DK Visual Encyclopedia

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THE DORLING KINDERSLEY

:/f“^ A

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VISUAL Encyclopedia

DORLING London

●Nhw

KINDERSLEY Yo r k

●Si

uttgart

p 9

A

ADorun(;

Kindkrslky

Book

Senior I^ditor Anna Kru|^cr Senior Art Editor (Jillian Shaw Section Editors

Sue (^opscy, Marie (ireenwood, Fran K. Jones, James Bickford FMitors

lluw Clough, (Fircy Denton, Deborah Murrell US Editor Jill Hamilton Art Editors

Shirley Cjwillym. Rebecca Johns, Floyd Sayers, Dominic Zwemmer Desii^ners \\'aync Holder, Marcus James, Joanna Pocock, Wilfrid Wood DTP Designers Mathew Birch, (Firol 'Fitchener, Noel Barnes

Picture Manager Forna Ainger

Research and Editorial Assistance

Alex'Finley, Feo Vita-Fin/,i, Fim Hetherington, (dies Portman, Deslie Fawrence Production (Fitherine Semark, Samantha Farmour j

Deputy Editorial Director Sophie Mitchell Deputy Art Director Miranda Kennedy Models in Human Body section are original SOMSO models

l-'irst American Kdition, 1995 246H 109 75 31

Puhlished in the Inited Stares hy Dorling Kindersley Piihlishing, Inc., 95 Madison Avenue New ^’ork. New ’i’ork 10016

(a>pyriglu ©1995 Dorling Kindersley Fimiced, Fondon All rights reserxed under International and Pan-American (Copyright (a>n\entions. No part of this puhlication may be reproduced, stored in aretrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the copyright owner. Published in (ireat Britain by Dorling Kindersley Fimited. Distributed by Houghton Mif in Ca)mpany, Boston Library ofLongress Oaculoging-in-Pul^licarioti Data The Dorling Kiiulerslcy \isiial cncyclopcilia P-

c

m

.

Includes index. I.SBN 1-5645H-98.S-4

1. Children's cTteydopcdias and diecionaries. A(;5.D72 n31--dc2()

1994 94-4.S7S.S

fl

Reproduced by Coloursean. Singapore Printed and bound in Italy by New Interlitho

Consultants U n i v e r s e

Matthew Robertson

SCIENC^E

Professor Heather Couper

Professional entomologist. Former Head Keeper, Invertebrate Hou.se,

Peter Bailes

[>ondon Zoo.

Science Museum, London.

Assoociation. International author.

Ray Rogers

Marina Benjamin

Nigel Henbest

Horticulturist and gardening editor.

Science writer and journalist.

Television and radio broadcaster. Past

president of the British Astronomical

Jack Challoner

International writer and science

broadcaster. Past consultant. Royal Greenwich Observatory and the Science and Engineering Research Coucil. Doug Millard Associate curator. Space Technology,

Human Body

l-'ormcrly with the Education Unit,

D r. S a r a h B r e w e r

Science Museum, l^ondon. Science author.

General practitioner and medical author. Dr. Thaddeus M. Yablonsky

Eryl Davies Science and technology writer and

Physician and medical consultant.

consultant.

Kimi Hosoume

Science Museum, London.

Beliefs, Cus'poms, and Society

Mathematics and science educator,

E a r t h

W. O w e n C o l e

Maurice Crewe

Lawrence Hall, University of California at Berkeley.

Fellow, Royal Meteorological Society. Gaily Hall Museum geologist. Mineralogy Department, Natural History

Lecturer and writer in religious studies. John Gray Fellow in Politics, Jesus College, University of Oxford. John Keyworth

Museum, London.

Curator, Museum of the Bank

Donna Rispoli Ecology and energy consultant. Bob Symes Associate keeper, Department of Mineralogy, Natural History

of England.

Museum, London.

Lecturer in Anthropology; F'ellow ,St. John’s College, University of Cambridge.

B a r b a r a Ta y l o r Internationally acclaimed science and natural history writer. Wa r r e n Ya s s o Professor of Natural Sciences, 'I'eachers

College, Columbia University. I'extbook author.

Living

World

Keith Banister Government consultant on

sheries,

broadcaster, writer. David Burnie

Zoologist, biologist, and internationally acclaimed writer of science and nature books.

Barry Clarke Curator, Amphibians, Natural History Museum, London.

Joseph DiCostanzo Researcher, Great Gull Island Project, American Museum of Natural History. Past president, Linnaean Society of

James Nicholson

Carole Stott

Former curator of Astronomy, Greenwich Royal Observatory, London. Science author.

Transportation, COMMUNICA'I'IONS, AND

Financial journalist, Guard'uin

I n d u s t r y

newspaper.

Christine Heap Curator, National Railway Museum, York, England. Eric Kentley

Helen Watson

C u r a t o r, N a t i o n a l M a r i t i m e M u s e u m ,

Arts and the Media

London.

Christopher Cook Documentary lm maker and arts presenter for BBC Radio. Film advisor. National Gallery, London.

Bob

Alistair Niven

Senior curator. Aeronautics, Science

L i t e r a t u r e D i r e c t o r, A r t s C o u n c i l o f

Museum, London.

England Brigid Pepin Lecturer Art History and Architecture, University of North London. Penelope Vita-Finzi Former lecturer, English Literature and Theatre, Thames Valley University,

Lynda Springate, Anice Collette,

England.

McWilliam

Senior curator. Civil Engineering, Science Museum, London, Andrew Nahum

Marie Tieche Curators, National Motor Museum,

Beaulieu, England. International

World

Dorling Kindersley Cartography in conjunction with leading cartographic

Rodney Wilson Film, Video, and Broadcasting Director, Arts Council of England. Ann Wingate Independent lm producer, including

consultants, embassies, and consulates.

Howards End

t o E d w a r d K e n n e d y.

H i s t o r y

Brian Dooley Political journalist. Former Senate aide Margaret Mulvihill

Yo r k .

Theresa Greenaway Botanist and natural history author. Miranda Macquitty Zoologist and best-selling natural

Sports

H i s t o r i a n a n d w r i t e r.

Norman Barrett

Philip Wilkinson

Sports writer and consultant.

H i s t o r i a n a n d w r i t e r.

David Heidenstam

Charles S.Wills

history author.

Sports writer and editor.

US History consultant.

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Collections information manager

How TO USE THIS BOOK Each i>a(;h or ooi'BLK-paok spread in The Visual Encyclopedia is aself-contained unit, carefully designed to present the maximum number of facts about its subject in the most accessible manner. Information on each page follows aclear, logical order, beginning with the main feature and most important factual topics, then moving on to records, strange comparisons, and fascinating, collectible facts.

Main feature

Focuses on the subject and provides the most important facts.

Running head -thematic Te l l s r e a d e r s w h i c h t h e m a t i c

LIVING WORid)

section they are in. Dinosaur's brains

Dinosaurs

Portrait of adinosaur

small lor their

body size.

Abrief text introduction de nes

Kidney

as some that were

their limbs out to their sides.

vertebra

Tough,

/scaly skin Claw Liver

Types of DiNOSAUTr

main subject. Kach page contains an average of 10 subject-related topics.

Caudal

Heart

N o b o d y k n o w s w h y.

the reader to suhfcaturcs within the

more

whereas reptiles crawl, or walk with Lung

smaller than acoyote. Dinosaurs died out 65 million years ago. Topic headings .. Kasy-to- ncl topic headings draw

cere

advanced than today’s reptiles. They walked \s ith their limbs directly under their body like mammals and birds,

\Ovary Trachea

animals ever to have lived on land, as we

skin. Dinosaurs. howe\’cr.

(lollimimiis

Backbone

years. They included the largest

tlie subject and proyides anumber of key facts.

Like reptiles, dinosaurs had ascaly

‘t-j

Dinosaurs domina ikd the Earth for more than 150 million

Introductio

'Ehere are two oalerstsce p.72)

●Dinosaur fossils discovered to

of dinosauj>TTicy arc classi ed

date probably represeiu less

Tlig to the arrangement of eir hipbones.

a c c o

Cloaca (body opening)

Intestine

Dinosaur facts

Dinosaurs /

7

/

Tibia

than 0.0()0I% of the individuals rluic once lived.

●The name 'Eyrannosaunis means “tyrant lizard."

Gallimimus

used their tail

alizard-hipped

tor balance.

d i n o s a u r.

Fibula / Legs extended , directly below the body, lifting

Bipedal (two-footed)

Te n d o n

dinosaurs could

the dinosaur

walk upright.

off the ground.

●The most intelligent Detailed artwork

.Stunning, full-color cutaway

h

artwork stimulates learning and provides maximum information.

.i/.iird-hippcd dinosaurs (SaiirischiLins) I) lizards. Indmics both berbivc

Dinosaur-like reptiles

dinosaurs were probably about as intelligent as chickens.

While dinosaurs roamed the land, huge reptiles

ew in the air and

●More than .xSO species of

swam in the oceans. These marine and Hying reptiles were closely

dinosaur have so far been

related to the dinosaurs.

itlentiUcd -probalMy only a

Rhampliorhviclnis

h ' I n y. m n i n

riny percentage of those that existed.

DUS (plain-caving) and

c a r n i v o mnis

(mcat-cating) species.

●Stnithioiiiinius could sprint at speciis of up to SOmph (80km/h): as fast as an ostrich. Plf-rmiiKiyl

F LY I N G K E F T I E E S

Key facts Bulleted key facts and gures give the reader the most essential facts at aglance.

Ancient ying reptiles, called pterosaurs, readied bilge sizes. 'I'licir uings were ered with skin, aiul their body

Bird-iiipped dinosaurs (Ornichi.schi )

Hips similar to birtls. All of the bird-hippeil dinosaur species were

iierbivorous.

riiesc were some of die

ercest and

uils thesea. Thev largest; breatlied air, so they bad to come to tbe surface regularh to ll tlieir lungs.

was usually furry. 'ITiey bad liglu.

These reptiles hunted sh and other

delicate bones for Hying.

sea

ere;

MAJOR D I N O S A T R

GROUPS Within

Boxed types 'Lo provide maximum information, an example of every major type of plant, animal, or object is illustrated.

two

the

orders,

dinosa

divided into

rm

ve

subgroups. There are three

siibgroiijis of ornithischians. and

two

subgroups of saiirisdiia ns.

Thyreophorans (Ornithischians) .Armorcil lierbivores: ,s of protective Studs, places, r s j i i k e s d o w n the back, c.g. Stegosaiiriis.

Thcropods (Saiirischians) Marginocephalians Mostly bipedal carniiorcs (Ornitliischians)

Ornithopods (Ornitliischians)

Sauropodomorphs (Saurisdiians). Herbivores;

witli an S-shaped neck and clawed, fmir-tocd

Ilerbivores; many with

1lerbiiores; horny beak

bony frill at back of

and liirdlikc feet. e.g.

small head, long neck, bulky body, and long tail,

feet. e.g. Tyivummiiirus.

skull, e.g. Sfyniiosiiiinis.

(ioiyl/iostiimis.

Land Joined in die superconcinent of I’angaea vird the (see p.40). IHrst tlinosaurs evolve and,

Identify types and special features and clarify complex

Melaiiorosiu

end

of die period, split i groups: li. bird-hipp

information.

c.g. Saluismirus.

.Jurassic Period: 213-144mya

Triassic Period: 248-21.3mya (million years ago)

Clear labels and annotation

l^ingaca breaks apart: .Atlantic Ocean begins to form: .Africa splits from .South .America. In late Jurassic times, huge herbivorous dinosaurs ihimirinrc life

('Awlophssi!

m

4^.

TFitN.

-k

m

SUisMuni.'

i s a u r n s

-tfs Staurikosatuns Ihynmurns

70

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HOW 'FO USK 'FHIS BOOK

MEASUREMENTS AND ABBREVIATIONS Some words and measurements

"C =degrees C.elsius

ft =foot

B.C. =before C^irist

are abbreviated, or shortened, in

°F =degrees Fahrenheit

yd =yard

A.l). =Anno Domini, after

sq mile =square mile

the birth of (ihrist

cm =centimeter

mph =miles per hour

b. =born

m

g=gram

r. =reigned

km =kilometer

kg =kilogram

d. =died

stj km =stpiare kilometer km/h =kilometers per hour

oz

in =inch

e. before adate =about

mm

The Visual Knrylopedia. 'Fhe following list explains what the abbreviations stand for:

=m

=

m

e

t

i m e t e r

e

r

enS =(>ommon\vealtli of

=ounce

1800 Dinosaur footprints

1820 Ii? Air treatment system Manned Maneuvering Unit (MMU) allows astronaut independent

and water for cooling

Weightlessness

movement in space. Movement

controlled by bursts of nitrogen gas from 24 small thrusters.

Kvant 2stores equipment that astronauts use when Small rockets on the

side of Mr adjust its position to keep its

Seams and seals must

orbit

be airtight to withstand the vacuum of space.

Space station Aspace station enables astronauts to live and work in sp-aee for long periods. Scienti c experiments in low gravity that are impossible on Earth can be carried out over

months or years. Space stations arc too large to put into space all at once so are assembled in pieces on separate journeys.

constant.

Solar panels. keep Mir supplied with

working outside Mir.

7arge cracks appear in the ground. .Some buildings collapse.

XWater slops out of rivers. Inderground pipes torn apart. Most buildings destroyed.

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44

XI Few buildings remain standing. Bridges collapse. Railroad tracks buckle. Large landslides.

VIII Dif cult to drive.

Considerable damage to buildings. Chimneys fall. Free branches break.

XII .\lmost all

constructions destroyed. Wa\ es seen on ground. Fix ers change course.

Earthquake side-effects Earthquakes on land may atten cities and towns, cause landslides and avalanches, and start

res. Earthquakes beneath the sea may cause giant waves called seismic

FIRE

L A N D S L I D E

S E I S M I C S E A W AV E

If an earthquake breaks gas mains, the slightest spark can cause huge res.

An earthquake may cause ahuge chunk

Aseismic sea wave can

of mountainside

devastation

to break away, burying ail in

when it hits ✓

cause terrible

the coast.

sea waves or tsunamis.

These can travel many miles across the ocean,

building into ahuge wall of water as they approach the coast.

Seismic sea wave

Worst earthquake DAMAGE ON RECORD

(tsunami) records

The most destructive

HIGHEST

SEISMIC

SEA

WAV E

earthquake happened in Kwanto, Japan in 1923. In nearby Tokyo, where many of

was estimated at 279ft {85m) high, almost yS as high as New York’s Statue of Liberty.

the houses were built of wood

MIsland, japan.

5It appeared on April 24, 1971, off Ishigaki

and paper, the shaking ground overturned stoves, setting the houses on

1FASTEST SEISMIC SEA WAVES ®have been recorded traveling at £approximately 560mph (900km/h), more Sthan 186mph (300km/h) faster than the

re. A re-storm then

engulfed the city. Almost 144,000 people were killed, and

Sworld water speed record of 345mph

,S75,000 homes were destroyed.

Tokyo was devastated by the 1923 earthquake (556km/h), achieved by ahydroplane.

San ANDREAS FAULT At the San Andreas Fault in

California, two plates are sliding past each other at arate of about 2in (5cm) every year.

Earthquakes and tremors happen frequently and are sometimes severe. San

Francisco is very close to the San Andreas Fault.

Worst earthquake death tolls Location

Date

Shansi, China

1556

830,000

Calcutta, India

1737

300,000

Tangshan, China

1976

255,000

Aleppo, Syria

11 3 8

230,000

856

200,000

Gansu, China

1920

200,000

Nr. Xining, China

1927

200,000

Damghan, Iran

Estimated deaths

893

150,000

Kwanto, Japan

1923

144,000

Messina, Italy

1908

70-100,000

Ardabil, Iran

Earthquake-proof BUILDINGS In earthquake-prone areas, specially designed buildings can lessen the effects of aserious earthquake. For example, a pyramidal or cone-shaped building is less likely to topple over than a ^The central btiilding with vertical walls.

r Tc o l u m n o f t h i s -7Japanese

^~pagoda helps

11SanFrancisco's

;;to absorb

k\ TransAtnerica Mi building

^earthquake shocks.

Strongest known earthquakes Location

Date

Magnitude Richter scale

Colombia

1906

8.9

Morioka, Japan

1933

8.9

Lisbon, Portugal

1755

8.75

Assam, India

1897

8.7

.S'rrrr Andreas Fault, California

Earthquake facts

Moonquakes

●Most earthquakes last less than aminute. ●Longest recorded earthquake lasted

●EartlK|uake shock wav es travel through rock at approx 16,()00mph (25,00()km/h): more than 20 times the speed of sound. Fhey slow down in sand and mud.

Most moonquakes

known earthtiuakes, but killed only 115 people due to low population density.

●.Some scientists believe animals can

●First instrument for recording

behavior includes; dogs how ling; chiekens

stirface. Moontitiakes are monitored by seismometers left by

earthtiuakes was the seismoscope, invented

eeing roosts; rats and mice leaving holes; and sh thrashing about in ponds.

four minutes. Occurred on March 27, 1964,

in Alaska. It was one of the strongest

in China in .\.l). 132.

sense an earthc|uake’s approach. Strange

■are caused by

meteorites smashing

-m J f *

'

J

into the Moon’s

.American astronauts.

St’ismowi'li'rs on llu’ Moon

.

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EARTHQUAKES

Rocks and minerals

Geological time chart Rocks are dated according to ageological timescale that divides the Earth’s history into eras, periods, and epochs.

At any poin'e on the earth’s sureace, if you dig down far enough, you will come to rock. Rocks are the building blocks of the Eiarth’s crust. 'There are many different types of rock, and they [ ¬

Era

Period

Cenozoic

Quaternary

Limi’stnm' is

Rocks

asedimf.nULty rock (see below). About 75% oj land is covered with sedimentcuy rocks.

The study of rocks is called petrology. All types of rock fall into one of three categories: igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic. w m

m

Extrusive and intrusive igneous rock Igneous rock cliat erupts from a

m

/surface

\olcano onto tile E a r c l Ts s u r f a c e i s

extrusive. Igneous

cool and solidify within the

●»]

Karch’s crust. Basal! is an

Mesozoic

before it readies tlic Extrusiv

igneous rock.

I n t r u s i v e

igneous roc

igneousrock

7

S E D I . V I E N TA R V R O C K Rocks are weathered into fragments that are carried awa>- bs' water, wind,

2

Pliocene (epoch)

5

Miocene (epoch)

25

Oligocene (epoch)

38

Eocene (epoch)

55

Palaeocene (epoch)

65

Cretaceous

1 4 4

213

Triassio

248

Permian

286

Pennsylvanian

320

Mississippian

360

Devonian

408

Silurian

438

Ordovician

505

Cambrian

590

Paleozoic

m p

Granite mouulaitts in Yosemite, Californ/a: intrusive igneous rocks have been exposed by the erosion of overlying rocks.

Precambrian

4,600

The rock cycle

J'-Va,'

All rocks are constantly passing through arecycling process.

and ice. These sediments are laid

Igneous rocks are weathered away and

Wl,

down in lakes, ri\’ers, sand dunes, and on the sea

Pleistocene (epoch)

Jurassic

'

AJ'

basalt, an extrusive igneous rock.

0.01

t...

rock that solidi es surface is intrusive.

The CianTs Caivu'way in Xorlhern Ireland is formed from

Holocene (epoch)

Te r t i a r y

Earth's

IGNEOUS ROCK Igneous rock starts off deep within the Hatch as magma (molten rock). 'I'he magma rises toward the surface, where it mav erupt from avolcano, or

Million years ago

are all composed of one or more minerals %

washed into the ocean

o o r. O v e r m i l l i o n s

of years they are compressed, forming layers

Sa/i(l.slo)ir i.s a

I

sedimeuiaty rock.

ofsetl imenta r\' roc ks.

Ayns Rock Uliint) in central Australia is composed of .sandstone.

M H TA . M O R P H I C R O C K

Metamorphic rock is igneous or sedimentary rock that has been

changed by heat and/or pre.ssure. Heat may come from rising magma, and pressure mav

Mineral particles

Heat from molten rock Rock may melt and rise to the sink to the sea oor changes surrounding

occur when rock is s(]ueezc(.i during mountain building.

Gneiss is ametamorphic rock.

Minerals Amineral is anatural, non-li\ ing substance. Examples include gold, silver, gypsum, c|uartz,

This landscape in northwest Scotland is formed from gneiss. ORH MINERALS Ore minerals contain metals, and about 80 types of pure metal are e.xmictcd from them.

where they are compacted into sedimentary rock.

igneous rock.

Agood conductor, widely used in the

common metal, \used in batteries and engineering.

y-ji-

it cools to form

Chopper

The softest

.A light, strong metal

surface where

sedimentary and igneous rock into metamorphic rock.

Lead

Titanium

a n d s u l f u r.

e l e c t r i c i t v i n d u s t r v.

used in aircraft manufaeture.

rock-eor.mint; .minerals Different combinations of minerals Untile

form different tvpcs of rock. Quartz

-

(

titanium ore

Granite is composed (>! the minerals ffnartz, pddspar.

e

and the manufacture of consumer g( Bauxite aluminum ore

seicnritle

TA J

tlie manufacture of

< r ra.

Ilemalilr irnn

fl

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k

e

manufaeture of steel.

in

nstruments, and in drugs and pesticides.

46 fl

Mercury 'Ised

and in the

saucepans. \lnminnm

'Gopper pipe

1'sed in eonstmetion, .jj*|

i

)ds, c.g.

Mica

fi

C.halfopsrite copper ore I r o n

IAcd in construction,

Feldspar

1

ilena -

lead ore

r

A l u m i n u m

anil mica.

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EARTH

ore

-

Sl inle.'i.s \lrel fork

(■i n n a h a r mere/iiy

-

ore

Mereiny thermometer

'

Crystals

m

t

Mineral

\ ■ .

f

Crystals grow from

HARDNESS

molten minerals, or minerals that are

K-

2J ■.^■^.,Ty.yB^Aziirile forms in regions of

Rofk

Wcryslal -

dissolved in liquids, such as water. Eightyve percent of the

one form of (funrlz

The hardness of amineral is

. V ■' S u l f u r forms brighl

”copper (Uposits.

melall/r

yellow nysUiLs.

Azurite

Sulfur

Pyrile

Earth’s rocks and

Hardness: 7

Hardness: 3.5

Hardness: 1..5-2.5

Ihardness: 6.5

minerals are formed

System: hcxagonal/trigonal System: monoclinic One of the most common bright blue mineral once used as a minerals. Most popular material for crystal balls. pigment (coloring).

System: orthorhombic

System: cubic

Forms around volcano

.Sometimes mistaken for

materials.

graded on ascale of 1to 10,

Quartz

from crystalline

devised by (ierman

eraters. Referred to in the S^)ld, hence its popular Bible as “brimstone.” name “fool’s gold.”

mineralogist Friedrich Mohs

(1773-1839). MOHS’ SCALF

C R Y S TA L SYSTEMS

The geometrical shape in which a mineral crystallizes is called its crystal system. 'Fhere are six main systems.

Cubic

Examples: diamond, galena,

Te t r a g o n a l Examples: zircon, rutile,

garnet

vcsLivianite

Gemstones

Hexagonal/ trigonal Examples: corundum, beryl

,Diamond

Monoclinic

Triclinic

Examples: sulfur, olivine,

Examples: malachite,

topaz

gypsum

Examples: rhodonite, kyanitc, turquoise

ORGANIC

■

o

minerals valued for

their beauty, rarity, and durability.

Orthorhombic

Ruby

Gemstones are

..

GEMSTONES

a

t ●

i

Jr-

types of gemstone. Diamond

Ruby-

Ivmerakl

include diamonds,

Hardness: 10 .System: cubic

Hardness: 9

Ilardncss: 7-8

System: hexagonal System: trigonal Sources include: Russia, Sources include: S.Africa, Sources include: India, Australia, Brazil, Russia 'Ehailand. Burma, Sri Lanka IS, Zambia, (A)loiTibia

and sapphires.

2: Gypsum

fossilized resin of

Emerald

The most valuable

emeralds, rubies,

1 : Ta l c

Organic gemstones are those that have aplant or animal origin. B'hey include pearls, shell, jet, and amber. Amber is Ihe

%

'There are about 100

3: Calcile

BIRTHSTONES

Some gemstones are Januaty

associated with

February Amelhyst

Carnet

different months of

-i-Si;

Marc A Aquamarin

p

r

i

i l Diamond

the year. The custom of wearing birthstones

ply

became popular in the 18th century.

Ruby

Giant gems The largest diamond was the Cullinan, found in South

Africa in 1905. It weighed the same as an average pineapple.

Au^st

HB September

Peridot

Q

October

Sapphire

Opal

\ovemher

Topaz

weighed 3,106 carats (1lb6oz/0.6kg).

of Tao-tze, found in the Philippines in 1934 in the shell of agiant clam. It

weighs about the same as a

Lao-tze, weighs

Afour-month-

old baby

f

December

Turquoise

M I N E R A L FA C T S ●More than half the

the same element -carbon -but their hardness varies because of their different internal structures.

gold mined returns to

Diamontl

bank vaults.

Earth: it is buried in

%

the hardest of all

●The word crystal

minerals. Kaeh atom

conies from the Greek

"%

y-%

Arrangement of

ring

diamond atoms

that had frozen so hard

( j i Ti p h i t e In graphite,

Graphite is

the atoms arc

pencil lead.

it would ne\ cr thaw .

*9

used in

●.About one in ev ery thousand oysters and

arranged in layers that easily slip over

weak striictiire.

Q 8: Topaz

one In every three

e a c h o t h e r. ' T h i s

gi\ es graphite its

6: Orthoclase

kyj'os, meaning ic\ cold. It was once thought that rock crystal was ice

Y«

Diamond

thousand mussels

Arrangement of graphite atoms ●-

contains apearl.

f o u r - m o n t h - o l d b a b v. The Pearl of

Pearl

Rock and

Apineapple

'The largest pearl is the Pearl

fata'

Emerald

Amineral’s hardness depends on the arrangement of its atoms. Diamond and graphite are different forms of

is strongly bondctl to four others, forming a compact, rigid strueturc.

The Cullinan diamond

May

Mineral structure

Diamonds arc

Carats and beans

141b loz

'The weight of agemstone is

(6.37kg).

measured in carats: one carat =

O.OOboz (0.2g). 'The term carat comes from the Greek word for carob seed. 'These seeds

were once used as weights.

Carob seed

1-carat -

ruby

The purity of gold is also measured in

carats: the purest gold is 24 carat. This gold bar is 23.5 carats.

I

9: Corundum

♦

10: Diamond

e

47 h

fi

~

fi

ROCKS AND MINERALS

EARTH

Ocean T'he ocean

oor is the largest

oceans are mountains as high as the Himalayas, arugged mountain range that circles the Eiarth, vast plains, deep canyons, and trenches plunging thousands of yards into the lithosphere. Most of this fascinating landscape is still unexplored.

Va s t u n d e r s e a

mountain ranges form where two tectonic

plates are pulling apart. T

^.7

Kuril Trench

Reykjanes Ridge _

I

Izu-Ogasawara Trench Mariana Trench

the Ocean

Smokers

Paci c ^i. Ocean

__ New Britain

Smokers are tall, chimneylike vents on the ocean

Pue^o Rico

c'^nch

Deepest point in

Yap Trench

oor that belch out clouds of

Atlantic

super-heated water. They occur at volcanically active spots on mid¬ ocean ridges. Heated water

'i*

A.merica

. T r e n c h

1

\

/

i^lorth New /

P a c i

Hebrides Trench

Ocean

^^outhwest —

-;:,y\Tonga Trench Submarine Yr \Kermadec Trench

\Deepest

Southeast

T^^ian Ridge j

c

Indian Ridge

Canyon

Highest Seamount

,:!N

erupts in tall jets O'

V

Temperature of

Life

heated water

Smokers support strange life forms that derive energy not from the Sun,

,"Chimneys” up to

164ft(50m)high build up from minerals deposited by the hot water.

Smokers were discovered in 1977 ■ r

by the American

around

smokers

may be up to 662°F (350“C)

like other life forms

Deepest trenches 'I'he depth of deep-sea trenches is measured from sea \cxe\. Depth

Trench

Ocean

M a r i a n a Tr e n c h

meters

feet

West Paci c

10,920

35,827

oil Earth, but from v ' o l c a n i c a c t i v i t y.

Tonga Trench

South Paci c

10,800

35,433

Water seeps deep

Philippine Trench

West Paci c

10,057

32,995

Kermadec Trench

South Paci c

10,047

32,963

Izu-Ogasawara Trench

West Paci c

9,780

32,087

K u r i l Tr e n c h

West Paci c

9,550

31,332

N o r t h N e w H e b r i d e s Tr e n c h

South Paci c

9,175

30,102

N e w B r i t a i n Tr e n c h

South Paci c

8,940

29,331

P u e r t o R i c o Tr e n c h

West Atlantic

8,605

28,232

Yap Trench

West Paci c

8,527

27,976

submersible “Alvin.” Tube worms Heated water

down into the sea

rises back to the

oor where it is

surface of the ocean o o r.

heated by volcanic activity.

I T;

Clams

Features of the ocean

oor

'I’he ocean oor is where the lithosphere is created and destroyed. X'olcanic acti\ ity associated with mid-occan ridg;cs and subdtiction /.ones (see pp.40—H) creates many ocean oor features.

SUBMARINE CANYON vSediments deposited by a river owing into the sea

S E A M O U N T

to erode acanyon in the

ABYSSAL PLAIN Vast plains formed from a deep layer of sediment lie approximately 1l,480-18,040ft (3,500-5,500m) below

ocean

sea level.

surrounding plain.

form acurrent that helps o o r.

Aseamount is an underwater volcano that

rises 3,280ft (1,000m) or more above the

Oil rig Mid-ocean ridges

Submarine canyon

4""

are about 620 miles

Abyssal plain

(1,000km) wide. ,

Seamount

As two tectonic plates pull apart, magma rises to ll the gap, forming HRW

/

/

/

on

n

'4’

Continental shelf /

/

Continental slope / /

Continental rise /

C O N T I N E N TA L S H E L F

C O N T I N E N TA L

'Fhc continental shelf is

the gently sloping rim

'Fhc continental slope descends steeply from the

of acontinent.

continental shelf to the

Beyond the steep continental slope tiicrc may be agentler slope called the

abyssal plain.

continental rise.

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/

'I'he major features'of the ocean oor form at the boundaries of the plates that make up the Earth’s crust (see pp.40-41). Mid-ocean ridges form where two plates are pulling apart, and trenches form at subduction zones, where one plate is plunging beneath another.

landscape on Earth. Beneath the

T .

fl

Major ridges and trenches

oor

SLOPE

C O N T I N F N TA L

RISF

MID-OCEAN

Along, range ridge, plates

RIDGE

undersea runs along wlicre two are pulling

mountain the mid-oecan tectonic apart.

v;

S>-

OCEAN FLOOR

Ocean

Found on the ocean

oor sediment

Close to the coast, sediment consists mainly of mud. sand, and silt washed off the land by rivers. 'Lire deep ocean oor is blanketed with ooze, the remains of dead marine plants and animals. The amount of sediment and ooze can help scientists calculate the age of the ocean oor.

oor

Many useful products are found on or under the ocean oor. 'They include diamonds, oil, gas, coal, sand, and metals from manganese nodules.

m

DI.4MONDS 'These are found

SAND, GRAVEL,

m

,»«|&AND

LIMESTONE

in shallow

'Fhese are found in

waters off the coasts of Africa

coastal waters.

and Indonesia.

NewK'

formed rock 5million years later .\t the mid-ocean ridge, 'Fhe rock has moved the new volcanic rock of 311 miles (500km) from the the ocean oor is almost ridge. Sediment has started free of sediment. to gather in hollows.

C O A L

OIL

Coal is mined beneath the

About 20% of oil comes from the

sea as well as

ocean

on land.

Natural gas is

10 million years later

covered with athick blanket of sediment.

Mapping the

Formation of oil and gas Under certain conditions, oil and gas form from the remains of dead plants and animals that accumulate on the oor of shallow seas. sedimentary sreyal

layer of

Sandstone

sandstone

sa G

i t s t r a n s m i t t e r.

Organic

oor Sea

Oil

remains

Water The time taken

for the signal to bounce back to

the ship indicates the depth of

to the very depths of the ocean.

A®''.

the ocean.

1Dead plant and animal 2Sediments of sand

3Increased pressure

remains sink down to the and mud washed off

from further layers of

door of the continental

sandstone and other

shelf. Bacteria break the remains down into

organic material.

oor facts

●Aparticle of ooze sinks

●T'he Mariana trench cotdd

l-lOft (O..V3m) per day. Ac this

hold 28 Empire State Buildings standing on top of each other.

rate, it would take 25 years for the

●Oldest parts of the ocean oor are about 200 million years

remains of adead

shrimp to sink

old. Oldest rocks on land are

from the ocean ^ surface to the

Further

Mud and sand form

organisms

—The ship sehds down asignal from

submersibles -that can descend

Ocean

about .3.5 billion years old.

oor

of adeep-sea trench.

●At agrowth rate of about 0.08in (2mm) every million years, it

●The tube worm AhineUa

pompejana can live on smoker walls where the temperature is 221°E (1()5°C) -higher than any

takes 10 million

land animal can tolerate.

reach the size of agrape.

manganese nodule to

Oil tanker

Highest

On

SEAMOUNT

29,028ft

AND DEEPEST SUBMARINE CANYON 'I'he highest

sedimentary rock turns the organic remains into oil and gas.

land

Beneath the sea

Mt. Everest

(8,848ml

Highest seamount 28,560ft (8,705m)

Grand Canyon 5,499ft (1,676m)

Deepest submarine canyon 5,906ft (1,800m)

seamount is near

the 'Longa 'Lrcnch between Samoa and New Zealand. The

deepest submarine canyon is 25 miles (40km) south of

years for a

the land by rivers form layers of sandstone, covering the organic remains.

Esperance, Australia.

Deep-sea trenches are about 62 miles (lOOkm) wide. They may

Island arc l

be thousands of kilometers long.

Depth m(ft) Sea level

i'

1,000 (3,280) \

2,000 (6,560) 3,000 (9,840)

/

4,000(13,120) 5,000(16,400)

G U Y O T

T R E N C H

.A guyoc is a at-topped

Acurved line of volcanic Adeep trough may form at a SLibduction zone, where one plate islands, called an island arc. plunges beneath another. Ocean oor often forms close to a subduction zone. is destroyed at subduction zones.

seamount that once rose above the surface of the ocean as a volcanic island.

ISLAND

ARC

One plate is plunging

6,000 (19,690)

beneath the other, forming a deep trench.

7,000 (22,970) 8,000 (26,250) 9,000 (29,530)

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o o r.

deposits.

Remains of dead marine

ocean FLOOR Early explorations of the ocean oor were made from ships using alead and line to estimate depth. Scientists today use echo-sounding techniques and special submarines -

GAS

found with oil

'The rock has moved

620 miles (1,000km) from the ridge. It is

AND

EARTH Baf n Island

Ellesmere 1.



fi

.

52

'3

Va l l e y s a n d c a v e s

The river valley begins high in the mountains as a

narrow gully.

The forces of erosion are constantly

attacking the land, changing its appearance. Rain ows into rivers that cut valleys into the landscape. In limestone areas, rainwater may seep into the rock, eating it away to form caves.

In the river's upper course, the valley is acharacteristic

V-shape.

ill valley \s upper course

Features of avalley stream. As it

wide, level

Ty p e s o f v a l l e y

As the river reaches the

gentler slopes of its middle course,

ows down toward lower

its rate of

ground, the river slows down and the valley widens. As it nears the sea the river

^Cross-seclion of ariver

r

Ariver valley usually begins in the mountains as asteep-sided gully cut by afast- owing

ow

slows down

The river meanders

ows across a

back and forth,

ood plain.

widening the valley.

Some rivers fan out

into

Miljord Sound, Nev> Zealand

a

FJORD

delta at their

In glaciated areas of the world, deep valleys are scoured out hy glaciers. When aglacier melts, for example at the end of an ice age, the sea level may rise, ooding the valley to form afjord.

estuary (see

pp.564s7).

The valley oor is covered in a thick carpet of sand and mud.

\Delta

Estuary (see p.56)

(see p.56)

Caves

Cross-section of alimestone cave

Caves are large, naturally occurring hollows in the ground,

Limestone

4c

T v.

>■ ●

rainwater. _

C AV E

L 4T- :

limestone areas, because this type of rock is soluble (dissolves) in rainwater.

T

plunges under- ,1 ground at a

-■' T T

|— sink hole.

away at the rock, forming acave.

Most caves occur in

SEA

^

JAsirearfr T Rainwater eats

LIMESTONE

Cross-section of ariver valley's lower course

dissolves in

in cliffs, or in ice.

I.Stalactites '

lA/aterfall

Water

^enlarges j cracks and ■f' Sjoints. African Rift Vcdley RIFT

C AV E

ICE

VA L L E Y

Rift valleys form when along, narrowblock of land sinks between two faults, at places w-here two tectonic plates are pulling apart (see pp.40—H).

Waves crashing against cliffs erode away the rocks, forming sea caves. C AV E

Ascream of meltwater

running beneath aglacier may carve out an ice cave. L AVA

C AV E

When the crust of alava ow hardens, the molten Stalagmites build up

lava beneath may How out, leaving alava ca\ e.

on the cave

/A stalactite and stalagmite have joined, forming acolumn.'

o o r.

■

Limestone cave features

Va l l e y a n d c a v e r e c o r d s

Water dripping in limestone caves leaves behind tiny amounts of calcite. These mineral deposits build up to form distinctive

LONGEST

limestone cave features. It can take from

four to four thousand years for astalactite or stalagmite to grow one inch (2.5cm). W Stalactite.

s

LONGEST

Greenland, which extends 194 miles (313km) inland.

f A

6

Fircone

^

stalagmiteA\

3', (V,

'■\Cd

GORGE

is the Grand Canyon in (349km) long and up to 5,499ft (1,676m) deep. C AV E

CHAMBER

Sarawak, Malaysia, which has an area of l,751,300sq ft (162,700sq m). 'Fhe cave chamber is 2,300ft (700m) long, and has an average width of 980ft (300m). 4'he

lowest part of the roof is 230ft (70m) high.

Plate stack stalagmite

' T '

Grand Canyon, Arizona

G AV E

GORGE

is the Mammoth Cave li s y s t e m , K e n t u c k y,

AND

CANYON

Agorge is adeep ravine with walls that arc almost vertical, Acanyon is agorge, usually with water owing through it, found in the desert. The source of its

which is 348 miles LARGEST

is the Sarawak Chamber in

Column

r

SYSTEM

is Nordvest Fjord,

LARGEST

AStalagmite

F. I O R D

Arizona, at 217 miles

Curtain stalactite

river is often outside the desert.

(560km) long. L O N G E S T S TA L A C T I T E

is 20ft 4in (6.2m) lon^ It is in the Poll an

lonana, acave in Co. Clare, Ireland. TA L L E S T S TA L A G M I T E

Valley of Kings, Egyptian desert

is 105ft (32m) tall, in the Krasnohorska cave in the Czech

Republic. Size of tallest stalagmite compared to an adult

■ y

W A D I

Awadi is anarrow, steep-.sided desert valley that is usually dry. Awadi’s characteristic shape is carved out by the ash oods that occur after torrential desert rainfall.

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53 fl

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VA L L E Y S A N D C AV E S

Glaciated regions

Glaciation

This map shows the areas .of

More 'ehan aien'i ii of the

0

miles

682sq

world

with

permanent snow e o v e r. ' T h e t o t a l

' :«●

\area of snow and

throughout the year. Ice sheets and sea ice blanket the polar areas, and glaciers

the

M.^00sq mjles » ~ ( 1 7 0 , 6 7 9 s q km)

h e a r t h ’s s u r f a c e i s c o v e r e d w i t h i c e

\iee is about

I6,()2(l.000sq miles

●J

ow down the

y^orni America

^0.232sqmiles

slopes of high mountain ranges.

pe.SOOsqkm)

Glaciers are found even on

/(15,6()0.000sq

.●V

r'i

K f U -

jkm): one-and-a-

STR.U.ASl.X

'half times the

j392sq miles

Hl.Q15sq km)

A.marctica

size of Europe.

£ 7

4,860,252sq miles

mountains at the equator.

(12,588,000sq km) The Antarctic ice sheet contains 90% of the world’s ice.

Formation of AN ICE CAP 2'I'hc temperature rises in blankets the land. Fresh

the blanket of ftrn b e c o m e s t h i c k e r.

Features of

moimcain.s, Alost

ow at arate of up to 7ft (2m) per day, although glaciers on steeper slopes may ow much more c|uickly. It may take thousands of years for ice to

colder or higher ground. 'Fongues of ice ll the valleys, forming glaciers.

successive winters,

rn.

AGLACIER Glaciers usually begin high in the

it to tlow down from

melt the iee. Over

layers compress the older snow beneath, turning it into an iev mass called

3Kventually the rn forms an icc cap. Gravity causes

summer, but on hi/^h ground it is not warm enough to

1Heavy winter snowfall

Headwall Firn

Freshwater

Apyramidal peak forms when amountain is attacked by glaciers from several sides.

eld

RESERVOIR

The glacier starts in an Ice-worn hollow, called

The crack between the

acirque

headwall and the rn eld is the

or

More than 7.S% of the world’s freshwater is frozen in ice

Asharp ridge called an arete forms between

come.

sheets, ice caps, and glaciers.

two glaciers.

Bergsehrund.

Ice

Crevasses are

deep cracks in the surface of

the glacier. Lateral moraine is

carried along at the side of the glacier.

Water

reach the end of a

slow-moving glacier.

Proportion of ice

The end of

About 12% of sea and 10% of

the glacier is the

land is permanently covered

snout

with ice.

Astream of meltwater

ows oui

from the snout

r

The glacier scours out rocks, forming debris called moraine.

L

Media! moraine is carried in the center

where two glaciers have joined.

Sea

L a n d

Te r m i n a l moraine

is

dumped at the snout.

When glaciers retreat, for example at the end of an ice age, they leave behind U-shaped valleys, fjords (see p..53), and deep lakes. Piles of moraine form drumlins (small hills) and moraine ridges.

Longest glaciers 'I’he glaciers listed below are the longest in each of the major glaciated regions of the world.

Ice-sculpted landscapes

Glacier

Hanging valleys open high on the sides of the

Region

Length k m

miles

Antarctica

515

320

Petermanns Glacier

Greenland

200

124

Hubbard Glacier

Alaska-Yukon, N.America

128

80

Siachen Glacier

Karakoram, Asia

7 5

47

Skeidararjokuil

Iceland

48

30

Ta s m a n G l a c i e r

New Zealand

29

18

Aletsch Gletscher

European Alps

24

1 5

Gyabrag Glacier

Himalayas

21

13

Lambert-Fisher Ice Passage

main valley.

Before glaciation: aV-shaped river valley

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EAR'I’H

After glaciation: aU-shaped river valley

Snowline

Ice ages

Temperature

The snowline is the level that di\ ides yearround snow from snow that melts during

Icc ages occur when the Karth’s average temperature becomes slightly cooler and

_17

warmer weather. The closer amountain area IS

_16 (61)

icea g e

Oce

the amount of icc increases.

to the equator, the higher the snowdine.

°C (°F) (63)

Ice "31 5 -

ag(

Scientists believe that four

15 (59)

age

14 (57) \ t

major ice ages and many

13 (55)

-V-

smaller ice advances

12 (54)

occurred during the last

Ye a r s

two million years.

800,00

600,00

400,00

2

0

0

,

0

0

0

0

ago

Most recent ice age The last ice age began about 72,000 years ago, and ended about 10,000 years ago. 'This map

Mt. Vinson, Antarctica, is covered in snow

,Huge ice sheets covered much of

North America,

shows the areas of the world that

and ice from foot to summit.

were covered with icc. 'I'he sea level was about 490ft

Europe, and

Asia.

/ a

(150m) lower than / today, because so /

c>

much water was

Mt. Kenyj which is close -

to the equator, has glaciers on its summit.

r

I

locked up in ice. \

] The land where \

N e w Yo r k n o w s t a n d s

On the equator

In the European Alps

In polar regions

the snowline lies about

the snowline lies about

the snowline lies at

Ib.OOOft (4,90()m) high.

9,()()(}ft (2,700m) high.

sea level.

\

Southern Argentina / was covered by an ice sheet.

\

New Zealand was covered

Up to 30% of the Earth’s surface

by an ice cap.

was giaciated.

An malanchc is amass of snow

and ice that suddenly crashes down amountainside. It may be

The extra weight of snow, combined .i-

up to 0.6 miles (1km) across, and can move at up to ZOOrnph (,520km/h). If atown or village lies in the path of an avalanche, houses may be attened and people killed.

with asudden rise

■if.'

\

A

in temperature, triggers an avalanche.

●,r'

mountain slope.

Sea ice Ta l l e s t i c e b e r g

temperature falls below 29°F

'Fhe tallest iceberg ever

(-1.9°C). Sea ice is never more than about 16ft (5m) thick.

●An avalanche can generate winds of up to I86mph (.5()()km/h). ●About 18,()0() Austrian and Italian soldiers

●'I’he biggest avalanches usually occur on slopes with an angle of 30° or more.

snow cover on this

The sea freezes over when its

Avalanche facts

are thought to have been killed in asingle day in 1916 by more than 100 avalanches in the Dolomites, northern Italy. Many of these avalanches were started by gun re.

Heavy snowfall adds extra weight to the

Icebergs Icebergs are large chunks of ice t h a t b r e a k o ff t h e e n d o f i c e

reported was 550ft (167m) high -taller than St. Paid’s Cathedral, London. It was

sighted off Greenland in 1958.

sheets, ice caps, and glaciers, and

oat out to sea. 'The

process of ieebergs breaking off abody of ice is called

*A;f) ' ;■jIK 'll

IS

'Pir'l'A'

i r r

a|

IIIL

calving. The rising and falling tide, together with buffeting from the waves, breaks the iceberg off the end of th _ glacier.

ecn O

Jf:/ an iceberg

Ay has broken

C

Sea ice of] the western Antarctic coast ●A

Icy records FASTEST-MOXING

\

was covered with ice. /

Avalanches

LARGES'f

M:

IClillERG

is the Quarayaq, Greenland,

recorded was more than

wInch can

(20-24m) per day.

208 miles (335km) long and 60 miles (97km) wide -an area

THICKEST

about the size of Maryland.

ow 66-79ft ICE

Only asmall proportion of an iceberg -about

Iceberg facts

12% -is visible

●.'\bout 10,000 icebergs ayear break away from the glaciers of

above the surface of the ocean. The remainder

ever recorded is 3miles (5km)

G R E AT E S T

deep, in Wilkes Land,

D E AT H S

Antarctica. 'Phis would reach

was 5,000 at Iluaras, Peru, on

over halfway up Mt. Kt ercst.

December 13 1941.

NUMBER FROM

AN

controlled by ocean currents and the wind.

The largest iceberg ever

GLACIER

away, its

^movements are

OF AVA L A N C H E

is hidden beneath the w a t e r.

western Greenland. ●Scientists estimate that the

average age of the ice in icebergs is 5.000 years.

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0

33 y

^

G I . A C I AT I O N

Great

Rivers

Lena R.

Bear Lake,

Ob-irtysh R.

Mackenzie R.

Huron

/Mississippi-

Yangtze R. Amazon R;

Mekong R.

). Congo R.

Titicaca

\largest lake (the \Caspian Sea) covers

■V i c t o r i a

Lake

/longest river (the Murray R,

Nile) could stretch from New ’)’ork

Antarctic

— ^

A

has no rivers

to Berlin. AnIARCI'IC.N

o r l a k e s : a l l o f i ts freshwater is frozen.

Ty p e s o f r i v e r RIVER ow all

year round. They arc usually found in temperate and tropical areas (see pp.60-61),

Features of ariver

Many rivers begin in

Ariver is abody of water that ows downhill in achannel, usually

mountain

Rainfall runs off

ranges.

the mountain

slopes into the river system.

toward the ocean. Rivers have three

sections; the upper coutse, middle course, and lower course.

where rain falls

throu hoiit the year.

' /

Tributary

The Nile: afmennial river SEASONAL

LJpper course The youn^, fa.st-tlow ing

RIVER

Sea.sonal rivers ow only during wet seasons,

have seasonal rivers that

hard rock, forming awaterfall.

The waterfall wears away

ow in the winter .season, b u t a r e d r v i n s u m m e r.

the rock and moves

Seasonal river in Crete during summer.

River water sources

slowly upstream, cutting adeep gorge.

All

Where the river

ows

down asteep slope of hard rock, it forms

0\

swirling rapids. _

^In its upper course, the river T h e To d d R i v e r i n c e n t r a l A u s t r a l i a .

