Digitally Enabling 'Learning by Doing' in Vocational Education: Enhancing ‘Learning as Becoming’ Processes (SpringerBriefs in Education) 9811634041, 9789811634048

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SPRINGER BRIEFS IN EDUC ATION

Selena Chan

Digitally Enabling ‘Learning by Doing’ in Vocational Education Enhancing ‘Learning as Becoming’ Processes 123

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Selena Chan

Digitally Enabling ‘Learning by Doing’ in Vocational Education Enhancing ‘Learning as Becoming’ Processes

Selena Chan Ara Institute of Canterbury Christchurch, New Zealand

ISSN 2211-1921 ISSN 2211-193X (electronic) SpringerBriefs in Education ISBN 978-981-16-3404-8 ISBN 978-981-16-3405-5 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-3405-5 © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore

Preface

This book arose through my work team’s continuous and ongoing challenges as we grappled to better support our institute’s practice-based learning and teaching approaches, when access to face-to-face teaching and learning environments ceased due to the onslaught of the 2020 global pandemic. As with almost all countries, Aotearoa-New Zealand experienced episodes of the closure of educational institutions. My work, as an educational developer supporting teachers to develop practicebased learning, was deeply tested when there was the need to rapidly shift to digitally enabled/supported or ‘remote’/distance learning. Hence, the work undertaken to assist with the design or learning and teachers’ capability development across 2020, frames the discussions and recommendations presented throughout this book. Our educational development work was informed by premises and strategies, consolidated from over a decade of VET research. These studies had the underlying objective of improving learning for many practice-based disciplines across various levels of learning. Studies included the development and implementation of technology-enhanced learning (TEL) to support the learning of skills, knowledge, and attributes/dispositions across a range of specialised occupations. The findings and recommendations from these, frame the overall direction of this book. Christchurch, New Zealand

Selena Chan

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Acknowledgements

This book would not have been possible without the support of my many colleagues at Ara Institute of Canterbury Ltd. Also, included are the many students, teachers, employers, and industry training personnel who participated and were co-researchers on various projects. My grateful thanks to Ako Aotearoa (New Zealand Centre for Tertiary Teaching Excellence), for their funding and collegial support of many of the projects featured or referenced in this book. Across, 2020 and through institutional and national responses to the pandemic, the key themes making up the various chapters in this book were formulated. The concepts and models presented have been enriched by perspectives and conversations with students, student support advisors, teachers, and my educational development, learning technology advisor, and learning resource teammates. The shared experiences of working to tight timelines as everyone pitched in to support the shift of practice-based programmes of learning to be fully digitally enabled, have all contributed to enlightening and shaping this book. I am also grateful to the feedback from reviewers who have helped improve and tighten the concepts and discussions presented. Ka mate k¯ainga tahi, ka ora k¯ainga rua —When one door closes, another will open.

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Contents

1 Supporting Practice-Based Learning with Digital Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Rationale for Better Understanding How to Digitally Support Practice-Based Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 The NZ Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.1 Pre-COVID-19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.2 During COVID-19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.3 Present Initiatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4 Challenges Posed by Shifting Practice-Based Programmes to Digitally Enabled Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4.1 The Need for ‘Hands-On’ Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4.2 Multimodalities of Practice-Based Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5 Overview of Chapters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 ‘Learning as Becoming’ and Processes of ‘Learning to Become’ and the Role of Technology-Enhanced Learning (TEL) to Support the Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.1 How Learning as Becoming Occurs Through Learning to Become . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.2 The Holistic Nature of ‘Learning to Become’ a Craftsperson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.3 Supporting Learning Through Feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.4 The Roles of Digital Technology in Supporting Feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1 1 2 5 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

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3 Technology-Enhanced Learning (TEL) in VET: Theories and Approaches to the Present . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 Key Theories Relevant to TEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 Theories of Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.1 Behaviourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.2 Cognitivism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.3 Constructivist Learning Theories and VET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.4 Constructivism and VET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.5 Contemporary Learning Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.6 Practice-Based Learning Pedagogies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4 Practice-Based Learning and TEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.1 Using Video to Support Practice-Based Learning . . . . . . . . . 3.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 The Future of Work and How It Impinges on ‘Learning as Becoming’, TEL and VET Pedagogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 Future of Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 Challenges of Attaining Occupational Identity in a Fast-Changing World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4 Responses to the Challenges Posed by the Future of Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.1 Industry 4.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.2 Education 4.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.3 Vet 4.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5 TEL and the Future of Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6 Pre-requisites for Engaging with TEL Practice-Based Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6.1 Literacies Required to Engage with Digitally Enabled Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6.2 Aspects of Digital Equity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7 Learning Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7.1 Learning Design Processes and Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.8 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 VET Learning Approaches for Industry 4.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 VET Skills, Knowledge, and Dispositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3 Project-Based Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.1 Defining Project-Based Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4 Extending Project-Based Learning to Include Inquiry and Problem-Based Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.1 Inquiry-Based Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

29 29 30 32 32 33 34 38 38 39 42 42 44 44 49 49 50 51 52 52 53 53 54 54 55 56 57 57 60 61 63 63 64 65 66 66 67

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5.4.2 Problem-Based Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.3 Individual or Team-Based Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5 Importance of Personalised Learning Environments for VET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6 Authentic Learning When Access to f2f Learning Is Not Possible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6.1 Video and Its Contribution to VET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6.2 Simulations—A Continuum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6.3 Simulations When Physical Learning Spaces Are Not Accessible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.7 Applying the Push-Connect the Dots-Pull Framework to Practice-Based Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.8 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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6 TEL Supporting VET into Industry 4.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 The Aspect of Flexible Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3 TEL Structure for Teaching and Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.1 Blended Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.2 Digitally Enabled Learning When F2f Contact Is Not Available . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.3 Mobile Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.4 Non-tech and ‘mblend’ VET Distance Learning . . . . . . . . . . 6.4 Learning Design for Digitally Enabled Delivery When F2f Learning Is Not Possible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4.1 Learning Activities for Digitally Enabled Learning . . . . . . . . 6.5 Assessments for Distance Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5.1 eAssessments for Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5.2 eAssessment of Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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7 Implementing TEL in VET 4.0 and Future Possibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2 Overview of Model of Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.1 Rationale for the Incorporation of Flexible Learning . . . . . . 7.3 Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3.1 Preparation and Preparedness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3.2 Learning Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4 Future Possibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4.1 Augmented, Virtual, Mixed, and Extended Reality (AR/VR/MR/XR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4.2 AR/VR/XR/MR and VET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4.3 Adaptive Learning and PLEs into the Future . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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7.5 Summary of the Key Themes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 7.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

Chapter 1

Supporting Practice-Based Learning with Digital Technologies

Abstract In this first chapter, the rationale for the book is presented. The chapter discusses how the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic has increased the deployment and reliance on using digital technologies to support practice-based learning. However, replacing ‘hands-on’ learning or ‘learning by doing’ with virtual environments is challenging as it is difficult to fully replicate all the affordances of physical interaction with the teachers, tools, machinery, materials, and specialised work/learning environments. Then the following sections detail the Aotearoa-New Zealand (NZ) context as studies underpinning the concepts, processes, and strategies proposed and described through this book were carried out within the NZ vocational and education (VET) sector. An overview of each of the following chapters closes this chapter. Keywords Learning by doing · Learning as becoming · Learning to become · Technology-enhanced learning · Forced change · Distance learning · COVID-19 pandemic

1.1 Introduction The premises and motivations for writing this book arose through reflection on the experiences and challenges posed by the rapid forced changes inflicted on the global educational sector due to the COVID-19 pandemic of 2020. This event affected the social-economic-political fabric of the world; continues to be of major concern for many countries; and has eventuated in life-changing consequences for many countries and their citizens. One outcome of the pandemic was the forced and rapid closure of all educational institutes (Bozkurt et al., 2020). Governments around the world scrambled to shift their educational systems wholesale from face-to-face (f2f) learning to distance/remote learning (see Hipkins, 2020 for the Aotearoa-New Zealand (NZ) response). In many countries, the shift to ‘remote teaching and learning’ relied on the affordances provided through digitally enabled or mediated learning. In this book, the particularly demanding aspect of moving from practice-based teaching and learning (i.e. the learning of authentic work skills, knowledge, and attributes) from being based on teaching and learning through ‘learning by doing’, often in specialist © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 S. Chan, Digitally Enabling ‘Learning by Doing’ in Vocational Education, SpringerBriefs in Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-3405-5_1

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learning environments, to digitally enabled learning without recourse to f2f contact are presented, analysed, and discussed. By the end of 2020, the pandemic has seen little signs of abating (NZ Herald, 2020a, July 3). Some countries had to revert to the ‘lockdown’ of entire communities as numbers of infected people increased (ABC Network, 2020; Spain, July 2020). The need to be ready to move practice-based programmes between ‘normal’ and mainly f2f ‘learning by doing’ approaches to digitally enabled learning without physical f2f is now, for the foreseeable future, an ongoing process required of all educational sectors. This book undertakes a review of the ways practice-based learning is constituted and how technology-enhanced learning (TEL), forms of ‘non-digitally-enabled learning’, and digitally enabled (i.e. distance/remote) learning may be used to assist practice-based learning. In this book the term TEL or ‘blended learning’ is used when digital technologies are deployed to support learning occurring when physical f2f contact is possible. Digitally enabled learning is applied when digital technologies are utilised to assist with learning when f2f contact between learners and teachers is not possible. Although the vocational education and training (VET) sector is the main context informing the approaches and direction presented in this book, practice-based learning is undertaken in all human endeavours. For example, many programmes in higher education (HE) lead to the achievement of knowledge, skills, and attributes in professions with large components of practical tasks. These include the education and training of professions in sectors exampled by health (e.g. doctors, nurses, dentists, physiotherapists, nutritionists, etc.), business (e.g. accountants, information technologists), infrastructural (e.g. engineers), and creative (e.g. musicians and other arts performers, artists, film producers/directors, etc.). All require the learning and enactment of a range of practical, cognitive, and dispositional skills; application of knowledge to specialised occupational objectives; and utilisation of a range of attitudinal or dispositional aspects to conduct professional performance. For many people, attainment of work is the major context and objective for post-compulsory schooling practice-based learning. Hence, practice-based learning is not limited to VET but encompasses human endeavour in many occupational, leisure, and social fields (Billett, 2014).

1.2 Rationale for Better Understanding How to Digitally Support Practice-Based Learning Recent circumstances caused by the COVID-19 pandemic forced the closure of educational institutions across the world (Bozkurt et al., 2020). For the majority of these countries, all levels and sectors of education shifted to digitally enabled learning in an effort to maintain and continue the social purposes and economic contributions of education. This massive movement of teaching and learning away

1.2 Rationale for Better Understanding …

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from traditional f2f learning was and still is largely assisted through digital technologies. Thus, educational sectors were forced to transform swiftly from f2f teaching and learning to virtual learning environments (Bozkurt et al., 2020). Wenmoth (2020) applied Toyama’s (2011) concept of ‘technology as amplifier’ to explain how the effects of the pandemic on education, has caused educational sectors to use TEL and digitally enabled learning to strengthen existing pedagogical approaches. This was due to the sudden and forced nature of changing from f2f to ‘remote’ teaching and learning (i.e. when physical contact between students and teachers was not possible). Wenmoth (2020) contends the ‘amplification effect’ likely showcased the potentialities of technology to contribute towards personalised/individualised learning where it had already been the norm; but also catered to the entrenchment of ‘content’ over learning and deepened aspects of digital equity/access by those already disadvantaged. Much of the recent literature on ‘forced change’ related to moving teaching from f2f to distance is situated in the formal/compulsory school sector or higher education. As usual, there is limited literature on how vocational education and training (VET) programmes coped with the imposed change. This paucity of VET sector research is not new or likely to change quickly (Billett, 2014). The lack of scholarship is due, in part to the ways societies view VET as being of lower status than for university or higher education credentials (Billett, 2014). Correspondingly, there is little literature on how to modify programmes with high components of practice-based ‘learning by doing’ approaches, towards delivery online, not to mention totally through digitally enabled learning with little f2f teacher and learner contact. Therefore, the focus throughout this book is on supporting practice-based learning. Technology is only a tool and delivery mechanism to assist learning (Reeves & Lin, 2020). There is a need to ensure the VET context is understood before fully online teaching and learning (i.e. digitally enabled learning) is implemented (Cox & Prestridge, 2020). The drivers to rapidly shift from a VET system reliant on f2f practice-based pedagogy represents a major challenge. However, the experiences learnt may also be utilised to ensure VET systems become more resilient and VET digitally enabled learning more sustainable into the long term. These experiences may then inform various VET systems including funding structures, qualification systems, greater emphasis on industry involvement, and changes in the way VET learning is assessed (Pilcher & Hurley, 2020). Hence, this book explores and provides guidance on how to support VET practicebased ‘learning by doing’ approaches through digitally enabled learning. However, as discussed in the previous section, practice-based learning permeates all human endeavours. Learning of skills, application of ‘practical knowledge’, and the accomplishment of specific attributes to be proficient at a range of activities, whether in literacy/numeracy, sports, music, creative arts, craft/industrial trades work or professional occupational practice, all require the learning and honing of a range of physical movements, cognitive approaches, and attributes/dispositions (exampled by resilience, persistence, attention to detail, conscientiousness, etc.). It follows, concepts and guidelines introduced, discussed, and extended through this book, have wider application than VET.

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Within educational sectors, the sudden move to digitally enabled learning has been especially challenging for VET programmes of study due to the nature of teaching and learning encompassed and supported by this sector. In the main, VET programmes and especially those preparing learners for entry into practice-based occupations, have traditionally been offered f2f and focuses on pedagogical approaches encapsulated by the phase ‘learning by doing’. Due to the pandemic, practice-based learning and teaching approaches based in workrooms, workshops, studios, training kitchens, restaurants, and salons have become unavailable due to closure of institutions of learning. With a shift to digitally enabled learning, these programmes have had to turn to asynchronous learning management systems (LMSs) (exampled by Moodle, Canvas, Blackboard, etc.) and synchronous communication tools (exampled by the now well-known video conferencing platform, Zoom), to keep in contact with, motivate and assist learners. There are many challenges inherent with shifting pedagogy from being traditionally centred on small learner cohorts and practical learning of authentic practice in specialised learning environments, to virtual learning environments. In this book, these challenges are discussed and various strategies to surmount these are presented and critiqued. Generally, VET in countries exampled by the Australia, NZ, Canada, and the United Kingdom (UK) provision VET programmes, and programmes offered through universities, to prepare novices for entry into work; support ‘apprenticeship’ learning systems; and provide ongoing professional development opportunities for upskilling the workforce (McGrath et al., 2019). VET programmes rely heavily on learning environments with access to the machinery, tools, materials, and other resources characterising occupational work. During the pandemic, workplace-based learning for apprentices and workers continued where and when workplaces could carry on their businesses. However, for pre-entry to work programmes whereby learning is undertaken at school or tertiary institutes, closure of these physical learning environments incurred crucial pedagogical consequences. Practice-based learning and teaching were compromised due to the difficulty of replicating specialist machinery and access to specialised tools and materials. Therefore, shifting practice-based teaching and learning to distance learning has been and still is an ongoing challenge, requiring careful planning and the structured and formalised design of learning (Nichols, 2020). However, the need to ensure VET and related programmes preparing learners for work are poised to rapidly move to digitally enabled learning means closer scrutiny and understanding of practice-based teaching and learning approaches to ensure the educational sector as a whole are better prepared for the future (Pilcher & Hurley, 2020). Hence, the chapters through this book, rationalise and summarise concepts of relevance towards informing digitally enabled VET.

1.3 The NZ Context

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1.3 The NZ Context The studies underpinning the concepts presented and discussed in this book were completed in NZ. Therefore, in this section the NZ context as relevant to the discussions undertaken throughout this book, is introduced to set the scene. This section briefly summarises the NZ context through presentation of the pre, during, and current situations as this represents the historical and social context of initiatives to shift to digitally enabled practice-based learning.

1.3.1 Pre-COVID-19 The NZ education system requires compulsory schooling from the ages of 6–16. Generally, students begin school on or just after their fifth birthday (Year 1) and may engage with schooling up to Year 13, culminating in the completion of the National Certificate in Educational Attainment (NCEA) at level 3. This qualification provides entry into tertiary education either at an institute of technology or polytechnic (ITP) or university. Students will also leave schooling on completion of NCEA 1 or 2 in Years 11 and 12 of schooling. Many students from these cohorts, go on the complete ‘pre-trade’ programmes at ITPs; enter apprenticeship/work-based training; or begin their employment at entry-level occupations. Before the pandemic, NZ had low unemployment (Trading Economics, 2020) and low levels of youth of around 12%, who were not in employment, education, or training (NEETs) (Statistics NZ, 2018). Of note is NZ’s geographical location on ‘the ring of fire’ and on the confluence of the Australian and Pacific tectonic ‘plates’. Therefore, natural disasters including earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and the possibility of tsunamis, create a population used to preparing for sudden and unexpected events. The institution the author has been employed in for most of her working life, is situated in Christchurch, on the eastern coast of the South Island. In 2010, and 2011, Christchurch experienced a series of destructive earthquakes from which the city is still recovering. Some of the learnings from the closure of the institution due to the earthquake sequence a decade ago (see Chan & Jenkins, 2012) assisted in preparing the institute for the current pandemic situation. In particular, the information and technology (IT) infrastructure and capability were improved and an increased focus placed on integrating technology-enhanced learning (TEL) and enabling ‘blended learning’ whereby students had access to digitised learning resources and learning activities between f2f classes. Although this did not diminish the challenges presented by the 2020 pandemic, the preparation instigated post-earthquakes, insulated the institute slightly whilst dealing with rapid change.

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1.3.2 During COVID-19 The arrival of COVID-19 to NZ was later than in many other countries with the first case detected in late February, three months after cases were identified in China and a month after cases began increasing in Europe (NZ Herald, 2020a, July 3). NZ’s geographical location provided this small advantage and afforded the opportunity to learn from the experiences of others before the virus entered the country. The population density in NZ is low, with five million NZers spread across two large and several smaller islands. The NZ government, through sound leadership and the application of scientifically evidence-based advice (Wilson, 2020) closed the borders to all apart from returning NZers and permanent residents from March 19th (Wikipedia, 2020). Additionally, the government placed the entire country into ‘lockdown’ from March 25th for almost 7 weeks (Wikipedia, 2020). These restrictions on social interactions, travel, work, and education were gradually reduced by May 13. With the exception of keeping the borders closed, restrictions lifted, and life returned to pre-COVID-19 activity levels for 3 months before the appearance of a series of virus clusters forced a return to limiting population movements. In August 2020, the presence of community transmission forced the return to closure of educational institutes in Auckland, the largest metropolitan area in NZ with a population of over a million (NZ Herald, 2020b, August 11). This accentuated the need for all educational sectors to be constantly on alert and prepared for future disruptions. In the first pandemic wave at the beginning of 2020, NZ educational institutes were closed for the better part of 3 months and then intermittently for 2 months. Many VET and HE institutions continued with digitally enabled learning to the end of the first semester of learning (at the end of June) with plans to begin the second semester mid-July, in ‘normal’ mode. Due to the speed of instigating lockdown, institutions had little time to prepare for the first shift across to digitally enabled learning. At the authors’ institute, the two-week mid-term ‘break’ across Easter was brought forward by a week to provide time for teachers to prepare their courses. Therefore, on commencement of teaching in April, 85% of the institute’s courses convened via ‘distance’ or ‘remote’ learning (Ara Institute of Canterbury, 2020). Learning resources were uploaded to the institution’s LMS (i.e. Moodle) and teacher/learner interactions carried out through discussion forums or synchronously using video conferencing exampled by Zoom. Our experiences revealed programmes struggling most with the conversion process were ones with high components of practice-based workshop or lab/studiobased ‘practical sessions’ whereby students engaged with physical tasks and ‘learnt by doing’. It was difficult to replicate ‘learning by doing’ activities when learners had no access to specialised tools, materials, and machinery. As large components of learning were through practical learning sessions in workshops, etc. and there were few rapidly accessible and up-to-date resources (e.g. video recordings of processes). Closure of the institute also meant lecturers lost access to tools, materials, and machinery and were unable to backfill the need for ‘online resources’ to provide for digitally enabled learning and teaching.

1.3 The NZ Context

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In contrast, several practice-based programmes with learning approaches based on project/inquiry/problem-solving approaches were able to continue with less disruption. This was due to the learning design and resources already available. In these programmes, the components of the project/inquiry/problem-based learning curriculum to be shifted to digitally enabled learning were identified. The practical ‘learning by doing’ aspects were delayed until a return to f2f teaching could occur but other learning activities involving planning, designing, developing of project/product/process, etc. could continue. The above observations helped to highlight to the author and the institute’s learning design team, the importance of curriculum design in overall programme structure and development. It is therefore important to ensure the teaching methodologies selected for practice-based learning, correlate well with online/digital or non-online/technology conversion to be undertaken.

1.3.3 Present Initiatives As some countries’ educational systems move back from digitally enabled learning to ‘normal’ f2f teaching, learning environments, and processes, there is a need to review and learn from experiences encountered through the rapid and unplanned shift. As prefaced in the above sections, the author’s institution had experienced ‘forced change’ almost a decade ago from impacts caused by a series of earthquake events (Chan & Jenkins, 2012). Due to the initial earthquakes, the institution lost access to the main teaching campus for almost six months. The information and technology (IT) infrastructure were also affected and therefore limited use was made of digital technology for teaching and learning. Instead, programmes offered f2f teaching and learning in a collection of alternative premises including clubs, church halls, pubs, and meeting rooms. Using a mixed method study (Chan & Jenkins, 2012) programmes were evaluated as to what adaptations were made to learning design to cope with the shift of teaching venues and structures and how many programmes retained these learning design changes. The findings revealed reluctance to retain changes and most programmes chose to return to the status quo. This non-requirement to retain new teaching and learning approaches ‘post-disaster’, worked well for many programmes as their main learning objective was to ensure learners were able to experience authentic learning and achieve real-world skills, knowledge, and attributes required to work in specialised practice-based occupations. However, there still remains the need to be prepared for requirements to suddenly shift again into digitally enabled learning due to current or future events. ‘Distance’ education has a long history in all sectors of education. Learners, due to geographical location or work commitments have accessed education via ‘distance’ education. Initially, delivery was via postal systems and the use of communication channels including radio and television. Presently, the majority of ‘distance education’ is via digitally–enabled means. Learning design for learners who do not have recourse to attendance at f2f sessions requires careful consideration (Nichols, 2020).

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1.4 Challenges Posed by Shifting Practice-Based Programmes to Digitally Enabled Learning This section explores and discusses the reasons and challenges entailed in shifting practice-based programmes to digitally enabled learning. Of note are the difficulties represented in moving learning and teaching approaches, reliant on ‘hands-on’ practice or ‘learning by doing’, towards learning environments when these were not possible. The main challenges discussed in this section are the reluctance of VET learners to engage with LMSs due to its predominant reliance on text-based literacies which in turn colour the user experiences of these learners. Previous work completed within the NZ VET context found engaging VET learners with the asynchronous learning activities availed through LMS to be challenging (Chan et al., 2013; Chan, Fisher, et al., 2014). There are many reasons for the difficulties in using LMSs for VET and to enhance practice-based learning approaches. Firstly, LMSs require high levels of text-based literacy and many tools supported by LMSs are dependent on reading, text comprehending, and writing. Secondly, LMS communication channels with learners are also largely through textbased discussion forums or email. Thirdly, the user experience with LMSs is largely linear and learning activities, mainly text-based. Even co-constructive learning activities based on blogs and wikis are based on writing, reading, comprehension, and reply. Academic literacies to comprehend text-based instructions required to navigate LMS are also crucial. Each of these are now discussed briefly. Text-based literacies are a pre-requisite for using LMS. LMS originated through the need to archive and disseminate teaching resources to students studying at university. As such, they are structured and developed to privilege text-based instructions and interactions (Coates et al., 2005). Learning activities supported by LMSs include text-based discussion forums, blogs, wikis, etc. and review of learning include quizzes. When used in ‘blended’ learning and TEL approaches, learners are assisted through the utilisation of LMS hosted learning activities. However, on shifting the entire course/programme to digitally enabled learning, issues of digital literacy and equity become evident. Additionally, deploying learning activities requiring the download/viewing of multimedia files (e.g. video of practice-based activities) becomes difficult when learners are only able to access the LMS on mobile phones and with limited data packages. LMSs main communication channel to learners is via email or discussion forums. Again, these forms of communication require high text-based literacy. Previous work (Chan et al., 2013; Chan, Fisher, et al., 2014) indicates many VET students to be reluctant to use email. Text messaging or chat are preferred, especially when learners are only able to access digitally enabled learning via mobile phones. Social networking sites exampled by Facebook, WhatsApp, and Instagram have been useful but these platforms archive communications which are beyond institutional control. Challenges associated with reliance on social networking sites include issues of privacy and ethical challenges and implications on sustainability of learning and teaching approaches when certain features are discontinued or change at short notice.

1.4 Challenges Posed by Shifting Practice-Based …

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Comparing a typical LMS with the types of websites predominantly viewed by VET learners reveals many differences. As prefaced above, many VET learners in several studies (Chan et al., 2013; Chan, Fisher, et al., 2014) relied on mobile phones for all digital interactions. Many VET learners do not own desktop computers (i.e. personal computers or PCs) or laptops (Chan, 2011). This was again evident at the author’s institute’s experiences during the early 2020 shift to digitally enabled learning when over 30% of students only had access to mobile phones for learning (Ara Institute of Canterbury, 2020). Many digitally enabled learning activities require the use of a keyboard for optimal input of information and mobile phone onscreen keyboards are awkward to use for text entry and formatting. Given the present heavy reliance by the educational sector on LMSs to archive, enact and support distance learning, alternative means to engage VET learners with digitally enabled learning is required. Some of these issues are presented and discussed in this book. Additionally, there are digital equity challenges for VET learners (Pearson, 2020). As reported above, during the current pandemic closure of the author’s institute, 30% of learners did not own suitable hardware or have access to sufficiently stable WiFi to connect with distance learning activities hosted on the institutional LMS. Without recourse to hardware and the infrastructure required for digitally enabled learning, VET learners are further disadvantaged when there is a wholesale shift from practice-based f2f and ‘hands-on’ learning opportunities to online lessons. Non-digital alternatives have been the foundation of distance learning for decades. Therefore, the design of practice-based learning via ‘remote or ‘distance’ delivery, requires consideration of both non-digital and digital approaches.

1.4.1 The Need for ‘Hands-On’ Learning It has also been difficult to use synchronous communication to replace the physical sociocultural interactions prevalent in practice-based learning with its heavy reliance on ‘guided practice’ (Billett, 2011). The high bandwidth of video-based resources exampled by videos of teachers’ demonstrations and synchronous video communication sessions are also difficult for learners without access to the hardware and infrastructure required to view and participate in synchronous sessions. Peer learning is compromised and accessed to specialist equipment, tools, and machinery, depending on the type of skill/practice required to be learnt, difficult or impossible if institutional workshops are closed. Therefore, it is important to identify the key aspects of practice-based learning and then work through how to use teaching and learning strategies, both digital and non-digital, to supplement, augment, modify, or transform existing learning design to allow for effective distance learning. Presently the application of TEL within VET is structured predominantly through ‘blended learning’ or for augmenting/enhancing traditional learning undertaken in practice-based learning environments (i.e. workshops). TEL is used either in practice-based environments, exampled by automotive workshops, barista training rooms, front-office receptionist desks, and nursing consultation rooms, to support

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f2f learning sessions (Chan et al., 2012; Chan, Taylor, et al., 2014). In these learning environments, technology is an adjunct or tool to the important focusses on ‘learning by doing’. The learning activities undertaken during f2f sessions are recorded using photos or video. Photos are then used to compile learner-generated ‘etext books’ (Chan et al., 2012). Videos form the platform for peer and reflective learning of difficult to describe attributes including aspects of ‘service orientation’ (Cran, 1994) practiced by hospitality workers or ‘duty of care’/empathetic communications required by health workers when discussing difficult issues with patients and their families (Chan, Taylor, et al., 2014). Learning these processes require timely and effective feedback from teachers as role-plays are enacted. Videos provide a record of the many ephemeral responses required by learners to learn how to carry out ‘emotional labour’ (Korczynski, 2003) and to cope with ‘challenging and stressful’ situations. Although these processes for blended learning may be converted to fully distance delivery or digitally enabled learning, the aspect of timeliness of feedback may be lost due to the asynchronous nature of organising role-play with family members or friends instead of with learning peers.

1.4.2 Multimodalities of Practice-Based Learning The application of digital and non-digital resources and communication channels may both be directed towards encapsulating some of the multimodalities inherent in practice-based learning. Practice involves physical/bodily engagement with activities humans see, hear, feel, sense, and are enmeshed with. Videos are only able to capture a subset of the holistic presence and enactment of complex skill performances. Potentialities offered by augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR) extend or enable some of the multimodalities of practice. However, again, they do not encompass the fullness of lived experiences when practice is undertaken in specialised occupational environments. Therefore, it is important to identify the salient learning modalities of key practice-based skills, knowledge, or attributes/dispositions. These key components of practice-based learning may then be ‘de-constructed’ and enhanced using digitally or non-digitally supported learning. This book proposes some responses and strategies to be adopted by practice-based programmes to be prepared for the need for rapid moves from f2f ‘learning by doing’ approaches to digitally enabled learning. The changes made through effective and relevant learning design ensure practice-based programmes are effective.

