Communication and Commerce along the Western Sealanes AD 400-800 0860548430, 9780860548430, 9781407349633

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Communication and Commerce along the Western Sealanes AD 400-800 Jonathan M. Wooding

BAR International Series 654 1996

Published in 2019 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 654 Communication and Commerce along the Western Sealanes AD 400-800 © Jonathan M. Wooding and the Publisher 1996 The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860548430 paperback ISBN 9781407349633 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860548430 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by Tempvs Reparatvm in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd / Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 1996. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2019.

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C on ten ts P re face

1 1

C hap te r One

S ea lanes a nd t he S cho la r ly T er ra in

1

C hap te r Two

I n t roduc t ing t he We s te rn S ea lane s —Geog raphy ,T echno logy a nd S eaman sh ip

6

C hap te rT hree

T he F i f th C entu ry —Con t inu i ty ,D i s con t inu i ty a nd C u l tu ra lC hange

2 2

C hap ter F ou r

T he Med i ter ranean a nd t he A t lan t ic i nt he S i x th C en tury

4 1

C hap te rF ive

G au la nd t he We s te rn S ea lane si nt h eS i x th C en tury

5 5

C hap te rS ix

C a rgoes a nd C omme rce b e tween w e s te rn G au la nd t he I r e land i nt he S even th C en tu ry

6 4

C hap ter S even

R ou tes o f Ma r i t i me T rade i nt h el a te -S ix th t h rough E igh th C en tur ies

9 3

Append ix One

Two Un subs tan t ia ted C a se so fS even th -centu ry T rave l

1 05

Append ix Two

T he ' P en in su la rR oad ' Mode l

1 07

B ib l iog raphy

1 08

C ommun ica t ion a nd C ommer ce a long t h e W e s t ern S ea lane s AD400 -800

L is to fI l lus t ra t ions p .2 7 —F ig . 1D i s t r ibu t ion o f ampho rae o fD res se lt ypes 1 Aa nd 1 B( based o nG a i l lou 1 984 ) . p .2 8 —F ig . 2L a te -Roman t a b lewa re sA rgonne Wa re ,£ pong e Ware ( a f te rF u l fo rd 1 978 ) . p .3 9 —F ig . 3D i s t r ibu t ion o f Ogham s t ones i nI r e land a nd we s tern B r i ta in . p .4 4 —F ig . 4I mpo r ted Med i te r ranean c e ram ic si nw e s te rn B r i ta in a nd I r e land ,P RS F orm C : Med i te r ranean a nd w es te rn s ea lanes d i s t r ibu t ion . p . 58 —F ig . 5I be r ian d i s t r ibu t ion o fP a l eo c r i s t i ana p o t t ery ( a f te r Mo l ina ,2 41 ) . p .7 5 —F ig . 6E lr im f o rm s . p .7 6 —F ig . 7Ewa re r im f o rm s , Ewa re v e sse lf o rm s . p .7 9 —F ig . 8E 2b eake r sf r om He rpe s ( Cha ren te ) . p .8 0 —F ig . 9P o ss ib le Ewa re v e sse l sf r om wes tern F rance . p .8 5 —F ig . 1 0G la s sv e sse l sw i th c ombed d eco ra t ion . p .8 6 —F ig . 1 G la s sv e sse l sw i th ' c hev ron 'd eco ra t ion . p .8 9 —F ig . 1 2G la s sc ones :w i th h o r izon ta ls ub r im t r a i l ing ;w i th ' l a t t i ce 'f e s toon s . p .9 0 —F ig . 1 3G la s sv e sse l s :w i th ' c ombed f e s toon 'd eco ra t ion ;w i th o p t ic d eco ra t ion ;w i th e ng raved d eco ra t ion . p .9 1 —F ig . 1 4P os s ib le p ara l le l sf r om t he c on t inen t . p . 9 —F ig . 1 5 Ewa re p o t te ry ( map ) . p .1 00 —F ig . 1 6G la s sv esse l so f' A t lan t ic 't ype :B r i t i sh a nd I r i sh d i s t r ibu t ion . p .1 03 —F ig . 1 7P or ts i tes d i scus sed .

1

P reface T h i s b ook b r ings t oge the r h i s to r i ca l a nd a r chaeo log i ca l e v idence t oc r i t ique t he t he s i st ha tt h e re w as r egu la rl ong d i s tance c ommun ica t ion a nd c omme rce a l ong t he A t lan t i cs eaboa rd ,o ver ap e r iod o ff our c en tur ie s ,c .4 00 -800 AD , wh ich i sk nown v ar ious ly a st he ' e a r ly med ieva l ' , ' e a r ly h i s tor ic ' o r ' e a r ly C hr is t ian ' p er iod . I tp ay s p a r t icu la r a t ten t ion t ot h ee v idence f o rd i rec t ma r i t ime l i nk so ft h e c on t inen tw i th wes te rn B r i ta in a nd I r e land — the e x i s tence o f wh ich i sa s sumed i nt he s t ud ie so fZ imme r ,C raw fo rd , B owen , 0 : 5R io rdä in a nd T homas , among o the r s ,b u tt h e e xac t n a tu re o f wh ich h a s n eve r b een s a t i s fac tor i ly d e f i ned . New e v idence , mos t n o tab ly f i nd s o f i mpo r ted c e ram ic sf r om wes te r nB r i ta in a nd I r e land ,h as a l lowed u s t og os ome way t owa rd c on f i rm ing t he e x i s tence o fs uch d i rec tl i nk sa nd t or e con s tru c tt he r ou tes o ft he v oyage s i nvo lved .I twou ld b ef a i rt os ay ,h oweve r ,t h a tt h is p roces s h as y e tt op roduce a ny c on sen sus a st ot h es c a le ,f r equen cy a nd c u l tu ra li mpac to fs uch c on ta c t s . T he c o mp lex i ty o ft h ee x tan tl i t e ra ture o nt h i st op ic d oes n o t make i t s r ea ssessmen t as imp le t a sk . Mo s ts e c o ndary s t ud ies s t i l le xh ib i t ad i f fu s ion i s ta pproach , wh i le t he b roade r h i s tor i ca l b ackg round h a s u nde rgone s ub s t an t ia l r ev is ion —e spec ialy o u r v i ew o ft h e r o le o ft h e I r i sh i nc on t inen ta la f fa ir s .T he s oc ie t ie sa l ong t he A t lan t ic s ho res o fE u rope p layed ac on t rove r s ia lr o le i nt he f o rma t i on o ft h ei n telec tua la nd r el ig iou sc u l tu re o fE u rope i n t he e a r ly m idd le a ge s .T he d ep th o fC h r i s t ian i n telec tua l k now ledge a nd t he d epar tu re f r om r e l ig iou so r thodoxy i n e ar ly med ieva lB r i ta in a nd I r e l and h ave b een t he s ub jec to f p ar t icu la r c on t rove r sy . D a ta wh ich s ugge s t s ou rces o f o ve rsea s i n f luence i nt he f o rma t ion o fi n su la r C h r i s t ian c u l tu re h ave i nev i tab ly b een d rawn i n to s uch d eba tes .A s we w i l ls e e ,h oweve r ,t h i sh a sh ad t he u n for tuna te c on se q uen ce o fc aus ing d i scus s ion o fi s sue so fc ommun ica t ion a nd c omme rce t ob er e lega ted t ot h ef oo tno te so fs t ud ie so f i n telectua lh i s tory — ra the rt han t he i rr e ce iv ing t he a t ten t i on wh ich t hey war ran ti nt h e i r own r i gh t .T rea tmen to f c ommun ica t ion i s sue si na r chaeo log ica lp ub l i ca t ion sh a s n o ts e rved t oo f f se tt he l a ck o fa nh i s to r i ca ld eba te . Two r a the rd a ted i n terpre t ive mode l s ,Z imme r 's ' w ine t r ade ' a nd C raw fo rd 's ' we s tern s eaway s 'h ave a lmo s tb yd e fau l t c on t inued t oe n joy aw idesp read ,i fs upe r f i c ia l ,c u r ren cy i nt he a bsence o f ab road r e in terpre ta t ion o ft he d a ta f o r s eabo rne e xchange . T he i n f luen ce o fd i f fu s ion i s tt heo r ie sh a sa l so s e rved t o e xaggera te t he s c a le o f w e s te rn s ea lanes c omme rce b eyond t h el im i t so ft he e v idence . We w i l ls e e ,h oweve r , t ha ta r chaeo log ica ld a ta ,c omb ined w i th ar e con s ide ra t ion o ft he h i s tor ica ls ou r ces ,r e fu te t h ed i f fu s ion i s t mode l sa nd p rov ide e v idence f o r a n e p i sod ic c ha rac te r a nd s ma l le r s ca le f o rs uch l ong -d is tan ce v oyage sa st ook p lace a l ong t he w e s te rn s ea la n e si nt he p e r iod AD400 -800 .T h i si sn o t t os ay t ha tt he f i rm i den t i f ica t ion o fs ome v oyage e ven t s , u s ing a r chaeo log i ca ld a ta ,c an b eh e ld t or e fu te t he e x i s t e nce o fo the r ,l e ss a r chaeo log i ca l ly t ang ib le ,l ong -d i s tance l i nk s wh i ch we m igh tc on s ide rl i ke ly .S uch d a ta ,h oweve r , c an b e u sed t o i den t i fy t h e d i f fer ing c i r cum s tances o f i nd iv idua le p isodes ,a nd c a l li n to q ues t ion t he i mage o fa r egu la r b ackdrop o f l ong -d i s tance c omme rce wh ich i s u l t ima te ly d rawn f r om t h ese s ource s —and wh ich a c t sa s

ad eu se xm ach ina i na rgumen t sc oncern ing t he t r an sm i s s i on o fc u l ture . T he g eog raph ica l a r ea c ove red b y t h i s s tudy i s r e fe r red t ot h roughou t a s t he ' we s tern s ea lanes ' , r a the r t han t he mo re c ommon ly u sed ' we s te rn s eaways ' .I ti sn o t o f ten a pp rec ia ted t ha t ' s eaway s ' i s ad a ted t e rm w i th a s pec i f ic s en se i ne conom ic g eog raphy .A .C . Ha rdy 's 1 927 s t udy o fS e away sa nd S e aT r ad ei nt he t wen t ie th c en tury ,f o r e xa mp le ,c onsc iou s ly e s chewed t he s tudy o f' c a rgoes ' i n f avou ro ft he i den t if i ca t ion o f' t rade f l ow s ' ( Ha rdy 1 927 , i x ) . C raw fo rd a nd B owen a dop ted as im i la r , o ve r ly g en e ra l , a pproach t o t h e s pec i f ic d e ta i l s o f t r ave l a nd e x c hange . T he p resen t wo rk t ake s p rec i se ly t he o ppo s i te s t ance t ot he i r s ,n ame ly t ha ta ny i mage o f' t rade f l ow s 'i n t he t r a f f ic o ft he w e s te rn s ea lanes i nt h i sp e r iod h a sb een c r ea ted b yr ead ing t oo much i n to t h e e v idence f o r i nd i v idua lc a rgoes a nd e ven t s ,e spec ialy b yt ak ing a ni n su f f i c ien t ly c r i t ica l v i ew o f t he c h rono logy o f t he l i tera ry s our ce s . My t e rm , ' wes te rn s ea lane s ' , i si n tended a s a n a l terna t ive wh ich , wh i le d e l ibera te ly e voca t ive o ft he e a r l i e rd i scus s ions ,h ope fu l ly c onvey s as en se o ft he n eed t o s t udy a c tua l p a th s a nd i nd iv idua l e p i sodes o f t r ave l , r a the rt han s ke tch ing d i f fu s ion i s t mode ls o fc u l tura l' i r ra d ia t ion ' ,o rt he e x i s tence o f a' ma r i t ime c u ltu re ' . Iam s ure t h et e rm c a r r ies i t s own q ue s t ionab le i mp l ica t ions ,h ow e ve r ,a nd f ew s uch g ene ra lt e rm sp lea se e ve rybody . D iscu ss ion i nt h i sb ook f o cu se so nt he n o r the r nh a l f o ft h e we s tern s ea lane s ,w i th s omewha tl e ss r e ference t o S pa in a nd P or tuga l .I nt h i si tf olows t he p rev ious s t ud ie s o f t h i s t op i c , wh ich a r e p r inc ipa l ly c once r n ed w ith t he c u l tu ra le xchange wh ich f ueled t he g row th o f Ch r is t ian c i v il i sa t ion i n I r e land , B r i ta in , a nd G au l . C a se s o f l i nk s b e tween G au l a nd S pa in a nd P or tuga l a r e d i scus sed a s f u l ly a s p o ss ib le , b u t a s my p rem ise i st ha t t here i sn o n a tu ra lu n i ty t ot he w es te rn s ea lane s , Id on o ta t temp tt o p rov ide ac omprehen s ive s u rvey o fa l la r eas ,a ta l lt ime s . T he f i rs tp a r to ft h i sb ook d i scu sse st he ma jor t heo r i e si nt he i rh i s to r ica lc on tex ta nd t r a ces t he i rc on t inu ing i nf luence u pon mo re r e cen ts t udy .C hap te r Two s urvey s t he g eog raph ica la nd t e chno log ica lb a ses f o rt he u se o ft he w e s te r n s ea lanes f o r l ong -d i s tance t r ave l a nd e xam ine s t h e s a i l ing c apac i ty o f e a r ly ma r ine rs a nd t he i r c r a f t . D i f fu s ion i s t mode l s f r om p reh i s tor i c s tud ies h ave b een mos ti nf luen t ia li na s sess ing t he ma r i t ime c apac i ty o fe a r ly med ieva lp eop le sa nd p o la r i t ies i nt he mode l sp resen ted c an b e e x t reme . C h i lde , o n t he o ne h and , c ou ld s ee t he ' g rey wa te r s 'o ft he w e s tern s ea sa sb e ing ' a sb r igh tw i th N eol i th ic a rgonau t sa st he w e s te r nP a c i f i ci st oday '( Ch i lde 1 946 , 3 6 ) . On t he o the r h and , Mu r ray c an a rgue t ha t ' h oweve r o pen t he s eaway s a s c hanne l s o f p reh is tor ic c on tac t , c onceptua l ly wa te r c r ea te s ab a r r ie r ' ( Mu r ray 1 991 , 2 6 -32 ) . B o th t h e se mode l s a r e t oo e x t reme . Wi th r e spec tt oC h i lde 's v i ew i tmus tb er e cogn i sed t ha t we a re n o ti nt h i sc a se d ea l ing w i th ama r i t ime p ol i ty c ompa rab le t ot h eT robr iand I s l and s , where t he s ea was f undamen ta l t oa l lc ommun ica t ion .I nr e spon se t o Mur ray 's s t a temen t , o nt h eo the rh and ,i tmay b en o ted t ha t ah i l l , o r af o res t e qua l ly ' c onceptua l ly c r ea te s ab a r r ier ' . T he c onc lu s ion f r om t h i sa na ly s i s mus tb et ha tt h es ea wa ss imp ly o ne o f t h e med ia o ft r an spo r t a va i lab le t oe a r ly med ieva l p eo 1 1

C ommun ica t ion a nd C ommer ce a long t h e W e s t ern S ea lane s AD400 -800

p ie s ,i ndeed o ne o ft he c heape ra nd l e ss l a bou r in ten s ive o p t ion s . Whe re i t was u sed , i t was c hosen a bove o ther med ia o na ccoun to f ac omb ina t ion o fe conom i c ,s oc ia la nd p ol i t ica l , a s we l l a s t e chno log ica l , f a c tor s . T he c omb ina t i on o ff a c tor s v a r ied f r om c a se t oc a se . F or t h i sr ea son I h ave t r ied t o make a s f u l l a s s urvey a s p o ss ib le o f t he f a c to r sg overn ing c ho ice so fv esse lt ype a nd r ou te . S ubsequen tc hap te rs d ea lw i th e ven t so ft he f i f th , s i x th ,s even th a nd e i gh th c en tu r ie s .T he ma ter ia ls e lec ted f o rs t udy f olows as imp le e nough p lan . Ih ave a t temp ted t oc on s ide re very e xp l ic i tr e fe rence t ol ong -d i s tan ce t r ave l b ys ea , a s we l la s a ny c ase whe re d i rec t ma r i t ime t r ave l s eems t ob ei mpl ied ,s uch a s whe re a r te fac ts a r ef ound i n amar i t ime d i s t r ibu t ion . T h i s e v idence i sp re sen ted i na mo s t ly c h rono log icaly -o rde red d i scu ss ion , t hough t r y i ng n o tt ol apse i n to t he t ype o fg enera l isa t ion wh i ch h a s c ha rac ter i sed p a s ts t udy o ft h i s s ub jec t . Ove r sea st r a f f ic , t hough d oub t less o ccu r ing t h roughou to ur p e r iod o fc on c e rn ,p robab ly c ar r ied m ixed c a rgoe s , wa so fi n term i t ten t c ha rac te r , a nd c anno tb e e as i ly d rawn i n to a n e vo lv ing mode l . Av e ry much l a rger s t udy w i l lb en eeded t oc on s i de ra l lt he c a ses o fc u l tu ra le xchange wh ich m igh th ave b een a ch ieved v ia s eabo rne c on tac t a l ong t h e we s te rn s ea lane s . F o rt he t ime b e ing ,e xcep ti nb r ie fr e fe rence s ,I h ave c on f ined myse l f t o t he c ase s where If e e l t he re i s s u f f ic ien t e v idence t ob e r ea sonab ly c e r ta in o fs eabo rne a gency .T here i smuch t ha tt h i sb ook c an o n ly t ouch u pon . Af u l ls t udy o f ma r ine e conomy a nd l o ca l ma r i t ime t r a f f ic i sad e s ide ratum ,n o tl e as tb ecause l ong -d i s tance e xchange i so f ten i n teg ra l w i th , a nd a rguab ly l e ss e conom icaly s i gn i f ican tt han ,' c oa s ta l 't r a f f ic . L i tera ry s ou rce ss uch a s t he e a r ly I r i sh Mu i rb r e tha ( ' Se aJ udg emen t s ' ) , Me rov ing ian s a in t s ' l i ves a nd d ip loma t ic s ou rces , a s wel a sa r chaeo l og ica l d a ta f ro m s i tes s uch a s Wh i thorn a nd L ough sh inney — to n ame o n ly t wo o u t o f many —o f fer much s cope f o ri den t i fy ing c a se so fr eg iona le xchange a nd mode l sf o rt he r o le o f ma r ine i ndus t r ie s i np roduc t ion .I h ope t or e tu rn t ot he s tudy o ft hese s ources a tl a te rd a te . T he p resen ts tudy ,h oweve r , f o cu se sp r inc ipaly o n e p i s odes o fl ong -d i s tan ce i n te rna t iona lc on tac t . I ns how ing t h i st ob e mo re d i scon t inuou s a cross t he p e r iod AD400 8 00 t han h a sp rev iou s ly b een r e cogn i sed we o pen u pt h e p o ten t ia lf o rs o me a spec t st ob e mo re f i ne ly d a ted ,s uch a s t he i mpo r ta t ion e ven t s o f i mpor ted c e ra m i cs , wh ich i n t u rn b ene f i tt he f i ne rd a t ing o fe v idence f o rl o ca le conomy . T h i sb ook makes n oc l a im sf o ra ne spec ia l ly e xc i t ing o ri nnova t ive me thodo log ica lb a s i s .I fi th a sa ny c l a im st o o r ig ina l i ty o fa pproach ,i ti sp e rhaps whe re i ta dvoca te sa f ul ,c r i t ica l ,d i scu ss ion b o th o ft e x tua la nd a r chaeo log i ca l s ou rce ma ter ia li nt h ep roduc t ion o fh i s to r ica la na ly s i s .I n t h i s r e spec t i t mus tb e s een a s a n u nu sualy d iach ron ic s t udy ,e spec ia l ly f o r my p r ima ry f i e ld o fe a r ly med ieva l C e l t ic h i s to ry , whe re much o ft he l a tes th i s to r ica lr e sea r ch i sf i xa ted o nt e xtua la nd l i ngu i s t ic i s sues ( s ee ,e spec ia l ly , D av ies 1 983 ,6 7 -8 ) .T he G e rman p os i t iv i s th i s to r ian s , who p ioneered r e search i n to t h i s t op i c a nd w i thou t who se e normou sl a bou r st h i ss ub jec t wou ld b e much t he p oo re r , a ccep ted t ha ta l l ma te r ia l ,c r i t ica l ly u sed , may b er e levan t t o t he a n swe r ing o f h i s tor i ca l q ues t ion s a nd Iwou ld c oncu rw i th t h is . T he a r chaeo log ica la nd t e xtua ls ou r ces a re u sed h e re i na sc r i t ica l ac on tex ta sp o ss ib le . T ex tua l

s ource s whe re p o ss ib le a re q uo ted i n t he o r ig ina l l an g uage a nd at r ans la ted a ppended —u sualy n o t my own , e xcep t whe re If e e l p a r t icu la r ly l i t e ra l t r an s la t ion i sr e q u i red . Ih ope Ih ave i na l l c ase s c l ear ly a cknow ledged who t he t r an s la to ri s .T he d i scuss ion o fi mpor ted c e ram ics a nd g l a ss i sb a sed o n e x tens ive r e -exam ina t ion o f t he ma te r ia l si n1 988 -9 . F ul c orpuse sa r en o tp rov ided h ere , h oweve r ,a sD r Ewan C ampbe l lw i l ls hor t ly p ub l i sh c om p rehen s ive c a ta logues o ft he se wa re s . Ip rov ide d i scu ss ion o fa r chaeo log ica lr e sea rch i s sues o nt h e se wa re s ,h owever , a nd Ih ope t ha to the rr e sea rchers w il n o te my p o in tt ha t h i s to r i ca l i d ea s u nde rp in much o f t h e s uppo sed ly ' a r c haeo log ica l 'k now ledge i nt h is s ub jec t .T he d e f in i t ion so f a r chaeo logy t e l l ing p r inc ipa l ly o f e conom ic a nd s oc ia l ma t te r s , a nd h i s to ry t e l l ing , o f ten i n mo re l i t e ra ry t han a c tua lt e rm s ,o ft he e ven t so ft he g rea ta nd t he p ower fu l , d on o tr ealy d e f ine t he u se o ft he d a ta made h e re .D iv i s i on sc r ea ted b ya cadem i cp o l i t ic sa nd f a sh ion o f ten l e ad t oc i r cu lar i ty o fa rgumen t . T h i s b ook r ema in s s ubs tan t ialy t he s ame a s my d i sse r ta t ion o ft he s ame t i t le , wh ich Is uccess fu l ly s ubm i t t ed f o r t h e d eg ree o fP hD a tt he Un iver s i ty o fS ydney . T hough i th as b een r ev i sed a nd e xpanded o ns ome p o in ts , i ts t i l l embod ies many o ft he c ha ra c te r is t ic f e a tu re s o fa d i s se r ta t ion ,e spec ia l ly t he f o cus o nn ew e v idence a tt he e xpen se o fa t temp t ing mo re g enera lc overage . Iam g ra te f u lt oB r i t i sh A rchaeo log ica lR epo r t sf o rt he o ppo r tun i ty t op ub l i sh i t ,w i th a li t sf au l t s ,a s ar e sea rch monog raph i n i t sp re sen tf o rm . Ove r t e ny ea r s o fr e search , i ns eve ra l c oun t r ies , I h ave a cqu i red many d eb t s f o r h o sp i tal i ty a nd h e lpfu l d i scu s s ion . Iwou ld e spec ia l ly l i ke t ot hank : D r L yne t te O l son , P ro fe sso rI an J a ck a nd D rA edeen C rem in o ft he Un ive r s i ty o fS ydney , Aus t ra l ia ,f o rc on s tan te n cou rage men ta nd a s s i s tance ;t he C ommonwea l th o f Au s t ra l ia f o r ar e sea rch s cho la r sh ip ;t he Un iver s i ty o fS ydney f o rg ran ts f o rt r ave lt oc on feren ces a nd f o rr e sea rch e xpen se s .I n1 987 Iwa s f o r tuna te t o b e a b le t o s pend s i x mon th s a tt he I n s t i tu te o fH i s tor ica lR esea rch o ft he Un ive rs i ty o fL on d on , a nd t ob ene f i t f r om t h e f a c i l i t ie s a tt he I n s t i tu te o f A rchaeo logy a nd t h eB r i t i sh Museum . Iwou ld a l so e spe c i aly t hank P e ter H i l l ,D av id P o l lo ck a nd t he Wh i thorn T rus t , who made i tp o ss ib le f o r me t o wo rk o n as i te wh ich wa sa b so lu te ly c en t ra lt o my i n teres t s ,a s we l la sp rov id ing much e ncou ragemen t a nd a s s is tan ce w i th my r e sea rch . My o the rd eb t st o museum ,l i brary a nd e xcava t ion s t a f fi n B r i ta in ,I r e land ,F ran ce a nd Aus t ral ia a r et oo n ume rou st o men t ion . L es l ie A lcock , An thony B radshaw , Ewan C ampbe l l ,J ohn C a rey , Anne C larke ,P i e r re -Ro land G io t , R ichard H eawood , D a fydd K idd , A lan L ane , K ev in Mu r ray ,O l ive rP ade l ,P h il ip R ah tz ,C ha r le sT homa sa nd E l izabe th W indso r , among many o the r s , a l p rov ided e ncou ragemen ta tc ruc ia l momen t s ,a sw e l la sh e lp w i th s pec i f ic ma t te r s . E dwa rd J ames , A lan L ane a nd C a ro le C u sack made u se fu lc ommen ts u pon t he t e x ta ta ne a r ly s t age , wh i le S ue Y oung sa nd K aren J anku lak r ead ad ra f t a t al a te s t age a nd p rov ided i nva luab le c ommen t s . Ia c cep t f u l lr e spon s ib i l i ty f o ra l le r ro r s .F inaly ,s uppo r tf r om my p aren t s ,D e i rd re a nd T ed Wood ing ,a nd f r om my b ro ther R obe r t s aw me t h rough many d i f f icu l t t ime s . W i thou t t h e i rs uppo r ti tt r u ly wou ld n o th ave b een p o ss ib le . i v

C hapter One

S ea lane sa nd t h eS cho la r ly T e r ra in

T he r eade r who a pproache s t he s t udy o f t h e we s te rn s ea lane si nt he e a r ly m idd le a ge st h rough t h es e conda ry s ou rces i sr ap id ly c on f ron ted b yw ide ly v a ry ing i mage s b o th o ft h es ca le o f ma r i t ime a c t iv i ty a nd t h e c om mand wh ich e a r ly mar ine r s e xe r c i sed o ve r t he c ond i t ion s . On t he o ne h and t here i s ag ene ra lb el i e ft ha tt he se s ea lane s we re t r ave r sed b yl a rge w ine s h ip sa nd ab y ap le tho ra o f s a in t s t r ave l l ing i nc urach s a nd i nt r ad ing s h ips . On t h e o the rh and s o me d i f fu s ion i s tt heo r i s t s ,i ns e t t ing u ps uch mode ls o fp ro l i f ic a c t iv i ty ,i den t i fy ' p en in su la rr oads 'a nd t r an sh ipmen to fg oods o ve r land — thu sp erve r se ly a rgu i ng t ha tf e a ro ft he o pen s ea l im i ted i t su se f o rc ommun i c a t ion a nd i mp ly ing t e chn ica l i n capac i ty o n t he p a r t o f e a r ly ma r ine r s ( Craw fo rd 1 936 , 1 85 f f ; B owen 1 969b , 1 4 ; M i l le r 1 978 -80 , 3 16 -7 ; T homa s 1 959 , 1 01 ) . T he c on fu sed n a tu re o ft h i sd ep ic t ion owe s much t ot h er e la t ive ly l im i t ed n a tu re o ft he e v iden ce f o ra c tua lv oyage s ,c omb ined w i th t he ' a l l -o r -no th ing 'c ha ra c te ro fp o lem ica la rgumen t s . Ab a lan ce c anno tb ef ound b e tween t he awe some c ha rac t e ro ft he w es te rn s ea sa nd t h e mundane r o le t ha tt h es e a i se xpe c ted t o p lay i np o lem ica l a rgumen t s a ga in s t t h e t heo ry o fl and -based d i f fu s ion . T h i sb ook c on tends t ha t s uch s weep ing mode l sa re i n con s i s ten tw i th t h ee v idence f o ra ctua lv oyages —a s wel a sw i th wha tw ek now o ft h e e conomy o fp os t -Roman we s te r n E u rope . D i rec t , l ong d i s tance t r ave l a long t he we s tern s ea lanes i n t he e a r ly m idd le a ge sn e i the rs hows s i gn so fh av ing eme rged o u to f ap a t te r no fg eog raph ica l ly -de term ined d i f fu s ion ,n o ri si t ad i rec tc on t inua t ion o fR oman p e r iod e xchange . L ong d i s tance t r a f f ic o ve rt he p er iod AD400 -800 w as i n term i t t en ti nc ha rac ter a nd o f ten g ove r n ed b yf a c to r so fe conomy , p ol i t ics a nd p er sona lr e la t ion s .C ho i ce o fr ou te wa sd oub t l e ss i n f luenced b y ac omb ina t ion o fs uch f a c to r s —and i ti s o n ly whe re p o l i t ica l a nd p e r sona l l i nk s w e re s u s ta ined o ve re p i sode so f af ew y ea r s ,o r af ew d ecades ,t ha tt h ere wa sr epe t i t ion o fv oyage sa l ong t h es ame r ou tes . T he w es te rn s ea lanes , mo re t han a ny o ther p a r to f E u rope ,h ave b een ab a t t leg round f o rt ho se who w i sh t o empha s i se t h e g ene ra l r o le o f t h e s ea i n t h e s p read o f c u l ture .T hough s uch d eba te sw e re mo s t ly e nac ted i nt h e f i rs th a l fo ft h i sc en tury ,a nd t h e i ri d eo log i ca lb as i si sn ow a tb es to n ly h a l f -remembe red ,t h e se d i f fu s ion i s tt heo r ie s h ave l e f t t h e i r ma rk i n mode r n s cho la r sh ip i n i nd i rec t ways .A rchaeo log i s t s wo rk ing o ni mpo r ted c e ram ic sf ound i n we s te r nB r i ta in a nd I r e land h ave c on s i s ten t ly r e fe r red t he i rr e su l t s ,d i rec t ly o ri nd i rec t ly ,t oH e inr i ch Z imme r ' s t heory o fe a r ly med ieva l w ine t r ad ing b e tween I r e land a nd G au l— in many c a se sw i thou tr e -exam in ing t h eh i s t o r ica lb a s is o fh i st h eo ry ( e .g .( 5R io rdä in 1 947 ,4 5 ;R ad fo rd 1 956 , 6 9 ; Hodges 1 977 , 2 40 -1 ; A l cock 1 987 , 8 9 -90 ) . B o th

Z immer 's ' w ine t r ade ' a nd B owen 's ' wes te rn s eaway s ' h ave e n te red t he s cho la r ly d i scou r se t ot he e x ten t whe re u se o ft he se t e rm sa nd c oncep t s ,e ven when c l ea r ly i nd eb t t ot he mode ls o fZ imme r a nd B owen , i so f ten n o t e ven r e fe renced t ot hem .T he se mode l sh ave a t ta ined t he s t atu s o f' bucke t s 'i n to wh i ch n ew e v idence i ss imp ly d ropped . I ns ome c a ses o fc u ltu ra lh i s tory ,t h ea s sump t ion o fl a rge s c a le c omme rce o re xchange p romo ted b yZ imme ri su sed a s ad eu se xm ach ina t oe xp la in why c e r ta in s cho la r ly i dea s a nd c u ltu ra l mo t i f s a r e f ound i ne a r ly Ch r i s t ian I r e land ( Smy th 1 986 ,2 03 ;( 5C o r rä in 1 994 ,1 8 -19 ) —bu tn o t ,s ay ,i n Ang lo -Saxon E ng land . T he r e su l t o f t h i s h a s b een t ha t p e rcep t ion s o f t h e s ca le a nd i n ten t o f mar i t ime a c t iv i ty a l ong t he w es te rn s ea lane sh ave b een c on fused a nd made s ubserv ien tt ot he n eed t oe xp la in c u l tura le xchange ,t he s c a le o f wh i ch may h ave n o i mpl i ca t ion sf o rt he s ca le o f ma r i t ime t r a f f i c . Ac on s tan tb ackd rop o fc ommerce h a s b een c r ea ted t oe xp la in t he c u l tu ra ld eve lopmen to fe ar ly med ieva lI r e land a nd w es te r nB r i ta in . New e v idence h a s o f ten o n ly b een t aken t oe x tend t he e x is t ing mode l s ,r a the r t han t op u ta ny l im i ta t ion su pon t h e i rs ca le .T h i sh a sh ad t he e f fec tb o th o fo bscu r ing t he e v iden ce f o rc hange a nd d eve lopmen ti nt he p ro ce s so fc ommer c ia le xchange a nd o fc ommod i fy ing c u l tu ra l i dea s a nd a r te fac t s . L a t in l i t e racy , Ch r is t ian i ty a nd mona s t i c i dea s , a s wel a s t he ma te r ia li t ems n eeded f o rt he i rp rac t ice ,a re p e r ce ived a s f u r the rc ommod i t ies i nt h ep a t te rn o fe xchange — the who le i mage b e ing a na logou st ot he s pread o f' c a rgo c u l t s ' .T ha t t he i dea s o f o ne r eg ion o r e tho s b eca me i n f luen t ia l i n I r e land o rB r i ta in i sr educed t oa na cc iden to fg eog raphy — o ver look ing t he c omp lex i t ies o fc u l tura lc hange ,a nd t he i n te r na lf o rces wh ich d r ive t he a c cep tance o rn on -accep t a nce o fn ew i deas . S oi n f luen t ia li st h ed i f fu s ion i s t mode lo ft h e' we s t e rn s eaway s 'i nt h i st op i c ,t ha tw es ha l lb eg in b yc on f ron t i ng t he t r ad i t ion o fd i f fu s ion is t s t udy o fe a r ly med ieva l t r ade a nd c o mmun ica t ion b etween B r i ta in , I r e land a nd t he c on t inen t . Z imme r ' sT h e s i s I n s eve ra l s tud ie s p ub l i shed i n t h e f i r s t d ecade o f t h i s c en tu ry , H e in r ich Z imme r ( 1 902a ; 1 902b ; 1 909 -10 ) p io n eered amode lo fr e sea rch i n to t h ed eve lopmen to fe a r ly C hr is t ian c u ltu re i nt h eC e l t ic wo r ld ,p roceed ing l a rge ly t h rough as t udy o fi t se x te rna lc on tac t s .T he s cope o ft h i s s t udy ,t h eg rea te rp a r to f wh ich a ppea red p o s thumou s ly a s' Übe rd i rek te Hande l sve rb indungen Wes tga l l ien sm i t I r land i mA l ter tum u nd f r ühen M i t te la l te r 'i nt he p roceed i ng so ft h eR oya lP rus s ian A cademy o fS c ience f o r1 909 -10 ,

1

C ommun ica t ion a nd C ommerce a l ong t h e W e s ter nS ea lane s AD400 -800

was t o h ave b een a s u rvey o f t he e x terna l c on ta c t s o f I r e land a nd t he i rc u l tu ra li mp l ica t ion s ,b eg inn ing w i th t he d esc r ip t ion si nG i ra ldus C ambren s i sa nd t r ac ing ar e ced i ng c on t inuum o fc on tac ta l ong t he w es te r ns ea lanes b ack t ot he t ime o ft he P hoen ic ian s ( Z immer 1 909 -10 ; Meye r 1 913b ) .Z imme r 's d ea th p reven ted t h ec omp le t ion o ft h i s r e sea rch a nd t he b road t h ru s to fh i st h es i s wa so bscu red b y i t ss ubsequen tr e cep t ion a nd d i ssem ina t ion i nE ngl i sh b y K uno Meye r —who se o n ly r e a li n te re s ti nZ i mme r 's wo rk a ppea r s t o h ave b een i n t he c on ten t ious e v idence , n o t o ve rempha s ised b y Z imme r , f o r a c tua l G au l i sh l i t t e r a t i a nd me rcenar ie sr e s iden ti nf i f th -cen tury I r e land ( Meye r 1 910 ;1 913a ) . T ha tZ immer wa s b y t r a in ing ac ompa ra t ive p h i l o log i s t , a s w el a s t h e f a c t t ha t o n ly l i tera ry a spec t s o f Z imme r 's s cheme we re d eve loped b y Meye ra nd V end rye s ( Meye r1 913a ;V endrye s1 920 ,1 9 -24 ) ,h as d i s t rac ted a t ten t i on f r om t he f a c tt ha tZ immer 's l a te rw r i t ing sa l lc on cen t r a te o n wha ta r ee s sen t ia l ly t he c once rns o fn ine teen th c en tury G erman p os i t iv i s t h i s to ry . Z imme r 's a pproach wa sc ha rac ter i s t ic o fr e sea rch b e ing d one i nG e rmany a t t he t ime , f o r e xamp le b y B runo K ru sch a nd Wi lhe lm L ev ison a s ab y -produc t o f work f o r t he Monum en t a G erman iae H i s to r i c a , wh ich i nvo lved t he e d i t ing o f t he Me rov ing ian s a in t s 'v i ta ef o rp o s i t iv i s ta na ly s i sa nd c h rono l og ica l a nd p ro sopog raph ica l wo rk wh ich i n many r e s pec t sh a sn o ty e tb een s upe r seded ( K ru sch 1 880 ; öC rö in in 1 984 ; Ha r r i son 1 980 ;G e rbe rd ing 1 987 ,8 4 f f ) .S eän L ü ing 's ( 1 994 , 2 59 ) d i scove ry t ha t Momm sen wa s i n f luen t ia l i n Z imme r 's a ppo in tmen t t ot he c ha i ro fC e l t i c i nB e r l in i s h igh ly s i gn i f ican ti ns how ing t he c l o sene ss o fZ immer 's c onnec t ion w i th G erman h i s tor ica l p os i t iv i sm . L ev i son h im se l f( 1 946 ) wen to nt od eve lop t h ee v idence f o ro ve r s eas e xchange wh ich t h i s wo rk u n cove red i n to as t udy o f l i nk sb e tween E ng land a nd t he c on t inen t ,o n ama rked ly s im i la r mode l t o Z imme r 's C e l t ic r e searche s— i f more l im i ted i n c h rono log ica l s cope . L ev i son 's s t udy , l i ke Z imme r 's , s e t u p amode l o fc omme rc ia l ly -d r iven c om mun ica t ion t oe xp la in c u l tu ra l l i nk s . T he mos t o bv iou s p a ra l le lt oZ imme r 's t he s i s ,h oweve r ,i si nt h el a te r wo rk s o fh i sc on tempora ry Hen r iP i renne .P i renne a rgued f o rt h e c u ltu ra li mpo r tance o f wha th es aw a sc on t inuou sp a t te rn s o fc o mmerce f r om a n t iqu i ty i n to t h em idd le a ges i nt h e Med i ter ranean — to s e ta ga in s tt ho se who s aw i s o la t ion a s t he c on com i tan to ft he c olapse o fR oman r u le .Z i mme r 's mode l— in c on t ras t t o t ha t o f C raw fo rd a nd B owen — a rgues f o rp rec i se ly t he s a me p a t te rn ,w i th at a s te f o rw ine e s tabl i shed i na n t iqu i ty p er s i s t ing i n to t he m idd le a ge sa s ac on t inuou sb a s i sf o rt r ade . T hese s weep ing mode l s we re t h e p roduc t o f a n i n te res ti nt he m inu t i ae o fd ip loma t ic s ,a tt he e xpen se o fa c r i t ica lv i ew o ft he r ep resen ta t ive c ha rac ter o fe v idence .I t i sn o c o inc idence t ha t t h e e v idence o fi mpo r ted e a s tern Med i terranean c eram ics , i n d is t ingu ish ing d i f feren t c h rono log ica lp hases i ns ub -Roman c omme r ce , a c t sa sa c o r rec t ive n o to n ly t oP i renne 's t he s i s ,b u ta l so t oZ i mme r 's . I ti sp robab le t ha tb o th Z i mmer a s wel a sP i renne —who se b r ie f was t o' s ea rch . . .b o th i nt e x t sa nd i na l lt h ee v idence a va i lab le ' ( Lyon 1 974 , 2 66 ) —wou ld h ave t aken u p t h e q ue s t ion sr a i sed b yt he se a r chaeo log ica ld a ta ,i ft h ey h ad l i ved t o s e e t h em . On ly May r -Ha r t ing ( 1 972 ) , h oweve r , 2

f olow ing L ev i son 's i n sp i ra t ion ;a nd J ames ( 1 982 ) ,f o l low i ng May r -Ha r t ing ,r ealy h ave t aken u pt he a genda s e tb y Z immer 's v a luab le a nd c r i t ica ls t ud ie s .I fZ imme r 's t hes i s h ad s ubsequen t ly r e ce ived a ss ys tema t ic a nh i s to r ica la nd a r chaeo log ica lc r i t ique a sP i renne ' sw em igh tb ei n amuch b e t te rs t a te o fk now ledge c once rn ing t he o ver sea sc onnec t i on so fe a r ly med ieva lI r e land . T he t ype o fh i s tor i ca lr e sea r ch d one b yt h ep os i t iv i s t s g radualy b ecame l e ss p opu la r —h i s to r ian s o n t he I r i sh s i de s e e ing more l ong term p o ten t ia lf o rd ocumen t a ry r e sea r ch i n to t he c u l tura ld imen s ion o fo ve r seas e x c hange t han f o rt he s t udy o fa c tua lc ommerce a nd t r ave l . T h i sl e f tt he a na ly s i so ft h es ea r ou tes a nd v oyages t hem s e lve st ot h eg eog raphe r sa nd , mo re r e cen t ly ,t h ea r chae o l og i s t s .I ns ome ways t h i si s ac on sequance o ft h ep iece mea lt r ea tmen to fZ i mme r 's wo rk ,b u ti ta l so r e f le c t s more mo re r e cen t c ur ren t s i n ' Ce l t i c ' h i s to r iog raphy ( By rne 1 971a ;D av ie s1 983 ) .A sw ew i l ls e e , ac r i t ique o ft h eo r ies o fl ong -d i s tan ce t r a ff i c a l ong t h e w e s tern s ea lanes , l i ke c r i t ique o ft h eP i renne 's t h es is ,d epends u pon n on tex tua l s ou rces . Many ' Ce l t ic 'h i s tor ians wou ld s ee t h i sa sl y ing o u t s ide o ft h e i rf i e ld o fc oncern .T hough Z imme r wo rked f r om t e x t s ,h ep u tt he c on tac t si nd i ca ted b yt hem i n to t he f o reg round . S tudy o f t he a rchaeo log ica l d a ta c an n ow r evea l i n forma t ion o n t he s ame c on tac ts a nd Z imme r 's r e sea rche s , wh ich u ncove red ma te r ia lo fo u t s tand ing i m p or tance ,s hou ld n o tb ej udged t he wo rse f o r as ubsequen t f a i lu re o fo the r st or e f ine a nd d eve lop h i s mode li nf u l l . T he g radua l move away f r om t he s t udy o f t he p r ima ry e v idence f o rc ommerce a nd t r ave la l so p a rale l s t h eg radua ld ec l ine o fd i f fus ion i sm .T he re i sat endency t o a t t r ibu te ame ss ian i cr o le t ol ong -d i s tan ce o ver sea sl i nk s i nt he s pread o fc u l tu re —wh ich s e rve st oo bscu re t h er ea l i n te rp lay b e tween c on tac t a nd s oc ia l c hange o ccu r r ing w i th in as oc ie ty .T h is i s ,o fc our se ,n or eason t oa bandon t he s t udy o ft h e se l i nk s a l toge the r . H ilga r th i so ne who n ow wou ld p r io r i t ise t he c u l tu ra l c onnec t ion : ' p e rhaps t h i s q ue s t ion o fr ou tes i s , i n t he e nd , s e conda ry . . . Mo re c ruc ia l t han t h e q ues t ion o f r ou tes i st ha t o f r e cep t ion ' ( H i l lga r th ,1 984 ,1 3 -14 ) .A rguab ly b o th a r ei mpo r tan t ,a nd a n u nde r s tand ing o f t he s ca le a nd c ha rac ter o fe ach i n f o rm s t he s t udy o ft he o ther . P roce s sua l a pproaches i n a r chaeo logy h ave a l so t ended t oe ncou rage amo re c om p l ex v i ew o ft h ep rocess o fc on tac t( My tum 1 992 ,7 9 ) . C omp lex i mp l ica t ion so fc u l tu ra lc on tac ta r ee a s i ly s e en i n o u r p e r iod . F o r e xamp le , t ha t mar i t i me l i nk s e x i s ted b e tween B r i ta in a nd t he Med i ter ranean i n t he e a r ly s i x th c en tu ry i sb eyond d oub t . Af u l ler a na lys i so ft he e v idence ,h oweve r ,s u f f i c ien t ly d im in i shes t he i rs c a le t o t h ep o in t whe re t hey a re u n l ike ly t of i gu re i nt he i mpor ta t i on o f many c u l tu ra l i n f luences ( c on t r a C rehan 1 976 ) . None the less , t h e a r chaeo log ica l e v iden ce mus t a c t a s a c or rec t ive t ot hose who wou ld d i sm i s ss uch c on tac ta l to g e the r —a s R a f te ry d id o n ly t h ree d ecades a go ( Ra f tery 1 965 , 1 99 ) . S even th -cen tury I r ishmen t r ave l l ing t o t he c on t inen t c ou ld h ave d one s o b y mean s o f c omme rc ia l s h ipp ing f o cu sed o n t he w es tern G au l i sh p o r t s , j u s t a s Z immer s ugge s ted . A r chaeo logy n ow s e em s t oc on f i rm t h ee x i s tence o fs uch v oyage s ,p rev ious ly a ccep ted a sa n u nproven f a c to r ( e .g . R i ch6 1 976 , 3 20 ) . T h i s d oe s n o t i mmed ia te ly i mp ly a ny ' n a tura l 'c u l tu ra ll i nk w i th w es t -

C hap t er O ne :S ea lane sa nd t h eS cho lar ly T er ra in

emphas i sed m ig ra t ion o fd om inan tp eop les ,r a the rt han t h es p read o fc u l tu re ,a nd wh ich t ended t of o cu so nl and b a sed m ig ra t ion . T he d i sappea rance o f s uch t h ink ing f r om s cho la r ly d eba te wa sa ppropr ia te ly h a s tened t h rough i t su se b y Hausho f e ri nh i st heo ry o fG eopo l i t ik , wh ich wa s t aken b y H i t ler t o l eg i t ima te G erman i mper ia l ism ( Ou thwa i te 1 957 ,6 9 ) . O .G .S . C raw fo rd a nd H . J . F l eu re ( f amou s f o r a r ange o fs t ud ies o fa r chaeo logy i nt e rm s o fc ompa ra t ive a n th ropo logy : P eake a nd F l eu re 1 927 -36 ) , were among s t t h es cho la r s who f o rmu la ted t he r e sponse t o Mack inde r ( Craw fo rd 1 912 ;F l eu re a nd R ober t s1 915 )a nd t h ec oncep t o ft h e' we s tern s eaway s 't hu se vo lved i nt he f o re f ron to f t h ed i f fu s ion i s td eba te .T he i dea wa se spec ia l ly t aken u p b yC h i lde ,o ne o ft he f o remos tp roponen t so fd i f fus ion i sm . C h i lde wa s t o s ee t he se s ea r ou te s a s b e ing o fp r ima ry i mpo r tance f o rt he c u l tu ra l' i r rad ia t ion 'o fE u rope ( Cun l i f fe 1 973 , 1 7 ; B owen 1 969a , 7 9 ) : ' t he i r g rey wa ter s a s b r igh t w i th Neol i th ic a rgonau t sa st h e we s te r nP ac i f i ci st oday ' ( Ch ide 1 946 ,3 6 ) .T he ' we s tern s eaway s ' mode la l so f ound s uppo r t i n t h e wo rk o f S i r C yr i l F ox , c on t inu ing t h e a r chaeo -geog raph i ca l wo rk wh ich h eh ad c ommenced a t C ambr idge ( Fox 1 922 ) .A ided b yt he c a r tography o fL i ly C h i t ty ,h eu nder took t he d i s t r ibu t iona ls t ud ies wh i ch l e d t oh i si nf luen t ia l wo rk T he P e r sona l i ty o fB r i ta in ( 1 946 ) .T h i s s e tu p ah igh land/ low land z one d i cho tomy , wh ich i n te g ra ted e f fec t ive ly w i th t h e' wes tern s eaways ' mode li n so f a r a s t he i mpene t rab le c ha rac ter o f t he h igh land z one s e emed t oe ncou rage t he u se o fs ea t r ave l .T he d i f f icu l t ies o fp ene t ra t ing t he h igh land g eog raphy o f wes te rn B r i ta in a l so o fc our se s eemed t o emphas i se t h e u n l ike l ihood o f o ve r land c on tac t sf r om t h ee a s tp lay ing a ny s em ina lr o le i nt h ec u ltu ra lf o rma t ion o ft he wes tern z one . An i mpo r t an tl a te rc on sequen ce o ft h is mode l was t he b r ief ly f a sh i onab le n o t ion o ft he ' I r i sh S ea Cu l ture -Prov ince ' , ap opu l a r t h eme f o r c oloqu ia i nt he l a te 1 960 s , wh i ch f u r the r empha s i sed t he e a s t -we s t d iv i s ion o f B r i ta in i t se l f , b y p o s i t ing n atu ra ll i nk sb e tween I r e land a nd we s te r nB r i t a i n ( Shaw 1 967 ; Moore 1 969 ; T ho ma s 1 972a ; G raham C ampbe l l1 992 :f o rc r i t ique o ft he i dea :S avory 1 973 ;R yan 1 973 ) . T h i s d eba te , c h ief ly c onduc ted w i th r e ference t o p reh i s to r i c e v iden ce , wa s i n teg ra ted w i th t he med ieva l when O .G .S . C raw fo rd ( 1 936 ) d i scussed a s awho le t h e v a r iou sg eog raph ica la nd d i s t r ibu t iona ls t ud ie sa nd a na l y sed t hem i nc ompa r i son w i th as e r ie so fe a r ly med ieva l v oyage s d e r ived mos t ly f r om h ag iog raphy . I n af i na l p a ssage h ec ompa red h i sr e su l t st oZ imme r 's c onc lu s ion s , s t a t ing t ha th e h ad r ead Z imme r 's wo rk o n ly a f t e rc om p l e t ing h i s p ape r ( Craw fo rd 1 936 , 2 00 ) . T h i s d rama t i c , s upe r f ic ia l ,c i ta t ion h a st ended t oo bscu re t he f undamen t a ll a ck o fa g reemen tb e tween Z imme ra nd C raw ford .T he ' we s te rn s eaway s ' t heo r i s t s s aw t he R oman p e r iod a s i n te r rup t ing al ong c on t inu i ty :

em G au l ,h oweve r ,a s many o ft h eI r i shmen t hen wen to n t o wo rk i ne a s te r nF ranc ia a l ong s ide G aul i sh c hu rchmen r e c ru i ted f r om wes te rn Gau l ( H i l lga r th 1 987 , 3 11 -12 ; Walace -Hadr i l l 1 985 , 7 2 -3 , 1 43 ) . T he way i n wh ich t he c ho ice o fr ou te t ot he c on t inen t may h ave h e lped t od e te r m ine t he i rl a te r t hea t re o ft he i ra c t iv i ty i st h e re fo re v e ry c omp lex ,h ing ing o nt h eq ues t ion a st ot he r o le o ft he I r i sh i n t he w es te rn Gaul i sh c hu rch , a nd n o t u pon s imp le l and fal a nd r egu la rr ou tes o ft r ave l .I tc an o n ly h e lp o u r s t udy o f t he se c omp lex p ro ce s se s , h oweve r , t o c l ea r ly d i s t ingu i sh wh ich way t r ave l le r s a c tualy w en t —even i f t h i si so n ly p a r to ft h ep roce s s . I ns um mary t h en , t he p o s i t iv i s t s , among s t whom Z im me r mu s tb en umbe red ,t ended t os ee t he l i nk st h rown u pi nh ag iog raph ica la nd d ip loma t i cs ou rce sa sg l imp se s o f al a rge r ,c on t inuou s , who le wh i ch s e rved t of a c i l i ta te c u ltu ra ll i nk so ve r al ong d i s tan ce . Mo re r e cen ta r chaeo l og ica l d i scover ies may b e u sed t o b reak d own t h e se p erce ived c on t inu i t ies i n to s ho r te r te rm p a t te rn s , o f ten i n ter rup ted b y p ol i t ica l c hange . S ome w r i ter s , s uch a s H ilga r th ,i nt ak ing u pt h i sa genda ,d ownp lay t h en eed t o a s sume d i rec tl i nk sa s ab ackd rop t oe xchange o fk now l e dge b e tween r eg ion s . May r -Ha r t ing ( 1 972 , 1 27 ) , i nh i s c r i t ique o fH i l lga r th a l so r i gh t ly o bserves t ha ta c tua le v i d ence i sn eeded t op o stu la te d i re c tl i nk s .T he p o s i t iv i s t s , l i ke modern c o mmun i ca t ion s s cho lar s ( e .g . C uL len 1 984 , 1 8 f f ) s aw a c tua l e v idence f o r t r an spor t a s as i gn i f ican t f a c to ri nt he mechan ic so ft he d i s sem ina t ion o fc u l tu re .I t i si mpo r tan t t ha t we c on t inue t of o cu s a nd r e f ine t h e ir mode l so fe xchange a nd c on tac tw i th s uch n ew e v idence a si sn ow a va i lab le . T he W e s t ern S e aw ay s T he s ubsequen t emergence o f as choo lo fa r chaeo -geog ra p he rs , whom we w i l lc al t he ' we s te rn s eaway st h eo r i s t s ' , s t rong ly i nf luenced t h er e cep t ion o fZ imme r 's t h e s i s .T he n o t ion o ft h e s ea a s a' h ighway ' f o r t h e s pread o fe a r ly c u l tu re s wa sp romo ted b ys uch d i f fu s ion i s t s ,a s ar eac t ion a ga in s tt h et h ink ing o fl a nd -o r ien ted g eog raphe r ss uch a s S i r Ha l fo rd Mack inde r .T h i sb a c Ida sh wa s ar e ac t ion a ga in s t t he i mpe r ia l i s t f l avour o f l and -ba sed m ig ra t ion s t ud ie s , t hough i twa sa l so f ueled b yt h ef i e ldwo rk o f Ma l inowsk i . Ma l inow sk i 's e ncoun te rw i th P ac i f i cc u l tu res whe re d eep s ea t r ave l a nd e xchange wa s c ommon made much t h e s ame s en sa t iona l a nd r o man t ic i mpac t u pon E u ropean mode l s o fc o mmun ica t ion a sG aug in 's P ac i f i c p a in t ing s h ad made u pon t he s a lons o fP a r i s .S uch mode l se xpo sed t he f a l lacy o ft r ea t ing t h es ea a s an a tu ra lb a r r ie ra nd t h e wes te r ns eaway st h eo r i s t sr i gh t ly s aw t h er o le o f ma r i t ime r ou te s a s u nderva lued b y Ma ck inde r . Doub t less a l so p resen t , l e ss s t rong ly s t a ted , w as ar e ac t ion a ga in s t t h e p redom inan t ly e a s te rn -B r i t i sh o r ien ta t ion o f Ma ck inder 's mode l . Mack inde r 's a pproach e mpha s i sed t h e l ow land e a s to fB r i ta in a st he n orma lr ou te o fc u l tu ra li n f lux i n to t h e B r i t i sh I s le s ( Mack inde r 1 902 , 1 94 f f ; B owen 1 969b ) . I t s o r ig in s may l i ei nV i c to r ian f e a r so ft h es ea ,c omb ined w i th a no ve rempha s i so nt h ee xamp le p rov ided b yt h eh i s to r ic i nva s ion so fB r i ta in b yt h eB e lgae a nd t h e Ang lo -Saxon s , wh i ch w e re l ow land -ba sed . Ma ck inde r 's mode l a l so r e f l ec ted t h ed i f fus ion i s td eba te sp opu la ra tt he t ime , wh ich

T he s pread o fR oman p owe r s t ab i l i sed t he e a s tern l and r ou tes a nd t r a f f ic f l owed mo re a nd mo re t ot he c on t inen t a c ro ss t he Na r row S eas .T he We s tern S ea r ou te s we re n o t t or ega in t he i rv i ta l i ty u n t i lt he l ow lands o fs ou th -eas te rn B r i ta in we re o nce a ga in s ubme rged b yb arba r ian i nva s i on s ( Bowen 1 969a ,2 2 ) .

3

C ommun ica t ion a nd C ommerce a l ong t h e W e s t er nS ea lane s AD400 -800

L ikew i se ,t oR ad fo rd ( 1 966 ,2 5 ) , t he d i rec tl i nk sb e tween B r i ta in , I r e land a nd t he c on t inen t i nt h e p e r iod AD400 8 00 ,i nd ica ted b yi mpo r ted c e ram ics ,w e re a' r ever s ion t o t he p a t tern o f3 000 B C ' .Z i mme r ,c onve r se ly ,s aw a n t ique t r a f f ic c on t inu ing i n to t h e m idd le a ge s . T he mode l s o f Z immer a nd t he a r chaeo -geog raphe r sa re i nt h i sr e spec t f undamen ta l ly o ppo sed .E .G .B owen w en to nt od eve lop t h e wes te rn s eaways mode la l ong t he l i ne sl a id d own b y C raw fo rd , d raw ing f r equen tp a ra l le l sb e tween t he e a r ly med ieva lp er iod a nd p reh i s to ry ( f o rt h ed eve lopmen to f h i st hes i s :B owen 1 944 ;B owen 1 954 ;B owen 1 969a ;B owen 1 972 ) —wh i le Ch i 1de was t ot e rm t h e mega l i th b u i lde r s ' mega l i th ic s a in t s ' ( Cun l i f fe 1 973 ,2 7 ) . I n mo s tc a se si ti sc l ea rt ha tt he c i r cum s tance s wh ich g ove r n p o s t -Roman c on ta c t a r e u n ique t o t ha t p e r iod r a the r t han ar ever s ion t oa ne a r l ie rp a t tern o f ma r i t ime d i f fu s ion . Moreover ,i ti swo r th n o t ing t ha tr e cen tr e sea rch h as s e r ious ly q ues t ioned t h e c en t ra l r o le o fd i rec t ma r i t ime l i nk sb e tween t he c on t inen ta nd t h eI r i sh S ea b a s in i n p reh i s tor ic c u l tu ra ld i f fu s ion ( Ryan 1 973 ) .J ohn Wadde l l 's ( 1 991 -2 ) s urvey o f p reh i s tor ic d i s t r ibu t ion s a round t h e I r i sh s ea , f o re xamp le ,d emon s t ra te sj u s th ow s t rong t he r o le o f t he s hor tes t c ro ss ing s h a s b een i n t r an sm i t t ing c u l tu ra li dea st oI r e land , when c ompa red w i th t he p o s s i b l er o le o fs eabo rne d i s t r ibu t ion . F or t h e e ar ly m idd le a ge s , h oweve r , t he s ou rce s c ho sen f o r c ompar i son b y t he a r chaeo -geog raphe r s a r e n o ta ti s sue s o much a st he i r me thodo logy — though o n ly af ew c ases d rawn f r om s a in t 's d ed ica t ions a nd h ag iog ra p hy wou ld n ow b e a ccep ted a s e v idence f o r t r ave l a nd c omme rce i nt he p er iod AD400 -800 ( 0 . C hadw i ck 1 954 , 1 87 f f ; l a bou red r e sponse i nB owen 1 969a , 8 1 -3 ; s en s ib le c ommen ti nL a ing 1 975 , 18 -9 ) .A l so s i gn i f ican ti st ha tt h e wo rk o fC raw fo rd a nd B owen make sn on o tab le a na lys i s o fe i ther ma r i t ime o rp ol i t ica lf a c to r s— some th ing b a re ly d e fen s ib le i n ag eog raph ica la pproach .T he o n ly mar i t ime mode li n t roduced b yC raw fo rd ,t ha to fl o ca t ing ' p en in su l a rr oads ' ,i smo s t ly i r re levan t( s ee b e low , Append ix Two ) . Wha teve rt he v a lue o ft he i r me thod sf o rt heo re t ica lg eog r aphy ,t he work o fC raw fo rd a nd B owen t e l l su sn o th ing mean ing fu lo ft he f i ne rp o in t so ft r ave l .I ts e rve s ,r a the r ,t o s ugge s t ' n a tura l ' r ou tes o f c on tac t wh i ch o f ten d o n o t c ompa re c l o se ly e nough w i th a c tua lt r ave l s —and wh ich l i nk af a l se mode l o fp reh i s to r ic s ea t r ave l w i th h i s tor ic a c t iv i ty i n ways wh ich o bscu re t he d i f f erence sa nd e xag g e ra te t he s c a le o f t he e a r ly med ieva l a c t iv i ty . B owen 's t r ea tmen t o f C raw fo rd 's map o f s ea -rou tes i s at yp ica l e xamp le . I n r e cord ing ar ange o f s ea rou tes i mpl ied b y r e cen ta r chaeo log ica lf i nd sh es imp ly s upe r impose st h em u pon C raw fo rd 's map , a f f ix ing t he c ommen t t ha t t h i s e v idence ' a dd s many d e ta i l st ot he e a rl i er maps o fF ox a nd C raw ford ' ( Bowen 1 969b , 1 8 ) . No e f fo r ti s made t oc om p a re t h e d a ta t od i scern whe the r t he n ew d a ta i n v a l ida t e a ny o f t he e ar l ie r f i nd ing s . B y p i l ing c a se u pon c a se , u nc r i t i ca l ly , a n i mage o f many ma r ine r s , g o ing e ve ry wh ich whe re ,i se as i ly c r ea ted . Ch i lde 's c ompar i son w i th Ma l inowsk i ' s' a rgonau t s ' d rew as t rong i mage o fp ro l i f ic e xchange a c t iv i ty i n to t h e e a r ly e conomy o ft he wes te rn s ea lane s ,i mp ly ing t h ee co n om ic c on tex t f o r a mode l o f ' mar i t ime c u l tu re ' . T h i s h a rmon ised w i th t he p ro l i f ic i mage c on ju red u p b y t h e 4

a r chaeo -geog raphe r s . T he b road i d eo log ica lb ru sh w i th wh ich t he se t h eo r ies a r e s ke tched f r equen t ly o bscu res f i ner d e ta i l s wh i ch wou ld s how t h e c ompa r i sons t ob e f a l se .T he e conomy o ft h eT robr iand I s lande rs ,s t ud ied b y Ma l inowsk i ,i nvo lved s hor t -d is tan ce s ea t r ave la s ama t ter o fr egu la re x change b e tween sma l li s lands a nd wa sn o tt he s ame a sl ong -d i s tance v oyag ing b e tween l a rge l a ndmas ses . T he c ompa r i son may b e a ppo s i te t o ar eg ion s uch a s D a l r iada ,f o re xamp le ,b u tn o tt ot h ew es te rn s ea lanes a s a who le . T he ' wes te rn s eaways ' t heo r is t s b ecome v e ry c on fused b e tween l o ca la nd l ong -d i s tance t r a f f i c .S ome o f t he e r roneou se l emen t so fC raw ford 's t hes is a r i se f r om t he l a ck o fs uch ac l ea r d i s t inc t ion . F o r e xamp le , C raw fo rd ( 1 936 , 1 95 -6 ) i n terpre t s S t S am son o f Do l 's c ro ss ing o f C o rnwal a su se o f a' p en in su lar r oad 't oa vo id t h ev oyage a round L and 's E nd ( as upe r f ic ialy r e a sonab le i n t erp re ta t i on :t hough s e eb e low ,6 2 -3 ;1 07 ) ,b u th ea l so a rgue st ha t S tP a t r ick t r aveled d i r e c t ly f r om s ou the rn I r e land t o wes t er nF rance a nd t h enc e o ve r land t ot h e Med i te r ranean a s a no ther e xamp le o f ' t rans -pen in su la r ' t r ave l ( C raw ford 1 936 , 1 92 -3 ) . T he p o in th a sb een o ve r looked t ha t d i f fe r e nce s o f s ca le a nd d i s tan ce r equ i re s o me r e f inemen t o f me thodo logy .I ft he r ou te o ver land i ss od i rec ta st oo f f se t a l t he p o ss ib le a dvan tage s o f s ea t rave l , t h i s i sn o t t he s ame a sc hoo s ing t he l and r ou te o u to ff e a ro ft he s ea . And c ro ss ing G au li ss ca rce ly a' t rans -pen in su lar 'j ou r ney . D e sp i te t he o f ten u n tenab le g ene ra l i sa t ion so ft he se t heo r ies , we s hou ld r ema in aware t ha td i f fus ion i s t mode l s a r es t i l lv ery i nf luen t ia l .E v idence f o rc on tac tb e tween t he c on t inen t a nd t he I r i sh S ea b as in i ss t i l l u nde r s tood i n t e rm s o f aw ide r mode l o f' ma r i t ime c u l tu re ' , i n wh ich r egu la r c omme r ce a l ong t h e s ea lane s a low a c on s tan t a l terna t ive e n t ry r ou te f o r c u ltu ra l i n f luences u pon I r e l and , wes te r n B r i ta in a nd S co t land . Wh i le mo s t e a r ly med ieva l i s t s wou ld n o tg os of a ra sB ob Qu inn ( 1 986 ) i n f olow ing t h i s mode l ( wh ich i ss t r ik ing ly r em in i scen to f t he med ieva l I r i sh M i le s ian l egends ) , t he re h a s b een a b a s i ca ccep tan ce o ft he a s sump t ion t ha t ma r i t ime a c t iv i ty a l ong t he s ea lanes wa sp rol i f ic a nd r ep re sen ted ac on t inu i t yf r om e a rl i e ra ges . My c on c lus ion sp la ce s t rong l im i ta t ion su pon t h is mode li nt e rm so fs c a le a nd c on t inu i ty o fa c t iv i ty .S e r ious c r i t ic i sms a r e l e ve l led a t t h e c ase f o r f i f th -centu ry a nd e a r l ier l i nk sb e tween I r e land a nd t he c on t inen t , ac ruc ia l e l emen ti nt h e' ma r i t ime c u l tu re 't he s i s .I ndeed ,t he c au sa l a s sump t ion t h a tp re -ex i s t ing c omme r ce c ond i t ioned c u l t u ra lc on tac t sw il b ed i spu ted .S uch a c t iv i ty a st h e re was mu s tb eu nde r s tood i nt e rm so f av ar ie ty o fp ol i t ica la nd e conom ic c i r cum s tance s ,n o tn atu ra lc onnec t ions u pse tb y g rea te ven ts .T he ' I r i sh S ea P rov ince 'i sap ar t icu la r ly g ood c ase i np o in t .I t sg ene ra lr e jec t ion h a sp e rhaps o ve r looked s o me c a se s wh ich d os eem t of i ti t s mode l ,n o tab ly d i s t r i b u t ion s o f p o t te ry a nd g l a s s i mpor t s ( s ee b e low , 9 4 f f ) , wh ich a r et r u ly s epa ra te f r om c o mpa rab le d i s t r ibu t ion si n e as te r nB r i ta in . T he se a r e c h rono log icaly s pec i f ic t ot h e l a te -s ix th/seven th c en tury ,h oweve r ,a nd t oe xpre s st h em i nt e rms o fo ve ra rch ing g eog raph ica ls cheme s wou ld o n ly s e rve t oo bscu re t h e i rs pec i f i cc hrono log i ca lc on tex ta nd t he i rd e f in i te r e la t ion sh ip t op o l i t ica ld i f fe ren ce s , among s t o the rf a c tor s .T he ' c hanne l so fi n ter cou r se 'b e tween B r i t a in a nd t h ec on t inen t ,f a rf r om b e ing ' s e t t led b yn a tu re a nd