RIVER

widening the meander

w a t e r. W h e r e t h e w a t e r t a b l e

(loop). Middle course

RIVER

T'he mature rixer's

cut off after

is the Murray, Australia, which is 1,609 miles (2,.S89km) long.

jgradient is

ooding

[more gentle,

forms an oxbow lake.

and its rate of

D F T TA

ow

s l o w e r. I t s n a k e s

is the Ganges and Brahmaputra ,T),000s(| miles (7,S,000sq km). t into it

In It.s old age sc,gmcnt, with almost no gradient, the rix er Rows sluggislily and drops its The river

w a t e r f a l l

estuary is where

The Angel Falls

meets salty

fresh river water

sediment load. It

frctiiiently Roods and changes eonrse.

i n Ve n e z u e l a

The wide, at oodplain is submerged

have atotal drop of ,^,212ft (979m): almost

when the river

three times as

high as the Kmpire State Building.

The river may block its own route with sediment, forcing it to split into separate streams. These fan out, forming adelta.

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56

M E LT W AT E R

Many rivers ri.se (begin) in glaciated regions of the world, where they are fed by melting snow and ice.

Longest rivers

Lower course

with room to spare.

Highest

(the upper surface of the groundwater) meets the ground surface, aspring may > L ' C u r .

over the oodplain, forming meanders.

delta, which covers about

fl

ow

i n t o t h e m a i n r i v e r.

Rain soaks into the ground and is absorbed into the a(]uifer -a layer of rock that can hold

into the bank,

Ameander

fl

tributaries eventually

obstacles.

LONGEST

South Carolina would

...
i- % /

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s

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A

I

ower.

1Each pollen grain wliich grows toward

2I’wo male gametes (reproductive cells) from the pollen grain

3I'he embryo plant and the endosperm (food store) develop

t h e o v a r v.

enter the ovule.

inside the seed.

sends out atube, Bee picks up pollen from anthers.

endosperm,y'/

A

Pollen slicks to

stigma of Peduncle

nuclei to form

form embryo.

up pollen and carries it to the next ower. 'I

European linden (Tilia xeuropaea)

/fuses with polar

gamete fuses

ower’s nectar picks ^

76

15.41b (7kg).

orescence

(k)mmon elder

in

owers.

●'I'he largest ower, giant raf esia (Raf esia arnoldii), grows up to 3.5ft (lOScm) across and weighs up to

%

in

GRAIN

Apollen grain

( ower stalk)

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Flower structure

Flowers

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LIVING WORLD

Leaves

Leaf structure

Midrib

Leaf textures Smooth, waxy leaves allow water to ow ofY, so they do not become waterlogged.

MOS'l' LEAVES HAVE aStalk,

petiole, and ablade, or lam Chlorophyll, apigment tha

Rhododendron - L a m i n a

leaves use in photosynthes

Hard, spiky leav es help prevent the

(see p.74), makes them gre

ower and leaf VA S C U L A R

SYSTEM

buds from being

Phlox

eaten bv animals.

T'he vascular system, made up of phloem and xylem, carries nutrients around the leaf.

Holly

VY

Hairy leaves trap alayer of air, so they do not burn in sun, or freeze in cold

S W E AT E R

frees lose water through their leaves. An average bireh

/

w e a t h e r.

●

\

tree with 200,000 leaves

can lose up to 106 gallons

Petiole

Phloem carries

sugars around the plant.

Stoma (pore

Ta n a c e h u n

(400 liters) on ahot

Needle-shaped

day -enough to

leaves offer little

ll

resistance to wind, preventing it from damaging the plant.

about 1,200 soft

through which gases ow in and out)

Xylem carries

drink cans.

water and minerals

around the plant.

('.\/)ress

Leaf records

Leaf examples

/

f.ARGEST

f K . AV K S

belong to the raf a palm {Raphia farinifem) and the Amazonian bamboo palm {Raph 'ui taedigem)gxQw\ng up to 64ft (20m) long. Hornbeam maple iAcer a/rpinifoliiwi)

Conifer" (1'a‘m'an'm cnptoinennidi’sj

Castor aralia

iKalopiiiiiix pi(ius)

Asparagus (Asparagus)

Bur

SMALLEST LlvW'ES ( owering plants) are those of a oating duekweed (Wolf a angusta). Leaves grow to about 0.2in (0.6mm) long and 0.1 in (0.3mm) wide.

Poisonous leaves

0

The leaves of many plants eontain poisons. Rhubarb leaves eontain high coneentrations

[of oxalie acid, which is particularly dangerous for people suffering

oak

Swiss cheese plant (. Monstcra deliciosa)

(Quemis

Lily family (Liliiim)

Lungwort (Rulnionaria ojftcuial'is)

rfrom rheumatism or arthritis,

kJimson weed and aconite leaves

\

macrorarpa}

can also cause sickness in humans.

Black locust

Sassafras

Blue echeveria

Black wattle acacia

Rhubarb (Rheum

(Robinia xholdth)

(Sassafras aIhid urn}

(Erheveria)

(Acacia lueanisii)

rhaponticum) leaves contain

Jimson weed (Datura Aconite (Aconilum stramonium) leaves napellus) leaves contain atropine. contain aconitine

oxalic acid.

Leaf mold

Plants, such as this bluebell, thrive in

When dead plants and leaves decay and are broken down they form topsoil, which contains nutrients essential for plant growth.

the fertile topsoil.

f

1Fallen leaves and dead plants lie on the surface. T'hey slowly decompose, forming alayer of leaf mold.

2T'iny animals, such as earthworms, eat the leaf mold, grinding it, breaking it down, and mixing it with the soil.

and ephedrine.

Leaf

raft

The leaves of the giant water lily (Victorici iiimizon 'iai) can grow up to 8ft (2.4m) across. They can support the weight of ayoung child.

3N’aluable nutrients are released in

the process, forming arich layer of topsoil in which new plants grow.

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L E AV E S

'

,●> ^

.

>

'

Tree structure Broadleaved trees, like most owering plants, have amain stern, or trunk,

£

T'rkks ark gknerally tall plants,

ft I--.

usually with asingle trunk (main stem). They are all perennial (live for

I

Leaves

__ Fruit of the oak tree is anut, called an acorn. Nuts arc hard, dry fruits with only one seed.

Buds appear in early /

Liee cycle

Atree trunk grows new layers of cells outside the old layers. 'I’rees grow (|uickly in favorable

called catkins.

owers, fruits,

and seeds

Seed grows into sapling (young tree).

e a c h y e a r. Seed falls on

fertile ground.

Fruit protects

Inside the trunk

spring. T’hcy will soon ^row into owers

Once atree is mature, it can

produce

leaves, owers, fruits, and seeds.

X

many years), and most are broadleaved plants, which bear owers.

English oak (Quercus rohtir) in spring and

conditions, and slower in less

favorable ones, forming visible rings in the trunk. Heartwood consists of dead cells, containing

a u t u m n

seed.

chemicals such as tannins or Roots

resins, which produce rich, Heartwood deep colors.

Fertilized owers

produce fruits.

Flower buds

ROOTS

appear on mature tree.

Atree’s roots take up water from the soil. 'The va.scular system

Sapwood

(see p.77) transports the water around the tree.

Ty p e s o f t r e e

\

One year’s growth ring

/

B R O A D L E AV E D T R E E S

N E E D L E - L E AV E D

'There are many thousands of species

'The group called needle-

'i'he palm fainilv

of hroadleaved trees. Most are

leaved trees includes

contains about

deciduous (shed

pines,

2,800 species.

their leaves

'There are over

Palms have

seasonally). ^

500 species of needle-

only one growing point, called the apical

TREES

rs, and yews.

leaved trees, most of which are evergreen.

41

PA L M

TREES

hud. If this is

damaged, the tree dies.

Waterproof layer of

cor

Bark

S|

/

1

Hardwoods and SOFTWOODS Broad leaved trees are ' sometimes referred to as

hardwoods, and conifers as softwoods. However, some Most hroadleaved trees, as their name suggests, l

have broad,

Many conifers have needle-shaped leaves, hut some arc strap¬ shaped, or even oval.

Palm trees have this

Most needle-leaved

Palm trees, like hroadleaved trees, are owering plants.

name because the leaves arc often

shaped like ahand.

conifers, such as Douglas r and yew, produce harder wood than many broadicaved trees. Balsa, the softest of all, is abroadleaf.

at leaves.

fe..

All the trees in this

i

group are angiosperms ( owering plants).

trees hear seeds in woodv cones.

Fine is aso wood. Its Limber is soft and open-grained.

Trees around the world 'I'rccs grow wherever there are at least Sin (200mm) of rain each year, and a temperature of at least .S()°F (10°C) in s u m m e r. T h e s e c o n d i t i o n s a r e n o t m e t i n

the white areas on the map. In the Arctic tundra, in Antarctica, or on very high mountaintops, no trees grow. MaI' kkv Boreal forest

Tropica

(conifers)

rainforest

M a n g r o v e s

(broadleaved)

Te m p e r a t e

Limited

Tropical dry

Limit of

forest

forest

forest

palm trees

(mixed)

c o v e r

(deciduous)

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l

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78 k

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-

Trees

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IJVING WORLD

Walnnt is a hardwood with a d i s t i n c t i v e c o l o r.

'I'REES

Leaf

fall

Bark

Tree records

Atree’s bark consists of dead cells, which protect the living cells of the sapwood. As the tree grows, the outer layer of bark splits and is replaced by anew layer. Sometimes many layers are visible at the same time.

TA L L E S T L I V I N G T R E E

In harsh conditions, leaves

is acoast redwood (Sequoia sewpeivireiis) in Redwood

do not photosynthesize properly,

National Park, California.

be replaced if the ground is dry

It is36.Sft(II1.25m) tall, ^ about the same as an a

or frozen. So atree withdraws

Apollo space rocket. *

leaves, and then sheds them.

Younger, pinkish layer shows

Lenticels (cell areas}

beneath peeling outer layer.

allow the tree to breathe.

Height ft(m) 365 (111.25)

and water lost from them cannot

:hc useful substances from its

OLDEST KNOWN TREE, J abristlecone pin ^ (Pintis (ongaeva) i

^

Nevada, was over

,S,100 years old. M O S T D R O U G H TR E S I S TA N T T R E E ,

the baobab (Mansouia T'he paper birch iHetuld papytifera) has avery pale bark.

fUgjtata) of Africa, can store up to ,35,900 gallons

River birch (Belula

This cherry tree (Prunm serrula) has adark, glossy bark.

(1,56,000 liters) of water in

ni^ra) Ivas bark that peels in aky layers.

its swollen trunk.

Deciduous forest in autumn, Nno England

Autumn colors

Tree facts ●The Bishop pine (Piuus muricata) can reproduce only

●l.,5 cubic yards (1 cubic-

after aforest re. It needs the heat of the re to crack

2,2711b (1,0.50kg). The same volume of balsa weighs only 2,541b (160kg).

open its cones.

meter) of dried ebonv weighs

●Mangroves are the only trees that can grow in salty water. 'I'hey have special roots that help them take in oxygen.

(Sequoia se?iipe/vireus) grow up to 25ft (7.6m) across.

carotenoids and

remove the tree. ! r - "

k

W n

I

A d u l t

human.

6ft (l.Sm)

(3 m)

(7.5m)

Birch

(Betula),

30ft (9m)

B A R K Cinnamon from the bark of the cinnamon {Cinnanwmum

zeylaninim). Cork from the bark of

the cork oak (Quercus super). (Acer

pseii oplatanus)

t'lirnitiirc.

for violins.

PI

LE

PRODUCTS

Paper i,s made from the pulp of many kinds of trees. Pulp is used for paper prodticts such as paper towels, tissues, and books. FIBER

PRODUCTS

Rayon fabric is made from cellulose using wood bers from many species of trees.

Ebon> (Diospyros) for carving

PRODUCTS

Kapok stuf ng is made from the hairs char cover the seeds of the kapok or silk-cotton tree (CrihapetilnnHra).

they are dead. They may remain on the tree for many months. Alayer of

work.

abscission layer, develops as the leaf changes color, forming at the base of the leaf stalk.

'Phis layer causes the leaf to fall.

Amaple leaf as if dies, changes color dramatically.

SAP

Maple syrup from the sap of the sugar maple (Acer sacduirinn).

Endangered timber trees Scienti c name Abies

Chewing gum from the sap of the sapodilla tree (Muiiilkura zapolaj. Tu r p e n t i n e f r o m the sap of the longleaf pine (Pituts palnstris). Amber fossilized

SEED

Douglas r (P.scudoisuga), 40ft (I'2.2m)

cells, called the

WOOD

Poplar (Popuhis) for buildings (some countries).

anthocyanins, from sugars in the leaves, give them their wide range of color. Many leaves are brown because

Oah jnnipfn(lunipcrus), (Qucrcus), 10ft 25//

Common uses of trees

for

arrives.

Other color

as they age, turning from yellow through orange to red. Both

It is sometimes easier to cut

(Quercus)

autumn

Carotenoids'darken

trees after 1.5 years.

through the trunk than to

Maple

break down when

carotenoids, now show through.

'frees grow at different rates. Below and right are the heights of some

Californian redwoods

rst

pigments, such as

Growth rates

Trunk road

Chlorophyll is the leaf pigment to

resin from conifer trees that are now extinct.

Common name

(Fir)

Location North and Central America

guatemalensis Aniba duckei

Bois de rose

South America

Dalbergia nigra

Bahia

South America

Hopea

(Dipterocarp family)

Southeast India

(Nettle family)

Central America

(Dipterocarp family)

Sumatra

erosa

Rousselia erratica Va t i c a

soepadmoi

rosewood

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79

Fruit The fruit is the part of a/A

Many itpes of plant are important food sources for humans. They include fruits, vegetables, herbs, spices, and cereals.

ower that develops to£/

Pedicel ( ower stalk)

\

S T- ' '

Carpel (section

. S

of fruit

contain the seed or

containing vesicles)

seeds. Fruits can be

--

r

succulent or dry. Succulent fruits, such

Fruits form an important part of the human diet. 'Phere i

s

a

Seed

Endocarp (inner layer of pericarp)

as lemons, are eshy and brightly colored.

Fruit examples

■

Exocarp (outer

layerofpericarp)

Pericarp (fruit wall) y

huge variety of wild and cultivated fruits, some of which are

Mesocarp (middle layer of pericarp)

Vesicle (juice sac) /

shown beloc\'. Lemon {Citrus Union)

Hemains of style (see p.76)

T E M P E R AT E N U T S

Peduncle

Nuts arc atype of dry fruit. 'I'hcy have ahard

(in orescence stalk) Remains of stigma [see p,76)

wall around their seed Remains of male

Remains of style (see p.76)

in orescence

Apple {Mall/S domestica)

Cherry

Strawberry {Fragarid)

{Primus uvium)

(see p.76) Woody pericarp (fruit wall)

Spiky cupule A (husk around fruit)

TROPICAL

Sweet chestnut {Castanea sativa) SEEDS

I

I'Lieh fruit contains one or more seeds that will

Hilum (point of attachment to ovary)

germinate and grow into new plants if conditions arc suitable. Some types of fruit, such as cherries and peaches, contain just one Papaya

D u r i a n

Star fruit

{Carica papaya)

{Durio zihethiuns)

{Averrhoa caranibola)

Testa (seed coat) ,

seed. Other fruits, such as strawberries and apples, contain several seeds.

Lemon seed

Development development of ahlackben-y Uiiihiis fruticosus)

N U T S

OF AFRUIT Aplant’s fruit begins

Ovaries begin to swell: s t a m e n s w i t h e r.

to form after fertilization has taken

place (sec p.76). Walnut

Brazil

{Jug/aus regia)

{BerthoUetia exceha)

{Corylus aveUaua)

Nerv York, to a

depth of 407ft '2^

LARGEST

TREE

FRUIT

comes from the jackfruit tree (Artocarpus /lererop/iylliis): it can weigh up to 11 Olb (,50kg). Csi

ve fruit Annual worldwide

consumption (tons) Bananas (Musa)

37,943,874

Oranges {Citrus sinensis)

34,010,585

[Citrullus lanatus)

21,308,658

Plantains {Musa)

19,985,304

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fl

expand and begin to change color.

Carpels mature intc

drupelets; small eshy fruil with asingle seed in each.

Fruit origins 'Phis map shows the origins of several fruits now found worldwide. K f y

9Cherries (Egypt)

Watermelons (Africa)

Peaches (China)

Strawberries (North and South America)

ANCESTORS

Lemons (India)

Passionfruit (Brazil)

The size, shape, and avor, of many food plants have been altered by selective breeding. Wild InmatOfs

{Lycoper.sicon csculcntuni) are

about llie size of *gtapes and sweeter

Watermelons

fl

eshy.

Food plant

44,750,700

Apples {Malus domestica)

80

more

Carpels continue to

coco de mer palm (l.odoicea iiialdlviai), which can weigh up to 551b (25kg).

bury Manhattan,

Fruit

and become

Drupelets ripen fully. Fruit is ready to eat.

SEED

i.s the “double coconut” of the

grape harvest would

To p

Carpels expand

Hazelnut

LARGEST

One year’s worldwide

(124m). ,

nut

Fruit records

Grape scott!

fl

fl

Food plants

\

y

LIVING WORLD

than cultivated tomatoes.

/ The jmmilive fnnn of acom plant (Zea mays) with its enh is much smaller than amodem corneoh.

i.

-;t.L

a , T-

.

.

Li) ■■

Vegetables

Ve g e t a b l e e x a m p l e s

'The term vegetabl

Vegetables can be leaves, stalks, owers, tubers, or shoots.

describes an edibl

Leaf

/

,

/ X

plant, or part of aplant.

L E AV E S

Some fruits, such as tomatoes

and eggplants, are also commonly called vegetables.

/ Petiole

/

(leafstalk) //

Ve g e t a b l e r e c o r d s Cabbage (Brnssica oleracea)

All of the following records arc held by Mr. Bernard Lavcry (born 19.'58) of Idanharry, Wales, UK. Mr. I^avery also holds three other world records for growing large vegetables.

Lettuce

Spinach oleracen)

{Lactuai sati^a)

S TA L K . S ■»

Asparagus {Asparagus of aualis)

LARGEST CABBAGE

Bean sprout {V 'lgna ra 'uita)

Celery {Apii/m graveolens)

Root tuber

(swollen root): the part eaten as a vegetabl t

Sweet potato {Ipomoea batatas)

weighed 1241b (36.24kg).

FLOWERS

LARGEST SQUASH

{Ciiairb'itripepo) weighed 108.11b (49.05kg). LONGEST Globe artichoke

Cauli

ower

(Cynara seolymiis)

(Brassira oleracea)

Know your onions

PA R S N I P

Broccoli

{Pasfmaca sativa) was 14..3ft

(Brassira oleracea)

(4.36m) long. LONGEST CARROT

ROOTS

was 16.9ft (5.14m) long. LARGEST

Onions, chives, garlic, and leeks all belong to the lily family. Different parts of each plant are eaten as vegetables; the bulbs of onion and garlic, the stems of leeks, and the leaves of chives.

CELERY

weighed 461b (20.89kg). Turnip {Brassira rapa)

Carrot

{Daunts rarota)

{Beta vulgaris)

Fruit and vegetable facts ●For 2,000 years the Chinese have considered lychees (l.'itchi ch'mensh) to be the nest fruits. Relays of horsemen took them

To p

LARGEST BRUSSELS SPROUT

weighed 18.21b (8.25kg).

ve vegetables Annual worldwide

Vegetable

consumption (tons)

to court, and in some districts, tax collectors

Tomatoes (Lycopersicon esculentum)

63,410,656

demanded them as payment.

Cabbages (Brassica oleracea)

37,939,923

●Even the hottest chili pepper (Capsicum

Onions tpilium cepa)

28,597,608

Cucumbers/gherkins {Cucumis sativus)

17,473,076

Carrots {Daucus carota)

12,912,025

annuum) derives all its heat from no more than 0.1% of the fruit.

●There are 6,000 varieties of potato in Peru.

Fruit eaten as vegetables

Spice examples

Some foods usually regarded as vegetables are in fact fruits. Familiar examples are shown below.

Spices are strongly avored plants used in cooking.

To m a t o

Peppers (lyeopersieon esculentum) (Capsicum)

Eggplant {Solatium mehugeua)

Pumpkin (Cucurbita pepo)

extracted from several fruit and

{Lawsouia iuermis). Loofahs

People use dried loofahs {Luffa ryliiirlrica), a tropical fruit, to

Herb examples Herbs are used to

avor food,

and in medicine. (Oeimum hasHieum)

Chili peppers (Capsicum auuuum)

Coriander

Cloves

Spearmint

(Syzygium aromatieum)

(Mentha spicata)

(Coriandrum sativum ]

Colossal cucumber The largest cucumber ever grown

weighed 20lb (9.1kg). 'This would have provided enough slices to make 1,137 cucumber sandwiches.

p o w d e r.

Chocolate Chocolate comes

Coffee

from the beans

produced from the ground

Coffee is

' P

{Theohroma).

(Allium porrum)

cosmetic face

of the cacao

wash in the bath.

Leeks

(Allium saUMim)

used to make

.seeds, including olives {Oka europaea).

and henna

Garlic

Basil

Face powder Finely ground walnut {Juglaus regia) shells are

Cooking oil Cooking oils arc

(.\llium cepa) (Allium schocnoprasum)

(Cinnamomum)

Many products in daily use come from fruits and vegetables. Ve g e t a b l e d y e s Dyes are made from plants such as indigo {] urUgofera)

O m o n

Cinnamon

Fruit and vegetable products

beans of the

Coffea tree.

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fl

e

e

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fl

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fl

81 e

fi

FOOD PLANTS

LIVING WORLD

Fungi and lichens Fungi were once classieied as plants,

but since about 1969 botanists have treated

them as aseparate kingdom. Most fungi

Fungus STRUCTURE Mushrooms and toadstools are Gills

produce and

Cap curls upward to

store spores. /T *

relea.se the

the fruiting bodies of fungi. They grow up out of the soil to spread their spores (reproductive bodies).

spores.

are immobile, like plants, but cannot make

Lichen structure

theit own food. Instead, they feed on living or dead plants or animals, dung, and other

Lichens consist of fungi living in association with algae (simple plants) or cyanobacteria, the only

organic materials.

organisms apart from plants that can photosynthesize.

Fungus examples

Soredium may develop into a new lichen

Ihere are about 65,000 known species of fungus and 20,000 lichens. Many more may be discovered.

:-T

Hyphae form the mycelium

Corfnir//i//.s

(main body) and anchor the

armillatuis

Fungal mycelium

sporophorc (fruiting body).

Life cycle

Cap curls upwards

Mature

to release spores

sporophore

Orange peel fungus

Oak maze-gill

Water-measure

(Aleur'ui

Eungi reproduce through spores,

(Daedah-a tjumina)

Earlhstar (Astrneus hygromctiinis)

which arc the equivalent of aplant’s

urantia)

Hypof^'mnia physodes

produces

^ S p o r e

seeds. The fungal mycelium spreads

germinates, and mycelium develops

underground until it meets another

mycelium of the same species. They bond together and, given the right conditions, produce afruiting body

4 Fly agaric (Amauitd miiscar ia)

that generally grows above ground.

Green wood-cup

Cdwuli/iopsh

(Chloroahorid (leruginascens)

hehola

Sporophore grows above ground level

^Mycelium spreads, meets another one, and bonds; forms sporophore

Symbiotic relationships Many fungi live in

6

close association,

or symbiotic relationships, with plants and animals. The three main

Scarlet hood

Chanterelle

Common stinkhorn

(Hygm-yhe ivcc'ineii)

(Crintiuirelliis rilmriiis) (Phallus impiidinisl

Ty p e s o f l i c h e n I'hc many species of lichen grow in ve distinct ways. Three of these are shown below.

kinds of .symbiotic relationships arc parasitic,

PA R . A . S I T I C

mutiialistie, and saprophytic.

cause galls and can e\'cn kill the plant they live on.

h'oliose

.Squamulosc

(C.lar/onia portentosa) (Hypogymuia physodes) (Cladon'ia oerkmna)

Truf

'I'ruf es (fungi that produce sporophores tindergroirnd) arc delicious. 'I’he white

found in the ciitieic, or

costs about

$3„^08 per

C,%iTi^llU$i,500 per kg).

outer layer, of some animals, such as insects.

●[lichen extracts produce orchil, the dye used for litmus paper, as well as the

is giant puft all (] .yroperdon gigantea), which

belong to Peiiidlliiim genus. They are used in blue cheeses, and the antibiotic penicillin.

can measure up

to 6.6ft (2m) in circumference.

Poisonous fungi Name

Fahy ring

●Eairy rings are formed when amycelium spreads outward. Mushrooms grow from the youngest part of the mveelium.

●Lichens are very sensitive to air pollution, and several kinds are used to indicate

Scottish tartans.

pollution levels.

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matter in the .soil.

BIGGEST FRUITING BODY

dyes once used to color

82

■Some fungi live on dead wood, animals, and other organic

Gtimxlerma (ipplaiiatum, can live for as long as fty years.

lichen facts ●Etingus cells contain a light, strong substance called chitin. Ghitin is also

truf e (TuPer magnatnm) from Italy

the presence of a fungus for their seeds to germinate.

LONGEST LIVING MUSHROOM,

Fungus and

e treat

SAPROPHYTIC

Fungus records

M O S T I M P O R TA N T F U N G I h'riitieosc

.MUTUALISTIC

Some parasitic fungi Many orchids need

Poison

Symptoms

Fly agaric (Amanita muscaria)

muscarine

Stomach pain, haiiucinations, delirium, convulsions; rarely fatal

Death cap (Amanita phalloides)

amanitine,

Nausea, liver and kidney failure, abdominal pain; can be fatal

False morel

gyromitrin

(Gyromitra escuienta)

phalloidine

Stomach pain, nausea, jaundice; can be fatal

Never eat wild mushrooms unless they have been identi ed by an expert as edible.

Cytoplasm

Protozoa

Microorganisms

I’rotozoa are neither animals nor plants. 'I'hey belong to aseparate kingdom (see p.72). Protozoa have just

^Nucleus

AMICROORGANISM IS alife-form

one cell, which carries out all the

that is usually too small for the human eye to see. The most

functions necessars' for them to

Food

live and reproduce. They live in watery environments, from damp soil and puddles, to lakes

vacuole

familiar types are protozoa, bacteria, and viruses. Some

VCell

microorganisms are harmful, but many are vital: without them, life

and oceans.

wall

Feeding

■ V -

Portrait of an amoeba

as we know it could not continue.

ow out from the body

Ty p e s o f p r o t o z o a

Many proco/.oa trap their food, which includes algae and other protozoa, by engul ng it with part of their jellylike body.

.Amoebas arc irregularly sliapcd protozoa chat crawl about on the bottom of ponds.

a ;P e u d so p i extensions that

Reproduction

I'here are more than 40,000 species of protozoa, in seven phyla (see p.72). Two phyla are shown below.

Afully grown protozoa

Most protozoa reproduce by splitting

c>4-: \

themselves in two. ^The nucleus and cytoplasm spilt into two equal halves.

Kaeh of the two halves i

then becomes asingle cell. 'This process is Ciliates

(C-iliophora) H.OOO spccic.s

called binar\

Flagellates, amoebae, opalinids (Sarcoma.stigophora) 27,000 species

{ ■■

Some bacteria

have

■

Z'

Tw o i d e n t i c a l The amoeba's

protozoa

agella.

Some types of bacteria

Food is trapped, forming a

pseudopodia surround its prey.

result

this way.

Bacteria, together with blue-green algae, belong to the Moneran kingdom. Monerans are the simplest, and probably the most ancient, forms of life on Karth. Bacteria are found everywhere, from the depths of the oceans to the upper atmosphere.

r

ssion.

Many types of bacteria also reproduce in

Bacteria

Viruses Avirus is atiny package of chemicals surrounded by aprotein coat. The many virus shapes include rod-shaped, round, and many-sided forms. I'hey are all so small (the largest are about 0.000,1mm) that they can be seen only with an electron microscope.

food vacuole.

Head

\ DNA

look hairy, ^ « = >

Collar

£>so

Arigid wall protects

In uenza virus panicles seen through av

o

s i

the

I

bacteria.

electron

Bacteriophage:

microscope.

avirus that

Vimses cause

\Cell

may be surrounded

Material stored

by aslimy capsule.

in granules

Bacteria do not have a

Athin

membrane

nucleus; their genetic material oats freely.

surrounds the

manufacturing machinery oats freely.

from the common cold to yellow fever. 7 Ta i l

HOW

cell contents.

ABACTERIOPHAGE

VIRUS BACTERIA

invades bacteria

many diseases,

The cell wall

SHAPES

according to their shape, which is spherical, rod¬ shaped. or curved.

Coccus

M U LT I P L I E S

Avirus shows no signs of life until it invades the cell of aliving organism. The bacteriophage is acomplex virus that reproduces by inv^ading bacteria cells. It is replicated at arace of 300

Bacteria arc often classi ed

liacUtus

\Tail

bers

c v e i A ' h a l f - h o u r. USEFUL sV''

BACTERIA

Bacteria arc nature’s most

important recycling agents. Thev break down dead

A

plants and animals, and

Armpit city

I

return the materials to

ObCC

the ecosystem. Most

%

i

bacteria arc harmless to

(»■ I600 million 'I'here bacteria are in about

humans. Some are vital:

l

and on ahuman body. The skin of an armpit

may be home to up to ,S16,000 per .square inch (800 bacteria per square millimeter).

without them wc could

1T'hc virus

4T’hc cel! bursts

lands on the wall

2It injects l)NA (see p.68) into

3T’hc bacterium

not digest our food.

makes copies of

of the bacterium.

the bacterium.

the virus's DNA.

open, releasing copies of the virus.

Bacteria are important in the production of many foods.

Vinegar

Microorganism facts

.iO

●It would take aciliate (protozoa) ●'I'he largest species of ve minutes to swim the protozoa ever to have lived grew to over Sin (20cm) in diameter: length of this page. ●One gram of .soil may the width of this page. It has now beeome extinct. contain over 1.SO,000 protozoa. about

Cheese

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MICROORGANISMS

Animals

Ty p e s o f a n i m a l INVKRTEBRATES

More ^LHAN amillion animal

About 97% of aninval species are invertebrates (have no backbone). Some of the most important phyla (see p.72) are shown here.

species have been discovered.

They have adapted to just about every habitat: some even spend their entire life inside the body

Wo r m s

Sea anemones, corals, jelly sh, hydras (Cnidaria) Ring of tentacles armed with stinging cells surrounds the mouth.

At least ten phyla, including segmented worms (Annelida) and roundworms (Nematoda).

of another animal.

Animal characteristics Animals, unlike

animals take in food

manufacture

through the

their own food, so

they have to eat other organisms. 'I'hey have many cells, can

Mollusks (Mollusca) Most have ahard shell to protect their soft body. Includes snails and slugs, .squid and octopuses, clams, mussels, and scallops.

Most

plants, cannot

Arthropods g (Arthropoda)

Star sh, sea urchins,

r\

and sea cucumbers

Jointed limbs and atough external skeleton. Includes insects, arachnid.s, and crustaceans.

(Kchinodermata) Marine: body usually made up of ve identical parts.

mouth.

ssfsc-:

V E RT E B R AT E S

Only about 3% of animal species tire vertebrates (animals with abackbone). There arcmore thtm 40.000 species, in seven classes (see p.72). Three

Most / Land-dwelling

animals

vertebrates

have

reproduce, and

breathe air

through their

can sense and

of these clas.ses are

nostrils.

sh.

respond to their

surroundings.

' ' A

Fish (Agnatha, (diondrichthyes,

Amphibians (Amphibia)

Osteichthyes). 'Three classes: jawless tlsh, sharks and rays, and

Can live both on land and in

bonv tlsh.

newts, and .salamanders.

Birds (y\ves)

Mam mals (M am malia) Teed young on milk produced in female’s body. Most have

water. Includes frogs, toads,

All animals have

Most animals

an excretory system that gets

move around at

rid of waste

some stage in

products.

their lives.

Reptiles (Reprilia)

W-

Scalv skin: most

Vertebrates have an internal

bony skeleton to support the body.

1

■■

-(V/

species lay eggs. Includes

Cov'cred with feathers. Ilave

-snakes, lizards, crocodiles, and turtles.

Skin may be covered in scales, feathers, or fur, to protect the animal and keep it warm.

Muscles enable move in search of food.

Many animals have legs to help them move ef ciently.

CJray crowned crane {Balearica regnlonim)

'I'he female tarantula wasp (Pepsls) paralyzes atarantula with her sting. She then bites off its legs to make it easier to carry-, puts it in aburrow, and lays an egg on it. When the larva hatches, it feeds off

the still-living spider. ii

f u r o r h a i r.

Animal reproduction

Animal lifespans

The main function of an animal’s life is to

Idfcspans range from afew days for some insects, to more than 200 years for agiant clam {'Irid aaw). Most mammals

Asexual reproduction Some organisms, c.g. hydras, reproduce by budding: part of the

have about the

ysame number of heartbeats

Sexual reproduction Most animals

Hin

reproduce sexually: acell from amale (a sperm) joins

detached and

female (an ovum). 'The egg grows into

form.s anew indix idual.

anew individual.

Elef)lianls and ahmos luwe asimilar number of heartbeats during their lives, but the shrew's heart beats much fasterduring its short life.

Animal facts ●Only about 0.3% of animal species arc mammals, and only

●Alarge locust swarm can eat 90,000 tons of food in aday:

about 0.7% are birds. Most creattires on Earth are insects

etiuivalent to the amount of

or

f a m i l i e s i n a v e a r.

worms.

their lifetime.

with acell from a

parent becomes

Larva’s larder

wings, abeak, and no teeth. Most species can tly.

continue its species. Some animals reproduce without mating (asexual reproduction), but most mate with apartner to produce offspring (sexual reproduction).

animals to

food eaten by 3.S,0()0 American

Animal groups Acast of hawk.s Acovert of coots

Abazaar of guillemots .A pride of lions

Feeding

Aelowder of cats

Some animals have specialized diets, while others eat almost anything. Animals have evolved different teeth to suit their diet. Mongoose skull

Gazelle skull

Moonral

skull

Aleap of leopards Asloth of bears Askulk of foxes

Monkey skull

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Alabor of moles Acrash of rhinoceroses

Carnivore

Herbivore

Insectivore

Omnivore

Ashrewdness of apes

Meat-eater; sharp

Flanc-eater:

Insect-eater; sharp, pointed teeth

Meat- and plant-eater; .sharp and at teeth

.A pod of dolphins

canine teeth

84

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L * ■

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LIVING WORLD

at molars

'Ll

I

Invertebrates The vaS'E majority of creatures are invertebrates -animals without a

backbone. They include insects, spiders, crabs, worms, jelly sh, and corals. Many invertebrates are tiny, but others, such as the giant squid and the Japanese spider crab, can grow to be larger than humans. Ty p e s o f i n v e r t e b r a t e

Earthworm

I N V E R T E B R AT E Invertebrates range from simple microseopic animals to eomplex, intelligent mollusks, such as octopuses.

many identical segments

Clitellum Dorsal

(saddle)

surface

Prostomium

Invertebrates do not have an internal

skeleton: their body shape is maintained either by atough, external coat, called an exoskeleton, or by body uid pressing out against the skin.

Pygidium

Earthworms are

hermaphroditic (both male and female in the Intestine

same individual).

Prostomium Mouth

Dorsal blood \

vessel

Pharynx

ganglion (simple brain)

Esophagus Circumesophageal vessel (pseudoheart) /

There are more than amillion known

.species of invertebrate, in about ,10 phyla (see p.72). Some of the largest and most important phyla are shown below; the number of species in each is approximate.

Body is formed of

Portrait of an

Cerebral

Ve n t r a l nerve cord

/

Nephridium (excretory organ)

Body shape maintained

Crop ,Gizzard (part

\of stomach)

by

Ve n t r a l b l o o d

uid

Coelom (body cavity surrounding internal organs)

vessel

[/

Gonopores

Spermatheca (reproductive organ)

\Ovary (reproductive organs)

■- r

Sea anemones, corals, jelh' sh, liydras (Cinidaria) 9,.s00 species

S p o n ff e s (I’orifera) 9,000 species

% C

Flatworms, ukes, and tapeworms (Platyhelminthcs) 15,()()0 species

Roundworms

(Nemacoda) 2(),0()0 species

Life cycle

Life cycle of ajelly sh

There is ahuge diversity of inx ertcbrate life cycles. Most species lay eggs, then many pass through several larval stages that may look very different to the adult stage. Other species hatch as miniature

Adult

Female jelly sh releases fertilized

adults. Some invertebrates, such as

larvae which settle

house ies, live for just

on the sea bed.

afew' weeks, but

others may live for many years: the giant

Ephyrae break free and become free-

swimming adults.

dam (Tr 'uiaaui) can 200 years old. Mollusks

Worms and leeches

(Mollnsca) ,S 1,000 species

(.Annelida) 18,600 spccic.s

Worm eacts

Ta p e m e a s u r e

●Roundw'orms are probably

The pork tapeworm (Taenia solium) can grow to over 2.1ft (7m) long

the most numerous

animalsonEarth.20,000^

inside the human body: as long as

1

X.

'Vi Star sh, sea urchins, and sea cucumhers

Arthropods (Arthropoda) 1,092,000 species

Larvae grow into *small polyps called scyphistoma.

At the right temperature, polyps divide into eight-armec buds called ephyrae.

live to be more than

(EchinodcrmLita) 6,000 species

four adult humans. It has as many as l,.S0() segments, each containing 80,000 tapew'orm embrv'os. Tapeworms can cause death if

species have bee

®

discovered, bu

^

scientists believe there Ni are at least .S00,000 species. ●Lip to 500 million hookworms may be found in asingle human.

thev enter the bloodstream.

Echinoderms

Arthropods

Zooplankton

Invertebrate

Echinoderms include star sh,

An echinoderm’s body is

animal kingdom, including

divided into ve parts radiating out from acentral point, and it moves using tiny, water- lled

insects, crustaceans, spiders, centipedes, millipedes, and horseshoe crabs. All arthropods ha\ eatough exoskeleton, jointed limbs, and anerve cord running the length of the body.

Plankton is made up of small invertebrates (zooplankton) and plants (phytoplankton) that drift along in w'ater currents. Zooplankton includes jelly sh

RECORDS

sea urchins, and sea cucumbers.

This huge phylum contains the largest variety of creatures in the

and the larvae of sea creatures

capillata), which |

tube feet. All echinoderms live in the sea. Slai sh are among (he slnmgesl animals for their size: they can fnize apart the shells of bivalve Eg mollusks,such

such as star sh and crabs. '/Moplankkm |1 (

LARGEST

. l E L LY F I S H

is the giant North Atlantic

if

jelly sh (Cyanea ^ grow's to more I than 6.6ft (2m) in I diameter, and I may have tentacles nearly 121.4ft (17m) long.

3

LONGEST

as scallops.

EARTHWORM

is the Mirochaetus earthworm The tiger centipede (Scolopcndra hardwickii) is the largest species of centipede. It grows to just under I2in (30cm) long.

from South Africa, which grow'S up to 19.7ft (6m) long.

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I N V E RT E B R AT E S

Mollusks

Eye

Portrait of amollusk

Te n t a c l e

divided into the head, the foot, and

Mollu.sks form the second

ahump containing the main organs.

largest group of animals on Earth.

'This hump is covered by afold of skin

They range from tiny snails to

protected by ahard slicll.

Heart

Kidney Collar

Foot

called the mantle. The body is usually Lung

Ovotestis

(reproductive organ)

ri.

Mantle

are found all over the world.

T'hey live in oceans and seas, in

Shell

A

Atypical mollusk has asoft body-

the giant squid, which grows as long as asperm whale. Mollusks

Crop Brain

Mucus

gland

Hermaphrodite duct

1'

(digestive tract),

Snails have both

fresh water, and on land.

male and female

reproductive organs Mouth

Types of

\

Stomach

MOLLUSK Oviduct

'I’here are n-iore than

.SO.OOO species of mollusk. They are

(Chitons

divided into seven

(Poiyplacophora)

classes (sec p.72).

coat-of-mail shells

Giant African Radula

land snail

(toothed tongue) Reproductive organs

500 species

Salivary gland

Life cycle marine (seadwelling a

Soleno^aslers

Monoplacopliorans

species hatch into tiny

(Aplacopliora)

(Monoplacopliora)

larvae. Othe

wormlike marine mollusk.s

deep-sea limpets 10 species

5,540 species

Anus

Excretory glanO

Life cycle of an oyster

Most mollusks

t

Egg hatches into

o

Young adult

free-swimming larva, called a trochophore

sinks to sea bed and settles in

mollu.sks, such as ^ some snails, hatch

Larva grows larger, shell develops. This stage called a veliger larva

Mollusk facts (Scapliopoda) 350 species

Bivalves

(Bivalvia) cwo-shclled mollusks

e.g. oyster, clam 8,000 species

Gastropod sS ((j-ascropoda) c.g. slug, snail, whelk 35,00{) species

Cephalopods ((-ephalopoda) squid, octopuses,

Feeding feeders, sifting tiny organisms from the water. Most other

mollusks have atoothed tongue, called aradula, which they use to scratch

suitable place

i

into miniature adults.

Tu.sk .shells

(Acluitinti)

Bivalve mollusks are fdter

lay eggs. Many

food into their mouth.

('/asr-Kp of n

snail's radula

●The giant clam {'Jni-lanu/) is the longest-

●The mucus secreted by

lived animal in the world: it can live more than

they can crawl along the edge of arazor without

200 years.

cutting themselves.

s n a i l s i s s o e ff e c t i v e t h a t

●Larger species of

●Limpets have such

octopus can measure

strong teeth on their

up to 20ft (9m) across

radula that they leave

with their tentacles

scratch marks on rocks

spread out.

when they browse.

showing rows ofras ngteelh

T/w giant dam's gills sift food froyn the water.

The gills are also used for breathing.

nautiluses, cuttle sh

600 species

To p o f t h e c l a s s -. Octopuses are intelligent

Mollusk movement

\animals and have the

-J ability to learn. An octopus

Some mollusks, such as mussehs ^

at [jondon Zoo in

anchor themselves to one place. Most

Fngland learned how to twist the lid off ajar

mollusks, however, move around in search

of food and to escape from predators.

sS

to

reach

the

crab

inside.

B I VA LV E S

Some bivalves, /. e.g. scallops. i

CEPHALOPODS

suck in water and

then expel it rapidly by clapping their two shells together. This propels them

through the water in aseries of'jerks.

Cephalopods, such as S(juid, take in water and then force it out again,

(ilross-section of asquid’s mantle

pushing themselves rapidlv backward. They also have ns which they u.se to pull themselves forward.

GASTROPODS Gastropods create awave of mii.seic contractions that runs from the rear of the foot to the front.

This wave slowly drags them along.

Slugs and snails secrete a slimy mucus that helps them to slide along. This Euglandina snail is the fastest

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mollusk on land.

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LIVING WORLD

ILxpanded mantle cavitytakes in water

(ilontracted mantle

cavity shoots out jet of water, propelling stjuid along

MOLLUSKS

CHANGING

SQUIRTING INK Octopuses, squid, and cuttle sh stiLiirt acloud

Defense and attack Molkisks have evolved several

unique ways of protecting

of ink at their enemies.

themselves from enemies. Many

This allows them to

escape screen. type of squirts

carnivorous (meat-eating) molkisks are also ef cient predators. STINGING

COLOR

Squid, octopuses, and ciitclcrish can change color in less than asecond to blend in with their surroundings. 'I'hey also change color to indicate their mood. Male cuttle sh turn black with

behind adark Heteroteulhis, a deep-sea stjuid, acloud of

anger; octopuses turn white with fear, and blue with rage.

luminous bacteria to

Some sea slugs eat jelly sh, and can

daz7.1c its enemy.

.swallow the

Sc iid squirting ink from its siphon

stinging cells without being stung. 'The cells

SAFETY

are then carried to

IN

SHELLS

Many molkisks, including gastropods

the slug’s back, where they protect

and bivalves, retreat into their shell if

it from enemies.

Cuttle sh with mottled brawn and while coloring

danger threatens. POISONOUS HARPOONS

Mollusk facts

(k)ne shells have H

●The ink stiiiirted by

long, barbed teeth H on their radiila

H

●The Mediterranean

cuttle sh was the

'I'hey thrust one of I

fan mussel {Pimm iiobilis)

original sepia coloring used by artists.

these into their prey like aharpoon, deliver avenomous h sting, then pull the ,

impaled victim back ^ into their mouth. ™

anchors itself to the sea

bed with strong, golden

●Several species of cone

brown threads. These

shell can kill ahuman

threads were once used to

with their sting.

make “cloth of gold.”

The same cuttle sh has turned red. It is probably signalmg to another cuttle sh.

How PEARLS FORM Mollusk shells

Some molkisks form pearls in their shells. Oyster pearls arc highly valued.

Mollusk shells are made of

layers of calcium carbonate secreted from the mantle. They form in ahuge variety of shapes, sizes, patterns, and colors.

1Atiny piece of grit ■V

West African margin shells

or aparasite lodges in the oyster’s shell, causing irritation.

V V v \

2The oyster .secretes mother-of-pearl (nacre) around the

Paci c thorny oyster

cause of irritation.

\

t \ ■

Cockle shells

\

3The pearl breaks

\

free of the shell,

n

removing the source of irritation.

i £ ;

Oyster shell

Marlinspike

Nautilus: the only

'lugn-

Rose-branch

cephalopod with atrue

m i i r e x

exUmal shell

L

I

Pearl

Elephant tusk shell

Cuban snail

land

Mollusk records LARGEST

MOLLUSK

LONGEST

SHELL

and largest invertebrate (see p.8.^), is the giant Atlantic squid (A/rhreuthis), which can grow up to 66ft (20m) long.

was over 16.4ft (.Sm) long. It belonged to aprehistoric cephalopod.

LARGEST

is the giant African land snail, which can grow up to l.S.4in

B I VA LV E

MOLLUSK

is the giant clam, which can weigh over 6611b (.lOOkg): the same as three large humans.

LARGEST

LAND

SNAIL

(.lOcm) from snout to tail. It has taken just over one minute for

SMALLEST

MOLLUSK

is the gastropod Ammonireni, which is only 0.04in (1mm) long.

I.ammellose o r m e r

this Euglandina snail to crawl

along the bottom of these two page

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87

Insects

Portrait of an insect

There are more species of insect than of any other animal phylum. For every human,

\'I'hey have six jointed legs, and atough

Thorax (middle

Antenna

Insects have three distinct body regions:

\the body)

eye

Foregut

Abdomen

Heart

(rear part of the body)

Ovary (reproductive organ)

Midgul

Insectshavenoveins:^

blood ows freely around the body.

Brain ... —

rainforests, polar lands, deserts, and pools of gasoline.

Mandibles

(mouthparts) J

□

□

the animal

\

\stage during their life.

everywhere, incltidiu^''^

about 8.5% of all

Wing

Compound

\Most insects have wings at some

insects. They live just alopjiL-—

OF INSECTS Insects make up

\

\outer skeleton called an cxoskeleton.

there are about 200 million

Proportion

Exoskeleton

section of

(feeler) /

the head, the thorax, and the abdomen.

I n s e n t R

Anus

Ovipositor (egglaying tool)

Other invertebrates12.5%

Air enters through holes (spiracles) in the insect’s sides and

Hindgut

species on Earth.

goes directly to muscles and organs.

Ve n t r a l Vertebrates

nerve cord

2.5%

Katydid (female)

Life cycles

Ty p e s o f i n s e c t There are over amillion known species of insect, nirh perhaps .50 million still to be discovered, d’hey are grouped into .52 orders (see p.72), including those illustrated below.

I'he series of changes an insect goes through during its life is called its metamorphosis. Coinplete metamorphosis: butter

Incomplete metamorphosis:

s

grasshopper

Winged

Yo u n g

adult

hatrhR.c;

emerges

from pupa

May ies (Kphemeroptcra) 2.()(KI species

Dragon ies (Odonata) ■S.OOO species

Yo u n g

Winged adult

hatches as

emerges from nal

wingless ^nymph

molt

Grasshoppers, crickets (Orthoptera) 20.000 species _ a r v a

molts

r Stick and leaf insects (Phasmida) 2..S00 species

Earwigs (Dcrmaptcra) 1..S00 species

Cockroaches (Blattodca) .5,700 species

Larva changes into pupa

Nymph

to grow larger

Nymph

resembles

molts to

adult

grow larger

Molting ■A young insect’s tough exoskelcton cannot stretch, so the insect has to molt (shed its skin) several times in order to

I

1Two hours after leaving the water, the nymph has

A

become an adult

damsel y. Its old

grow. The sequence below show-s the nal molt of adamsel y, as it changes from nymph to adult.

Praying mantids

Te r m i t e s

(Mantodea) 1,800 species

(Isoptera) 2„500 species

Biting lice (Mallottapliajta) 2,700 species

skin is left behind on the stalk.