1.5 Overview of Chapters

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1.5 Overview of Chapters In this section, brief summaries are provided for each chapter along with the provision of how the concepts and discussions connect with each other. The second chapter, ‘Learning as Becoming’ and Processes of ‘Learning to Become’ and the Role of Technology-Enhanced Learning (TEL) to Support the Process, summarises the key models and frameworks of learning applied through the following chapters and framing the presented discussions, recommendations, and guidelines. The concept of VET as a process of ‘learning as becoming’ is introduced as the key overarching conceptualisation underpinning considerations on VET teaching and learning. Then the mechanisms for ‘learning to become’ are introduced and extended. During practice-based learning, the outcomes of mimetic learning through observation, imitation, and practice, lead to learners engaging with the many occupationally specific ways of doing, thinking, feeling, and being (Chan, 2020). Through learning by doing, novices to an occupation see, hear, feel (i.e. observe) how certain ways of working are carried out. Learners gain expertise as they practice the craft, skills, or professional ways of seeing, thinking, doing, and being. Feedback is introduced as a means to support ‘learning as becoming’. TEL is proposed as one way to aid the feedback process, crucial in helping learners realise and achieve the many aspects of occupation identity. Chapter 3, Technology-Enhanced Learning (TEL) in VET: Theories and Approaches to the Present, discusses the challenges of introducing and deploying TEL in VET. In the main, one of the key difficulties in integrating TEL into VET curriculum has been the need to ensure authenticity of learning. The chapter discusses the main theories of learning (i.e. behaviourism, cognitivism, constructivism) and their relevance to both VET practice-based learning and TEL or digitally enabled learning. Various contemporary models of TEL are also discussed and critiqued with reference to VET and their relevance to practice-based teaching and learning. A synthesis of the theories presented is then undertaken to inform the conduct of practice-based learning through digitally enabled learning when teacher/student physical presence is compromised. This framework, the pushconnecting the learning-pull approach is detailed and argued to provide a pragmatic way to envisage how practice-based TEL/digitally enabled learning may be designed. The fourth chapter, The Future of Work and How It Impinges on ‘Learning as Becoming’, TEL and VET Pedagogy, summarises the demands now placed on VET to prepare learners for the future of work. The terms industry 4.0 and education 4.0 are defined with relevance to VET. There is a need to prepare VET learners for the future of work with its many challenges. Of note is the need for VET workers to be able to identify and validate their ‘non-technically specific’ skills, knowledge, and attributes as these ‘transfer’ into other forms of work if a specific occupation becomes obsolete. The chapter argues for flexibility of qualifications, teaching and learning approaches, and assessments to allow ‘learners’ to co-construct their learning objectives and to develop and engage with ‘personal learning environments’ (PLEs) to assist with their lifelong learning journey. The pre-requisites for learners’ engagement with digitally

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enabled learning are presented in this chapter. These are the crucial aspects of digital equity and digital and multiliteracies required; and the learning design principles, as precursors for successful interaction with TEL or digitally enabled learning. Chapter 5, VET Learning Approaches for Industry 4.0, proposes learning approaches to develop the skills, knowledge, and attributes/dispositions as aligned with the needs of the future of work. These approaches include project-based learning which may in turn be augmented with inquiry and/or problem-based learning. These approaches are held to support learners’ achievement of key skills, knowledge, and attributes. Additionally, work readiness attainment contributes towards learners’ abilities to move from one occupation into another. The role of TEL in assisting the learning approaches are detailed and discussed. Chapter 6, TEL Supporting VET into Industry 4.0 provides the ‘how to’ and ‘what to do’ aspects of improving practice-based ‘learning by doing’ approaches using TEL. Here, the many TEL/digitally enabled learning ‘tools’ and apps to help the learning of skills, knowledge, and attributes are matched to the types of learning approaches recommended in the previous chapters. The chapter proposes various means to support important pedagogies of practice-based learning including engagement with ‘pedagogically rich’ or salient experiences; modelling practice; techniques to assist with ‘making thinking visible’ to learners; and various variants on guided learning. A framework to guide ‘flexible’ and personalised practice-based learning is proposed and discussed. The concluding chapter, Implementing TEL in VET 4.0 and Future Possibilities, closes the book by summarising the concepts and recommendations detailed in the preceding chapters. Some recommendations and guidelines to inform the design, development, and implementation of digitally enabled learning for practice-based learning are introduced and discussed. Potentialities for various ‘emerging’ technologies are also presented and reviewed in this chapter. The various themes, concepts, and models presented through the book are also overviewed.

1.6 Conclusion In this first chapter, the overall intentions and direction of this book are introduced and discussed. The rationale for writing this book and the book’s context are introduced to provide the background for understanding the various concepts, models and recommendations proposed throughout the rest of the book. This introductory chapter thus sets the scene for the following chapters with the objectives of presenting how digital technologies may support practice-based learning when f2f and physical access to workshops/workrooms/studies, etc. are not accessible or for programmes with a digitally enabled learning approaches.

References

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References ABC Network. (2020, July 7). Melbourne enters new coronavirus lockdown. https://www.abc.net. au/news/2020-07-07/melbourne-lockdown-daniel-andrews-key-points/12431708. Ara Institute of Canterbury. (2020). AIRmail: Weekly information newsletter. Billett, S. (2011). Curriculum and pedagogic bases for effectively integrating practice-based experiences. https://vocationsandlearning.blog/resources/. Billett, S. (2014). The standing of vocational education: Sources of its societal esteem and implications for its enactment. Journal of Vocational Education and Training, 66(1), 1–21. Bozkurt, A., et al. (2020). A global outlook to the interruption of education due to COVID-19 pandemic: Navigating in a time of uncertainty and crisis. Asian Journal of Distance Education, 15(1), 1–126. Chan, S. (2011). Becoming a baker: Using mobile phones to compile eportfolios. In N. Pachler, C. Pimmer, & J. Seipold (Eds.), Work-based mobile learning: Concepts and cases: A handbook for academics and practitioners (pp. 91–115). Peter Lang. Chan, S. (2020). Identity, pedagogy and technology-enhanced learning: Supporting the processes of becoming a tradesperson. Springer. Chan, S., Fisher, K., & Sauer, P. (2012). Situated technology-enhanced learning through development of interactive etextbooks on net tablets. Ako Aotearoa Southern Regional Hub Project Fund. Ako Aotearoa. https://ako.ac.nz/knowledge-centre/situated-technology/enhancedlearning-through-development-of-interactive-etextbooks/. Chan, S., & Jenkins, M. (2012, March). Institutional programme design strategies supporting forced change: Guidelines derived from case studies Christchurch earthquake on 22 February 2011. Ako Aotearoa Southern Regional Hub Project Fund. Ako Aotearoa. https://ako.ac.nz/knowledge-centre/institutional-programme-design-strategies-suppor ting-forced-change/institutional-programme-design-strategies-supporting-forced-change/. Chan, S., McEwan, H., & Taylor, D. (2013). Extending hospitality students’ experiences of real-world practice. Ako Aotearoa Southern Regional Hub Project Fund. Ako Aotearoa. https:// ako.ac.nz/knowledge-centre/guidelines-for-improving-students-reflective-practice-and-digitalevaluation-skills/guidelines-for-improving-students-reflective-practice-and-digital-evaluationskills-derived-from-a-study-with-hospitality-students/. Chan, S., Fisher, K., & Sauer, P. (2014). Student development of e-workbooks: A case for SituatedTechnology Enhanced Learning (STEL) using net tablets. In D. McConatha, C. Penny, J. Schugar, & D. Bolton (Eds.), Mobile pedagogy: Perspectives on teaching and learning (pp. 20–40). Hershey, PA: IGA Global. Chan, S., Taylor, D., Cowan, L., & Davies, N. (2014, November). Deploying student/peer feedback to improve the learning of skills and dispositions with video. In J. Clayton (Ed.), Sino/NZ VET Educational Research Forum, 2014 Conference Proceedings. Tianjin, Peoples’ Republic of China. Coates, H., James, R., & Baldwin, G. (2005). A critical examination of the effects of learning management systems on university teaching and learning. Tertiary Education and Management, 11(1), 19–36. Cox, D., & Prestridge, S. (2020). Understanding fully online teaching in vocational education. Research and Practice in Technology Enhanced Learning, 15(16), 1–22. Cran, D. J. (1994). Towards validation of the service orientation construct. The Services Industries Journal, 14(1), 34–44. Hipkins, C. (2020). COVID-19: Government moving quickly to roll out learning from home [Press release]. Available at www.beehive.govt.nz/release/covid19-government-moving-quickly-rollout-learning-home. Accessed 1 May 2020. Korczynski, M. (2003). Communities of coping: Collective emotional labour in service work. Organization, 10(1), 55–79. McGrath, S., Mulder, M., Papier, J., & Suart, R. (2019). Handbook on vocational education and training: Developments in the changing world of work. Springer.

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Nichols, M. (2020). Transforming universities with digital distance education: The future of formal learning. Routledge. NZ Herald. (2020a, July 3). COVID-19 coronavirus: Global cases may spread until ‘most of the world is infected’. https://www.nzherald.co.nz/world/news/article.cfm?c_id=2&objectid=123 45158. NZ Herald. (2020b, August 11). COVID 19 coronavirus: Auckland in lockdown, rest of country in level 2. https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/covid-19-coronavirus-auckland-in-lockdown-rest-of-cou ntry-in-level-2-four-cases-of-community-transmission/IIQ7CJFGRRABYS5T6WNEGF7S74/. Pearson, M. (2020). A meta-analysis of COVID-19: Challenging Australias’ vocational education sector. Journal of Vocational Education Studies, 3(2), 53–62. Pilcher, S., & Hurley, P. (2020). Skills for recovery: The vocational education system we need post-COVID-19. Mitchell Institute for Education and Health Policy, Victoria University. https:// www.vu.edu.au/sites/default/files/mitchell-institute-skills-for-recovery-the-vocational-educat ion-system-we-need-post-COVID-19-updated.pdf. Reeves, T. C., & Lin, L. (2020). The research we have is not the research we need. Education Technology Research & Development, 68(4), 1991–2001. Statistics NZ. (2018). Rates of young men and women not earning or learning converges. https:// www.stats.govt.nz/news/rates-of-young-men-and-women-not-earning-or-learning-converge#:~: text=The%20seasonally%20adjusted%20number%20of,exceeded%20the%20number%20of% 20women. Toyama, K. (2011). Technology as amplifier in international development. In Proceedings from iConference ’11 (pp. 75–82). Trading Economics. (2020). New Zealand employment rate 1986–2020. https://tradingeconomics. com/new-zealand/employment-rate#:~:text=Employment%20Rate%20in%20New%20Zeal and%20averaged%2062.84%20percent%20from%201986,the%20fourth%20quarter%20of% 201991. Wenmoth, D. (2020). The amplification conundrum: What will we learn from the experience of learning remotely during the lockdown? And how will this inform what we do into the future? https://wenmoth.net/2020/06/22/the-amplification-conundrum/. Wikipedia. (2020). COVID-19 pandemic in New Zealand. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID19_pandemic_in_New_Zealand. Wilson, S. (2020). Pandemic leadership: Lessons from New Zealand’s approach to COVID-19. Leadership, 16(3), 279–293.

Chapter 2

‘Learning as Becoming’ and Processes of ‘Learning to Become’ and the Role of Technology-Enhanced Learning (TEL) to Support the Process

Abstract This chapter introduces and details the concept of ‘learning as becoming’ as the overarching framework informing the many approaches and recommendations proposed. Learning as becoming or the realisation of specific forms of occupational identity, with its inherent advantages and disadvantages, is argued to be an important objective of vocational education and training (VET). How occupational identity is realised through learning how to do, feel, think, and be, are then proposed as central objectives of VET. The chapter begins with a summary of the ways learning as becoming are realised. The pedagogical implications to inform the ways people come to ‘learn to become’ is then presented. Learning to become occurs through engagement with the processes of mimesis and mimetic learning. The supporters of mimesis and mimetic learning, sociocultural and sociomaterial factors are then detailed. The chapter closes with a discussion on how technology-enhanced learning (TEL) may assist by affording timely and effective sociocultural feedback and providing opportunities to harness the sociomaterial aspects of occupational identity. Keywords Occupational identity formation · Mimesis—observation · Imitation and practice · Mimetic learning · Practice-based learning · Learning by doing · Sociocultural · Sociomaterial

2.1 Introduction In this chapter, the conceptualisation of ‘learning as becoming’ or learning to realise a specific form of occupational identity, is proposed to help understand how learners become enculturated to the specialised expressions of work and practice. The various concepts introduced and discussed, are summarised in Fig. 2.1. Through processes of ‘learning to become’, learners are introduced to and come to realise the ways occupational practitioners’ approach how things are done. Learners also learn how to conduct problem-solving and make decisions based on skills required to judge quality of their own work/performance and, of others. They achieve skills, knowledge, and dispositions to work through occupationally specific ways to develop and maintain © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 S. Chan, Digitally Enabling ‘Learning by Doing’ in Vocational Education, SpringerBriefs in Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-3405-5_2

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Learning as becoming or learning as realisaƟon of occupaƟonal idenƟty

Learning to do

Learning to think

Learning to feel

Learning to be

Ways to learn to become Mimesis

Socio-cultural support through feedback from others

ObservaƟon, ImitaƟon, PracƟce

Through the awareness, relaƟonships towards and feedback from the sociomaterial

MimeƟc Learning Individual learning – construcƟng and sensemaking Fig. 2.1 Learning as becoming and learning to become

relationships with people/clients/customers and to utilise specialised tools, materials, and machinery. Therefore, engagement with work leading to learners ‘becoming’ or the realisation of occupational identity, eventuates in learners learning how to do, think, feel, and be (i.e. learning how to become), as delineated by their work practices and interactions (Chan, 2020a). As summarised in Fig. 2.1, learning as becoming is premised to occur through mimesis (Billett, 2014). That is, human activities are learnt through observation of the tasks or product/end point of the process; initial imitation of the physically observable aspects of work tasks; and continual focus on improving the efficiency and efficacy of work through deliberate and reflective practice (Ericsson, 2006). Mimesis is the learning of life skills, knowledge, and dispositions through observation, imitation, and practice (Billett, 2014) through activity engagement. This chapter introduces and extends on each of the processes of mimesis. These include the initial and continual learning through observation by seeing, hearing, feeling, etc. other workers/teachers enacting tasks; the reciprocal learning triggered through initial imitation of observed duties (Chan, 2017); and the deliberate and focused practice required to learn and refine occupational skills, knowledge, and attributes. Following on, mimetic learning refers to the ways learning occur through inter-and intra-psychological processes (Billett, 2014). Inter-psychological processes refer to the social contributions to individuals’ learning including interrelationships and interactions. These interconnections include the sociocultural (e.g. the interrelationships with and feedback from

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17

peers and more knowing others) and the sociomaterial (i.e. the engagements and connections with the materials, tools, machinery, digital devices and platforms, work environments, etc.) (Chan, 2020a). The intra-psychological aspect is how individuals make sense of their experiences to learn, re-learn, and unlearn as life experiences are encountered and enacted (Billett, 2014) which may also be envisaged as through socio-constructivist ways of learning. Therefore, the supporters of learning as becoming through sociocultural and sociomaterial interactions and interrelationships are proposed as essential contributors towards assisting individuals’ realisation of occupational identity. In this book, the sociocultural contributions to practice-based learning include responses and feedback to learners’ efforts (Chan, 2020a). Interactions between learners and the sociomaterial aspects of activity include how they establish connections with the vibrations, noises, haptic/tactile sensations, etc. as they work with tools, machinery, tools, environments, etc. specific to occupational practice (Chan, 2020a). Both sociocultural and sociomaterial relationships and interactions provide learners with the opportunity to access the nuances of specialised occupational practices and obtain feedback responses on their actions. All these learning to become processes, contribute towards the holistic realisation of occupational identity (i.e. learning as becoming). In turn, mimesis is backed by the components of mimetic learning including the all-important mechanisms of feedback availed through two main channels. Firstly, through the sociocultural interactions and relations with others, either those more knowing or with peers; and secondly, through long and effortful engagement with the non-human aspects of work (i.e. the sociomaterial [Fenwick, 2010]). The tools, materials, machinery, and environments encompassing work, provide essential feedback to workers as work progresses. Through adjustments to body placement, tool use, or tactile responses derived from materials being worked with, the feedback from these sociomaterial aspects of work, assist with the perfecting and completion of work objectives. Individuals collate all the information/sensory input as work progresses, formulate decisions as to how to move forward with learning work tasks, and make sense of the many aspects of work to progress from novice to expert practitioner (Ericsson, 2006).

2.1.1 How Learning as Becoming Occurs Through Learning to Become Occupational identity through learning as becoming is achieved through long and focused practice-based learning, undertaken through processes of mimesis and mimetic learning. In this section, the precepts of both these learning to become processes are detailed and discussed. Although the components for assisting learners to learn how to become are detailed individually, it is important to understand the holistic nature of mimesis and mimetic learning leading to learning as becoming. Each component, be they observation, imitation, or practice, informs another and

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merges into the other/s as activities are enacted. Learners engage with observation, imitation, and practice as part of mimesis, concurrently and non-linearly with the components of mimetic learning as learning proceeds.

2.1.1.1

Observation

The process of observation as part of mimetic learning includes the multimodalities associated with how humans perceive the world. Observation involves seeing (Chan, 2015), hearing (Bijsterveld, 2006; Rice, 2010), smelling, tasting (Spence, 2015), feeling, and sensing (i.e. temperature, texture, taste etc.) (see example of ‘pit sense’, Somerville & Abrahamsson, 2003: and ‘site sense’ by Aboagye-Nimo & Raiden, 2016 for details on how miners and construction workers perceive the ‘dangers’ inherent in their work environments). In workplace-based learning and through VET, learners observe the processes through watching/listening/sensing as work tasks are completed or demonstrated to them by practitioners. Hence, the ways VET learners access observational learning is dependent on context. Learning may be achieved through observation at formal/institutionally based/f2f training sessions; through engagement with work-based learning; and through access to resources available via the internet (see Torrey et al., 2009 for examples). For learners engaged in pre-work/pre-trade/pre-apprenticeship preparation programmes or apprentices attending block courses or other f2f training sessions, demonstrations of practice are a key opportunity to observe practical skills performance. This observation of practical tasks is then followed by ‘learning by doing’ sessions whereby learners try out tasks and undertake ‘mastery practice’ (Baker & Young, 2014). Access to authentic tools, equipment, machinery, and materials afford learners the opportunity to have ‘hands on’ experiences and to access the sociomaterial aspects of the tasks. Sociocultural feedback and guided practice (Billett, 2011) are provided by teachers/instructors/tutors as learners progress through practice. Often, tasks are re-demonstrated to help learners grasp the finer nuances. Peer learning (see Chan & Leijten, 2012 for example) is a useful approach to assist learners to augment their observational skills and hone practice by working in pairs or small groups. However, with much of practice-based learning, the observational aspect when enacted through workplace learning is through processes described as ‘circumspection’ (Nielsen, 2007) or through ‘stealing with their eyes’ (Marchand, 2008). The ethnographical literature is rich with contemporary examples of how workplace learning occur whereby the novice is enculturated into specific workplace practices through initial engagement with introductory tasks whilst also affording opportunities to observe workplace practice. These beginners’ tasks are often completed as part of a work team. The ‘newbie’ contributes towards workplace productivity but with little risk to the normal work routine or productivity. Examples of preliminary tasks include Billett’s (1995) descriptions of hairdressing apprentices conduct of ‘tea and tidy’ (i.e. to make tea for clients and other hairdressers and to keep the salon clean across the business day); the author’s study of bakery apprentices assisting with the transfer of products from machine to baking trays for further

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processing (Chan, 2011); Crawford’s (2009) account of undertaking housekeeping duties for his employer at the outset of his employment as a motorcycle mechanic; and Lave’s (2011) portrayal of apprentice tailors’ first tasks of sewing buttons on almost completed garments. These initial work experiences provide newcomers with opportunities to view the rhythms and outcomes of daily work routines. Importantly, the dispositional aspects required for accomplished professional practice are modelled and newcomers may view and examine the finished ‘product’. Aspects of the workplaces’ approaches to work including how they model the precepts of ‘craftsmanship’ (Chan, 2014) or ‘service dispositions’ (Cran, 1994) and the learning of the ‘language of the workplace’ (McLaughlin & Parkinson, 2018). Therefore, for hairdressing apprentice, ‘tea and tidy’ affords apprentices the opportunities to learn and practice communication protocols with the salon’s clients and to see/sense the many tasks related to various hair treatments (Billett, 1995). For bakery apprentices, ‘traying up’ bread rolls or pastry items at various stages of production introduce the standards required for bakery production (i.e. consistency of size and shape of each item, speed of work required, etc.) (Chan, 2011). In Crawford’s (2009) example, the housekeeping duties allowed for the broader aspects of running a small motorcycle repair business to be observed. Lave’s (2011) apprentice tailors were able to explore the intricacies of the whole garment whilst engaged with sewing on buttons. Thus, beginning tasks proffer opportunities for the observation of work or the product through well-worn processes identified by workplaces to gain productivity from novices, whilst also minimising adverse consequences. Continued observation provides learners with a model to follow and aspire towards replicating. Of importance to contemporary learning opportunities is the access to the observation of practice-based skills through the internet (Torrey et al., 2009). No longer are learners constrained by difficulties relating to access of knowledge or ‘masters’ due to differences in culture, language, or physical distance. The skills acquired only through long apprenticeships described for example by Singleton (1989) on Japanese craft potters or Boulud (2003) for French chefs, may now be partially availed through videos on digital platforms exampled by YouTube. Craft hobbies exampled by knitting have seen revivals of interest due to the availability of video-based tutorials (Heinemann & Moller, 2015). Besides videos, there is ready access to web-based instructions, infographics, cartoons, etc. providing descriptions on practice-based tasks. Therefore, there are now affordances availed through digital means, to access some previously difficult or expensive to acquire practice models. The main challenge with video-based resources is their reliance on sight and sound. Many sociomaterial elements (Fenwick, 2010) may be surmised through viewing videos of complex practice. Commentary by practitioners recorded on video revealing the insights and nuances to carry out intricate manipulations are helpful in ‘making the thinking visible’ (Collins et al., 1991) for novices. However, these are not all availed in video-based resources of practice.

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2 ‘Learning as Becoming’ and Processes …

Imitation

In this component of mimesis, imitation is held to be focused on learners’ initial attempt/s at replicating tasks or processes (Chan, 2017). Through their nascent attempts, learners make visible to others (i.e. teachers, other workers, trainers, etc.) their interpretation of practice. Often, the reciprocal learning exchange between learner and more knowing others or peers, allows for sociocultural interactions to occur (Chan, 2017). However, it is important to ensure support for these exchanges as access to feedback is contingent on the prevailing work culture or availability of teachers/instructors/workplace trainers (Billett, 1995). Therefore, far from being mindless imitation, learners ‘feel their way’ through their first attempts. With skills learning, learners need to adjust their bodily positions, adapt ergonomically to tool/machinery use, and begin to sense the messages availed through their interaction with the sociomaterial aspects of tasks. An apt example is provided by Gieser (2019) on the use of chainsaws. The sounds and feel of the saw on wood are important sociomaterial aspects of chainsaw use and require several trials before machine and person ‘become as one’. Application of knowledge to practice helps learners affirm their understanding of how theory may inform practice or provide incentives to review or re-evaluate their conceptualisations against expected responses. Dispositional/attitudinal aspects of required performance are assessed as the first few iterations of tasks are carried through. Hence, imitation launches the novice into new or different realms of experiences and their initial attempts provide opportunities for feedback on their performance through both the sociocultural and sociomaterial (Chan, 2017).

2.1.1.3

Practice

The term ‘practice makes perfect’ (Reder et al., 2020) describes the essentials of practice. Practice-based learning, often of a repetitive nature especially at the beginning stages of learning occupational skills, is a hallmark of mimesis. Through repeated attempts to hone a skill, make sense of, and apply knowledge and practice dispositional demeanours, learners gain fluency, speed, and become attuned to work. In doing, some aspects of skill/cognition and attitude are developed. Through practice, automaticity of action is attained through the strengthening of the neural network connected to the task. Eventually, through repeated practice, learners achieve ‘muscle memory’ (Hassanpoor et al., 2012) for physical (e.g. measuring and cutting materials) and cognitive (e.g. completing a numerical calculation) skill development. Practice also assists with the consolidation of the theoretical aspects of learners’ occupational practice. Some of the drawing together of skill/knowledge and attributes/dispositions are subsumed as tacit knowledge (Chan, 2020b) through frequent use and application. Achievement of these necessary attributes/dispositions allowing for fluent and professional deployment of their work are also premised on practice. In all, practice leads to embodied learning (Hyland, 2019) whereby practitioners approach work with confidence and expertise, often finding it difficult to describe how tasks were

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21

completed and why certain processes were followed or decisions made (Marchand, 2007). The key to reaching experthood is deliberate practice (Baker & Young, 2014; Ericsson, 2006). This is an approach requiring learners to not only repeatedly work through a skill, but to understand what is required to continually refine performance. Deliberate practice is based on studies of people learning specialised sets of skills. Musicians, chess players, and sports champions, by undertaking many iterations of practice through defined sets of exercises (e.g. musician playing the scales) accomplish eventual expertise. These activities must be challenging but achievable with effort. Learners need to be mindful as practice-based learning proceeds, to recognise error-making, and to select and enact corrective actions. Through doing, deep comprehension of the procedural aspects of the practice are achieved, eventually leading to task fluency. Both the interactions and interrelationships with the sociocultural and sociomaterial aspects of the learning are essential contributors towards enhancing deliberate practice.

2.1.2 The Holistic Nature of ‘Learning to Become’ a Craftsperson In this section, one aspect of learners’ journey to realise their occupational identity is used to explain the holistic, embedded, and integrated nature of the processes of ‘learning to become’. The application of craftmanship or artisanal approaches is associated with many VET occupations. Craftmanship is held to be an innate human response (Sennett, 2008). The achievement of the skills, knowledge, and dispositions epitomising expertise in many crafts, trades, and artisanal work, is founded on how people express their work. Skilled craftsmanship implies the ability to confidently orchestrate physical movements, and work with tools, machines, and materials fluidly towards the manufacture of complex products or complete technically challenging processes. This skilled performance is supported by the capabilities to draw on and apply abstract concepts and practical knowledge towards the seemingly effortless solving of problems related to production and processes. Craftsmanship also entails the deployment of a range of dispositions including the persistence, conscientiousness, precision, patience, and perfectionism required to undertake and complete difficult/exacting work (Chan, 2020a). Hence, the achievement of craftmanship attributes, requires long and deep engagement with mimesis to attain the levels of perception required to practice at high levels of expertise. Much of craftsmanship expertise becomes tacit (Chan, 2020b). That is, it becomes difficult for practitioners to make visible and to articulate their cognitive, physical, and dispositional effort. Hence, the processes of mimesis, complemented by mimetic learning process, assists learners to achieve competencies across multimodal and cognitive domains, leading to the embedding or the embodiment of their learning (Hyland, 2019) into actions congruent with their occupational identity.

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2.1.3 Supporting Learning Through Feedback In this section, the key supports for mimetic learning (i.e. the inter-psychological) and occupational identity formation involving sociocultural and sociomaterial factors, are introduced, described, and rationalised. These include the feedback offered by more knowing others and peers (i.e. the sociocultural) and through individuals’ interaction with the tools, materials, machines, and environments of work (i.e. the sociomaterial). Through ‘learning by doing’ learners observe practice, make attempts at imitating the activity, and receive feedback from both the sociocultural and sociomaterial as they engage with deliberate practice. Feedback is an important contributor to all forms of learning including practicebased learning. Through feedback processes, individuals’ sense-making of their emergent competencies and continually evolving practice are refined. In the education sector, appropriate feedback, provided at the right time and frequency, contribute highly to learners’ efficacy (Hattie, 2009). Learners’ efficacy refers to their understanding of how far they have progressed with meeting their learning goals. Feedback provides opportunities for learners to judge where they are at; assistance to evaluate the quality of their performance; and sufficient information to work out how they may make practice improvements at the next iteration. Therefore, the recommendations for feedback are to provide feed up to check learners are on the right track; feedback on how they have performed or completed tasks; and feed forward to help learners work out what they need to do next to progress or reach better performance (Hattie & Timperley, 2007). In work-based learning, feed up may not be as useful. This is especially in production orientated workplaces whereby work tasks are assigned. However, both feedback and feed forward are important in interactions with others (i.e. sociocultural feedback). With sociomaterial feedback from non-human aspects of work, it is the feedback which is important in gauging the effectiveness of the efforts expended. Both are now discussed. Feedback through sociocultural connections may be provided through f2f interactions at work, through off-job training programmes, during full-time pre-preparation for work learning, etc. Billett (2011) identifies practice pedagogies assisting the learning of occupational skills, knowledge, and attributes. Almost all these pedagogies include inter-relational aspects including guided learning, direct instruction supported by ‘hands’ and ‘guidance’, and indirect or distal guidance. Sociocultural learning underpins human development (Rogoff, 1995; Sterelny, 2012). From birth, humans learn from others and mimesis is augmented by contributions from others through their modelling of practice; reciprocity as imitative learning is initiated (Chan, 2017); and guidance during deliberate practice (Billett, 2011). As prefaced earlier in this chapter, sociocultural interactions require agency on the part of the learner and workplace affordances (Billett, 2011) to be availed for interactions to be effective. The key component of practice-based learning making it different from ‘schoolbased’ learning is the importance of feedback from the sociomaterial aspects of work. As prefaced above, the sociomaterial aspects of work include human interaction with

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23

the non-human ‘players’ of activity (Fenwick, 2010). Sociomaterial aspects include the various tools/equipment, machines, materials, animals, natural environments, etc. encountered through work. Following on from the examples of novices’ observational and imitative learning’ from the above sections, the examples below are provided to assist with better understanding the breadth and complexity of the sociomaterial world. In Billett’s (1995) study of apprentice hairdressers, the initial ‘tea and tidy’ task provided important enculturation into the socially mediated world of hairdressing salons. Apprentice hairdressers had to learn how to decipher the communication protocols used by senior hairdressers and learn the highly complex social rituals surrounding client interaction. Bakery apprentices obtained crucial opportunities to begin interaction with the materials of the trade (i.e. doughs, pastes, icings) by handling large volumes of product through their duties of transferring products onto trays or into tins (Chan, 2011). Crawford (2009) was introduced to the intricacies of motorcycle repair through ‘housekeeping’ chores requiring identifying, cleaning, and putting away tools and machine parts. The apprentice tailors in Lave’s (2011) study learnt about the weight and feel of cloth along with how various parts of a garment were constructed through sewing on buttons and ironing completed clothing. Hence, opportunities for initial interaction with the sociomaterial aspects of work were important precursors to practice-based learning.

2.1.4 The Roles of Digital Technology in Supporting Feedback In this section, the role of TEL and digitally enabled learning are introduced as a means to support mimesis (i.e. learning through observation imitation and practice) and the feedback potential from the sociocultural and sociomaterial aspects assisting ‘learning to become’ processes. TEL can be usefully applied to enhancing feedback by improving practice-based ‘learning by doing’ approaches. TEL is especially useful in providing a channel for socio-cultural communications for feedback to occur. In turn, sociocultural feedback is useful in bringing learners’ attention to the sociomaterial aspects of processes and tasks, often ‘learnt through doing’. TEL can be deployed to support mimesis. Text-based and visual/graphic resources are helpful but the most useful technologies of mimesis are video and immersive technologies exampled by augmented or virtual reality (AR/VR). Video capture many of the multimodalities of practice. Of importance is the ability of video to capture the many nuanced movements and ephemeral occurrences (i.e. rapid, partially hidden/difficult to observe, or intermittent actions/activities). Video is also able to capture the ‘non-verbal’ signals or cues (Burgoon, 1994) essential to human communication. Practice-based movement/work/performance is therefore matched well to video recordings.