C hap ter O ne : S ea lane sa nd t h eS cho lar ly T er ra in

p rev iou sh i s tory ' ,a sL ev ison ( 1 946 ,5 ) wou ld s ugge s t , may b e s een t or e s ta r t i n e very e ra , o r a tl e a s t a r e r e shaped u nde r t he i mpetus o f i den t i f iab le e ven t s . S i x th -century c on tac tw i th t he Med i te r ranean c an b el i nked t oi den t i f i a b le B yzan t ine i n teres t i n n or th -wes tern E urope ( Thompson 1 980a , 4 98 -507 ; Wh i tehouse 1 992 ) . S even th c en tury F rank i sh i n te res ti nI r e land may b es y mp toma t ic o ft he I r i sh p lace i n wha t Wood ( 1 991 ,1 3 )h a st e rmed t he ' wo r ld d om ina ted b yF rank s 'i nt h a tc entu ry . R e cen tP e r sp e c t ive s T he e v idence o fa r te fac t s , mo s tn o tab ly c e ram ic e v idence , h a sc o me t oo ccupy c en t re s t age i ne a r ly med ieva l wes tern s e a lanes s t ud ies s i nce t he 1 950 s .T he c e ram ic e v idence f i r s t a ch ieved s ubs tan t ia ln o t ice i nt h e e xcava t ion s a tL ago re a nd Ga r rane s , whe re i t wa s i m med ia te ly l i nked t o t he ' w ine t r ade 'h ypo thes i so fZ i mme r( ÖR iordä in 1 947 ,7 0 1 ) . S ince R ad ford ( 1 956 ) p ubl i shed h i s s t udy o ft he i m p or ted p o t te ry f r om T in tage l ,C ha r les T homa sa nd ar ange o f o the r a r chaeo log i s t s h ave r i gh t ly f o cu sed a t ten t ion u pon t h i s ma te r ia l , wh ich c an b e u sed t o i d en t i fy t he o ve r sea s c onnec t ion s o f C e l t ic B r i ta in a nd I r e land a nd wh ich a l so h a st he p o ten t ia lt or e f ine i n su la ra r chaeo log i c a lc hrono logy ( Thomas 1 976 ,2 43 ) .T he l i t e ra tu re r e la t ing t ot h e i den t i f ica t ion o ft h i s ma ter ia la nd i t ss t udy w il b e f u l ly r ev iewed i nl a te rc hap te r s .T hese f i nds o f fe rc onc re te e xamp le so ft he t ype so fl i nk s wh i ch t he d a ta s t ud ied b y Z imme r a nd C raw fo rd h ad s e emed t o i nd ica te f o r t he p e r iod AD400 -800 . S tud ie sf r om ah i s tor ica lp e r spec t ive h ave b een r a re i nt he s e cond h a l fo ft h is c en tu ry .L ew i s( 1 953 ,2 71 -2 )a nd D oher ty ( 1 980 ,6 7 -89 )h ave p rodu ced d i scu s s ion so ft r ade c onnec t ion s , s t i l l u t i l i s ing Z i mme r 's r e fe ren ce s , t hough D oher ty a dd s mo re f r om t he I r i sh p e r spec t ive a nd t akes a c r i t ica lv i ew o fa l l s ou rces .J . F . K enney 's b ibl iog raph ica l s t udy ( Kenney 1 929 ) ,c on ta ined many o bse rva t ion sf o ra mo re p o l i t i ca l ly focu sed r ea s sessmen to fZ imme r 's t h e s i s , wh i ch we re f i naly t aken u p b y E dwa rd J ames i n a n e xce l len t s ho r t s tudy i n 1 982 ( J ame s 1 982 , 3 62 -4 ; J ames 1 977 ,V o l .1 ,2 20 -58 ) .J ames a l so f uly emb ra ced t h ee xam p le o f May r -Har t ing , whose T he C om ing o fC hr i s t i an i ty t o A ng lo -Saxon E ng land b u i l to nt he a pproach o fL ev i son i n u t i l i s ing c ommerc ia l a nd l i t e ra ry e v idence t o c r ea te a mode l t oe xp la in t he q ua l i ty a nd d ive r s i ty o ft h e e a r ly med ieva l C h r is t ian c u ltu re o f Ang lo -Saxon E ng land . I n a t temp t ing t or ea sse ss t he t e x t su t i l i sed b yZ i mme r ,h ow e ve r , J ame s r i gh t ly r e so r t s t ot h e e v iden ce o fi mpor ted c e ram i cs ,r e cogn i s ing t he c omb ined v a lue o fh i s to ry a nd a r chaeo logy i nc r i tque o ft he mode l s wh ich Z imme re s tab l i shed .I fs ub sequen tc r i t ics — fo re xamp le H i l lga r th ( 1 984 , 1 4 -16 ) a nd D uncan ( 1 988 , 7 0 -1 ) —have p o in ted o u t t ha t s t udy a l ong t hese l i ne si ss t i l li n conc lus ive ,t h i sp o in to n ly f u r the rn ece ss i ta tes t he p resen ts t udy .T he i n te rpre ta t ion o ft he c e ram ic e v idence h a s i ndeed b een s t rong ly i nf lu e nced b yt h eh i s to r ica l mode l s ,e spec ia l ly t ho se o fZ imme r , a nd we n eed t oh ave s o me s en s i t iv i ty t ot h ei n terp lay o f h i s to r ica la nd a rchaeo log i ca lp a rad igm so ve rt h eh i s tory o fs cho la r sh ip i nt h i ss ub je c ti fw ea r et og a in mean ing fu l e v idence f r om t he a r chaeo log ica l d a ta c o l lec ted s o f a r . H i s to r ians h ave n o ta lway sr e cogn i sed t h er i chnes so ft h i s

r e la t ion sh ip .T he d eg ree t o wh ich as c ien t i f ic s t udy s uch a s t h eP eacock a nd T homa s1 967 p ape ro nt he p e t ro logy o fE wa re wa sd ependen to n ah i s to r ica l mode ls t i l l may n o tb e f u l ly a pprec ia ted ( Wood ing 1 992 ,2 ;P eacock a nd T homa s 1 967 ,3 9 ) . T h i si sn o tt os ay t ha tt h i sh a sb een an ega t ive i n f luence .I tw i l lb ed emon s t ra ted i nt he p resen ts tudy t ha t s c ien t i f i cs t ud ies o fg l a ss r equ i re s im i la ri n teg ra t ion w i th n on -sc ien t i f ic d a ta t ob e mean ing fu lo u t s ide o ft he t e chno l og i ca l -h i s to ry p a rad igm ( S ander son , Hun te ra nd Wa r ren 1 984 ;f o ra l ternat ive a pp roa che s :C ampbel 1 989b ; Wood ing 1 992 ,2 4 ) . T he v a lue o fa ni n teg ra ted h i s to r ica la nd a r chaeo l og i ca la pproach may b es e ta ga in s tt he t endency t oi n t ro d uce n ew a pproaches i n to a r chaeo log i ca li n terpre ta t ion , wh i ch s t em f r om n on -h i s to r ica lb a ses ,s uch a ss ubs tan t iv i s t e conom ic mode l s ( e .g . Hodges 1 982 ) . T he a pp l ica t ion o f s uch mode l s t ot h e a r chaeo logy o ft he wes tern s ea lanes h a sb een p a tchy . Hodges h a sa t temp ted t oi den t i fy s i tes i n I r e land a c co rd ing t o as ubs tan t iv i s t t ypo logy ( Hodge s 1 975 ,1 9 f f ;1 989 ,6 7 ) ,b u to f ten t he c r i te r ia s eem t oo v ague . T he a s sump t ion t h a ti s lands a r e mo re l i ke ly t ob et r ad ing s i te s ,f o re xamp le ,i sn o ts ou nques t ionab le t ha ta ny i s land w i th i mpor ted a r te fac ts mu s tb e a s sumed t ob e ama jo r p or t .B yc on t ra s tw i th t he e mpor ia o ft he Nor th S ea b as in , c oa s ta ls i tes w i th i mpor t sa l ong t he w es tern s ea lane s d o n o tr evea lt he s o r t so fl ong s equen ce s wh ich c an a l low u s t ob es u re t ha tt r ade was t h e i rr a i son d ' ê tr e . C ampbe l la nd L ane , whose a rgumen t sc ommand r e spec to nt he s t reng th o f t he i r t ho rough r ev i s ion o f t he d a tabase , a rgue f o r a d om inance o fs e cu la rs i te so ve rt he t r ad ing s ys tem ( Lane 1 994 ) ,a sd oes T homa s( 1 990 ) .S ubs tan t iv is tt e rm ino logy , h oweve r , i n t roduce s ap ecu l ia r ly i mprec i se f l avour t o s o me a rgumen t s . Dunadd , wh ich L ane c onv inc ing ly d e p i c t s a s a n i mpo r tan t e xchange s i te , i sr epresen ted a s ' c on t ro l l ing ' i mpo r t s a nd p roduc t ion o f p res t ige g oods ( N ieke a nd Duncan 1 988 ,1 7 ;L ane 1 994 ,1 09 -112 ) ,b u to ne i sl e f t wonde r ing wha tt he wo rd ' c on t ro l 'a ctualy means i nt h i sc ase .T ha tv a luab le i mpo r t s wou ld n eed t oc ome i n u nder r oya lf r anch i se i sh i s to r ica l ly l i ke ly ( s ee b e low ,6 8 f f ) a nd f i t s t he a r chaeo log i ca l d i s t r ibu t ion , a s L ane ( 1 994 ) d emon s t ra tes . Why as e cu la rr u le r wou ld wan tt o' c on t ro l ' t h ei mpo r ta t ion o fp igmen t su sed i n manusc r ip tp a in t ing ( Lane 1 994 , 12 ) ,h oweve r ,i sn o ta ta l lc l ea r .T he d eba te o n e xchange s y s tem s a l so c a r r ie s w i th i tt he t emp ta t ion t o make e v iden ce f i t t he n a r row t e rm s o f t he p a rad igm . A rno ld ( 1 983 ,1 81 -2 )h a sr i gh t ly c r i t ic i sed t he a s sump t ion t ha tp o t te ry i sp e rs et ob e t aken a s a n i nd ica to r o fc om me r ce —excep t whe re t he p o t te ry i su nques t ionab ly a c on ta ine rf o rt r aded g ood s .T he l a t te ri sc e r ta in ly t r ue o f t h ei mpor ted amphorae o ft h es i x th c entu ry ,f o re xamp le , b u tn o to f Ewa re —wh ich c anno tb ec onv inc ing ly s hown t ob e ac on ta iner f o rt r ade g oods ( s ee b e low ,8 1 ) . T he p o in t wh ich we h ave r eached i nt h is t op ic i so ne t h en where w es e ef r esh e v idence o f fe r ing t he p o ten t ia lt o d a te a nd mo re c l ea r ly t r ack t h ep a t te r no fc ommun i ca t ion a nd c omme rce . T he i n f luen ce o f e x te rna l p a rad igm s i s s t rong ,h oweve r ,i n ways wh ich h ave s o mewha tc on fu sed t h e r a the r s c a t te red d a ta a nd o u r r ev i s ion mus t r ema in c on sc ious o ft h is u nusua lm ixture o fd a ta a nd t heory .

5

C hap ter Two

I n t roduc ing t he We s te rn S ea lane s —Geog raphy , T echno logy a nd S eaman sh ip

J ul iu s C aesa r 's a ccoun t o fh i s n ava l c ampa ign o f5 6 B C a ga in s tt he V ene t io fA rmo r ica —ou ro lde s ts urv iv ing f i r s t h and a ccoun to fw e s tern s ea lanes n av iga t ion —make sa n a ppo s i te s t a r t ing p o in tf o ra ni n t roduc t ion t ot he p e r son a l i ty o ft he wes te rn s ea lanes . T he mode m s cho lar 's p e r s pec t ive ,l i ke C ae sa r 's ,i su nde rp inned b y Med i ter ranean v iews o f t he r o le o f t e chno logy a nd c ommerce —w i th Med i ter ranean s h ip t e chno logy h av ing b een a dop ted b y n or the rn E u rope a f te rt he f ou r teen th c en tury AD ( Unger 1 980 ,2 34 f f ) . F o rC aesa r , t h eA t lan t i c wa sa sf e a r some a n o pponen ta st he V ene t it hem se lves :' b ecause t he d i f f icu l ty o fn av iga t ion o n av a s ta nd o pen s ea ,w i th s t rong t i de sa nd f ew —nay ,s c arce ly a ny —ha rbou r s wa se x t reme '( s umm aqu e e r a tv a s to a t que a p e r to m an, m an i s a e s t ibu s , r a r i s a cp r opo r e n u l l i sp o r t ibu s ,d if i cu l ta sn av ig and i :B e l lum G a l l i cum 1 1 .12 , e d . & t r an s . E dwa rds 1 917 , 1 54 -5 ) . Wh i le p ar ts o f t he Med i ter ranean ,s uch a st he A egean , may b en o ted f o rt he i r s t rong w inds a nd s t orm s ,t h e re a re f ew a pprec iab le t i des t oc ompl i ca te s a i l ing o rt o make l and ing ac omp lex t a sk : ' t hey [ t he R oman s ] c ou ld s e e t ha tn av iga t ion o n al a nd l o cked s ea wa s q u i te d i f fe ren t f r om n av iga t ion o n a n O cean v e ry v as ta nd o pen '( a cl o ng ea l i am e s s en av iga t ionem i nc on c luso m an ia t que i nv a s t i s s imo a t qu ea p e r t i s s imo O c e ano p e r sp i c ib an t : B e l lum G a l l i cum 1 1 .9 , e d . &t r an s . E dwa rds 1 917 , 1 50 -1 ) . E ven d u r ing t he s um me r— the t ime o fC ae s ar ' sv i s i t— the we s tern s ea lane sa r en o ted f o ru np red ic t a b le a nd s h if t ing w inds a nd f o rt h e i rw ide t i da lr ange . C aesa r ,w i th c ha ra c te r i s t ic a dap tab il i ty , was a b le t o d eve lop n ew t a c t i cs t o s ucce ss fuly c omp le te h i s c am p a ign ( Be l lum G a l l i cum 1 1 .12 -15 , e d . E dwa rds 1 917 , 1 52 9 )— indeed , t he B r i t i sh s ea s w e re t ob e t h e o n ly t hea t re whe re c ompro m i se was r egu la r ly made i nR oman me th o ds o fs h ipbu i ld ing ( Ma rsden 1 972 , 14 -27 ) . C aesa r 's e xpe r ience ss e ta ne xamp le t ot he h i s to r ian wh i ch n eeds t ob ea pprec ia ted i na l li t sd imen s ion s . T he s oc ie t ies wh i ch h ave e x i s ted a l ong t he w e s te r ns ea lane s h ave r egu la r ly n av iga ted t h ese f o rb idd ing wa te r s ,f i nd ing v a r ious t e chno log ica ls o lu t ion st ot he c ond i t ion s .I n i t ia l ly d i sconcer t ing , t he c ond i t ions c ommand r e spec t , b u t a r e n o ts ot e r r i fy ing a st oc ompe lt r aveler st og oo ver land b y p re fe rence , o r t os upppo r ta rgumen t s r ega rd ing t he =s u i tab i l i ty o fc e r ta in t ypes o fc r a f t— such a sc u rach s— fo r l ong -d i s tance v oyag ing . A t a l t ime s , h oweve r , t he g eo g raph ica l f a c tor s r ender s o me c ho ice s o fr ou te a nd s h ip d es ign mo re e f fec t ive t han o ther s .A t ten t ion t ot he i n f lu e nce o fi nd iv idua lf a c tor s may e xp la in p a r t icu la rc ho ice s o fr ou te ,l o ca t ion o fp o r ts i tes a nd o fv esse ld es ign , wh ich o the rw ise may s e em a rb i t ra ry .

6

T h roughou tt h i s ,h owever , we n eed t or ema in c on sc iou s t ha t t h e b u lk o f t he e v idence i nd ica tes a d ive r se a nd a dap tab le mar ine t e chno logy a nd c apac i ty . T h i sa l one — b egg ing q ue s t ion ss uch a s whe the rt h eC e l t ic g roup su sed wooden c r a f to r whe the rt he G erman i cp eop le sk new t he u se o ft he ma s ta nd s a i l— i ss u f f icen tt oi nd ica te t ha t mos t v oyages o fl ong o rs ho r td i s tance w e re p o ss ib l e .T h i ss hou ld n o t , h oweve r , l e ad u s t o t he p a ss ive h ype r -d i f fu s ion i s t c onc lu s ion t ha tt he re mu s th ave b een c on s tan ts ea t r ave l . R a the r ,i tf o r ces u st oc on f ron tt he a c tua lr ange o ff a c to r s— s oc ia l , e conom i c , p ol i t ica l , c u l tu ra l —wh i ch b r ing a bou t t he e x i s ten ce o fl ong -d i s tance c ommun ica t ion . T he W e s te rn S e a l an e s :e x t en ta nd g ene r a lc har ac t e r T he w es te rn s ea lane s ,f o ro u rp urpo se s ,a re d e f ined b yt he h i s tor i ca la nd a r chaeo log ica le v idence f o rt r a f f ic ;a nd b y p rev iou sh i s to r iog raphy ( a l so s ee a bove ,i i ) .B owen ,a f ter t r ac ing t he g row th o f i n te res t i n t he ' we s tern s eaways ' f r om a ni n i t ia lc on ce r nw i th l i nk sw i th in B r i t i sh w a te r st o amode li n c lud ing F ran ce a nd S pa in ( Bowen 1 969b ,1 4 -16 ) , e x tended C raw fo rd 's d e f in i t ion o f we s te r ns eaways f u r t he r t o i n c lude t he s ea s o f f t he w e s tern c oa s t s o f t he e n t i re ty o fE u rope . T h i s i sa n a rea a pprox ima te ly 2 , 500 k i lome t re s f r om t h e n or the rn t o t h e s ou the r ne nd s . T he ' c la ss i c 'q ua l i ty o ft h is d e f in i t ion i sn ow e ven r e f lec ted i n i t su se i n ar e cen ts choo lt e x t -book ( F ac t so nF i le 1 990 , 1 2 6 ) . B owen wou ld a l so e x tend t he w e s te r n s eaways t o i n c lude t he F ae roes a nd e ven I c e land ( Bowen 1 972 ,9 2 f f ) a nd B u l lough ,i n ar e cen ta s ide ,r e fe r st ot he H eb r ides a s b e ing ' a tt he n o r th -ea s te rn e x t rem i ty o ft he w es te r nS ea way s '( Bulough 1 982 ,8 1 ) .L ew i sa nd R unyan ,r e fe rt o' a C e l t i c A t lan t ic t ha la ssoc racy . . . c en t r ing a round t h e I r ish S ea a nd B r i t tany a nd e x tend ing s ou th t oC oru t ia i nI b e r ian G a l ic ia a nd n o r th t o t he S he t land a nd O rkney I s lands ' ( Lew i sa nd R unyan 1 985 ,1 5 ) .T homa s mo re o rl e ss a c cep t s t h i s d e f in i t ion , t hough r i gh t ly n o t ing t he l i ke ly c hanges a c ro s s t ime ( Thomas 1 990 , 1 0 -11 ) , wh ich wou ld s e e t he e x i s ten ce o fl i nk sf r om o ne e nd o ft he s ea lane st ot h eo ther a so n ly o cca s iona la nd e p i sod ic . Ove rt he f ou rc en tu r ies u pon wh i ch t h ep re sen ts t udy f o cu ses ,t here wa si ndeed n oc on s i s ten tp a t tern o fa c t iv i ty . F o ro u rp u rpo se s ,h ow e ve r , w e may f o l low T homas 's e xamp le a nd a c cep t a wo rk ing d e f in i t ion o f t he w es te r n s ea lane s a s r unn ing f r om G ibra l ta rn o r th t oD a l r iada . On ly p a ss ing t r ea tmen t w i l l b e g iven t oA t lan t ic I r e land n o r th o f t he S hannon mou th a nd t o S co t land n o r th o f K in ty re . F o r r e a sons o u t l ined i nt h i ss t udy i tw i l lb ec on tended t ha tt h el a t ter

C hap t er T wo :I n troduc ing t h e W es t ern S ea lane s

a r ea s r ea l ly r equ ire s epa ra te t r ea tmen t —a s t h ey a ppea r n o tt oh ave c onnec ted d i rec t ly w i th t he s ea lane s f u r the r s ou th i n a ny r egu la r way . B e fo re o u r p er iod , t he e a r ly G reek e xp lo rers o ft he A t lan t i c ( c .325 -100 B C ) may h ave s a i led we s twa rd a round I r e land .L ikew ise a f te r8 00 AD ,i n t h eV ik ing A ge ,t he re was r egu la rc on tac tb e tween n o r th a nd s ou th v i a s uch r ou te s . I n t h e p er iod AD400 -800 , h oweve r , ma r i t ime a c t iv i ty t ot h ew e s ta nd n o r th o fS co t l and s eem st oh ave b een mos t ly s epa ra te f r om t he we s te r n s ea lane sr ou tes u pon wh ich t h ep resen ts tudy i sf o cused . I twou ld s eem t ob ef undamen ta lt ha t as t udy o fs ea t r ave l a l ong t he we s te r n o r n or the r n s ea lanes s hou ld c ons ide rt h ei n f luence o ff a c to r ss uch a s ma r i t ime t opog r aphy a nd s h ip t e chno logy .I ti ss urp r i s ing t h en t ha te ven ab ook e n t i t led T he N or the rn S e a s ( Lew i s 1 959 ) a c tualy s ays l i t t le o rn o th ing c once rn ing t h es ea i t se l f . On ly af ew s t ud ies —a s o mewha ts pecu la t ive d i s cuss ion o ft he d i s t r i b u t ion o f megal i th s ( Dav ie s 1 946 ,4 0 -6 ) , Wa rne r 's ( 1 976 ) d i scuss ion o fR oman ma te r ia l , McGra i l 's ( 1 983 )o fc ro ss c hanne lt r ade a nd Waddel 's ( 1 991 -2 )o fp reh i s to r ic d i s t r i b u t ion s— take s e r iou sa ccoun to ft h e ma r ine g eog raphy o f t he we s te r ns ea lane s .I n forma t ion a bou t ma r i t ime c ond i t i on so ft h ew es te rn s ea lane sc an b eo b ta ined f r om p ub l i c a t ion s o f t h e Adm i ra l ty Hyd rog raphe r a nd f r om t he o bse rva t ion so fa c tua l ma r ine r s ,p resen ta nd p a s t .T he u se o ft hese modern s ou rces o fc ou r se r a i ses q ue s t ion s a st o whe the rt h ec ond i t ion so ft he t wen t ie th c en tury a re c om p arab le w i th t hose wh ich o b ta ined i nt he e a r ly med ieva l p er iod . McG ra i lh a sa ddre ssed t h i sp o in ta ts ome l e ng th ( McGra i l 1 983 , 3 03 -4 ) . T he re i se v idence t os ugges t t ha t c ond i t ion sp r io rt oc i r ca 1 300 w e re a tt imes s l igh t ly wa rme r t han i nt h ep resen td ay .B yt he m id f i r s tm ilenn ium AD , h oweve r ,t h e mos tp ro found t empe ra tu re c hanges we re a m i l lenn ium i n t he p a s t , t hough we m igh t a s sume a n a verage o f aweek o rt wo mo re o ff i ne r wea the ro n ay ea r ly b a s i sa nd s l igh tl e ssen ing o ft h ed ange ro fe xpo su re i nc o ld w ea the r .I s o tope l e ve l si nc ore st a ken f r om t h eG reen land p erma f ro s ts ugges tt ha tt he p e r iod c . 500 -700 wa ss l igh t ly c o lder t han t he p er iod si m med ia te ly p reced ing a nd s uc c eed ing i t( Dan sgaa rd e ta l . 1 975 , 2 5 ; L amb 1 977 ; L amb 1 992 , 1 26 ) ,b u t t he n e t d i f fe rence f r om t he p resen t d ay may b e a c coun ted n eg l ig ib le . T he re i sl i t t le o ther t han i nd i rec te v idence f o rc hanges i na i rp ressure .I nt he a r ea o f c oa s t l ine c hanges t h ere a r e p robab ly g rea te r d i sc repan c i es .T he E ng l i sh C hanne lh a sb een e spec ialy v o la t i le i n t h i sr ega rd .T he e s t ima ted s t eady r i se i ns ea l e ve la nd r a te o fe ros ion i nt he l a t te rr eg ion wou ld i mp ly t h en eed f o r s o me c a re i nu s ing modern p i lo t manua l s .S t i l la ny c hange wou ld mo s t ly b ew i th in t he mode r nt i da lr ange . S c i l ly i s a ne xcep t ion ,i np a r td ue t oi t si nd iv idua lt e r ra in , wh i ch i s s uscep t ib le t oi nunda t ion o n as c a le n o tr ep l i ca ted e ven o n t he n e ighbou r ing c oa s t l ine ( Devoy 1 990 ; Hawk in s 1 971 ; T oo ley 1 990 ) . T he c l i ma te ( Buchanan 1 989 ;C o les a nd B lack 1 970 ; C o t ter 1 974 ; Hydrog rapher 1 970 ;1 974a ;1 974b ;K ing 1 893 ; P ryor 1 988 ; Nava lI n te l l igen ce D iv i s ion 1 941 )o ft he w e s t e rn c oa s t so fE urope i sd om ina ted b yt h eA t lan t ic p res su re s ys tem s . S imp ly , t h ese a r et wo p ressu re c en t re s : t he o ne h igh , i nt h e v i c in i ty o ft he A zo re s ; t h e o the r l ow , i nt he v i c in i ty o fe a s tern G reen land .T he f o rmer h a sd om inance

i nt he s umme r mon th s ,t he l a t te ri nw in ter .P res su re i sl ow o ve rt he c on t inen ti ns umme ra nd t he Nor th -A t lan t ic l ow p re ssu re s y s tem w eaken s .T he A zo res h igh p re ssu re c en t r e b ecome s a round 2 m i l l iba r s h igher a nd moves 2 ° f u r the rn or th w i th a ne x ten s ion e a s tt owa rds t h e B ay o f B i scay . I n t he w in ter t h e No r th A t lan t i c l ow -pressu re c en t re moves t o6 5° n o r th l a t itude a nd p res sure b ecomes h ighe r o ve r t he c on t inen t , w i th a n e x ten s ion w es twa rd i n to t he A t lan t i cf r om t h e Med i te r ranean .T hese p ressu re c hange sb r ing s ea sona lc hanges i nw ea the rp a t te rn s .A long t h e wes te rn s ea lane s ,f r om B i scay n or thwa rd ,w inds a re c h ief ly f r om t he s ou th -wes ta nd we s ta t mo s tt imes o ft he y ea r . No r th a nd e a s tw inds a re a tt he i r mos tf r equen ti n F ebruary , Ma rch , Apr i la nd May .T he f r equency o fg a les i s mos tp ro found ly a f fec ted b ys ea sona lc hange i np ressu re s y s tem d eve lopmen t .8 0% o fg a le so ccu rb e tween O c tober a nd Ma rch , t he mos t s eve re i n D ecember a nd J anua ry . Mos t g a le s c ome f r om t h e s ou th -wes ta nd we s t . F o r t he w e s tc oa s to fS pa in a nd P o rtuga lw inds t end mo re t ot he n o r th a nd w e s ti ns um me r( Pen i en t e s )t han f u r the rn o r th . Swel i n mo s t r eg ion s o f t he w es te rn s ea lane s t ends t o f olow t h ep reva i l ing w ind . Wind si nt he we s tern Med i te r r anean i n s pr ing w i l l o f ten b e e a s te r ly , k nown a s t he L ev an t er ,f avou r ing e x i tf r om t he Med i te r ranean i n to t he w e s tern s ea lane s . B u t i nt he A t lan t ic , V endeva l e s , s ou th w es te r ly w inds b r ing ing b ad wea ther a nd p oor v i s ib il i ty , a r ec ommon f r om Novembe rt o Apr i l .T hese o ccu ra sf a r n o r th a sG a l ic ia ,b u te a rl i e ri nt he s eason t han i nt he s ou th o f S pa in . I n g ene ra l , t h e i n ten s i ty o f w ind a nd s wel g radualy i n c rea se sa so ne t r ave l sn or th f r om G ib ra l ta r . T he s t rong i n c iden ce o f we s te r ly w ind s makes c oa s t h ugg ing p a r t icu la r ly u n sa fe ,e xcep to nt he f ew e a s twa rd f a c ing c oa s t s —wh i ch ,c onver se ly ,h ave o bs t ruc t ive s l ack wa te r z one s . Whe re t he p redom inan t w ind i sf r om o f f s ho re , av es se l w i thou t t he a b i l i ty t o s a i l e f fec t ive ly t o w indwa rd r un s t h e r i sk o fb e ing d r iven o n to t he s hore e i the rb ys t reng then ing o ft he w ind ,o ru pon t he t u rn ing o f t h e t i de . A s we s ha l ls e eb e low , t h ere i ss t rong e v idence t ha te a r ly med ieva lc r a f th ad n ex tt on oa b il i ty t op e r form t ow indwa rd . T hough o bv ious ,i ti ss t i l l wor th p o in t ing o u tt ha tt h ew es twa rd fac ing c oas t so ft he w e s tern s ea lane s a r e o f ten p en in su las . C o t te r ( 1 974 , 4 ) o bserve s t ha t t he No r th A t lan t ic h a s ag rea te rp ropo r t ion o fp en in su la st han a ny o the r s ea . T he c oa s tl ine o f t h e A t lan t i c i si ndeed g rea te ri nl e ng th t han t ha to fb o th t he o ther o cean sc om b ined ( Ou thwa i te 1 957 , 4 8 ) . On ly t he e x t reme e nds o f t h e se p en in su la sa c tualy f a ce we s ta nd o nt h es ou th c oa s t o fs uch ap en in su la as h ip c an b ec augh ti n ad ange rou sl e e t ha tw il r equ i re sc ons ide rab le s a i l ing s ou th a nd wes tt o e x t r ica te i t se l f , o f ten i n t he f a ce o f ap reva i l ing w ind . F l ood t ide c an o f ten d r ive s uch av esse l , c augh t i n t h i s p o s i t ion , o n to t he s ho re . T h i s i s af o rm o f' embaymen t ' : whereby av esse lb ecomes l and locked ,w i th e i the rw ind o r t i de o bs t ruc t ing i t s o n ly p a th o f e x i t . Open ing s i n t he w e s te rn c oas t sa r ei n ten s i f ied i nt he i rd ange r sb y af u r the r f a c to r .D i rec t ly f a c ing t h ep reva i l ing w ind a nd s wel ,t h e E ng l i sh a nd B r is to l Channe l s a nd t he B ay o fB i scay a re s ub jec t t o ' f unne l l ing ' , e spec ialy t he E ng l i sh C hanne l mou th .T h i sp henomenon ,c aused b yt he n a r row ing in o f l a ndma s se s t oe i the r s i de , c auses t i da l p a t te r n s o fg rea t

7

C ommun ica t ion a nd C ommer ce a long t h e W e s tern S ea lane s AD400 -800

c omp lex i ty a nd u p t o2 0% s t reng then ing o ft h ew ind . I n t he s ou th o f t he B ay o f B i scay t h e s a me p henomenon o b ta ins . T he re t he p reva i l ing w ind i sn or the r ly a nd a r ugged c oa s tf a ces i t ,w i th o n ly ah and fu lo fs a fe h a rbour s . T ide sa re t he mos ts i gn i f ican tv ar iab le e l emen ti n wes tern s ea lane s n av iga t ion . C au sed p redom inan t ly b y t he a c t ion o ft he Moon 's g rav i ta t iona l e f fec t s u pon t h e o cean , t hey a re ,h oweve r ,s i gn i f i can t ly i n f luen ced b yt o p og raphy a nd t he a c t ion o fw ind -gene ra ted c u r ren t s .T h i s a spec t o ft h ep ersonal i ty o ft he w e s tern s ea lane s wa s t o f a sc ina te C la ss ica l g eog raphe rs ( e .g . S t rabo , G eog r aph i c a 1 1 .3 .3 ,e d .D ew ing 1 949 ,V o l .2 ,6 6 -7 ) .T ida ls t ream sa re a l l b u ta bsen tf r om t he Med i te r ranean , whe re t r ave l may i n c on t ras ti nvo lve s a i l ing f r om p en in su la e nd t op en in su la e nd ( S eve rn , p e r s . c omm . ) t hus r ender ing a ny i npu t o f mode ls f r om a nc ien t Med i ter ranean n av iga t ion p rac t i ce s i n to t he i n terpre ta t ion o fn or the rn E uropean c a se s m i s l e ad ing .P en insu la si nt he n or the r ns e as o f ten d iv ide t i da l s t reams o nd i f feren tt ime tab les a nd h ave ,a cco rd ing ly ,a n e xce ss ive ly v o la t i le c ha rac te r . None the le ss , t i des a r e a r egu la rv ar iab le f a c to ri n ar eg ion whe re mo s tv a r ia t ion si n ma r ine c ond i t ions a re o n ly v ague ly p red ic tab le .T he re i s n o d oub tt ha te a r ly ma r ine r s mu s th ave b een e x t reme ly c on sc iou s o f , a nd k now ledgeab le c once rn ing , t i da l p a t t e rn s .T ides i nt he we s tern s ea lane sb r ing e x t reme c hange s i ns ea leve l . T ides a l so b eg in t or un a td i f fe ren tt ime si n d i f fe ren tp a r t so ft he s ea lane s . Ak now ledge o ft h er e la t ive t ime s o f c hange o f t i de s c an b e o f g rea t a s s i s tan ce t o n av iga to r s . A ma r ine rr ound ing t h et i po fL and ' sE nd ,f o r e xamp le , h av ing t aken af a vourab le e bb o u t o f Moun t 's B ay — leav ing a th a l fe bb —can p i ck u p an ine -hou rt i de u p t he B r is to lC hanne l( K ing 1 893 ,2 2 ) . Wi th in t he I r i sh S ea c ond i t ion s h ave a lway s a f f e c ted t he p a t tern s o ft r a f f ic . T he t i da l r ange w i th in t he z one e xh ib i t sg rea tv ar ie ty :l e ss t han 2m b e tween A r ldow a nd Wex fo rd ,b u tr each ing b e tween 6 8m a l ong t h eL an c ash i re c oa s t ( Buchanan 1 989 , 3 ) . N e i the r o f t he se e x t r eme s i sb e s t s u i ted t on av iga t ion f o r t he ma r ine r who w i she s t o work t he t i des . Whe re t h e t i des a r e a tt h e i r weake s t ,b e tween I s le o f Man a nd S tJ ohn 's P o in to nt h e c oas t o f I r e land , t he s ha l low wa te r s y i e ld e xcep t iona l l e ve l s o f ma ckere l a nd h er r ing ( Bu chanan 1 989 , 4 ) , b u t n av iga t ion i sh ampe red b y s l ack w a ter . G ene raly l ow wave h e igh t sa l ong t he e a s tc oas to fI r e land make i tmo re h osp i tab le t han t he e a s te rn s hore o ft h eI r ish S ea ,b u tt h e se a re a ccompan ied b yf r equen ts ha l lows a nd s andba r sb e t ween Wex fo rd a nd Dub l in ( Buchanan 1 989 ,5 ) .T he t i da l s t reams e n te r ing t he I r i sh S ea f r om n or th a nd s ou th mee t a tt he I s le o f Man , mak ing i tal og ica ls t ag ing -po in tf o rt h e ma r iner wo rk ing t he t i des o n an o r th to -sou th v oyage .I n t he n o r th o ft he I r i sh S ea i ti sp os s ib le t o wo rk t h e t i de s f l ow ing i n to t he C lyde e s tua ry . T he t i da l f l ow o f t h e c hanne lb e tween F a i rhead a nd K in ty re ,h oweve r ,i sf e a r s ome ,b e ing f unneled u pt o as peed o ff i ve k no t s( Buchanan 1 989 ,3 ) . I n s uch s t rong t i da l wa te r s t h e t i de i so f ten t h e p r inc ipa l f a c to r wh ich a f fec t s p l ann ing f o r aj ou r n ey . P rog ress a ga ins tt he t i de c an b en eg l ig ib le ,e xcep tw i th t h e s t ronges t o ff o l low ing w inds . S h ips s t randed b y t h e r e t r ea t ing t i de c ou ld b e p rey f o r ' l ong sho remen ' , a n e x t r eme ly c ommon f o rm o fp i racy i na l l ma r i t ime s oc ie t ie s . 8

T he w es tern c oa s t so fE urope a nd t he B r i t i sh I s les h ave ah aza rdou ss c a t ter ing o fr ock sa nd s hoa l s . Af r igh t e n ing c o l lec t ion o fs hoa ls a nd o f f sho re r ock se x i s t so f ft he we s tern e nd o fB r i t tany :L e sP la t re s se sa nd t he s ubme rged r ock s o f L a P la te l a V iele , l i e d 'Ouessan t a nd T i e d e B en ique t . T he re a re s t rong t i da l s t reams among s tt hese . L ands E nd ,i nC o rnwal ,a l so h as d ange rous r o ck so f ft he s ou the rnmo s t t i p a nd i n t he n o r the rn l e e , s uch a s t he L ong sh ip s .T he re i sn oe v idence t h a te a r ly med ieva l mar i n e r sa c tua l ly u sed t he r ou tes c l ose i na round t h em l e ad ing i n to t he C hanne l ,t hough l o ca lt r a f f ic may we l lh ave d one s o . Wi th d e ta i led l o ca lk now ledge i ti sp oss ib le ,f o re xam p le ,t os a i li n ac hanne lb eh ind t he ma in r ee f so fU shan t , s he l te red f r om t h eo f f sho re w ind s( Hydrographe r1 974c ; McGra i l1 983 ,3 21 ) .L ong -d i s tance v oyagers ,h oweve r ,a re mo re l i ke ly t oh ave g iven t he m aw ide b er th . S h ipp ing T he e l emen t s t e rmed b y Marx ( 1 930 , 1 72 ) t h e ' v a scu lar s y s tem s o f p roduc t ion ' , n ame ly s h ip s a nd c on ta iner s , p rov ide v i ta li n fo rma t ion a bou tt h ec apac i ty o fo ve r sea s t r an spo r t .S ome a t ten t ion i sg iven t ot h i st op ic i ng enera l b ook so ne a r ly med ieva lt r ade a nd c ommun ica t ion ,t hough r a re ly c o mprehen s ive ly .L ew i s( 1 959 ,4 5 -8 )d i scu s ses s h ip t ypes , a s d oe s Hodges ( 1 989 , 9 4 -103 ) i na no the r g enera l s urvey , wh i le Ma rcus i n teg ra tes s uch d a ta w i th as t udy o f n av iga t ion t e chn iques ( Ma rcus 1 980 ,5 -15 ;1 00 -18 ) .B owen , h oweve r ,d oe sn o td i scu ss a ny o ft h e se ma t ter si nd ep th . T he s i tua t ion i sl i t t le b e t ter i ng ene ra ls u rveys o f ma r i t i me h i s tory ,h oweve r ,w i th d i scu ss ion o fp reh is to r i ca nd e a r ly med ieva l s ea fa r ing — the work o f McGra i l a nd F a r rel b e ing a n e xcep t ion —be ing c harac ter i sed b y a n o ver ly e vo lu t iona ry a pp roach a nd o f ten u nc r i t ica l t r ea tmen t o f s ou rce s . I ti se a sy t ob e t oo n ega t ive i n mak ing n e ces sary c r i t ic ism o ft he d e f ic ien c ies o fr e sea r ch i n to e a r ly n o r the r n E u ropean ma r i t ime h i s tory a nd i nd o ing s o d eva lue t he v ery i mpo r tan t c on t r ibu t ions made b y e xper imen ta l a r c haeo log i s t sa nd ama teu rh i s tor ian s .S ome o ft he d e f i c ien c i es o ft he i n terp re ta t ion s o f ma r i t ime h i s tor ian sa nd a r c haeo log i s t s c an b e a t t r ibu ted t o t h e t r ea tmen t o ft he ir d i sc ip l ine s a s a r cane s pec ia l i t ies , d i s t inc t f r om ' ma in s t ream 'h i s to ry a nd a r chaeo logy ( Ba s s1 966 ,1 10 ;H aywood 1 991 , 2 5 ) . I t may n o tb ef a i r t ob lame t hose wo rk ing o n i nd iv idua l a nd t e chn ica l a spec t s f o r t h e f a i lu re o f t he b roade rd i sc ip l ines t od eve lop ah umane v iew o ft h er o le o ft he s ea i ns oc ie ty . Ma r i t ime t e chno logy i s as i gn i f i can t c hap te r i nt h e t r an s i t ion f r om p reh i s to ry t o t h e m idd le a ge si nn o r the rn E u rope ,y e ti ti sr a re ly s t ud ied i nc onnec t i on w i th t he b roader p a rad igm o ft e chno log i ca lh i s tory ( Maar leve ld 1 995 , 4 ) . S h ips a re b y d e f in i t ion mob i le , s o t e chn ica l i nnova t ion s may move f r om o ne r eg ion t oa n o the r i nt h e f a br i c o f ma r i t ime a r ch i tecture . Change s i n ma r i t ime t e chno logy may b e i nd ica to r s o f f a sh ion s a nd i nf luence si nb roade rt e chno log ica lc hange ,y e t at e ndency t o s ee s h ip t ype s a s e thn ica l ly d i s t in c t a nd i nvo lv ing a s epa ra te t e chno logy may o b scure t h i s .F o re xamp le ,e ven t hough t h ei nf luence o fR oman d e s ign s may h ave b een f e l t i nI r e land f r om q u i te a n e a r ly d a te , a se v inced b y e a r ly L a t in l oanwo rds f o r wooden s h ips , ar e cen tf i nd o f av es se l

C hap t er T wo : I n troduc ing t h e W es te rn S ea lane s

o f mor t i ce -and tenon c on s t ruc t ion f r om I r e land i sc on f i d en t ly d e s igna ted a' Roman 's h ip , whe re i tmay b es imp ly R oman i n f luence u pon n a t ive s h ip d es ign ( B r ind ley a nd L an t ing , 1 990 , 1 0 -11 ) . S impl i s t ic e qua t ion s a r e made o f p a r t icu la rs h ip t ypes w i th p a r t icu la re thn ic g roups such a sB r i t i sh a nd I r i sh C e l t sw i th c u rach s ;S cand inav ian sw i th c l inker -bu i l tc ra f t . S uch mode l so fe thn i cd i f fe rence h ave g iven r i se t oc onvo lu ted a rgumen t ss uch a sB owen s e e ing t h eB ro igh te rb oa t mode la sr epre sen t ing as k in -cove red v esse l( Bowen 1 972 ,1 87 ,c ap t ion t oP la te 3 )a nd Hodges 's a t temp tt oe xp la in t he wooden U t rech ts h ip a ss im i la ri n s hape t o ac urach ( Hodge s1 989 ,9 7 ) .T he c ho ice t ou se o ne o ft he a va i lab le t ypes o fs h ip t e chno logy wa s d oub t less more ama t ter o f t he a ppropr ia tenes s o ft he t ype t ot h e f unc t ion a nd i t sa f fo rdab il i ty t ot h ep e r son sw i sh ing t ou se i t( Unge r1 980 ,4 0 -1 ,2 53 f f )t han ama t te ro fe thn ic t r ad i t ion . S ome G e rman ic g roups we re c l ea r ly w il ing t ou se wha t e ver v e sse l sc a me t oh and a nd t oa dap tt on ew t e chn iques a tn eed . B a rba r ian g roups a r r iv ing o n t h e s ho res o ft he Med i te r ranean q u ick ly u t i l i sed c ap tured c r a f t e . g . i n Aure l iu sV ic tor D eC a e sar ibu s XXX I I I .3 ( c i ted i n Haywood 1 991 , 3 1 ) whe re F rank s c ap tu red a f l ee t a t T a r ragona a round 2 60 AD a nd r a ided t he c oa s t so fA f r ica . Haywood wou ld e ven s ee s h ips f r om P on tu s t aken b ack t o t he R h ine l and b ye scap ing F rank si nt h e2 70 s( Haywood 1 991 , 3 1 ) . We mu s ta cco rd ing ly a s sume t ha tt h e re wa s av a r ie ty o f mar i t ime t e chno logy a va i lab le a tt he c l ose o ft h eR oman p er iod i nn o r the r nE u rope . V a r iou s t ype s o fc r a f tm igh t h ave e x i s ted i n ag iven a r ea ,i nu se f o rd i f fe ren tp urpo se s . T he f olow ing d i scu ss ion s u rvey st h er ange o fe v i d ence f o rt h et ype so fv e s se l sa va i lab le a l ong t h e we s tern s ea lane si nt he R oman a nd e a r ly med ieva lp e r iods . No ta l l o ft he d a ta s urveyed h ere b ea rd i rec t ly u pon t h et he s i so f l ong -d i s tan ce c om mun ica t ion o u t l ined i ns ubsequen tc hap t e rs ,b u ta l lt hese t ype so fc r a f t may h ave b een i nvo lved i n t he r ed i s t r ibu t ive e xchange wh i ch i st h e c on com i tan t o f l ong -d i s tan ce t r a f f ic . Mo reove r , ac omprehen s ive s u rvey o fd a ta o np o ss ib le s h ip t ype si se s sen t ia lt ob u ry ,o nce a nd f o r a l l , s ome o f t he m i sconcep t ion s r ega rd ing t h e r ange a nd c apa c i ty o fv a r ious t ype so fc r a f t . C e l t i cS h ip s T he s t udy o f s ea fa r ing among s t t he C e l t ic p eop le s h a s mo s t ly b een c onduc ted o n ap iecemea lb a s i s . D eba te h a s b een p reo ccup ied w i th wha tF a r rel a nd P enny ( 1 975 ,1 9 ) h ave t e rmed t he ' i nev i tab le a rgumen t a bou t s k in b oa t s a nd wooden b oa t s ' , wh ich t ends t oo ve r look t h ee v idence f o r ar ange o ft ypes o fc r a f ti nu se ( Ho rne l l1 946 , 11 -147 ; Ma rcu s1 980 ,3 -32 ;J ohn s tone 1 964 ,2 77 -8 :f o rc r i t ic ism ,s e e D eC ou r cy I r e land 1 987 ,3 8 ;F a r re l la nd P enny 1 975 ,2 0 ) . C r i t ics o ft h ep reoccupa t ion w i th c urach s ,h oweve r ,h ave t ended t od i ss ipa te t h e i re f fo r t s i nt h e t hank less t a sk o f a t temp t ing t op rove t ha tt he c u ra ch , ah ide -cove red b oa t , wa sn o tc apab le o ft he v oyage sd esc r ibed i ne a r ly med i e va lI r i sh t e x ts ( e .g .D eC ou r cy I r e land 1 987 ,3 8 f f ) . Av ery f ew s t ud ies ( F lanagan 1 975 ,3 8 ; McGra i l1 987 ,1 73 f f )h ave r e cogn i sed t ha tt he I r ish e v idence i nf a c t make sc l ea rt ha t av ar ie ty o fc ra f t , mo s t ly o f wooden c on s t ruc t ion , we re i n u se ,d oub t less f o rd i f fe ren tt ype so fa c t iv i ty a nd b yd i f fe r e n te conom ic g roups .

Many r e fe ren ce s wh ich h ave b een t aken t or e fer t o h ide -cove red c ra f t v ery l i ke ly r e fe r t o wooden v esse l s . Where w e h ave ma t te r -o f fac t r e fe rences t o ad uorum n av i cu la t r an s i torum ( Iwo -benched b oa t ' ) i nD i cu i l( L ib e r d e Men sur aO rb i sT e r r ae v 1 . 1 4 ,e d .T i erney 1 967 ,7 4 ) ,o rv i i s e s e( ' seven -benche r s ' )i nt he c . seven th -cen tu ry t e x tS enchu s f e r n A lban ( ed . B annerman 1 974 , 4 2 , 5 9 -60 ) , i n u se b y e thn icaly I r i sh p eop le ,i ti su n l ike ly t ha tt he se a re c u rach s ( c on tr a Ma rcus 1 953 -4 ,3 25 ;J ohn s tone 1 974 ,2 82 ) . Adomnän ,w r i t ing i nS co t land i nt he l a te s even th c entu ry ,u se s av a r ie ty o ft e rm sf o rs h ips ,i n c lud ing n av i s ( Adomnän ,V i ta C o lumbael .4 ,e d . Ander son a nd Ander son 1 961 ,2 20 ) ,l o ng an av i s( Adomnä r t ,V i ta C o lumbae 1 .45 ,e d . Ander son a nd Ande r son 1 961 ,4 52 )a nd b a r ca ( Adom .nän , V i ta C o lumb ae 1 . 28 ,e d . Ande r son a nd Ander son 1 961 ,2 64 ) . T he h i s tor ic i ty o ft h e ma ter ia ld esc r ip t ion si n Adom .nän 's t e x t , wh ich wa sw r i t ten i nI ona w i th in o n ly ac en tu ry o ft he s a in t 's d ea th a nd wh ich s u rv ives i n amanu scr ip to fe a r ly e i gh th -cen tury d a te , i s much g rea te r t han t ha t o f t he ma jor i ty o ft h eI r i sh v i t ae -mo s to f wh ich s urv ive i nt e x t s w r i t ten a tt h ee a rl i es ti nt he n in th c en tury ( and f r om l a ter manu sc r ip t ss t i l l -Sha rpe 1 991 ,9 12 ;( 5C ao imh 1 989 ,1 7 2 4 ) . Ano the rr el iab le s even th -centu ry s ou rce ,t he I r i sh l aw t e x tU r a i c e ch tB e c c ,s peak si n as im i la rr ange o ft e rm s :l o ng , b ä r ca nd c ur ach ( U r a i c e ch tB e c c ,e d .B inchy C IH 1 978 ,1 615 , 2 280 ,2 332 ,f o rt he t h ree d i f fe ren tr e cen s ion s , wh ich awa i t an ew e d i t ion ) . T he l o ng an av i so f Adomnän ( l i teraly ' l ong s h ip ' )i s c l ea r ly awooden v e sse l . Adomnän d escr ibe sa ni n c iden t ' when d re ssed t imbe r so fp ine a nd o ak f o r al ong s h ip were b e ing d rawn o ver l and ' ( Adomnän , V i ta C o lumb ae 1 .45 , e d . &t r an s . Ande r son a nd Ande r son 1 961 ,4 52 ) .O ld I r i sh l o ng i se v iden t ly ab or row ing f r om t he L a t in t e rm l o ng a n av i s . T he u se o ft h i st e rm f o r' s h ip ' wa sw idespread ,n o t me re ly c on f ined t ot he G ael i c -speak ing g roups .T he M id d l e We l sh wo rd f o rs h ip i s ,l i kew i se , l ong ( e .g . B r anwen u e r ch L y r 1 . 18 , e d . T hom son 1 961 , 1 ) . G i ldas , i n s i x th c en tury B r i ta in ,u se sl o ng an av i sa sc ogna te i n mean ing t o t he G erman ic s t em c yu l - ( De E xc id io XX I I I .3 , e d . Win te rbo t tom 1 978 , 9 7 ) . L ong a n av i s , i nL a t in , i su sed t o d e scr ibe a' wa r sh ip '( E r icsson 1 984 ,1 5 )a nd t he c on tex ti n wh i ch i te n te r s I r i sh may b e t he s ame . C a rney wou ld c ons ide r t h i s av ery e a r ly l o an -wo rd f r om L a t in , o n a c c oun t o fi t s a ppea rance i nt he L e in s te r g enea log ica l p o em s ,a l ong w i th p robab le p re -Ch r i s t ian L a t in t e rms s uch a s : l e g iön ( l eg io ) , m i l ( m i l e s ) , t r ebun ( t r ibunu s ) a nd o ther s ( Ca rney 1 97 1 , 6 9 -70 ) . T he se wo rd s s ugge s t a n i mper ia l c on tex ta nd ,a l li mpor tan t ly , ac omprehen s ion o fR oman c oncep t ion s . S od oes t he f a c tt ha t al o ng an av i si s made o f wood i mp ly t ha t an av i s mus t a l so b e a wooden c r a f t ? T he Ande r son sg lo ss t h et e rm a si nd ica t ing a' wooden s h ip ' , b u t i n d o ing s o t h ey a re a t p a in s t o c o r rec t R eeves 's r ead ing ,a nd amanusc r ip tv ar ian t ,a sn av e s -bel i ev ing i t t o w rong ly s ugges t a monoxy lous ( dugou t ) b oa t ( Adomnän ,V i t aC o lumb a e1 . 36 ,e d . Ande r son a nd Ande r son 1 961 ,2 82n ) .T hey a l so a r ep e rhaps u nconsc ious ly f avou r i ng t he i dea t ha tn av i sa l one i nd ica te s an on -wooden c r a f t , b u tt h i si sn o tc e r ta in . L ong ai so bv iou s ly n o t aq ua l i f ie rt os pec i fy ' wooden ' , h ence wha tt h e mo re g ene r ic n av i s may b ec ons t ruc ted o f 9

C ommun ica t ion a nd C ommer ce a l ong t h e W e s t ern S ea lane s AD400 -800

i s amb iguou s . T he v oyager C o rmac 's n av i sh a s al e a the r c ove r ing ( p e l l i cum t e c t i s : Adomnän , V i ta C o lumba e 1 .42 , e d . Ande r son a nd Ande rson 1 961 ,4 44 ) .T h i sm igh ti mp ly i ti s ac u rach ,o r may r e fe rt o ac anopy o fl e a the r ,a st e c t i s may mean a' d eck ' ,a s wel a s ac ove r ing f o rt he h ul . Ab oa t v oyag ing s uch wa te r sm igh tc e r ta in ly n eed at op c ove r .I n t he l i terary c on tex t , a ne rem i t ic v oyage , ac u rach wou ld s eem l i ke ly .B u t when we r e cal t ha tt h i se p i sode i sa ne a r ly e xamp le o f t he i mmr am g en re ( Ca rney 1 963 , 4 3 ) , t h i s amb iguou s p h rase may r epresen t Adomnän 's d eb t t oa g en re t e x t i n wh ich a c u rach wa s s pec i f ied . E l sewhere Adomnän d e scr ibe sc ura ch s( c uruc a )w i th as pec i f ic l e x ica l i t em a nd d i s t ingu i she s t hem i n t he s ame p h rase f r om s c aphae ( ' sk i f f s ' : Adomnän , V i ta C o lumbae 1 .45 , e d . Ande r son a nd Ande rson 1 961 ,4 52 ) . Adomnän o cca s ion a l ly q ua li f ie sn av i s ,f o re xamp le w i th o ne r ar ia :i . e . ' f re igh t s h ip ' ( Adomnän , V i ta C o lumbae 1 .3 , e d . Ande r son a nd Ande r son 1 961 , 3 28 ; c f . G regory o f T ou r s , HF X .9 , e d . K ru sc _h 1 885a ,4 92 ) .T he L a t in u sage o fn av i si nt he Med i t e r ranean d i s t ingu i shed t he me rchan ts h ip f r om t he g a le a o rl ong r ow ing v esse l( A shbu rne r1 909 ,c i ü ) ,b u ti ts e em s i nt he I r i sh c a se t ha tl o ng an av i sc onveys t he s en se o fg a l e a . T he re may b ep o ten t ia lf o rf u r the rt e rm ino log ica ld eba te i nt h i se v idence .T ha t Adomnän u ses r a t i s( r a f t )a sc ogna te i n mean ing w i th n av i s( Adomnän ,V i t aC o lumb a e1 . 36 ,e d . Ande r son a nd Ande r son 1 961 , 2 82n ) , h oweve r , r em inds u st ha th ei si n c l ined t o make e l egan to r me tonym ic u sage o f t e rms . I t wou ld s eem s a fes t t o a c cep t t ha t n av i s i sa g ene r i c t e rm , a nd n o t ac l a ss o fs h ip , a nd i tc an b eu sed e i the ro fc u ra ch so r wooden s h ips . Adomnän 's b a r ca ( Adomnän , V i t a C o lumbae 1 . 28 , e d . Ande r son a nd Ande r son 1 961 , 2 64 ) i st h e s h ip o f v i s i t ing G au l i sh s a i lor s . T he wo rd i su sed o n ly o f t h e i r c ra f t i n Adomnän 's t e x t a nd s e em s t he re fo re t o i mp ly s o me k ind o f d i s t inc t ion f r om i nd igenous c r a f t . I n t he n in th -cen tu ry I r i sh t e x t T e co sc a C orm a i c i ti ss e en i nt he c on tex to f as h ip b r ing ing i mpo r ted g ood s( B c ir c ad ot h o cor ip or t ,A l lma i r es e t :' i nv i t ing b a res i n to p o r t ,w i th t r ea su res f r om o ve rt he s ea ' : T e co sc a C orma i cI ,1 . 25 -8 ,e d . &t r an s . Meye r 1 909 , 2 3 ) . T he p robab i l i ty t h en i st ha t t he wo rd s pec i f ica l ly d esc r ibe s t r ad ing s h ips . When w e c on s ide r t ha t Adomnän c e r ta in ly k new t he w r i t ings o fI s ido re ,t he l i ke l ihood i st ha th i sd e f in i t ion h e re i st aken d i rec t ly f r om I s ido re , who w r i tes :b a r c ae s tq uae c unc ta n av i sc omme r c i aa t l i tu sp or ta t( E tymo log i arum S i ue X IX .19 ,e d .L ind say 1 911 ) . T he word i t se l f may h ave ap re I s ido r ian c u r rency i nI r i sh , h oweve r ,a si ti sq uo ted i nt h eL e in s te rg enea log ica lp oem s ( Ca rney 1 97 1 ,7 7 ) ,s ow e mu s tb e wa ry a st oi t sv ernacu la r mean ing .T he b alm o ft he U r a i c e ch tB e c ci si mpl i ed t ob ea t ype b u i l ti nI r e land ,a st he l aw r e la te st o' ab u i lde ro fl e r l o ng ( ' sea -sh ip s ' ) ,a nd b a i r ca , a nd c ur ach ' ( ed . B inchy C IH 1 978 ,1 615 ,2 280 & 2 332 ) who mu s to bv ious ly b er e s iden t i nI r e land f o rt h el aw t ob er e levan t . We s e eh e re wooden c ra f ti nr egu lar u se —bo th b u i l t i nI r e land a nd s a i led t ot h e s ho res o fI r e land . T ha tt h e se v esse l s were n amed b y e a r ly L a t in l o an -wo rd s , s uch a s l o ng a nd b ä r c , may s ugges t ,a l ong w i th o the re v idence ,t ha t ' bu i l t ' wooden b oa t s ,a so ppo sed t ol ogboa t s ,p ro l i fe ra ted u nde rR oman i n f luence ( t hough t h i sd oe sn o tp rove t ha t t hey w ere p rev iou s ly u nknown ) .

1 0

T he c urach i st he p re fer red v e s se li nt he t e x t st ha t a r ek nown a st he l i ves ( v i t ae )o ft he ' ma r i t ime s a in t s ' .T hey a r ea l so t h ev esse l su sed i nt he I r i sh w r i t ing sk nown a st he ' v oyage '( i mmr am )t e x t s .T he v a s tn umber o fr e fe rences i n t h ese t e x t sh ave b een t ak en t oi nd ica te t ha tt he c u rach wa s t h e mo s tp opu la r ly u sed v e sse li ne a r ly med ieva lI r e land . T he h i s to r i ca l v a lue o ft he e v iden ce f r om t he se t e x t s i s q ues t ionab le ,h oweve r ,a st hey a re h igh ly i mag ina t ive a nd o f ten w r i t ten we l la f te rt h ee ven t st h ey p urpor tt od ep ic t . P a r t icu la r ly i nf luen t ia l u pon ma r i t ime h is tory h a s b een t h e N av ig a t i o s anc t i B r endan i a bb a t i s —where S tB rendan a nd h i sf olowe r sb u i ld t h emse lve s ac u rach t os a i lt ot he P a rad i se o ft h e S a in t s i n t he o cean . T h is t ex t i sa tl e as t n in th -cen tu ry , b u t h a s b een a rgued t o b e a s e a r ly a s s even th -cen tury ,i nd a te .I ts hare s many e p isode si nc om mon w i th t h ei mmr ama a nd i ti su nc lea r whe the rt h ey a re h ence e a r l ie ro rl a te rt han t he N av ig a t io ( S e lme r1 959 , 1 0 1 ; Dumv ile 1 988 ,8 7 -102 ) . T he r o le o f t he c u rach i n e a r ly med ieva l C e l t ic c u l tu res h a s b een e xagge ra ted b y t h e p opu la r i ty o f t he i mmr ama a nd t h eN av ig a t io a ss ou rce sf o rh ype r -d i f fu s ion i s t t h eo r ies ( e g .A she 1 963 ,S ever in 1 978 )a nd a l so b y ar ange o fc i rcum s tan t ia lf a c to r s— such a s t h e modern p rol i fera t i on o ft h ec u rach a l ong I r e land 's w e s tc oas t .I ti sn o to f ten a pprec ia ted ,h oweve r ,t ha tt h is h a sb een ar e la t ive ly r e cen t p henomenon . Wr i te r ss uch a sJ .M .S ynge ( 1 919 ,1 5 1 )a nd T omä s OC r iomh thä in ( 1 929 ,1 70 )r e co rd t ha tt he c u rach 's p redom inan ce s i nce c . 1850 i sv ery l i ke ly a s ar e in t roduc t i on ,t or ep lace wooden l ugger s 'a nd ' S e ine b oa t s ' .S ynge wou ld a t t r ibu te t h i s t oc hanges i n t h e e conomy , wh ich made s male rc r ew s a nd c heaper v e s se l s more d e s i rab le ( S ynge 1 919 ,1 52 ) . Hence t he p redom inance o ft h ec u rach i nI r i sh r u ra lc u l tu re i nt he mode rn p e r iod n eed c a r ry n o i mpl i ca t ion st ha ti twas p redo m inan ti nt he p a s t .N e i ther i st he re r e l iab le e v idence f o r i t s w ide spread u se a s a s e ag o ing c r a f ti na n t iqu i ty . Av ienus ,S o l inu s ,P l iny ,S i don ius , C aesa ra nd L ucan a l l make r e ference t oc urach s .C ae sa r 's a nd L ucan ' sr e fe rence s ,h owever ,a r eo n ly t ou se o ni n land w a terway s —wh i le S t rabo 's r e fe rence ( s ee b e low ) ,i st ot he c u rach 's u se a sa ne s tua r ia lc ra f t .L ucan r e fe rs t ot h eu se o f c o rac le s i nI t a ly , o n t h e P o , wh ich h e c o mpare s t ot he i r O cean u se b yt he B r i ton s( Phar sa l i a1 V .134 ,e d . Du f f1 969 , 1 84 ) . When C aesa r b u i l t c o rac les f o r u se a s r i ve r c r a f t , mode l led o n t hose h e h ad s een i n B r i ta in ( Be l lum C iv i l e 1 . 54 ,e d .P eske t t1 914 ,7 6 -7 )t here i sn os ugges t ion t h a tt he c u rach sh e wa si m i ta t ing w e re o cean -go ing c ra f t . A s we w il s e e ( b e low , 2 6 ) , w e mus t s u spec tt ha t s uch d e scr ip t i on so fC e l t ic p eop les p u t t ing t os ea i nc urach sa r ei n te r d ependen t . T he re i sp robab ly n on eed t od oub tt ha tc hu r chmen d id u se t h ec u ra ch f o rp e r eg r ina t io ( Cha r le s -Edwa rd s1 976 ) . T h eA ng lo -Saxon C hron i c l e sf o r8 91 r e co rd h ow :

b r i eS co t tas c omon t o Z E l f rede c yn inge , o n a num b a te b u tan l c um g e rekrum o fH ibern ia . . .se b a t we sg ewo rh t o fh r iddan he l f re h yde h eh io nf o ron . . .Pa c o mon h i e ymb v i in i .h tt ol onde o nC o rn wa lum . ( Th ree I r i shmen c a me t oK ing A l f red i n ab oa tw i thou t a ny o ar s , f r om I r e land . . .The b oa t i n wh ich t hey s e t o u t wa s made o ft h ree -and -a -ha l f -h ide s . . .and a f te r aweek

C hap t er T wo :I n t rod uc ing t h eW e s t e rn S ea lane s

t hey c a me t ol and i nC o rnwa l l :P ark e rC h ron i c l es . a . 8 91 , e d .P lu mme ra nd E a r le 1 892 ,8 2 ) .

We may a c cep tt h is t e x ta s ar e l iab le w i tne ss t oa na c tua l e ven t . R oman t ic a s soc ia t ion s may h ave a t tached t o t he c u rach c on cern ing i t su se b yt he s a in t s ,a nd i nv i ew o ft he f a c tt ha ts ome s a in t st r aveled i nb oa t so fg l a s so rs t one i t i sw i th c a re t ha t we t ake a tf a ce v a lue t he e v idence o ft he v i t ae f o rt h et ypes o fs h ips u sed .T he a bove e p i sode i sa n e ven tw i th in t he s pec i f i c g en re o fs e a -ex i le a nd p i lg r im a ge .T h i si sp e rhaps e v inced i nt he d e ta i lo ft he n umbe ro f h ides f r om wh ich t he v e sse l wa s made ( s ee I r e land 1 991 , 4 5 ; Mac Ma th i ina 1 994 , 3 35 ; B y rne 1 9 3 2, 9 7 -102 ) —we h ave n o e v idence o u t s ide o f t h i s g en re f o r i t s u se a s a d e scr ip t ive t e rm f o rt h es i ze o fc ura ch s .L i te ra ry d i scour se p u t amy s t i ca lv a lue o ns h ips c ove red i nh ides ,e v inced f o r e xamp le i n t he V i t a B r end an i a nd t he ( a rguab ly I r i sh ) P seudo Je rome c ommen tary o n Ma rk ( B i scho f f1 976 ,8 1 ) . T h is l i t e ra ry f unc t ion o f t he c ura ch may e xagge ra te i t s g ene ra lr o le i ne a r ly h i s to r ic I r e land .I nt he V i t aB r endan i , S tB rendan i sp reven ted f r om e n te r ing P a rad i se u n t i lh e r e turn si n awooden s h ip ( V i t aB r end an iL XX I ,e d .P lumme r , 1 36 ; f o r t e xtua l t r ad i t ion : OC ao imh 1 989 ; S ha rpe 1 991 , 3 90 -1 ) . I n l a ter -med ieva l t r ad i t ion S t C o lumba a nd h i s b re thren f i r s ta r r ive a tI ona i n ac u ra ch wh ich i ss ymbo l i c a l ly b u r ied . A l lv oyage s made b y t h e s a in ti nt h e more r el iab le v i t a o ft he s a in tb y Adomnän , h oweve r , a r ei na n av i s ( wh i ch may o r may n o t b e ac u rach , b u t i sn o t d i s t ingu i shed a s o ne : Adomnän , V i ta C o lumba e I . 1 , e d . Ander son a nd Ande r son 1 961 , 1 94 — con t r a t he s o r t o f a s sump t ion i nJ ohn s tone 1 962 ,3 2 :' S tC o lumba ,o fc ou r se , t r aveled f r om I r e land t oI ona i n ac ur ragh ' ) .A ts o me p o in t i n t he d eve lopmen t o f t he h ag iog raph ic t r ad i t ion t he s pec i fy ing o f ac u rach mu s t h ave c ome t o b e s een a s p a r t icu la rt oI r ish e rem i t i cs ymbol i sm ,o n ly a sr ea la st he s y mbo l i c c om m i tmen t n o t t o r e tu rn t o h i s h ome land — wh ich h ed oes more t han o nce . Un t i l af ul s t udy i s made o f t he p r io r i ty o f t he t e x t s i n t h e v oyage t r ad i t ion we c anno tr e ly u pon t hem a sw i tnes se st ot he r egu la ru se o f c u rach si n mona s t ic v oyag ing . Aga in we may n o te t ha ta c u rach c ou ld b e c heap t ob u i ld ( Ho rnel 1 936 , 9 ) . I ft he N av ig a t io i sa ny i nd i ca to ro ft he r e al i ty o fe r em i t ic l i f e ,t he f a c t t ha t t h e b re th ren i n t h e N av ig a t io b u i ld t h e i r own v esse l may i nd ica te t ha tt h ec u ra ch was a va i lab le t oh er m i t s who h ad n o mean st op ay ab oa tb u i lde r . S t rabo d e scr ibes t he r ep lacemen t o f i nd igenous v esse l s w i th ' bu i l t ' wooden s h ips i n S pa in a s ac on se q uence o fR oman c on tac t —a p ro ces s wh ich may s e rve a s ac ompa ra t ive mode l f o r i n terp re t ing t he p roce s s i nt he l a nds f u r the r n o r th , s uch a s B r i ta in a nd I r e land , wh ich l a te ra l so c ame u nde rR oman i nf luence . V0tg TE r XoCots x p c i ivTo g ws c rl B po l iTou 8 tä T as r xm lupcsas K a t T a T evar l , yv t s a ' K a t T a p . ov6t 1 ;xa a rdvta

8L4 )0E p

( Up t ot he t ime o fB ru tu s[ 1 36 B C ]t hey [ t he I b e r ian s ]u sed b oa t so ft anned l e a the r ,o na c coun to ft he f l ood t i de sa nd s hoa l wa te r s ,b u tn ow ,a l ready ,e ven t he d ugou tc anoe s a r er a re :S t rabo ,G e og r aph ic a1 .3 ,e d . &t r ans .J one s1 949 , V o l .2 ,7 6 -7 ) .