A

4 ‘.V I -

Damsel y nymphs live u n d e r w a t e r, but climb

Beetles

Bugs (I Icmiptcra) 82.()()0 species

(C'oleoptera) 3()(),()()() species

Ants, bees, and wasps (Mvirienoptcra) 11 (),(){)() species

out when

kThe

skin

I'llp has split ■. \along the

K\back of the thorax, and

A ;

The young

mg adult grips the plant

stem and

they are ready to

the adult head

pulls Itself up and away

become adults.

has emerged.

from its old skin.

Insect facts

\

'-m

●If all the animafs on Earth were weighed, ants would make up 10% of the total.

IIt will take aafew

Butter

ies and moths

(Lcpidoptcra) 1.56,800 .species

Flies

Fleas

(Dipteral y8„S00 species

(.Siphonaptcra) 1,800 species

●Queen termites can lay one egg per second for more than 14 years. This gives atotal of more than 440,000,000 babies from one queen.

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'0

more

days for the damsel y to develop its Mbrilliant colors.

●Abee must visit over 4,000

one tablespoon of honey.

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LIVING WORLD

owers to make

a

adult

INSECTS

Insect wings

Defense and attack

Wings enable an insect to escape from predators, and to y

Insects have developed many ways of defending themselves against enemies. 'I’hese include camou age, stinging, and squirting noxious chemicals. In

to new areas in searc

_

of food.

r

several cases these methods arc also

The orchid mantis

useful for attacking prey.

Mol/i wing

^{Hymenopus

coronatus) is camou aged as

The insect curls its

an orchid

o w e r.

body, completing its leafy disguise.

Ants squirt stinging formic acid

CAMOUFLAGE Many insects arc so wdl-camoutlagcd that

Dragon y wing

they arc almos

impossible for predators to

Bcelle. forewing (elytron)

C H E M I C A L S

from their abdomen at

^

enemies.

STINGING

\\'asps and bees

spot. The green markings of

defend themselves

this Javanese leaf in.sect {PhyUium biorulatum).

by delivering a painful sting.

complete with liolcs and browr

M I M I C R Y

edges, make it look just like a dying leaf.

The hover

v's

colors resembl

"

the warning stripes of wasps. 'This may put off predators.

i

Insect sizes Insects range from tiny wasps smaller than aperiod, to beetles as big as ahuman

Insect vision ,\n insect’s compound eyes are made up of hundreds of individual lenses. Dragon ies have (he largest eyes of any insert.

hand. (The insects below are not shown actual size.) When the Javanese leaf insect sits on a

/

twig or branch, it blends e>.

< y -

Imitation /

.

4

Imitation

leaf midrib

in completely with its leafy surroundings.

leaf vein

SMALLEST

INSECTS

are fairy y wasps, which measure onlv 0.2mm long.

Insect homes Bees, wasps, termites, and ants are the only insects that build permanent homes. These range from asimple hole in the ground to complex termite mounds up to ,^9ft (12m) high.

Insect records LOUDEST

X

INSECTS

are cicadas, which can be heard

H E AV I E S T

up to 1,312ft (400m) away. F. 4 S T E S T

F LY I N G

This umbrella-shaped mound is home to the African

INSECTS

are dragon ies, which have been recorded ying at speeds of over 31mph (.SOkm/h). FASTEST

RUNNING

termites C.uh'iwrmc .

V:

^

{Periplaiieta tinierimiw), which can run at speeds of almost 3mph (5km/h).

The biggest insect ever to have lived was aprehistoric dragon y. It had awingspan of 29.Sin (75cm): about the same as aEurasian kestrel’s.

Co7nmon wasps (Vespula vulgaris) Aiu'W their nests from chewed-up wood bers.

Inside wasps' and bees' nests are combs of cells. Asingle lama dmelops in each cell.

Helpful insects

Harmful insects ^

BEES

FLEAS

Bees pollinate many types of crops, and produce honey (the rst sweetener used by humans) and bee.swax.

Diseases carried by tleas and Hies have caused more than half of all

SILK

BODY

MOTHS

DUNG

BEETLES

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Dung beetles were introduced to Australia to eat the large amounts of dung produced by cattle.

AND

FLIES

human deaths since the Stone Age. LICE

More than ,1.800 body lice can live on one person. In unhygienic situations thev can transmit disease. LARGEST KILLER

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Giant stick Insect’s lea. actual size

Silk is produced from the cocoon (pupa) of the silk moth Honihyx niori. Each cocoon produces athread of silk that may be o\ er 0.6 miles (1km) long.

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INSECT

is the giant stick insect (P/mrnada serraPipes). which measures up to 17.7in (45cm) from leg tip to leg tip.

INSECT

y

are the goliath beetles {Goimtluis), which weigh up to 3.9oz (1 lOg); about the same as an apple. LONGEST

is the American cockroach

Giant dragon

J

INSECTS

BEES

An aggressive type of African honey bee {Apis mellifera ac/ansonii) attacks humans without provocation. More than 300 people have been killed.

W I N G - S PA N

i.s that of the owlet moth

(I'hysania agnpina). which measures up to 12in (30cm) across.

SoMK OF itif: world’s least loved

animals are arachnids. They include spiders, scorpions, ticks, and mites. Most arachnids live on

land. They are found all over the world in almost every habitat: there is even aspecies of spider that lives high on Mount FTerest.

A h r i n m

n

Ta i l

Arachnids have eight legs, and their body is divided into the cephalothorax (front and middle), and the abdomen (rear). They have apair of leglike or pincerlike pedipalps for feeling and feeding.

f

Exoskeleton \

\Poison

(outer skeleton)

Simple Heart

eye

\

gland

^Cephalothorax

Sting Intestine

l\;J Chela (claw of

Brain

the pedipalp) Esophagus

There are no

Ty p e s o f a r a c h n i d

veins: blood

ows freely

There are more than 73,000 species of

inside the

b o d y.

arachnid, divided into ten orders (see p.72). Six orders arc illustrated below.

(air hole) Ve n t r a l nerve cord

w

y

MOST VENOMOUS SCORPION

:F'!)))ir

that hatch into Eggs are laid in aprotective silk

(shed their skin)

LARGEST

Harvestmen

(Opilioncs) 4.500 species

egg sac Adult

Some mites live

of Ilin (28cm),

just afew weeks; larger species of spider may lir eup

it can cover a

to 30 years.

dinner plate. Yo u n g spiderling

Spiderling molts to

resembles adult

grow larger

Ballooning spiders Mites and ticks (Acari) ,V),0(l() specic.s

Spiderlings can “balloon” from one area to another, traveling up

Spiders (Arancae) 40,(100 species

/U X.

a c r e o f m e a d o w.

passing meal

TRAPDOOR

BOLAS

SPIDER

'Fhc bolas spider

When an insect

v

passes, it ips open the trapdoor and leaps on its prey.

I

n \

\

OR-g-WEBWEAVER^

S PfDER ^r' Orl^wcaviiEi&'Splnanintricate Kvelj^Avhich to catch prey. fl

90

'I'hc net-casting spider spins asticky net

throw over a

scaled with ahinged door spun from silk.

t

SPIDER

its front legs, ready to

lives in aburrow

-

NET-CASTING

that it holds hetween

'The trapdoor spider

L

●There are more than 2million

spiders lurking in an average

by the wind.

All spiders are carnivorous (meat-eating), feeding mainly on insects and other spiders. 'Fhey arc skillful hunters, and have developed ingenious ways of capturing prey, tAfter trapping ameal, they paralyze it with venom, then wrap it in silk.

●Alore people die from bee stings than from the bites and stings of all the venomous arachnids put together.

at heights of more than 9,843ft (3,000m). 4'hey release a abdomen, which is picked up

Spider attack

Arachnid facts

to 1,243 miles (2,0()0km)

thread of silk from their

1

ARACHNID

is Leblondis’ goliath bird-eating spider {T/ienip/ios(i lebloudi)-. with aleg span

several times before

Camel spiders (Solifugac) 900 species

.lUMPING

SPIDER

riie jumping short, strong can jump 40 body length. itself to the

spider has legs, and times its It anchors ground with

asilk^thrcad, then

pounds on its prey.

WEB

up to 10ft (3m) across.

nymphs resembling adults. 'They molt

they are mature.

SPIDER

is spun by the tropical orb spider (Nepli/lr/). It measures

Life cycle of aspider

Arachnids lay eggs Wliip scorpions (Uropygi) 60 .species

is the Israeli gold scorpion (Leiurus qmiiquestriatiis). LARGEST

Life cycle Scorpions (Scorpiones) 2.0(10 spccic.s

Arachnid records

Claw

Imperial scorpion (Pandinm imperator)

Muscles

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Portrait of an arachnid

Arachnids

»

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LIVING WORLD

SPIDER

C R U S TA C E A N S

Crustaceans

Portrait of acrustacean

Common lobster (female)

Antenna

(feeler)

(Homarusgammarus) Most crustaceans have abody divided into

three parts: the head, thorax (middle), and abdomen (rear). In some species the head and thorax are joined to form the cephalothorax. Crustaceans have compound eyes and

CruS'I'ACHANS range from tiny water

Antennule

eas invisible to the human

(feeler)

eye, to giant spider crabs with legs longer than aperson. Most crustaceans are aquatic (live in water). 'They are found all over the

■jK. two pairs of antennae. 'I'he body is ●.● UK.. Carapace

oors of

j.. Heart

(shell

' *■

Compound eye made up of many lenses

eepest oceans.

'I'here are more than 55,000 species of crustacean. They are grouped into eight classes (see p.72), including the four i l l u s t r a t e d b e l o w.

water

Copepods (Copepoda) tiny marine and freshwater organisms 13,000 species

eas

LOGO species

intestine

V.

is

Dorsal abdominal

artery Abdomen

Ty p e s o f c r u s t a c e a n

Branchiopods (Branchiopodii) c.g. fairy shrimps,

exoskeleton.

a M o u t h

world, from rivers and shor^.lines to. the

covered by atough coat, called the

Brain

Cephalothorax Anus

Life cycle

Stomach

Most crustaceans lay their eggs in water. After hatching, many species pass through several larval stages. Crustaceans molt (shed their skin) to grow bigger.

/

Ventral nerve cord

Ovary (reproductive organ) Ventral / abdominal artery

Crustacean

Life cycle of ashrimp

RECORDS Adult

SMALLEST Egg hatches into rst larval stage, called nauplius; has single eye; uses antennae for swimming

C R U S TA C E A N S

are the water

eas Aloiiellti,

which grow only O.Z.Smm long. H E AV I E S T

C R U S TA C E A N

is the North Atlantic lobster

Barnacles

Mal acostracan s

(Cirripedia) 1,220 species

(Malacostraca) e.g. crabs, lobsters 30,000 species

Second larval stage, called zoea; has more appendages and two eyes Final post-iarval stage; uses abdominal limbs

for swimming

Third stage, called mysis; uses limbs on thorax for swimming

Crab defense

Crustacean facts

Most crabs have ahardened

●(ilopepods are probably

exoskeleton, called acarapace,

the most numerous animals

to protect them from predators. Many crabs also use camou age, burrowing, and running away as

on Earth, forming much of the plankton that oats in

Many crabs, such as this gliost crab {()(Spode), burrow to escape predators. Their eyes may stick up above tlie ground, keeping alookout for danger.

(Homarus americanus) and the

robber crab (Birgus latro) can live for over 50 years. ●Sowbugs are the only

S I D E WAY S

them to enter their

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)

burrow sideways because of their body shape.

Some crab.s, such as this decorator crab {Camposcia retitsa)^ cover their slicil with plants and sea creatures to disguise themselves on the sea bed.

Supershrimp deliver ablow with the same

17()sc| miles (440sq km) and weigh over 2million tons. C A M O U F L A G E

-JafUiTtese^pidh'

'The mantis shrimp can

(malacostracans) can cover

Scuttling sideways is the fastest method of c.scape for many crabs. It is easier for

A

successfully adapted to life ●Aswarm of krill

RUNNING

C R U S TA C E A N

is the Japanese spider crab (Macrocheira kaempferi)-. its leg span can reach nearly 13ft (4m). T

crustaceans that have on land.

POWER

LARGEST

●The North Atlantic lobster B U R R O W I N G

'The robber crab {H 'u'gus Ultra) defends itself with formidable pincers. 'These are so strong that this crab could cut its way out of acake tin.

weighs up to 441b (20kg).

the ocean.

effective defensive tactics.

PINCER

(Homarus americanus) which

●The pancarid, atype of shrimp, is only found in asingle Tunisian pool the size of abath.

force as asmall caliber ri e.

It can easily punch its way out of a sh tank.

LIVING WORLD

Amphibians Most amphibians can live both

on land and in water. They need

Brain

Portrait OF AN AMPHIBIAN Amphibians are

Shoulder blade

(outline) ,Spinal cord Backbone

p.8.3). riieir skin

their skin is not waterproof and they rapidly lose body water in dry conditions. Amphibians have, nevertheless, adapted to awide

has no hair or scales,

'They are found on every

Eardrum

eye

vertebrates (see

amoist environment because

range of habitats, even deserts.

Large bulging Vocal sac

i

and is important for keeping the correct

Stomach

Adults can

♦

breathe through

*-si

balance of water in the

their skin.

d n e yK i

body. Most adult amphibians i have lungs, but can also breathe through

European common

i

'a

their skin.

y -

continent except Antarctica.

-

Intestine --

Lungs /

toad

(Bufo bufo)

y

/

Frogs and toads have

Liver

no tail.

Types of amphibian There are more than 4,200 species of amphibian, divided into three orders (see p.72).

Life cycle .Most amphibians lay their eggs in water.

The young pass through aseries of changes, called metamorphosis, before becoming adults. Life spans range from abrief breeding season to more than .SO years for the Japanese giant salamander {Aiulrias

Caring for eggs and young Many amphibians lay their eggs and then leave the young to fend for themselves.

Others protect them in avariety of ways.

Life cycle of anewt

Froj«s and toads (Anuru) 3.700 species

Caecilians (Apoda) 170 species

Gills disappear; adult has lungs

Newly hatched larva, called a

and can live on

tadpole, has gills and

l a n d o r i n w a t e r.

Front

legs appear about

seven to

eight weeks after hatching.

three weeks after

hatching.

toads are toadlets.

●Amphibian comes from the Greek words cimpin and Inos, meaning “double life,” because amphibians can live both on land a n d i n w a t e r.

young develop into toadlets under her

skin, then hatch out of her back.

tip their arrows with their poison.

Scienti c name

in female toad’s skin

Size (approx) m

d

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{A/y/fs ohstetricans) wraps his string of eggs around his back legs and carries them until they are ready to hatch.

almost covered. 'I'he

e n d o f t h e b o d v.

'The Afrit an clawed toad (Xeitopus) /ra.v webbed feet for swimming and claws for gri/ ng siijfeiy surfaces.

midwife toa

them until they are

I.ength is measured from the snout to the

The White’s treejrog

pool or stream.

out one at atime.

.skin swells around

(native) people of South .America

Common name

on its back to anearby-

female’s hack. Her

Largest frogs and toads

sticky disks on its toes for gri/i/hng leaves.

T'he poison-dart frog {Dendrohates) carries its newly hatched tadpoles

{Rhinoderma) swallows his tadpoles into his vocal sac for protection. \\’hen they become froglets, he spits them

(Pipa p'tpn) eggs arc placctl on the

●Poison-dart frogs are so named because the indigenous

(l.ilt)ria caorulca) has

W A T E R

'I'he male Darwin’s frog

U . A’ D E R T H E S K I N

(10.4mm) long.

The tiger .salamander (.\ml)y.stouia ligriuum) has /kittened feet for hiiirowing.

CARRYING TO

The .Surinam toad’s

●The smallest frog in the world, Psyllophiyne dulaclylii, is smaller than a ngernail at just 0.41 in

Till’ iKilmale nnol (Ti iuinus helveticiis) has wi’hbed feet for swimming.

SAC

liROODER

T'he male

●YoLing frogs are called froglets, and young Amphibians’ feet are adapted for their particular way of life. .Many species have webbed feet for swimming, while others are adapted to burrow or climb.

VOCAL

EGGS ON LEGS

Amphibian facts

Amphibian feet

r

lives i n w a t e r.

Back legs appear at

Newts and salamanders (Urodela) 350 species

S

3k. W I k

m

in

Goliath frog

Conraua goliath

358

American

Pyxicephalus adspersus

230

bullfrog Cane toad

Bufo marinus

230

9

Rococo toad

Bufo paracnemis

230

9

1 4

Big tadpole, little frog 'The South American paradoxical frog {P.'ieui'/ispnradoxd) is larger when it is a tadpole than when it turns into an adult frog.

AMPHIBIANS

Amphibian colors AND SHAPES Amphibians have evolved a wide range of shapes and colors to suit their habitat and lifestyle. Many poisonous species are brightly colored to warn predators to keep away, while others have colors and shapes that help them blend in with their surroundings.

IIlls tmghtiy colored golden manlella (Mamella

auraiuiaca) is npoisonous frog from MadagcLscar.

Mottled colonng helps disguise this South American horned load (Ccraiopliiys). The shape and colors of this Asian leaf frog (Megopliiys iiasuta) resemble adead leaf.

●

^

This South African shovel-nosed frog (HcMiiisus guttatus) uses its shovel-shaped snout for humnoing.

-

\ The tiger salamander’s (Ambystoma ligrinnm) spots are asigtial to predators that it may make an unpleasant meal.

Deeense and attack Amphibians are carnivorous (meat-eating), and many species rely on camou age to stay hidden from prey as well as from predators. Other defensive tactics include oozing poison, looking erce, and startling enemies.

The colors and shape of this Malaysian nanvw-moulhed toad (Kiiloula pukiira) may fool predators info thinking it is awet stone.

Amphibian records

Leap frog

LARGEST

The African sharp-nosed frog WO'clnideiui oxyr/iy/ir/ms) holds the frog long jump record. One individual leaped 17.5ft (5.55m) at the Calaveras County Frog Jubilee, California, in 1975.

'['he

SALAMANDER

is the Japanese giant salamander, which grows up to 5ft (1.5m) long. SMALLEST

SALAMANDERS

are the Mexican lungless

SURPRISE

salamanders {T/wrius), which

re-bellicd toad

grow only O.SSin (14mm) long.

{Bombinci bomhiua) relics on its camou age to stay bidden from

MOST

POISONOUS

AMPHIBIAN

is the golden yellow poison-dart frog {P/iyllobates terrihilh). d'he poison from the skin of a single frog could kill up to

enemies. But if it is

attacked, the toad displays the bright warning colors on its belly,

20,()()() mice.

hoping that the startled nt. predator will leave it alone i

MOST

EGGS

are laid by the female cane toad {Riifo marinusY she can produce up to 35,000 eggs in one year.

S C A R I N G TA C T I C S If this Budgett's frog {Lepiciobatrarhus dsper) is attacked, it puts on a fearsome display. It opens its mouth, screams, and makes loud grunting noises. If this performance fails to scare away the enemy, the frog may

POISON

If apredator tries to eat them, many amphibians ooze anasty tasting poison from their skin. 'Phis should make the To a d t r i e s t o m a k e

attacker spit them out.

Itself look bigger

bite it. STICKY

TONGUE

Ihe longue is attached to

Frogs have along, sticky tongue for icking out at prey,

the front of the mouth.

such as insects.

P R I C K LY

European common frog (Rana lemporaria) attacking prey

.tdi

LEAPING

AND

RIBS

The ribs of the Spanish sharpribbed salamander {Pleurodeles waht) have needlclike tips. If a predator tries to cat it, the ribs pass through its skin giving the predator asharp surprise.

LOOKING

FIERCE

'I'his European common toad is confronting an enemy. It has puffed up its body, and is standing on its toes to make itself appear larger.

If attacked, the red eft, the young form of the eastern newt (Noiopluhalimis \’iridcscens), secretes poison from special glands in its skin. An oriental re-bellied toad (Bombina orieniali.s) swimming away from danger.

SWIMMING

If afrog is attacked, for example by a bird, it quickly leaps out of danger using its powerful back legs. If the frog is close to apond or stream, it will dive into the water and swim out of the

predator’s reach.

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Poison-dart frogs are the most poisonous of all amphibians. Their slatilhig colors make lliem easier for enemies to spot and avoid.

'The attened shape of this hinroxvingjrog (Rhinophrv’nus doi salis) helps it to slip easily through the soil.

LIVING WORLD

Portrait of areptile

Reptiles

Mouth

ReP'I'ILES range from tiny lizards to snakes up to 33ft (10m) long. They live in oceans, lakes, rivers, and on land. All reptiles have ascaly skin. They depend on their surroundings for warmth, so they are more numerous in hot countries.

Ty p e s o f r e p t i l e There are nearly 6,000 species of reptile, grouped into four orders (see p.72).

Most reptiles (excluding snakes) have four legs and atail. 'I’heir .scaly skin

Nostril

\

IPfr, retains water inside the body, enabling them to live in dry, barren regions. Brain Small

Vertebral column

intestine

(backbone)

Esophagus Trachea

(windpipe)

Life cycle

Kidney

Most reptiles lay leatheryshelled eggs, although some give birth to fully developed young. Reptiles continue to grow after reaching maturity, so older individuals may reach a huge si/.e. Life cycle of agecko

Eyed lizard (female)

t

(Lacerta lepida) Claw

Sloughing

Reptile skins

Snakes and lizards slough (shed)

The outer layer of areptile’s skin is thickened, forming waterproof scales. 'I'hese scales are composed of keratin: the

their skin from time to time,

either in large akes or in one piece. This allows them to grow, and replaces worn-out skin.

Egg

Lizards and snakes (.Squamata) 5,700 species

y i a r i

same substance that hoofs, hair,

Gecko reaches

and ngernails are made of.

maturity after

Grocodilians

ajLtg. about 18 months

●tTS LVe-. ■J

Crocodilians

have acou^rh, armorlike skin made of

^

rough, horny scales (scutes).

Egg hatches Into young that

Crocodilians

Caiman skin

resembles adult

(Crocodylia) 23 species

Snakes Most snakes have

Reptile shells

Tiiatara

Turtles, tortoises, and terrapins have abony shell covered with horny plates or leathery skin. The shell is for protection, and often acts as acamou age.

(Rhynochocephalia) 2species

asmooth skin.

Turtle and terrapin Aturtle's shell is lighter and Hatter than a tortoise’s shell. The

The

scales

.

overlap so that : the snake can

bend easily.

streamlined shape

Snake skin

enables the turtle to '

glide through the water.

Lizards Lizard skins

range from smooth and

slippery, to rough and spiky. Gecko ski

T'urtles, tortoises, and terrapins ((’helonia) 200 species

To r t o i s e

Soft-shelled turtle

Tortoi.se.s usually ha\ eastrong, high-

These turtles have alight, at, shell for boiiyancy ( oating), and for hiding

domed shell to protect the body from predators’ jaws.

in the sand and mud of the riverbed.

Longest snake Ehe longest and heaviest snake in the world is the

anaconda (h'.iinectes muriims).

Reptile colors CAMOlPLAGE Many repcile.s have skin colors and patterns that enable them to blend in

The colors of this diadem snake

'Ehe longest anaconda on

(Spalerosophis diadema cliffordi)

record measured 33ft 8in

make It dif cult to spot in its

(10.26m): longer

desert habitat

than abus.

with their surroundings, from bright green forest lizards, to dull brown desert snakes.

WARNING GOLORS Many venomous snakes, such as the

Eastern coral snake {Mim/nisf///vj//s), have bright colors to warn

predators to keep away. Some harmless species have also developed these colors, to fool enemies into thinking they are dangerous; this is called B a t e s i a n m i m i e r v.

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94

'pmShi Jiill*

Reptiles on THE

AT TA C K

Most reptiles are carnivorous (meat-eating). Eroni deadly venom to sticky tongues and snapping jaws, they have evolved some of the most ef cient methods of attack in

the animal kingdom.

V E N O M

CONSTRICTION

STICKY

Poisonous snakes, such as this green mamba {Dendroasfm angustireps), kill

prey by biting it and injecting venom

Pythons and boas, such as this anaconda, coil their body around their prey, slowly stiueczing the animal until

through their fangs.

it suffocates.

Chameleons have along tongue with asticky tip that they shoot out at prey. 'The chameleon’s tongue is as long as its body and tail combined.

TONGUE

Reptile records LARGEST

CROCODILIAN

is the saltwater crocodile Alligators can grow jp to 50 new sets of t eth in alifetime

(Crocodyh/sporosus), which can grow up to 20ft (6m) long. LARGEST

LIZARD

is the Komodo dragon (Vimiiiiis komodoensh), which grows up to IOft (,3m) long. SNAPPING

BEAKS

d'ortoises and turtles do not

have teeth: instead, they have a sharp, horny beak. Ckirnivorous turtles, such as snapping turtles. have strong jaws for grabbing and chopping up apassing meal.

SMALLEST apink, worm-like tongue for luring

TERRIRLh

sh into its mouth.

Oocodiles and their relativ'cs have

of

HISSING

Many reptiles have developed effective ways of putting off their enemies. Apredator attacking areptile may receive an unplea.sant surprise.

AND

REPTILE

is the British Virgin Island gecko {Sphaerodactyliis parthenopion), with abody just ().7in (18mm) in length.

TKRTH

formidable sharp, pointed teeth for grabbing prey and tearing off chunks

Defensive tactics

esh.

When they are alarmed, cobras spread the skin of

SPITTING

Cobras rear up oITtlic ground and hi.ss

their neck into ahood.

t o s c a r e o f f a n c n c i n v. M o s t c o b r a s

inject deadly \cnom by biting. but spitting cobras sriuirt jets of venom into their attacker's eves.

LOOKING PIERCE

When startled, the Australian frilled

Monodi’d cobra

(Naja naia kaouihia) NASTY

SMELLS

SQUIRTING BLOOD

The stinkpot turtle {Stenwtherus odoratus) emits afoul-smelling yellow licjuid to put

Some horned lizards

off attackers.

may contain irritants.

lizard (Chhimytlosaiirus kingi) erects alarge, rutflike ap of loose skin on its neck. This usually scares away the attacker.

Reptile facts

(IVijjnosoma) squirt drops of blood from their eyes

●Some snakes push their windpipe out of their mouth to avoid being suffocated when swallowing alarge animal.

at enemies. 'The blood

Deadliest snakes Some ,30,000-100,000 people die each year from snake bites. These are some of the worst culprits. Common name

WALKING

ON

WAT E R

F LY I N G

Basilisk lizards {/^c/sdhrus) Some lizards, such as drop onto water and run tills ying dragon {Draco across the surface on vo/ans), escape attack their back legs to escape by leaping and gliding from tree to tree. from apredator. LOSING

THE

TA I L

Many lizards can shed their tail if an attacker grabs hold of it; this allows thcni to escape. Anew tail eventually grows in its place.

Scienti c name

and distribution

u

This lizard has

recently lost part of its tail while escaping from apredator.

No. of deaths

per year (approx.)

Asian cobras (Asia)

Naja

15,000

Saw-scaled vipers (Asia and Africa)

Echis

10,000

Russell’s viper (Asia)

Daboia russelii

5,000

Kraits (Asia)

Bungarus

3,000

●When asnake charmer’s

snake weaves to and fro, it

is not dancing to the music, but following the snake charmer’s movements.

●Achameleon’s eyes can

Lance-headed vipers (Central and South America)

move independently. One eye can look up while the other looks down.

●Spitting cobras can s(|uirt their venom up to 9ft (2.7m). Bothrops

3,000 After eight months the tail has almost reached

Tw o m o n t h s l a t e r t h e

its original length. .y

tail is growing back.

m The small vertebrae

(back bones) along the lizard’s tail have special weak points where the tail can break off.

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REP'l'ILES

Portrait of a

Fish

Lateral line

sh

Operculum

(sense organ)

(gill cover)

Fish are vertebrates (see p.83). The most familiar and numerous are the

T'iirrk is no such thing as a

Dorsal

bony sh, which have askeleton made of bone, aswim bladder for buoyancy, and agill cover, called the

typical sh: the three groups are as different from each other as a camel is from acrow. All sh live

operculum. Most

m

V -

n

»

Backbone

Stomach

sh are

\Scales

Kidney

covered with scales.

Spinal cord

in water, although some species

Caudal

n

Dorsal artery

Swim

can spend time on land. 'Their

/

bladder

Brain

habitats range from the cold, inky depths of the deepest oceans, to warm, sluggish, tropical rivers. Types of

Gill arch Gill slits

sh

Mouth

'I'here are more than 20,000 species of sh, the vast majority of which are bony sh. Fish are divided into three classes (see p.72).

Pharynx \ H e a r t

Cloaca (anus and urinogenital opening)

Pectoral Intestine

.lawless

sh

Life cycles

(Aj^nacha)

(Carassins carassius)

Life cycle of atrout

some give birth to fully /x formed young. Many s / / produce thousands of ^

75 species

f \ 9

eggs at atime, because

m )

Adult gives birth to up to 40 live young. Adult

so few survive to beeome

adults. Life spans range from afew

sh

months, to over

(Chondrichchycs) sharks, rays, and chimaeras 800 species

Shark Trout takes from

100 years for the giant sturgeon

8months

to

called afry,

{Hi/so huso).

3years to mature, depending on species.

adult trout.

Gill rakers sieve the

.Pharynx (connects mouth with esophagus).

sh take?

through its mouth.

Fish movement

FASTEST

down; and left and

SWIMMER

right. They use different

ns to control

these movements.

(6mm) long, while

ows

about lOft (3m).

R O L L

\ A W

'Fhc sh uses its dorsal, pectoral, and pelvic ns

Acombination of

to roll.

to the left and right.

Peak

V

P I TC H n

movements steers the

Fhc sh

sh swivels its

pectoral and peh ic ns to rise, stay level, and dive.

Peak

I f

First n

\ P e l v i c

The S-shaped wave begins xvhen the sh swings its head to the right.

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are about 0.25in

and backward: up and

dorsal

96 fi

hatched sun sh

Fish mov'e in three

I

liead to tail.

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V\\\

times bigger than its young: newly

dimensions: forward

Doi^lsh

along the body from

fi

Water

is the goby {Pandokapygniaea), which grows just 0.3in (7.6mm) long: smaller than ahouse y.

Fish swim by creating aseries of S-shaped waves that travel ^

fi

'.yv

is about 60 million

adults measure

FISH

Swimming

fl

V

past the gills.

is the tunny (T/wmins), which has been recorded swimming at 44mph (71 km/h).

fl

ows

out through the gill cover (operculum).

in water

typus), which grows to more than .soft (LSm) long.

fi

BEGINNINGS An adult ocean

Water The

is the whale shark {Rli 'imodoii

fi

Small

sun sh {Mold iiiola)

l.AROliST FISH

fi

pup, resembles adult, but its head projectiles are bent back. T T T T r - r r

thin membranes into the blood.

Fish records

fi

called a

15 years to mature, depending on species.

resembles

w a t e r.

SMALLEST

Yo u n g ,

from 5to

young,

Fish “breathe” using their gills. As water ows over the gills, oxygen passes through

Bony sh (Ostcifhthycs) c.it. plaice, carp, cod 2(),()00-22,000 spccic.s

takes

Ti n y

How EISH BREATHE

fi

Life cycle of ahammerhead shark

Most shreleaseeggs,although^-i

hag sli and lampreys

Cartilaginous

n

Crucian carp (female) Pelvic hn .

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LIVING WORLD

The jH'dk of the wave fun traveled to the re}rion of the f>e/vie and rst dorsal ns.

n

The peak is noiv behueen the two dorsal ns, and the tail

'The peak reaches the tail, and the head swings for

begins to thrust to the right.

the next wave.

Caring for

Fish shapes

Ik

Fish have evolved

s

Y O U N G

many different shapes to suit their particular way of life, from

Many sh do not look after their eggs and young, leaving PROTECTIVE POUCH The female seahorse lays her eggs into aspecial pouch on the male seahorse’s body. 'The eggs grow inside the pouch, and arc “born” v\’hen the young arc developed.

themselves. Others are caring parents,

ercely protecting their offspring from predators.

Feeding and diet Fish feed in avariety of ways, depending on their diet. There are plant-eaters, meateaters, scavengers (feed on dead plants and animals), and parasites (see below).

MOUTH BROODING Many cichlids keep their eggs in their mouth while they develop. After hatching, the

PA R E N T N I B B L I N G 'The common brown discus

sh (Sym hysodon) secretes a Special nourishing substance

young usually stay in the mouth from its skin for the young to nibble. 'Fhey feed on their parents for about four weeks.

for safety, nally leaving it when they are large enough.

shaped for fast swimming, to at sh that lie motionless on the sea

o o r.

The John Dory (Zeus) approaches prey headon. Its slim shape makes it dif cult for the victim to spot.

F I LT E R F E E D I N G Filter feeders, such as this paddlc sh {Pohodon spat/iula), sift

Box-shaped

food from the water

with their gill rakers.

Fish facts

Protective bony plates beneath the cow sh's skin give it adistinctive, boxy shape.

●The basking shark

/

(Cetorhinus maxim us)

●■i L i

A ,

lters

about 396,000 gallons (l,500cu m) of water per hour: enough to ll 66,000 baths. TEARING

i)

streamlined sharks

them to fend for

TEETH

SUCKING

.Many sh, such as this great white shark (Cairburoiliin tiiirlmrim), have razor-sharp teeth for biting chunks out of their prey.

BLOOD

The lamprey is aparasitic sh (feeds on living things). It attaches itself to

prey with asucker, rasps at the esh with its teeth, then sucks its blood.

Defensive tactics Many sh rely on camou age to stay hidden from predators. Several species are poisonous, while the electric eel (K/ectrophorus electricus)

●Needle sh are the only that have green bones.

●In times of drought, the African lung sh (Protop/erus)

delivered

spines.

PUFFING

survive for at least three years by digesting its own muscles.

C A M O U F L A G E

The long-nosed gar (Lepiso.sleus osscus) has along, thin shape for quick dashes.

Carp, characins, and

Fakes and

cat sh are some of

Upside-down cat sh

the most common

altitudes of up to 16,000ft (4,900m).

freshwater

Loach: probably the highest living species /

sh.

Shorelin

^

Some species

Mudskipper

&

that live on the shoreline can survive

their homes.

for long periods out of the water. Coastal waters

In tropical coastal waters, coral reefs are home to many brightly

The pipe sh resembles apiece

On the attack Most sh rely on speed and surprise to catch prey. Some species have developed other

colored

M a n d a n n

sh.

Jish

SQUIRTING 'Fhe archer

sh

Open ocean Many species of sh that live in the open ocean grow to ahuge size.

squirts water at

its prey, knocking i t i n t o t h e w a t e r.

L U R E S

Caves

Some

Several species of

catch prey. Deep sea angler sh have a luminous organ on the end of along, polelike n ray. Prey are attracted by the light, and are snapped up by the waiting sh.

from above

almost invisible on the seabed.

Lakes and rivers

of seaweed.

sh use lures to

Plaice seen

plaice’s (PleuronecLcs) at shape allows it to remain

Mountain

FivSh live at

Some sh, such as these pipe sh, look exactly like the vegetation where they make

methods of attack.

T h e

Fish habitats s t r e a m s

the world.

body

buries itself in mud. It can

UP

When attacked, the porcupine sh in ates its body and erects its spines in the hope that it will be too large and prickly to be eaten.

POISON More than 50 species of sh are poisonous. 'I'his lion sh {Pterois volitcins) is one of the deadliest in

hatche.t .sh “ es” for short distances above the water. Its devp body shape keeps it steady.

Deep

●It would take 2,000 gobies (smallest sh) to equal the length of awhale shark (largest sh).

Poison is

through sharp

The freshwater

sh

●Some sharks give birth to just one live young: the rst to develop inside the mother eats all the other eggs and embryos.

can deliver a500-volt shock.

cave

Paci c manta ray

sh have no

eyes: they do not need them since

they spend their lives in darkness. ; aboy reaches this height by the age of 9.

}

●Aperson is about 0.4in (1cm) taller in the morning than in the evening. 'This is because the pads of cartilage in the spine become more compressed during the day.

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hormone testosterone. 'This

new cell has 46 chromosomes -

causes muscles to develop,

C H I L D

fi

Egg and sperm cells each contain 23 chromosomes. When

f o r s e x u a l m a t u r i t v.

●Aboy’s testes produce the TWO-

Genetics an egg and asperm cell join, the

●Agirl’s ovaries produce the hormones progesterone and estrogen. 'These cause breasts to develop, hips to broaden, and pubic hair to

rst breath of fresh

air. The newborn baby can hear well but cannot focus its eyes properly.

\Vagina

physical and psychological changes that prepare them

grow. At this time

^make towers of blocks.

babv soon takes its Placenta

few weeks of

Most babies learn to crawl, can pull pregnancy, the baby turns around so its head is themselves upright on facing downward, ready to be born. furniture, and can stand unsupported for asecond or n'>(^nths, they may have up to eight ●When children reach teeth and weigh three puberty, they undergo times their birthweight.

T

BABY

After about 40 weeks, or 9months, of development, the baby Is ready to be

HUMAN BODY

Medicine

c. 10,000 B.G. Trepanning is practiced in Europe and /'

2700 B.C. First named doctor

America. Holes arc

agreat reputation for healing. He

is Imhotep of Egypt. EIc acquired

drilled into aperson’s

THROUGHOirr 'FHE ages, people have tried to nd ways to cure illness. In early times, it was believed that disease was apunishment from the gods. Today, scientists are constantly searching for new ways of treating and preventing illness. c.A.D. 130 Galen, a

The four humors: choleric (with

Greek physician, introduce

sanguine (xvilh ape),

mood depends on th

mdanchohe hog). (wuh

the idea that aperson’ balancing of four

phlegmatic (with sheep) emit

skull to cure illness.

later became

People believed that evil spirits left through

known as the

these holes.

of medicine.

Trej)anning

1300s Leeches are used to

1543 First accurate anatomical drawings of the human body arc drawn by Flemish doctor

C.1590 Compound microscope invented. Outchman, Zacharias

A n d r e a s Ve s a l i u s

some illnesses. Blood-letting is used to treat avariety of illnesses, such as tumors, fevers, and gout ,

bile (melancholy), yellow bile (choleric), blood (sanguine), and phlegm (phlegmatic).

2700 B.C.

suck blood from the body, much blood was the cause of

humors, in the body: black

Imhotep

10,000 B.C.

since it was believed that too

uids, or

Egyptian god

Jan.sscn (1580-e.l638)

(1514-64). .Stolen J

makes len.ses held

corpses are used for

his studies

™

in two iron tubes, one i n s i d e t h e o t h e r.

Ij!ech

First anatomical drawings

A.D.130

Early microscope

1543

A ^

1590

1300

1683 Bacteria

rst seen under

amicroscope by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723), a Dutch scientist.

1796 Vaccination against

1800 Effects of

1810 Homeopathy is

smallpox is discovered by English doctor Edward Jenner (1749-1823). He innoculatcs an eight-year-old boy witii cowpox

electricity on muscles de.scribed by Italian physicist Volta (1745-1827).

introduced by German physician Samuel Hahneman l

systemisbasedonthe\|

taken from asore on the hand of a

dairymaid.

principle of curing like

1805 Moi-phine, a painkiller, is separated from opium.

Coin issued c.1800 to celebrate

with like.

Samuel

Edward Jenner’s discovery of vaccination. 1796

1683

i

(1755-1843). This new !l

180

1805

Hahnemann

1810

N T

Antonie van Leemoenhoek

1854 Florence Nightingale (1820-1910), born in Florence, Italy,

1860 Antiseptic, in

1864 Red Cross Society

nurses soldiers during the Crimean War (1854-56) in the hospital at Scutari, ’ irkey. She becomes known as “the lady with the lamp.” Four years later, she opens the Nightingale Training

the form of weak

carbolic acid, is used to

founded in Geneva, Switzerland, by Swiss

prevent infections

businessman Henri

during operations by English surgeon Joseph Lister (1827-1912).

Ounanc (1829-1910), after helping casualties

School for nurses in

London, which greatly improves nursing

/ ■

standards.

j

at the Battle of

Solferino(1859).

> Henri

Joseph Lister

Florence Nightingale

Dunant

7

a . 1854

1860

1895 Psychoanalysis founded by Austrian doctor

1895 X-rays discovered by German physicist Wilhelm Roentgen (1845-1923). He

SigmundhVeud(1856-1939). He treats people with mental disorders by talking

hand for the

1902 Radium and polonium discovered by Polish-born Marie Curie (1867-1934) and her husband, Pierre Curie (1859-1906), of France.

them about their

u s e s h i s w i f e ’s

^now used i radiatio

childhood

pictures.

therapy t

experiences. One of the rst X-rays

Sigmund

: H

Freud

1953 Structure of genetic material

1 9 5 2 Va c c i n e Jfv

(DNA) discovered by American biologist James Watson (born 1928) and English biochemist Francis Crick (born 1916).

American

and Crick

Jonas Salk 1952

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e

s

s

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n

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fi

.

.

fi

.

n

o

n

132

1958

1920 First EEG

1910 Four blood groups, A, B, AB, O, discovered by Austrian pathologist Dr.

machine is

Karl Landstcincr

electrical brain

(1868-1943).

developed to rccorc w a v e s .

1921 First birth 1912 Vitamins discovered

control clinic

,by British biochemist Sir 1h'rederick Gowland

founded by Marie Stopes (1880-1958:

jHopkins (1861-1947).

in London.

1910

1954 Heart-lung machine developed for use during heart surgery.

1954

1953

/

fi

treat cancer ■ j

1958 Endoscope, a exible telescope that looks inside the body, is developed.

Watson

fi

/

pacemaker htted in Stockholm, Sweden.

Jonas Salk (born 1914).

0

-llixAA'

1954 First internal heart

. ^

scientist

and Curie

1902

1895

against polio produced by

Marie Pime

These elements are ^

dreams and

rst

1864

1912

1967 First heart transplant,

performed by South African surgeon Christiaan Barnard (born 1922). The patient survives 18 days. 1970 Heart pacemakers in general use. Christiaan Barnard

1967

1970

1921

MEDICINE

2B.C. Acupuncture,

400 B.C. Greek physician 600 B.C. The Canons of ledicine is written in China. Hippocrates (c.460-377 B.C.) :includes an account of blood teaches that the rst duty of a doctor is to do what is best for rcLilation.

puncturing the skin with

cure illness, is practiced

his patients and makes rules for ^

in China.

the basis of the Hippocratic

1India. Surgeons perform

mputations and skin grafts and Oath, which doctors still f o l l o w t o d a v.

:movc cataracts from eves. Qj'

>600 B.C.

o

1000 B.C.

-

Hippocrates

1628 First description of the circulation of the blood by

600s Quinine is used to eat malaria in .South mcriea.

KEnglishman William Harvey (LS78-16.57),

615 First thermometer

ar taking human amperature invented by

physician to King James Iand King Charles Iof England.

talian physician Sanctorius 1,S61-16,%).

1615

1628

1846 Ether used as an

1849 First

IV French doctor Rene

anesthetic by William Morton (1819-68), an

female medical graduate in the

.aennec (1781-1826).

American dentist.

US is Elizabeth

816 First stethoscope aade from aroll of paper

Blackwell

844 Laughing gas

1847 Chloroform is

nitrous oxide) is rst used sageneral anesthetic by lorace Wells (18LS-48).

(1821-1910).

^used as an anesthetic by Sir James Young Simp.son (1811-70). Elizabeth Blackwell

Rene Laennec

1844

1846

865 Elizabet

H

Jarrett Anderson i

V

Chiropody

Feet

Dermatology

Skin

Endocrinology

Hormones

Gastroenterology

Stomach, intestines

Geriatrics

Elderiy peopie

Gynecoiogy

Female reproductive organs

Hematoiogy

Biood

Neuroiogy

Brain and nerves

Ophthaimoiogy

Eyes

Osteopathy

Manipulation of back and iimbs to ease pain

Pediatrics

Chiidren

Pharmacoiogy

Drugs

Physicai therapy

Exercise and massage of the body

Psychiatry

Mentai iliness

Obstetrics

Pregnancy

Oncology

Grovrths and tumors

Orthopedics

Bones, joints, muscles

William Hawes with Charles I

Sanctorius ’thermomeler

816

Cardioiogy

Heart and arteries

2B.C.

400 B.C.

Acupuncture chart

1600

■■I’l

1849

Ituberculosis and cholera IIdiscovered by German

t.

irst woman to practice 9

1847

1883 Bacteria that cause

■i c m m h

scientist Robert Koch

ledicine in Britain.

cat-treat food and kill acteria.

M

Louis Pasteur

X-rays

Renal medicine

Kidneys

Surgery

Operations

Drug types Name

Analgesic

N

Counteracts acid in the stomach to

Antibiotic

Treats infections by killing bacteria,

T

1936 First mobile

'22 Insulin discovered bv Canadian scientists Banting 391-1941) and Best (1899-1978).

1950s Birth control pill developed for women. By the early 1960s, it is widely used.

blood-transfusion

service organiz.ed by '28 Penicillin

Canadian doctor

i

eming (1881-19,3.3), in af#

Norman Rcthunc.

!

Reduces fevers, such as those caused by in uenza.

Bronchodilator

Eases breathing in diseases such as asthma.

Decongestant

Common cold treatment; works by unblocking nasal passages.

1950 First kidney transplant performed in Chicago, Illinois.

■ft

a t e .

Birth control pill

Alexander Fleming

P S ."M

8 2 9 1

1950

1976 Bionic,

'70s CT (computerized mography) scan introduced, oduccs more detailed picture of ternai organs than an X-ray.

1980s-1990s Laser surgery used in eye operations and to

transistorized arm is tted to the victim of

remove cancer cells.

aroad accident in

laging) scan uses radio waves

1978 First test tube

Keyhole surgery is practiced: operations arc performed through small incisions in the body.

produce pictures of the inside the body.

baby, Louise Brown,

Gene transplants performed:

Australia.

RI (magnetic resonance

MRI

defective or missing genes arc replaced with arti cial copies.

is born in Britain.

scan

197

70

1978 V

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133 2

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Antipyretic

bjOlIl,

acn mold growing on al^i

2

Counteracts allergies such as hay f e v e r.

1886

Operation, 1S8()s

scovered by Scottish ctcriologist Alexander

Provides relief from pain, such as

relieve heartburn, indigestion, etc.

local anesthetic during an eye operation.

1883

Use

Antacid

Antihistamine 865

uids

headache and stomachache.

■* 1 8 8 3 C o c a i n e u s e d a s a

●astciir (1822-95) to

Body tissues and

Radiology

1886 Surgical instruments

4

VFrenchman Louis

Pathology

are srerilized by steam. Masks, gowns, and capes are used by surgeons in operations.

., ;(184.3-1910).

Pasteurization invented

What it deals with

Name

needles to

000 B.C. Surgery' practiced his pupils to follow. They form

Branches of medicine

Nutrition

ABALANCED DIET The food pyramid was developed bv American nutritionists in the earlv

AGOOD DlK ris an essential part of ahealthy

1990s. It represents the proportions in which the ve food groups should

lifestyle for children and adults. Rich in vitamins, minerals, and other nutrients, abalanced diet will assist growth and help ght disease.

be eaten each dav for a

Sugars, fats, and

oils (use sparingly)

balanced diet.

Vital components oe eood

Dairy products

Nutrients are the essential elements for healthy

Meat, poultry, seafood, eggs,

(2-3 sen/ings)

eating and include:

oeans, nuts

(2-3 servings) Vegetables (3-5 servings)

Vitamins

Minerals

Fiber

These aid the release of

'These help growth and repair processes, the release of energy from nutrients, and help form

The indigestible part of fruit, vegetables, bread,

energy from glucose, and assist the body’s growth and repair.

and cereals,

Fruit (2-4 servings)

ber aids

normal bowel function.

new tissues. Grains and grain products (5-12 servings)

Food facts ●Surprisingly, frozen \egctables arc just as good for you as fresh vegetables. Carbohydrates These are compounds of

'Fhese supply concentrated energy. They also help form chemical “messengers,” such as hormones.

'Phis is asubstance the

bod\’ needs for grow th and repair. Ic is found in foods such as meat, sh, cheese, and beans.

Food words Acid A.sub.stancc produced by the Stomach that helps digest food. Antibodies Proteins in the blood

●In India, many people are vegetarian, following the Hindu

Protein

carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, such as starch and sugar, that provide the body with energy.

belief that all life is sacred.

●All vegetables contain some protein, but dried peas and beans have large amounts.

that protect the body by

ghting

bacteria and viruses. Antioxidant Asubstance added to

foods to prevent them from oxidizing and going stale. Calorie Aunit used to measure the

energy content of foods. Carnivore Person who eats meat. Cholesterol Achemical found in

certain foods, such as eggs, and produced in the liver from

Main vitamin sources and requirements Where found

Type of vitamin

saturated fats.

Required for

Digestion 'Phe breaking down of

Liver, sh-liver oils, egg yolk, and yellow-orange-colored fruit and vegetables.

Growth, healthy eyes and skin. Fights infection.

food in the stomach so that

Vitamin B-| (Thiamine)

Whole grains (whole-grain bread and pasta), brown rice, liver, beans, peas, and nuts.