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The utilisation of video is maximised when matched to the best ways to support practice-based learning. Practice-based pedagogical approaches include learners’ engagement and the modelling availed through participation with pedagogically rich or salient learning activities (Billett & Noble, 2020); techniques to help ‘make thinking visible’ including the introduction and use of heuristics, mnemonics, and partially worked examples; and guided learning (Billett, 2011). Therefore, video may be used to capture instances of pedagogically rich/salient practice; model practice and provide close-up and annotated views of complex manipulative skills; or examples of ‘work in progress’. These videos may then be used to improve the interpsychological learning discussed in the next section. Learners may also summarise, review, or critique the videos presented as a means to better understanding and reflect on practice. Other potential technologies including simulations, AR/VR, and interactive games are discussed in the following chapters. Social media or social networking platforms’ integration and utilisation are one aspect of digital technologies contribution to enabling communicative channels to be opened between learners and their peers, teachers or workmates. The wide adoption of video conferencing during the COVID-19 pandemic, not only for work or learning, but also for social interaction between families and other social groups, indicates the relevance and importance of f2f and synchronous communication to humans. Practice-based learning relies on ensuring the processes of mimesis are supported by sociocultural interactions. Guided learning is an important practice-based learning pedagogy. The guidance may be through ‘proximal guidance’ whereby the learner is assisted to move from something they have found difficult to achieve, towards eventual success (Billett, 2011). Guidance may also take the form of direct or ‘hands-on’ instruction or through indirect or distal guidance (Billett, 2011). In the case of applying asynchronous TEL to practice-based learning, indirect guidance would be the main form of assistance. Teachers may annotate videos of learners’ iterative attempts, bringing attention to learners’ body stance, movements, or nonverbal communications. For example of using video to enhance the learning of hotel receptionist checking in/out processes (see Chan et al., 2013; and Chap. 3 for more details). These annotated videos are then used to anchor reflective learning discussions, helping learners access some of the standards, procedures, and demeanours required for professional practice. As with all application of digital technologies to learning, it is important to ensure the technologies align with learning objectives (Greenhow & Askari, 2017). Hence, with practice-based learning, digital technologies help learners access the many advantages of sociocultural interrelationships. Social networking sites are one way for peer-to-peer learning and team-based learning to be enacted; and as with the example above on using video, to connect learners with more knowing others, be they teachers, workmates, or industry experts.

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2.2 Conclusion In this chapter, the overarching framework of ‘learning to become’ supports the various discussions through this book, are introduced and explained. In particular, the presentation of the mechanisms or processes underpinning practice-based learning, mimesis, and mimetic learning, as aligned to the objectives of VET. Introduced through this chapter, the contributions of TEL are also presented towards supporting practice-based learning. TEL complements f2f learning through the potentialities and affordances to proffer timely feedback on learning. For learners unable to access synchronous f2f learning and the physical environments of practice-based learning, digital technologies provide access to authentic practice via videos and other resources. How these resources contribute are proposed. It is important to ensure learners actively engage with resources not just as viewers, but also to reflect on and critique practice.

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Chan, S. (2020b). Learning the tacit dimensions of craft and industrial trades work through apprenticeship. In R. Hermkes, T. Bonoswski, & G. H. Neuweg (Eds.), Tacit knowledge. Bertelsmann. Chan, S., & Leijten, F. (2012). Using feedback strategies to improve peer-learning in welding. International Journal of Training Research, 10(1), 23–29. https://doi.org/10.5172/ijtr.2012.10. 1.23. Chan, S., McEwan, H., & Taylor, D. (2013). Extending hospitality students’ experiences of real-world practice. Ako Aotearoa Southern Regional Hub Project Fund. Ako Aotearoa. https:// ako.ac.nz/knowledge-centre/guidelines-for-improving-students-reflective-practice-and-digitalevaluation-skills/guidelines-for-improving-students-reflective-practice-and-digital-evaluationskills-derived-from-a-study-with-hospitality-students/. Collins, A., Brown, J., & Holum, A. (1991). Cognitive apprenticeship: Making thinking visible. American Educator, 15(3), 38–47. Cran, D. J. (1994). Towards validation of the service orientation construct. The Services Industries Journal, 14(1), 34–44. Crawford, M. B. (2009). Shop class as soulcraft: An inquiry into the value of work. Penguin. Ericsson, K. A. (2006). The influence of experience and deliberate practice on the development of superior expert performance. In K. A. Ericsson, N. Charness, P. J. Feltovich, & R. R. Hoffman (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of expertise and expert performance (pp. 685–705). Cambridge University Press. Fenwick, T. (2010). Re-thinking the “thing”: Sociomaterial approaches to understanding and researching learning in work. Journal of Workplace Learning, 22(1/2), 104–116. Gieser, T. (2019). Sensing the knowing noise: An acoustemology of the chainsaw. Social Anthropology/Anthropologie Sociale, 27(1), 50–61. Greenhow, C., & Askari, E. (2017). Learning and teaching with social network sites: A decade of research in K-12 related education. Education and Information Technologies, 22(2), 623–645. Hassanpoor, H., Fallah, A., & Raza, M. (2012). New role for astroglia in learning: Formation of muscle memory. Medical Hypotheses, 79(6), 770–773. Hattie, J. (2009). Visible learning: A synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses relating to achievement. Routledge. Hattie, J., & Timperley, H. (2007). The power of feedback. Review of Educational Research, 77(1), 81–112. Heinemann, T., & Moller, R. L. (2015). The virtual accomplishment of knitting: How novice knitters follow instructions when using a video tutorial. Learning, Culture and Social Interaction, 8(1), 25–47. Hyland, T. (2019). Embodied learning in vocational education and training. Journal of Vocational Education and Training, 71(3), 449–463. Lave, J. (2011). Apprenticeship in critical ethnographical practice. Cambridge University Press. Marchand, T. H. J. (2007). Crafting knowledge: The role of ‘parsing and production’ in the communication of skill-based knowledge among masons. In M. Harris (Ed.), Ways of knowing: New approaches in the anthropology of experience and learning (pp. 181–202). Berghahn Books. Marchand, T. H. J. (2008). Muscles, morals and mind: Craft apprenticeship and the formation of person. British Journal of Educational Studies, 56(3), 245–271. McLaughlin, E., & Parkinson, J. (2018). ‘We learn as we go’: How acquisition of a technical vocabulary is supported during vocational learning. English for Specific Purposes, 50(April), 14–27. Nielsen, K. (2007). Aspects of practical understanding: Heidegger at the workplace. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 51(5), 455–470. Reder, S., Gauly, B., & Lechner, C. (2020). Practice makes perfect: Practice engagement theory and the development of adult literacy and numeracy proficiency. International Review of Education, 66(2), 267–288.

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Rice, T. (2010). Learning to listen: Ausculation and the transmission of auditory knowledge. In T. H. J. Marchand (Ed.), Making knowledge: Explorations of the indissoluble relation between mind, body and environment. Wiley-Blackwell. Rogoff, B. (1995). Observing sociocultural activity on three planes: Participatory appropriation, guided participation and apprenticeship. In J. V. Wertsch, P. Del Rio, & A. Alverez (Eds.), Sociocultural studies of mind (pp. 139–164). New York: Cambridge University Press. Sennett, R. (2008). The craftsman. Allen Lane. Singleton, J. (1989). Japanese folkcraft pottery apprenticeship: Cultural patterns of an educational institution. In M. W. Coy (Ed.), Apprenticeship: From theory to method and back again (pp. 13– 30). State University of New York Press. Somerville, M., & Abrahamsson, L. (2003). Trainers and learners constructing a community of practice: Masculine work cultures and learning safety in the mining industry. Studies in the Education of Adults, 35(1), 19–34. Spence, C. (2015). Just how much of what we taste derives from the sense of smell? Flavour, 4(30), 1–10. Sterelny, K. (2012). The evolved apprentice: How evolution made humans unique. MIT Press. Torrey, C., Churchill, E., & McDonald, D. W. (2009). Learning how: The search for craft knowledge on the internet. In CHI 09 Proceedings of the SIGCHI conference on human factors in computing systems (pp. 1371–1380).

Chapter 3

Technology-Enhanced Learning (TEL) in VET: Theories and Approaches to the Present

Abstract Discussions on the role of technology-enhanced learning (TEL) in vocational education and training (VET) form the main objectives of this chapter. The chapter begins with an overview of the key theories of learning relevant to TEL/digitally enabled learning. Major learning theories are presented and evaluated for their fit to the overarching concepts of ‘learning as becoming’; how they inform the processes of learning to become; and relevance to the deployment of TEL to enhance VET and practice-based learning. These learning theories are summarised and aligned towards their application to practice-based learning. A pragmatic framework to help frame practice-based learning approaches is then proposed. The chapter closes with an example of how the framework is applied to TEL. Keywords Elearning · Distance learning · Affordances of digital tools and platforms · Digital literacy · Multimodality · Multiliteracies

3.1 Introduction In the main, TEL or elearning, has been applied through ‘blended learning’ approaches as supports to improve practice-based learning. Blended learning refers to the judicious design and development, introduction, and implementation of structured learning using digital technologies. In blended learning delivery structures, some learning activities are based on face-to-face (f2f) interactions and other sessions draw on resources provided by online learning management systems (LMSs) or are sourced via the internet (Bowyer & Chambers, 2017). As foreshadowed in the previous chapter, TEL is useful in supplementing and augmenting feedback from the sociocultural and the sociomaterial aspects of VET. These TEL learning activities, contribute towards learners’ skill development, knowledge application, and dispositional attribute realisation. A shift to digitally enabled learning without physical f2f contact or access to practice-based learning environments, involves understanding well, the learning design foundations for curriculum structure and their accompanying learning approaches. Therefore, this chapter provides an overview of the underpinning © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 S. Chan, Digitally Enabling ‘Learning by Doing’ in Vocational Education, SpringerBriefs in Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-3405-5_3

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learning theories informing the design, development, and implementation of TEL to assist with practice-based learning pedagogies (i.e. as introduced in the previous chapter, practice-based learning supported by pedagogically rich/salient learning opportunities; modelling of practice; making learning or thinking visible and guided learning [Billett, 2011]).

3.2 Key Theories Relevant to TEL In this section the pertinent frameworks and models for TEL supporting practicebased ‘learning by doing’ processes of learning are reviewed and critiqued. Several learning theories/frameworks and models are introduced, described, and discussed. The multiplicity of these conceptualisations is due to the multidimensionality and intricacies of human cognitive architecture and the inherent complexities shaped by dynamic sociocultural-political-historical influences on human societies (Jonassen, 2009). No one theory/framework/model encompasses the myriad of ways humans understand the world. Hence, there are many theories/frameworks and models attempting to explain how learning occurs. Jonassen (2009) delineates the many ways for understanding how learning occurs and these are listed below. The correspondent theories discussed in this chapter are provided in brackets to help connect how learning transpires, to the theories presented. Each of the items below relates to learning as: • processing, storage, and retrieval of information (i.e. cognitivist approaches). • involving the biochemical activities in the brain (i.e. an updating of cognitivism with neuroscience approaches). • changes in behaviour or dispositions (i.e. behaviourist approaches). • involving developmental stages (i.e. developmental learning approaches are not covered in detail in this book but included briefly as part of cognitivism). • causing conceptual change (i.e. constructivist and transformational approaches) • problem-solving (i.e. constructivist approaches). • social negotiation (i.e. socio-constructivist approaches). • activity (i.e. socio-constructivist approaches and activity and cultural theories of learning). • contributing to environmental affordances (i.e. ecological approaches (not discussed). The list above underpins the notion there are many perspectives on understanding how people learn. Therefore, the theories aligned to practice-based learning have been selected and defined to inform the discussion. Figure 3.1 summarises the connection between the various models/concepts and frameworks introduced and discussed through this chapter. In summary, the selected learning theories are matched with the overall objectives of VET with its overarching objective to prepare people for paid work or engage with further study (i.e. learning as becoming—➀). Preparing learners for work and helping learners engage with workplace learning to ‘become’

3.2 Key Theories Relevant to TEL

31 Learning as becoming

① Mime c Learning for assis ng the learning to become process Intra-psychological Individual learning – construc ng and making

②

③ Inter-psychological Socio-cultural support through feedback from others

④

Construc vist learning/ TEL theories

Ac ve, authen c, personalised learning ac vi es

Inter-psychological Through the awareness, rela onships towards and feedback from the sociomaterial

Learning design

Prac ce-based learning pedagogies: ⑤

⑥

Learning through engagement in pedagogically rich/salient prac ce; modelling; making learning/thinking ‘visible’ and guided learning.

PUSH -connect learning– PULL approach Model

Fig. 3.1 Supporting VET with TEL and distance learning

occupationally focused practitioners, requires an emphasis on supporting the intrapsychological component of mimetic learning. That is, learners are assisted to make sense of and construct meaning from their experiences. Individuals’ learnings are also contributed to by the inter-psychological aspects of mimetic learning through feedback from others (i.e. the sociocultural) and interactions with the sociomaterial aspects of their practice (summarised in the boxes and arrows in ➁ and see Chap. 2 for deeper discussion on these concepts). One well-matched learning theory to the objectives of VET is discussed in greater detail. The precepts of constructivist learning theories imply the objectives of learning

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to be active (i.e. with the participation and contribution towards co-construction of learning with the learner); authentic to prepare the learner for the exigencies of ‘learning to become’; and personalised (i.e. through opportunities for learners to plan and organise their learning and for teaching to be differentiated to learners’ goals) (Tobias & Duffy, 2009) (the boxes in ➂). Then the pedagogical approaches most aligned to the provision of active, authentic, and personalised VET learning are introduced. These approaches are summarised by Billett (2011) as contributing to the support and enhancement of practice-based performance. They are thematically organised as being learning through engagement in pedagogically rich or salient practice; the modelling of practice; assisting the learning of difficult skills, and/or complex knowledge and attributes/dispositions through learning design to help make learning or thinking ‘visible’; and guided learning (➄). To develop alignment between practice-based learning and TEL requires the deployment of good learning design (➃) supported by a proposed Push-Connect the learning-Pull model (➅) detailed at the end of this chapter.

3.3 Theories of Learning Learning theories define and examine how learning occurs. They are by no means definitive and as learning is undertaken across a wide spectrum of situational contexts, understanding how some of these theories explain learning, provide teachers and curriculum/educational/instructional or learning designers with frameworks to guide their work. To begin the three main overarching theories of learning are presented and evaluated. These are behaviourism, cognitivism, and constructivism, with the added social dimension of socio-constructivism. As discussed in the section above, constructivist learning theories are best aligned to the learning objectives of practice-based learning. Both behaviourism and cognitivism are also relevant to informing practice-based learning as they provide foundational concepts contributing towards understanding learning. All three are therefore now presented and discussed, with brief attention provided to the relevant aspects of behaviourism and cognitivism and a more in-depth discussion and critique of constructivist learning theories. Examples from TEL are provided as to how each theory informs practice-based learning.

3.3.1 Behaviourism The learning theories centred around behaviourism were influential through the first half of the twentieth century (Jonassen, 2009). The main theorists were Watson, Skinner, and Thorndike. Behaviourism focused on observable outcomes of learning with the resulting learners’ responses to stimulus representing learning. The main concept relevant to practice-based skills learning are the requirements for learning to

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proceed through small increments of trial and error when learners respond to stimulus. If learners’ responses are reinforced, through either extrinsic or intrinsic reward systems, then these responses are strengthened, and learning becomes embedded. This method of teaching and learning is referred to as operant conditioning. This form of learning, also called instrumental conditioning, uses rewards and punishments for behaviour. Attaining a reward is seen to help consolidate a targeted behaviour whereas punishment leads to the behaviour receding. The main application of behaviourist theories to teaching and learning into VET is the wide-spread use of competency-based assessments. Unfortunately, in many jurisdictions, an over-emphasis on the outcomes of competency-based assessments has led to atomisation of VET teaching and learning (Hodge, 2014). The objective in this section is not to undertake a long critique of the implementation and utilisation of competency-based assessments through much of VET. Suffice to say, the consequences of a reliance on the narrow focus on observable skills and dispositions and quantifiable knowledge has been to the detriment of recognising the wide and plentiful range of complex skills, knowledge, and attributes/dispositions of vocational occupations (Billett, 2006). Behaviourist learning theories also inform teaching approaches, and the deployment of digital technologies. One example is the use of ‘programmed instruction’ whereby learning is atomised into smaller ‘chunks’, each with specific learning goals (Schmidt & Mamede, 2020). In this form of self-paced or ‘branched/adaptive learning, learners work through each ‘module’ and move on when each is completed satisfactorily. This form of learning is still popular and the most well-understood TEL approach is the deployment of quizzes, in particular those which have an adaptive function, to learn or review learning.

3.3.2 Cognitivism Through the latter half of the twentieth century, the advent of computing saw the analogy of computers being applied to explanations of how learning occurred. Behaviourism only went a short way towards explaining the complex processes of learning. Cognitivism proposed learners did not just receive stimulus and respond to it. Instead, learners were posited to have active roles in processing ‘information’ in their brains and storing this as short or long-term memory patterns (Schmidt & Mamede, 2020). The main theorist includes Piaget whose theories on child development (i.e. developmental theory of learning) still stand the test of time; Bruner (i.e. ‘scaffolding’ learning); Ausubel (i.e. work on how the brain ‘organises’ learning), and Gagné (i.e. instructional events). Although now extended by contemporary work in neuroscience, some of the recommendations from cognitivism are useful in planning and structuring learning materials for learning and teaching. These include the application of learning interventions to draw on the prior knowledge of learners; help learners process new information; and solidify learning into long-term memory (Schmidt & Mamede, 2020).

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One useful example is Gagné et al.’s (2005) ‘nine events of instruction’ forming much of the foundation for instructional or learning/curriculum design across educational sectors and approaches. Instructional events include gaining the learners’ attention; ensuring learners receive information on learning objectives; encouraging learners to recall previous learning to connect to the new learning; allowing learners time and resources to undertake practice; providing learners timely and relevant feedback on performance; checking learners have met the required learning outcome before allowing them to proceed; and providing opportunities for further review to enhance retention and assist with transfer of knowledge, skills or dispositions to similar contexts. These ‘instructional events’ have been used to frame the conduct of learning design (see Chap. 4). Learning design for TEL may be informed by these ‘instructional events’. Work on using video to help learners learn complex dispositional and operational skills required for practice as front-office receptionists (Chan et al., 2013), was developed with the nine steps as a framework.

3.3.3 Constructivist Learning Theories and VET A shift in the later part of the twentieth century through a better understanding of how individuals learn, saw the adoption of constructivist theories of learning. The precepts of constructivism were laid down by the work of Dewey (1916) and socio-constructivism through the revival of the work of Vygotsky (1998). Constructivist theories propose learning as the making of meaning, with individuals building schemas of their world and its many influences (Richardson, 2003). Socio-constructivism adds the important contribution of the assistance provided by others (i.e. parents, teachers, peers, etc.) to individuals’ learning experiences and outcomes (Packer & Coicoechea, 2000). Therefore, these theories are well-aligned towards informing practice-based TEL.

3.3.3.1

Constructivist Pedagogy

Constructivist pedagogies centre on ensuring learning include opportunities for learners to actively participate in learning; be focused around learning goals and outcomes; include opportunities for peer learning; enable learners to personalise their learning approaches and goals; and enable forms of differentiated learning (i.e. each learner learning at their own pace, ability level and structure) (Lam et al., 2020). Additionally, constructivist pedagogies are aligned with the approaches recommended by active learning (Prince, 2004; student centred learning (Wulf, 2019); differentiated learning (Morgan, 2013; Tomlinson, 2003), and experiential learning (Kolb, 2015). A common objective of these approaches is the development and utilisation of learning activities to engage learners in experiencing learning as authentic and situated. Through helping learners to make the connections between new learning and their lives, learners are encouraged to make meaning from their experiences.

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Constructivist learning opportunities provide environments for individuals to test emergent understandings and learnings. In doing, learners process and think through embryonic conceptualisations as ‘new’ learnings become networked into existing experiences and perspectives. Different learning focuses are used to encourage learners to co-construct their learning agendas, objectives, and pathways. The scaffolding of learning is argued to be an important principle of constructivism (Tobias & Duffy, 2009). Learners review where they currently stand with their understanding/skills and dispositional development and then embark on learning to move these towards some form of ‘end goal’ or desired learning outcome. VET objectives focus on preparation and continued professional development for occupational practice and expertise. Hence, constructivist pedagogies align well with the outcomes of VET especially when active learning is supported with authentic learning opportunities. An application of constructivist principles was carried out with automotive students compiling their own etextbooks, using photos and commentary collected through workshop practice sessions (Chan et al., 2012). Through active interaction with the evidence of their own learning, these learners gained deeper understanding of introductory automotive engineering processes.

3.3.3.2

Constructivist Learning Theories and Neuroscience

Of note are the current contributions from neuroscience researchers informing how learning occurs and can be better supported. Recent findings through neuroscience confirm many of the precepts of constructivist pedagogy (Nugent et al., 2019) and inform the integration of digital learning (Mayer, 2017). There are provisos to accepting and applying the outputs of neuroscience to learning. Snook (2012) cautions on accepting various ‘neuromyths’ (e.g. left and right brain thinking; ‘learning styles’; learning only uses 10% of the brain; male and female brains are different, etc.) which have entered into educational practice. The provisos are echoed by Varma et al. (2008) who contend the specialised and sometimes atomised nature of neuroscientific research must be accounted for when previewing recommendations made on learning. However, advances in educational neuroscience hold much promise (Nugent et al., 2019), although they require critical evaluation as to their application to learning and teaching practice (Snook, 2012).

3.3.3.3

Socio-Constructivism

The emphasis with socio-constructivist learning is learning not only involves individuals (i.e. the intra-psychological). Instead, learning environments and social supports availed to the learner, contribute towards helping individuals’ sense-making and learning progress (i.e. the inter-psychological). Through learners’ participation in their social milieu, they ‘acquire’ the practices and thoughts permeating their learning environment. The work of Vygotsky is held to inform the precepts of socioconstructivism. Vygotsky’s conceptualisation of learning was published and better

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known in the Soviet Union at the beginning of the twentieth century. They were revived in the 1970s by social ethnographers including Scribner (1984), Rogoff (1995), and Lave (2011). Key precepts of socio-constructivism are now presented and discussed below. These are Vygotsky’s concept of ‘zone of proximal participation’ to help explain scaffolded learning through socio-constructivism; cognitive apprenticeships used to bring authenticity into formal learning; and communities of practice (COPs) (Lave & Wenger, 1991) as metaphor for learners entering into and becoming part of distinct practice-based organisations.

Zone of Proximal Participation The zone of proximal development (zpd) is an extension on the concept of scaffolded learning. The important addition is the role of the more knowing other (i.e. parents, teachers, workmates, trainers, etc.). The zpd refers to the gap between what learners can currently achieve and the learning objective. The role of the supporter is to assist the learner to bridge the zone by assisting the learner with the provision of scaffolds (if required) and pertinent feedback as learning progresses. Feedback is a mainstay of supporting learning through the zone. As discussed in the previous chapter, TEL is able to assist through providing the conduit for feedback to occur either asynchronously (e.g. via use of drop box for learners’ evidence to be uploaded and teacher’s feedback to then be returned) or synchronously by using ‘shared documents’ whereby learners and teachers are able to edit the document at the same time. The timeliness afforded by the deployment of synchronous digital technologies, especially when video conferencing instead of text-based communication systems like chat or text are used, allows for active application of the zpd towards improving practice-based learning.

Cognitive Apprenticeships Collins et al. (1991) applied the precepts of apprenticeship learning, back into formal learning (i.e. school) environments. The principles of cognitive apprenticeship, as used to assist the development of literacy and numeracy include the following: • Learners are provided with a model of practice or an exemplar/product to explore. The modelling is usually provided by teachers but may also come from peers. • Coaching in the form of offering learning tips or hints, feedback on learners’ attempts, reminders, etc. are provided. • The learning is scaffolded to support learners’ progress. As learners gain confidence and ability, the assistance from teachers is gradually faded out. • Learners are encouraged to articulate their knowledge and understanding and to ‘make their learning visible’. • Reflective learning is fostered by aiding learners to better understand how they went about learning the skill, concept, or behaviour.

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• Learners are also encouraged to explore how the newly learnt/acquired skills may be applied to other areas of practice, assisting learners to ‘transfer’ their learning to other contexts. The cognitive apprenticeship is especially relevant to practice-based learning. In using TEL, the cognitive apprenticeship process listed above, guide course or lesson planning. For example, using video to help improve practice, underpinned by the cognitive apprenticeship process, means learners have the practice modelled to them; feedback on their attempts are provided by adding annotations (i.e. highlighting posture, movements) and providing audio feedback on learners’ video; learners undertake a iterative process of practice, followed by feedback, reflection on the feedback, and repetition to improve performance.

Communities of Practice Cognitive apprenticeships based on assisting learners to move through zpd are supported further by the concept of learners and their supporters becoming members of communities of practice (COPs). The term was coined by Lave and Wenger (1991) and derived from a series of workplace-based ethnographical observations. COPs are formed by people gathering with a common purpose and who then go on to engage with collective learning. In Lave and Wenger’s (1991) definition, COPs are made up of domains, communities, and practices. Domains are the common ground bringing COPs together. In a workplace, it is the shared purpose and core objectives with their ‘insider’ language/jargon, local customs, and shared practice. The community provides the social interactions nurturing learning. Newcomers to the workplace are inducted into the ‘ways of doing’ and the many social habits and idiosyncrasies distinguishing one COP from another. Practice refers to the activities bringing the COP together. It is the processes the COP works together as a team, the specific professional approaches to work, and the ways the COP share their knowledge and expertise within and outside the COP. Digital technologies provide the means for the COP to communicate. COPs may create specific spaces for communication and archive of their knowledge bases. The popularity of COPs may be traced to its inception when digital technologies were enabling the beginnings of social networking. Connectivism (see below) may be envisaged as a synthesis of the precepts of socio-constructivism and especially of the premises of COPs. The application of the above precepts of social-constructivism are exampled in a project to enhance the learning of welding by novices through the introduction and support for peer learning (Chan & Leijten, 2012). Given the complexities and challenges of learning welding skills, peer learning framed by the principles of scaffolding, zpd, cognitive apprenticeship, and COPs contributed to improved skill acquisition outcomes.

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Connectivism The advent of the internet brought with it the ‘democratisation’ of learning. By this, we mean access to the information availed through the internet, has allowed human society to participate in and contribute to knowledge construction (e.g. through blogs, wikis, and other social media platforms). Connectivism arose through the work of Siemens (2005) and Downes (2008) who proposed the internet’s large fount of information could be viewed as connectable ‘nodes’. Nodes containing information, data, images, etc. could be easily re-configured/re-purposed and uploaded/shared. The exploratory possibilities described by connectivism align well with constructivist learning approaches.

3.3.4 Constructivism and VET Returning to the conceptualisation of ‘learning as becoming’ and the role and contributions of mimesis and mimetic learning to processes of ‘learning to become’ (see Fig. 3.1), the precepts of constructivists theories connect well with the objectives of VET. Mimetic learning involves both intra- and inter-psychological learning (Billett, 2014). Hence, intra-psychological learning whereby individuals make sense of their world, aligns well with the precepts of constructivism. In a similar way, socioconstructivist learning theories match with inter-psychological learning’s contribution to individuals’ learning experiences and trajectories. Cognitive apprentices for example, emphasise some of the needs of mimesis. In cognitive apprenticeships, learners view ‘models’ of their teachers’ examples (i.e. observation), work on their own skill/knowledge/dispositional development (i.e. imitation), and undertake a cycle of learning including feedback and reinforcement (i.e. practice). The zpd assists teachers and learners to scaffold learning as it progresses, through socioconstructivist interactions exampled by the relationships build through cognitive apprenticeship teaching and learning approaches and the formation of CoPs.

3.3.5 Contemporary Learning Theories A key shift in understanding learning is to view human activity as being dynamic, constantly evolving but drawing from individuals’ lived experiences. Associated with the work of Vygotsky and the Soviet school of understanding human existence, are the concepts proposed by poststructuralism and postmodernism. These provide ways to better understand practice-focussed learning (Fenwick et al., 2011). These concepts draw on the work of modern thinkers exampled by Foucault and Lyotard who propose non-linear and alternative approaches for understanding the complex world, with its many challenges, unpredictability, and rapid shifts (Fenwick et al., 2011). Of note

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to better understanding how humans’ practice is constituted is the work by Engestrom (2001) and Schatzki (2012). Engestrom’s Cultural-Historical Activity Theory (CHAT) is especially useful when applied to studying complex human to human and human to non-human interrelationships and interconnections. The interweaving of community, division of labour, rules of the community, the subject/topic, object, and tool use are the means to unravelling activities within organisations/community groups, etc. (Engestrom, 2001). Schatzki (2012) proposes the inclusion of social and cultural worlds into analysis of practice. Therefore, both focus on the contributions of the sociocultural and the sociomaterial on how individuals make sense of the world through practice.

3.3.6 Practice-Based Learning Pedagogies Billett (2011) summarised two decades of work towards better understanding how to support practice-based learning through proposing four likely modes. These are the learning of skills, application of knowledge, and the realisation of the attributes/dispositions congruent or expected of an occupation through ‘pedagogically rich’ learning activities; modelling of practice and through storytelling and other forms of ‘telling’; and through making judgement calls or thinking visible to the learner (i.e. as per cognitive apprenticeship approaches presented above in this chapter); and supporting learning with guided learning. Each of these is now briefly discussed.

3.3.6.1

Learning Through Engagement with Pedagogically Rich or Salient Learning Activities

The learning of practice through mimesis is enhanced, augmented, and progressed if learners and their facilitators/teachers are able to identify the ‘pedagogically rich’ work activities or duties. Billett’s (2011) definition of the term ‘pedagogically rich’ is of occasions when powerful learning opportunities are availed through the normal and mundane rhythms of work. He uses the ‘handover’ meeting used by health workers as an example. During shift changes in health contexts, nurses provide summaries of patient care as they complete their shift, to the next shift of nurses. These meetings are not only for the purposes of information distribution as similar information may be obtained from patient charts. The handovers provide occasions when tacit knowledge, often invisible to outsiders, is discussed and made visible to practitioners and learners (see Chan, 2020); team unity and consistency of practice are reaffirmed; and feedback on practice gathered. Hence, it is important to identify the salient and ‘rich’ pedagogical opportunities for learners and to incorporate these into the learning design of practice-based programmes. The important notion here is that it is not just participation in the ‘pedagogically rich’ learning opportunities which are essential; but how learners are assisted to become part of the COP; identify and

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reflect on their learning as observed through practice-based engagement; supported to make meaning from these activities; and apply these in their ongoing development as practitioners (Billett et al., 2013). A swift change towards digitally enabled learning due to unforeseen circumstances (e.g. pandemic, natural disaster) may constraint the breadth of access to pedagogically rich learning activities. It is important to identify the ‘salient’, that is, the crucial or foundational skill, disposition, or knowledge to be learnt, and to utilise these as the base for designing digitally enabled learning activities. Using the examples presented above, the prime learning for novices through participation in shift handovers, is to listen, reflect on, and learn. With other occupations, the salient skill or disposition will differentiate accordingly. Lucas et al. (2012) provide some guidance. They propose the ‘aspects’ of vocational education as focusing on symbols, physical materials, or people, with various occupations emphasising specific aspects. For example, hairdressers’ work involve large components of human interrelationships coupled with good sociomaterial interaction with materials; the work of bakers requires intensive immersion into the sociomaterial aspects of dough, and deftness with mathematical calculations for weight, volume, and ratio; and carpenters’ skills are reliant on abilities to measure and estimate physical dimensions accurately. Knowledge components may also be identified as ‘threshold concepts’ (Meyer & Land, 2005), defined as difficult to grasp concepts, which once learnt, lead the learner on to more complex learning. Therefore, the identification and support of pedagogically rich/salient learning activities are essential towards effective practice-based learning.