T ots r oTa go t K4Ea t r nKTois 4 a t, T6 r aXa töv 8 K a t µ ovoe t iKo ts

T av o y ,

( The r i ve rc ra f ta re n ow b u i l t , whe reas l ong a go t hey we re d ugou t s :S t rabo ,G eog r aph i c a1 1 .2 ,e d .J one s1 949 ,V o l .2 , 2 4 —my t r an s la t ion ) .

S t rabo 's p o in t i st ha t t he re we re i nd igenou s t r ad i t ion s b o th o fh ide -covered c r a f ta nd wooden c raf t among s tt he I b e r ian s . T hese c a me t ob e r ep laced b y mo re e l abo ra te wooden c r af t u nder R oman i n f luence . A s w e w i l l s ee b e low as im i la rr ange o fe l emen t sc an b ef ound i nl a te I r on Age I r e land , w i th l ogboa t s a nd c u rach sb o th i nu se . We wou ld l i ke t ok now ,i nb o th c ase s , whe ther t h es ubsequen t d eve lopmen to fl a rger wooden c ra f t wa sa ne xpan s ion o n t h ei nd igenous wooden d e s ign s( j e .a n' e x tended d ugou t ' ) o r af u l la dop t ion o fR oman d e s ign s . L i te ra ry a nd i c onog raph ic ma te r ia l may p rov ide s o me c l ues a st ot he f o rm a nd c apa c i ty o ft h ec u rach a nd t h e wooden s h ip t ypes .I nt h eN av ig a t io S anc t iB r end an i ,S t B rendan a nd h i sb re th ren b u i ld ac u rach w i th t h ea id o f i r on t oo l s : C o s ta tum e tc o lumna tum e x s i lua , s i cu t mo s e s ti ni l i s p a r t ibu s , e t c oope rue run t i lam c or i i s b oun is [ a tque r ubr ica tu s ] i nr obo r ina c or t ice . E t l i n ie run t f o r i s omne s i unc tu ra sp e l l ium e xb u ty ro . . .A rbo rem q uoque p o sue run t i n med io n au is f i xa m e t u e lurn e t c e tera q ue a d g ubernac ionem n au i sp er t inen t . ( r ibs a nd s uppo r t so f wood ,s uch a si sc u s toma ry i nt hose p ar t , a nd c ove red w i th o x h ide s , wh ich w e re t anned i n o ak b a rk T hey smea red t he o u t s ide so fa l lt he s eam sw i th g rea se T hey f i xed amas ti nt he c en tre o ft he b oa ta l ong w i th as a i l a nd v a r iou s i t em s f o r s t ee r ing t he v e sse l— N av ig a t io I V ,e d .S e lme r1 959 , 1 0 -11 ) .

T he r e la t ion sh ip o ft he se d e ta i l st o mode r nc u rach -bu i ld i ng i s as ub jec tf o rd eba te . T he re i so n ly as ma l lb ody o f p rob lema t i ca le v idence t h rough wh ich we may t r ace t he d escen to ft h e mode r nc u rach f r om t h e med ieva l .I nv i ew o f t he c onserva t ive c ha rac te r o f b oa tbu i ld ing p rac t ice , h oweve r , wh i ch i nt he G erman ic c a se s hows s im i la r i t ie so f p rac t ice a nd e ven d imen s ion a c ro s sh und reds o fy ea r s ,i t i sw i th r e luc tance t ha tw es hou ld d i sm i ss a ny s im i la r i t ie s ( F a r re l la nd P enny 1 975 ,2 2 -3 ) . None the less ,i ti sf a i rt os ay t ha t t h e a rgumen t t ha t t h e mode r n c urach may c l ose ly r e semb le t h e e a r ly med ieva l i s wo r thy o fd e ta i led c r i t i c i sm . R e f erences i n ar ange o ft e x t si nd ica te t h a tc u rach s w e re a b le t ob es a i led ( e .g . Adomnän ,V i ta C o lumbae 1 .45 , e d . Ande r son a nd Ander son 1 961 ,4 52 ) e v iden t ly w i th a s i ng le mas ta nd s a i ls e ti nt h em idd le o ft he v e sse l( h ence t h e Nav iga t io : i n m ed io n av i s : Nav ig a t io I V ,e d .S e lme r , 1 ; c on tr aF a r rel a nd P enny 1 975 , 2 1 a nd n ow c on f i rmed b y S eve r in 's e xper ience ) . S ever in 's s e cond ma s ti sb a sed o n t h ef a c tt ha t mode rn c u rach st r ad i t iona l ly h ave amas ti n t h e b ow ( wh i ch h e i n terpre t s a s al e gacy o f a n e a r ly f o rema s t ) ,b u th i s a rgumen t s c on t rad ic t t h e t e x t s a nd a t t ime s a r e n on sens ica l ( S evern 1 978 , 2 5 ) . On t h e o the r h and ,S eve r in h as a rgued v e ry c onv in c ing ly t ha tt h er e fe r e nce t o ' o ak b a rk ' i n t h e N av ig a t io r e fe r s t o at ann ing

1

C ommun ica t ion a nd C ommer c ea l ong t h e W e s t e rn S ea lane s AD400 -800

p rocess i n wh ich o ak a c id s we re u sed ( S ever in 1 978 ,2 7 f f ) , i nd ica t ing t ha tl e a the rr a the rt han u n tanned h ide s( s uch a s i nE sk imo c r a f t ) we re u sed .T he a l te rna t ive ,t ha tb a rk wa s p laced b e tween t he f r ame a nd t he s k in , make sn oa ppre c i ab le s en se .T he o u te rs k in was g rea sed w i th f a to rb u t te r ( b u ty ro )i nt he N av ig a t io ( I V ,e d .S e lme r1 959 ,1 ) ,t o make i t wa te r t igh t a tt he s eam s a nd t o p re se rve t h e l e a the r . S ever in 's u se o f woo l g rea se i sw i thou t t e x tua l s uppor t ( S eve r in 1 978 ,2 7 f f ) . T he e xcelen t s eago ing q ua l i t ie s o f t he w e l l -ba l a nced a nd f l ex ib le ( a l so a q ual i ty f r equen t ly n o ted i n V ik ing s h ip s :J ohns tone 1 974 ,7 2 )c u rach wou ld c e r ta in ly b es hared b yi t se a r ly med ieva lc oun terpa r t .T ho se d oub t e r s who h ave s ough t t od i sm is s t he i dea t ha tt he c u rach wa ss u i tab le f o rA t lan t ic v oyag ing h ave c l u t ched a ts t raws . S ever in i n1 976 -7 s a i led h i sr ep l ica o f amed ieva lc u rach f r om I r e land t o Amer ica .T here h a sb een much c r i t ic i sm o f t h i s r epl i ca , mo s t ly o n a c coun t o f p o in t s whe re h e d e p a r ted f r om t he e v idence t op u ti nd es i red f e a tu re s ,s uch a st he s e cond ma s t( e .g .O 'Mea ra 1 978 ) .I td oe sn o tf o l low , h oweve r , t ha t t he c hange s i nval ida te h i s wo rk a s e v i d ence .T he a d ju stmen t si nd es ign wh ich h e made ( adm i t t ed ly o f ten o np oo re v idence ) ,t oc ompen sa te f o ra na n t ic i p a ted p oo rs a i l ing p er fo rm ance o fh i sc r a f t , a r eo f f se tb y h i sl a ck o fe xpe r ience i ns a i l ing s uch ac r a f t —mo s tl i ke ly t he s ho r t fal i nc u rach s a i l ing a b il i ty i nh i sc r ew h amp e r ed h i sv e sse l 's p er formance .H i sp e r fo rman ce s t a t i s t i c sc an b e a ccep ted a s ap o in te rt ot h ep e r forman ce o fs uch c r a f ti n t he e a r ly med ieva l p e r iod . S ome c r i t i c i sm o f S eve r in 's e xper imen ti su n rea sonab le a nd i ni tt he c r i t i cs o fb o th h i s a nd Ma r cu s 't he ses r evea l ad es i re t oa s se r tt he s eawo r th i n e ss o f wooden c ra f to ve rs k in b oa t s( h in t ing a ta ni mpres s i on i s t ic p re jud i ce ) .T yp ica li sD eC ou rcy I r e land 's c i ta t ion o f t h e f olow ing t i resome a s ser t ion : ' D r L i t t le . . .wa s n o d oub tn ea re r t he t r u th i na s se r t ing t ha t o c e an i cv oyage s f r om I r e land i nt he p er iod u nde rd i scu ss ion ,t ob es uccess f u l , wou ld h ave n eeded awooden s h ip ' ( De C ou r cy I r e l a nd 1 987 , 3 9 ) . T he c apa c i ty o ft he c urach t o make l ong o cean v oyages i ss ure ly n o t i nd oub t —bu t t he e v idence d oe s n o t c l ea r ly d emon s t ra te t ha t l ong o cean v oyage s w e re made i nc u rachs . T he re h as b een mu ch l e ss e xp lo ra t ion o ft h e e v i d en ce f o r wooden v es se l st hough we h ave s o me t e x tua l a nd i c onog raph i ce v idence . Wha tw e re t h e wooden s h ips l i ke? Adomnän 's b a r ca w a sp robab ly o ne o ft he c on t inen t a lt ypes wh ich w i l lb ed i scussed b e low — though t h e re i s e v idence t ha tC e l t ic a nd n o r the r nF rank i sh wooden s h ips maybe i n te r re la ted .T he C e l t ic V enet i ,r e s iden ti nA rmo r ica i nt he l a te rI r on Age ,p os se ssed wooden s h ips .I twou ld b e n o tu n l ike ly t ha tl a ter wooden v e sse l sb u i l t among t h e i r o ve r sea sC e l t ic n e ighbou r s wou ld b eo ft h es a me g ene ra l c l a ss ,t hough t h i si sl i t t le mo re t han s pecu la t ion .T he s h ips o ft he V ene t ia re d escr ibed b yC ae sa r : C ar inae a l iquan to p lan io re sq uam a e s tu se xc ipe re p o s sen t ; p rorae a d modu m e rec tae a tque i t em p uppes a d magn i tud ine m f l uc tuu m t empes ta tumque a cco m moda tae ;n ave st o tae f a c tae e xr obo re a dq uamv is v im e t c on tume l iam p er fe rendam t r ans t ra e x p eda l ibu s i n a l t i tud inem t r ab ibu sc on f ixa c l av is f e r re i sd ign i t ip o l l ic i s c rass i tud ine . . .pe l les p ro v e l is a lu taeque t enu i ter

1 2

c on fe c tae . . .Cum h i s n av ibu s n os t rae c l ass i e iu smod i c ong re s su s e ra t , u t u na c e le r i ta te e t p u lsu r emorum p rae s tare t , r e l iqua p ro l o c i n a tu ra , p ro v it empe s ta tum i l is e s sen ta p t io ra e ta cco mmoda t io ra . ( The i rk ee l s we re c on s ide rab ly mo re f l a tt han t hose o fo u r own s h ip s , t ha t t hey m igh t mo re e a s i ly wea the r s hoa ls a nd e bb t ide T he i rp row s we re v e ry l of ty ,a nd t h e i rs t ern s we re s im i la r ly a dap ted t o mee t t he f o rce o fw ave s a nd s t o rm s . T he s h ips we re made e n t i re ly o fo ak ,t oe ndu re a ny v io lence a nd b u f fe t ing .T he c ro s s -p iece s we re b eam s af oo t t h ick , f a s tened w i th i r on n a i ls a s t h ick a s a t humb . . .Sk in sa nd p iece so fl e a the rf i ne ly f i n i shed we re u sed i n s tead o fs a i ls . . . When o u r own f l ee te ncoun te red t hese s h ips i tp roved i t s s upe r io r i ty o n ly i n s peed a nd o a r sman sh ip ;i na l lo the rr e spec t s ,h av ing r ega rd t ot he l o ca l i ty a nd f o rce o ft he t empe s t s ,t h eo the r sw e re more s u i tab le a nd a dap tab le :C ae sa r ,B e l lum G a l l icum 1 .13 ,e d . &t r an s .E dwards 1 917 , 1 54 -7 ) .

H e re , t h en , a r e wooden v esse ls b u i l tb y aC e l t ic p eop le . T hey a r es u f f i c ien t ly d i f fe ren ti nd e s ign t ot he R oman c r a f t t ha tw e may s ugges tt ha ta r eo ne e xamp le o fa ne xpans ion u pon i nd igenou s t r ad i t ion . We c an i n f er t ha t t h ey w ere d oub le -ended .T he s o lu t ion t ot ho se e x t reme p re s su re so f t he s ea wh ich f o rced t h ec u rach b u i lde r s( and t he b u i lde rs o f V ik ing c r a f t ) t o make af l ex ib le v es se l wh ich wou ld y i e ld t ot he p re s sures o ft h es ea , wa si nt h i sc a se t ob u i ld ab oa ts or i g id t ha tn oc omb ina t ion o fw ind a nd t i de c ou ld b end i ta ta l . Mos t p robab ly t he se v e sse l s we re c a rve l b u i l t , w i th c l ose ly -spa ced f r ame s ( Haywood 1 991 , 1 7 ; McG ra i l1 983 ,4 3 -6 ) .T he p row a nd s t e rn we re s oh igh t ha t n os ea c ou ld b reak o ve rt hem ( McGra i l1 983 ,4 3 ) . We may n o te t ha tt h i s wou ld h ave b een ah indrance t ot he p la c ing o fo a r smen ,w i th r ow ing p o in t so n ly r ealy p oss ib le a tt he l owe s tp o in to ft h eg unwa le . Ab oa ta sh eavy a st h i s wou ld b ee x t reme ly c umber some t or ow a nd C ae sa rn o te st h e ir p r ima ry u se o fs a i l s .T he V ene t i we re p r in c ipa l ly at r ad ing p eop le a nd t h e se v esse l s may h ave b een ma in ly d e s igned f o rc a rgo c a r ry ing . T rade r sr a re ly r ow t he i rv e sse l so ver l ong d i s tan ce s a s t hey d o n o t c a r ry u nnecessa ry c r ew , n eed ing t he s pace f o r c a rgo a nd n eed ing t o k eep o ve r h eads d own . T he s h ip s o ft he V ene t i wou ld p rov ide a c on s ide rab le amoun t o fd ry s pace f o r c a rgo b eh ind t he h igh p row a nd s t er n . S t rabo t e l l su st ha tt he V ene t i ,' do n o tb r ing t oge ther t h ej o in t so ft h ep lank s 'c o l s . , C Y 1 JVC ( I 301 1C 71 . T a 5 a p p . o v t a g Tjw a avCSouv :S t rabo ,G eog r aph i ca I V .4 .1 ,e d .J ones 1 949 ,V o l .2 , 2 34 -5 )f r om wh ich we may s a fe ly i n fe rt ha tt hese c r a f tw ere o fc a rve l ,n o to f mo r t ice -and tenon c on s t ruc t ion . T he r e c en t d i scovery o f awooden b oa t f r om L ough L ene , C o . We stmea th ,h oweve r , d oes s how t h eu se o ft he mo r t i ce a nd tenon t e chn ique was k nown i nt h en o r th a tt h i st ime . T he L ough L ene b oa th a sb een r ad ioca rbon d a ted t ot he f i na lc en tu r ie s( c .4 00 100 )B C ( Ra f te ry 1 994 ,2 08 -9 ) . T he b oa t mode lf r om t he f i r s t -cen tu ry AD h oa rd o f g o ld o b jec t s f ound a tB ro igh te r , C o . D e r ry i n 1 895 may p rov ide s o me f u r the rc l ue s .I t sp rovenance h as b een c on s i de red v e ry d oub t fu l ( F a r rel a nd P enny 1 975 ; War ner 1 981 ; B a ss 1 972 , 1 25 f o r i lu s t ra t ion ) , b u t a na ly s i s o ft he g o ld c on ten tn ow s eem st od emon s t ra te i t sh omogene i ty w i th aL a Une c o l lar f ound i nt he s a me h oa rd .I ft h eh oa rd i sn o tt r u ly I r i sh ,t h en i ti sv e ry l i ke ly t ob eB r i t ish a nd f i r s t

C hap t er T wo : I n troduc ing t h e W es tern S ea lane s

c en tu ry i nd a te .T he mode li so f av es se lo fe i gh teen o a r s , o ne s t ee r ing o ar a nd amas ta nd s a i l .F a r rel h as e s t i ma ted t ha tt h ev esse ld ep ic ted i nt he 1 8 .4 cm mode l wa sa round 1 7 me t re si nl eng th ,e s t ima t ing o nt h eb a s i so ft h er e la t ive s i ze o fo a r s a nd ma s t . T he w id th o ft he mode li sh a rd t o a s ses s , ow ing t oi t sh av ing b een c rump led a tt he t ime o f d i scovery .T he t hwa r t sa re af a i rg u ide ( i fn o tt oh ul s hape ) a nd s ugge s t av esse l 6o r mo re me t res i nw id th .T he h ul i s d oub le -ended a nd d eep , a l ong w i th i t s s i ze mak ing i t u n l ike ly t ob e ac urach . S ome o ft h ea rgumen t s made b y F a r rel a st o why i tc ou ld n o tb e ac u rach ,h oweve r ,a r eo f d oub t fu lr e levan ce .I ts eem su nl ike ly ,f o re xamp le ,t ha ta p reh is to r ic mode l -maker wou ld g ot ot he t r oub le o f mod e l l ing i n te rna l f r amewo rk ; s o l i t t le c an b e made o f i t s a bsence .L ikew i se t he a rgumen tt ha t modern I r i sh c u ra ch s h ave ma s t so n ly i nt he f o rwa rd p a r ta nd s mal ,t r iangu la r s a i ls may o n ly i mp ly t ha t t he r o le o ft he s a i lh a s d im in i s hed a st h ec urach b ecame l e s si nvo lved i nl ong d i s tance v oyag ing . T he e v idence o f t h e mode rn r i g o f ac u rach , o f ten b e ing f o re -and -a f t , i sl i ke ly t ob e r ef l ec t ive o fl a te r c hange s .T he B ro igh te rs a i li sc l ea r ly s qua re .S ubsequen t t oF a rre l l 's s t udy ,S eve r in h as d emons t ra ted t ha t ac u rach c an s a f e ly c a rry ama s t am idsh ips .T h i sn o tw i th s tand ing , t here s e em sl i t t le a bou tt he mode lt os ugge s t ac u ra ch .I s t h i st hen a na nces tor o ft he l o ng ,o rs o me o the rn av i s? I fs o , w e may make s o me p hys ica l o bse rva t ion s o f v a lue i n a s se ss ing p e r forman ce i n s eaway : i ti sb roade r t han a V ik ing l a ng sk ip a nd mo re b u lbou s ,t hough r e con s t ruc t ion o ft he mode lh a sp robab ly e xagge ra ted t h i s . G au l i sh /F r ank i sh C r af t R ema in s o fs h ips f r om t he l owe r R h ine s how a n e s tab l i shed t r ad i t ion o fl a rge wooden s eago ing v e sse ls among t he F rank sf r om a se a r ly a sa tl e a s tt he s e cond c en tu ry AD . T he se w e re s a i l ing v es se l s ,s ha l low o fd raugh t ,w i th d i s t i nc t ive c arve lc ons t ruc t ion ,u s ing h eavy i r on c l en ch n a i l s . I ti sr eg re t tab le t ha ts t udy o nt h i st op ic i sc i r cum scr ibed b y e vo lu t iona ry a rgumen t sa t temp t ing t or e la te t hem t ob o th e a r l ie r( t he s h ip so ft he C e l t ic V ene t i ) ,a nd l a te r( F r i s ian ) t r ad i t ion s , wh ich h a sr e su l ted i nt hem b e ing r e fer red t oa s t he ' Ce l t i c 'c l ass . I ti se qualy l i ke ly t ha ts uch c r a f tw ere b u i l tb yG e rman ic p eop le . T h i sc l ass o fs h ips may o r may n o tb ea nce s t ra lt ot h e p r inc ipa lv e sse l su sed i nd eep -sea v oyag ing b yt he F r ank s . T hey a r e c l ear ly a dap ted t os a i l ing i ns hoa l wa te r s a nd s ha l low r i ve r sa nd t he i rr o le may h ave b een s im i la rt ot ha t o f t he T hames b a rge o f r e cen t h i s to ry , wh ich ma in ly o pe ra ted r i ver a nd c oa s ta lt r ade —bu t wh i ch wa su n t rou b led t os a i la cro ss o rd own t he E ngl i sh C hanne l when a wor thwh i le c argo was o n o f fe r . H ence s uch v e sse l s c an c over b o th t he r o le o fl o ca la nd d eep sea s a i l ing v e s se l s . Ar ange o fs h ip f i nds s ugge s t st h ep redom inan ce o f t h i st ype o fc ra f ti na n t iqu i ty .T he s e cond -century AD s h ip f r om B l a ck f r ia r s i n L ondon , c a rve ! b u i l t a ga in w i th t he c ha ra c ter i s t ic mass ive t imbe r sa nd c l ench n a i l s( Ma r sden 1 990 ) ,s hows t ha tt h et ype wa sf ound o nb o th s i des o ft h e Channe l .T he t h i rd cen tu ry s h ip f i nd a tS tP e te rP o r ti nt h e C hanne l I s land s s how s t he i nvo lvemen t o ft h i s t ype i n t r a f f ic t ow es te r nG au l( Ru le 1 990 ;G ibb in s1 995 ,4 09 -10 ) . T he B ruges b oa t , a l so o ft h i sc l a s s , i sa b le t ob ep a r t ialy

r e con s t ruc ted t os how av e sse lo fs o me 1 6 me t re si nl eng th ( Ma r sden 1 976 ) . A ma s t s urv ive s f r om t h i s v esse l , a nd ma s ts t eps a re f ound i n mos to the rc ases . Where F rank i sh wa r sh ips a r ec oncerned ,t he p os s i b i l i ty t ha t an o r the rn G e rman i c c l inke r l ongsh ip ` t r ad i t i on may h ave e x i s ted i nF rank i sh G au ls hou ld b es een a s u n l ike ly i nt he l i gh to ft he l ong p a t tern o fc on tac tb e tween t he F rank sa nd t he R oman Emp i re .R oman wa rsh ips o ft h e f ou r th c entury f r om Ma inz s how l i nk s w i th t he n a t ive c a rve ! t r ad i t ion s ( Höckmann 1 986 , 3 9O f f ) a s d o R oman s h ips b u i l ti nB r i ta in ( Ma r sden 1 972 , 14 -24 ) . F inaly ,t he e x i s tence o f c aptu red s h ips f r om t he R oman wo r ld i s l i ke ly . T he v e sse lf ound i n ad r ied -up b ranch o ft he R h ine a tU t rech t may a l so e xemp l i fy n o r thern G aul i sh c ra f t i n t he e a r ly m idd le a ge s . I ti ss ome 1 8 me t res l ong a nd 4 me t re si nw id th .I ti s as ha l low v e sse l ,c urved u pwa rd a t b o th e nds . I tc a r r ied al i gh t ma s t s omewha t f o rwa rd o f am idsh ips ( Ph il ipsen 1 965 ) . D a te sf r om t he t imber sn ow a r eh e ld t oi nd ica te ad a te o fa round 9 80 AD ( V lek 1 987 , 6 7 ) . Ac ompa r i son w i th t he s h ips o ft he V ene t i may n o tb e f a r f e tched , e ven a low ing f o r ag ap o fn ea r ly am ilen n iu m . C ompa r i sons h ave b een d rawn w i th C a ro l ing ian c o in sf r om Quen tov ic a nd Do re s tad , where b oa t sw i th a s im i la r c urve t o t he U t rech t s h ip a re d ep ic ted ( Ea rne r s 1 979 , 1 -12 ; L ehmann 1 978 , 2 39 f f ) , t hough o ne s hou ld t empe rt h i sa rgumen t ,h oweve r ,w i th t he p o in tt ha td ep i c t i on o ft h es h ip o n ac o in c an d i s tor tt he s hape i ns uch away a st oe xagge ra te t he c u rve a tb ow a nd s t ern . On t he b as i s o f ac ompa r i son w i th amo re r e cen t ly f ound b oa to fs im i la r t ype f r om Wa ter s t raa t( n ea rU t rech t )V lek ( 1 987 , 1 3940 ) h a sc a s ts e r iou sd oub to nt he p o ss ib i l i ty t ha tt he se p a r t icu l a rv es se l s we re s eago ing c r a f t ,b u tt he e x i s tence o fl a rge , c l inke r b u i l t , c r af t i n t h i s r eg ion i s s t i l l s ugge s t ive o f f u r the rp o ss ib le v a r ie ty i nr i ve r/coas ta lv e sse l s . Ano ther c a tego ry o fG au l i sh s h ip si sp robab ly Med i t e r ranean i ni n sp i ra t ion . T he s even th -century s h ipw reck a tF os sur - Me r , n ea r Ma r se i l le s , i ss im i la r i n s t y le t o a R oman t r ader . T he h ul i sb e tween 1 5 a nd 1 8 me t re s i n l e ng th ,w i th ab eam o fa round 6me t re sa nd ad ep th o f2 me t re s .I ti ss hel b u i l t( i nt ha tt h ep lank sa r en a i led o nf r om t he o u t s ide )b u ts o me s t rake sh ave mor t i ses a nd t enon s , w ide ly s paced ( Re i th 1 985 ,4 16 ) . Hypo the t ica lr e con s tru c t i on h a s s o f a r p roduced ar ound -be l l ied v es se l , wh ich may w e l lb ei n sp i red b yt he a s sump t ion t ha tt he v esse li s c ompa rab le t oR oman s t y le so fc a rgo v esse l s .I t sc apac i ty i se s t ima ted a ta round 5 0t on s , whe re t he a verage R oman c o rn s h ip ,b yc o mpa r i son , wou ld h ave b een b e tween 1 30 a nd 6 0t on s( 2 0 ,000 -10 ,000 m od i i ) .T he d ep th o ft he F o s su r Me r s h ip wou ld l i nk i tt o t h e a nc ien t Med i ter ranean t r ad i t ion . S uch av esse lf i nd i so fr e levance t ot he s tudy o ft h e w e s tern s ea lanes .T hough t he re i sl i t t le e v idence o fF rank i s h a c t iv i ty p a ss ing a round S pa in , t he re i sf o r t he f i f th t h rough s i x th c en tu r ie ss ome p o ss ib i l i ty o fa ne x tens ion o f we s te r n Med i ter ranean c omme r ce i n to t he A t lan t ic . T he F o s -su r - Mer s t y le o fv e sse l wa sp robab ly n o t we l ls u i ted t o s uch av oyage i nt ha ti ti s av e ry u nw ie ldy s t y le o fv esse l t oe as i ly n ego t ia te t he S t ra i t so fG ibra l ta r .T he F o s su r - Me r w reck may a l so a tl e a s tb e ap o in te rt ot he p er s i s tence o f l a te -Roman s t y le c a rgo v e sse l s i nt h i s w e s te rn p rov ince , 1 3

C ommun ica t ion a nd C ommer ce a l ong t h e W e s ter nS ea lane s AD400 -800

n o t u nde rgo ing t he e vo lu t ion t o s maler , mo re mob i le c r af tt ak ing p lace i nt he e a s t( Van D oo rn inck 1 972 ) .I tmay o f fer p o in ter st o amo re g ene ra l mode lf o rt he w e s t ,t ha t e a r ly med ieva l s h ipp ing may b e ama t te r o fc on t inu ing t r ad i t ion f r om t he R oman a nd p re -Roman p as t . We s hou ld a lways b ea ri nm ind t ha ts h ipbu i ld ing i so f ten a na spec to f l o ca l t r ad i t ion wh ich r ema in s u nchanged b yp opu la t ion o ra dm in i s t ra t ive c hange .T here i sl i t t le s pec i f ic e v idence , a nyway ,t ha tt he F rank i sh e l emen ti n we s te r na nd s ou th e rn G aul i sh s oc ie ty e xer c i sed a ny r o le i ns ea fa r ing . V anda l s , V i s igo th sa nd S uev i None o ft h ese g roups ( un l ike t he S axon s )w ere ma r i t i me p eop les b e fo re a r r iv ing o n t he wes te rn s eaboa rd ,u n les s w ea ccep tt he d oub t fu la rgumen t so fR .L .R eyno lds f o ra s eabo rne m igrat ion o ft h e S uev i ( Reyno lds 1 957 ) . T he se g roups mo s t p robab ly h ad s o me t r ad i t ion o fr i ve r -boa t b u i ld ing . Howeve rt he R oman e d ic to f4 19 s ugges t st ha t t he V anda l s we re i gnoran t o fs h ipbu i ld ing a nd f o rbade a ny c i t izen f r om t e ach ing t hem ,o np a in o fd ea th ( Mu s se t 1 975 ,5 6 ) . E v iden t ly , t h i s measure h ad l i t t le e f fec t ,a st he V anda l sw e re s oon a ts a i lb o th i nt h e Med i ter ranean a nd t he we s te rn s ea lane s , whe re Hyda t iu s r e co rds V anda l p i ra tes i nt he A t lan t i c( s ee b e low ,2 9 ) .L ikew i se ,a sn o ted a bove ,t he Go th i ck ing E u r ic r e c ru i ted G a l lo -Roman n ava l c ommande r s ,s uch a s Nama t iu s ,t op ro tec th i sc oa s t sf r om t he S axon s . I ti sc l ea r t ha t t he Go th s a nd t he V anda l s s imp ly a ppropr ia ted l o ca ls h ipp ing f o rt he i rp u rpo se s . F o r S pa in a nd P o r tuga l , t he re i sl i t t le a pa r t f r om a n th ropo log ica le v idence ,b eyond t h es t a temen t so fS t rabo r ega rd ing t he r ep lacemen t o f t r ad i t iona l l ogboa t s a nd c u rach sa f te rt he I r on Age ( s ee a bove ,1 ) .S t rabo a l so n o te s t he n umbe ro fR oman v e s se l sv oyag ing t ot he r eg ion ( s ee b e low ,2 6 ) , wh ich p resumab ly p rov ided amode lf o rt h e se . n ew c ra f t , t hough wooden b oa tbu i ld ing t r ad i t ion s f r om wes tern G au l a re a no the rp o s s ib i l i ty a s t r ade o u to ft h e Ga ronne g rew u nde r R oman i nf luence ( s ee b e low , 2 5 ) . F il igue ra sh as a s semb led e v idence f r om a n th ropo log ica l s ou rces wh ich p o in t s t ob o th G erman ic a nd Med i te r ra n ean i n f luences i nt he e a r ly med ieva ls h ipp ing o fS pa in ( F i l iguera s1 979 ) .I np a r t i cu la rt here i sat r ad i t ion o fc l inke r b u i ld ing a round t he Dou ro , wh ich h e a t t r ibu te s t o t h e S uev i .S ome f e a tu res o fh ul d es ign i ni nd igenou sP o r tu g ue se a nd S pan i sh c r a f ts t i l lb u i l ti nt h et wen t ie th c en tury h ave a l so b een c ompa red t ot he ' Ce l t ic 'c l a ss t hough t h i si s al e ss c onv inc ing c ase ( F i l iguera s1 977 ) . S axon s T he r o le o ft he S axon s i nw e s tern s ea lanes n av iga t ion i s n o te n t i re ly c l ea r ,t hough r e cen ts t ud ies b yM i chae lJ one s ( 1 993 )a nd J ohn Haywood ( 1 991 ) ,h ave s ough tt oc r i t i ca l ly r e -exa m ine t he d ivergen t s ou rce s o n S axon s ea fa r ing . S idon ius men t ion sS axon sb e ing p resen ta ss eabo rne p i r a tes o f ft h ec oa s to f wes te rn G au li nt he f i f th c en tury AD a nd t hey h ave ac on t inued p re sence i nt he s i xt hc en tu ry ( s ee b e low , 2 9 ) . T he re t h ey may c on s t itu te o ne o f t he g roups i nvo lved i nw es te rn s ea lanes c omme rce ( c er ta in ly w ef i nd t h em wo rk ing f o r aF rank ish me rchan t—G rego ry o fT ou r s , HF V I I .46 ,e d .K ru sch 1 885a ,3 65 -7 )a st h ey l i ved 1 4

o ni s lands a tt h e mou th o ft he L o i re f r om where t h ey s eem t oh ave v i s i ted t he G a ronne e s tua ry ( S idon ius , E p i s to lae V I I I .9 ,e d . Ande r son 1 936 & 1 965 ,V o l .2 ,4 46 -7 ) . T he t ype o f v e sse l s u sed b y t h ese S axon s i sn o t c e r ta in .G i lda sd escr ibes t he s h ips o ft h eS axon i nvader so f B r i ta in u s ing t h eG erman ic s t em c yu l - ( ' kee l ' : D eE x c id i o ) O X I I I ,e d . Win te rbo t tom 1 978 ,9 7 ) ,t he o n ly Ang lo -Saxon t e rm u sed i nh i s w r i t ing s , wh ich h e e qua tes w i th l o ng a n av i s . T he se ' k ee l s ' wou ld c er ta in ly h ave b een wooden c r a f t ,b u i l ti nt h ec l inke rt r ad i t ion w i th o ver lapp ing s t rake s . T he Nydam s h ip ( c .300 AD ) , ad oub le -ended c r af to fo ak , t wen ty s even me t res l ong b yt hree b road ,f ound i n ab og n ea r S ch lesw ig i n 1 863 , may b e c l o se ly a nces t ra l t ot h i s t ype ( Haywood 1 991 ,6 3 -6 ) .L a te ri nt ime ,t he V ik ing s h ips a re ap roduc to ft he s ame l i ne so fe vo lu t ion .T he Nydam s h ip h a sn os a i la nd B r agger a nd S he te l ig h ave p opu la r i s ed t h e v iew t ha t t h i s i ss ymp toma t ic o f aG e rman ic i gno ran ce o ft he u se o ft he s a i lp r io rt ot he V ik ing p e r iod ( Haywood 1 991 ,62 -75 ) .G i lda sm igh tb et hough tt oi mp ly , h oweve r , w i th h i s c ommen t s u pon t h e S axon ' s a r r iva l w i th s e cund i s v e l i s ( D e E x c id io XX I I I , e d . Win te rbo t tom 1 978 , 9 7 ) t ha t ' k ee ls ' c ou ld b e s a i led .J one s h as c r i t i caly r ea sse ssed t h i s t e rm ino logy , f avou r ing t he r he to r ica li n t e rpre ta t ion ( J ones 1 993 ,3 1f f ) .T he t e rm ino logy mus ts t i l l g ive t h er eader p ause . We s hou ld n o te ,h oweve r ,t ha ti n t he s t rong w ind a nd t i de o ft he n o r the rn s ea sw ind i sa s much af a c to ri nr ow ing a si ti si ns a i l ing . Av e sse lb e ing r owed c an o f ten make n o p rog re s s a ta l l i n to as t rong w ind .G i ldas 'p h ra se may wel s i tw i th in t h i sc on tex t .I ft he k ee l so fG i lda s 's t ime w e re t ob es a i led t h ey wou ld h ave t o h ave b een b u i l tw i th h igher g unwa le s t han t he Nydam s h ip e v ince s . When w ec on s ide rS axon sr a id ing t h eA t lan t i cc oa s t , h oweve r , i ti sh a rd t os e e t hem d o ing s o i nr ow ing v es s e l s —wh ich may b e why t h i s s i de o ft h e i r a c t iv i t ies h a s b een n eg lec ted ( Haywood 1 991 ,2 3 f f ) .T h i so ve rs igh ts eem s v ery much t or ef l ec t ad e s i re t oc r ea te amonol i th i ct e chno l o gy f o rt he n o r the rn G e rman ic g roups ,b a sed s o le ly u pon ma s t le s s ,c l inker -bu i l tv esse l sa nd , mo reove r ,t he d e s i re t o s l o t e ve ry f i nd i n to a n e vo lv ing t ypo logy f r om s ewn wooden b oa t s t o c l inker -bu i l t c ra f t ( C rurn l in P ede r sen 1 978 ;C a me ron 1 982 ) . We mus tq ue s t ion t he l a ck o fp lu ra l i t yo ft h i sp i c tu re ,b ased a si ti so n ah and fu lo fs h ip f inds . Haywood 's c onc lu s ion ( 1 991 , 1 f f ) ,t ha tt h eh i s to r ica la nd a r chaeo log ica l c i rcum s tances wh ich h ave s een t h e s ur v iva lo f ah and fu lo f wooden v esse ls i nS cand inav ia h ave u ndu ly w e igh ted o u rv i ew o fn or the rn E u ropean ma r i t ime h i s tory t owa rds at oo l im i ted p i ctu re ,i sb yn o mean s w ide o ft he ma rk . S idon iu s make s t wo r e fe rence s t o S axon s wh ich h ave b een p rev ious ly n o ted , b u t n o t f u l ly e xp lo red ( Wood ing 1 988b ;J one s1 993 ,4 3 -46 ) . Ar e fe rence t oh ide b oa t si si nt he e a rl ie ro ft he t wo ,a sp ar to f ac a ta logue o f b a rba r ian si nt h eP anegyr i co nA v i tu s ,d a t ing f r om e a r ly i n 4 56 , when Av i tu s was emperor i nR ome : A remo r icu sp i ra tam c u ip e l le s a lum s u lcare B r i tannum l udu se ta s su to g l aucam ma re f i nde re l embo : ( t he A rmo r ican r eg ion t oo e xpec ted t he S axon p i ra te , who d eem si tb u ts po r tt of u r row t he B r i t i sh w a ters w i th h ide s ;

C hap t er T wo :I n t roduc ing t h e W e s t e rn S ea lane s

c l eav ing t he b lue s ea i n as t i t ched b oa t ' , P anegyr i c o n A v i tu s1 .3 69 -7 1 e d . &t r an s . Ande r son 1 936 & 1 965 ,V o l . 1 ,1 50 1 ) .

T h is e qua t ion o f S axon s a nd s k in b oa t s o ccu r s i n a l l e xemp la r so ft h is t e x t( ed . L ue t johann 1 887 ,2 12 ) . T he s e cond r e fe rence ,d a t ing f r om a f te rE ur ic 's a c c e ss ion i n4 66 ,i si n al e t ter t oS idon iu s 'f r iend Nama t iu s . Nama t iu sw a sa na dm i ra li nt h es e rv ice o fE u r ic ,e ngaged i np a t ro l l ing t he c oas t sa round B o rdeaux : I n te ro f f ic ia n unc n au tae , modo m i l i t ibu sl i to r ibu sO cean i c urv i s i n e r rare c on t ra S axonum p andos myopa rone s . . . e xe r cen ta di lo sn au f rag ia ,n on t e r ren te s te i s q uaedam c um d i scr im in ibus p e lag i n on n o t i t ia s o lum , s ed f am il i ar i t ia . n am q uon iam i p sa s iq ua t empe s tas e s th uc s e cu ro se f f ic i to ccupando s ,h uc p rop i sc iv e ta to ccupa tu ro s , i nm ed io f l uc tuum s copu lo rumque c on f rago sorum s pe s upe rven tus l a e t ip e r ic l i tan tu r : ( d i scharg ing t he d u t ie s n ow o f as a i lo r , n ow as o ld ie r w e re r ov ing t he w ind ing s ho re s o f O cean t o mee t t he c urv ing v esse l so ft he S axon s . . .S h ipw reck ,f a rf r om t e r r i f y ing t hem ,t ot hem i st r a in ing .W i th t he p e r i ls o ft he s ea t h ey a r e n o t me re ly a cqua in ted , t hey a re f am i l ia r ly a c q ua in ted ;f o rs i nce as t orm wheneve ri to ccu r sl u l l si n to s e cu r i ty t he o b jec to ft he i ra t tack a nd p reven t st he c om ing f r om b e ing o bse rved b y v i c t im s , t hey g l ad ly e ndure d ange r s am id b ilows a nd j a gged r o ck si no rde rt oa ch ieve as u rpr ise ( Ep i s to l ae V I I I .6 .13 14 , e d . &t r an s . Ande r son 1 936 & 1 965 ,V o l .2 ,4 30 ) .

T here a r e s evera l i mpor tan t q ue s t ion s h ere . T he f i r s t i s whe the rt h ev esse l si nb o th p a ssage sa re t he s a me — i .e .i s myopar on e awo rd f o r aas k in -cove red c r a f t ? I t wou ld g rea t ly a i d o u r c r i t ique o ft ho se who s e e t he p anegy r ic r e fe ren ce a s ap oe t i cl i cence i fi tc ou ld b es hown t ha t , t o S idon iu s a ta ny r a te , S axon s c on s i s ten t ly s a i led i n s uch v esse l s . S e cond ly , wha t wa s S idon iu s 's s ou rce f o r t h i s i n forma t ion? C an t he se s ou rce sb eb rough tt ob ea ro nt h i s i s sue? My op arone i s ar a re a nd l a rge ly p oe t ic wo rd , o f G reek o r ig in . I t s a s soc ia t ion s a r e w i th p i ra t ica l a c t iv i ty ( e .g . C i ce ro , V er r ine O r a t ion s I , 1 ,e d . G reenwood 1 976 , 2 31 ) . I s ido re o f S ev i l le s aw i ta s d escr ip t ive o fc ora c les , t hough h e re h em igh tb ed raw ing u pon S idon ius : M iopa ro q uas im in imu sp aro .E s te n im s c apha e xv im ine f a c t a , q uae c on tec ta c rudo c o reo g enu s n av ig i p raebe t; q ua le su tun tu rG e rmano rum p i ra tae i nO cean il i to r ibu s v e lp a lud ibus o ba g i l i ta tem .D eq ua l ibu sH is to r ia ' Gen s ' , i nqu i t , ' S axonum , m ioparon ibu s , n on v i r ibus n i tun tu r , f ug ae p o t iu sq uam b e l lo p a ra t i '( E tymo log i arum S i ueX IX .1 , 1 .2 0 -22 ,e d . L indsay 1 911 ) .

A re t he m y oparone so ft he S axon sa c tualy c ora c les? A l o t d epend su pon t he i n te r re la t ion sh ip o ft he t e x t s ,b u ts o me s pecu la t ion sc an b e made .T oI s idore o fS ev i l le m y opar one s were o ft h e g enus c o r eo . T he S axon u se o fm yopar on e s i s s uppo r ted b y aq uo ta t ion , n o t i d en t i f ied i n L indsay 's e d i t ion , wh ich i sf r om H eges ippu s : g enu sh om inum p e rh ibe tu re tp raes tan sc e te r is ,p i ra t ic is t a rn en myoparon ibu s , n on u i r ibu s n i t i tur , f ugae p o t iu s q uam b e l lo p a ra tum ( Hege s ippus , H i s to r i ae V .150 , e d . U s san i 1 932 ,3 20 ) .

T ha t S idon iu s wou ld w r i te o n p rac t ica l ma t te r s f r om a l a rge ly l i t erary b a s i si su n surpr i s ing a nd J ones ( 1 993 ,4 3 -6 ) r i gh t ly wa rn s a ga in s t a ny a t temp t s t ot ake h i s wo rds a t f a ce v a lue . S idon ius 's p anegy r ic d esc r ip t ion e choes t he i mage i n Av ienu s( s ee b e low ,2 6 )— the re a s soc ia ted w i th C e l t ic p eop les .T he re i sl i t t le d oub tt ha tS idon ius k new t h i s t e x t , o r a no the r t e x t w i th t he s ame s ou rce a s Av ienu s . T he re a r et wo wo rds i nc ommon ( p e l l i s ,sa lum )a nd t hey a re c en t ra lt ot he i mage c r ea ted o fh ide st r ave l l ing t h rough t he s a l ty s ea . A l lt h i si so fc ruc ia lr e levance when we c on s ider t he d eg ree t o wh ich l a te rw r i ter sw ere t oq uo te t hese e a rl i er d escr ip t ion s o f t h e A t lan t ic a nd i t s p eop les . I tc an b e s hown a sp robab le t ha t mos tC la ss i ca lr e fe rence st oB r i t i sh a nd I r i sh p eop le si ns ea -go ing c o rac le sa re i n te rdepend e n t ,i n many c a se u s ing s ou rces wh ich u nde rl ie Av ienu s 's d esc r ip t ion . T h i s i sp rob lema t ica l f o r t he a s sump t ion o f c o rac le sb e ing as o le ly B r i t i sh p henomenon ,a s Av ienu s 's s ou r ce wa sa lmo s tc e r ta in ly t a lk ing a bou tS pa in ,n o tB r i t a in ,w i th t he R oman a ccep tance t ha ts k in b oa ts a r eB r i t i sh b e ing o ne o f t he b a se s f o r m i sread ing t he t e x t , e ven i n a n t iqu i ty , a s c on ce rn ing r eg ion s f ur ther n or th ( Hawkes 1 977 ,1 9 -22 ;b e low ,2 6 ) . S axon sm igh th ave e xp lo i ted t h ep a r t icu la r q ual i t i es o ft h es k in b oa t( j u s ta sC ae sa rd id — see a bove ,1 0 )i n t he i rA t lan t ic r a id s .I nt he i ro ccupa t ion o f ma rshy i s lands a s ab a se , s o me o f wh ich G rego ry o fT ou r sl o ca tes i nt he L o i re , t h e s halow d raugh t a nd e asy l and ing a b il i ty o f c o rac le s c ou ld h ave b een a g rea t a s se t . Wha teve r o ur s c ep t ic i sm , Ma rcus 's s i len t emenda t ion o f S idon ius 's S axon s t o' I r i sh ' i st o taly u naccep tab le ( Ma rcus 1 953 -4 , 3 13 ;1 980 ,8 ) .J ones 's e xce l len td i scuss ion o ft he c omp lex i t i es o ft h er he to r i co fS idon iu sa nd G i ldas s t i l lf olows t h e i mpl i c i ta genda o fB rogger a nd S he tel ig i na t temp t ing t o d i sm i s se v idence wh i ch d oe sn o tf i tt he b a s ic t he s i s t ha t S axon sd id n o tk now t he u se o fs a i l s . We mus ts ee d i scus s i on o nt h i st op ic a sh av ing b een t oo n a r row m inded . Med i t e r r anean C r af t T he e v idence o fi mpo r ted c e ram ic so nI r i sh , we s te rn B r i t i s h , S pan i sh a nd P or tuguese s i te s , wh ich c l ea r ly a r r ived b ys ea t h rough t h eS t ra i t so fG ibra l ta r ,i mpl ies ap resence o f Med i te r ranean s h ips o n t h e we s te rn s ea lane s i n t h e s i x th c en tury . A s w il b e d i scu ssed f u r ther o n , v oyage s o r ig ina t ing i nt he A egean ,b u tt a k ing o nf u r the rc a rgo a t C a r thage ( o rs ome o ther T un i s ian s i te ) ,a r e mos tl i ke ly ( s ee b e low ,4 1 f f ) . We s hou ld r ema in o pen -m inded a st o whe the r t h es h ip was o f e a s te r no rw es tern Med i ter ranean o r ig in , b u tt he b u lk o ft he c a rg o wa sc e r ta in ly l o aded i nt h ee as t . I fa ne as tern Med i te r ranean s h ip wa su sed ,t h es h ip f ound a tY a s s i Ada i n T urkey , aB yzan t ine c a rgo s h ip w recked a round 6 25 o r6 26 ,p rov ides as ugge s t ive c om p a ra t ive mode l( Ba ss a nd V an Doo rn inck 1 982 ) .I tc on ta in s l a rge q uan t i t ie s o f t he t wo ma in c l a sses o f ampho rae f ound o nw es te rn s ea lane ss i tes ,a s wel a st h es a me No r th A f r ican t a b lewa re . T hough maybe t h ree -qua r te r s o f a c en tury l a ter t han t he d a teab le B r i t ish f i nds ,i ti sp oss ib le t ha t ac r a f to ft h is t ype wa si nvo lved i nm id -s ix th -cen tury v oyage st ot he w e s te rn s ho re so fE u rope .T he Y a ss i Ada s h ip d i f fe r s f r om R oman a nd l a te R oman c ra f t i nb e ing 1 5

C ommun ica t ion a nd C ommer ce a long t h e W e s t ern S ea lane s AD400 -800

s mal :2 0 .52 me t res i nl e ng th a nd e spec ia l ly n a r row :o n ly 5 . 22 me t re si nb eam ( b eam t ol e ng th r a t io 1 : 4 ) . I ti sq u i te d eep : 2 . 25 me t res ( Bass a nd V an Doo rn in ck 1 982 , 8 6 ) . I t wa sc ons t ruc ted o fc yp res s( k ee la nd p o s t s ) ,e lm ( f rames ) a nd p ine ( p lank ing —Bass a nd V an D oo rn inck 1 982 ,1 60 ) . T hc on s t ruc t ion me thod v ar ied f r om t he R oman t e chn ique i nt ha tt he s h ip wa so n ly mor t ice -and tenon j o ined u pt o t he wa te r l ine . Above t ha t p o in t t he p lank s we re n a i led d i rec t ly t ot he f r ames ( Ba ss a nd V an D oo rn inck 1 982 ,5 8 6 3 ) . I t wa s af a s te rs h ip ,o fl i gh ter t imber a nd c heaper t o b u i ld t han i t s R oman p e r iod c oun terpa r t . I ti sa to nce s l igh t ly l onge r ,n a r rowe ra nd d eeper t han i twe s te rn Med i t e r ranean c oun terpa r t a tF os su r - Me r . I t s c apac i ty wa s a round 4 0t on s .I t sd ep th i nt he wa ter wou ld g ive i tg ood w indwa rd p er formance a nd i t s s i ng le ( p robab le ) l a teen s a i l ,g rea ter manoeuv rab i l i ty ( Van Doo rn inck 1 972 ,1 35 ) . T he se c hanges a r e mo s tl i ke ly t h ea d ju stmen t sn eces sa ry f o r at r an s i t ion f r om c ap i ta l i sed ,b u lk c omme rce i nc on t r oled wa ter s ,t oe n t repreneu r ia ll uxu ry ,o rs em i luxu ry , t r ade i n wa te r s n ow h a rbou r ing many h o s t i le e l emen t s . B a ss n o te st ha t' i fo ur s h ip s eem st oo l i gh t ly t imbe red , we s hou ld r eme mbe rs he was n o ta nA t lan t ic c our ier .I nf a c t , s he was p robab ly n o ti n tended f o rh eavy w ea the ra ta l ' ( Ba ss a nd V an Doorni n ck 1 982 ,8 4 ) .S cho la r so ft he A t lan t i cs ea lanes s hou ld b ec a re fu ln o tt ot ake t h i sc ompa r i son a tf a ce v a lue .I ng ood wea the rt h i sv esse l wou ld p e r fo rm e f fec t ive ly i nA t lan t ic s wels ,t hough f o rr egu la rn av iga t i on o ft i da l wa ter si twou ld n eed t ob es t ronge r .T he re a re s t rong w inds ( f o re xamp le t he Me l t em i )a nd c ur ren t si nt he A egean a nd a ny s h ip b u i l t f o r t hose c ond i t ions c ou ld n ego t ia te t he s ea r ou te wh ich t ook t he Med i te r ranean wa re st ot he A t lan t ic c oa s t s( b e low ,5 1f f ) . We may c onc lude t ha t ar ange o ft ype so fs h ips w e re i nu se a l ong t he we s te rn s ea lane si nt he e a r ly m idd le a ge s . T he p redom inan tt ypes i nvo lved i nt r ade w ere p robab ly C e l t ic a nd R oman d er iva t ive s , c or respond ing g ene raly w i th E lmer s 's ' Ce l t ic ' c l a ss — though w e s hou ld r ema in o pen -m inded a s t o wh ich mo re mode r n t r ad i t ion s t h ey r e la te t o .T he e v idence o fS t rabo c an b ea ccep ted a si nd ica t i ng at r an s i t ion f r om d ugou t sa nd c u rach st ol a rge r' bu i l t ' wooden v esse l si nS pa in a se a r ly a st he l a s tc en tu r ie sB C— a nd t h e B ro igh ter b oa ta l so s ugges t st ha t' bu i l t ' wooden s h ips we re i nu se i nt he I r i sh S ea i nt he f i r s tc entu r ie s AD . Sma l le r v es se l s i nu se i n c luded v e sse l s o fd ugou t a nd c u rach t ype ,d oub t le ss c on t inu ing q u i te a nc ien tt r ad i t i on s .R oman t ic a spec t so ft he u se o fc u rach so bscu re o u r u nde r s tand ing o ft he s ca le o ft h e i ri nvo lvemen ti n we s te r n s ea lane s t r a f f ic , b u t t hey a r e c e r ta in ly p resen t i nB r i ta in a nd I r e land f o rc oa s ta lu se a nd may h ave s u rv ived i ns ome c on t inen ta lc on tex ts e ven i n to t h ee a r ly m idd le a ges .I nt he I r i sh S ea b as in t he r e fe ren ce s t os h ips i nvo lved i nl o ca l t r ave ld on o tu sualy s pec i fy c u rach s ,t hough t hey a r es e en t ow ing l ogs i nt he V i ta C o lumb a e( Adomnän ,V i ta C o lumbae 1 .45 , e d . Ande r son a nd Ande r son 1 961 , 4 52 ) . A l l t he t r ad i t ions o ft he ' mar i t ime s a in t s 'a nd t h e i ru se o fc u rach s s hou ld b e r ega rded a s h i s tor ica l ly d oub t fu l . We s hou ld a c cep tt ha tp er sona lc ho ice a nd ar ange o fe conom i cf a c t o r sw e re o f ten r e spon s ib le f o rd e s ign s e lec t ion a nd l e ave b eh ind t he e vo lu t iona ry a nd d e term in i s ta rgumen t s wh ich h ave p romo ted t h ei mage o fp opu la t ion si nt h ra l lt os i ngu l a rt e chno log ie s . 1 6

S e aman sh ip S eaman sh ip i sp e rhaps t h el e as t mea su rab le f a c to ri nt he s t udy o fl ong -d i s tance v oyag ing . T he w i l l a nd a b i l i ty o f ma r ine r st os a i lo ve rl ong d is tan ce s , t h rough f o rb idd ing c ond i t ion s , i se a s i ly u nde res t i ma ted a nd c an s ome t imes o n ly b er e con st ruc ted b yi mpres s ion i s t i cs pecu la t ion .S ome b a s ic a s sump t ion sa re n ecessa ry ,h oweve r ,b e fo re f u r the r a na ly s i s .I nt he a bsence o ff i rm e v idence t ot he c on t ra ry ,i t i sa dv i sab le t oa s sume t ha te ar ly med ieva l ma r ine r s were c apab le o fs a i l ing mos t ,i fn o ta l ,p o s s ib le r ou te sa l ong t he we s te r ns ea lane s . We s hou ld p u ta s ide t he k ey a s sump t i on o ft h eh ype r -d i f fu s ion is ts —name ly t ha t af a i lure t o make c e r ta in v oyage s d emon s t ra te s a n i ncapa c i ty t od o s o —and f olow t he e xamp le p rov ided b y McGra i l , o f c on s ide r ing i s sue s o fs eaman sh ip a sf a c tor s t ot a ke i n to a ccoun t ,i na s se s s ing t he e l apse o ft ime i nv oyag ing c e r ta in r ou tes ,a nd i nc on s ide r ing t he e a se o fu se o fo ne r ou te o ve r a no the r . Many o ft h ei n fe ren ces wh ich c an b e made r egard i ng t he p rac t i ce o fs eaman sh ip b ye a r ly med ieva l ma r ine r s a r i se d i rec t ly f r om t he l im i ta t ion so ft h et e r ra in . When we c ons ide r b o th t h e p reva i l ing w ind s a nd t he c oa s ta l f e a t u re s , f o re xamp le , i t wou ld a ppea rt ha t s a il ing b yh ug g ing t h ec oas to nt h ew es tward fac ing s ho res o ft h e wes t e rn s ea lanes wou ld h ave b een a n e spec ialy d ange rous a pproach t ol ong -d i s tan ce v oyag ing . We s hou ld a s sume t ha te a r ly med ieva l ma r ine r sp robab ly h ad ah ea l thy f e ar o fs uch s hore s —a r te fac t d i s t r ibu t ion s e xam ined i nl a te r c hap te r sp rov ide n oe v idence t ot he c on t rary . T he re c an i ndeed b e n o q ue s t ion t ha t wes te rn s ea lane s ma r iner s wou ld h ave b een w e l la c cu s to med t os a i l ing o u to fs i gh to f l and . T o c ro s s f r om G au l t o C or nwal b y t he s ho r tes t w e s tern s ea lane sr ou te ,a ta na verage s peed o fa round 2 . 5 k no t s —wh ich McGra i lc a lcu la tes a sa na ve rage s peed f o r a ne a r ly med ieva lv esse l ,c ons ider ing b o th w indwa rd a nd d ownw ind p e r fo rmance ( McGra i l1 983 ,3 00 ) —wou ld i n v o lve s pend ing a round 2 0h our so u to fs i gh to fl a nd .E ven t hough McGra i l ' ss peed e s t ima te may b e al i t t le s l ow f o r t h e wooden s h ip t ype s ,d epend ing a si td oes o nt h ep e r f o rmance o fS eve r in 's r epl i ca c u rach t ov oyage f r om t he L o i re e s tua ry t ot h e S c ily I s lands ( a mo re l i ke ly a c tua l v oyage )a tt w i ce McGra i l 's e s t i ma te wou ld s t il l e ave t he ma r ine ro u to fs i gh to fl a nd f o ra round 1 2 -15 h ou r s , wh ich i sa s sum ing o p t imum v i s ib i l i ty . O f f t h e wes t c oas t s o f B r i ta in t he Adm i ra l ty P i lo t warn s ' A t s ea r a in c an b e e xpec ted . . .on t wen ty d ay sp er mon th i nw in ter a nd f i f teen d ays p e r mon th i ns um me r ' ( Hydrog raphe r 1 974b , 1 6 ) . S ea f og i sa l so c o mmon a l ong t he s ea lane s when aw e s ter ly b lows o ver c o ld w a te r .T he se f a c to rs r edu ce v i s ib i l i ty a nd make r el iance o n c oa s ta l ma rk s e ven more d i f f i cu l t . A s n o ted a bove , h oweve r , s ummer v i s ib i l i ty i n S pa in a nd P or tuga li s mu ch mo re d ependab le . I ti s mo s t l i ke ly t ha t wes te r n s ea lanes v oyage rs n av iga ted o u to fs i gh to fl a nd b yd ead r e ckon ing :t h rough o r ien t ing t he i rv e sse l a s i tl e f t s hore a nd e s t ima t ing t he d i s tance c ove red . L eeway s l ippage , a ve rage s peed a nd o the rv a r iab le f a c to r s wou ld b er e ckoned t h rough o bse r v a t ion so ft he b oa t 's p e r formance . ' S teer ing b yr un o ft he s ea 'i sac o mmon p rac t ice i nn or thern n av iga t ion :t o ma in t a in t h e s h ip 's p o s i t ion b y s t eer ing a c ons is ten t a ng le

C hap ter T wo : I n troduc ing t h e W e s t ern S ea lane s

a c ro s s ap reva i l ing s wel p a t te rn .N ine teen th cen tu ry S he t l a nd f i shermen were a b le t of olow ap reva i l ing s wel e ven t h rough d i s t ra c t ing s u r fa ce c ur ren t s (Wa l ton 1 974 ,1 0 ) .A k now ledge o fr eg iona lc u r ren t s wou ld e nab le t he ma r ine r t o d e tec t t h e p rox im i ty o f l a nd e ven i n f og . On ly t he c omb ina t ion o f f og w i th a s t o rm , o r w i th c a lm , wou ld r e su l ti nt h e ma r ine rb e ing d i so r ien ted ( wha tt he I c e land i c t e x t st e rm h af v i l la —Ma rcus 1 955 ,6 01 -5 ) . T ha t much o ft he l and b orde r ing u pon t he w e s tern s ea lane si sh igh land t e r r i tory wou ld h ave b een a dvan ta g eou st o ma r ine rs w ish ing t oa vo id t he d ange r sc l o se i nt o l and : McGra i ln o tes t ha th ead land st h i r ty me t res i nh e igh t c an b e s e en f r om ad i s tance o fe l even a nd ah a l fn au t ica l m i le s :a nd h ead lands s i x ty me t re si nh e igh t ,f r om a sf a ra s s i x teen a nd ah a l fn au t ica lm i les .A tf i ve h undred me t re s t h ey a re v i s ib le f r om a d i s tance o ft wen ty f ive n au t ica l m i le s( McGra i l1 983 ,3 11 ) .T he h ead lands o fC ornwa l la nd B r i t tany a r eh igh e nough t ob es e en f r om w e l lo u ta ts ea a nd h ave p rom inen t c l i f f s ( Per sona l o b se rva t ion 1 987 ; Nava lI n tel igence D iv is ion 1 941 , 13 ) .T he moun ta in so f C an tabr ia i nt h en or th o fS pa in make ag ood l and fa l lf o ra v e s se lh ead ing s ou thwa rd ,b e ing b e tween 9 00 a nd 2 , 100 me t res . T h i s i s ac ons ide rab le a i d t on av iga t ion , a s t h e n o r th c oa s to fG al i c ia i sv e ry p oo r ly s e rved w i th h a rbou r s . T rave l l ing n o r thwa rd t oI r e land ,t h eW ick low moun tai n s o fI r e land ' ss ou th e a s t make a no the rg ood l a nd fa l l .A round t h eI r ish S ea ,t h eI s le o f Man ,n o r th Wa les ,s ou th Wa le sa nd t h e Moun ta in so f Mourne a r ea lv i sua la id st on av iga t ion . I nt h en o r th o ft he I r i sh S ea i ti sp o s s ib le t ob ei ns i gh to f s ou th -we s tS co t land , Man ,U l s te ra nd K in ty re a la to nce . Much d eba te o n s eaman sh ip may o bscu re wha t w a s p robab ly mos t ly a ch ieved b y o bse rva t ion a nd i n s t in c t . We may p resume t ha te a r ly med ieva l ma r ine r sh ad s ome k now ledge o f n av iga t ion b y u se o f t he c e les t ia l b od ies ,c e r ta in ly i nu se f o rd i rec t ion f i nd ing a nd i ts e em s l i ke ly t ha t t he S cand inav ian s o f t h e t en th c en tu ry h ad k now ledge o fl a t i tude r e ckon ing ( Ma rcus 1 980 ,1 09 -14 )— t hough t h e p reva lence o ff og a nd r a in make t he u se o f t h e se me thods i mposs ib le f o r much o f t h e t ime . E a r ly med ieva l ma r ine r s wou ld p o s s ib ly a l so h ave h ad k now l e dge o ft h ef l igh tp a t tern so fm ig ra to ry b i rds a nd o f wh ich b i rd si nd ica ted ap rox im i ty o fl and ( Ho rnel 1 946 ,1 42 -9 ; Ma r cu s 1 980 , 14 -5 ) . T he re i sn o e v idence o r l i ke l ihood t ha t s u ch ma r ine rs wou ld h ave p os ses sed t h e magne t ic c ompa s s .I ti sp oss ib le t ha tt h ey u sed s ound ing leads f o r c he ck ing d ep th a nd s eabed c ompo s i t ion , a s t he se w e re k nown i nt he a nc ien t Med i ter ranean ( He rodo tus ,H i s to r i e s 1 . 5 ,e d .G od ley ,I ,2 80 ) ,a nd f i nd men t ion i nI c e land i ct e x t s a f te rt he t h i r teen th c entury ( Marcus 1 980 ,1 08 ) .T he a pp l i c a t ion o fl e ad s i sl im i ted w i thou td e ta i led k now ledge o f t h ea rea t ob en av iga ted ,h oweve r ,a nd i sma in ly o n ly u sed t od e te rm ine p os i t ion r e la t ive t ok nown d e ta i l so fs e abed c ompo s i t ion a nd d ep th ( c f . H erodo tu s ,H i s tor i e s 1 . 5 , e d . G od ley ,I ,2 80 ) , wh ich i nt h e mode rn e ra a r e ma rked o n c ha r ts .A ti t ss imp le s ti tc an a l so b eu sed t o wa rn ama r ine r o fd ange rou ss ha l lows wh i le e n te r ing ah a rbou ro rr i ve r mou th , b u t t h i s i sl e ss o f a n i s sue f o r s halow d raugh t v es se l s , whe re a n o a r i su sualy s u f f ic ien tf o r t e s t ing f o r s a fe d ep th o f wa te r .T he mas s i f su nde r ly ing t h eA t lan t ic i s lands s o me t imes p rov ide s ha l low wa te r s many m i le s o f f sho re . Med i ter ranean s h ips n av iga t ing t h e A t lan t ic ,

h oweve r , may h ave u sed t hem t ot e s th a rbou ro rc hanne l d ep th s , a s t hese v e sse l s w e re l i ke ly t o b e d eepe r t han n o r the r nE u ropean c r a f t . R egu la r man -made n av iga t ion ma rk s w ere p rob a b ly n o ti nu se i nt h i sp er iod ,t hough R u t il iu s( De R ed i tu S uo 1 . 457 -62 , e d . Du f f a nd Du f f 1 932 , V o l . 2 ,8 04 ) n o te s t he i r c on t inu ing u se i n t he Med i ter ranean . S ome man made s t ructu res may h ave p layed a n av iga t iona l r o le . S t ruc tu res o nh ead lands o ri s lands m igh ts e rve a sn av iga t i on ma rk s . I n C or nwa l l i n t he med ieva l p er iod s mal c hape l sw e re o f ten b u i l to nh ead lands ,f o re xamp le a tS t I ves a nd Z enno r . One ,a tC am B rea , wa sd e f in i te ly ma in t a ined a s a' b eacon h erm i tage '( w i th at i the c a l led b y ck enag e p ayab le b y l o ca l f i she rmen i n t he f ou r teen th c en tu ry — P oo l 1 964 , 2 6 f f ) . Whe the r o rn o t s im i lar ly l o ca ted e ar ly med ieva lc hape l sw e re b u i l td e l ibe ra te ly f o rt h i sp u rpose , i ti sp o ss ib le t ha tt hey p e r fo rmed t he s a me f un c t ion f r om t he ma r iner 's p o in to fv i ew .T he p re sence o fa ne a r ly b u r ia l g round i nT in tage lc hu rchya rd may h ave i n te res t ing i m p l ica t ions i nt h i sc onnec t ion .T he med ieva lc hu r ch i t se l fi s l i s ted a s ap rom inen t n av iga t ion mark e ven t oday ( Hyd rog rapher 1 974b ,3 3 ; Novakow sk ia nd T homa s1 990 , 1 8 ;2 5 -7 ) .T he e a r ly med ieva lb u r ia lg round o nL undy a l so a ppea l sa s as im i la rc on junc t ion o f ag ood n av iga t ion ma rk w i th a ne a r ly Ch r i s t ian s e t t lemen t . Af e a tu re o fs a i l ing p rac t ice wh ich l im i ts t he move men to fv esse l si sp i lo tage . Av esse le n te r ing u n fam il ia r wa ter si sl im i ted i n where i tc an o pe ra te b yt he e x ten to fi t s k now ledge o ft h el o ca lc ond i t ions a nd t he l i eo ft he l and . I ti su sua l ly a s sumed t ha to pera to r so ff o re ign s h ips a r r iv i ng i nr eg ion wou ld p u ti nt os ho re a ts o me p o in tt ot ake o n al o ca lp i lo to rg a in d i rec t ions , o rp resumab ly wou ld b r ing w i th t hem s ome p e r son f r om t he i r own r eg ion who h ad k now ledge o ft h er ou te .S eve ra le a r ly med ieva lt e x t s r e fe r t o t h e p ro fe s s ion o f ' p i lo t ' ( g ub erna tor t hough we s hou ld n o te t ha tt h i st e rm m igh ta l so mean s imp ly ' s teer s man ' : Adomnän , V i ta C o lumb ae 1 .41 , e d . Ander son a nd Ande r son 1 961 ,436 ;A s se r ,L i f eo fA lf r ed XC I ,e d .S t even son 1 904 ,7 7 ) . No s ea r ou te s s hou ld b e c on s ide red u nusab le b y e a r ly med ieva l v e s se l s . Ma r i t ime d a ta d o n o t a n swer q ues t ion si ns uch a na bso lu te way .R egu la r ly u sed r ou te s , h oweve r ,o f ten w i l lb ee xp l icab le i nt e rms o fc onven ience o fn av iga t ion a nd a r ea s whe re o na r chaeo log ica lo rt e x tua l e v idence w e may s uspec t v e sse l s d id n o t v en ture may o f t en b ei n conven ien to fa c ce s s .S ome i mag ina t ion i sn eeded i nt r ea t ing t h i s ma te r ia l . T he re mu s tb e ad i s t inc t ion b e t ween l o ca la nd l ong -d i s tance t r a f f ic a nd t he i rr e spec t ive l e ve l s o fo pe ra t ion .T he re a r ea l so u ndoub ted ly r eg iona l a nd c omme rc ia l d i s t inc t ion s . F o r e xamp le t h e s e r ies o f v oyages a round t he I nner H ebr ides wh ich a r e men t ioned b y Adomnän 's V i t a C o lumb ae a nd i nt he A nna l so fU l s t e r ( f o r t o ta ls s ee B annerman 1 974 , 1 49 -50 ) , i n ac oun t ry u n i ted o n ly b ys ea ,r epre sen t al e ve lo fa ccep tance o ft he n eed t on av iga te d ange rou s wa te r s wh ich wa sp robab ly u n ique i n B r i ta in a t t ha t t ime —and a t e chno logy a nd p rac t ice w el -adap ted t oi t .T he c a se o f ap o ss ib ly owner o pe ra ted Med i te r ranean s h ip e n te r ing t he B r i s to l C han n e l , v ery f a rf r om h ome , h oweve r , i sq u i te a no the r . T he p re sence o f al o ca lp i lo to nb oa rd m igh tb eo fs o me b ene f i t ( i ft h e re wa sn o t al a nguage p rob lem ) ,b u te ven s ot he s h ip 1 7