Flealthy functioning of nervous and digestive systems

Glucose Asugar, released from the

Vitamin B2 (Ribo avin)

Milk, liver, cheese, eggs, green vegetables, brewer’s yeast, lean meat, and wheat germ.

Metabolism of protein, fat, and carbohydrates. Keeps tissues healthy.

Vitamin B3 (Niacin)

Liver, lean meats, poultry, sh, nuts, whole-grain cereals, and dried beans.

Production of energy and ahealthy skin.

Vitamin B5 (Pyridoxine)

Liver, poultry, pork, sh, bananas, potatoes, dried beans, and most fruit and vegetables.

Metabolism of protein and production of red

Vitamin C

Citrus fruit, strawberries, tomatoes, and potatoes.

Flealthy skin, teeth, bones, and tissues, and for ghting disease.

Vitamin D

Oily sh (such as salmon), liver, eggs, cod-liver oil, and sunlight.

The absorption of calcium and phosphorus.

Margarine, lettuce, leafy green vegetables, whole-grain cereals, and nuts.

The formation of new red blood cells. Protection

Saturated fat Fat that tends to increase the amount of unwanted

of cell linings in the lungs.

cholesterol in the blood. Mostly

Vitamin A

Vitamin E

blood cells.

nutrients may be absorbed into the body. digestion of starch and sucrose, that is the body’s main energy source. Hormone (Chemical “messenger” that moves in the bloodstream and

controls the functions of the body. Kilojoule Aunit of measurement showing energy content in food. One kilojoule equals 1,000 joules. Metabolism 'Fhe chemical

processes occurring in the body that result in growth, production of energy, and elimination of waste. Nutrient .An e.ssential dietary factor -carbohydrate, fat, protein, vitamin, and mineral.

found in animal fats.

calorics at different rates.

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134

that is an important part of the

Male: 815

'I'he energy from food is measured in calories. But if your calorie intake exceeds your energy and body maintenance requirements, you will put on weight. Physical activity helps you avoid putting on weight by burning off calories. ITiffcrent activities will burn off

Starch Apolymer found in plants

.1 Lido

Burning calories

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HUMAN BODY

human diet.

calorics per hour

Unsaturated fat Fat that helps decrease unwanted types of

Female: 702

calories per hour

V

Running

Basketball

Male: 810

Malc:.S80

cholesterol in the blood. Most

(i

vegetable fats are unsatiirated. Vegan Person who does not eat or use any products or by-products

Nr

from animals.

.-.A

calorie.s per hour

calorics per hour f)

I'emale: 69.8

l-'cmalc: 49

calorie.s per hour

calorics per hour

^

Vegetarian Person who does not eat animal products, sometimes with the exception of sh and eggs.

TRADITIONAL MEDICINE

Early healing

Traditional MEDICINE More and more people are now

turning to traditional, or alternative, forms of medicine to improve their health or simply to

■y

For thousands of years, people have used plants and minerals to ease pain, heal wounds, and relieve the symptoms of illness. In ancient Egypt, records from about 1600 B.C. list plant remedies, such as gentian, senna, and thyme, that are still used today. Archaeologists have also found in China lists of herbs carved on oracle bones dated about the same time.

stay well. Many of these therapies treat the whole person and aim to restore the body’s natural state of

This detail from the I2tli-rerihiry Persian

Booh of Antidotes shows the growing of plants for medicinal pufcoses.

balance, or harmony. ACUPUNCTURE

ALEXANDER TECHNIQUE

A R O M AT H E R A P Y

.Veupunctiirists treat illness by inserting

This therapy aims to treat and prevent arange of disorders by improving posture. Australian

'this form of treatment uses

channels, known as meridians, that are linked to internal organs. T'he

actor F. Matthias Alexander (1869-19.S.S) developed the

needles unblock, increase, o

technique when he found that bad posture had caused him to

chemist Rene Gattefossc

needles into the skin at particular points.

'I'hcsc points lie along invisible energy

'

decrease the ow of energy (called Qi) to restore balance and health.

highly concentrated oils extracted from plants. T'he oils can be used in massage, added to baths, or inhaled. E'rench (1881-1950), who treated soldiers

during World War I, was apioneer

lose his voice.

of modern aromatherapy. The acupuncture points on

2.

AfO)rect posture, far right, based on the Alexandtr technique.

each meridian are numbered.

soothing effect

A Y U R V E D A

CHINESE HERBALISM

CHIROPRACTIC

'The oldest system of Indian medicine is Ayurveda, from the Sanskrit word meaning

'I'his natural method of treatment is

Chiropractic relieves pain

“the science of life.” Remedies, mainly

based on restoring the balance of Yin (female) and Yang (male) in the

plants, are chosen for their

body’s energy channels.

ability to harmonize the balance betw'cen apatient

Combinations of herbs are selected

and supplied in the form of tea,

and the basic in uences of

powder, pills, or pastes.

■X.

by manipulating the joints, especially those of the spine. It can be used to

Js.

aid people with disorders of the joints, muscles, and spine. .American David Daniel

life, such as diet, work, and

Palmer (1845-1913) is

In Chinese medicine, the ve elements of xoood, re, earth, metal, and watei- are used in diagnosis.

home life.

Om -the symbol for the life force in Ayuivedic medicine.

1lomeopathy uses aminute dose of a substance that, in large amounts, produces the same symptoms from which the patient is suffering. The aim is to

$:j stimulate the body’s ydefenses, .so they

considered the founder

of modern chiropractic.

ght the

sprays, is used in hydrotherapy to stimulate the body’s pow'cr to heal itself The rst hvdrotherapy center in Britain was founded by aDominican monk, Sebastian Kneipp (1821-97).

disease. Its founder was

German physicist Samuel Hahnemann (1755-1843).

When the body’s framew'ork is out of alignment, osteopaths can diagnose and treat disorders. They use their hands to mas.sage and manipulate the joints to restore norma! movement. Osteopathy w'as founded by American d o c t o r A n d r e w Ta v l o r

Hot and cold ivater

Still (1828-1917). ■

sprays stimulate circulation

Hahnemann

^

REFLEXOLOGY

S H I AT S U

Y O G A

In this form of therapy, areas on the feet, knowm as re ex areas, relate to certain parts of the body. By skillful massage of the related area, blockages in the energy channels are released, allowing the affected part of the body to heal. 'Phe practice was developed in the United States by Eunice Ingham (1889-1974).

Shiatsu is aJapanese w'ord meaning “ nger pressure.” T'he therapist uses pressure on hundreds of surface points along the body’s

'Phis well-know'n Hindu system combines physical, mental, and spiritual health. The most common form is Hatha yoga, a

meridians to rebalance the

popularized bv T'okujiro

w//'"

n■ , ,

Namikoshi (1905-94).

Re ex areas

ShouUUrrs and spine out of alignment

course of exercises and

tiuality and (juantity of encrg\’. The system was

Achiropractor checks the spine.

O S T E O PAT H Y

HYDROTHERAPY Water, in the form of hot and cold baths or

H O M E O PAT H Y

Samuel

Rose oil has a

The yin-yang symbol rejmesents harmony or balance in the body.

postures designed to promote physical and mental well¬ being. Yoga has been practiced in India for thousands of years.

The lotus position

Feverfew can help relieve migraines

Plants in medicine

and arthritis.

Wild owers such as evening primrose

●Chinese medicine uses dried seahorse in

{Oenothera biennis) and feverfew (Tanacetum

preparations to treat kidney problems.

Medicine facts

parthenium) arc among the most widely used medicinal herbs. Research has con rmed

evening primrose is used for skin problems.

their power to heal.

●In Ayurvedic medicine, the esh from a pit viper is given to relieve muscular pain.

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135

First aid First aid is the

rst assistance

or treatment given to aperson for any injury or sudden illness,

Learning the a, b, and c

The A(Airway), B(Breathing), and C(Circulation) of any unconscious person must be established within three minutes in order to prevent permanent injury.

before the arrival of an -

»

ambulance, doctor, or other

quali ed help. The main aim of

rst aid is to prevent the injury from becoming worse. Keep the head tilted back.

AIS FOR AIRWAY

BIS FOR BREATHING

CIS FOR CIRCULATION

Airway must be opened and kept open. Tilt the head of the injured person (victim) back and lift the chin forward to open the airway.

Breathing must be established and maintained. If breathing has stopped, then start mouth-tomouth resuscitation by blowing your own expelled air into the victim’s lungs.

Circulation of blood must be maintained. Be sure the heart is

beating by feeling for apulse. If the heart has stopped, chest compressions can be applied, together with arti cial respiration. In the US and Canada, the hand nearest the victim’s feet should be

Recovery position Use two

ngers

to check pulse.

Check for apulse If the heart is beating, there will be apulse

used for compressions.

If an injured child is unconscious but still breathing and has apulse, place her or him in the recovery position. Place foot

Adjust child’s hand under

her

rheek.

Clasp under thigh

at on the

and bend at knee.

ground.

in the neck. 'Filt the head back and feel for

the Adam’s apple with the pads of two ngers. Slide your ngers back into the gap between the windpipe and the muscle that runs beside it. Feel for

V

ve seconds before

deciding that the pulse is absent. Keep this leg straight.

Bend top leg into aright angle to prevent her from rolling forward.

Gall an ambulance or DOCTOR FOR: ●Unexplained drowsiness or loss of consciousness

●Severe bleeding ●Unexplained convulsions of any sort ●Dif culty in breathing ●Severe abdominal pain ●Sudden blurred vision or seeing colored halos around lights

First-aid kit Every home and car should have a rst-aid kit containing items needed for emergency treatment. Keep th

.

box clean and clearly labeled,

First, lay the child on her back and straighten her legs. Bend the arm nearest to you and lay it on the ground with the palm up. Bring the other arm across her chest and hold the palm of your hand against her cheek. Use your free hand to pull her knee up.

Replace items as soon as you use them.

Gently pul! on the thigh of the bent leg, and roll the patient toward you and onto her side. Bend this same leg into aright angle to prevent her from rolling forward. 'Filt her head back to make sure the airway is still open. Call an ambulance.

Home safety facts

Advice note This page supplies some basic information on rst aid. It does not offer complete procedures, and readers are advised to refer to a rst-aid manual for full guidance.

Although most people think of home as the safest place, you are more likely to have an accident in the home than at work or school.

'I'o make the home asafer place: ●Do not use electrical equipment in the b a t h r o o m o r n e a r w a t e r.

Scissors for cutting

●Keep saucepan handles turned inward so they do not hang over the work

bandages

and out of reach of children. Different injuries require avariety of dressings and bandages.

i V v

surface, and use back burners of astove

rst.

●Store dangerous items on ahigh shelf, out of the reach of

Tweezers for

removing splinters

children. Safety pins to hold dressings in place.

Cotton is useful for

●Do not put toxic substances in afamiliar f o o d o r d r i n k c o n t a i n e r.

cleaning wounds.

●Run the cold water into the bath Adhesive bandages protect minor cuts and scrapes while they heal. Eye bath is useful for washing the eye clean of chemicals such as bleach.

keep testing the temperature as you add the hot water. ●Do not hold ahot drink when

you have ababy on your lap. Elastic bandages stretch to provide support for sprained ankles.

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HUMAN BODY

Antiseptic cream protects minor cuts against infection.

●Do not put an iron on the to cool; put it out of reach.

oor

rst, and

LIE

5

Customs, and Society

Focusing on the way we live, this seetion provides detailed faets and gures on religion, politics, philosophy, and money around the world, as well as describing all kinds of strange customs and rituals. Myths and Legends ●Faith Systems ●Other Faiths Great d'hinkers ●Patterns of Family and Society ●Customs and Rituals Celebration and Decoration ●Money ●Politics ●Law and Order

On pages 139 to 143, B.C.E. (Before the Common Era) and C.E. (Common Era) stand for the same dates as B.C. and A.D.

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137

Myths and legends

An AZTEC MYTH QuctzalcoacI, the chief god of the Aztecs, who lived in Central Mexico, took the

LROM ANClEN'l' I’lMES people have invented stories to explain the world around them. Myths

form of afeathered serpent, hie created humans and gave them knowledge, but

then he sailed away on araft of serpents.

help explain events such as how the world was created and why people die, as well as natural

The Aztecs believed that their world

would end upon his return.

phenomena such as the weather. Legends are closely related to myths but may be

This mask, rt^meseiiling Ihegod Qiietzalcnatl, is made of turquoise mosaic.

1based on actual events.

FIGURE OF VENUS

Earth goddess

King Arthur

For thousands of years, people in different parts of the world worshipped images of the Earth Goddess, or Great

Afamous British legend tells how the magic sword Excalibur was

.Mother. As the “mother of the world,”

of the Lake. Another version tells

she was believed to give life to plants,

how he proved himself king by-

given to King .Arthur by the Lady

1hi.s clay tisiirc fro i animals,andhumans,becausethepower r Willendorf, dated 2.S.OOO B.C the future of Austria shows the \enus ot -t -i

Her full gure represents the fertility of the goddess.

humanity, earth goddesses have always played an important role in mythology.

pulling the sword from astone. It

is thought that Arthur may have been areal king or chieftain in ,Sthcentury Britain.

Creation myths

Arthur rualrhes the sword

Excalibur rise from the lake.

Stories that try to answer the mystery

THE

of how the world began are called creation myths.

R AV E N

ANative American myth tells how araven, could

IZANAGl AND IZANAMI

ying over water,

nd nowhere to land. He

dropped pebbles to make

The Japanese thought tltl: Earth was once a shapcle.ss mass. Agod and goddess, Izanagi and Izanami, stirred the mass with along spear. CJradually the mixture thickened and dropped off the spear to form an island. The god and

islands and then created trees. Beasts lived in the forests and sh in the sea. When the raven had made the

rst man and

woman out of wood and clav,

goddess married and had children who became

the world was

the eight islands of Japan.

THE

WORLD

T’hc

Name

Form

Ra (Amun-Ra)

Universal god, takes many forms

Anubis

Jackal or dog

Apis

Bull

Bastet

Cat

Hathor

Cow

Isis

Woman with th ro n e o n h e r h e a d

Khepri

Scarab

Mut

Vulture

Nut

Woman with long body, or cow Mummi ed man

Set, or Seth

Fantastic beast

Sobek

Crocodile

Te f n u t

Lioness

Thoth

Ibis or baboon

/;

features.

l/lun/ (Ayers Rock)

far away in the mystical beginnings of Polynesia.

Mythical beasts 'Ehere are some frightening creatures in mythology that may have been created to represent evil. Some appear as half-human, half-

animal; others take on shapes they can change at will.

Greek and roman mythology The Greeks had 12 main gods and goddesses who cared for different aspects of their life. 'Lhe Romans later adopted many Greek gods as their own, but with new names. Greek

Roman

Zeus

Jupiter

King of the gods, god of thunder

Hera

Juno

Queen of the gods, protector

Aphrodite

Ve n u s

Goddess of beauty and love

Apollo

Apollo

Sun god, and god of prophecy

Ares

Mars

God of war

Artemis

Diana

Goddess of hunting, protector

Role

DEMONS

Demons, or c\ il spirits, arc often shown as grotc.sr|iic beings who haunt cemeteries and force people to commit \iolcnc acts, d'hey appear in various forms in the religions of rhe world, sometimes with cloven feet, horns, and along tail.

MA This gure sliows a gorgon, afemale monster

of women

Athena

Minerva

Goddess of wisdom and war

Demeter

Ceres

Goddess of fertility and of fruit and crops

Hephaestus

^from (ircck mythology, f e w i l d l i a d s n a k e s f o r l i a i r.

fv)

y.MediLsa is the most famous of tile three

\

Ygorgons. Even after she

W^was beireaded by Perseus, her head still had tlic

.

r

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place to the Aboriginals. Paintings in rock

of animals and children

Osiris

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Uluru, Australia, is aspecial

Zealand, is where spirits of the dead depart for 1lawaiki,

MONSTERS

138 fi

from at the Last Supper.

Gape Reinga, New

above the water. Alarge bird called the Great Cacklcr alighted on the land and laid the world egg, which brought the rst life.

Gods in Egypt often had ahuman body and the head of an animal or bird to represent their power.

where the power of the Earth Spirit is strong. Glastonbury Tor, England, is one of the reputed resting places of the Holy CJrail, the cup Christ drank

who formed its

■e S

rst dry land -aprimeval mound -rose

Egyptian mythology

MoLint Shasta, California, is aNative American site

journeys of the ancestral beings

EGG

In Egyptian mythology, life began from water.

Sacred sites

shelters show the

complete.

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BELIEFS, CUSTOMS, AND SOCIETY

©

^power to turn anyone v-ho looked at it into stone.

Vulcan

God of

Hermes

re

Mercury

Messenger god, god of travelers

Hestia

Ve s t a

Goddess of the hearth and home

Poseidon

Neptune

God of the sea

FA I T H S Y S T E M S

Faith systems FaIT'H systems ARK sets of

beliefs that help to explain some of the mysteries of life and death. Most people who have a faith believe in either one god or several gods.

Division of major faiths by geographic area

Figures are given in percentages. (L.A. =Latin America. N.A. =North America) Faith

Africa

Asia

Europe

L.A.

Christianity

17.9

15.6

22.55

23.75

Islam

28.66

65.56

1.30

0.14

Hinduism

0.2

99.37

0.1

Buddhism

0.01

99.42

Sikhism

0.14

Judaism

1.89

N.A.

Oceania

Eurasia

To t a l

1.2

6.0

(100%)

0.29

0.01

4.04

(100%)

0.1

0.17

0.059

0.001

(100%)

0.08

0.17

0.18

0.01

0.13

(100%)

97.2

1.2

0.05

1.36

0.05

0.00

(100%)

31.35

8.24

6.13

39.29

0.55

12.55

(100%)

13.0

To p s i x f a i t h s Faith

Number of followers

Christianity

1,833 million

Islam

971 million

Hinduism

733 million

Buddhism

315 million

Sikhism

13.5-16 million

Judaism

13-14.3 million

World percentages T'his bar chart shows the percentage distribution of the major world faiths. The gure for “Others” includes those who do not follow afaith system. 71

History of religions (Before the Common Kra) and (^.K. ((Common Kra) stand for the same dates as B.Ch and A.I).

^Judaism /C.2000 B.C.E.

C.1200 B.C.E.

Judaism

Sikhism

Buddhism

Hinduism

Islam

Others

Christianity

0 . 3 %

0.3%

5 . 7 %

13.4%

17.7%

29.2%

33.4%

z

587 B.C.E.

C.900 B.C.E.

■1

c.2000 B.C.E.

c.1200 B.C.E. Hebrews settle in

Abraham, patriarch of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, is born in Ur, in present-day Iratp

931 B.C.E. Hebrew

Canaan, mainly present-day Israel, after the Hxodus from K^ypt.

the

rst

ve books of

the Bible, is written.

i A

0Islam

kini^dom divides into Israel and Judah. c . 9 0 0 B . C . E . To r a h .

*

587

B.C.E.

rN

C.E. 70 Herod’s

Herod’s

i\\ Temple

Jerusalem, in present-day Israel, is captured by the Babylonians and the Jews sent into exile.

7

C.E. 70

Temple, Jerusalem, is destroyed by the Romans, d'oday, only the Western Wall remains.

1

C.2000 B.C.E.

/C.E. 570

7

c.C.E. 622

C.2000 B.C.E. Abraham

C.E. ,S70-632

c.C.E. 610-632

and his son, Ishmael, build Ka'ba, an Islamic shrine, in Mecca (Makkah), in presentday Saudi Arabia.

Muhammad, the last and most important Islamic prophet, is born

Koran {Qtir'an), the Islamic scriptures, is

Muhammad goes to

revealed to Muhammad

Saudi Arabia. 'This

in Mecca.

by the angel Gabriel.

marks the beginning of

Mecca, Saudi Arabia C.1700 B.C.E.

C.1400 B.C.E.

c.1750 B.C.E.

c.1700 B.C.E.

Beginning of Hinduism

Hindu beliefs are

in India is in uenced by the Aryan people, who v\’orship many gods.

revealed to the ris/iis. or holy men, and passed on by word

U D D H I S M

of mouth.

c.1400 B.C.E. Rig Veda, the earliest and most important book of _the Vedas, which contain Hindu beliefs, is written.

The rishis

C.563 B.C.E.

C.100 B.C.E.

c.563-483 B.C.E.

c.lOO B.C.E. The Pali

Siddharta Gautama, later known as Buddha, founder of Buddhism,

Canon, or Tripitaka

lives in northeast India.

Buddhists, is written.

(three baskets), the holy book of'Fheravada

TChristianity z

Medina, in present-day

t h e I s l a m i c c a l e n d a r.

^Hinduism C.1750 B.C.E.

c.C.E. 622

Mgod,the

Wmasculine

^form of Brahman

7

e.C.E. 20-200 The Sutras (collections of sayings), the earliest holy books of Mahayana Buddhists, is written.

r

n

r

C.1300 Shwe Dagon Pagoda, major Buddhist temple, is built in Rangoon in Burma. It is said to

3^

Slave Dagon Pagoda

contain the hairs of Buddha.

4

V. 5

c.4 B.C.E. Jesus

e.C.E.30,Iesusis

c.C.E. 40-100

C.1506 St. Peter’s

Christ, founder of (ilhristianity, is born in Bethlehem, in present-

cruci ed on across.

N e w Te s t a m e n t o f t h e

'I'hree days later he is

(diristian Bible is

Basilica, amajor Christian church, is

raised from the dead

dav Israel.

(the Resurrection).

written. Christianity spreads throughout the Roman empire

llie Cruci xion

1 r

Jeremy Bentham

G . W. F. H e g e l (1770-1831), German idealist, says that the

(1748-1832), English utilitarian, judges an action to be right by the

# 1

historc- of events and

extent to which it

thoughts is aprocess of con ict, which will lead to

promotes happiness or minimizes pain.

i

f

Existentialism Belief that the individual has free will and must

take responsibility for his or her actions in aworld where there are

no de nite rights or wrongs.

f

Schopenhauer

1770

Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche

(1844-1900), German philosopher, argues that people are driven in life by the “will to pow'er,” and that society will evolve into arace of “supermen.” He rejects Christianity, and in uences the Nazi party.

/:!

live and behave.

wdthoLit reason.

1.4

Hegel 1748

Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860), German idealist, saw art as the only escape from aworld

r

an inevitable conclusion.

Empiricism Belief that all knowledge is based on experience. At birth, the mind is ablank sheet, on which experience then makes Epistemology Study of the theory of knowledge: what knowledge is, how we come to know things, how much we can hope to know, etc. Ethics Study of moral systems, or ideas about how people ought to

1632

1596

and the mental.

its mark.

John Locke

Descartes

m

are two distinct types of substance in the world: the physical

cannot doubt the existence of

our own thoughts.

:

i

Edmund Husserl (1859-1938), German philosopher, develops the basic ideas of phenomenology (descriptions of human experience).

Idealism Belief that the world is in

some way created by the mind. Idealists do not deny that the world exists, but deny that it can be separated from aperson’s perception of it.

Logic Series of statements that necessarily follow from each o t h e r. A l s o c a l l e d a c h a i n o f reasoning.

Materialism Belief that everything that exists is either matter

Nietzsche's “Ubermenschen ”('‘.supermen")

(substance), or is dependent on matter for its existence.

1844

Metaphysics Study of principles of

1859

Simone de Beauvoir (1908-86),

Michel Foucault

French existentialist and founder

(1926-84), French philosopher, looks at ways in which ‘

of modern feminist philosophy. Willard van Orme Quine (born

the individual is

1908), American pragmatist,

controlled by

points out inconsistencies in early analytic philosophy.

Jacques Derrida (born 1930), French founder of deconstructionism, which rejects the idea of any xed truths in language and p h i l o s o p h y.

society's rules. Michel Foucault

SimoJie de Beauvoir 1906

1908

Philosophy facts ●Pythagoras refused to eat beans,

since he believed they had souls. ●Knglish philosopher Francis Bacon (1561-1626) died of

pneumonia, caught while stuf ng a dead chicken with snow on

Hampstead Ileatli, London, in an early attempt to preserve it by refrigeration. ●'The most in uential philosopher of the 20th century, Ludwig Wittgenstein, published one work

●In his will, Jeremy Bentham left his body to University College, London. His corpse was preserved and dressed, and crowned with awax head. Hie

corpse was kept in aglass case, along with his real head, which

1930

was mummi ed. Bentham’s

dressed corpse is still on display at the university. ●Rene Descartes was tutor to

the Swedish monarch Queen Christina (1626-89). She made

him give her philosophy lessons at dawn, even though she knew of his preference for lying in bed and meditating until 11 o’clock in the morning.

person’s mind; the opposite of s u b j e c t i v i t y. Pragmatism Apractical view of philosophy: the truthfulness of usefulness of its results. Rationalism Belief that reason

alone, w'ithout any reliance on experience, can reveal the basic truths of the Universe, and that everything can be explained by a single system. Realism Belief, usually contrasted with idealism, that physical objects exist independently of the mind. Relativism Belief that there arc no

universal standards or truths; usually arejection of absolute rights and w'rongs.

Skepticism Belief that nothing can be known for certain.

Subjectivity Existence inside a person’s mind; the opposite of objectivity.

●LIntil the 18th and 19th

Solipsism Belief that the only

centuries, the term

Utilitarianism Belief that

“philosophy” included many

Tmeh/tus Loffcn-philosophicus were written in the trenches during

branches that have since

was on sentry duty.

Existence outside a

an idea is seen in terms of the 1926

in his lifetime. Parts of his

World War I(1914-18), while he

nature, such as being, identity, substance, time, and space. Objectivity

become areas of study in their own right: physics, biology, mathematics, and engineering.

reality is inside your owm mind. actions arc right if they result in happiness, wrong if they

rT--"'

result in

unhappiness.

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145

BELIEFS, CUSTOMS, AND SOCIETY

Patterns of family

Dreaming Aboriginal Australians

AND SOCIETY

believe the land

and all the living creatures

Every human society (community of people) in the world is based on the family. Types of fomily and marriage arrangements, however, vary from one society to the next. Organization and living habits can also be very different, according to how and where people live and work.

were

formed by spirit ancestors in the dawn of time called the

Dreaming.

Aboriginal Rainbow Snake Dreaming

Kinship Key

Kinship is away of describing bonds between people of the same family. Afamily may be de ned as just parents and children, or it may include other types of relatives.

Family

= M a l e

WORDS

=Female

^Ancestor

Ancestor An earlier member of the

family.

7

Clan Afamily group Great

Grand¬

Grand¬

Grand¬

Grand¬

Great

aunt

father

mother

father

mother

uncle

descended from a Husband

Wife

Daughter Son

common

/

X

X

X

7 Grand-

Uncle

Mother

Father

X

Ego

*

EGO-FOCUSED

Husband

Aunt

daughter son

X

X Sister

Grand¬

X Grand¬

Grand-

daughter

s o n

Wife

X X

Grea

G r e a t

Great

Great

grand

grand¬ daughter

grand-

grand¬ daughter

s o n

KINSHIP

s o n

ANCESTOR-FOCUSED

X

This is called ego-focused kinship.

Lineage Aline of family relations.

Marriage Alegal bond between two

people. Tr i b e A g r o u p o f people linked to an

KINSHIP

People can trace their roots to aknown ancestor who starts

People can use themselves as the starting point from which to construct afamily tree. T’hey trace their roots back as far as they can through both their fathers’ and mothers’ families.

ancestor.

Dowry’ Awedding payment from the bride to the groom.

a n c e s t o r .

off the family tree.This is called ancestor-focused kinship and is found, for example, in Scottish clans where everymne shares

We s t e r n s o c i e t y People living in

the same last name.

industrialized areas.

Descent The system linking families to their ancestors is called descent. Inheritance of family property and titles is based on rules of descent.

Green line shows

Orange line

patrilineal line of

shows matrilineal

descent

line of descent ^

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

PAT R I L I N E A L D E S C E N T Descent traced through the male line

M AT R I L I N E A L D E S C E N T

is called patrilineal descent. The Duke

descent through female relatives. Many tribal societies, such as that

Matrilineal families trace their

of Westminster inherited his title as

the Duke of Westminster, aBritish aristonat

of the Trobriand Islanders of the

rst-born son -afeature of atype Trobriand Island mother and child

of European patrilineal descent.

southwestern Paci c, are matrilineal.

Households Ahousehold is a K 1 E CIE;

group of people who live together as a family. I'he number of people in afamily household can vary widely around the

'-f

■m

'M V

m

world; so can the

w

way in which members of a

household organize family life and bring up their children.

Kibbutzim

In communities in Israel called kibbutzim families live and work together, helping to

bring up each others’ children.

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146 t

^ J i

Extended family In many tribal societies several generations of the same family live together and share the responsibility for domestic duties.

Nuclear family

Anthropologists use the term nuclear family to mean ahousehold consisting of two

parents who bring up their own children.

Marriage records

Traditional brides

LARGEST GROUP WEDDING

Brides who want atraditional

Exogamy Marriage between members

PLUNGE On September 13, 1991,

was between 60,000 members of the Uni cationist Church on

wedding can choose from many different styles of out t.

of adifferent family or elan.

Dustin and Becca Webster

Monogamy Marriage of one man to

of California completed their wedding by diving

August 25, 1992, in the Seoul Olympic Stadium, Korea.

Endogamy Marriage between members of the same family or elan.

one wife.

Bigamy Marriage of one man to tw'o

husbands at the same time.

Polyandry Marriage of one woman to several husbands at the same time.

inMav 1981.

Polygyny Marriage of one man to

MOST MARRIED MAN

several wives at the same time.

Sororate Remarriage of aman to his

Western brides

wear along dress A\and veil in white, symbolizing purity and

from 1949 to 1981.

d e a d w i f e ’ s s i s t e r.

Wedding customs

Marriage and divorce Divorces 197

per year 1991

US

9.9

9.4

5.0

4.73

Japan

8.5

6.0

1.1

1.27

New Zealand

8.0

6.8

1 . 6

2.7

Australia

7.8

6.8

1.3

2.49

France

7.1

5.0

1.0

1.87

Cuba

7.0

15.0

2.4

4.05

Italy

6.7

5 . 4

0.3

0.48

Sweden

5 . 5

4 . 7

2 . 7

2.20

Guatemala

4.1

5.3

0.1

0.18

U K

7.7

2.0

●In Egypt the bride’s father signs her wedding

-

traditional kimono. This contrasts with the

eontract while she sits

black costumes

alone in aseparate room.

of the brides’ attendants.

●Japanese couples take three sips of sake (rice wine) to complete their wedding ceremony.

Hindu

if

^nd both bride and

●Jewish couples do not rst

Society

Asymbol is something, such as an object, asign, or amark, that stands for something else. All the symbols shown below have a clear meaning.

TYPES Work and home life in uence how

people live. City dwellers Many city dwellers live in apartment buildings or housing developments.

b o n d t o e a c h o t h e r.

brides

wear ared dress

o .

Symbols

Wedding ring

Japanese brides may dre.ss in a brightly colored

seven times around a re.

gave pieces of wedding cake to guests.

Awedding ring is worn by both the bride and the groom to show their

dates from the

^19th centLirv.

●Indian couples tie their clothes together and walk

●Ancient Romans

( gures given per thousand people)

innocence. This custom

●Greek Orthodox couples wear wedding crowns linked by ared ribbon.

S TAT I S T I C S per year 1991

and pearls.

New York, who married 104 times in 15 different countries,

h e r d e a d h u s b a n d ’ s b r o t h e r.

197

aveil made from feathers

was Giovanni Vigliotto from

Eevirate Remarriage of awoman to

Marriages

dress of pierced metal strips, often silver, with

Mohammed, son of Sheik Rashid Bin Saeed Al Maktoum, and Princess Salama, in Dubai,

woman to several wives or several

Country

may wear a traditional head¬

was 20 million dollars for

swimming pool.

Polygamy Marriage of one man or one

Chinese brides

MOST EXPENSIVE WEDDING

70ft (21.30m) into a

wives or one woman to two husbands.

eat or drink on their

wedding day until the

/.i

ceremony is over.

L'-J

groom wear colorful garlands of

A owe rs aro Li nd their necks.

Society words Rural People who live and work in the countryside. Urban People who live and work in towns or cities.

Suburban People who live on the edges of alarge city. Migrant People who have moved from one region ro another, or one country to another.

The Scout Association

'The symbol of the Scout \ssociation stands for this worldwide movement for

boys and girls, which started in 1908.

Hunter-gatherers Hunters and gatherers live in small groups of .several families. They move home from one

place to another in search of wild animals

US Navy

and plants to eat.

Commander

Three equal lace stripes on the sleeve are worn by US Navy commanders. Pastoral nomads

Olympic rings Five colored rings are the symbol that stands for the International

Olympic Committee.

Nomads arc groups of people who have no xed home, but who move with their animals

from one grazing ground t o a n o t h e r.

One world Different societies’ customs can travel all over the world via

lm and television. ACampa Indian boy from Peru now enjoys agame with afrisbec.

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147 fl

.

Ta k i n g t h e

Marriage types

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PATTERNS OF FAMILY AND SOCIETY

Customs and rituals

The JAPANESE TEA CEREMONY In Japan, drinking tea is along-established

Throughout 'i hr world, different societies have their own traditions for marking important events such as the birth of achild, or the harvesting of

ritual that is based V

crops, d'hese traditions ate called customs and

1^ on the teachings of

Z e n B u d d h i s m . Te a

“is prepared and served

rituals, and many are based around the cycles of nature, and the mystery of life and death.

in aspecial tea room or tea house.

Birth rites

Death rites

Birth and death facts

The Azande people of the Sudan gently wave newborn babies through smoke to protect them against witchcraft and to help them grow up strong and healthy.

'I'raditional 'I’aoist (see p.14.1) funerals involve the burning of imitation money. The smoke will carry it to the dead to spend

●Many Christian babies are baptised in

in afuture life.

holy water in achurch font.

●Jewish baby boys are circumcised eight days after birth. ●Romany gypsies press agold ring against their baby’s hand to bring it wealth. ●Pregnant women in New Guinea live alone until their baby is born. ●Death rites in Melanesia last for several

years, until the deceased becomes an

ancestor.

●Chinese cof ns are painted white to give ithe dead ahappy future life. Azande birth rites

Taoisl funeral

Greetings

Initiation rites

Agreeting is ameans of friendly communication, between two or more people.

t v

Initiation is arite to welcome adolescents

into adulthood in many traditional societies.

Kf --

'Fhe White Mountain

Wf

Apache from North America perform a ritual for teenage girls, called the Sunrise Dance.

Handshake

B o w

Nose

rub

Wa v e

The gripping and shaking of hands is a formal greeting around

Bowing is agreeting in the Far East, showing politeness by lowering

This Maori greeting is called a/loiigi. It is usually made on

Afriendly waving of the

the world.

the head.

ceremonial occasions.

around the world.

hand and arm means

hello or goodbye, all

1Ground-up plants and colored rocks are daubed over

the girl’s head with a brush made from

plant stalks.

Gestures Agesture is an action that sends avisual signal to

f.\ i':

2'The girl kneels

a n o n l o o k e r.

facing the sun, acting out the legend of the creation of the First Woman.

Thumbs up Raising the thumb is a friendly gesture. It is asign of approval, or that all is going well.

Vfor victory This victory' gesture was made famous by

■S i r W i n s t o n C h u r c h i l l

during World War II.

Ssshh!

Beautiful!

A nger pressed to the lips is aworldwide sign meaning “keep quiet” or “keep this asecret.”

This Native American

gesture means beauty. It combines the signs for “good” and “looking.”

Finally, as a woman, she is given the powers of agoddess for four days.

4-leaf clover

Charms People keep or carry certain objects to bring them good luck or to /

Pocket-sized Buddhas arc

charms worldwide.

fi

Aclove of garlic has many powers: it cures warts and keeps vampires away!

^is said to bring

H Horseshoe

^Hanging a Whorseshoe

good luck.

doorway brings good luck to

Cork

the household.

&coin

Acoin wedged into a

popular good-luck

148

Garlic

Finding arare 3four-leaf clover

over the

ward off evil.

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BELIEFS, CUSTOMS, AND SOCIETY

champagne

un: cork acts as a

vi:!.'.?, I

lucky charm.

Charm

bracelet

T'his chain holds

avariety of tiny lucky charms.

OB «

Sugar skull 'This lucky candy is eaten during the Mexican Day of the Dead Festival.

C E L E B R AT I O N A N D D E C O R AT I O N

Celebration facts

Celebration and

●Dragon Boat Festival of China is held to give thanks for food and water in the dry

D E C O R AT I O N

season, with races of decorated boars.

●On Thanksgiving Day in the US and Canada, families sit down to aspecial meal

Celebrations that involve the whole

in celebration of the harvest.

community mark events

●Diwali Festival in India celebrates the

harvest with decorative lights and offerings to Lakshmi, Hindu goddess of prosperity.

such as the passing of the seasons and holy

●Inti Raymi is the Peruvian Festival of the Sun god. Inti, held in an Inca fortress.

days. These events contain amixture of

●'Fhe Rio de Janeiro Carnival is amass parade of costume and dance, based on the

customs, using music, dance, and costume.

Christian celebration of the end of Lent. Mexican Day of the Dead Festival ^Wimple

Dress codes

Eye-slits

T

W'earing certain items of clothing helps to identify what aperson is or does. Mortarboard

Nun’s

Arab

habit

burka

Graduate’s gown

Nuns wear a

'I'hc burka is a

College students wear ablack gown

plain robe

single length of cloth worn by

called ahabit.

and ahat called a mortarboard at

their graduation

Arab women.

rheir head is

b o d y, e x c e p t for the eyes.

awimple.

c e r e m o n y.

Rio de Janeiro Carnival

It covers the

covered bv a hood called

Dancing for .ioy Dancing is one of the earliest known

Devil mask

activities of humankind. Some dances are To q u e

Bearskin ,

Bolivian dancer’s

Welsh

m a s k

C-hefs wear

'I'his Devil mask is

Various army regiments, such as

Guard

Chef

worn as part of the

the Welsh Guards,

colorful costume

wear ceremonial

clothing they call their whites,

at the annual

uniforms topped by hats made of

and atall white

Diablada Festival in Bolivia.

h t ! a r f u r.

atociLic.

purely for fun; others are important rituals.

swhites

starched white

cloth hat called Aritual

tnbal

dance

The jitterbug;, popular in the. US in the 194(Fs.

from Kenya.

Body

Most

d e c o r a t i o n Decorative jewelry and body scars are part of aperson’s appearance. Each

t a t t o o s Tom Leppard, a Scotsman, has

leopard skin Earring Aring through the ear

Lip plug Kaiapo men from the

draw's attention to the

Brazilian Amazon wear a

about what makes

Forehead spot Hindu women paint a red spot on their forehead called a

a.s asymbol of wisdom.

eyes and adds to the beauty of the face.

wooden lip plug to

the body beautiful.

society, however, has different ideas

tattoos covering

99.2% of his body.

decorate their mouths.

I >

Cosmetic surgery 'Fhe three most popular cosmetic surgery operations in the US in 1990 were: Scari

cation

Samoan tattoo

Many African tribal people decorate their face and body with scars to add to their beauty.

Men from the Paci c islands of Samoa are

tattooed all over the body as asign of manliness.

Punk jewelrv' Safety pins and ocirer unusual objects are worn as jcweliy' for their startling effect.

Sikh hand-painting Sikh brides paint decorative patterns on their hands w'ith dye from the henna plant.

Women

Men

(87% of all operations)

(13% of all operations)

Liposuction

Nose reshaping

Breast enlargement

Eyelid surgery

Collagen injection

Liposuction

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149

BELIEFS, CUSTOMS, AND SOCIETY

Money Money comes in the form of cash, which

consists of coins and banknotes. Anything that represents cash, such as the computer records of abank account, acheck, or a

Early money

The

'I'he oldest recorded use of money was in ancient Mesopotamia (Iraq), about 4,.S00 years ago. Inscribed tablets describe payments made with weighed amounts of silver. Other early forms of money include cowrie shells, used in ancient Egypt, and feather money

The

on Santa Cruz

credit card, is also money. Today, many people prefer to pay for things with cards

island. Paci c

rather than carry around cash.

Banknotes i■' h a v e

complicated designs with special security features, to make it as dif cult as possible for forgers to copy them. The four main stages of making a banknote are design, papermaking, ink-mixing, and printing. When the notes are printed, three separate processes are used.

and silver called

clectrum. They were stamped at mints to con rm their weight and value. 'Foday, most cheaper metals. Burnisher for

Paper money

extremely

were made 2,700 years ago in Lydia, lYirkey, from amixture of gold

coins are made out of

V

Ocean.

rst coins rst known coins

Sharp burins

smoothing

Paper money -banknotes -was invented by the Chinese in the 10th century. People tired of carrs'ing coins around and left them with merchants instead. I N TA G L I O

Merchants provided vouchers (receipts) for the money and people exchanged the vouchers among themselves, rather than turn them back into cash

E N G R AV I N G The features of the note

arc engraved onto asteel place by hand, using special sharp tools, called burins. The engraved area

t m t

BACKGROUND

I

DESIGN

3

T'lii.s tic.sign u.scs eight different colored inks. First, these arc printed on three sheets in groups

is then inked.

of colors: blues,

yellows, and

SKETCHES

reds.

.An artist makes two preliminary sketches for the note: the

V

rst one

shows the main features; the second shows the backgrotind details.

SECURITY

THREAD

Banknote paper is made _ with aplastic thtead

/

●scaled inside it i j L "

This feature is yTy"”'’:

'b'

extremely dif cult for forgers to copy.

Position of main features Inks for each color

number on each banknote.

group are combineef on asingle sheet.

FINISHED NOTE 'This type of specimen banknote is produced by the company,

;

Colored

mBMAS-DEIARBE

Money records BIGGEST MINT

in the world is in Philadelphia, US, where 15 billion coins are

T'homas dc La Rue, to show to its customers

background

NUMBERING Numbering barrels print adifferent serial

m a d e e a c h v e a r.

all over the world.

FIRST CREDIT CARD

Amazing money

World’s richest people

The people of Yap, aI’aci c island, used large stone disks for money. I'he largest was

(excluding heads of state) Name

Country U S

Discount store chain

big as two adults standing on

Mars family

U S

Confectionery (sweets)

each other ’s shoulders.

Du Pont family

U S

Nylon and Lycra

Pausing Brothers

Sweden

Packaging

Yo s h i a k i Ts u t s u m i

Japan

Land, railroads, leisure

Bill Gates

U S

Computer software

●'I'hc ancient Greeks put a silv'cr coin into the mouths of

corpses. 'I'he purpose was to pay the ferryman, Charon, to carry

collect coins. Gold coins arc the

oldest and most precious.

smashed to extract the money.

●Numismatists are people who

.

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150

●Forgers try to make copies of notes and pass them off as genuine. Forgers are highly skilled professional criminals. ●“Piggy banks” have been used for saving money since the 14th century. 'Fhe rst pigs were made of clay and had to be

their souls across the River .Styx.

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Business

Walton family

Money facts

fi

card enabled the

rst 200

members to eat on credit at 27

about 12ft (3.7m) across -as

fi

was the Diners Club card, issued in the US in 1950. The

N e w Yo r k r e s t a u r a n t s . G R E AT E S T G O L D R E S E R V E S

are held by the United States at Fort Knox, Kentucky. 'Fhe gold bars are stored in bomb¬ proof vaults, surrounded by armed guards.

5:

iffeliyy .

n

■- “ 3 ,

Fort Knox

Banks

M

Most people nd it convenient to keep their money in abank. The bank keeps arecord of how much each person takes out or puts into their account. 'I’his information is printed out in the

i

Banking facts

●Checks, C

●Automatic teller machines

written instructions to

allow people to withdraw money hours aday. ●Banks today arrange insurance, pensions, and mortgages (loans to buy houses), as well as keeping money safe.

f-'J

d.

Automatk leller machine

^ V'-

■i

\VI

n o r t h e r n I t a l y.

Financial words

People can invest in acompany by buying shares (stocks) in it. If the company makes a pro t, the shareholders arc entitled to some of it. Share prices can rise or fall according to the company’s performance. Share prices are displayed in the nancial sections of

Company

Accountant .A person who keeps

Price Weekly change

line! checks nancial records for a person or business Credit An amount of money made available to make purchases on the basis that they will be paid for later.

+ / Birch Inleriors

69

C.un/i Properties

44

.MARKET

-2

46

+2

Kruger Corpoivuion

162

+7

Shaw .-Associates

121

Kennedy 1loldings PI.C

newspapers. STOCK

'"I iu. ■>

K

●Banking began in the 14th century, in Lombardy,

Stocks and shares

THE

r-jp^

make payments, \ can be written on I anything, even acow.

from their bank accounts 24

form of abank statement.

Crash Avery quick and huge drop

in the price of shares, causing people to lose agreat deal of m o n e y .

'I'hc stock market is aplace where shares are bought and sold. People who want to invest in acompany

Dividend Share of acompany’s pro ts that is paid out to

Shares listing (imaginan) as shown in many nnospapers

cmploy astockbroker who buys and sells the shares

shareholders.

for them. 'The activity of astock market refects the

Exchange rale I'hc amount of one country's currency needed to buy a xed amount of another country’s

economic performance and prospects of acountry.

Key stock exchanges

currency.

Index

City

Country

Merchant bank .A bank that deals

Japan

Tokyo

Nikkei Average

in tlnance and loans for businesses.

United States

N e w Yo r k

Doiw-Jones

Share index Shows the price of selected shares being traded.

United Kingdom

London

FTSE-100'

Stoekbroker/Broker

Germany

Frankfurt

DAX-

of astock exchange who buys and

Amember

sells shares.

●Financial Times Slock Exchange 100

Takeover When one company b u v s a n o t h e r.

*● Deutsche Aklien Index

Exchange

Foreign currency Every country has its own money, or currency. Some currencies hold their value

longer than others because they re ect the economic strength of the country. Stable, widely traded currencies are known as hard currency. Dealers buy and sell them on foreign currency markets.

Key hard currencies Currency

Country France

Franc

Germany

Deutschmark

Japan

Ye n

Switzerland

Swiss franc

United Kingdom

Pound sterling

United States

US dollar

Currency

In ation rc.siilts when prices increase and the purchasing power of money decreases. \’ery rapid price rises, called ’‘hyperin ation,” took place in Germany between 1921 was worth so little that children

used banknotes for building blocks. Cmnan in ation, 1923

Nearly every country has its own money, or currency. Usually each currency can be broken down into 100 smaller units. Currencies are worth different amounts, as you can see from the cost of an ounce (28.35g) of gold in each currency in this table. Country

Galloping inelation

and 192,1. At this time, money

Currency values (1994)

Va l u e

Cost for an

ounce of gold Chile

Peso

100 centavos

China

Yuan

100 fen, 10 jiao

3,480

Ethiopia

Birr

100 cents

2,400

Germany

Deutschmark

100 pfennigs

India

Rupee

100 paise

164,800

To d a y ’ s m o n e y

CHARGE

Increasingly, plastic cards are taking the place of cash and

You cun pay for something with a charge card at astore or pay for goods o\‘cr the phone. 'Fhc credit company

CARDS

cheeks as aform of payment.

records all transactions and sends abill

Banks, credit companies, and

each month.

stores issue credit, or charge,

cards. 'Ehese allow people to buy things and pay for them

4MVetls

later. The latest cards, smart

cards, use microchips to store information

j;‘ ■araaiaQaaca asscPoi^SL ■ i 0 8 5 0

418: J

640 12,400

Japan

Ye n

100 sen

Papua New Guinea

Kina

100 toea

Poland

Zloty

100 groszy

8,960,000

United Kingdom

Pound

100 pence

267

U S

Dollar

100 cents

400

40,000 380

SMART

CARDS

Money from abank

ViSA

account can be

SuperSmart Card

i t l l T B m N

be used to pay for many things, from goods in stores to electricity bills.

Charge cards

transferred onto asmart card. This card can then

Ax,,

O

m

m

Smart card

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MONEY

i

Politics is concerned with the organization of

Democracy means “rule by the people.” Democratic traditions of debate and voting

society. Political parties are groups of people who agree about the way in which acountry should be run and who seek to gain power in government.

rst appeared 2,500 years ago in the ancient Greek city-state of Athens. Aregidar general assembly was held where every male citizen was free to speak and vote. Daily running of the city was in the hands of an elected

Political systems

slaves, however, were not allowed to vote.

W'--

“Council of Five Hundred.” Women and

Every political system has acentral authority called agovernment that is responsible for organizing the duties of the state. 'The most

common form of government in the world today is the presidential

Pericles, leader of Alhens al the height of its power

system. This system has three branches.

r - i i

Bill Clinton is sxoorn in as US President.

US CoHf^ess, Washington D.C.

US Supreme Court, Washington D.C.

PRESIDENT

L E G I S L AT U R E

J U D I C I A R Y

In apresidencial system, an elected president is

T'he legislature is an assembly of elected representatives. Every new law must be pa.sscd by this assembly. Ir may propose laws itself and votes on those proposed by the president. In most presidential systems, the legislature is composed of two assemblies, or houses. In the US, the legislature is called Congress.

