:

more

52

Mam.vlals: 232

ANIMALS

Badgers, weasels, and otters Wedgeshaped body

XhefamilyMUSTELIDAE,whichincludesbadgers,weasels,and otters, is one of the largest of the seven carnivore families. Mustelids live in many habitats, including rivers, lakes, and seas, and are fotmd on all continents except Australia and Antarctica. This family includes some of the smallest of all carnivores. Some mustelids have long, cylindrical bodies, and short legs, adapted for hunting in trees, burrows, or underwater. Badgers, skunks, and wolverines have larger, stockier bodies. Mustelids may have anal scent glands that produce pungent, often foul-smelling secretions for marking territory, social communication, or defense against predators. Long,

outer fur

A

Eurasian

badger (Meles meles) striped

s n o u t

Mound of earth and

■old bedding thrown out during cieaning nf tunnels

with coarse

Badgers Badgers are nocturnal animals that spend most of their daylight hours underground. They have stocky bodies and small heads, with long snouts to root out prey, and powerful jaws with large cheek teeth for crushing food. Many species use their strong forelimbs and claws for digging multitunneled burrows called sets. They have poor eyesight and rely on their excellent sense of smell to locate food, which consists of small vertebrates, invertebrates, and fruit.

AMERICAN

(Taxidea taxus) stretches from southern Canada to the .Vlexican 'Axr'^- :C\

Abadgers set

BADGER

The habitat of the American badger

Bedding material such as bracken or grass is dragged into the nest.

h o r d e r. I t s d i e t i s m o r e

Sleeping

carnivorous than

chamber

that of other

SOCIALANIV1AI.S

badgers, and it uses its powerful front legs and daws to dig out burrowing

Eurasian badgers li\'e in socitil gntujts with up to 12 members that share the same burrow (set) but I'orage for food on their own. The set is amaze of passages, chambers, and entrances, and pi'ovides shelter for badgers during the daytitne and in winter. Genenitions of bttdgers may live in the same set

mammals, such as

chipmunks and ground squirrels.

f

for httndreds of years. When diggitig, they close their ^ ears and nostrils to keep ottt dirt and mttd.

The common

Small but

weasel has a

erce

reddish brown

Weasels and iheir relatives, which include

back and

stoats, martens, polecats, minks, and wolverines, have a erce reputation. Most are carnivorous, with teeth adapted for killing

awhite underside.

C o m m o n

and cutting up prey, such as rabbits j All hunt on their own, and can kill prey .jM

weasel

(Muslela nivalis)

much larger than themselves with a

er

branch to branch with ease, the trees marked with scent

polecats chase their prey on the ground or down burrows; minks W t lt

from the anal gland. Martens catch squirrels and young birds in the trees, and htint on

Tbo

the grotind for rabbits, small rodents, and insects. They also forage for tvild

wolverine is 1 ascavenger.

fruit

and

berries.

Pine

marten

{MarU’s martes)

.

2.54 fi

i

Bharp claws thelp the

^pinemarten

r - A

fi

HUNTERS

following pathways through

lethal bite to the neck. Weasels and

h u n t o n l a n d a n d in

TREE

The eight species of marten, which include the pine marten {Maries tnarles) and sable (Maries zihellina), are adapted for life in the trees. They have large paws with sharp claws for gripping branches, and long tails for balancing. They can leap from

yto

grip

Ibranches.

Summer coat

EUROPEAN

P O L E C AT

is chestnutcolored with

white underparts

Polecats have long, low bodies bushy They are solitary hunters thatwith are activetails. mainly at night. They will kill any animal they can nd,

■

Stoat

including rats, mice, and rabbits, birds, toads and

(Muslela ermineti)

frogs, lizards, and snakes. Sometimes they wipe out whole litters of young animals, but eat only one or two. Adomesticated polecat, used for catching

*

rabbits, is known as aferret. In winter, when its coat is white, the stoat is known as an ermine. WINTER

All CHANGES

■

Stoats live in the northern forests and tundra of North

America, Europe, and Asia. In cold regions, astoat’s fur changes from achestnut color to white during winter. This provides camou age against the snow, helping the stoat avoid detection by prey, such as rodents, or predators, such as owls.

Characteristic white mask Thick tail

Brownif^h-ar^v

and webbed

IScienti c name: Muslela putnrius

feet provide power for swimming.

Small head and

streamlined body

Size: 12-18 in (80-4:1 cm) long Habitat: From woodlands to sand dunes

Distribution: Europe from the Atlantic

Stiff whiskers

Ocean to the Ural Mountains, and

help otter nd food. ^

from Norway to the Mediterranean Sea Reproduction: Female gives birth to a litter of ;1-10 young

mm

Diet: Small mammals, reptiles, amphibians, insects, ground-nesting

a

birds, and worms

S.-'

Skunks can spray accurately over 6ft 6in (2 m).

Asiatic short-clawed otter

(Aonyx cinerea)

Otters Otters are semiaquatic mustelids. They are graceful swimmers with lithe, cylindrical bodies, short limbs, webbed feet, and atapering tail. Their fur is dense and water-repellent. Some otters swim only in freshwater, others are exclusively sea creatures, while several .species are at home in both habitats. Most have sleeping dens, called holts, on land. They mark their territory with scented droppings, known as spraints, which they leave on high points such as rocks. Otters are playful creatures, with dexterous forepaws that they use to hold food while eating. TOOL

USER

The sea otter (Enhydra luhis) is one of the few mammals that can

Iw

v ' m

Skunks Found in North and

South America, skunks

are ground foragers that feed on small

A

mammals, birds, eggs,

r

and fruit. Their black

a

and white markings warn predators to stay away. If threatened, they stamp their

clown to the seabed, where it cctllects clams, mussels, and sea urchins. On the water ’s siuface.

^feet and walk stiff¬

legged or, in the case of the spotted skunk, stand on their front legs. If warnings fail, skunks squirt afoul¬

it lies on its back, puts a at stone on its chest, and smashes its prey against the stone to break open the shell. The stone “tool” is sometimes kept in afold of skin under the se:i otter’s arm

smelling liquid from their anal glands, severely irritating the predator’s eyes. U N D E R ’ V VAT E R

HUNTERS

Otters use their tails and hind feet to swim rapidly, and can Uvist and turn tvhen chasing prey. When diving, they close their ears and nostrils. They locate prev, such as sh, frogs, crustaceans, and waterbircls, by sight and with their stiff, highly sensitive whiskers. When they come out of the water, the guard hairs (outer fur) of their coat

form spiky clumps, enabling the water to run off easily. The otter's body is streamlined as it swims underwater

fi

fl

fl

2 5 5 e

Spotted skunk

{Spilogale pulorius)

m .

manipulate tools. The otter dives

fi

fi

fi

BADGERS, WEASELS, AND OTTERS

Find out mor ANIMAI..S IN danger: 100 Mammai..s: 232 Move.ment in water: 38

RIVER.S, IAKES, A.ND PONDS: 76

A N I M A L S

Cats

TEETH

Cats are nature’s most ef cient hunters.

only move up and down, and ar

AND

SKULL

Acat’s teeth and skull are adapted to give apowerlul, killing bite, and to rip and cut esh. The jaws ca ,

These carnivorous (meat-eating) animals feed almost entirely on vertebrates, and use cunning and stealth to stalk their victims silently before attacking. Most wild cats are solitary and secretive. They are most active at night, and have acute hearing and vision to hunt in darkness. The 37 species in the cat family are often divided into two groups -small and big cats.

^

controlled by powerful muscles that provide avicelike grip. The long, pointed, canine teeth bite into the prey’s neck. The smaller teeth pull esh off bones or slice up meat with ascissorlike actioit.

■f ;

Canine

IIANTS AND HA'KAXES

AT

Elephants cool off in amuddy

THE

WAT E R H O L E

When elephants are thirsty they congregate at river

●waterhole

banks or waterholes, or

dig for water using their tusks. Elepliants drink Ijy sucking up water in tlieir trunk and squirting it into tlieir mouth. Tliey consume 40-80 gallons (1.5,5-305 liters) ada\'. Water

is also squirted over the back to keep the skin cool. Dust settles on the wet skin forming adiy mudpack that protects the skin from sunlight and parasites.

AFRICAN

ELEPHANT

The largest l a n d a nlivingimals,

/

African elephants can weigh up to

r/5

m

6.6 tons (6,000 kg). V-.//.: Sensitive to the intense heat of the

African savanna, these Vy! elephants regularl | j | break from feeding to 15 cool

off

under

in

the

waterholes shade

of

or

I

«

atree.

'

African elephants have long been hunted for their ivory, and this, together with pressure for more land, has

Elephant mothers shade their young from the sun

made the species endangered. ^ -V

»/ \

Scienti c name: Loxodonla africana Size: Shoulder height: up to 1.3 ft (4 m) Habitat: Semidesert, swamp, savanna, forest Distribution: Africa south of the Sahara desert

HERDS

Reproduction: Females have single calf every .5-6 years

Elephants usually live in family units

Diet: Leaves, grasses, Howers, fruit, roots, tree bark

of 8-10 members.

These are often composed of related females and their offspring and are dominated by asenior female. Males may live singly or in bachelor herds.

Sometimes family units congregtite in large herds made up of

Young elephant lifts its trunk in order to suckle

hundreds of animals. Elephants communicate by touch, smell,

milk from its

or visual signals using the trunk or etirs. In addition to

mother's teats.

trumpeting calls, they produce low-freqttency sounds that travel over long distiinces and help keep the herd together.

Afemale Asian

elephant lifts a h&dVV lOQ

C.ARING FOR Y O U N G Like

WORKING

other

mammals

EI.EPHANTS

with

long life spans. elephants invest

For thousands of years, elephants (especially Asian

elephants) have been tamed and used for carry ing heavy loads, pulling plows, lifting and moving logs, and for ceremonial purposes. Elephants are intelligent animals

many years in nurturing their young. Elephant calves are tended by other females in the herd, as

well as their mother. This care begins at birth.

that can learn simple skills quickly and are able to remember them. Asian elephants are still widely used in southern Asia to shift lumber over terrain that is too

when herd females may act as “midwives.” Galves feed on milk from their mother ’s teats, which are

rough for trucks or tractors.

situated between her front legs.

Hyraxes

Rock and bush hyraxes live in chy areas, and typically have short ftir, ashort tail, and long incisor teeth that are used for defense. They also have cheek teeth for cropping vegetation. Their legs are short and sturdy, and their feet have bare pads that, when moist with f;Jjv sweat, grip rocks and tree branches.

This helps the hyrax to climb and jump over its terrain. %

Rock hyrax

{Procavia capensis) r t .

SOCIAL

fi

y

e

267 fi

GROUPS

Rock and bush hyraxes may live in single family units or colonies of up to 100 individuals. Sometimes, unusually for mammals, members of different hyrax species will congregate together. Although they can suiwive diy conditions with little water, hyraxes have dif culty regulating their body temperature. At night and in the early morning they huddle together on their kopje, or rocky outcrop, to keep warm.

Bush hyraxes (Heterohyrax brucei) huddle together and bask in the early morning sun to warm themselves. Find out mor An'im.\ls IN danger: 100

Horses, a.sses, and zebr..\s; 268 Mam.mals: 252 Vertebrates: 182

ANIMALS

Four-toed

Horses, ASSES,

Three-toed

Three-toed

Evolution of the modem

horse

AND ZEBRAS O u t ON THE OPEN PLAINS, herds of horses graze freely on grasses and shrubs, using speed to outrun potential predators.

Over millions of years, horses have evolved from forest-dwelling mammals to become powerful, higb-speed gallopers. The domestic horse belongs to the family called Equidae, which also includes Przewalski’s horse -recently reintroduced into the wild -three species of ass, and three species of striped zebra. The horses now living in areas such as the American west and Australian outback are not true wild species, but are feral animals -descendants of escaped domestic stock, which have returned to anatural state.

Stiff mane Przewalski’s horse

{Equus rahal/us pizewahkii)

Pale muzzle

Hyracothehum

Mesohippus

Parahippus

Evolution Over the course of time, horses have evolved

from hating four toes on each foot to having

just one toe on each foot. The earliest horse,

Hyracolherium, was adog-sized, scampering mammal that lived in the forests of North

America some 5.5 million years ago. Its four toes splayed out to stop it from sinking into the ground. As the climate changed, and grasslands became more widespread, larger, faster-moving species, such as Pamhippus, evolved. With fewer foot and toe bones their

limbs were lighter so they could run faster and escape predators. Modern horses have

H o r s e A N AT O M Y

one toe on each foot, protected by ahoof.

Horses and other equids A share features that

.White ears

re ect their fast-moving, herbivorous lifestyle. Typically, ahorse has V

along head with wide-set eyes that help it | look out for predators while grazing. The I

muscular body has along neck toppe with amane of stiff hairs. Each leg i I slender and ends in asingle hoofed toe. M Equids have large teeth for grindin JT/

with black tips

the three zebra S D P C I P ' ^

Long head and

Single toe is protected by ahorny

I

neck with mane -

typical of equids

hoof

food and tails that whisk away ies.

Zebras Zebra is the name given to three species of blackand-white striped equids from Africa. The stripes once thought to confuse

predators -are now thought

African wild ass {Equus ashius) ASSES

Generally .smaller lhan horses, asses have longer ears and are more sure-footed. The Alrican wild

ass, the kulan, and the kiang are adapted to live

to aid recognition within the herd, helping to keep it together. Grety’s zebra {Equus grevyi) and the mountain zebra {Equus zebra) live in semiarid areas and

are endangered. The more

in diy locations. The African wild ass is now

numerous

rare and lives in the rocks- deserts of northeast

is found in savanna, liglit

Alrica, although the donkey, its domesticated

Burchell’s

zebra

woodlands, and scrub.

descendant, is still common.

DEFENSE

Horses, asses, and zebras all use the same

strategy to defend themseh-cs when

\ ghting each other or when attempting to deter apredator. Ri\al mtiles tvill push and bite each other on the neck and legs. They may also turn ;md lash

out with their pow-erful hind legs, kicking an opponent or predator with their sharp hooves. Equids tend to live in large herds for added protection -zebnis sometimes live in mixed herds with antelopes.

Zebra kicking its back legs at an attacking cheetah

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Stripe pattern and color distinguishes

IIOKSES. ASSES. AND ZEBRAS

Three-toed

One-toed

GREVY’S

ZEBRA

■'Ik* largest ol' the zcltras, Grety’s zcbrti is no

r

T more closely related to the other zebras than it is to the horses and asses. Hunting Idr its skin, and competition with domestic animals for water, have reduced its numbers severely, and tl'e species is now endtingered. Merychippus

Pliohippus

round 'J

Horses, asses, and zebras live in family groups of amale, several females, and offspring. The male defends his territory and the females when they are ready to breed. Such herds are permanent in and

Burchell’s

and

H/.;

Narrow, / vertical

7 ,

stripes lie close

mountain

together.

zebras, but are loose associations in

asses and Greyy’s zebras. Living in a herd provides some protection from predators, especially for young animals. Herd of Camargue feral horses (Equus caballus)

i!.>J

i; "■■■'

e a r s

Herds

horses

Shoulder height may reach 5ft 4in (160 cm).

Large, I

Equus

Scienti c name; Equus prrvyi

Flattened ears indicate

Size; Head and body length up to 9ft 10 in (3 m)

aggression.

Habitat; Semideseri areas

C O M . M L M C AT I O N

Di.stribution; NF. Africa, Somalia, Kenya, Ethiopia

Communication helps to keep aherd together, alert members to danger, atid deline friend.ships atid rivalries. Eqttids htive aettte semses of sight, smell, and hearing-

.s

Reproduction; Single toting born after .390 days’

r-S-

gestation; foal remains with female for up to 3years Diet; Tough grasses

all used in commuttication. Thev convev their

mood bv changes in posttire, the position of their ears, tail, or motilh. and by making sounds. For example, if ;i horse is startled, it

Mare rests after

Foal is still covered

birth to her foal.

in the amniotic sac.

raises us head and tail, arches its neck, and

Kulans are a

Hares its nostrils, alertittg the others to I'titi,

subspecies of the wild ass IS.%

from Asia.

Kulans (Equus hemionus kutan)

GmNG BIRTH Life in open grasslands is full of dangers for horses -particularly for ayoung foal. As soon as afoal is

Mare licks amniotic sac from toal

born, its mother licks it to remove the

birth

membranes

and

to

stimulate its circulation and

IM '

breathing. Within one hoitr, it can struggle to its feet, wobbling at rst on its long legs. Soon it is able to walk and run, The foal will soon take its

and to follow its mother

if danger threatens. Hale

rst steps.

DOMEST1C.ATION

shadow

Ilorse.s (Equu.s raballus) were

W d

stripes between the main stripes

lirsi domesticated tibout 6,000

year.s ago for use as food, beasts of burden, to send into war, and to race and

Stripes are

?

horizontal over

■

V t

iT"

the haunches

and legs.

ride for pleasure. Today, there are 300 breeds of domestic horse, divided into three groups: heacy* horses, such as Shire horses, light horses, including thoroughbreds, and smaller ponies, such as Shetland jMinies. Mules (the offspring of male donkeys and female horses) have been bred as domesticated animals hv humans.

One-toed

Lean

hoof

mtjscular

Thoroughbred horses are bred for stamina and

strength in horse racing. They can reach speeds of 40mph (65kmh).

Iail has

long hairs at the tip.

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269

Find out mor Defense 1: 48 Mammals: 232 Movement on land: 34 People AND animals: 94

Black rhinoceros

Rhinos and tapirs

[Diceros bicoryiis)

Rhinocerosesaremassive,bulkymammalswith thick skins and distinctive horns on their snout the name rhinoceros comes from the Greek

word for “nose-horned.” Like tapirs, they are herbivorous mammals that have hooved toes on

each foot. There are ve rhino species: the black and white rhinos from Africa, and the Sumatran,

Indian, and Javan rhinos from Asia. While most rhinos are solitary animals, white rhinos sometimes live in groups of related females and

their young. Tapirs are related to rhinos. They are nocturnal, shy, forest-dwelling animals with short mobile trunks. There are three South

American tapir species and one Asian species. Horn made ■v>'

f _ C

of keratin bers -the

Upper iip IS

same materiai

I

.

prehensile (capable of grasping).

found in human naiis and hair ■'^1

To u g h s k i n a n d h o r n

j -

Short, stocky tegs support bulky body.

'Arhino has alarge head with one or two

r

t

horns on the snout, depending on the species. The horn is not made of bone but of amass of

Ikeratin (hairlike) bers. Most rhinos have tough,

Hair on belly and legs

^thick skin that is virtually hairless. The

TIti Sumatran rhino from Southeast Asia is

the smallest rhino and is vep'rare.

Sumatran rhinoceros

{Direrorhinu.s .sumalmi.si.s)

It differs from all other rhinos by

having ahairy coat when young.

S-1>-

Browsers and grazers Rhinos need to eat plenty of vegetation each day in order to maintain their large

Indian rhinoceros

(Rhinoceros unicorn is)

.A'-'*

bulk. The rhino family includes both browsers that pluck leaves and fruit from

trees and plants, and grazers that crop

White rhinoceros

grasses. The black, Sumatran, and Javan rhinos are browsers, and have specialized upper lips adapted for feeding on shrubs.

The Indian rhino can extend its upper lip to grasp leaves when browsing, and can

fold its lip away when grazing.

s u n b l o c : k

(Ceratotherium simum) at awaterhole

With so little liair, arhino’s skin is vulnerable to stinlight. Living in hot climates, rhinos often become overheated and need to cool

off by lying in water or by wallotving in mud. As the mud dries on arhino’s skin, it forms asunblock and may also help to deter tormenting skin parasites.

PECULIAR

●it.

PA RT N E R S

African rhinos and oxpeckers make unusual feeding partners. Oxpeckers clamber over rhinos with their sharp

Thisrhino'ssingle horn has been removed.

claws, and use their

bills to feed on ticks and

be extended

other parasites from the rhinos’ skin. The birds also

&long grass,

¥and folded

iaway when Ifeeding on Gshort grass.

Oxpeckers on the back of ablack rhinoceros

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attened

Upper lip can

\to grasp

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ANIMALS

help rhinos by screeching if danger threatens. In return, the oxpecker secures a constant food supply.

AND

TA P I R S

M A L AYA N l U S !

T

TA P I R

he only tapir species outside Sovith America, the Malayan tapir lives in the densest parts

of the rainforests of Southeast Asia. It is easily

distinguislied I’rom its Soutli American relatives by its distinctive black and wliitc patterned coat. Tills lielps Irreak up its outline and conceal it from

White rhinos

clashing horns

possible predators. Hunting and destruction of its

Confrontation

raini'orest habitat have made the Malayan tapir an endangered species. Black and

Male rhinos defend their territory to protect their food, water, and females. They mark out boundaries with feces and urine, and may

.

u

white

coat

charge at any unwary intruders at high speeds. Con icts with other rhinos are usually resolved through ritual gestures, such as the clashing of horns. Sometimes real ghts erupt that can result in gaping wounds. Leathery hide falls in distinct folds.

IARMOR Rliinos have few

natural predators but humans and other

Scienti c name: Tapinis indiem Size: Up to 3ft -S in (1 m) high

rliinos are aserious threat. Rhinos’ horns, thick skin, and

Habitat: Rainforests

massive bulk are all part of their

Distribution: Southeast Asia

defense. The Indian rhino seems

Reproduction: Female gives birth to one offspring

particularly well protected -its heavily folded, bumpy skin has the appearance of armor plating.

Diet: Leaves, shoots, buds, and fruits Long,

exible snout

Brazilian tapir

(Tapirus Imrstris)

C O N S E R V. V T I O N Habitat destruction and demand for rhino

Ta p i r s Tapirs are shy,

solitaiy animals with

horn have dramatically

a

reduced the number of rhinos. In Asia, the horns

WF short, stout bodies. Their

Wsnout and upper lip are

'joined together to form ashort, eshy trunk called aproboscis.

are crushed to produce medicinal “remedies.

and in North Yemen they are used to make dagger

Tapirs use their trunk to “smell”

their way arouncHhe forest and

handles. Conservationists

to pull forest vegetation and fruit

tr)' to prevent rhino

slaughter by shearing off

into the mouth. Tapirs have

■IS:

the animals’ horns before

very good senses of smell and hearing, but poor eyesight.

poachers can get to them. This is apainless process for the rhinos.

/

Conservationists removing horns

Splayed feet help prevent tapirs

from sinking into soft ground.

Tapirs plunge into the water to escape

from enemies.

Swimmers Tapirs are able swimmers Ayoung Brazilian tapir (Tapirus terrestris)

and divers, and are nearly always found near water or

TA P I R C A M O U F L A G E

periods splashing in water or wallowing

swampy ground. They spend lon

The dark-brown coat of the Brazilian tapir

in mud in order to cool off during the heat

gives it excellent camou age. Baby tapirs of all

of the day. They feed on shoots, leaves, and

species have striped and spotted coats that blend in with the dappled light of the forest. When they are about six months old, the spots and stripes fade and the young tapir begins to look like its parents.

succulent water plants. In times of danger,

tapirs can escape from predators by submerging themselves in water -

sometimes for several minutes at atime.