3.3.6.2

Modelling Practice

The modelling of practice is firstly availed through the precepts of mimesis (Billett, 2014). It is important, as with cognitive apprenticeships (Collins et al., 1991) and the imitation/practice segments of mimesis (Billett, 2014), to have some representation of the tasks to be completed. There are many ways to model practice to learners. Some are not ‘direct’, as for example, the use of storytelling or narratives to help enculturate novices into a COP. Storytelling is a human trait used through millennia to enhance learning (Jordan, 1989; Sterelny, 2012). Through listening to stories, the many aspects of culture; language and jargon specific to an occupation (McLaughlin & Parkinson, 2018); maxims (Farrar & Trorey, 2008); ‘tricks of the trade’ (Billett, 1997); and conventions, are conveyed to novices, introducing learners to the specialised social and technical customs, practices, standards, and precepts of the occupation. In turn, verbalisation of work processes provision another means for describing practice (Gowlland, 2012). The application of heuristics refers to the introduction of ‘tricks of the trade’ (Billett, 1997) and are akin to the use of maxims (Farrar & Trorey, 2008) to learn ‘shortcuts’ or include ‘jigs’ by supporting certain types of work processes with tools specifically developed to make the job more efficient or less complex (Crawford, 2015).

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As described in the sections on mimesis in the previous chapter (Chap. 2), partially worked examples (Makovicky, 2010) are used throughout practice-based learning to scaffold and enhance learning. Using Lave’s (2011) example of apprentice tailors, the beginners’ duties of sewing on buttons and the ironing of completed garments, provided learners with the opportunity to handle the completed product and to work out how the garment was constructed. Makovicky’s (2010) work studied the use of small sections of lacework to help learners practice the basic skills of lacemaking, before they advanced to larger and more complex items.

3.3.6.3

Making Learning or Thinking Visible

The precepts of cognitive apprenticeship (Collins et al., 1991) as detailed above, emphasises the need to help learners access the many non-visible and tacit aspects of practice (Chan, 2020). It is important to assist novices to access the many ‘invisible’ but critical aspects of practice required to reach high levels of expertise. Many of the ‘invisible’ components of skills learning is attained through interactions with the sociomaterial aspects of the occupation. As detailed in Chap. 2, the sociomaterial components of work involve keen observation and repeated contact with the materials, machines, tools, and environments of work. The many nuanced aspects of work are then assimilated, leading to many sociomaterial aspects becoming embedded into tacit knowledge (Chan, 2020) and embodied into practice (Hyland, 2019). In the project to help learners become front-office receptionists (Chan et al., 2013), the teacher annotated learner’s practice video with symbols to draw attention to their subtle ‘body language’ indicating engagement with their guests as a form of feedback. The precepts of ‘service orientation’ (Cran, 1994) were thus made visible to learners, providing them with ways to articulate and improve practice.

3.3.6.4

Guided Learning

Billett identified many instances of guided learning (2002) through ethnographical work completed across several workplaces. Guided learning may take the form of ‘proximal guidance’ (Rogoff, 1995) whereby novices work side by side with others who are more knowing and receive feedback and guidance as work progresses. The guidance of learners may also be through direct instruction or ‘hands on guidance’ with the ‘teacher’ placing their hands on the learner to guide stance or tools/machinery to guide action (Singleton, 1989). Additionally, there is also ‘indirect’ or distal guidance (Billett, 2001) through the observational opportunities, to watch, listen, and feel, whilst still engaged in productive work (see Chap. 2 on learning through observation).

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3.4 Practice-Based Learning and TEL In this section, a synthesis of the various theories, approaches, and learning design principles presented in the previous section is undertaken to inform the conduct of practice-based learning via distance learning. The ‘push-connecting the learningpull’ framework (see Fig. 3.2) is detailed and argued to provide a pragmatic way to visualise how practice-based distance learning may be designed. In the main, digital technologies may be used to push information, resources, etc. to learners; pull in evidence of engagement with learning from learners; and provide platforms whereby the ‘pushed out’ information and the ‘pulled in’ learning evidence from learners are discussed, debated, queried, and consolidated (i.e. assist in the constructivist process by helping learners to ‘connect the learning’). The use of asynchronous or f2f sessions to help learners make sense of inputs from teachers (i.e. the pushed resources) and their own learning (i.e. the pulled in evidence) is described metaphorically as the process of ‘connecting the dots’. Using the ‘pushconnecting the learning/dots-pull’ framework, help teachers to design their TEL course or learning sessions. How the push-connect the learning-pull framework may be applied to practicebased learning is now presented in the next section with an example of using video to assist digitally enabled practice-based learning.

3.4.1 Using Video to Support Practice-Based Learning This example is summarised from a study to improve the learning of the checkin/check-out process undertaken by hotel receptionists. Learning was supported with tablets to record video of learning sessions and the introduction of peer feedback (Chan et al., 2013). This example is used to assist in illustrating the application of the push-connecting the learning-pull framework for designing and planning a set of learning activities. In the study, the TEL intervention was instigated to support practice-based learning due to the small number of f2f hours allocated to the learning of key front-office reception skills, knowledge, and attributes by students studying a broad range of hospitality and tourism topics. Learning how to check-in and check-out guests into

PUSH to learners

CONNECTING the learning …………………………………….

PULL from learners

Fig. 3.2 The ‘push-connect the learning-pull’ framework for practice-based technology-enhanced learning

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Table 3.1 Example of the push-connect the learning-pull framework applied to practice-based learning Theory of learning

Practice-based pedagogy

Push

Connecting the learning

Pull

Social-constructivism (cognitive apprenticeship, communities of practice)

Learning by doing—pedagogically rich/salient activities Setting the scene

Teacher f2f demonstration and video modelling practice

Teacher annotating video of students’ role-play

Students video their practice

F2f role-play of how feed up, feedback, and feed forward are conducted

Teacher and students discuss challenges and solutions on offering and accepting feedback

Students record their feed up, feedback, and feed forward on worksheets

Social-constructivism Guided learning

Teacher annotating video of students’ role-play

Student video

Cognitivism Making thinking Social-constructivism visible—partially (cognitive worked example apprenticeship)

Deconstructing feedback

Student video

Social-constructivism Learning by (communities of doing—pedagogically practice) rich/salient activities Feedback introduction

Connectivism Modelling—story Social-constructivism telling—setting the (communities of scene practice)

Teacher f2f demonstration

Comparing first Students attempts with video of teacher model practice

hotels requires a range of technical and social/relationship skills, knowledge, and attributes/dispositions to be learnt and refined. There are technical skills included in the operation of a front-office booking software platform whilst also maintaining cordial communications and appreciation of ‘service orientation’ (Cran, 1994) with guests. The study involved many iterations through a series of inquiry cycles to hone the TEL processes. The ‘final’ version involved the teacher modelling the checkin/check-out process to students f2f. A video of the teacher modelling the process was also provided on the LMS for continual reference. Students then worked in groups of three to practice the process. Students took turns to role-play being the guest, the front-office receptionist, or observer who would video the role-play. Students were provided with a short introduction on the precepts of offering, accepting, reflecting on, and operationalising feedback. Students were taught how to provide feedback via the process advocated by Hattie and Timperley (2007), through checking the activity was ‘on point’ (i.e. feed up); identifying and providing feedback to the front-office student’s performance (i.e. feedback); and formulating improvements to be made at the next cycle of the role-play (feed forward). The feed forward became the focus

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(i.e. the feed up) of the next practice session, Students worked through the cycles outside of f2f session times. They submitted evidence of their role-plays for feedback from their teacher, who annotated the video with highlights and voiceovers to provide feedback using the Coach’s Eye app. When students deemed themselves competent, they submitted their video for summative assessment. In this example, the main ‘push’ resource to students, was the teacher’s video modelling practices. Students’ videos were ‘pulled’ from them and these provided the basis for the ‘connecting the learning’ process. Table 3.1 summarises the relevant theories of learning as aligned to practice-based pedagogy; and how the ‘push-connect the learning-pull’ framework was operationalised.

3.5 Conclusion Richardson (2003) and Jonassen (2009) warn of the danger of adopting only one learning theory. In tandem, Wilson (2013) recommends to not rely on one instructional design approach. Instead, both call for the importance of understanding how learning occur and advocate for these to be used to inform and underpin teaching practice and learning design. Richardson (2003) endorses the need to heed the work of Sfard (1998) who warned of not placing too much emphasis on one or the other of the two main metaphors for learning (i.e. acquisition/constructivism/cognitivism versus participation/socio-constructivism). Each theory/approach contributes towards assisting the design of learning which is sympathetic to the context, purposes, and outcomes of learning and is practically/logistically achievable with the available resources. To select the best fit between learning theory, approach, and structure requires teachers or learning designers to be sufficiently aware and emphatic of learner objectives, circumstances, and/or needs. Practice-based learning has specific goals on preparing learners/novices to become contributing members of the COP they aspire to join. Therefore, this chapter has presented learning theories, approaches to teaching and learning, and theories informing learning design aligned towards supporting practice-based learning. The next chapter, introduces and discusses the caveats towards placing too much emphasis on set curricula for VET. The notion of preparing VET learners to be able to thrive despite dire predictions on the future of some forms of work is presented to ensure the longevity and sustainability of VET occupations.

References Billett, S. (1997). Dispositions, vocational knowledge and development: Sources and consequences. New Zealand Journal of Vocational Education Research, 5(1), 1–26. Billett, S. (2001). Learning in the workplace: Strategies for effective practice. Allen & Unwin.

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Billett, S. (2002). Workplace pedagogic practices: Co-participation and learning. British Journal of Education Studies, 50(4), 457–481. Billett, S. (2006). Constituting the workplace curriculum. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 36(1), 31–48. Billett, S. (2011). Curriculum and pedagogic bases for effectively integrating practice-based experiences. https://vocationsandlearning.blog/resources/. Billett, S. (2014). Mimetic learning at work. Springer. Billett, S., Sweet, L., & Glover, P. (2013). The curriculum and pedagogic properties of practice-based experiences: The case of midwifery students. Vocations and Learning, 6(2), 237–258. Bowyer, J., & Chambers, L. (2017). Evaluating blended learning: Bringing the elements together. Research Matters: A Cambridge Assessment Publication, 23, 17–26. Chan, S. (2020). Learning the tacit dimensions of craft and industrial trades work through apprenticeship. In R. Hermkes, T. Bonoswski, & G. H. Neuweg (Eds.), Tacit knowledge. Bertelsmann. Chan, S., Fisher, K., & Sauer, P. (2012). Situated technology-enhanced learning through development of interactive etextbooks on net tablets. Ako Aotearoa Southern Regional Hub Project Fund. Ako Aotearoa. https://ako.ac.nz/knowledge-centre/situated-technology/enhancedlearning-through-development-of-interactive-etextbooks/. Chan, S., & Leijten, F. (2012). Using feedback strategies to improve peer-learning in welding. International Journal of Training Research, 10(1), 23–29. Chan, S., McEwan, H., & Taylor, D. (2013). Extending hospitality students’ experiences of real-world practice. https://ako.ac.nz/knowledge-centre/guidelines-for-improving-students-ref lective-practice-and-digital-evaluation-skills/guidelines-for-improving-students-reflective-pra ctice-and-digital-evaluation-skills-derived-from-a-study-with-hospitality-students/. Collins, A., Brown, J., & Holum, A. (1991). Cognitive apprenticeship: Making thinking visible. American Educator, 15(3), 38–47. Cran, D. J. (1994). Towards validation of the service orientation construct. The Services Industries Journal, 14(1), 34–44. Crawford, M. B. (2015). The world beyond your head: On becoming an individual in an age of distraction. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. Dewey, J. (1916). Democracy and education. The Free Press. Downes, S. (2008). Places to go: Connectivism & connective knowledge. Innovate: Journal of Online Education, 5(1), 1–6. Engestrom, Y. (2001). Expansive learning at work: Toward an activity theoretical reconceptualisation. Journal of Education and Work, 14(1), 133–156. Farrar, N., & Trorey, G. (2008). Maxims, tacit knowledge and learning: Developing expertise in dry stone walling. Journal of Vocational Education and Training, 60(1), 35–48. Fenwick, T., Edwards, R., & Sawchuk, P. (2011). Emerging approaches to educational research. Routledge. Gagné, R. M., Wager, W. W., Golas, K. C., & Kelle, J. M. (2005). Principle of instructional design (5th ed.). Thomson Learning Inc. Gowlland, G. (2012). Learning craft skills in China: Apprenticeship and social capital in an artisan community of practice. Anthropology and Education Quarterly, 43(4), 368–371. Hattie, J., & Timperley, H. (2007). The power of feedback. Review of Educational Research, 77(1), 81–112. Hodge, S. (2014). Interpreting competencies in Australian vocational education and training: Practices and issues. National Centre for Vocational Education Research. Hyland, T. (2019). Embodied learning in vocational education and training. Journal of Vocational Education and Training, 71(3), 449–463. Jonassen, D. (2009). Reconciling a human cognitive architecture. In S. Tobias & T. M. Duffy (Eds.), Constructivist instruction: Success or failure? Taylor & Francis. Jordan, B. (1989). Cosmopolitan obstetrics: Some insights from the training if traditional mid-wifes. Social Science and Medicine, 28(9), 925–944.

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Kolb, D. A. (2015). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. Pearson Education. Lam, P. L., Ng, H. K., Tse, A. H., et al. (2020). eLearning technology and the advancement of practical constructivist pedagogies: Illustrations from classroom observations. Educational Information Technology, 26(1), 89–101. Lave, J. (2011). Apprenticeship in critical ethnographical practice. Cambridge University Press. Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge University Press. Lucas, B., Spencer, E., & Claxton, G. (2012). How to teach vocational education: A theory of vocational pedagogy. City and Guilds Centre for Skill Development. http://www.skillsdevelo pment.org/pdf/How-to-teach-vocational-education.pdf. Makovicky, N. (2010). ‘Something to talk about’: Notation and knowledge-making among Central Slovak lace-makers. In T. H. J. Marchand (Ed.), Making knowledge: Explorations of the indissoluble relation between mind, body and environment. Wiley-Blackwell. Mayer, R. (2017). How can brain research inform academic learning and instruction. Educational Psychology Review, 29, 835–846. McLaughlin, E., & Parkinson, J. (2018). ‘We learn as we go’: How acquisition of a technical vocabulary is supported during vocational learning. English for Specific Purposes, 50(April), 14–27. Meyer, J., & Land, R. (2005). Threshold concepts and troublesome knowledge (2): Epistemological considerations and a conceptual framework for teaching and learning. Higher Education, 49, 373–388. Morgan, H. (2013). Maximizing student success with differentiated learning. The Clearing House: A Journal of Educational Strategies, Issues and Ideas, 87, 34–38. Nugent, A., Lodge, J. M., Carroll, A., Bagraith, R., MacMahon, S., Matthews, K. E., & Sah, P. (2019). Higher education learning framework: An evidence informed model for university learning. The University of Queensland. Packer, M. J., & Coicoechea, J. (2000). Sociocultural and constructivist theories of learning: Ontology, not just epistemology. Educational Psychologist, 35(4), 227–241. Prince, M. (2004). Does active learning work? A review of the research. Journal of Engineering Education, 93, 223–231. Richardson, V. (2003). Constructivist pedagogy. Teachers College Record, 105, 1623–1640. Rogoff, B. (1995). Observing sociocultural activity on three planes: Participatory appropriation, guided participation and apprenticeship. In J. V. Wertsch, P. Del Rio, & A. Alverez (Eds.), Sociocultural studies of mind (pp. 139–164). Cambridge University Press. Schatzki, T. R. (2012). A primer on practices. In J. Higgs, R. Barnett, S. Billett, M. Hutchings, & F. Trede (Eds.), Practice-based education: Perspectives and strategies (pp. 13–26). Sense Publishers. Schmidt, H. G., & Mamede, S. (2020). How cognitive psychology changed the face of medical education research. Advances in Health Science Educucation, 25, 1025–1043. Scribner, S. (1984). Studying working intelligence. In B. Rogoff & J. Lave (Eds.), Everyday cognition: Its development in social context. Harvard University Press. Sfard, A. (1998). On two metaphors for learning and the dangers of choosing just one. Educational Researcher, 27(2), 4–13. Siemens, G. (2005). Connectivism: A learning theory of the digital age. International Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance Learning, 2(1). Singleton, J. (1989). Japanese folkcraft pottery apprenticeship: Cultural patterns of an educational institution. In M. W. Coy (Ed.), Apprenticeship: From theory to method and back again (pp. 13– 30). State University of New York Press. Snook, I. (2012). Educational neuroscience: A plea for radical scepticism. Educational Philosophy and Theory, 44(5), 445–449. Sterelny, K. (2012). The evolved apprentice: How evolution made humans unique. MIT Press. Tobias, S., & Duffy, T. M. (2009). Constructivist instruction: Success or failure? Taylor & Francis.

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Tomlinson, C. A. (2003). Fulfilling the promise of the differentiated classroom: Strategies and tools for responsive teaching. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Varma, S., McCandliss, B., & Schwartz, D. L. (2008). Scientific and pragmatic challenges for bridging education and neuroscience. Educational Researcher, 37(3), 140–152. Vygotsky, L. (1998). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Harvard University Press. Wilson, B. G. (2013). A practice-centered approach to instructional design. In J. M. Spector, B. B. Lockee, S. E. Smaldino, & M. Herring (Eds.), Learning, problem solving, and mind tools: Essays in honor of David H. Jonassen (pp. 35–54). Routledge. Wulf, C. (2019). “From teaching to learning”: Characteristics and challenges of a student-centred learning culture. In H. A. Mieg (Ed.), Inquiry-based learning—Undergraduate research: The German multidisciplinary experience. Springer International Publishing.

Chapter 4

The Future of Work and How It Impinges on ‘Learning as Becoming’, TEL and VET Pedagogy

Abstract In this chapter, the connections between occupational identity, with the affordances to support ‘learning as becoming’ through utilising TEL, and the challenges wrought by the ‘future of work’ in the VET context, are de-constructed and then re-connected. The discussions throughout this chapter, temper the commonly held perspective of VET as leading to occupational specialisation. Instead, many VET learning outcomes prepare graduates for a range of occupations, especially through the realisation of dispositional or attitudinal aspects of work, generalisable across different occupational groupings. The chapter begins with a discussion on the future of work, with relevance to VET. Then the challenges presented to VET and how these may be ameliorated by qualification, curriculum and learning design is undertaken. The role of TEL in assisting with the learning of key digital literacies, now a requirement for all people, is argued to be one advantage of undertaking digitally enabled learning. The pre-requisites of digital equity, digital/academic/multiliteracies are introduced as these are requirements for successful engagement and utilisation of digital technologies. The chapter closes with a presentation of the precepts of learning design to ensure the design, development, implementation, and evaluation of TEL is relevant and appropriate to the future of VET. Keywords Industry 4.0 · Education 4.0 · The future of work · Competencies · Capabilities · Digital literacies · Digital fluency · Digital equity · TEL · Distance learning

4.1 Introduction Of importance to the work underpinning practice-based approaches, is the need to view the outcomes of VET as holistic contributions towards individuals’ sense of becoming. Hence, the outcomes of VET should not just be about preparation, and professional development for specific types of occupations but provide many ‘transferable’ or ‘transversal’ skills, knowledge, and attributes to allow for future growth and shifts in occupational identity, should these be required (Kuper, 2020; Zobrist & Brandes, 2017). The discussions in this chapter, help to overturn the prevailing © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 S. Chan, Digitally Enabling ‘Learning by Doing’ in Vocational Education, SpringerBriefs in Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-3405-5_4

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perspective of VET as leading to occupational specialisation. Instead, many VET learning outcomes prepare graduates for a range of occupations, especially through realisation of the dispositional or attitudinal aspects of work, generalisable across different occupational strands. VET dispositional approaches of conscientiousness, reliability, precision, and self-organisation/management required to be skilled practitioners in many industrial/craft/trade or service occupations, align well with a range of associated occupations and professions. Craftsmanship values are not only delimited to skilled craft/trades/service work but are a hallmark of human activity (Sennett, 2008). Instead, the approaches, cognitive frameworks, and dispositions leading to high quality work in one field can be adapted through technical training across to another discipline or practice.

4.2 Future of Work The future of work indicates many changes as society and economies shift to ‘Industry 4.0’ with greater reliance and co-relationships between work, information technologies, globalisation trends, and economic challenges. Industry 4.0 refers to the application of digital technologies to manufacturing processes and its accompanying supply chains (Kuper, 2020). In turn the term Education 4.0 describes the need to ensure all levels of education shift teaching and learning methodologies or approaches, to help prepare graduates for the future of work (Kuper, 2020; Zobrist & Brandes, 2017). Therefore, by association VET 4.0 can be envisaged as providing the impetus to review current qualifications, curriculum, and teaching and learning approaches to ensure VET graduates are equipped to participate in and lead ‘Industry 4.0’. Occupations represented through the VET sector are not immune to societal, economical, and political changes. Hence, both Education and VET 4.0 must prepare learners to be able to adapt and cope with rapid and continual change. The future of work has been widely discussed over the last decade due to rapidly shifting economic and political changes, and the emergence of viable information and technology-based replacements for human endeavours (Zobrist & Brandes, 2017). The forecast for many types of work is dire, with up to 40% of jobs predicted to disappear (Frey & Osborne, 2017). Many of these threatened forms of work were judged to be stable, professional, white-collar and knowledge worker roles. Yet, occupations exampled by accountants, law clerks, insurance assessors, and policy researchers are being replaced by ‘intelligent agents’ powered by increased computer capability and the improved effectiveness of ‘artificial intelligence (AI)’. Occupations with requirements for long practice-based learning to attain expertise including ‘apprenticeships’ have been selected for automation and digitisation due to the costs of training and ongoing professional development to keep up with technological change. However, the caveat with some VET occupations is that they are ‘robust’ or more stable than currently sought after ‘white-collar’/’think tank’ positions. Frey and Osborne (2017) contend skilled jobs in some artisanal and craft occupations may be less affected due to their high levels of variation in work routine and the need for dextrous and

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agile physical movement. Therefore, not all jobs or types of work are affected evenly. The prognosis is for many present occupations to exist into the near future but for the duties to be impinged on by the rapid shift to digitally supported forms of work, whether physical (i.e. through the use of robotics or augmentation of human physical capability using bionics) or cognitively (i.e. through the use of AI to channel and evaluate data) (Frey & Osborne, 2017; Kuper, 2020).

4.3 Challenges of Attaining Occupational Identity in a Fast-Changing World In this section, the chapter proceeds to argue for VET’s contribution towards learners realising occupational identity whilst also preparing them for the exigencies created by current and future job market shifts. The NZ qualifications context is used as an example of qualification outcomes shifting from narrowly defined competency-based approaches towards broader-based graduate profile outcomes. Applying the graduate profile/attributes approach to completion of qualifications, provides an avenue for VET preparation for and in work, to ensure capabilities beyond specialist competencies are included. This methodology concurs with one proposed by Kuper (2020) to ensure curricula are aligned to current and future industry skill and knowledge needs and meet the requirements of ‘Industry 4.0’. Billett (2011) visualises education as consisting of a series of ‘nested’ curriculum structures. National qualification systems and frameworks provide encompassing validation and accreditation of learning completed through formal or informal learning. These qualification structures may be envisaged as the intended curriculum. How qualifications are interpreted and represented through teaching and learning approaches is referred to as the enacted curriculum. Then the learning, as undertaken by learners completing programmes of learning or apprenticeship is termed the experienced curriculum. Hence, the intended curriculum has far-reaching consequences in how learners eventually experience learning. Changing the ways qualifications are defined, affects the enacted and experienced curriculum (Chan, 2016). In NZ, a mandatory review of all qualifications between levels 1–6 on the 10-level Qualifications Framework (NZQF) was undertaken between 2008 and 2016 (Chan, 2016). A characteristic of this review was the change of qualification outcome statements from lists of competency standards (i.e. unit standards), delineating the skills and knowledge components of qualification, to graduate, educational, and occupational outcomes (Chan, 2016). In doing, the intended curriculum shifted the focus from atomised ‘unit standards’ to the more holistic descriptors of graduate outcomes. This change in the intended curriculum provided enhanced opportunities for the enacted and experienced curriculums to better reflect VET learning objectives as being processes to assist learners to ‘learn how to become’. Instead of emphasising

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the completion of a host of skills and knowledge components making up a qualification, the focus shifted to preparing learners to achieve the relevant skills, knowledge, and attributes congruent with graduate profile outcomes. Graduate profile statements describe the skills, knowledge, and attributes/dispositions achieved through completion of a qualification (SpronkenSmith et al., 2013). Holmes (2013) introduced the concept of graduate profile outcomes as being either realistic or relational. Recognising graduate profile outcomes as realistic presumes ‘there are discrete, existent, objectively real and (in principle) identifiable characteristics of graduates that constitute their identity and employability’ (Holmes, 2013, p. 1045). Whereas the relational perspective proposes ‘meaningful, significant human behavior cannot be merely, and objectively observed’ (Holmes, 2013, p. 1049). Taking the overarching direction proposed throughout this book as VET being processes of ‘learning as becoming’ means alignment with the relational perspective. The skills, knowledge, and attributes acknowledged as representative of occupation practices will defer due to the contextualised learning and learning application. Hence, graduate profile outcomes provide broad outlines of the types of skills, knowledge, and attributes/dispositions required to be proficient and contributing members towards workplaces’ organisational outputs.

4.4 Responses to the Challenges Posed by the Future of Work In this section, the ways VET may address the challenges posed by the substantial challenges of the future of work are presented and discussed. Of note is the contribution of integrating digital technologies into both current forms of VET occupations and the VET education system. In doing, aspects of digital literacy are introduced and contextualised, helping engage VET learners. Therefore, through completing learning activities with components of TEL, VET learners not only learn the specialised and technical aspects of occupations or professions, but also gain the essential digital literacies required of all workers (Kuper, 2020).

4.4.1 Industry 4.0 Kuper (2020) characterises Industry 4.0 as being based on accelerating advances and technical innovations in digitalisation leading to changes in how humans and computer-controlled interfaces interrelate. These changes result in shifts to process control and monitoring and in turn affect how human labour and machine input are allocated. Industry 4.0 or the fourth industrial revolution, follows through from the preceding three epochs of industrialisation beginning three hundred years ago (Seet

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et al., 2018). The first industrial revolution changed the nature of work through steam-energy enabled mechanisation of many craft industries (e.g. cloth milling). The second industrial revolution refers to the shift from steam to electrical energy, allowing for the growth of mass production. Changes to work included the move into factory-based division of labour with repetitive and atomised work becoming the norm. The rise of digital technologies heralded the third industrial revolution, increasing automation, reducing costs of production, and leading to the wide-spread use of information and communication technologies (ICT). In turn, the fourth industrial revolution brings with it, rapid and far-reaching changes on society, economies, and technology. There is a need to support all workers to adapt to new forms of work, with much of the skills, knowledge, and dispositional development driven by the need to learn how to utilise and work with digital technologies (Nygren et al., 2020).

4.4.2 Education 4.0 As a result of the shifts to digitisation, Education 4.0 is tasked with preparing the future workforce to continue societal and economic objectives. Digitisation has profound consequences on how qualifications and curriculum are established. In turn, the ways learning is constituted also require re-development. Kuper (2020) connects the changes to learning content, informed by shifts in work to Industry 4.0 to also require changes to how learning is provisioned. Importantly, to ensure learners are provided with the opportunity to have greater control of their learning (i.e. through the design and deployment of flexible and personalised learning environments). Also required are shifts in the learning environment and conditions towards constructivist approaches as these prepare learners for transitioning from one form of work into another. In doing, learners are assisted to achieve skills, knowledge, and dispositions to become self-managing and better able to direct their own learning agendas.

4.4.3 Vet 4.0 There are two important streams guiding the implementation of VET 4.0. The first is the need for all learners to be conversant with the digital requirements for learning and for work. The second, is to accomplish sufficient ‘non-specific’ or generalisable skill sets, knowledge, and dispositions to continue with lifelong learning and professional development. These two streams are encompassed in the term ‘digital signature pedagogy’ as proposed by Kuper (2020) In this section, these two streams are discussed in relation to practice-based learning approaches. Presently, almost all types of work and indeed daily living, require the learning and application of specific digital literacies. The shift to Industry 4.0 is predicated on digital and information and communication technologies. This rapid move towards

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higher levels of digitisation across many industries, increases the need for all people to not only become digitally literate but digitally fluent (i.e. able to function independently with a range of digital tools, platforms and applications) (Miller & Bartlett, 2012). Additionally, as presented and discussed in the above sections, skills, knowledge, and attributes/dispositions assisting workers to shift to associated forms of work when tasks in their occupation shift, is now a pressing requirement. Workers are predicted to have to change types of work many times across their working lives (Frey & Osborne, 2017). Many types of work will have job tasks changed by the advent of digital technologies. The skills, knowledge, and attributes/dispositions helping workers to be able to continually learn new skills or to adapt to changed ways of doing, thinking, feeling, and thinking, are important aspects to be included into VET curricula (Aakernes, 2020; Kuper, 2020).

4.5 TEL and the Future of Work Hence, TEL is not only useful as a support to practice-based learning activities, key digital literacy skills and attributes are also learnt through interaction with various elements of TEL. Many TEL tools require the application of digital literacy, not only with the learning involved in the technical/mechanical use of tools but also the academic/information literacies and multiliteracies required to understand, evaluate, and synthesise the resources/materials encountered. As presented in the sections above, these digital literacies/fluency examples some of the attributes required beyond competencies for work. VET 4.0 must ensure the visibility of the acquisition and application of these readily transferable digital literacies/fluency, as they are outcomes of completing VET courses through digitally enabled learning.

4.6 Pre-requisites for Engaging with TEL Practice-Based Learning In this section, the issues of digital literacy/fluency and digital equity affecting teachers and learners are introduced and discussed. The specific challenges presented by the contexts of practice-based learning on learning when f2f learning is not possible, are reviewed. To begin, there is the need to ensure the readiness of teaching teams and learners with aspects of digital literacy/fluency; requirements for the hardware/software/available infrastructure are provisioned; learning ‘literacy’ utilising alternatives to f2f are established for both teachers and learners; and learning design understands and supports the challenges of practice-based ‘learning by doing’ approaches. It is also important to acknowledge there are no technologies or ‘killer

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apps’ able to solve or augment programmes not suitable for TEL integration, instead it is important to ensure learning objectives are well matched to digital support (Reich, 2020). Foundational aspects defined and discussed as ‘digital equity’, must be resolved before digitally supported learning may begin.