C ommun ica t ion a nd C ommer ce a l ong t h e W e s te rn S ea lane s AD400 -800

wou ld b eu n fam i l ia rt ot ha tp i lo t , wh i le t he ma s te rm igh t b es usp ic iou so fg roundswel a nd t i des ( no tk nown i nt he Med i ter r anean )a nd a cco rd ing ly v e ry c au t iou s . AG au l i sh s h ip a r r iv ing a tK in ty re wou ld n o tb ei n capab le o fs a i l ing n or th t o I ona o r Duno ll i e , b u t t he ma r i t ime o bs tac les m igh tb es u f f ic ien tt od i scou rage t h ea t temp t ,c on s ide r ing t he a l terna t ive d es t ina t ion st ot he e a s to fK in ty re ,s uch a s Dunadd a nd Dumba r ton . T he b e s tt ime o fy ea rt on av iga te t he we s te rn s e a lane s i sb e tween Apr i la nd Augu s t ,a t wh ich t ime t he w ea the ri s a ti t sf i ne s ta nd mos tp red ic tab le .G a les a re a tt he i rl owe s t f r equency d u r ing t h i ss ea son .T he se s easona ld i f fe rences a r ep a r t icu la r ly p ronounced i nP o r tuga la nd A t lan t i cS pa in , whe re t he re i sv i rtualy n os umme rc l oud ,b u ti nw in te r , a lmos t p e rmanen tc l oud c over . I ti sd i f f i cu l t t oi mag ine e ar ly med ieva l ma r iner s a t temp t ing v oyage s b e tween Novembe ra nd Ma r ch . However w es hou ld t ake n o te o f t he w r i t ing s o f D icu i l who r e co rds t he s o jou rn o fI r i sh monk si nI c e land ,v oyag ing t h e re i nF ebrua ry a nd r e tu rn i ng i n Augu s t( D icu i l ,L i b e rd e Men sur aO rb i sT e r r a eX I ,e d . T ierney 1 967 ,7 4 ) .T he r e tu rn d a te i sl og ica l ,b e ing n ear t he e nd o ft he v iab le s a i l ing s ea son .T he e a rl ie rd a te i s al i t t le l e ss l i ke ly : a si n w in te r , e spec ialy i nJ anua ry , t h e re i sa s t rong l i ke l ihood o f g a les o f f t he s ou th -ea s t o f I c e land . Un ique mar i t ime r ea son sf o rl e av ing o nt h i sr ou te e a r ly i n t he s eason ,h oweve r ,c an b ea dduced . T he mo t iva t ion o f a sce t ics t os a i li nF ebrua ry ,h oweve r , may n o th ave b een s ha red b yc om me rc ia ls a i lo r s .P robab ly F ebruary wa sn o t an orma ls a i l ing mon th .T h is e v idence n one the les st e aches u s t ob e wa ry o f u nde re s t ima t ing wha t e ar ly med ieva l ma r ine rs wou ld a ccep ta sp o ss ib le i nt h i sr ega rd .I ns ev e ra lt e x t sr e fe rence i s made t ot he n eed f o r af avou rab le w ind t ol e ave ah a rbou r .E gbe r t ,f o re xamp le , wa s wa i t ing f o rs uch af avou rab le w ind i na nI r i sh h a rbou r ( p e rhaps Wa te r fo rd — see b e low , 6 8 ) , when h i s s h ip wa s w recked ( Bede , HE V .9 , e d . C o lg rave a nd Mynor s 1 969 , 4 78 ) . S t S amson o f Do l wa s d e layed b y t h e n eed t o wa i t f o r a f avou rab le w ind t ot r ave lf r om I r e land ( pe rhaps How th ) t o Wa le s ( V i ta S am son i s XXXV IL I , e d . F aw t ie r 1 912 , 1 34 ) . T he i mpo r tan ce o ff avou rab le w inds i sa l so s t ressed i nt he V i ta C o lumba e ( I . 1 , 1 . 18 , 1 . 15 , 1 .45 , e d . Ande r son a nd Ander son 1 961 , 1 96 , 2 44 , 3 56 , 4 52 ) a nd ar ange o fo the r t e x t s . T he ' f avou rab le w ind ' i s av ery c ommon t opo s i n h ag iography a nd i twou ld b eu nw i se t ot ake a ny i n c iden t i n t h is c on tex t a t f a ce v a lue . T he c o mmon f o rmu la i n v o lves t h es a in tb e ing ap er son c apab le o fr a i s ing af a vou r a b le w ind when n oo ne e l se c an ,t hu se l eva t ing h im a bove o the rs .T he f r equen tr e fe ren ce t ot h i sf a c to r ,h oweve r ,s t i l l d emon s t ra te si tt ob e ama jo rc on ce rn i n we s te rn s e a lane s n av iga t ion .I nt he n av iga t ion o ft he n or the rn s ea s af a vou r i ng b reeze i sc ruc ia l .T he w indwa rd p er fo rmance o fe a r ly med ieva lc r a f t was p oo r .V a r ious f a c tor sa c coun tf o rt h is . F or av e sse l t op e r fo rm w el t ow indward r equ i re s i tt o p os ses s c e r ta in k ey d es ign f e atu res . F i rs t ly i t mu s t d i s p lace s u f f ic ien t s pa ce t o p resen t ab ar r ie r t o l e ewa rd s l ipp ing ,o rp ossess ak ee lo rl e eboa rd /c en t reboa rd s t ruc t u re t of u l f i lt he s a me r o le .I tmu s ta l so b eo fs u f f ic ien t mass t os t ay d own i nt he wa te ra nd b road e nough t o ma in ta in i t sb a lance s a i l ing a c ro ss t he w ind .S eve r in ' se xpe r imen t s w i th h i s c u rach B r endan i n 1 976 -7 s howed i tt op e r fo rm v e ry p oo r ly t ow indwa rd .I twa sa b le t os a i lo n ly t ow i th in 1 8

6p o in t so ft h ew ind a nd ,b e ing a ne x t reme ly l i gh tc ra f t , made o fl i gh twe igh t ma te r ia l si tl o s ta na ve rage o f 2p o in t s t ol e ewa rd wh i le t h i s c l o se ly h au led ( S evern 1 978 , 2 90 ; McGra i l 1 983 , 3 00 ) . As e cond i mpo r tan tr ange o ff a c to r s r e la te t o t h e s a i l i t se l f . A s qua re s a i l i sn o t a n e f f ic ien t i n s t rumen tf o rw indwa rd s a i l ing ,b u tt h ere i sn oe v idence t ha tf o re -and -a f ts t y le s a i l s were i nu se b yt h i sp e r iod .T he y a rd o nt h eB ro igh te rB oa ta nd t h ee v idence o ft he V ik ing Age v e sse l sa l lp o in tt os qua re s a i l sb e ing t he o n ly t ype i n u se i nn o r the rn E u rope b e fore t he e a r ly mode r np er iod .A s qua re s a i lt e nd st oc oncede g round e ve ry t ime t he v esse l c hanges t a ck . Wi th a f o re -and -a f t s a i l t he b oa t c an b e ' b rough t a bou t ' b y p o in t ing d i rec t ly i n to t h e w ind a nd p u l l ing t h es a i l sa c ro ss .I n as qua re r igged v e sse l ,t he b oa t mu s tb e' g ybed 'a tt he e nd o fe ach t a ck ,b yt ur n ing t he b oa t s ot ha tw ind p a sses a round t he s t er n( o the rw i se t he s a i l s b low b a ck a nd c an b reak t he ma s t ) . O f ten d u r ing t h i s manoeuv re t h eb oa ti sb lown b ackwa rds .T he s qua re s a i l d oe sn o t ,e i the r ,p re sen t av ery e f f i c ien ts hape t ot he w ind u n le ss t h ev e s se li sr unn ing w i th t h ew ind d i rec t ly a s tern . An e p i sode i nt h e V i ta C o lumbae , i n wh ich af avourab le w ind i sr a i sed b ym i racu lous i n te rven t ion ,i nd ica tes t ha t t h es a i lo r s wou ld r ow u n t i ls uch t ime a st hey a r ea b le t o r a i se u p t h e ' y a rds c ross -w ise ' ( a n temna s c r uc i s ) , i . e . a ta r i gh t -ang le a c ro ss t he ma s t ( Adomnän , V i ta C o lumb ae 1 . 45 ,e d . Ande r son a nd Anderson 1 961 ,4 54 -7 ) .F inaly ,a l ong ,n a r row b oa ti smo s tu n su i tab le t ow indwa rd s a i l ing , a st ur n ing t he b oa ti s made d i f f icu l tb yt he l e ng th o ft he k ee l . Al o ng a n av i s , w e m igh t s pecu la te , mus tt hen h ave b een p r ima r i ly ar ow ing b oa t ,l i ke t h eV ik ing l ong sh ip .I n s t rong t i da l wa ter s , i n a ny e ven t , av esse l w i th p oo r w indwa rd p e r formance w i l l mak el i t t le p rog re s sa ga in s t t h e t i de . E ven w i th af avou rab le w ind , p rog ress c an b e p oo r .I ti sl i ke ly t h en t ha tn av iga t ion o ft he wes te rn s ea lane s d epended u pon wa i t ing f o r af avou rab le w ind a nd t i de , t h el a t te rp red i c tab le ,b u tn o tt he f o rmer .F ew q ues t ions o f s a i l ing w i th s ea sona lw ind s wou ld e n te rt he p i ctu re ,o nce n o r th o fS pa in —a st hey a r es imp ly n o tp red i c tab le i nt he mo re n o r the r nl a t i tude so ft he we s te r ns ea lane s . R ow ing ( r em ig o ) i sc er ta in ly r e fe r red t o ,h owever , t hough w e mu s tb e c arefu l t oc on s ide r t he i mpl i ca t ion s a r i s ing f r om i t s u se . B o th i n e conom i c t e rm s a nd f r om s hee rp rac t ica l i ty i tmus tb ea ssumed t ha to a r sw e re o n ly u sed when s a i l wa s i mp rac t icab le . I n t h e n o r the rn s ea s t h e re a ppea r st oh ave b een n oa dap ta t ion o fs h ips t o make t h em a c tua lw eapon so f wa r( un l ike ,s ay ,t he Med i ter ra n ean g aley sw i th f i t ted r am s ) .T he f a vou r ing o fo a rs i na w a r fa re c on tex t wou ld c h ief ly b ef o r manoeuv rab i l i ty .A n o tab le p e r son b e ing c onveyed i ns t y le m igh ta l so h ave c a r r ied s u f f ic ien to a r smen t ob ep rope l led b yt h e i rf o rce .I n mo s tc a ses ,h oweve r , t he i mpl i ca t ion i ss imp ly t ha t o a r s w ere u sed t oe n te ro re x i th a rbour ( f o re xamp le i nt h eV i t a C o lumb an iX ) ( I I I ,e d .K rusch 1 902 ,9 7 )o rt oe scape d ange r ( Adomnän ,V i t aC o lumbae 1 . 19 ,e d . Ande r son a nd Ande rson 1 961 , 2 46 ) . Aga in , i n ac r a f t o n ly c a r ry ing asma l l c r ew , p rog re ss a ga in s tt he w ind i so f ten i mpo s s ib le u nde ro a r s , t hough t h ey a r eu se fu li nt r ave l l ing w i th t he t i de . Mos t ly i ti ss imp le rt oa wa i tt he c hange o fw ind a nd/or t i de . R ep l i ca c r a f t a re o u r p r inc ipa l s ou rce o fe v idence f o r s peed e s t ima tes . S eve r in 's r ep l ica c urach made a n a ve rage p e r fo rmance o f 2t o 3k no t si n aa verage d ay 's r un

C hap t er T wo :I n t rod uc ing t h e W e s t ern S ea lane s

o f4 0m i les a nd s peeds c ou ld s ome t ime sb ea sh igh a s 7t o 1 2( S eve r in 1 978 ,2 89 -90 ) ,t hough w e mu s tt ake a c coun to f h i sa nach ron i s t ic s econd s a i l ( S eve r in 1 978 , 2 5 ) . Magnu s Anders son 's G ok s tad r epl i ca a ve raged 1 0 -11 k no t s o ver t h es a me r ou te ( J ohns tone 1 974 ,7 2 ) ,a ga in w i th a na na ch r on i s t ic s e cond s a i l .P e r fo rmance s t a t i s t i c sf o re xpe r imen t s w i th l c nö r r s a r e n o t y e t a va i lab le , b u t wou ld b e mo re c ompa rab le w i th s h ips o ft he 4 00 -800 p er iod o nt h ew e s t e rn s ea lanes ( t hey wou ld b e l i ke ly t o b e l owe r t han Ande rs son 's f i gu res ) . I ti sl i ke ly t ha t wooden v e sse l s wou ld a ve rage h igher t han c u rach s , b e ing h eav ie r a nd h ence l e ss p rone t ol e eway s l ippage a nd a b le t os a i lc l o se r t ot he w ind .S ever in 's c u rach c ou ld s a i lw i th in 6p o in t so f t h e w ind , b u t s l ipped 2t ol e ewa rd ( S ever in 1 978 , 2 90 ) . Anders son 's v esse l h ad a s l ippage o f a round 1 p o in t ( J ohns tone 1 974 ,7 2 ) . McGra i lr i gh t ly p o in t so u t ,h oweve r , t ha tt he p resence o f af o resa i lm igh ti mprove w indwa rd d i rec t ion b y a s much a sp o in t , s ow i th in 7p o in t s o ft he w ind m igh tb et he r ea ll im i t . McG ra i l 's c onc lus ion i st ha t a n a ve rage d a i ly p er fo rmance f o r a l lp re -V ik ing c r a f t i s u n l ike ly t oh ave b een a bove 2 . 5k no t s( McGra i l1 983 ,3 00 ) wh ich m igh tp u tt he a ve rage f o rl i gh t wooden c r a f ta round 3 4k no t sd a i ly ,w i th a na ve rage 6 0 -70 m i le se l apsed p e r d ay .T he o p t i mum may b ee s t ima ted a s6 7k no t s . As h ip s uch a st he Y as s i Ada c r a f t ,b yc ompa r i son ,w i th ad eepe r h u l la nd p oss ib ly f o re -and -a f ts a i l , wou ld h ave a pprec i a b ly b e t te rw indwa rd p e r forman ce . A d i s t inc t d i f ference b e tween t h e n o r the rn a nd s ou the rn t r ad i t ions i si n t he a r ea o f d i sp lacemen t a nd t onnage . Nor thern s h ipp ing wa s c i r cum sc r ibed b y t h e n eed t on ego t ia te t i da l e s tua r ie s a nd b y al a ck o fd eep h a rbou rs . Hodges ,f o re xamp le ,a s soc ia te st he r e loca t ion o f many h a rbou r sa f te rt h en in th a nd t e n th c en tu r ie sw i th t h e i n c reas ing d ep th o f s h ips ( Hodge s 1 989 , 9 7 -8 ) . T he c r ea t ion o f mo re e f fec t ive h arbou r sa nd d redged c hanne l s i nr e cen tt imes h a s l ed t ot he a bandonmen to fl e s s s he l t e red a nd c onven ien th a rbour s , wh i ch i so ne o ft he r e a son s a dduced b yA l cock f o rt h er i se o fG la sgow a tt he e xpen se o f Dumba r ton , wh ich h ad p rev iou s ly b een t h e h ead o f n av iga t ion ( A lcock 1 981 , 1 59 ) . S eve r in 's 1 2 me t re c u rach r epl i ca wa s o n ly 5 t on s , wh i le t h e B ro igh te r a r che type m igh t h ave b een 2 0 t o3 0 t ons . T he Y a ss i Ada s h ip , b y c ompa r i son , wa sa round 4 0t on sa nd t h eF o s su r - Me r5 0 . T he l a t ter t wo wou ld h ave b een mo re l im i ted i nl a nd ing p o ten t ia l . T hey c ou ld u se d eep h a rbou r s , i fs uch w e re a va i lab le .O the rw i se t h ey wou ld h ave l a nded mo s te f fec t i ve ly o n ab each a tt h e t u rn o ft i de , where t h ey wou ld e i ther l a yo ve ro no ne s i de o ru se s uppor t s( l eg s ' )t os t and t h ev es se lu p r igh t .T hey wou ld h ave b een l e ss e a s i ly a b le t on ego t ia te a ne s tua ry . Ou ru nde r s tand ing o ft h ef a c to r sg ove rn ing l a nd i ng s i te sa nd t he n av iga t iona lc r i te r ia r equ i red f o rt h em i s o ne o ft he mo s tp oo r ly d eve loped a spec t so ft h i ss ub jec t .I t i so fc ou r se a tt he p o in t o f mak ing l and ,n o t d u r ing t h e v oyage o n t h e o pen s ea , t ha t t h e g rea tes t d ange r s w i l l t h rea ten t h e ma r ine r —a t t he p o in t o fl a nd ing t h e ma r i n er ' s movemen t i sr e s t r i c ted b y : t he s u r round ing ( a nd u nder ly ing )l a nd ;t he c l ima t ic c omp lex i t ie sc r ea ted b yt he e f fe c ts o f t he s ho re u pon w ind a nd s e a ; a nd t h e l e ga l q ue s t ions g overn ing t h e r i gh t o f ma r ine r s t o l a nd a nd e xchange g oods o rd i semba rk p a s senge r s .

McGra i lh a sd e f ined as e to fb as ic c r i ter ia f o rp o r t s i tes i nI r on Age n or the r nE u rope , wh ich w il b eq uo ted h e re a s at e x tf o rd i scus s ion ,a st hey a r eb road ly a ppl i cab le t o ap o s t -Roman e nv i ronmen t . T he l and ing s i te mu s t h ave : Nearby n a tu ra l f e a tu re s ( head land s e t c . ) wh ich make a g ood l and fa l la nd c an b er e ad i ly d i s t ingu i shed . T he a p p roach mu s tb e we l l -de f ined a nd u seab le ,a lmos tr ega rd l e s so fw ind -d i rec t ion ,a nd t he l and ing -p lace i t se l fs hou ld h ave a na spec ts uch t ha ti ti ss he l te red f r om t he p redom i n an t w ind a nd s we l l . A mode ra te ly s l op ing b each o f s and ,s h ing le o r mud whe re t he b oa tc an e as i ly t ake t he g round i sa l so t ob ep re fer red ( McG ra i l , 1 983 ,3 11 ) .

T he se c r i ter ia d on o tt ake a ccoun to fp o ss ib le man -made n av iga t ion a id ss uch a sl i gh t sa nd c hanne l mark ing s ,b u t , a ss t a ted a bove ,t he p re sen ce o ft hese i ne i ther t he p re -o r p o s t -Roman e nv i ronmen to ft h e we s te rn s ea lanes i sd i f f i c u l t t od i sce r n . I ti sb e s tt oa s sume t ha tn a tura l f e atu re s p layed a p r ima ry r o le . A h a rbou r s uch a s P ads tow i n C ornwal ,f o re xamp le , may b eo ne o ft he b es ti ni t sr eg ion t oday ,b u ti th a se x ten s ive s hoa ls a nd i sd ange rou sw i th o u tl o ca lk now ledge .I tmay h ave b een aq u i te i n conven i e n te s tua ry i n wh ich t ou n load as h ip w i thou ti t sc u r ren t r e ta in ing wal sa nd q uay sc ompa red , s ay , t ot he c on t ro v e r s ia lh a rbou ra tT in tage l , whe re s t eep c l i f f so ve rhang ing t h eb ay make q u i te u se fu lw inch ing -po in t s ( and w e re s o u sed i nt h e l a s tc en tury : T homas 1 986 , 6 ) . S uch aj udge men t ,h oweve r , mu s ta l so t ake a ccoun to ft he l i ke ly n a tu re o ft he s h ips i nvo lved a nd t he i r d eg ree o f a cqua in tan ce w i th t he t e r ra in . A Med i ter ranean s h ip w i th a h eavy , c umbe rsome c a rgo o f ampho rae s eem s t oh ave c ome t o T in tage l i n s tead o fp u t t ing i n to t he C ame l e s tua ry ( s ee b e low , 5 2 ) , whe rea s S t S am son o f D o l u sed t he l a t te r h a rbou ro nh i ss ho r ter -d i s tance ,v oyage f r om Wa le s ( s ee b e low ,6 2 ) ,i n al o ca ls h ip o fs u re ly much l owe rt onnage t han t hose c om ing f r om t h e Med i te r ranean . E ven w i th g eog raph ica l ly a ppropr ia te s h ips , i na r eg ion w i th s uch s t rong w inds a nd t i de t he re wou ld a lway sh ave e x i s ted an eed t oc ope w i th p o ten t ia ld i sa s te r , e spec ia l ly when c l ose t ol and .T he we s tern s ea lane sa re a s eve re t e s t ing g round . On t he o ne h and , a s McGra i l o b s e rve s , t h i s may h ave b red as o mewha t c a sua l a t t itude : e v inced ,h e f e e ls ,i nS idon ius ' c ommen t s o n t h e S axon s ' c a sua l a t t i tude t o s h ipwreck ( McGra i l 1 983 , 3 03 ) . T he s urv iv ing c ommen tar ies u pon t he n o l onge r e x tan t O ld I r i sh Mu i rb r e th a ( S ea J udg emen t s ) d escr ibe t he f a te o ft he c a rgoes o fw recked s h ips a nd t he d ues t ob ep a id b yt he p ropr ie to r so ft h ev oyage i fav esse l' c ame c on s igned t oa c e r ta in p e r son ,a nd i twa sn o ti n to h i sl and t hey h appened t ob ed r iven ,b u ti n to t he l and o fa no the r '( i n t a n t a in i cf o t h omu sd u ine a i r i th ih i 7n i' n al e sc l ama s in f e in d o ra la i a t sa f e r ann d u ine a i l e ' n a c omocu s : e d . B inchy C IH 1 978 , 3 15 ) . T he se p rov i s ion s h ighl igh t t he d eg ree t o wh ich t he o ld s a i lo r s 'a dage ' t he t r oub le b eg in s when y ou g e tn ea rl and ' h o ld st r ue .T h i si s ap o in t wh ich f ew l and lubbe r sw r i t ing a bou tt h i sr eg ion a ppre c ia te .S a i l ing p rac t ice o ft he V ik ing A ge s aw t h ed eve lopmen to f as a i l ing t e chn ique ( s ig la t u l b r o t s ) whe reby as t o rm -d r iven s h ip c ou ld make l and w i th o u t l o ss o fc r ew o rc a rgo ,b u t a tt h e e xpen se o ft h e s h ip ( Ma rcus 1 980 , 1 03 -4 ) : 1 9

C ommun ica t ion a nd C ommer ce a l ong t h e W e s t ern S ea lane s AD400 -800

V ar 3 áe ng ia nnar rt ule ns t e fna äl and u pp . . .s ig ldu át u l b ro t so k k ömu a tl and iv i3Hu m ru mynn i ; h a rh e ldu sk menn a l l i ro k me s t rh lu t if j är a nna te ns k ip ; a tb ro tna3 i s pän . ( The re w a sn oo the rc ou r se b u tt os t ee ro n to t he s ho re . . . they s a i led o n to t he s ho re a nd c a me t ol and a tt he Humbe r mou th ; a l l t he men a nd o the r g ood s o n b oa rd we re r e scued ,b u tt he s h ip b roke u p :E g i l sS ag aL IX ,e d . No rda l 1 933 ,1 77 ) .

Mode r nI r i sh c u rach s a i lo r su se as im i la rt e chn ique ( Ma r cu s 1 953 -4 ,3 12 )a nd s uch v e sse l sa nd s a i l ing t e chn ique s wou ld h ave e x i s ted a l so i ne a r ly med ieva lI r e land .I tmay b et h i s s or to fp rac t i ce t ha tt he Mu i rb r e tha r ef l ec ts .T he e xpe r ience o f E gbe r t , who wh i le wa i t ing f o r af avou rab le w ind t o l e ave I r e land , wa s s t ruck o ne n igh tb y as t o rm o f s uch v io lence t ha th i s s h ip was l e f t ' l y ing o n h e r b eam e nds among t he w ave s ' ( a tque o por tuno s a l iquo t d i ebu s ' l en to s e xp e c tar en t ,f a c t ae s tn oc t eq u adam t a rn s a eua t emp e s t a s ,q ua e p e rd i ta sn onnu l la e xp ar t eh i sq uae i nn au ie r an tr e bu s :B ede , HE V .9 , e d . &t r an s . C o lg rave a nd Myno r s 1 969 , 4 78 -9 ) , t hough w i th p a r t o f h e r s t o res s a lvageab le , i sf u r the r i lu s t ra t ion o ft he p rob lem so fw ind ,t i de a nd u npred ic t a b le w ea the r i n c on junc t ion . T hese c ond i t ion s a re t h e h a l lma rk o ft h e wes tern s ea lanes .S i nk ing i nd eep wa te ri s l e s so f ten men t ioned . Ar a re e xamp le i sA nna l so fU l s te rs . a . 7 37 : F e lbe f i l iu s Gua i re Mae lR ub i , h e re sC ro san ,i np rofundo p i lag id ime r su se s tc um s u is n au t i sn ume ro x x . i i . ( F a i lbe s on o f Gua i re ,h e i rt o Mae l R ubh o f App lec ro s s , d rowned i nt he g rea t d ep th o ft he s ea w i th h i s s a i lo r s , n umbe r ing 2 2 ' : e d . & t r an s . MacN io ca i l l a nd MacA i r t 1 983 ,1 90 ) .

S t rand ing b ya ne bb t ide ( r a the rt han t he d eep sea s t o rm i nt he s t o ry o fh i sB ib l ica ln amesake ,J onah ) , was s u f f ic ien t a dve r s i ty t ob r ing a bou tt he r e lea se o fS tC o lumbanu s : Cum i am r em ige ra a r te , p ro spe ran t ibu sz epher i s , n av i s a da l ta p e lag it ende r i t ,u nda rum mo le so bven i tn avemque a d l i tu s r ed i re c oeg i t p lanoque t e r r i s s o lo d epu l sam r e l iqu id ,c o l lec tuque i ns i n ibu sa equo rq u iev i t . ( When t hey we re r ow ing t he s h ip o n ac ou r se f o rt he s ea , w i th af a vou rab le w ind , amas s ive wave me tt he i rs h ip a nd d rove t hem b ack o n to t he s ho re where t hey r e ma ined , a st he wave d rew a way q u ie t ly t ot he c hanne l : J onas , V i ta C o lumban i ,1 . 23 ,e d .K ru sch 1 902a ,9 7 -8 ) .

T erm ino logy may ,h owever ,b ei mprec i se .I na ne p i sode i n G rego ry o f T ou rs 's H i s to r i a F r ancorum , Wa roc _h 's s h ips s i nk e nr ou te t oB e l le l i e : Wa rocu si ni n su l is f ug i re c up ien sc um n av ibu so ne ra t is a u ro a rgen toque v e lr e l iqu is r ebu se iu s , c um a l ta ma ns c oep i s sen t c o r runo to v en to , d ime r s is n av ibu s , r e s q uos i mpo sue ra tp e rd id issen t . ( Wa roch was f l ee ing t ot he i s lands i ns h ips l aden w i th g o ld , s i lve r a nd h i s o the r p o s se s s ion s ; av io len t s t o rm b l ew u p ,t he s h ips s ank ,a nd a l lh i sp rope r ty was l o s t : HF X .9 ,e d . K rusch 1 885a ,492 ) .

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T ho rpe wou ld t r an s la te d ime r s i s ( a c ommon med ieva l f o rm o fd eme r s i s —a l so f ound i n Ado rnnän ) a s ' f ounde r ' ( Tho rpe 1 974 , 5 57 ) , wh i ch wou ld i mp ly as imp le o ve r whe lm ing o f as h ip b y waves .T he se a re e spec ialy n o to r i o us wa ter sf o rs hoa l s ,h owever ,a nd a s Wa roch e s capes t h e s h ipw reck w i th o n ly l o s s o fc a rgo h e a c tua l ly may h ave b een d r iven a g round . A long s ide t h ese g eog raph i ca l h aza rds , h oweve r , we re h aza rd s o f ah uman c ha rac te r , wh i ch may h ave c aused g rea te rc on cern . P i racy wa sc ommon i nt he f i f th c en tury , when S axons r oamed t he s ea lane so f ft h e wes te rn c oa s to fG au la nd t he C hanne l mou th a nd V anda l s we re s i gh ted o f ft h ec oa s to fS pa in .S t i l l ,i ns uch a ne nv i ronmen t p eop le a nd c a rgoe sw ere p robab ly s a fe ro u ti no cean t han c l ose t ol a nd .I n5 85 ,f o re xamp le : N av is , q uae d e G a l le is i n G a l l ic iam a b ie ran t , e x i s suo L euv ie ld ir eg i sv a s ta tae s un t , r e s a b la tae , h om in is c ae s i a tque i n te r fec t in onnu l ic ap t iv ia bduc t is u rd . ( Ce r ta in s h ips wh ich were s a i l ing f r om G au l t oG a l ic ia h ad b een l oo ted o n t he o rde r s o fK ing L euv ig i ld , t he i r c a rgo s t o len , t he i r c r ews wounded o r e ven k i l led , a nd s ome o ft he i r men t aken c ap t ive :H FV 1 1 1 .35 ,e d . K ru sch 1 885a ,4 04 ;t r an s .T ho rpe 1 974 ,4 69 ) .

I nt he V i t a W i lf r id i ,W i l f red 's s h ip wa sb lown a g round i n t he l and o f t h e S ou th S axon s a nd t he ma r iner s f a ced r obbe ry a tt h eh and s o ft he l o ca l s ( V i t a W i lf r id iX I I I , e d . C o lg rave 1 927 ,2 6 ) .S uch p i racy c ou ld b ea ided b yt h el aws o fs a lvage . T he n o tor iou s ' s ha rk s ' o fn ine teen th centu ry B r i ta in b oa rded a cc iden ta l ly s tranded b oa t s b e fo re t he t i de c ou ld r e f loa tt h em a nd t hen c l a i med ap e r cen tage o f t he i r v a lue a s i ft h ey we re s h ipw reck s u nde r t h e l aw . T hough t h es ou rce sd on o ta t tes td i rec t ly t ot h ee x i s tence o fs uch o pera to r s ,t h eO ld I r i sh Mu i rb r e tha ( s ee a bove ,2 0 ; b e low 6 8 -70 ) a ppea r f r om t he s u rv iv ing c o mmen ta r ies u pon t h em t o h ave d e f ined t he l e ga l l i ab i l i ty o fb e ing d r iven o n to s o meone e l se 's l and a nd wou ld o pen t he way f o r s uch p rac t ice . An i n c iden t i n L axdx l a S ag a , whe re embayed ma r ine r s mus t b e b rough t b e fo re t h e k ing t o d e te rm ine whe the r t he i r c a rgo i sf o r fe i t , t hough d a t ing f r om w e l la f te ro u rp er iod , s t i l li lu s t ra tes t h ep o in tt ha t f o re ign ma r ine r sf e a red t he p rec i se l i ab i l i t ie sd e f ined u n d er I r i sh ma r i t ime l aw ( L axdx la S ag a XX I , e d . E ina r ( N . S ve in sson 1 934 ,5 4 ) . T he o ppo r tun i ty f o r f r ee movemen t wh ich wa s o f fered b y t h e s ea i sh ence a n i mpo r tan t f a c to r . I n t he R oman p e r iod ,t r ader sb r ing ing g ood sf r om t h e Med i te r r anean t os ou the rn a nd we s te r nB r i ta in ,a nd t h er ever se , o pe ra ted v i al and r ou te sa c ross G au lt ot h en o r th a nd we s t c oa s t s ;a nd t h ence b ys ea t oB r i ta in .I nt he s i x th c entu ry AD g oods f r om t h ee a s tern Med i ter ranean c ame b y al onge r r ou te ,v i at he S t ra i t so fG ibra l ta ra nd t ou ch ing o n ly u pon P or tuga la nd S pa in . R ea son s f o rt he n ew c ho ice o fr ou te m igh tb ee a s i ly e nough f ound .G au l ,b yt h es i x th c en tu ry , wa sn ol onge rr u led b yt h es a me p owe r sa sc on t roled t he e as tern Med i te r ranean . AB yzan t ine me rcan t i le e xped i t i on ,c ro ss ing t h et e r r i to ry o f aF rank i sh r u le r ,a sc i t izens o f a n emp i re wh ich wa s s e ek ing t o e xpand r i gh t t o h i s b orde r s ,m igh tn o tb e wa rm ly w e lcomed a nd m igh tp ay h eavy d ues . C u r rency p a id t o aF rank i sh k ing , o r e ven

C hap t er T wo : I n troduc ing t h e W e s te rn S ea lane s

t r ade w i th F rank i sh merchan t s , wou ld e n r ich t hose o u t s i de t h e emp i re , wh ich m igh t n o t p lea se t he B yzan t ine r u ler ( L ew i s1 978 ,V ,1 40 ) .F o re igne r s we re o f ten s ub jec tt o p ol i t i ca li nve s t iga t ion .T ha t Med i te r ranean sw e re t r ea ted w i th s u sp ic ion i nt he F rank i sh k ingdom e ven i nt he s ev e n th c en tu ry c an b e s een i n t h e i n c iden t whe re B i shop Hadr ian ,a ccompany ing T heodo re o fT a r sus t oB r i ta in i n 6 68 , wa s i mpr isoned b y E bro in who ' s uspec ted h im o f h av ing s o me m i ss ion f r om t h e empe ror t ot h e k ing s o f B r i ta in , wh ich m igh tb ed i rec ted a ga in s tt h ek ingdom o ver wh ich a tt ha tt ime h eh e ld t he p r inc ipa lc ha rge '( H adr i an a u t em E br inu s r e t inu i t , q uon i am s u sp i c i ab a tur e um h ab e r e a l iquam l e g a t ionem i mp e r a tor i s a d B r i t tan i a e r e g e s a due r su s r e gnum ,c u iu s t unc i p s em ax imam c ur am g e r eb a t , B ede , HE I V .1 ,e d . &t r ans .C o lg rave a nd Myno r s1 969 , 32 -3 ) . None the les s , i tm igh t b e w rong t o o ve r s ta te t h e n eu t ra l i ty o ft he s ea .S ubs tan t iv i s ts t ud ie sh ave t e nded t o t r ea tt h es ea , a nd e spec ialy i s lands o f f sho re ,a ss epa ra te f r om t h el and i np ol i t ica ld e f in i t ion a nd t ot r ea tt he s ho re a s ab ounda ry b e tween t he t wo .T he s hore i sn o t an a t iona l b ounda ry i n modern p o l i t ics ,n e i ther wa si ts oi nt he e a r ly m idd le a ge s . I n e a r ly I r i sh l aw t h e wa te r s u p t o ' n ine waves ' o f f sho re c on s t i tu ted ,i fn o t ' t er r i to r ia l ' wa te r s , a t l e as t as t a tu to ry l im i t t oj u r i sd i c t ion ( s ee b e low ,6 9 ) . E x emp t ion f r om i n terna l p ena l t ies was o n ly a t ta ined b y p a ss ing b eyond t h i s l im i t . T h i s i ss u f f i c ien t e v iden ce t o n o te t h a tt he s ea wa s n o tc on s ide red s epa ra te f r om ,b u t i n c luded w i th in , ab roade rd e f in i t ion o fs oc ie ty . F i sh ing , b eachcomb ing a nd t r ad ing a l l w e re s ub jec t t ol aw a nd r oya lj u r i sd ic t ion . When C o rma cU aL ia thä in wa ss a i l ing t he we s te rn s hore so fS co t land ,S tC o lumba i ss upposed t o h ave b een s u f f ic ien t ly c on cerned f o rh i sp o ten t ia ls a fe ty t o n eed t on ego t ia te p ro tec t ion f r om t h eK ing o fO rkney ( s ee b e low , 1 06 ) —even i n s uch l i t t le -exp lo red wa te r s , t h ey were s t i l li n c l ined t of e e lt ha tt hey we re w i th in t h es cope o f d e f ined p ol i t ies . I f we a r e l o ok ing t o e xp la in why Med i te r ranean t r a f f ic t oB r i ta in i nt he e a r ly m idd le a ge s d id n o tf o l low t he p reh i s tor ic r ou tes a cro ss G au lw e mus t a l so c on s ide r t ha t , p ol i t ica l f a c tor s a s ide , t he s ea i sa med ium f o r d i r e c t t r a f f ic . T he e cono m i c c i rcums tance s wh ich s uppor ted ' down the l ine ' t r a f f ic i np reh i s to ry ; a c umbe r some o ve r land n e two rk i nt he R oman ;a nd wh ich e ncou raged d i rec tt r ade o fl e ss b u lk a nd mo re s peed i nt h e s ub -Roman e ra ,w e re a ls ub t ly d i f f e ren t . Wh i le d i f fus ion i s t a nd s ubs tan t iv is ts t ud ie sh ave e ncouraged t h ei n c lu s ion o ft he s e ai ni n terpre ta t ion so ft h es pread o fc u l tu re ,t h ey h ave n o t e n t i re ly f a c il i ta ted ah umane i n c lu s ion o f s ea t r ave li no u rb roade rp i c tu re o fs oc ie ty a nd e conomy . We may d raw t he f o l low ing c onc lu s ions f r om t h e ma ter ia ls urveyed i nt h i sc hap te r .T he w e s te rn s ea lanes a s d e f ined b y p a s t s cho la r sh ip e n compa s s wa te r s w i th a w ide v a r ie ty o fc l ima t ic a nd e nv i ronmen ta l c ond i t ion s , wh ich c on t ras t w i th t h e r e la t ive r egu la r i ty a nd p red ic t a b i l i ty o ft he Med i ter ranean e nv i ronmen t . T he c u l tu re s a long t h es hores o ft he w es tern s ea lane sb rough t ar ange o ft e chno log ica l s o lu t ion s t ot he p rob lem s p resen ted b y t he se c ond i t ions . W i th p oor r e co rd sa nd t h e ama teur i sm o f ma r i t ime h i s to r iog raphy , o u r u nde r s tand ing o f t h e c ha rac te ro ft hese s o lu t ions i ss t i l ll im i ted .T he s t udy o ft h e s h ipp ing a nd s ea fa r ing o ft he n o r thern s ea s i na n t iqu i ty a nd t h ee a r ly m idd le a ges i ss t i l li n av ery l im i ted s t a te a nd

d e se rv ing o f mo re t r eatmen t t han i sp o ss ib le h ere . T he d a ta r e la t ing t o t he A t lan t ic C e l t ic a nd S axon g roups c ons ide red h e re , a l ong w i th t he ma ter ia l d i scu ssed i n Haywood 's r e cen t s t udy o f t he l a te -an t ique s ou rces f o r G erman ic s ea fa r ing , s e rve a t l e a s t t o d emon s t ra te t he n a r row c ha ra c te ro ft he d eba te t od a te , wh i ch h a sa bove a l l f a i led t oi n c lude s ea fa r ing f uly i n to b roade rd e f in i t ion o f s oc ie ty a nd s t ubbo rn ly r e fused t or e cogn i se t he d iver s i ty o f t he t e chno logy i nvo lved — though t he l a s t wo rd r e ma in st ob es a id o n mo s tc r i t i ca lp o in t s .I tr ema in st os t re s s t ha t amos ti mpo r tan to u tcome o fr e cogn i s ing t he c apac i ty a nd d ive r s i ty o fe a r ly med ieva ls ea fa r ing t e chno logy a nd t e chn ique i st o b u ry t he h ype r -d i f fu s ion i s t f alacy : we s hou ld n o tb e a sk ing ' where c ou ld t hese p eop le t r ave l ' , b u t ' whe re d i d t hey t r ave l . T echn ica l c apa c i ty t hen b e c omes af a c to ri na ne qua t ion ,r a the rt han b e ing m i s taken f o r ar ea son f o rt r ave l .

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Chap ter 3

T he F i f th C en tu ry C on t inu i ty ,D i scon t inu i ty a nd Cu l tu ra lC hange

F i f th -century s our ces u nequ ivoca l ly d ep ic t at ime o fg rea t c hange i n we s te r nE u rope . S tP a t r ick , P ro spe r , S idon iu s a nd Hyda t ius , among o the rs ,h ave a l ll e f tc on tempo ra ry a ccoun t s o f A t lan t ic E u rope i n t he f i f th c entu ry wh ich i nd ica te ah igh l e ve lo fp i racy ,p ol i t ica lc hange a nd C h r i s t i an m i ss iona ry a c t iv i ty .T he h i s to r ian e xam in ing t he h i s t o ry o ft r an spo r tf a ce st h ef olow ing q ue s t ion si nt h el i gh t o f s uch e ven t s . D id t r ade a nd c ommun ica t ion c a r ry o n w i thou tr e ference t os uch c hange a nd i n s tab il i ty? O rd id ma r i t ime p i racy a nd m ig ra t ion t o taly c hange t he c ha rac t e r o f s eaborne c o mmun ica t ion ? We m igh t i mag ine a s ca l ing d own o fi n ter reg iona le xchange o r ,c onve r s ly ,a s R oman c on t ro lo ver t he l and d ec l ined a nd sma l le rs t a tes emerged ,t he s ea m igh tp o ss ib ly h ave b ecome m o r ei mpo r t an ta s ameans o fc ommun ica t ion ,b yr ea son s imp ly o fi t s a b i l i ty t ob ypa ss b o rde r sa nd h o s t i le l ands . B o th Z immer a nd P i renne ,d i scu ss ing t he A t lan t ic a nd t he Med i te r ranean r e spec t ive ly ,a rgued f o r ac on t inu i t y o f l ong -d i s tance s eabo r n e c omme r ce , s t a r t ing i nt he R oman p er iod a nd c on t inu ing , u n in te r rup ted , i n to t h e m idd le a ges . T he i r i n terp re ta t ion s d ownp layed t he d i s r up t ion t oa l le xchange c aused b yt he f i f th -cen tu ry m ig ra t i on a nd p i racy . Wh i le t he i r mode l sh ave mo s t ly p a ssed o u t o f p opu la r i ty , o n a ccoun t o f t he o bv iou s e v idence a ga in s t ac on t inu i ty o fc ommod i ty e xchange o nt h es ca le p erm i t ted b yw idespread R oman c on t ro l ,i tm igh tb es a id t ha t t he ' c ap i ta l i s t c ons tan t ' h a s c ome i n a ga in a t t h e b ackdoo r ,i nt he f o rm o fa ni mage o fc on t inuous t r a f f ic o n asmale rs ca le .T he f olow ing c ommen tb yT homa si sa n e xcelen te xamp le o ft h ep rob lem a nd w i l lb eq uo ted h e re a s at e x tf o rd i scu ss ion : Sma l l s h ips t ha t c ou ld c ar ry j a r s a nd mo r ta r ia a nd p e r h aps w ine i nl i t t le c ask sc ou ld o fc ou r se c ar ry p eop le — p eop le l i ke P a t r ick i nt he f i f th c en tury ,C o lumbanu si nt he s i x th ,l e ta l one t he me rchan t sf r om t he l a nd o ft he F rank s a nd t he o ccas iona l F rank ish me rcena r ie s who b rough t t he i rs wo rds w i th t hem .T ha t Chr is t ian s ,i nt he e ar ly f i f th c en tury i n c lud ing p i lg r im s o n t he i r way t ot he L evan t , c ou ld h ave t r ave l led t h is way i sc e r ta in ;a nd i ti si nt he h ighes td eg ree p robab le ( Thoma s 1 981a ,2 71 ) .

T h i s c ommen t embraces ma te r ia l f r om d i f fe ren t c en tu r i es —Med i ter ranean a nd G au l i sh c e ram ic g roups f r om w es tern B r i ta in a nd I r e land ; t he ' F rank i sh ' me ta lwo rk f r om L agore ; a nd Z imme r 's ' w ine t r ade ' a l l u nde r o ne mode l .I nf a irness t oT homa s ,i tmus tb es a id t ha th ei sn o t b l ind t oc hanges wh ich o ccu r red f r om c entury t oc en tu ry , a s many o fh i s o ther s t ud ies d emon s t ra te ( e .g . T homa s 1 990 , 1 -14 ) . I n s uppo r t ing ac u l tura l t h e s i s i nt h i s c a se , h oweve r ,h ei sc on ten tn o tt om in im i se t h ec on t inu i ty o f

2 2

t he p a t te r n , o bserv ing t ha t : ' t rade r s a lways p re fe rt oi g n o re b o th p o l i t ic s a nd wa r ' ( Thomas 1 981a , 3 00 ) . C a ses s uch a sL euv ig i ld 's s ack ing o fc ap tu red s h ips ( s ee a bove , 2 0 -1 )a nd t he I r i sh l aw so nd i s t ra in tr ega rd ing f l o t sam ( s ee b e low , 6 8 ) wou ld s ugge s t t ha t t r ade r s c ou ld a f fo rd t o i gno re n e i the rp ol i t ics n o r wa r . T homp son a l so s ugge s t s c on t inu i ty f r om c entury t oc en tu ry : t h e re i se v idence f o rs ubs tan t ia ls eaborne t r ade b e tween G au l a nd G al ic ia i nt he l a te rs i x th c en tu ry a nd w es ha l l f i nd s o me f a c t se as ie rt oa ccoun tf o ri fw ea ssume t ha tt h is t r ade was a l ready f l our ish ing i n t he f i f th c en tury ( Thompson 1 982 , 1 43 ) .

P a t te rns i nd i ca ted b y t e x t s a nd i mpo r ted a r te fa c t s a re t r ea ted h ere b y T hompson a s l i ke ly t ob e c on t inuou s— e ven i ft h ee v iden ce i sd i scon t inuou s— i ft hey f i tt h ec u l t u ra lc onnec t ion r equ i red . On t he o ne h and we mus ta dm i t t ha ts uch a s sump t ion sa r ei n many r e spec t sq u i te r e a son a b le .T he e v idence wh ich w i l lb ed i scu s sed i nt he f o l low i ng c hap te r ss ugge s ts t ha ts ma l l -sca le c om me rce wa sb o th n o rma la nd may b ea s sumed t oe x i s ta t mo s tt ime sa c ro ss t he p e r iod AD400 -800 . On t h eo the rh and ,t he re a r et imes when d i scon t inu i ty i nl ong -d is tance t r a f f ic i sc l ea r ly i d en t i f iab le a nd o u r c l ea res t e v idence , s uch a s i mpo r ted c e r am ics , mus tb es een t ot e s t ify t ol ong -d i s tance e xchange e ven t s wh ich wou ld n o tb el i ke ly t oh ave o ccu r red a c ro ss t h e who le o ft h i sp e r iod . I tw i l lb e d emon s t ra ted t ha t d i rec t l i nk sb e tween I r e land a nd G au l a re u n l ike ly i n t he f i f th c entury a nd e a r l ie r . T hompson 's G au l -Ga l ic ia l i nk w i l l b e s e en a s s l igh t ly mo re l i ke ly ,i fw i thou ta ny s ol id e v idence . We w i l l s e et h a tt h ed i re c t Med i te r ranean c onne c t ion wh ich b rough t c e ram i cs t oe a r ly med ieva ls i te si nt h eC e l t ic wes ti sa l so l i ke ly t oh ave b een a bsen t f r om t he f i f th c en tury —even t r ad ing l i nk s b e tween t h e wes tern Med i ter ranean a nd P o r tuga la re d oub t fu l .C e ram ic d i s t r ibu t ion s ,t he d a t ing o f wh ich f o r t he f i f th c en tury a re n ow o n a much f i rmer f oo t ing ,s how t ha tt he w e s tern Med i te r ranean wa sb yn o means i n c on t inuous c on ta c t w i th t h e e a s t i n t h e s ub R oman p e r iod . T he f i f th c en tury i s ac l ea rh ia tus , wh i ch P i renne o ve r looked ,b ecau se h er el i ed u pon c i r cum s tan t i a ls im i lar i t ie sb e tween t h ep i ctures p rov ided b yf ou r th a nd s i x th c en tury a ccoun t so fe as t -we s tc o mmerce . Wha ti st h ec ause o ft h ef i f th c en tu ry d i scon t inu i ty ? T he a c t iv i t ies o fG erman ic p i ra tes o nt h e we s tern s e a lane s a r e l i ke ly t o b e p a r t ly r e spon s ib le , b u t we s hou ld n o t e xagge ra te b yi mp l ica t ion t h el i ke l ihood t ha tc omme rc ia l v oyag ing wou ld h ave o ccu r red o n al a rge r s ca le i nt h e a bsen ce o fs uch p i racy . C hanges i np opu la t ion a nd g ov e rnmen to ccu r red o n aw ide s ca le i nt h ef i f th c en tu ry .I n

C hap t e rT hr e e : T h eF i f t hC en tu ry

t he c en tu r ie s wh ich f o l lowed ,t he re i sl i t t le e v iden ce o ft he emergen ce o fl ong term c omme rc ia lp a t te r n s .R a the r , we h ave e v idence o f s pa smod ic a nd h e te rogeneou s l ong d i s tance e xchange , w i th d i f feren te conom i cb a se s i nd i f f e ren t c a se s . T h is p o in t h a s mos t ly b een l o s t , a nd q u i te c l ear e v iden ce f o r t he s t ruc tu re o fs uch e xchange o ve r l ooked ,i nt h er ush t oi den t i fy c on t inuou sp a t te rn s . T h is c hap ter mus tt a ck le ar a the rd ive r se r ange o f t op ics , t oe s tab l i sh wha t a re mo s t ly n ega t ive p o in t s . A s c on t inu i ty a cross s eve ra l m i l lenn ia i sa s ser ted b y t he ' wes tern s eaways ' t heo r i s t s we s hou ld b eg in b y b r ief ly t r ac ing t he p a t tern i nt he c en tu r ie sp r io rt ot he f i f th c en t u ry AD ,t od emons t ra te t he mo re o rl e s sc omp le te l a ck o f e v idence f o rd i rec tv oyage sf r om t h ec on t inen tt o we s te rn B r i ta in a nd I r e land p r io rt ot he f i f th c en tu ry AD . We w i l l t hen p roceed t oe xam ine s uch e v idence a se x i s t sf o rt he u se o ft he we s te r ns ea lanes i nt he f i f th c en tu ry .F ina l ly , we w i l l l ook a tt he c a se a dvanced b yZ immer f o r ac on t inu i ty i n to t he e ar ly m idd le a ges o f ac omme r c ia lp a t te rn c ommen ced i n a n t iqu i ty . We w i l l s ee t ha t t he d i s t inc t ion o f f i f th c en tury a c t iv i ty i sa n i mpo r tan t p re l im ina ry t o u nde r s t and ing t he c on tex to ft he much more s ubs tan t ia ld i rec t c on t inen ta l l i nk s o f B r i ta in a nd I r e land i n t he s i x th a nd s even th c en tu r ies . I ta l so i si mpo r tan ti fwe a re t og a in a c l ear i dea o ft he d i f fe rence si ns ea -use o cca s ioned b yt he F rank i sh a nd V i s igo th i ce xpan s ion s . T r af f i cP r io rt ot h eF i f th C en tury T he we s te rn s ea lanes e n te rh i s to ry i nt he r epo r t so f Med i t e r ranean ma r ine rs , who v en tu red n or th f r om P hoen ic ian a nd G reek c o lon ies i nt he we s te r n Med i te r ranean . Un fo r t una te ly t he a ccoun t s o ft he se w r i ter s h ave mo s t ly b een l o s ta nd we a ccess t hem o n ly t h rough l a te rw r i te r s , wh ich h a s b een t he c ause o f much c on fus ion o fi n terp re ta t ion . T he v oyage o f P y thea s , c . 325 B C , wa s t he f i r s t d e f in i te a ccoun t o f av oyage t o B r i ta in a nd I r e land , a nd wa s p robab ly c onnec ted w i th A lexand r ian i n tere s t si nn o r th e rn E u rope , u l t ima te ly n eve r r e al i sed ( Hawkes 1 977 ) . T here h a sb een at endency i nt he mode r ne ra t oa c cep tt he t e s t imony o fa ccoun t ss uppo sed ly d e r ived f r om P hoen ic ian s ource s ,s ugges t ing a ne a r ly i n te re s ti nB r i ta in a s as ou rce o ft i n( Hen cken ,1 930 ;K enney 1 929 , 18 -38 ; Hawke s1 984 , 2 11-33 ; P enha l lu r ick 1 986 , 1 23 -131 ) . T in m ine s i nS pa in , h oweve r ,r a the rt han B r i ta in ,a re t h e mo re l i ke ly t e rm inu s o fa ny P hoen ic ian v oyage s . I ts hou ld a l so b e n o ted t ha t G reek w r i te r s we re won tt oc l a im P hoen ic ian p recur so r s a t many s i tes o fG reek a c t iv i ty i nt he we s ta nd mos ts uch c l a ims a re , a ccord ing ly , t ob e r ega rded a s q ue s t ionab le ( Aube t1 993 , 1 67 -70 ) . L a te rc l a ss ica la nd med ieva lw r i t ten a ccoun t so f ten d escr ibe t h e we s te r n s ea lanes i n t e rm s o f ad i scou r se d er ived f r om t he se e a rl ie ra ccoun t s . When we f i nd S t rabo w r i t ing o f t he t i des o f t he we s tern s ea lanes ( S t rabo , G eog raph i c a 1 . 1 .8 , e d . J one s 1 949 ,V o l . 2 ,1 6 -19 ; 1 1 .3 .3 , e d . J one s1 949 ,6 6 -7 ) ,o re ven D i cu i la sl a te a st he n in th c entu ry d i scus s ing p ack i ce n o r th o f' Thu le '( D i cu i lL i b e rd e Men sur a O rb i s T e r r a eX I I I ,e d .T ie r ney 1 967 ,7 4 -5 ) ,t hey a re mak ing r e fe ren ce ,d i rec t ly o ri nd i rec t ly , t oP y thea s ' l o s tp er ip lu s l ep t r ou f f r eavou ( ' conce r n ing t h eo cean ' ) .R e fe rence st o

A t lan t ic v oyag ing i nC ae sa ra nd S idon ius ,a nd e ven t ho se s i x th - a nd s even th -cen tury B yzan t ine a u thor s who d e s c r ibe t i na s a' B r i t i sh 'p roduc t( d i scu ssed b e low ,4 6 ) , mu s t b eu nde r s tood i nt e rm so fk now ledge o fe a r l ie rw r i te r s . T he f ou r th -cen tu ry a nd e a rl i er a ccoun t sc ome f r om d i rec tv oyage sf r om t he Med i te r ranean .I nt he f i na lc en tu r i e s B C ,h oweve r , t he re was ag radua l ly e sca la t ing c om me r ce c onduc ted i n to t he A t lan t ic f r om n or the rn a nd we s te rn G au l , u nde r R oman s t imu lu s . T h i s c o mmer ce s eem st oh ave b rough tC o rn i sh a nd S pan ish t i nt oR oman ma rke t s .T he r epu ta t ion o fC o rnwal f o rt i ni nt h i sp er iod may h ave c aused t he i den t i f ica t ion o f t he a nc ien t ' Ca s s i te r ide s ' , f r om t he e a rl i er s ource s , w i th B r i ta in a nd I r e land .A s we w il s ee t he C a ss i te r ide s we re p robab ly i n S pa in . T h i s r epresen t s t he b eg inn ing o f ac on fu s ion o f S pa in a nd B r i ta in wh ich c o lou r s h i s tory a nd g eog raphy r i gh tu pt ot he med ieva lp e r iod a nd b eyond . I n fo rma t ion g a the red ,f o rma l ly a nd i n forma l ly ,i n t he p ro cess o ft he c onques to f wes tern a nd n o r the rn E u r ope b y R ome i n form s c l as s ica l g eog raphy i n t he f i r s t c en tury BC o nwa rd ,t hough i ti sm ixed i nw i th t he e a rl ie r s ou r ce s . D iodoru s S i cu lu s ( H i s tor i ca l L i br ary V .22 , e d . O ld fa the r , V o l . 3 , 1 56 -7 ) d e scr ibe s at r ade i n t i n f r om B e l er ion — iden t i f ied b yP to lemy a sL and 's E nd — th rough at r ad ing c en t re o n at i da li s land ,I c t i st ot he c oa s to fG au l a nd o ve r land t ot he Med i te r ranean . T he i den t i f ica t ion o f I c t i s mu s t r ema in c on t rover s ia l ( Hawke s 1 984 , 2 11 -33 ) . T he p owe r fu lV ene t i c p eop le o fA rmo r ica i nt he t ime o f t he i rd e fea ta tt he h and so fC aesa r( 5 6 BC ) ,' had al a rge f l ee t p ly ing b e tween t he i r own p o r t s a nd B r i ta in ' ( Cae sa r , B e l lum G a l l i cum 1 1 .8 , e d . &t r an s . E dwards 1 917 , 1 46 -9 ) . T he V ene t i wou ld mo s tl i ke ly h ave o pe ra ted t he wes tern s ea lane se nd o ft he t i nt r ade , wh ich s eems t oh ave d ec l ined b y t he t ime o ft he R o man o ccupa t ion o fB r i ta in a nd t h i s s eem sn ow t ob ec on f i rmed b ya r chaeo logy ( l 'Hou r1 987 , 13 -31 ) . I ti sn o t c l ea r whe the r i t was C aesa r 's i nvas ion wh i ch i t se l fb rough ta bou t t he c e ssa t ion o ft he t r ade ,b y d es t roy ing t he V ene t ic f l ee t s ,t hough S t rabo s ugge s t st ha t V ene t i cr e s i s tance wa sb a sed o n ad e s i re t op reven tR oman c ompe t i t ion ( S t rabo , G eog r aph i ca I V .4 .1 , V o l . 2 ,e d . J ones 1 949 ,2 34 -5 ) . T hough t r ade b etween t he wes tern c oas t o f G au l a nd t he s ou th c oa s t o fB r i ta in c on t inued t h roughou t t he R oman p e r iod ,n oe v iden ce e x i s t s t ha tt he V ene t it r aded i n to t he I r i sh S ea b a s in .O 'Ke l ly 's a t temp ts t oi den t i fy ' c l i f f c as t les 'o f aV ene t i ct ype i nC o .C o rk r e s ted o nt he b a res t o ft ypo log ica le v idence , a sh eh im se l fa dm i t ted ( O 'Kely 1 952 -3 , 3 2 -4 ) . C la ss ica l s ou rce s s eem t oi nd ica te t ha t t he G au l sh ad n ok now ledge o fI r e land . When C aesa rq ue s t i oned me rchan t sf o rd e ta i l sr ega rd ing B r i ta in b e fo re s e t t i ng s a i li n5 5B Ch ef ound : Q uae o i nn ia f e re G a l l i s e r an t i n cogn i ta . N eque e n im t eme re p r ae te rm e r ca to re si l oa d i tq u i squam ,n eque e i s i p s i s q u idquam p rae te r o r am m a r i t imam a t que e a s r e g ione sq u ae s un tc on t r aG a l l ia sn o tum e s t .I t aque v o c a t i s a ds eu nd ique m e r ca to r ibu sn eque q uan ta e s se ti n su lae m agn i tudo ,n eque q uem u sum b e l l ih abe ren ta u tq u ibu s i n s t i tu t i su t e ren tu r ,n eque q u ie s sen ta dm a io rum n av ium mu l t ih id inem i d one ip o r tu s ,r e pe r i r ep o te ra t .

2 3

C ommun ica t ion a nd C ommer c ea l ong t h e W e s t e rn S ea lane s AD400 -800

( A lmo s ta l lt hese ma t te r s we re u nknown t ot he G au ls .I n f a c t ,n obody e xcep tt r ade r sj ou rney st h i the rw i thou tg ood c au se ; a nd e ven t r ade r s k new n o th ing e xcep t t he s ea c oas ta nd t he d i s t r ic t so ppo s i te G au l .T he re fo re ,a l though h es u mmoned t oh i s q uar te r s t r ade r s f r om a l lp ar t s , h e c ou ld d i scove r n e i the r t he s i ze o f t he i s land , n o r t he n umbe r o rs t reng th o ft he t r ibe s i nhab i t ing i t ,n o r t he i r manne ro f war fa re ,n o rt he o rd inan ce st hey o bserved ,n o r t he h a rbou rs s u i tab le f o r al a rge n umbe ro fs h ips :B e l lum G a l l icum I V ,e d . &t r an s . E dwa rds 1 917 ,2 04 -6 ) .