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RHINOS

^ Find out mor Animals in d.anger: 100 Elephants and httlaxes: 266 GR.ASS1ANDS: 84

Horses, a.s,ses, and zebras; 268

Hippos AND PIGS

Hippopotamuses The hippopotamus is amassive animal with abarrel-

shaped body, stumpy legs, and ahuge, wide-opening mouth. The mouth conceals apair o arge, razorsharp teeth in the lower jaw that are used for ghting. Hippopotamuses rest during the day in lakes or rivers.

HIPPOPOTAMUSES AND PIGS are distinguished by their short legs, stocky bodies, and large heads. Hippopotamuses are nocturnal plant-eaters found only in wet parts of Af rica. There are two species -alarge species called the hippopotamus

At night, they leave the water and tvalk along paths to “hippo meadows,” where they

Iced on short grass. Hippopotamuses are gressive and will harge at animals

and asmaller forest-dweller called the

pygmy hippopotamus. The hippopotamus

lives mostly in water to keep cool and to

that threaten

support its massive body weight. Pigs are intelligent, nimble animals with sensitive snouts that they use to root for food in forests and grassland. Most are omnivores

their young or come too close. Hairless skin

-they eat animals as well as plants. There are 9pig species, native to Europe, Africa

Small ears on _top of head

and Asia. The peccaries of South and

Central America are similar to pigs, but are placed in afamily of their own.

Raised eyes on top of

Nostrils on

top of

v < . ; m y h i p i x ) p o i a m u s

s n o u t

The pvgmv hippopoiamus is found in the wet forests and s^\●alnp^ of West Africa. It is onlv al:)oul half

le lenglli of its larger relative. has widely spaced toes and eyes SCI oil Ihc side of its licad. Il is not

f m M

aquatic, but will seek refuge in water

dhort,

if threatened. Pygmy hippos rest by day and fectl

stumpy legs

at nigiit on tender shoots, grass, leaves, and fallen fruit. They may live alone or in pairs or threes.

Pygmy hippopotamus (Clim-mjisis Hheriensis)

Broad lips for, plucking short grass plants

Life in wa

Hippopotamus

(llippopotnmus ampliibius)

Hippopotamuses live in water to avo

the heat of the day ;ind to save energy.

FKRRITORIAt.

They can see and breathe when their

mating rigiits to females in the lerritoiy. If

top of their heads. They are sociable creatures, and live in herds of 10-1 % animals. Staying together protects them from attack by predators. The young

adominant male is chtilienged, the two rivals

threaten each other by grtmting, showing their huge teeth, or scattering thing with their tails. If neither retreats, they ght ercely, using their sharp teeth to in ict wotmds

are especially vulnerable, and sometimes

crocodiles. Nearly half die in their rst year.

tmtil one .submits. The

ligiit may be fatal.

Hippos keep their eyes above water to watch out for danger. MOV

INO

U N D E R W AT F.

R

.Allhough hippos spend most olTheir lime resting when in water, ihev are also excellent .swimmers and divers.

Water

ows easily over their smooth

skin, anti their webbed toes act like

patltlles. When undenvater, the hippo's slitlike ears and luisti ils close to keep water out. Hippos can remain submergetl for up to ve minutes, anti stimetimes longer. In tleeper water, they may walk along the botlom of rivers and lakes.

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1.ItfT

lei riloiy. The.se dominani males have exclusive

eyes, ears, and nostrils are set on

crawl onto their mothers’ backs to avoid

(iO\F

Some nude hippopoianuises ercely defend theii

bodies are submerged because their

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.

ANIMALS

Pigs Pigs are sure-footed, fast runners with agile, powerful bodies. Their most

promment feature is the mobile snout, which is

attened and sensitive at the

BABIRUSA

his hairless pig has tasks that grow upward through its snout and cun'c toward its eyes. Babirusas lir ein small groups, prefen ing dense

T

cover within forests. When foraging,

tip. They also ha\'e apair of upturned

the male does most of the

tusks. Most pigs have avaried diet, and

rooting, while females and young Ibllow

tise their snouts to turn over soil in search of roots, insect laiwae, and other

Sensitive

African bushpig

food. Pigs usually forage in small family groups, and communicate using grunts and squeaks.

behind and feed on fe tinearlhed items.

t

Babirusas are

good swimmers, and sometimes

snout

fPotamochoerus jioirus)

venture to

Afemale wild boar with her

family of striped piglets

out

sea.

l A R G E FA M I L I E S

Tropical pig species breed throtighotU the year, while temperate species produce llieir litters in the spring. Piglets are born in agrass

\ Tu s k s

growing through snout

nest, where they stay for severtil

tdays before following their mother.

Some species, .such as the wild boar (Stis scrofa), have large litters of u]t

1%to12piglets.Inmostspecies,the piglets are striped to camottllage

^them against their surroitndings.

Self-defense

Wa r t h o g {Phacochoenis

Pigs use their acute senses of smell and hearing to

(lethiopicus)

Scienti c name: Babyrousn bahynissa

Size: Bod) up to 3ft Sin (1 m) lon Habitat: Forests and thickets, always near 'vater Distribution: Several islands in Indonesia

Reproduction: Females ha\ e1or 2young each tear Diet: Leaves, grass, fallen fruit, roots

b

FIGHTING

detect approaching enemies.

Male pigs come into con ict when competing for females. They use

If threatened, they hide in

vegetation and keep still until danger passes. Alternatively, apig may charge at apredator and try to injure the animal with its tusks. The pig’s broad head

their heads and itisks as

weapons to overcome their rivals. The .shape of apig’s

Male wild boars

head and tusks re ects the

' K j

ght by gashing each

o t h e r ’s s h o u l d e r s w i t h t h e i r t u s k s .

way it ghts. The wild boar

has thickened skin and some

triors to slash its rival’s

species, such as the warthog, have growths to protect the face.

shotilders with sharp tusks, and has matted hair on its

Warthogs have large growths, or warts, around the face.

shoulders for protection. Wlirthogs dash head-on,

and tiy to injure their opponent’s head with

Males confront eaoh other in aterritorial

Hippopotamuses open their

dispute.

wide, ctuving ttisks.

Warthogs clash head-on. Their “warts" protect against the other's fearsome tusks.

mouths wide

to display

^aggression.

PECGA.RIES

These slender-legged animals are found in the forests of Sotilh

and Central America. Although similar to pigs, they are not members of the pig family. Peccaries are omnivores but

feed mainly on roots, fniits, and seeds. They live in herds in W,

5fe

' ●

Collared peccaries (Tayassu tajacu) foraging for food

w'ell-defmed territories, which

they defend from rival peccaries. The rtirest of the three peccaiy species is the Chacoan peccaiy (Caiagonm wagneii), which was discovert'd in South America bv scientists in 197.5.

Find

out

more

Animals: 140 Giusslands: 84 Ma,\imai.s: 232 Wetiands: 74



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,

HIPPOS AND PIGS

G i r a ff e s a n d c a m e l s

Asingle horn may grow from the middle of the forehead, in addition to the horns on the crown.

TheW01L1.d’stallestanimal,thegirafferoamsinsmall

herds through the savanna of Africa, taking its pick from the treetop vegetation. The okapi, the giraffe’s only living relative, is asolitary forest-dweller. The camel family (camelids) is another of the 10 families that make up the order Artiodactyla. It includes the Bactrian and dromedary camels of Asia and Africa, and the smaller

South American camelids -the guanaco, vicuna, and the domesticated alpaca and

■IT-’

llama. Camels can survive in harsh deserts

Giraffe anatomy Giraffes are easy to identify with their long, graceftil necks and legs and their unmistakable patterned coat. Both sexes are born with short horns on their

heads. These are used by the males when ghting, but are not shed each year. Like

other mammals, the giraffe’s exible neck contains just seven vertebrae, but

these bones are greatl

and for long periods without water, while the South American camelids thrive at

elongated. The tail

high altitude and in dry conditions.

is used as a y whisk

i

Ihe patterned coat helps to camou age the giraffe.

A

JH

tipped with long hairs, JM to keep insects and

D R I N K I N G

Other pests away.

Because it has such long legs, agiralTe is unahle to drink without getting into an awkward position. To reach the tvater, agiraff , needs to splay its front legs and bend its

Giraffe splays its front legs to drink

!

at awatf^rhnlf^

knees, aposition that leaves it \ulnerable Pul

sg

Thick lips protect the giraffe from thorns.

Treetop browsers

I&

i

Reticulated giraffe

to attack. For this reason, giraffes tisttally visit waterholes in small herds, so that one can keep alookout while the others drink.

Horns are covered with

hairy skin. Rothschild’s giraffe

Giraffes use their height to feed on leaves, twigs, shoots, and other vegetation at the tops of trees. Trees provide

&

food all year, unlike grasses which die out in the dry season. The giraffe uses its long tongue and grooved canine teeth to strip off leaves, while its thick lips provide

Masai giraffe C O AT

Wprotection from the sharp thorns of acacias

PAT T E R N

The eight subspecic.s of giraffe are luo.st easily distinguished by

and other trees. Female giraffes tend to feed on lower trees and shrubs at body level, while males stretch up to feed on leaves in taller trees.

variations in their coat

pattern. The background color may vaiy and the blotches range from bright chestnut to averv dark

Itrown, with either afuzzy or distinct outline. There is also considerable variation within each

f t

WmM

subspecies, and an individual giraffe’s pattern is as unique

as ahuman ngerprint. While coat pattern does not change with age, its

m

colors tend to darken.

Giraffes walking and galloping

Forelegs are longer than the hind legs.

C A N T E R I N G A N D G A LT O P I N G

Despite their size, giraffes move both gracefully and at speed, stipported by their robust, two-toed hoofed feet.

Large hooves may be used to kick out at predators.

VVhen cantering or running slowly, giraffes swing the legs on the same side of the body fonvard at the time. M'hcn galloping, they bring their hind legs fonvard at the same time, outside the front legs. Wlien on the move, giraffes usually travel in small groups. s a m e

Giraffe

{Ciraffa Camelopardalis)

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ANIMALS

CAMELS

“Discovered” only in 1901, the okapi is one of the last large mammals to become known to science. It is much smaller, and has ashorter

neck and legs than its relative, the giraffe. The okapi’s patterned coat provirles camoullage in the dense tropical Idrests of central Alrica. Okapis are reclusive animals and feed mainly at night using their long tongues -which can be up to 20 in (50 cm) in length -to pull leaves from the trees. The okapi has poor eyesight but depends on its

striped legs provide camou age.

senses of smell and hearing to detect predators.

he smallest members of the camel family, vicunas live in the alpine grasslands of the Andes Mountains, where they gra/.e on grasses. Vicunas live in family groups

T

consisting of amale, several females, and their young. Once prized by the Incas for their wool, vicunas were hunted to near extinction in recent

have now

{Okapia johnstonf) Dromedaries have

Dromedary

V I C U N A

times. Numbers

a

The humps contain afat store that is used up when

increased

fond is scarce.

consen'ation

because of

one hump.

camel

(Camdu. H dromedarius

%

programs.

■>P

Vicunas have

long legs and can run at up to 31 mph (50 kmh).

Camels The largest of the even-toed mammals,

both camel species are adapted I'or survival in hot, diy conditions. Their splayed, t\vo-toed feet prevent them from sinking into soft sand. Fur keeps them warm during cold desert nights, while their body temperature can

Scienti c name: Vicugna vicugn Size: Head and body length up to 5ft 4in (1.6 in) Habitat: Semiarid mountain gras.slands and plains 11,500-18,800 ft (.8,500-5,750 m) in altitud Distribution: Andes Mountains in South America

Reproduction: Single yotmg, born after 11 months Diet: Grasses

increase during the heat of the day without causing them harm. l,ong eyelashes keep sand from getting into the eyes, while slitlike nostrils prevent sand from blowing up the nose.

Bactrian camel

(Camdu.s badrianus) The packs are tied securely around the llamas' bodies.

3WATER LOS

^

Camels have an extraordinar)' ability to go withotit water. When not working, they may go for months withoitt drinking, as long as there are

plants to eat, from which they can extract moisture.

Llamas (Lama glama) carrying corn in Bolivia

To reduce water loss, camels produce diy feces and

little urine. Despite these adaptations, camels lose a signi cant amotint of their body mass if withotit water. Acamel may lose 40 percent of its body mass after long periods

Acamel can drink enough water to make up huge losses In just 10 minutes.

w i t h o u t w a t e r.

Wlien ivater is available they quickly make up the loss,

con.suming up to 30 gallons (135 litres) in minutes. Fur is thick and shaggy, and helps to keep the guanaco warm in the mountains.

BEASTS

inhabit harsh areas in mountains and

Guanacos have long necks

deserts. Llamas can carry loads of up to 220 lb (100 kg) at high altitude over long distances, while

and camel-like faces,

typical of all camelids.

camels can travel more than

19 miles (30 km) aday in searing heat and without

I

alpacas, guanacos are the largest South American camelids. They need little on the dry grass and shrtiblands in the foothills of the Andes Mountains.

They are found grazing and browsing on grasses and shrubs at altitudes of up to 13,900 ft (4,250 m). They live in small family groups overseen by asingle male. The male bleats awarning if apredator approaches so the herd can make its escape.

Guanacos live in

small family groups.

Find out mor Defensi- 2: 50 Deserts: 86 Feeding and NU iRi riON: 22 G u a n a c o

(Lama guanicoe)

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275 s

water. Many nomadic peoples

sun ive in deserts by using 'camels to transport loads, as well as using their milk, meat, and skins. Domesticated alpacas and llamas also provide wool, milk, meat, and other products.

water and are able to live

fi

BURDEN

pack animals for thousands of years and have played acrucial role in enabling people to

Close relatives of the domesticated llamas and

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OF

Llamas and camels have been domesticated as

Guanaco

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AND

OK.A.PI

k

a

I

GIRAFFES

Mammals; 232

D e e r Female red deer

(Cenfus elaphiis)

FinelyBUILTandfast-moving,deer

are shy animals that often spend daylight hours hidden away in forests. They belong to agroup of even-toed, 'i hoofed mammals that includes pigs, camels, cattle, and antelope. Deer graze i?^P

Anatomy Deer have slender, muscular bodies with long, thin legs ending in twin toes that help them to run quickly from predators. Male deer, called stags, have branched antlers that are shed each year. Deer are veiw alert animals. Their

triangular ears can move to pinpoint the quietest noise. Large eyes on the sides of their head

provide good, all-round vision and help deer to keep aconstant lookout for potential enemies.

on grasses and shrubs and roam wild in

Europe, the Americas, Asia, and Nort . Africa. Some species have been introduced into Australasia and New Guinea. There are

about 40 species of deer including red deer, wapiti, moose, and reindeer. The mouse deer and musk deer are related to true deer, but belong to different families.

'Vl

M u s c u l a r,

slim body

Antlers

Heddish-brown

Into Its woodland

background.

Flattened palmate (handllke) region

only mammals to have

of antler

Long,

antlers. They are

coat

helps the deer blend

Deer are the

n a r r o w

carried

on the heads ol

Tine, or point.

all male deer as well as female

Twodoed,

of antler

hoofed foot

for speed

r e i n d e e r. A n t l e r s are made of bone and are shed and r e g r o w n e v e r y y e a r.

They range in size and

AlARM

shape from the simple spikes of the pudu to the massive, complex

deer are con.stamlv on

guard. If adeer .spots an approaching predator,

m o o s e a n d r e d d e e r. M a l e d e e r u s e

it can warn die rest of

their antlers to attract females and

to ght rival males during the rutting (breeding) season

!

SKiNAL

Grazing oi- brow.sing

branching structures found in

the lierd by performing Skull of a

atail “dash.” The rumps

fallow deer

and shor ttails of most deer ar ewhite on the under'side. As adeer

ANTLER

runs away from danger, it raises its tail to give

GROWTM

aclear white Hash that

Adeer’s antlers start as bumps on the skirll that gradually extend aird become more complex. At rst, the antlers are quite soft and are covered by

can be seen from adistance.

Areindeer running from danger

alayer of skin, called velvet, that contains the

blood vessels that carr\- blood to the gr owing antlers. In late summer, the velvet dries up and

S . M A L L E S TA N D

falls off, revealing the bony core Deer speed up

1.ARGEST

The smallest true deer is the

pudu, which lives in the

the removal of

foothills of the Andes in Chile

the velvet

and Argentina. Pitdtrs reach only about 15 in (.“58 cm) at the shoulder. The largest deer is

by rubbing their antlers

against trees.

the moose or elk, as it is known

In winter or

irr Europe. Moose are foitnd

early spring, at

irr .Alaska, Canada, Greenland, Setmdinavia, and eastern

the end of the

rutting season,

1. Antler buds

the antlers

start to grow

fall off

on the skull.

2. In early summer, the antlers grow and branch rapidly.

3. In late summer, the antlers are fully grown and the velvet is shed.

h

.

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ANIMALS

Siberiti and can reach 7ft 6in

The moose can weigh up to too times as much as the pudu.

(2.3 m) in height and weigh 1,750 1b (800 kg).

DKKU

Feeding

REINDEER

Most deer are woodland animals that feed in small herds. Their

A

diet varies according to species and the time of year. ,

Iso known as the cariltou, the reindeer is the

only species of deer in wliicli l)oth males and

females have antlers. In the summer, reindeer

herds consist mainly offemales and young. In the fall, they are joined Ity the more solitan adult males who compete with rival males to gather groups offemales in preittirtition lor mating.

Some graze on grasses in .1 forest clearings, while others browse on the shoots, leaves,

twigs, or bark of shrubs and trees. While feeding, adeer uses its acute senses of hearing and smell to keep alookout for predators, and will raise its head periodically to scan the surroundings.

Female reindeer

are the only

Scienti c name:

female deer

Rnurylfer larandus

with antlers. /

Size: Botlv length 6ft (1.8 m)

Aherd of red deer grazing

Habitat: fundra Distribution:

WATER-FEEDER The moose lives in woodland and

Alaska, Canada, Greenland,

brow'ses on trees and shrubs. During

northern Europe.

the warm summer months, the moose

Russia

wades into lakes or streams

Reproduction: Female produces

to feed on aquatic plants such as pond treeds and water lilies. These provitle it with sodium, antineral needed for growth. Astrong swimmer, the moose mtiy even submerge itself completely in deep water to

one

or

two

ofFspring: gestation period

Broad

oF 33-35 weeks

hooves Diet: Summer:

grasses, sedges; winter: lichens

eat the stems and roots

of water plants Amale moose wading into water in search of tooa

1. Ared deer stag bellows out his

Rutting

challenge. 2. The two stags

For most of the year, male deer remain separate from the females. During the fall rutting (breeding) season, A males round up groups of females to protect them from rival males. All males mark their territories by scraping the soil with their hoov'es and antlers. Astag starts achallenge by roaring at his rival, who then roars back. The ability to roar loudly is an indication of ghting ability, although the competition between males does not necessarily lead to a ght.

walk next to each other to assess one

another's strength.

Mouse deer [Tragulusjavankudj MOUSE

DEER

M o u s e d e e r, o r c h e v r o t a i n s ,

3. The stags turn and lower their antlers.

live in the forests of tropical Africa and southern Asia.

There are four species, and all are solitaiw, nocturnal animals about the size of rtibbils. Unlike

true deer, they do not have horns or antlers.

4. Antlers locked, the stags push against each other.

5. The losing stag pulls away and runs off. P R O N G H O R N

MUSK

The pronghorn (Aniiloaipm amerirana) is aNttrth American species that shares

DEER

These shv, solitary animals live in the hilly forests of Central

some of the characteristics of both deer and

and Eastern Asia. Musk deer

The pronghorn is named ^

reach no more than 2.8 in

after the

(60 cm) in height. They move bv bounding, but can also climb nimbly on rocky crags. Males have long, pointed teeth that project beneath the lips, and they produce

male's horns that have forward-

pointing prongs..

Find out mor

abrownish secretion called musk

Cai iI.K ,WI) antelope: 278

that is used in perfume production. The hunting of musk deer led to a decline in their numbers, but they

Deciduou.s fore.st.s: 80 Defense 1: 48

are now farmed, and the musk is

Social animals: 54

Musk deer (iV/o.vr/ih.v mnschiferus) removed without killing them.

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antelope. Pronghorns live in small herds in open grassland and scrub. They haw long, slender legs and can run fast over long distances. Pronghorns have been hunted to near extinction, but are now protected and their numbers are increasing.

ANIMALS

Cattle and antelope

Cattle anatomy

Known collectively as BOVIDS, cattle and

females have apair of horns that are used for defense or for ghting. Cattle have strong legs that enable them to move with speed when threatened.

Cattle are large bovicls with stocky bodies and wide skulls. Both males and

antelope form one of the 10 families of even-toed,

Horns splay out from the

hoofed mammals. Bovids are found in many habitats. Most species live in herds, which gives them some protection from predators.

side of the head.

Like other bovids, most cattle

have sharp senses of smell and vision.

Bovids are herbivores and ruminants -

they have afour-chambered stomach in which vegetation is partially

digested before being regurgitated, chewed, and swallowed again. This diverse family is divided into ve smaller groups; wild cattle and spiral-horned antelopes; duikers; grazing antelopes, such as oryx; gazelles and dwarf antelopes; and goats, sheep, and their relatives.

American bison

bison)

Shaggy hair on front of body makes the bison look larger.

Skull of afour-horned antelope (Trtrarrms quadricomis)

BOVID

SKULL

Bovids have long skulls with large cheek teeth that cut and grind tough vegetation before it is swallotved. Like deer, bo\ ids have atough pad at the front of the upper jaw rather ihan incisors. The lower incisors push against this ptul to cut and crush vegetation. The bony cones on top of the skull form the central cores of

the horns. The position of the eye

Large, ridged

sockets on the sides of the skull

cheek

allows good all-around vision.

teeth

Pad in place of upper incisor teeth

ANTELOPE HORNS

Unlike deer, which lose their antlers regularly, cattle

GRASSLAND

and antelope have permanent horns. The shape and size of the horns vary with different .species. In most species, males use their horns

when competing with rivals to assert their

MS dominance. ‘1

Aherd of wildebeest crossing the Mara River in Kenya M I G R ATO R S

Although they look similar to cattle, wildebeest (Connnchneles gnou) are in fact grazing tintelope. They live mthe savanna of southern Africa. At the start of

The male greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) has tong horns that

the wet season, wildebeest migrate in vast numbers lo nd water and new vegetation. Many perish as they cross rivers -they may be crushed by the rest of the herd, swept away bv strollen waters, or seized by waiting crocodiles.

corkscrew backward from its head.

AGILE CLI.VIBERS

Mountain sheep and goats are sure¬ footed and can climb easily on ■fc, rock faces in ortler to

nd food

9and escape predators. Barbary sheep from the mountains of North Africa have shock-

i

absorbing legs and rubbery hoof pads that cushion hea\y landings. The mountain goat

\Both male and female roan

I, antelope p(Hippotragus

and the ibex ha\e hollow ...

equinus) have

Barbary sheep {Ammolmgus iervia)

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278 .

that

allow

them

to

scramble over the craggiest

backward-

curving horns.

liooves

of rocks with ease.