4.6.1 Literacies Required to Engage with Digitally Enabled Learning There are a range of literacies required to enable both digitally and non-digitally supported TEL and distance learning. These include literacies related to being able to work fluently with digital hardware and software; academic literacies to comprehend and evaluate digitised information which are still predominantly text-based; multiliteracies required to engage with multimodal digital resources exampled by pictures/sketches/plans, videos, podcasts, augmented or virtual reality (AR/VR) resources etc.; and the specialised skills and dispositions required to be effective teachers and learners when f2f learning activities are no longer possible options. Each of these is now briefly presented and discussed. The pervasive technologies underpinning contemporary education and work, require the digital literacy competencies by all learners and workers (Zobrist & Brandes, 2017). Digital literacy refers to the ability to deploy cognitive, and technology skills and knowledge to find, evaluate, create, and communicate information using information and communication technologies (Lea & Jones, 2011). Digital fluency refers to the ability to not only use, but also evaluate, critique, and originate, using appropriate digital tools and platforms, to meet required objectives (Miller & Bartlett, 2012). As such, digital literacy is a precursor to the digital fluencies required, to be conversant with the range of specialised technologies utilised for study and work. There are many approaches to understanding the role and contribution of academic literacies (Lea & Street, 2006). The contemporary approach is to understand academic literacies as contextualised to the genre and discourses, characterising various academic disciplines (Lea & Street, 2006). Although much of VET requires high levels of academic literacies (see Parkinson et al., 2017 for an example in carpentry), there has been little work on understanding the specialised academic literacies integral to VET practice. Digital literacy and fluency also entail the competencies of associated academic literacies. Sufficient levels of text reading and comprehension enable learners to interpret, evaluate and communicate through digital means. Hence, academic literacies are intrinsically connected to digital literacy and fluency. Apart from text-based literacies, understanding of the many multiliteracies prevalent in practice-based learning also require attention. Archer (2006) proposes a multimodal approach to the understanding of academic literacies. An over-emphasis on teaching ‘writing’ and evaluation of ‘text’ within academic literacy communities, requires updating to adapt to the increasingly varied communication methods now

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required (Archer, 2006). The multimodal approach mirrors the call in the 1990s from the New London Group (1996) to ensure a multiliteracies approach is taken through all education sectors to account for the various ways communication is now enacted. Therefore, both the multimodal (Archer, 2006) and multiliteracies (New London Group, 1996) approaches, advocate for text-based academic literacies to be extended, with prominence placed on visual, aural, and haptic literacies. The achievement of these literacies enables the enjoyment, engagement, and participation with the multimedia resources availed through digital technologies. Evaluation and critical analysis of multimedia information sources are of importance to practice-based learning when much of learning is multimodal and the means to record practice are multimedia. In addition to the contextualised digital fluency and multimodal/multiliteraciesbased academic literacies presented above, there is a need to prepare learners with the self-management attributes/dispositions required to be successful in all forms of digitally supported learning. ‘Learning to learn’ skills and dispositions are essential for learners to be successful digital learners (Simpson, 2018). Again, much of the literature on supporting learners is focussed on the compulsory school and higher education sectors, with the predominance of text-based learning literacies. Therefore, there is a gap in the literature with regards to assisting practice-based learning utilising multimodal/multiliteracies-based resources.

4.6.2 Aspects of Digital Equity The term digital equity has many definitions (Collin & Brotcorne, 2019). Similar terms used include digital inclusion and digital readiness. These two terms are often related to digital literacy/enablers. Digital equity for education refers to ensuring students have access to the technology to effectively engage with and utilise the advantages afforded by TEL (Collin & Brotcorne, 2019). Digital equity for education involves three main items. To ensure learners garner the benefits of TEL integration, each must be in place, or their development supported through learning design. These are access to: • Hardware: These will vary and be dependent on the type of approach undertaken to provision digitally enabled learning. Mobile learning is an option for VET learning but it is important to ensure approaches are reliant not just on hardware but also on design for learning to maximise the affordances for communication and learning. • Specialised software: As required for the discipline, and for digitally enabled learning, software specifications must be considered when defining hardware requirements. Not all LMS are configured to provide for mobile phone access. The user experience must be foremost in matching hardware to the LMS or specialised discipline specific platforms, Therefore, forward planning is important for this aspect of digital equity. Learners must be provided with adequate access to the

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pertinent hardware to support software platforms deployed for digitally enabled learning. • Mobile data or Wi-Fi data plans: These are important for access to resources (i.e. the push of information to learners); to allow learners sufficient data and bandwidth to share evidence of learning (i.e. to pull in authentic learner experiences); and for timely communication to be accomplished between learners, their teachers, peers and other supporters (i.e. to ensure the connection with learning activities are enabled).

4.7 Learning Design The importance of learning design’s contribution towards the planning, development, and implementation of TEL and digitally enabled practice-based learning is discussed in this section. West et al. (2020) stress the importance of ensuring there is theoretical scholarship informing learning design and the introduction of technology into education. There are many approaches to instructional/learning design, with pre-digital (i.e. before 1990s) processes being informed by behaviourist theories of learning (Reiser, 2001). The current multiplicity of ways to design learning is sometimes confusing and work is required to substantiate the efficacy and philosophical bases for learning design (West et al., 2020).

4.7.1 Learning Design Processes and Principles Instructional design is a relatively new discipline but is currently recognised as a means towards effective learning (Nichols, 2020). Instructional design is a process for designing, developing, and implementing effective and engaging learning experiences (Branch, 2009). Other terms including educational, curriculum, or learning design are now also used to describe the process. As aligned to this book’s focus on the VET goal of assisting learners to ‘learn how to become’ practitioners, the term learning design is selected to represent the process. Several of the ‘theories of learning’ and principles or approaches appropriate to informing learning design were introduced in Chap. 2. Included were the following: • • • •

Gagne’s nine events of instruction Situated cognition Sociocultural learning theory Cognitive apprenticeship.

Other selected processes and principles, in the field of learning design of relevance to supporting practice-based learning, are presented and discussed below.

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Constructive Alignment and Learning Outcomes

An overarching principle of learning design is constructive alignment (Biggs, 1996). Constructive alignment informs the design of learning and assessment activities by ensuring these meet (i.e. are aligned to) the required learning outcomes. In turn, learning outcomes must match graduate profile outcomes. Learning outcomes are quantifiable statements describing what learners are able to do (i.e. perform a skill), know (i.e. be able to apply knowledge), and value (i.e. a disposition or attitude contributing to practice) as a result of completing a course of learning. As discussed earlier in this chapter, qualifications registered on the NZ Qualifications Framework (NZQF, 2018) require learners to be able to provide evidence of meeting graduate outcomes as defined in NZ Certificates and Diplomas. Therefore, it is important to ensure learning outcomes for courses within programmes of learning, are aligned to the qualification’s graduate profile. In turn, the ways learners engage with learning through learning activities, and evidence learning through assessment activities, require connection with the learning outcomes. The constructive alignment of these aspects of learning outcomes, activities, and assessments to the graduate profile, assures the visibility of ‘learning as becoming’ as graduates progress through their programme of study or goal to realise an occupational identity.

4.7.1.2

Universal Design for Learning

Universal Design for Learning (UDL) implies the application of sound research to ensure learning is designed to meet the needs of all learners (Rose, 2000). CAST (2020) provides a set of guidelines for undertaking learning design based on UDL. The objectives of UDL are to provide multiple ways for learners to engage with learning; recognise the ways information or resources are represented; and provide many ways for learners to evidence their learning (CAST, 2020). Through doing, digital media is optimised to ensure all learners can access, engage with and participate in learning. Videos must be captioned or transcripts made available.

4.7.1.3

Addie

The ADDIE framework informing learning design is widely used (Branch, 2009) and the progenitor of many offshoots and variants. ADDIE is an acronym referring to the five phases of design. These are analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation. The process, akin to many other design thinking processes, is that each iteration of the design is based on the learning from the implementation and evaluation of the previous. It is during the design and analysis phases when the theories of learning (i.e. behaviourist, cognitivist, constructivist) underpinning the entire programme/curriculum design are evaluated and matched to the intentions of the learning programme.

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As with any model, there are strengths and weaknesses. One advantage of ADDIE is its ease to understand and implement. However, the model does not suit all contexts and care must be taken to not inflict the model on all instances of learning design. One major criticism of ADDIE is that it is more suited to a behaviourist ‘programmed learning’ linear process to designing learning due to its ‘input-processoutput’ approach (Branch, 2009). However, as discussed at the beginning of this section, the learning theories informing the learning design is key to ensuring the programme of learning meets the needs of learners and qualification requirements. Other principles used by instructional designers include: • Blooms taxonomy: This presents a set of categories to classify learning outcomes by level of cognitive complexity. It was developed in the 1950s and has had several revisions to include affective/dispositional and sensory domains (Wilson, 2019). • Merrill’s (2002) principles of instruction: Recommends instructional design be centred around problem-solving and include task-centred learning activities (i.e. around an inquiry or problem); activated through motivation and ensuring the task draws on prior learning (i.e. constructivist); demonstrated to the learner; new knowledge is applied by the learner; and integrated into learners’ existing learning schema. • Backward design: A term coined by Wiggins and McTighe (2005) to describe the process of planning or mapping the learning experiences or teaching approaches to achieve learning outcomes. Planning of the sequence of learning begins by identifying the ‘end goal’ and working backwards to design the various lessons, projects, presentations, learning activities, and assessments. Newer learning design processes developed across the last decade often draw on the principles of ‘design thinking’ (Razzouk & Shute, 2013), used by various creative and information technology industries to develop new ideas or products. The iterative steps taken in design thinking are to empathise (i.e. understand the requirements), define (i.e. define the problem), ideate (i.e. generate solutions), prototype (i.e. produce scaled down versions or run a pilot), and test (i.e. evaluate and bring the process back around through the entire design thinking loop if required).

4.7.1.4

Practice-Centred Learning Design

Wilson (2013) proposes the need to shift instructional/learning design towards better alignment with the current understandings of how learners learn. In particular, he stresses the adoption of ‘practice-centred’ instructional design informed by social science theories. These include the theories proposed by Fenwick et al. (2011) to better understand the sociocultural and sociomaterial influences in relation to human endeavours. Of importance in practice-centred learning design is the connection between the planned strategies to aid learning (i.e. the learning theories, models and approaches) with the enacted activities (i.e. which are situated, embodied and intentional) and lived experiences (i.e. which are dynamic, subjective and transactional) of learners and teachers.

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TPACK

Another influential framework utilised by instructional/learning design is TPACK (Mishra et al., 2011). It is one of a few frameworks focussed on and specific to TEL learning design (Saubern et al., 2020). As with ADDIE, TPACK is an acronym for the components of the framework and refers to Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge. The focus here is on the capability of teachers and learning designers and their abilities to leverage technology to enhance learning. Each component of TPACK, technology; the way it is applied to support learning (i.e. pedagogy); and the distinct requirements of the discipline (i.e. content), work in synchronicity to provide for effective learning. Each of these three components is represented by a Venn diagram. Teachers or learning designers require familiarity with all three facets of TPACK to ensure the correct alignment is made between technology, pedagogy, and subject content. How these three components are then linked/interconnected and deployed, form the application of TPACK to learning design. Although made up of three components, implementation of TPACK can be confusing and complex due to the subsets and permutations of these components (Saubern et al., 2020). As practice-based learning is complex, the use of the TPACK framework can make the process unwieldy and overly complicated. A major advantage and but also a weakness of TPACK is the need for strong pedagogical knowledge from teachers and learning designers. This means planning programmes based on TPACK are educationally sound but teams lacking in strong pedagogical knowledge may struggle to unleash the potential of the programme of learning, due to poor implementation or understanding of pedagogical principles.

4.8 Conclusion In this chapter, the challenges represented by swift changes in social and economic direction, have been presented. Changes to the way work are conducted and constituted have advanced through the increased capabilities of digital technologies and their accompanying infrastructures. Hence, the preparation of workers in work with large components of practice-based learning requires re-evaluation. The argument through the chapter is to ensure qualification structures (i.e. the intended curriculum) are a first step towards assuring teaching and learning approaches (i.e. the enacted curriculum) not only provide suitable preparation for current work requirements, but also guarantees the skills, knowledge, and attributes/dispositions required to shift from one form of work to another, are included. Then, graduates of programmes (i.e. through the experienced curriculum) may move from waning occupations to those continuing to provide suitable recompense and self-actualisation. The pre-requisites required to enable the effective deployment of TEL are also presented and discussed in this chapter. The conduct of digitally enabled learning requires the issues of digital equity and provision of digital literacy training and

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education are addressed. Both digital equity and literacy have been enduring challenges. However, the future of work predicates the need to ensure all people are resourced with appropriate digital technologies to source digital resources. Accompanying the provision of digital tools is the need to secure learners have sufficient digital fluency to benefit from digitally enabled learning. Digital literacies include a collection of skills, knowledge, and attributes/dispositions to enable learners to utilise digital hardware and platforms, and to also evaluate digital information and to be digitally capable learners. The aspect of learning design has also been introduced and discussed in this chapter. The alignment of learning objectives to their relevant learning approaches and activities through good learning design provides for the objectives of VET to be met. In the next chapter, the teaching and learning approache supporting practice-based learning to provide learners with skills, knowledge, and dispositional achievements beyond occupations’ salient needs are presented.

References Aakernes, N. (2020). Both novice and expert? How apprentices develop vocational competence in workplaces where technology is continuously changing: Examples from the Norwegian media graphics programme. Nordic Journal of Vocational Education and Training, 10(1), 18–42. Archer, A. (2006). A multimodal approach to academic ‘literacies’: Problematising the visual/verbal divide. Learning and Education, 20(6), 449–462. Biggs, J. (1996). Enhancing teaching through constructive alignment. Higher Education, 32(3), 347–364. Billett, S. (2011). Vocational education: Purposes, traditions, and prospects. Springer. Branch, R. M. (2009). Instructional design: The ADDIE approach. Springer. CAST. (2020). The UDL guidelines. http://udlguidelines.cast.org/. Chan, S. (2016). New Zealand’s move to graduate-profile framed qualifications: Implications, challenges and the occupational identity solution. International Journal of Training Research, 14(1), 5–18. Collin, S., & Brotcorne, P. (2019). Capturing digital (in)equity in teaching and learning: A sociocritical approach. International Journal of Information and Learning Technology, 36(2), 169–180. Fenwick, T., Edwards, R., & Sawchuk, P. (2011). Emerging approaches to educational research. Routledge. Frey, C. B., & Osborne, M. A. (2017). The future of employment: How susceptible are jobs to computerisation? Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 114(January), 254–280. Holmes, L. (2013). Realist and relational perspectives on graduate identity and employability: A response to Hinchliffe and Jolly. British Educational Research Journal, 39(6), 1044–1059. Kuper, H. (2020). Industry 4.0: Changes in work organization and qualification requirements— Challenges for academic and vocational education. Entrepreneurship Education, 3, 119–131. Lea, M. R., & Jones, S. (2011). Digital literacies in higher education: Exploring textual and technological practice. Studies in Higher Education, 36(4), 377–393. Lea, M. R., & Street, B. V. (2006). The ‘academic literacies’ model: Theory and applications. Theory into Practice, 45(4), 368–377. Merrill, M. D. (2002). First principles of instruction. Educational Technology, Research and Development, 50(3), 43–59.

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Miller, C., & Bartlett, J. (2012). ‘Digital fluency’: Towards young people’s critical use of the internet. Journal of Information Literacy, 6(2), 35–55. Mishra, P., Koehler, M. J., & Henriksen, D. (2011, March/April). The seven trans-disciplinary habits of mind: Extending the TPACK framework towards 21st century learning. Educational Technology, 51(2), 22–28. New London Group. (1996). A pedagogy of multiliteracies: Designing social futures. Harvard Educational Review, 66(1), 60–92. Nichols, M. (2020). Transforming universities with digital distance education: The future of formal learning. Routledge. Nygren H., Virolainen M., Hämäläinen R., & Rautopuro J. (2020) The fourth industrial revolution and changes to working life: What supports adult employees in adapting to new technology at work? In M. Collan & K. E. Michelsen (Eds.), Technical, economic and societal effects of manufacturing 4.0. Palgrave Macmillan. NZ Qualifications Authority. (2018). Consultation on proposed changes to the NZ Qualifications framework. https://www.nzqa.govt.nz/assets/About-us/Consultations-and-reviews/NZQFReview/NZQF-consultation-paper-231018-Final.pdf. Parkinson, J., Demecheleer, M., & Mackay, J. (2017). Writing like a builder: Acquiring a professional genre in a pedagogical setting. English for Specific Purposes, 46(1), 29–44. Razzouk, R., & Shute, V. (2013). What is design thinking? And why is it important? Review of Educational Research, 82(3), 330–348. Reich, J. (2020). Failure to disrupt: Why technology alone can’t transform education. Harvard University Press. Reiser, R. A. (2001). A history of instructional design and technology: Part I: A history of instructional media. Educational Technology Research and Development, 49, 53. Rose, D. (2000). Universal design for learning. Journal of Special Education Technology, 15(3), 45–49. Saubern, R., Henderson, M., Heinrich, E., & Redmond, P. (2020). TPACK—Time to reboot? Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 36(3), 1–9. Seet, P., Jones, J., Spoehr, J., & Hordacre, A. (2018). The fourth industrial revolution: The implications of technological disruption in Australian VET. NCVER. Sennett, R. (2008). The craftsman. Allen Lane. Simpson, O. (2018). Supporting students in online, open and distance learning. RoutledgeFalmer. Spronken-Smith, R., Bond, C., McLean, A., Frielick, S., Smith, N., Jenkins, M., & Marshall, S. (2013). How to engage with a graduate outcomes’ agenda: A guide for tertiary education institutes. Ako Aotearoa. https://ako.ac.nz/knowledge-centre/graduate-outcomes/how-toengage-with-a-graduate-outcomes-agenda-a-guide-for-tertiary-education-institutions/. West, R. E., Ertmer, P., & McKenney, S. (2020). The crucial role of theoretical scholarship for learning design and technology. Educational Technology Research and Development, 68, 593– 600. Wiggins, G., & McTighe, J. (2005). Understanding by design. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Wilson, B. G. (2013). A practice-centered approach to instructional design. In J. M. Spector, B. B. Lockee, S. E. Smaldino, & M. Herring (Eds.). Learning, problem solving, and mind tools: Essays in honor of David H. Jonassen (pp. 35–54). Routledge. Wilson, L. O. (2019). Anderson and Krathwohl—Bloom’s taxonomy revised, the second principle. https://thesecondprinciple.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/blooms-taxonomy-revised.pdf. Zobrist, L., & Brandes, D. (2017). What key competencies are needed in the digital age? The impact of automation on employees, companies and education. Deloitte AG.

Chapter 5

VET Learning Approaches for Industry 4.0

Abstract Learning approaches supporting the development of the skills, knowledge, and realisation of relevant dispositions/attributes, as aligned with ‘Industry 4.0 and Education/VET 4.0’, are rationalised, introduced, and described in this chapter. Pedagogical direction favouring socio-constructivist approaches are introduced, discussed, and evaluated as suggested ways to ensure learners are equipped to thrive into the future. To begin, a brief review is undertaken of how VET skills and knowledge are constituted. The learning approaches of project-based learning, with inclusion of aspects of inquiry/problem-based learning for aiding individuals and groups of learners are then presented and discussed. Extensions to project/inquiry/problembased learning relevant to practice-based learning through TEL are then proposed and detailed. Keywords Project/problem/inquiry-based learning · Technology-enhanced learning personalised learning environments · Simulations · Video

5.1 Introduction Teaching and learning approaches reinforcing the development of key occupational capabilities require balancing with the attributes required to ensure learners attain the abilities to ‘transfer’ problem finding/solving skills; are able to engage in continual learning to upskill; work in teams comprising of both human and technology-driven counterparts (i.e. robots or Artificial Intelligence [AI] platforms); and contribute to the wider society with its ‘wicked’ challenges. As presented and discussed in the previous chapter, the development of these essential attributes/dispositions ensures learners complete qualifications to prepare them better for the disruptions and challenges into the future, as work is impacted by continual, and often rapid change.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 S. Chan, Digitally Enabling ‘Learning by Doing’ in Vocational Education, SpringerBriefs in Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-3405-5_5

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5.2 VET Skills, Knowledge, and Dispositions As introduced and discussed in previous chapters, the overarching concept for understanding VET learning is of learning as a process of becoming or the realisation of occupational identity. How learners ‘become’ results from practice-based learning through processes of mimesis, complemented by mimetic learning. Through engagement with occupationally-focussed learning outcomes, the ways of doing, thinking, being, and feeling (Chan, 2013) are learnt, consolidated, and embodied. Each learner forms an individualised perspective, gleaned from their relationships and interrelationships with practice communities (Gherardi, 2010) (i.e. the socio-cultural) and the sociomaterial (Fenwick & Nerland, 2014) aspects of their occupation. As ‘learning to become’ contributes to the holistic occupational identity of individuals, the concept of embodiment (Hyland, 2019) is useful. Learners, through deep and intense engagement with practice, attain the cohesive merging of skilled performance with the abilities to apply practical knowledge to problem-solving and innovation; along with the dispositions associated with the occupation (e.g. craftsmanship approaches to work (Chan, 2014). Therefore, the concept of embodiment contributes towards understanding the holistic enmeshment of ‘being’ occurring as learners ‘learn to become’. The conceptualisation of knowledge, and in tandem skills and attributes, can be understood from different perspectives. Knowledge is often described as being either declarative or procedural (De Jong & Ferguson-Hessler, 1996). Declarative knowledge implies knowing the ‘what, how and why’ of various concepts and practices. In comparison, procedural knowledge refers to knowing how to perform specific tasks as learners apply methods, procedures, and tool/machinery/equipment/technology operations (De Jong & Ferguson-Hessler, 1996). The level of complexity of knowledge learning and attainment is also designated as being either deep or surface (Beattie et al., 1997). The depth of learning refers to how far declarative knowledge is embedded. Deep learning infers learners’ ability to go beyond a surface understanding of topics (Biggs, 1999). Although critiqued for its underdevelopment and uncritical acceptance by the education sector (Howie & Bagnall, 2013), the metaphor of deep/surface learning, provides one way to understand the complexities of practice-based learning. Additionally, there is discussion as to whether one kind or level of knowledge (i.e. procedural/surface knowledge), may lead to the development of the other (i.e. declarative/deep knowledge) (Rittle-Johnson & Alibali, 1999). Within practice-based learning, scaffolding from simpler skills, knowledge, and attributes, may be seen to be a mainstay of pedagogy. For example, guided learning through participation (Rogoff, 1995) along with the precepts of cognitive apprenticeship (Collins et al., 1991) were derived from ethnographic studies on apprenticeship learning (see Chap. 3 for presentation and discussion of these theories of learning). Hence, we come full circle in applying apprenticeship learning principles through mimesis (i.e. observation, imitation and practice) and mimetic learning (i.e. individuals’ construction of meaning

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with contributions from the socio-cultural and sociomaterial) towards understanding and supporting learning across all educational contexts. It, therefore, follows approaches for learning, aligned to practice-based learning activities, along with their associated learning outcomes and assessment methods (i.e. as constructively aligned through learning design), contribute towards the holistic learning required to achieve the skills, knowledge, and attributes/dispositions required to realise occupational identity. In turn, supporting and leading learners towards achieving occupational identity or to ‘become’ as recognised in specialised practice contexts. The next section provides details of learning approaches exampled by project-based learning and inquiry/problem-based learning, aligned with the precepts of helping learners’ eventual realisation of occupational identity. These learning approaches encourage forms of deep learning, leading to grasping and critically applying the declarative knowledge required to engage with complex work. The application of learning design (see previous chapter) towards carefully developed and planned sequences of project/inquiry/problem-based learning activities, strengthen learners’ capacity to connect theory to practice and this proficiency is important in all forms of work (Kuper, 2020). Situating learning design on project/problem and inquiry-based approaches also allows for authentic/realistic learning to be achieved and the unpredictable, messy, and amorphous lived experiences of work to be actuated (Fenwick et al., 2011). Additionally, project/inquiry/problem-based learning allows for individual and team-based learning to be completed. Undertaking project/inquiry/problem-based learning individually yield some dividends. The constructive processes of learning, support and challenge learners to draw on and review past learning; contextualise their experiences to novel situations or challenges, often requiring learners to source and learn new skills and knowledge; and achieve satisfaction when the learning outcomes are reached or exceeded (Hmelo-Silver et al., 2007). With teambased project/inquiry/problem-based learning activities, learners extend individualised learnings to include the many communicative and inter-relational skills and attributes required to be effective and contributing team members (Finnie et al., 2014). These structured learning activities help to prepare learners for the world of work whereby tasks are distributed across workers (i.e. both human and non-human (e.g. robots and artificial intelligence [AI] platforms) and teams) (Seet et al., 2018).

5.3 Project-Based Learning Project-based learning with augmentation by either or both inquiry and problembased learning are proposed as options to support the holistic learning of VET 4.0 skills, knowledge, and dispositions. These learning approaches not only provide authentic learning for VET learners but allow for the learning of the critical ‘transferable’/transversal skills (i.e. critical thinking, communications, teamwork) required going into the future.

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5.3.1 Defining Project-Based Learning There is a difference between completing a project as part of a course or study or in the workplace and the structuring of a course on the pedagogical principles of project-based learning. Project-based learning implies the attainment of clear learning outcomes through the completion of authentic practice-based projects (Rees et al., 2019). In doing, project-based learning ensures the learning and application of declarative knowledge to the project task/s are integrated into course learning objectives. To be effective, project-based learning must include the content of significant depth to help learners meet their learning outcomes, preferably with some component of learner choice and voice in topic selection (Larmer & Mergendoller, 2012). Additionally, project-based learning must be founded on processes of reflective learning and contribute towards learners’ achievement of ‘21st century skills’ (Larmer & Mergendoller, 2012) relevant to the future of work. Hence, completion of courses with project-based essential curriculum, allows the ‘transferable skills’ completed to be made visible to learners, accreditation bodies, employers, and other stakeholders. If supported by TEL, the skills achieved include the many required to maintain digital fluency both for work and for professional development (Zobrist & Brandes, 2017). The undertaking of a project-based component of learning may be either as individualised ‘personalised project-based learning’ (Demink-Carthew & Olofson, 2020) or structured to be completed through teamwork-based collaborative projects. Learner teams need not all be from one discipline area. Project-based learning when learners are brought together from a range of discipline areas reflects authentic work/industry practice. Participation on project-based learning may include students from a range of related discipline areas working towards a common goal. Finnie et al. (2014) provide an example from Otago Polytechnic based at Dunedin in NZ whereby students from interiors and product design, construction management, carpentry, structural engineering, and electrical and electronic engineering, worked on the design and construction of a student study space, powered by sustainable technologies. The implementation of project-based learning must also include teachers’ preparation to ensure the precepts of the project-based learning are effectively introduced and supported. Capability building with respect to the digital tools deployed to enable TEL as a delivery platform should also be undertaken (Rees et al., 2019).

5.4 Extending Project-Based Learning to Include Inquiry and Problem-Based Learning Project/inquiry/problem-based learning approaches encourage the development of many attributes. These include many ‘personal management and learning’ skills required across all types of work (Kuper, 2020). Project-based learning is well

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matched to the precepts of practice-based learning. Authentic projects provide learners with a precursor experience of workplace expectations. ‘Real-world’ projects are often obtained through VET institutions’ industry networks and these may be used as a foundation for the development of VET project-based learning activities. How project-based learning is structured and scaffolded is a key contribution to successful completion. Augmenting project-based learning with inquiry and/or project learning ensures key transferable attributes are included and made visible to the learner. Again, the planning and structure of these forms of learning are important in ensuring learner engagement and completion.

5.4.1 Inquiry-Based Learning Inquiry-based learning is a constructivist approach whereby learners are responsible for identifying a pertinent topic or range of topics to be explored. The approach is useful as an introductory activity for learners with strong, existing competency or knowledge bases, who are self-directed and bring intrinsic motivation to their learning (Hmelo-Silver et al., 2007). Within the VET context, inquiry-based learning is especially useful when integrated with project-based learning. Inquiry-based activities may be merged with project-based learning when learners are responsible for completing projects with innovative or entrepreneurial aspects. Inquiry-based activities frame the exploration of ‘new’ learning and assist learners in ‘keeping on task’ and refraining from wandering too far off the project’s learning objectives. There are four levels of inquiry-based learning (Banchi & Bell, 2008). These are confirmation, structured, guided, and open inquiry. Confirmation inquiry is where learners investigate a topic with a known or limited range of answers. This approach is a good introduction into inquiry-based learning and used to scaffold learners towards more complex forms of inquiry. With structured inquiry, learners are provided with a series of smaller inquiries to connect towards a larger study of a topic. A good example of a structured inquiry is the use of ‘one day one problem’ curriculum structures (O’Grady et al., 2012) whereby learners are provided with a short introduction at the start of the day. Learners work individually or in groups to find ‘answers’, derive solutions, or solve a problem. The answers or solutions are then presented at the end of the day to the class and teacher. Guided inquiry approaches are similar to the structured inquiry but the main questions in each section of the inquiry are provided to keep learners on track. In open inquiries, learning is usually based on a ‘learning contract’ negotiated between learner and teacher. Another variant is to assign learners with the problem finding or fault to be solved, or the incorporation of authentic case studies (Wood, 2009). The inquiry is then based on the question generated through the problem finding step (Banchi & Bell, 2008).

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5.4.2 Problem-Based Learning As prefaced above, many types of practice-based work and inquiry-based learning activities involve problem finding and solving. Diagnosing the problem and then finding ways to solve it categorises many practice-based occupations. Examples include medical doctors, automotive engineers (see Crawford, 2009 for motorbike mechanic), waitresses (see Rose, 2005 for details), and woodworkers (see Marchand, 2010). Dolmans et al. (2016) propose problem-based learning encourages learners to engage with deep learning due to the inherent intrinsic motivation arising from working through challenging learning activities. Problem-based learning is an approach used across all sectors and levels of education with learning objectives to support the attainment of critical thinking and problem-solving through engagement with authentic learning (Yew & Goh, 2016). The overall approach requires learners to examine and define a problem; explore their prior knowledge and apply these to the problem at hand; determine what they need to learn; and where and how to acquire these to enable the problem to be solved; evaluate various problem-solving methods or algorithms, solve problems; and report their findings (Savery, 2006). Learning outcomes proposed for problem-based learning include options for learners to work in teams, manage projects, lead projects, and use oral and communication skills to report the outcomes of the investigation. (Nilson, 2010). Learning advantages include the improvement in self-awareness of learners, learner independence, critical thinking and analysis, explanation of concepts, self-directed learning, ability to apply knowledge to real-world examples, research and information literacy, and problem-solving across disciplinary studies (Nilson, 2010). Various ways may be used to frame problem-based learning activities. These vary in scale from the whole institution approaches, exampled by Singapore’s Republic Polytechnic’s ‘one day, one problem’ curriculum structure (O’Grady et al., 2012); to the use of authentic case studies (Wood, 2009); actual workplace practice-derived challenges; and the introduction of dilemmas specific to occupations, as exampled by health professions (Windschitl, 2002). Problem-based learning may also underpin ‘capstone’ courses (Dunlap, 2005). Capstone courses occur at the end of a programme of study whereby learners undertake some form of project-based work, often within or in association with work-integrated learning (WIL) or internship. Capstone courses provide learners with the opportunity to apply and integrate their learning through application to authentic/real-world challenges. Capstone courses are characterised by the provision of learner choice and empowerment as to the topic and range of the course; include opportunities to work on and report the results of real-world problem-solving; and emphasise the processes of reflection and inquiry through practice (Dunlap, 2005). To ensure the capstone’s efficacy, support and coaching must be provided throughout the learning period. Learning assistance must be across the various contexts the capstone is conducted as these projects often involve learners working on community or workplace collaborations (Dunlap, 2005).