C ae sar i sk nown t oh ave h ad c on tac t sw i th mo re t han o ne wes tern G aul i sh s ea fa r ing g roup ,a tl e a s tt he V ene t i ,a nd ' Ga ll i c s h ips c on scr ip ted i nP o i tou , S a in tonge a nd o the r s ub jec t a rea s ' ( G a l l i c i sque n av ibu s , q ua s e x P i c ton ibu s e t S an ton i s r e l iqu i squ e p aca t i s r e g i on ibus c onv en ir e i u s se r a t : B e l lum G a l l i cum I I .11 ,e d . &t r an s .E dwa rd s 1 917 ,1 53 ) .I f wes tern G au la nd t he I r i sh S ea w e re i nc on tac td u r ing t h i s p e r iod i twou ld b es u rpr i s ing i fC ae sa rc ou ld l e a rn n o th i ng f r om s uch s ea fa re r s a pa r t f r om d e ta i l s o f t h e s ou th c oas to fB r i ta in .T he re i sn oq ue s t ion o ft he c apac i ty o ft h e V ene t i t o make v oyages i n to t h e I r i sh S ea . T hey a ppea r f r om C aesa r 's a ccoun tt oh ave b een e xcelen ts eamen ,w i th s h ips w e l le qu ipped f o rw es te r ns ea lane s t r ave l( Cae sa r B e l lum G a l l i cum 1 1 .13 ,e d .E dwa rds 1 917 ,1 54 -5 ) .B u tt h e re i ss imp ly n oe v idence t ha tt hey d id .T he R oman n e two rk s , wh ich f o l lowed t he V ene t i i n t r ade a l ong t he w es te rn c oas t so fG au l ,a l so s eem t oh ave t o taly e xc luded I r e land . T ac itus 's ( 9 8 AD ) d escr ip t ion i si n formed o f t he ' a pproache s t o i t s ( I re land 's ) h a rbou r s f r om c omme rce a nd t he r epor t s o f me rchan t s ' ( . .ad i tu s p or tu sque p e r c omm e r c i a e tn ego t i a to r e s c ogn i t i : T ac itu s , Agr ico la XX IV , e d . Hu t ton 1 914 ,2 11 ) .T he G eog r aphy o fP to lemy p rov ide s a ne x ten s ive l i s to fp lace n ame sf r om t he I r i sh c oa s t , wh ich s eem t oh ave b een c o l lec ted i nt h el a s tc entu r ies B C .T he se i nd ica te o bserve r s who h ad t r ave l led t he e a s tc oa s t ,a sw el a st he s ou th a nd we s tc oa s t sa sf a ra st he S hannon mou th ( Mac a nB ha i rd 1 991 -2 ) .I ti smo re t han l i ke ly t hese n ame s r epre sen t t he k now ledge t ha t T ac i tu s d e scr ibes . T hese n ame sa r ea tt he i rg rea tes tc oncen t ra t ion o nt he L e in s ter a nd Mun s ter c oa s t so fI r e land . Whe the ro rn o tt h i sc a r r ie s a ny i mpl i ca t ion s f o r o the r e v idence o f R oman c on tac t , s uch a st he d i s t r ibu t ion o fR oman f i nd sa nd t he e v iden ce o f o gham f o r e a r ly L a t in l i t e racy i n t h i s r eg ion , mu s t r ema in a no pen q ues t ion . Wha ts hou ld b es t re ssed , mo s t o fa l ,i st ha tn o th ing i nt he d i s t r ibu t ion o fP to lemy 's p lace n ame s , e ven t hose f r om t he A t lan t i c c oa s t o f I r e land , s ugges t s as ou rce f o rt h i si n forma t ion i nG au l i sh , r a the r t han B r i t i sh b ased v oyage s .T he p reva i l ing w ind s( s ou th wes te r ly ) ,f a c i l i ta te a broad r each ( i . e .s a i l ing a tr i gh t -ang le t ot he b reeze )t oB r i ta in i nb o th d i rec t ions .T he e xamp le o f t he o gham d i s tr ibu t ion s ha red b e tween t h es ame a r ea o f s ou th -we s t I r e land a nd Dy fed i n Wa les , i s amp le t e s t i mony t o al i ke l ihood o fs uch al i nk w i th B r i ta in . T he d e ta i l s wh ich c l a ss i ca l w r i ter s g ive f r om t h e f i rs tc entury AD o nwa rds r e f lec t ac on t inu ing l a ck o fi npu t f r om d i rec t s ea v oyages a l ong t h e wes tern s ea lanes i n to t he I r i sh S ea . T he m i s taken o r ien ta t ion o f I r e land a nd B r i ta in t o t he c on t inen t , wh ich p laced I r e land b e tween B r i ta in a nd S pa in , was n ever c o r rec ted , wh ich w em igh t i mag ine wou ld h ave o ccu r red i fa nybody h ad made t he v oyage f r om t he c on t inen tt oI r e land .P l iny ,f o re xamp le , 2 4

g ive so n ly t h ed i s tance o ft he s ho r te s tc ross ing f r om B r i t a in .H ep rov ide sn od e ta i l sc once r n ing t he d i s tance f r om I r e land t oG au l( P l iny ,N a tur a l i sH i s t o r i aI V .16 ,e d .R ackham 1 942 ,1 98 ) .H ed oes ,h oweve r ,p rov ide a ccura te d i s tan ce s f o rt he s ou thern c oa s to fB r i ta in i nr e la t ion t oG au l .T ac i tu s n o te st ha tI r e land i se a s i ly a ccess ib le f r om t he s ea so f fG au l ( Ta c i tu s , A g r i co l a XX IV , Hu t ton 1 914 , 2 11 ) . I n t h e s ame p a ssage ,h owever ,h ed e scr ibes i ta sl y ing b e tween B r i ta in a nd S pa in , wh ich wou ld p u ti t=real i s t i caly n ea rt oG au l . I ft he re wa st r ade a round t h es ho res o fB r i ta in a nd I r e land ,n one o ft he ma r i t ime g eog raph ica l d a ta p a ss ing b ack t og eog rapher s s e rved t oc o r rec tt he v a r iou s c a r to g raph i ca le r ro r s wh ich emerged i nt h eo r ien ta t ion o fn o r th e rn a nd w e s te r n B r i ta in a nd I r e land i n r e la t ion t o t h e c on t inen t .T h i sa dds t ot he i mpres s ion t ha to n ly t h es hor t c ro s s ing sw e re b e ing u sed i nt he R oman p er iod . Ar ange o fw r i te r sf r om C ae sa rt h rough S t rabo e ven t oP rocop iu s s ugges tt ha tt h ec oa s to fI r e land l i e so ppo s i te S pa in a nd t h e Aqu i ta ine ( T ierney 1 976 , 2 57 -65 ; K ileen 1 976 , 2 07 -15 ) . C la s s ica lw r i te rs we re t or ema in i ni gno rance o ft h eo r ien t a t ion o fI r e land i nr e la t ion t ot he c on t inen t .I twa st og ive r i se , p robab ly v ia O ro s ius a nd I s ido re , t o t he M i les ian l e gend so f med ieva l I r i sh t r ad i t ion , wh ich u sed t he f a l se b e l ie ft h a tI r e land wa s o n ly j u s t o u t o fs i gh t o fS pa in t o e xp la in t h e e a r l ie s t s e t t lemen t o f I r e land a s b e ing f r om S pa in ( Maca l i s te r 1 938 -56 ) .T h i sl e gend h a sb o th d i rec t ly a nd i nd i rec t ly i n f luenced t he n o t ion o ft he ' we s te rn s ea way s ' s choo l t ha t t he re we re e a r ly d i rec t l i nk s w i th t h e c on t inen t . I th a s a l so l ed t o mo re f a r fe tched , h ype r d i f fu s ion i s t ,a rgumen t sf o rc u ltu ra lu n i ty a long t h ew es t e rn s eaboa rd ( Qu inn 1 986 ) . I ti sw i th s ome r e serva t ions t h a t we s hou ld a c cep t t ha tt h es ou rce so fG raeco -Roman g eog raphy a nd c a r tog r aphy g i ve a ny mo re t han ag enera li nd ica t ion o ft h er ange o fr ou te si nvo lved i nc ommerc ia lc on tac tb e tween B r i ta in , I r e land a nd G au l . E a rl i er d e ta i l s w ere worked i n to a c a r tog raph ica l t r ad i t ion where t hey w ere d i s to r ted b y G reek g eome t r ic mode l s . A w r i te r a s e a r ly a s T ac i tu s s eem st ob e wo rk ing f r om maps wh ich s how t h es or t so f d is tor t ions e v iden t i n t he ( l a ter ) work o f P to lemy ( Baumgar ten 1 984 ,1 95 f f ) .T he t e x t so fP y thea s ,P h i lemon , T imaeus , Ma r inus a nd P os idon ius h ave b een l o s ta nd t h e e a r ly d a te o f t h e u nde r ly ing s ou rce s o f Av ienus 's O r a Mar i t ima ,c ruc ia li nH encken 's i nf luen t ia lr e con s t ruc t ion o fe a r ly I r i sh S ea t r ade r ou tes ( Hencken 1 932 , 1 68 , 1 81 f f ) , i sn ow much d eba ted . Av ienus 's wo rk i ss a id t od epend o n e a r l ie r s our ce s ( Mu rphy 1 977 , v -v i ) : aG reek ' M a s s i l io t e P e r ip lu s 'a sw el a s ac ommen ta ry ,b u td oub ts n ow a t tach t o whe the r t h i s wa s a n o therw ise u nknown p e r ip lu s , o r whe the r Av ienu s 's wo rk i sd e r ived t o taly f r om k nown a u tho r s . I ti sn o t c l ea r whe ther many v oyages w e re c on d uc ted b yt he R oman sa l ong t he s ea lane so ft he I r i sh S ea b as in . T he ' c i r cumnav iga t ion ' o f S co t land d esc r ibed b y T ac i tu s ,f o re xamp le ,s e ems o n ly t oh ave i nvo lved s a i l ing t oC ape Wra th f r om t he e a s t a nd t u rn ing b ack ( Tac i tu s , A g r i co l a XXXV I I I , e d . Hu t ton 1 914 , 2 36 ) . T ha t ma r ine r s we re c h ief ly mak ing e a s t -wes t v oyage s f r om B r i ta in t o I r e land s e em s mo s t l i ke ly ( Tac i tus , A g r ico la XX IV , e d . Hu t ton 1 914 ,2 11 ) .V oyages o n an o r th -sou th l i ne a r en o t r e co rded .

C hap t er T hr ee : T he F if th C en tury

T he d e ta i li nt he work so fS t rabo a nd Av ienu sc an b e r e -exam ined i nt he l i gh to fa r chaeo logy . S t rabo ( c . 6 4 BC -19 AD ) d escr ibe s ar ange o f t r ad ing l i nk s b e tween wes tern G au l a nd t he s ou th o f B r i ta in , b y way o f t he s ou the rn p a r to ft he wes tern s ea lane s : T dTTapa 8 ' E UTt S ldp4aTa O tV x pOvTat c r uvr iews E rt T' W I WOV K T f ig A rE pou , T a d rä T Oy W ox c l iv T Ov r ora t ufw , T OÜ T E T T iVOU K a i T O Üi l lKodva K a i T O ÜA gt y npOS K a i T OÜ

r apot iva . ( The re a re o n ly f ou rp assage s wh ich a re h ab i tua l ly u sed i nc ro s s ing f r om t he ma in land t ot he i s land ,t ho se wh ich b eg in a tt he mou th so ft he r i ve r s -t he R henu s[ Rh ine ] ,t he S equana [ S e ine ] , t he L ige r [ Lo i re ] , a nd t he G a rumna [ Garonne ] : S t rabo , G eog r aph i c a I V .5 .2 ,e d . &t r an s .J one s 1 949 ,V o l .2 ,2 53 ;f o rd i scu ss ion s ee Cun l i f fe 1 984 ,2 4 -36 ) .

Z imme r( 1 909a ,3 63 -400 ) ma in ta ined t ha tt h i st r ade f r om t he G a ronne a nd L o i re mos tl i ke ly t ook i nI r e land a s we l l a sB r i ta in ,b u t we s hou ld n o te t ha tS t rabo d e f in i te ly d oe s n o t men t ion I r e land i nt h i sc onnec t ion . Mo reove r where h e d oe s men t ion I r e land , e l sewhe re , i ti so n ly i n mo s t e r roneou st e rms ( S t rabo ,G eog r aph i ca I V .5 .4 ,e d .J one s1 949 , V o l .2 ,2 58 -9 ) . We s hou ld a l so n o te ,w i th R i chmond ,( R ich mond 1 958 , 1 44 ) t he s pa r sene s s o fe v idence f o rw e s tern I r e land i nt he g eog raphy o fP to lemy . And w e mu s ta lway s b ec on s c iou so ft he c on fus ion o fR oman s ou r ces r ega rd ing t he o r ien ta t ion o fI r e land t ot he c on t inen t . B o th T ac itus a nd P to lemy c i te me r chan t s a s t h e i r ma jo rs ou rce ,P to lemy p rov id ing mo re d e ta i lo ft h ei n land r eg ion s t han T ac itu s . T ac itus 's mer chan t s s eem t oh ave s t opped a tb ounda ry t r ad ing s i te s ,r a the rt han p ene t ra t ing t he i n te r ior .T hese v oyages c l ea r ly f avou red t he e a s ta nd s ou th c oa s t s . T he l i ke l ihood t ha t a l t h e se R oman , a nd i mmed ia te ly p re -Roman ,c on tac t sw i th I r e land w e re f r om B r i ta in i sa l so c on f i rmed b yt he l a ck o ft h es o r t so fp res t ige g oods , n o tab ly ampho rae , f ound i n t h e C hanne l t r ade n e two rk .T he we s te rn s ea lane st r a f f ic d e sc r ibed b yS t rabo i ss epa ra te a nd s ee m st of olow t h es ame p a t te r nd e scr ibed b y D iodorus i nc onnec t ion w i th t i nt r ad ing : w i th g oods b e ing s h ipped a l ong t h e Gaul i sh r i ve r s t oa nd f r om t he Med i te r ranean ( Ga i l lou 1 984 , 3 23 ) . Ar ange o fa r chaeo l og ica le v idence s eem st oc on f i rm t h el a ck o fi nvo lvemen t o fI r e land i ns uch t r a f f ic emana t ing f r om G au l .T he d i s t r i b u t ion o ft he ampho rae o fD re sse l t ypes 1 4 a nd r e la ted i mpo r t sa r r iv ing i nB r i ta in d u r ing t he l a te s e cond t h rough t he f i r s tc en tury BC r e la tes t ot h e p a t te rn o fc on tac t d e s c r ibed b yS t rabo wh i ch b rough t' g ra in ,c a t t le ,g o ld ,s i lve r a nd i r on . . .h ides ,s l ave sa nd d og s '( T OV K a i . pow r ip .a • ra K a i . x pu c röv K a i apyupov Kai c y CS i lpov

84µaTa K a i

c i v8p c iroSa K a i . K t ivEs —S t rabo , G eog r aph i c aI V .5 .2 ,e d . &

t r an s . J one s 1 949 , V o l . 2 ,2 54 -5 ) b ack t o t h e c on t inen t , p resumab ly i nr e turn f o rt he c on ten t so ft h e ampho rae a nd r e la ted c a rgoes . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e ampho rae ( Pea c ock a nd Wi l l iam s 1 986 , 8 7 -106 ) , a nd t h e i r d i scove ry i n Channe l s h ipwreck s ( Ru le 1 990 , 4 9 -56 ) , a ga in i nd ica te v oyage sb e tween Channe lp o r t sa nd we s te r nG au l ,t hough t h is a c t iv i ty d oe s n o t p roceed i n to t h e I r ish S ea . O the r r e cen t a r chaeo log ica l f i nds may r e la te t o t h i s t r a f f ic . A s h ipw re ck f r om P loumanac 'h , d i scove red i n 1 983 , c on -

t a in s ar ange o fl e ad i ngo t s i n c lud ing s o me b ea r ing i n s c r ip t ions o f t he n or th a nd e a s te r n B r i t i sh I c en i a nd B r igan tes . T he l i nk a ga in i so bv ious ly v ia t he E ng l i sh C hanne l , n o t t h e I r i sh S ea ( l 'Hou r 1 987 , 13 -31 ; G a i l lou a nd J one s 1 991 , 5 1-60 f o r ab a lanced v i ew ) . I t may b e i mpo r tan tt on o te t he c en t ra lr o le o fB r i t tany i t se l fi nt h i s t r a f f ic .T he i dea t ha tt h eL o i re a nd G a ronne mou th s we re a c t ing a sf e ede rs t oB r i ta in d epends u pon o u rr e ad ing o f S t rabo ,a nd h e ,i tmu s tb er emembe red ,p robab ly t hough t o ft he wes tern s hores o fB r i ta in a sl y ing j u s to f ft he mou th s o ft hese r i ve r s . Wha tw ec an b e s u re o fi st ha tt h ere wa s e x ten s ive t r ade a l la l ong t h ew es te r na nd n or the rn s ho res o fG au l wh ich h ad l i t t le ,o rn o th ing ,t od ow i th t h ew es tern z one o fB r i ta in . F u l fo rd h as mus te red e v idence f r om d i s t r ibu t ion o f l a te -Roman t a b lewa res o ft he f ou r th c en tury t os uppor ta c on t inua t ion o ft h i sp a t te rn o fc omme r ce . Cf t am ique d i t eä l 'Oong ei st he mos tr e levan to ft he se f i nds , a s ad i s tr ibu t i ona l s t udy i mpl i e s aw es te rn G aul i sh o r ig in ( Ga ilou , F u l fo rd a nd C lemen t1 980 ,2 65 -78 ) ,w i th t he d i s t r ibu t ion e x tend ing t os ou the rn B r i ta in i nt he f ou r th c entu ry AD . C on cen t ra t ion s o f f i nd s a r e i n Do rse t , Hamp sh i re a nd S ussex ,w i th as ca t te ro ff i nd si nK en t ,D evon a nd t he h ead o ft h eB r i s to lC hanne l .T h i s wou ld c l ea r ly i nd i ca te as ea b orne i mpo r ta t ion a round B r i t tany ,w i th ama jo rl and fal i nt he S o len t .F u l fo rd ( 1 978 ,5 8 -69 )a nd T homas ( 1 981b ,4 ) h ave s ugges ted f u r the rl and fa l l s i nt h e B r i s to lC hanne l , wh ich t hey s ugges t' p re f igu res 't h e Da nd Ewa re i mpo r t a t ion s . Ad i s t r ibu t ion o ft he wa re i nC or nwal o rS ou th Wa le s ,h oweve r , wou ld b en eeded b e fo re t he B r i s to lc on n ec t ion i se xpl i cab le a sa ny th ing mo re t han a no ve r land d i s t r ibu t ion f r om t he C hanne l p o r t s . F inds o fA rgonne wa re i n G louces te r sh i re , S h ropsh i re , n o r th Wa le s a nd e a s tern I r e land s eem ,l i kew i se ,g ood e v idence o fs uch a n o ve r land p a th f r om t he C hanne l ,t hough f u r the ri den t i f i c a t ion sa nd d i scove r ie s may c hange t h i sp i c ture , wh ich i s s o f a r o n ly b a sed o n al im i ted s e r ie s o f f i nd s . I n t h i s c onnec t ion we s hou ld n o te G i ldas ' r e fe rences t o ' t he S eve rn . . .a long wh ich l uxu r ie s f r om o ve r seas u sed t ob e b rough tb ys h ip '( S abr ina e . . .p e rq uae e i de r no hm t r an smar inae d e l i c i ae r a t ibu s v eheb an tur , D e E x c id io V I I , e d . &t r ans . & t r an s .W in te rbo t tom 1 978 ,9 0 ) ,t hough i ti sn o tc l ea r whe ther t h i si mpl i es c on tac tw i th t h ec on t inen tt h rough t h e mou th o f t h e B r i s to l C hanne l . I n a ny e ven t , b y t he m id s ix th c en tu ry —a l low ing t ha tG i lda s 's f l o ru i ti so n ly w i th c au t i on l o ca ted i nt ha tt ime — the B r i s to lC hanne l ,a tl e a s t ,h ad s e en t h ev oyage s wh ich b rough ti nt he s ub -Roman Med i t e r ranean wa re s ( t hough G i lda s i se qualy l i ke ly t o b e h a rk ing b ack t o aR oman p e r iod i mage ) . I n a ny c ase , a s G i lda s a l so s ugges t s t ha t t he s ea a l l a bou t B r i ta in i s ' unc ro ssab le ' ( i n tr an sm e ab i l i ) a pa r t f r om t he c ro ss ing t o C a la i s( G i ldas ,D eE x c id io 1 1 .1 ,e d . Win terbo t tom 1 978 ,8 9 ) , h e may b ei nd i ca t ing a ni n te rna ln e twork o n ly . T he n o r the r n e nd o f R oman p e r iod t r a f f ic t hu s s e em st oh ave e xc luded d i rec tc on tac tw i th t he I r i sh S ea . When t h es i x th -a nd s even th cen tu ry v oyages w e re made f r om A t lan t ic G au li n to t h eI r ish S ea b a s in t h i s wa s an ew d eve lopmen t ,n o t ac on t inu i ty o fR oman a nd p re -Roman t r a f f i c . I n R oman a nd p re -Roman G au l t he r i ve r r ou tes s e em t oh ave b een o r ien ted t owa rds o ve r land t r a f f ic ,n o t

2 5

C ommun ica t ion a nd C omme r ce a l ong t h e W e s t er nS ea lane s AD400 -800

s imp ly a s f e ede r r ou te s t o t ake ma te r ia l i n land f r om a ma r i t ime n e two rk ,t hough u ndoub ted ly t hey a l so wou ld h ave f i l led s uch ar o le . S uch o ve r land a c t iv i ty i sn o tab ly l e s s f r equen t i na n e a r ly med ieva l c on tex t ( J ame s 1 977 , 2 20 ) ,a nd c e r ta in ly l e ss o f ten i nvo lves t he t ype so fb u lky g oods t r aded i n t he R oman p e r iod . T h i s p a t tern , t h en , u ndergoes a b reak i n c on t inu i ty . I n t h e s i x th c en tu ry , o ve r land t r a f f ic o f Med i te r ranean g oods t h rough e a s te rn G au l wa s t oc on t inue i n te rm i t ten t ly . Where c on tac t sb y s ea f r om we s tern G au li n to t he C hanne lc on t inued ( J ame s 1 977 ,2 21 f f ) ,h oweve r ,t h ey n ol onger c a r r ied g oods f r om t he Med i te r ranean . T he wo rk o f Av ienu s( c .4 00 AD )h a sh ad a ni n f lu e n ce o nt heo r ie so f we s te r ns ea lanes d i spropo r t iona te t o i t sr e l iab il i ty ,o na c coun to fi t su se b y Hencken t oa s se r tt h e e x i s tence o f c on tac t s b e tween C ornwa l l a nd I r e land a s p a r t o f t he t i n t r ade a nd r e la ted l ong -d is tance t r ade f o cuss ing o nC o rnwal a nd A rmo r ica . A s we h ave s e en , t he re i sn o th ing i nS t rabo 's d i scuss ion ,o ri nt he e v idence o fa r chaeo logy , t os ugges t a n i nvo lvemen t o fI r e land i n t h i sn e two rk :t he d i s tance b e tween I r e land a nd C o rnwa l l i sn o tg rea t ,b u tt h ere i sn oe v idence . Hencken 's t heo ry d epends o n a n a ccep tance t h a t Av ienus ' s wo rk i sb a sed o n ap er ip lu s f r om a n t iqu i ty wh ich r ef lec t s a n a c tua lo cean v oyage f r om t h e we s tern Med i ter ranean a sf a ra s Anno r ica .

r ea l s a i l ing manua l , a s w e l l a s t he i d ea t ha tt he A lb ione s h ave a ny th ing t o d o w i th A lb ion . T he t i n -m in ing a nd h ide -cove red b oa t sf i te qualy wel w i th a nI be r ian ,r a the r t han B r i t i sh ,c onnec t ion . Hawke sh a sq u i te r i gh t ly q ue s t i oned t he d i s tances i nvo lved a nd h a s s t ressed t ha t i n t e rm so ft he d i s tances d e sc r ibed i nt he t e x tt he t i n -produc i ng O e s trymn ide sa re b e t ter i den t i f ied w i th s ome p o in to n t he I b er ian c oa s t ( Hawkes 1 977 , 3 f f ; P enhalur i ck 1 986 , 1 27 -8 ) .T he d e ta i lo ns k in b oa t sa nd d ugou t si sc l o se t ot ha t o fS t rabo 's o nI b er ia ( s ee a bove , 1 ) , t h e d esc r ip t ion o fa l a ck o fd ugou t st hen i se a s i ly e xp la ined a s ad i s t inc t ion o f t h e O es t rymn ides f r om o the r p a r t s o fI ber ia . Ap eop le c a l led t h e A lb ione s l i ved i n G a l ic ia . F ina l ly , t ha t t he O e s t rymn ide sa r e a' two d ay j ourney 'f r om I r e land wou ld b eb e t te re xp la ined b yt he u sua lc l a ss i ca le r ror r ega rd ing t he o r ien ta t ion o fI ber ia t oS pa in . B o th t h e w r i t ing s o fS t rabo a nd Av ienus d escr ibe t r a f f i cf r om t h ew es te rn c oas to fS pa in t h rough t h eS t ra i t s o fG ib ra l ta ri n to t h eA t lan t ic : d raua s 'i4 1ropf .a 1 T pÔ TY 1 Ta )dav i aT t K a i • ( P u ip .r iv , g xouc ra Tö V T r Xo f iv p . dxpt T t f iv Z T TPU BV d yaec iv , T r Xi lv TC T 1 . r Ep l 1 -6 1, n opoµäy S uo.K oX ia K a i TöV r adyLOV TöV V T1 K a° . Ag cs O aX c iTTm . S te t y E tp E6 O i J K XiµaTos o t S p c iµot C TUV TE Ä01 3 V T al, K a i g cbauTa TUi r EXayi(ovT t . T O TO 6 r pc iaOopö l, T 1 . T a £5 i µropu ca ts 6 XKda ty . g xouu t 8 K a i o i d veµo t ✓ c ietv o i . T r eX c iyto t .

S ub h u ius a u temp rom inen t i sv e r t ice s i nu sd eh i sc i ti n co l i s O e s t rym in icu s ,i nq uo i n su lae s e se e xe run tO e s t rym in ide s l a xe i a cen te s e t me ta l lo d iv i tes s t ann i a tquae p lumb i , mu l ta v i sh i cg en t i se s t ,s upe rbus a n imu s ,e f f icax s o le r t ia , n ego t iand ic u ra i ug i s omn ibu s ,n e t i squecumb i st u rb idum l a te f r e tum e t b e luo s i g u rg i tem O cean i s ecan t n on h i c ar ina sq u ippe p inu t e xe re e ta ce re n o run t ,n on a b ie te ,u t u su se s t ,c urvan tf a se lo ( s ) ,s ed r e ia dm i racu lum n av ig ia i unc t i s s e mpe r a p tan t p e l l ibu s c o r ioque v as tum s aepe p e r cu r run ts a lum .A s th inc d uobus i ns acrum ,s i ci n su lam d ixe re p r i sc i s o l ibu s c u r su s r a t i e s t . H aec i n te r u ndas mu l ta [m ] c aesp i tum i a ce t , p rop inqua r u rus i n su la A lb ionum p a te t . ( Unde rt he h ead o ft h i sp romon tory ,t he O e s t rymn ic b ay l i es o pen f o r t he n a t ives . I n i tt he i s lands c a l led O e s t rymn ide s s t re tch t he m se lve s o u t . T hey l i e w ide ly a pa r ta nd a r er i ch i nt i na nd l e ad .T he re i smuch h ard ine s s i nt he p eop le h e re , ap roud s p i r i t ,a ne f f ic ien ti ndus t r iou s n e s s . T hey a r ea l lc on s tan t ly c on ce rned w i th c o mme r ce . T hey p ly t he w ide ly t r oub led s ea a nd s we l lo f mon s te r f i l led O cean w i th s k i f f s o f s k in . F o r t he se men d o n o t k now h ow t of a sh ion k ee ls w i th p ine o r map le .T hey d o n o t h o l low o u t y ach t s , a s t he c us tom i s , f r om f i r t r ee s . R a the rt hey a lway s marve l lous ly f i to u tb oa t sw i th j o ined s k in sa nd o f t en r un t h rough t he v as ts a l t wa te ro nl e a the r . B u tf r om h e re ,t he re i sat wo -day j ou rney f o r as h ip t ot he Ho ly I s land -t hu st he a nc ien t sc a l led i t .T h i si s land ,l a rge i ne x ten to fl and ,l i e sb e tween t he wave s . Aga in t he i s land o ft he A lb ione sl i e sn ea r : Av ienus O r aM ar i t im a1 .9 4 -112 , e d . &t r an s . Mu rphy ,8 9 ) .

T he se men ' c ons tan t ly c oncerned w i th c omme r ce ' make a c o lour fu l c oun te rpa r t t o C h i lde 's ' n eo l i th ic a rgonau t s ' ( s ee a bove ,3 ) ,b u tt h i si s av ery v ague t e x tu pon wh ich t o r e s ta ny s e r ious a rgumen t .T he re i sg ood r eason t oq ue s t i on t he i d ea t ha t Av ienus 's t e x tr epre sen t s t he c o re o fa 2 6

( Bu ta l lt h ef o re ign t r ade o ft he c oun t ry i sc ar r ied o nw i th I t a ly a nd R ome , s i n ce t he v oyage a sf a ra s t he P i l la r s i s g ood ,e xcep t ,p e rhaps , f o r ac e r ta in d i ff i cu l ty i np a s s ing t he s t ra i t ,a nd a l so t he v oyage o nt he h igh s eas o f Ou rS ea . F o rt he s ea rou te sa l lp a ss t h rough az one o ff a i r wea the r , p ar t icu la r ly i ft he s a i lor k eeps t ot h eh igh s eas ;a nd t h is f a c t i sa dvan tageou s t o t he me rchan t f re igh te r s . And f u r the r , t h ew inds o n t he h igh s ea s a r er egu lar : S t rabo ,

G e og r aph i c a1 1 .2 .5 ,e d . &t r ans .J one s1 949 , Vo l . 2 ,3 0 -1 ). S t rabo a l so d e sc r ibes t he r ed is t r ibu t ive t r a f f ic a l ong t he r i ve r s y s tem s ( S t rabo , G eog r aph i ca 1 1 .2 .4 , e d . J one s 1 949 , 2 8 -9 ) , s e rv ic ing t h i s e xchange . T he g oods i nvo lved a r e : ' g ra in a nd w ine . . . o l ive o i l . . . wax , h oney a nd p i tch . . . K erme s . . . s a l ted f i sh a nd woo l ' : c s t r6 vTE K a i o tv toZ . .. Kat

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t r an s J ones 1 949 , 3 2 -3 ) a nd ar ange o fm ine ra l s ( S t rabo , G eog raph i c a1 1 .2 .8 ,e d . &t r an s .J one s 1 9 49 ,V o l . 2 ,3 8 -41 ) . I nt he f i r s tc en tu ry AD t he e ar ly f o rm s o fD re s se l ampho rae a ppea r i n P o r tuga l , p a ra l le l ing t he i r a ppea r a n ce o n t he n or the r na rm o ft he wes te rn s ea lane s . L a te r i mpo r t sa r er a re r ,w i th t he manu fac tu re a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o fl a te r ampho rae s e r ie si nP o r tuga li t se l fb e ing t aken t o i nd ica te a f l ou r i sh ing o f l o ca l p roduc t ion i n w ine a nd o ther l uxu ry g oods a tt he e xpen se o fi mpo r ts .A sA la r cao o bse rve s ,t he s t udy o fP o r tuguese ampho rae a broad m igh t b e i nd ica t ive o f movemen t i n t he o ppo s i te d i rec t ion ( A la rcao 1 988 ,8 8 ) ,b u t s uch e v iden ce i so n ly s l ow ly b e c om ing a va i lab le . I t a l ian f i ne wares w ere c ommon i n P o r tuga li nt h ef i r s tc en tu ry ,b u tf e l la way w i th t he e s tab l i shmen t o ft h e l o ca l s i g i l la ta i ndus t ry . T ha t t hese w e re mo s t ly p roduc t so fA rezzo ,P ozzuol ia nd t he P o may b e s ugges t ive o ft h e i r h av ing b een p ar t o ft he s ame t r a f f ic

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a c ro ss G au ld escr ibed a bove i nc onnec t ion w i th B r i ta in ,i n t ha tt hey a r ef r om ar eg ion o fI t a ly i nc l o se p rox im i ty t ot he e a s te rn e nd o ft he o ver land r ou te ,b u tt h i si sn o ta ny mo re l i ke ly t han amar i t i me d i s t r ibu t ion .I nt he t h i rd c en tu ry t h e a ppea rance o fB yza cena ( C las s3 4 ) amphorae f r om No r th A f r ica may b en o ted ( Ca rdoso 1 978 , 6 3 -78 ) . A tt h es ame t ime i mpor ta t ion o fA f r ican R ed S l ipwa re ( h erea f te r ARS ) b eg ins t od om ina te w e s tern I be r ian a s semb lage s ,c on t inu i ng t h rough t oa round 4 50 AD .S ome th ing o f ah ia tus may b e i den t i f iab le i n t he i mpor ta t ion a f te r t h i s p o in t , w i th c o mmon f i f th -century t ypes n o tb e ing f ound .I ti sa l so t o b en o ted t ha to u re v idence f o rf i f th -cen tu ry s i te si nP o r tu g a li sl im i ted ,a l be i tt h i si si np a r t ar e f lec t ion o ft h ec ruc ia l d i agno s t ic v a lue o f ARS i t se l f .D esp i te t he l ong h e ld b e l ie f t ha tl a te r ARS f i nds a tC on imbr iga we re d a tab le t ot h el a s t p ha se b e fo re t he d e s t ruc t ion o ft ha tc i ty i n4 65 ,i ti sn ow c l ear t ha t t h e se f i nd s a r e e v idence o f l a te r o ccupa t ion , wh ich i si t se l f awarn ing a ga in s tr ead i ly a ccep t ing h i s to r i c a l c h rono logy i n s i te d a t ing , t hough h i s to r ica l s ou r ce s s uppo r tl a te ro ccupa t ion a nyway ( Thompson 1 982 ,2 13 ) . As hor ts e cond p er iod o fi mpo r ta t ion i sn ow i d en t i f iab le , c on tempo ra ry w i th t h ei nf lux o fP hocaean R ed S l ipwa re ( h en ce fo r th P RS : Haye s 1 972 , 4 62 ; Haye s 1 980 , 5 21 ;b u t i gno re h i sd a tes i nt he l i gh to fF u l ford a nd P eacock 1 984 , 14 ;P r ie to 1 984 ,5 40 -8 ) .T he ARS f o rm sf ound i nt h i sp ha se a r e a lmo s t i d en t ica l w i th an a r row c h rono log i ca l r ange f ound o nw e s tern B r i t i sh a nd I r i sh s i te s .T h i si mpo r ta t ion i sc e r ta in ly b y way o ft he S t ra i t s o fG ibra l ta r a nd i sn o e a r l ier t han t h el a s tq ua r te ro ft h ef i f th c en tu ry a nd mos t p robab ly l a te rs t i l l( s ee 4 1 f f ) . I t wou ld o bv iou s ly b e o fs o me s i gn i f i cance i fw e c ou ld i d en t i fy t he d a te when c ommun ica t ion s h i f ted f r om t h e r i ve r r ou tes a c ro s s G au l t o t he d i rec t r ou te v i a t he S t ra i ts o fG ib ra l ta r . S ome o ft h e s e r ie s o f ARS may h ave b een e n te r ing S pa in a nd P o r tuga l b y way o f ma r i t ime d i s tr ibu t ion st h rough t h eS t ra i t so fG ibra l ta ra se a r ly a st h e t h i rd o r f ou r th c en tury ( Hayes 1 972 , 4 23 ) . A C la ss 4 9 ( Ama lg ro 5 4 ) ampho ra f r om B o rdeaux ( Keay 1 984 ,6 56 )i s j u s t a s l i ke ly t o h ave a r r ived t h is way a s t h rough a n o ve r land n e twork .F u r the rd i s t r ibu t iona ls t udy w il d oub t l e ss r e f ine t h ese i s sue s , t hough we s hou ld b e c l ea r t ha t t a b lewa res a l one a re n o t ag ood g u ide t od i rec t mar i t ime c on tac ti nt h ea bsence o fl a rger o b jec t ss uch a s ampho rae , wh i ch a r ef a rl e ss l i ke ly t oh ave b een p o r taged a c ro ss t h e Mese ta . When , i n t he m id f i f th c en tu ry , G erman ic p i racy b ecame p a r t i cu la r ly r i f eo nt he w es te rn s ea lane s ,V anda l p i ra te s r a ided S pa in , p resumab ly f r om ab a se i n No r th A f r ica b y w ay o f t he S t ra i t s o f G ibra l ta r . Hyda t ius d e s c r ibe ss uch V anda l so f ft he c oa s to fG a l ic ia i n4 45 : V anda l i n av ibu s T u ron io i n l i to re G a l laec iae r epen te a dvec t if am i l ias c ap iun tp lu r imo rum . ( Vanda ls h ips s udden ly a ppea ra tT u ron ium o nt he c oa s t o fG a l ic ia a nd many h ou seho lds a r ed ep le ted : Hyda t iu s , C h r on i c on n .1 31 ,s . a .4 45 ,e d . Mo mm sen 1 894 ,2 4 ;a l so s e e H aywood 1 991 ,6 0 ) .

T h i s wa su ndoub ted ly t h eT uron ium ,n ea rT uy , men t ioned i n t he s i x th centu ry p a r o ch i a l e o f G al i c ia ( Ad T uden s em e c c l e s i a sq ue i nv i c in io s un t :. . 9 .T uron io ,e d .D av id 1 947 ,4 3 ) .

T he i n sp i ra t ion b eh ind t he v oyage i sd i f f icu l t t oa s se ss . T ranoy ( 1 974 ,V o l .2 ,8 3 )p re fe r st ob el i eve t ha tt hese we re H eru l s ,n o tV anda l s ,b u ta ga in a sw i th t he S axon r a id s we s hou ld b e wa ry o fs uch a s sump t ion s t ha t l ong -d i s tance v oyages we re u n l ike ly . I f Hyda t iu ss ays t h ey w ere V an d a l s , we n eed b e t te rg round st han t he se f o rd oub t ing h i s j udgemen t . C e r ta in ly i twou ld b e ac on s ide rab le v oyage f r om A f r ica . An embas sy f r om A f r ica h ad b een t oG a l ic ia i nc .4 58 ,t hough whe ther t h i sh ad a ny c onnec t ion w i th t he e a rl i e rr a ids mus tr ema in a no pen q ue s t ion ( l eg a t iG o tho rum e t V anda lorum p ar i t er a d S uevo s v en iun t e t r e v e r tun tur : Hyda t ius ,C hron i con ,n .1 92 ,s . a .4 58 ,e d . Momm sen 1 894 , 3 1 ) .T h i sV anda la c t iv i ty r equ i res f u r ther c on s ide ra t ion i n t h el i gh to ft he c hange so ccu r r ing a tt h i st ime i n wes te rn Med i ter ranean t r ade . D id t h e wel -es tabl i shed l a te -Ro man A f r ican t r ade w i th I b e r ia g ive way t op i racy ?P en tz h a sa rgued t ha tt he V anda l sd id n o th ing t oi n ter fe re w i th t h e e s ca la t ing i mpor t t r a f f ic f r om t he e a s t i n to A f r ica ( Pen tz 1 992 ,1 7 ) ,b u tt hey may h ave b een r e spon s ib le f o r ad i srup t ion t ot r ade we s twa rd i nA f r ican p roduc t s .P u re ly A t lan t ic a c t iv i ty , s uch a s H eru l p i ra cy o n t he I b e r ian c oa s t s , wou ld b e l e ss l i ke ly t o d i srup t t r a f f ic f r om t he Med i ter ranean . R a id sa nd t h eF i f th -Cen tury M ig r a t ion s T he A t lan t ic p i racy o ft he H eru l s ,S axon sa nd V anda l sa l so r ema ins amuch n eg lec ted t op ic ,t hough p leas ing ly n ow g iven s u i tab le t r ea tmen tb y Haywood ( 1 991 ,2 3 -50 ) . T he c ruc ia lq ues t ion f o ro u rp u rpo ses i st he e f fec tt h i sa c t iv i ty h ad o nt r ade a nd c o mmun i ca t ion p a t te rn si nt he f i f th a nd f o l low ing c entur ie s .D id S axon a nd H eru lp i racy d i srup t e x tan t t r ad ing a c t iv i ty i nt h e f ou r th a nd f i f th c entu r ie s? D id F rank i sh a nd V i s igo th i cc onque s to f we s te rn c oa s ta l r eg ion s b r ing an ew c on t ro l o fe x i s t ing t r ad ing a c t iv i ty , s uch a si twa s? T he V i s igo th ss eem t oh ave q u ick ly d rawn u pon s h ipp ing r e sour ces t op ro tec tt h e c oa s t l ine ,j u s ta s C ae sa rh ad d one f ou rc en tur ie sp rev iou s ly .S idon iu s ,h ow e ve r ,s ugge s t st ha ts ome o ft hese r e cru i t sc ame f r om t he r ank s o f t h e S axons a nd H e ru l s t hem se lve s , a s w el a s G alo -Roman ss uch a s Nama t ius , who w ere n o tn ece ssa r i l y r egu la r ma r ine r s . Whe the r i nvad ing g roups b e came i nvo lved i nt r ade i sa no the ri n tere s t ing q ue s t ion . S axon s w e re r e s iden ti nt h ea rea n ea rT ou r si nc . 584 , mos tl i ke ly t h ey a re t he d escendan ts o ft he S axon si nt h i sa r ea i nt he p rev ious c en tury . T ha t t hey a re f ound work ing w i th a me r chan to fT our st r ad ing w i th O rMan si n5 85 ( s ee b e low 3 1 ) may i mp ly ag ene ra li nvo lvemen ti n mer can t i le a c t iv i t y ,b u tt he re i sn op roo ft ha tt h is h a sa ny ma r i t ime l i nk .I n t h e c a se o f t h e B r i tann i who made t h e i r way d own t h e s ea lanes t oB r i t tany a nd G a l ic ia , t h e i nvo lvemen t i ne x c hange may b e mo re l i ke ly .T he s imp le m ig ra t ion p a t te rn o ft h e se g roups b espeak s ama r i t ime c apab i l i ty s u f f ic ien t t oc r o ss t h eE ngl i sh C hanne la nd t h eB ay o fB i scay . P re s umab ly t h i sc on t inued t ob eu t i l i sed i nc oa s ta lt r a f f i c ,i f n o tc on t inu ing c on tac tw i th B r i ta in . I nI b e r ia c on t inu i ty r ema ins mo re l i ke ly ,e spec ia l ly i nt h el i gh to ft he l im i t so fV i s igo th ic i n te res to u t s ide o ft h e Me se ta ,t hough w e may n o te t ha tL euv ig i ld wa sq u ick t o i n te r fe re w i th ma r i t ime t r a f f i ca tt h et ime o fh i sc onque s t o ft h eS uev ic k ingdom ( s ee a bove ,2 1 ) . We s hou ld a l so n o te 2 9

C ommun ica t ion a nd C ommerce a long t h e W e s te rn S ea lane s AD400 -800

t he d epreda t ion so ft he f l ee t so fI be r ia d ur ing s ucce s s ive b a rba r ian i nva s ion s( Haywood 1 991 ,3 0 -1 ) . R a id s b y s eaborne C e l t ic a nd G e rman ic g roups u pon t he n o r the rn s ho res o ft he s ea lane so ccu red f r om t he t h i rd c en tu ry o nwa rds . I n i t ialy t hese we re b y g roups s uch a st he S co t s ,P i c t s ,S axon sa nd H eru l s , wh ich h ad a d eve loped ma r i t ime c apabi l i ty .T hey we re t or ema in t he mo s tn ume rou si n wes tern s ea lanes r a id ing i n to t he f i f th c en tu ry . T he S co t s ,S axon sa nd B r i ton sl a ter b ecame s ea b o rne c o lon i s t s . S ome o ft he se g roups a re p a r to fm ig ra t i on p a t tern s wh ich b eg in b e fo re ,a nd f i n i sh a f te r ,t h ef i f th c en tury . F o r t he s ake o f c onven ience t hey w i l l b e d i s c u ssed p r ima r i ly a tt h i sp o in t .I np ar tt h i si st or e cogn i se t ha tt hey f i gu re i nt he d i srup t ion o ft he p rev iou sp a t te rn , wh ich h a si t s mos tp ro found e f fec to n mar i t ime t r a f f ic i n t he f i f th c entury . B y t he s i x th c en tu ry mo s tg roups h ad c eased r a id ing a nd s o me h ad f o rmed c o lon ie si nt he a r ea s t hey h ad p rev iou s ly r a ided .F ur ther c onques ta nd m ig ra t i on i nt he s i x th c en tury s eem mo s t ly t oh ave f olowed o n l i ne sc ommenced ,a nd i n to a r ea se s tabl i shed ,i nt he f i f th . F or e xamp le ,b yt he s i x th c en tu ry t he B re ton m ig ra t ion i s n ol onge rr e aly s e t t lemen t ,b u te xchange o fp eop le f r om B r i ta in t oa no the rr eg ion wh i ch h as a ne s tabl i shed B r i t i sh p opu la t ion . Chu rch c ounc i l s i nG au l a nd S pa in ( s ee b e l ow , 5 9 ) s how t ha t B r i t i sh g roups ma in ta ined s epa ra te i den t i t ies where t hey s e t t led a broad . G rego ry o f T ou r s p rov ides mo re t han o ne e xamp le o f e a r ly f i f th -cen tu ry m ig ran t s who c on t inued t os ee t he i ri den t i ty a sd i s t inc t . T he i mpl i ca t ion s o f o ngo ing c on tac t b e tween c o lon i s t s a nd t he i re thn ic h ome lands a r e o f ten u nderapprec ia ted . An e a r ly med ieva l c o lony m igh tb ee s tabl i shed b y r e fu g ees ,b u tr ema in i nr egu la rc on tac tw i th i t sh ome land a nd e ven b e t he f o cus o fr oya l i n te rven t ion f r om t ha th ome l and .T h i s wa sl a te rt ob et he c a se i nS cand inav ian I c e land , f o re xamp le . We a r en o ts ure a st ot he b a s i so ft h ef ounda t i on o fD a l r iada ,o f wh ich t he n ame , mean ing ' po r t ion o f R ia ta ' ,d i scoun t st he l e gend o ft he i nd iv idua lF e rgus Mör a nd h i s e ponymou s s on s ( Bannerman 1 974 , 1 21 -3 ) a nd i mpl i es c orpo ra te f ounda t ion b yt he D a lR ia ta i nI r e land . We a r e a tl e as t c l ea r t ha t o ngo ing c on tac ts w e re ma in t a ined a nd p e r iod ic a t temp t s t o c on t ro l D a l r iada f r om I r e land a ccompan ied t h i s p roce ss ( Bannerman 1 974 , 1 8 , 1 57 -70 ) .T he re a re a tl e a s th in t st ha tB r i t tany wa su nde rt he a eg i s o f Dumnon ia f o r s o me o f t he s i x th c entury , a l so , t hough t he s ource s wh ich s ugge s tt h i sh ave c on s ide rab le p rob lem s( f o ru sefu ld i scus s ion s ee F ade !1 981a ,7 2 -3 ) . L e tu sn ow l ook c l o se ly a t whe re t hese r a ide r sa nd c o lon i s t s wen t . T he I r i sh a nd t h e P i c t s a r e l i s ted a ss ea b o rne r a ide r sb y G i lda s a nd e a r l ie r w r i te r s , t hough i ti s u ncer ta in whe the rt he P i c t se ver r a ided t h ew e s te r nc oa s t s o fB r i ta in . Wha teve rs eaborne c omme r ce t he re wa sa l ong t he s ho re s o ft he I r i sh S ea wa sp resumab ly d i srup ted b y t h i s a c t iv i ty . I r ish c o lon i s ts c e r ta in ly made t h e i r way t o wes te rn S co t land a nd I r i sh m ig ra t ion t o Dy fed i s =d oub ted ( R i cha rds 1 960 ;C op les tone -C row 1 981 -2 ) . Ogham s t ones a l so t e s t i fy t oa nI r i sh i nf luence i n No r th C ornwa l l a nd Gwynedd ,t hough t h i si sn o ts oc l ear ly am ig ra t ion a s t ho se t o Dy fed a nd D a l r iada ( Thoma s1 972a ) . B r i t i sh m ig ra t ion sa r eo n ac on s ide rab le s c a le ,d oub t l e ss i nt he f o rm o fG i ldas 'r e fugees who ' h eaded f o rl a nds o ve r sea s 'ai l i it r an smar ina sp e teb an tr e g ione s :D eE x c id io X XV , 3 0

e d . &t r an s . Win te rbo t tom 1 978 ,9 8 ) .T here we re e v iden t ly d i rec tr e fugee m ig ra t ion s i nt he f a ce o fS axon c onques t , t hough we s hou ld n o t d i scoun t p rev ious l i nk s wh ich m igh th ave e x is ted b e tween A rmo r ica a nd t h es ou th w e s t o fB r i ta in . An them iu si sa l so s a id t oh ave b rough ts ome B r i t i sh me rcena r ies t oG au lt of i gh tE u r i c( J o rdane s ,G e t i ca , M ie row 1 915 , 18 ;S idon iu s ,E p i s to l a eV I I I .6 ,e d . Ande r son 1 965 ,V o l .2 ,4 18 f f ) .T he m ig ra t ion sa r ed a teab le t oa tl e a s t t he 4 60s f r om t he w r i t ing so fS idon ius ( Ep i s to l a e1 1 .9 .2 ,e d . Ande r son 1 965 ,V o l .2 ,3 6 -7 )a nd f r om t he s i gna tu re o ft he ' B r i t ish b i shop 'a tt h eF i rs tC ounc i lo fT our si n4 61 ( Haddan a nd S tubbs 1 878 ,7 2 -3 ) . We s hou ld b ew ary o ft h ea s sump t i on t ha tt he e x i s ten ce o f as epara te d iocese o fB r i ton s( s ee Mo r r i s 'n o te t o Win te rbo t tom 's e d i t ion o fG i lda s ) i sa ny i nd i ca t ion a s t oh ow r e cen t i t s e s tabl i shmen t was . T he e x i s tence o f as epa ra te d iocese o fB r i t i sh i nS pa in f o rs ome t ime s hou ld b en o ted i nc ompar i son .S ugges t ion st ha tt he m ig ra t ion w en ta l so t o Normandy a r el e ss c e r ta in , whe re t hey a re b a sed o nt h eB r e t tev i l l eg roup o fn ame s ( Mor r i s 1 977 , I ,8 9 ) , wh ich m igh tj u s t a s e a s i ly i nd ica te No rman p e r iod t r an s loca t ion o fB re tons ( t hough a dm i t ted ly t h i s u sua l ly i nvo lved t h e a bandonmen to fv es t ige so fB re ton a n ce s t ry ,D av i s1 976 ,3 6 f f ) . Ag roup c e r ta in ly s e em t oh ave made t he i rw ay a l ong t he s ea lane st oG al i c ia ,t hough t hey d on o ta ppea ri nt h e s ource s u n t i lt h e s i x th c en tury ( s ee b e low ,5 9 ) . T he e v idence o fP rocop ius i sc on t rover s ialy h e ld b y T hompson t o s ugges t af u r ther , s i x th c en tury , m ig ra t ion ( Thompson 1 980a ) ,b u tt h el i ke ly r e a l i ty i st ha t p e r s i s ten t m ig ra t ion o ccu r red t h roughou t t h e f i th a nd s i x th c entu r ie sa nd w es hou ld b e wa ry o fs e t t ing u ps imp le c au sa lr e la t ion sh ips w i th a ny s i ng le e ven t . T he S axon sa r eu nder s tood t oh ave b een r a id ing o f f B r i ta in a se a r ly a st h ef ou r th c entu ry a nd i nA rmo r i ca b y 2 87 ( Haywood 1 991 , 2 3 f f ) . H is to r ian s h ave t ended t o o ve rempha s i se t he e a s tern B r i t i sh e nd o f t he i r a c t iv i ty , w i th i t s l a s t ing p o l i t ica lc on sequen ce s , a tt h ee xpen se o f t he i ro the ra c t iv i t ie s , s o me o f wh i ch c e r ta in ly t ook t hem i n to t h e we s tern s ea lanes . T he S axon s a re a p e r s i s ten t p re sence i nn or the r na nd we s tern G au lo nwa rd i n to t he s i x th c en tury ,n o ts imp ly a sr a ider s ,b u ta ss e t t le r s .G regory o fT ou r s ,f o re xamp le ,d escr ibes S axon sa ss e t t led o nt h e L o i re whe re ,a se a r ly a st he r e ign o fC h i lder ic I ,t h ey w e re a t tacked b y t h e F rank s o n i s land sb e tween S aumu r a nd Anger s( Grego ry o fT our s , HF 1 .19 ,e d .K ru sch 1 885a ,6 5 ) . T he word ' S axon ' a dm i t ted ly m igh t h ave b een u sed b y l a te -Roman w r i te r sa so ne o f an umbe ro fg ene r ic t e rm sf o r ' b a rba r ian '( Haywood 1 991 ,4 ) ,b u tw es hou ld r ega rd t h i s a s ad ange rou s a s sump t ion a nd f olow Haywood i na c c ep t ing s t a temen t so fe thn ic i ty a tf a ce v a lue ,u n le ss t he re i sr e a lc ause t od oo the rw i se . A sw eh ave s een ,t h ep res e nce o fS axon r a ide r ss eem st oh ave i n sp i red t h eG o th ic r u le r so fB o rdeaux t ot ake s t eps t o ma in ta in an ava lf o rce t oc oun terac tt he i rr a ids . Nama t iu sw a so ne G alo -Roman r e c ru i ted b y E u r ic i n t h i s c onnec t ion a round 4 66 . A s S idon iu sw r i te st oh im i nr ep ly t o ame ssage f r om S a in tes , w e may p re sume t ha t S a in tes wa s ab a se f o r Nama t ius ' a c t iv i t ie s .M .E .J one sh as c a s td oub tu pon S idon iu s 's r ea l k now ledge o ft he S axon s ,a nd e ven s e es f i tt od i sm i s st he e x i s tence o ft h e mes senger f r om S a in tes ( J one s1 993 ,4 0 f f ; S idon ius ,E p i s to lae V I I I .6 ,e d . Ande r son ,V o l .2 ,4 28 ) . How e ve rt h ee x i s tence o fS axon sa sr a ide r si nt he B ay o fB i scay ,

C hap t er T hr ee : T he F i f th C en tury

p e rhap sf r om b a ses o nt he L o i re ,n eed n o tb ed oub ted .G . J . Ma rcus 's c o r rec t ion o f' S axon s ' i nS idon ius 'P anegy r i c t o A v i tu s t o' I r i sh 'i sn o ta ccep tab le ( s ee a bove ,1 5 ) . I nt h es i x th c en tury ag roup o fS axon sl i v ing n ea r B ayeux we re mob il i sed b yF redegund ( HF X .9 ,e d .K rusch 1 885a , 4 92 ) a nd S axon i nvo lvemen ti nt he f ounda t ion o f t h e empo r ium a t Quen tov i c i n n o r th -ea s t G au l s e em s u ndoub ted ( Wood 1 983 ,1 8 -19 ) .A rchaeo log ica li nves t iga t i on h a sa l so a dded d e ta i ls t ot h i sp i c ture . S axon o b jec t s , s uch a ss auce rb rooches o fs i x th cen tu ry d a te ,h ave b een i d en t i f ied o ns i tes i n Normandy ( Lo r ren 1 980 )a nd t he s i te o f Herpes , i n Charen te - Ma r i t ime ( we s te rn F ran ce ) , h a s a l so p roduced s qua re -headed b roo ches o fu ndoub ted ly S axon t ype w i th S ty le One a n i ma ls o fs i xth -cen tu ry d a te ( now i nt he B r i t i sh Museum D e lama in C olec t ion : K idd 1 989 ,1 05 -6 ) .F inds s uch a st h i sr a i se i n teres t ing q ues t ion s , h oweve r , wh i ch d e se rve mo re a t ten t ion t han t hey h ave r e ce ived i nr e cen ts cho lar sh ip . T he e v idence f o r r a id ing a nd s e t t lemen t r a i ses a s e r ie so fi s sue s . Undoub ted ly a ny c l a ims f o rc on t inu i ty o f u sage o ft he w es te r ns ea lane st h rough t he s i x th c entu ry a r e a f fec ted b y t h i s e v iden ce . T he S axon s a nd t he I r i sh c ame t os e t t le r eg ion s whe re f i r s tt h ey h ad r a ided ,j u s ta s t h eV ik ing sw e re t od os ome t h ree t of ou rc en tu r ies l a te r . Whe the rt h e se s e t t lemen ts ( l ike t ho se o ft he V ik ing s )w e re ar e su l to f ad i rec tt r an s i t ion b a sed o np ol i t i ca la nd s oc ia l d eve lop men t sa th ome ,o rt he s imp le e xpan s ion o fr a id ing b a ses i n to c o lon ies ,c anno tb ed e te rm ined .T he B r i t i sh ,o n t he o ther h and , a re p o r t rayed a s r e luc tan t m ig ran t s b y G i ldas ( D eE x c id io XXV ,e d . W in terbo t tom 1 978 ,9 8 ) .T he V anda l s o n ly t ook t o r a id ing b y s ea a f te r r e ach ing t h e Med i te r ranean . An a spec to fc on t inu i ty m igh tb es e en i n t he c on t inued p resence o f t he t wo c l ea r ly mo re a c t ive ma r i t ime g roups i n c om mer ce i nt h e s i x th a nd s even th c en tur ies .I r i sh s h ips a r es een i nt r a f f ic t ot he c on t inen ti n t h es even th c entury ( V i ta F i l ib e r t iX L I I ,e d .L ev i son 1 910 , 6 03 ) . S axon s a r e s een wo rk ing f o r amer chan t i nvo lved w i th t r an spo r t ing w ine b yr i ve rboa tb e tween O r lean sa nd T ou r si nt he s i x th ( HF V I I .46 1 885a ,e d .K ru sch 1 885a ,3 65 6 ) .T he p resence o fS axon o b jec t si ns ou th -we s tG au li nt h e s i x th c entury may a l so i mp ly S axon ma r i t i me l i nk s .B r i t i sh ma r i t ime a c t iv i ty s eem s l e s s p re sen t a f te r t h em ig ra t ion p er iod ,t hough B r i t i sh v esse ls v i s i t No i rmou t ie ri nt he V i t a F i l ib e r t i( XL ,X L I ,e d . L ev ison 1 910 ,6 03 ) . T he r a ids a nd m ig ra t ion so ft h ef i f th c en tu ry mu s t b e c on s ide red t o h ave h ad o the r e f fec t s . T he n a tu re o f s e t t le men ta l ong t he s hores o ft h ew es tern s e a lane s may w e l l h ave c hanged . C on imbr iga , f o r e xamp le , was d e s t royed b yt h eS ueves ( Hyda t ius ,C hr on i c l en .2 41 [ s .a .4 68 ] , e d . Mom rn sen 1 894 , 3 4 ) . T he a bandonmen t o f t h i s s i te , h oweve r , i sn ow s e r iou s ly i nd oub t( s ee b e low ,4 5 ) . P re s umab ly o the rt own se x tended t h e i rf o r t i f ica t ion s i nt h e f a ce o fr a id s .T he e v idence f o rs i gn i f ican tu se o f ac oa s ta l s i te s uch a sT in tage l , i nt he r eg ion o fC o rnwal w i th t h e c l ea res te v idence f o r I r ish a c t iv i ty , may b e i ns o me way l i nked w i th t h e a c t iv i t ies o fI r ish r a ide r s o rm ig ran t s . A n e twork o fI r i sh c on tac t s may e ven e xp la in why s h ips c aled t he re i nt he f i f th/s ix th c en tu ry . C on s ide ra t ion so f t h i s k ind a r e i mpo r tan t i n u nder s tand ing t h e l im i ted p i c ture o ff i th -century a c t iv i ty .

T he w e igh to fp o l i t ica lc hange i nt he f i f th c en tu ry make si tal og ica lp o in ta t wh ich t os e ek c hange i n wes te rn s ea lanes a c t iv i ty ,o r as t a r t ing p o in tf o r an ew p a t tern .T ha t t h e re wou ld b e r ad ica l c hange i n t he mar i t ime p a t te rn s hou ld n o tb es een a si n ev i tab le . No r was i ti nev i tab le t ha t c hange h ad t of olow t he c olapse o fR o man g overnmen t i nn o r th -we s te rn E u rope . O f ten c en t ra l p o l i t ica l c hange makes l i t t le c hange t o p r iva te s h ipp ing a c t iv i t ies . T h i s mu s tr ema in a ne ven s t ronger c avea tf o r ma rg ina la reas o f t h e emp i re t han i td oe s f o r t he Med i ter ranean . I n o the r c a se s , ma r i t ime a c t iv i ty may h ave b een e vo lv ing w i th t he c hang ing p a t te r n o fl a te R oman p ol i t ics : i n ap er iod i n wh ich s o much e thn ic r e loca t ion o ccu r red , we s hou ld b e wa ry o fa s se r t ing a ny c on t inu i ty o fu se o fr ou te si fw ea re n o ts u re i ft he p eop le u s ing t hem a r ee thn icaly t he s ame a st he i rp recu r so r s . R oman p er iod c ommun ica t ion h ad f avou red o ve r l and t r a f f i ct h rough G au l ,b o th f o rp e r son sa nd g oods .A s A f r ica c ame t op lay ag rea te re cono m i cr o le ,a nd R ome a p o l i t ica l ly l e ss s i gn i f ican t o ne , t h i s p erspec t ive s h i f ted s o mewha t ,w i th A f r ican p roduc t sg o ing d i rec t ly b ys ea t o w e s tern I b e r ia . I n t he n or th -ea s t o f E u rope , h oweve r , o ve r land t r a f f i c p e r s i s ted , w i th C la ss 4 5 ampho rae a nd A f r ican t a b lewa re s s t il t r ave l l ing n o r thwa rd t oe a s te r n B r i ta in o ve r land . Af i f th -century d ec l ine i n mos td i s t r ibu t i on sf i nd ss o me t e x tua lc o ro l la ry i na c coun t so fp i racy a t s ea a nd m ig ra t ion so ve r land . We c anno tk now h ow much t r a f f ic c on t inued t ou se w e s tern G au l i sh o rI r i sh S ea p o r t s . We c an s t res st he l a ck o fe v idence f o rv oyages f r om G au l t oI r e land ,t hough t a b lewa res s uch a si r ong ep o t tery m ay i nd ica te v oyages f r om w e s te rn G au lt ot he B r i s to lC hanne l i nt he f ou r th c en tu ry . F o ri n te r na t iona lt r avele rs t h ef i f th c en tu ry b rough t d e f in i te c hanges o f p r io r i ty . A w r i te r s uch a s R u t i l iu s Nama t ianu s c ha rac te r i ses c hang ing a t t itudes . Wr i t ing a bou t av oyage f r om I t a ly t o Med i te r ranean G au li n4 16 ,h e n o tes t ha t h e i st r ave l l ing b y s ea b ecause t he l and i s p ol i t icaly u n s tab le : P o s tquam T u scu s a ge r p os tquamque Au re l iu s a gge r , p erpessus G e t icas e nse v e l i gne manus , n on s i lv a s d om ibu s ,n on f l um i r ta p on te c oe rce t ,i n cer to s a t iu sc r ede re v e la man. ( S ince T uscany a nd s ince t he Au re l ian h ighway , a f te r s u f fe r ing t he o u t rages o f Go ths w i th f i re a nd s word ,c an n o l onger c on t ro l f o res t w i th h omes tead o r r i ver w i th b r idge ,i ti sb e t te rt oe n t rus t my s a i ls t ot he wayward s ea : R u t i l iu s , D eR ed i to S uo I , 1 1 .3 7 -42 ,e d .& t r an s . Du f f1 932 , 7 66 -7 ) .

I ti sn o tR u t i l iu s ' sc ho i ce o f mode o ft r anspo r t wh ich w e s hou ld s e ea sc ha rac ter i s ing t he e ra . Af ew d ecades l a te r t h e Med i te r ranean m igh th ave b ecome mo re d ange rou s t han t he l a nd .I ti st h eb a s i so fh i sc ho ice wh ich i ss i gn i f i c an t . No l onge ri so ne me thod o ft r ave lc hosen s imp ly f o r r ea son s o fr e la t ive e conomy o r c onven ience . I ti ss a fe ty wh ich i st h ep r ima ry f a c to r .R u t i l iu si mp l ie st ha th e wou ld , i n t h e n orma l way , h ave t r aveled b y l and . We wou ld a s sume t h en t ha tp e r son si nt he f i f th c en tury wou ld ma in t a in c on t inu i ty o fp rac t i ce o ft r ave l whe re p os s ib le .H ence i ti sn o tu n t i ll a te i nt h ef i f th c en tury , when a l lv es t ige so f 3 1

C ommun ica t ion a nd C omme r ce a l ong t h e W e s t e rn S ea lane s AD400 -800

R oman c on t ro lo ve rt h es ub -k ingdom so fG au lh ave d e c l ined w i th t he F rank i sh t akeove r ,t ha tu se o ft h eo ver land r ou te sb eg ins r ealy t og ive way i nf avou ro ft h es ea .T he s a me i sp robab ly t r ue B r i ta in , w i th e a r ly f i f th -cen tu ry t r aveler s t o a nd f r om I r e land p robab ly s t i l l t r avel ing t h rough B r i ta in . Once t h e p a t te rn h a s s e r iou s ly a l te red , h oweve r ,d i rec ts ea t r ave lb ecome s mo re i ne v idence .B y t he l a te s i x th c en tury w ec an d e f in i te ly s t a te t ha t ac hu rch man s uch a s S t C o lumbanu s wou ld mo re l i ke ly h ave t r ave l led b ys ea f r om I r e land d i rec t ly t oG au l— though a c en tu ry l a ter , a f ter t h e s e t t ing u p o fn ew l i nk s a f te r t he S ynod o f Wh i tby h e m igh t h ave g one v ia Ang lo -Saxon E ng land . I ti si mpo ss ib le t o i den t i fy t h e s o r t s o f c l ea r d i scon t inu i t ies i np rac t ice wh ich s ome wou ld l i ke t os e ei n t he f i f th c en tury . F i f th -cen tury s oc ie t ie s wen t t h rough s evera lp ha ses o fc hange i n wh ich R oman p o l i t ica l mode l s d ec l ined b ys t ages . And f i f th -cen tu ry t r ave l le r sw ere n o t a u toma ta ,b u t made c ho i ces ,a sR u t i l iu sd emon s t ra te s . On t he wes te rn s ea lane s t h e c ho i ces may h ave b een more l im i ted c ompared w i th t h er ange o f Med i te r ranean t r an s p o r t f a c i l i t ie s . I n t he a bsence o ff ou r th -century s h i f t s o f r ou te i n t he n or th , t h i s wou ld s ugge s t ap e r s i s tence o f R oman p a t terns u n t i lp ol i t ica lc i rcum s tan ce s made t h em u nv iab le :e spec ialy whe re we c an s e et h es ea sb ecom ing e spec ialy d angerou st h rough p i racy . Z imm er , W ine a nd C hr i s t i an i sa t ion B eh ind t he u neven p i c tu re o ff i f th -cen tu ry h i s to ry w ec an d i scern s i gn if i can tc u l tu ra le ven t st ak ing p lace :t h es pread o f Ch r i s t ian i ty t o I r e land a nd wes te r n B r i ta in , a nd t he a cqu i s i t ion o fl i teracy a l ong s ide .I nve s t iga t ion o ft he c ha r a c te ro ft he se a cqu is i t ion s ,t oi den t i fy t h er ou te sb y wh ich t hey we re s pread , wou ld s eem t oo f fe rp o ten t ialy i mpo r t an t d e ta i l o n c o mmun ica t ion a nd c o mme rce a l ong t he w es te r ns ea lanes . T he f a c tt ha tt he s ou rce sa r eo f ten am b iguous s e em s t o h ave e ncou raged a t temp t s t o l o ca te e a r l ie ra nd l a ter movemen t sw i th in t h et e r r ai g no t ao ft he f i f th c entury .I r e land ,f o re xamp le ,h ad b yt he f i f th c en tury e xper ienced f o re ign c on tac ta nd t he s p read o fC h r i s t ian i ty a nd l i t eracy f o r mo re t han ac en tury .I na r chaeo logy ,t oo , t he f i f th c en tu ry h as b een t r ea ted a ss ome th ing o f ad ump i ng -g round f o rt he b eg inn ing a nd e nd ing o fc h rono log ica l s equence s .T here i sn ow l i t t le e v idence t os ugge s tt ha ta ny o ft he i mpo r ted c e ram i cs f ound o n we s tern B r i t i sh s i te sa r e a ny e a r l ie rt han t he v e ry l a te f i f th c en tu ry .I np a r t icu la r ,E wa re s hou ld n ever h ave b een a s so c ia ted w i th t h e f i f th c en tury ,a nd wa ss oo n ly l a rge ly o nt h eb a s i so fa na s soc ia t i on w i th Z imme r 's h i s tor ica l mode l( Thoma s1 976 ,2 54 ) . T he i mpo r ted Med i te r ranean wa res s e em t oe xper ience a h ia tus i nt h e wes tp rec i se ly i nt he f i f th c en tury ( s ee b e low , 4 5 -6 ) . Z immer h oweve r ,a l ong w i th h i sl i t era ry e xecu tor Kuno Meye r ,p u tt he f i f th c en tury a tt h ec en t re o fd eba tes c once rn ing t he s pread o f f o re ign c u l tu re t o I r e land — t hough t hey we re c oncerned t od a te s o me p roces ses o f c on tac t t o e ven e a rl i e r c entu r ie s . Z imme r 's b a s ic t he s i s w i l lb er ev iewed n ow . T he c o re o fZ imme r 's t h es is , wh ich c once rned t he a r r iva l o f C h r i s t ian i ty a nd Ch r i s t ian c u l tu re i nI r e land , wa s as tudy o fI r e land 's t r ad ing c onnec t ion s w i th o the r

3 2

E u ropean r eg ion s ,h i sc onc lus ion b e ing t ha tI r e land wa si n c l o se c on tac tw i th G au li nt he f i f th c en tury a nd e a r l ie r .A measure o f t h e i mpac t o f t h is t heo ry was t ha t K enney r anked t he G au l i sh c onnec t ion a head o fa l lo the rp o ten t ia l i nf luences i nt he c r ea t ion o f aCh r i s t ian c u lture i nI r e land ( Kenney 1 929 , 1 59 ) . T h i s l i nk , wh ich Z imme r s aw a s h av ing i t so r ig in si nt h eR oman p e r iod , wa ss e en t ob ei n t he f o rm o f ar egu la rt r ade b u i l ta round l a rge c a rgoe so f w ine . T he se c onc lu s ion s were n o t r eached f r om ab a s i s p u re ly i ne conom ic h i s tory ,b u t we re n ece ss i ta ted b y wha t Z immer s aw a si n e scapab le c onc lus ion s a st ot h es ca le o f c l a ss ica l i nf luen ce i n I r e land b y t he s i x th a nd s even th c en tu r ie s , a nd t he p a r t icu la r ly G au l i sh c ha rac te r o f t h e h eres ies a nd more o r thodox move men ts , s uch a s mona s t ic i sm , wh ich f ound r oo ti ne a r ly med ieva lI r e land . T ha tt h es t udy o ft r ad ing l i nk sc an p rov ide i n s igh t s i n to t he p o ten t ia lr ou tes b y wh ich c u l tu re may b es pread , a nd t h ed a te sa t wh ich s cho la r sa nd t e x t sc ou ld t r ave l ,i sa s ound e nough a pproach .Z imme r 's t he s i st ended t op lay d own l i nk sw i th B r i ta in ,h oweve r ,a nd a sse r tt oo e a r ly a d a te f o rd i rec tc on tac t sw i th G au l .T he l a t te rn ow c anno t c onv inc ing ly b e s hown t ob eg in b e fo re t he m id to la te s i x th c en tu ry . E ven t hough t he a t tendan t c u l tu ra l t hes i s h as l a rge ly b een d i sc red i ted , h oweve r , Z immer 's w ine t r ade i ss t i l ll o oked t oa so ne o ft he ma jo r mean sb y wh ich c u l tu ra l i nf luen ces we re d i sse m ina ted . I ndeed , t he i dea t ha t at r ade i nw ine wa s t he p r ima ry c a rgo i n wes tern s ea lanes t r a f f ic i n t he e a r ly med ieva l p er iod h a s b een t aken u p b y n ea r ly e ve ry s cho la r c once r n ed w i th t h i s t op ic . Z imme r h ad a p a r t icu la r i n te re s t i n p rov ing t he e x i s tence o fd i rec tc on tac t sb e tween t h eB ordeaux r eg ion a nd I r e land a se a r ly a st h ef i f th c en tu ry , o na c coun to fa n ow g eneraly d i scoun ted t heory o f t he o r ig in s o f t he c l a ss ica lt r ad i t ion i nI r e land .T h i st heo ry wa sf ueled b ya n o te i n aL eyden manusc r ip t r e fer r ing t o a n e xodus o f s cho la r sf r om t he c on t inen t ,f o l low ing t he i nva s ion o ft he Hun s , Go ths a nd A lan s : S ub q uo rum v as ta t ione omne ss ap ien tes c i sma r in if u gam c eperun t e ti nt r an smar in is v ide l ice t i n H ibe r ia [ s ic ] e t q uo cu rnque s er e ceperun t max imum p ro fec tum s ap ien t iae i n co l i si l arum r eg ionum a dh ibue run t . ( A tt he d eva s ta t ion o ft hose a l lt he w i se men o nt h is s i de o ft he s e a t ook f l igh t a nd i n t he l ands o ve r sea s , t ha t i s H ibe r ia a nd whe reve r t hey wen t , g rea t ly i n c reased t he w i sdom o ft he i nhab i tan ts o ft hose r eg ions :t e x ti n Mü l le r 1 866 ,3 89 ) .