Royal antelope

SMALLEST

{Neotra^rus pypnaeus)

r

AND

ANTELOPE

ANTELOPE

The royal antelope is the smallest ungulate (hoofed mammal) with horns. This rabbit¬ sized mammal measuresjust 20 in (50 cm) in length and 11 in (28 cm) in height to the shoulder. It weighs about 4lb 6oz (2 kg). It is ashy, secretive animal living in the tropical forests of West .Africa, where it is small enough to dart away into the dense vegetation at the rst sign of danger.

v

ASIAN

M

WAT E R

BUFFALO

ost Asian water buffalo have been

domesticated and are used to pull plows in wet paddy elds. However, some herds of wild water buffalo still roam the .swampy grasslands of Borneo, Malaysia, Thailand, and India. They graze mainly at night, drink water each morning and evening, and rest in the shade during the heat of the day. The buffalo’s ferocity generally protects it from tigers and other predators. Scienti c name:

Feeding

Bubalus arnee

Some bovids are browsers

Size: Body lengtli of up to 9ft (2.8 m)

drat feed on trees and

leaves above the ground, while others graze and crop vegetation at ground level. One species of gazelle, the gerenuk, has adapted to life in the hot, dry savanna with its unique ability to feed while standing on its back legs. This enables it to browse on the shoots and

leaves at the top of shrubs when vegetation on the ground has dried up. 3.’

■A -

/

w

/

Habitat: Swampy grasslands Distribution: Borneo, Malaysia, Thailand, and India

Reproduction: Female produces asingle calf; gestation period is

Bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) banging their heads together

47 weeks

Breeding

Diet: Mainly gras.se.s and sedges; needs

During the breeding season, male bovids compete to determine which of them will

to drink daily

mate with the females in the herd. The

competition may be a ght, or it may take the form of ritualized movements that signal to amale whether his rival is stronger. If ghting does take place, males lock horns and push against each other until one of them gives in. Some species, such as bighorn sheep, run at each other head-on. The impact is absorbed by their thickened skulls.

}■

GIVING

BIRTH

Female bovids give birih to large young that are typically able to struggle to their feet and move tvith the herd shortly after birth. Newborn bovids are in danger of attack by predators, which are always ready to pick off vulnerable members of the herd. The mother and

other members of the herd cannot always drive away attackers, so the ability to run within the herd helps the newborn’s chances of stiivival.

Blue wildebeest

The young wildebeest staggers

giving birth

to its feet 15 minutes afterbirth.

fv I

a m

N

Blue wildebeest

(Connochaetes laurinus)

Tr-vuLd^'-^/x...

mm

The newborn calf is soon

Afemale wildebeest gives birth standing up. She licks her offspring

I ’ m

i l

I

to remove the birth membrahes.

ready to follow its mother.

Gerenuk {Utocranius zualleri) FAST

MOVERS

D O M E S T I C AT I O N

Bovids are preyed upon by animals such as large cats, wild dogs, and hyenas. living in a herd provides some protection from attack. Fast-mo\ing bovids, such as antelope and gazelles, also depend on speed to escape

Wild cattle, sheep, and goats were

their enemies. When threatened,

the wild auroch, which used to

gazelles may “slot” or “pronk.” This involves making sudden vertical leaps while running to show apredator that the gazelle is very t and likely to escape.

roam the plains of Europe and Asia. Sheep were domesticated about 10,000 years ago in the Near East, and goats about 9,000 years ago in southwestern Asia.

domesticated

thousands of years ago to provide products such as meat,

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Auroch

Jersey cow

m i l k , w o o l , a n d l e a t h e r. M o d e r n catde breeds are descended from

iti.

.'I

Springbok slotting in the Kalahari Desert, Africa

279 -

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C AT T L E

Find out mor Grassland.s: 84 Mk;ic\tion and navigation; 46 Mountains and caves: 88 People and aniM/\ls: 94

Primates

Western tarsier

Huge eyes to

Ta r s i e r s

(Tarsius hanranus)

see in the dark

Ta r s i e r s l i v e i n f o r e s t s

on the islands of

Xhe primate family is of special interest to

Southeast Asia. They hunt at night, leaping through the trees and grabbing insects in

scientists because it includes humans. There

are about 180 primate species, most of which live in forests in warm parts of the world. Most primates are agile climbers, with long limbs and

their hands. In addition Claws for

exible ngers and toes. They also have wide,

Qroommq

forward-facing eyes and larger brains than other mammals of the same size. Scientists divide the

tarsiers also hunt

lizards, birds, .scorpions, and snakes. The prey is usually eaten head rst. because they can turn their heads around to see backward. There

and bushbabies. Prosimians tend to be smaller

Pads on

than anthropoids, and many are nocturnal.

improve

ngers to grip Grasping feet for climbing

m

to eating insects, some

Ta r s i e r s a r e u n u s u a l

primates into two main groups -anthropoids, which include monkeys and apes, and prosimians, which include lemurs, lorises,

are four tarsier species. Some scientists classify them as anthropoids, but others place them in agroup of their own.

Common chimpanzee

(Pan Iwglmlyles) .ANTHROPOIDS Sometimes called the “advanced

primates,” this group includes apes, monkeys, marmosets, and tamarins, as well as humans. Anthropoids are adaptalrle, intelligent animals tlnit of ten live in socitil groups. Most are good climbers, bttt some live maitih on the ground. Chimpanzees are anthropoids, and are also out'

Long tail tor balance when leaping A.MAZING BILAINS

Primates ha\e much larger brains relative to their body

toe and thumb

Thin middle

for gripping

Claws for

Long toe and thumb for grasping

J m

tree

Cerebrum

size than most other animals.

nearest relatives.

Opposable

nger y

for probing wood f

The “thinking” jrtirt olthe brain

-the

cerebrum

-

is especially large and ^

clinging

complex. Having a large brain mttkes primates

trunks

1

fast learners, and allows them to communicate with

Si

etich other in comjrlex ways. Aconsiderable part of aprimate’s

A1 foot

making precise movements with the hands and lingers.

Aye-aye Aye-aye foot hand

hand

GETTING

AGRIP

Feeding

Compared to other mammals, primates have very exible ngers and toes. Their exact shape varies according to their way of life. Achimp has quite short lingers and toes, but it can press its thittnb against its lingers to achieve aveiy precise grip. An indri’s hiinds and feet are shaped for gripping branches and tree trunks, tvhile an aye-aye’s extraordinaiy h:mds have evoh ed to help it piy insects out of bark. I.ARGEST

Human

AND

Some primate.s live almost entirely on leaves, but most eat awide variety of other f o o d s . T h e b l a c k l e m u r, f o r

example, feeds on leaves as a large part of its diet, but also eats eggs, small birds, and

SMALLEST

Primates vaiy enormously in size. The largest is the male gorilla (Gorilla gorilla), which can weigh up to 38.5 lb (175 kg) in the wild, and even more in captivity. The smallest are western mouse lemurs (Mlrmcf'hus spp.). They mea.sure about 7.5 in (19 cm) from the nose to the tip of the tail, and weigh about 1.2oz (35 g). By comparison, an average .American Gorilla Mouse lemur man weighs about 154 lb (70 kg).

insects, as well as

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otvers and

fruit. Monkeys are often untidy eaters. When they feed on fruit high up in the treetops, they usually drop half-eaten scraps onto the ground below, and this attracts other animals, such Black lemur (Lemur macaco) feeding

280 fi

Cuerebrum

brain deals with vision, and with

Chimpanzee Chimpanzee

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ANIMALS

as deer and wild pigs.

PRIMATES

Lemurs

AY E - AY E

l.emurs live only on the island of Madagascar, off die east coast of Africa. There have never been apes

A F R I C A

at night, the aye-aye is asecretive and A :Clive .endangered animal lliat lives in the fttrests

or monkeys here, and instead lemurs have evolved in \

their place. The largest species of lemur are active by day. They look similar to monkeys, btit have sharply pointed muzzles and are not as good as monkeys at using their hands. The smallest lemurs look more like rodents than primates and are active at night.

\

W0idagascar

t»

# Ring-tailed lemur (Lemur c/illa)

of Madagascar. It uses its long, thin middle nger for extracting grubs from Irranches and for grooming its fur. This primate’s strange appearance and eerie calls have led to its persecution bv local people, who believe that it brings bad luck.

3 m

Sharply pointeo

●s, m

mu77la

s m , i * f

4 .1

C4’A A l.IFE

Scent

ON

THE

GROUND

Scienti c name: Daubenlonta madagascanensis

The ring-tailed lemur spends alot of time on the gi oiind compared to other lemurs. It li\'es in rocky scrubland, and its leatheiy Ininds and feet give it agood grip when running over boulders. These lemurs ustialh' hold their Ittng, striped tails upright, which helps them keep in contact as they forage for food. Males have scent glands on the inside of their

,gland

arms and often rtib scent onto their tails

Size; Up to 3ft 3in (1 m) long, including tail Habitat: Ti opical rainforest, bamboo thickets, and mangrove forest

Distribution; Isolated areas of .Madagascar Reproduction: Single offspring born in October or November; raised in aslick nest until it can

accompany its mother into the open Diet: Fruit, in.secLs, leaves, shoots, birds’ eggs, and young coconuts

to tram off risals.

LEAPING

IN

THE

DARK

Bush babies are noctttrnal creatures that live in

the forests of Africa. They have huge eyes for night vision, large etirs that can told up, and long hind legs for leaping. bush baby’s call sotinds rather like ababy ciying. The bush baby is askilled jumper that has no dif culty leaping in the dark. It „ long, silky tail helps it balance as

f, ,

/ ■ i

it moves from branch to branch.

The back legs swing forward, ready to land.

Forward-facing eyes help it judge distance.

GAu

iioLb

The bush baby grabs abranch with its hands and feet.

.mo\t;r

The slow loris is a methodical

and

unhurried

climber found in ihe

The bush baby

rainforests of Southeast

takes off with a

Asia, l.ike the bush baby,

kick from

this animal comes out to

its powerful back legs.

feed after dark. The loris’s

hands and feet give it a good, rm grip on tree branches, and it often

Find out more _

climbs upside down as it

Apes: 284

searches for food.

bushbaby (Gidago sp.)

Gompletely adapted to a life among the trees, lorises ven' rarely come down to the ground.

Communicahon: 44 Monkeys; 282 SOCI.-\L ANIM-VLS: 54 Aslow loris (Nycticebus coucang) climbing

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281

ANIMALS

Tufted-ear

Marmosets

Monkeys

m a r m o s e t

Marmosets are small, squirrel-like monkeys that live in the tropical

Monkeys belong to the primates, the group of mammals that also includes lemurs, apes, and humans. They are intelligent, very social animals that live mostly in close groups, although some live alone. Monkeys feed mainly on fruit and other vegetation, but also on meat. There are two main types of monkeys. New World monkeys, which include marmosets and howlers, have

widely spaced nostrils that face to the side, and live in the tropical forests of Central and South America. Old World monkeys, which include baboons, macaques, and colobtis, have nostrils that are close together and point downward.

Ear tufts

(Callithrix

of long,

jacchus)

white hair

forests of South America.

They have soft, dense coats, long tails, and often have prominent manes, crests, or tufts. Marmosets are active

in the day, feeding on fruit,

owers, insects, and

tree sap. They live in small family groups, made up of adults and their offspring. Female marmosets give birth to up to three young, and

males help with the care of infants. The marmosets feeds on an insect

are found in ara of habitats in Capuchin monkey (Cebus sp.)

Africa and Asia.

Forward-facing eyes provide excellent vision.

Short snout with

sideways-pointing nostrils

'Anatomy Monkeys are active, agile animals with long limbs and muscular bodies. Most monkeys have long tails that help them to balance when clambering among the branches. Prehensile tail

Some

South

American

species have prehensile (grasping) tails that can wrap around abranch and act as an extra limb. Monkeys

is used to grip the branch.

often have short-snouted, hairless

faces with fonvard-facing eyes.

LTheir strong exible hands and feet are perfect for gripping branches. Monkeys also use their hands for grooming,

outstretched, ared

colobus monkey (Piliocolobus badius) leaps

B|||S holding food, and catching insect prey as it ies past.

from tree to tree.

WALKING

ON

AI.L

FOUR.S

Celebes ape (Macaco nigra)

All SoLiLh American monkeys are tree-dwellers, but some African i n l ¬

keys are able to move quickly and ivitli great ' agility through the forest canopy, running along the branches and leaping from tree to tree. Amonkey tises ifs strong back legs to propel itself into the air, helped by the natural exibility of the tree branches. Its long tail acts as a rudder, enabling it to balance and steer in the air. As it lands,

and Asian species, stich a s baboons and macaques, spend much of their time on the ground. Ground-dwelling monkeys walk on all fours, placing their hands and feet Hat on the ground. They can also run at high speed to escape predators. Long tails would get

in the way on the ground these monkeys tisually have short or stuni[ty tails.

the monkey grips the twigs ,

and branches with its long, y grasping fmgers and toes.

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282

S'l

A Infant monkeys can cling on tightly to their parents.

MONKEYS

Social life Monkeys live in groups, called troops. Depending on the species, the troops range in size from one male and female with their young, to several

C O M M O N W O O L LY M O N K E Y

T

here are two .species of woolly monkeys which a r e

thus named becatise of their short, woolly

fur. They spend most of their lives in tropical forests, but often descend to the

hundred monkeys, living in agroup

ground. Woolly monkeys live in groups of four or more indis iduals. During the day, they move from

helps monkeys guard their feeding grounds and protect their young, and provides better defense against predators. Monkeys are intelligent

tree to tree in search of new food sources.

animals, and social interactions within

Scienti c name;

agroup are complex. Each monkey

Lagoihnx lagotrirha Size; Head and body length 20-28 in

has asocial rank that marks it as more

or less powerful than other monkeys.

(51-70 cm); tail letiglh 24-28 in (60-70 cm)

This monkey can /M hang from abranch '®

using its prehensiie M

taii when feeding. Q Pip?

i

M ■fTT

Habitat; Tropical

Srivet

forest

monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops) grooming

Baboons can live in iarge groups of up to

Distribution; South

750 animals.

America from Colombia to Bolivia

Reproduction; Females produce only one offspring at atime

each other

GROOMING

.VIonkeys scratch and pick theii’ fur with their nails to comb and clean it, and

Diet; Fruit, seeds, and some insects

kto remove an)' irritating skin parasites.

^Mutual grooming -two monkeys ^grooming each other’s fur -forms

San important part of social life for all

®monkey species. The friendly contact Winvolved in grooming helps to reduce *tensions between members of asocial group and to reinforce the bonds between

them. Red he (Aloualla .write

E N T M ’ I N E D TA I L S

Titi monkeys are tree-dwellers that live in the tropical forests of South America.

Titi monkeys with their tails entwined

The 13 species of titi monkeys

{Callicehu.i sp.) live in small familygroups consisting of two adults and their offspring. Like otlier monkeys,

- e r r

M;

titis communicate with each other

. «■

using both sounds and bod\- language.

C O M M U N I C AT I O N Commtmication

is

of

vital importance within atroop. It holds the group together, anc is used to give warnin; of approaching predate

When titi monkeys rest together on

abranch, they often link their long tails. This entwining helps to

strengthen family ties and friendships.

and to warn off rival tro'

Monkeys communicate visual signals, such a expressions and gestun use vocalization (call

^

grooming, and scent.' signal their pre.sence tt howls that can be heard

- C

V

JAPANESE iMACAQUES The 16 species of macaque, most of whii are found in Asia, are heavily built and

spend alot of time on the grotind as well as m

in trees. While most monkeys live in tropical areas, the Japanese macaqtie with its thick.

shagg)', gray coat is adapted for suivival in cold

conciitions.Inthewinter,Japanesemacaques

living in the mountains of northern Japan take dips in hot volcanic springs to keep warm.

Howlers are

among the loudest animals

on Earth. They howl in chorus to warn other

troops to keep Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata) bathing in hot volcanic springs

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283

their distance.

Find out more _ Afks: 284 Communication; 44 Primates: 280 Social animals: 54

I

ANIMALS

Apes Apesarelarge,intelligentprimatesthatlive

'afbbon

mainly in forests and feed predominantly on vegetation. There are two femilies of apes. The

rainforesls of Soullieasl Asia and Indonesia j

Gibbons S|>end dicir lif ^

forests. The great apes include the Asian orangutan,

for the next branch with j the other hand.

in ihe trees, feeding on

and the African gorilla, common chimpanzee, and pygmy chimpanzee, as well as humans. The great apes are capable of using tools and solving problems. Most ape species are threatened by human persecution and habitat destruction.

fruit and siioots. Their

ver\’ long arms, lingers, and toes, and mobile

shoulder and wrist joints,

enable them to swing rapidly, hand over hand, throngli the forest canopy. Gibbons live in small family groups. The parents defend ;i tei ritoiy b\calling loudly at dawn and

Common chimpanzee {Pan Iroglo(l)'lrs) Forelimbs are

dusk to ward off intruders.

longer than hind limbs. O R A N G U TA N S

Apes lack

hands and feet have thumbs

atail.

and toes adapted for gripping,

Meaning “man of the forest," orangutans {PoHgo pygmnni.s) are large, tree-dtvelling, red-haired apes that live in the forests of

and nails rather than claws.

But they differ by having no tail, forelimbs longer than hindlimbs, and very mobile wrists and shoulders. Apes also have larger, more complex brains. While all apes can sit

Wa n d r e a c h e s

”are found in llie tro]3ical

move rapidly through the trees of the Southeast Asian

Anatomy Like other primates, apes have fonvard-facing eyes and excellent eyesight. Their

one hand

mTlie nine species of gibbons

gibbons, or lesser apes, are small, slender apes that

Skull contains alarge, complex brain.

hangs from

CaBBONS

Feet are

f

placedaton the ground during walking.

i

branch to branch in search of fruits such as ranibuttms and durians. .Male

orangutans ;n emuch larger than females, and ha\'e big cheek Haps which make look

or stand upright, some that live mainly on the ground, such as

chimpanzees and gorillas, generally walk on all fours with their weight

Borneo and .Sitmalra. They lead solitary lives, moving slowly and deliberately front

them more

impre.ssive.

Chimp leans on knuckles of hand during walking.

on their knuckles. GORn.I..\S

The largest and most powerfttl of the apes, gorillas live in the mountain and lowland forests of central Africa. Gorillas t i r e

massively built with prominent

Male silverback gorilla (Gorilla gorilla) rests

brow ridges, allattencd nose, and acovering of black hair. Mature

on Its knuckles

males, which are much larger than females, are called sih erbacks because

their hair turns silveiy-gra\-with age. Gorillas live in small groups, which consist of adominant silverback male. emales, offspring, and subordinate

An orangutan's long arms can span 7ft (2.1 m).

ales. The;’ move within large territories dfeed on leases, shoots, and fruit.

To o l m a k e r s Chimpanzees use their high intelligence and natural inquisitiveness to make and use tools. In order to catch termites

to eat, achimp will take atwig, pull off its leaves, and carefully

push the twig into the termites’ nest. The chimp then pulls out the twig laden with termites, which it removes with its lips. 4young chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) extracts termites from their nest using atwig as atoot

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2 8 4

Chimps also use chewed-up leaves to soak up drinking water, and stones to crack open nuts.

V

PYGMY

D

C H I M PA N Z E E

espile tlieir name, pygmy chimpanzees, or bonoljos, are about the same size as common

Body twists

chimpanzees altliough they have asmaller head

around to

and slender body. Bonobos

allow free

are forest dwellers that

hand to grab

spend most of their

branch.

time in the trees. Bonobos live in closeknit communities in

which females play adominant role.

Long arms allow far reach and

Body is lighter in

fast swing

build than the common

chimpanzee.

Scienti c name: Pan panisrus

Size: Head and l)ody length 2.S-33 in (70-8.3 cm)

Habitat: Tropical rainfores Distribution: Central Africa: Congo (Zaire) Siamang gibbon (/-/)'lobaies nda \lus)

Reproduction: Females have single young; offspr ing st:iys with mother for 7-9 years Diet: Vegetation, and rarely, small animals

SOCIAI. GROUPS While orangutans usually lead asolitary life, most apes live in social groups. Chimpanzee communities

Male chimpanzee He begins to stands on two legs charge, beating his chest. and “swaggers."

He stops, slaps the ground and charges again.

can

number more than 60 individuals that defend territories

against rival groups. Living in asocial group

provides greater security against attack, enables apes to

AGtiRESSlON

defend feeding sites, and helps

In chimpanzee communities males tolerate each

protect the young. Apes constantly communicate with each other using sounds,

body language, and facial expressions; grooming helps strengthen bonds.

other and will form temporary alliances, but are

Gorillas constantly interact within their social group.

sometimes aggressive toward each other. Aggressive behavior, such as charging, often serves to establish

the position of both males in the group hierarchy: achimp that “submits” in the face of aggressive

Growing up Apes, like humans, put alot of effort into caring for their young. Newborn apes are

behaxior is subordinate to the other, dominant

male. Once each male’s position has been established, tension is reduced and the males groom each other.

born small ancl weak. They cling to their mother for warmth and protection, and are carried around by her. Young apes take along time to grow up and

P I AY

Play Is \itally important for young apes to learn and to practice adult skills and behavior

maternal protection can last for

patterns. As they chase each other,

several years. Chimpanzee ' stay with their mothers

until they reach ful

}

*

-

1

Sffc'SrWJ

maturity at about 13 years of age. The older offspring help

4^

wrestle, climb trees, swing from branches, and manipidate objects, young apes exercise their muscles and rehearse essential survival skills.

Play also enables young apes to learn the “rules” of their group and nd their place within it.

to look after their

younger siblings.

Find out mor A\IM\I.S IN D.VNCtER; WO M.vmm.\ls: 232

Ababy white-handed gibbon (Hylobates lar) clings to its mother's

Monkeys: 282 Primates; 280

fur for warmth

and protection.

Play helps young apes to nd their place in the group.

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2 8 5

SECTION

Classi cation i Classi cationisawayofidentifyingandgrouping

living things together. These two pages cover four of the

kingdoms of living things: monerans, protists, fungi, and plants. The fth kingdom, which contains animals, is shown on pages

Classi cation groups

Kingdom

The chans on these

Phylum/

two pages are color-

Division

coded to indicate

Class

288-89. In classi cation, as in all other branches of science, new discoveries are being made all the time and ideas are constantly changed and updated. As aresult, the details of classi cation often change. The system shown here, based on

different kinds of

ve kingdoms, is widely accepted by most biologists, but is not the only one in use today. Some experts, for example, divide

into smaller groups: phylum or

classi cation groups. The largest groups shown are kingdoms.

Order

Family

These are di\'ided

monerans into two separate kingdoms, each containing

division, class, order, and family. A division, which is the equivalent of a phylum, is used in plant classi cation.

different kinds of bacteria.