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5.4.3 Individual or Team-Based Learning In this section, advantages and challenges with developing project/inquiry/problem learning for completion by individual learners or teams of learners are presented and discussed. Each has merits and the decisions to select one or the other, align with learning objectives and discipline informed practices. As it is, VET’s focus on preparing learners for the world of work means an emphasis on supporting learners to begin incorporating processes of group and teamwork are valid. However, it is the individual who makes meaning out of learning activities. Therefore, there is a balance in VET curricula/learning design to ensure individuals’ personalised learning needs are met along with the expectation for the knowledge, skills, and dispositional development for working with others, be embedded into VET programmes. As provided in an example from Otago Polytechnic above (Finnie et al., 2014), project/inquiry/problem-based learning activities may include students from multiple disciplines working towards a production, problem-solving or inquiry-based goal.

5.5 Importance of Personalised Learning Environments for VET If the adoption of ‘learning as becoming’ as centred on individuals’ sense-making and knowledge construction is carried through, then assisting individuals to maximise learning opportunities is a valid approach. Personalised learning environments (PLEs) or personalised learning (Garrick et al., 2017) are terms used to describe the construct of learning curriculum focussed on individuals’ learning objectives. Personalised project-based learning (Demink-Carthew & Olofson, 2020) may be one way to organise PLEs to reflect the principles of learning being co-constructed by learners and teachers. In turn, PLE provision systems to support co-constructive learning, often through the collaborative development of a ‘learning contract’ (Attwell, 2007) and collection and collation of learning through e-portfolios. Personalised learning requires the systematic development and planning of learning to aid learners’ progress towards meeting learning goals (Zhang et al., 2020). Walkington and Bernacki (2020) propose the design of personalised learning to include decisions of the depth of learning to be undertaken; whether the learning is to be completed individually or through group work; and the establishment of the process, to negotiate the amount of direction from teachers and responsibilities of learners. Associated with the concept of PLEs is the advent of adaptive learning (Phillips et al., 2020). Brown et al., in the 2020 Horizon report assert there is an increase in the application of technology-supported adaptive learning tools. Adaptive learning strengthens PLEs by allowing for timely feedback to learners as they engage with learning. Contemporary feedback may be through structured comments provided to learners as they complete quizzes formulated into an institutional LMS or through a specialised adaptive learning platform. In general, adaptive learning platforms have

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been the traditional domain of courses with high components of science, technology, engineering, or mathematics (i.e. STEM) as these disciplines have high components of canonical knowledge and clearly defined answers (Brown et al., 2020). However, there are initiatives across non-STEM disciplines including economics, history, and psychology (Brown et al., 2020). Many aspects of VET practice-based learning have large components of STEM, therefore adaptive learning is one promising inclusion in the learning design toolkit. As with all aspects of teaching and learning, learning design is an essential aspect towards ensuring alignment between learning goals, learning activities (in this case, adaptive PLEs), and assessments (Kinshuk, 2016). However, the current challenge with adaptive learning is the cost and of the developing computer science underpinning the approaches, especially when AI is included (Brown et al., 2020).

5.6 Authentic Learning When Access to f2f Learning Is Not Possible The demanding aspect of practice-based learning when f2f or physical access to authentic learning environments is not possible, is to replicate the ‘hands-on’ or ‘learning by doing’ aspects of the learning. Herrington and Herrington (2006) recommend an authentic learning environment as including authentic content; real-world learning activities; access to expert performances and the modelling of authentic process; opportunity to view and engage with multiple ‘work’ roles and perspectives; encourages collaborative knowledge construction with supporting opportunities for reflection and articulation of learning; potential for coaching and scaffolding; and be aligned to authentic assessments. Videos and simulations help to bridge some of the challenges detailed above and offer authentic learning. This section summarises the affordances proffered by these two forms of technology. Although neither replace the sociomaterial aspects of practice, both allow for visual and audio replication of tasks and processes. However, the tactile/haptic and sociomaterial feedback from tools, machinery, or materials, are not possible to replace. Noting these shortcomings and replacing the experiences with planned learning activities drawing attention to the absence of the sociomaterial, help to bring these important aspects to the fore. Additionally, video and simulations or games-based learning (Galarneau, 2005) may be combined with project/inquiry/problem-based learning. In this section, the deployment of video or simulations is presented in the context of using them to improve project/inquiry/problem-based learning approaches, with additions, where appropriate for the inclusion of PLEs and adaptive learning.

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71

5.6.1 Video and Its Contribution to VET Video recordings and digital video (i.e. YouTube and similar) and their precursors, film, and television, are important supports to practice-based learning (see Chap. 3 for a TEL example by Chan et al., 2013 to improve skills and dispositional learning). This section discusses the challenges and some solutions for provisioning learning when access to f2f practice-based learning is curtailed. The advent of personal recording devices (i.e. the camcorder and now the mobile phone) has allowed for a plethora of recordings of human endeavour to be collected. Hence, the video may be ‘pushed’ to learners in various forms including recordings of lectures, practical skill demonstrations, recordings of mathematical skills (see for example the many videos archived by the Khan Academy), and ‘think out loud workings’ or ‘partially worked examples’ (Billett, 2011) recorded using lightboard technology. Recordings from lightboards allow diagrams and calculations to be videoed with the instructor or lecturer facing the video (see Lubrick et al., 2019 for details on lightboards). In line with the constructivist approaches recommended across this book, the video should also be used to ‘pull’ in the experiences of learners. Video capture learners’ representations of practice-based activities. These learner-generated videos form the foundation of various learning activities contributing towards learners’ deliberate practice. Peer learning through learners critiquing and attaining practicebased learning objectives is achievable for improving ‘reflective dialogue’ (Harford et al., 2010) and in the learning of complex skills and difficult to describe dispositional approaches (Chan et al., 2013). Some aspects of practice may be accessible when learners are able to utilise the resources available in most households. Learners in the automotive trades with access to a vehicle will be able to undertake simple tasks exampled by changing a tyre; beauty therapy students may be able to apply practical skills towards enhancing the appearances and wellbeing of the family; and cookery students may undertake to prepare simple dishes. In each of these examples, learners would record their work with video or a series of photos (i.e. learning evidence is pulled from learners). Teachers may then use these resources as the framework for reflective discussions on practice-based learning (i.e. help connect learning). Therefore, to support practice-based learning, it is not so much the recording of these enactments of human activity which are important but how learning is augmented using these recordings. That is, the ‘connect the learning’ component required to supplement both the ‘push’ and ‘pull’ elements of learning to ensure learners maximise the learning potential inherent in undertaking the learning activity.

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5.6.2 Simulations—A Continuum Simulations have a long history in supporting authentic and situated learning (Maran & Glavin, 2003). Non-digitally enabled simulations include replicating the ‘paper trail’ for work processes exampled by the work of the hotel receptionist, quantity surveyors, and accountants. Digitally enabled simulations may be envisaged as a continuum from minimal integration of digital technologies, towards simulations being experienced by learners in virtual reality (VR) environments. Maran and Glavin (2003) conceive this continuum as from low-to high-fidelity simulation. The continuum begins with small simulations to assist with learning and the honing of simple or part-tasks with increases in sophistication towards computer-driven models exampled by aircraft piloting simulations. Simulations encompassing VR environments are discussed in greater detail in Chap. 7. A proposed continuum is provided in Fig. 5.1 to summarise the simulations currently available and of relevance to practice-based learning. In this continuum, non-digitally enabled simulations represent low-fidelity approaches. Case studies using games or virtual worlds (exampled by the virtual environments Second Life and Mozilla Hubs) represent a step towards higher fidelity. Field trips, expeditions, or visits to authentic learning sites may be increased in fidelity through the introduction of augmented reality (AR) or through entry into VR generated environments. Of note in simulations is the use of mannequins, now a feature in practice-based health education (Aarkrog, 2019). These replications of human life for the purposes of training nurses, doctors etc. may again be supplemented with AR through overlaying digital visualisations on the mannequins or VR whereby the mannequins are accessed through virtual environments. Both AR and VR are discussed in greater

Paper-based simulated work acƟvity Game /case study -based simulaƟons

‘Second life ‘ or ‘virtual worlds‘

VR learning simulaƟons Mannequins

Low fidelity

AR/VR field Paper or gamebased simulaƟons trips or expediƟons supported by digital technologies including AR

High fidelity Mannequins with AR

Fig. 5.1 Continuum of simulations to support practice-based learning

Mannequins with VR

5.6 Authentic Learning When Access to f2f Learning …

73

detail in Chap. 7 and provide an extra contribution towards authenticity to practicebased simulations. Learning design possibilities to scaffold learning from low-tohigh-fidelity simulations provide opportunities for learners’ to also acquire the digital literacies to optimise learning. The health sector deploys digitally enhanced mannequins to mimic live patient encounters (Aarkrog, 2019) enabling students to attain confidence and competencies before they work with real people. Thus, the learning of difficult dispositional traits encompassing human interactions (Ahn & Nystrom, 2020) and access to some of the sociomaterial aspects of health practice (Hopwood et al., 2014) may be achieved. As with the use of videos discussed in the above section, it is not just the importance of participation with simulations, but the debrief and reflective learning afforded by the experiences afforded through the activity (Dieckmann et al., 2009; Sellberg & Wiig, 2020).

5.6.3 Simulations When Physical Learning Spaces Are Not Accessible High fidelity simulations are often not availed to lecturers and learners when there is no or limited access to institutional facilities. However, virtual worlds (i.e. Second Life/Mozilla Hubs) and field trips/exhibitions exampled by those archived on Google Expeditions or bespoke resources/simulations provide ways for learners to access some forms of authentic learning. Second Life/Mozilla Hubs are useful for simulating collaboration, teamwork, and the learning of communication protocols. Virtual field trips etc. are helpful for introducing learners to specialist occupational environments. Both may be ‘pushed’ to learners with the ‘pull’ requiring learners to evaluate performance in Second Life/Mozilla Hubs encounters or to summarise aspects of the virtual world during virtual field trips or expeditions. Teachers’ roles are to assist learners’ reflective learning as they work through the learning objectives, becoming ‘the guide on the side’ or the ‘meddler in the middle’ (McWilliams, 2009) instead of being ‘the sage on the stage’.

5.7 Applying the Push-Connect the Dots-Pull Framework to Practice-Based Learning Each of the learning approaches (i.e. project/inquiry/problem and simulations) may be supported through TEL and especially when learners are only able to access learning activities via distance, forms the main component of this section. In Chap. 3, the framework for the micro design of practice-based VET learning was proposed. In this framework, resources, learning activities, and information are ‘pushed out’ to students; evidence of learning in the form of answers to queries from learners, their

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PUSH

Project Problem

InstrucƟons models/frameworks and resources

Inquiry

CONNECTING the learning

Guidance, socraƟc quesƟoning,

PULL

SoluƟons, quesƟons, findings/results

Challenges, criƟque/feedback

Video and/or

InstrucƟons models/frameworks AuthenƟc examples

Simulations

Resources

Guided learning, quesƟoning, Challenges, criƟque/feedback

SoluƟons, quesƟons, findings/results Deliberate pracƟce Increased capability Enhanced performance

Fig. 5.2 Applying push-connecting the learning-pull framework to practice-based learning approaches

peers, or teachers are then ‘pulled’ into the learning sessions; and the ‘connecting the learning’ session provides the sociocultural and active-participative learning to help learners make sense of their experiences, the learning resources pushed to them, and reciprocate with their contributions (i.e. the pulled evidence). This framework is applied to the learning approaches above, to assist with better understanding how it supports the application of TEL, as framed by socio-constructivist learning theories which in turn assist learners on their learning journey of ‘becoming’. Hence, it is important when incorporating digital tools to support practice-based learning to ensure the tools enable, rather than detract from the learning objectives to be attained. The three ‘steps’ of push-connect the learning-pull may all be implemented using digital platforms or apps. However, it is important to match the tool and/or resource, to the learning goal at each ‘step’. For example, in the middle layer of Fig. 5.2, the project/problem/inquiry-based approaches may be supported through ‘pushing’ the instructions etc. to learners via LMS or mobile phone social networking apps. Learners’ solutions etc. are ‘pulled’ using submission into LMS or mobile apps. The ‘connecting the learning’ segment for guiding learners’ project/inquiry/problem-based learning may be offered asynchronously through traditional LMS communication modules (i.e. discussion forum) or synchronously through mobile chat/messaging apps exampled by Facebook Messenger or WhatsApp. Decisions on tool selection are crucial and require matching to the digital literacies of learners and their teachers and the types of devices and access to mobile data availed to learners. The next chapter provides examples and suggestions on how to match the myriad of TEL tools and apps, to the learning objectives to be achieved.

5.8 Conclusion

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5.8 Conclusion In this chapter, the various learning approaches most aligned to the precepts of VET practice-based learning are presented, discussed, and evaluated. These approaches not only provide for active or experiential learning experiences. When deployed effectively with thorough learning design and appropriate pedagogical direction, these approaches assist learners’ attainment of competencies or capabilities required by all learners. Included are the important aspects of being able to work individually and with others (including non-human elements of technological work); the abilities to continually learn; to problem find and solve complex challenges; and attain dispositions of persistence and conscientiousness to follow through and complete complex and/or difficult work. The next chapter provides details on how to best support the approaches presented here, with the various ways learning may be structured or ‘delivered’ (i.e. blended/flipped, mobile learning etc.).

References Aarkrog, V. (2019). ‘The mannequin is more lifelike’: The significance of fidelity for students’ learning in simulation-based training in the social and healthcare programmes. Nordic Journal of Vocational Education and Training, 9(2), 1–18. Ahn, S., & Nystrom, S. (2020). Simulation-based training in VET through the lens of a sociocultural perspective. Nordic Journal of Vocational Education and Training, 10(1), 1–17. Attwell, G. (2007). The personal learning environments—The future of eLearning? eLearning papers. Banchi, H., & Bell, R. (2008). The many levels of inquiry. Science and Children, 46(2), 26–29. Beattie, V., IV, Collins, B., & McInnes, B. (1997). Deep and surface learning: A simple or simplistic dichotomy? Accounting Education, 6(1), 1–12. Biggs, J. (1999). What the student does: Teaching for enhanced learning. Higher Education Research & Development, 18(1), 57–75. Billett, S. (2011). Curriculum and pedagogic bases for effectively integrating practice-based experiences. Sydney. https://vocationsandlearning.blog/resources/. Brown, M., McCormack, M., Reeves, J. D., et al. (2020). 2020 EDUCAUSE Horizon report, teaching and learning edition. EDUCAUSE. https://library.educause.edu/-/media/files/library/2020/3/202 0horizonreport.pdf?la=en&hash=DE6D8A3EA38054FDEB33C8E28A5588EBB913270C. Chan, S. (2013). Learning a trade: Becoming a trades person through apprenticeship. Ako Aotearoa Southern Regional Hub Project Fund. Ako Aotearoa. https://ako.ac.nz/knowledgecentre/learning-a-trade-becoming-a-trades-person-through-apprenticeship/learning-a-trade-bec oming-a-trades-person-through-apprenticeship/. Chan, S. (2014). Crafting an occupational identity: Learning the precepts of craftsmanship through apprenticeship. Vocations and Learning, 7(3), 313–330. Chan, S., McEwan, H., & Taylor, D. (2013). Extending hospitality students’ experiences of real-world practice. Ako Aotearoa Southern Regional Hub Project Fund. Ako Aotearoa. https:// ako.ac.nz/knowledge-centre/guidelines-for-improving-students-reflective-practice-and-digitalevaluation-skills/guidelines-for-improving-students-reflective-practice-and-digital-evaluationskills-derived-from-a-study-with-hospitality-students/. Collins, A., Brown, J., & Holum, A. (1991). Cognitive apprenticeship: Making thinking visible. American Educator, 15(3), 38–47.

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Crawford, M. B. (2009). Shop class as soulcraft: An inquiry into the value of work. Penguin. De Jong, T., & Ferguson-Hessler, M. (1996). Types and qualities of knowledge. Educational Psychologist, 31(2), 105–113. DeMink-Carthew, J., & Olofson, M. W. (2020). Hands-joined learning as a framework for personalizing project-based learning in a middle grades classroom: An exploratory study. Research in Middle Level Education Online, 43, 1–17. Dieckmann, P., Molin Friis, S., Lippert, A., & Østergaard, D. (2009). The art and science of debriefing in simulation: Ideal and practice. Medical Teacher, 31(7), e287–e294. Dolmans, D. H. J. M., Loyens, S. M. M., Marcq, H., et al. (2016). Deep and surface learning in problem-based learning: A review of the literature. Advances in Health Science Education, 21, 1087–1112. Dunlap, J. C. (2005). Problem-based learning and self-efficacy: How a capstone course prepares students for a profession. Educational Technology Research and Development, 53(1), 65–83. Fenwick, T., Edwards, R., & Sawchuk, P. (2011). Emerging approaches to educational research. Routledge. Fenwick, T., & Nerland, M. (2014). Sociomaterial professional knowing, work arrangements and responsibility: New times, new concepts? In T. Fenwick, & M. Nerland (Eds.), Reconceptualising professional learning: Sociomaterial knowledges, practices and responsibilities (pp. 1–8). London: Routledge. Finnie, D., Fersterer, C., Qi, Z. T., & Terpstra, C. (2014). A student project development for multidisciplinary programs at Otago Polytechnic [online]. In A. Bainbridge-Smith, Z. M. Qi, & G. S. Gupta (Eds.), 25th Annual Conference of the Australasian Association for engineering education: Engineering the knowledge economy: Collaboration, engagement & employability (pp. 932–940). School of Engineering & Advanced Technology, Massey University. Galarneau, L. L. (2005). Authentic learning experiences through play: Games, simulations and the construction of knowledge. Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=810065 or http://dx.doi. org/10.2139/ssrn.810065. Garrick, B., Pendergast, D., & Geelan, D. (2017). Introduction to the philosophical arguments underpinning personalised Education. In Theorising personalised education. Springer. Gherardi, S. (2010). Community of practice or practices of a community? In S. J. Armstrong & C. V. Fukami (Eds.), The SAGE handbook on management, learning, education and development (pp. 514–530). Sage. Harford, J., MacRuairc, G., & McCartan, D. (2010). Lights, camera, reflection: Using peer video to promote reflective dialogue among student teachers. Teacher Development, 14(1), 57–68. Herrington, A., & Herrington, J. (2006). What is an authentic learning environment? In A. Herrington & J. Herrington (Eds.), Authentic learning environments in higher education (pp. 1–13). Information Science Publishing. Hmelo-Silver, C. E., Duncan, R. G., & Chinn, C. A. (2007). Scaffolding and achievement in problembased and inquiry learning: A response to Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006). Educational Psychologist, 42(2), 99–107. Hopwood, N., Rooney, D., Boud, D., & Kelly, M. (2014). Simulation in higher education: A sociomaterial view. Educational Philosophy and Theory, 48(2), 165–178. Howie, P., & Bagnall, R. (2013). A critique of the deep and surface approaches to learning model. Teaching in Higher Education, 18(4), 389–400. Hyland, T. (2019). Embodied learning in vocational education and training. Journal of Vocational Education and Training, 71(3), 449–463. Kinshuk. (2016). Designing adaptive and personalized learning environments (1st ed.). Routledge. Kuper, H. (2020). Industry 4.0: Changes in work organization and qualification requirements— Challenges for academic and vocational education. Entrepreneurship Education, 3, 119–131. Larmer, J., & Mergendoller, J. R. (2012). 8 essentials for project-based learning. Educational Leadership, 68(1).

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Lubrick, M., Zhou, G., & Zhang, J. (2019). Is the future bright? The potential of lightboard videos for student achievement and engagement in learning. EURASIA Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 15(8), em 1735. Maran, N., & Glavin, R. (2003). Low-to high-fidelity simulation: A continuum of medical education? Medical Education, 37(Suppl. 1 [s1]), 22–28. Marchand, T. H. J. (2010). Embodied cognition and communication: Studies with British fine woodworkers. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, 16(s1), 100–120. McWilliams, E. (2009). Teaching for creativity: From sage to guide to meddler. Asian Pacific Journal of Education, 29(3), 281–293. Nilson, L. B. (2010). Teaching at its best: A research-based resource for college instructors (2nd ed.). Jossey-Bass. O’Grady, G., Yew, E. H. J., Goh, K. P. L., & Schmidt, H. G. (2012). One day, one problem: An approach to problem-based learning. Springer. Phillips, A., Pane, J. F., Reumann-Moore, R., et al. (2020). Implementing an adaptive intelligent tutoring system as an instructional supplement. Educational Technology Research & Developement, 68, 1409–1437. Rees, L. D. G., Gerber, E. M., Carlson, S. E., & Easterday, M. W. (2019). Opportunities for educational innovations in authentic project-based learning: Understanding instructor perceived challenges to design for adoption. Education Technology Research and Development, 6(4), 953–982. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-019-09673-4. Rittle-Johnson, B., & Alibali, M. W. (1999). Conceptual and procedural knowledge of mathematics: Does one lead to the other? Journal of Educational Psychology, 91(1), 175–189. Rogoff, B. (1995). Observing sociocultural activity on three planes: Participatory appropriation, guided participation and apprenticeship. In J. V. Wertsch, P. Del Rio, & A. Alverez (Eds.), Sociocultural studies of mind (pp. 139–164). Cambridge University Press. Rose, M. (2005). The working life of a waitress. In M. Rose (Ed.), The mind at work: Valuing the intelligence of the American worker (pp. 1–30). Penguin. Savery, J. R. (2006). Overview of problem-based learning: Definitions and distinctions. Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning, 1(1), 9–20. Seet, P., Jones, J., Spoehr, J., & Hordacre, A. (2018). The fourth industrial revolution: The implications of technological disruption in Australian VET. NCVER. Sellberg, C., & Wiig, A. C. (2020). Telling stories from the sea: Facilitating professional learning in maritime post-simulation debriefings. Vocations and Learning, 13, 527–550. Walkington, C., & Bernacki, M. L. (2020). Appraising research on personalized learning: Definitions, theoretical alignment, advancements, and future directions. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 52(3), 235–252. Windschitl, M. (2002). Framing constructivism in practice as the negotiation of dilemmas: An analysis of the conceptual, pedagogical, cultural, and political challenge facing teachers. Review of Educational Research, 72, 131–175. Wood, J. P. (2009). Design for inquiry-based case studies. Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education, 1. Yew, E. H. J., & Goh, K. (2016). Problem-based learning: An overview of its process and impact on learning. Health Professions Education, 2(2), 75–79. Zhang, L., Yang, S., & Carter, R. A. (2020). Personalized learning and ESSA: What we know and where we go. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 52(3), 253–274. Zobrist, L., & Brandes, D. (2017). What key competencies are needed in the digital age? The impact of automation on employees, companies and education. Deloitte AG.

Chapter 6

TEL Supporting VET into Industry 4.0

Abstract This chapter covers the ways TEL may be developed and deployed to support practice-based learning through distance or digitally enabled learning. The learning design to ensure learning success is proposed, detailed, and exampled. Following on, the chapter provides guidelines (i.e. how to) and resources (i.e. what to use) on planning/designing, developing, and implementing both digitally enabled and non-digital alternatives to provide for practice-based learning. As such, the learning design processes as detailed in Chap. 4 are drawn on and extended to explain how the crucial role of learning or instructional/learning design contributes towards ensuring practice-based learning continues when f2f interaction is disrupted. After guidelines for assisting the development of practice-based distance learning are established, the chapter ends with recommendations important for the design, development, and implementation of practice-based learning. Keywords Digitally enabled learning · Learner engagement · Learning by doing · Video · Social networking

6.1 Introduction As proposed in Chap. 2, practice-based learning across educational sectors is premised to be processes of ‘learning as becoming’ which help learners ‘learn to become’. Occupational identity attainment includes learning the skills, knowledge, and attributes/dispositions epitomising specialist occupations. The development of individuals’ ‘learning to become’ occurs through processes of mimesis and mimetic learning. Mimesis involves engagement with authentic experiences to learn occupational practices through observation, imitation, and practice. Mimetic learning supports mimesis. Mimesis is assisted firstly, through intra-psychological learning whereby learners make sense of experiences. Secondly, through the interpsychological interrelationships, interfaces, and interchanges between learners and others (both human (i.e. the sociocultural)) and non-human (i.e. the sociomaterial exampled by the tools, machinery, materials, and environments encountered through learning) (Billett, 2014). Hence, constructivist learning theories are well-aligned to © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 S. Chan, Digitally Enabling ‘Learning by Doing’ in Vocational Education, SpringerBriefs in Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-3405-5_6

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the processes of ‘learning to become’ as these help to explain learning as ways learners make sense of, imbibe, and eventually embody the occupational hallmarks attained through their learning. As summarised in Chaps. 2 and 3, learners construct their learning with the support and assistance of others (i.e. social-constructivism). Contemporary learning is also held to be enhanced by access to knowledge and social networks aiding learning, availed through the internet (i.e. connectivism). These more current approaches to explaining how learning is enacted, connect well with precepts of constructivist learning. The precepts of connectivism (Siemens, 2005) also contribute towards ensuring learners prepare better for the world of work. Current work includes the need to interconnect beyond local contexts and to network internationally through digital affordances to contribute to and learn from practice/occupational communities. Figure 6.1 summarises the alignment of the different concepts introduced through previous chapters and extended through this chapter. In Fig. 6.1, the theoretical underpinning for practice-based teaching (i.e. through learning as becoming) is summarised in the oval (numbered ➀) on the top of the diagram. Then the enablers for distance learning success (digital literacies, digital equity and learning design) are listed (➁). These enablers are important pre-requisites for the sustainable development of practice-based, digitally enabled learning programmes and were introduced and discussed in Chap. 4. The various learning approaches (i.e. project, problem, and inquiry-based learning) aligned to ‘learning to become’ and constructivist learning (➂) were then presented in Chap. 5. Following are the topics presented within this chapter (➃). These are the ways practice-based teaching and learning via digital support can be structured either as blended/flipped, distance or hyflex (i.e. a combination of blended and distance). The constructive alignment of graduate profile outcomes, learning outcomes, and learning activities and assessments (➄) then informs the micro components of teaching and learning and course/lesson structure (➅). These components include the design, development, and implementation of suitable learning activities strengthening learning through practice (i.e. through guidance etc.) by the ‘push-connect the learning-pull’ framework with appropriate activities, resources, apps, and tools.

6.2 The Aspect of Flexible Learning In this section, another key concept towards supporting learner-led or learner/learning-centred practice-based learning is presented and discussed. As with many of the concepts introduced through this book, there are many ways to define flexible learning. One definition is provided by the Australian National Training Authority (ANTA, 2003) proposing flexible learning as an expansion of the choices availed to learners as to what, when, where, and how learning occurs. Digitally enabled learning is deemed to be a means towards provisioning some aspects of flexible learning. Therefore, flexible learning is designed to allow for learning to occur along several continuums. These include the ranges between teacher and learner

6.2 The Aspect of Flexible Learning

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Overarching theore cal frameworks (presented

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①

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Digital equity

Digital literacy

Teaching and Learning approaches / Learning Design

③

Project, Problem, Inquiry-based learning (detailed in Chapter Five) Flexible teaching and learning structure ④

Blended/Flipped, Distance, Hyflex, Mobile etc. (presented in this Chapter – Six)

Programmes of Study/Learning and Courses

Graduate profile outcomes ⑤

t

Assessments

Construc ve alignment Learning outcomes and ac vi es

Learning through engagement in prac ce; modelling; guided learning; and making learning ‘visible’. ⑥

Learning Ac vi es

Summa ve assessment Feedback (forma

PUSH

ve assessment

CONNECTING the Learning

PULL

Appropriate resources, tools, apps, ac vi es

Fig. 6.1 Model for provision for practice-based distance learning

controlled/centred learning; structured or set to negotiated/bespoke curriculum or learning outcomes; intended curriculum/qualification driven or learning-centred as appropriate or relevant to learner needs; ‘timetabled’ or institutionally mandated times for learning to occur for learner-driven delivery or ‘just-in-time’ learning; and set learning outcomes to negotiated or learning contract type arrangements with learners co-constructing or leading their learning. The ways TEL is structured are provided in the following sections. If the objective of digitally enabled learning is

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to allow for the precept of flexible learning to be enacted, then decisions on these must be made before learning design is undertaken to ensure the TEL structure is congruent with flexible learning outcomes.

6.3 TEL Structure for Teaching and Learning In this section, the various ways TEL may be structured (i.e. blended/flipped, distance, mobile etc.) are introduced, discussed, and evaluated with relevance to practice-based learning.

6.3.1 Blended Learning Blended learning allows learners to experience learning through f2f and digitally enabled learning activities. To be effective, blended learning requires careful design as to the learning activities to be completed f2f and which are suitable for online delivery. There are many ways to configure or structure blended learning. It is important to match the structure of learning to the overall philosophies informing and underlying VET, including as briefly discussed in the above section, the flexible learning preferences to be used. For example, Cox and Prestridge (2020) report on how VET teachers’ conceptions of good online pedagogy (i.e. digitally-enabled learning)as being student and learning-centred. Unfortunately, the VET system, in this case the strictures of competency-based assessments, required too much of teachers’ time to be put into marking and administration, causing the student and learning-centred approaches to be marginalised (Cox & Prestridge, 2020). Therefore, it is important to ensure appropriate learning design is undertaken to obviate the challenges of balancing good learning with institutional/accreditation body requirements. Instances, pertinent to the VET practice-based context is provided below. These are a form of blended learning including flipped learning and Massive Open Online courses (MOOCs).

6.3.1.1

Flipped Learning

Flipped learning, especially as conducted in the formalised schooling sector is sometimes also referred to as ‘schoolwork at home and homework at school’ or the ‘upside-down learning’ classroom (Fulton, 2012). In the higher education sector, flipped learning often involves students viewing lectures or completing ‘readings’ before they attend f2f tutorials or lab sessions. The f2f class time is then focussed on review and clarification of content and discussions (DeLozier & Rhodes, 2017). In the VET practice-based context, flipped learning may be organised similarly to

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higher education. Learners view videos of demonstrated skill and the f2f time is devoted to practice in workshops or workrooms. A review of the efficacy of flipped learning in higher education across various disciplines by Al-Sammarraie et al. (2020), indicated flipped learning as promoted to increase student engagement, metacognition, attitude, performance, understanding, and achievement. The limitations were summarised as working out the ideal length of video/digital material; the time required by teachers to prepare learning materials and the need for students to devote time to completing ‘before-class’ work.