T'he judiciary is alegal body that reviews the

the head of state and chief executive. Ile or she

proposes new laws and sends them to the

legislature, which may or may not pass them, and can also refuse to pass laws proposed by the legislature. T'he president is (A)mmander-in-

Chief of the army and controls foreign policy.

laws passed by the legislature and ensures that

they are in line with the country’s written Constitution. In the US, the highest legal body is the Supreme C^ourt. It can judge the activities of the executive and legislative branches, and reverse judicial decisions made by lower courts.

Political facts

US State Departmeni

E X E C U T I V E

I'lic president, its chief e.xceutive, is rcspon.sibic for the administration of

●The word “government”

the state and for putting into practice new acts of lav\'. ile or she appoints

giihernare. meaning “to steer.'

the heads of the many administrative departments sueli as Defen.se. 'I’rade, lAliication, Agriculture, and .State.

●In .Switzerland, voting in elections is compulsory -it is regarded as every citizen’s duty.

comes from the latin word

●The terms right and left wing come from France’s Assembly of the 1790s: conservatives sat on

the right of the speaker’s chair, and reformers sat on its left.

●Until the 1980s, Soviet leaders PA R L I A M E N TA RY

SYSTEM

were able to rule Communist

-3S!' if

● a

USSR as virtual dictators -with

In aparliamentary system, political aetix ity focuses on an assembly where

●-

more power than US presidents.

I

matters are debated and laws are

passed. Citizens elect members to act as their representatives. In Britain, the political party with the largest number

Political records

of members elected to the House of

MAKING

Ciommons forms the gox ernment. T'he leader of that party becomes the Prime

is the Althing in Iceland. It was

OLDEST

M i n i s t e r, o r c h i e f e x e c u t i x ' e . A l l

executive power is held by the Prime Minister and his or her cabinet.

During debates in the British House of Commons, the leaders of the government and opposition stand at two sw'ords’ lengths from each other. This is asymbol of the parliamentary rule that members should never use violence to solve

RECORDED

LAW¬

BODY

French

AssendAs,

C.I865'

OLDEST

which was written in 1787. LARGEST

consisted of 40 local priest-

is the National People’s Congress of the People’s Republic of China.

1800 but then restored in 1843.

Communism

C O M M U N I S M

political and economic system, which he called Communism, in which all property is owned by the

Under

communitv and everyone shares in the country’s wealth.

the factories

In 1917, the U.S.SR became the rst communist state. Wealth

' i i i u r

Communism, workers own and share

their pro ts equally.

was shared more or less equally communist state, asingle party, the .Soviet Communist party, wielded total power and was able

C A P I TA L I S M Under

capitalism, afew people own all (he

t o u s e i t u n f a i r l y.

factories, hut

Communist magazine, showing aworker smashing the chains oj capitalism.

pro ts with

do not share

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LAW-MAKING

German thinker Karl Marx (1818-83) devised anew

kMlITFPf HH011A/\ Jbut. unlike Marx’s ideal

LS2

CONSTITUTION

.still in use is that of the US,

formed in about A.D. 9,30 and chieftains. It was abolished in

Ilouse of Commons -the political focus of Parliament and of British democracy

Peaceful parliament

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The birth of democracy

Politics

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BELIEFS, CUSTOMS, AND SOCIETY

the workers.

BODY

POLITICS

Political organizations

Political words

AND PRESSURE GROUPS Throughout the world, people and

Anarchism Movement in favor of the abolition of the state.

countries with shared interests form

Cabinet Group of advisors to a

organizations to promote and defend their

head of state.

interests. Some, such as the United

Capitalism Economic system where invested capital (accumulated wealth) and pro t-

Nations, the Arab League, and the

European Community, are concerned with

makingdrives industry.

the common interests of member states.

Coalition 'Temporary alliance

Others, such as the environmental group Greenpeace and the human rights group Amnesty International, devote themselves to aparticular cause.

Voting People hold elections to choose people to represent them. Each person usually casts one vote, and the candidate who receives the most votes is elected to of ce. This system is used in electing one representative for each constituency. An alternative system, proportional representation, allocates the seats in numbers proportional to the total number of votes given for each party.

between different parties for combined action.

Members of Greenpeace protest against plans for anuclear power station. .

Women’s voting

6

m

m . *

RIGHTS

economic system in which all property is commonly owned and each person is paid according to their needs and abilities.

Congress US legislature composed of two houses -the

Women have not always shared in decisions about the

Senate and the House of

Representatives.

way they were governed. Country

Communism l\)litical and

Constituency 'The residents in an

First vote

electoral district. Constitution Basic set of laws

New Zealand

1893

Australia

1902

Finland

1906

Constitutional monarchy

Norway

1913

System of government authorized by aconstitution with amonarch as

Denmark

1915

the head of state.

Former USSR

1917

Coup d’Etat Violent overthrow of

Britain

1918

US

1920

Japan

1945

that set out the instituti(Mis through

which political power is exercised.

government by asmall group. South African citizen casts her

vote in 1994

elections for president and parliament.

Emmeline Pankhursl, aBritish

supporttr of women sx/oting rights, airested dating aprotest.

Democracy System of government by the whole

population or its representatives. Dictatorship Government by a ruler who holds unrestricted

a u t h o r i t y. Electorate Body of people

Government examples around the world

entitled to vote in an election.

To t a l i t a r i a n r e g i m e s China is ruled by one party, the Communist Party, and other parties are forbidden.

Military dictatorships Myanmar (Burma) is ruled by aI9-mcmber military council.

Monarchies

Facade democracies Iran holds elections for its

absolute monarcliy with no political parties.

presidency, but candidates

Presidential republics France’s democracy has both apresident and prime

Fascism Extreme right-wing

■Saudi Arabia is an

ate cliosen by those in power.

m i n i s t e r.

the elected chamber of Parliament.

Power may be held by groups or individuals. Democracies

may differ in structure.

Executive Branch of government that carries out laws and performs general administration. nationalist movement.

House of Commons In Britain, Judiciary All the nation's judges.

False starter

Key political thinkers Thinker

Dates 429-347 B.C.

Plato

Niccolo Machiavelli

Thomas Hobbes

1469-1527

1588-1679

Biographical details Greek philosopher, rejected democracy In The Republic and Insisted that government was ascience, requiring experts. Italian political thinker and diplomat, wrote a book. The Prince, that described methods of achieving political unity. English philosopher, argued in Leviathan that human nature made absolute

monarchy desirable and inevitable.

Bolivia’s political system has experienced great turmoil. In the 156 years from its independence from Spain

Legislature Assembly or group that passes laws. Lobby Group of people seeking to in uence law-makers. Prime minister Chief executive

of government in countries with a

(1825) to 1981, Bolivia has

parliamentary system.

had 192 changes of government. I'his is an average of anew government

Republic State in which power is

every ten months.

held by the people or their elected representativ'cs. Revolution Forcible overthrow of

agovernment or social order. Socialism System in which the means of production (factories, etc.) and distribution are owned by the community as awhole.

1712-78

French philosopher. His Social Contract argued that people sacri ce their rights in return for protection by ahead of state.

1760-1825

French social scientist, believed that society should be organized along industrial lines.

Suffrage Right to vote in a

John Stuart Mill

1806-73

English philosopher and political activist, argued for truly representative democracy.

Suffragette Awoman who protests for her right to vote.

Karl Marx

1818-83

German philosopher and economist, founder of Communism. Wrote Das Kapitai.

Emile Durkheim

1858-1917

French founder of sociology.

To t a l i t a r i a n i s m D i c t a t o r i a l

Max Weber

1864-1920

German economist. Described the

system of government that extends

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Comte de Saint-Simon

relationship between economy and society.

political election.

Trade union Group of workers or professionals united to protect and promote their rights and interests.

its control to all social institutions.

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153

Law and order

Legal words

Every count ry has aset of rules or laws designed to

Accused Person

cliargcd with committing a

protect the rights of its citizens. Laws are usually enforced by government through the police and the courts. In most countries, legal systems are the result

crime. Arson Criminal

damage caused l)y re.

_of years of development and reform.

physically harm aperson.

Bail Money given to gain

About 4,000 years ago, King Hammurabi of Babylon set out some of the

temporary release of aprisoner facing trial.

Scales of justice

rst recorded codes of

behavior. He devised laws, as well as penalties, covering family, property, slaves, and wages. 'I’liese laws were engraved on astone pillar.

Bankruptcy Situation in which a

The Statue of Justice at the Old Bailey, London (above), holds scales to

person is unable to pay their debts.

show that justice weighs opposing evidence the way abalance weighs goods. I'he sword repre.sents

practices in the higher courts. awarded as compensation for loss or injury.

Defendant Person prosecuted in a

freedoms instead of upholding them.

criminal action.

Defense Defendant’s case in a law suit.

Ty p e s o f l a w

rst courts

Evidence The means used for proving adisputed fact in

'I'hcre are several branches of the law',

In about 450 B.C., the Romans formed a system of courts in which trials were held;

Barrister In Britain, alawyer who Damages Money claimed or

punishment. Some countries abuse their legal powers and remove

Hammurabi meets the god of justice.

The

Arson

Assault Threat or attempt to

Early law

each devised to meet the different

judges decided w'hether aperson had broken

the law. In serious cases, the accused paid a law'yer, called an advocatus. to speak for him. Most European law is based on Roman law.

legal action. Ja

Felony Acrime

problems of society. CRIMINAL

j, regarded by the law as

LAW

«.serious, usually

'I'his branch of the law covers acts such as murder, arson, rape, and robbery. In the US, these are broken t

into rst, second, third, and fourth degrees, depending on the state of mind of the accused.

Tr i a l b y j u r y Anyone accused of aserious crime has the right to atrial by ajury, usually 12 men and

CIVIL

rights have been infringed. It covers

y-jUf day-to-day events such as buving a

The judge helps the jury on points of

^^§5?;houseormakingawill,aswellas

the law, listens to the evidence, and passes sentence if there is aguilty verdict

*involving violence.

English judge

Fraud Deliberate trickery to gain an advantage, often nancial. Insolvent Situation in which a

LAW

\i ^'This law deals with cases in which no ij ^crime has taken place, but someone’s

women, chosen at random.

resolving disputes between companies.

company is iinaldc to pay its debts.

Judge Of cial who hears and tries c a s e s i n a c o u r t o f l a w.

Jury Group of people who give a verdict in criminal ca.ses on the

basis of evidence given in court.

Kidnap T'o carry off aperson against their will.

RELIGIOUS

Prisoner on trial

Libel Words published about

LAW

'This law deals with ca.ses in which religious code determines the law. For example, Islamic Law -is based on the Koran and the teachings of

(the accused)

Muhammad and is the basis for the law in

people that may harm their good reputation.

Murder 'I'o kill aperson. Oath I'ormal declaration as to the

truth of something.

North Africa and the Middle East.

Perjury To willfully tell an

Prosecuting lawyer/

untruth when under oath. Probation An alternative to a

Prison population

COURT PROCEDURE Aprosecuting lawyer tries to convince the jury that the accused

is guilty, while adefense lawyer

western EUROPE (1994)

prison sentence whereby an offender must report regularly to a probation of cer.

Country

Prosecution 'I'hc carrying on of

secs out to prove the person’s

innocence. After listening to evidence from various witnesses, the jury has to decide whether the prosecution has proved guilt.

Jury of 12 men and women chosen from members of the

publio aged over 18

.Prosecution tries

to prove guilt.

Prisoners per 100,000 population

convince the jury that the prisoner is

m

not guilty.

Prison facts ●Early prisons were lthy, and people often died of akind of typhus known as “jail fever.”

convicts tried to

break free, no one

woman in Thailand, for fraud.

escape.

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coast. Although 24

●The longest prison sentence was 141,078 years, passed on a

154 fi

island off the California

ever managed to

Rape 'To force aperson to hav-e

92.1

Spain

91.8

Sentence T’he judgment and

Austria

87.5

punishment pas.sed on aperson in criminal proceedings.

Switzeriand

84.9

France

83.9

Portugal

8 2 . 0

Germany

78.8

Denmark

63.0

Finiand

62.6

Belgium

60.5

●The world’s most secure

prison was Alcatraz, on an

legal proceedings.

U K

_Defense tries to

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BELIEFS, CUSTOMS, AND SOCIETY

sexual intercourse against her will.

Slander Words spoken about people that may harm their good reputation. Subpoena Awritten demand that aperson appear in court. Sue 'I'o begin legal proceedings. Summons

Acall

to appear before ajudge or magistrate. T h e f t ' To t a k e a n o t h e r ’ s

property without their c o n s e n t .

T H E D E AT H P E N A LT Y 'The death penalty is still legal in 105 countries, although many of them never carry out the sentence. Offenses range from murder to drug traf cking or counterfeiting banknotes. 'The rst country to abolish the death penalty was Austria, in 1787.

Subpoena

Trial Legal proceedings to determine issues

between parties. Verdict Decision made in acriminal case. Warrant Written authorization

allowing police to search property and make arrests.

THE Media All the major art forms, from architecture to music, are given detailed treatment in this section. Timelines present key

developments in the arts, and tables list famous painters, composers, architects, and writers. The media pages feature the latest in modern technology, including virtual reality. Architecture ●Fine Arts ●Artists and Alaterials ●Photography I ' h e a t e r ● D a n c e ● B a l l e t a n d M o d e r n D a n c e ● Tr a d i t i o n a l Wo r l d D a n c e

Music ●Classical Alusic ●Popular Music ●Musical Instruments

Writing ●Printing ●Radio ●Television ●Movies ●Animation Video ●Newspapers

■‘ K

155

prehistoric Europe’s most complex stone monuments, is erected

C.6500 B.C. (^atal Hiiyiik in 'Eurkey, one

science of designing and constructing buildings. Modern steel-and-glass structures are now

of the rst known towns, has rectangular houses

e.2650-2150 B.C. Pyramids are constructed in the lower Nile \’alley, Egypt. ’I’he famous Step Pyramid at Saqtiara is designed by Imhotep, a

built from mud bricks.

doctor and the

afeature of cities worldwide. 700-400 B.C. Ancient Greece. Architects of (jreek temples develop three architectural “orders”: Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. Each order has its owm style and proportions, ba.sed on

Indian stupa

C.200 B.C.-A.D. 500 Roman architecture takes over the Greek orders and the Etruscan arch, 'fhe Romans

develop concrete and use it to construct huge vaults and domes. I'heir public buildings include courts, bathhouses, temples, anc amphitheaters.

! t

Vii JjiiiiiiiiwiriliiP*" e.300 B.(A Buddhist stupas appear in India and Southeast Asia. 'Phese solid

pleasing to the Greek gods.

mounds symbolize the dome of heaven and contain sacred Buddhist relics.

Colosseum, Rome

w

S' / z

o -

607-670 Japan’s temple of the Hoiy uji Buddhist monastery, Nara,

690-850 Early Islamic mosques,

I'- ■ p r

618-782 China. Nanchan

Buddhist temple, Shaanxi

style of architecture develops in western Europe.Romanesque

rgg!igyigigt.iiaMi churches h-.,v c

and vaulted porches. Surface -decoration is often mosaic -patterns of gla.ss, stone, or marble pieces.

m a s s i v e

rubble- lled walls with small windows. Arches are

'"IIP 11 Pisa Cathedral, Italy

semicircular in shape and stand on top of huge cvlindrical columns.

7

/ Z

t t X T X ' T f . t . T Tr r r

i-i

Chine.se timber-framed building.

Horyuji Temple

around courtyards. Mostpies have minarets (prayer towers), arcades,

778-850 Borobtidur Buddhist temple, Indonesia, has 8stone Great Mosque, SaiTiana terraces and 72 bell-shaped stupas.

province, built on aholy mountain, is the earliest surviving traditional

A

c.900-1150 Romanesqui

jSp palace.s, and houses are designed

is the world's oldest surviving wooden building.

4

m'K

rst recorded architect.

-‘“S

Parthnion, Athens

r *

SUmehei

purposes.

4 1 .1

_mathematics and geometry, ■;Zi. chat arc thought to be

'-A.

for reli|^ious

»●

z

c

C.2200 B.C. Stonehen^Je. a massive stone eirele that is one of

ARCHrrKC'l'URR IS the art and

607

6 1 8

778

/

T

T

C.1420 Renaissance

The Duomo,

begins in Florence, Italy.

C.1650 Baroque style in Europe reinterprets

Florence,

Key gures are Brunelleschi (1377-1446) and Alberti (1404-72). This study of and adaptation of classical

Italy

m

m [irt

I1750-1840 Neo-Classicism. \‘j

AArchitects rediscover the

-

■ y

Roman and Renaissance

proportions and details of 1

styles. Architects are commi.ssioncd by the ;li|

ne example is the

|| church of Sainte

royalty to build large-scale, grand, and very ornate churches and palaces.

tcchni(|Lies soon spreads through western Europe. n r

SGenevieve, Paris, later y

grenamed the “Pantheon.”

t

Church of St. Mcho/as, Prague

[nrrSaSir

Roman and then Greek

\classical architecture. A

Catholic Church and the

Roman styles and building

Panlheor

X

;??r) C.1420

c.1650

I900-40s American architect

1750

1919-33 Bauhaus, Germany, an in uential design school led by Walter (Jropius (1883-1969), teaches design based

Frank Lloyd Wright (18671959) promotes “organic” V- a r c h i t e c t u r e - b u i l d i n g s that blend in with

nature, such as Falling Water, Pennsylvania.

J V

1920s

1970s High-Tech style.

International

In the steel-and-glass buildings of Richard Rogers (born 19.33) and Norman Foster (born 193.S), parts of the

Modernism.

11

Leading Swissborn architect. Le Gorbusier

K

on modern industrial

(1887-1965) de nes

structure and services

technologies.

ahouse as“a machine

(pipes) arc left exposed. Atypical example is the Lloyds Building, London.

for living in.” Bauhaus, Dessau

Falling Water

Le Corbusier

1919 S

7

ORDERS

i!j!!!!!!l!|itM!||ii

In classical Greek

T

architecture, an order

consists of an upright column supporting a horizontal entablature.

Acornice, afrieze, and an architrave make up

( 0

statues are used as

S iS

supporting col urn ns.

frieze

■4

c

.architrave

Atlas (male caryatid)

^il column

1

1

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'Fhese female

D

orders are Doric,

156

Caryatids

cornice

The three Greek Ionic, and Corinthian.

tTr|

T

✓

the entablature itself.

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^Step I^ramid

Architecture

:

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A RT S A N D T H E M E D I A

Doric

Ionic

Corinthian

I'hc (hecks used

From 600 B.C., this order appeared

'Phis decorative

in western Asia.

Athens in 500 B.C.

this order from about 700 B.C.

order originated in

Pedestal

ARCHri'bXTURE

Ziggural, Ur

c.lSOO B.C. Minoan Palace

800-200 B.C.

DOMES

of Knossos is rebuilt on the

Etruscans, in modernday 'ruscany. Italy, use

'I'hcse curved roofs are

island of Crete, Cirecce. Paintings decorate the walls.

the arch in the construction of their

e. 1700-1200 B.C. Beehive tomb (fholos) is constructed by the Mycenean civilization

: 11 2 - 2 0 9 5 B . C .

merians build ziggurats. ssive, .stepped temples of id bricks, in Mesopotamia.

convex (arched) in shape, and are often afeature of religious buildings worldwide. Hcm isph mm Ido me

●Hv

on the Greek mainland.

f U

H

Prdace of Knossos,

.

Crete

TTTV

t : ^ $3'

I Z

D. 300-1540 Pre-Columbian ilizations build stepped pyramids stone, crowned with temples,

A.D. 330-1453 Byzantine architecture develops

ic of the

Imperial capital moves to

when the new Roman

nest to survive is the

Onion

dome

lyan pyramid, known as the ant Jaguar, built before

Byzantium (now Istanbul). It re ects both Roman and

ROOFS

D. 800 in the ceremonia Tiplex at Tikal, latemala ^

Middle Eastern styles. 'Ehe

Roofs are de ned by the shape and structure of their

_

largest domed church of its day, Ilagia Sophia. Istanbul, is completed in 537.

t

supporting frames. Coverings range from tiles to reeds.

Giant Jaguar

Hagia Sophia c. 1100-1500 Gothic style is

Anglior \Vat

r\

t

1113-c.l 150 Angkor Wat, avast stone

^temple city, is built by the Khmers

rst used for

at their capital in Cambodia. It

(diristian churches in

northern Europe. New

is crowned with lotus-bud

A s

spires and covers almost 495 acres (200 hectares).

construction methods-

the pointed arch and the ying buttress -result

C>(d)le-and-valley roof

in much taller, lighter s t r u c t u r e s .

k'.mi*:

Amiens Cathedral, France

T

VA U LT S A N D A R C H E S Vaults are arched roofs or ceilings, and there are four main types. Arches

1113

span openings and carry weight. L830-1930S Gothic

19th-century Industrial

^vival. Architects attempt recapture the style of ;dieval buildings. 'I'hcy also nto create anew style ing modern building

Revolution results in ma.ss-

produced materials that transform construction. Elate

glass is used from the 1840s, steel from 1856, and

h

‘thods and materials as in

Casa Batllo, Barcelona

reinforced concrete from the

1890- early 1900s Art

1860s. Following the invention of the elevator,

ePennsylvania Academy of ne Arcs, Philadelphia.

Nouveau

-“new

art”

-is

inspired by plant forms. Buildings are very ornate.

Home Insurance Building, steel-framed skyscrapers arc Chicago rst erected in Chicago.

1890

? / xMid-1970s Postmodernism

1980s Environmental

devclop.s, astyle that refers tc

concerns, such as energy saving and recycling, are taken into account by

past styles, sometimes in a humorous way. Buildings arc often strong, bright colors,

■i, ii£2i

3

Groin vault

W

.some architects. Such

new buildings are more e n v i r o n m e n t - f r i e n d l y, and may feature greater

such as the Neue

Staatsgalerie, Stuttgart, Germany.

insulation and .solar

Xeue Staatsgalerie

heating and power.

Pointed arch

Lobed arch

Lloyds Building WINDOWS

C A P I TA L S

BITTRESSES

The top .section, or head, of a column is called acapital.

Made of stone or brickwork,

buttre.s.ses are built against walls to strengthen them.

Awindow is an opening to let in light and air. Its materials, shape, and design re ect abuilding's architectural style.

Flying buttresses transfer

C.asemenl ui/ndow

the weight of the upper

part of awall to an exterior support.

Flying hullress Egyptian capital

Romanesque capital

capital

Oeihde-Boeuf (Ox-eye) xt>i)idow

l

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Saucer dome

Polyhedral dome

Seven wonders of THE WORLD

'Femple of

Artemis

Originally erected in

about .S.SO B.C., this marble temple was btirned down and later rebuilt. The gold statue of Artemis was destroyed, and only one of the original 127 Ionic columns remains.

Architecture facts

Records

●Ancient (Jreeks painted the inside and outside of their temples in brilliant colors, I'he present whitened marble is due to weathering and bleaching by the hot sun.

BIGGEST

●There is about 100 times more stone and

TA L L E S T R E S I D E N T L A L B L O C K O F F L AT S

brick in the Great Pyramid of Cheops than there is in the Kmpire State Building.

is Lake Point'Power, Chicago, Illinois. It has 70 oors and is 639ft (195m) high.

●Our ancestors’ homes were dark caves.

BIGGEST SHOPPING CENTER

Today, in the mining community of Coober Pedy, Australia, people live in welletpiipped dugouts with 'I'Vs and showers.

in the world is West Kdmonton Mall, Alberta, Canada, which is as big as 90

CASTLE

in the world is Prague Castle in the Czech Republic. Founded in about 850, the castle now co\ ers about 20 acres (8 hectares).

American football

elds.

Tr a d i t i o n a l h o m e s a r o u n d t h e w o r l d A F R I C A

I

.IP

Zulu kraal, South Africa Mausoleum

Pharos

at Halicarnassus

of Alexandria

Built in about 297 B.C.,

'I'his vast marble

Masai house, Kenya 'The Masai people build their

Kraals arc traditional dome-

rounded houses from bent

shaped, ^rass-eo\'cred houses with low openinjj;s at the front.

branches covered with cow dun".

tomb of'I'urkish ruler this lighthouse stood on Mausolos was built in the island of Pharos, about 350 B.(7 On Alexandria, Egypt. At site, only the night a re burned, foundations remain, re ected by bronze but some statues are in London’s British Mu.seum.

mirrors. Three

earth(]uakes reduced the building to rubble.

Dogon village, Mali

O C E A N I A

In these West African

Longhouse

villages, houses are built of mud-brick,

'These communal

and storehouse roofs are thatched.

on wooden stilts

..

"" ●’■As:; and 246.S B.C. T'he

f

T :

.A-'f ●A

vn y/.

.7.

—

■J ’ ●

.y I'hese pyramids were built at Giza, Egypt, bbetween about 2575

Mouses are packed tightly together, so that as little of the house as possible is exposed to the blistering heat of the sun.

to keep animals out. A

Pyramids of Giza

-A?

Algerian desert village

houses are raised

■

m

■i

i

'JO.-ciSid''-.-: EFROPE

Great Pyramid of Cheops is said to have taken 100,000 men 20 tears to build.

m

m

Swiss moLinlain chalet These traditional wooden chalets

have sloping roofs to stop too much snow from collecting.

Scandinavian house Roofs of traditionally built

Mediterranean village house

houses in such cold climates arc

this region re ect the sun’s heat, keeping the interior cool.

turf covered to keep in the heat.

'The whitewashed stone houses of

A S I A

Statue of Zeus,

Colossus of Rhodes

Olympia

'This bronze statue of

This huge statue of the king of the gods was made from i\ory and gold. The head

the Sun god, Helios,

alone measured 43ft

h a r b o r. G r e e c e . A n

(13m) in height.

carthciLiake toppled it.

stood more than 11 Oft

(35m) high at the entrance to Rhodes

A'urt

Japanese house

Chinese house

Nomads from Iran to Mongolia

'Traditional timber-framed houses

live in thc.se willow-framed tents

have sliding walls and doors that can be opened to the outside.

In China, traditional houses arc arranged around acourtyard. 'The main part is on the north side.

covered in felt and canvas.

A.MERh’A^

Hanging Gardens

of Babylon Nebuchadnezzar II

(c.60.5-562 B.C.). King ’ of Babylon, built these magni cent terraced gardens for one of his wives. Although descriptions exist, archaeologists are still looking for the site.

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ARTS AND THE MEDIA

Amyara Indian house

Adobe houses

New England house

On Lake'Titicaca, Bolivia,

In New Mexico, traditional

'The walls of these North American

Amyara Indians live in houses

houses arc built with adobe -

constructed from wo\ cn reeds.

bricks of sun-baked mud.

houses ha\'C overlapping wooden boards (clapboards).

p

ARCHITECTURE

Cross-section of askyscraper HONG KONG AND SHANGHAI BANK, HONG KONG External maintenance

Illuminated display

Mast

Key architects N a m e

Dates

Filippo Brunelleschi

1377-1446 Italian

Building*

Nationality

Santa Maria del Fiore, Florence, Italy Dome of St. Peter’s, Vatican City

c r a n e

Michelangelo Buonarroti 1475-1564 Italian Curved Circular access

glass

1

Andrea Palladio

1508-80

Italian

Inigo Jones

1573-1652 British

P'ranyois Mansart

1598-1666 French

Christopher Wren

1632-1723 British

\’illa Rotonda.

\’icenza, Italy Banqueting House, London, Kngland Chateau de Maisons, Paris, France St. Paul’s, London. Kngland

platform

ii: .r A

Face panel Mullion .

SHU f-nririiaii ii BU

French

Jacc|ucs-Germain Souf ot 1713-80

Ove hrang

Steel column

Handrail

4'hc Pantheon,

I’aris, France ’Phe Admiralty, St. Petersburg, Russia Altes Museum, Berlin, Germany La Sagrada Familia, Barcelona, Spain Falling Water, Pennsylvania Viceroy’s House,

Andrevan Zakharov

1 7 6 1 - 1 8 11 R u s s i a n

Karl Friedrich Schinkel

1781-1841 German

Antonio Gaudi

1852-1926 Spanish

Frank Lloyd Wright

1867-1959 American

P'dwin Lutvens

1869-1944 Bridsh

Adolf Loos

1870-1933 Czech

Scheu Ilouse,

Walter Gropius

1883-1969 German

Vienna, Austria Bauhaus,

Mies van der Rohe

1886-1969 German

P'rich Mendelsohn

1887-1953 German

Le Corbusier

1887-1965 Swiss

Notre Dame du Haut,

R. Buckminster Fuller

1895-1983 American

Ronchamp, France USA Pavilion, P'xpo 67,

Philip Johnson

b.l906

American

'Phe Glass Plouse,

Oscar Niemeyer

b.l907

Brazilian

Ieoh Ming Pci

b.l917

American

A r t h u r PA i k . s o n

b. 1924

Canadian

Richard Rogers

b.l933

British

Norman P'ostcr

b.l935

British

Escalato

Top beam

Fire escape staircase

New Delhi, India Outer diagonal beam

External staircase

Dessau, (jermany vSeagram Building, New York, US Kinstein Power, Potsdam, Germany

Inner diagonal . b e a m

Overhang \ Te r r a c e

Montreal, Canada Connecticut Overhang Full-height glazing

m Si

si

Glazed curtain /

Lightweight steel and

wall

I

concrete

South face

Entrance lobby

oor

\Plaza

1

Ta l l e s t b u i l d i n g s

On ahigh skyscrapers were erected,

Towers (not illustrated)

red-hot rivets were driven

KTHI-TO Mast, North Dakota, US

into holes in narrow steel

beams hundreds of feet up in the air with nothing

2 3

When the Manhattan

Height m

629

ft 4

2,064

KSlA-iy Mast. Louisiana, US

579

1,900

CN Tower, Toronto, Canada

5 5 5

1,821

f \

®I 7

8

10

I

Building and location

Mohawk Indians

tinii

show no fear of

1Sears Tower, Chicago, US

443

1,453

heights and have

2World Trade Center, New York, US

417

1,368

put up many of these

3Empire State Building, New York, US

381

1,250

n i l

4Bank of China, Hong Kong

368

1,207

n

Pi I* Kk

.:li

Hii^t

n

t

346

1,135

6John Hancock Center, Chicago, US

344

1,129

7Chrysler Building, New York, US

319

1,047

8Nations Bank Plaza, Atlanta, US

312

1,024

III u n n

310

1,018

305

1,001

IE

I

PHI II

H

i .Mi

■● >

i n n

Illllllll

_nil”! ’Kill nil"' i

10 Texas Commerce Tower, Houston, US

i

n

I!! ii m

5Amoco Building, Chicago, US

9First Interstate, Los Angeles, US

m i

mnli

n

C

5 i

n n

beneath. lrot|uois and

skyscrapers.

Government Buildings, Brasilia, Brazil Louvre Pyramid, Paris, I"ranee Canadian Kmbassv, Washington D.C., US Lloyds Building, London, England Hong Kong and Shanghai Bank, Hong Kong

i - i o a M n i

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159

c.27,000 B.C. “Venus” gurines,

Every culture has its own works of art. In some

, small clay statues of ^' ptrcf^nant women, appear across Kiiropc.

cultures, artistic styles have changed signi cantly; others have remained more or less the same over thousands of

Figurine, Lesjmgie, France

years. Movements in Western art have been given

Horse, Lascaux

names and dates by specialists called art historians.

i

c.500-323 B.C. Greek

323-31 B.C. Greek

c.lOO B.C.-A.D. 400 A.D. 100-400

Classical sculptors study the

Hellenistie sculptors

form of the human bodv and

make statues that

explore its movement, making detailed gures of gods and

emphasize the body’s

Roman decorative art Gandharan scLilpture ourishes. Relief in uenced by Greek art,

athletes in marble, bronze, and

gracefulness. 'I'he portrait is developed and pro les

clay. Phidias, afamous sculptor,

of Greek rulers appear on

makes ahuge statue of Athena for the Parthenon, Athens,

coins.

^carvings (standing out develops in the Indus

Kfrom the surface), often Valley region (Pakistan). Sculptures show scenes ^depicting Roman military victories, adorn from the Buddha’s life.

f, arches and columns.

Detail, Trajan \s column

between 445 and 432 B.C.

Bronze charioteer,

/o-

Greece

Gandhara Buddha teaching i j

/

o -

3 1880s-90s

'M 1880-1905 PostImpressionist artists Paul

Expressionism develops

^Cezanne (1839-1906), ^3 Vincent Van Gogh

in Europe. Intense color and free brushstrokes

^(1853-90),andPaul ^9 Gauguin (1848-1903),

communicate

different directions.

Drawing, Kirchner

ji While Horse, jA.r

artists

feelings. Ernst Ludwig Kirchner (1880-1938) is a key gure in Germany.

develop in their own

■G a u g u i n , 1 8 9 8

1880s-90s Symbolist artists create images that portray inner feelings and suggest what may lie beneath the surface of things. Key painters include Gustave Moreau (1826-98).

1905-7 Fauves, agroup of French painters that includes Henri Matisse (1869-1954), represent the world in brilliant color harmonics.

▶v '

1920s Surrealism develops

1940s Abstract Expressionism appears in New York. Artists create abstract images, while experimenting with the physical properties of paint and different ways of applying it to the canvas. Jackson Pollock (1912-56) develops his paint-dripping tcchnicjue as away of expressing his feelings more directly.

from Dada and Freud’s

theories of psychoanalysis (sec p.l32). Artists such as Salvador Dali (1904-89) and Max Ernst (1891-1976) use dreams to explore their hidden feelings. Salvador Dali. 1971

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Fine arts

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A RT S A N D T H E M E D I A

Mid-1950s Pop Art develops in the US and

Late 1950s Performance

Britain. Artists use

art forms -painting, music, theater, lm, video -in

consumer goods and images from the media ' in their work. Akey gure is Andv Warhol (1928-87). Andy Warhol, 1971

artists combine different

itheir work. Key gures arc j j ■4 ^

iGilbert (born 1943) and HGeorge (born 1942), and

fJoseph Beuys (1921-86). Planted, Gilbert and

George. 1992

c. 15,000 B.C, Lascaux caves, France, arc decorated with images

c.4000-1000 B.C. Egyptian art includes

of animals. Artists use

from limestone, wall and scroll paintings, and ne precious stones.

reeds.

Dynasty- craftsmen, China, discover how to cast

2000-1100 B.C. Minoans on Crete, an island near Greece, decorate the walls of their huge palaces with

in bronze and make

v

terracotta

gurines

of humans with

emphasized.

for food and wine.

N o k

¥

¥ 7 Z

produces lifelike individual features

beautiful decorated vessels

colored murals.

/Nefet li, Queen of Egypt

.

culture, Nigeria, West Africa,

1600-1027 Shang

gold jewelry, set with

applying them with ngers, brushes, and by blowing through hollow

C.500 B.C. Nok

Bull-leaping, Crete

V

painted statues sculpted

natural mineral colors,

terracotta head

N . *

618-907 T’ang Dynasty, agolden age

4 0 0 - 11 0 0 M e d i e v a l

6 0 0 - 11 8 5 I c o n s

Mayan carvings

European monks

combine ornate

produce illuminated

(religious portraits) are developed. Painters in

human gures with hieroglyphs (picture-writing). Carving is done

manuscripts, stich as

the Eastern Christian

period, the great

the Book of Kells -

Church follow strict

tradition of Chinese

rules that govern how religious gures must

landscape painting develops, and gure

be shown.

(people) painting

A.D.

100-1000

the four gospels copied out and illustrated by a9theentury Irish friar.

without metal tools.

'

i

e

m "

in Chinese art. In this

continues.

Icon, Madonna and Child

Mayan incense burner

Tang “blue and green ”landscape

6 0 0

/'»● The Annunciation,

1400-1500 Early Renaissance ^^

Leonardo da Vinci

starts in Florence, Italy, with a

revival of interest in (Classical ^

Late 1400s Islamic

sculpture and architecture. ||: ^ Masaccio (1401-28) is th

miniature painting

Z

mi

tlourishes in Persia

rst painter to us ^ perspective (sec p.l62).

.11

(Iran). Paintings are brightly colored and highly detailed.

^-

1500s-1600s High Renaissance period The Flood, Paolo IJcello, c.1445

15th-cenliny miniature

1848 Pre-Raphaelites in England arc inspired by

1840s Realism develops in France with painters such as Gustave Courbet (1819-77) who show ordinary people and their surroundings in adirect,

painters before Raphael but develop their own style and symbols. T'he group includes Dante Gabriel Rossetti (1828-82) and J.E. Millais (1829-96).

n a t u r a l , a n d l i f e l i k e w a v.

in Italy, particularly Rome and Venice. Major artists arc Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), Raphael (1483-1520), and Michelangelo (1475-1564).

1860s-90s Impressionism originates in France. Painters, notably Claude Monet (1840-1926) and Edouard Manet (1832-83), try to capture their impressions, in particular the light, of a eeting moment in time. Neo-Impressionism develops, led by (Jeorges Seurat (1859-91), whose work is based on dots of pure colour.

The Winnowers, Courbet, 18?5

Wa l c r l i l i e s , M o n e l , 1 9 1 6 - 1 9 1848 nP

NP

1907-1920S Cubism

1910-50 Abstract movement

develops in Paris.

appears, in which artists’ paintings and sculptures do not directly resemble people or things in everyday life. 'Phe rst abstract painting may be a work (c. 1910) bv Wassily Kandinsky (1866-1944).

France, with Pablo

Picasso (1881-1973) and Georges Braque (1882-1963), who u,sc geometric shapes to portray what they see. Picasso, 1955

1916 Dada movement, originally aprotest against World War I, rejects traditional forms of art. Marcel Duchamp (1887-1968), selects and displays everyday objects, which he calls “ready-mades.”

llornform, Kandinsky, 1924

Most expensive paintings SOLD

at

auction

Title, artist, date sold

Price in US$

Portrait of Dr. Gachet,

82,500,000

Van Gogh. 1990 Au Moulin de la Galette,

78,100,000

R e n o i r, 1 9 9 0 1916

From

1970s

/rises, Van Gogh, 1987

53,900,000

Les Noces de Pierette,

51,895,000

1980s Art in Nature.

Picasso, 1989

Artists such as Richard Long (born 1945)and Andy Goldsworthy (born 1956)

Self Portrait: Yo Picasso, Picasso, 1989

47,850,000

Au Lapin Agile,

40,700,000

Video

ArtivSts use video and

computer technology. Their installations

create outdoor works of art that

(exhibitions) feature video projection. A key gure is Koreanborn Nam Jun Paik

are in harmony with the landscape. Materials -stones, leaves, etc. -are found on-site.

(born 19,32). l'!(noin: Andy Goldsworthy, 1992

IniHITi

7" »s?

Picasso, 1989

Sun owers, Van Gogh, 1987

40,342,500

Portrait of Cosimo Ide

35,200,000

Medici, Pontormo, 1989 Source: Sotheby’s. London

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FINE ARTS

Artists and materials

Layers of apainting

Ar i'IS'I’S use PAIN'r to create images of the world as they see it. Originally they painted on cave walls, using the most basic materials. Today, an artist can choose different materials and techniques to

'I'hcrc are several layers to an oil painting. These can help modern historians to date a picture accurately, and also to spot

Va r n i s h

whether it is afake. This artwork,

showing asection of Caravaggio’s Youth with uRam, reveals the layers through Drawing atypical 17th-century oil painting.

Paint layers

layer

express his or her ideas

and feelings.

Artist facts ●Architect and artist Leon

Materials .*■ ■'^1

Battista Alberti (1404—72) wrote a

;1 l

key book about perspective in

'

Artists paint on many surfaces using a range of materials. One person may spread thick blobs of oil paint on acanvas with aknife, while another will apply delicate brushstrokes of watcrcolor onto asheet of paper. Some artists paint with their ngers, or employ traditional methods such

' ■ V i-.

Imprimatura

14.Vr. 11 is methods enabled artists to

\Priming !»

create

a

geometrically controlled space

' '.i

Size

“'TH on atwo-

\ G r o u n d

T M 3

dimensional surface.

as egg tempera. PIGMENTS

DRAWING

Paint is made from

rst found in natural substances such as carbon

(black), chalk (white), and red and yellow

TOOLS

Malachite

earths. 'Phe ancient

Conte crayon

Egyptians added mineral colors such as malachite

(green) from copper, and ultramarine (blue) from lapis lazuli.

●Making copies of paintings by

BRUSHES

Artisc-s often make sketches {c|iiick drawings) to record what they see, or to prepare for a nished work. Many drawings arc sold as nished works of art. Avariety of tools is available.

pigments (powdered colors). Pigments were

ILiintbrushes fall into two main

groups, soft-hair brushes, mostiv used for watercolors, and bristle brushes, used in oil painting and acrylics. Within the.se groups there are three main types (round, at, and lbert) de ned by the length and shape of the hairs.

h'ncil R o u n d

Lapis lazuli

Old Masters was considered an

essential part of ayoung painter’s training. Edouard Manet made copies of both Delacroix and I'itian while

w'orking as astudent. ●Pablo Picasso’s famous work

Cuen/ira (1937) depicts scenes from the Spanish Civil War.

Charcoal

Picasso refused to let the

painting hang in .Spain until the

Graphite

Material facts

country was free. It remained in

●'I'he pigment Indian yellow used to be made by boiling the urine of cows fed only on mango leaves. The urine was mixed with earth, heated, and dried.

Fl(U

/

●Brushes were once made by tying white hog bristles to astick. The brush was then used to whitewash awall

until the bristles became supple.

N e w Yo r k u n t i l 1 9 8 1 , w h e n

democracy was restored.

/

●Katsushika Hokusai Reed pen

Filbert

and ink

PA I N T S

Oil paints These are amixture of

dry pigment and an oil usually linseed oil. They were rst tused by 15thcentury painters, such as jan \an Eyck.

Wa t e r c o l o r p a i n t s These are pigments bound with gum arabic a n d d i l u t e d w i t h w a t e r.

'They became popular with 18th-century landscape artists, such as j . M . W. ' f u r n e r.

Acrylic paints 'fhe.se were developed in the US during the 1920s. Acrylic is applied with aknife, or diluted and used with abrush.

.Acrylic was used by .Andy Warhol.

(1760-1849) was amaster of the

Japanese ukiyo-e (pictures of the oating world) school. He made beautiful woodblock color

prints showing views of

Mt. Fuji.

Fake facts

●'I 'housands of years ago, artists in Australia mixed paint, such as

●Paint can be dated by analyzing its content. Cobalt blue, for

red ocher or charcoal, in their

mouths and spat the color into paintings on the cave walls.

example, was not produced before 1802, but is used by forgers when they need acheap

Watercolor

Oil paint

paint

substitute for ultramarine.

Popular European GALLERIES (1993) Art Gallery

Sculptor facts

Labor of love

●When Rodin exhibited his

Michelangelo painted the ceiling of the .Sistine Chapel in

rst major work, 'I'he Age of Visitors

Rron-z

lifelike he was accused of

1,828,058

casting it from aliving model.

complete.

Uf zi Gailery, Florence

1,020,972

●Henry Moore’s work was in uenced by the carvings of the Aztecs. Asculpture of their ancient rain god, 'Flaloc, gave

Alte Pinakothek, Munich

850,952

575,880 325,84

his statues of

Reclining

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i

●Many signed drawings and paintings, supposedly by Rembrandt, were actually done by artists of his school. ●Leonardo da Vinci’s Mona Lisa was stolen from the Louvre in 1912. It took

three years to nd, during which time six

him the idea for

Women.

e

Rome. 4’he fresco covers more

5,000,000

London

fl

a

gure was so

Prado, Madrid

National Gallery,

fl

caused

Louvre, Paris

Amsterdam

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it

sensation. The

than 9,688sc] ft (900sci m), and took four and ahalf years to

Van Gogh Museum,

●

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ARTS AND THE MEDIA

ii ^

forgeries turned up in the L.S, each selling for a very high price. J

Artists’ words

Key artists

Airbrushing Spraying on color under pressure with an airbrush.

Name Donatello

Alla prima Adirect form of painting made in

Jan van Flyck

one session, llsed by artists when they want to

paint spontaneously. Casting To make an object, often asculpture, by pouring metal into amold and letting it harden. Chiaroscuro The treatment of light and shade in drawing and painting.

Chroma I'he intensity or saturation of acolor. Collage Apictorial technique in wliieh various materials are arranged and xed to abacking. Craquelure 'Phe network of small cracks that appears on apainting when, in the course of time, the

pigment’s varnish has become brittle.

Engraving The various processes

of cutting adesign into aplate or block of metal or wood, and the prints taken from these plates or blocks.

Craquelure

Etching .A method of engrat'ing in which a corrosive acid “eats” adesign into ametal plate.

Ferrule The metal part of abrush that surrounds and retains the hairs.

Fresco Powdered pigments mixed in water and applied to wet lime-plaster. Fresco means “fresh”

Dates c. 1386-1466 c.1390-1441

Nationality

Key work

Italian

David

Flemish

Piero della Francesca Sandro Botticelli Albrecht Diircr

e. 1420-92

Italian

c. 1445-1510

Italian

Arnolfuii and his Wife Dream of Constantine Birth of Venus

1471-1528

German

Melancholia

Michelangelo Buonarroti Raphael

1475-1564

Italian

David, The Creation of Adam

1483-1520

Italian

The Sistine Madonna

Titian

c.1487-1576

Italian

Assumption of the Madonna

Leonardo da V'inci

1452-1519

Italian

Mona Lisa

Pieter Bruegel the FJIder Michelangelo da Caravaggio

e. 1525-69

Flemish

1573-1610

Italian

ACountry Wedding The Supper at Emmans

Peter Paul Rubens

1577-1640

F'lemish

P e a c e a n d Wa r

F'rans Hals

1580-1666

Flemish

Artemisia Gentileschi Nicholas Poussin

1593-1651

Italian

1594_i665

F'reneh

Laughing Cavalier Judith and Hohfenies Et in Arcadia F,go

Diego do Velazquez

1599-1660

Spanish

Las Meninas

Claude Lorrain

1600-82

F'reneh

Rembrandt van Rijn

1606-69

Dll tell

Jan Vermeer

1632-75

Duteh

Antoine Watteau

1684-1721

French

Landscape with Sacri ce to Apollo The Night Watch Young Woman with aWater Jug Fanbarcation for the Isle ofCythera

Antonio Canaletto

1697-1768

Italian

'TheStonemason’s Yard

'I'homas Gainsborough F'ranciseo dc Goya yLucientes Jac-1957

Romanian

Endless Column

Paul Klee

1879-1940

Sw'iss

F'ernand Legcr

1881-19.55

F'reneh

Spanish

in Italian.

Gesso Atraditional surface for tempera and oil

is used to bind the color together, llsed since the 18th centuiyc Ground The surface on which color is applied. Gum arable Gum from the acacia tree, which is

used as abinding material in the manufacture of watercolor paints. Impasto Paint put on so

thickly that it stands up from the surface.

Imprimatura Athin overall lm or stain of translucent color

over awhite priming. Pigment The coloring matter, Lisuallv powder, which forms the basis of all paint.

Monet

Jane The Kiss

Pablo Picasso

1881-1973

support before painting.

Georges Braque

1882-196.3

French

S’graf to Atechnique using ascalpel or sharp knife in which dried paint is scraped off the painted

Marcel Duchamp

1887-1968

F'reneh

Ambassador of Autumn 'The Outing Les Demoiselles d’Avignon Man w'lth aPipe 'The Large Glass

Georgia O’Keeffe Egon Schiele

1887-1986

American

Ulies

surface. Used to create texture.

1890-1918

Austrian

Death and the Maiden

Size Material such as glue or gelatin used to

Max Flrnst

1891-1976

German

prepare canvas prior to priming or to reduce the

Joan Miro

189.3-1983

absorbency of paper.

Rene Magritte Henry Moore

1898-1967 1898-1986

Spanish Belgian Fmglish

On the 'Threshold of Liberty The Birth of the World The Use of Words Reclining Figure

Alberto Giacometti

1901-66

Swiss

The F'orest

Tempera Usually refers to egg tempera, a

Mark

1903-70

American

Blue, Orange, and Red

pigment bound with egg white instead of glue. Most important technique for panel painting (wood) in Europe from 13th to 15th centuries

Barbara Hepworth

190,3-75

.Salvador Dali

1904-89

F'rancis Bacon

1909-92

Fhiglish Spanish English

Premonition of aCivil War 'The Screaming Pope

beforeoil.Layersofpaintarcbuiltupslow^.

Jackson Pollock Joseph Beuys Jean Tinguely Robert Rauschenberg Andy Warhol Jasper Johns Bridget Riley

1912-.56

American

Lavender Mist

1921-86

German

The Pack

b. 192.5-

Swiss

Homage to New York

b. 192,5-

American

Bed

1928-87

American

b.l930-

American

Marilyn Monroe Three Flags

Priming 'I'hc preliminary coating that is put onto the

S’gmf to

Support The material on which apainting is made, such as paper, canvas, or awooden panel.

Tone The degree of darkness or lightness of acolor.