FrVE lUNGDOMS OF

M O N E R A N S

F U N G I

A N I M A L S

LfVING THINGS

This kingdom contains bacteria microscopic organisms that

This kingdotn contains organisms that absorb food

have asimple, single cell. .Most

and that reproduce by making spores. .Matty are microscopic, but some make their spores iti

The animal kingdom probabh' contaitis more species than all the other kingdoms put together. .All members of this kingdom have bodies tuade of many cells, and they live by eating food. Unlike fungi, most atiimals ingest or swallow their

Living things are divided into overall groups, called kingdoms, based on the different ways they work. At one time naturalists

divided the entire living world into just two kingdoms: plants

monerans get their energt' from substances around them. Some,

such as cyanobacteria, cat ty out photo.sytithesis to gather their energy from sunlight. PROTISTS

later showed that this system was too simple, and more kingdoms were devised. Today biologists divide the living world into at

The protist kingdom cotUaitis a variety of complex but maitily single-celled organisms. Sotne eat food, while others cany otit photosytithesis. Multicelltilar algae, ptirticularly seaweeds, are sometitnes treated as plants.

ve kingdoms, and

sometimes more.

large frttititig bodies such as mushrooms and toadstools. P L A N T S

and animals. Scienti c research

least

Platits have many cells and most cany out photosynthesis. Simple plants have no specialized roots or water-canying tissue, and reproditce by making spores. More advanced plants have roots and stems, and reproduce by making seeds.

food instead of

digesting it externally. Compared to other forms of tmilticellular life, animtils are often

highly mobile.

Conifers

Cycads

Flowering plants

Horsetails

Ferns

(CONIFEROPmT.y)

(Ci'CADOPHYl'A)

(Anthoph\ta)

(Sphenop vta)

(Pterophyta)

.SVoA pine

Bro7neliad

Monocotyledons

Dicotyledons

(Monocotut doneae)

(Dicotyledoneae)

Major families include

Major families include

Amaryllidaceae (e.g., daffodil) Arecaceae (palms) Bromeliaceae (broraeliads) Cyperaceae (e.g., sedges) Dioscoreaceae (e.g., yams) Iridaceae (e.g., iris, crocus) Juncaceae (mshes) Liliaceae (e.g., lily, tulip) Musaceae (e.g., banana) Orchidaceae (orchids) Poaceae (grasses)

Apiaceae (e.g., carrot) Asteraceae (e.g., daisy)

Brassicaceae (e.g., cabbage) Cucurbitaceae (e.g., melon, cucumber) Fabaceae (e.g., pea) Lamiaceae (e.g., mint) Magnoliaceae (e.g., magnolia, tulip tree)

Ranunculaceae (e.g., buttercup) Rosaceae (e.g., apple, rose) Rubiaceae (e.g., coffee) Solanaceae (e.g., potato, tomato)

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286 fi

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REFERENCE

C L A S S I F I C AT I O N

I

Monerans (MONERA)

Red seaweed

■IS.’

Archaebacteria

Typical bacteria

(Arch.>ulbacteria)

(Eubacteria)

Model of abacterium

Protists (PROTISTA)

Fung.yl protists

Flygellates

Foraminiferans

Heliozoans

(Zoomastigina & Phytomastigina)

Amoebae

(Oomycota & Ch\tridomycota)

(Rhizopoda)

(Foraminifer^v)

(Heijozoa)

Cili.ates

Apicomplexans

Cnidosporidians

Golden algae

Euglenoid algae

(C1L10PHOR.A)

(A’ICOMPLEXA)

(Cnidosporidla)

(Chrysophata)

(Euglenophata)

Diatoms

(Bacihariophyta)

Dino

ageuates

(Dinophyta)

Bread mold

Red algae

(Riiodophyta)

Brow

algae

Green algae

(Chloropiiyta)

(PttAF.OPHYTA)

Fly amanita ?

F u n g i

f

(FUNGI)

Molds

Sac fungi

Fungi imperfecti

Club fungi

(Zygo.viycota)

(ASCOMY’COTA)

(DEUTEROMY'COTA)

(Basidiomycota)

' v

Leaves from, maidenhair tree Welwilschia

Plants ( P L A N TA E )

T

X

Ginkgo

Club mosses

Bryophytes

Whisk ferns

Welwitsciiia,

(Ginkgophyta)

( Ly c o p y t a )

(Bryophyta)

(Psilophyta)

EPHEDR.A, GNETUM

rr'-YririTHmaHi

r Liverworts

Hornworts

Mosses

(Hepaticae)

(Anthocerotae)

(Musci)

Moss

Livenoort

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287

SECTION

Classi cation 2

Common-

Springtails

Thrips

Prottirans

Zorapterans

wasp \

Diplurans

The chart ON THESE TW'O pages shows how animals are classi ed by biologists. It includes all the major phyla, or animal groups, together with some of the classes and orders that they contain. The animal kingdom is by far the most

-jiiWgr

Silver sh

Beetles

May ies Stone

Ants, bees, wasps

House

ies

y

Lacewings, ant lions

Webspinners

diverse in the living world and scientists have identi ed only asmall proportion of the animals that exist. The majority of vertebrates -particularly those that live on land -have been described and catalogued, but huge numbers of invertebrates have yet to be discovered and studied.

Scorpion ies

Dragon ies

Stylopids

Grasshoppers,

Caddisilies

crickets

Leaf

Butterllies, moths

weevil

Stick and leaf insects

True

: j

Giylloblattids

ies

Fleas

Earwigs Cockroaches

Classi cation groups

Longhorn

Praying mantises

Kingdom

beetle

Te r m i t e s

The chans on these Uvo pages

Phylum

arc color-coded to indicate

l i c e

different kinds of classi cation

Subphylum

groups. The largest groups shown are kingdoms, while

Class

American

eodiwachj Insects

the smallest arc orders. A Order

stibphylum is part of aphyltim.

(Insf.cta)

Amazonian

Agiia.s butterjjy

AnIMAI.S (animalia) n

Si’ONca-s

(PORIFER.^)

«

Blue- ?

Mollusks

Ec;hinodf,rms

(Mollusca)

(Echinodermata)

ringed octofms

Comb jF.i.t.iF.s ( C t e n o i > i i o r, a )

Flatworms,

Octopuses, squid

Sn.aii.s, slugs (Gastropoda)

(Cephai.opoda)

ukes,

T A P E W O R M S

(PlATOIEL.MINTHES)

Roundworms

(Nematoda)

Sea urchins

Feather stars

(Echinoidea)

(Crinoidea)

SOLENOGASTERS

Chitons

(Aplacophora)

(P01.YPt.AC0PH0RA)

Mussels, ci.ams (Bivalvia)

Tusk shei.ls

Sea cucumbers

(Scapiiopoda)

(Holothuroidea)

Star

sh

(Asteroidea)

Brhti.estars

(Ophiuroidea)

About LS other MINOR

Horsehair worms

Deep-sea umpets

(Nem.ato.morpha)

( M o n o p i a c o p h o r. \ )

Spiny star sh ';; -d'.i

PUMA

Moss ANIMALS

(Brvozoa) ihieen

Spiny-headed worms

scallops Dahlia

(Acanthocephaia)

Segmented worms

(Annei.ida)

Sea .anemones,

VF.t.VET WORMS

COR.ALS, jELLYFISII

(Onychophora)

(CNI DARIA)

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Lampshells

a n e m o n e

288 fl

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REFERENCE

(Brachiopoda)

Rotifers

(RcrriFERA)

Water bears

(TARDIGRiVDA)

C L A S S I F I C AT I O N

2

Horseshoe crabs

Sand shrimps

Mystac :ocari dans

(Merostomata)

(Cephalocarida)

(Mystac.ocarida)

ViTTfaux’s eagle

y

House

spider i

Whip spiders WTiip scorpions

Sea spiders

Spin\' sand

(PV'CNOGONIDA)

s h r i m p s

s h r i m p s

Ostriches

(Branchiura)

(Maiacostraca)

Rheas

Scorpions

Crabs, lobsters,

Cassowaries, emus

Ricinuleids

Micro-whip scorpions

Kiwis

Camel spiders

Tinamous

Pseudoscorpions

Centipedes

Barnacles

Seed shrimps

(Chilopoda)

(Cirripedia)

(Ostracoda)

Penguins

Han'estmen

Loons

Mites and ticks

Albatrosses, petrels,

Spiders

shearwaters, fulmars Millipedes

Branchiopods

COPEPODS

(Diplopoda)

(Branchiopoda)

(Copepoda) Goiddian

AIA.CHNIDS

,

n c h

(Arachnida) Arthropods

Crustaceans

(Arthropoda)

(Crustacea)

-●V-

f

P

%

Armored

Grebes

Reef hermil crab

millipede

Pelicans, gannets, cormorants, anhingas, frigate birds

Birds

(Aves)

Herons, storks, ibises,

European rabbi!

spoonbills,

Chordates Mammals

(Chordata)

Eagles, hawks, tailtures

(Mammalia)

Pheasants, partridges, grouse, turkeys

Fro^ Red kangaroo

Frogs, toads

Aviphibians

Cranes, rails, coots,

Newts, salamanders

(Amphibia)

Marsupials (pouched mammals)^ Insectivores

Salamander!

Elephant shrews

Parrots

Tu r a c o s , c u c k o o s ,

Its

Crocodilians

roadrunners

Primates

f

Owls

Pangolins

Milk snake

Hares, rabbits, pikas Rodents

Whales and dolphins Cartiiaginous

sh

(Chondroichthyf.s)

gulls, auks Sandgrouse Pigeons, doves

Sloths, anteaters, armadillos

(Agnatha)

,, -;r

k

Tree shrews

Tuatara

sh

Wa d e r s , t e r n s ,

■z

Bats

Lizards and snakes

Turtles, terrapins, tortoises

Jawless

■

Colugos

Reptiles

V

bustards

Monotremes (egg-laying mammals)

Caecilians

(Reptilia)

amingos

Ducks, geese, swans

Carnivores

Seals, sealions, walruses

Blacklip reef shark

Aardvarks

Frogmouths, nightjars Swifts, hummingbirds Trogons, quetzals King shers, bee-eaters, rollers, hornbills

Woodpeckers, barbets, honeyguides, puffbirds, t o u c a n s

Elephants

More than 20 orders including: Bon\'

( O s t e i c h t h w. s )

Hyraxes

Eels

sh

Manatees and dugongs

Flerrings, anchovies

Odd-toed

Salmon, trout

Cat

Sea squirts (Ascidiacea)

Flying

sh

Scartel

Perches, cichlids, gobies, wrasses

'● f.

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289 fi

mammals

sh, gar sh

idfC.

fi

hoofed

Even-toed hoofed mammals

Characins, carps

European carp

Perching birds

I 1 V » «1C

n.m

SECTION

Glossary Abdomen: the part of an

Autotroph: aliving thing

animal’s body that contains

that makes its own food,

digestive and reproductive

such as aplant.

Bulb: ashortened

or butter y. Acaterpillar

Backbone (spine): a exible

underground plant stem

chain of bones running

that stores food.

becomes achrysalis before turning into an adult.

organs. An insect’s abdomen

is at the rear of its body. Adaptation: aspecial feature of aliving thing that makes it better suited to its

particular way of life.

Advanced: possessing characteristics that appeared later in evolution.

Bacteria: agroup of microscopic, single-celled organisms. Bacteria are the most abundant living things

Baleen plates: the fringed

from food.

largest types of whales. Baleen plates lter small

Amnion: amembrane that

surrounds the developing embiyos of reptiles, birds, mammals.

plates that hang from the

for oxygen. plant): aplant that

vision that uses two eyes facing fonvard to produce athree-dimensional image.

repnxluces by bearing

Bioluminescence:

llowers, fruits, and seeds.

production of light by aliving thing.

Angiosperm ( otvering

ve

kingdoms of nature, composed of multicellular

living things that live by

the land, ocean, and air.

Antennae (feelers): long

Bivalve: amollusk with a

sensoiy organs on an

shell made of Uvo parts, or t’alves, such as an oyster

arthropod’s head. They feel and “taste” objects in addition to sensing

vibrations and smells.

Anther: the part of a ower that produces pollen (male sex cells). Arachnid: an invertebrate

with four pairs of legs. Arthropod: an inr ertebrate with ajointed body case,

such as an insect or spider. Asexual reproduction:

production of offspring by asingle parent.

Blood: acomplex liquid that carries substances

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living things. two parts in certain plant¬ eating mammals, such as pigs and deer.

as ajelly sh. Cocoon: ahard case made

of silk that protects certain insects as they change from

any meat-eating predator.

larvae into adults.

Carpel: afemale reproductive organ in a

Colony: anumber of related

living things that live closely

l l o w e r.

together.

Carrion: dead or rotten animal esh. Carrion is

Compomid eyes: eyes made up of many small units, such as the eyes of insects. Cone: aconifer ’s

reproducti\'e strue ture.

exible tissue found in the skeleton of vertebrates.

Male and female cones

In cartilaginous

usually grow separately.

sh the

skeleton is made entirely of

Conifer: aplant that reproduces by making-

Caterpillar: the wingless

cones. Most conifers are

hiTOi (immature form) of abutter y or moth.

evergreen trees or shrubs.

Cell: atiny unit of living

that catches food tvith

Coral: asmall sea animal

m a t t e r. C e l l s a r e t h e b a s i c

stinging tentacles. Many

units of all living things,

corals live in large colonies

other from viruses.

on coral reefs.

Cepbalopod: amollusk with

Cotyledon: asmall leaf inside aseed.

Blowhole: the nostrils of a

tentacles, such as an octopus or squid.

whale or dolphin, located on the top of its head.

Chlorophyll: the green chemical that gives most

mating.

Breeding: producing offspring by mating. In birds and mammals, breeding also involves raising the young.

plants their color. It traps the sunlight energ)' that

Crop: apouch in abird’s digestive system where

Browse: to feed by continual nibbling on nvigs, leaves, and other vegetation.

290 fi

Classi cation: away of

has only one opening, such

alarge head and aring of

around an animal’s body.

or to move things nearby.

carapace.

cartilage Instead of bone.

or mussel.

can beat to make acell move

shell is also called a

Cartilage (gristle): atough,

the Earth that make up the living world, including

on the surface of acell. Cilia

Cnidarian: an aquatic animal with stinging cells and adigestive ca\ity that

eaten by scavengers.

Biosphere: all the parts of

taking in food.

Cloven: hooves divided into

Carnivore can also mean

called barbules.

Binocular vision: akind of

Canopy: the top layer of

specially shaped teeth that feeds mainly on meat.

make up abird’s feather. Barbs are held together by tiny hooklike structures

food without the need

identifying and grouping

Carnivore: amammal tvith

nd food.

Bark: the tough outer layers of atree or shrub.

Canine: apointed tooth that grips and pierces.

The top part of aturtle’s

near the mouth of certain sh. Cat sh use barbels to

Anaerobic respiration: a chemical process that releases energy from

Cilia: tiny, hairlike structures

crabs, lobsters, and shrimp.

Barbel: along, thin feeler

help

Camou age: the way animals hide by blending in with their surroundings. Stick insects, for example, are camou aged as ttvigs.

Carapace: the hard shield that covers the body of

a n i m a l s f r o m s e a t v a t e r.

Chrysalis: the resting stage in the life cycle of amoth

branches in aforest.

roof of the mouth of the

Barbs: the thin strands that

Amphibian: acold-blooded vertebrate that lives partly in water and partly on land.

Animal: one of the

on aplant.

from the head to the tail of avertebrate.

Aerobic respiration: a chemical process that uses oxygen to release energy

and

Bud: an undeveloped shoot

on Earth.

Algae: simple, plantlike organisms that make their food by photosynthesis.

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REFERENCE

plants use to make food.

Chloroplast: atiny structure inside aplant cell that contains the green chemictil chlorophyll.

Courtship: behavior that forms abond between a male and afemale before

swallotved food is stored. Crustacean: an invertebrate

with jointed legs and two pairs of antennae, such as acrab or woodlouse.

Cyanobacteria: agroirp of bacteria that make their

food by photosynthesis. Deciduous: plants that shed their leaves during some part of the year. Decomposer: aliving thing that obtains food by breaking down the remains of other living things. Many fungi are decomposers.

Ecosystem: acollection of living things and their environment. An ecosystem can be anything from a puddle to avast forest. Ectotherm: an animal whose

temperature varies with its surroundings. Ectothermic

Fang: along, sharp tooth. Venomous

snakes

have

characteristics of each living thine. Most eenes are made

hollow fangs that inject poison into their prey.

o f D N A .

Carnivorous

growth in aseed or spore.

Germination: the start of

mammals

normally have two pairs of fangs called canines. Fertilization: the joining of a

Gill: an organ used to breathe

underwater.

The

aps on the undersides of

animals are also called cold¬

male sex cell and afemale

mushrooms

blooded.

sex cell to produce azygote.

are also called gills.

Egg cell (ovum): afemale sex cell. When an egg cell

Fetus: an unborn mammal

Gizzard:

fuses with amale sex

in the later stages of development.

cell (sperm), azygote is produced.

Filter-feeding: feeding by sieving food from water.

animal’s stomach that grinds up food. The gizzards of birds often contain grit or small stones to grind food.

Flagellum: along, whiplike projection on acell that

(seed leaves). Dicots make

Embryo: the early stage of development of an animal or plant. The embryo of a owering plant forms inside

up the larger group of owering plants. Most

aseed.

Endangered: at risk of

Deforestation: removal of

forests by felling or burning. Development: the formation of amore complex body as aliving thing matures. Dicot: a owering plant that has two cotyledons

deciduous trees are dicots.

extinction.

Digestion: the process of breaking down food into

Endoskeleton:

ahard

animal’s body.

absorb. In most animals,

Endotberm:

digestion takes place in a tube running through the body.

an

with

animals

are

Fledgling: ayoung bird at

trapping of heat by gases in the Earth’s atmosphere,

the time it leaves the nest.

such as carbon dioxide.

at

paddles that make up a invertebrate related to

attvorms and tapeworms.

Environment: aliving thing’s surroundings.

DNA (deoxyribonucleic

The environment includes

acid): the chemical that

nonliving matter, such as air

carries all of the genetic information. It is passed from one generation to the next when living things reproduce, whether sexually or asexually.

and water, as well as other

living things.

Food M'eb: acollection of

Epinephrine: achemical that pi-epai'es an animal’s body for danger.

interconnected

plants kept by humans for food or other uses.

motion

that

occurs

when

animal travels through air or

water.

Ecbinoderm:

asea

animal

with an internal skeleton

and abody divided into ve equal parts, such as a s t a r s h , b r i t t l e s t a r, o r s e a urchin.

Ecbolocation: away of sensing objects by using high-pitched sounds. Bats, dolphins, and some whales

chains.

contains a

because the Sun is almost

ower’s seeds.

Some fruits have ajuicy

directly overhead.

wall to attract animals.

Evaporation: the change of aliquid into agas as it warms up. Water evaporates

Fruiting body: apart of a fungus that produces .spores. Mushrooms

into the air w'hen warmed

and

toadstools

are fruiting bodies. Fungi: one of the ve kingdoms of nature. A fungus is aliving thing that absorbs food from living

by the Sirn. Evergreen: aplant that keeps its leaves throughout the year.

Gene: the basic unit of

Gastropod: amollusk with a suckerlike foot, such as a

animal’s body.

heredity. Genes are passed from parents to offspring and help determine the

Extinction: the pennartent disappear'ance of aspecies.

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their

during

ight.

Heart:

ahollow

balance

muscular

by an imaginary division along the equator. This

Fruit: aripened ovary that

snail or slug.

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maintain

halves of the Earth created

skeleton that srrn'ounds an

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of aspecies. Halteres: small, club-shaped organs that help ies to

or palm.

Exoskeleton: ahard, outer

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home

halfway between the North

in the dark or in water.

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natural

Frond: the leaf of afern

use ecbolocation to “see”

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the

that encircles the Earth

or dead matter around it.

environment.

cones, such as conifers. Habitat:

Equator: an imaginary' line

Evolution: change occurring in aspecies over many generations.

Ecology: the study of the relationships between living things and their

are trees that make seeds in

organ that pumps blood around an animal’s body.

climate at the equator is hot an

food

Grub: an immature beetle,

wasp, or bee. Gymnosperm: aplant that produces seeds but not owers. Most gymnosperms

Fossil: the preseived remains or trace of alitdng thing.

and South Poles. The

Drag: the resistance to

an

Greenhouse effect: the

Diurnal: active during the day but inactive at night.

Domestic: animals and

in

to swim.

Food chain: aprocess whereby energy passes along achain of living things. In a simple food chain, energy passes from aplant to a caterpillar ancl then to a bird that eats caterpillars.

also called warm-blooded.

achamber

Sperm cells use agella

aconstant temperature. Endothermic

toadstools

beats to make the cell move.

whale’s tail. Also, an animal

and

Graze: to eat vegetation, usually grass or other lowgrowing plants.

Fluke: one of the two

skeleton located inside an

chemicals that cells can

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GLOSSARY

Hemisphere: one of the

divides the Earth into the Northern

and

Southern

Hemispheres. Herbivore:

an

animal

that

eats only plant food. Hermaphrodite: aliving thing that has both male

and female reproductive organs, such as an earthworm.

Heterotroph: aliving thing that eats other living things. Animals are heterotrophs. Hibernation: aresting state somewhat like very deep .sleep, which occurs in some animals in winter.

Host: aliving thing that provides food b)r aparasite.

Hybrid: the offspring of parents from two different species.

Meiosis:

Incisor: achisel-shaped tooth with acutting edge.

Membrane: athin layer of animal tissues surrounding internal organs, or athin barrier that separates acell from its surroundings.

Rodents use their incisors

to gnaw through food. Incubate: to hatch eggs by sitting on them. Instinct:

abehavior

that

occurs automatically in an animal and does not need to be learned. Insulation: reduction of heat

loss by abody layer such as fat, fur, or feathers. Invertebrate: an animal

without abackbone, such as an insect. Most animals are invertebrates.

Kingdom: the highest category into which living things are classi ed. There are ve kingdoms -plants, animals, fungi, monerans, and protists. Larva: ayoung animal that develops into an adult by a complete change in body shape (metamorphosis). A tadpole is the larva of afrog. Lichen: aplantlike partnership between a fungus and an alga. Life cycle: the pattern of changes that occurs in each generation of aspecies. Limb: an arm, leg, ipper, or wing. Lung: an organ used to breathe air. Mammal:

awarm-blooded

animal with hair that feeds

its young on milk, such as ahamster.

aform

of

cell

dhdsion that produces sex cells.

Metabolism: all the chemical

Metamorphosis: amajor change in an animal’s body shape during its life cycle. Maggots turn into ies by metamorphosis. Microorganism: aliving thing that can be seen only by using amicroscope, such

mammal.

Mandible: one of apair of biting external mouthparLs in arthropods.

the air and use it to release

animal to anew habitat.

Many birds migrate each year between their summer

surface of the tundra.

Nitrogen xation: the conversion of nitrogen gas

Petal: alea ike part of a ower that is often large

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achemical

that

and colorful to attract

Phloem: microscopic vessels that carry sugars and other nutrients around aplant.