6.3.1.2

MOOCs

A contemporary version of digitally enabled learning has been the creation of Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs). There are generally free courses available for anyone to enrol in. Some universities offer free MOOCs for ‘foundational’ courses. Payment is required if learners seek accreditation for completion (Reich & Ruiperez-Vallente, 2019). MOOCs are offered through a range of platforms such as EdX, Coursera, Udacity, Udemy, Future Learn etc. Large numbers of students enrol on courses. MOOCs often have ‘flipped learning’ structures whereby students view recorded lectures, complete readings, and participate in asynchronous discussions. Although launched with the indications of much potential, MOOCs never really fulfilled their promises due to low retention rates and poor completion outcomes (Reich & Ruiperez-Vallente, 2019). Within the VET context, potentialities of MOOCs include the opportunity to offer courses for upskilling workers. However, the adoption of MOOCs by VET has been minimal (Murphy et al., 2014).

6.3.2 Digitally Enabled Learning When F2f Contact Is Not Available Digitally enabled learning is the contemporary term used for distance or remote learning. Although distance learning has a long history, the advent of digital technologies has afforded this learning structure to become more accessible. Traditionally, distance learning implies all learning is completed either synchronously or asynchronously without physical contact between teacher and students.

6.3.2.1

Hyflex

The hyflex structure was proposed a decade ago but has undergone a revival since the beginning of 2020 due to the challenges presented by the COVID-19 pandemic. Hyflex is a model of teaching and learning whereby students access the course either f2f or distance or both (Milman et al., 2020). Hyflex structure combines ‘hybrid’

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(another name for blended) and flexible (i.e. distance) learning to meet the needs of students who may have to move between f2f or digitally enabled learning due to personal or work commitments. Across the world, hyflex has been recommended as one option to ensure courses are able to maintain continuity despite campus closures. Therefore, there are advantages for some courses and especially those with multiple streams being offered in the same semester, to provide the hyflex option to meet the demands for flexibility from some learners. Most courses in the stream may be offered f2f/blended with one stream offered via distance. In doing, resources used in both f2f and distance courses can be shared. Recordings made during f2f sessions may form the basis of discussion sessions in the distance courses and vice versa. The cross pollination between courses requires careful planning and learning design to ensure learners receive comparable learning experiences. It is important to ensure course structure, approaches, assessments, and processes are effective in each delivery mode. Distance learning must not be just access to the f2f/blended learning environment (i.e. through a LMS) but be structured using effective learning design to support distance learners’ requirements.

6.3.3 Mobile Learning The advent of the mobile phone in the 1990s provided the opportunity for digitally mediated learning (i.e. elearning) to increase accessibility to education (Brown & Haupt, 2018). The term mobile learning or mlearning was thus derived to describe ‘anytime, anywhere’ learning through leveraging off the potentialities of mobile phones and the mobile data infrastructure. Currently, the concepts and frameworks underpinning mobile/mlearning have shifted to reflect present technology and future possibilities. The two main contemporary offshoots of mlearning include ubiquitous learning and pervasive learning. The terms, ubiquitous, pervasive, and mobile learning are now used almost interchangeably to describe learning using portable/mobile hardware and along with access via Wi-Fi to resources available ‘on the cloud’ (i.e. via a web browser and access to files stored on the internet). However, each mlearning variant has a historical base for definition. Although, the three terms themselves are not new, the conceptualisations anchoring each and the pedagogical aspects framing their deployment are still emergent. Mobile learning is the ‘oldest’ and was envisaged to be a sub-category of e-learning. The term was coined as mobile and untethered (i.e. wireless) hardware and the mobile technology infrastructure became mainstream in the 1990s. The original precepts centred around mobile phones and accessibility. Due to the limitations of using mobile phones for learning (i.e. small screens, minimal keyboards etc.) mobile learning or mlearning is now a less common term. Instead, the term ubiquitous learning has been adopted to describe everyday learning environments supported by mobile and embedded computers and wireless networks (Ogata et al., 2009). Ubiquitous learning is enabled through mobile phones, but also with other portable hardware including tablets and laptops. Portable devices including smart watches,

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fitness bands, GPS units, and the digital hardware embedded into tools, instruments, and consumer devices through the ‘internet of things (IoT)’ may also be used to assist with access to ubiquitous learning (Hwang et al., 2008). Ubiquitous learning also draws on the affordances provided by context-aware computing. This is where the computing environment recognises the context of the device, infrastructure, or the physical state of the user. Enablers of ubiquitous computing include not only the hardware, but software, applications, network bandwidth, Wi-Fi bandwidth and protocols, and battery information (Gajjar, 2017). Pervasive learning is another term used to describe flexible/mobile access to learning. Pontefract (2013) defines it as a form of learning as and when required (i.e. at the speed of need) through a range of formal, informal, and social learning affordances and modalities. The difference between ubiquitous learning and pervasive learning is the use, in pervasive learning, of the data or learning analytics gleaned from the devices to assist both learners and learning facilitators, to inform learning progress. Therefore, there is the potential to draw on the biometric or learning analytics data from ubiquitous devices, to assist with some aspects of sociomaterial learning (see Chan et al., 2019a for an example with welding simulators). Hence, pervasive learning is the application of context awareness, learning analytics, and user responses being monitored and responded to by AI agents. These allow for the learners’ level of learning to be adjusted as learning proceeds (i.e. supporting the provision of personalised, adaptive or ‘differentiated’ learning).

6.3.3.1

Mobile Learning and Practice-Based Learning

Mlearning initiatives to enhance practice-based learning are most successful when the affordances of mobile phones are leveraged and maximised. Learner engagement is assisted through text messaging, short messages on chat apps exampled by Twitter and WhatsApp, short video clips through YouTube or Tik Tok, and messages conveyed through social media platforms including Facebook and Instagram. These forms of messaging are useful as precursors to learning activities accessed via traditional learning management systems (LMSs) (i.e. the push) and other forms of TEL, or through forms of peer communication to discuss and support course or learning activities (i.e. contributing to the ‘connecting of learning’). A major asset of mobile phones is the capability to capture instances of learning as they occur using the phone camera. These assist the ‘pull’ aspects of digitally enabled learning approaches. More complex work, especially of an academic nature, requires learner to have access to wired technology (i.e. a desktop PC) or tablets/laptops. Therefore, although possible to use mobile phones as the primary learning hardware component of a learning programme, it is instead more practical to use mlearning as an adjunct or mblend, as proposed below, rather than as full replacement due to the constraints of screen and keyboard size.

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6.3.4 Non-tech and ‘mblend’ VET Distance Learning Given the discussions on digital readiness/literacy and equity through Chap. 4, ‘nontech’ distance learning methods, or learning without f2f interaction between teachers and learners, require consideration. Distance learning has a long tradition, predating the adoption of both analogue (i.e. radio and television broadcasts) and digital technology. Traditionally, distance learning was achieved through the postal system (i.e. snail mail) and resourced through the distribution of textbooks, worksheets, workbooks etc. Contact with teachers would have been through written letters or in the twentieth century, via wired telephone. However, this asynchronous nature is now a major disadvantage of non-digitally enabled learning. The ‘just-in-time’ nature of timely feedback is difficult to sustain when communications are dependent on postal systems. However, there is a place for non-tech VET learning and supporting these using mobile technology is one pragmatic compromise proposed as mblend learning.

6.3.4.1

The Possibilities with mblend

Contemporary distance learning is still possible without recourse to digital tools. However, the timeliness of responses to learner-driven queries is lengthened and dependent on postal system reliability. A compromise is possible with the use of mobile phones as the fulcrum for communication between teachers and learners. This structure may be called mobile blended learning (Han et al., 2017) or mblend. In an mblend learning structure, mobile phone communications and the provision of non-digital resources via postal systems are utilised. In the Han et al. (2017) example, communication was achieved through the use of the app WeChat, a common chat facility in China. As many learners own a mobile phone (Pew, 2019), mblend learning is a viable option, especially where digital equity challenges mean many learners do not own or have access to laptops or desk computers. Mobile phones may be used as a primary communication tool running on mobile data even when Wi-Fi is not available. The uses of mobile phones to assist with learning are many (see Chan, 2011 for an example). Even if the mobile phone is not used for accessing learning resources (i.e. to push learning out to learners), the camera on the phone is useful for gathering evidence of learning (i.e. to pull in learning evidence from learners). This allows for learners, unable to access practice-based learning environments, to undertake some forms of practice at home or at workplaces allowed to operate (i.e. essential services). This evidence may then be stored on ‘cloud services’ exampled by Google Photos or YouTube/ Flipgrid for videos. Teachers view these and provides feedback to learners thus enabling the connection of learning and allowing for some practice-based learning activity to continue, despite the loss of access to practicebased learning environments.

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6.4 Learning Design for Digitally Enabled Delivery When F2f Learning Is Not Possible In this section, learning or instructional/curriculum design principles relevant to practice-based distance learning are presented and discussed. The more extensive frameworks for development and design of TEL were introduced and discussed in Chap. 3. To ensure learning objectives are met and learning supports are maximised, means there is a need for sound and collaborative learning design (Brown, et al., 2020; Nichols, 2020). Instead of expecting the next ‘killer app’ or technical innovation to transform education, perhaps we can better transform education by fostering incremental changes through collaborative research and development with practitioners (Reich, 2020). Tools and apps may be used to create, edit, share, and archive resources. Teachers are able to ‘push’ learning these resources to learners; ‘pull’ evidence of learning from learners; and to enable dialogic/socio-cultural/co-constructive learning to assist with learners’ ‘sense-making’ and consolidation of their learning (i.e. connect the learning). The key is to use learning design to ensure learning activities lead to ensuring learners meet the learning outcomes. It is also important to be circumspect with respect to the number of different types of activities and apps used in a course. Tools and apps include the use of video, podcasts, presentation platforms for multimedia, interactive quizzes, social networking sites, website creation, image processing tools including photo, drawing, 3D, concept maps, and ePortfolio platforms. Each of these enables and enhances certain learning objectives, the following sections discuss how various apps and tools may be deployed to support the precepts of practice-based pedagogy.

6.4.1 Learning Activities for Digitally Enabled Learning In this section, various tools and apps are recommended and critiqued for its relevance to practice-based distance learning. Non-digital options are also presented and discussed as not all practice-based learning need to be offered digitally, even for distance/remote learning. To achieve fluency, practice-based learning may include physical exercises to help build muscle memory for discrete work tasks, and paperbased ‘simulations’ and projects replicating contemporary workplace practice where relevant (see examples in Chap. 5). The important goal is to ensure learning activities are authentic and relevant. Table 6.1 summarises examples of mainly free apps, relevant to practice-based learning. The categories of apps are adapted from Bower and Torrington’s (2020) typology of free web-based learning technologies. Apps and software platforms listed also come from a collation of apps/platforms used at the author’s institution and from curated lists exampled by Hart (2020). Hart’s list categorises ‘tools’ into those best suited to personal learning, workplace learning, or

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education. Each of the practice-based pedagogies is then presented in the sections below to example how apps may be applied to each pedagogical approach.

6.4.1.1

Learning as Doing Through Engagement with ‘Pedagogically Rich or Salient’ Activities

When authentic practice is difficult to access, as when institutions are closed or other circumstances prevent learners from attending f2f classes or when digitally enabled learning (i.e. distance learning) is the preferred learner option, various alternatives may be useful. The use of video was introduced and discussed in Chap. 3 and extended further in Chap. 4. Video is helpful in ‘pushing’ learning resources to learners but also useful for ‘pulling’ evidence of learning from learners. However, there are other ways to either replicate or simulate practice-based learning. Some of these were discussed in greater detail in the previous chapter in the section on simulations. Other multimodal means for sharing practice include the use of images. These may be teacher or student generated, edited, and shared photos, drawings, screenshots, diagrams, 3D models, plans, audio files (i.e. various sounds generated by different processes where sound is important, for example, automotive engineering or welding). These resources may be collated, shared and discussed, using online sketch pads, digital pinboards, and/or through presentation software.

6.4.1.2

Modelling of Practice Through Storytelling and Other Forms of ‘Telling’

Digital storytelling supports the age-old human motivation to narrate experiences and to use these stories to augment learning (Mishler, 1996; Sterelny, 2012). Through telling stories, practices, culture, and rituals are articulated. In explaining complex practices, the storyteller consolidates their own understandings and deepens expertise. The utilisation of storytelling in education, assists learners to work through their emergent understandings through reflection and critical thinking (McDrury & Alterio, 2003). Digital tools provide for multimodal ways to express stories. Therefore, not only written stories are availed but the aural and multimedia expressions of stories are possible. As with the use of video discussed in the section above, stories may be ‘pushed’ to learners, helping learners access the many nuanced and complex instances of practices through ‘maxims’ (Farrar & Trorey, 2008) or ‘tricks of the trade’ (Billett, 1997). Learners may then create stories of their own using digital book creation platforms, comic strip creators, infographics, or presentation software.

6.4 Learning Design for Digitally Enabled Delivery …

6.4.1.3

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Making Learning and Thinking Visible

Helping to ‘make learning and thinking visible’ is an important feature of practicebased learning as many aspects of practice are ‘hidden’ due to the embodiment of knowledge and practice in expert practitioners and the challenges inherent with accessing tacit knowledge (Chan, 2020). Aspects of practice may be made more accessible to learners through the three other practice-based pedagogies presented in this section. However, digital technologies are especially useful in helping teachers to represent (i.e. push) and learners visualise (i.e. pull) difficult concepts and processes. Heuristics and partially worked examples are especially useful as they deconstruct convoluted notions and thoughts into smaller, more manageable parts. Heuristics may be envisaged as algorithms for untangling and solving or understanding concepts or problems. Learners develop various ways to sort out concepts and make judgement calls. Concept maps are one method to display interconnected concepts. Mind mapping, word clouds, and timeline creators assist teachers to provide overviews of topics and processes and for learners to summarise, share, and represent their learning. Partially-worked examples are another digitisable pedagogical approach. Again, resources featuring video, infographics, comics, timelines, flowcharts, etc. allow for step-by-step processes to be recorded and shared with learners. The ‘pushed’ out partially completed learning ‘object’ is then worked through, either with support from embedded links or teacher/peer feedback and then uploaded for sharing and further discussion on techniques and approaches to completing the ‘object’.

6.4.1.4

Guided Learning

The precepts of guided learning in its various forms, were introduced in Chap. 2. This aspect of practice-based pedagogy is well-supported by digital technologies. Sociocultural approaches to learning (Borge et al., 2020) are well matched to the opportunities presented by social networking. Communications between learners and teachers may include synchronous or asynchronous communications using text, video (e.g. annotating video as described in Chap. 3), audio, or a mixture of all of these through web conferencing platforms. Callan and Johnston (2020) provide a summary of recent studies on the adoption of social media in the delivery of VET. Social media’s multimedia/multimodal presentation potentialities are well suited to the push-connecting the learning-push framework of digitally enabled learning. The key as always, is to match the learning objective to the affordances of social media.

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Table 6.1 Matching examples of apps and tools to practice-based pedagogies Category

Function

Examples of apps or tools

Most relevant to pedagogy

Sharing

Instagram, Google Photos, Image creation and editing—befunky

prl, ml, mlv

Drawing and painting

Sketchpad

ml, mlv

Online sketch pad

Google online drawing/sketch

ml, mlv

Diagramming

Microsoft Word or PowerPoint or Visio or Google Drawings

ml, mlv

Sharing

SoundCloud

prl, ml, mlv

Creation and editing

Audacity

ml, mlv

Sharing/streaming

YouTube, Vimeo, Flipgrid

prl, ml, mlv

Creation and editing

YouTube, Vimeo

ml, mlv

‘Push’ resources and ‘Pull’ evidence of learning Image based

Audio Video

Text

Annotation

Coach’s Eye

gl

Screencasting

Screencast-O-Matic

prl, ml, mlv

Note-taking and document creation

EverNote, Google Keep, prl, ml, mlv Google Docs/ Microsoft Word, OneNote Class Notebook

Multimodal production Digital pinboards

Digital storytelling

Website creation

3D modelling

Padlet

prl, ml, mlv

Presentations

Prezi, Microsoft PowerPoint, Google Slides

mlv

Digital book creation

StoryJumper, Tik Tok, Microsoft Sway

prl, ml, mlv

Comic strip creation

StoryboardThat

prl, ml, mlv

Infographics

Google Charts

prl, ml, mlv

Creation

Wix

prl, ml, mlv

Wikis

PBworks

prl, ml, mlv

Blogs

Blogger, Wordpress

prl, ml, mlv

Repositories

GrabCAD

ml

Creation

Shapeshifter

ml

Browsers

Google Chrome, Google Scholar

prl, ml, mlv

Maps

Google maps, Google Exhibitions

prl, ml, mlv

‘Connect the learning’ Knowledge organisation and sharing

(continued)

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Table 6.1 (continued) Category

Data analysis

Social networking

Web conferencing

Function

Examples of apps or tools

Most relevant to pedagogy

Mindmapping

Bubbl.us, Mindomo, MindMeister,

prl, ml, mlv

Timeline creators

Timetoast

ml, mlv

Word clouds

Wordle

ml, mlv

Surveying

SurveyMonkey, Google Forms

ml

Analysis

Google Sheets, Microsoft Excel

ml,mlv

Synchronous

Twitter, Slack, WhatsApp

gl

Asychronous

discussion forums, gl email (Gmail, Microsoft Outlook), Yammer,

Networking

Facebook, Pinterest

ml,gl, mlv

Zoom, Microsoft Teams, Skype, Google Meet, Mentimeter

ml,gl, mlv

Individual/group

Socrative, Kahoot!, Quizlet, Poll Everywhere

mlv

Peer generated

PeerWise

mlv

Scrapbook

Blogging/Presentation

prl, mlv

ePortfolio

Mahara, PebblePad

prl, mlv

webfolio

Mahara, PebblePad

prl, mlv

Assessment Quizzes (formative)

ePortfolios (summative)

Key Pedagogically rich/salient learning = prl; Guided learning = gl; Modelling learning - ml; Making learning or thinking visible =mlv

6.5 Assessments for Distance Learning Assessments assisted by technology are often called eAssessments. The role of assessment is to either provide for ongoing learning feedback (i.e. formative assessments) or to accredit learners with learning achievements (i.e. summative assessments). Stowell and Lamshed (2011) offer one relevant definition of eAssessments as ‘the use of information technology in the design, delivery, and administration of assessment activities, including the reporting, storing and transferring of assessment data’ (p. 3). In the main, the focus of eAssessments at school and in the higher education sectors, have been on summative assessments. As such, the literature on eAssessments, have been focussed on various logistical, examinee authenticity, and security challenges. The deployment of formative eAssessment for learning (i.e. for

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purposes of feedback /formative assessments) obviates some of the complex challenges presented by summative eAssessment processes. eAssessment for learning allows learners to gather evidence of learning progression. One advantage of formative eAssessments is the immediacy of feedback afforded to learners whilst they undertake authentic learning either in the workplace or in simulated work learning spaces. Hence, eAssessments for learning support the learning attained through practice-based learning. These include opportunities for learners to identify, record, rationalise, and reflect on their experiences through engagement with ‘pedagogically rich/salient’ learning activities; the modelling and guidance afforded and acted on; and to augment the processes of ‘making thinking visible’.

6.5.1 eAssessments for Learning Formative assessments or assessments for learning, are used to provide feedback to learners. Hence, whereas assessments of learning (i.e. summative assessments) yield a decision on learners’ performance at a given stage in their learning; assessments for learning (i.e. formative assessments) revolve around activities providing the learner with feedback on how their learning has progressed (Sadler, 2010). Chan et al. (2019b) studied a range of approaches, structures, and technologies to help learners as they engaged with the ‘multiliteracies’ of practice. Approaches included supporting formative feedback through problem-based learning; ‘handson’ learning; and application of learning analytics from virtual welding simulators towards learning complex skills. Learning was structured as blended learning and/or TEL. A range of hardware (PCs, mobile phones, tablets) was engaged to assist in ‘pushing’ resources to and ‘pulling’ evidence of learning from learners. Formative feedback (i.e. connecting the learning) was a key in assisting learners. Formative feedback was obtained from teachers, peers and through learning analytics. Hence, digitally enabled feedback, are eAssessments for learning.

6.5.1.1

The Role of ePortfolios

ePortfolio assessments are advocated as being compatible with multiliteracies pedagogy (Kalantzis et al., 2003). As such, they are well matched to evidence the many multimodalities characterising practice-based learning. Love et al. (2004) define five ‘levels of maturation’ for ePortfolios. ePortfolios may vary from ‘scrapbooks’ (i.e. level 1) through to curriculum vitae formatted documents (i.e. level 2) towards web folios (at levels 4 and 5) evidencing authentic and complex learning. The key as ePortfolios ‘mature’ is the component of learner ownership, responsibility, and critical reflection entailed through the gathering and compilation of learning evidence. Initial gathering of learning evidence and collation of these into some thematic headings contribute towards emergent ePortfolios, whereas web folios represent learners’

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deeper understanding of their own learning journey through increased evidence of critical thinking and capabilities to articulate learning. An aspect of the present potentials for ePortfolios, is the ubiquitous availability of mobile phones and tablets. Additionally, Wi-Fi and cloud storage has increased the potentiality for eAssessments to become synchronous/just-in-time and multimodal (Chan, 2011). Learners are able to collect multimedia evidence of learning activities as they occur (i.e. produce artefacts of their learning), overlay reflective voiceovers, and create ‘digital stories’ (Alterio & Woodhouse, 2011). Hence, the ‘pull’ aspect of ePortfolio creation is streamlined allowing for the sharing of learning evidence (i.e. connecting the learning), formative feedback to be afforded, and future re-collation of the portfolio to showcase lifelong learning.

6.5.2 eAssessment of Learning This section is brief as the overall direction, as discussed through the previous chapters and in the above sections, have argued for the privileging of assessments FOR learning. In general, assignments or reports, digital stories, etc. are some of the types of evidence, generated through formative assessment processes, to be collated into portfolios. These portfolios are then the summative assessments (i.e. assessments of learning) substantiating learners’ learning achievements. This process of portfolio creation, especially when supported with appropriate digital technologies, provides for authentic, current, and valid evidence of learners’ accomplishments. Where required by industry boards or legislative requirements, summative assessments may require completion. For example, in NZ practice-based disciplines requiring ‘final’ or ‘registration’ examinations include nursing, plumbing and gasfitting, and electrical trades. There are software packages to deploy the invigilation of ‘remote’ examinations. However, these are not fool-proof and require careful evaluation and selection (Hussein et al., 2020).

6.6 Conclusion In this chapter, the important application of concepts and theories to the actual design and development of TEL or digitally enabled practice-based learning are presented. Various ways to structure the delivery of courses are introduced and discussed. In the next chapter, some potential, but more complex technologies are presented and discussed, as they pertain to digitally enabled learning.

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Han, Y., Tian, L., & Cheng, W. (2017). Design and implementation of mobile blended learning model based on Wechat public platform. In MATEC Web of Conferences. Hart, J. (2020). Top tools for learning 2020. https://www.toptools4learning.com/. Hussein, M. J., Yusuf, J., Deb, A. S., Fong, L., & Naidu, S. (2020). An evaluation of online proctoring tools. Open Praxis, 12(4), 509–525. Hwang, G.-J., Tsai, C.-C., & Yang, S. J. H. (2008). Criteria, strategies, and research issues of context-aware ubiquitous learning. Educational Technology and Society, 11(2), 81–91. Kalantzis, M., Cope, B., & Harvey, A. (2003). Assessing multiliteracies and the new basics. Assessment in Education, 10(1), 15–26. Love, D., McKean, G., & Gathercool, P. (2004). Portfolios to webfolios and beyond: Levels of maturation. Educause Quarterly, 27(2), 24–37. McDrury, J., & Alterio, M. G. (2003). Learning through storytelling in higher education using reflection and experience to improve learning. Kogan Page. Milman, N., Irvine, V., Kelley, K., Miller, J., & Saichaie K. (2020). 7 things you should know about the hyflex course model. Educause Learning Initiative. https://library.educause.edu/resources/ 2020/7/7-things-you-should-know-about-the-hyflex-course-model. Mishler, E. G. (1996). Storylines: Craft artists’ narratives of identity. Harvard University Press. Murphy, J., Williams, A., & Lennox, A. (2014). MOOCs in vocational education and training and higher education. In 22nd National Vocational Education and Training Research Conference “No Frills”: Refereed Papers (pp. 76–82). Adelaide: NCVER. Nichols, M. (2020). Transforming universities with digital distance education: The future of formal learning. Routledge. Ogata, H., Matsuka, Y., El-Bishouty, M. M., & Yano, Y. (2009). LORAMS: Linking physical objects and videos for capturing and sharing learning experiences towards ubiquitous learning. International Journal of Mobile Learning and Organisation, 3(4), 337–350. Pew Research Center. (2019). Mobile fact sheet. https://www.pewinternet.org/fact-sheet/mobile/. Pontefract, D. (2013). Flat army: Creating a connected and engaged organisation. Wiley. Reich, J. (2020). Failure to disrupt: Why technology alone can’t transform education. Harvard University Press. Reich, J., & Ruiperez-Vallente, J. A. (2019). The MOOC pivot: What happened to disruptive transformation of education? Science Magazine, 363(6423), 130–131. Sadler, R. (2010). Beyond feedback: Developing student capability in complex appraisal. Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education, 35(5), 535–550. Siemens, G. (2005). Connectivism: A learning theory of the digital age. International Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance Learning, 2(1). http://www.itdl.org/Journal/Jan_05/articl e01.htm. Sterelny, K. (2012). The evolved apprentice: How evolution made humans unique. MIT Press. Stowell, R., & Lamshed, R. (2011). E-assessment guidelines and case studies. Australian Flexible learning Network. Canberra, ACT: Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations, Australian Government.

Chapter 7

Implementing TEL in VET 4.0 and Future Possibilities

Abstract This final chapter draws the various concepts and strategies presented and discussed from the previous chapters, into the proposal of a model for supporting practice-based ‘learning by doing’ programmes. Recommendations are proposed to assist with the planning, development, implementation, and review of TEL for VET 4.0. As much of digitally enabled learning necessitates access to and competency with digital devices, platforms, and apps, these recommendations include being prepared with aspects of digital literacy/fluency, digital equity, and the creation or archiving of learning resources, before they are required. Future possibilities, including technologies enabling AR/VR, to support simulation and situated learning in VET and practice-based learning environments are also presented and discussed in this chapter. Keywords Digital literacy · Simulation · Augmented/virtual/mixed/extended reality

7.1 Introduction This chapter details a model of learning for the provision of digitally enabled, flexible (see Chap. 6 for definition and discussion of flexible learning) and learner/learningcentred practice-based learning. The important aspects of operationalising digitally enabled learning are presented as a set of recommendations. These recommendations draw the many discussions across the previous chapters, into ensuring digitally enabled learning is provisioned with the planning, development, implementation, and review cycles required to ensure sustainable delivery. Following the presentation of the recommendations, several future possibilities, requiring resourcing, are provided to help enhance TEL for VET learners. These include the potentialities and challenges of simulations, gamification, and augmented/virtual/mixed reality (AR/VR/MR). These developments require targeted resources for development. Cost analysis is important as the outlay for the development of simulations, gamification, and AR/MR/MR resources can be high. Due to the human propensity to be able to recognise inconsistencies between the real and the virtual (Chan, 2019; Fowler, 2015), the development of virtual options requires © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 S. Chan, Digitally Enabling ‘Learning by Doing’ in Vocational Education, SpringerBriefs in Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-3405-5_7

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careful design and execution. Otherwise, inconsistencies between VR/MR/XR distract learners from the main purposes of the simulation. Many of the options proposed in previous chapters may be enhanced with the addition of simulations, games, or AR/MR -based activities. However, virtual options are not essential in welldesigned TEL for practice-based courses. The important objective is to ensure learner engagement through learner participation in co-constructing their skills attainment, knowledge application, and dispositional achievement. The chapter closes with a summary of the key themes; frameworks/models; and recommendations proposed and outlined throughout the book.

7.2 Overview of Model of Learning In this section, the proposed model of learning for supporting digitally enabled learning is detailed. This model centres around the push-connect learning-pull framework introduced in Chap. 6 and extends it by incorporating the many drivers of VET and practice-based learning presented and discussed throughout the book. In particular, the model is applied to more personalised approaches for learners, providing flexibility for accessing learning at the time, pace, method of delivery (see previous chapter for discussion on flexible learning), and of relevance to learners’ goals. The provision of this model is to ensure sustainability of flexible practice-based learning to contribute towards the objectives of VET 4.0 as it applies to the future of work. In the diagram, the push-connect the learning-pull process may be reiterated as many times as required, to allow learners to meet their learning goals. In essence, the model visualises a form of personal learning environment (PLE) for individual learners (see Chap. 5 for definition and discussions on PLEs and extensions on the topic below).

7.2.1 Rationale for the Incorporation of Flexible Learning As prefaced in Chap. 4, the future of work will see the need to continually be conversant with new ways of enacting work as technology impinges on many occupations. The ‘front-end loading’ model of education whereby school leavers complete tertiary education before moving into the workforce is no longer relevant when global, economic, social, political, and technological changes continually impact the way work is constituted. Although many people’s occupations and jobs may retain existing titles and designations, the nature of work will change as artificial intelligence (AI), robotics, and information and communication technologies impinge. Hence ‘flexible learning’, responsive to learners’ needs is one crucial educational direction allowing for learners to augment or update skills and knowledge whilst still participating in work.

7.2 Overview of Model of Learning

7.2.1.1

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Personal Learning Environments (PLEs)

As prefaced in Chap. 6, flexible learning has many definitions and covers many dimensions. In this section, flexible learning is deemed to be supported and coconstructed learning with learners. Learners co-construct their curriculum, perhaps leading towards the completion of a qualification; parts of a qualification; or a microcredential. Micro-credentials are relatively new and were introduced into the NZ Qualifications framework recently (see Kilsby & Fountain, 2019 on progress in using micro-credentials in the NZ VET context). Depending on the skills, knowledge, and attributes/dispositions learners bring into a course of learning, the push-connect the learning-pull aspects of learning delivery will vary. Processes centred around systems to recognise prior learning or current competencies (RPL/RCC) are important in helping learners evaluate and collate evidence of learning they bring into programmes of study (see Andersson, 2014 for more information on RPL in VET). Added to the learning design are contributions from adaptive learning and learning analytics informing learners and their teachers, of learning progress. Hence the model in Fig. 7.1 includes iterative cycles to help learners meet their learning goals.

QualificaƟon/ Course/ Micro-credenƟal

PracƟce PULL

PracƟce PULL Learners’ skills, knowledge, and attributes/disposiƟons

Connect the learning – Assess learning / adapƟve learning

PUSH

Resources to ‘fill the gaps’ and extend learning

Fig. 7.1 A model of VET flexible learning

PUSH

Connect the learning – what do learners already know?

Repeat as many Ɵmes as required to complete learning goals or objecƟves

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7.3 Recommendations In this section, recommendations are made to ensure institutes are prepared, into the future, for sudden shifts into digitally enabled practice-based learning. Even, if there are no forced moves to replace traditional f2f workshop/workroom/studio-based learning environments, the recommendations below, help to move VET teaching and learning towards more flexible and personalised modes to meet diverse learners’ needs. Even in the present, there is a necessity to provide access to learning for many who are unable to access learning as full-time learners. Part-time learning has been one avenue for second-chance learners, workers seeking to upgrade their skills and knowledge, and for those having to retrain, to attain qualifications. Hence, the recommendations below, are useful to reinforce these TEL initiatives as well as digitally enabled learning.