Ih ave t r an s la ted s a p i en t e s l i teraly h e re a s ' w i se men ' . ' L ea rned men 'i st he mo re c o mmon t r ans la t ion made o f t h i st e x t ,b u tt h i s may b ep re jud iced b yZ imme r 's t heo ry t ha tt h ey w e re r h e to r i c i ,r a ther t han ,s ay ,t he men w i se i n g ove rnmen t ( t he l o ss o f whom wou ld h ave b een i ndeed l amen ted i nf i f th -cen tu ry E u rope ) .T he manusc r ip tt e x ti s ad i scu r s ive e n t ry i n ag lo ssa ry ,o f mo s t ly d i f fe ren tc ha rac t e rt ot h i se n t ry ,i n amanu scr ip t( Leyden V o ss .L a t .F . 70 , f . 79 )n oe a rl ie ri nd a te t han t he e l even th o rt we l f th c en tu ry . T he t e x t d oe s n o t r e fe r t o a ny d epa r ture p o in t f o r t he e xodus . Z i mme ri n fer red t h is t ob e B o rdeaux . H i s a rgu men tr e s ted u pon t he r e fe rences t ot h eB ordeaux r he tor i -

C hap ter T hr ee : T he F if th C en tu ry

c i an Au son iu si nL a t in t e x t so fd eba teab ly I r i sh o r ig in ( e .g . H i spe r i c aF am ina 1 .4 1 , 5 8 ,9 2 , 17 ,2 73 , e d . He r ren 1 979a , 6 6 -73 ; 8 4 )a nd t he p o ss ib le ( now d i scoun ted ) Aqu i ta rüan o r ig in o ft he g ra mma r ian V i rg i l ius Ma ro G ramma t icu s , whom med ieva lt r ad i t ion a sc r ibed t oT ou louse ( Z imme r 1 910a , 1 031 -98 — th i s v iew o f V i rg i l ius i s amus ing ly p u t i n to t he mou th o f Umbe r to E co 's c ha rac te r Wi l l iam o f B a skervi l le , i n T he N am e o ft h e R o s e : E co 1 984 , 3 11 -13 ) . Z imme ra l so p laced u ndue empha s i su pon wha th es aw a s t he g ene ra l t r ad ing s i gn i f icance o f B o rdeaux , wh ich h e c o mpa red i n ad rama t ic p as sage t ot he Hambu rg o fh i s own e ra ( Z im mer 1 909c ,5 91 ) ,s oa st oe s tab l i sh t he l i ke l i h ood o fo pe ra t ing s ea r ou tes b y wh ich t he r e fugee sm igh t h ave t r aveled t oI r e land . Z i mmer 's me thod s we re v e ry c r i t ica la nd c ompre h ens ive b yt he s t anda rds o fh i s e ra ,b u t o bv iou s ly more p os i t iv i s t ic t han wou ld b et he c a se t oday .I nt he t r ad i t ion o fh i s e r a , e xe mpl i f ied b y h i s c on tempo ra ry Momm sen , Z im me r s ough t t o make a c omp rehen s ive a ssemb ly o f s ou rce sa nd d i ssec tt hem .T he r e la t ive c h rono log ica lv a lue o ft he s ou rce se scaped h im ,h oweve r , wh i le t he v o lume o f t he r e fe ren ce s wh ich h eu n covered e xagge ra ted t he s ca le o fa c t iv i ty b etween I r e l and a nd G au l .T he L eyden g lo ssa ry e n t ry i ss i xo rs even c entu r ies a f te rt he e ven t ,w i thou ta ny i n terven ing t e x tua l t r ad i t ion , a nd mu s t b e h e ld t o b e i nadm i s sab le a s e v idence a s ar e su l t . T he f a c t t ha t t he g lossary 's H ib e r ia i sn o tH ibe rn i a o dd ly e nough m igh tb e i t ss o le c l a im t oa u then t ic i ty ( Kenney 1 929 , 1 42 —bu ta l so s ee n ow :J ung 1 995 ,2 21 -3 ) :i ti st he f o rm u sed b yS tP a t r ick ( Conf e s s io XV I ,e d . Hood 1 978 ,2 5 )a nd c l o se t ot ha tu sed b y S t C o lumbanus ( Ep i s to la e I , e d . Wa lke r 1 957 , 2 2 ) a nd I s ido re o fS ev i l le ( Baumga r ten 1 984 , 1 93 ) . E ven s o , i n a med ieva l manusc r ip ti ti sf a r mo re l i ke ly t ob ea ne r ro r ,o r , l e ss l i ke ly , av e ry l e a rned h igh med ieva l f o rgery . T he who le p a ssage h a st he a i ro fh av ing b een w r i t ten b ys ome i ngen iou s med ieva ls cho la r ,l i te raly ap recu r so ro fZ imme r , t oe xp la in h ow c l a ss i ca ll e a rn ing a r r ived i nI r e land e a r ly e nough t op roduce mas te rs cho la r sb yt he e igh th c en tu ry . Z i m me r 's e xpan s ion o fi t st e s t imony i t se l fr a ises s u f f i c ien t p rob lem s . Z imme r t ook V i rg i l ius Ma ro G ramma t icus t o b et he f i f th cen tury 'V i rg i l iu s Mo ro 'r e fer red t ob yE nnod iu s ( Ope r a ,e d .V oge l1 885 ,2 42 ) .M i chae l He r ren 's r e searche s h ave d emon s t ra ted t he g ramma r ian 's i ndeb tedne ss t o I s ido re o fS ev ile —hen ce h i sf l oru i t c anno t h ave b een a s e ar ly a s t h e f i f th c en tu ry ( He r ren 1 979 ; He r ren 1 970 ) . D oub th a se ven b een c a s tu pon V i rg i l iu s 'r ea ll i nk sw i th a n I r i sh m i l ieu , t hough s o me I r i sh i nf luence s eem s u nden i a b le ( Law 1 982 ,c h .4 ) .P a rale l ing t h i sh as b een ad ec l ine i n t he b el i e fi na ne a r ly p resence o fa dvanced c l a ss i ca ls cho l a r sh ip i nI r e land .T he I r ish a ch ievemen ti ss een a sf ounded i ne nerge t ic r e search a broad ,b ased o n as ound g ramma t i c a la pp roach ,r a the rt han a ny e x ten s ive t e x t -ba sed l e a rn i ng i nI r e land ( J ames 1 982 ,3 72 f f —bu tn ow s ee Smy th 1 986 , f o r ac on t ra ry v iew ) . Z immer 's e a r l ie r wo rk a l so i nvo lved a ma r i t ime c on tac t mode la nd l i kew i se empha s i sed al i nk w i th we s t e rn Gau l .T he s ame c r i t i ca lf a c i l i ty wh i ch Z i mme ra pp l ied t o n on -con tempo ra ry s ou rces i n t he s a p i en t e s t hes i s , h e u sed t ob r i l l ian te f fec to nt h i st op ic .Z i mmer wa so ne o ft he f i rs ts cho la r st ot ake i s sue w i th t he u nscho la r ly a ccep tance o ft he r o le o fS tP a t r i ck i nt he c onve r s ion o fI r e land ,s ee ing

t he mode lf avou red b ys cho la r si nh i se ra a so ve re mpha s i s ing t he r o le o fo ne i nd iv idua la nd f olow ing t he p ropa g anda o fA rmagh ( Z im mer 1 902a , 17 f f ) . Aga in ,h oweve r , h eo ve rempha s i sed t he Gaul i sh c onnec t ion . T ho se who h ave made s en s ib le c r i t ic i sm o fZ i mme r ' s u se o ft he s ou rce ma te r ia l sh ave s t il s e r ious ly u nder s ta ted t he weakne ss o ft he c a se f o rw ine t r ad ing .P e rhaps we s ee h e re t he i nf luence o ft he t a s te so f modern p eop le o bscu r i ng t he i r v i s ion o ft he t a s tes i nt he p as t . We k now , f r om Adomnän ,t ha ti nI r e land i nt he s i x th a nd s even th c en tu r i e s ,w ine wa s' n ece s sa ry f o rt he mos th o ly mys ter ies '( Ad s a c ro sanc ta m i s t e r i a n e c e s sar ium v inum : V i ta C o lumbae I . 1 , e d . & t r an s . Ande r son a nd Ander son 1 961 , 1 96 —a l so s e cond r e fe ren ce t os ame e p i sode a tI .1 ) .T he e a r ly c hurch i nI r e land mu s th ave b een o b ta in ing w ine f o rt he mass b y s o me mean s . We c anno t o ve r look B ede 's ( HE 1 . 2 , e d . C o lg rave a nd Myno r s 1 969 , 2 0 ) c ommen t t ha t t he v ine d oe sg row i nI r e land ( e ven t hough G i ra ldu s wa s l a ter t o s t a te t he o ppo s i te : s ee b e low ,3 4 ) . Wine f o rt he Ma ss wou ld n o tn eed t oh ave b een o f h igh q ua l i ty a nd w ine b e ing p ou red i n to wa ter i n t he c hal i ce wa sp a r to fe a r ly I r i sh l i tu rg ica lp rac t i ce ,a se v inced b y t he S tow e M i s sa l ( F in i a rum a rhu i sque h i c ae l e ch : S tow e M i s sa l ,e d . Wa rner 1 906 & 1 915 ,3 7 ) . On t h i sb as i si tc anno t h ave amoun ted t o at r ade i ni t s own r i gh t . Wine i sl i s ted i n t he c ommen ta r ie su pon t he Mu i rb r e tha a so n ly o ne o ft he g oods wh ich m igh tb ef ound i nt he c a rgo o f aw recked s h ip ( s ee b e low ,7 0 ) .I ti sa cco rded n oe spec ia ls t atu si nt he l aws . On ly ah andfu l o u t o ft he c orpu s o fs urv iv ing O ld I r i sh l ega lt e x ts make r e fe rence t ow ine a nd t he se a re c o mmen t a r ie s r e fe r r ing t o t he o ne t r ac t : t he l o s t t e x t Mu irbr e tha ( ' Sea L aws ' ) . Hence t he re i so n ly o ne a c tua ll e ga lr e ference a nd t here i twa si nt he c on tex to f al i ke ly s h ip 's c argo ,o f e qua ls t a tu sw i th ar ange o fo the rg oods ( s ee b e low ,6 8 -70 ) . I ns a in t s 'v i ta et he re a re a s many m i rac les o ft urn ing wa te r i n to a l e , a s t he re a re wa te r i n to w ine ( e .g . V i t a B r ig i c la eV I I I .2 ,t r an s .C onnoly a nd P i ca rd 1 987 ,1 6 ) .I nt he I r i sh L aws t he d r ink so fs ecu la r men o fh igh s t a tus were mo re l i ke ly t ob e mead o ra l e ( B inchy 1 981 , 3 6 ) , t hough when d ea l ing w i th t he I r ish L aws t here i s ap o ten t ia lf o r d el ibe ra te a r cha i sm . Hence w e mus tb e wa ry o ft he f a c t t ha tt he g oods d e sc r ibed m igh tb e mo re l i ke ly t ho se wh ich a re t r ad i t ionaly o f v a lue — i .e . an ew ly a cqu i red a r i s to c r a t ic t a s te may n o tb es een a s at r ad i t iona ls ymbo lo fl ega l s t a tu s . We mu s ta dop t ac r i t i ca lv iew o ft he c h rono logy o f I r i sh l e ga lt e x t s ,b u ti ti swo r th n o t ing t ha tt he C r i th G ab lach d e sc r ibe s a l e a s ak ing 's d r ink . I ti sn e i the r o ne o f t he c anon i ca lt e x t s ,b e ing u ng los sed a nd s epa ra te f r om S enchu s Mar , a nd o f r ea sonab ly c er ta in d a te . R e fe ren ces t o t he S axon i nvas ion o f6 84 ( C r i th G ab lach 1 . 523 ,e d .B in chy 1 940 , 2 1 ;x iv ;h oweve rs ee K e l ly 1 989 ,264 f o rp os s ib le c onf la t ion o ft he t e x t )a nd C a in A domnä in ( e .6 90 : C r i th G ab lach 1 . 524 , e d .B in chy 1 940 ,3 8 :x iv ) ,p rov ide at e rm inu sp o s tq uem a nd i nd ica te t ha t i t wa s i n tended t o r e la te t o c on te mporary s i tua t ion s ( Cha r le s -Edwa rds 1 986 ) . J ona s , w r i t ing i n a c on t inen ta l I r i sh m i l ieu i n t he l a te -seven th c en tury , o b s e rves t ha tt he I r i sh ,l i ke mos tn o r th E u ropean s ,p re fer a l e t o w ine a s ab eve rage ( J ona s , V i ta C o lumb an i 1 . 16 , e d . K rusch 1 902a ,8 2 ) .E ven f o rt he k ing d e scr ibed i nt he n in th c en tu ry T e co sc a C orma i c , t hough w ine a nd mead a re e x p ec ted a th i sc ou r ta ss i gns o fh i s a b i l i ty t oa t t rac tg oods 3

C ommun ica t ion a nd C omme r ce a l ong t h e W e s t e rn S ea lane s AD400 -800

f r om o versea s( T e co sc aC o rma i c1 , 1 .4 4 ,e d . Meye r1 909 ,4 5 ) ,i ts e em st ha t' n o tb anquet ing w i thou ta l e '( n i rb aö l chob r ach c e nc u irm : T e co sc aC orma i c1 ,1 .6 ,e d . Meye r1 909 ,1 8 -19 ) , wa s mo s ti mpo r tan ti n ma in ta in ing o ne 's r epu ta t ion . T here a r er e fe rence si nI r i sh s aga st oG au l i sh w ine b e ing c onsumed i nh igh s t a tu sc on tex t s a nd i nvo lved i n g i f t -g iv ing a nd e xchange b e tween h igh s t a tus p e r son s .A g ood e xamp le i si nT ochma ir c Em i r e , whe re F o rgal Manach c ome st oC onchoba r 's c our td i sgu i sed a sa n amba s sador f r om G au l , b r ing ing g i f t s o fw ine a nd g o ld o b je c t s ( ed . Meye r ,4 43 ;V endryes 1 920 ) .T hese ma te r ia ld e sc r ip t ion s i nU l s te rC yc le l i t e ratu re ,h oweve r , mu s tb er ega rded a s h av ing n o h i s to r ica l v a lue b e fore t he e i gh th o r n in th c en tu ry AD ,t h ed a te a round wh ich t he i rl anguage s hows t hem t ob ew r i t ten .J im Malo ry 's s t a t i s t ica ls t udy o fr e fe r e n ces t o me ta lv a lues i nt h eU l s ter C yc le s howed t h a to ne t h i rd o fr e ferences we re t os i lve r , ame ta le f fec t ive ly u n k nown i n p re -Ch r i s t ian I r e land . T h i s q ues t ions t h e r e c e ived w isdom t ha tt hey a r e a' w indow o nt h eI r on Age ' a nd a dds t o t h e g row ing s u sp ic ion r ega rd ing t h e o ther ' Ce l t ic 'i mages i nt h ese s t o r ie s( Ma l lory 1 987 ;c on t r aJ a ck son 1 963 ) .T he r e fe rence st ow ine p robab ly r ef lec tt he v a lue so f a na ud ience o ft h e8 00s o r9 00 s who h ad b yt hen d eve loped ag enu ine t a s te f o r w ine , o r p e rhaps s ome d e l ibe ra te c r ea t ion o fa n' h e ro ic a ge 'i mage . L ikew i se wha tw e may make o ft he r e fe rence ,t ot he d ea th o f Mu i rcher tach Mac E r ca i nt h ee a r ly med ieva le qu iva len to f ab u t to f Ma lm sey mus tr ema in a no pen q ue s t ion , a si ti sa s cr ibed t o ad a te wh ich i sj u s tb e fore t he p e r iod f o r wh ich w e a c cep t t h e a nna l sa sl i ke ly t ob ec on tempo ra ry w i tnes s ,a nd i sh ence l i ke ly t o b e al a ter a dd i t ion ( Anna l s o fU l s t er s . a . 5 34 : D eme r s io Mu ir cher ta ig f i l i i E r ce Mu ir cher ta igh m c . Mu i r e ad a idh m c . E ogha in m c . N e i l l N ao igh i a l la igh i nd o l io p l eno u i no . . . :e d . MacN ioca i l la nd Ma cA i r t ,p p .70 1 ) . R e l u c tance t o a bandon t h e i d ea o f aw idespread t a s te f o r w ine among s ta ny e a r ly C e l t i cg roup may b ea t tr ibu ted t o t he s educ t ive q ual i ty o fD iodo ru sS i cu lu s 'c l ichk ir ema rk s o nt he C e l t ic t a s te f o rw ine .T he re i sc e r ta in ly n oe v idence , h oweve r , t ha tt h e s t or ie s o ft h en a t ive c yc le s r ef l ec ta ny a ctua ls t a te o fa f fa i r sb e fo re 7 00 AD .T he l aw c ode s , wh ich a re e a rl i er i n l anguage t han t he s aga s , d ep ic t t a s tes i n a l coho l wh i ch a r et he o ppo s i te o ft he a bove .T h i sd i s t inc t i on b e tween t h es ource sn eeds t ob e made . I fZ immer 's w ine c on sump t ion mode lw e re t oh ave a ny mer i t , w e wou ld h ave t o s uppose a t a s te f o r w ine among s t t he I r i sh p robab ly a cqu i red t h rough ' p re s t ige g ood s ' e xchange w i th t h eR oman wo r ld . T he a bsence o f l i t e ra ry e v idence f o rR oman p e r iod l i nk so fI r e land w i th t he c on t inen t , a nd t he a bsen ce o fa r chaeo log i ca lf i nds o f t he e ar ly D re sse ls e r ie s o f ampho rae f r om I r e land , mus t f i rm ly d i scred i t t h i s i d ea . R e l iab le r e fe rences t o w ine c on sump t ion o u t s ide o fc hu r ch s e rv ices o n ly o ccu ri nt h e P aen i ten t ia le C umme an i ( I nebr ia t i i g i tur v i no : P aen i t en t i a l e C umme an i ,e d .B i e le r1 963 , 10 — th i st e x ti sp robab ly m id s even th c en tu ry ) .B u te ven t h e re t he c on tex ti sc on sump t i on b yc hu rchmen ,i nc onnec t ion w i th c hur ch a c t iv i t ie s . Z imme r a s sumed t ha t w ine c on sump t ion e x i s ted o n t he s a me s c a le i n I r e land i n t h e R oman p e r iod , o r e a r l ie r ,a si nt he h igh m idd le a ges .T os e rve t h i st a s te ,h e t hen p roceeded t oa s sume t h ee x i s tence o f ac ommod i ty t r ade o ns o me th ing o ft h es ame s c a le a si nt h eh igh m idd le 3 4

a ges .H ere h es eem st oh ave c on f la ted t h er e fe rence st ot he a c t iv i t ies o ft he V ene t i ,t he t r ade o u to fB ordeaux i n to t he C hanne li nt h eR oman p er iod a nd av a r ie ty o fr e fe rence s t o e a r ly med ieva l t r a f f ic . H i s f a i lu re t o r e cogn i se t he d i f fe rence sb e tween t he a c t iv i t ies d e sc r ibed i nt he v a r ious a ccoun t si sn o ts ob lamewo r thy : t h ea r chaeo log ica lc l ues t oa s s i s ti nt h i s we re n o ta va i lab le t oh im a nd ,u n l ike many o f h i s s ucce s so r s i n t h i s f i e ld , h e a tl e a s t q uo ted mo s t e xamp le s a c cu ra te ly a nd d i scussed t h em a tl e ng th . We c anno t ,e i the r ,c r i t ic i se h i sp os i t iv i s t ic t r ea tmen to ft e x t s . T he s e r iou s me thodo log ica l f l aw i nh i s wo rk i st ha t h e s t re ssed ac on t inu i ty b ya rgu ing b a ckwa rds a c ro s st ime . H i ss t udy o ft he w ine t r ade b eg in sw i th ac i ta t ion o ft he f am i l ia rp a ssage f r om G i ra ldus C ambrens i si nt h et we l f th c en tu ry : V ina t a rnen t r an sma r ina r a t ione c omme r t it a rn h abunde t e r ram r ep len t ,u tu ix p ropagan i sp rouen tu sque n a tu ra l is i na l iquo d e fec tum p e rc ip ias . ( Impo r ted w ine s , h oweve r , c onveyed i n t he o rd inary c omme rc ia l way ,a re s oa bundan tt ha ty ou wou ld s c a rce ly n o t ice t ha tt he v ine wa s n e i the rc u l t iva ted n o rg ave i t s f ru i t t he re : G i ra ldus , I n T opog r aph ia H ib e rn i e 2 , e d . O ' Mea ra , 1 21 ;t r an s .O ' Meara 1 982 ,3 5 ) .

T h i s mode li st hen p u shed b a ck o ve r as c a t ter ing o f s ou r ces t os ugges tt h ec on t inu i ty o ft h i st r ade p a t te r no ver mo s to ft he f i r s tm i l lenn ium . I tn eed h a rd ly b es a id t ha t t h i s t r ea tmen t o fG i ra ldu s ' c o mmen t a s amode lf a i l s t o t ake a c coun to ft he c i rcum s tances o f med ieva lc omme rce . Wine t r ad ing b e tween I r e land a nd F ran ce was p red ica ted u pon t h ed eve lopmen to fs ou th -we s tF rance a s ap roducer o fw ine ,a tt h ee xpen se o fo ther ,s ub s i s tence ,p roduc t ion . I r i sh v oyage st oF rance d epended i nt ha tp er iod u pon a d emand f o rg ra in a nd h ide si nF rance —F rench v entu res t o I r e land u pon c ap i ta lp rov ided b yI t a l ian b anke r s( O 'Ne i l l 1 987 ,4 4 f f ) . T hese f a c to rs a r ee x t reme ly u n l ike ly t oh ave o b ta ined o nt h is s ca le i nt he e conomy o fp re -800 E u rope . Z immer 's l a rge s ca le ,s i ng le c a rgo , mode l was t oo much d r iven b yh i sc u l tu ra lt hes i s . T he w ine t r ade a nd s a p i en t e s mus t b e t o ta l ly r e j e c ted ,e xcep ti n so fa ra st he re i sl i t t le d oub tt ha tw ine wa s t r aded , b u t n o t a s a' w ine t r ade ' . Z immer 's i n tense ly d i f fu s ion is t c u l tu ra l mode l i sa l so s imp l i s t ic , s e ek ing a who le sa le t r an sp lan ta t ion o ff o re ign s cho lar s t oe xp la in t he h igh q ua l i ty o fe a r ly I r i sh l e arn ing . No ts u rpr i s ing ly ,i t wa s p r inc ipaly t aken u p b y n on I r i sh s cho la r s s uch a s Meyer a nd V end rye s . W i th t h er emova lo ft he w ine t r ade t he s i sa nd t he s a p i en t e s f r om s e r iou s c on s idera t ion , t h e e v iden ce f o r a s eabo rne l i nk b e tween I r e land a nd G au li nt he f i f th c en t u ry b ecomes v i r tua l ly n on -ex i s ten t .T he re i sn o ma r i t ime r ea son wh ich s hou ld b ea dduced f o rt h i s— the q ue s t ion i s s imp ly h i s tor i ca la nd e conom ic .S uch l i nk sh ad n o tp rev i o us ly b een ma in ta ined w i th I r e land a nd t he re i sn oe v i d ence t ha t a ny b egan i n t h e f i f th c en tury . T he re wa s c on s iderab le i nf luence o ft h eG au l i sh c hur che su pon t he g row th o ft he c hurch i nI r e land , wh i ch may b e as epa ra te ma t te r t ot he b a s ic d i ssem ina t ion o fC h r is t ian i ty . A s we w i l l s e e , i n e ve ry c a se t he i n termed ia ry o f t h e B r i t i sh c hur ch i sl i ke ly t ob ei nvo lved . No to n ly i si tu nl ike ly t ha t

C hap t er T hr e e : T h eF i f th C en t u r y

e ven aG au l i sh c hu r chman s uch a sP a l lad iu s wou ld h ave t r aveled d i rec t ly f r om G au l t o B r i ta in , we mus t a l so a ccep t t ha t h i s p re sence i n I r e land a rgues f o r n o l i nk b etween t he G aul i sh a nd I r ish c hu rches t ha ti si ndepend e n to fB r i ta in . No I r i sh a re c ommemo ra ted i nc on t inen ta ls ou r ce s o r monumen t s ,b u tt r aveler sf r om B r i ta in a re c ommemo r a ted i nf i f th -cen tu ry c e me te r ie s . A Dumnon ian woman was b u r ied i n Da lma t ia i n4 25 ,a nd aT o losanu sB r i tannu s n a t ione wa s b ur ied i n A r le s , s ome t ime i n t he m id -400s ( Kn igh t 1 981 , 5 7 ) . T he s pread o fs uch f i f th -cen tu ry l ap i d ary f o rmu lae a s h i c i a c e t t o w e s te rn B r i ta in c an b e e x p la ined b y t hese l i nk s : t h i s i s , a s Kn igh t ( 1 981 , 5 7 ) h a s empha s i sed , aq u i te s epa ra te ma t ter t ot r a f f i c a l ong t he l i ne s o f Z imme r 's mode l . On ly s e lec ted f o rmu lae a re b or rowed , wh ich s ugge s t s t he i npu t o fi nd iv idua l s who h ave b een r e s iden ti ni nd iv idua lp a r t so fG au l ,r a ther t han ac omp rehen s ive c on tac tw i th t he G au l i sh t r ad i t ion .. P alad ius , ab i shop o fG au l i sh b i r th , wa ss en ti n4 31 t o o rgan i se t he Ch r i s t ian c ommun i t ie s i n I r e land ( Ad S co t t o s i nC hr i s tuom c r ed en t e s : t he I r i sh who b el ieved i n Chr i s t : P rospe r , C h r on i con s . a . 4 3 1 , e d . Momm sen 1 892 , 4 73 ) . We c anno t o ve rempha s i se t he i mpo r tan ce o f t h i s d e f in i te s t a temen t a s t o t he e x i s tence o f p re -Pa t r ic ian Chr i s t ian i ty i nI r e land . Here t h eo f ten d oub t fu lq ues t ion o f whe ther t he a ppo in tmen t o f ab i shop i mpl ies e a r l ie r Chr i s t ian p resence i se xp l ic i t ly a n swe red b yt he t e x t .T he Gau l i sh o r ig in o fP a l lad ius , h oweve r ,h a s b een o ve rem p ha s i sed ( Mytum , 1 992 ,4 0 ;T homa s 1 981a ,3 01 ) .T ha th i s m iss ion was a sa ne x ten s ion o fG e rmanu s 's a c t iv i ty a ga in s t P e lag ian i sm i n B r i ta in , c anno t b e i n d oub t ( Cha r les E dwa rds 1 993 ,7 -8 ) .T he c on jun c t ion o ft he d a te sa l one i s s ugge s t ive . I n t he C on t r a C o l l a to r em ( c .434 ) P rospe r a l so l i nk st h ee ven t s ,n o t ing t ha tL eo ' h av ing o rda ined ab i shop t ot he S c o t s , z ea lou s ly wo rked t ok eep t he R oman i s land c a tho l i c ,h av ing a l so made t he b a rba r ian i s land Ch r is t ian ' ( o rd ina t i oS co t i se p i scop o ,d um R oman am in su l am s t ud e ts e rv ar e c a tho l i c am ,f ec i te t i amb a rb arum C hr i s t i anem :C on t r aC o l la to r em XX I ,e d .M igne P L1 846 ,2 7 1 ) .S tJ e rome d e sc r ibed P e lag iu s a s ' h eavy w i th I r i sh p orr idge ' ( p r aeg r ava tu s p u l t ibus S co thorum : s ee Wood ing 1 988a , 1 2 -17 ) , i fn o th ing e l se , c oncep tualy l i nk ing t he P e lag ian p rob lem i n B r i ta in t o I r e land . P ope J ohn 's l e t te r t ot he n o r the r nI r i sh b i shops ( 640 ) ac en tury l a te ri ss t il r ebuk ing t hem f o r f o l low ing P e lag ian d oc t r ines ( Bede , HE 1 . 19 , e d . C o lg rave a nd Myno r s1 969 ,2 00 -1 ) .T he B r i t i sh l i nk so ft he a n t i -Pe lag ian m is s ion ,h oweve r ,a r ec ruc ia l .P a l lad ius was i nI r e land t o f i gh t ah eresy t ha t t he B r i t i sh w e re a l so f o l low ing . No u n ique ly I r i sh c onnec t ion w i th t h eG au l i sh c hu rch i sb e ing f olowed h ere . I n t r ave l l ing t oI r e land f o r t he s ame p ur p ose a s G ermanu s d id t o B r i ta in , P a l lad iu s wa s a lmo s t c er ta in ly a c t ing o ni n fo rma t ion f r om B r i t i sh i n fo rman t so r f rom G e rmanus h im se l f . T he re i sh en ce e very l i ke l ihood h e wou ld h ave f olowed G ermanu s 'p a th t oB r i ta in ,r a the r t han h ave s a i led d i rec t ly t oI r e land . Mu i r chü ,i nt he s ev e n th c en tury ,e xp l ic i t ly s t a te s t ha tP alad iu s d ied i nB r i t a in , e n r o u t e b ack t oG au l ( Mu i r chü , V i t a P a t r i c i i V I , e d . Hood 1 978 , 6 4 ) , b u t t he s ou r ce o f t h i s i n fo rma t ion i s u nknown a nd t he re i sn o r e a son t o b e l ieve t ha t i ti s i ndependen t .

No d i scu ss ion o fa ccoun t so f wes te rn s ea lanes n av i g a t ion c an b ec omp le te w i thou tc on s idera t ion o ft he c a se o fS tP a t r ick , who wa s a ne yew i tne ss t ot r ave l a long t he we s te r n s ea lane s . B orn i n B r i ta in , h e was c ap tured b y p i ra te s : A nno rum e r am t un c f e re s ede c im . D eum e n im v e rum i g no rabam e tH ibe r ione i nc ap t iv i ta te a ddu c tu ss um c um t o tm i l ia h o r n inum . Iw a st h en a bou ts i x teen y ea r so l d . Id id n o tk now t h et r ue G od a nd Iw a s t a ken i n to c ap t iv i ty i nI r e land w i th s o m any t h ou sand s :C onf e s s i oI ,e d . &t r an s .H ood 1 97 8 ,2 3 , 4 1 ) . L i t t le may b eg a ined b yr ehea r s ing t he a rgumen t s r ega rd ing t he d a te o rb ir thp lace o fP a t r ick the r eader i s r e fe r red t ot he ma ss ive l i te ratu re o nt hese t op ic s . Ne i the r o ft he t wo s e t so fa nna l i s t ic d a tes ( e .g . Anna l so fU l s t e rs . a . 4 31 & 2 ,4 61 ,4 92 ,4 93 ,e d . MacN ioca i l la nd Mac A i r t1 983 , 3 8 -9 ,46 -7 ,5 4 -5 ,5 5 -7 ) ,n o rt he a t temp t st od a te t he C oro t icu s who i st he a ddre ssee o fP a t r ick ' sE p i s t l e( Thoma s1 979 ,8 6 , 9 3 ) ,i n sp i re a ny c on f idence . We may s imp ly o bserve t ha t I r i sh t r ad i t ion p u t sh im l a te rt han P a l lad ius . P a t r ick d e f in i te ly t r ave l led o nt he we s tern s ea lanes a nd a s T homa s h a s r i gh t ly s a id : ' any e v iden ce o f 5 th c en tu ry t r ave li sd e s i rab le '( Thoma s1 979 ,8 2 ) .T he r ou te o f h i sj ou rney r ema ins u nc lea r .T oq uo te T homa sa ga in ,f r om h i s 1 990 s tudy o fl i nks b e tween Gau la nd t he I r ish S ea : P a t r i ck , aB r i ton ,n a r r a t ing i nh i sC onf e s s i oh ow a s al a dh e e s caped f r om s l ave ry i nt h en o r th o fI r e land ( t h i si nt h e l a te 4 30 s ) a nd f r om s ome p o in t o n I r e land ' s s ou the rn c o a s t s a i l ing i n as h ip t oI b e l ieve my se l fthe n o r th c o a s to fA rmo r i ca ( Thoma s1 9 90 ,3 ) . T homa s 's t a temen ti s av ery f r ank s ummary o ft he p rob l em : t he r ou te t aken b y P a t r ick r ealy c ome s d own t o a ma t te r o f o p in ion . T he p rob lem l i es i n t he amb igu i ty o f P a t r i ck 's own wo rd s .P a t r ick h imse l fs imp ly s t a tes t ha th i s e scape a f te rs i xy ea r si nc ap t iv i ty was t o ap o r t' no tn ea ra t h and b u t p e rhaps t wo h undred m i le s away ' ( e t n on e r a t p r op e ,s e df o r t eh ab eb a td u cen ta m i l i apa s sum :P a t r i ck ,C onf e s s i o XV I I ,e d . &t r an s . Hood 1 978 ,2 6 ) ,f r om whence h et ook a s h ip a b road ( Pa t r ick ,C onf e s s io XV I I -XV I I I ,e d . Hood 1 978 , 2 6 ) .S ome d e ta i l sa re p rov ided .T he s h ip 's mas te ra nd c r ew a re p agan ( Pa t r ick , C onf e s s io XV I I I , e d . Hood 1 978 , 2 6 ) . P a t r i ck c onve rse sw i th t hem .T h i sd oe sn o ta ssu re u st ha t t hey a re I r i sh they m igh t a l so b e B r i t i sh , o r Gau l i sh . P a t r ick ,f r om h i sL a t in i ty ,s eem sl i ke ly a l so t oh ave b een a L a t in s peaker ( Moh rmann 1 961 ,3 )a nd c ou ld mo s tl i ke ly make h i s way i na l lt hree t ongue s .I ti st emp t ing t os ugges t t ha tt he c r ew 's p agan i sm make s t hem l e ss l i ke ly t oh ave b een G au l i sh .T he c argo o ft he s h ip i su nknown .T rad i t ion a l ly f avou red wa s al e ss l i ke ly manuscr ip t v ar ian t c ane s o ve r c ame t o a low t he i dea t ha t t he c a rgo was I r i sh wo l fhounds ( e tb ene r e f e c t ie tc ane s[ c a me ]e o rum r e p l e t is un t : C onf e s s io X IX , e d . Hood 1 978 , 2 6 ) . T h i s was t aken t o e x t rao rd ina ry l eng ths b y C raw ford ( 1 936 , 1 93 ) , who e x p la ined t h i sa sa nu nusua l' d i rec t 'v oyage t o' Gau l ' ,w i th o u tt ak ing t he s uppo sed p en in su lar r oad o ver C or nwa l l :

3 5

C ommun ica t ion a nd C ommer ce a l ong t h eW e s t er nS ea lane s AD400 -800

a ccoun tab le t ot he d i f f icu l t ie so ft r avel ing o ver land w i th d og s !T homa s wou ld s ugge s t' t he a t t rac t ive n o t ion sa bou t e xpo r ts o f I r i sh wo l fhounds . . .ough t t o b e r e lega ted t o f o lk lore '( Thomas 1 990 ,1 6 ) .P e rhaps t h i si sat r i f le e x t reme i fwe a re c on temp la t ing c omme rce i ng enera l :S t rabo a nd S ymmachu s b o th i nd ica te t h a t ac on t inen ta l ma rke t f o r B r i t i sh a nd I r i sh d og sh ad e x i s ted ( S ymmachus ,E p i s to l ae 1 .77 ,e d .S eeck 1 883 ,6 5 ) ,a nd h un t ing d id n o te nd w i th t he R oman p e r iod , e ven i fc i rcu ses d id . Howeve r , T homa s ' s t r ic ture i se n t i re ly a ppropr ia te f o rt h eP a t r ick l e gend . F ur the r d e ta i ls h ave b een i n te rpre ted e i the r t oo i mag ina t ive ly ,o rt oo l i tera l ly .P a t r i ck s t a te s : P ro t inu sn av igav imus .E tp o s tt r iduum c ep imu se tv ig in t i o c to d ie sp e rd e se r tum i t e rf e c imu s ,e tc i bu sd e fu i ti l i se t f ame si nva lu i ts upe re o s (We s e ts a i la to nce .T h ree d ay sl a te r we made l and a nd wande red t h rough aw i lde rne ss f o rt wen ty -e igh t d ay s , a nd t hey r an o u t o ff ood a nd ah unge r o ve r took t hem : C onf e s s i o XV I I I -X IX ,e d . &t r an s . Hood 1 978 ,1 8 -19 ) .

Mo s ti n terp re ta t ion so ft h is h ave b een t oo l i t e ra l ,c on s id e r ing t he u n spec i f i cn a ture o ft he c ommen t s .L e tu sa ccep t , f o rt he s ake o fa rgumen t ,t ha tP a t r ick t r ave l led o ver land f r om s omewhere i nt he n o r th o fI r e land t o ap o r ti nt h e s ou th — the mos tc ommon i n te rpre ta t ion .T h ree d ay ss a i l i ng may h ave t aken h im t oB r i ta in o rt oG au l .A ta na ve rage s peed o ft h ree to f ive k no t st h i sc ou ld f i t av oyage t oG au l . I tmay a g ree w i th P a t r i ck 's c ommen t wh i ch f olows :' And a ga in af ew y ea r s l a ter when Iwa s i n B r i ta in w i th my k in s fo lk t hey we lcomed me a s as on a nd a sked me e a r n es t ly n o tt og oo f fa nywhe re a nd l e ave t hem a tt h i st ime a f te rt he g rea tt r ibu la t ion s wh ich Ih ad b een t h rough '( e t i t e rum p o s t p auco s a nno s B r i t tann i i s e r am c um p ar en t ibu s m e i s ,q u im eu tf i l ium s u s c ep e run te te xf i d er o gav e run tm eu t v e lm odo e g op o s tt a n t a st r ibu l a t ione sq ua se g op e rt u l in u squam a bi lu sd i sc ed e r em :C onf e s s io X ) ( I I I ,e d . &t r ans . Hood 1 978 , 2 7 ) . We mu s tb e wa ry i no u ri n te rp re ta t ion o ft h i s c om men t ,h owever ,i nt ha ti tc ou ld b ee a s i ly t aken t o mean t ha t h eh ad made h i se s cape t oB r i ta in i n i t ia l ly a nd t hen wa s r e fe r r ing a head t o at ime when h e wa sa ga in i nB r i ta in . I n h i s E p i s to la ( X IV , e d . Hood 1 978 , 3 7 ) P a t r ick p ro fesse s k now ledge o f G au l ish c us toms , wh i le t he C onf e s s io v ague ly s uppo r t st h el a te rt r ad i t ions o f as o journ i nG au lb yP a t r ick : Unde a u tem e t s i v o lue ro am i t te re i l as e tu t p e rgen s i n B r i t tann i i s -e tl i ben t iss ime p a ra tu sc r am q uas ia dp a t r iam e tp aren te s ; n on i d s o lum s ed e t iam u sque a d G a l l ia s v i s i ta re f r a t re se tu tv ide rem f a c iem s anc torum D orn in i me i . ( And e ven i f Iwan ted t op ar t f r om t hem a nd h ead f o r B r i ta in :a nd Iwou ld h ave b een o n ly t oo g l ad t od os o ,t o s ee my h ome land a nd f am i ly ,a nd n o to n ly t ha t ,t og oo n t oG au lt ov i s i tt he b re thren t os ee t he f a ce o f my L o rd 's h o ly men : C onf e s s io X L I I I ,e d . &t r an s . Hood 1 978 ,3 1 ) .

He wou ld e xpec tt ot r ave lo nwa rd t oG au lv ia B r i ta in .T he f a c tt ha th i sf am i ly h ome l a yo nt h i sr ou te d oe sn o tl e ssen t h i sp o in t . E ven s o ,t hese wo rds mu s tn o tr ea l ly b et aken t op rove aG au l i sh s o journ .A s He r ren o bserves ( He r ren 3 6

1 989 , 8 1 -2 ; a l so Dumv i l le 1 993 , 2 6 ) , P a t r ick c on s i s ten t ly c on t ra s t s t h e p os i t ive q ual i t ies o f G au l i sh Chr i s t ian i ty a ga in s t t he w eakness o f t he B r i t i sh . T ha t h e p ro f es ses k now ledge o fG au li sp roo fo fh is e spousa lo fa ne t hos o f G au l i sh o r ig in ,n o to fh i sh av ing b een i nG au l ,e spec ia l ly a sh i sv i ew i sa ni dyl ic o ne .F r a t r e si sat e rm w i th as p i r i tua l c on tex t wh i ch n eed n o ti mp ly a c tua la cqua in tance .I ndeed t he e xpre ssed d es i re t ol ook u pon t h e f a ces m igh t e ven i mp ly t ha th eh ad n o tb e fore d one s o . T ur n ing n ow t ot h ed e ta i li nP a t r ick 's a ccoun t ,w e mu s to bse rve t h es e r ious d anger i nt ak ing l i tera l ly a ny o f P a t r i ck 's n umbe r s( c on tr aT homa s1 979 ) .A f ter t h ree d ay 's v oyage h ew ande red t wen ty -e igh td ay si n a' w i lde r ne s s ' . E labo ra te a rgumen t sh ave b een made t ot h ee f fec tt ha tt h i s wa sB r i t tany ,b u tt h i ss eem s al i t t le i ngenuou s .I ti sh a rd t o i mag ine a nywhe re whe re o ne c ou ld w ander i n aw i lde r n e ss f o r t wen ty -e igh t d ay s i n e a r ly med ieva l w e s te rn E u rope a nd i ti sc once ivab le t ha tt h is e p i sode a nd t h eg rea t l eng th o ft ime i nvo lved a r ea l legor ica l ,s o me th ing a na lo g ou st ot he B ib l ica lo rdea li nt he w i lde rnes s .H is c ap t iv i ty wa sf o rs i xy ea r s ( Pa t r ick ,C onf e ss io XV I I ,e d . Hood 1 978 , 2 6 ) .A f te rt h i r ty y ea r sh ei sp ersecu ted ( P a t r ick ,C onf e s s i o XV I I I ,e d . Hood 1 978 ,2 8 ) . Many y ea r sl a te rh ei sc ap tu red f o rs i x ty d ay s( Pa t r ick ,C onf e s s io XX I ,e d . Hood 1 978 ,2 7 ) . T he b l essed l a dy o fI r i sh b i r th who b e comes a' v i rg in o f C h r i s t 't ake ss i xd ay st od ec ide ( Pa t r i ck ,C onf e s s io L X I I ,e d . Hood 1 978 , 3 1 ) . Mu l t ip le s o f t h ree a r e s t rong ly i n e v i d ence . Twen ty -e igh t i sn o t a mu l t ip le o ft h ree , t hough a dded t ot h et h ree d ay 's v oyage ( a l low ing f o rt he l a nd ing a nd f i r s td ay i nt he w i lde r n ess t ob et h es ame )i tb ecome s t h i r ty .T h i ss o r to fa rgumen ti sp ro f i t le s s ,h owever ,e xcep t i n so fa ra sP a t r ick i sw r i t ing f o re d i f i ca t ion ,n o ta s ag u ide b ook ,a nd t h e re i sn o mo re r eason t ot a ke t he w i lde rne ss s t o ry l i t era l ly t h an t oa ccep tt he d e ta i l si n amore me ta p hy s i ca lm i ra c le s t o ry .F ina l ly , we may c on t ras tP a t r i ck 's c a re t ol o ca te s o me e p isode s i n B r i ta in w i th h i s l a ck o f p rec i s ion w i th r ega rd t ot h ew i lderne s ss t ory .T here s e em s , t hen ,n os pec i f ic l and fa l l wh ich c an b ed e term ined f r om P a t r i ck 's e s cape .E ven Mu i r chü ,i tmu s tb en o ted ,p lace sS t P a t r ick 's s t ay i nG au la tt he t e rm inus o f as epa ra te j ou rney ( Mu i rchu , V i t a P a t r ic i i I V & V I , e d . H ood 1 978 , 6 3 -4 ) . P a t r i ck i so ne o fo u re a rl i e s tf i r s th and r epor te r so ft r ave l o nt h e we s te r ns ea lane s ,b u t we mu s tc onc lude t ha tl i t t le o ft h ed e ta i lo fh i sa c coun tc an b eo f mu ch u se t ou s . One i t em i s wo r thy o fn o te . I n ah arbou rP a t r ick c ou ld f i nd a s h ip 's c r ew t oc a r ry h im a broad . T he a bove d i scu ss ion h as n o d oub t s a id n o th ing wh i ch c an b e r ega rded a s a dd ing t o a n a l ready o ve r wo rked d eba te . We may c onc lude ,h oweve r ,t ha tt he c a se f o rP a t r ick ' sd i rec tv oyage t ot he c on t inen ti sb ased o nn o d e f in i te e v idence—on ly s ome h igh ly amb iguous p a s sage s , a ne spousa lo fa dm i ra t ion f o r Gau l i sh p ra c t ice a nd s ome c on fu s ing ,p robab ly a lego r i ca l , mea su remen t so fd i s tan ce a nd t ime . S ou rce s o the r t han l i t e rary t e x t s w e re i n t roduced v ery e a r ly i n to t h i st op i cw i th Ch r i s t ian S arauw 's ( 1 900 ,7 ) s t udy o fl o an -wo rds i n to e a r ly I r ish . R e cen t wo rk o nt h e t op ic o f e a r ly l i t e racy a nd i t s i mp l ica t ion s h as r ev ived i n te res t i n t h i s e v idence ( S tevenson 1 9 89 ; Ha rvey 1 987 ; McManus 1 983 ) .T he l o an -wo rds a nd S a rauw 's t ypo logy w e re t aken u pb yO 'Rah i l ly a nd J a ck son ( O 'Rah i l ly 1 942 ,

C hap t er T hr ee : T he F if th C en tu ry

4 2 -5 ;J a ck son 1 953 ,1 22 -48 )t od e fend t he i dea o fc on t inen t a la nd o the rc on tac t s .O 'Rah i l ly f olowed S a rauw i ns epa r a t ing L a t in l o an -wo rds i n to t wo p u ta t ive s t ra ta wh ich h e e qua ted w i th t he r e spec t ive a c t iv i t ies o fG aul i sh a nd B r i t i s h m i ss ion s . T he s t ra ta we re d e f ined o n t h e c r i ter ia o f t he i r t r ea tmen t o f L a t in p honemes a nd l a beled b y t h e c onven ien tc on t ra s tp rov ided t he p honem ic s ubs t i tu t ion i n f o rm s o f t h e s ame n ame : C o thr ig e /P t i t r a i c . O 'Rah i l ly c on tended t ha t t he C o thr ig e s t ratum r ef l ec ted t h e i n t ro d uc t ion o f wo rd sb ys peake r s o fc l as s i caly p ronounced L a t in where p o s t -vocal i c / c/ a nd / t/ w ere s p i ran t i sed : ' t h i sc l a ss o fl o anwo rds c an o n ly h ave b een i n t roduced b y t he P a l lad ian m i ss iona r ie s ,e duca ted G au l sa nd I t al ian so f t he f i f th c en tury , who h ad p re se rved i nt he i rs peech t h e c l a ss ica lv a lue so ft he L a t in c onsonan t s ' ( O 'Rah ily 1 942 , 4 3 ) . H e c ont ra s ted t h i s w i th t h e mo re o bv iou s ly B r i t i sh o r ig in o ft he l a t te rg roup . T h is j udgemen tv e ry p robab ly r ef lec t sZ ir rune r 's t heo ry o ft he p re sen ce o fr h e t or i c i .I nf a c t c u r ren t s t ud ie s o fG au l i sh a nd I t a l ian L a t in i nt he f i f th c en tury ( Mc Manus 1 984 , 1 82 ) s how t ha t t he se were n o mo re c l a ss ica li nt he se v a lues t han B r i t i sh ( McManu s1 984 , 1 88 ) . Anyway , why s hou ld we a s sume t h a ta l lo fP a l lad iu s ' s p a r ty we re G au l i sh ,e ven i fh e wa s? I n a wel -a rgued s t udy Dam ien Mc Manu s ( 1 984 , 1 79 -96 ) h a s f i rm ly b u r ied t he s uppo sed d icho tomy : e x p la in ing t he wo rds a s g radua l b o r row ings a c ro ss t ime , w i th a dap ta t ion o ccur r ing t od i f fe ren td eg ree sa sc omp re h ens ion o fL a t in v a r ied . Words wh ich s ugges ta cqu is i t ion p r io rt ot he l o s so ff i na ls ylab le so rt he f i r s ta ppea rance o f l en i t ion ( Sa rauw 's p hono log ica lc r i te r ia we re v ery s e lec t i ve )c an b el i nked t ov a r ious s t age so fl i ngu i s t i ce vo lu t ion i nI r e land , whe rea st he p rev iou sb ipa r t i te mode ln ece s s i t a ted t he i r c on s ide ra t ion a s ag roup w i th in a l im i ted c h rono log ica lp ha se . Wha t mu s tb es t re ssed i nt h i sc a se i s t he c on fu s ion c au sed when a u se o f l i ngu i s t ic d a ta t o d e fend o re xpand h i s tor ica le v idence , o ra tl e a s tt oi n te g ra te w i th i t ,i sc on fu sed w i th l i ngu i s t icaly d e r ived c on c l u s ion s . McManus makes t h i s c l ea r . F u r the r a s Ha rvey ( 1 985 ,1 9 )o bse rves ,J a ck son t i ed h i sc h rono logy t oq ua s i h i s to r i ca ld a te s ,c om ing o bv iou s ly u n stuck o nu s ing 4 32 a s ab enchma rk f o rt he P a t r ic ian m iss ion ( J ack son 1 953 ,1 42 ) . T he me thod wa sn o tu n sound ,b u tt he h i s tor ica le r ro r sd o i nva l ida te t he c onc lus ion sd er ived f r om t hem a nd t h i si s r a re ly a pprec ia ted b yt he n on l ingu i s t . Ar ange o fe v idence n o ta va i lab le t oZ imme rc omes f r om t he a r chaeo log i ca ls i de .T he se d a ta o f fe rt h eo ppo r t un i ty t o d a te a nd p rovenance v oyages i n a nd o u t o f I r e land , t hough t h i s e v idence t oo h a s b een s ub jec t t o a t temp t st ou se i tt op rove d i rec tc on t inen ta lc onnec t ion s . T he e v idence f o rR oman c on tac tw i th I r e land i s sma l li n q uan t i ty .D ermo tB a teson a nd R icha rd Wa r ne rh ave i d en t i f ied t wo b a s ic g roups o fR oman i mpo r t s :t he f i r s td a t ing f r om t he e a r l ie s tc en tu r ie s AD ;a nd t h es e cond c en t r ing o n t he f ou r th c entu ry .T he l a t ter g roup i sc on s is ten t ly a s soc i a t ed w i th t he r a id ing p e r iod , wh i le Wa r n er h a s d e f ined t he f o rme rg roup a sa r r iv ing b y av ar ie ty o f mean s ,w i th a R oman a gen cy f o rs o me made l i ke ly b yf i nds s uch a st h e t yp i ca l ly R oman c r ema t ion b u r ia la tS toney fo rd ( Wa rne r 1 976 ,2 74 ;B a teson 1 973 ,2 1 -97 ;B ou rke 1 989 ,5 6 -7 ) . Wa rne r d i s t ingu i she st h e se c on tac tp ha ses b ya s se r t ing t he l a ck o f

t h i rd -cen tury o b jec t si nI r e land ( Wa r n e r1 976 ,2 67 -70 )a nd h ei sf o l lowed i nt h is b yL a ing ( 1 985 ,2 69 -70 ) .T h i sb ipa r t i te d iv i s ion may b em i s lead ing ,h oweve r ,i n so fa ra si ta low s t he s o r to fd i cho tomy t ob es e tu pt ha th as b een s e en i nt he c a se o ft he l oan -words . T ha t t h e l a te r g roup o fi mpor t s r e f lec t amuch mo re e x ten s ive c on ta c tn eed n o tb ed oub ted , n o rn eed w e d oub tt ha ti tr e la te s t ot he d i rec tc on tac t o f wh ich t he r a id ing i s ap a r t . B u t t he e a r l ie r ' g roup ' may r e f lec te s ca la t ing c asua lc on tac to ve r ar ange o ft ime ,f o r wh ich n o d i scon t inu i ty i sn ece s sary t od i s t ingu i sh t hem f r om l a te ra c t iv i ty . P erhaps mo re c ruc ia l t o t h e p resen t s t udy i st he n eed t oe s tab l i sh t h er ou tes o fa r r iva l .T he R oman ma te r ia l i nI r e land f a l l si n to t h ree g eog raph ica lg roups wh ich a re t aken t or e f lec tt h ree ma r i t ime c onnec t ion s .T he n or thern g roup o fa r te fac t sr e f lec t so ngo ing I r on Age l i nk sb e tween S co t land a nd n o r thern I r e land ( Wa rne r1 983 ,1 61 -87 ) .T he S co t land -No r the r nI r e land r ou te i st h e s ho r te s tc ros s ing p o in t t o I r e land : h ence we s hou ld n o t b e t oo q u ick i n f olow ing T homa si n mak ing mode r nc ompa r i son sh igh l i gh t ing t h ec on t inu ing i mpo r tan ce o ft h e Dub l in -Ho lyhead r ou te .T he d om inance o ft h i sl i nk t oday r ef l ec t st he p ol i t i c a lt u rmo i lo f Nor the rn I r e land ,t he s ou th -we s tern p ol i t i c a lf o cus o f mode r nB r i ta in a nd ,a bove a l l ,t he r oadbu i ld ing o fT homa sT e l fo rd .F ind si nt he v i c in i ty o fL e in s ter m igh t b el og ica li nt e rm so ft h en a tu ra lc ro ss ing f r om Gwynedd , b u tt he o b jec t sf r om L e in s te rs i te sm igh ta l so b ee xp la ined b y v oyage s f r om f u r the r n o r th . T he s ou the r n g roup o f f i nds ,s c a t te red a c ro ss C o rk , Wa te r fo rd a nd T ipperary ,a re t h ec ruc ia lg roup t oe xp la in i nt e rm so f wes te r ns ea lane s t r ave l .S uch h a sb een t he p owe ro ft h eZ imme ra nd ' wes t er ns eaway s 't he se st ha t mos td i scu ss ion sh ave s t i l lb een k een t o h igh l igh t ac on t inen ta l o r ig in a s b e ing e qualy l i ke ly a s aB r i t i sh t oe xp la in t he p resence o fR oman o b jec t s i ns ou the rn I r e land ( S teven son 1 989 , 1 32 ) . T he c on s ide r a b le l i nk sb e tween s ou the r nI r e land a nd Dy fed ,h oweve r , p rov ide a n i mpres s ive t e s t imony t o wes t -ea s t c on ta c t s , r a ther t han t he s uppo s i t ion t ha tt he s ou th c oa s to fI r e land wou ld l ook n a tu ra l ly s ou th t ot h ec on t inen t . One s ub jec t wo r thy o fg rea te ra t ten t ion i st h en umbe ro fR oman f i nd s f r om t he v aley o ft he B ar row — inc lud ing t he S toney ford f i nds a nd t he L och L ene b oa t —and t he c o r re spond ing c oncen t ra t ion o f o gham s t one s i n t ha t r eg ion . T here i s n o th ing h ere t o r ef l ec t ac on t inen ta l c onnec t ion o ver a B r i t i sh o ne . T he e x i s ten ce o f ap redom inan t l i nk b e tween t he v e ry s ou th o f I r e land a nd Dy fed i sc l ea r ly s e en i n t he d i s t r ibu t ion o f t he o gham a lphabe t . T h i s i s al ap ida ry a l phabe t d er ived f r om L a t in a l phabe t ica l c l a s s i f ica tory mode l s o f t he t ype c ha rac te r i sed b y t he f ou r th -cen tury g ramma r ian Dona tus ( Mc Manus 1 991 , 2 3 -8 ) , t hough C ar n ey i sp robab ly c or rec ti na s se r t ing t ha ti td e r ives f r om g rammat i ca ld i scou r se wh ich g ave r i se t o Dona tu s 's cheme , r a the rt han f r om D ona tu sh im se l f( Ca rney 1 975 ,5 6 ) .T he q ues t ion o fi t sp lace o fo r ig in i su nc lea r ,b u ta round 4 /7 o f t h e t o ta l d i s t r ibu t ion i sc oncen t ra ted i nc oun t ies K e r ry , C o rk a nd Wa te r fo rd , w i th a no the r2 /7 i nC or nwa l l a nd Gwynedd a nd , mo s tp a r t icu la r ly ,D y fed ( we s hou ld f o l l ow Mc Manus i n e xc lud ing P i c t i sh o gham s f r om t h i s p i c tu re ,o na ccoun to ft h e i ro bv ious ly l a te rn atu re ,b o th i n

3 7

C ommun ica t ion a nd C ommer ce a l ong t h e W e s t er nS ea lane s AD400 -800

t he f o rms u sed a nd , mo re s i gn i f ican t ly ,t he i ra l ignmen to n t he s t ones , Mc Manus 1 991 ,9 ) .T he o gham s t one sd a te f r om t he f ou r th t h rough s i x th c en tu r ies AD ( Mc Manu s1 991 ,40 1 ) .T h i si ss t i l l ama t te ro fs o me d eba te ,b u tw es hou ld b e awa re t ha tt h ec o lon ia lo ccu r rences ,o ur p r in c ipa lc on cern h e re , a r ep e rhaps t he b es td a ted a s many h ave b i l ingua l i n scr ip t ion s o f l a te f i f th/s ix th c en tury d a te ( Mc Manu s 1 991 , 7 8 f f ) . T he f unc t ion o ft he s t ones r ema ins u nc lea r , e spec ialy i nt he p agan c on tex t ,b u tt he c ommemo ra t ive f unc t ion i sc en t ra la nd a ppear sh a rmon iou s w i th C h r is t i an a c t iv i ty i nt he B r i t i sh e xamp les ( Mc Manu s1 991 ,4 3 ) . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o fo gham i sb yn o mean sa l mar i t ime , a nd w e s hou ld b e wa ry o fu s ing t he f i nds i nC o . K e r ry t oa rgue mar i t ime l i nk s w i th C o rk — i t i st he i d ea wh ich moves ,n o tt he s t ones . Whe re t h ea lphabe ti su sed o nt he e a s te r nr im o ft he I r i sh S ea ,h oweve r ,i ti sc l ea rw e h ave e v idence o f ma r i t ime r ef lux b e tween s pec i f ic p a r t so f I r e land a nd t he i rc o lon ies . Mc Manu s 's c l ea rs t a temen ti s wor th q uo t ing : t he d i s t r ibu t ion i n B r i ta in c o r re sponds mo re o r l e s s i n f r equency t ot ha to ft he r e spe c t ive a rea si nI r e land f r om wh ich t he c o lon i s t s who b rough t i ta c ro s s t he I r i sh S ea p robab ly s e t f o r th , b e ing m in ima l ( i f n on -ex is ten t ) i n S co t land a si nt he a d jacen ta rea o fn o r th e a s te rn I r e land whence A rgy l l was s e t t led i n ,o ra round ,t he f i f th c en tu ry , a nd max i ma l i n s ou th -we s t Wa le s c o lon ised b y I r i sh s e t t le r s f r om t he s ou th e as t a round t he f i th c en tu ry ( McManus 1 991 ,4 5 -7 ) .

I n scr ip t iona le v idence t hu ss hows c l ea rd iv i s ion sb e tween n or the r na nd s ou the r nI r e land ,a sw e l la st he n o r the r na nd s ou the r n z ones o f t he I r i sh S ea . I n sc r ibed s t one s i n t h e o gham a lphabe t a r e r a rer i nn or the rn t han i ns ou the rn I r e land . Whe re t hey o ccu ro nt he e a s te r nr im o ft he I r i sh S ea b a s in ,t h ey a re c on f ined t oa rea sn of ur the rn or th t han aDub l in/Gwynedd l i ne .T he c oncen t ra t ion si nC oun t ies K er ry ,C o rk a nd Wa te r ford i nI r e land , Dy fed a nd Gwyn e dd i n Wa le s ,t he s ou thern t i po ft h eI s le o f Man ,a nd t h e a rea a round t he C ame le s tua ry i n No r thern C o rnwa l l may b es a id t oc i r cumscr ibe ama r i t ime p rov ince e xc lud ing f o r t he mos tp ar tt he n o r the r n ma r i t ime z one o ft h eI r i sh S ea . I tw i l lb en o ted t ha tt he re a r e ma r i t ime r ea son s ,b o th i n t e rm so fa va i lab le w inds ,c u r ren t sa nd v i s ib i l i ty o fl a nd ma sse st ha te ncou rage t he n o r the r nl a nds t oa tt imes l o ok mo re n a tu ra l ly t o e ach o the r , t han t o l and s s ou th o f a Dub l in -Gwynedd l i ne ( s ee a bove ,8 ) . We mu s tc on t inue t o empha s i se t he i d ea t ha tc on t a c tb e tween I r e land a nd B r i ta in d u r ing t he R oman a nd s ub -Roman p e r iod may s e rve t oe xp la in mo s ti mpor ta t ion o fc u ltu re f r om f u r the ra broad .I nt he c a se o fo gham ,a nd t he c oncen t ra t ion o fR oman f i nds i nt h eB a r row V aley ,w e may b el o ok ing a tc u l tura lc on tac t wh ich c ome sf r om t h e B r i s to lp o r t so r maybe C hes i re o rL anca sh i re .B u tt he r o le o ft he s ho r te s tc ross ing ,f r om s ou the rn S co t land t o No r th e rn I r e land ,s hou ld n o tb eu nde rra ted i ni t si mpo r tance ,a s i ti sb yt he ' wes tern s eaways 's choo l .J ohn Waddel ( 1 99 1 2 ,2 9 -40 ) h a s empha t i caly d emon s t ra ted t ha t i t wa s a ma jo rr ou te o fc u l tu ra le xchange i ne a r l ie rp reh i s tory a nd t h i s may a l so b e t r ue f o r t he R oman p e r iod . S tP a t r ick 's n or the rn B r i t i sh o r ig in s r ema in c on t rover s ia l ( Thoma s 1 979 ,8 3 -4 ) ,b u tt he p resence o fa ne a r ly n uc leu so f Ch r i s 3 8

t i an i ty a t Wh i tho r n h a s b een c on f i rmed b y P e ter H il 's e xcava t ions ( H il 1 987 , 1 989 , 1 990 , 1 992 ) , a s w el a s t he u ndoub ted ly p re seven th c en tury ' La t inu s 's t one ( Thoma s 1 992 ) . I th a sb ecome a na ppos i te c l ic h ét oo bse rve t ha ti t c ou ld wel b e t he Ga l loway r eg ion wh ich T e r tu l l ian i s r e fer r ing t o i n h i s c ommen t t ha t i n h i s d ay ( 2 09 AD ) Ch r is t ian i ty p ene tra ted ' e ven t hose B r i t ish r eg ions u nreached b y R ome ' ( B r i t tanorum i n ac ce s sa R oman i s l o ca , A dv e r so sJ ud aeo sV I I , Haddan a nd S tubbs ,C EDRB I ,V o l .1 , 1 ) .F rom Wh i tho r ni ti s av e ry s hor tc ro ss ing t oI r e land . T he G aul i sh c h ime ra h a st ended t of o cu sa t ten t ion u pon C h r is t ian a c t iv i ty i nL e in s te r . Wh i le t he s ou th r ema in s a h igh ly p oss ib le l o ca t ion f o re a r ly Ch r i s t ian c ommun i t ie s , i t mus t b e empha s i sed h ow p oo r t he e v idence i s . T he e v idence f o rt he a c t iv i ty o ft he f olower so fP alad ius i nt he W ick low r eg ion i sn o tr el iab ly e a r ly ( Bowen 1 969a , 12 -3 ; T homa s1 981a ,3 04 ;S harpe 1 989 ,3 76 -99 ) .T he e a r ly Ch r is t i an c ommun i t ies w ere p o ss ib ly i nt he n or th a nd i fa ny l i ke ly o f f sho re c onnec t ion s a re t ob e s ough t , t h e n ea rby e a r ly c ommun i ty i nG aloway i sp e rhaps amo re l i ke ly c onnec t ion t han s ou thern I r i sh l i nk sw i th t he c on t inen t . T h i sc hap ter h a sc on s ide red t wo l a rge ly s epa ra te c on t inu i t y mode l s wh ich c on tend t ha t t r a f f ic a l ong t h e we s tern s ea lane s i n t he p e r iod AD 4 00 -800 wa s ac on t inu i ty o f a nc ien tp a t tern s .I th a sf ound i nt he n ega t ive i nb o th c a se s . T he f i rs t mode l p o s i t s t h e i dea t ha t p a t terns o f we s te rn s e a lane s t r a f f ic f r om t h e c on t inen tn o r thward t oB r i ta in a nd I r e land h ave p reva i led s i nce e a r ly p reh i s tory . T he s e cond mode l a rgue s t ha t , r ega rd le ss o ft he p reh i s tor ic p a t tern ,t a s te sf o rR oman c ommod i t ie ss uch a sw ine o ro i l h ad b een d eve loped i nw e s tern B r i t ia in a nd I r e land , wh ich l a s ted i n to t he p o s t -Roman p er iod a nd we re s u f f icen t ly d eve loped t os uppo r t ad i rec ts eabo rne t r a f f i ct ot he we s t e rn z one . T ha tn e i the rt h ep reh is tor i c a r te fac tua le v iden ce n o r t he R oman p er iod s ou rce s i nd ica te d i rec t t r a f f ic t o B r i ta in f r om t h ec on t inen t mu s tb es een t on ega te t he f i r s t mode l ,t hough t h i sd oe sn o ti na ny way p rove t ha tn os uch v oyages we re e ve r made — the t e chno logy a va i lab le wa s c e r ta in ly s u i tab le t ot he t a sk . T he i s sue o fl i nge r ing R oman v a lues a nd t a s tes i s mo re c omp lex a nd l e ss e as i ly d i sm i ssed , a s w e c anno t p re tend t ha tb o th i mper ia la nd Chr i s t ian R oman i d ea sa r e n o tp resen ti nt he p ol i t i ca la nd r el ig iou sl i f eo fp o s tR oman B r i ta in a nd I r e land .T homa si si n c l ined t op lay d own t he R oman l e gacy : T he a rgumen t t ha t s eve ra l c en tu r ie s o f R oman i ta s i m b ued t he c o l lec t ive r a ce in s t inc to ft he n a t ive B r i t ish w i th at a s te f o ru n fam i l ia rl uxur ie s , at a s te t ha tc ou ld n o tb e me ta f t e r t he e conom ic c o l lapse p o s tu la ted i nt he e a r ly 5 th c en tury , i sn o to n ly at r if le n a ive b u ti mp l ie sb o th a p ene t ra t ion o fR oman manne rs a nd ad eg ree o fe ve ryday c on t inu i ty f a rb eyond t he e v iden ce ( Thomas 1 988a ,1 ) .