Molecule:

achemical

unit

largest structure in most

made of two or more atoms

animal cells. It contains

linked together. Nearly all

most of the cell’s genes.

matter is made of molecules. Mollusk:

asoft-bodied

Nutrient: any material that is taken in by aliving thing to

invertebrate that is often

sustain life.

protected by ahard shell. Snails, slugs, bivalves, and octopuses are mollusks. Molting: the shedding of the outer covering of an animal’s body. Insects and

Nymph: an immature insect that resembles an adult but

has no wings. Omnivore:

an

animal

that

eats both plant and animal food.

Operculum (gill cover): a exible ap of skin covering the gills of most sh, or a horny cover on the foot of a

order to grow. Birds molt then replaced by new ones. Monerans: one of the

ve

snail, used to close its shell.

kingdoms of nature. A moneran is asingle-celled organism that has no cell

Organ: aspecialized part of an animal or plant, such as

nucleus, such as abacterium.

abrain

or

leaf.

Organelle: atiny structure inside acell that has a

leaf). Palms, orchids, and

particular function.

grasses are all monocots.

Organism: aliving thing. Ovary: an organ in afemale animal that produces egg cells, or the part of a ower

amammal

that contains ovules.

contracts to produce

Pheromone:

achemical

released by an animal that has an effect on another of

the same species.

Photosynthesis: aprocess that uses light energy to make food from simple chemicals. Photosynthesis occurs in nearly all plants. Phytoplankton: plantlike microorganisms that live in the oceans and fresh water.

crustaceans have to molt in

m o v e m e n t .

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into

of acell. The nucleus is the

certain other cnidarians.

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air

identical cells.

Muscle: atissue that

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Permafrost: permanently frozen ground below the

Nucleus: the control center

shaped, swimming stage in the life cycle of jelly sh and

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Pedipalps: apair of appendages on the head of an arachnid. Scorpions use their huge pedipalps as pincers to catch prey.

nucleus to produce two

Mitosis: division of acell

that lays eggs, such as a duck-billed platypus.

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ahost.

pollinating animals.

during sexual reproduction.

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Parasite: aliving thing that lives on or inside the body of another species, called

living things can absorb. Nitrogen is avital part of all proteins. Nocturnal: active at night but inactive during the day.

Mineral: an inorganic chemical that is needed by living things.

Monotreme:

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Oxygen: agas that makes up 21 percent of the atmosphere. Animals and plants take in oxygen from

body, including the brain.

from

homes.

of male and female animals

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of

of nerve cells in an animal’s

Monocot: a owering plant that has one cotyledon (seed

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abundle

sex cell).

energy from food in a process called respiration.

aclose

Nervous system: the network

Ovule: the part of a ower that develops into aseed.

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ts.

specialized cells that cany signals rapidly around the body of an animal.

Marsupial: amammal that develops inside its mother’s pouch, such as akangaroo. Mating: the coming together

Medusa: the umbrella¬

bene

Nerve:

abacterium.

winter

Ovum: an egg cell (female

Nectar: asugary liquid produced by owers to attract pollinating animals.

Migration: ajourney by an

and

Mushroom: the fruiting body of afungus. Mutation: Asudden change in agene or group of genes. Mutations may be harmful but some bring accidental

relationship between two species in which both partners bene t.

processes that take place in alirfng thing.

as

SECTION

Mutualism:

their feathers, which are

Mammary gland: the milkproducing organ of afemale

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REFERENCE

Pigment: acolored chemical.

Placenta: an organ in mammals

that

allows

substances to pass between the

bloodstream

of

amother

and that of her fetus.

Plankton: tiny organisms that

oat in water.

Plants: one of the

ve

kingdoms of nature. Aplant is amulticellular living thing that makes its own food by photosynthe,sis. Pollen: dustlike plant particles that contain male sex cells. Pollination: the transfer of

pollen from the male part of aplant’s ower to the female part. Pollination

is essential for sexual

reproduction in owers. Pollution: the disruption of the natural world by the release of chemicals or

other agents.

Reproduction: the production of offspring. Reptile: acold-hloocled vertebrate with scaly skin. Resilin: an elastic protein in eas’ legs. Resilin is

tvith ahollow cylindrical

normally compressed like a spring. When released, it

body and aring of tentacles

makes the ea jump.

around its mouth. Apolyp is one of the two stages in the

Respiration: achemical process in which food is

Polyp: asmall sea animal

Snout: an elongated part of

Territory: an area defended

an animal’s head including

by an animal.

the mouth and nose.

Thorax: the central body

Species: agroup of living things that can breed together in the wild. Sperm: amale sex cell. ’W^hen asperm fuses with a

part of an arthropod

female sex cell (egg cell), azygote is produced.

substance.

Spiracle: atiny air hole that

(between the head and the

abdomen) or the chest of avertebrate.

Toxin: apoisonous

Transpiration: the loss of

broken down to release

allows air to circulate inside

water vapor from aplant through evaporation.

e n e r g y.

an insect’s body.

Tuber: aswollen stem

Retina: amembrane in the

Spore: amicroscopic

growing underground.

back of an animal’s eye that receives the image formed by the lens.

package of cells produced by

Apotato is atuber.

afungus or plant that can

Tundra: cold, treeless areas

Predator: an animal that kills and eats other animals.

Rhizome: ahorizontal

underground stem.

Stamen: amale reproductive organ in a ower. Astamen

Prehensile: able to wrap around and grasp objects. Monkeys, for example, often have prehensile tails.

Rodent: amammal with

consists of an anther and a

sharp incisor teeth used for gnawing. Rats, mice, and squirrels are all rodents.

stalk called a lament.

Rookery: acolony of seals or penguins that have come

organ in a ower.

life cycle of cnidarians, such as corals.

Pore: atiny hole in the surface of aliving thing. In humans, sweat comes out

of pores in the skin.

Prey: an animal that is killed and eaten by another animal.

ashore to breed.

Primate: amammal with

exible ngers and toes and fonvard-pointing eyes. Humans are primates. Primitive: similar in a

certain way to an early ancestor in evolution.

grow into anew individual.

Stigma: the pollen-collecting tip of afemale reproductive

polar regions. Tusk: atooth that projects beyond the jaw. Umbilical cord: along, cord¬ like structure that carries blood between an unborn

mammal and the placenta.

Stomata: microscopic pores that allow air to circulate

Roosting: settling on aperch or other place to rest and sleep. Birds often roost in

inside leaves.

trees and bats roost in caves.

w a t e r. S e a l s a r e s t r e a m l i n e d

Ruminant: aplant-eating

to help them swim faster. Succession: an orderly change of species in an ecosystem. For example, if

mammal with athree- or four-chambered stomach.

of the world found around

Streamlined: shaped to move easily through air or

Uterus: the organ in female mammals in which offspring develop before birth. Vascular: asystem of interconnecting vessels to move uids within aliving organism, present in many

plants and animals. Vegetation: the plants found

Proboscis: along, exible snout or mouthpart. A

Deer, cattle, and camels are

butter y uses aproboscis to

Sap: aliquid that transports nutrients in plants. Scales: small, overlapping

of vegetation, the land will gradually turn back into forest by succession.

bite or sting.

plates that protect the skin. Scavenger: an animal that

Swim bladder: agas- lled

Ve r t e b r a t e : a n a n i m a l w i t h

suck nectar from

owers.

Protein: asubstance made

by all cells that is essential for life. There are millions

of different proteins. Some control chemical processes in cells, while other are

used as building materials.

Spider’s webs, muscles, and hair are all made of protein. Protists: one of the

ve

kingdoms of nature. Protists are single-celled organisms that have acell nucleus.

Protozoa: single-celled organisms that live by taking in food. Pupa: the resting stage in the life cycle of certain insects, during which they develop into adults by a complete change in body

shape (metamorphosis). Regeneration: the regrowth of amissing body part, such as aleg or tail.

ruminants.

an area of forest is cleared

bag that helps a sh to oat

feeds on the remains of

in water.

dead animals or plants, such

Swimmeret: asmall limb

as avulture.

on the underside of many crustaceans, including lobsters and shrimp.

Seed: areproductive structure containing aplant

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in aparticular habitat. Venom: apoisonous substance in an animafs

abackbone. There are

ve

main types of vertebrates: sh, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals.

Virus: apackage of chemicals that can

embryo and afood store.

Swimmerets can be used for

Sepal: an outer

swimming, canying eggs,

reproduce itself by infecting living cells.

moving water over the gills,

Xylem: microscopic vessels

ap that

protects a ower bud. Most sepals are green, but some owers have big, colorful

sepals that look like petals. Sex cell: aspecial cell that is involved in sexual

reproduction. Sexual reproduction: the

production of offspring by two parents.

Silk: the veiy thin ber some insect lan'ae produce to make cocoons, or spiders produce to make webs.

and burrowing.

Symbiosis: aclose ecological relationship between two different species. Tadpole: the immature form of afrog or toad. Taproot: alarge, main root growing straight down. Tentacle: along, exible organ near an animal’s mouth.

Sea

anemones

use

their stinging tentacles to catch food in seawater.

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GLOSSARY

that carry water and nutrients from aplant’s roots to its leaves.

Yeast: amicroscopic, singlecelled fungus. Zooplankton: tiny animals, as well as animal-like

microorganisms, that live in t h e o c e a n s a n d f r e s h w a t e r.

Zygote: the cell formed by the union of male and female sex cells at the

stage of development.

rst

SECTION

I n d e x Main cniries are shown in bold type.

arachnids

Scieniilic names are given in ilalics.

Aral Sea 10^1

156

brown {Ursus arctos) 91, 248, 249 gri/.zly see brown polar {Ursus maHtimus) 32, 91, 105, 249 sloth {Ursus iirsinus) 248 spectacled {Tremarctos oniatus) 248 l)eavcr {Caslors,\).) 232, 247 bedbug {Cimex leclularius) 170 beech {Fagus sylvatica) 32,81 beekeeping 94

Arch(m)f)leiyx 14 ardieiTish {Toxotessp.) 188, 189 Arctic 90,91,96, 105

A

armadillos 242-3

aard\’ark {Oiycteropus afer) 242, 243 aardwolf {Proteles cristatus) 259 add rain 97

AIDS (Acquired Immune De ciency Syndrome) 111 air 13, 36

albatross, wandering {Diomedea exulans) 2 1 3

alder {Almis glutinosa) 132 algae/alga 24, 73, 116, 118-9 blue-green 13, 112 C h a m 11 6

Chlaniydomonas nivalis 118 freshwater green {Spirogyras,\).) 119 mermaid’s wine glass {Acetabularia) 20 alligators 206-7 American {Alligator mississippiensis) 75, 101,207

faiiy (CJilamyphonis tnincatus) 242 giant {Priodonles maximiis) 243 screaming haiiy {Chaetophracliis vdlerosus) 242

bees 29, 44, 180-1

honeybees {Apis mellifera) 94, 180, 181

nine-banded {Dasypus novemdnetus) 242 three-handed {Tolypeutes tiicinclus) 243 armor plating 49, 190, 242 artliropods 142, 156-7, 162

beetles 33, 36, 51, 86, 98, 163, 172-3

bombardier {Brachinus explodens) 51 cardinal {I^rochroa coccinea) 172 chafer {Iloplia caendea) 173 click {Qudcolepidius limbatus) 173 deathwatch {Xestobiuni nifovillosum) 173 dting {Geohiipes stercoranus) 172, 173 I'rog {Sagm buqueti) 173 golden {Plusiotis resplendens) 83 great diving {Dyliscus marginalis) 39,

arti cial selection 15

asexual reproduction 28, 113, 144 ash, European {Fraxinus excelsior) 132 aspen {Populus ^-i.) 80 assassin bugs 170 Eulyes illustns 171 Velinus malayus 23 asses, Somali wild {Equiis asinus) 268

172

atolls, coral 72

Amazon rainforest 82 amber 17

172

avocei, pied {Recurvirostra avosetta) 217 axolotl {Ambysloma mexicanum) 195 aye-a)e {Daubentonia madagascariensis)

a m o e b a e 2 8 , 11 2 , 11 3

azalea, alpine {Loiseleuria procumbens) 91

amphibians 35. 182, 192-3

amphisbaenid {Amphisbaena fuliginosa) 199 amphitimas 195 anaconda, yellow {Eunectes notaeus) 205 anaerobic respiraiitm 27 anemones

wsea

anemones

angel sh, emperor {Pomacanthus imperalor) 104, 188 angiosperms 116, 126, 132 angler sh {Melanocetuss^ip.) 31, 189 deep-sea {Edriolynchnus schmidti) 31 animal kingdom 11, 109, 288-9 animals 16, 140-1

B

South American longhorn {Tilanus gigante.us) 163 stag {Lucanus ceivus) 63, 172 tenei)rionid {Onymacris ungiindaris) 8(3 see also cockchafers, ladybugs, wee^●ils bell animals {Vorticella) 112, 113 bills 208, 216, 222, 225, 226, 228

31,54,59,283

backbones 182, 198 b a c t e r i a / b a c i c r i u m 2 0 , 3 7 , 6 0 . 11 0 - 11 , 112

Acinetobacter 20 Clostridium tetani 111

for food 94, 106

nitrogen- xing 64 btidgers 254 American (Taxidea laxus) 254 Eurasian {Meles meles) 183,254

products 95

and people 94-5 endangered lOO-I

173

babirusa {Babyrousa babyrussa) 273 baboon, Ilamadiyas {Papio hamadiyas)

Itirds of prey 218 crossbill

tropical 230 waterfowl/waders 214, 216, 217

balance 43

bindweed, large {Calystegia silvatica) 99

baleen whales 262

ant plant {Myrmecodias,'p.) 179

bamboo, giant {Dendrocalamus giganteus)

biniurong {Arctictis binlurong) 259 biodiversity 67 bioluminescence 69, 153

anteaters 242-3

giant {Mynnecophaga Iridactyla) 242, 243 silkv {Cyclopes didartylus) 243 antelopes 35, 278-9 four-horned {Tetracerus quadricomis) 278

11 7 , 1 . 3 5

antifreeze, natural 61, 90, 184 antlers 276. 277 ants 45, 52, 55, 178-9

African driver {Doiylus nigricans) 1(33 army 52 Kuro|)eiui black garden {Lasius niget) 55. 178

honeypot {Camponotus injlatus) 179 Iridomyrmex'sp. 179

leafcuiter (A//«sp.) 179 Old World weaver {Oecophyllas,nestica) 132

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see also skeletons

bonobo {Pan paniscus) 285 bony sh 38, 184, 185, 188-91 boobies

65

blue-footed {Sula nebouxii) 31 Peruvian (Sula variegaia) 65 boreal forests 78, 79

botanical gardens 107 bovids 278-9

vioUirms) 231 box sli 185, 190 brains 162, 180, 183, 233

breaching 263 breathing 26 amphibians 192 birds 209 sh

184

insects 162

breeding amphibians 193 bats 241

bttvids 279

dogs 253 dolphins/porpoises 265 sh 190, 191 insects 164

rodents 247 seals 71, 261

///.ve captive breeding, endangered species, reproduction breeding cycles 41 brittle stars 68, 154, 155 common black {Ophiocomina nigra) 155 scarlet serpent {()phiod(ninais\:>.) 71 broadleaved trees 80, 125. 132-3

bionics 62

bromeliads 137, 138

barnacles 159, 263

biosphere 10, 62 birch tree {Befula^x) 133 silver {Betula pendula) 132 l)ird-of-paradise ower {Strelitzia reginae)

brood parasites 57

northern rock {Bakmus balanoides) 159 hai rier reefs 72

basking 40, 198, 206

5 6

Eurasian long-eared {Plecotus auritus)

birds 30, 31,36-7. 183, 208-9 migration/navigation 43, 47 see also birdsong, nests birds of prey 53, 88, 218-9 birds, wading, 70, 208, 216-7 birdsong 44, 228 birthwort {Aristolochias,^p.) 174

40, 240

sherman {Noctilio leporinus) 241 great false vampire {Megaderma lyra) 2 4 1

Kitti’s hog-nosed {Craseonycleris thonglongyai) 233 lesser horseshoe {Rhinolophus liipposideros) 36 natierer’s {Myotis naltereri) 89 nociule {Nyclalus noctula) 240 tent-building {Urodenna bilobatum)

240, 241 ''

bison 32, 105, 278

American {Bison bison) 278 bivalves

150-1

i)ladderwort {Utricularia s,-p.) 139 blind cave sh {Astyanax mexicanus) 89 blood 26, 61, 184

vampire {Desmodus rotundus) 241

bloodsuckers 165, 174—5

see also fruit bats

blowholes 262, 263, 264 blubber (fat) 212, 249, 261 bluebird, mountain {Sialia currocnides) 229 bluebell, English {Hyacinthoides nonscripla) 80 bluebottle {Calliphora vicina) 174, 175 boar, wild {Sus scrofa) 273

beaks (bird) bills beaks (snout) 264 bean, broad {Vidafaba) 116 l>ears 248-9

American black {Ursus americanus) 248, 249

Asiatic black {Ursus thibelanus) 249

boas 198, 204

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bones 15, 34, 208

baobab tree {Adansonia digilala) 85

b:us 36. 89. 240-1

pronghorn {Antilocapra ameiicana) 35 roan {I ppotragus equinus) 278 roN’al {Neolraguspygiuaeus) 279 antennae (feelers) 30,45, 162, 166, 176

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nches 79

annelids 142, 144, 156 Antarctic 90, 96

221

body language 44 body parts regrowing 33 shedding 48 bodysymmetiy 143 body lemperaturc 192, 193, 198, 232

bracken {Pteridium aquiliniim) 122

Guernsey carpet {Anthrenus samicus) 98 jewel {Cluysochroa chinensis) 173 jewel {Melanopbila acuminata) 43 large elm bark {Scholytus sdwlytus) 173 longhorn {Stemolomis bohemani) 173 mealworm {Tenebrio molilor) 33 rhinoceros {Chalcosoma atlas) 140 shining ower chafer {Plusiotis optima)

280, 281

constrictor {Boa constrictor) 22 tree {Corallus hortulamis) 204 bobcat {Felismfus) 78 bobwhite, northern {Colmiis Virginia,nus)

bowerbird, satin {Plilonorhynchus

green tiger {Cicindela campestris) 172 ground {Thermophilum sexmaculalum)

auks 213

alluaudia {Alluaudias’p.) 49 aloevera {Aloevera) 93

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REFKKKNCE

browsers 84, 274

biyophytes 120, 121 budgerigars 222 buffalo, .Asian water {Bubalus arnee) 95, 279

bugs 170-1 bullfrog, African {I^xicephalus adspersus) 182

American {Rana catesbeiana) 192 bullhead {Cottus gobio) 190. 191 buoyancy 33, 39, 186 burrowing animals 70, 84 invertebrates 79, 144, 151 mammals 59, 234, 237, 239, 242, 244, 254

bush baby {Galago s,p.) 281 buttercup, creeping {Ranunculus repens) 21 bmiernies 15,47,50. 100, 176-7

Amazonian agiias {Agios claudina) 15 European swallowtail {Papilio machaon) 176 homerus swallowtail {Papilio homerus) 100

Imlian leaf {Kallima inachus) 50 large cojjper {Lycaena dispar) 100

monarch {Danaus plexippus) 47 inorpho {Morphosp.) 177 postman {Heliconius nwlpomene) 177 purple emperor 63 Queen Alexandra's birdwing {Omilhoplna alexandrae) 177 sulphur {Eurema'sp.) 177 butterlly sh, pear-scaled {Chaetodon

colors, warning 50

centipedes 143, 157, 162 giant {Scolopendm gigatilra) 157

amphibians 51, 194, 197

woodland {Lil/iobius 143

gastropods 149 insects 166

cephalopods 152, 153 chairmch {Fririgilla coelebs) 228

reptiles 205

chameleons5o',203

commensalism 56

Jackson’s {Chamaelc.ojacksonii) 18, 203

common names 108

Yemeni veiled (Cho adyplralus) 50

communication 44-5

buzzard, common {Bnteo buteo) 219 red-tailed {Buteo jamaicensis) 36

by-the-\vind-sailor {Vellela vedlela) 39, 69

birds 217

cheetah {Acinomx jubatus) 34, 35, 42, 52,

cacii/cactLis 25, 87, 28, 102, 137 Conyocactus melantrichus 15 ferocactus {Eerocaclus wislizenii) 25

mammals 258, 259, 269, 283 condor, Andean {Vtilhirgj-yphus) 218

chelonians 200

chicken, domestic {Gallus gallus) 55 chilopods 156

Calilbrnia {Gymnogyps califomiamis) 101

2 8 5

cones (conifer) 124, 125

common {Pan troglodytes) 141,280, 284

coniferous forests 78-9

black {Melanosuchus nigei) 101, 207

dwarf {Paleosuchus palpebrosus) 207 spectacled {Caiman crocodilus) 207 calcium carbonate (chalk) 113, 148, 154 Cambrian explosion 11 camels 87, 275