Tr o m p e - l ’ o e i l A s t i l l - l i f e p a i n t i n g

-if'

I

designed to give an illusion of reality. ^|B;t Varnish Protective surface over a.yUf nished painting that gives a glossy or matt appearance. Wash Athin, transparent layer of paint.

Rothko

Gilbert and George

Fmglish Fmglish b.194.3-, 1942- Fmglish

Anselm Kiefer

b. 194,5-

David Hockney Wash

Wave

b.l931-

Late Morning

b.l937-

ABigger Splash

German

Vndenieath the Arches Scorched Earth

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A RT I S T S A N D M AT E R I A L S

' ,4*

11th century

Photography

1727 Johann Schulze

Camera obscura ^ (“dark room”) is

(1687-1744), aGerman doctor, |

Photography is away of recording images using alens and some lightsensitive material. Taking agood photograph depends more on the photographer’s visual skills than on the equipment used z

'

discovers that silver nitrate

>'■

invented in

t

darkens when exposed to light.

Arabia for

observing solar eclipses. It later

1827 First photographic image 3 is produced bv Joseph Nieephore ●

forms the basis

18th-centuiy camera

of photography.

Niepce (1765-1833). It takes

obscura includes amirror, eight hours of exposure time. 1727

First photographic image

1827

N

1839 Daguerrotype process is developed by

1839 Galotype

Frenchman Louis

process is invented , by Fnglishman

Daguerre (1757-1851).

William k'o

Daguerrolype

Ta l b o t ( 1 8 0 0 - 7 7 ) . . T

\ .tS

1907 First practical color photographic

Frederick Archer

b'reneh brothers Auguste

^

William Fox Talbot

^7>V,9/ Kodak color lm

1851

1913

1924 The Leica I, thc r.st 35mm camera, is

193.S Kodachrom

launched commercially.

allowing colo by American Edwin Lan scientist photographs abulle focusingisproducedin transparencies to b (1909-90), is marketed b passing through an apple a Japan Konica. byis It

1947 First instan

lm is invented

Its frame counter runs to

Leica I

Auguste and

Louis Lurniere

Frederick Archer

1839

1975 Using special camera

picture camera, invente

36 exposures, setting the both projected an standard for later cameras, reproduced.

Polaroid Corporation

1976Firstcompact

and limits, an America

one three-millionth of

1990 First “Eye-Start”

automatic camera with

system is introduced. The camera lens automatically zooms in on the subject when you look through

called tlic Konica C35AE.

second exposure.

!

t h e v i e w n d e r.

1939 First important |

negative color lm is produced by Agfa.

■

Edwin

Q

1924 193

1

9

1994 First integral 35mm still and video camera is launched.

Land 3

lm is rst time.

(1862-1954) and Louis (1864-1948) Lumicre.

negatives allow paper prints to Wbe made.

allowsphotographs^

1913 35mm used for the

process is introduced by

Hpiglass-plate

positive process | to be copied

1851 Collodion process is developed by English sculptor

K(1813-57). His

'Phis negative- J

c a m e r a

9

1975

11

1990

Photography facts ●'I'he

rst successful camera

weighed 511b (23kg), which is the same weight as ared¬ necked wallaby. ●Every day, more than two million photographs are taken

1994

Photography WORDS Aperture 'I’hc opening in the camera lens that controls

the amount of light passing on to the

lm.

around the world.

Auto-focus A.system in the camera which adjusts the focus automatically.

●Until about 1930,

Darkroom Alightproof room used for developing photographic lm.

photographers made ash lights by creating small explosions with magnesium powder.

on acamera that is needed for

●One 35mm transparency

Electronic

ash The light source

taking pictures after dark, indoors, or in dim light. Enlargement A i; ,M photographic print that

(slide) can hold as much

information as asingle highdensity oppy disk for a personal computer.

1 is larger than the

Inegative from which it was developed. Motor-drive

'I’he rst cameras ret|uired long exposure times, so people

enables you to take arapid sequence of photographs.

SLR (single-lens re ex) Atype of

had to stand still ^

camera where the view through the view nder is what will actually be

in order to

recorded on the

avoid

Transparency Apositive

for long periods ^ blurre

/J

^

image. T’he T photographer ® also attached a

damp to the subject’s head and body.

t-

*

I I;

4 4

W

lm.

image, in black and white or color, that is produced on a transparent lm.

Tripod Astand that supports acamera to keep it steady and avoid blurred images. View

nder The device on

acamera that shows what

will be in the photograph.

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The

device on acamera that

Stiff shot

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A RT S A N D T H E M E D I A

Inside acamera

The light path

Acamera is basically alightproof box

INSIDE THE CAMERA This diagram shows how

that has ahole, or lens, at one end.

Flash-ready

An open lens allows light to enter and shine on apiece of lm (lightsensitive paper) inside the camera, forming an image. The most

a

m

r

illuminating the subject is re ected through the camera lens.

light is adjusted when it

indicator

Rear view nder n

Light source 'I'he light

Lens Apiece of curved glass that rcnects the light rays.

travels through the camera to form an image on the light-

a

sensitive

lm.

Diaphragm Adevice for controlling the amount of light entering the camera, made of metal plates.

important parts of acamera are the lens, shutter, and diaphragm. Frame counter .

Aperture control '■ing

L Shutter speed

fj It forms an adjustable

/

/

aperture (hole).

/

Shutter 'The shutter I

T

can be set to open

Shutter release ,

and close at different

button

speeds, which determines for how

Light path through the

Strap

long the lm is exposed to the light.

c a m e r a

attachment

Focal plane and lm 'The focal

Front lens element

□D O D O O Q Q ' O Q O O O O O C

plane is where the

DQOOOQOOOODOODOC

light from the lens is brought into focus, coinciding with the position of the

Film take-up spool

Lens housing

Ty p e s o f l e n s e s Lenses can be

tted onto the

Filters arc

of vision.

are attached to the

at,

colored disks that front of acamera lens to alter or

Fishtye lens

types of cameras to create different effects in aphotograph or to help take abetter picture of dif cult subjects.

distort the subject.

O o Green

Standard lens shows the scene

Wide-angle lens allows 50% more of the subject to appear on the

almost as it appears to the naked eye.

lm than astandard lens.

Wide-an^le

lm.

Film speed

Fisheye lens is awide-angle lens which covers up to 210°

basic camera lens of certain

Film comes in various speeds, which are shown on the package as ISO (International Standards Organization) numbers. This table shows their uses for different situations and subjects. ISO

Speed

Situations and subjects

3 2

Slow

Well lit, still life

200

Medium

General subjects and lighting levels

400

Moderate-fast

Dimly lit, moving subjects

Famous photographers

Standard lens

Julia

Robert Capa

Margaret Cameron

(1913-54) Hungarian-

(1815-79)

born war

British-born

photographer. In 1947 Capa

portrait photographer.

and CartierBresson founded

Telephoto lens is used to take close-

ups of subjects from adistance and to make them appear bigger.

Magnum Studios. Super telephoto lens is aspecialized lens that needs a tripod to support its weight.

Henri

7 '

Telef)hoto lens

I

R e d

Cartier-

Richard

{born 1923)

1908) French ^

America

photographer '

photographe

to

establish

i

photo¬ journalism as

Aphotograph is developed by xing the image onto special photographic paper using chemicals. 'I'his process is done

Ye l l o w

S',-he exposed

onto white

imprint the ^

paper using

white paper is developed

image onto

an enlarger. ^

acolor -either blue. green, or red. The emulsion layers record

the

lm.

IEachgrainof

3:

3F

processed before the image can be seen.

lm has three

4TTc negative is printed

Fhe pictures on the _are called negatives because the light and

lm must be

I

chemicals

Equipment lm

I

layers of light-sensitive

2

Developing and xing

in the dark.

The

famous fo portraits and ● i fashion pictures.

Color

Developing

silver on the

,

an art form.

Su] telephoto lens

changes when it is exposed to light.

Avedon

Bresson (horn

who did much '

A

\

[ft f

Developing tray Enlarger lm

and set with chemicals.

\

emulsion. Each reacts to

how much of each color

there is in the image.

^Aftertheprint has been

developed, it is

dark areas arc

w'ashed and dried, i

reversed.

Negatives

Finished

print

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PHOTOGRAPHY

Theater Modern wes tern iiieat er has

c. 1000 B.C.

ceremonies all over the

Chinese and

world include music, dance,

Indian dance-

and elements of drama.

dramas develop

i -

ancient Greek word

534 B.C. Thespis, the

actor to step outside the chorus of singers and dancers, arrives

Egypiiati hntiiers

in Athens.

1000 B.C.

x y

c. 1200 Traveling story¬

1453

tellers in Middle Eastern

Renaissance

countries use mime to break

Noh theater becomes the

begins in Italy, and soon spreads to the rest of Europe. Roman plays are revived, and .t buildings re ect the style of classical

dominant form in Japan.

architecture.

^ O -

c. A.D.

l-lOO

of theater in which

B;actors used gesture ■

f

through language barriers.

and movement to act

■ out tragic stories, was ■k p o p u l a r i n R o m e

c. 1300 Indian folk theater develops, following the

8;throughout the

d e c l i n e o f S a n s k r i t t h e a t e r.

B r s t c e n t u r v.

J :

oiiri.shcs in India. c y

and .soon comedy, develops in Greece.

in style.

3000 B.C.

^Pantomimus, aform

1Sanskrit

384-322 B.C. Aristotle, Greek philosopher, explains his theories of tragedy in The Poc cs.

rst

534 B.C.

500 B.C. A9 /320B.C.

The

}c. 1500 Gommedia delFArte

■.

^ c o m p a n i e s from Italy travel widely in Europe, greatly in uencing theatrical styles.

Panlomimu.s

200 B.C.

.0'

c. 500 B.C. Tragedy,

!.

Villi:;. ■

O '

●7

theater (piickly

1

more formalized

A T

/ O' /

meaning “place for viewing.

c. A.D.

Tlmpis’s carl

I

and become

its origins in ancient Greece 7/ iIt

c. 200 B.C. Romans adapt Greek comedies. Plautus (254-184) and 'I'ercnce (190-159) are among the most popular playwrights.

a

c. 3000 B.C. Reli} C

1913 Nijinsky E

1927 Rudolf von

uses turned-in

Laban (1879-1958), Hungarian dancer and choreographer,

feet in his ballet, j The Rite of Spring. 1 9 2 0 s Ta p , charleston, jazz, and many other dance forms in uenced by African.American dancing, are increasingly popular.

1927 Martha Graham, (189-1-1991). American

7popular jazz dances,

modern dancer and

choreographer,

invents amethod of

founds

recording ballet movements using geometric sketches,

her own

company

1930s Jitterbug and - j i v e a r e t w o l i v e l y, d 1 9 3 3 Te d S h a w n

(1891-1972), American dancer, forms an all¬ male company to show

M

men as dancers in their

called Labanotation. Martha Graham

Nijinsky in Ciiscllc

1913

Vi

own right, not just as

1^ supports for women.

V

1933 Fred Astaire (1899-1987)and Ginger .——' Rogers (born 1911), American dancers, appear in the lm Fred Flying Do’nsn to Rio. . Astaire More lm M f o l l o w, i n c l u d i n g ^ ' ' The Cay Divorcee and Top Hat.

1933

1927

>$>

1945 Latin American rumba, samba, calypso, and cha-cha are added to the established ballroom dances.

1960s Post-modern dance develops in New York. It is experimental, and often improvised.

1950s Rock and roll de\ elops as a social dance, mainly for teenagers.

in Europe and the US.

1970s Disco dancing is popular

1952 Merce Cunningham (born 1919), American dancer and choreographer, forms his own company. Ile uses natural mo\ ement to create a Rock-and-roll dancers, 1956

free- owing effect. 1945

1952

/

7

1 9 7 6 Tw y l a T h a r p (born 1942), American tlancer, choreographs Push Comes to Shove. 'Eharp uses elements of many other styles in her dances.

1990s DV8 and

1980sBreakdancing

and body-popping are born. Dancers spin

other companies design dances for

their backs and

;heads, and imitate robotic

television as well as stage.

m o v e m e n t s , e

'●■-w 'l he.se styles appear in other media, such as lm.

Break dancing

I)V8 Physical Theatre

1976 K

N?

'

»s?

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People have been dancing since prehistoric times. Over

1

®

Dance

f

^

DANCE

6T

f

i

Ballet

Ballet and

V

The three main

styles of ballet are Romantic, Classical,

Ballet is acombination

and modern. The

of music, dance, and mime,

style of ballet is usually re ected in the type of

with set steps and techniques. Modern dance developed from

costume that the d a n c e r s w e a r.

it as afreer, more natural form.

W

Most Romantic ballets feature spirits and magic. Dancers often wear white, calf-length dresses.

The FIVE POSITIONS

Modern dance

In ballet there are

In the late 1800s, Isadora Duncan and Loie

ve basic

positions for the arms, and ve for the feet.

t

Positions of the arms Second, fourth, and fth positions have variations, c.g. in (iemi-seconde, the arms arc raised half-way between

Virst position

s

i n n o v a t o r.

pioneered

developed.

of dance notation: Benesh and Laban. The

Benesh method, which is usually used for ballet, was devised by Rudolf (1916-75) and Joan Benesh (born 1920). Labanotation,

named after Rudolf von Laban (see p.l69), is mainly used to record modern dance.

^choreography. was

Top of head

Wstar the

' D a n c e

Ballets Russes.

Company).

JV techniques are 8^ .still being a

Like music, dance is written down using asystem of symbols. There are two forms

and innovative

■H e

X

Dance notation

athletic style

I R a m b e r t

modem dance

'

●'modem dance.

famous for his

I(now the

Third position

-

Today, new

(

\

D u n c a n

Russian Classical dancer, was

Rambert

t.A

modem dance

-

Isadora

Vaslav Nijinsky (1890-1950)

Ballet

A

darmrs usually wear simple costumes.

was alater

Many dancers have become choreographers and teachers, passing their style and skills on to others.

founded the

Second position

In modem ballets,

wear short dresses, called tutus,

to show off their footwork.

■ t

Fuller (see p.l69) felt ballet movements were unnatural, and developed anew, freer style. Martha Graham and Merce Cunningham (see p.l69) are the two most famous dancerchoreographers of the modern dance movement.

Marie Rambert {1888-1982) Polish teacher and dancer,

In Classical ballets, dancers

Twyla Tharp (see p. 169)

Famous 20th century dancers

rst and

second positions.

-

STYLES

MODERN DANCE

Top of shoulder Waist

Fourth position Positions of the feet

Margot Fonteyn (1919-91)

Arthur Mitchell (born 1934)

British, and Rudolf Nureyev (1938-93),

A m e r i c a n d a n c e r. I n 1 9 6 9 h e founded the Dance 'fheater

^Russian,

Fifth position O

Almost every movement danced

in aballet begins and

Aformed the 9world’s most ^famous and most popular partnership.

Crand plie in Benesh notation

of Harlem, the

rst dance

company with only black dancers.

This grand plie (a deep knee bend) is recorded (right) in two forms of dance notation.

ends with one of

the

' a

ve positions

of the feet.

First position

1

9 1 /

,

Ballet records M O S T C U R TA I N C A L L S

was 89, taken by Margot Fonteyn and Rudolf Nureyev after aperformance of Swan Lake in Austria in 1964.

Second position

Third position MOST EXPENSIVE COSTUME

I

v-. 1

Fourth position

Fifth position

Choreography Choreography is the art of designing and devising the steps of aballet or dance routine. The term comes from the ancient

Greek words khoreia (dancing) and graphos (writing). Choreographers -the people who devise dance routines -

work with dancers to compose a dance sequence, then record it using notation.

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170 1

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.

ARTS AND THE MEDIA

Famous ballets Title

La Sylphide

Choreographer Filippo Taglioni (1777-1871), Italian

1832

Lev Ivanov (1834-1901), Russian

1892

Swan Lake

Lev Ivanov and Marius Petipa (1818-1910), French

1895

Manon

Kenneth MacMillan (1929-93), British

1974

Ballet facts

(see p.l61), the costume fetched $42,000 at auction in 1984.

regularly wears out about ten pairs of pointe dao&'s, each month.

Barre Fhe bar that

dancers use to help them balance during exercises

●Aballerina who dances

●During the average-length career, dancers practise for eight hours aday, six days aweek: in total, about ve-and-a-half years.

Feet feat

Pas de chat Ajumping step Pas de deux Adance .

X

First danced

Nutcracker

was made for the part of the Chinese conjurer in Parade. premiered in Paris in 1917. Designed by Pablo Picasso

Ballet terms

Grand plie in Labanotation

British dancer

% for two people (male ^

Wayne Sleep

and female), usually the principals

(born 1948) achieved six

Pirouette A

A

Battement Abeating movement of the leg (many forms)

complete .360° turn on one leg

Corps de ballet T'he chorus of dancers (those not dancing solo roles)

Plie Akncc-bcnding movement

,Tete Ajump from one leg to the other

the toes (female dancers)

r

Pas de deux

Pointe On the points or the tips of

entrechats in 1973,

crossing and uncrossing his legs six times while still in the air.

Traditional world dance Mos'l' COUNTRIES OF the world have atraditional form of dance that has evolved over many

years. These dances have often developed from simple religious or tribal rituals into

SOUTHEAST ASIA Classical dance is

performed by highly

European folk dancers

ASIA

part of theatrical dance drama, e.g. (Chinese opera. Japanese gcigaku and hugaka

Most East Asian dance forms

are the world’s oldest forms of traditional court dance.

themselves into atrance as a

way of communicating with spirits and gods. 'I’hey may perform acts that would normally be dangerous, but

Polynesian ●. dancer

Indian Unnple dancer I N D I A

Indian classical dance developed from religious rituals in which dancers told stories about the lives of the gods. There are six styles of dance, including katJwkali and bharata natyam.

includes Sun- and

Moon- worshipping, weapon, fertility, and hunting dances.

Low-down limbo Caribbean limbo dancers can

Country

42

off the ground.

Maypoie

England

The maypole is afertility object symbolizing atree. People danoe around it, holding ribbons that represent branches.

Weapons

Worldwide

The use of weapons, e.g. swords, clubs, and shields, dates back to religious ceremonies in which the gods were asked for help in battle.

Snakes

N. America

The Hop! people use snakes in their

Worldwide

rain dances. Snakes are believed to be

Dance facts

brothers of the spirits that control

●In North Africa, belly dancers are judged

clouds and rain.

bv how well they move their shoulders.

Dancers often wear or use

●Judges at Irish jigging contests sit under the stage to assess the speed and precision of the dancers’ steps.

Indian dancers.

●The cakewalk was the

FA S T E S T TA P D A N C E

was 32 taps per second by Englishman Stephen Gate (born 1967), in 1990.

●Between 1910 and 1920, animal dances

LONGEST CONGA

such as the chicken scratch and the

was the Miami Super Conga in

control over their facial muscles that

grizzly bear were popular in the US. Not everyone approved: awoman was

1988, which consisted of

119,986 people.

f®

they can laugh

m

with one side of

rst African-

American dance to be taken up by white Americans. It developed from dance competitions where the prize was usually acake.

Dance records

take up to four hours to apply their makeup. They have such

pass underneath bars as low as 6in (15cm)

Signi cance

instruments to accentuate the rhythm of adance, e.g. castanets in Spanish amenco; bells worn by olassical

Katliakali dancers

ancestors, and gods.

Native American

Props (items in addition to costume that adancer mayuse) are important in many traditional dances. Prop

goodwill of spirits,

% d a n c e r

Dance props

Instruments

Face facts

ceremonies to win the

Most African dance has its roots in tribal rituals. It

which leave them unharmed.

Barong dancers in Bali strike themselves with daggers lohile in atrance.

dance at special

Polynesian culture. Women often swing and rotate their hips rapidly,

dancer

folk dances have their roots in

In many cultures, people dance

Native Americans

role in traditional

AFRICAN DANCE

EUROPEAN DANCE Many traditional European

Trance dances

AMERICAN DANCE

Dance plays an important

hand movements.

Japanes d a n c e r EAST

religious rituals. For example. dancing in acircle probably originated from circling around an object of worship.

P O LY N E S I A N D A N C E

e.g. in the Hawaiian hula.

trained artists. Dancing is slow, with complex

complex dance forms with set movements.

jailed for 50 days for doing the turkey trot, m -“T

the

\ ■ '

adance that was of cially denounced by Va t i c a n .

their face and cry w i t h t h e o t h e r. ¥

●Flamenco dancers can tap their heels at a rate of up to 16 taps per second.

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171 -

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TRADITIONAL WORLD DANCE

A RT S A N D T H E M E D I A

Musical sounds and notation

Music

Most Western music is based on major and minor scales -traditional patterns of pitches that sound pleasing to the ear. Composers write down these pitches using notation -acode of signs and symbols that enables a musician to interpret and play amusical composition.

From aPRiMrrivK

war cry to the complex sound of

of notes. The key signature shows which key the music is in.

orchestra, music

Allegro

has been created

Anatural sign cancels the

Apiece of music is divided into measures, each with

preceding sharp

the same number of beats.

When more than two notes

or

The bar line shows where

are played together, the tones

particular note.

at on that

the measure ends.

produced are called achord.

/

by every known society. Vibrations

note that indicate anote should be

raised by ahalf step (sharp) or lowered by ahalf step ( at).

The tempo marking tells the musician how /fast the music should go. Allegro means fast.

Akey is arelated set

asymphony

Sharps and ats are signs before a

Rests show the The

m

ve horizontal

lines are called the staff.

are the source of

all musical sound.

The clef, here a^ treble clef, shows

Dynamic markings tell the player how loud or soft to play

of the staff.

S C A L E

letters: A, B, D, K, F, and G. This series of letters

to be silent.

The stem and coloring of anote indicate its length. These are eighth notes.

Sfoizando means that the note should

be played loudly with special emphasis.

The time signature shows the number of beats in ameasure

the music. ?/(/'stands for iiu^o-forle, or

Pitches arc named from low to high using seven

I

S

mf

which pitches are represented by the lines and spaces

musician where, and for how long,

This sign, called aaescendo, indicates

and which type of note gets one beat.

moderately loud.

that the music becomes gradually louder.

is repeated as the notes continue to ascend in pitch. Pitches lying in between the staff's lines and

spaces are shown using sharp (#)

and at ([.) signs.

Ill III

Cmajor notes

i

on staff

H S r

One octave (eight notes) of the scale of Cmajor

E

G D

F

G

A

B

correspond to white keys on the keyboard.

C

C

Musical words

Time signatures

Pianissimo (pp) Very soft

Time

D

E

F

G

A

2

Mezzo-piano (mp) Medium soft

4

Mezzo-forte (mf) Medium loud

3

Meaning

E

Cmajor scale. White key on keyboard

Grave \’crs' slow and solemn 2beats per measure; quarter note =1beat

Twinkle, twinkle little star; Beethoven's Fifth Symphony

Adagio .Slow and leisurely

Happy Birthday: My Country Tis of Thee

Allegretto Moderately fa.st

Forte if) Loud

4

Fortissimo (ff) Very loud

4 4

4beats per measure; quarter note =1beat

Auld Lang Syne:

6 8

6beats per measure; eighth note =1beat

For He’s aJolly Good Fellow Pop Goes the Weasel

Crescendo (cresc.) Getting louder

D

some of the notes of the

Largo Very slow and broad

Examples

3beats per measure; quarter note =1beat

Forte-piano (fp) Loud then suddenly soft

C

notes that lie between

Te m p o m a r k i n g s

signature

Piano (p) Soft

B

Black keys represent the

Andante Moderately slow

Allegro Fast and brisk Vivace Lively and quiek

America the Beautiful

Presto Very fast Prestissimo Extrcmelv fast

Diminuendo (dim.) Getting softer Dolce Sweetly

World music eacts

Legato Smoothly

●Indian music uses patterns of notes called ragas. There are about 1,30 commonly used ragas, and each one has a special association. It can be an emotion, atime of day, or aseason of the year.

Leggiero Lightly Pizzicato (pizz.) Marking for stringed in.struments meaning that the player should pluck the string

Accelerando (accel.) Accelerate or speed up

Name

Sforzando (sf) Note or chord played loudly, with special emphasis

J J

Quarter note

changing tones of their language.

re

Rest

O

Half note

use it to recreate the

Staccato Short, separated notes

Sign

Whole note

●Strings on one African drum can vary the tension in the drum-head to produce different notes. Players can

Ritardando ( t.) or rallentando Slow down

Con brio With

Note values

Eighth note

7

16th note

T'

32nd note

Nigerian "lallJug” dnun

725 Orchestra der eloped 1480 F'irst in China. Tliese oreliestra.s printed mu,sic

Dates in music history C.4000 B.C. Flutes and

A.D.

600

Schola

harps played in Egypt.

C a n t o r u m

included iites, guitars, goiigs, and drums.

founded

Egyptian tomb painting showing court musicians

in Rome. 'This

/

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o

group of poets and

f

Traditional Chinese orchestra 7

2

5

1480

1709 Early pianoforte built by Italian Bartolomeo Cristofori

(1655-1731). 1727 German J.S.

musicians -in

Bach (1685-1750) composes choral work

Florence, Italy.

S/. Matthew' Passion.

Early music friuted from rawed woodhlochs.

,-v

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the Cameratd -a

h U

order of Pope Gregor\' the Great (c.540-604). A.D.60

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CO be developed by

.'4

^' founded on the

developed into its early form in Europe.

1600s Opera begins

- 1

-— was an early ; music school,

- /

in Europe.

1553 Violin design

1553

1600

J.S. Bach 1709

1727

;

MUSIC

Musical groups Groups range from duos, which have two performers, to symphony orchestras, which contain up to 120 (see p.l74). Most classical music groups play written music. Jazz groups take atheme and invent

Major composers in western music Nationality, dates

Composer

Flemish, c.1400-74

Church music and secular pieces

Josquin des Pres

Flemish, c.1445-1521

Choral church and secular music

variations on it as they play.

Giovanni Palestrina

Italian, c.1525-94

Choral church and secular music

D u o

William Byrd

English, 1543-1623

Church music, string music, keyboard music, and madrigals

In aduo, one player usually plays a brass, string, or

Claudio Monteverdi

Italian, 1567-1643

Orfeo (1607), Vespers {1610)

wind

Fleinrich Schtitz

German, 1585-1672

Symphoniae Sacrae (1650)

Jean Baptiste Lully

French, 1632-87

Operas, church compositions

Baroque (1600-1750)

instrument and tire other

Flenry Purcell

English, 1659-95

Dido and Aeneas (1689)

Antonio Vivaldi

Italian, 1678-1741

Four Seasons (1725)

Jean Phillippe Rameau

French, 1683-1764

Castor and Pollux (1737)

Johann Sebastian Bach

German, 1685-1750

Brandenburg Concertos (1721), St. Matthew Passion (1727)

George Frederic Handel

German, 1685-1759

The Messiah (1741), Music for the Royal Fireworks (1749)

Classical (1750-1820) Joseph Haydn

Austrian, 1732-1809

London Symphonies: 1st set (1791-92)

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart

Austrian, 1756-91

Ludwig van Beethoven

German, 1770-1827

Symphonies No. 3(1802), No. 5(1809), and No. 9(1823)

Romantic 1820-1900 Franz Schubert

Austrian, 1797-1828

Piano Quintet in A(1819), "Un nished" Symphony No. 8(1822)

Hector Berlioz

French, 1803-69

Symphonie Fantastique (1830), The Trojans (1859)

Frederic Chopin

Polish, 1810-49

Piano compositions. Preludes (1839)

Franz Liszt

Hungarian, 1811-86

Piano Sonata in BMin (1853), Hungarian Rhapsodies (1839-85)

Richard Wagner

German, 1813-83

The Flying Dutchman (1841), The Ring of the Nibelung (1848-74)

Giuseppe Verdi

Italian, 1813-1901

Aida (1871), Requiem Mass (1873), Otello (1887)

Johannes Brahms

German, 1833-97

Violin Concerto in DMajor (1878), Symphony No. 4(1884)

Peter Ilyich Tchaikovsky

Russian, 1840-93

Piano Concerto No 1(1874-5), Swan Lake (1876)

Edvard Grieg

NonA/egian, 1843-1907

Piano Concerto in AMinor (1869), Peer Gynt (1876)

Edward Elgar

English, 1857-1934

Enigma Variations (1899), Violin Concerto (1910)

Modern 1900 to present Claude Debussy

French, 1862-1918

Pelleas and Melisande (1892-1902), Images (1905-07)

Arnold Schoenberg

Austrian, 1874-1951

First String Quartet (1897), Pierrot Lunaire (1912)

Bela Bartok

Hungarian, 1881-1945

Six String Quartets (1939), Concerto for Orchestra (1944)

women, who sing four

Igor Stravinsky

Russian, 1882-1971

The Firebird (1910), The Rite of Spring (1913)

parts. Most choirs sing Qj

Sergei Proko ev

Russian, 1891-1953

Romeo and Juliet (1935), Peter and the Wolf (1936)

Lili Boulanger

French, 1893-1918

Faust and Helene (1913)

George Gershwin

American, 1898-1937

Rhapsody in Blue (1924), Porgy and Bess (1935)

apiano. Pieces for two players are called duets.

Cello and piano duo

T r i o Trios have three

players. A string trio uses aviolin, viola, trios are written

for violin, cello, and piano. Quartet Jazz groups often use

quartets (groups of four players). String quartets contain two

violins, aviola, and acello.

Quintet Quintets use ve players and usually contain *

.ri

wind or brass instruments oi instruments

^

from different families.

!

Mixed quintet

93«€Ui?»

C h o i r

'if'-'

Achoir is agroup of

singers. Amixed voice

Piano Concertos in CMajor and DMinor (1785),

The Marriage of Figaro (1786), Don Giovanni (1787)

choir contains men and

religious music. Small church choir

LARGER GROUPS

●Large groups of wind, brass, and percussion players, called bands, play for

Dmitry Shostakovich

Russian, 1906-75

Symphonies No.5 (1937) and No.10 (1953)

outdoor concerts and military ceremonies.

John Cage

American, 1912-92

Music of changes (1951), 4' 33" (1954)

●Amedium-sized string group, often including afew wind instruments, is called achamber orchestra. Many composers have written for this group.

Pierre Boulez

French, born 1925

Le Marteau sans Maitre (1954), Memoriales (1975)

Karlheinz Stockhausen

German, born 1928

Groups (1955-57)

Philip Glass

American, born 1937

Einstein on the Beach (1976)

1874

folfgang A. Mozart (17.S6-91) amposes opera, Don Giovanni.

composer Richard

1808

German

Wagner (181.3-8.3) nishes The Ring of the Nibelung.

German

1940 Synthesizers appear, giving composers new electronic sounds.

c o m p o s e r

C.1900 Jazz music

Ludwig van

appears in New Orleans,

(1770-1827)

US. It combines

African rhythms with W e s t e r n h a r m o n y.

.Symphonies

1787

No..S and No.6.

1808

Ludwig van Beethoven

USv /if/r/v jazz music 1950

1874

195.S Roek m

u

s

i

c

appears in LLS.

Rock singer Chuck Hern

Beethoven

composes

he young Mozart lasing the piano

Off beat jean Baptiste Lully (16.32-87), court musician to Louis XIV of France, stabbed his foot with the long staff that he banged on the

oor in order to

keep his orchestra in time. Me later died from an abscess

caused by this injury.

N.-'

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173 fl

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London Symphonies: 2nd set (1793-95),

and cello. Piano

787 Austrian composer

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Major work(s), date(s) composed

Renaissance (1450-1600) Guillaume Dufay

ARTS AND 'I'HE MEDIA

Drums

Classical

Vi b r a p h o n e

PKRCUSSION

Symphony Symphonies arc pieces

MUSIC

of music written for a

full range of orchestral

When people 'piiink

Trombone

instruments. I'herc is no dominant soloist.

of classical music, most think of orchestras and

symphonies, and opera.

BRASS

Concerto

French horn

In aconcerto, asoloist is Tr u m p e t

accompanied by an orchestra. A concerto orchestra usually has fewer brass and percussion instruments, which allows the

WOODWIM)

Orchestra 'I'he orche.stra i.s

s o l o i s t t o b e h e a r d m o r e c l e a r l y.

the largest grouping of instruments in

STRINGS

classical music.

Double bass

STRINGS /

Harp

Strings sit in ,

small groups / called desks. L

\

\

3rd desk ol 1st violins

1st violins

Leader 1st violins

1st desk of 2nd violins

An orchestra usually contains about 90 people.

2nd desk of 2nd violins

Conductor

(principal violinist)

CONDUCTOR -A conductor direct.s

/ I

y

of the music. He or

she traces patterns through the air with abaton, according to the time signature of the piece.

Bouncing back

\

the performance, indicating the pace

\

In Tosca, the heroine jumps to her death from easric battlements. In 1960, angry stagehands backstage substituted a

Two beats

Three beats

Four beats

Five beats

trampoline for the usual mattress.

in

in abar

in

in

'Eosea reappeared ES times

abar

abar

Diafrram.s show (raditional halon movements.

Opera

abar

before the curtain fell. Madam Butter y sings soprano part.

Operas are musical dramas in which singers, accompanied by an orchestra, act out a story. They can be sung throughout, or sung and spoken.

ST^'-k

f '

Madam Hutterfh', amoving love story, was created by Puccini in 1904. It centers on aJapanese heroine, Madam Butter y, whose betrayal by an American sailor ends with her suicide.

US Navy Lieutenant F. B . P i n k e r t o n

sings tenor part.

Key opera SINGERS Tito (jiobbi

(191.S-84), Italian operatic baritone, made his debut in Rome in 1938.

Solos by major characters are called arias.

Royal Opera House

Kathleen Ferrier

(1912-53), Kngli.sh contralto singer, made her

production, London

debut as Lucrctia in

Opera facts ●'I'here are six commonly accepted ranges of voice. From lowest to highest these arc bass,

Key operas Title

The Marriage of Figaro

baritone, tenor, contralto,

me/./,o-soprano, and soprano. ●Many people believe that the quality of an opera singer’s voice improves with extra bodyweight. In fact, aperson’s weight is irrelevant: thin people may possess the

nest voices.

●Some people can identify the pitch of any note that they hear, without needing to refer to an instrument. 'This ability i.s called “perfect pitch.”

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174

Benjamin Britten’s The Rape of IMcretia \x\ 1946.

The Barber of Sevilie

Composer

1786

Gioacchino Rossini

1816 Rome

(1792-1868), Italian Otello

First performed

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-91), Austrian

Vienna

Luciano Pavarotti

(horn I9.LS), Italian operatic t e n o r, m a d e h i s international dehut as Rudolfo in Puccini's

Giuseppe Verdi (1813-1901), Italian

1887

Richard Wagner (1813-83), German

1876

Kir

Bayreuth, Germany

Carmen

Georges Bizet (1838-75), French

1875

(born 1944), New Zealand operatic soprano, made

La Boheme

Giacomo Puccini

1896

debut in 1971, as

(1858-1924), Italian

Turin, Italy

the Countess in

Benjamin Britten (1913-76), British

1945

The Ring of the Nibelung

Peter Grimes

Hohfme'm 1961.

Milan, Italy

Paris

i Te

Kanawa

her international

London

Moz arc’s The

M rrlage of bfgaro.

j

Popular music Many oifferen'p styles of music

COliNTRY

AND

DISCO

WESTERN-

In the 1970s, new

(Country and Western

music centered around

music takes its

the disco movement.

have evolved in the twentieth

inspiration from the country life of the

century. Here the most popular

American West. Its

It was promoted by lms such as Saturday Night /'VtiYrand by a

Western styles are described.

performers, often dressed as cowboys of the Old \\ cst, sing

FOLK

with the accent of

Ml.iSIC

In the 19th century,

southern I"S and are

America’s southern

accompanied by

black population, including transport

instruments such r c u M u S K o r

revival of interest in

1950s music by black artists such as James Brown (born 19.TD. Disco artists include

Johnny Cash The Johnny Cash Collection

as the banjo, ddle, and guitar. Performers include Hank Williams (born 1923), Johnny Cash (born 1932), and 'Tammy Wynettc (born 1942).

workers on the railroads

and riverboats, as well as cotton workers, sang

Saturday Night Fever

D o n n a S u m m e r.

Punk music exploded onto the scene at the close of the 1970s. led

songs at work, or at the end of the day. 'They created anew kind of

folk song in which they mixed the complex, overlapping rhythms

Album oj early AfricanAmerican songs

ROCK AND ROLL Rock and roll began in

by the British groups

the 1950s as amix of

'The Clash. It had a

rhythm-and-blues and country music and was played loudly on newly

savage character, and appealed to young people whose dre.ss, langtiage, and

T'he -Sex Pistols and

and free melodies of West African music with the

invented electric

harmonies of Western music. 'This combination

guitars, ’i'hough this style aro.se in black communities, white singer and guitarist Elvis Presley (1935-77) greatly increased its popularity.

behavior were

ROCK

dance rhythms. Major pop artists and groups

formed the foundation for music that would

dominate popular tastes during the 2()th century. B L U E S

'The blues express the troubles and emotions

1980s POP MUSIC

Pop music in the 1980s became lighter and

roll was abbre\ iated to

included Michael

“rock” music. Rock

Jackson, 'The Pet Shop Boys, Madonna, and Bryan T'erry. Pop videos, in which the music was accompanied Michael Jackson Tlnillcr by images, made it possible for aperformer to be seen on television by millions at the same time as

music has aheavy, driving rhythm, with eight eighth notes to Leadbelly L e a d b c l l v ’s L a s t S e s s i o n s

the bar and accents on the second and fourth

beats. Early rock bands included 'The Beatles, 'The Rolling Stones, Pink Floyd,'The Who, and 'The Jimi Hendrix Experience.

J A Z Z

Jazz emerged in the early 1900s in New Orleans, US, as a mixture of blues, religious gospel singing, and European in uences. Driven by the urgent rhythms of

ARMSTRONC

the release of their record.

'The Rolling Stones Their Satanic Majesties Request

1990s

POPULAR

M U S I C

Aspecialized form of dance music, called house music, emerged in the 1980s, based on \ery rapid rhythms and

REGGAE

West Indian reggae music was spread abroad bv West Indian

West African music

communities

and using the melodic style of the Blues, jazz Louis Annslrojig musicians improviseLaughing Louis they recreate the melody of apiece each time it is performed. This allows each player to

express their emotions through their special version of the music. Major artists of the “jazz age” of the

overseas.

electronic sounds. T'he

It is closely associated ^ with the Rastafarian

technology for making and mixing these sounds is now widely available to musicians,

k'

V

religion. Its most famous artist was Bob

Marley (1945-81), whose music calls for

4

\

‘ ■7 T

A

an end to racism and

political repression.

Bob Marin and The Wallers

Single

Performer/group

BIG

White Christmas

Bing Crosby

30,000,000

In the 19,30s and early 1940s, swing, aform of ja/.z, was played by “big bands,” under great

Rock Around the Clock

Bill Haley

17,000,000

/ W a n t t o H o l d Yo u r H a n d

The Beatles

12,000,000

bandleaders such as

I t ’s N o w o r N e v e r

Elvis Presley

10,000,000

Hound Dog/Don't Be Cruel

Elvis Presley

9,000,000

Diana

Paul Anka

9,000,000

Hey Jude

The Beatles

8,000,000

I’m aBeliever

The Monkees

8,000,000

Can't Buy Me Love

The Beatles

7,000,000

Do They Know It's Christmas?

Band Aid

7,000,000

AND

3... CHABUE PARKER

■'

bird

trumpeter Miles Davis (1926-91) and .saxophonist John Coltrane (1926-67).

Copies sold (approx.)

lives

Duke Ellington (1899-1974). Later, a new style emerged, called be-bop. It was pioneered by trtimpeter Chnrlif Ptirkrr Bird Lives Dizzy Gillespie (born 1917) and saxophonist Charlie Parker (1920-S,S). Hedrop led to more complex schemes of harmony. Major artists included

Orb

Blue

Room

since developed into the related styles of acid house, techno, trance, ambient, and jungle music.

Best-selling singles worldwide

BANDS

The

and their music has

1920s included American trumpeters Louis “.Satchmo” Armstrong (c.1898-1971) and Bix Beiderbecke (1903-31), and the orchestral composer George Gershwin (1898-1937).

BE-BOP

Damned

Damned, Damned, Damned

traditional tastes.

In the 19b0s, rock and

12 bars of music. The

variations.

The

designed to outrage

more concerned with

of the performer in a simple but strict form. 'The performer sets three lines of poetry to blues u.se abasic, .set pattern of harmonies (chords), over which the performer invents

The Bee Gees

'The Bee Cees and

P U N K

and listened to folk

Pop music records MOST

EXPENSIVE

G U I TA R

was aFender Stratocastcr belonging to Jimi Hendrix (1942-70). It was sold forS180,(l00 (U.S $27.S,940) at ■Sotheby’s, London, in 1990.

and His Comets

MOST

SUCCESSFUL

SONGWRITERS

are Patil McCartney (born 1942), who has had .32 number one singles in the US and 28 in the UK, and John Lennon (1940-80), with 26 number one singles in the U.S and 29 in the UK.

fi

175 fl

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POPULAR MUSIC

Stringed instruments

Musical instruments

Astringed instrument consists of aseries of

Violin bow

stretched strings connected to ahollow box that ampli es the string’s vibrations. The string is set in motion by being plucked, as with aharp; by the friction of abow, as with aviolin; or by being struck, as with apiano.

Musical ins erumen isare designed to make vibrations that our ears and

brain recognize as musical sounds. 'They are usually classi ed into percussion, stringed, woodwind, brass, and keyboard. Archaeologists excavating the sites of ancient /

Horse-

V'

F-shaped sound hole

Tuning peg

typical of

connected to

violin

4

family

hair

strings

each string

Carved

Ivory tuning

>

m

pegbox

peg Thinnest

string produces highest jnotes.

Alesopotamian cities (see p.375) /

Heart-

shaped sound hole

Triangular¬ shaped body

have found evidence for every j

\

Fish¬

basic instrument type. V I O L I N

instrument

f^Brd ige

supports strings.

the violin between the chin and the

shaped body

Spike to keep

/ j

'I'hc violin is the smnllcst stringed instrument. It also produces the highest sound. 'The player holds

steady —-

shoulder, drawing the bow across the strings to produce aclear tone. Frog provides grip for bow.

Mouthpiece

Hi

Iranian spike ddle, Middle

Russian

Portuguese rajao

balalaika

is afolk, music

Eastern ancestor of

uses two to four

the violin, typically has along neck.

strings and may sit on the ground.

instrument originating in Madeira, an island off North Africa.

/

with reed — S c r e w //

Upper octave key

Woodwind

Double ree

INSTRUMENTS

-.A

Awoodwind instrument i.s

Ornate

laquer

Pads lined

either atube that the player

Flute

decoratio

with cork and

blows acros.s or into or atube

blown

felt cover

through hole cut ;

Vi

toneholes.

that ampli es the vibrations

in side.,

of athin reed at one end.

Thumb _ knuckle

-Key to

Most woodwind instruments

Operate

\

f

operates

have holes running down the tube. 'I'he player covers and uncovers them to produce

Ring for -_neck sling

Bell projects ;

these

Openin

keys.

adjusted i by hand

50und-

to change

different notes.

n o t e .

emerged

head

/' I

r

from a gmnt

ute. Oboe,

Dragon

produces a deeper sound

or lung-ti tliite, i.s used

an orchestral Ilute

entertain

instrument, is with pircli

than astandard

in Chinc.se

used tir tunc controlled

the guests.

clarinet.

ceremonies.

the orchestra, by hand.

Guyanese

Brass instruments

THE

Brass instruments have a

instrument. It has changed vers' little since its invention and is the dominant instrument in many bands and orchestras.

TRUMPET

This trumpet is amodern version of the oldest brass I

\

I f 1

I

[ii

1

u

r~-\-

r

v

i

Cup-shaped mouthpiece allows variety of

the pitch of the

notes to be

note to be

Water key drains trumpet of

made with lips.

changed.

c o n d e n s e d w a t e r.

brass section

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Detachable

176 fi

H.iae..

Te n o r

horn

1780s horn

is adescendant

is coiled for

of the bugle.

case of playing.

French

Serpent horn

Pistons enable

,Mouthpiece

xed together and taken apart after u.sc.

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-i-’.

pie to

Alto clarinet

bra.ss sections that are

fl

In 1454, French knights from

20 musicians

is atrumpet used in Islamic religious festivals. It is 5ft (1.5m) long and is made from

g

Pied pipers

dragon’s

the instrument itself, hut by the

n

L

wooden

metal. It can produce aharsh, raw tone, but it also carries asmooth, lilting melody with great sensitivity. Clarinettists may easily play the saxophone since they share acommon type of reed.

nftr

bend is then sliced off.

tube for sound

woodwind instrument made of

Moroccan

them into astaple {cork tube). 'Fhe

Curved

deep

ute, i.s a

player’s lips pressed against this mouthpiece. The player alters the pitch by changing the tension in the lips, and by changing the length of tubing tiirough wliich the vibrating air passes.

ends of abent strip of cane and tting

which more than

Carved

S A X O P H O N E

mouthpiece shaped like afunnel. Vibrations are produced not by

REED

Adouble reed is made by binding the

Fleece held abanquet in

thumb to support instrument body.

'The saxophone, like the

DOUBLE

the Order of the Golden

'}

Holder uses

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ARTS AND THE MEDIA

Decorative

carrying cord

horn

has awide ared bell.

has two sets of

ngerholcs.

MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS

Percussion Crash cymbal loosely tted to

INSTRUMENTS

allow vibrations

Percussion instruments

III

DRUM KIT Adrum kit consists of different types

of drums and cymbals. 'I'he player uses both hands and feet to operate it.

are played by being To m - t o m

struck, rubbed, or

drums

High-hat

shaken; they usually provide the rhythmic

1

uses two

cymbals.

Ride cymbal Snare

beat in an instrumental

group. 'They include snare drums, bass drums, tambourines,

^Floor t o m - t o m

Key to adjust height

cymbals, gongs, castanets, maracas, tom¬

Egyptian

Oriental gong i.s .struck in the

Nigerian gourd

Chinese

darabuka

is an example of the goblet drum popular in many

center to cause the

rattle

d r u m

rattle

frreatest vibrations.

.Arab countries. Gourd

toms, timpani, bells, the xylophone, celesta, marimba, vibraphone,

V \

Tambourine / has cymbals ®

and chimes.

4

bass

drum bass

pedal

Keyboard INSTRUMENTS

set into frame, wiiieh sound “

with resonating gourd.

when shaken.

drum

covered

gives deep

beater

thud.

Keyboard instruments have an arrangement of levers or keys that

Brazilian berimbau

Most expensive INSTRUMENTS

Raised lid _

gives fuller Instrument

sound.

activate the sonrcc of sound. I’heir

Date

Va l u e

made

popularity arose from acapacity to play melody and accompaniment at the same time. 'The three major keyboard instruments are the pianoforte or piano, the harpsichord, and the organ.

“Mendelssohn"

1720

1,382,766

“Cholmondeley” cello by Stradivari

1698

950,460

“Bonjour” cello by Stradivari

1690

927,465

duration of

Violin by Joseph

1743

797,160

sound.

del Gesu 1709

659,190

1712

539,616

1715

339,560

0.1750

339,560

“Monlagnana" violin by D. Montagnana

1741

314,265

Jimi Hendrix’s

1968

275,940

,iron frame

violin by Stradivari Hammers

Left or soft

Right or sustaining pedal controls

pedal moves hammer nearer

PIANOFORTE

to strings, allowing softer

Tbc kcy.s of apianoforte manipulate feltcovercci hammers. These strike wire

tone.

strings, causing them to resonate. The player can sound many notc.s at once and can vary tbc loudness of individual notes.

\Tuning pins

“Marie Hall” violin Strings plucked by wooden jacks.

88-note keyboard

by Stradivari “Schreiber” violin Wooden

by Stradivari

soundboard

Ji ISquare mpianoforte HJ made in

^England in i1773.

Electronic

Italian spinet

Violin by Pietro

of 1550s used

Guarneri

afour“Ex-Kosman”

o c t a v e

violin by G. Guadagnini

k e y b o a r d

Electronic

INSTRUMENTS The electronic synthesizer creates sound by arti cial means. It changes electric impulses into sound, and every aspect of the sound can be controlled. I'he synthesizer player can generate virtually any sound imaginable, from those of the natural world or of

traditional instruments, to new,

unique, “space-age” sounds.

keyboard can change a sound wave to

produce a great variety

Stratocaster guitar

of sounds.

Futuristic V-shaped wooden body

Drum pad cniits electric

signal when struck, to produce electronic

Pickups that convert

drum sound.

string vibrations into electrical impulses.