T he re i sa ne l emen to fc on sc ious s e l f -cr i t i c ism h e re :t h row a way l i ne s o n c on sume r t a s te s h ave c ha rac te r i sed a r c haeo log i ca l r epo r t s o n t h e c e ram ic e v iden ce , t hose o f T homa sn ol e ss t h an o the r s( s ee a bove ,2 2 ) .G ood ss uch a s w ine a nd o i l h ad p robab ly o n ly t r ick led i n to wes tern

C hap ter T hree : T he F if th C en tury

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C ommun ica t ion a nd C ommer ce a long t h e W e s t ern S ea lanes AD400 -800

B r i ta in a s p re s t ige g oods a s soc ia ted w i th s po rad i c e x c hange .I nt h ep os t -Roman p e r iod ama rke tm igh ts t il b e f ound f o rt hem ,b u ti tq u i te l i ke ly wa s ad i f fe ren t ma rke t . Wine a nd o i lh ave u se si nc hu rch r i tua la nd c e lebra t ion .I f t h i si s ac on t inu i ty o fR oman i ta st hen ,a sC o lumbanus s a id o ft he I r i sh c hu rch ,i towes mo re t ot he l e gacy o ft h eR ome o fP e te ra nd P au lt han t ot ha to ft he emp i re ( Co lumbanu s , E p i s tu la eV .11 ,e d . Wa lke r1 957 ,4 8 -9 ) .G i lda si sc on sc iou s o ft he i mpor tance o fw ine a nd o i la si mages o fp rospe r i ty ( we may a l so r e ca l lh e re t h eR oman d i scou r se wh ich s aw t he se i t em s a s u n iver saly a ppea l ing t o b a rba r ian s , a s e v inced i nv a r iou sl a te -Roman l aws :T hompson 1 982 , 1 0 1 ) ,b u tt he e v idence o fI r i sh s ource sp u t sl i t t le v a lue o n t hem i n as e cu la rc on tex t .T here s eem s ,l i kew i se ,n oj u s t i f i ca t ion f o rf o l low ing L a ing i ns ee ing t h eo bv iou sR oman mode l sb eh ind p enannu la rb rooche s ,h ang ing b ow l s ,h and p in s , f i nge r r i ng s , b race le t s a nd c omb s a s e v idence o f d eep , p ol i t ic i sed , R oman i sa t ion o f I r i sh s oc ie ty ( La ing 1 985 ,2 62 -8 ) .T hese o b jec t sn eed n o th ave h ad a ny R oman v a lue b yt he t ime t hey r e ached I r e land t h rough t he f i l te ro f n o r thern B r i t i sh ' bu f fe r ' k ingdom s . T ha t t hese t ype s o f o b jec t sc on t inued t ob e made o nb o th s i de so ft he I r i sh S ea r ef l ec t sc on t inu ing c on tac tb e tween e a s ta nd we s t ,r a the r t han as epa ra te ,s t rong l e ga cy o fR oman i ta so ne ach s hore e s tabl i shed e xc lus ive ly i nt h eR oman p e r iod . I nt h i sc a se t he n o t ion o fa n' I r ish S ea p rov ince '( s ee e . g .A lcock 1 969 , 6 3 -5 )i smo re c onv inc ing t han t he i s o la t ion mode l ,b u tt he emphas i s mus t r ealy b e o n t he s ho r te s t l i nk s b e tween n e ighbou r ing l andmas se s ,r a ther t han a' ma r i t ime c u l tu re p rov ince ' . Wh i le t he s i x th - a nd s even th -cen tu ry c e ram ic i mpo r t si n to w es te rn B r i ta in a nd I r e land s how s o me i nd i c a t ion so fr egu la rt r ade ,t h ere i sn oe v idence o ft he r egu la r i t y o r t he s c a le s een i n R oman p e r iod A t lan t ic t r a f f i c , d escr ibed f o re xamp le b yS t rabo ,o ri nt h eh igh med ieva l t r a f f ic b e tween F rance a nd I r e land d e sc r ibed b yG i ra ldu s C amb ren s i s . B o th t hese t r ades , c i ted b yZ im me r a sc on t i nuou sw i th e a r ly med ieva lw es te rn s ea lane st r a f f i c ,s e rved ma rke t sw i th wholy d i f fe ren ts ca le s o fd emand t oe a r ly med ieva l B r i ta in a nd I r e land . I n t he R oman p e r iod t h e ma rke t wa si ne a s tern B r i ta in , where t he t a s te so fR oman i t a s we re f a r mo re i ne v idence ;i nt he h igh med ieva li n s tance t h ec on tex ti sc heap c ommod i ty movemen tb e tween F rance a nd a n I r e land r e s t r ic ted i ni t s ma rke tb y E ngl i sh t r ade r egu la t ion ( O 'Ne il 1 987 ,4 4 f f ) .I no the r wo rds ,c on t inu i ty mode l sa r ei lu so ry a nd c au se u st of o rge tt ha tc omme rce a nd e xchange a re d r iven b yt a s tes a nd d emands i ne ach e ra , f o r wh ich e conom ic b a se s e vo lve t ha t a r e l a rge ly u n ique t ot ha te ra .

4 0

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T he Med i te r ranean a nd t he A t lan t ic i nt he S ix th C en tu ry

I n t h e Med i terranean , t he v e ry l a te f i f th o r e a r ly s i x th c en tu ry s aw as hor tr e su rgen ce o fc omme r ce a nd c ommu n i ca t ion b e tween t h eG reek e a s ta nd t he L a t in we s t . T he d eg ree t o wh ich t h i s e xchange wa s d i scon t inuous w i th e ar l ie ra c t iv i ty ,i na l lt hea t re s ,i sn ow c l ea rf r om a r chaeo l og ica l e v idence . E a s tern Med i te r ranean c e ram ics o n ly r eappea ri nt he e a r ly s i x th c entu ry ,a f te r ag ap o fa round ac en tu ry ,o ns i tes i nA f r ica ,I t a ly a nd S pa in .T h i sb reak i n c on t inu i ty c l ea r ly i nd ica tes t ha tc omme rce wa sd i s rup ted b yf i th c en tury e ven t s . T he t e xtua ld a ta a r en e i the rs pe c i f ic e nough i n r e fe rence , n o r s o c omprehen s ive , a s t o i nd i ca te t h i s d iscon t inu i ty , wh ich i s why H en r i P i renne c ou ld r e ad r e ference st ot he a r r iva lo fe a s te r nl uxu r ies i n s i xth -cen tu ry F rank i sh s ou rce sa si nd i ca t ing ac on t inu i ty o fe a s t -wes te xchange f r om t h eR oman p er iod ,o ve r look i ng i n term i t ten td i s con t inu i ty ,a nd s e e ing t h ep e r s i s tence o f m ar e n o s trum o b l iv iou s t o p ol i t ica l c hange ( P i renne 1 939 ; H av ighu rs t 1 978 ; Hodge s a nd Wh i tehouse 1 983 ) . Mu t a t i sm u tand i s ,Z i mmer 's t h e s i so f as im i la rc on t inu i ty o f A t lan t i c a c t iv i ty t h rough t h e f i f th c en tu ry i sa l so u n l i ke ly .T he s a me c e ram i ce v iden ce wh ich i su sed t oq ue s t i on P i renne 's mode l i s c ru c ia l i n t he s t udy o f s i x th c en tu ry a c t iv i ty i nt h e wes tern s ea lanes .A round t he e a r ly 5 00 s ,t h eB yzan t ine t hrus ti n to t h ew es tern Med i te r ranean e x tended wes ti n ab r ie ff l oru i to fd i rec tt r a f f i co fe a s te rn Med i te r ranean g oods i n to t h ew es te r ns ea lanes ,a sf a ra s P o r tuga la nd B r i ta in .T he e v iden ce f o rt h i sa c t iv i ty ,i nt he f o rm o ff i nds o fi mpo r ted Med i te r ranean p o t te ry a l ong t h e A t lan t ic s eaboa rd ,i so fp r ima ry i mpo r tance t ot h es t udy o f we s te rn s ea lanes t r a f f ic a s awho le ,d esp i te t h ef a c tt ha ti t s c h rono log i ca l r ange i sn a r row a nd i t s i nvo lvemen tw i th c u l tu ra lt r ansm i ss ion d oub t fu l .T he h i s to r ica lb ackground t o t h i s b r ie f c onnec t ion may b e s i gn i f ican t , h in t ing a ta s t rong B yzan t ine i n teres ti nn o r the rn E u rope . T he re i s , a s w e h ave s e en , e v idence f o r R oman p e r iod v oyage st h rough t he S t ra i t so fG ib ra l ta r ,c a r ry ing g ood sf r om Nor th A f r ica t oA t lan t i cS pa in a nd P o r tuga l . I den t i f iab le s i x th cen tu ry a c t iv i ty a l ong t h i sr ou te ,h ow e ve r ,i so f as epa ra te c ha rac te r .T he d i s t r ibu t ion o f Med i t e r ranean p o t te ry i n wes te rn B r i ta in a nd I r e land f r om l a te f i f th o re a r ly s i x th -cen tu ry s i te s make si tp o ss ib le t os pec i fy t ha tt h ev es se l se n te r ing t he A t lan t i cb egan t h e i rv oyage s i n t h e e a s tern Med i ter ranean . T he v e ry l im i ted t e x tua l e v idence r e la t ing t ot h is A t lan t i cf l oru i t ,t hough b yi t se l fo f l i t t le v a lue ,i ss uppo r t ive o ft h ee v idence o ft h ec e ram i cs i n s uppo r t ing t he e a s te rn Med i te r ranean a gen cy .

T ha t we c an e s tab l i sh o n ly an a r row c h rono log ica lr ange f o r s uch A t lan t ic a c t iv i ty d oe s n o t d im in i sh e i ther i t s r e levance t o wes tern s ea lane st r a f f i c ,o rt ot he s t udy o ft he wa res i ng ene ra l . T he n a r rowness o ft he f l oru i t i si nf a c t a dvan tageous f o r e s tab l i sh ing ab enchma rk f o r i n su la r c h rono logy .T he s e lec t ion f ound o nA t lan t ic s i tes i n form s o u r u nde r s tand ing o f t h e way s i n wh ich c e r ta in ware s o ve r lap i nc h rono logy i n t he Med i ter ranean a s wel a s wh ich c omb ina t ion s may make u p who le s h ips 'c a rgoe s . T he i mpo r ted wa re sh ave b een w ide ly d i scussed i n I r e land a nd B r i ta in s i nce t h e1 940s ( OR io rdä in 1 942 , 1 34 ; OR io rdä in 1 947 ,7 0 -1 ) . Aw ide ly u sed a lphabe t ica lc l a ss i f i ca t ion wa se s tabl i shed b yR ad fo rd ( 1 956 ,5 9 -70 )a nd wa s t aken u p a nd d eve loped b yT homas ( 1 959 , 1 5 -22 ; 1 981b , 8 9 -111 ; 1 976 , 2 45 -55 ) . T he p o ten t ia l o f t h ese f i nds f o r r e f in ing t he c h rono logy o fw es te rn s ea lanes s i tes u nde r s t andab ly a t t rac ted t h e mos t a t ten t ion i n i t ia l ly , a s t hese wa re sa re f ound i nt h ec on tex to fl ong s equence si n Med i t e r ranean c on tex t s a nd a r e s ome t imes d a teab le b y c o in e v idence .T h i sp rov ide s ad atum l ine o fs ome i mpor tance f o r t he a num i sma t i c a r chaeo log i ca l c h rono logy o f t he I r i sh S ea b a s in . D i scuss ion t o d a te h a s n o t e n t i re ly n e g l ec ted t he i mp l ica t ion so ft h ef i nds f o rs oc ia lo re conom ic h i s to ry , t hough h i s to r ian s w i th s uch c oncern s h ave n o t made a s much u se o ft h i s e v iden ce a st hey m igh t . S uch c ons idera t ion s a re i mpo r tan t , a s i ti se a sy t o d a te t he i nd iv idua l wa re st o aw ide t ime f rame . Ac on s idera t ion o f t he g roup a sa ni n teg ra ted who le ,h oweve r , ah i s tor ica l ly l i ke ly s c ena r io ,s ugge s t s amuch mo re l im i ted i mpor ta t ion e ven t .T h i si sa l so ad e fen s ib le mode la r chaeo log ica l ly . T he b u lk o ft h e Med i te r ranean i mpor t si nt he I r ish S ea b as in a r ef ound i nt he s ou th ,e spec ia l ly i nt h es ou th w es tp en in su la o fB r i ta in . On ly s c a t te red f i nds h ave b een made i nA t lan t ic P o r tuga la nd S pa in t od a te ,b u tt h i si sa m i s lead ing s t a t i s t ic a st he re i sl e ss p ub l i shed e xcava t ion o f e a r ly med ieva ls i te si nI b e r ia t han i nB r i ta in a nd I r e land , a nd e xcava ted ma te r ia l p robab ly a wa i t s i den t i f ica t ion . Ewan C ampbe l l( f o r thcom ing 1 996 )s ugge s t st ha t :' wha ti s i mpor tan t a bou t t h i s d i s t r ibu t ion i st ha t t he n u mbe r o f v esse l sf r om B r i t i sh a nd S pan i sh s i tes i so ft he s a me o rde r o f magn itude e ven t hough t h eS pan i sh s i te sa r ec l ose rt o t h es our ce o ft he p o t te ry 'a nd t h i s may w e l lt u rn o u tt ob e t he c a se ,a si ti sc e r ta in ly t r ue a sr ega rds t he r ange o ft ypes p resen t .T here w i l lb ef u r the re v idence f r om P o r tuga la nd S pa in , h oweve r , a nd we mu s t b ea r i n m ind t ha t i ft he t r a f f ic wa s c omme r c ia l i nn a tu re , r a ther t han as pec i f ic 4 1

C ommun ica t ion a nd C ommer c ea l ong t h e W e s t er nS ea lane s AD400 -800

p ol i t i ca lm i s s ion ( s ee b e low ,4 7 ) ,t h eB r i t ish f i nds may b e i s o la ted s pecu la t ion s a r i s ing f r om amuch l a rger t r a f f ic w i th A t lan t ic I ber ia . T he f i nds f a l li n to t wo b road f unc t iona lc a tego r ies : ampho rae a nd t a b lewa re s . T he se c an b e f u r the r s ubd i v ided i n to d i f fe ren t c l a sse s o f t h ese t ypes o fv es se l s . A b r ie fl i s t ing o ft he se t ypes w i l ln ow b e made : T ab leware s PRS :P hocaean R ed S l ipware ( La te R oman C ;g ene ra l ly c o r re spond ing t op rev iou sB r i t i sh C lass A i ) .T h is c l ass i s made u po fb ow ls a nd d i she si n as o f to range red f a b r ic . A t h in , d arke r r ed , s l ip u sua l ly c ove r s t he i n s ide a nd o u t s ide s u r face s . S t amped d eco ra t ion ( of ten o n aC h r i s t i an t heme )i ss o me t ime sf ound o nt he b ase a nd t he r im s a re o f ten r ou le t ted ( Haye s 1 972 ,4 56 -8 ,4 63 ;H aye s 1 980 , 5 25 -7 ;T homas 1 981b ,6 -7 ) .T he B r i t i sh f i nds f i rm ly i den t i f ied a re p redom inan t ly o f H aye s ' F orm 3 ,w i th af ew f r om T in tage l , wh ich T homas s ugge s ts a re o fF o rm 1 0 . T he f i nd s f r om P or tuga l a re l i kew i se o fF o rm 3( P r ie to 1 984 , 5 40 -8 ) . Ak i ln s i te w i th F o rm 3was te r s i sk nown f r om P hocaea i n w e s te rn T u rkey , s o a n o r ig in i nA s ia M ino r i sl i ke ly ( Lang lo tz 1 969 , 3 80 ) . T he g ene ra l d a te r ange o ft h is t ype i nt h e wes te rn s ea lane sf i t sw i th in t he s ho r tw es te r n Med i te r raneanf l o ru i to ft he wa re :l a te f if th t om id s ix th c en tu ry .F o rm 1 0 may b ee a r l ie ri nt he f i f th c en tu ry ,i n wh ich c ase t he mode lp roposed b e low wou ld s ugge s tt ha te i the rt he se a re m i s iden t i f ied o ra re r e s idua l v e sse l s wh ich h ad a l ready h ad al ong l i fe a sf i t t ing s o n b oa rd av i s i t ing s h ip . ARS : A fr ican R ed S l ipware ( La te R oman B ;g ene ra l ly c o r re spond ing t op rev iou sB r i t ish C lass A i i ) .T he we s tern s ea lane sf i nd sa re o fb ow l si n ad a rke r ,h a rde rf a b r ic t han PRS w i th awa sh o n t h e e x te rna l a nd i n te rna l s u r face s , s im i la ri nc o lou rt ot he f ab r ic . T hey a re r ou le t ted o nt he r im , b u t o the rw ise u ndeco ra ted ( Ca mpbe l l 1 988A , 1 24 ; Haye s 1 972 ,4 60 ,4 64 ;H aye s 1 980 ,4 84 -523 ) . No k i ln s i te h a s y e tb een f ound ,b u t i n c rea s ing ly i ti sc l ea r t ha t t he o r ig in p o in ti ss o mewhe re i nt he v i c in i ty o fT un i s ia .T he i den t i f ied we s te r nB r i t ish f i nds a r eo f Haye sf o rm s8 1 ,8 8 , 9 1 ,9 9 ,1 03 a nd 1 04 .T h i ss a me c o l lec t ion o fl a te rf o rm si s g ene ra l ly p ara l le led i nP o r tuga l ,b u tt he re i sas equence o f e ar l ie rf o rm s .E ar l ie rf o rm sa ppea ri nR oman c on tex t si n e as te r n B r i ta in ( B i rd 1 977 ) , b u t t h i s e a r l ie r a c t iv i ty i s c l ea r ly u n re la ted . D a te r ange i sv a r iab le , a c co rd ing t o f o rm s . B r i t ish e xamp le sa re e ar ly s i x th c en tu ry .

Ampho rae o rS torage J ar s ( Nume r ica lc l a sse sa r ea si nP eacock a nd W i l l iam s1 986 . T he se w i l lh ope fu l ly n ow b ecome s t andard .T he re i s ,a s T homa s h a s c ommen ted , s ome th ing ' g ro te sque ' a bou t t he u se o ft he B r i t i sh l a be ls i n aMed i ter ranean c on tex t a nd t he p le tho ra o fo ther n a me sf o rt hese wa re s make s c omp rehen s ion d i ff i cu l t ) . C LASS 4 3( Br i t i sh C la ss B i ) .G lobu la r ,t wo h and led am p ho rae w i th d i s t inc t ive ' c o mb ' d e co ra t ion i n ab and a t s hou lde rp o in t , s ome t imes s pread ing o u t t oa dd i t iona l b and sb e low .T he n eck i su sua l ly s p layed a nd t he b ase h as ab a sa l k nob . T he c oar se f ab r ic c an a ppear t o c o me i n v ary ing c o lou r s a nd c ompos i t ion s , t hough s uch d i f fe r e n ce sm ay we l lb ep o s t -depo s i t iona l( c ommon i nu ng lazed wa re s ) .T he Med i te r ranean e v iden ce s ugges t s ,o nd i s t r i b u t iona l g rounds , a nA egean o r ig in , t hough R uman ian k i ln sm ay a l so h ave e x is ted ( Peaco ck a nd Wi l l iam s1 986 , 1 82 -4 ) . One k i ln s i te h as b een f ound i nS ou the rn G reece ( Munn 1 985 ,3 42 -3 ) ,b u tt h is i su n l ike ly t ob et he o n ly o ne . G reek l e t te rs a re o f t en e t ched o n Med i te r ranean e xam p le s .B r i t ish f i nds o f ten c a r ry e t ched g ra f f i t i( s ee b e low ) . T he d a te r ange i sb e tween t he f ou r th t hrough s even th c en tu r ie s ,t hough t he re a re e ar l ie ra nd l a te rf o rm s .I nt he A t lan t ic c on tex t , h oweve r , t he re i sn o r eason t o l o ok b eyond t he p e r iod l a te f if th t h rough s i x th a nd o nt ypo l og ica l g round s n one a re i den t if iab le a sp o s t -s ix th c en t ury ( s ee b e low ) . C LASS 4 4 ( B r i t ish C las s B i i ) . Na r row , t h in wa l led am p ho rae w i th s harp r i bb ing o ve rl eng th ;w ide ly s paced a t m idd le o ft he b ody ,c l o se ra tt he s hou lde ra nd b a se .R ed p a in ted G reek c harac te r s( d ip in t i )o c cu ro nt he s hou lde r o f many Med i ter ranean e xa mp le s .D a te r ange i sf r om t he f i f th t os even th c en tu r ie si nt he Med i ter ranean ( P eaco ck a nd W i l l iam s1 986 ,1 85 -6 ) .

' Eas tern Med i ter ranean C oar sewa res ' . R ecen t ly i d en t i f i ed among s tt he T in tage lf i nds t he se c on s is to fb ow l sa nd ampho rae ,w i th s even d i f fe ren tf a b r ic ss of a ri d en t i f ied . M ica i nc lus ions wou ld s ugges t a n e as tern o r ig in ( Har tg rove sa nd Wa lke r1 988 ,2 4 -5 ) .

C LASS 4 5 ( B r i t ish C las sB iv ) . We s te r ns ea lane sf i nd so f t h is t ype a r eo ft he ( l a te r )t wo h and led f o rm , whe re t h e re i se nough o ft he v e sse ls urv iv ing t od e te rm ine t h i s .T he o ne -hand led f o rm a l so o ccu r si nB r i ta in ,h oweve r ,s oo n ly t he f i nd ing o ft he s hou lde rp rov ide sa b so lu te c e r ta in ty o f p o s t -Roman d a te ,t hough a ny we s te rn B r i t ish f i nd i s ,o n d i s t r ibu t iona l g round s , l i ke ly t ob e o ft he t wo -hand led t ype . T a l l n a r row ampho rae t ape r ing t o an ar row f oo t . T he f a b r ic i sh ard , w i th a v e ry d i s t inc t ive d eep r ed/ b rown c o lou ra nd m icaceou s .T he v e s se l sh ave t h in w a l ls w i th l i gh te x terna lr i bb ing . E gyp ta nd A s ia M ino rh ave b een p ropo sed a s s ou rce s f o r t he w a re . P eaco ck a nd W i l l iam sf avou rt he l a t te ro np e t ro log i ca lg round s( P ea c ock a nd W i l l iam s1 986 ,1 88 -9 ) .T he se v e sse ls h ave aw ide d a te r ange i n Med i te r ranean c on tex t s( f i r s tt hrough s ev e n th c en tu r ie s ) t hough t he t wo -hand led t ype i so n ly c ommon i nt he f i f th c en tury o nward .

' Tun is ian T ab leware ' . Am id -t od a rk -b rown t a b lewa re f ound a tT in tage l .S im i lar i t ie sb e tween t he se p i ece sa nd c oar sewa re sf r om T un is ia i nt he R ead ing Un ive r s i ty c o l l e c t ion sh ave s of a rb een n o ted ( Thomas ,p e r s .c omm . ) .A s w i th t he a bove g roup , v ar iou s s he rds i n t he ampho ra c a tegory ' B M i sce l laneou s ' a re l i ke ly t ob e o ft h i s t ype , u nno t iced b e cau se o f al a ck o ff o rma l ly d i s t ingu i shab le f e a tu res .

C LASS 4 9( AMALGRO 5 4 , B r i t ish C la s s B v i ) . C y l indr i c a l , s pou t le ss ampho rae w i th a sma l l e ver ted r im a nd t ape r ing a tt he b o t tom t o sma l l ,f l a tb a se .T he v e sse l sh ave s ma l l l oop h and le s a nd g roove d e co ra t ion o n s hou lde r a nd b a se .T he f abr ic i sb rown a nd s andy w i th ag rey i sh c o re a nd l ime s tone i n c lu s ions .T hough tt ob ef r om G aza . F ou r th t os i x th cen tu ry d a te ( Peacock a nd W i l l iam s1 986 , 1 98 -9 ;T homas 1 981b , 1 6 ) . C LASS 3 4( AFR ICANA I ,B r i t ish BY ,' Byzacena ' ) .C y l in d r ica l ampho rae , ame t re o r mo re i nl e ng th ,w i th ap o in ted t o ea nd c o l la red r im ,o fb u f ft ob r ick r ed f a b r ic w i th ap a le

4 2

C hap t er F our : T he Med i t er ranean a nd t h eA t lan t ic

s l ip .P rovenance i sd e te rm ined b yn ame s t amps ( on Med i t e r ranean f i nds ) wh ich s ugge s t ac en t ra lT un i s ian o r ig in . D a t ing i su pt ot he e nd o ft he f ou r th c en tu ry ,b u tp robab ly c on t inue s i n to f i f th ( Peacock a nd W i l l iam s 1 986 , 1 55 -7 ; T homa s1 981b , 1 5 ) . B MISCELLANEOUS ( f o rme r ly B i i i ) . A c o l lec t ion o f u n typed s he rds . O fs he rds p rev iou s ly a t t r ibu ted t ot h i s c l a s s , many h ave n ow b een i den t i f ied f i rm ly a sb e long ing t ok nown c l as se s .T he r ema inde ra re mos t ly A f r ican a nd e as te rn Med i te rranean ampho ra s he rds i nc oar se f a br ic s ( Har tg rove sa nd Wa lke r1 988 ,2 4 -5 ) .

When B r i t i sh f i nds o ft hese wa re sw e re f i r s ti d en t i f i ed a sb e ing o f Med i ter ranean p rovenance i twa sn a tu ra l e nough t oa s sume t ha tt h ey wou ld r ep resen te v idence o f c on t inu ing c on ta c t w i th t he c oas t s o fG au l a nd t ha t t h e wa re sh ad b een c a r r ied b y way o ft h e s ame r i ver r ou te s a c ros s G au l a s h ad b een a c t ive i n t h e R oman p e r iod ( Rad fo rd 1 956 ,6 8 -9 ) .F i e ldwo rk b yB e rna rd Wa i le si nt he 1 950s , h oweve r , s howed t h ese wa re s t ob e a bsen t f r om w e s tern F rance a nd t he n ega t ive e v idence c on t inue s t o c on f i rm t h i s . T he a bsence o ff i nd sh a s c on t inued f a rb e y ond t he p o in t whe re i tc an b e a t t r ibu ted t o as imp le f a i lu re o fF rench a r chaeo logy t od i scove re xamp les . Where wou ld w ee xpec tt of i nd t he wa re si ft h eo ve r land r ou te s we re b e ing u sed? C en t re ss uch a sB ordeaux ,O r lean sa nd T ou r sh ave a l ls een e x ten s ive e xp lo ra t ion a nd r e la ted l a te R oman wa re sa re k nown f r om t he se s i te s . We wou ld n o t n ow e xpec t P RS o r c l a ss 4 3 ampho rae t oe x i s t u n recog n i sed i nt hose c en t re s . B er na rd Wa i les f ound p a ra l le ls f o rt h et ab lewa re s i n P o r tuga l ( Wa i le s 1 963 , 3 6 -46 ) a nd t h is e v iden ce wa s i n te rpre ted a sa t te s t ing t ot he e x i s ten ce o fs ea t r a f f ic a round t he I b er ian p en in su la a nd t h rough t he S t ra i t so fG ib ra l ta r , b ypa ss ing t he o ver land r ou te st h rough F rance .T he ma t te r l a rge ly r e s ted t here f o r mo re t h an ad ecade .T homa s , who w i th Wa i le sc onduc ted much o ft he e a r ly r e sea rch o nt h e Med i te r ranean wa res i nB r i ta in ,f o cu sed a t ten t ion o ni n v e s t iga t ing t he Med i te r ranean l e g o ft h i s a c t iv i ty b e fore a t temp t ing a ny d eepe r a na lys i s o ft h e i r s oc io -econom ic c on tex ti nB r i ta in ( t hough h eh as r e cen t ly r e tu r ned t ot h i s t op ic —Thoma s 1 988a , 7 25 ) . I tm igh tb e a rgued t ha tt h e l a t ter i sa nh i s to r ica l ,r a ther t han as t r i c t ly a r chaeo log i ca l , p rob lem . T he r o le o f t h e i mpor ted wa res a s d iagnos t ic f i th -a nd s i x th -cen tury a r te fac t s wa so fp r ima ry i n te res tt o e xcava to r s .H i s tor ian ss eemed t os hy a way f r om t h e ma t e r ia l a s i td oes n o t s e em t oh ave mu ch c or respond ing d o cumen ta ry t e s t imony a nd , f u r the r , d id n o tr evea l t he e xpec ted c onnec t ion sw i th G au l .C e r ta in ly ,i nt he c on tex t o ft he s pread o fr el ig ious o ra r t is t ic c u l tu re i to n ly s e emed t o l i nk u p w i th a s choo l o f ' Med i te r ranean i n f luence ' t hough t wh ich h ad c as t al a rge ly m is lead ing a nd u nscho la r ly o bs tac le i nt he p a th o ft h ed i sce rnmen to fr e a l c u l tu ra ll i nk s( Ra f tery 1 965 ,1 93 -204 ) . E ven s o , t he p henomenon o f d i rec t c onnec t ion s w i th t he Med i ter ranean mus tb eo fi n te re s tt oh i s to r ian s . F rom t he h i s to r ica l s t andpo in t t he f olow ing q ue s t ion s n eed t ob ea n swe red . B yp rec i se ly wh i ch r ou te d id t h e se wa re sr each B r i ta in? Wha t was t he c h rono log ica lr ange o f t h e ma r i t ime v en ture s wh ich b rough tt h em? Wha t wa st h e n a t ional i ty o ft h es ea fa re r s? Wa st h i sd i rec tt r a f f ic f r om t h e Med i ter ranean? We re t h e wa re st r an sh ipped a ta ny p o in t?

F inaly , why d id t h e se v oyage st ake p lace ?A re t hey d ue t o c ommer c ia l ,o ro the ri mpu lse s? T homa sa dd re ssed t he se q ue s t ion sb r ief ly i n1 982 a nd a ga in i n1 988 ( Thoma s1 988a , 1 O f f ) , wh i le L es l ie A lcock ( 1 987 ,8 9 -92 )h a s made ar e cen t a t temp tt oa n swe rs o me o ft he se q ues t ions i nt he c on tex t o f ar e a sse ssmen to fD ina sP owy s . Hav ing r u led o u tt he l i ke l ihood o f t hese wa res h av ing t r ave l led o ver land t h rough G au l ( whe re we m igh tb e d ea l ing w i th amo re ' down the l ine ' t r a f f i c , o r t r a f f ic i n much sma l le r i nd i v idua l c a rgoes o f ampho rae t han a re i mpl ied b y d i re c t v oyag ing ) , g roup ing t he i mpo r t s i n to p o ten t ia l s h ip s ' c a rgoe sb ecomes n eces sa ry a nd t h i sp rob lem i st a ck led b y b o th A lcock a nd T homas . Whe ther we a ccep t t he m in ima l i s tv i ew e spoused b yT homa s ,i nvo lv ing n o more t han t wo o rt h ree h ypo the t ica ls h ips ,o rt he mo re e xpan s i ve mode lo fA lcock , who b el i eves t ha tt he f i nd sa re mo re l i ke ly t oh ave t r ick led i na sp a r to fh e te rogeneou sc a rgoe s , a l la rgumen t sb eg in w i th t h ea s sump t ion t ha tt hese wa re s w e re p a r to fs h ip loads a s semb led i ns o me f o re ign c en t re . T he s epa ra t ion o f t ab lewa res a nd ampho rae f o r c l a s s i f ica t ion p u rposes , a s i sc ommon ly d one ( Thoma s 1 981b , 6 f f ) , c an o bscure mo re mean ing fu l g roup ing s . Wha teve r t he c ha rac ter o ft he v oyage s i nvo lved i nt h i s a c t iv i ty ,i ti sc l ea rt ha tt he t a b lewa res w e re al i gh twe igh t a c compan imen tf o rs ubs tan t ia l amoun t so f ampho rae . An i mpo r tan td i s t in c t ion i ne xam in ing t he se f i nds i sb e tween e a s tern Med i ter ranean t a b lewa res a nd ampho rae ,o nt he o ne h and ,a nd t h eA f r ican t ab lewa res a nd ampho rae ,o n t h eo the r .T he A f r ican g roup i sv e ry much s ma l ler t han t he e a s tern Med i ter ranean : f o rm ing o n ly a round 2 0% o ft h e e n t i re a s semb lage o f Med i ter ranean f i nds i n wes tern B r i t a i na nd I r e land ( Thoma s1 988a ,1 2 ) ,b u tt he g rea te rp ar to f t h i s 2 0% i st he A f r ican t a b lewa res , wh i ch wou ld h ave f o rmed amuch s male r p a r t o f s h ips ' c a rgoe s t han t he ampho rae .T h i s make si tu n l ike ly ( c on tra A lcock 1 995 ,8 4 ) t ha tt h ec a rgoe sw e re t r an sh ipped i nA f r i ca —whence we wou ld e xpec t amuch h igher A f r ican c o mponen t .I ti sn o t y e tc l ea r whe the r as im i la rq uan t i ta t ive b reakdown o ccu r s a tC on i rnbr iga .C ompa r isons w i th t he P o r tuguese q uan t i t i e sc ou ld b ei n fo rma t ive o nt he q ue s t ion o f whe the re n t i re e a s te rn Med i te r ranean s h ips 'c a rgoe s we re a tl e a s tr each i ng P or tuga l . Ano the rq ue s t ion i swhe the rt og roup t he wa re sa s t od a te .T he d i s t r ibu t ion o f Med i te r ranean ware si nw es t e rn B r i ta in a nd I r e land , d esp i te b e ing w ide ly d i sper sed t h roughou tt he I r i sh S ea b as in ,r epre sen t s al im i ted s e lec t i on o fa r te fac ts wh ich w e re u b iqu i tous i nt he Med i te r ra n ean a tv a ry ing t imes , b u t wh i ch o ver lap w i th in an a r r owe rc h rono log ica lr ange .S ome o ft h ese ,s uch a st he c l a s s 4 3 ampho rae ,h ave b een f ound i nw ide ly v ary ing c h rono l og ica lc on tex ts i nt he Med i ter ranean a nd o f fer p rob lem s f o rf i ner d a t ing .T he p o in ti st ha tn one o ft he ampho rae a r e c on f ined t o al im i ted d a t ing b racke t ,t he re fo re d a t ing e ach i nd iv idua lt ype d oes n o th e lp a n swe rt he q ues t ion o ft he d a te o ft h e i r a r r iva l i nB r i ta in ( e . g . Mytum 1 992 , 2 53 -7 ; M i l le r1 979 -80 ,3 17 ) .T he c olec t ion o ff i nd sn eeds ,r a the r , t ob et r ea ted a sa ne n t i re a s semb lage a nd t he p ropor t ion o f e ach t ype o f wa re c ompa red t op ropor t ion s a ts i te sp ro d uc ing q uan t i t ie so ft hese wa res i nd a teab le c on tex t s .T he Avenue d uP res iden t Hab ib B ou rgu iba a nd o ther s i te si n C a r thage ( Fu l fo rd a nd P eacock 1 984 ; R i ley 1 981 , 8 5 -124 ) 4 3

C ommun ica t ion a nd C ommer ce a l ong t h e W e s tern S ea lane s AD400 -800

F ig . 4 I mpor ted Med i terranean c era m ics i n wes tern B r i ta in a nd I r e land

PRS F orm C : Med i terranean a nd western s ea lanes d istr ibu t ion ( af ter

4 4

Hayes

1 972 )

C hap t er F our : T he Med i t er ranean a nd t h eA t lan t ic

a nd t he c ompa ra t ive ma ter ia l f r om R ome d i scu s sed b y F u l fo rd ( 1 989 , 1 6 ) o f fe r a n i n forma t ive b as i s f o r s uch c ompa r i son s . T ha tt he C lass 4 3a nd 4 4t ype ampho rae a re c on tem p oraneou s mus tb e s e en a s =ques t ionab le . B eyond t h i s p o in tt h e re i sl i t t le a g reemen t . A sw i th t he t op ic o fg l a ss s t ud ies ( s ee b e low ,8 4 ) at ype o fo ra lt r ad i t ion h a sf ue l led s usp ic ion o ft he c . 500 d a t ing p rov ided f o rt he se wa res b y T homa sa nd o the r s .T he w ide d a te range o fC la ss 4 4i nt he Near E a s th a sb een t aken a si nd i ca t ing al i ke ly i r reduc ib le d a te range f o rt he i mpo r t s( M .R yan ,p e r s .c omm . ;A lcock 1 995 ,8 4 ) .T he l a te f i f th -cen tu ry d a te a scr ibed t os ome ARS i mpo r t sh a sa l so b een h e ld t oi nd i ca te t w oc h rono log ica l h or izon so nB r i t i sh s i te s —one l a te f i f th a nd a no the re a r ly s i x th c en tury —each o ft h ese b e ing s een t or ef l ec ts epa ra te v oyage so rs e t so fv oyages ( e .g . My tu rn 1 992 ,2 52 -3 ;M i l ler 1 979 -80 ,3 15 ) . T he v a r ie ty among s tt he i mpo r t si sar ed h e r r ing .O f c our se when l ook ing a tt h i se v idence t h rough ap os i t iv i s t mode l , w e m igh t s ee ma te r ia l e v idence o f ad eve lop ing p a t te rn o fc on tac ts t re t ch ing o ve r ac en tu ry o r mo re .T he C lass 3 4 amphorae may b ee a r ly f i f th c en tu ry ,a sm igh tb e s o me o f t h e PRS . T he C la s s 4 5 a nd 4 9 ampho rae a r e c e r ta in ly mo re c ommon i nt he f i f th c en tury a nd s o me o f t he A f r i can R ed S l ipwa re p iece sw ere d a ted b y Hayes t o t he l a te f i th c en tury .O r ,a l terna t ive ly ,w em igh ts ugge s t t ha te a rl i er c on tac ts b rough ti no n ly t he p u ta t ive ly e a rl i e r A f r ican ma ter ia l ( ARS a nd C la s s 3 4 ampho rae ) , t o b e f o l lowed b y c on tac t s b r ing ing e as te rn Med i te r ranean ma te r ia l .T he f a c tt ha tA f r ican wa re sw ere r ea ch ing P or tu g a l i n t h e f i th c en tu ry c ou ld b e u sed t o s uppo r t t h i s d eve lop ing mode l . Hayes 'i n i t ia ld a tes f o rt h e ARS f o rm s f ound i nB r i ta in h ave b een d i spu ted , h oweve r , a s t hey d epend t oo much o n t h e h i s to r i ca l c h rono logy o f t he d es t ru c t ion p ha se a t C on imbr iga . T he s e r ie s f ound i n B r i ta in may b ea sl a te a ss i x th c en tu ry ,t ak ing a ccoun to f Med i te r ranean e v idence .T ob ew rong a bou tC on imbr iga i s ,a nyway ,t ob ew rong a bou tB r i ta in ,a st he l a te rs e r ies a t C on i mb r iga i nd ica tes t ha ti twa sp a r to ft he s ame n e two rk wh i ch w a sb r ing ing t he wa re st oB r i ta in . T homa s , i nh i s 1 981 s t udy , d rew a t ten t ion t o t h e p rev iou so ccur rence o f ARS i nB r i ta in ( Thoma s1 981b ,4 ) . T h i si mpo r ta t ion c l ea r ly c ea sed ac en tu ry o r more b e fo re t he s ub -Roman i mpo r ta t ion sb egan , h oweve r , a nd t he i r g rea te s tc oncen t ra t ion i si ns ou th -ea s tB r i ta in ( B i rd 1 977 ) . F orm s2 ,3 ,5 ,6 ,8 ,9 ,2 3 ,3 2 ,4 8 ,5 0 ,5 2a nd 6 7a r et he e a r l ie r t ypes r epresen ted a nd a r e t o ta l ly e xc lu s ive o f t he e a r ly med ieva lB r i t ish g roup .A st hey mo s tl i ke ly i nd ica te o ve r l and d i s t r ibu t ion t h rough E u rope , a ny s ugges t ion o f a c onnec t ion b e tween t h ese a nd t h el a ter f i nd so f ARS may t he re fo re b ed i scoun ted . F u l fo rd d i sm i ssed t h i sp o ss ib i l i t y a s l ong a go a s 1 979 ( Fu l fo rd 1 979 , 1 27 -8 ) . T he re a r e , l i kew i se , amphorae o fC la sse s 4 5 a nd 4 9 i nl a te R oman B r i ta in ,b u tt hese a r ei n ac l ea re a s tern B r i t i sh p rov in ce a nd t he i r p rog re ss t o B r i ta in i st r aceab le o ve r land t h rough e as te r n G au l/Germany ( P eacock 1 977 , 2 95 -300 ; map i n P eaco ck a nd Wi l l iam s 1 986 , 1 89 ) . A t t he C a r thage Avenue d u P rs iden t Hab ib B ourgu iba s i te ,i nt h eh or izon c . 375 -450 AD ,C la sse s4 4 ,45 a nd 4 9a r et h ep redom inan te as te rn Med i te r ranean t ype s p resen t .E a s tern Med i te r ranean t ypes o n ly a c coun tf o r 8%

o f ampho rae f ound . ARS i se x t reme ly c ommon i n t ha t h o r izon . B y t h e 4 75 -500 h or izon , h oweve r , 2 4% o f t he ampho rae f ound a r e e a s tern Med i ter ranean i n o r ig in : C la ss 4 4b e ing t he mos tc ommon ,b u th a l fo ft he t o ta lb e ing o f4 5 ,4 9a nd P a les t in ian t ypes .I nt he c . 475 -500 -533 h or i z on t h is e a s tern Med i te r ranean p ropo r t ion r ema in s t he s ame ,b u tw i th 4 5 ,49 a nd P a les t in ian t ype sd ec l in ing ,a nd 4 3b ecom ing mo re c ommon .C la ss 4 4a l so i n crea se s . PRS t ype 3i sa l so p resen tf o rt he f i rs tt ime a round 5 00 ( Fu l fo rd a nd P eacock 1 984 ,2 60 ) .T he c . 475 -500 -533 b racke ti st hu s s t a t is t icaly a c l o se p a rale l w i th t he c omb ined B r i t i sh a s semb lage s , w i th t he we igh tu pon t he p o s t5 00 p e r iod . T he re mu s tb en o d oub t t ha t t he ma jor i ty o fv oyage s t o B r i ta in f a l li n to t h is r ange .I ft he t ype so f wa res wh ich we re c ommone s ta ta ne a rl ie rd a te we re p a r to fe a rl i e rs h ip loads w e mu s t a s sume t ha t t hey wou ld b e c ommone r i n t he B r i t i sh a s semb lage s .T hey a re n o t . We w i l ln ow t u rn t ot he d a teab le t a b lewa re s . T he d a te sf o ra l lo ft hese h ave u nde rgone s ome r ev i s ion o nt he b a s i s o ft he a na ly s i s o ft he ma te r ia lf r om C a r thage . T he B r i t i sh f i nd so f ARS a r en ow a l mo re l i ke ly t of al b e tween c . 475 a nd 50 AD .P rev iou s ly ,f o rm ss uch a sA 103 a nd 1 04 h ad b een d a ted t ot h el a ter f i f th c en tury ,o na ccoun to ft he s uppo sed d ese r t ion o ft he C on imbr iga s i te , f o l low ing a d es t ruc t ion p ha se wh ich was i den t i f ied w i th t h e 4 65 -8 d a te p rov ided b yc h ron ic le e v iden ce ( s ee a bove ,3 1 ) .O ft he C on imbr iga p i eces ,f o rm s9 1t h rough 1 04 f a l li n to ab ra cke t c . 500 -550 , w i th o n ly f o rm s 5 6 , 6 7 a nd 7 6b e ing p o ss ib ly e a r l ie r( and 7 6c an b ea sl a te a sc . 500 ) .F u l fo rd h a si ndeed n o ted t h a t mos to ft he c ommones tf i f th c entury f o rm sa re a bsen tf r om C on imbr iga ( Fu l fo rd a nd P eacock 1 984 , 14 ) . F orm 8 4 ,h owever ,i sf ound e l sewhere i nP or tuga l .T h i si s g enera l ly t hough tt ob ef i f th c en tury ,t hough i t sa bsence i n a ny q uan t i ty f r om C a r thage means t ha t d a te s a r e l e ss r ead i ly r e f inab le . T he l a te r C on imbr iga ma ter ia l mos t ly f a l l si n to ama rked ly s im i la rr ange t ot he B r i t ish a nd I r i sh p ieces a nd i ss epa ra ted f r om e a rl i e r ARS d i s t r ibu t ions i n I be r ia b yn ea r ly t he e n t i re ty o ft he f i f th c en tury .C la ss 4 4 ampho rae , mo reove r ,a r ef ound a tC on imbr iga ,s e em ing t o s t reng then t he p a rale l w i th t h e B r i t i sh a s semb lages ( Keay 1 984 ,6 55 ) .T he o ve rwhe lm ing n umbe ro fp i eces a re t hu sf r om f o rm sc on s i s ten tw i th t he i dea o fa ne a r ly t om id s i x th -cen tury h o r izon . T he A 81 f r om T in tage lc ou ld , a c c o rd ing ly ,b ea ne r roneous i den t i f i ca t ion a nd e a r l ie rf o rm s f r om C on imbr iga may b e a ccoun ted r e s idua l f r om t he e a r l ie r P o r tugue se f l oru i t o f ARS . T he w es tern s ea lane s a s semb lage o ft ab lewa re s c an e a s i ly b e made c on s is ten t w i th t he c h rono log i caly l im i ted mode lt hu sp os tu la ted . T he c h rono log ica le v idence s e em st od emon s t ra te t ha tt he s i x th -centu ry v oyages t oP or tuga la nd B r i ta in b y Med i ter ranean s h ips c on s t itu ted av e ry s hor te p i sode . We may n o tc omp le te ly d eny t h ep o ss ib i l i ty o fv oyage s ,s l igh t ly e a r l ie ro rl a te r , wh i ch a r el o s tt oh i s tory b ecause t h ey d id n o t c a r ry p o t tery . T he p oss ib i l i ty o f t h i s i sd im in i shed , h oweve r , when we c on s ide r t he u b iqu i ty o f p o t te ry i n Med i te r ranean e n te rpr i se o ver amuch w ider p e r iod . I t m igh tb ea rgued t ha tc o in ,l i kew i se ,i su b iqu i tou sa nd n o t f ound i nB r i ta in . T he movemen to fc o in ,h oweve r ,i sf a r mo re s ub jec tt or egu la t ion t han t h e movemen to fp o t tery . I r e land a nd w e s te r nB r i ta in d id n o tu se c o in a nyway ( t he p o ss ib le f i nds o f B yzan t ine c o in s i n I r e land s hou ld b e 4 5

C ommun ica t ion a nd C ommer ce a long t h e W e s te rn S ea lane s AD400 -800

ARS f o rm sf ound o nB r i t ish a nd P or tugue se S i te s ,N ew D a te s f rom C ar thage ( page r ef erence sa re t oF u lford a nd P eacock 1 984 ) : F orm ( a f ter

E ar l ie s tF loru i t

T homa s 1 981b ) 1 04c . 1 03B 9 9 9 6 9 1C 8 1 6 7

5 00 ( pp . 7 3 & 109 ) c . 525 c . 500 c . 500 -75 . c . 500 ( pp .7 1)c .525 -35 d i t to C on imb r iga c . 525 -75 ( pp . 6 9 ) 5 25 -550 ( pp . 6 3 -5 ) E a r ly 5 th . 3 60 -425 -50 ( Can b ec on fu sed w i th 1 03 )

( PRS F o rm C l a te s t : c . 530 — (Fu lfo rd a nd P ea cock 1 984 , 8 7 )

d i scoun ted a st he i rc on tex td oe sn o tp rove c on tempora ry i mpo r ta t ion :B a teson 1 976 ,1 77 -8 ) . We c an a l so empha s i se t he c on s i s tency o f t he e vo lv ing mode l f o r t he c on tac t s wh ich a r ed emon s t ra ted b yt he c e ram ic e v idence ,w i th t he B r i t i sh f i nd s b e ing ac l ea r e x ten s ion o f al a rge r c e ram ic a s semb lage i nP or tuga l , wh ich i si t se l fa ga in a ne x ten s ion o f al a rge r wes te rn Med i ter ranean a s semb lage . H av ing e s tabl i shed t he c h rono log ica lb as i s o ft h e c e ram i cf i nds , w ew i l ls e eh ow w e may f i tt h i se v idence i n to t he h i s to r ica l c on tex t o f t h e s i x th c en tu ry , b e fo re p roceed ing t o r e con s t ruc t t he v oyages a nd c a rgoe s i n v o lved .T he e a s tern Med i ter ranean e l emen ti nt h ew e s tern Med i te r ranean i s aq uan t i f iab le i n tru s ion ,r unn ing p a ra l l e l w i th , a nd s l igh t ly p reced ing , t h e i n creas ing e a s te rn p resence o f t he e ra o f J u s t in ian ( P en tz 1 992 , 1 7 ) . T he c on s ide rab le h i s tor ica li mpl i ca t ion so ft h i sa c t iv i ty f o rt he u nder s tand ing o fJ us t in ian 's R econques ta re b eyond t he s cope o ft h i s s t udy t o e xp lore . T he u nde rexp lo red e v i d ence f o rB yzan t ine i n te res ti nB r i ta in d u r ing t h i sp e r iod , h oweve r , c er ta in ly s eem s r e levan t t ot he s t udy o ft h e se wa res ,a sF u l fo rd ( 1 989 )h a sh igh l igh ted . Mo s ta t temp t st of i nd l i t era ry w i tness t ot h i sB yzan t i ne -B r i t i sh c onnec t ion h ave f o cu ssed o na ne p isode i nt he L i f eo fS tJ o hn t h eA lm sg iv e r ,o f wh ich r a the rt oo much h a s b een made .T he e p isode o ccu r si n as even th -cen tu ry ( po s t 6 41 )h ag iog raphy o fS tJ ohn o fA lexandr ia ( t ran s .D awes a nd B ayne s1 948 ,216 -18 :e d .D e lehaye ,Ana l e c taBo l l and i ana 4 5 , 3 0 -33 ,b u tD awe s a nd B ayne su se ab roade rr ange o f r e cen s ion s ) .T he s t ory c on ce rn s as ea -cap ta in ' f a l len u pon e v i ld ays 't o whom S tJ ohn g ave as h ip o ft he c hu r ch a nd ac a rgo o ft wen ty t housand b u she l so fg ra in ( Dawe sa nd B ayne s 1 948 , 2 16 ) . T he s h ip , aS po ' i aov , ' r unne r ' ( ed . D e lehaye , A na le c t a B o l land i ana 4 5 , 3 1 ) , wa s b lown b y a v io len t t empes t a nd a f t e r t wen ty d ay s r eached B r i ta in , whe re t h e re wa s ag rea tf am ine . T he i r pa iros r f is i r o ' Ac c us ( ' ch ie f man o f t h e c i ty ' ) t h en o f fe red t he c ap ta in o ne n om isma f o r e ach b ushe l , o r ar e turn c a rgo o f t i n ( Kac rc rirepov : e d . D e lehaye , Ana l e c t a B o l land iana 4 5 , 3 2 ) . T he t i n wa sa ccep ted ,b u t when t h es ea c ap ta in r e tu r n ed t o t h e Med i te r ranean h ef ound t ha tt h et i nh ad m i racu lous ly b ecome s i lve r( Dawes a nd B ayne s1 948 ,2 18 ) . T h i ss t o ry i so bv iou s ly l i t e ra ry i nt one a nd f r equen t s e lec t ive u se o fi t sd e ta i la tf a ce v a lue h a sb een u n jus t i f ied . I n at e x to ft h i st ype i ti sn o tu nrea sonab le t oh ave as h ip b e ing d r iven t o af a r o f f p lace b y s t o rm , w i th m in ima l r e fe rence t oa c tua lg eog raphy ,s ot h i s mo t i fc e r ta in ly h as 4 6

n op ower t os ugges th ow B r i ta in a nd t he e as te rn Med i ter r anean a c tualy c ame i n to c on tac ta ga in i nt h i sp er iod .T he i dea t ha tB r i t i sh p eop le wou ld h ave c o in t oe xchange i s a nach ron i s t ic . T he t e x t i sa l so f r equen t ly m i squo ted : i t d oes n o ts ugges tt r ade w i th G a l i c ia ,a sL ew i sc l a im s( 1 978 , 1 46 )a nd d oe sn o td escr ibe h ow ' t he f l ee t so ft he p a t r ia rch s o f A lexandr ia s a i led t o C o rnwal i n t he e a r ly s even th c en tury ' ! ( B rown 1 97 1 ,1 56 ) . T he s t o ry a l so h as a n o bv ious a n teceden t . I n He rodo tu si st h ew el -known s t o ry o fC o laeu so fS amos , who wa ss t ruck b ya ne a s tw ind wh i le e nr ou te f r om t he A egean t oA lexandr ia a nd e nded u pb e ing b lown t h rough t he S t ra i t so fG ibra l ta rt oT a r tessu s .F rom h e re h eb rough t b ack av a luab le c a rgo wh ich e nr iched h im a nd t he p eop le o f T he ra ( Herodo tus , H i s tor i e s I V .152 , e d . God ley 1 926 , 3 52 -3 ) .T he s im i la r i ty o ft h ese s t o r ie s makes i tv e ry l i ke ly t ha t H e rodo tu s h a s i n f luenced L eon t ius . T h i s d oe s n o t a f fec tt h ep o s s ib i l i ty t ha tB r i ta in a nd t i n we re s ynonymou s i n t he d i scou r se o fB yzan t ine l i t e ra te c u ltu re . I tf u r the r u nde r sco re s t h e p o in t , h oweve r , t ha t o ur a ccoun t s o f A t lan t ic E u rope a re u sua l ly d eep ly i n terwoven w i th e a r ly C la ss i ca ld e ta i lc once rn ing t he A t lan t ic , wh ich o f ten p a sses t he n o t ice o fr e ade r s l ook ing o n ly f r om amed ieva lp e r s pec t ive .S t ephanos o fA lexandr ia ( f lo ru i t6 10 -640 )t a lk so f ß perTav(Kn k i eTT CMOS ‚ w hic h mu s th ave b een ac o mmon p lace f o r t i n ( P enhalu r i ck 1 986 , 1 0 ) . Whe the r t h i s i si n f o rmed b yC la s s ica lo r mo re r e cen tk now ledge i sn o tc l ea r , b u t i s wo r th r emembe r ing t ha t L eon t ius a nd S t ephanos wou ld h ave b een men o fb ook l e a rn ing .T aken i nc on junc t i on ,h oweve r ,t he t wo s ou r ces d oi nd ica te ad i scou r se i n wh ich t i n wa ss e en a s aB r i t i sh p roduc t ,a round ac entu ry a f t er r e a l B yzan t ine v en tu res may h ave b een r e ach ing C o rnwa l l . I f' B r i t i sh me ta l ' was al i t e ra ry c om monp lace f o r t i n i n t h e B yzan t ine wor ld , a s al e gacy a t l e a s t o f C la s s i ca lk now ledge , we s hou ld n o tr u le o u tt he p os s ib i l i t yt ha ts uch d i scou r se may e ven h ave i n sp ir ed t he i n i t ia l i dea o fB yzan t ine v oyages t oB r i ta in . Ano the rs e to fr e fe rences c an b ep a r t ly e xp la ined a s d er iva t ive o fC la ss i ca lw r i t ings , a nd i no ther r e spec t s a s i mag ina t ive ,b u tt hey s t i l lr a i se mo re s i gn i f i can tq ue s t ions o f B yzan t ine i n te re s t i n B r i ta in . One s t a temen t i n t he A nekdo t ao fP rocop ius i sp la in e nough a tf i r s ts i gh t : ß apßc ipous C Z T ra w ras ( A iS gva d i /c is K a tp c i i i x pe a c tutv C 6wp tTo p . Eyc iXots E ( 4 0 1 J2 T E Kat c : 3 -r epiouv r pös T E c r pKTov Kal : x pt i T 0 1 13 EV BpE TTCLVCCIL$

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( He [ J us t in ian ] n eve r c eased p our ing o u t g rea t g i f t s o f money t oa l l t he b arbar ians , b o th t hose o ft he E as t a nd t hose o ft he We s t ,a nd t ho se o ft he Nor th a nd t ot he S ou th , a s f a r a s t he i nhab i tan t s o f B r i ta in : P rocop ius , A nekdo ta X IX .13 ,e d . &t r an s . Dew ing , Vo l . 6 ,2 32 -3 ) .

B r i ta in h e re i sc l ea r ly c i ted i n as upe r la t ive s en se ,t o empha s i se an o u t s tand ing f oly o fJ u s t in ian .T he f a c tt ha t i ti st h e o n ly l o ca t ion e xp l ic i t ly c i ted i n t h is p a ssage , h oweve r ,i ss i gn i f i can t . F rom a rchaeo log i ca la na ly s i sw e c an n ow ( c on t r aT hompson 1 980a ,5 05 )b e much s u re rt ha t v oyage st oB r i ta in c ou ld h ave b een t ak ing p lace ,a tl e a s t o n ly af ew d ecade sp r io rt oP rocop iu s 'a c coun t .T he re a r e , h oweve r ,v ar ious p rob lem sw i th e qua t ing t h ee p isode si n

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h i st e x t sw i th t he a ctua lv oyages .S ome o bv ious p o in t so f d e ta i l may b en o ted .T he A nekdo t as pec i f ie st h es end ing o f money o f f sho re a nd t he c on tac t wh ich b rough t i n t he p o t tery wa se v iden t ly a num i sma t i c . Wh i le P ro cop iu s may b eg ene ra l i s ing h ere ,w e mus ts e tt h i sd e ta i li nt he c on tex t o ft he r e a lc once r ni ne a s tern E u rope a nd A s ia r ega rd ing i n f la t ion , t h rough t he f l ow o f c u r rency o f f sho re ( Lew i s 1 978 ) . T he d e ta i l o f ' money ' mo s t l i ke ly s ugge s t s t he s end ing o ft r ibu te t oE ng land , whe re money wa sv a lued , r a ther t han C e l t ic B r i ta in , b u t t h e p os s ib i l i ty t ha t t he c on ten t so ft he ampho rae may h ave b een ac o r re spond ing n on -mone ta ry t r ibu te ,t oa na num i sma t i cz one s hou ld n o t b er u led o u t . I n t he c on tex t o f h i s w r i t ing s , t he i n fo rma t ion P rocop iu sg ives r ega rd ing B r i ta in i ss mal i nq uan t i ty ,a nd a tb es tc on fu sed ,b u ti t sc on tex ts ugge s t st ha ti to ccup ied ag rea te rd eg ree o fh i sa t ten t ion t han t he q uan t i ty o fd a ta g iven m igh t s ugges t . A s T hompson ( 1 980a , 5 04 -5 ) o b s e rves , P ro cop iu s ' d i scu s s ion o f B r i ta in i n G o th i c W ar s V I I I .20 t a ke st he f o rm o f al eng thy d igre s s ion i n ad i scus s i on p r ima r i ly c once rn ing e a s te rn a f fa i r s ( a l so s e e Wa rd 1 968 ) , t hough we may n o t g o s o f a r a s T hompson d oes ( 1 980a ,5 04 )i ni mag in ing P ro cop ius s t opp ing i nm id -pen s t roke , a s i t were t o i n c lude s ome ' ho t n ews ' f r om t he n or th . P rocop iu s makes r e fe rence t oa c tua lp e r son s who h ad b een t on or th -we s te r nE u rope i n ap a s sage c once rn ing h ow t he s ou l so ft he d ead a re f e r r ied f r om t h ec on t inen tt o B r i t t i a , wh i ch h en o tes was c ommon k now ledge i nC on s t an t inop le b ecause o ft he p resen ce t he re o fp eop le who h ad a c tualy t aken p ar ti nt h i sa c t iv i ty ( P ro cop iu s ,B e l lum G o th i cum V I I I .20 ,e d .D ew ing 1 914 -35 ,V o l .1 ,2 52 -3 ) .T here i sn o t al o t wh ich c an b e made o fs uch af an ta s t ic s t o ry ,b u t t he A n ekdo ta r e ference t ob a rba r ian s ' s t ream ing f r om a l t he E ar th i n to B yzan t ium '( P rocop ius ,A n ekdo t aX IX .14 ,e d . &t r an s .D ew ing 1 914 -35 ,V o l . 6 ,2 32 ) s uppo r t s t h ea rgu men tt h a tt he re was c on s iderab le m id -s ix th c en tu ry c om mun ica t ion b e tween n o r the rn E u rope a nd C on s tan t ino p le ( Thompson 1 980a , 5 05 ) . T ha t t he B r i t t i a r e fe rence d escr ibe s a c t iv i ty f o cu s ing o n t h e R h ine land , h owever , may p robab ly i nd ica te t ha t t he se t r avele r s h ave c ome d own t h e Danube ,r a the rt han t h e i rb e ing ma r ine r s who h ad made t he v oyage a l ong t he w e s te rn s ea lanes . Mo re p er t inen t i st he g ene ra l i n te re s t i n B r i ta in e v inced i nB yzan t ine s ou rce s . We a r et o ld t h a tB e l i sa r iu s o f fered B r i ta in t ot he Go th s : ' K a i .