Bactrian {Camelus bactrianus) 275

dromedary {Camelus dromedarius) 275 camoullage 50, 69, 73 amphibians 193, 197

dasyurids 237 deadnettle {Lamiums,p.) 25

coral reefs 67, 72-3, 104

deciduous trees 80-1, 132, 133

corals 30,41,72-3, 147, 155

decompo.sers/decomposition 64, 67, 114,

blue coral {Heliopora coendea) 147 brain {Meandrhia sp.) 73

cicada {Pomponia^').) 30, 170, 171 periodical {Magicirada septemdecim) 41 cichlid

sea fan {GorgoniaJlabellinn) 147 staghorn {Acroporas,p.) 41 cormorants 65, 212, 213 corn (Zcrt 92. 134, 135

sh 31, 105, 191

cilia (hairs) 21, 112 circulation (blood) 26 CI TF.S (Convention on Iniermuional

coteries

cotton spinner {Holothuriaforskali) 48

civets 258

African {Vivena civetta) 258 Malagasy {Fossafossa) 258

cotyledons 32, 126 countershading 50, 265 courtship 30-1 amphibians 194 birds 215, 217, 218, 220, 221, 231

clams 148, 150, 151

blue giant {Tridacna maxima) 57 giant {Tridacna gigas) 29, 72, 151

sh 191

insects 171

reptiles 203, 207 cow sh, long-horned {Lactona cormita)

animals chart 288-9

plants and fungi chan 286-7

invertebrates 149

mammals 245, 255, 256, 265, 271 see also colors, countershading, mimicry canids see dogs

cloud forest 82

caracal {Felis caracal) 53

coal 64, 92

carbohydrates 64

coati (coatimundi),

cnidarians 142, 146

ring-tailed {Nasua nasua) 54, 251 cobra, Kgv'piian {Naja haje) 205

cycle 64 carbon dioxide 24, 25, 26

cochineal 95, 171

caribou {Rangifer larandus) 79, 119,276,

cockatoo, suljrhur-cresied {Cacatua galerita) 222

277

carnivorous plants 138-9

carp, European {Cypiinus carpio) 185

sarus {Grus anligone) 217 cranesbill, meadow {Germiium pratense) 29

cray sh, white-clawed {Austropolamobius

Melolontha melolontha 36

pallipes) 76 creepers {C(rrthia?. 168

feelers .srcantennae, palps

evolution of H

ferns 80. 83, 116. 122-3, 137

(elephant’s ear plant {Alocasia korthalsii) 83 elk {Alces alces) 79. 27(i, 277 elm trees 173

hammock {Bleclinum occidenlale) 122

hart's tongue {Phyllitis scolopendrium)

enibn'o 32

122

emu {Dromaius novaehoUandiae) 210, 211 endangered species animals 100-1, 251,261,266, 268

drones 181

birds 223, 231

drought-resistant animals 60

breeding of 95, 106 plants 102-3

ducks 214-5 215

common goldeneye {Bucephala dangula) 215 common merganser {Mergus merganser) 214

energv' 24, 25, 27, 66 ephemerals 60 epipiiylls 137 epiphytes 83, 122. 136-7, 138 eejuids 268-9

food webs 66-7

staghorn {Platycerinm superbum) 137

deciduous 80-1, 88

n c h e s

dugong {Dugong dugon) 261 dunlin {Calidris alpina) 217 Dutch elm disease 173

evolution 12. 14-15

warbler {Cirthidea olivacea) 14

Hawaiian 231

medium ground- {Ceospizafords) 14 red crossbill {Loxia cunnrostra) 79 \egetarian (Camarhynclius crassiroslris) 14

woodpecker {Camarhynclius pallidus)

mammals 232, 268

14

ns 184, 186

exoskeletoiis 33, 34

bald 218

golden {Aquila chtysaelos) 219 harpy {Harpia liarpyja) 83 tawny {Aquila rapax) 10 \’erreaux’s {Aquila vnreauxii) 88, 218 cars 42, 232 E a r t h

arthropods 156

r trees 124, 125 re ies 173

insects 162, 163

sh 182, 184-5

external fertilization 29

camou age 50

extinctions 96, 100, 102, 103

defense 48

mass 16, 17

how life began 12-13

cats 256

n a t u r a l w o r l d 1 0 - 11

compound 42, 162

prehistoric life 16-17 canvig, Fairopean {Forpcula auriculana) 162

swimming 38

extremes, coping with 60-1, 79 eyes 24, 42, 162 amphibians 192

ssion (asexual reproduction) 28 agella/ agellum 21, 110, 112 amingos 23, 216 greater {Phoenicopterus ruber) 23 lesser {Phoeniconaias minor) 216

Fish 185

ashlight sh {Photoblepharon palpebrates)

gastropods 1-18, U19

4 5

insects 162

at sh 188

long-nosed {Zaglossvs bruijni) 235

reptiles 203 simple 42

at\vorms28, 140, 142, 144, 145 mottled {Pseudoceros reticulalus) 27

short-nosed {Tachyglossus aculealus)

see also vision

echidnas 233, 234, 235

235

echinoderms 142, 154

j)lanarian {Bipaliums.\).) 144

eyespot-s 51, 188

ax plant {Linum usiladssimum) 93 eas 35, 164-5

echolocation

cat {ClenocephalidesJelis) 165

bats 40. 240

dolphins/porpoises 262, 264, 265 oilbird 89

F

freshwater {Daphnia pulex) 77 ral)bit {Spilopsyllns cuniculi) 165

faii7 ba.sslel {Pseudanlhiassp.) 190

ecological succession 63 ecology 62-3 ecosystems 62, 63, 105 productivity of 66, 67

falcon

ecotourism 97

Falkland ower {Calandriafeltonii) 91

eels 38. 190, 191

false eyes weyespots family 108 fangs (snake) 205

European {Anguilla angidlla) 46, 184 garden {Gorgasia sillneri) 189 zebra moray {Gymnomuraeria zebra) 191 egg cells 21, 29, 30 egg hatching 199, 201 egg tooth (peg) 199, 201 eggs

rat {Xe7iopsylla cheopis) 164, 165

lanner {Falco biarmicus) 53 peregrine {Falco peregrinus) 219 sakei' {Falco chermf) 218

courtship and display 30 owl 224

amphibians 77, 193, 194, 197 birds 209, 211, 212, 217 sh 185, 191 insects 171

monotremes

234

reptiles 198, 199, 201,205

crocodilians 206 echinoderms 155

ocks 44,217

gastropods 149

electric signals, underwater 44. 186, 187 elephant bird {Aepyornis maximus) 211

owering plants 29, 126-7

insects 166, 170, 177, 179

owers 128-9, 134

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magni cens) 104 frog hoppers 171 frog spawn 193 frogs 35, 51,52, 192, 193, 196-7 Chilean four-eyed {Pleurodema bibroni) 197

common {Rana lemporaria) 52, 77, 196, 197

Danvin’s {Rhinoderma darwinii) 197

ying {Agalychnis spurrellii) 196 golden mantella {Mantella aurandaca) 101

painted reed {Flyperolius numnoratus) 197

see also btillfrog, treefrogs fronds (fern leaves) 122, 137 fruit bats 240, 241

Franqtiet’s {F.pomopsfranqueti) 240 old world {Ptey'opuss\).) 240 Rousettes {Rousettussp. 241 fmit-eaters 83

11 4

y amanita {Amanita 7nuscaria) 114, 115 lemon fairy cup {Bisporella cidina) 23 turkey-tail polypore {Trametes

electric shock 190

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foxglo\'e {Digitalis purpurea) 93 frigatebird, magni cent {Fregata

leaf-mining {Agwmyzidaeisp.) 175 i-ol)ber {Matrimus atricapillus) 175 South American robber {Mallophora

ight 36-7, 216, 240 ightless birds 210-11 ippers38, 212, 264

mammals 237, 238, 240, 241, 258, 259, 262, 263, 270, 277, 279

296 fl

Arctic {Alopex lagopus) 232 fennec {Fennecus zei'da) 86 kit {Vulpes macrotis) 253 red {Vulpes vulpes) 33, 253 swift {Vulpes velox) 253

death cap {Amanitaphalloides) 114

horse y, hover y, mosquitoes

birds 213, 216, 219, 225, 226, 229 chelonians 201

sh {Anablej)s anableps) 185

foxes 32,91,253

Irtiit {Drosophila melanogaster) 175 hot-springs {Fphydra bruesi) 162 house y {Musca domesdea) 37, 174

electric ravs 187

elephant-nose {Gnatho7le}nus^'>.) 188

M a r e l l a 11

four-eyed

fungi/fungus 64, 118, 119, 114-5, 136 antler jelly {Calocera viscosa) 114 Ceratocysds ulrni 173 common morel {Morchella esculenla)

stalk-eyed {Achias rolhschildii) 175 tsetse {(ilossina^-).) 175 see also bluebottle, hanginglly,

215

feeding 22-3 amphil>ians 195, 196

invertebrates 149

Arcliimylanis 164

diy rot mushroom {Serpula lactymans) 115

atra) 174

penguin 212 waterfowl

fossil relatives 125, 200, 206 see also living fossils fossils 11, 14, 16, 17, 156, 168

fruits 128, 129

deer-ked {Lipoptena ceivi) 57 Kuropeati bee {Bombylius discolor) 174

feathers 36, 208

see. also rainforests fossil fuels 64, 92

ies 162, 163, 174-5

crane {Tipulas,\').) 174

fanworm, peacock {Sabella penicillis) 145

ooded (swamp) 75 prehistoric 16

ehmen response 30

bi'aconid {Colesia glommiius) 57

farming wild animals 106

cloud 82 coniferous 78-9, 88, 124

(iouldian {Chhebia gouldiae) 228

E

forests

fetus 32, 233

Eiyops (early amphibian) 192 estivation (dormancy) 41, M8, 191, 195 eucalyptus {Ejicalyplus umigera) 133 Eiiglena viridis 21,112 1-\aglades, Florida, USA 75 e\ergreen leaves 78, 97. 121, 132

eagles 83, 88, 218

forceps sh {Eorcipigerjlavissimus) 188

f e r t i l i z e r, n a t u r a l 6 5

ght or ight 48 lter feeders 23, 72, 143, 150,216 mbriae (hairs) 110

vertebrates 182

foals 32, 269

food from plants/animals 92, 94

lix-mas) 122

g, strangler (/■»(« sp.) 137

arthropods 156

{Terj)siphone corvma) 101 ying sh 189 ying foxes see fruit bats ying lizards 202 ying reptiles 36. 198 ying squirrels 246

male {Ihyopteris

Galapagos Islands 14

Mandarin {Aixgalenndata) 215 northern pintail {Anas acuta) 215 oldsquaw {Clangula hyemalis) 211

Chinese liver {Chlonorc.his sinensis) 57

llycatcher, Seychelles paradise-

food chains 66-7

ermine .see stoat

mallard {Anas platyrhynchos) 214

ukes 57

Killarney {Trichomanes speciosum) 115

tree {Dicksonia antarctica) 123 fertilization 29, 128

trade in 107

common eider {Somatma mollissima)

diplazium {Diplazium proliferum) 83 epiphytic {Merinlhosoms diynarinides) 11 5

Caucasian {Zelkova carpinijhlia) 132 elytra (wing cases) 172

drugs from plants 103

SECTION

plants 24-5 reptiles 199 single-celled organisms 112

African {Loxodonia africana) 267

donkey {Equus asinus) 268 dormancy 80, 163, 249

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KEl’KRENCK

ower heads 128

parts of 128, 134

versicolor) 115

puffball {Lycoperdo7is,p.) 115 soil fungus {Dactylaria) 115 tawny grisette {Amanita fulva) 114 fungus kingdom 11, 109, 287 fur 61,95, 232, 256

G Galapagos Islands 14, 104 game birds 220-1 gannet {Sula bassana) 31, 212, 213

gas, natural 64 gastropods 148, 149 gazelle, Thomson’s 84 geckos 50, 199, 202,203 Hying {Flychozoon kuhli) 202 leaf-tailed {Phyllurus cornutus) 50

leopard {F.nblepharis macularius) 199, 202

Madagascan day {Phehuma quadriocellata) 203 Tokay {Gekkogehko) 202 geese 214-5 barnacle {Branta leucopsis) 214

Eg\'ptian {Aloporhen aegyplmcus) 75 snow {Chen caerulescens) 47

genesll.19, 20, 28, 109

Hylonomm (early replile) 198 hyraxes 266, 267 bush {Heterohyrax bmeei) 267 rock {Procavia capensis) 267

hanging y {Hnrpobillacussp.) 163 hardwoods 92, 125 hares 48, 244-5

European brown [Lepus europaeus) 232, 245

U

haustoria (suckers) 136

ibex 278

liawk, Galapagos {Buteo galapngoensis)

K

ibis, scarlet {Eudocimus luber) 216 ice sh, Antarctic {Chaenocephalus aceralus) 61,90

104

hawthorn {Crataegus monogyna) 32 hearing 42, 166, 192,209,224 heart, in vertebrates 183 heat, sensing 43

iguana, Galapagos marine {Amblyrhynchus

hedgehog{Erinaceuseuropaeus)49,238

spiny-tailed {('Jenosaura p.) 35 impala {Aepyceros melampus) 30

cristatvs) 199

heiniparasites 136

lunate {Cheilome.nes lunata) 173 Lake Victoria 105 lakes 76-7,78, 104

lammergcicr {Gypnetus barbalus) 219 lampreys 184

lancelet {Branchiostoma lanceolatum) 182 larch trees 79, 124, 125

European {Larix decidua) 125 Western {Lanx occidentalis) 124 laiTac/lana 33

amphibians 192, 193, 194

Indian bean tree {Catalpa bignoniodes)

cchinoderms 155

gerenuk {Litocranius walleri) 279

herbs and spices 92

ink (cephalopod) 153

hemoglobin 11. 26, 61

1 3 2

insectivores 238-9

herds 46

insects 26,75,79, 156, 162-3

bovids 278, 279

gibbons 284

white-handed {Hylobates lar) 285 Siamang {Hylobates syndaclylus) 285

gillrakcrs\87

gills 26, 149, 184, 192, 183 ginger {Z^ingiber of cinale) 127 ginkgo {Cinkgo biloba) 125 giraffe {Ciraffe Camelopardalis) 14, 20, 54, 84,274

elephants 267 equids 269 giraffes 54

hippos 272 hermaphrodites 31, 144, 149

goats domestication of 279 mountain 88, 278

gold sh, comet {Carassius auratus) 26

gorilla {Coiilla gorilla) 59, 100, 233, 280, 284

gourd plant {Lagenaria siceraria) 117 grasses 134-5

grasshoppers 166-7 eld {Chorthippus brunneus) 166 mating rainforest {Rhopsotettix consumrnatus) 167 South American stick {Microcoema

camposi) 167 grasslands 84-5, 105, 278 grazers 84

gastropods 149

groundsel {Seiiecio vulgaris) 99 grouse, sage {Centrocercus urophasianus) 221

ivory 100, 266

iv)’, Kenilworth {Cymbalaria muralis) 108

jacana,African {Actophilornis africanus) 217

111

2 7 1

ecological 62, 63 in danger 104-5 hairs cilia, setae

hamster, .) 99 marmoset, tufted-ear {CalUihrix jacchus)

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mudskipper {Periophthalmus harbams) 184

mangrove swamps 75

Mantis religiosa 169 maple, stigar {Acer sacchanim) 133

c

145

mangrove, stilt-rooted {Rhizophora^^.) 75

mantis (praying mantis) 169

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opossums 236, 237 Ecuadorian woolly {(Mluromys laualus)

natural selection 14

mantids 169

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omnivores 22

in.sects 157

Lowe’s {Cercopithecus hnuei) 233 proboscis {Sasalis laruatus) 56 red howler {Alountta seniculus) 283

mandibles (jaws) 162

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okapi {Okapiajohusloni) 275 old, growing 32

crocodilians 207

bread {Mucor mucedo) 114

233, 283

West Indian {Trichechus manatus) 261

oil 64

movement on land 18, 34-5

worms

Japanese macaque {Macaca fuscata)

manatees 260-1

1 5 3

common {Octopus vulgaris) .39, 152 giant {Octopus dojleiui) 153 offspring 28, 29

oilbird {Sfealornis caripeusis) 89, 209

Celebes ape {Macaca nigra) 282

mammoth, woolly {Mammulhus primigenius) 17

blue-ringed {Uapalochlaena maculosa)

reptiles 202, 204

m o l d s 11 4 , 11 5

68-9

ocelot {Felis pardalis) 256 octopuses 39, 143, 148, 152-3

single-celled organisms 112 .see rtAe .swimming movement of plants 117

mammals 236

European ('Talpa europaea) 63, 239 marsupial {Notoryctes typhlops) 63, 236

magnetism, .sensing 43

columbianus) 79 nutrient cycles 64-5 nutrition 18, 22-3 nyniphalids 176 nymphs 163, 167, 169. 171 oak (Qttmtcvsp.) 63, 80, 81. 133 oaiTish {Regalecus glesne) 185 oarweed {Laminaiia digdala) 119 oceans

tlu’me {Thymus cephalolus) 89

moles 239

mackerel,Jack (Traclmrus symmetricus) 48

149

sunset {Chiysiridia riphearin) 176

mice 32, 246, 247

2 4 6

macaw, scarlet {Ara macao) 23, 208, 223

nutcracker, Clark's {Nucifraga

spruce budworm {Chonstoneura fumiferann) 99

mole-rat, naked {Heterocephalus glaber) 55,

M

pass {Cmira vhuda) 81

Si^anish moon {Grnellsia isabellae) 100

incomplete 162, 163 Mexican hat plant {Kalanchoe daigremontiana) 29

161

louse see lice

nudibranch, clown {Chromodoris norrisi)

177

158

see also camou age

loris, slow {Nycticebus coucang) 281 lory, yellow-streaked {Chalcopsitta

Morgan’s sphinx {Xanthopan morgani)

complete 162, 163, 173

sh 190

European {Ilomarus gammams) 158 Paci c {Enoplometopus occidenlalis) 156 spiny {Panulirus argus) 46

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SECTION

biiuer ies/moLhs 176

living stones 50 lizards 48, 50, 87. 198, 199. 202-3

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REFKKENCE

notochord 182

coconut {Cocos micifera) 1.30. 131 date {Phoenix dactylifera) 130, 131

Mediterranean fan {Chamaerops

pollen grains 29, 37, 124, 128, 134 pollination 29, 56, 128, 132, 134, 240 pollutants (gases) 96 pollution 97, 99

pheasants 220

ring-necked {Pkasianus cvlchicus) 220

humilis) 131

oil {Elaeis guineensis) 131

raf a {Raphia fannifera) 130 rattan/rotang {Calamus caesius) 127,

Malayan peacock- {Polypleclron malacense) 220

m o n i t o r s 11 9

mountain peacock- {Polypleclron

polyps/polyp 72, 142, 146 pond skater (Gcrrwsp.) 45, 170

inopinatum) 220

131

palps (feelers) 162 pampas, South American 84 pandas

Reeves’s {Sy'nnalkus reevesii) 220 pheromones 30, 173, 194 phloem vessels 25

giant {Ailuropoda melanoleuca) 251

phosphorus cycle 65

lesser {Ailurusfulgens) 250

photosynthesis 24-5, 32, 66, 112, 137

pangolins49,242,2^3

ponds 76-7

poonvill, common {Phalaenoplilus

Florida {Felis concolor coryi) 75 paper from plants 92 papyrus 92, 135 parakeets

poppy, dwarf Iceland {Fapaver croceum)

parasitic plants 136-7

128

parrot sh 188 parrots 222-3 Amazon {Amazonasp.) 222

orange-bellied {Neophema chrysogastei) 223

partnerships 56-7 coral/algae 73

honey badger/honeygtiidc 230 lichen (fungi/algae) 118, 119 lifelong (birds) 31 saprophytic 136

partridge, hill {Arborophila torqueola) 220 gray {Perdixperdix) 221

porpoising 212, 265 possum, coppeiy brush-tailed

pine trees 124, 125 bristlecone 33, 117 Chilean {Araucana araucana) 125

{Trichosurus vulpecula) 233

reindeer see caribou

pouched animals 236 prairie dogs 84, 246

remora 56

black-tailed {Cynomys ludoviciamis) 246 prairies 105 preening 208

multibar {Syngnathus sp.) 68 see also sea dragon

pipit, meadow {Ayithus pratensis) 57 piranhas 77, 188 red-bellied {Semisalmus natlereti) 77

pitcher plants 107, 138 fringed {Nepenthes leyitaculala) 106 marsh {Heliomphora latei) 138 monkey cup {Nepenthes mirabilis) 138 yellow trumpet {Sarmcenia Jlava) 139 plaice {Pkuronectes plalessa) 188 plankton 69, 77, 159, 187 plant hoppers 171 plant kingdom 11, 109, 286-7

pasteurization 111

as food/drink 92

pea {Pisum sativum) 128 everlasting {Lathynis latifolius) 217 peacock, blue {Pavo crislatus) 30

a s me d i ci n e 9 3 , 1 0 3

respiration 19, 26-7

protist kingdom 11, 109, 287

see also breathingresponse systems 18

221

over-collection 102

pteridophytes 122

reproducing endangered 107 reproduction/growth 28, 29, 32, 127 respiration 27

pterosaurs 17, 198

roots 21, 24, 25, 126, 137 rhythms 40

puf n, Atlantic {Fratercula arctica) 213 puma {Felis concoloi) 27, 256 pupas 33,58,163, 176

pudu 276 puffers 190

pods (social groups) 264

and plants 92-3

poison-dart frogs 51

perch, Nile {Rates niloticus) 105 perching birds 208, 228 perfumes from plants 93 periwinkle, rose {Calharanlhus roseus) 103 permafrost 105 pest control 99 pesticides 99 pests 98-9 insects 98, 164, 167, 170, 171, 173 plants 99, 103 star sh 103

petrel, storm {Hydrobates pelagicus) 213 pets 94, 223, 253

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ribbon sh 185

{Oryza saliva) 25, 92, 134, 135 ringtail, American {Bassariscus astulus) r i c e

250, 251 rivers 76-7, 105

rockling, ve-bearded {Ciliata mustela) 1 8 8

rodents 246-7

green tree {Morelia viridis) 205 reticulated 204

rookeries 260, 261

roosting 241 roundworms (nematodes) 57, 142, 144, 145

marine nematode worm {Draconema sp.) 144 nematode worm {Caenorhabditis

quackgrass {ElyPigia refjens) 135 quaking aspen {Populus tremuloides) 28

elegans) 21 ruminants 22, 278

queens

runners (plant) 28

190

insects 55, 178, 181

rutting (breeding) 276, 277

naked mole-rats 55, 246

ry'c (Secale cereale) 135

quelea, red-billed {Quelea quelea) 98 quetzal, resplendent {Pharomachms

sea slugs 149

mocinno) 231 quills 49

see also venom

polar bear {IJrsus marilimus) 32, 91, 105,

S sable {Maites zibellina) 254 sage {Sedvia of cinalis) 49

249

polar plants 91

azalea, alpine {Loiseleuria procumbens) 91

R

Calandria feltonii 91 polar regions 90-1

rabbits 32, 244-5

polecat, European {Mustela putoriiis) 254,

European {Oryctolagus cuniculus) 244 raccoon {Procyon lotoi) 250

2 9 9 fl

2 7 0

white {Ceralotherium simum) 270, 271

pups 187, 253, 260 pygmy-tyrant, short-tailed {Myiornis pythons 198, 204, 205 Burmese rock {l^thon molurus bivittatus) 204

insects 157, 166

255

phasmids 167

rhinoceros/rhino 32, 45, 97, 270-1 black {Diceros bicomis) 45, 270 Indian {Rhinoceros unicornis) 270, 271 Sumatran {Dicerorhinus sumalrensis)

r o c k s 11 3

ecaudatus) 228

poisonous defenses 50, 51, 113, 125 amphibians 193, 194, 195

Rhaphidophora decursiva 126 rhea, greater {Rhea americana) 210, 211

pup sh 184

217

and nature 96-7, 106-7

research animals 94 resin 124, 125

in danger 102-3

plovers 216, 217 common ringed {Charadrius hiaticula)

reptiles 17, 183, 198-9

proteins 64

P a r a m e c i u m 11 2

playing dead 48

see also breeding, metamorphosis, pollination

resilin 35, 157, 164

ptarmigan, willow {Lagopus lagopus) 79,

anatinus) 234, 235

single-celled organisms 113

protected species 187, 199

Euglena viridis 21, 112

owering

mammals 233, 236

prosimians 280

defenses/camoullage 49, 50

plants, photosynthesis, spores platypus, duck-billed {Omithorhynchus

echinoderms 155

scorpions 161

as raw materials 92-3

see also carmyorom plants,

crustaceans 163

prides 54, 256 primates 54, 233, 280-1 primitive insects 163

D i d i n i u m 11 2

stems 28, 127 v i r u s e s 111

algae (seaweeds) 118

sh 185, 187, 190,191 insects 163, 165, 171

primrose, English {Pnmxda vulgaris) 80 proboscis 176, 271 pronghorn {Antilocapra americana) 277

bers 93

reproduction 19, 28-9, 30

prehistoric life 16-7 prickly ash {Zanlhoxylumpaniculatuni) 49 prickly pear {Opunlia cus-indica) 28