Output socket

Music facts ●Italian violinist Niccolo

●In 1846,

●The drum used on British

Paganini (1782-1840) was the

Belgian

most skilled violin virtuoso of

instrument

the 19th century. He was the

maker

explorer Sir Francis Drake’s ship hangs in Buckland Abbey, England. It is believed to roll by

Adolphe Sax

itself when

invented the

England

saxophone.

faces

fastest violinist in the

world, playing his own Mouvement

-.I’l Perpetue! in tliree

ii.

i

"

Cristofori (1655-1731) .The

rst

iron-framed piano appeared in 1859.

danger, it

minutes, three

●'I'he harmonica is the world’s

was last

seconds. This

most popular instrument. In

heard in

translates as 12

1965, more than 28 million

World War I

were sold in the US.

(1914-18).

notes per second.

●In 1709, the rst piano was built by Italian Bartolomeo

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3000 B.C. The

Writing

Egyptians invent a

%

form of writing using picture signs called hieroglyphs. I'hey

The rst wre ng began as a

j

poet Sappho, from the Greek island of Lesbos, composes lyrical poetry on themes of love

Egyptian hieroglyphs '>■

'Greek poet Sappho t j -

2000 B.C.

O

'

600 B.C.

is written as aconversation

writes

paper, which they _

woodblock-

between Arjuna and Krishna.

biography. Parallel Lives,

100

A.D.

rst

105

868

The

printed book, with woodcut

which details

pulp of bers from mulberry

the lives of

trees. 'Phey keep \

Greek

invention asecret

.soldiers.

for 600 vears.

Plutarch (A.D.46-119)

illustrations, is y

the Diamond

Sutra, printed in Ghina.

Making paper A.D.105

A.D.868

Wm =;

1605 Miguel de Cervantes : u

BSf.?

1719 Englishman (1547-1616) writes Don Quixote, Daniel Defoe acomic satire about the travels (1660-1731) writes Robinson Crusoe. Defoe of an elderly Spanish knight. is one of the

rst

170 bibles.

1 6 9 7 F r e n c h a u th o r C h a r l e s p e o p l e to w r i t e m a j o r

1593 William

Perrault writes Tales of Mothe

Shakespeare writes one of his rst plays, The Taming of the Shrew.

1007-1320

A.D.

make from the

A.D.100

(c.1397-1468) invents printing by movable typo. First printing is

to record the oral part of their history as astory. This is known as asaga.

Pitcher.

earliest known

the Heian eoiirt of Japan. It is the

1190-1320 Wi-iters in Iceland begin

The Crow and

wedge-shaped pen used for writing.

Chinese invent

Gutenberg

Khayyam writes the The Rubaiyat.

Cried IKo^and

named after the

Plutarch

C.1450 Johann

1048-1123 Persian poet Omar

of The Hoy Who

A.D.

500-200 B.C.

rst novel.

writer Aesop composes his fables, including the storv

500 B.C. The most famous Hindu text, the B/uigavad-Cita,

1007 Murasaki Shikibu (973-1014) writes The Tale of Genji, based on life in world’s

600 B.C. Greek

Sumerian epic

3000-2000 B.C.

200 B.C. Parchment (the skin of sheep or goats created to make asmooth surface) is invented in the Greek city of Pergamum. Parchment is used in the West for 1,000 years.

and jealousy.

1

from papyrus reed.

and to learn about the world. 610-580 B.C. Female

2000 B.C.

poem GUgomes is recorded on 12 clay cablets using cuneiform, ascript

TP:- ^

write on scrolls made

way to keep accounts and to record details of history. Today people read books for pleasure

1450

works of literature in

Goose, acollection of oral folk tales that includes Cinderella

Gutenberg bible

and Beauty and the Beast.

1593

1605

(

an “ordinary” or natural style. Early cetpy q/'Robinson Crusoe

1697

1719

V

1800s Charles

Dickens’s novel. The Old Curiosity Shop, is published a chapter amonth.

1847 Charlotte Bronte

1837 First book for the blind, A Summary of French History, Century by Century, is printed using braille,

yNXMcsJaneF.yre, alove story that breaks the rules of Victorian society. She uses the pseudonym of Currer Bell, since it is still unacceptable for

asystem of raised dots invented bv Louis Braille (1809-52).

C r o w d s a t N e w Yo r k docks shout “is Little Nell Dead.^”

as ship arrives with the next installment. Scene with Little Nell

1 8 4 1 A m e r i c a n a u t h o r, E d g a r Allan Poe (1809^9), creates 'The Murders in the Rue Morgue, which is the rst true detective story.

1800

1837

women to write

1873 First typewriter in the

(1828-1905) writes AJourney to the Center of the Earth, which is

world is produced and sold by the American Remington C o m p a n y.

1 8 5 2 H a r r i e t B e e c h e r S t o w e ’s book. Uncle 'Tom's Cabin, draws attention to the injustice of slavery in the United States.

ction.

-7^ 'Charlotte Bronle (1816-55)

1841

1864 Jules Verne

the

1847

1901 French poet Sully Prudhomme (1839-1907) becomes rst person to win Nobel Prize for

(4

Scene from Uncle Tom’s C’abin

World War Isoldiers

1914-18 World War I.

shown in action

Agroup of English poets that includes Rupert Brooke, Wilfred Owen,

literature. His work includes The Broken Vase. \

She must not move \ before the gun is red, or afalse start is called.

9 9 9 Relay ●Kach of the four team members

runs one stage, or leg, of arelay. ●Abaton is carried by the rst runner and passed on to the next team member in atakeover zone.

●Adropped baton must be picked up by the runner who dropped it.

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, v

J

Average stride length of 2m

Front knee

Hf.

■^x The winner is the person

lifted high

crosses the nish line rst.

The take-over

4\ lOOM

tone

In this relay race, an athlete

whose torso, or trunk,

Baton length: 28-30cm

measures

B AT O N

22yd (20m)

The baton is asmooth, hollow cube made of wood, metal, or plastic.

stretches back his hand to cake the baton from his

I.

A

FBC

teammate, %

without looking behind him.

■

A'

4 X 4 0 0 M

I

fcN

/

\

In this relay race, an athlete will look back to receive the baton from her teammate.

I

^W-

/.

Hurdles

TECHNIQUE The athlete should clear each

●All races have ten hurdles

Thf athlete stays in mid ighl for as short atime as possible., to minimizi’ loss of speed.

hurdle quickly and smoothly.

in each lane.

In the 100m and 1K)m three strides between

/

disquali ed for knocking down

each hurdle

4

H

n

r

●An athlete’s rear

'f

leg must not trail

O jir Knee of lead /

Wooden bar is 1.2m wide.

Trail leg

fW leg is bent on approach.

around the outside

>

E

(

x\

hurdles.

of the hurdle.

{

hurdles the athlete takes

●An athlete is not


times their

arm’s length overhead (the jerk).

own body weight in the clean and jerk. Power lifters can lift more than 5 times their own body weight.

●At the end of the clean, the

lifter may rest the bar on the

As in the snatch, the

collarbones, chest,

or fully bent arms, and may change his grip.

Knees may be split or bent.

lifter can take any Imigth of time, oveithe recovery position.

●v4-

Snatch

J

The lifter must not let the bar touch his body until it has

Clea

reached his shouldms.

- - 4

and jer y During the clean the lifter must not let his elbozus or upper arms touch his knees or thighs.

Pozoer lifting

Record breakers FIRST

MAN

TO

CLEAN

AND

.lERK

more than three times his own

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body weight was Stefan T’opurov (born 1964), of Bulgaria, who lifted 180kg in Moscow, USSR, in 1983.

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SPORTS

T

G E A R

Gymnastics

Men wear vests and long pants. They may \

wear shorts for the

Artistic

●There are two Olympic events; artistic gymnastics, and rhythmic gymnastics, which is for

oor and vault

exercises. Women wear leotards, and may

GYMNASTICS ●Gymnasts are awarded marks out of ten for their performances on various pieces of equipment. ●Women perform four types of exercise, men perform six.

●The gymnast must combine acrobatic agility and muscle power with grace of movement.

r

wear gA-mnastic slippers or go barefoot. Handguards may be worn for the ring

i

and bar exercises.

Gymnasts use achalky poxvder to keep their hands diy while using the apparatus.

/

women only,

BEA


QQ Rhythmic GYMNASTICS ●Gymnasts perform routines set to music, using small, hand-held pieces of equipment, which must be kept moving at all times. ●Balletic, rather than acrobatic, movements are

S '

bounces, throws and catches

Ribbon

Clubs The gymnast \throws, rolls, and juggles \with two clubs.

The gymnast

Adjustable wooden bars

provide plenty Length of bars:

ribbon form

*Height:

the air and

195cm

o o r.

throws and catches it.

Width between bars: 42cm

^Weighted

\Rope The gymnast Hoop The gymnast rotates

.of spring.

I

moving patterns in on the

1

350cm

makes the

the hoop around her, and

performed.

Ball The gymnast

BARS

This event is for men only. The gymnast performs swinging and balancing movements on the parallel bars.

circular

the pommel horse f~ with his hands. Q

jumps and skips while throwing and catching the rope.

I

metal frame \

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GYMNASTICS

SPORTS

M

Combat sports

A

●In combat .sports, competitors use either striking (e.g. boxing) or holding (e.g. judo) technitjues against their opponents. ●Some combat sports, such as fencing and kendo, use weapons.

A R E A

Weight table

Contestants must ght «ithin the contest area, and not step outside the danger zone.

Judo

The contest area is

●In judo (“the soft way”), competitors are judged on their throwing and holding technicpies. ●About can last for up to

9-1 Om X9-1 Om.

Danger zone

20 minutes. GRADING SYSTEM Contestants wear different-colored belts to show their grade. Black belt is usually the highest level reached, but

mule

or

off-white jacket and pants are.

Female

under 60kg

under 48kg

Feather

under 65kg

under 52kg

Light

under 71kg

under 56kg

Light-middle

under 78kg

under 61 kg

Middle

under 86kg

under 66kg

Light-heavy

under 95kg

under 72kg

Heavy

over 95kg

over 72kg

B O U T

w o r n .

there are even higher grades, awarded

Male

Bantam

Category

for length of service. Ared-and-white striped belt is worn by the sixth, seventh, and eighth E)an. Very few people have ever reached ninth and

T'he competitors are judged on their technitiues. An outright winning technitiLie scores an ippon (one point).

Contest area

tenth Dan.

An ippon is awarded for:

Belt

S TA R T

Grade 1

^

9-10th Dan

Lifting the opponent above shoulder height

('ompetitons

)

face each other at adistance of

1st-5th Dan

4m and take

1!

abow.

Aforceful throw

1st Kyu

An effective stranglehold or

2nd Kyu

hanimerloch

Judo words Dojo'i’raining hall.

Kyu Student grade. Senshu Champion

G E A R

Gake Hook or block.

competitor.

(a)ntestants wear

Hajime Referee's call to begin. Judo-gi Judo jacket and

Tsuri Lift up. Waza-ari I-Ialf apoint,

D a n L e a d e r o r t e a c h e r.

3rd Kyu

4th Kyu

loose- tting pants, w'ith ajacket w’hich is 5th Kyu

held in at the waist

t r o u s e r s .

with aeotton belt.

OTHER

MARTIAL

ARTS

awarded for aless than

Karate

clean technique.

Contestants aim punelies and kicks at their opponents. Aikido

The foil

Fencing

Competitors must wear white clothes that give freedom of movement and maxinnim protection.

●In fencing, two opponents compete in about using one of three weapons: foil, epee, or saber. ●About lasts until the agreed made, or until the time limit has been reached,

Ju Jitsu

A

f r

time limit of six

C e n t e r ■-

minutes.

line

/

As in judo, throws and holds are used in this self-defense sport. Kendo

Contestants in atmor

the head.

r

PISTE

In events using elect ron ic e(j uip men t, ametallic overjachet

is v’orn, to show xohen

line

ahit has been scored.

A

padde glove is wor on the sword¬

BOUT

.-\t the start, the opponents face each other, 4m apart, at the center of the piste. 4'hc president orders en garde, asks the players if they arc ready,

.

* . A

X

then calls allez to start about.

\

holding hand.

Weapons and target areas SABER

FOIL

EPEE

The target

The target

atea is the

area is the

upper body (A

trunk only.

whole body.

and arms.

The area

The area

The area must

must be

must be

be sttuck with

struck with

sttuck with

the point or with the blade edges.

the point of

the point of

the swotd.

the swotd.

ateaisthc ,

Max weight: 500g Blade length: 88cm

Max weight

A

500 Blad

770g II

,

U

:

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.

his atm outstretched.

■

Max weight

r Blade length:

-T^len^g.

198

In the attack, the fcncct thtcatens the tatget with

In the parry, the attacker’s sword is dcnected by the defender ’s sword.

*j

^ In the riposte, the defender makes aquick return thrust after the parry.

j^

90o ^

m

The tatget

Ns

i

N FENCING

On-guard

ght

with bamboo swords.

K

I

The fencing area (piste) measures 14m X2m. j

I

off balance.

Amash made of vE steel or plastic ,mesh is worn to ^ protect

number of hits have been

e.g. ve hits within a

Flowing mo\ ements are used to thrown the opponent

G E A R

GEAR

Boxing weights

Boxers wear padded, laeed-up leather gloves.

Boxing ●In boxing, competitors use their gloved hands to punch each other

Professional

Categories

Professional boxers amateurs wear shorts and avest. The shorts

are loose- tring and

●Fights can be won on points, or because the opponent is counted out, retires, or is judged un t to continue.

traditionally made of

Amateur

●satin. The “belt” of

boxers wear

the shorts must be a

headshields

eontrasting eolor, since hitting below the belt

Ri.\g

Mini yweight/ straw weight

105

47.6

Light

108

49

48

Flyweight

11 2

50.8

51

Super

11 5

52.2

Bantamweight

11 8

53.5 55.3 57.2

yweight

yweight

c

o

r

n

e

r

54

Super bantamweight

122

Boxing hoots are

Featherweight

126

liglilweight; they provide sappoii for

Super featherweight

130

59

Lightweight

135

61.2

60

Light welterweight/ super lightweight

140

63.5

63.5

Welterweight

147

66.7

67

Super welterweight/ Light middleweight

154

70

71

Middleweight

160

72.6

75

Super middleweight

168

76.2

Light heavyweight

175

79.4

tall amt R e d

kg

kg

is against the rules.

Contests are held in asquare “ring” surrounded by ropes. Neutral corner

Amateur

lb

wear shorts only,

in speci c areas of the body.

the boxer's antdes and allow him to

move qaiekty around the ring. Blue corner

Agumshield is

/worn to protect

'the mouth.

Hands are bandaged underneath the gloves for extra protection. Maximum size; 20ft square.

He may aim for the

side of the head.

Bout 'I'he boxer must aim for the

He must

front or sides of his opponent’s trtink, and the front or sides of the head. Points arc given for good hits, and, in

not hit

below the xoaisL

57

81

Cruiserweight

190

86.2

Fleavyweight

over 190

over 86

.

91 over 91

Super heavyweight

professional boxing, for defensir^e mor es and style. Knock-down The boxer must strike abloiu

In aknock-down, a

Fighting

count of ten begins. If

'fhe longest boxing

the fallen boxer

using the knuckle part of the glove.

the

.Andy Bowen fought Jack Burke

ght. If he rises,

referee to be

goes

ght

wrestlers must not use their legs or

Sumo wrestling

grip an opponent below the hips.

●Ritual and tradition play an important part in Sumo wrestling.

M A T

●Points are awarded for

The contest circle, which includes the red band, is 9m in diameter. Red c o r n e r

Wrestlers wear one/

piece leotards that leave upper chest

/m

Wr e s t l i n g surface N,

and shoulders bare. wears red, and the

c o r n e r

other blue. Wrestlers must

not oil or grease their bodies. Wrestling boots are tall and lightweight, have no heels, rings or buckles.

●Bouts are won by pushing an opponent out of the ring, or by making him touch the ground with any part of his body other ●Pushes, slaps, and holds are the main techniques.

Wrestling weights

Rice is tlmnvn

Category

up at the beginning of the bout.

Weight limits in kg

1

48

2

52

3

57

Aloincloth

wrapped 62

The main aim in wrestling is to achieve a“fall,” by forcing the opponent's shoulder blades

4 5

6 8

onto the mat for one

6

7 4

7

82

referee

to

to

himself tom her

is

w o r n t o o

around the waist

second, or for as long as it takes the

}●

SU.MO GRADINGS

.Sumo wrestlers are graded according to skill, not weight. There are ten grades: .lonokuehi Novice

Komusubi Second

.lonidan Quali ed

grade junior champion Sekivvake Junior champion Ozeki Champion

Sandamne

Lower

jtinior Makushita

Leading jtinior .luryo (Contender

Maegashira Senior

Yo k o z u n a

Grand

champion

than the soles of his feet.

/

One competitor

=●●-.5

on.

Greco-Roman.

GEAR

‘Tf.

n a l l y d e c l a r e d a d r a w.

●In Greco-Roman contests,

successful moves and holds.

.

over 110 rounds, and the match was

t to

continue, the

Wrestling

ght on record

count ends, he loses

cannot rise before the

●There are two Olympic wrestling events: freestyle and

t

lasted 7hours, 19 minutes and was held in New Orleans, US, in 1893.

and is judged by the

and

Heavy weights 'Fhe heaviest Sumo wrestler

weighs .S.Sllb (250kg): equal to the total average weight of four teenage boys. This is about twice the weight of the heaviest world champion boxer, and almost twice the

behoeen

maximum weight

the legs. i

i

8

9 0

9

100

10

130

s

permitted foranOly

V

' v r c s t l e r.

IT lb Wrestler

Sumo wrestler

/hi ^'V

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COMBAT SPORTS

SPORTS

COURT

Court games

Baseline

'I'ennis can be played

indoors and outdoors. Height of net:

/

I'lie court surface may be 3ft 6in

grass, wood, clay, or

Te n n i s

G E A R

arti cial.

Traditionally, clothing is white, though today the only

●'The aim is to hit aball over the net with aracket so that it

professional tournament

lands inside the court, and

court

\

Wimbledon, England.

cannot be returned.

service Doubles sideline

that insists on white is

●T court V .

The gear, which is similar in a "court sports,

●Amatch is divided into sets

Length of court: 78ft

is ashirt and

and ends when one player has won three sets (for men) or two

shorts for men,

Singles sideline

and ashirt and

sets (for women). ●Each set is divided into

Icnnis racket frames arc made from wood, metal, or a

/

I

The maximum length and width of the strung surface is

R A C K E T

skirt, or adress, ,for wotnen.

1 5 . 5 X 11 . 5 i n .

com bination

games, and aplayer must win at least six games, and have a

B A L L

of materials,

'Ten nis

two-game lead, to win aset.

Maximum length

balls are yellow or white. T'hey weigh

and width of the whole

●Atie-breaker is used if the set

reaches six-all: the rst player to score seven or more points, with atwo-point lead, wins. ●Amatch lasts for amaximum of ve sets for men and three sets for women.

Wristbands are

racket is 32 x12.5in.

worn for wiping the

n

Rubber-

keeping palms dry.

soled shoes

«i 7/if' racket

arm is fully outstretched Socks are cushioned to

protect soles and heels.

The ball is Ihrozon uf) and to the right of the leading shoukUr. (m

The racket arm is bent bock behind the neck.

f

SCORING AGAME

After scoring 4points aplayer wins agame. But, if the players tic at 3 points each (that is, 40-all, ox deuce), play continues until one player has a2-point lead.

about 2oz.

/

t

forehead and

The weight is thrown forward.

zvhen hitting the hall.

f

In the follow-through, the racket arm comes across

the body. S E R V I N G

-.

.-a

4'hc player sen-es

4.

behind the baseline. He throws the ball in the air and hits it before it

touches the ground. 'Lhc

Scoring agame Points

Score

0

love

1

15

2

3 0

3

4 0

ball must clear the net

without bouncing and touch ground in the opposing service court.

/

il Backhand Forehand drive

'This basic stroke is

The player receiving the

'I'his is the most natural basic

less instinctive than

serve must let the ball

groLindstrokc in the game. A right-handed playci

the forehand drive.

bounce once before

In the follozuthrough, the fully extended.

left side.

net or passes outside the net post, as long as it Ihe leading

lands in the opposing

player’s side

shoulder is

The ball is hit once

turned azoay

it is to the front of the right foot.

from the ball.

of the court.

'The shoulders turn as the racket

swings back.

'The zveight is pul onto the front foot.

Martina Navratilova

Record breakers RECORD NUMBER OF WIMBLEDON SINGLES TITLES

held is nine, bv Martina Navratilova, US (born in the

Wimbledon

at Wimbledon is Boris Becker, Germany (born 1967), who won the singles title in 1985, aged 17.

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t o u r n a m e n t s .

MOST SINGLES CHAMPIONSHIPS

YOUNGEST .MALE CHAMPION

fi

Players who achieve the “grand slam” hold, all in the same year, the singles titles at these four major

former Czechoslovakia in 1956). won in grand slam tournaments is 24, by Margaret Court, Australia (born 1942),

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Grand slam

To u r n a m e n t

United States Open Australian Open French Open

Place

Surface

Te n n i s w o r d s

London, UK

Grass

Ace .A ser\ icc beyond

Rally Along series of

t h e r e a c h o f t h e r e c c i t ' c r.

hits.

Flushing Meadows, New York, US

Arti cial material

Advantage T’he rst point scored after deuce.

Kooyong stadium, Melbourne, Australia

Synthetic

Roland Garros stadium, Paris, France

Clay

grass

Let Aserve tltar scrapes the top of tile net before landing in the correct court; it is irlaycd again.

Seedings List showing vvliere aplayer is expected to nish in a t o u r n a m e n t .

Straight-sets Winning the match without losing a s e t .

f

racket arm is

Aright-handed player plays it on his

returning it. .A return is still plays it on his good if the ball touches the right side,

4

drive

P L A Y I N G

N.

●Usually, amatch is decided by the winner of two games.

Badminton

waist level. If it is not returned, it must land within the service court diagonally

●In doubles and men’s

singles, the rst side to score US points is the winner; in women’s singles, it / is the rst player

opposite. Only the server can score points.

Short service line

Arm is bent, and

Length of

the rackel held hphind the shoidder

court: 44ft Left

Right

service

service court

court

to score 11

SERVING 'The player serves iincierhand and must hit the shuttlecock below

COURT

●In badminton, players hit a shuttlecock over ahigh net.

points.

Height of net: 5ft

Grip should be relaxed, not too tight, hij.l not Inn loose.

Rachel is angled

Width of court: 20ft

SHUTTLECOCK At top-class level, the shuttlecock is made of a “skirt” of 14-16 goose feathers

doxonward.

Long service line for doubles

Long service line for singles

Racket is raised directly upxoard,

RACKET d'hese are usually made of metal or carbon ber, and strung with gut.

xed in acork base.

Ta b l e t e n n i s ●In this indoor game, the players use rackets, or bats, to hit ahollow ball across atable over alow net.

and the arm straightens on making contact with the shuttlecock.

P L AY I N G

T A B L E

The receiver must return

The chipboard top is usually dark green.

the shuttle over the net

Width: 1.52m

before it touches the

ground in the serving

Height of net: ^

court. Most badminton

15.25cm

shots are played overhead.

●The rst side to score 21 points wins the game, but if the score reaches 20-all, the game continues until one side has a2-point lead.

SERVING 'The ball must be

GRIPS

thrown vcrticallv at

There arc two main grips used in

least 16cm from

table tennis.

the fat palm of the hand, and the ball must not spin.

●Amatch is decided by the best of ve games (for men), or three games (for women). Length: 2.74m Pimpled

Height:

At the moment of

76cm

striking, the racket

\The ball

must be behind

rubber

is hit as

it begins mfofall.

the end of the

B A T

table. 'The ball

Originally, bats were made of wood only. The

r

pimpled rubber face was

added in the 1920s to allow

players to give the ball spin.

must bounce on B A L L

the server ’s

The lightweight

side

plastic ball is either

f-

rst.

Handshake grip

Penholder grip

'The bat is held as

'The bat is held as

though the player is shaking hands.

though the player is holding apen.

w h i t e o r y e l l o w. Out-of-court line

B A L L

Squash ●Sc]uash is played using all four walls of an enclosed court.

There are four varieties of squash ball: the slower balls are used in hot conditions, and the faster balls arc-

Length: 32ft Cut line

SERVING

used in cold conditions.

The player must stand

●The ball is hit against the front wall

with at least one foot

Yellow dot: very slow

rst and must be

in the serr ice box,

retutned before it has bounced

throw the ball into

White dot: slow

twice on the

o o r. Red dot: fast

●Amatch consists of the best of

JaI ALAI

Racquetball

●In the fast court game of Jai

In racciuetball, players use a short-handled racquet and a

narrow and has three

w. i

^playing

Width: 21ft

tlic cut line, but

C O U R T

abadminton or tennis racket.

place of rackets. The court is long and

the front wall above Blue dot: very fast

RACKET The head of asquash racket is smaller and rounder than that of

alai, or Pelota, players use wicker baskets, ealled cestas, in

the air, and hit it at the rst attempt.

Service box

The ball must hit

ve games; the winner of agame is the tst to score nine points.

hollow rubber ball. The

■fhe white, concrete walls of a.sc|uasli court must be completely smooth. In tournaments, courts are often made of glass and Perspex, so

line, without bouncing elsewhere

rst.

that spectators can watch the match from all sides of the court. In the US, squash is played on anarrower court with aharder ball.

Tlw srivtr mil use

atiy khul of stroke.

To p b a l l s p e e d s

ball can be hit against the ceiling, as well

Jai alai

as all four

Squash

walls of the ● c o u r t .

below the out-of-eoim

188mph (302km/h)

i

144mph (232km/h)

r. Te n n i s

138mph (222km/h)

walls. Badminton The player xeears arubber

glove, which is snun onto the c c s l a .

The fast game of racquetball is similar in many

' Ta b l e t e n n i s

124mph (200km/h) 106mph(170km/h)

ways to squash.

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COURT GAMES

SPORTS

Basketball

The rim of the net

C O U R T

is 3.05m off the

The dimensions given

ground.

for this court are based on international

GE.A.R

999

rules. In the US, the courts ar J

Players wear brightly

Facts

colored singlets and

●'I'he aim of basketball is to throw the

shorts.

ball into abasket at the opponent’s end

Singlets ^

of the court.

slightly bigger. £ Backboard

Three points are

●There are ten players in each team;

on the front

only ve are on the court at any one time,

and back, j

awarded for baskets scored from outside

the semicircl

●Players may throw and bounce the ball, but must not carry or kick it.

B A L L

●Agame consists of two halves of 20

rubber encased in

minutes each.

leather, rubber, or

a r e

scored from inside the

End line

Width: 15m

semicircle.

Basketball world champions Action

Aplayer may remain in the restricted area between his opponent's end line and the free-throw line.

Aplayer may hold onto the ball. The team with the ball must move

from the back court to the front court.

The high, padded sides of basketball

30 seconds

awarded for baskets

synthetic material.

Time limit

10 seconds

Two points

The ball is made of

Ti m e r u l e s

5seconds

/

Length: 28m

have large e numbers

3seconds

Free-throw line.

The team with the ball must try for

boots give support.

agoal.

rm

Ye a r

Men

Ye a r

1950

Argentina

1953

U S

1954

U S

1957

U S

1959

Brazil

1959

USSR

1963

Brazil

1964

USSR

1967

USSR

1967

USSR

1970

Yugoslavia

1971

USSR

1974

USSR

1975

USSR

Women

S TA R T I N G J U M P

SHOOTING

MOVING WITH THE BALL

1978

Yugoslavia

1979

US

.At the beginning of amatch,

When attempting

Aplayer who lias stopped while

1982

USSR

1983

USSR

to score abasket, a

liolding tile bail may pivot on one foot, at the same time stepping in

1986

US

1986

US US Brazil

the referee throws the ball up and two opponents jump

player holds the ball high above his

^to hit it. Aplayer

head and throws it toward the net.

^may tap the ball

any direction with the otlier foot. Amoving player may take one

1990

Yugoslavia

1990

stride with the ball.

1994

US

1994

^twice after it has reached its

D R I B B L I N G

highest point.

Aplayer can progress with the ball b i dribbling. He can take as many steps as he wishes while

The player stands near the centerline,

bouncing A the ball.

in his own half of the court.

/ /

Netball

Length of court: 18m

●'Fhe aim in nerball is to throw

Volleyball

the ball into the opponent’s net.

/

i

●Volleyball is aball game played between two teams of six players each.

,

/

●I'he game is played between two teams of seven players each.

t -.''i

●Each player must keep to a particular area of the court.

●'I’he aim of volleyball is to use any part of the body above the waist to send a

Height of net: 1m

ball over anet, so that

the opposing team is

/ ■

.'tV

unable to return it.

●Ateam may touch the ball up

Handball Width of court: 9m

it over the net.

●The aim is to pass or dribble the ball with the

hands until agoal is scored. UP AND OVER

Because of the height of the net, players have to jump up high in the air to hit the ball. Players must not touch or reach over the net. The ball is smaller than a basketball or netball.

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R-

«ID Wing defense

Goal attack

c Center

13

" U r

G K

Goal defense

Goalkeeper

The player must not hold onto the bal for longer than three seconds.

to three times

before returning

NETBALL POSITIONS Players wear letters to indicate their positions, and to show which zone they should stay in.

Wing attack

●It is played between two teams of seven players each. ●Players may take three steps when holding the ball.

Although rugby is atough

●Rugby Union is the earliest and most widely played form of rugby.

Facts ●The aim of rugby is to score points byplacing an oval-shaped ball on or over

the opponent’s goal line (a try), or by

I N T E R N AT I O N A L RUGBY TEAMS Each major

GEAR

Rugby union

Rugby

game, players arc not allowed to wear protective

●The game is played by a m a t e u r s o n l y.

incernadonal

clothing, apart from a

rugby team has

scrum cap made of soft leather, shin guards, and agum

its own svmbol.

I

Australia

shield. .Sweat

kicking it over the opponent’s crossbar.

●There are two teams of

bands are also

15 players each.

often worn.

●Players may carry, pass, or kick the ball, but they cannot throw the ball in

B A L L

U'hc oval-shaped ball is

SHOES

front of them.

u s u a l l v m a d e o f l e a t h e r.

Players may wear shoe.s similar to those worn bysoccer players, or highsided shoes to support

●Agame consists of two halves of 40 minutes each.

the ankles

iMiir

●There are two types of rugby: Rugby Union (R.U.), and Rugby Ueague (R.I,.).

England

France

Length; 28cm

Scoring Type of goal

Points R.u.

FIELD The eld usually has a grass surface, but may be made of clay or sand.

Action

R.L

Try

5

4

Placing the ball by hand on or over the goal line.

Dropped goal

3

1

Ball is dropped and kicked over

Ireland r

5m line

I

LL«- ■ 10m line

t h e c r o s s b a r. Halfway line

Length of eld Penalty goal

3

2

Apenalty kick awarded for

between the

afoul.

goal lines: 100m

New

Zealand

Scotland Conversion

2

2

Agoal kick awarded after atry.

“:7

/

Goai line

The goal is 5.6m wide; the height of the crossbar is 3m.

PA S S I N G

THE

/

BALL

Apla'Y’cr can run while

Correct throw bail line

holding the ball, but

Width of

must not pass forward. He should,

ho\\evcr, pass to the front of the receiving player, to enable the player to run on

eld: 69m

Ascrum is used to restart play, usually after afoul.

South

Africa

SCRU.M

Players from both teams close

up around the ball and link arms. The front row must be

Foul throw

made up of three players: a “hooker” and two “props”

to the ball.

who stand on each side of him. The ball is thrown into

Whales

the scrum and the hooker will

L I N E - O U T

trv to hook the ball to his

Aline-out is used to

reammates behind him.

restart play after aball crosses the touchline, or

Rugby words

is “in-touch.”At least two

Backs Players who position

players from each team form separate lines at right angles to the

The scrum must not break up until

themselves behind ascrum.

the ball is cleared.

Dummy Pretending to pass the ball to another player, while keeping possession. Goal Combination of atry and conversion, worth seven points. Knock-on 'The ball bouncing

tOLichlinc. The ball must

be thrown straight between the two lines of players.

Olympic rugby Rugb-y was last staged at the Olympics in 1924, in Paris. There were

Rugby league ●This game developed from Rugby Union, and is played by professionals and a m a t e u r s .

●It is pla-y-ed by two teams of 13 players each. ●Rugb-y- League, although very- similar, follows slightK-

three entrants: P L AY T H E B A L L R U L E

Romania, US, and

Atackled player is allowed to drop the ball before kicking it in any dircetion, usually to ateammate behind him. This may be done for

France. US won

ve consecutive tackles. After the sixth tackle, the

team must give up possession.

Tw o m e m b e r s o f t h e

opposing team may stand directly in front of th , player with

different rules from those of

Rugby Union. Rugby League, players can restart the game after a tackle with the “play the

the gold medal.

forward off the hand or arm of

a p l a y e r. Loose-head prop The prop who is nearest to where the

ball is put into the scrum. Mark Place at which afree-

kick or penalty kick is given. Maul Ascrum around a

player carrying the ball. Punt Dropping the ball and kicking it before it touches the ground. Ruck scrum around a

player who has dropped the ball.

Touchdown Aplayer grounding the ball in his own

●One difference is that in \

in-goal area. Up-and-under Aball kicked high in the air, while players run Lip cld to catch it.

ball” rule.

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RUGBY

G E A R

FOOTBALL

F I E L D

leavers wear jerseys

Width: 50-100yd

Soccer boot

with numbers on the back. The soles of the boots mav be tted with studs

Soccer

or bars.

●Soccer, or Association football,

Center circle Fat rubber studs

is aball game played by two

for hard ground.

teams of 11 players each.

Aluminum for

●The aim is to hit the ball into

●

Length: 100130yd

o

#

wet, slippery ground.

the opponent’s goal, and the team that scores the most goals wins. ●Players use their feet, head, thighs, and chest to hit or control

©

/

/ /' Penalty spot //

Nylon for soft ground.

JL Penalty l!

area

1/

Goal a r e a

the ball; only the goalkeeper may touch the ball with his hands or arms. ,\

Goal line

Goalpost length: 8yd; height: 8ft

●Agame consists of two periods, or |

halves, of 4.S minutes each

I

professionalplayaremadeofJhephyn

.Soccer i.s ahcxihlc game, but most tcam.s start tvith players in aparticular formation.

Uruguay

Uruguay

1934

Italy

Italy

1938

France

Italy

1950

Brazil

Uruguay

1954

Switzerland

West Germany

1958

Sweden

Brazil

1962

Chile

Brazil

1966

England

England

1970

Mexico

Brazil

In oniei' to get round him, the piayer may pretend to

1974

West Germany

West Germany

g o o n e w a y.

1978

Argentina

Argentina

1982

Spain

Italy

1986

Mexico

Argentina

1990

Italy

West Germany

1994

US

Brazil

in attack.

When dribbling, the player

approaching his ophnnenl.

keeps the ball close to his feet, to prevent an opposing player taking the ball from him.

The 4-3-3 formation

,»■ i t

i

f

li'

■hfWeif

Winner

Host country

halt while

DRlIiliLlNG

i

Date

rubber encased in leather the djcontrol of 1 9 3 0

The one shown below is 4-.^-.S. It uses four defenders, three mid elders, and three

V

World cup competitions

bioccer balls used in

F O R M AT I O N S

He then confuses his opfwnent by ttmihig to go in the opposite direction.

DEFENDING

GOALKEEPING

GOAL SCORING

.A defender will often mark, or guard, one opponent throughout the game. Defenders must

'Fhe goalkeeper can touch the bail with his hands, but only within his own

Any player in ateam may score agoal, but the main

make strong tackles in order to take possession of the ball from their opponents.

penalty area. Me i.s not allowed to pick up aback

shoot and head the ball accurately.

Good timing is essential The defender must be careful

/le slides down

in front of his opponent and

not to foul his opponent.

tackle.

goal-scorers are called strikers, who must be able to

pass from ateammate.

fora clean sliding

For ashort pass, a goalkeepei' will throw or

Ideally, the ball is rolled along the ground for

roll the ball underarm.

Opportunist sliding shot into goal.

an accurate r.v.v.

■%

A

M.4.I0R

TRAMS

T'hc.sc arc the

©

basic colors worn

by some of the top international teams. 'Fhe ags are not part of tlte uniform.

B

C J

B

Argentina

B

B

.

.

204 fi

Belgium

B

Mexico

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fi

SPORTS

B

Netherlands

a S

B

Brazil

B

B

Nigeria

B

O

Bulgaria

B

B

Norxoay

B

B

Cameroon

B

B

Poland

B Colombia

a B

H

Spain

■

Denmark

B

B

Sweden

B England

France

a B Switzerland

B

Romania

B

(ienna)i^

a B

B

Uruguay

G E A R

American football

B A L L

Helmets are

'There is alot of physical contact in

●American football is played by two teams of 11 players each, though frequent substitution is allowed and up to 40 people can play for each team.

The oval-shaped ball is made of / leather, and has N laces and apebbled nish to provide a good grip.

made of tough plastic.

American football, so players wear several

layers of protective clothing. ,Face mask Chest

protector

●Ateam earns points by making atouchdown {putting the ball behind the opposing team’s goal line), or by kicking the ball between the goal posts.

FOOTBALL LEAGUE American football is the major

national sport in the US. 'There arc 28 teams in the National Football

Groin

League (NFL), each with its own

protector

distinctive helmet design. Atlanta Falcons

●Agame consists of four quarters, of IS minutes each.

Ti g h t , knee-length pants lace

/■ r

up at the / front.

GRIDIRON

The

/

.

a

eld is commonly called the gridiron,

because the lines make it look like a r

cooking grill. 'The eld is marked out in yards to show how far ateam has advanced.

Buffalo Bills

Chicago Bears

Cleveland Browns

Dallas Coiuboys

Cincinnati Bengals

Shirt numbers

. 1 .

NFL players are numbered according to their positions.

End line , End zone

Number Ya r d l i n e

Position

1-19

Quarterbacks, punters, kickers

20-49

Running and defensive backs

50-59

Centers and linebackers

60-79

Defensive iinemen, offensive guards, and tackles

80-89

Wide receivers and tight ends

90-99

Defensive linemen

every

5yds

Length: 360ft fHeight

of

crossbar; 10ft

Goal line

Width of goal: 18ft 6in

Detroit Lions

fj

Green Bay Packers

Denver Broncos

Houston Oilers

Width: 160ft

OFFENSE

T'he team that is in possession of the ball is the offense, or attacking team. 'They are allowed four attempts, or downs, at advancing with the ball by at least 1Oyd. If they fail to do this, their opponents gain possession of the ball.

B L O C K I N G

Ablocker may use the

upper part of his body to obstruct an opponent who docs not have the ball.

The snap is the start

Indianapolis Colts

Kansas City Chiefs

Los Angeles Rams

Miami Dolphins

Los Angeles Raiders

Me may use his arms to

of the down.

push, but not grab hold of, him. Blocking is used by offensive and defensive

players. /

DEFENSE \

Minnesota Vikings

The team that does not

\

have the ball uses its

defense players, usually the biggest men, to try to

Scoring Score

prevent the offense from Points

To u c h d o w n

6

advancing and scoring. A defender needs to be agood

Action

Taking the ball across the opponent’s goal line, or gaining possession within the opponents’ end zone.

t a c k i e r. H e i s a l l o w e d t o

r u n n e r. I f t h e d e f e n s e

Field goal

3

Place-kicking the ball through the goal posts.

Safety

2

Tackling an opponent who is carrying the ball behind his own goal line.

Extra point (conversion)

1

Kicking the ball through the goal posts from ascrimmage, after scoring atouchdown.

Australian

football

New England

Neio Orleans Saints

N e w Yo r k G i a n t s

Pittsburgh Steelers

l^hiladelphia Eagles

Patriots

push, pull, or grab the person in possession of the ball, who is called the manages to get hold of the ball, it is called aturnover, and possession changes to

New lorn jets

the other team. One point is given for scoring between the outer, or “behind”

W A

'A

V

t

.

V',.?

F I E L D

●The game is played by two teams of 18 players. The aim is to score goals by kicking an oval-shaped ball between two tall posts.

'The game is played on an oval-shaped eld. Six points

●Aplayer can kick, punch, and run

the

St. Louis Cardinals San Diego Chargers

San Francisco

Forty-niners

are scored for a

kicking the m bail between mi two

Mm

/

with the ball, but he must not throw it. central “goal”

●Agame consists of 4quarters, lasting 25 minutes each.

posts.

Seattle Seahawks

Tampa Bay

Washington Ri'dskins

Buccaneers

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FOOTBALL

SPORTS

Batsmen and close

Cricket

elders

wear protective helmets

WICKET

made of metal or berglass.

'This has three stumps

Facts

along which two bails are placed.

Batting gloves give good protection, while allowing the batsman to grip

●Cricket is aball game played by

Scoring Runs

Balls

Action

1

One run: every time the two batsmen pass

e a c h

other and reach the opposite wicket.

1

No ball: bowler steps outside the batting creases or throws, rather than bowls,

and wield

two teams of 11 players each.

the bat.

●The teams take turns to bat and

the bail.

eld.

Width of

The b-tic i.s

●Dttring each “innings,” the team W

▼

made of

up at bat aims to score runs between \

i

I

wicket;

1

Wide: adelivery is too high or wide of the stumps for the batsman to play the ball.

4

The ball reaches the boundary after touching the ground.

6

The ball reaches the boundary without touching the ground.

9in

willow, and has acane

two wickets; the elding team aims to get the batting team out.

covered with

●Amatch consists of one or two

rubber

handle

innings per side.

Maximum length of bat: .?ft 2in

GEAR

T'raditionally, cricketers wear white or cream shirts, long pants, and asweater.

B A L L

DISMISSING

Acricket ball is made of

Bowled The ball breaks the striker's wicket

THE

B AT S M A N

Colored clothing i.s worn during some

layers of cork and wool,

Caught A elder catches the ball after it

one-day matches.

c o v e r e d i n r e d l e a t h e r.

has hit the batsman’s bat or gloves,

Run out 'The wicket is broken by Shoes have

FIELD

T'he playing eld surrounding the pitch can be any length. Below arc the major positions for a right-handed

spiked or rubber soles.

Leg pads are worn by batsmen and wicket-keepers.

elding

the Fielding team before the batsman reaches the popping

Wicket-keeper's gloves are heavily paddec and are larger

c r e a s e .

than

'The batsman obstructs a

Leg Before Wicket (Ibw)

batsmen’s

Long leg

Sightscreen

batsman.

Deep

gloves.

ne leg

delivery that would I

otherwise have touched the wicket, without

previously playing the ball with his bat.

Stumped T'he wicket-keeper breaks

Fine leg

Third man

Wicket-keeper beg slip Slips ’ Batsman

short leg

the batsman’s wicket while the

Deep square leg

Backward

batsman is outside his ground when receiving aball.

Square leg

Short

Hit wicket The batsman breaks

square leg Mid wicket

Forward

Deep mjd-wleket

his wicket while playing ashot.

short leg Backward point Point

\ \

Onside

Qul'y Silly_point Silly mid-off Bowler

Mid wicket T

P I T C H

Mid-on I

?1

Cover Short extra cover

; *

Extra cover

side of the

MOST

T'he pitch is

two wickets,

Deep extra cover

Long on

which are

FIRST

placed 66fc

eld

behind the batsman as

SIX

apart.

in one over was Sir Gar eld

for Nottinghamshire against Glamorgan, at Swansea, Wales,

The ball must be bowled

in 1968.

with astraight arm. not

Bowling

thrown.

●Bowlers take turns to bowl “overs”

Popping crease

of six (or eight) balls at alternate wickets.

Bowling crease

●'I'hey must have par: of the front foot behind the popping crease while making adelivery. BOWLED

Return crease

OVER

Bowlers often rub the ball on their trousers

Cricket words

to make the ball shiny on one side. This gives the ball extra swing, or movement, in midair. Bowlers use various techniques to achieve results. M'hilc afast bowler uses speed and

Bouncer Afast delivery, pitched short, that reaches the batsman at shoulder

height or above. Bye Run made when the ball passes the wicket untouched by the bat.

swing, aspin bowler will depend on spin to confuse the batsman.

Close

Batting

In this forward defensive stroke, the batsman brings his left leg forward

●'I'he aim of the

batsman is to guard his wicket and to make runs.

BATTING STEAD The batsman holds the

able to read adelivery well W keep his eye rmly on the ball, o and decide in an instan I T how to play the stroke.

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206

The stroke is controlled with his left arm.

■/

d /

eld Fielders clo.se to the batsman.

Deep Part of the eld near the boundarv’. Delivery .A bowled ball. Duck Azero score. Extras Runs made without the bat.

\

j

bat

with both hands. He must be liU

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SCORE

Sobers, West Indies (born 1936), Offside

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TO

receive adelivery; the front of the batsman.

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B AT S M A N

SIXES

he stands waiting to offside is the area to the

●

WICKETS

taken is 19 for 90 runs by Jim Laker (1922-86) for England against Australia in 1956.

the area between the

Mid-off

The onside, or legside, is the

Record breakers

Silly mid-on

/J

Follovv-on T'he team batting second may be asked to bat again if their total falls short of their opponent’s. Leg-bye Run made when the ball is unintentionally de ected off the batsman’s body in the process of playing astroke. Maiden over An over in which no runs are scored.

Maximum length; 42in

Baseball

thick wire and

●'* Bats arc made of wood, for top-class play, or aluminum. The barrel must M

/

helmet

Catcher

foa

^ B A T Hard plastic

●Ball game played by two teams of nine players each.

The catcher's face mask is made of

Facts

[

a

padding.

be smooth and well rounded.

Face ^

/

mask /L

B A L L

●'The game is similar to

Each

The ball is made of

large leather glove.

cricket in that teams take

cork or rubber and is

turns to bat and

covered in cowhide

eld.

Out

\

side is to score runs

elder wears a

1^' A.A

Ma.)OR leagues

or horschide.

●The aim of the batting

eld

There are two major baseball leagues in the US. Kach team has its own symbol.

around the four bases. (

I

●Amatch consists of

nine innings.

A M E R I C A N

)

{

Padded

L E A G C E

Second base I

i

chest-

protector

Orioles

i) and shin

that may be mistaken for abaseball. The

guards

numbers on each shirt must be at least

bin high. 'The catcher wears more Batter

protective clothing than any other player.

mound

\ \

Boston Red Sox

Pitcher’s

Knee

Players must not wear any emblems

Ballimore

Third base Tr ●●

\

G E A R

_

First base

F I E L D

T'he playing eld is made up of an in eld and out eld, known as fair territory: any

Home base, or home plate

California Angels

o t h e r a r e a i s f o u l t e r r i t o r y.

Chicago Wiite Sox

4

Clet/eland Indians

Pitching Pitchers can throw the ball at speeds

●The pitcher tries to throw the ball through the strike zone; he must

not pitch the ball directly

Detroit Tigers Kansas City R o m l s

a t t h e b a t t e r.

Mihmukee Brewers

●He may rub the ball with his hands, but must not shine it on his clothes,

or rub it on the ground.

i v i n n i e s o t a

l\ew lork Ya n k e e s

Seattle

Iexas Rangers

●He may throw the'ball to abase before he pitches.

Oakland Athletirs

Batting ●The batter must stay within the batter’s box on receiving the ball.

LS 18

/

to the batter is either astrike or aball.

Catcher catches the third The blue balls indicate astrike.

STRIKE

N AT I O N A L

Ioronto

Blue

Jays LEAGUE

.strike and tags the batter or he tlirows the ball to

rst base.

Batter taps, or bunts, the

ZONE

This is the area over home plate and between the batter’s armpits and knees If th e b a l l fa l l s i n si d e th i s zo n e a n d th e

batter fails to hit it. it is astrike. .A ball is called when apitch, ; thrown oiitside the strike zone, is not struck at by the batter. After four balls, the batter may walk to

Mariners

before it bounces by a elder.

●Kach ball, or pitch, delivered

rst base.

I

The red balls indicate a

ball dow nin front of him into

foul territory; only the

Atlanta Braves

rst

two fouls count as strikes. Batter strikes the ball three

R E D S

times, and is tagged before reaching rst base.

Cincinnati

Colorado Rockies Florida Marlins

-

Record breakers APERFECT

Running ●If arunner is approaching a base that already has arunner on it, then that runner must go on to the next base (force

NINE

INNINGS

GAME

(which means the pitcher allows the opposition no hits, no runs, and does not allow aplayer to reach

Houston

Los Angeles Dodgers

Montreal

nutadHphin

Piltsbiirgll

Phillies

PirnteK

T. x h o s

rst base) was rst achieved bv Lee Richmond (1857-1929) of the

U.S for Worcester against Cleveland

play). ●Arunner must touch base before the elder touches him or the base with the ball.

in 1880. MOST

HOME

RUNS

in aseason is 61 by Roger Maris (1934-85) of the New York Yankees

●Arunner may run to a

in 1961. 'This beat the record of 60

base while the ball is

that another Yankee, Babe Ruth (1895-1945), set in 1927.

pitched to abatter (a steal).

S(. I.outs

Cardinals

San Diego

San Francisco

Padres

GiarUs

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BASEBALL

SPOR'l'S

MStick games

P I TC H

Hockey is usually played outdoors,

Olympic hockey

on grass or on arti cial surfaces.