7.3.1 Preparation and Preparedness Experiences encountered during the pandemic, with the need to shift rapidly to supporting learning when students are unable to meet f2f accentuate the importance of being prepared. Preparedness includes ensuring institutional systems, teaching capability, students’ readiness, and learning design interventions. Each of these requirements is now discussed.

7.3.1.1

Institutional Systems

Ensuring institutional systems to support digital learning are available, user friendly, and effective is required when digitally enabled learning is envisaged as the main method of connecting with and aiding learning. As discussed more comprehensively in Chap. 4, issues of digital literacy/fluency and equity require addressing before students are expected to undertake digitally enabled learning. Another important institutionally directed item towards establishing preparedness is to ensure there are clear communication plans for contact with learners, teachers, and managers. It is important to identify the parameters for communications to each target group and to ensure there is clear, concise, and accurate messaging. The mode of communication must also be established for clarity of messaging to learners, teachers, and managers. Decisions are required on the communication platforms, devices and protocols required.

7.3 Recommendations

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Learner Preparation

A key aspect of learner preparation is to provide opportunities, in all programmes of learning, for learners to become digitally literate/fluent with the hardware and software required for digitally enabled learning whilst learners are attending f2f sessions. These introduction sessions to the various digital tools/platforms or apps may already occur if the programme uses ‘blended’/TEL approaches. However, many practice-based programmes centred around ‘practical workshops’ or labs may not usually integrate TEL. Therefore, it is especially important to ensure learners are introduced to digitally enabled learning requirements before there is a forced shift. Another consideration is to plan and undertake learning conversations with learners to discuss the differences in expectations and learner responsibilities for digitally enabled learning. A means to provide for learners’ peer-to-peer communication is also important. This is best initiated whilst learners are engaged in f2f sessions. Many programmes utilise social media sites to encourage non-formal participation and engagement outside of prescribed learning time. It is important to assist learners to select appropriate social networking platforms supportive of learning; provide a conduit for learners to help each other through f2f or digitally enabled learning sessions; and provide a virtual venue for learners to share experiences and for mutual assistance.

7.3.1.3

Preparing Teachers

In turn, teachers must attain digital fluency in the various digitally enabled learning tools before there is a move to digitally enabled learning. These digital tools are selected as part of the design of blended learning and/or TEL integration to align with course learning objectives and outcomes. Apart from standard LMS fluency, including the use of LMS for eAssessments, the platforms most relevant to practicebased learning are video conferencing platforms; video creation, editing, and archival platforms; and communication tools used to maintain contact with learners. As prefaced in Chap. 3, the precepts of the ‘technological-pedagogical and content knowledge’ (TPACK) framework (Mishra et al., 2011), may be applied towards unravelling the complexities and challenges for developing programmes for digitally enabled learning. It is important for teachers to be able to bring together their understanding the disciplines’ pedagogy with the affordances provided by digital technologies to provision learning which engages and empowers learners.

7.3.2 Learning Design Learning or instructional design teams must establish learning design principles allowing courses to convert to alternative delivery rapidly. As presented above, courses with existing TEL activities, may find it less demanding to convert courses to

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fully digitally enabled learning. However, it is still important to evaluate the present resources, learning structures, and objectives to ensure the enacted curriculum via digitally enabled learning provides for effective learning. Aspects of learning design are useful in ensuring effective digitally enabled learning. As prefaced in Chap. 5, shifting to holistic learning with the development and implementation of project-based learning with components of inquiry or problem-based learning approaches, contribute towards learners attaining the broader range of skills, knowledge, and attributes/dispositions required for occupational practice. Apart from the adoption of a philosophical approach to learning founded on socio-constructivism, there is a need to ensure the micro learning design elements, enhance practice-based learning. As summarised in Chap. 3, there are several ways to design learning for the purposes of effecting teaching and learning objectives. With the current interest in and support for ‘instructional design’ as major contributors towards enhancing learning (Brown et al., 2020; Nichols, 2020), established design of learning processes exampled by ADDIE are now criticised for their behaviourist slant. Therefore, of importance to the approaches presented through this book is the need to be better attuned to the contexts of learning and the needs of learners. Additionally, shifting to digitally enabled learning requires more overt instructions to learners. It is important to set up routines and learning structures to guide learners. Weekly objectives or activities (i.e. what to ‘push’ as resources and what to ‘pull’ from learners as evidence of learning) are suggested to achieve learner engagement and consistent learning goal completion in digitally enabled learning environments. It is also important to keep synchronous sessions (i.e. the connecting the learning section of the course), usually through using video conferencing, short and well-defined. Learning activities, including group work, are possible during video conferencing and these are useful in helping consolidate the course learning culture and encouraging learners to interact and help ‘connect the learning’. Social interaction is important to ensure socio-constructivist principles are enabled (Borge et al., 2020) as sociocultural interactions (i.e. inter-psychological processes of learning) are central to providing individuals with encouragement and appraisal of their sense-making (i.e. the intrapsychological processes of learning). Setting up virtual spaces for students to discuss and help each other is of prime importance to distance learners. The challenges posed by practice-based learning assessments may require redesign and development. Text-based eAssessments have been the norm, but the text does not always align well to the assessment of practical skills; application of knowledge to practice; and attainment of important occupational dispositions. As recommended in Chap. 5, project-based learning augmented with inquiry or problem-based learning approaches, connects better to practice-based learning objectives. Assignments or reports produced as outputs to evidence project/inquiry/ or problem-based learning include multimedia and may be also developed as multimedia ePortfolios supplemented by written information. Work-integrated learning may be compromised when nations close all economic activities due to pandemics or natural disasters. Simulations based on non-digital replication (i.e. case studies) or digital/virtual platforms are useful as replacements.

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The importance is on ensuring authentic learning is sustained. Additionally, pastoral care of learners is an important aspect of digitally enabled learning.

7.3.2.1

Digital Resources

Open educational resources (OER) are archives of teaching and learning materials licenced to allow for their use, amendment, or sharing with others (D’Antoni, 2009). OER resources are archived in a range of digital libraries and are available to all educators. The principles of OER are to allow for resources to be retained, reused, revised, remixed, and redistributed. The UNESCO-UNEVOC International Centre for Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) provides an overview and list of OER platforms and services (UNESCO-UNEVOC et al., 2018). Institutional archives of learning resources with links to OER provide for a large corpus of ‘off-the shelves’ resources to be accessed, obviating the need to re-create resources and assists with swift and agile shifts to digitally enabled learning.

7.4 Future Possibilities In this section, the potentialities of several digital technologies are introduced, discussed, and evaluated. There are many possibilities. As presented in a recent systemic review on the research on emerging learning environments, possibilities include the potentialities of social media and MOOCs; mobile technologies, game-based learning, and gamification, adaptive learning technologies; and learning analytics (Martin et al., 2020). Mobile technologies were presented in Chaps. 4 and 6. Aspects of MOOCs and social media integration were presented and discussed in Chap. 6. Adaptive learning technologies and learning analytics are discussed in the sections below and were introduced in Chap. 5. The technologies featured in this section are well-aligned to practice-based learning objectives. They include the use of digital technologies to augment simulations and games with augmented/virtual, mixed, and extended reality (AR/VR/MR/XR). In a way, the use of AR/VR/MR/XR is an extension of using multimedia (e.g. videos, podcasts) to support practicebased learning. In doing, some of the many multimodalities and rich, nuanced, and complex enactment of human activity, may be availed for viewing, critiquing, and the informing of learning through mimesis. VR and XR can situate learners into a realistic learning environment replicating many of the sights and sounds of authentic practice. This puts high expectations on VR/XR/MR as learners will recognise inconsistencies, what Fowler (2015) refers to as ‘object behaviour’. Stable and secure activation of VR/XR/MR is enabled by the gradual introduction of resilient and higher bandwidth telecommunications infrastructure in the form of 5G systems. 5G refers to the coming generation of mobile telecommunications and refers to fifth generation (5G) cellular technologies. 5G allows for the greater penetration of the internet of things (IoT) by increasing data volume and speed. The

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most common example for the applications availed through the IoT is the self-drive vehicle. In education, the IoT may assist with ensuring the learning environment is safe and energy efficient; used to effectively schedule rooms and specialist equipment/machinery etc.; monitor students’ attendance and personalise learning; and enable the integration of AR/VR/MR/XR into learning environments (Brown et al., 2020).

7.4.1 Augmented, Virtual, Mixed, and Extended Reality (AR/VR/MR/XR) Augmented reality (AR) is an overlay of virtual objects on to the normal environment. This is a cost-effective method to provide interactive learning activities. Examples are found in medical science teaching (Moro et al., 2017), engineering maintenance and assembly (Gavish et al., 2015), and across various disciplines in higher education (Delello et al., 2015; Hodgson et al., 2019). In general, the AR app allows an object to be superimposed on to the existing landscape, machinery, tool etc. adding a layer of information or animation to help learners visualise processes or concepts. AR apps may be installed on to smart mobile phones or tablets with QR codes (i.e. quick response codes or matrix type barcodes) used to trigger AR imagery. As with all good learning activities, it is the important briefings and discussions occur before and after the activity as these are key to gaining educational effects. Engagement with virtual reality environments requires the use of VR headmounted displays (Jensen & Konradsen, 2018). Specialised VR head-mounted displays require the set-up of specialised rooms to mark out the perimeters of the VR experience. A cheaper alternative is to use a smart mobile phone, inserted into a cardboard mounting, replicating a VR head-mounted display (Lee et al., 2017). The smart phone app displays the visual elements, allowing the three-dimensional VR environment to be accessed. In turn, mixed reality (MR), hybrid reality or extended reality (XR) implies the bringing together of AR and VR to create the virtual environment. XR refers to the merging of the physical and virtual worlds, creating an immersive authentic environment. Mixed reality (MR) allows for the merging of the real and virtual worlds, enabling users to enter new environments using visualisations whereby both physical and digital objects are present and can be manipulated in real-time. An example in VET is the use of welding simulators (Lavrentieva et al., 2020). In contrast, extended reality (XR) refers to human and machine interactions generated through the combination of visualisations and wearable devices. XR is therefore the combination of AR, VR, and MR.

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7.4.2 AR/VR/XR/MR and VET Some of the inherent alignments and advantages pertinent to supporting practicebased learning were presented in the above sections. However, there are many caveats with regards to the deployment, especially of VR/XR/MR, due to the cost and expertise required to enable these technologies. Any deployment of VR/XR/MR will require specialised equipment including head-mounted display units, high specification computers, and large bandwidth broadband. Therefore, the decision to adopt VR technologies to support practice-based learning requires careful consideration. Especially as VR is, as yet, unable to replicate the full range of multimodalities encompassing human activity (see Aarkrog, 2019 for extended discussion). However, there are two areas of promise in the application of VR to enhance practice-based learning. These are in assisting the learning of crucial spatial skills (Montello et al., 2014; Sorby, 2009), important in many practice-based occupations; and the development and adoption of dispositional or attitudinal traits. The learning of spatial skills is often a challenge for learners (Sorby, 2009). Yet, the ability to visualise in a three-dimensional environment is crucial for many occupations, including trade/industrial craft occupations exampled by carpentry (Cuendet et al., 2014). To support the learning of spatial skills, VR learning activities were conducted with multimedia students (Molina-Carmona et al., 2018) and engineering students (Fogarty et al., (2017). Learning activities supplemented by VR experiences were found to be effective in helping students to better visualise space and concepts required to effect spatial thinking. Current resourcing allows for the application of AR to practice-based learning as the main pragmatic approach. However, VR has further relevance in assisting with the learning of dispositions (Allcoat & von Mühlenen, 2018). The immersive characteristic of VR means individuals are subsumed into the virtual environment, eliciting emotional responses including awe, fear, and empathy (Allcoat & von Mühlenen, 2018). Bailenson et al. (2018) describe the use of VR field trips to help learners better understand, the effects of climate change. In medical education, Dyer et al. (2018) deployed VR learning activities to help students learn the precepts of empathy. VR may be an important pedagogical tool when applied to augment the learning of difficult dispositional traits (Frehlich, 2020). Therefore, there are advantages for using VR to support practice-based learning of attributes/dispositions as these are often difficult to present, and for learners to grasp.

7.4.3 Adaptive Learning and PLEs into the Future Other important contributions of TEL are the advances made with algorithms to enable adaptive learning, some now assisted by ‘artificial intelligence’ (AI). In the recent Horizon report (Brown et al., 2020), adaptive learning is reported as a major asset to educational practice. Although only about a decade into wider adoption

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within higher education, recent innovations have improved the reach into all educational sectors. Adaptative learning complements personalised learning as the platforms provide targeted feedback to learners progressing through learning activities. When deployed in conjunction with learning analytics, providing quantitative data to learners and teachers on learning outcomes, adaptive learning contributes towards personal learning environments (PLEs) whereby learners and teachers co-construct flexible learning pathways (Kinshuk, 2016) allowing for the model summarised in Fig. 7.1 to become operationalised.

7.5 Summary of the Key Themes The chapters in this book have introduced and detailed ways to support practice-based learning using digital tools. The first three chapters established the learning theories and frameworks, and inform the design of practice-based digitally enabled learning. These theories include the overarching conceptualisation of VET, and in turn, the learning of practice-based skills, knowledge, and dispositions as forms of occupational identity formation. Through engaging with ‘hands-on’ learning, learners attain the precepts of occupational practice through the ‘learning to become’ processes of mimesis and mimetic learning. The pedagogical approaches supporting practicebased learning, and how these may be realised through harnessing the affordances of digital technologies, were presented, and discussed. The following chapters provided recommendations on how to structure, develop and deliver practice-based learning experiences congruent with the understandings of learning as processes of becoming. Leveraging off the advantages provisioned through basing learning on projects, inquiry or problems, assist learners not only to make sense of their learning, but also enhances the learning of the important skills, knowledge, and attributes/dispositions required to work through the current challenges posed by the rapid shift of work towards higher dependencies and interrelationships with digital technologies (i.e. robotics, artificial intelligence etc.). Finally the push-connect the learning-pull model framework as incorporated into a flexible learning model, was derived to assist with better organising and deploying digitally enabled practice-based learning.

7.6 Conclusion In this book, the rationale, the overarching framework of learning as becoming, and ideas to operationalise the use of technology for digitally enabled learning when f2f access to teachers and institutional learning environments are compromised, are presented and discussed. In this chapter the recommendations towards being prepared for future natural or human-initiated disasters, similar to the pandemic of 2020, are proposed. Additionally, future possibilities afforded by increased accessibility

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towards simulating some of the authentic learning environments of practice-based learning are summarised. In closing, the pandemic of 2020 may have augmented the advantages and disadvantages inherent in deploying digitally enabled learning. It is important to learn from the experiences and to ensure these inform strategic direction, encouraging institutions to prepare for future exigencies. Evaluating the perspectives of learners and teachers and supporting components of VET towards effective digitally enabled learning, guarantees, when going forward, more effective means of engaging learners, and providing for sustainable practice-based learning opportunities.

References Aarkrog, V. (2019). ‘The mannequin is more lifelike’: The significance of fidelity for students´ learning in simulation-based training in the social and healthcare programmes. Nordic Journal of Vocational Education and Training, 9(2), 1–18. Allcoat, D., & von Mühlenen, A. (2018). Learning in virtual reality: Effects on performance, emotion and engagement. Research in Learning Technology, 26, 2140. Andersson, P. (2014). RPL in further and vocational education and training. In J. Harris, C. Wihak, & J. Van Kleef (Eds.), Handbook of the recognition of prior learning: Research into practice. National Institute of Adult Continuing Education (NIACE). Bailenson, J. N., Markowitz, D. M., Pea, R. D., Perone, B. P., & Laha, R. (2018). Immersive virtual reality field trips facilitate learning about climate change. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 2364. Borge, M., Ong, Y. S., & Goggins, S. (2020). A sociocultural approach to using social networking sites as learning tools. Educational Technology Research and Development, 68, 1089–1120. Brown, M., McCormack, M., Reeves, J., Christopher Brooks, D., Grajek, S. with Alexander, B., Bali, M., Bulger, S., Dark, S., Engelbert, N., Gannon, K., Gauthier, A., Gibson, D., Gibson, R., Lundin, B., Veletsianos, G., & Weber, N. (2020). 2020 EDUCAUSE horizon report, teaching and learning edition. EDUCAUSE. https://library.educause.edu//media/files/library/2020/3/202 0horizonreport.pdf?la=en&hash=DE6D8A3EA38054FDEB33C8E28A5588EBB913270C. Chan, S., with Baglow, L., & Lovegrove, C. (2019). Supporting the learning of the sociomaterial: Novices’ perspectives on virtual reality welding simulators. In T. Deisinger, U. Hauschildt, P. Gonon, & S. Fischer (Eds.), Contemporary apprenticeship reforms and reconfigurations. Proceedings of the 8th conference of the International Network for Innovative Apprenticeships. Cuendet, S., Dehler-Zufferey, J., Arn, C., Bumbacher, E., & Dillenbourg, P. (2014). A study of carpenter apprentices’ spatial skills. Empirical Research in Vocational Education and Training, 6(3). https://ervet-journal.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s40461-014-0003-3. D’Antoni, S. (2009). Open educational resources: Reviewing initiatives and issues. Open Learning: THe Journal of Open, Distance and e-Learning, 24(1), 3–10. Delello, J. A., McWhorter, R. R., & Camp, K. M. (2015). Integrating augmented reality in higher education: A multidisciplinary study of student perceptions. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 24(3), 209–233. Dyer, E., Swartzlander, B. J., & Gugliucci, M. R. (2018). Using virtual reality in medical education to teach empathy. Journal of the Medical Library Association, 106, 498–500. Fogarty, J., McCormick, J., & El-Tawil, S. (2017). Improving student understanding of complex spatial arrangements with virtual reality. Journal of Professional Issues in Engineering Education and Practice, 144(2). https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)EI.1943-5541.0000349. Fowler, C. (2015). Virtual reality and learning: Where is the pedagogy? British Journal of Educational Technology, 46(2), 412–422.

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Frehlich, C. (2020). Immersive learning: A practical guide to virtual reality’s superpowers in education. Rowman & Littlefield. Gavish, N., Gutiérrez, T., Webel, S., Rodríguez, J., Peveri, M., Bockholt, U., & Tecchia, F. (2015). Evaluating virtual reality and augmented reality training for industrial maintenance and assembly tasks. Interactive Learning Environments, 23(6), 778–798. Hodgson, P., Lee, V. W. Y., Chan, J. C. S., Fong, A., Tang, C. S. Y., Chan, L., & Wong, C. (2019). Immersive virtual reality (IVR) in higher education: Development and implementation. In M. Dieck & T. Jung (Eds.), Augmented reality and virtual reality (pp. 161–173). Springer. Jensen, L., & Konradsen, F. (2018). A review of the use of virtual reality head-mounted displays in education and training. Education and Information Technologies, 23, 1515–1529. Kilsby, A., & Fountain, M. (2019). Micro-credentials: An authentic learning partnership. New Zealand Physical Educator, 52(3), 9–10. Kinshuk. (2016). Designing adaptive and personalized learning environments (1st ed.). Routledge. Lavrentieva, O. O., Arkhypov, I. O., Kuchma, O. I., & Uchitel, A. D. (2020). Use of simulators together with virtual and augmented reality in the system of welders’ vocational training: Past, present, and future augmented reality in education. In Proceedings of the 2nd International Workshop (AREdu 2019) (pp. 201–216). Kryvyi Rih, Ukraine, March 22, 2019 (2547). ISSN 1613–0073. Lee, S. H., Sergueeva, K., Catagui, M., & Kandaurova, M. (2017). Assessing google cardboard virtual reality as a content delivery system in business classrooms. Journal of Education for Business, 92(4), 153–160. Martin, F., Dennen, V. P., & Bonk, C. J. (2020). A synthesis of systematic review research on emerging learning environments and technologies. Education Technology Research and Development, 68(4), 1613–1633 . Mishra, P., Koehler, M. J., & Henriksen, D. (2011, March/April). The seven trans-disciplinary habits of mind: Extending the TPACK framework towards 21st century learning (pp. 22–28). Molina-Carmona, R., Pertegal-Felices, M., Jimeno-Morenilla, A., & Mora-Mora, H. (2018). Virtual reality learning activities for multimedia students to enhance spatial ability. Sustainability, 10, 1074. Montello, D. R., Grossner, K., & Janelle, D. G. (2014). Concepts for spatial learning and education: An introduction. In D. R. Montello, K. Grossner, D. G. Janelle (Eds.), Space in mind: Concepts for spatial learning and education. The MIT Press. Moro, C., Štromberga, Z., Raikos, A., & Stirling, A. (2017). The effectiveness of virtual and augmented reality in health sciences and medical anatomy. Anatomical Sciences Education, 10, 549–559. Nichols, M. (2020). Transforming universities with digital distance education: The future of formal learning. Routledge. Sorby, S. A. (2009). Educational research in developing 3-D spatial skills for engineering students. International Journal of Science Education, 31(3), 459–480. UNESCO-UNEVOC, Ehlers, M., Schuwer, R., & Janssen, B. (2018). OER in TVET. https://une voc.unesco.org/up/OER-in-TVET.pdf.

Glossary

This glossary defines the specific ways various concepts are used through the book. Active learning Learners dynamically participate in learning activities to meet learning outcomes. ADDIE Acronym for a learning design framework involving cycling through the processes of analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation. Assessments for learning An opportunity, during a learning activity, for learners (and teachers) to check learning progress—see feedback below (see Assessment Reform Group, 2002). Asynchronous Learning occurring at a different time to when a learning event has been broadcasted—see synchronous below for the antonym. Augmented reality (AR) Computer generated information, images, and/or sound superimposed or projected on real-world environments. Authentic learning Realistic/real-world learning accessed either through simulations, virtual environments, or work-integrated learning. Behaviourist Theories of learning focused on understanding and changing observable behaviours. Blended learning Planned learning combining face-to-face (f2f) classroom or work environments with digital and online platforms. Bring your own device (BYOD) Learners bring their own digital device to class and use it to engage in learning activities. Competency-based assessments Criteria/standards-based check on learning outcomes. Connectivism Framework to include digital technologies into learning (see Siemens, 2005). Constructivism Approaches learners actively use to make meaning and construct knowledge frameworks through experience. Course Systematic series of learning activities, structured or organised to lead to the meeting of learning outcomes. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 S. Chan, Digitally Enabling ‘Learning by Doing’ in Vocational Education, SpringerBriefs in Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-3405-5

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Digital fluency Teachers and learners able to decide when, how, and why a tool is used to provide a required objective (see Miller & Bartlett, 2012). Digital literacy Teachers and learners able to use digital technologies and know what to do (see Miller & Bartlett 2012). Digitally enabled learning/Digitally supported learning Learning activities supported by digital hardware, infrastructure (i.e. WiFi), and technologies (i.e. internet). In this book, digitally enabled learning refers to the use of technology to support learning when physical f2f contact between learners and teachers is not possible. Distance learning Learning, both non-digital and digitally enabled, when teachers and learners have limited or no physical contact. Remote learning is another term used to describe distance learning. eAssessments/e-assessments Process of checking learning progress or attainment as assisted, enabled, and/or enhanced by digital technology. Education 4.0 Approaches to education aligned to the needs and objectives of Industry 4.0. Eportfolio/ePorfolio Usually a collation of digital artefacts to evidence learning. etool/e-tools Encompasses the hardware, or device, and the software, app, or platform of technology-enhanced learning (TEL). Embodied learning When skills and attributes become integrated into individuals’ ways of being and doing (see Barsalou, 2008). Experiential learning (EXL) Learning through experiencing and reflection. Extended reality (XR) Integration of real and virtual environments (VR) with human and machine interactions to experience realistic experiences. Flexible learning Learning curriculum sensitive to learners’ needs, incorporating processes to recognise the skills, knowledge, and dispositions learners bring into a programme of learning; facilitated co-construction of learning objectives/contracts of learning/assessments; and possibly, bespoke qualifications aligned to learner goals. Flexible learning environment Provision of the supports to allow learners the opportunity to select the pace, place, and type of learning delivery of their learning programme. Flipped classroom A blended learning design whereby learners prepare for f2f or virtual learning sessions before lessons. Feedback—Formative/feedback loop Information provided as learning progresses. The loop consists of feed up (Are we on the right track?) feedback (How are we going?), and feed forward (What do we need to do to get better?) (see Hattie & Timperley, 2007). Formative assessments Check points as learning progresses—see above for feedback. Graduate profile outcomes In NZ, all qualifications between levels 1–6 are based on learning to meet graduate profile outcomes, i.e. what is the graduate able to do on completion of the qualification (see Chan, 2016). Hands on learning Learning activities requiring physical interaction with tools, machinery, materials, etc. of practice.

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Industry 4.0 Digitally enabled/transformed manufacturing and production industries. Inquiry-based learning/enquiry-based learning Learning based on posing questions and systematically working towards achieving an understanding of a topic or answers or solutions. Immersive reality A term used to describe mixed reality (MR) and/or virtual reality (VR). Instructional design Planned methodology to develop, implement, and evaluate learning activities and experiences. Also see Learning design below. Internet of Things (IoT) Computing devices embedded into everyday objects and able to send/receive data, interact between themselves and autonomously react. Current examples include connected systems within a home (i.e. security, lighting, thermostats, etc controlled by the owner via a mobile phone when located away from home). Inter-psychological processes for learning The many socio-cultural influences on learning (e.g. from peers, other workers, experts, etc.) and interactions with the sociomaterial (see Billett, 2014). Intra-psychological processes for learning Learning through making meaning and responding to the feedback provided through inter-psychological relationships (see above); to practise, and eventually master, holistically, occupational, or social skills, knowledge, and attributes/dispositions (see Billett, 2014). Learning analytics Improving learning through the analysis of data collected from learning management systems(LMSs) and other learning data (e.g. assignment or assessment results). Learning as becoming Holistic learning leading to identity transformation (see Hodkinson et al., 2008; Chan, 2013). Learning by doing Learning skills, applying knowledge, and practicing attributes/dispositions through engagement with authentic practice. Learning contract Negotiated, co-constructed agreement between learners and teacher/institution as to what is to be learnt and how the learning proceeds. Learning design Planning, development, implementation, and support for the whole learning/teaching experience. Learning to become Pedagogy to achieve the skills, knowledge, and attributes/dispositions recognised as defining certain occupations. Mblend Mobile or mlearning variant using mobile technology mainly for communications with learners along with other forms of digitally supported or non-digital learning. Micro-credential Recognises the skills or knowledge in a specific occupation of field. Most often used in the information and computing technology (ICT) industry to acknowledge smaller, essential skillsets and knowledge required to manage or run complex systems. Mimesis Learning through observation, imitation, and practise (see Billett, 2014). Mimetic learning Learning by individuals making sense of experiences (i.e. the intra-psychological (see above) and assisted by others (i.e. the interpsychological (see above) (see Billett, 2014).

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Mixed reality (MR) Bringing together the real and virtual to produce realistic/authentic environments or visualisations. Mlearning/m-learning Digital learning based on affordances availed through access to mobile devices and infrastructure. See also Pervasive and Ubiquitous learning. Mobile learning See mlearning above. Multiliteracies Diversity of linguistic foundations of learners and the multimodal forms of linguistic expressions and representation (see The New London Group, 1996). Multimodality Communication and skills involving the visual, aural, tactile, body stance, and other bodily sensations (see The New London Group, 1996). New Zealand Qualifications Framework (NZQF)— A 10 level range of qualifications in New Zealand for school and tertiary study. Level 1 indicates foundation study; Levels 3 and 4 the completion of Trade Certificate; Levels 5–6 for Diplomas; undergraduate degree at Level 7; Master degree at Level 9; and Ph.D. at Level 10. Online learning Learning delivered through digital technologies. Operating systems (OS) Underlying software supporting computer or mobile device function. The main systems are Android for Google Suite or Google for Education; iOS for Apple and Windows for business and personal computers (PCs). Personalised learning environments (PLEs) Provision of integrated learning experiences across contexts (e.g. school and work); digital tools, mentors/teachers and supports to allow for individualised learning to occur. Pervasive learning Integration of data obtained from wearables (i.e. fitness bracelets, global positioning devices (GPS), radio frequency tags (RFID), etc. and artificial intelligence (AI) systems to provide personalised learning. Practice-based learning Learning encouraging the application of knowledge, skills, and attributes/dispositions to ‘doing’ in authentic situations or workplace practice. Problem-based learning Learners undertake the solving of open-ended problems to learn subject topics, concepts, skills, and attributes/dispositions. Programme or programme of study (PoS) Combination of courses, leading to the conferment of a qualification. Project-based learning Structured/planned use of whole or part completion of authentic/real-world project/s to accomplish, develop, and apply deeper knowledge, skills, and attributes/dispositions. QR code Acronym for quick response code. A matrix-type barcode consisting of a square of dots, dashes, and spaces, decoded to refer to a website or virtual object. Remote learning Learning at a distance whilst access to physical learning environments are not possible. Salient The most important skill, disposition, or knowledge component of an occupation. Simulations Active learning whereby learners are placed into and react within a scenario created to assist learning.

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Situated learning Learning based in the real world i.e. not at school (see Lave & Wenger, 1991). Socio-constructivism Learners’ meaning making through experience as helped by others, including peers, teachers, parents, and through engagement with the sociomaterial. Social networking Digital tools and apps used to initiate and sustain socio-cultural support. Socio-cultural Society and culture and their contribution to learning (see Lave & Wenger, 1991). Sociomateriality Recognises the facets of life including the environment, tools, materials, and technologies contributing to how learning occurs (see Fenwick et al., 2011). Synchronous Learning through digital networks, occurring at the same time as a learning event is being broadcasted. Summative assessments Check on learning contributing to a final grade. Technology-enhanced learning (TEL) Application of digital technology to help improve learning experiences, activities, and assessments. In this book, TEL refers to deploying digital technology for both f2f and virtual/distance/remote/online learning. TPACK Acronym for technological pedagogical content knowledge. Used to explain what is required by teachers to teach knowledge using technology (see Mishra & Koehler, 2006). Threshold concept A difficult to learn or conceptualise component of learning, once achieved allows learners to move forward into more learning (see Meyer & Land, 2005). Ubiquitous learning Learning through using mobile and embedded (i.e. pervasive) digital hardware and wireless networks providing access to the internet, social networks, etc. Universal Design for Learning (UDL) Ensuring the needs of all students are attended to in the classroom by applying contemporary research to the design of curriculum and pedagogy. VET. 4.0 Vocational education and training equivalent of education 4.0 to contribute towards Industry 4.0 social and economic objectives. Virtual Reality (VR) Computer-generated scenarios simulating real experience through the provision of realistic, all-encompassing visual environment (see Fowler, 2015). Work Integrated Learning (WIL) Authentic learning through simulated or in actual work-based environments.