Trichonympha 113 protozoa 112 Amoeba 28, 112, 113

and animals 94-5

coast {Sequoia sempewirens) 117 dawn {Metasequoia glyptostroboides) 125 reed warbler {Acrocephalus scirpaceus) 229 regrowth/regeiieration 33, 155

Scots [Pinus sylvesiris) 124

plants 60, 61,83, 89,91, 116-7

penicillin 115 people

redbelly, Florida {Pseudemys nelsonii) 201

potato tree, Chilean {Solanum crispum) 126

passion fruit {Passi ora edulis) 103

great white {Pelecanus onocrotalus) 140 pen (internal shell) 152 penguins 90,210,212,213 gentoo {Pygoscelis papua) 212 Humboldt {Spheniscus humboldti) 210 king {ApteywdyLes patagonicus) 90, 212 rockhopper {Eudyples chrysoame) 212

undulate {Raja undidata) 186 red knot {Calidris canutis) 217

lodgepole {Pinus contoiia) 124

passerines 228

pecking order 55 pedipalps 160, 161 pelicans 140, 213 brown {Pelecanas occidenlalis) 213

spotted eagle {Aelobatus narinari) 69

redwood trees 125

pika (Ochotona?,p.) 244, 245

protests 112, 113

peat bogs 74, 92, 121 peccaries 272, 273 collared {Tayassu tajacu) 273

rays 186-7

r e d t i d e 11 3

plant-eaters 22 plantlets 28, 29

pearls 151

53

raven, common {Coivus corax) 228

pores (stomata) 24, 25 porpoises 264-5 harbor {Phocoena phocoena) 264

pipe sh 191

parental care 30, 31, 141,233, 267, 285 parents and reproduction 28-9

Western diamondback [Crotalus alrox)

porcupine, Malayan {Plystrix brachyura) 49

holocanlhus) 190

Wollemi {Wolleniia nobilis) 125

parasitoids 180

rat, Norway {Rattus noivegicus) 246 rattlesnake, prairie {Crolalus viridis) 204

pigments 24, 26 pigs 272-3

stone {Pinus pinea) 79, 124

worms 144, 145

destruction of 104

raptors 218

population, human 29, 96 porcupine sh, long-spined {Diodon

273

insects 164, 165

ragvvorms 144 rainforests 82-3, 136, 137, 230

phytoplankton 24, 69, 77 piddocks 70 /Vfrican bushpig {Potcmochoems porem)

monk {Myiopsitta monachus) 223 peach-fronted {Aratinga aurea) 222 rose-ringed {Psittacula krameii) 223 parasites 57, 113,170,263

radula (tongue) 149, 152 raf esia, giant {Rnf esio amnldii) 136

nutlallii) 41

phylum 109

Malayan {Manis javanica) 243 panther, black {Panthera pardus) 257

fi

fi

fi

fi

I N D E X

pineapple {Salvia rutilans) 25 salamanders 35, 192, 193, 194-5 {Eurycea luci iga) 192, 195 European re {Salamandra salamandra) 193, 195 c a v e

spoiled {AmbysUmia maculatum) 19^1 salmon 190

sockeye {Oncorhynchus nerka) 185, 191 salmonella 98

11 8

102

2 1 8

●single-celled organisms 28, 110, 112-13

saltbush {Atriplex ynunmulnna) 105

.seed banks 107

sand dolla sap 51, 171 saprophytes 136 saprolrophs 23

seed-bearing plants 116 seeds 25, 32, 37, 124, 125. 128 dis|)ersal of 129 seeing underwater 185 sell-defen.se 48, 273

savanna, African 46, 84

senses 42-3

154,

155

sand dunes 134

scale bugs/insects 170, 171

in animals 140

Dartylopius coccus 95, 171

in birds 209

scales 49

butterllies/moihs 176 chelonians 200

reptiles 198, 204

single-celled organisms 113 star sh 154

sp.)

49

reptiles 198,202 scallop, great (Pecicn maximus) 150

queen {Aequipccten opercularis) 151 scavengers 85, 155, 164, 219, 259 scent marking/.scenus 30, 42, 45, 2.54, 255, 259 scienti c names 108

scorpions, desert (Audroclonus amomtxi) 161

giant {Giganioscorpio) 17 imperial {Pandivus s,\->.) 161 Stichopus chloronotus 154

taille.ss whip {Amblypygi spp.) 161 sea anemones 28, 56, 141, 147

beadlet {Actinia equina) 71 dahlia {Urtricina eques) 147 snakelocks {Anemonia viridis) 28, 71, 141

sea cucumbers 48, 68. 154. 155

Holothuria sp. 48 sea dragon {Phylloptetyx laemiolatus) 73 sea grasses 68

seixMXy {Plilocrinuspinnatus) 154, 155 sea lion, California {Zalophus califomiaciis) 260

sea nettle {Chtysaomsp.) 146 sea pens 68 sea .slugs 148, 149

skink, tree {Dasias,\>.) 48

“ G e n e r a l S h e r m a n " 11 7

.skulls 23, 206, 232, 247, 256, 278 skunks 2.54, 255

setae (bristles/hairs) .39, 145 setts (burrows) 254

scripta) 200 slime, in slugs 31, 148

sharks 38. 186-7

angel {Squatina squalina) 187 basking {Cetorhinus maximus) 187 blacktip red' {(’(^ircharhinus mdanoplems) 186 blue {Prionaceglauca) 48

.slime molds 1.3

sloth, pale-throated three-toed {Bradypus tiidactylus) 242, 243

hammerhead {Sphyrrlidae^-).) 187

sea urchins 154-5

common {Echinus esculentus) 155

Palmer’s {Diadema palmeri) 155 sea wasp {Chironexjleckeri) 146 seabirds, 31. 212-3

seahorse {Hippocampusi^p.) 38,97, 104, 191

seals .38, 71. 90, 260-1

Cape n- {Arclocephalus pusillus) 44 crabeater {Lobodon carcinophagus) 90 harbor {Phocavitulina) .38, 71, 260 Haw'aiian monk {Monachus schauinslandi) 261

leopard {Hydnirga leptoyiyx) 90 ringed {Phoca hispida) 90, 261 southern elephant {Miroanga. leotiitia) 261

whale {Rhincodon lypus) 187

smell, sense of 42

shearwater. Manx {Puf nus pufjhms) 213

snails 34, 148-9

snaggletooih sh, blac 69

sheep 88, 95, 278, 279 Bai'baiy {Ammotragus letvia) 278 bighorn {Ovis canadensis) 279 .shells 33, 11.3, 148, 149, 150,200 auger, Ib’-spoited {Terebra aerolala) 148

)

-snakes 51, 198, 199,204-5

banded carpet {Veyiet'upis rhotyiboides)

African egg-eating {Dasypdtis inornala)

re {Lycoteu(his‘s\').) 153 giant {ArchiU’uthisisp.) 142, 143 Japane.se (Le%osp.) 39

opalescent [Loligo opalescens) 153

geography cone {Conus geogaphus) 53

coral {Micnmis nigvcinctus) 51, 205

Japanese wonder (Thatcheria yyiirahilis)

.squirrels 246 gray {Sciurus carolinensis) 63, 81, 246 slags 276

European grass {Natrix natrix) 48

starch

star sh 28, 154-5

irape/.inm horse conch {Pleuroploca

garter {Thamnophis sirtalis) 75 green \ine {Ahaetulla prasina) 205 milk {Lampropdtis triangdum) 51 red-tailed rat- {Elaphe oxycephala) 198 sidewindei- {Crotalus cerastes) 87

trapeziutyi) 148 West African lellin {Tdlina yyiadagascariensis) 150

sunbeam {Xenopeltis unicolor) 204

spiny {Marthasteria glacialis) 154 starling, European {Sturnus vulgari.s) 183,

1 5 0

2 0 5

1 4 8

The Eloise {Acteon doi.sae) 148

thread 204

see also dn^xcondix. boa, cobra, pythons, rattlesnake, sea snakes, \ij)ers

Catpotia htiperialis 170 Elastnucha grisea 171 green {Paloyyiena prasina) 29 striped {Graphosotna italicutyi) 170

snout(beak) 264 snow-leopard {Uncin uncia) 19 .soaring 37

social animals/groups 54-5

shingleback, Australian {Trachydosaums

insects 180, 181

yugosus) 202

mammals 254, 258, 266, 267, 272, 283,

shipworm {Teredo notvegica) 150-1

2 8 5

shrews 238. 2.39

Eurasian pygmy {Sorex ttiinutus) 238 European common {Sorex amneus) 232

pygmy white-toothed {Suncus etmscus)

crown ol'thorns {Acanihasterplanet) 155

2 2 9

Slick in.sects 163, 167

Malaysian {Eonchodes brevipes) 167 stickleback, ihree-spined {Gasteymteus aculeatus) 191 slinging nettle {Vrtica dioica) 51

stingray, European {Dasyatispastinaca) 1 8 7

stings 51, 146, 180 stoat {Mustda myiinea) 254, 255 -stomach, four-chambered 278

softwoods 92. 125

stomata 24, 25

soil binding 134 soldier ants/termites 178

sione sh, reef {Synanceia veyrucosa) 191

2.39

songbirds 44, 228-9 songs 30 in.sects 166, 171 songbirds 228

tadpole (7>'/e//s sp.) 61

common {Aslerias rubens) 155

social hierarchies 252

solcnodon, Haitian {Solenodon paradoxus)

239

water {Neottiys fodiens) 238 shrike, northern {Layiius excubilor) 229 shrimp, cleaning {Lysmata amboinesis)

25

w'hales 44

storks 216

marabou {I.eploptilos cruyneniferus) 216 w'hite {Gicoyiia ciconia) 44, 85

strawberry {Eragaria sp.) 28 siromatoliies 13

suckers, parasitic plants 136 sucrose

25

sugar 24,25 sugarcane 92, 135

soru.s/sori 12.3

silaka, Verreaux’s {Propithecus vetreauxi)

sound vibrations in water 185, 262 sparrow’, house {Passer doynesticus) 228

sugar glider {Petauy'us bmiiceps) .37

sparrowhaw'k, Eurasian {Accipiter n'lsus)

sundew plant {Drosera sp.) 107, 138

spawn 185, 195

sunllow'er {HdUmthus anninis) 19 super-organisms 178

fi

k

fi

t

fi

r

.

bubble raft {/anthina sp.) 39 giant African {Achatina fulicn) 148 great pond {Lymnaea stagnalis) 149 Roman {Helixpomatia) 34

35

-silica (.shells) 113 silk, inscci/spider 37, 58, 160 silverllsh {Lepisyyia saccharina) 163

219

3 0 0 fi

p

sidevvinding 87, 204

red {Phyyyialol.ithon, Gorallina o/ cinalis)

fi

s

spring-tails 90 spruce trees 79, 125 Norway {Picea abies) 125 spurge {Euphorbia 15,51 spy-hopping 265 squid 39, 50, 148, 152-3 common {Loligo pealcii) 152

sea.shores 70-1

green {Etiteroy/iorpha linza) 119

fi

mosses 120

springbok {Autidorcas marsupial/s) 18, 279

seashells shells

seasons of the year 40, 41.80 seaweeds 116, 118, 119

fi

lichens i19

lettuce {Triadchia crispata) 73

W'hite {Carcharodon carcharias) 187 whiletip reef {Triamodon obesus) 73 sharksucker {Ecbeneis naucrates) 56

1.58

Weddell {Eeptonychotes xuedddli) 60, 90

fungi 114, 115

slugs 31, 34, 148-9 garden {Avion aUn) 143, 148 great gray {Liniax maximus) .31

Tiiako {[sums oxyrhinchus) 186 sand tiger {Kugomphodus taurus) 186

spiracles 26, 170, 186, 193 spittle bugs 171 sponges 30, 33, 68, 140, 142. 143 barrel {Pefrosia 140 lube {Aplysina archeri) 143 spoonbill, African {Pla/alm alba) 217 spore-bearing plants 116 spores 36, 37. 116 ferns 123

sloughing (shedding skin) 202, 204 slow'worm {Anguis fragilis) 140, 199

-shieldbug.'!29,170,171

sea turtles 200

spirea, rock (Pclmphyl/um caespitosum) 89

spotted {Spilogale putorius) 255 slider, red-eared {Trachemys degans

,sex cells 29, 124, 128

7 0

olive {Aipysums laevis) 204 sea spiders 68 anemone {lAcnogonum littomle) 157 sea squires (lunicates) 23, 182 sea star {Heliaster multiradiata) 154

spines 25, 49, 155, 190, 238 spin}- anieaiers 235

shedding.33,2oi204

painted top {Calliostotna zizyphinuyti)

sea snakes 204

trapdoor 59, 160

water {Argyroncta aqualica) 160

3 3 , 11 7

Homburg’s {Trilonia hombergi) 149 sea snails 148, 149

tarantulas 141, 157, 161

breathing through 192, 194

sequoia, giant {Sequoiadendron giganteum)

sexual reproduction 29, 113

schools 55, 190, 264

nursen-web {Pisaura mirabilis) 160 orlMveb {Amneus diadematus) 52

skin 182, 198, 202

sensor}’ organs 162

sharks 186

daddy4onglcgs {Pholcuss,yi.) 28 shing {Thalassiuss\y.) 160 house {Te^enaria giganlca) 160 jumping (.S’rt/On/.vsp.) 160

sharks 186

see also exoskcleions

108

sunlval ol'28

seals 260

in \eriebrates 183

names

sperm cells 21,29, 30 spermaceti 263 spiderlings 28, 37, 160 spiders 28, 44, 52, 160-1

skeletons 15, 140, 182-3 birds 208,210

in reptiles 198

speciaiion 15 species 15, 108, 109 rare, breeding of 106

sitatunga {Tragdaphus spekei) 74

tigers 140 whales 262, 264

sensitive plan

sh 184

siphon 39, 149, 150, 151 siren, greater {Sirm lacertina) 195 sisal {Agave sisalana) 93

in amphibians 192

Cerococcusquercus171

SECTION

silversword, Hawaiian {Argyroxiplihims,\).)

secretaiybird {Sagittarius serpentarius) 53, sedges 134, 135 pendulous {Carexpendula) 1.35

salt 105

fi

fi

fi

fi

REFERENCE

sumac, staghorn {Rhus lyphina) 1,32

surgeon sh 190 sun’ival28, 60, 106

surviving extremes 60-1 swallows 226-7

threatened animals/planis see endangered thrift {Armena mariihua) 71 thrips 37

bank {Riparia ripana) 226, 227

thrushes 66

barn {Hinindo rustica) 226, 227

thyme {Thymus cephalotus) 89 tick, three-host {Ixodess\).) 161

swamps 74

tidal zones 71

swans 37, 214-5

mute {Cygnus olor) 214, 215

tidepools 70-1, 118

starred (Ge.odielone elegans) 200

stinkpot {Slernolherus od(ralus) 201

pygmy right {Caperea marginaia) 15, 262

tusks 100, 261, 263, 266, 273

right [Euhalaena gladalis) 262

tymbals 30

Sci {Balaenoplera borealis) 262

sperm {Physeier calodon) 68, 262, 263

U

V

ultrasonic sounds 240

wheat {Triticum%\).) 92, 134, 135 whelk, common {Buednum undatum) 149

wliite-eye, AJ'rican yellow {Zosterops senegalensis) 56

swarms, locust 98, 163

tides 41, 46, 70

umbilical cord 32, 233

wildllowers 80

swiftlet, edible-nest {Collocaliafudphaga)

tiger {Pantbera ligtis) 32, 100, 140, 256,

ungulates hoofed mammals unken rellex position 194 vectors (disease carriers) 173

wildebeest 278, 279 blue {Connodiaetes (aurinus) 47, 279 wing cases 172

vegetative reproduction 28

wings 36, 37

257

227

titan arum {Amorpkophallus lilanum)

swifts 226-7

alpine {Apus melba) 226 common {Apus apus) 226, 227 great dusky 227 palm {Cypsiunis parvus) 227 pygmy {Tadiornisfurcata) 227 svdm bladder 39, 184

swimming 38

amphibians 192, 196 crocodilians 207

dolphins/porpoises 265 sh 38, 185 monotremes 234

sycamore maple {Acei'pseudoplatanus) 132

veins

insect 36

pcndulinc {Remiz pendulinus) 229 toad bugs 170 toads 35, 192, 193, 196-7

African clawed {Xennpus laevis) 192 /Vfrican square-marked {Bufo regtilaris) 197

leaf 24, 25

velvet (antler) 276 venom 52, 171, 190,205,234

Venus llytrap {Dionaea musdpula) 139 vertebrates 182-3

common {Bufo bufo) 47 green {Bufo viridis) 196

vibrations, underwater 186

midwife {Alytes obsletricans) 197

vinegarones 161

spadefooi {Pelobatesfuscus) 196

viper, g-aboon {Bills gabonica) 205

tongues 148, 149, 203, 242 tool users

chimpanzees 284

Symbion pandora 142 symbiosis 56, 113

vicuna {Vicugna vicugna) 61, 275

T

Galapagos giant {GeocheUme nigra)

tadpoles 192, 193, 194, 197 taiga 79 ash 276

tail streamers 226

tailor bird {Orthotoymissp.) 229 talons 218

tamandua, southern {Tamandua tetradactyla) 243

tamarin, golden lion {Leontopithecus rosalia) 101

tang, blue {Paracanthunis hepalus) 73 tapeworms 57, 145

Amirthalmgamia macracantha 145 tapirs 270-1 Brazilian {Tapinis terrestris) 271 Malayan {Tapirus indicus) 271 tarantulas

2 0 1

toucan, Guvier's {Ramphaslos cuvieri) 83 red-l)illed {Ramphaslos lucanus) 230

Pamphobeteus sp. 157 red leg {Brachypelma eniilia) 161 tardigrades 60 tarsier, western (Tarsius ba?icanus) 280

gray {Canis lupus) 15, 48, 61, 232, 252 maned (Chrysocyon bradiyunis) 253 wombat, common (Vombatus ursinus) 237 haiiT-nosed {Lasiorhinus latifrons) 34 wood 92, 127

wood wasp, giant {Uivceras gigas) 79 woodchuck {Marmota monax) 79 wood lice {Armadillidiums,y>.) 158

see also eyes vocal sac 197

vultures 85, 101, 218, 219

white-backed {Gyps apicanus) 20, 219

woodpecker, Eurasian green {Picus vbidis) 209 wool

95

workers

ants/termites 45, 55, 178 bees/wasps 181

W

naked mole-rats 55, 246

waders vwbirds, wading wallaby, red-necked {Macropus rufogiiseus) 236

wallowing (mud) 270

working animals 95 worm lizards 199 worms 57, 142, 144-5

earthworm {Lumbricus terreslris) 144, 1 4 5

warm-l)looded animals 19, 232

horsehair {Chordodes verrucosus) 145

toxic stings/toxins 51, 148, 149, 190 tragopan, Temminck’s {Tragopan

wai ning colors wcolors, warning wart hog {Phacochoerus aethiopicus) 273

parchment {Chaetoplerus variopedalus)

wasps 59, 180-1 braconid {Aphidius sp.) 99

peanut 145 velvet {Peiipatus sp.)l‘io see also annelids, fanworms, roundworms, tapeworms

temminckii) 220 translocation 25

chalcid {Torymus nitens) 180 German {Vespula gennania) 180

transpiration 25 ireefrogs 137, 193, 196

ichneumon {Rhyssa persuasona) 180

red-eyed {Agalychnis callubyas) 196

jewel {Ampulex compressus) 181 marble gall {Andricus kollari) 180 paper {Polistes sp.) 59 Saxon {Dolidiovespida saxonica) 181

White’s {Litoria caemlea) 193

tree shrew, common {Tupaia glis) 239 tree weta {Hemideina Ihoracica) 167 trees 28, 32, 33, 107 coniferous 78, 124-5 see also individual named species iriggerlisli 190 trilobites T56

taste buds 185 taste, sense of 43

1 4 4

wracks

atworms,

11 8

bladder {Fuels vesiculosus) 118

spiral {Eucus spiralis) 118 toothed {Eucus smratus) 71

waste disposal 18 water 10, 38

cycle 65, 97 water bears (tardigrades) 60 water bugs 170

water hyacincth {Eichhornia crassipes) 99 water scoi'pion {Nepadnerea) 170

X Y Z xylem vessels 25

yam, wild {Dioscorea villosa) 93 yeast {Saccharomyces cerevisiae) 114 yew trees 124, 125

water strider {Halobalessp.) 69

English {Taxus baccata) 97, 125

tropical rainforests .vccrainibresls

waterbuck {Kohus dlipsipiymnus) 75

Prince Albert's {Saxegothaea conspicua)

tea bush {Camellia sinensis) 92

true bugs 170

waterlowl 214-5

teeth 23, 53, 232

trunks 266, 271

waterlily, fringed {Nympboides pellala) 127

Yorkshire fog {llolcus lanatus) 134

tuatara {Sphenodon pundalus) 198, 199

wax, bees’ 181

yucca plants 126 Adam’s needle {YuccaJllamentosa) 126 zebras 22, 52, 84, 268-9

mammals 183, 232, 244, 247, 250, 256,

tube feet (podia) 154

259, 278

tubes, worm 144

sharks 186, 187

temperature 192, 193, 198,232

tundra 90, 91, 104

tentacles 148, 149, 152

tunicates (sea squirts) 23, 182 turaco, red-crested {Tauraco

termite mounds 178

termites 83, 113, 178-9,259 common forest {Nasulitermes arborum) 178

FJospitalitermes umbrinus 178 magnetic (compass) {Amilermes meridionalis) 178 terrapins 200 thermals

erylhrolophus) 231

turnstone, ruddy {Arenaria interpres) 217 turpentine 125 turtles 97, 198, 199, 200-1 alligator snajjping {Macroclemys lemminckii) 201 Atlantic ridley201

weasel, common {Mustela nivalis) 254 weaver bird, village {Ploceus cucullatus) 59 weeds 98, 99, 135 weevils

leaf {Eupholus schoenbeiri) 173 nut {Gurculio nucum) 172 welwitschia {Welwilschia mirabilis) 86, 11 7 wetas 167 wetlands 74-5, 105

whales 15, 28, 46, 262-3, 265

beluga {Ddphinaplerus leucas) 262 l)lue {Balaenoplera musculus) 233, 262 goose-beaked {Ziphius caviroslris) 262

green {Gbelonia mydas) 38, 97, 201

37

thesium {Thesium alpinium) 29 third eyelid 206

leatherlrack {Dermorhelys coriacea) 201 matamata {Cbelus mbrialus) 201

thistle, milk {Silybum marianum) 37 thorn bug {Vmboniasp.) 171

sea 201

thorns

49

Grav {Escbrichlius robustus) 46

humpback {Megaplera novaeangliae) 44, 263

snapping {Chelydra serpentina) 200 spiny soft-shell {Apalone. spinifera) 200

killer {Ordnus orca) 262, 264, 265

fl

fi

fi

301 fi

wolves/woU'61, 78

walrus {Odobe.nus rosrnarus) 260, 261

tripod sli 68 troops 54, 283 tropical birds 230-1

Tasmanian devil {Sarcophilus harrisii) 237

wolverines 254

touch, sense of 43 tourism, and nature 97

deciduous 80-1

Ceratogyrus sp. 141

birds 36, 37, 226 insects 36, 51, 162, 166 wingspan 168, 213, 219

vision 42.209,218

toothed whales 262, 264-5

toothwort {Lalhraea clandeslina) 80 torpor 233 tortoises 32, 33, 198, 199, 200-1

bats 240

v i r u s e s 11 0 - 1

otters 255

syrinx (voicebox) 228

tail

tits, blue 58, 63

see also fungi/fungus

tapirs 271

r

103

t o a d s t o o l s 11 4 , 11 5

seabirds 212

fl

fi

I N D E X

124

Btirchell’s {Equus burchelU) 268 Grev)'’s {Equus grevyi) 268, 269 mountain {Equus zebra) 268 zebroid

109

zooplankton 39, 69, 77 zoos 95

Picture The publisher would like to thank the

credits

following for their kind permission to

Davey 284bc; Francisco J. Erizo 90c; M. P. L. Fogden olca; Jeff Foott Productions

reproduce their photographs:

162tc, I85tl, 262bc, 279ca; Christer

t=lo]3, a=above, b=below, l=left, r=righl,

Fredriksson 134clb; HPH Photography 9bc, 30clb; Paul van Gaalen 94cr; Carol Hughes

c = c c n l e r, r = f a r.