CHAMPIONS (men)

Width:

Ye a r

Hockey

GKAR

●Ilockey has 11 players on each team; the aim is to shoot a ball with hooked sticks into the

opposing team’s goal.

Players wear ashirt and skirt, or shorts, and guards on their .shins and ankles. The goalkeeper wears extra protective clothing. Ca{ifkrrj>rr’s gi’ar

●Goals may be scored only from within the striking, or shooting, circle.

Helmet with

elbow pads

Length: 100yd

Goal height: 7ft

Shooting circle; goals

Goal width: 12ft

can only be scored

S T I C K Padded

Hockey sticks arc steam bent, so that the grain of the wood follows the bend.

over boots to

protect the

at face of

feet when

i:

kicking the

t

hard ball.

Light

up to 23oz for women. B A L L

Britain

1928

India

1932

India

1936

India

1948

India

1952

India

1956

India

1960

Pakistan

1964

India

1968

Pakistan

1972

West Germany

1976

New Zealand

“Kickers" are worn

This helps strengthen the stick. The ball may be

guards /

The ball is

f

traditionally

from inside here.

gauntlets

The stick weighs between 12oz and 28oz for men, and

1920

Shoulder and

minute halves.

t h e s t i c k o n l v.

Britain

face mask

●Agame consists of two 35-

struck with the

Country

1908

Olympic hockey

CHAMPIONS (women) Ye a r

Country

1980

Zimbabwe

1984

Netherlands

1988

Australia

1992

Spain

1980

India

1984

Pakistan

1988

Britain

1992

Germany

Ice HOCKEY penalties

white and is made of cork and

Minutes in “Sin Bin'

Ty p e

twine, with aleather casing.

Ice hockey

B U L L Y

●Icc hockey has six players, with up to 14 substitutes.

The btdly is adistinctive feature of hockey. It is used CO restart the game after certain stoppages. Aplayer from each side

Misconduct

●'I'he aim is to send adisk,

opponent’s goal j

They tap the ground and each other ’s sticks

●There are three

alternately three times before attempting to play the ball.

periods, of 2

10*

Match

Rest of game**

●Substitute may replace immediately. '●Substitute may replace after 5minutes.

A

J

5

Major

called apuck, into the .

stands over the ball.

2

Minor

,

/

Goalkeeper’s stick ^

mimitcs each. ^^

T T 0

Out elder’s stick

Olympic ice-hockey

Lacrosse

CHAMPIONS

●Plav ers use anet on the

ICE

HOCKEY

STICKS

Puck is traditionally '

The out elder ’s stiek has a

black and made from

shaft with an angled blade. The goalkeeper’s stick is heavier

v u l c a n i z e d r u b b e r.

end of their stick (crosse) to

Ye a r

Country

carp' and pass aball and tr\' to send it into the opposing team’s goal.

1920

Canada

1924

Canada

1928

Canada

1932

Canada

1936

Britain

1948

Canada

1952

Canada

1956

USSR

1960

US

1964

USSR

1968

USSR

Hockey speeds

1972

USSR

1976

USSR

1980

US

1984

USSR

Ice hockey is the fastest team game in the world. The puck is hit at speeds of up to 118mph (190km/h). Ahockey ball is hit at speeds of up to lOOmph

1988

USSR

1992

CIS

1 9 9 4

Sweden

There are four face-off circles.

●'I’he men’s and women’s

games are played under different rules. One of the main differences is that

physical contact is allowed i the men’s game, but not in

and has awider blade.

Width: 29-30m

n

the women’s.

Women klacrosse

Goal width: 2.53m

Goai height;

Length: 60-61 m', R I N K The rink i.s an iced surface surrounded b v

Lacrosse rules Men’s lacrosse

Women’s lacrosse

10 players per side; nine

12 players per side; one

substitutes allowed.

substitute allowed.

Shoulder-to-shoulder contact

No physical contact

and body-checking allowed.

allowed.

Time; four 15-min.periods.

Time; two 25-min periods.

Playing

No measured boundaries.

eld usually measures

100m X55m. Crosse measures; 1-1.8m.

.

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208

Crosse measures; 0.9-1.1m.

wooden boards.

(160km/h).

GOLF

FA C T S ●Astandard golf course has 18 holes of various lengths

W o o d

I r o n

Woods, or drivers, are used for long shots. They are

Irons are used for

I

Putter

_mainly on the

'Phe steel heads

Hputting green. ■■ Unlike the other

numbered 1-9.

arc numbered

Their large heads may be made

1-10. The lower numbers hit the

from wood,

ball farthe.st

plastic, or light

and

(a round).

●There are two main types of competition; stroke play and match play.

Striking distances

Putters are used

avariety of shots.

wood

r

240yd (219m)

Iclubs, they have b

4 w o o d

.two striking faces. H 'Phey are the I-

t i g * . -

215yd {196m)

lightest of the

'3 iron

lowest.

i 190yd (174m)

metal.

!5 iron

CLUBS

a170yd (165m)

Players may not start or play around of golf with more than 14 clubs. Most players use three or four woods,

●In stroke play, the player who completes a

7iron

nine or ten irons, and one putter. 150yd (137m)

■|

round in the

B A L L

fewest strokes wins the

Golf balls are covered in

match; in match play the

more than 400 dimples. They help the ball travel farther and straightcr

winner is the one who wins the most holes in around.

9iron

J^130yd

(119m) \. .

3

!Sand i

jwedge

90yd (82m)

Golf bag through the air. and trolley TEES ●

COURSE

Tecs are small, usually

Major golf tournaments

plastic, pegs on which

To u r n a m e n t

First held

British Open

1860

US Open

1895

us PGA

1916

US Masters

1934

Ryder Cup (male team event)

1927

Curtis Cup (female team event)

1932

the ball is placed for the rst shot to ahole.

Courses

vary in lengt

^ The fairway is aclosely mown strip of ground whioh

from too to 600yd (90-5.S0m). The length determines the “pur” of each hole: the average number of strokes needed to get the hall into the hole.

stretches from tee to

green, along which the players attempt to play the

The teeing ground, from which the rst stroke is made, is a

-

Diameter of hole: The head is

swing up and back j (theback'aving).

4.25in (10.8cm)

down

1he apron is the short grass surrounding the green.

The putting green is the smooth, grassy area that

1

surrounds the hole.

The body faces the target as the club is brought past the left

As the club is

brought down, the weight is moved from the back foot to the front fool.

s h o u l d e r.

Long shot In aqualifying match in Pennsylvania, in the early 1900s, one entrant drove her ball into a river at the 16th hole. She set

Fourball Two play against two, each player having one ball, the lower score of each pair being their score at ahole.

Hole Acomplete section, from tee

out in aboat to reach it, and

to putting green; the round hole into which the ball is played.

166 shots.

Foursome I'wo play against t\^■o, each side having one ball and taking

Par The standard score for ahole or

Birdie score of one stroke under

par for ahole.

alternate strokes at each hole.

Bogey Ascore of one stroke o\ cr par

Handicap Number of strokes aplayer may subtract from his or her score for a round; enables players of different abilities to compete on eciual terms.

Golf words Approach Shot played to the green from the fairway or rough.

for ahole.

Eagle Ascore of two strokes under par for ahole.

round (18 holes) on acourse, based on what atop player would be expected to shoot, and allowing for two putts.

Tee T'he ground that marks the start of ahole; apeg on which the ball is put for the rst stroke of ahole.

nally completed the hole in

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209

SPORTS

B ^ W a t' E R

Event Safety helmets are worn by canoeists on rough or rocky

Rowing ●Rowing is aracing sport for boats containing one, two, four, or eight rowers, sometimes with a

c o u r s e s .

cox

canoeists.

to

Olympic rowing events

S P O RT S

Approximate length of boat

Sculls

26ft (Sm) ✓

Light, padded buoyancy aids are worn by

steer.

IV

33ft (10m) V.

●In sculling, each rower uses two

J

Wetsuits give _ protection in

oars instead of one.

Double sculls

'

.

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Green ball (3 points Ye l l o w

ball (2 points)

Women

V

Sport pistol

Kneeling

Free ri e -prone -3positions

V V

Air ri e

V

V

Running target V

Standard ri e

V

Shotgun -Skeet -Trap -Double trap

V

V

Seven colors 6

l i

Apool table is smaller than asnooker table.

One black

Seven stripes

Chalk is rubbed on

the tip of the cue to improve contact with the cue ball.

i/:

One white cue ball

'I'he cue, used in both snooker and pool,

218 fi

V

●Any billiard game played with 15 variously colored balls on an oblong table with six pockets.

T

is atapered stick with aleather tip.

fl

Rapid- re pistol

Pool

Fifteen red

balls (1 point each) —

Free pistol

V

Air pistoi

Prone

C U E

fl

Standing

are exposed for only 4-8 seconds, * and free pistol shooting in which m competitors re at a xed target.

Cue ball _

fl

V

Men

●Pistol shooting includes rapid- re 7 pistol shooting, in which 5targets I

Brown ball (4 points)

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V

90m

Olympic shooting events

●Ri es, pistols, and shotguns are used in shooting sports. 'I'he size of the target varies with the weapon and distance.

balls. Acue is used to hit acue ball

fl

70m

SHOOTING

POSITIONS

targets released randomly from aspring-catapult.

count double or treble.

fl

RIFLE

barreled gun at saucer-shape |

outer ring. Certain areas

7

V

face

●Shotgun is

the numbers on the

)

QUALIFYING DISTANCES 30m

Shooting

●Opponents take turns to throw

Cushion /

Olympic archery

a r r o w s

Darts

,

Straw butt

ve colored

Paper target

Quiver for carrying

^

J

I

\

into different scoring sections, indicated by

rubber or plasti

rings, each with an inner and an outer part. ■Scores range from one point

carbon shaft

of the target an arrow lands, the higher the score.

the two middle ngers I

The pins arc arranged in atriangular pattern at one end of the lane, which is made of plastic or wood.

TA R G E T

i

\

●'I'he closer to the center

Dart

I

BALL

Ball made of hard

IThere -are

arrows at targets set at different distances.

Snooker

The bowling ball has three holes for the thumb an i

L A N E

given for knocking down all ten pins in one roll (a strike) or two rolls (a spare).

Jack

AND

TENPIN

The pin.s arc made from maple wood covered with plastic.

,knocked down. Bonuses are

when roiled.

BOW

PINS

●Points are scored for each pin

side so they curve

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SPORTS

Two-piece cue

Science and Te c h n o l o g y From the atom to the latest in information technology, this section offers awealth of scienti c facts and gures. Matter ●Atoms ●Periodic Table ●Energy Forces and Machines ●Electricity and Alagnetism ●Light and Color

Sound ●Electronics ●Computers ●Alathematics ●Weights and Measures Time ●Engines ●Space and Time ●Natural Science Physical Science ●Weapons

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219

Matter

31ass: transparent solid

'Ihrarhim, containing many types of matter

Everything is made up of matter. It can be a

Droplets of

solid, such as wood or iron, aliquid, such as water

condensed

w a t e r

from vapor

or oil, or agas, such as air. Heat or pressure can change matter from one state into another. States of matter Matter exists in three basic forms, called states, depending on how their atoms and molecules (see p.222) are arranged. GAS

Agas is asubstance tliat does not liave a xed

volume but lls all the space it occupies. Gas particles are not bound together and move rapidly and freely in all directions

■Gas particles, free to move around

LIQUID

Aliquid has a xed volume but can change shape to t the space it occupies. Its particles are in contact with each other but can move around with some freedom.

Liquid particles, able to move short distances

SOLID Asolid is asubstance with ade nite size and

shape. Asolid’s particles are tightly linked by strong bonds, making a rm structure. Solid particles, held in arigid pattern

Three IN ONE

ICE

WAT E R

STEAM

Water is solid when

Water is liquid when it has atemperature of between 32“F(0“C) and 212"F (100°C).

Water turns to

Wa t e r i s o n e

its temperature is below 32°F (0°C)-

substance we

what we know as ice.

often

steam, agas, when it has atemperature of more than 212°F

Ty p e s o f m i x t u r e 'There are two main types of mixture: colloids and solutions.

In asolution, two or more

nd in

its different

Liquid

lls up

its container to s t a t e s . T

-

.i,-:

Ice forms solid

ahorizonta

L

Liquid turns

surface.

blockswith

substances are broken down into individual atoms or molecules. A

colloid is amixture of larger particles of one substance, d i s t r i b u t e d i n a n o t h e r.

de nite shapes.

Emulsion

Changing states

Paint is an emulsion

Changes of state

of oil particles dispensed in another liquid, water.

Evaporation and condensation

Particles can free themselves from the body of aliquid (evaporation). Above the boiling point, all of the liquid becomes gas. When the gas cools, it becomes aliquid (condenses) again

Gel

Freezing and melting Aliquid bccome.s asolid (freezes) below atemperature called its freezing point. It becomes alit|uid again (melts) if the temperature rises above the freezing point.

Hair gel is composed of particles of oil suspended in asolid. F o a m

Some substances, such as carbon dioxide, will change from asolid to agas when heated, without becoming

Shaving foam is composed of bubbles of gas suspended in liquid. Mist Steam from akettle

Web feat

Liquid glass

Some of the

Over long periods of time and pressure, glass behaves m

threads in a

spider’s web are stronger than a

like aliquid.

steel wire of the same width.

\

glassware has

attened.

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Iif?

I

I

been found

slightly

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Ancient Roman

I

'.X f;-

z:)

Sublimation

liquid in between. This is sublimation. The reverse process, from agas to asolid, is also called sublimation.

!

'

N

fl

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

r 7 / .■

is amist of liquid particles suspended in agas. Smoke

Abon re gives off acloud of smoke composed of

Air speed

solid matter

Each of the billions of air molecules that

ll aballoon

travels at the average speed of ajet plane.

suspended in air. Solution

A.solvent, .such as water, makes asolution by di.s.solving another stilxstanec, the solute.

Compounds

C O M P O U N D

M I X T U R E

Savory sea

Elements that exist on their

220 gallons (leu meter) of typical seawater contains

own are rare in the natural world. Most substances are

made up of two or more elements bonded together by chemical reaction to form a

compound. When iron and sulfur are heated together, a chemical reaction bonds their atoms into asolid structure.

1.4cu inches (23cu cm) of salt

Iron \ lings and sulfur

A n e w

Iron lings and sulfur car be mixed up together,

When iron and sulfur are

but their atoms will not

atoms bind to form anew

be chemically bound unless achemical

compound of iron sul de. It is acompletely new

reaction takes place.

substance.

substance,

(sodium chloride). Seawater

iron sul de

also contains other dissolved

heated together, their

Physical properties

Combustion (burning)

'I'here is awide variety of matter, with a range of different properties. I'hese properties help identify the substance, and also determine to what use it can be put.

Asubstance burns when it reacts

Viscosity Viscous matter is liquid that does not ow easily. Friction between molecules makes a

with oxygen, releasing heat. A

Acids and alkalis

candle is made from carbon and

Acids are substances that

hydrogen. These elements burn to form carbon dioxide and water. -i" "tACandle

ame

Acandle

ame contains

liquid viscous. Honey is highly viscous, whereas

tiny particles of carbon. As they burn, they

water is not.

become so hot

dissolve in water to form sour-

tasting solutions. Alkalis dissolve in water to form soapy solutions. Both acids and alkalis

r

that they glow bright yellow. Ductility and malleability

Burning food

can be corrosive. The strength

Food dissolved in your blood burns” as it tcacts with oxygen. The heat released provides you

of an acid or alkali is measured

by its pH.

w'ith the energy you need to live. Alkaline

Ductile matter can be

Caustic soda

Plastic

drawn out into awire.

Most synthetic plastics' are made from chemicals in oil in achemical process called polymerization. I’o make I’VC, small molecules of chlorethene polymerize to form along chain, or polymer.

Malleable matter can be molded or beaten into

other shapes. Elasticity

In atable snake made of PVC

Elastic matter can be

Household M cleaners

Stretched or squeezed and returns to its

original size and shape. Density Two objects of the same size may not have the same mass, so they will not weigh the same. The denser of the

two will weigh more, because it ha.s more matter packed into the same space. Conductivity Pure water

Matter that transfers heat

pH 7 (neutral]

and electricity is conductive. Many solids have acloseknit molecular structure that causes

Polystyrene

Packaging, cups, bowls, ceiling tiles

Polyester

Arti cial

Polyethylene

Carrier bags, bottles, food wrapping

Antimatter

Nylon

Arti cial

For every type of particle that exists, such as the electron (see p.222), there is a corresponding antiparticle. Just as matter consists of particles, antimatter consists of antiparticles. If matter and antimatter are brought together, they will violently destroy

PVC (Polyvinyl chloride)

Raincoats, garden hoses, gutters

Polyurethane

Plastic packaging foam, adhesives

Polymethyl methacrylate (perspex)

Substitute for glass

them to be cold to the

touch, because it conducts heat away quickly.

bers,

7

berglass

Iap water

Warm stone retains heat.

each other, to become energy.

bers, carpets,

6

shnets

Vinegar (acetic acid) pH 4

4

Degradability 3 The worst qoid rain

2

1

0 c o r e

False-color image of subatomic particles

days to decompose.

c a n

m o r e

100 years to decompose.

m o r e

4,000 years to decompose.

Acidic

fi

fi

fi

fl

fl

fl

fi

fi

fi

fi

fi

fi

221 fl

fi

MATTER

The illustration below

Atoms

Atom facts

distorts the real sizes of the

atomic components -the nucleus is very large compared to electrons, and

EVERY'rHING AROUND YOU is

electrons orbit at agreat distance from the nucleus.

made up of tiny particles called atoms. Different atoms make up

●Quarks are named after aword

●Scientists have discovered

that appears in the novel b'imiegaii's Wakeby Irish writer James Joyce (1882-1941).

many particles that are smaller than atoms. They have weird names, such as gluons, leptons, and tans, and properties such as charm, strangeness, and avor. 'They appear brie y when larger particles arc smashed in massive “particle accelerators.”

●Some atomic isotopes are highly dangerous -if stored in large enough c|uantities, a

d i f f e r e n t k i n d s o f m a t t e r.

nuclear reaction can result.

Elements Elements are substances made

up of one kind of atom only.

Isotopes

One element is

Some atoms of the same

uorine.

Fluorine-1 nluieu *

element may have different

Inside the

^

Extra neutron /

numbers of neutrons. These

E L U O R I N E AT O M

different kinds of atoms are

If a uorine atom could be cut

called isotopes. 'These two nuclei are from isotopes of

open, it might look like this.

Fluonne-18 nucleus

uorine. Eluorine-19 has 10

neutrons, while

Nucleus

uorine-18

has 9neutrons.

/

I’hc central core of die atom is

'■N.,

called the nucleus. It consists

Into the atom

of protons and neutrons. 'Ehe nucleus makes up 99.9% of an atom’s mass, but only atiny part of its volume.

What would happen if you could tear this book in half, and then Protons

Inner electron shell

Protons arc particles

Electrons

in anucleus that

Electrons are negatively charged particles. 'I'hey surround the nucleus in regions called orbitals.

Neutron

becomes an ion. If it loses an electron, it becomes positively charged and is called a cation. If it gains an electron, it becomes negatively charged and is called an anion.

i t s a t o m i c n u m b e r. Fluorine has nine. The book becomes...

Quarks Protons and neutrons

are made up of even smaller particles, called tiuarks.

Carbon

Double bond

Molecules

in an atom is called

Neutrons are particles in a nucleus, d'hey have no electric charge. 'Fhey cling to the protons and to each other, keeping the nucleus together.

When an atom loses or gains an electron, it

nucleus

Fhcrc arc two

'There are only about 100 millions of different substances called

compounds. Most Hydrogen a t o m

particular combinations of

scraps of paper, which

main types of quark. Up ciuarks ha\’c apositive charge. Down quarks have anegative one. Neutrons have one Up and two Down (]uarks. Protons ha\ etwo Up

kinds of atoms, but

substances are made of

in half again and again -until you broke it down into the tiniest particles possible?

carry apositive electric charge. 'The number of protons

4

Ions

Molecule of ethylene iCUH.,)

atoms, called molecules.

become...

Proton, with

two Iy; quarks and

wood pulp

one Down

become...

bers, which

and one Down.

Atomic bonding ■sg;

Z7i^


.

® 9 "9'3®

Unit

Joule equivalent

Joule (J)
66 days and is known as aleap vear.

D AY S

AM)

YEARS

the same time, the Earth spins on its own axis. It completes one spin in asingle day and .>65 V' spins in ayear. 'The (|uarter day is impractical, so after four years they are

'Hu’ Earth completes one spin

such as clocks and

on its axis in one das.

watches.

Y e a r Sun

2

Standard time The time measured at Earth

Greenwich, London, is the standard time for the whole

world. For e\ ery LS degrees of longitude east or west of

Tin- Earth lakes ayear to travel round the Suit.

Greenwich, the time is one hour M O N T H

ahead of or behind

While the Iwirth orbits the .Sun. the

Greenwich time.

Time facts

5

R/o deJaneiro, Brazil:

a . m .

Moon orbits the Earth. The phases of the moon add up to 29.5 days. 'This cycle is the lunar iiKnith and is the basis

There are 24 time

zones around the globe.

'4. ■'

●The Earth is slowing down: a tew million years from now leap

of our pre.sent-day months.

years will not be needed.

Earth

●H'he Sumerians of

Mesopotamia (present-day Iracp rst divided hours into 60

minutes, and minutes into 60 seconds in about .MKK) B.C.

They used 60, because it was easily divisible by 2, -L and 4.

Time words

are on the .same meridian.

a.m. Before noon (ante nicridieni)

Meridian Line of longitude

Equinox 'The two times in ayear

p.m. After noon (post meridiem)

when the .Siin crosses the e(|uator and day and ni^ht are of e([iia! length.

Local time ’I'lie time at points tliat

History of timekeeping People originally mea.sured time by the position of the Sun in the sky. Later, they began to rely on machines for timekeeping, with mechanical motions that were repeated over and ox er again. Today, people use

when the Sun is farthest from the

C.2200 B.C. Stonehenge stone circles, England,

c.1500 B.C. Sundials are used by the

may have been used by Neolithic people to tell the time. 'The position of the circles allows the Sun to shine through or rise abo\ ecertain stones.

Egyptians. .A shadow east by the Sun's rays indicates the time ■h

Position of the stars is

Vpiril iLsed by the peoples of Babylon. Egypt, and

/o/S)'

/

/

1500 B.C.

/

/ ^ /

1364 First known domestic

1386 Oldest

clocks made bv Giovanni Dondi

mechanical clock

(1318-89) of Italy, d'hese early

still working is built at f

clocks are small versions of turret

.Salisbury Cathedral, hingiand.

clocks, with the addition of an

I

'f

A

1510 First portable clocks made by Peter Ilenlein (1479-1542), a(Jerman locksmith. 'I’he.sc small clocks

are driven by aspring. 'I'he open

hour hand.

The dock in Salishuiy

built throughout Europe.

I

y '

Cathedral is drwen by a

f a c e h a s a n h o u r h a n d o n i v.

Early portable clock

rex'olving dnnn. /

c.1730 Ciluckoo clocks

/

1364

rst

introduced in the Black

Eorest. (Jermany.

1754 Lever escapement, combined with the balance

spring, gi\-cs an accuracy to within ten seconds aday.

7

1386

1759 An accurate marine

1800s Cheaper clocks arc

timekeeper, Harrison 4, is introduced by Englishman John Harrison (1693-1776). It can withstand the changing movement and temperatures on board ship

developed in ISbv .American Eli

'I’erv (1772-1852).'

and has less than one minute of

1840 Flectricity is used to dri\ e clocks that in turn control distant, subsidiary clocks. These clocks are

error after

known as the master and its slaves.

ve months at sea.

173

fi

fi

242

1754

1510

1880 Greenwich time, time measured at the Royal Ob.scr\ atory, Greenwich,

Ibecomes standard time in !Britain. Eour years later it becomes standard time for

!the whole world. --4^1 Early electric clock

Cuckoo clock w-

a *

(diina to tell the time.

O- /

1335

\

1759

Sundiai

on amarked surface.

Stonehenge

/

Turret docks are later

Moon .

equator. 'I'he.sc are the shortest and the longest days.

s>- /

133.S E"irst mechanical clock is erected in Milan, Italy. 'I'hc turret, or tower, clock, has no face, but simply strikes the hours.

iv.

Solstice d'he two times in the year

clocks and watches that can measure time in fractions of asecond.

0

fi

SCIENCE AND 'I'ECHNOLOGY

1800

1840

1880

'I’lME

Gregorian calendar on the time it takes for the Earth to

, « f

rst, the Romans

vT

began their year in March, which is why September to December are

i7 i\

This calendar, based on the Sun and the Moon, is no longer used in Ghina, but is still in use in some

The longest year ever was 46 B.G., which lasted for 44.S

Gregorian calendar, which is based circle the Sim. At

Ancient Chinese calendar

Longest year

Most Western eouiitries use the

Asian countries. It is divided into 24 seasons.

days. Lengthened by 90 days to bring it in

Season

line with the solar

● W-

Meaning Spring begins

Feb. 5to Feb. 19

Yu S h u i

Rain water

Feb. 19 to Mar. 5

Jing Zhe

Excited insects

M a r. 5 t o M a r. 2 0

Chun Fen

Vernal equinox

Mar. 20 to Apr. 5

Qing Ming

Clear and bright

Apr, 5to Apr. 20

G u Yu

Grain rains

Apr. 20 to May 5

year, it became

named after the Latin numbers

seven to ten. laiter, in about l.SO

known as the 'I'ear

\ \ \

II

B.G., January became the rst month of the year.

of Gonfusion.

NAMES OF THE MONTHS

jig[ .Tanuary Janus, god of gateways .3 February l-'cirrua, fcsti\al of puri cation March Mars, god of war

i

Summer solstice

June 21 to July 7

Xiao Shu

Slight heat

July 7to July 23

Da Shu

Great heat

July 23 to Aug. 7

LiQiu

Autumn begins

Aug. 7to Aug. 23

Chu Shu

Limit of heat

Aug. 23 to Sept. 7

Bai Lu

White dew

Sept. 7to Sept. 23

Qui Fen

Autumn equinox

Sept. 23 to Oct. 8

Han Lu

Odd dew

Oct. 8to Oct. 23

Gregorian date

Muharram

Sept. to Oct.

Safar

O c t . t o N o v.

Rabi I

N o v. t o D e c . Dec. to Jan.

Rabi II

Shevat

Jumada I

Jan. to Feb.

Adar

Jumada II

F e b . t o M a r.

Shuang Jiang

Frost descends

Oct. 23 to Nov, 7

Mar. to Apr.

Li Dong

Winter begins

N o v. 7 t o N o v. 2 2

Little snow

Nov. 22 to Dec. 7

Nisan

Rajab

.July Julius (laesar lyar

Sha’ban

Apr. to May

Xiao Xue

Sivan

Ramadan

May to June

Da Xue

Heavy snow

Dec, 7to Dec. 22

June to July

Dong Zhi

Winter solstice

Deo. 22 to Jan. 6

Little cold

Jan. 6to Jan. 21

Severe cold

Jan. 21 to Feb. 5

Ta m m u z

September .Septem, se\en October Oeto, eight

Shawwal

Av

Dhu ai-Qa’dah

July to Aug.

Xiao Han

Elul

Dhu al-Hijjah

Aug. to Sept.

Da Han

November \ovem. nine December Deeem. ten

June 5to June 21

Xia Zhi

Te v e t

yemperor

May 21 to June 5

lls

CALENDARS 'I'he.se are based on the Moon's cycle.

Kislev

%August Augustus, the rst Roman

May 5to May 21

Grain

Mang Zhong

Heshvan

.June Juno, goddess of tite Moon

Summer begins

Hebrew and Muslim

Ti s h r i

fMay Maia. goddess of fertility

LiXia Xiao Man

Grain in ear

Hebrew months Muslim months

April .Apcrirc. to open

c.A.D. 890 Clock candles

C.1400 B.C. Water clocks

A-

lv30()s Monasteries use

1100s Hourglasses used in na\ igation. by physicians to time apulse, and by teachers

simple machinery that sounds bells at regular

are used by the Knglish king, Alfred the Great (849-899). When acandle,

and preachers to time lessons

The passing of time is shown by adrop in the lex'cl of water, which lines up

Mhich has hours marked

and sermons. Sand drains from

down its length, has burned

the top glass bulb to the

down to amark, it indicates

bottom. Some glasses measure !'

with one of the marks

that an hour has passed by.

15 or 30 minutes as well as up |

are used by the Egyptians, bowl with ahole in the bottom is

l l e d w i t h w a t e r.

/ o - /

1400 B.C.

intervals to call

jJworshippers to prayer. A

person called aclock jack rings the bells.

X

Hourglass 1300

11 0 0

A.D. 890

/

/

is shown by Italian

1657 First pendulum clock is made by Dutch astronomer (diristiaan Huygens (1629-95). 'Lhe pendulum controls the

scientist Galileo

rotation of the wheels of the clock.

1582 Regularity of

apendulum’s swing (1564-1642).

1670 Long, or seconds, pendulum is introduced by William Clement (c. 1638-1704), an Knglish cloekmaker.

Galih'o ’v drsign for afuaidulum

1657

1582

1675 Spiral balance spnng, giving clocks an accuracy to within two minutes aday, is invented by 1luygens.

C.1690S AvStrononiers

at the Royal Observatory. A

Greenwich,

London, measure

i

the stars to

Iluygtois' balancr spring '

J

determine time.

1675

1670

1690

»«?

Roya/ Obsercaton 1939 First quartz cr\ stal clock is installed at Greenwich. 'The (|uart/. ciNstals \-ibratc 1()(),()()() times per

C.1900 First wristwatches introduced. At

rst only Momcn wear

second. 'Lhese vibrations are

t h e m , u n t i l W o r l d Wa r 1

controlled, counted, recorded, and used to establish precise time. 'The

(1914-18), when they become popular with men in the trenches. EarR xoristumteh 7"

US. of times

of asecond per day.

from 24 countries. 1948

3(),0()() vears.

1970s-i990s Digital watches narc increasingly popular.

;.| Amicrochip changes the

established by using 80 atomic clocks

accurate to one .second in

dock

whole world is now

maximum error is two-thousandths

1939

1900

1948 First atomic clock de\ eloped in the It works by counting the natural vibrations cesium atoms, which vibrate 9,192,631,770 liarh atomic per .second. Time for the

1970 Atomic clock is

/ t / ;

.1

9’

numbers every second, so that the time kept is \'cr\' preci.se. 1970

N?

fi

fi

fi

.

fi

fi

243 fi

fi

to one or two hours

Walrr


themselves bcin^;

(1800-77) and Frenchman Louis Dasuerre (1789-1851).

reactions without

Daguenolype image oyi copper plate

used in the reactions.

1839

1836

1831

A " : Marconi

1888 Existence of radio vA'aves demonstrated b\-

German phvsicist IIcinrich

Tv

»'3R7r’

w

Hertz (1857-94). Induction motor invented

I%k ]

Heinrich

Herli

chemist Marie Curie (1867-1934) and Ihcrrc Curie (1859-1906). She calls the powerful

1896 Effects of radioactivity

discoN cred by French physicist

emissions of

Marie

(1856-1940).

Pierre Curie

189

j

1919 New Zealand-born

S

pliNsicist Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937)

changes one elemen

(1890-1971)

into owgen nuclei.

’

U

1

Mineifd with n y. s l a l l i n e

Finest lliilheipiid

a l n i i i i c s t r u c t u i e '■

189

Maiman (born 1927). based on ideas tiev elo|ie(.l In .\merican jvliv sicist Gordon (ioiild in 1957.

1964 F'xistence of quarks, the constituent parts of neutrons and protons, proposed by Murray Gell-Mann. (born 1929).

showing (luarh.s \ 4 9 6 4

/

1935 Nylon de\ elopcd by

discoNcred bv British phvsicist

w|

chemist Wallace 11 . ( i a r o t h e r s

physicistsCockcroft j. (1897-1907) J ■

and Finest Walton (born 190.W

I’i) Mparticle

I‘ositron. aparticle of antimatter, i isco\ered bv .\merican phvsicis

American

(1890-1937).

(Kirleraloi. hui/l at Mttuehe.sh'r

1

Carl l)a\id .\nderson (iMirn 1905)

I 1931

F u i v r r. s i l y, I ' K

1932

1935

1983 TNistence of two important subatomic particles (W±. /')

with extremelv low resistance to

mathematicians, based

con rmcil at CIG2N laboratories in

electricits. are tlcw eloped.

on the unpredictabilitv

Sw it/.erland.

1980s Chaos theory dev eloped by .\merican

of nature. (lhaos theorv

is iLsed to tr\ to predict complex systems. Fraelal: computergeiierated pattern derived pom chaos tlieoiy

Atomic nucleus. ●,

t

1931 Neutron (particle in nucleus)

1919

1960 T'irst laser built by .\mcriean phvsicist riieodore

and

189 8 9 8 1

1932 T'irsl subatomic particle accelerator built by British

con\erts nitrogen nuclei I V

189

^James Chadwick (1891-1974).

m

j

into another. II |

,\merican physicist

“radioactivity."

invented by 20-ycar-old Italian Giigliclmo Marconi (1874-1937).

imented b\ British father aiul

1915

radiation

phvsicist Joseph John 'Thompson

son ph\sicists. William 11, Bragg (1802-1942)and l.awrence Bragg M

polonium isolated by Folish-born

1897 Electron discovered by British

1888

nding out the structure of crystals,

1898 Elements radium and

phvsicist Wilhelm Roentgen (1«45_1925).

1894 Radio communication

1876

1915 X-ra> cr\ stallograpln ,away of

1895 X-rays discovered by (ierman

.\ntoinc-I Icnri Bcc Royce (see

(1S41-190S)and

Oldsmobile. is

assembled on amoving production line. Ilenrv Toiil (sec opposite page)

Ta n i l e L e \ a s s o r ( 1 S 4 4 - 9 7 )

opposite page) introduce their protlucetl by Ransom 40/.s0 horsepower Rolls Roxcc car

produce acar that establishes

T. l i ( ) l d s ( 1 8 6 4 - 1 9 5 0 . s c r i e s , w I n c h i n c h u l c s t h e

the classic

.\merican).

lavoiit.

1891

OldMiiohile

1901 N?

252

'These cars ha\ c

1S91 T'renehmen

1.

> s r

berglass

skin.

(hill-w ing ear

Most ha\ ctwo scats.

large loatling space at the rear.

r

m a n u f a c t u r e r. s t u r n e d d o w n t h e chance to make the German

Racinj^ ear Racing cars are

those that

.

ows around

the engine.

Types of car

fi

lter cleans the air before

it is mixed with the gasoline. Battery

billion cars on the

fl

engine in the front, and room for at least two passengers. This illustration shows the parts of a

Fuel tank

has grown dramatically: there will probably be a

fi

Most cars have four wheels, an

Rear bumper

around the world

Veteran

Parts of agar

\\ m i r r o r

enable the engine to run at ef cient speeds while the

reduces noise

The FIRS rmass-

d

fi

fi

TRANSPORTATION, COMMUNICATIONS, AND INDUSTRY

.S/kr/'d/zos/

^

iiurotluccs the M o d e l T.

1913 .Mass produelioi begins in Britain with Will iam \lor ris's (sec

opposite page) Morris Oxford.

.Mnnis

Oxford

CARS

Fastest luxury SEDAN CARS Car

Top speed mph

km/h

Aston Martin Vantage

285

1 7 7

Lotus Carlton

282

175

BMW 8501

256

Henry Ford (1863-1947)

was the

talented

Noble (born 1946) in Thrust U.

engineering partner of Rolls Royce.

American

At this speed, it would take less

He once said:

introduced

"There is no

mass-prodtiction into car manufacturing.

159

256

159

Mercedes-Benz 600 SL

256

159

BMW M5

254

158

Aston Martin Virage 5.3

253

157

set tip his own

Mercedes-Benz 500 SL

253

157

rm in

Mercedes-Benz 500 E

251

156

Mercedes-Benz 500 SE

249

155

wa,s

is 633mph (l,019km/h), achieved by American Richard

a

mechanic.

than 40 hours to drive round

He

such thing as good enough.” Herbert

the equator.

Frederick Lanehester

Austin

(1868-1946) designed

(1866-1941)

To p g a r - o w n i n g

WORLD LAND SPEED RECORD

Henrv Royce (1863-1933, British)

Mercedes-Benz 600 SEL

cars in Britain from 1896.

Thrmt

Britain after

His key

working for W'olscicy car

inventions

manufacturers.

automatic gearbox.

William

Ettore Bugatti (1882-1947)

L

Morris

engineer who

Total cars registered

Morris and

built the

141,251,695

played an important

Classic type .AS racing car.

30,776,243

role in the

as well as

British motor

beautiful touring

industry.

models.

Japan Germany

29,190,322

italy

23,500,000

France

22,370,000

U K

20,923,423

CIS

15,874,700

Canada

Kiicbiro

To v o d a

LONGEST

PRODUCTION

//

CAR

was the Bugatti Royale (below) with alength of more than 22ft (6.7m). The rst was produced in 1927, but only si.\ were made.

was an Italian

"Bullnosc"

U S

A

incltidcd asemi¬

(1877-1963) produced the

COUNTRIES Country

Gar records

Famous motor men

I

t

Alexander

(1895-1952)

'■* s \

Issigonis (1904-88)

founded

'Toyota cars in Japan. His

'Turkish car

dream was to

designer who

11,900,000

see as many cars on the

went to the

Brazil

11,760,459

streets of Jajian

1le designed the

PRODUCTION

Spain

10,787,424

as on those of .America.

Morris Minor and the .Mini.

is the Daihatsu Charade Diesel

was

IKin

a

1922.

.MOST

L

ECONOMICAL CAR

Turbo (below), \\ hieh can

Gar facts ●The luxurious interior of

the popular Morris Minor, which was built

a1927 Rolls Royce in .Aubusson silk tapestry.

the “poached egg.

Before indicators were inv ented, drivers used

1

Phantom 1was upholstered for 31 years. Ile called It

hand signals.

%: -4^

This false hand

clipped onto the car door. It mimicked each signal.

World’s top car manufacturers Company

Total annual car production

HIGHEST

PA I D

EOR

A

5,662,843

To p c a r - p r o d u c i n g

CAR

Ford Motor Company

4,234,583

COUNTRIES

To y o t a

3,093,692

Country

was over $1.S,330,000 for a1962 Ferrari 250 G'FO (below) in

Volkswagen

2,748,152

Japan

9,052,406

Peugeot-Citroen

2,227,528

US

6,823,097

Nissan

2,016,626

Germany

4,563,673

Flat

1,790,631

France

3,409,017

Renault

1,767,516

Italy

1,971,969

Total annual production

1935 World’s llrsl parking meter i.s

1949 'The

itr-oen (1878-1935)

installed, in Oklahoma. U.S.

rroduees front-wheel

1936 Austrian Dr. T'erdinand

ive Klraclinn aca/U). 'This

Forsebe (1875-1951) is insmietcd by 1litler (sec p.404) to make a"people's ear" and dev elops the Beetle.

C i t r o e n 2 C V, M i n i i s Ta u n e b e d . It can seat four the people's ear (tf Ftanee. ireople des[-)ite its

:v elopmenr bankrupts itroen. who dies avear t e r .

1930s

is laimehed. Ciimi-n

THROUGH

sma' 2CV

s i z e .

Aiisliii

Mini

P R I N ' AT E

SALE

1989. The vendor had bought the car for $7,665 in 1971.

1958 'The Austin 1979 'The catalv tie converter is

■ Ktvllr

Cihoiht

introduced. It reduces pollution from ear exhausts.

1988 Fastest speed by asolarpowered vehicle is achiev ed by tbe (ieneral Motors Siruruym' (see p.2,S4). which reaches 48.71 mph (78.4km/h).

1990s New safety features, such as air bags, are developed. Other safety options are researched; the experimental Vc/ms has two cameras to help the driver see the road in bad conditions.

A

I'eri us r

^'3 1934

/ / /

1935

1936

1949

1958

1979

1988 K

'

fi

253 ,

fi

PRICE

General Motors

)34 T'renebman Andre

\

achie\ ef>,S.9mpg (28km/l) at a steady ,S6mph (90km/h).

Helping hand

●William Morris hated ^\a\

Marques and makes

Motoring words

ROLLS

Automobile manufacturers each have abadge, called a mar{|ue, to identify their vehicles. Some well-known marc|Lies are sho\s nbelow.

Air bag Asafety device that

lls

with air on impact to protect the driver in acollision.

Antilock braking system (ABS)

V

JAGUAR

Asystem that prevents skidding by detecting if awheel is about to lock during braking.

Ferrari

w

Brake horsepower (BHP) The power of an engine calculated in terms of the force needed to stop it. Catalytic converter A lter that absorbs many exhaust pollutants. Fuel injection (FI) 'fhe direct introduction of fuel under pressure into the engine.

TOYOTA

Ignition 'The mechanism that starts acar's engine. Power steering Asteering system that reduces the effort needed to

park and maneuver at low speeds.

V

O

L

V

Roll bar An ox erhead bar that

V A U X H A L L

O

strengthens the car, protecting passengers if the vehicle overturns. Spoiler An extension that improves acar’s road-holding at high speeds.

A

ROVER

GROUP

Supercharger .A mechanism that supplies air or fuel to the engine at above-normal pressure to increase ef ciency.

N I S S A N

^AND^

MITSUBISHI

Turbo charger Asupercharger

R O V E R

MOTORS

driven by aturbine powered by the engine’s exhaust gases.

Car facts

Many in amini

●Andre (ntrocn (sec p.253) used many attention-srabbinji; forms of publicity. 1Ic once

■S i n c e t h e A u s t i n M i n i w a s

rst

produced (see p.2.S,2), records ha\e been set and broken for how many people can sciuce/.c Inside one.

h i r e d t h e K i f f e l To w e r i n P a r i s , and had hi.s name illuminated in

Ml,

I'he record currentiv stands at 24.

lights dow nthe side. More than 2.S(),000 light bidbs were used.

k 'I

●The ear that reached a

●.\ Lincoln Gontinental

production of one million in the shortest time was the \olkswagen

presidential limousine built in

-Pk.

the ISin 1968 weighed .S.9 tons

●In the early da\s of dri\ ing, Italians dro\e on the right-hand side of the road in the country,

to 1896, British law stated that

Golf Introduced in 1974, it

(.S..AS tonnes), more than one-

and on the left in tow ns. One of

ewerv car on the road had to

passed the million mark in

half of which was protectlt e armor plating.

the last tow ns to end this

ha\ eaperson running along in front of it wax ing ared Hag,

,M months.

- s i r.

●From 1865

practice was Milan, in 1926.

Amazing cars

''

"H

●●●

●●0

Gar designers ha\ e produced some unusual models ox er I

the years. Some have been built

purely to break records, others as

experiments in car design.

Ilonda's Genius h. holds

'The /Vf'/i.s one of the

4'h

the record for loxx est

smallest cans cx’cr

ga.solinc consumption. It achiex ed b,40dmpg (2,27ykm/l).

built, at only 4.4fr (l.o4m) long, it has no

solar cnergv. It has special panels that conxert sunlight into electrical energy.

Most expensive cars sold AT

AUCTION

Make

Car

Berlinetta Competition GTO Bugatti Rolls

Royce MercedesBenz

8,853,690

1931 Bugatti Type 41 Royale Sports Coupe

7,665,000

1907 Rolls Royce Silver Ghost 40/50hp tourer

2.386,706

Special Roadster

fi

fi

fi

rex erse gear.

2,222,850

runs

Dashboard

Signaling lights are

AND CONTROLS

t h i s l e v e r.

Pedals to control the

The driver slows

car ’s acceleration,

icked on and off with

brake pedal..

The driver

lexels, temperature,

and so on are usually dashboard.

limousine built in the [Shad 2b wheels and xxas

more than Q.Sft (,sOm) long. It hatl asx\ imming pool and a helicopter landing pad. ,Speedometer indicates the

car’s speed. ,Steering wheel

the car with the

situated on the car o o r. I n s t r u m e n t s t o

indicate speed, fuel

on

down and stops

clutch, and brakes are

found on the

1936 Mercedes-Benz 500 K

254 fi

Price $

1 9 6 2 F e r r a r i 2 5 0 G r a n Tu r i s m o

Any car

c

fl

fl

TRANSPOR'l'ATION, COMMUNICATIONS, AND INDUSTRY

_Small items are stored in

the glove compartment.

pushes down the clutch

pedal when changing gear. Accelerator controls c

the car’s speed.

--Gear

lever Handbrake

stops the car from moving when it is parked.

RACING CARS

Racing cars Racing cars ark designed to

compete on arace track. 'They range from simple stock cars to high technology Formula 1 racing cars, which can achieve speeds of more than 190mph (300km/h). Motor racing facts ●Ferrari is the only motor-racing team to have competed in the Formula 1world championship every year since it started in 1950.

●I'he youngest world champion racing driver was Brazilian

Flmerson Fittipaldi (born 1946), who won his

rst world

championship in 1972, at the age of 25 years and 9months, ●'File oldest world Emerson Eitlipaldi

champion racing driver was Argentinian Juan Manuel Fangio (born 1911). When Fangio won his last world championship race in 1957, he w'as 46 years and 41 days old.

Winning formula It takes 150 Renault-Sport staff to produce one of their h'ormiila

1engines,

including ,55 mechanics and 25

Racing records

WORST

FASTEST

in amotor race occurred at Fe Mans in 1955:

PIT

8.5 spectators xvere killed and more than 100 xverc injured xx hen acar somersaulted oxer the safety barrier, burst into tlamcs, and disintegrated. Fhe drixer also died.

COFXTin

LONGEST

WTTH

.MOST

R A L LY

XX as from Gox ent Garden. Foiulon. FK, to

1DRINERS

from 1950 to 199.5 was Great Britain, which

the .Sydney Opera Ilouse, .\ustralia: a

had 1.51 drix ers (219f of total drix ers).

distance of 19..529 miles (.51,107km).

History of motor racing 1‘henrL S:

1895 k'irst motor

race with ■iasoline engine \ehieles takes place, tVom Paris to

CRASH

(break in arace for refueling or servicing) was four seconds, made by /\merican Robert William "Bobby” Fnser(born 19,s4) in the 1976 Indianapolis 50(1. FORMFLA

engineers.

STOP

1907 R'irst track couslmcted for

1 9 11 F i r s t I

motor car racing opens: die

Indianapolis W

Brooklands .\lotor (lourse. IK.

0/

V

500 race I

mkc.s place in B

1906 IHrst

Indianapolis, k

(irand Prix in l.c Mans,

BordeaiiN. l-‘ranee, and

l-'ranee, is won

[lack. 'I'he rst ear past the nishing; line a\erases l.smph

by .\ii.stroIlnn,”arian

(24km/h) For the race.

(!.S7,y-1970).

1929 Bentley cars cake Ilrst. second,

l●'erene/ .S/is/

[hire.!, and Fourth

i j

1895

places at 1 c!e

Rear

Racing bicycles arc fast, lightweight, and multigeared, with drop handlebars.

derailleur

3

' /

Toe clip

\ W

●'*1

\\ P e d a l

"TLl

\\ C h a i n r i n g s

\

\Chain Valve

Mountain bicycle

Sidewall

-

fo

These bicycles are built for

off-road cycling. 'They have thick tires, a

Bicycle ownership

lightweight frame, and awide range of gears.

AROUND

the

world

I'his table shows the number

of bicycles owned in varirriis

BMX (Bicycle Motocross)

different countries.

The BMX bike is

Country

designed for rou^^hterrain cyclinsr. and is

Bicycles (millions)

China U S

Ta n d e m

Tandems arc bicycles for two riders, with two saddles, two handlebars, and

103

Japan

60

India

45

Mexico

12

Netherlands

11

Bicycle rickshaw

South Korea

Rickshaws arc

at acomfortable rate.

the chain from one

cog to another.

travel fast downhill

extra force for

or on

climbing uphill.

at ground.

Bicycle records

Bicycle facts

LONGKST

●I'here arc 800 million

BKT'CLE

bicycles in the world: they

6.8

Built in 1988, it was ridden

outnumber cars two to one.

6

by four riders for adistance

●I'hc Belgian army added elbow rests to the bicycles ridden by their regimental

of 807ft (246m),

Argentina

carry two passensrers bchini.1 or in front, in a

Egypt

1.5

(front-w heel diameter) is

Ta n z a n i a

0.5

the i'l'aiikcimclc, with a

L.MUTST

lilCYCl.H

diameter of Klft (.TO.Sm).

History of bicycles

bands, so that thc\ could

play their instruments whilc CN cling.

PlfDAL POWER

I790 'I'he re/ih-ifere, a

1SI3 The Dniisieiinc is 1S39 1^'irsl bicNcle

woollen. hobb\ horsc-like

built by (iarl \’on I)rais

willi pedals turning

machine, is builr b\ a

(1 7