Aquila Photographies: N. J. Bean 101 tc; Abraham Cardwell 70cl; B. Hannc &Jens Eriksen 229cla, 274ca; Hans Gebuis 228bc; Robert Maier 250cl, 269cla; Richard T.

Mills 70lr; Sage 261c; M. C. Wilkes 221crb, 227cl.

Ardea London Ltd: 125ca, 255cb, 265bl; A.

E. Bomford 191crb; Jean-Paul Ferrero 65bl, 65d, 268cl, 269cr, 269crb; Kenneth W. Fink

86cl, 101 ti', 2I5cl; Pascal Goetgheluck 167ca; Francis Gohier 44bc, 118clb, 263bl;

C. Clem Haagncr 74-75; C. &J. Knights 217ca; Ferrero-Labat 223d, 268bl; Peter Lamb 229bl; B. Me Dairmant 96crb; P. Morris 238crb, 247tr; Starin 282bl; Ron & Valerie Taylor 146bl, 187tc; Warden Weisser 221 era, 258bl.

Auscape: Jean-Patil Ferrero 213c, 234c,

235tr; Hellio-Can Ingen 167bl; D. Parer & E. Paper-Cook 29tc.

Barnaby’s Picture Library: 94cl. BBC Natural History Unit: 59cb; Jeff Foott 113bc, 129crb; Jurgen Freund 77tc; David

Nicholas Phelps Broam 147tc; Paul Steny 59cl, 82d, 138tr; Roger Tidman 74br. NHPA: A.N.T. 14ca, 37lr, 41 cl, 63tr, 64c,

223tl, 237cr; Dan Balfour 14cb; Anthony

IGObc; Johnny Johnson 91bc, 190bl, 270bc;

Bannister 18br, 17 cl, 259cr, 279bc; G. 1.

Felix Labhardt 193clb; George McCarthy

Berhard 137crb; Stephen Dalton 169cla, 203tl, 226crb, 227tl, 238crb, 241bc; Nigel J. Dennis 217clb; Ron Fotheringham 57cr;

106cr; Joe McDonald 9lea; Scott Ncilson 198bc; Flip de Nooyer 9crb, 31clb; Allan G.

Potts 261tl; Michael P. Price 83cl; Andrew J. Purcell 279clb; Hans Reinhard 102cb,

Martin Haiwey 140br; Brian Hatvkes 89ca; Ken Grif ths 178cr; Gerard Laez 261 be;

248crb; John Shaw 61tl; Kim Taylor 175tc,

David Middleton 1171; Dr. Ivan Polunin

176tc, 181tl; Norman Owen Tomalin G9tr;

173tl; Onon Press 233ca; Christophe Ratier 52tr, 99clb; Steve Robinson 272-273b; Andy Rouse 141cra; Jany Sauvanet 61bl; John

Uwe Walz 60tr; Rod Williams 243cl. Colori c: Enrico Ferorelli 285bc,

Phillip Dowell: 257tr.

Shaw 75tl, 249tr; Martin Wendler 104cl, 205cb, 27lbcl; Alan Williams 225ca; David Woodfall 121tc.

E c o s c e n e : W. L a w l e r 7 5 b r. Oxford Scienti c Films: Animal

Mary Evans Picture Library 108tr. ELPA: K. Aitken/Panda 631tl; Lee Batten

71tc; I.. Gamlin 32crb; M. Gore 227tr; E. & D. Hosking lOOtc, 24bl; S. Jonasson 19Icr; David K. Jones 105ca; F. W. Lane 185crb; S. Maslotvski 194tr, 250crb; Mark Newman

105bc; E. van Nostrand 104tr; Panda/M.

Melodia 199cl; Phillip Perr)' 215cr, 253cl; Don Smith 227cb; R. Tidman 71crb; John Tinning 239bl; Roger Wilmshurst 77cr, 8Itl; W. Wisniewski 78-79.

A n i m a l / B r e c k P. K e n t 4 U r ; K a t h i e

Atkinson 13ca, 139tr, 147cra, 235cb; Lloyd Beesley 236cr; Niall Benvie 119cr; G. 1.

Bernard 56c, 160crb, 165tl; Tony Bomford

97tr; Deni Bown 131d; Derek Bromhall 241 ca; Scott Camazine 113cla/CDC llObc;

John Gheverton 28bl; Densey Clyne/Mantis Wildlife Films 164cb; Martyn Colbeck 266ca, 285tr; Conseiwation International © Merlin D. Ttittle, Photo Researchers Inc. 36bl; Richard Davies 64br; Mark Deeble &

Victoria Stone 189tc; Jack Dermid 195c, 195cla; Phil Devries 56br; Gregoi-)’ G.

Kjaer44-45b; Thomas D. Mangelsen

Michael &Patricia Fogden: 1Icr, OObl, 86c

276crb; Dietmar Nill 54cra; N. O’Connor 86-87; Ron O’Connor 42cr; Pete Oxford 230tr; Jeff Rootman 118tr; 153clb; Tom

192ca, 193tl, 23Ida.

Dimijian 144tr; Fredi ik Ehrenstrom 48br; Douglas Faulkner 8dlb, 72cl; Kem &

Rachael Foster: 277tc.

Finzel/Stuvival 48tr; David B. Fleetham

Ve z o 2 1 3 t r.

John Hall: 272bl, 273c.

Biofotos: Heather Angel 19tc, 84-85, 85bl, 93crb, 115cr, 116ca, 125bl, 131cb, 133tl, 135c, 182cl, 242clb, 248cl, 272cb; C. A.

Henley 178br, 181crb; P. Herring 69bl; J. M. Pearson 46cl; Paul Simons 103d; Slim

Sreedharan 2()lcla;Jason Venus 66c.

Robert Harding Picture Library: Nigel Francis 133br; Scha hausen 76-77.

Hutchison Library: Sarah Murray 135clb. Images of Africa Photobank: 54cr.

38tr, 42tr; Michael F.tgden 82-83, 145bl, 196cr, 197cra, 197clb; Paul Franklin 103tc; Jim Frazier 175bl; Max Gibbs 129cr; Nick Gordon 255bl; Karen Gowlctt-Holmes 27tr; Mark Hablin 81crb; Howard Hall 46tr, 199tl; Mike Hall 206cb; Richard R. Hansen

47tc; David Haring 280bc; Tony Heathcote 1Id; Richard Herrmann 48c; Rudie Kuiter 45tr; Michael Leach 253ca; London

Anthony Blake Photo Library: 27bc.

Microscopix: y-Vndrew Syred 166bl, 170crb.

Booth Museum: 8-9ca, 256tl.

N A S A : l O t r.

Scienti c Films 13crb, 170bc; Tom McHugh 186cl; Colin Milkins 29bc; Owen Newman 22tr; Okapia 130r/Robert Maier

British Museum: 12Id; Natural Histoi-v

National Museums of Scotland: 16crb.

255tl/Hans Reinhard 273tl; Ben Osbourne

Natural History Musem, London: 1Ibr,

121c; Stan Osolinski 22br, 207ca, 277cl; Peter O’Toole 11 Ic; Peter Parks 39bl,

51cb.

Edmund D. Brodie.Jr: 194clb. David Bumie: 32ci b.

The J. Allan Cash Photolibrary: 88-89, 9 2 b r.

I6bl, 16c, I7tc, 17crb, 17dVb, I7cb, 29c,

149cl; Photo Researchers Inc./Phil A.

29cr, 29cfr, 98clb, lOOerb. 113ir, 120bc,

Dotson 251ca/Craig K. Lorenz 225cr; Andrew Plumpire 285c; Alan Root 243tc; Krtipaker Senari 266dj; Rail Ben-Shahar

145clb, 145cr, 146c, I49tc, 161 d, 164bc, 170lr, 174cla, 177ca, 192cr.

Natural Image: Michael Woods 18bc.

Bruce Coleman Ltd: Franco Banll 140cr;

Trevoi' Barrett 270cr; Erwin &Pegg}' Bauer 14lbl, 277bc; Mark N. Boulton 109tc;

Thomas Bucholz I25tl; Jane Burton 232tr; John Cancalosi 87tc, 196c, 245br; Steven

Ckaulman 283bl; Luiz Claudio Marigo 137tl, 275cr; Alain Compost 107cr, 136cl, 243bc, 277cr; Gciald Cubitt 281bc; Peter

Natural Science Photos: D. Allen

Photography 266d, 274clb; Ken Cole 254cr; Bcih Davidow 221cl; Simon Everetl 95crb;

Carol Farneli Foster 205d; Ken Iloppen 15c; Pete Oxford 98bc; C. &T. Stuart 163bl; I. West 47cr.

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136bcr; Survival Anglia/Dcs &Jen Bartlett 210b, 259cl/Tony &Liz Bomford 225tl/Richard &Julia Kemp 214crb/ David Shale 98cr; Victoria Stone 207cl;

Harold Taylor I59U/AB1PP 89tc; David Tipling 220cl; Ronald Toms 87tr; Tom Ulrich 218bc; Babs &Bert Wells 237cl;

Ian West 41 da, 41 era, 63tl; Belinda Wright Nature Photographers: Geoff du Feu 55clb;

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177cla; Alastair Shay 168crb; Tim Shepherd

9cl, 100c, 257cl.

Panos Pictures: Magnus Rarshagen lOcr.

Royal Scottish Museum: 64clm.

Papilio Photographic: 120tr.

Science Photo Library: Biophoto Associates 112bc; Dr. Tony Brain 1lOcl; Dr. Jeremy

Partridge Films/Inframetics Infrared

Burgess frontjacket cr, 25cla, 25cra;

Systems Ltd: 53c.

C.N.R.I. 20cr; John Durham llSbc; Ken Edward lid; Eye of Science 49bc, llObc,

158bc; Tony Phelps 122lr; Samantha Purdy 8'7crb, 252crb,

Pictor International: 126cl.

11 Icb; Dr. Gene Feldman/NASA GSFC

Planet Earth Pictures: K. &K. Amman n

42bl; Peter Atkimson 68cra; Gary Bell 12bc, 67crb, 147c, 237cb, 249cb; J. Bracegirdle 125db; Franz Camenzind 271d; Maty Clay 79tc, 233tr; Colour Library Books lOocrb; M. &C. Denis-I-Iuot 231 cr; Georgette

Douwma 155tr, 158c; James Dwaff 187bl; Geoff du Feu 9cfrb, 31c; Richard Foster

8crb, 256clb; Jennifer Fry 35c; Martin King 245ca; P. Kumar 117crb, 223bc; Jiri Lochman 258tr; John Lythgoe 95cl, 96ca;

John &Gillian Lythgoe 131cr; Paulo de Oliveira 69br, 175cl, 193crb; Nikita

Ovsyanikov 232cl; Doug Perrine 55tc, 68-69C, 265cla; Mike Read 214tr; Carl Roessler 204clb; David Rootes 90crb; Peter Scoone 90bc, 188tc, 189cla, 190tr, 263cb;

Jonathan Scott 9cb, 257c, 283tc; Seaphoto Ltd/Richard Matthews 84cl; Anup Shah 266br; Yuri Shibner 79tl; Martin

Snvderman 8cb, 73tl; James D. Watt 153cr;

Margaret Welby 148br; Doc White 233bl; Norbert Wu 28 cl.

Premaphotos Wildlife: 23d, 103br, 180c, 211tc; K. G. Preston-Ma iam Site, 85tc, 163tl, 167tl, 179cl.

24br; Astrid &Hanns-Frieder Michler 20bl; Frances Gohier 17clb; K. H. K. Jeldsen 112-113; Dr Kari l.ounatmaa 13tr; Micro eld Scienti c Ltd 69car; Professor P.

Motta/Dept. of Anatomy/University “La Sapienza,” Rome 2Id; Dr. Gopal Murti 21bl; NASA 13bl; N.O.A.A. 96bc; Claude

Nuridsany &Marie Perennou 42tc, 42cra, 113br; D. Phillips 26cr;J. C. Revy 77cla, 109tr; David Scharf 114bl, 144br, 175bc;

The Wildlife Collection: Martin Harvey 216bl; Richard Herrman 153tl; Chris Huss 149crb; Tom Vezo 212bl.

Simon Wilkins/Imperial College, London: 11 3 t r.

Woodfall Wild Images: Paul Kay 8clb, 72ca; M i k e L a n e F R P S 2 1 9 c r.

Jerry Young: lOOcra. Additional photography by: Peter Anderson, Sue Barnes (NHM), Philip Blenkinsop, Geoff Brightling, Jane Burton, Peter Chadwick, Gordon Clayton, Andy

Sinclair Stammers 21cr, 24cb; T. Stevens &

Crawford, Geoff Dann, Richard Davies

P. McKinley, Paci c Nothwest Laboratory llbc; Andrew Syred 25bc, 69cla; Geoff Tompkinson 94bc.

Andreas von Einsiedel, Neil Fletcher, Pete Gardner, Steve Gorton, Derek Hall, Peter

Still Pictures: Mark Canvardine 101c.

Tony Stone Images: Dave Jacobs 80db; Mark Lewis 130ca; James Martin llOtr;

Tom Tracy 116crb; John Warden 92cl. Warren Photographic: Jane Burton 156bl,

(OSF), Philip Dowell, Mike Dunning,

Hayman, John Heseltine, Gary Higgins, Alan Hills, Colin Keates, Dave King, Cyril Laubscher, Mike Linley, Andrew McRobb, Sue Old eld, Stephen Oliver, Roger Phillips, Tim Ridley, Kim Sayer, Tim

Shepard (OSF), Karl Shone, Kira Taylor, Mike Walker, Matthew Ward, Alan

199crb, 228tr; Kim Taylor 245cr.

Williams, Jerry Young,

Barry Watts: 140cl.

Models by: Gary Staab; Chris Reynolds, BBC; Peter Minister, Model FX:

Wild Images: Rupert Barrington 169c; Sue Bennett 128cb; Peter Blackwell 206cr;

Martin Dohrn 8bl, 72-73;John Downer

RBGKew: 107tl.

278cr; Dutcher Films Productions 252d; Frank Krahmer 62c; Howard Hall 186bl,

Royal British Columbia Museum: 17bc.

187cla; T. Martin 157db; Louise Murray

The publisher would also like to thank the Norfolk Rural Museum.

I l l u s t r a t o r s David Ashby: 241cr

228crb, 228bl, 240bc, 256crb, 262clb, 263cr, 264cl, 266c, 266bl, 280cr, 280bl, 281 tc,

Fiona Bell Currie: 131bl

285cr

Richard Bonson: 13cla, 32br, 33bl, 93bl, 117c, 143bc

Martin Camm: 46bc, 265tr, 265cr

Louise Boulton: 137cb, 178tr, 178da Peter Bull: 2bc, 16c, 20br, 22cr, 23clb, 26tr, 30cb, 30crb, 36crb, 37tl, 37ca, 37clb, 40tr,

42cl, 42br, 43d, 43c, 43cr, 45cr, 46clb, 47tl, 47cb, 51cl, 57ca, 57cl, 60cr, 60br, 61cb,

64cra, 64bl, 65tr, 65crb, 66bc, 67bc, 74ca, 96bl, 97tl. llObl, llOcrb, 112ca, 112cra,

112c, 118cr, 119c, 120crb, 127cr, 127crb, 132tr, 134cra, 134br, 139cr, 140bc, 143ca, 143clb, 144da, 144crb, 144bc, 145d, 145cr, 146tr, 146clb, 149tl, 154cb, 155crb, 156ca, 156crb, 157cl, 160cr, 161ca, 161cl, 162bl, 165ca, 165cr, 166ca, 174cl, 178db, 181cb, 184ca, 184cl, 184bl, 185cra, 186d, 186cr, 187cl, 192cra, 198cl, 198cr, 199tr, 199bc, 201c, 204bl, 206cla, 206ca, 208br, 209tl, 209tc, 209tr, 209ca, 212cl, 212cr, 213tl,

213cr, 220c, 221cb, 226cr, 226bc, 227cr,

250tr, 251cr, 252bl, 253tl, 271 Ll, 276bl,

Joanne Cowne: 66c, 67cla, 90cb, 91crb,

279cb, 279br

142tc, 142tr, 155bl, 198tr, 231tc, 231clb, 245bl, 280db

Nilesh Mistry: 12cl

Angelika Elsebach: 47cl Elizabeth Gray: 141da, 183c

Kenneth Lilly: 34c, 34cr, 47cra, 47bl, 88c, 104tc, 223cr, 229tr, 237ca, 243tr, 245tr, 245bc, 251tr, 254br, 255crb, 258cr, 27ltr, 273tl, 276br, 277bl, 279tl, 281tr

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Richard Orr: 31tr, 67tl, 74bc, 83ca, 213clb, 213crb, 216c, 2l7tl, 221bl, 226tc, 226c, 227d, 229tl, 231tr Gill Platt: 13 Ur

Sarah Smith: 39cra, 94tr, 95tl, I79tl Peter Visscher: lOcb, 16ca, 27clb, 55cl,

61ca, 62cra, 105tr, ISltc, 191tl, 207cra,

Ruth Lindsay: 86cra

21 Icrb, 216br, 217bl, 254cl, 258br, 259bl,

261cl, 263tl, 265cl, 273cr, 277c, 283c

Gabriele Maschietti: 49tc, 49ca, 158d, 159ca, ISOclb, 234tr, 234b, 235cr, 235bl,

Ann Winterbotham: 2da, 24c, 24cr, 162c,

280tc

185tr

Malcolm McGregor: 14cra, 26cl, 31bc, 34ca, John Woodcock: 68d

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38crb, 41bl, 56cra, 59cra, 59clb, 59br, 60d, 70bl, 72clb, 79c, 99cla, 99cb, 114tr, 115br, 133tr, 151cl, 173ca, ISlclb, 214bl, 218clb, 219cl, 236tc, 236cl, 238cra, 239tl, 239cra, 239bc, 242tr, 242bl, 242crb, 248bl, 249clb,

Acknowledgments The publisher would like to thank the following from the various departments of The Natural History Museum, London, for their help in authenticating this book: Zoology: Rod Bray, Andrew Ciabrinovic, Paul Clark, Bariy Clarke, Paul Cornelius, Oliver Crimmen, Sean Davidson,

Martin Embley, Tim Ferrero, David Gibson, Sheila Halsey, Richard Harbord, Eileen Harris, Daphne Hills, Paula Jenkins, Colin McCarthy, Nigel Merrett, Peter Mordan, Alexander Muir, Fred Naggs, Gianfranco Novarino, Gordon Paterson, Dave Roberts, Richard Sabin, Maiy Spencerjones, Loretta Still

m

a

n

John Taylor, Clare Valentine,

Cyril Walker, Alan Warren, Kathy Way, Anne-Marie Woolger; Botany: Steve Cafferty, Josephine Camus, Len Ellis, Nancy Ganvood, Chris Humphries, Rob Huxley, Peter James, Charlie Jands, Sandy Knapp, Alex Monro, Bob Press,

William Punds, Fred Rumsey, Karen Sidwell, Peter Stafford, David Sutton, Ian Tittley, Roy Vickeiy, David Williams; Entomology: Phillip Ackery, Anne Baker, Jane Beard, Bariy Bolton, Martin Brendell, Steve Brooks, David (iarter, John Chainey, Richard Davies, Paul Eggleton, George Else, Nigel Fergusson, Martin Hall, Peter Hammond,

Peter Hillyard, Stuart Mine, Theresa Howard, David Jones, Malcom Kerley, Ian Kitching, Suzanne Lewis, Chris Lyal, Janet Margerison-Knight, Judith Marshall, Mark Parsons, Gaden Robinson, Sharon Shute, Kevin Tuck, Mick Webb,

Nigel Wyatt; Paleontology: Richard Fortey, Mike Howarth, Angela Milner, Andrew Ross.

NHM Photo Unit: Frank Greenaway, Tim Parmenter, Harry Taylor NHM Picture Library: Martin Ptilsford Additional editorial assistance: Ann Kay, Susan Malyan, Steve Setford, Marek Walisiewicz Additional design assistance: Jacqui Burton, Lester Cheeseman, Nor Azleen Dato’ Abel Rashid Additional DTP assistance: Nomazwe Madonko Darkroom

work:

Robin

Hunter

Cartography: James Anderson, Tony Chambers Index: Lynn Bresler Film outputting: Brightside Partnership, London

The photography in this book would not have been possible without the help of the following people and places: Biopharm UK Ltd, Wales; Rob Harv'ey and Paul Wexler at Birdworld, Farnham, Surrey; Roger North eld at

Cambridge University (Department of Zoolog)'), Cambridge; Virginia Cheeseman (Entomological Supplier), Middlesex; David Field at the Dartmoor Otter Sanctuary, Det on; Sally Swales at Hamerton Wildlife Centre,

Cambridgeshire; staff at Hunstanton Sea Life Centre, Norfolk; Ben Hankamer at Imperial College, L.ondon; Gaynor Worman and staff at Marwell Zoological Park, Hampshire; Mark O’Shea; staff at Paignton Zoo, Devon; Godfrey Munro at Park Beekeeping Supplies, I.ondon; Plandife UK Charity; Stefan Czeladzinski and Greg Mullins at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Surrey; Syon Park Butter y House, Middlesex; Peter Punch and

Reinhardt Kristensen at the University of Copenhagen, Denmark; staff at University Marine Biological Station, Millport, Isle of Cumbrae, Scotland; Robin James and Rob Hicks at Weymouth Sea Life Centre.

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