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T h i s c o mmen t , r ef l ec t ing a r a the r u n real i s t ic o f fe r p e r h aps , may d emon s t ra te ar ea l f u ture i n ten t t o c onquer B r i ta in o nt he p a r to ft he B yzan t ine f o rces .I nt h i sc a se w e m igh tr ega rd t he v oyage s wh ich b rough ti nt h e ampho rae a s p o ss ib ly b e ing r e conna i s san ce m i ss ion s i n t h e s ame way t h a t P y thea s 's s eem s h ave b een f o r A lexandr ian i n tere s t s , a round n ine c en tur ie s b e fo re . T rade a nd g eo -

g raph ica li nve s t iga t ion p lay ad i rec tr o le i nt he e xpan s ion o fi mpe r ia lc omp lexes a nd ,c on f ron ted w i th s uch h i s to r i c a l a nd a r chaeo log i ca l e v iden ce f o r ad i rec t B yzan t ine i n te re s t ,h oweve rs l igh tt he e v iden ce may b e ,t h is p o ss ib i l i t y mu s tr ema in i no u rm inds .I ng enera l we may n o te t ha t t he B yzan t ine r o le i n No r thern a f fa i r s i s wo r thy o f mo re a t ten t ion . T he c ompa rab i l i ty b e tween B yzan t ine b u r ia l s a nd s ome r oya lg rave si n Ang lo -Saxon E ng land a nd F ranc ia h ave l ong b een n o ted ,b u ti n su f f i c ien t ly e xp lored ( s ee ,f o r at ime ly r em inde r , Wh i tehouse 1 992 , 1 23 ) . T he wes te r n B r i t i sh c onne c t ion i se a r l ie ri nd a te ,a nd mo re d i rec t ,b u t t he p r in c ipa lp o in ti ss imp ly t ha tB r i ta in wa sv e ry much w i th in wha tt he B yzan t ine a u tho r i t ies r ega rded a s t he i r s phere o fi n te res t —a p o in ts ome t imes l o s tu pon wes te rn med ieva l i s t s ,b y whom t h e G reek speak ing e a s te r n em p i re i so f ten t r ea ted a s as epa ra te ma t te r . We s te r ns ou r ces a l so i mp ly e a s te rn Med i te r ranean ma r i t ime l i nk s ,t h i st ime w i th A t lan t ic S pa in .O fp ar t icu la r i n tere s ta r et he V i t a sS anc torum P a trum Eme r e t en s ium ,w r i t t en n ea r Mer ida a round t he 6 30s , a nd s upposed ly c on c e rn ing e ven t sc . 560 -600 . I nt he V i ta s e a s te r n Med i ter ra n ean me rchan t sv i s i t Me r ida i ne a s tern s h ips .N ego t i a tor e s g r ae co si nn av ibu sd eo r i en t ibu sa r ed esc r ibed a sc om ing t o t he c oas to fS pa in ( a dven i s se a t qu eH i span iae l i t or ac on t ig i s s e ) a nd t hen ce t o Me r ida ( V i t a sS anc t orum P a t rum Em e r e ten s ium I V .32 ,e d .G a rv in 1 946 ,1 68 ) . Whe the rt he me rchan t sc ame b yl and o rb y wa te rf r om t he c oa s ti sn o t s pec i f ied . I ti s p robab le t ha tt hey s a i led u p t he Guad iana ,h oweve r , a s Mer ida h ad b een ar i ve r p or t i nt h e R oman p er iod a nd d oub t les sc on t inued t ob es o( Co l l in s1 980 ,2 03 -4 ) .C on s id e r ing t h e g eog raph ica l o bs tac les t oa n o ve r land j ou r n ey f r om t h e Med i te r ranean , t he re c an b e n o q ue s t ion t ha t t hese me rchan t s h ad t r aveled f r om t he A t lan t ic c oa s t , h av ing f i r s tn ego t ia ted t he S t ra i t so fG ibra l ta r .I ti sp lea s i ng t on o te t ha t' me rchan t s 'r a ther t han s imp ly s ea fa re r s a r es pec i f ied a nd t ha tt hey a r es a id u nequ ivocaly t ob eo f e a s te r n Med i te r ranean o r ig in .T he t e x t may b er ea sonab ly a ccep ted a sd escr ib ing as t a te o fa f fa i r sr emembered i nt he r eg ion —be ing w r i t ten l o caly a nd s os oon a f te rt he e ven t s d escr ibed .T he f a c tt ha t' Greek me rchan t s 'a re d escr ibed a sh av ing e n te red t h e we s te rn s ea lanes mus th ave i mp l i c a t ion s f o r o u r i n te rpre ta t ion o fe a s te r n Med i ter ranean a r te fac t s o n A t lan t i c s i te s i nS pa in , P or tuga l a nd B r i ta in a nd m igh t a low u s f u r the r t oa s sume t ha t t he v oyage s wh ich b rough tt hem t here were o f ten mercan t i le i nc ha r a c te r a nd i nvo lved n o t m idd lemen b u t a c tua l G reek n ego t i a to r e s . T he B r i t i sh f i nds m igh to fc ou r se b es e cond a ry d i s t r ibu t ions f r om S pa in o rP o r tuga l .T he a r chaeo log i c a le v idence s ugge s t s o therw i se ,h oweve r ,a sw i l lb ee x p lo red b e low . I nD eV i r i sI lus tr ibu s ,I s ido re d esc r ibes S t Ma r t in o f B raga 's j ou r n ey t oG a l ic ia : Mar t inus , Du m ien s is monas te r i i s anc t iss imus p on t i fex , e xO r ien t is p ar t ibu sn av igan s ,i n Ga l laec iam v ent . ( Mar t in , s a in t ly p r ie s t o f t he monas tery o f Du m iu m , s a i led o u to fe as tern p ar ts ,a nd c a me t oG a l ic ia : D e V ir i s I l u s t r ibu s XXXV , e d . M igne ,P L8 3 , 100 ) . We k now f r om G regory o f T ou r s t ha t Mar t in was a

P annon ian b yb i r th a nd t ha th el e f tP annon ia t ov i s i tt he 4 7

C ommun ica t ion a nd C ommerce a long t h e W e s t ern S ea lane s AD400 -800

s a c red p laces o ft he e as t ( n am h i c P annon i ae o r tu sf u i t , e t e x inde a dv i s i t and al o c as anc t ai nO r i en t ep r op er an s : HF V .37 , e d .K rusch 1 885a ,2 43 ) .T h i sm igh ti mp ly t ha tt he se were t h e' e a s tern p a r t s 'f r om wh ich h ec ame t oG al i c ia ,r a ther t han P annon ia i t se l f . I ts e ems , h oweve r , t ha t I s idore i s i gnoran t o f Ma r t in 's e xac t o r ig ins s o ' ou t o f t he e as t ' ( wh ich m igh ti n c lude P annon ia )i sp e rhaps a l lt he p h ra se c an b e t aken t o i nd ica te . G rego ry o f T our s a l so s t a tes u nequ ivocaly t ha t Mar t in t r aveled b ys ea t oG al i c ia ( De V i r tu t ibu s S anc t i Mar t in i 1 . 12 , e d . K rusch 1 885b , 1 44 -6 ) . G regory w ro te a f te r5 73 ,s ow e may p resume t he e ven t so f Ma r t in 's v oyage f r om t he e as t a r e a s e a r ly a s t he 5 60s : I s idore wou ld s ugges t s o me t i me i n t he r e ign o f ' Theodem i r ' , c . 551 -565 ( f o r t he p rob lem s o f d a t ing t h i s e p i sode ,T homp son 1 980b ,8 3 f f ) .T he t wo w r i te r s ,t hen ,a re i na g reemen tt ha t Ma r t in v oyaged o u to ft he Med i ter ra n ean t oG al i c ia a nd t ha tt h i se ven to ccur red i nG regory 's c a se o n ly ad ecade o rs ob e fo re h ew ro te ,a nd i nI s ido re 's al i t t le o ve rh a l f ac en tury . T h is c omb ined t e s t imony , s o c l ose t ot he e ven t , mu s tc a rry s o me we igh t a se v idence . T he f a c tt ha tt he t wo w r i te r sd on o tn ame t he s a me k ing a t t he t ime o rt el q u i te t he s ame s t ory m igh tb es een a sr ea son t ot r ea tt h i se p i sode a so fd oub t fu lr el iab i l i ty . On t h eo the r h and ,t he f a c tt ha tt hey d on o ta g ree o ne ve ry d e ta i la s su res u so ft he i ndependence o ft he t wo a ccoun t s ,t o wh ich we m igh ta dd t he c on s ide rab le e v idence o fG rego ry 's k now l e dge o f G aul i sh t r ave l s t o G a l ic ia a nd t he f a c t t ha t h e d e f in i te ly me to ne t r avele rf r om G al i c ia ( s ee b e low ,5 7 ) . I nc onc lu s ion t ot h i ss urvey o ft he p oss ib le l i t erary r e lat ion s o f t he v oyage s i nd ica ted b y t he c e ram ic e v i d en ce , we may c onc lude t ha t t h e e p i sode o f Ma r t in o f B raga 's v oyage n eed n o tb es l o t ted i n to t he s ame mode la s t he Med i te r ranean wa re s . An e xcep t ionaly i mpo r tan t c ha rac te r may wel c ha r te r as h ip f o ra nu nu sua lv oyage . T he d e ta i ls o f t h e V i ta s P a trum Eme r e ten s ium a nd o f P rocop iu s ,h oweve r ,s eem t oi nd ica te aB yzan t ine i n teres t i nt he we s tern s ea lanes wh i ch i s who l ly r e levan t t ot he c e ram ic e v idence a nd s ugges t st ha tt he a c t iv i ty may h ave b o th c ommerc ia l a nd p ol i t ica l i mpe tu s b eh ind i t . T he p rob lem i nt h i sc a se r ema in so ne o fc ausa t ion .T he B r i t i sh a nd I r i sh f i nds may b e e xp la ined a s as imp le e nough e x ten s ion o ft he g row th o fB yzan t ine a c t iv i ty i nt he Wes t er n Med i ter ranean i nt he e a r ly s i x th c en tury .T he f o cu so n t h e s t o ry i n L eon t iu s h a s t ended t o o b scu re t he s ound e v idence f o r B yzan t ine c onnec t ion s a s f a r a s A t lan t ic S pa in a nd P o rtuga l ,f r om whe re B r i ta in i sn owhe re n ea ra s e xo t ic ad e s t ina t ion a si tmay b ef r om t he L evan t .T h i sd oes n o t , h owever , e xp la in why s h ips wen t a sf a r a s B r i ta in . A t lan t ic S pa in may s t il h ave b een l i nked w i th Med i ter ra n ean t r ade p a t te rn s . T or each B r i ta in ,o nt h eo the rh and , i nvo lved av oyage a c ros st he o pen s ea ,a sw e l la sp os s ib le l anguage b a r r ie r s . We w il r e turn t ot h i sp o in tb e low . I tf i r s t mu s t b e c on s idered whe the r t he s pec i f ic mechan i cs o ft he v oyage st hem se lve sa nd t he v e sse l sa nd l o ca t ion si nvo lved c an b er e con s t ruc ted .C an we c on s ider t ha tt he Med i te r ranean wa res a l lw ere i mpo r ted a sp a r to f d e f inab le c a rgoe s a nd c an we s a fe ly a s sume t ha t t h e i r c on tex to nt h eA t lan t ic s ea lanes i sa s ar egu la re x ten s ion o f Med i te r ranean d i s t r ibu t ion s? A g rea td ea lo fd eba te h a s s ur rounded o u ra b i l i ty t oq uan t i fy t he a c t iv i ty i nvo lved a nd a dap ti tt os h ipp ing a nd c a rgo mode l s . 4 8

A l cock ,T homa s ,C ampbe l la nd t he a u thor h ave a l d i scus sed t h e ampho ra f i nds i n c ompar i son w i th t he s h ipw reck a t Y ass i Ada i n T urkey , d raw ing d i f fer ing c onc lu s ion sa st oi t sc ompa rab il i ty .T h i ss h ip wa s aB yzan t i ne c a rgo s h ip , w i th ac a rgo o f s ome 9 00 ampho rae o f mo s t ly c l a s ses 4 3a nd 4 4 ,t hough t h e se a re l a ter t ypes t han t hose f ound o n B r i t i sh s i tes a nd t h e s h ipw reck 's d a te o f a round 6 25 AD i sa tl e a s t ac en tu ry l a te rt han t hef l oru i to f t h eB r i t i sh f i nds .T he u se fu lness o ft h i ss h ip load o fs im i la r amphorae i np rov id ing amode lf o rt h ei n te rpre ta t ion o f t h e B r i t i sh f i nds wa s a pprec ia ted t wo d ecade s a go ( L . O l son , p e r s . c omm . ) , b u t d e ta i led d i scuss ion o ft h e s h ip w reck wa i ted u pon f ul p ubl i ca t ion o ft he f i nd sa nd i th a s b een f u r the rs l owed b yt he f a c tt ha tB a ss r e sea rched t he c ompa ra t ive f o rm s s eem ing ly w i thou t r e ference t o t he wo rk b e ing d one b yP eacock ,F u l fo rd a nd Wi ll iam s . A lcock , T homa s a nd C ampbel a l l , f o r d i f fe r ing r e a son s ,a ccep t al owe rl e ve lo fc ompa t ib il i ty b e tween t he Y a ss i Ada mode la nd t he B r i t ish a s semb lages t han w i l lb e a rgued h ere , t h e i r d oub t s b a sed o n wha t t hey s e e a s a g rea te rv a r ie ty o ff o rm ss een among t h eB r i t i sh f i nds t han i sf ound i nt h eY a ss i Ada a s semb lage .T h i s l e ads A l cock a nd C ampbe l lt oc onc lude t ha tt he ampho rae a r r iv ing i n B r i ta in a r e p a r t o f d ive r se c a rgoe s , r a the r t han as mal n umbe ro fc oncen t ra ted s h ip loads o f amphorae , wh i le i t l e ads T homa st oa s ser tt ha t asma l ln umber o fv ery m ixed s h ip load so f ampho rae w e re a rr iv ing .I tw i l lb es ugges ted h e re t ha tt he d iver s i ty a tY a ss i Ada i sp robab ly u nde re s t i ma ted .I ti sa l so l i ke ly t ha tt he a bove s cho la r sm i s in te rpre t e ach o the ro nt h ep o in ta t wh ich t he B r i t i sh a ssemb lage i s mo re d iver se t han t he Y a ss i Ada , n ame ly , whe the r t he d ive r s i ty i sb e tween t he t ypes ( i . e .c l a s s4 3 ,4 4 ,e t c . )o rt he s ub types p re sen t— i .e .d i f fe ren td eco ra t ion f o rm s ,s i zes , e t c . A lcock h a se xpre ssed t he s t ronge s td oub tt ha tt he i mpo r t sa re p a r to fr egu la r Med i ter ranean c a rgoes ( A l cock 1 987 ,9 0 -3 ) .H i si n te rpre ta t ion i sb a sed i np ar tu pon c om p a r i son s w i th t h e c a rgo c ompos i t ion o f t he s h ipw reck f r om Y a ss i Ada .T he p redom inance o ft h eC lasse s4 3a nd 4 4a tY a ss i Ada a rgues f o r ab as icaly c ompa rab le c a rgo t o t ho se wh ich w en tt oB r i ta in , where C la sse s4 3a nd 4 4 make u p 9 0% o fi d en t i f iab le amphora f i nd s . T he re a r e d i f fer e nce s . I nB r i ta in C lass 4 3 make s u p a round 3 5% o ft o ta l f i nds a nd C la s s4 4 ,5 4% .A tY ass i Ada t he r a t io i s1 2% :7 1% . T he re may b e g ood r ea son n o t t o o ve rempha s i se t he s im i la r i t ie s ,a st h eY a ss i Ada v oyage i sac en tury l a te ra nd wo rk ing w i th in t h ee as t . None the le ss ,i t sc omparab i l i ty a s am ixed ,b u lk c a rgo o f amphorae , made u p o fp redom i n an t ly t wo t ypes , t he s ame a s p redom ina te i n B r i ta in , s e em sc ompe l l ing . A l cock ,h owever ,c on s ider st he w ide r ange o ff o rms w i th in t h ese t wo c l as ses d i sp layed b yt he c o mb ined B r i t ish a nd I r i sh a s semb lage t od i f fe rf r om t he mode lp rov ided b y Y a ss i Ada . T he Y a s s i Ada a s semb lage c on ta in s al im i ted r ange o f v a r ian t s o f C la sse s 4 3 a nd 4 4 ( Bass a nd V an D oo r n inck 1 982 , 1 56 -9 ) , b u t B ass 's a na ly s i s o f t h e Y a s s i Ada amphorae i den t i f ies d i f feren t f o rm s o f e ach c l a s s . Mo s t o fh i s a na ly s i s i sc onduc ted b y s amp le , h oweve r , r a the r t han q uan t i f ica t ion a nd t h is a l one may o bscu re s ome o ft he v a r ie ty p resen t . I nt he s a mp le wh ich h eh a s p ub l i shed , h oweve r , t h e re i sc e r ta in ly v a r ie ty t ob e o b-

C hap t er F our : T he Med i t er ranean a nd t h eA t lan t ic

s e rved .T he c l ass 4 4t ype sv a ry b e tween 5 0 .5 a nd 4 1 .1 cm . i nh e igh t ,w i th c on s ide rab le r ange i n mou th a nd s hou lde r s i ze ,a nd v a ry ing p ropor t ion i nt h es pac ing o ft h er i bb ing ( Ba ss a nd V an Doorn inck 1 982 , 1 57 ) . S i xp ub l i shed i lus t r a t ions i n B a ss ' r epo r t s how p r inc ipa l v a r ian t f o rm s . C la ss 4 3 amphorae e xh ib i t as im i la rr ange o fv ar ia t ion i n h e igh t( Ba s sa nd V an D oo rn in ck 1 982 ,1 59 ) .D eco ra t ion o f t h e l a t te ri s much mo re s t anda rd i sed , w i th t h e ma jo r i ty ( f if ty o u to f as amp le o fe i gh ty )h av ing as i ng le b and o f d ecora t ion a round t he s hou lde r( a sd ot he B r i t i sh t ypes ) . S t i l l , s ome v esse l s h ave ma rked v a r ia t ion i ns hape a nd d ecora t ion ( Ba ss ' s ub type 2 b : B a s s a nd V an Doo rn inck 1 982 ,1 56 -7 ) .T he q ue s t ion i s ,t hen , whe the rt h i sv a r ie ty i n f o rm i so f t h e o rde r o f t ha t wh i ch A lcock h a s n o ted among s tt h eB r i t i sh f i nds .F i r s t ly ,i ts hou ld b en o ted t ha t A lcock 's h i s tog ram f o r t he B r i t i sh f i nds ma t che s B as s ' f i gures f o rc l ass 4 3q u i te c l o se ly , whe re t he ma jo r i ty a r eo f o ne f o rm :B a ss ' s ub type 2 a( w i th t h eb and o fd ecora t ion a round t h ec ola r ) .T h i si st he u b iqu i tous f o rm o nB r i t i sh a nd I r i sh s i tes . T he c l ass 4 4c ompa r i son ,h oweve r , i st he c ruc ia l o ne . T he p r in c ipa lb a s i s f o r d e te rm in ing v a r ian t f o rm s t h a t t he p re sen t w r i te r c an d i sce rn among s t t he B r i t i sh f i nd si sd eco ra t ion ( e .g . t h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fb and s a nd o the r ma rk ing so nt he b ody o fv esse l s ) .T he d eco ra t i ve r ange a tY ass i Ada i nt h i sr e spec ts eem sa sg rea ta st ha t i nB r i ta in . T he c l a ss 4 4 f i nds a tY a ss i Ada a r e f a r mo re v a r ied t h an t he c l a ss 4 3 . Aga in t he e v idence o fY a ss i Ada a nd t h eB r i t i sh/I r i sh a s semb lage i ss upe r f i c ia l ly c ons i s t e n t .A lcock ( p er s .c omm . )e xp la in sh i sc once rn a sb e ing t ha t wh i le t h ev a r ie ty i nt he B r i t i sh a s semb lage i sn o g rea te r t han i nB a s s 's s e r ies ,t h es a me r ange i ss een i n av ery much s ma l le rn umber o ff i nd si nB r i ta in .I ft h i si ss o ,o n ly av ery f ul p ubl i ca t ion o ft he T in tage l ma te r ia li sl i ke ly t oc l a r i fy t h is p rob lem t ot he p o in t whe re c ompa r ison sc an b e made w i th Y a ss i Ada .T he o bv ious d i f fe rence i np e r iod b e tween Y ass i Ada a nd t he B r i t i sh f i nd s mu s tb en o ted —pe rhap s s t anda rd i sa t ion i n c rea sed a c ro ss t ime .B u t mo re l i ke ly t h e c on tex to ft h eY a ss i Ada f i nd wou ld e xp la in g rea te rs t and a rd isa t ion , w i th t he amphorae o nb oa rd c om ing f r om a p robab le B lack S ea k i ln , whe re t h ev a r ie ty o ff o rm s wa s mo re l im i ted . T homas i si n c l ined t owa rd t h eo ppo s i te o fA lcock ' s v i ew : t ha t t he f o rm s o fC las se s 4 3 a nd 4 4 i nt h e B r i t i sh a ssemb lage d emon s t ra te t ha tt h e wa re sf o rmed t h ec a rgo o fa t mo s to ne o rt wo s h ips ,t hough h ee ndo r se sA lcock ' s a rgumen tc oncern ing t he v a r ie ty p resen t( Thoma s1 988a , 1 2 ) .I ts e em s ,h oweve r ,t ha th ea pprec ia te sA lco ck 's a rgu men ta ss t ress ing t he v ar ie ty o ft ype s( i . e .c l a s s4 3 ,44 e t c . ) p re sen ta nd n o tt he v a r ie ty w i th in t ype s ,s ot h i sa g reemen t may b eb a sed o n am i sapp rehen s ion ( i ti sn o t iceab le t ha t T homa sd oes n o tc i te B a s sd i rec t ly ) . T he c l ose s im i la r i ty i nt he v e s se ls ,n o tab ly among t he B amphorae ,f ound a ta l lt he se s i te ss ugge s tt ha tt hey may h ave f o rmed as i ng le c a rgo .I fs o ,i twas am ixed b ag ,p u t t oge ther f o rp o ten t ia lc u s tome r st o whom t he a b sence o f ah omogeneou s b a tch o r o rde r was n o t ap o in t o fa ny r e levance ( Thomas 1 988a , 1 2 ) .

T homa st hus s eem st os ee t h eb a s ic c l asses a sf a i r ly u n i f o rm i n t h e i r B r i t i sh o ccu r ren ce ( w i th wh ich Iwou ld

c oncu r ) ,b u tt h es ubs tan t ia lp resence o fC las s4 5 ,4 9 ,3 4a nd m i scelaneou s t ypes a s t he p o in t o f d epa rtu re f r om t he Y a ss i Ada mode l .T h i si sc er ta in ly t r ue : t hough t here a re t ype so the rt han C la ss 4 3a nd 4 4a tY a ss i Ada ,t h ey a re i n much l ower p ropo r t ion t han i nB r i ta in .I nt he l i gh to ft he C a r thage a s semb lage a nd i t s e v idence , we may s ee t he A t lan t ic v oyage s a s o ccur r ing a t at ime when e a r l ie r ampho ra t ypes w e re g iv ing way t oc l asses 4 3 a nd 4 4 i n i n te rna t iona l e xchange . Hence t he h a l f -dozen o r mo re c l a sse s p resen t may b e a ccoun ted t o t h i s o ve r lap , t he t r an s i t ion h av ing c ea sed a tt he t ime o fY ass i Ada ( where , a nyway ,w e wou ld n o te xpec tt he A f r ican a dd i t ions t ot he c a rgo ) . We mus tn o t o ve r look t he c h rono log ica l a nd r e g i ona l d i f fe rence o fY ass i Ada i ni t s u se a s amode l f o r c ompa r i son . S ome f u r the rf e a tu res o ft he d ivers i ty o ft he Y a ss i Ada a s semb lage s hou ld b ea pprec ia ted .O the rp a r t so ft he s h ip ,e spec ialy t h e' galey a rea 'a l so c on ta ined ar ange o f m inor t a b lewa res a nd m i scelaneou s amphora f i nds ( Ba ss a nd V an D oorn in ck 1 982 ,1 84 ) . One o ft hese ( P79 ) ,i n teres t i ng ly e nough , wa s ac l a ss 4 3o ft he s t anda rd s i x th -cen tu ry t ype f ound i nB r i ta in . Ano ther ( P74 )i sac l a ss 4 5( Ba ss a nd V an Doo rn inck 1 982 , 1 84 ) . C lea r ly s uch amphorae , n o t c a r r ied a s ap r inc ipa l c a rgo , c ou ld r ema in i n u se f o r a c en tu ry o r more b eyond t he i rg ene ra lf loru i t . Ano the ra rea o fi n te re s ti st he d i scove ry o fr ewo rked amphora s he rds a t Y a ss i Ada wh ich w e re f ound t oc on s t i tu te s t oppe r sf o rt he s t anda rd c a rgo ampho rae ( Bass a nd V an Doo rn inck 1 982 , 1 60 -1 ) . G ene raly t hese w e re o f t he s a me f ab r ics a s t he ampho rae t h em se lve s a nd we re s ea led i n w i th p i tch o r r e s in .T he w r i te rc an r e cal h av ing s een s uch p iece s among t h eB r i t i sh a s semb lage si nt he p as t( w i thou tr ea l i s ing t he i r s i gn i f icance ) . A t l e a s t o ne i sp ubl i shed , aC la ss 4 4 d i sc f r om C ong resbu ry i nS ome r se t( Rah tz 1 974 , 10 ,F ig .3 ,n o . 2 0 ) . T h i sr ough ly wo rked p iece , s o me 7cm . i nd iame ter c ompa re sv e ry c l o se ly w i th t he Y a ss i Ada p ieces , wh ich a ve rage b e tween 5a nd 7cm si nd iame te r .T h i se v idence , i ts hou ld b e n o ted , a ga in r e in fo rces t he i dea t ha t t he i n su la r ampho rae a s semb lages a re c on s is ten tw i th n orma l Med i ter ranean c a rgoe s . An amphora a t C ong resbury c l ea r ly a r r ived w i th i t s s t oppe r i np lace ( h ence w i th i t s c on ten t s , l i kew i se ) , t he s t opper n o t b e ing o f a n e a s i ly r e in se r tab le t ype . I n af ew c ases s uch r e s idua lu se o fo ld ampho rae ,a nd ampho ra s herds a ss t oppe r s ,m igh tp a r t ly e xp la in v a r ie ty among s tt h e d eco ra t ive f o rms o n B r i t i sh f i nd s . T he se f i nd s a r e a l so o fo bv ious i mpo r tance i ns i te c h rono logy . Whe re t he s t opper sa re f ound t hey a r e al i ke ly i nd i ca to ro ft he f i r s to pen ing o ft he ampho rae , wh ich may w e l lh ave h ad ar e s idua lu se a ss t o rage j a r s .T he s t opper s , s e a led i nw i th wax , wou ld n o th ave b een amenab le t oe asy a c cess a nd h ence a r el e ss l i ke ly t oh ave r ema ined i nu se f o r s uch s e conda ry p urpose s . A lcock h as n o ted ar epa i red ampho ra i nt he a s semb lage a tC adbu ry ( A lco ck 1 995 ,8 4 ) , wh ich wou ld h ave b een u nab le t oh o ld l i qu id — though i t i sn o t c l ea r whe ther t h i s r epa i r wa s p rev iou s o r s ubse q uen tt oi t sb e ing b rough tt oB r i ta in . He i sr i gh tt os t res s , h oweve r ,t ha td ry g oods m igh te qualy h ave b een c a r r ied i ns uch ac on ta ine re ven i n Med i te r ranean c on tex ts . C ampbe l l ,a l so ,d oe sn o ta ccep tt ha tt he Y ass i Ada mode li sa pp rop r ia te t ot h eB r i t i sh e v idence .H ec i te st he e x i s tence o fo the r Med i te r ranean s h ipwreck s where s uch 4 9

C ommun ica t ion a nd C ommer ce a long t h e W e s tern S ea lanes AD400 -800

p o t tery i sf ound a s amuch mo re m ino re l emen to fc a rgoes ( Campbel 1 996 f o r thcom ing ;P a rke r 1 984 ,9 9 -114 ) . I fw e a r et of o l low t hese v i ews w em igh tb el o ok ing a td ozens o f v oyages . One c an o n ly s ay t ha t t h e n a r rowne ss o fd a te r ange o ft h et a b lewa res mu s tb ea pprec ia ted h e re a nd t ha t t h e ampho ra t ypes d on o tr ange s ow ide ly i nf o rm a st o s ugges t al ong p er iod o f a c t iv i ty . I f ad ozen o r mo re v oyages w e re i nvo lved , t h ey s pan n o mo re t han af ew d ecades .S uch max ima lv i ew s mu s ta l so b ec on s idered i n t h e i rb roade rc on tex t .I ti smo re n atu ra li na r chaeo log ica l t e rms t oe r ro nt he s i de o fa s sum ing p lu ra l i ty , wh i ch may b ec on t ra s ted w i th t he r educ t ion i s tt e nden cy o fh i s to r ian s ( s ee b e low ,8 1 ) ,b u tt he a r chaeo log i ca lv i ew sd on o te x i s t i n av acuum .T he d e s i re t os e es us ta ined c on tac tw i th t h e e a s t may r e f lec t u nease a tt he n o t ion t ha t t he v oyage s c ou ld h ave n o s i gn i f ican t c u l tura l i mpa c t . T h i s w i l l b e d i scussed f u r the rb e low . A lcock s t rong ly q ue s t ions o u r a b i l i ty t oq uan t i fy t h ec argoe s :e spec ialy t om in im i se t h ea c t iv i ty o nq uan t i t a t ive g rounds . C a lcu la t ing f r om o n s i te e xpe r ience , h e e s t ima te s t ha t t he r e cove ry r a te o fv e sse l s m igh tb e l e ss t han 0 . 2% ( A lcock a nd A lcock 1 990 , 1 38 -9 ) . We s hou ld c oncu rw i th A lcock ( A lcock a nd A l cock 1 990 ,1 38 -9 )t ha t o n -s i te e xpe r ience i n c l ine st ot he v i ew t ha t mo s tC la s s4 3 v es se l s a r e r epresen ted a r chaeo log ica l ly b y o ne o r t wo s he rds o n ly ,t hough h eo bse rves t ha ta to dd s i te s ,s uch a s D ina sP owys ( t o wh ich w e may a dd D e r rynaf lan , whe re t h es herd s we re c on cen t ra ted i n ad i tch :R . OF l ö inn ,p e r s . c omm . ) mo s to ft he s herds c ome f r om o ne v e sse l .T h i s ,a s h e h im se l f o bse rves , make s ac on t ra s t w i th a t temp t s t o e s t ima te s i te f r equency f r om s herd n umbe r st h rough a p p l i ca t ion o f s t a t i s t ica l me thods a t s e lec ted B r i t i sh s i tes ( A lcock a nd A lcock 1 990 ,1 38 -9 ) . T he q ues t ion i so bv iou s ly ama t te r wh ich r equ i re s t ha t we mea su re t he n umbe ro fv esse l sr e covered ( r ega rd l e s s o f t he n umbe r o f s he rds ) a nd c ompa re t h i s t o t he r e la t ive q ual i ty a nd q uan t i ty o fe xcava t ion a rea ,b u ts uch t h ing sc an o n ly b e measu red i ni mp re s s ion i s t i ct e rm s ,a s w ew i l ls e e . We m igh ts t a r tb yt ak ing t h eY a ss i Ada t o ta l a s amode lt oe s t ima te q uan t i t ies f r om :9 00 ampho rae .T he c u r ren t B r i t ish t o ta l o f c l a sses 4 3 a nd 4 4 i s , a t ar ough e s t ima te ,a round 1 60 v esse ls ( Thoma s1 988a ,1 2 ;u pda t ing T homa s 1 981b ,1 0 -13 ;a l so r e cen tf i nds f r om D er rynaf l an a nd Wh i tho rn ) .T h i si sa round 1 8% o f as h ip 's c a rgo ,u s ing Y a ss i Ada a s amode l .I fw er emove f r om t he se f i gu res t he l a rge t o ta l sf r om T in tage la nd C ong resbu ry t h e t o ta lf o r t h er ema in ing s i tes i sa round 6 5 ,o r7 . 2° / ( 2 .o f ac a rgo d iv ided among s ome 3 0s i te s .P o s tu la t ing t hen t ha tw em igh th ave f ound a s much a s 6 0% , s ay , o f t he t o ta l ma te r ia l a t C ong resbu ry a nd T in tage l , w e w i l lp o s tu la te af i gu re o f 7 0 -80 v esse l sf o rt he se t wo s i tes c omb ined ,o ra round 8% o f ac a rgo . S upe r f ic ialy , t hen , t he e v idence d oe sn o ty e t p rec lude t he s i ng le sh ip mode l . On t he o the rh and ,h ow e ver , T homa s e s t ima tes t ha t t he s c a le o f e xcava t ion a t T in tage l may b ea sl ow a s1 0% o ft he p o ten t ia la r ea , wh ich wou ld j u s t i fy t he c onse rva t i sm o f A lcock 's e s t ima te . Whe the ra l la rea sw i l lp roduce t he s c a le o f ma te r ia ls of a r f ound i sd eba tab le .T he a r ea e xcava ted b yR ad ford o nt he i s land i so u ts ide o ft h ee a r ly med ieva ls e t t lemen ta r ea — wh ich r e cen tr e sea rch wou ld s ugge s tl i e s d i rec t ly u nde r

5 0

t he c a s t le . R ad ford 's s i te may b e ar ubb i sh d ump f o rt he ma in s e t t lemen t . On t he o ther h and , amphora s herd ss eem t oh ave b een f ound i ne ve ry r ecen te xcava t ion o nt he s i te . T he f a c tt ha tt h ese h ave b eco me i n c reas ing ly f o cu sed o n mo re l i ke ly s i te so fa c t iv i ty ,s uch a st h eh arbour ( Bowman 1 991 ,2 3 ) a nd t he c hu rchya rd ( Novakowsk ia nd T homa s 1 990 , 1 4 , 1 4 -15 ) o n ly s l igh t ly d im in i she s t he u b iqu i ty o f t he ma ter ia li nd i scovery p a t te r n s . No e v idence a s t oq uan t i ty s o f a rg ive s r e a son t o i mag ine t h a ta ny s i te i nt h en or th o ft h eI r i sh S ea b a s in w i l l p roduce f i nds o n t he s ame s ca le a s t ho se i n t h e s ou th , t hough t h ef i nd ing o ff ou rd i f feren tc l a sse s( 4 3 ,4 4 ,4 5a nd 4 9 ) a t Wh i tho m i si n t r igu ing . Many o ft he C o rn i sh f i nds h ave b een o n ly b een s u r face f i nd s o fs t ray v es se l s . T he u nexcava ted s i te s wh i ch p roduced t hese may p roduce l a rge t o ta l s . B u t we s hou ld a l so n o te t he i n c rea s ing ly b road r ange o fi t sd i s t r ibu t ion .T he a c company ing d i s t r i b u t ion map ( p . 4 4 ) s how s t he s i te s a nd p ropor t ions o f wa res s of a re xcava ted ( ad i s t inc t ion i sn o t made b e tween i nd iv idua lt ype si nv i ew o ft he f a c t , a se xp la ined a bove , t ha tt he wa re sa r el i ke ly t ob ec on tempo ra ry a nd d i f feren t c argoes a re p robab ly n o t d i s t ingu i shab le f r om d i f feren t s e lec t ion s o f t ypes ) . F ind s f r om C loghe r ( Co . T y rone ) , C a she l( Benne t t1 994 ,7 3 )a nd Der rynaf lan ( Co .T ippe ra ry ) L n i shcea l t ra ( Co . C lare ) , B a i le n a b hF ionnürach ( Co . K er ry 1994 f i nd s i gh ted b y t he a u tho r ) , Dumba r ton ( Dumbar ton sh i re )a nd t he r e cen tf i nd o fs evera lv e s se ls a t Wh i tho m ( W ig town sh i re ) , h ave e x tended t he d i s t r ibu t i on ma rked ly i n t he l a s t d ecade . T he d i s t r ibu t ion s t i l l s eems t ob ef o cu sed o nt h eI r ish S ea ,h owever ,w i th o n ly r e la t ive ly s ma l lq uan t i t ie sc om ing f r om i n land s i te ss uch a sC a she l , D e r rynaf lan a nd I n i shcea l t ra ,b u tw i th l a rger t o ta l sf r om wa te r s ide o rn ea r -coa s ta ls i te ss uch a sD a lkey I s land a nd Wh i tho m ( t hough t he l a t te rt wo s i tes ,i tmus t b en o ted ,w e re l a rger s ca le e xcava t ion st h an t he f o rmer ) . T he n or the rn e nd o ft he I r i sh S ea a l so h a s c l ea r ly f ewer t han t he s ou th .T h i sm igh tb eg ood g rounds f o rn o tf o l low i ng T homa s i nc ons ider ing t he mo re n o r ther ly f i nds a s p a r to ft he v oyage o f aMed i ter ranean s h ip ( Thoma s1 988a , 2 0 ) .I ts e em sa sl i ke ly t ha tt h ey a re mo re l o ca lr ed i s t r ibu t i on f r om t h e s ou th -we s t , u pon wh i ch t h e d i s t r ibu t ion c l ea r ly c en t re s . B r i t tany i sa no the r q ue s t ion . A d e f in i te p iece o fC las s4 4 ampho rae h as b een f ound a tl i eL av re t , B reha t ( G io t a nd Quer re 1 985 , 9 5 -7 ) a nd t h is mu s t g ive p ause . T he i d ea o f av oyage i n to t he C hanne l mou th i s s uppor tab le b yf i nds a sf a rw es ta sH igh P eak a nd B an tham i nD evon ( t he l a t ter c l ea r ly ac oas ta lt r ad ing s i te t o wh ich t he f i nd sd id n o tt r ave lo ve r land :F ox 1 955 ;P olard 1 966 ) . T he e a r ly med ieva l a rchaeo logy o fB r i t tany i ss op oo r ly k nown t ha t ma jo rf i nd s i tes mus tn o tb er u led o u t . Wha tc a rgoes were i nvo lved? Two mode l so fc om me r ce mu s tf i r s tb ec on s ide red .I fn eg o t i a t or e s we re r egu l a r ly p u sh ing i n to t he A t lan t ic , t he i d ea t h a t af ew s h ips m igh tp roceed o n as pecu la t ive v oyage t oB r i ta in i sp lau s i b le . S uch at r ip m igh t h ave b rough tb a ck a ny s u i tab le c argo . T he s e cond mode l , u sua l ly t a ken f o r g ran ted i n d i scus s ions o f t h i s t op i c , i st he i dea t h a t B r i ta in was s i ng led o u ta s ad e s t ina t ion : t he c ore o ft h e r e turn c a rgo b e ing a luv ia l t i n , me l ted i n to i ngo t s . T h i s h eavywe igh t c a rgo wou ld b e al og ica lr ep lacemen tf o rt h ef u l l ampho -

C hap ter F our : T he Med i ter ranean a nd t h eA t lan t ic

r a e .E v idence f o re a r ly med ieva lt i n -wo rk ing i nC ornwa l l h a sb een mu s tered b yP enha l lu r ick i nh i sr e cen t ,c ompre h ens ive , s u rvey . C ola t ion o ft he se d a ta , h oweve r , d oe s n o tb r ing i mmed ia te r ewa rds f o rt hose s e ek ing t ot i et he Med i ter ranean i mpor t s t o t i n -wo rk ing a r ea s . B u t i fw e f olow T homa s i ne x tend ing a na ly s i s t ot a ke i na l la r ea s wo rked i na n t iqu i ty , r a the r t han t h eo ne o rt wo d e f in i te e a r ly -med ieva l s i tes o u t o f ap o ten t ia l ly much l a rge r n umber ,w e may c onc lude t ha t mo re t han o ne p o ten t ia l l a nd ing p l ace o ft he Med i ter ranean wa re s wa sc l ose t ot i n w o rk ing s i te s( Tho mas 1 988a ,1 4 ) .I ngo t so f worked t i na r e a t tes ted i ne a r ly med ieva lc on tex t s ,a tP rah S ands g iv ing r ad ioca rbon d a tes t o t he s even th c en tu ry ( Penha l lu r ick 1 986 ,2 34 ) . A re t h e re o ther l i ke ly e xpo r tg ood s? C ampbel s ug g e s ts o the r me ta l s ,c i t ing i np a r t icu la rt r ace so fB r i t i sh l e ad f r om C a r thage ( Campbe l l1 996 f o r thcom ing ) ,b u tp re sum a b ly t he se c ou ld b er e cyc led f r om t h eR oman p er iod . We s hou ld a c cep th i sp o in t ,h oweve r ,t ha tt i ni sn o tt he o n ly p o ss ib le e l emen t ,a nd a ny s upp lemen ta ry g oods may b e c a r r ied o nce ama jo rc a rgo h as r ende red t h ev oyage p ro f i t ab le ,e ven i ft hey a re g oods t ha ta r ea va i lab le mo re c l o se t oh ome .G oods s uch a sh oney o rl e a the ra r ea l so p o ss ib le a nd q u i te a b le t os u rv ive i n tac t av oyage o f ac oup le o f mon th s . Anyway s ome g oods m igh tb es o ld o nt he r e tu r n j ou rney ,n o tc a r r ied a l lt he way b ack t ot h ee a s tern Med i t e r ranean .T he s h ips may i ndeed h ave ' t ramped 't he i r way b ack . O ft h e o u twa rd c a rgoe s w e s hou ld n o te t he Y a s s i Ada e xamp le , where t he c a rgo s pace i sd om ina ted b yt he ampho rae a nd t he ir c on ten t s .T h i sc on t ra s t sw i th t he s ma l l p ropo r t ion o ft he c a rgo s pace wh i ch t he G aul i sh c e ram i cs o ft he s even th c entu ry wou ld h ave o ccup ied i na ny s h ip . E ven s o , h eavy g oods m igh t n o t h ave b een t he mo s t v a luab le e l emen t i nt he c a rgo . T he amphorae may h ave b een a b a l la s t f o r av a luab le c a rgo o f s p ices , o r o the r v a luab le g oods o fl i gh t we igh t . Wha t was i nt he ampho rae ?T he u sua lc onc lu s ion s a r e w ine ( c lasses 4 3 a nd 4 5 ) a nd o i l ( c la ss 4 4 ) . R e s idue a na ly se so n Med i ter ranean e xamp les a re o n ly a ta ne a r ly s t ages ( Condam in 1 976 ; Ha r tg roves a nd Wa lke r1 988 ,2 6 7 ) ,h oweve r ,a nd n u ts ,f i sh s auce ,e ven n a i l s ,a re a lp o ss i b l e .G rego ry o fT ou r sr e co rds w ine o fG aza b e ing b rough t t ot he w es t( HF V I I .45 ,e d .K rusch 1 885a ,3 48 )— the ampho r a e o f c l a s s 4 5 a re o f ten l i nked w i th t h i s t r a f f i c . One p resume s ama rke tf o rw ine c ou ld b ef ound .O i l ,h oweve r , i sn o te ven l i s ted a s al i ke ly s h ip 's c a rgo i nt h ec o mmen ta r i e so nt h e Mu irb r e tha ( s ee b e low ,6 8 -70 ) ,s ow e may n eed t o c on s ide ri tl e ss l i ke ly . T he e conom i cb as i so ft he a c t iv i ty i sa no the rv exed q ue s t ion . T he p resence o f G reek mer chan t s a t M& ida m igh t make e n t rep reneu r ia l t r ade p lau s ib le , t hough w e may d oub t t ha t Med i te r ranean e n t rep reneu r s h ad a ny a dvan ce k now ledge a st ot he s o r t so fs u rp lu st ha tp o ten t a tes i nw e s tern B r i ta in a nd I r e land m igh tu se t op ay f o r i mpo r ted l uxur ie s .P e rhaps t he i n i t ia l mo t iva t ion wa sn o t t r ade a ta l l , b u t a t temp t s t o s e cu re a leg iance f r om t h e n o r the rn n e ighbou r so ft h eF rank s . We mu s tr ema in c om p le te ly o pen -m inded o nt h i sp o in t . We c anno tb es u re t ha t t he s h ips w ere manned b yG reek s ,o n ly t ha tt h ey h ad b een

l o aded i nt he e a s te rn Med i te r ranean .T he v ar ious e xcava t i on s a round t h e Med i ter ranean a re b r ing ing t o l i gh t p os s ib le p a ra l le l st ot he g ra f f i t ia nd d ip in t io nt he wes tern s ea lane s ampho ra f i nds . T he se may i nt ime t e l lu ss o me t h ing o ft he e thn i c i ty o ft he t r ade r s( Ba ss a nd V an Doo rn in ck 1 982 , 1 61 -2 ; T homa s 1 981b , 1 3 -14 ; F u l fo rd a nd P eacock 1 984 ,1 41 -54 ) .I ti sf a i rt os ay t ha tt h ep resence o fb o th L a t in a nd G reek i n t he se m igh t b e s e en t o d e t rac t f r om t he h omogene i ty mode ls ugge s ted a bove . On t he o ther h and , w e h ave l i t t le o r n o k now ledge o f t he m ixtu re o f r a ce s wh ich m igh t b e i n aB yzan t ine s h ip 's c r ew , l e t a l one among s t evedore s . Mode r n s h ip 's c r ews a r e f r equen t ly i n terna t iona li nm ix a nd we s hou ld n o te t he e v idence o f e a s tern Med i te r ranean g ra f f i t i o n t he G au l i sh s h ip f r om F os su r - Me r (W o r ld A t la so fA r c ha eo logy 1 985 , 10 ) .T homa s c onc ludes t ha t t he med ium o fc ommun ica t ion b e tween t he me r chan t sa nd t h e i rc u s tome r s mus th ave b een Vu lga r L a t in .T he L a t in g ra f f i t i may b es e en a sa dd ing we igh tt o t h i s , t hough w e p e rhaps s hou ld n o t f olow T homa s i n h igh l igh t ing t he i n c idence o fs i te sw i th L a t in memo r ia l s a nd o the rC h r i s t ian r ema in sa sb e ing mo re l i ke ly l and ing p o in t s( Thoma s1 988a ,1 9 -21 ) . T he re s e em sn od oub tt ha tt h es h ip /swh ich r eached t he A t lan t ic h ad t r aveled f r om a b a se i n t he e a s tern Med i te r ranean ,w i th o n ly as t op i nA f r ica where i t /they t ook o n more g ood s , w i thou t u n load ing t he p r inc ipa l c a rgo .I ft he g ood sh ad b een t r an sh ipped t oo ther v e sse l s , w e wou ld e xpec t ag rea te ra dm ixtu re o ft ypes ,i n c lud ing A f r ican ampho rae — though af ew o ft hese may b ep re sen t ( Ha r tg roves a nd Wa lker 1 988 , 2 4 -5 ) . Av oyage f r om t he A egean o rA lexandr ia r epre sen t s av oyage i nt he v i c in i ty o f s o me 5 , 000 k i lome t res ( 1 0 ,000 f o r ar e tu rn t r ip ) . T he v oyage may h ave b een a ccompl i shed i n more t han o ne s a i l ing s ea son ,t hough we may make ac a se f o r av oyage o ve r as i ng le s ea son b e ing mo re t han p os s ib le . A t 2 . 5 -3 k no t s a ve rage s peed t he r e turn j ourney wou ld t ake n o t much l e ss t han 3mon th ss a i l ing t ime ,a l low ing f o rs hor t s t ops , b u t n o t f o r al ong i sh s t ay i n B r i ta in t o c hange c a rgoe s .A sh a sb een d i scu s sed a bove ,t he h igh p ropor t ion o fe a s tern Med i te r ranean c e ram ic v esse l s i n t he i n su la r a s semb lage g ive su sn or ea son t os uppo se t ha tt he ma jor c a rgoe s o f t he s h ips were e xchanged e n r ou t e , t hough c l ear ly mo re g oods w e re t aken o ni n No r th A f r ica ,o rs o me o the rp lace i nr e ce ip to fA f r ican wa res . R eyno lds h a sc ommen ted o nt he s mal q uan t i ty o f e a s te r n Med i te r ranean wa re s i nV a lenc ia , i n c lud ing a n a bsence o f P RS ( Reyno ld s 1 984 , 4 74 -5 ) d u r ing i t s s i x th c en tu ry f l oru i t , wh i le n o t ing t he r egu la r i ty o fi mpo r t s o f A f r ican ampho rae ( Reyno ld s 1 984 , 4 75 ) f r om t he t h i rd t h rough s i x th c en tu r ie s ( S imon L oseby ,p e r s . c omm . , h as n o ted as im i la rp a t te rn a t Ma r se i l les ) . T h i s may p rov ide s o me c l ue sa st or ou tes o fv oyage s .S ou the rn S pa in n a tu r aly e nough l ook s t oA f r ica , wh ich i sp a r t o f t he s ame t r ad ing p rov in ce . As h ip c om ing e as tf r om C ons tan t ino p le , h oweve r , a nd p e rhaps l ook ing f o r a ma rke t a way f r om t h e ma in c a t chmen to fA f r ican p roduc t s ,n eed n o tb e e xpec ted t oh ave t r ave l led a sf a rn or th a sV a lenc ia , whe rea s P RS i sf ound a t A l ican te ( Reyno lds 1 984 , 4 75 ) , wh ich wou ld t aly w i th av oyage t ak ing ad i rec tr ou te t ot he s ou th o ft he B a lea r ic s( t he d i rec tr ou te t oV a lenc ia i so bs t ruc ted

5 1

C ommun ica t ion a nd C ommer c ea l ong t h e W e s t e rn S ea lane s AD400 -800

b yt he l a t te ri s lands ) . Cu r ren t so fa round 1 3k no t sa l ong t he s ou the r ns ho re o ft he Med i te r ranean f avou ro n ly a n e as tern v oyage ,s oo ni t so u twa rd l e g av es se l wou ld mo re l i ke ly f olow t he n o r thern s ho re w es twa rd f r om Al i can te . A f r ican c oa r sewa re sf r om T in tage ls ugges tt ha t al a nd fal i nT un i s ia was a lmo s tc e r ta in e nr o u t e .S ome d e lay wou ld b el i ke ly h ere ,h oweve r ,a st he p o ss ib il i ty o f af avourab le e x i tw ind f r om T un i s ia i n May -Sep tembe ri sl e ss t han 1 0% f o r av esse l t r ave ll ing w es twa rd . T he f r equen t e as te r ly w inds ( L evan t e r ) f r om S p r ing t h rough t o Autumn ,h ow e ve r , wou ld f avour t he v oyage w e s twa rd i n to t h es t ra i t s . T he b ounda ry b etween t he Med i te r ranean wo r ld a nd t he we s te r n s ea lane s i sn o a rb i t ra ry h i s to r i ca l c on s t ruc t . Av esse ls eek ing t oe n te rt he A t lan t ic f a ce s ad i f f i c u l tv oyage a ga in s ta ni n com ing s ur face c u r ren to fa round s i x k no ts . T h i s c u r ren t i st he c on sequence o f t he s mal n umbe ro f wa tercou rses f l ow ing i n to t he Med i te r ranean , wh i ch r ep la ce l e ss t han 3 0% o ft h e amoun to f wa te rl o s t t h rough e vapo ra t ion . On t he r e turn v oyage , b o th t he c ur ren ti nt he s t ra i t sa nd a l ong t h es ou the rn s ho re o ft he Med i te r ranean wou ld a s s i s t aq u ick p a ssage h omewa rd . Once i n t he A t lan t ic , t h e p reva i l ing w ind s f r om Apr i l o nwa rd a r e n o r th -we s te r ly u n t i l o ne i sn o r th o f G al i c ia .A si nt he Med i te r ranean ,t he se t end t ob ec on s i s t e n tt h rough s umme r mon ths ,w i th t he f r equency o fg a le s a f te r Apr i lb ecom ing v ery l ow i ndeed .V i s ib i l i ty i sg ood i n s umme r mon th s ,w i th c l oud c ove ro ve rI b e r ia b e ing v i r tu a ly n on -ex i s ten t . T he c oas t i sl ow ly ing f r om n o r th o f G ranada t h rough t oG a l i c ia ,h oweve r , wh ich wou ld make r e cogn i t ion o f l a nd fals d i f f icu l t . On t he o the r h and , a v esse l mak ing al ong t a ck away f r om l a nd s t and s l i t t le d ange ro fd i so r ien ta t ion t h rough l o s ing s i gh to fc e les t ia l ma rk s . I mpo r ted Med i te r ranean p o t tery i nP or tuga l a nd wes te r n S pa in s ugges ts l and fal s i n t he v i c in i ty o f t he T agus a nd Mondega . Mo re s pec i f ic l and fal s a r en o ty e t k nown .G regory o fT ou r sa nd I s ido re o fS ev i l le a l so s ug g es t av oyage b y Ma r t in o fB raga f r om t h e Med i ter ranean t oG a l ic ia , wh ich i nt h i se ra m igh ti nd ica te e i the rt h en o r th o r we s tc oa s t so fI b er ia ,e ven p e rhaps t he Duo ro e s tua ry . No e v idence e x i s t st ha tt he v e sse l sp u ti nt os ho re a nywhere b e tween I be r ia a nd C or nwal . We h ave a l ready l ooked a tp o ten t ia lp o l i t ica lr easons f o rt h i s ,w i th B yzan t i ne i n te res t s e xc lud ing t h e F rank s . S ome ma r i t ime s up p or tf o rt h is e xc lus ion may a l so e x i s ti nt h ef a c tt ha ta ne x i t w ind f r om t he B ay o fB i scay i sb e low 3 0% l i ke l ihood f o ra v esse lt r avel ing n o r th ,a nd t he b ay i sn o to r iou sf o rs t o rm s . L oca lk now ledge i nG al i c ia p re sumab ly i n c luded a nu n d er s tand ing o ft he r ou te r equ i red t oc ross t h eB ay o fB i scay a nd o f t h e U shan t l and fal a s al a ndma rk e n r o u t e . I ti s d i f f icu l t t oi mag ine ma r iner s u nder tak ing av oyage d i r e c t ly t oB r i ta in a lt he way o u to fs i gh to fl and a nd i ti s d oub t fu lt ha ti n te l lectua lk now ledge o ft h eo r ien ta t ion o f t he l andmasses was a c cu ra te e nough t o make t h i sp o ss ib le ( s ee a bove ,2 4 ) .T he Adm i ra l ty P i lo t wa r n st ha t' The N W c oas t o f B r i t tany . . i se n cumbe red b y d anger s ' ( Hyd ro g raphe r 1 974c , 2 6 ) . T he se l i e b e tween 1 0 a nd 1 4 m i le s o f f sho re a nd c ompr i se r e e f s a nd i s lands . T he re i s ap a r t i cu la rd ange ro fb e ing s e tb yt h ef l ood t i de o n to t h es hoa l s S E o fI l e d ' Oues san t ( U shan t ) . ' The a r ea b e tween I l e d ' Ouessan ta nd t he ma in land S Ei se ncumbe red b yi s lands , 5 2

r e e f s a nd s hoa l s , wh ich i ti s i mp ruden t t o a pproach w i thou t l o ca l k now ledge ' ( Hyd rog raphe r 1 974 c , 2 15 ) . No r th o fG al i c ia t he c hances o f af a i rw ind i ns umme ra re a round 6 0% , t hough t h i sw i l lt end t ob e s ou th -we s ter ly a nd may p resen tp rob lem sf o re n te r ing t he C e l t i cS ea .F o r t he r e tu rn j ou r ney , t he c hances o f af a i r w ind a r e o n ly a round 3 0% , i n crea s ing a s o ne p ro ceeds s ou th o fC ape C o rnwa l l ,b u tt h is ,a l so ,i si nc l ined t ob e we s te r ly . Ap r ima ry l and fal i n t he T in tage l r eg ion s e e ms c e r ta in .O ther si n Mun s te r , Dy fed a nd S o me r se ta r ea l so p oss ib le . Whe the rt he se v oyages w en tf ur ther n o r th t han t he C e l t ic S ea i su nce r ta in . F ind sn o r th o ft h i sp o in ta re s c a t te red a nd may b ea t t r ibu tab le t os e conda ry d i s t r ibu t i on . T he I s les o f S c i l ly a r e aq u i te l i ke ly f i r s t l a nd fa l l . Apa r t f r om t he a r chaeo log ica l e v idence , t he r e la t ive ly weak t i da ls t ream sa round t he i s land sa nd c on s i s ten t ,i f s ha l low ,g round a round t hem c on t ra s t sw i th t h ed anger o us s hoa l s a nd g roundswel o f f C ape C or nwal . F or a v e sse lp roceed ing f r om t he s ou th -we s ti n to t he C e l t ic S ea , p rox im i ty t oC ape C or nwa l lb r ing st h ed ange ro fb e ing d r iven i n to t h eC hanne l mou th .A ga in S c i l ly i s ap re fer a b le l a nd fal . M iler h a ss ugges ted ,h oweve r ,t ha t Mun s t e r wa s al and fa l lf o rs h ips f r om t h es ou th a nd t h i s ,t oo , h a ss ome o ft h es a me a dvan tage s( M ile r1 978 -80 ,3 15 ) .I f we a l low f o rt h ep resence o f more t h an o ne s h ip w en eed n o tc on s ide rt ha tt he s ame f i rs tl a nd fa l l wa s made e ach t ime . We may d i s t ingu i sh t he ma r i t ime c i rcum s tances o f t he w e s te r n p a r t o f t he B r i s to l C h anne l f r om t h e e as t , wh ich may e xp la in t h e p ro m inence o f T in tage l i n t he d i s t r ibu t ion . We s to fP ads tow ,L undy a nd S tG ovan st he t i da ls t ream sa r ei nf luenced b yt he s e to ft he t i de i n to t he S tG eo rge 's C hanne l .T he Ad m i ra l ty P i lo ta l so wa rns t ha t b e tween C ape C o rnwal a nd Har t land P o in t : Ag round swe l l i su sua l ly p resen ta nd t h i s r ende r s t he c oas t =su i tab le f o ra nchor ing a nd makes a cce s st ot he s ma l li n le t sa nd h a rbou r sd i f f icu l ta nd ,a tt ime s ,i mprac t i cab le ( Hydrog raphe r1 974b ,2 7 ) .

T he P i lo ta dv i ses t ha t' Land c an s a f e ly b e made b e tween Ha r t land a nd T revo se '( Hyd rog raphe r1 974b ,3 1 ) ,t hough w e s hou ld n o te t ha t t h is i sp a r t ly o n a ccoun t o f t he p re sence o f modern l i gh thouses . T he P i lo t a l so r e com mends t ha tT revo se H ead ( 7 1 me t re s )i s ag ood l a nd fal , o na c coun to fi t sd i s t inc t ive p ro f i le ( Hyd rog raphe r1 974b , 2 7 &3 1 ) .I ng ood wea the rt h i si sv i s ib le f r om a round 1 5 1 8 n au t ica l m i le s . T he s ur round ing c oun try i sl ower , c aus ing i tt os t and o u t .T he h ead land so ft he R ump sa nd T in tage la r ea l so d i s t inc t ive .T he P i lo tf u r ther h igh l igh ts T in tage lc hurch a s al andma rk ( Hyd rog rapher 1 974b ,3 3 ) . Wh i le t h ep re sen tc hu rch i so n ly h igh med ieva li nd a te , w e s hou ld n o te t he e v iden ce f o r e a rl i e r a c t iv i ty o n t he s ame s i te ,e spec ialy t he s eem ing b u r ia lg round f r om t he 1 990 e xcava t ion s( Novakows ld a nd T homas 1 990 ,4 &1 3 ) . A long t h i s s t re tch o f c oas t t he s wel s e ts v esse l s SW t owa rd t he l and ,b u tt h ei nf luence o fg roundswel s e ems t ob el e ss t h rea ten ing . Al o ft h i sd oe st a l ly i n te re s t ing ly w i th t h es e em ing s e lec t ion o fT in tage la s ama jo rl a nd fa l l . We s hou ld a l so t ake n o te o fS i rR icha rd G renv i l le 's p o s i t i ve a s se ssmen to ft he a ncho rage :

C hap t er F our : T he M ed i t er ranean a nd t h eA t lan t ic

t h i sb aye i sa l lf aye rs andy g rounde g ood t oa nco ri na nd t hear i sn eue rl e sse t hen f i ve f a thom so f wa te ra tt he b es te e bbe , s hepes may r yed h e re a l l wynde s e xsep t t he n o r thewes t( Thoma s1 988d ,4 6 ) .

T he s hoa l s1 2m i les N W o fC ape C o rnwal wou ld r equ i re aw ide b e r th . On l e av ing S c i l ly , s oon a f te rh igh wa te r , a v esse l wou ld f a ce at i da ls t ream s e t t ing E .a tf i r s t( +0130 —+0530 D over ) a nd t hen NE . ( +0600 — 0 500 ) . Wo rk ing t he t i de s wou ld t hus b en ecessa ry a l ong t h i s s t re t ch . A t t u rn o ft i de av e sse lh ead ing e a s t may f a ce aSW ( 0430 — 0 030 ) t i de ( Hydrog raphe r 1 974d ) . A t2 . 5 k no t s S c ily t o P ads tow wou ld t ake a round 2 4h ou r s . We c anno td i sce rn whe the rv oyages a l ong t h is r ou te wou ld h ave t r aveled i n s t age s ,s t opp ing i na tl a nd o ve rn igh t ,o r wou ld h ave t aken t he NE s e to ft he t i de t oa ch ieve a no f f ing a nd n o tp u ti n a ga in u n t i le as t o fP ad s tow . T he p re sence o f Med i te r ra n ean p o t te ry i n t he b ay s o f P ad s tow a nd S tI ves m igh t i mp ly l a nd fals a tt hese p o in t s .T he se ,o n ly s u r face f i nd ss o f a r , may b es e conda ry r ed i s t r ibu t ion s ,h owever ,p e rhaps f r om T in tage li t se l f . T he i mpo r ted Med i ter ranean wa res a re ,a nyway ,s ou b iqu i tou sa l ong t h is c oa s tt ha tt h ere a re many s i te s wh ich may o r may n o tb e p r ima ry s t opp ing p lace s . On t h eo ther h and ,i twou ld b en a ive t oa s sume t ha t a l ls uch s i te s we re p r ima ry s t opp ing p o in t sf o r ma r ine r s w i thou t l o ca l k now ledge . F u r the r f i nd s w i l l h ope fu l ly c l ar i fy t h ep i cture . We s hou ld n o te ,h owever ,t ha tb o th t he ma jo r h a rbour s o n t h i s c oa s t a r e e ncumbe red b y s hoa l s a nd g roundswe l l wh ich , wh i le t h e i r s i ze r ender s t h em v a luab le a s h a rbour s t oday , may n o t h ave made t h em a t t rac t ive t oe a r ly med ieva lv e sse l s ,a pa r tf r om l o ca lt r a f f i c . T he em inence t ot h en o r th o fS tI ves h a s amed ieva l c hape l ,p robab ly o ft he ' b eacon 't ype ( s ee a bove ,1 7 ) ,b u t i ti sn o te s tabl i shed whe ther t he re wa se a rl i e ra c t iv i ty o n t h is h il . T he re i sad ange ro fa t t r ibu t ing ad e term in i s tr o le t o s imp le ma r i t ime f a c to r s ,w i thou tk now ledge o ft he ma r i n er s ' a c tua lr e spec tf o rs uch f a c to r s . T he i ri nf luen ce i na c ase s u ch a st h i s ,h oweve r , whe re t h e ma r ine r sa r ep rob a b ly f o re ign t ot he r eg ion ,i s ,a cco rd ing ly ,l i ke ly t ob ev ery h igh . We mus ts uppo se t ha t av e s se lf r om a broad mak ing f o rT in tage lp robab ly d id n o td os oa c c iden taly ,h ence a l o ca lp i lo t( ob ta ined i nS c i l ly? ) o rs ome l o ca lk now ledge may h ave b een i nvo lved . A tt h i sp o in tw e mu s ta sk : d id t he s h ip c o me t oT in tage l b ecau se i t wa s a cces s ib le , o r b ecau se i twas ad i s t r ibu t ion p o in tf o rt he d e s i red p rod u c t ?I ft h ed e s i red p roduc t wa st i n ,o ne p resumes i tc ou ld h ave b een o b ta ined e l sewhere o nt h ec oa s t .T he s ca t te ro f f i nds o f Med i ter ranean i mpor t s a l ong b o th c oa s t s a l so s ugge s t st ha tt he s h ips 'c a rgoe sc ou ld h ave f ound ar e cep t i ve ma rke te l sewhe re . Ac omb ina t ion o ff a c tor si sl i ke ly t o b er e spon s ib le ,i n wh ich t h e ma r i t ime c onven ience o ft he s i te ,a lmo s te n t i re ly d i scoun ted b ys cho la r sh ip ,i sl i ke ly t o h ave b een ama jo rf a c to r . T homa s ' map o fd i s t r ibu t ion sf r om p u ta t ive c en t re s i nt he B r i s to l Channe li s mos t ly v e ry c onv inc ing ( Thoma s 1 988a , 1 7 ) . T in tage li sa ni n escapab le c ho ice . T he re mu s t a l so b e l i t t le q ue s t ion t ha t a l l t h e S ome r se t f i nd s a r e d i s tr ibu t ion s f r om t he n or th c oa s t , w i th t he q uan t i t ies f r om C ong resbu ry mak ing al and fal i nt he Y eo e s tua ry . T he p rox im i ty o ft h i sp o in tt oG lamo rgan ,h oweve r , make s

q ue s t ionab le whe ther t here wou ld n eed t ob e as epa ra te p rog re ss t ot ake i nD ina sP owy s . A tt h i sp o in t we may n o te t ha t ap r ima ry v oyage t o t h e s ou th -we s ti sa l lt ha t may b e t aken f o r g ran ted . T he c on t ra s tb e tween t he n or the rn a nd s ou the r no ccu r rence s w i th in t h e I r i sh S ea b as in i sc on s ide rab le . Nor th o f a Dub l in/Gwynedd l i ne ,t he wa re so ccu re xc lus ive ly u pon s i te s wh ich a r ep ol i t ica l ly i nt he h ighe s tc a tegory : Wh i tho rn , I ona , Dumba r ton a nd C loghe r . I nC ornwa l l , t he c on tex t c an b e mo re h umb le : t he v ery sma l l e n c losed s i te o f T re thu rgy a nd c a sua lf i nds s uch a sa tS tM ichae lC a rhayes , S tI ve s a nd P ad s tow a re n o t u ncommon . T h i s p e rhaps d im in i she st h el i ke l ihood o f av oyage n o r th o f Dub l in ,a nd l i ke ly e nough o f av oyage n or th o fC ornwa l l . Whe re g oods a r e u b iqu i tou s f i nds t h is s ugge s t s ar eady a va i lab il i ty . Whe re o n ly v e ry h igh s t atus s i tes a re i np o ssess ion o fs uch g oods ,t h ec a rgoe si nq ues t ion may b es ma l le rs ca le . Mo re w il b es a id a bou tt hese s i tes a nd t he i rc on tex ti nI r i sh S ea t r a f f ic i nC hap te rS even , whe re c ompa r i son sw i th Ewa re a nd g l a ss d i s t r ibu t ion s may b eb rough tt ob ea r . T he s c a le o fp o t te ry f i nd si nB r i ta in a nd I r e land i s n ow s u f f ic ien t t o make t he s i ng le s h ip t heo ry u n l ike ly , t hough mo re t han af ew y ea r so fa c t iv i ty wou ld a l so s eem u n l ike ly . T h i sw il b ed i scu s sed f ur the rb e low .T he mo s t s a t i s fac tory mode l wou ld b e af ew s h ips o ver af ew y ea r s , maybe t h es ame s h ip v i s i t ing af ew t ime s ,o r af ew s h ips a t o ne v i s i t . T he re i s ag rea t d ea l mo re t ob e l e a rn t a bou t t h i s e p i sode i ns i x th -cen tu ry ma r i t ime e xchange . We s hou ld n o te t he f olow ing l i ke ly c onc lu s ion s :t ha tt h ev oyage s( we a r es a fe s ti na s sum ing more t han o ne )w e re as ho r t l ived e p i sode o fd i re c tc on tac tb e tween t he e a s tern Med i te r ra n ean a nd w es te r nB r i ta in ,e xc lus ive o fw e s te rn G au l .T he c auses r ema in amys te ry ,b u tt he v oyages d oe x tend k nown d i s t r ibu t ion so fe a s te r ng oods i nt he we s te r n Med i te r ra n ean a nd c on tempora ry d i scou r se s hows B r i ta in , r a ther t han G au l , may h ave p reoccup ied B yzan t ine i n te re s t s . T he h i s to r ica li mpor tance o ft he t r a f f ic ( e spec ialy i ne s tabl i sh ing a r chaeo log i ca lc h rono logy ) may n o tl i ei n i th av ing a ny i n te rven t ion i s tr o le i nc u l tu ra ld eve lop men t . V ague c h rono log ica lp a rale l sa r es ome t i mes made wh i ch h in ta t ad es i re t os how as t ronger p hy s i ca li mpac ta tt he B r i t i sh e nd t han i sr ealy p o ss ib le o rn ece ssary .S uch c a ses i n c lude : a s so c ia t ions w i th t he s pread o f monas t ic i sm ( Hase lo f f1 987 ,4 5 ) ;b ubon ic p lague ( Mor r is 1 965 , 1 45 -85 : B r i t i sh a nd I r i sh o u tbreak sa r e ,h oweve r ,o n ly r e co rded i n c h ron ic les wh i ch a re l i ke ly t o b e d e r iva t ive o f f o re ign s ources : Mor ta l i tas Magna i n q ua p au sa t Ma i lcun r e x G ene todae ,A nna l e s C ambr i ae s . a . 5 49 ,e d . Mor r i s 1 978 ,8 5 ; Mor t a l i ta s m agna i n q ua i s t i p au san t . . . , AU s . a . 5 49 , e d . MacN ioca i l l a nd Mac A i r t 1 983 , 7 6 -7 ) a nd e ven l eprous h uman b ones o ff r om T ean , i nS c ily ( Thomas 1 985 , 1 98 ; H a r t1 989 ,2 61 -9 ) .O ft h el a t te r , wh ich h ave b een t aken a s t h er ema in so fa na ctua lt r avele rf r om t he Med i te r ranean , w e s hou ld n o te , c on t r a T homa s , t ha t l e prosy wa s n o t n ecessa r i ly c on f ined t o t he Med i te r ranean i n t he s i x th c en tu ry ( AU s . a .5 7 1 ,e d . MacN ioca i l la nd Mac A ir t ,1 983 , 8 6 -7 ;P ea te ,1 974 -6 ,3 61 -3 ;G rego ry o fT ou rs ,D eV i r tu t ibu s S anc t i Mar t in iI . 11 ,e d .K ru sch 1 885b ,1 46 ;C onc i l i a G a l l ia e A .5 11 -A695 ,e d .d eC le rcq 1 963 , 1 56 ,2 33 ) .

5 3

C ommun ica t ion a nd C ommer ce a long t h e W e s tern S ea lane s AD400 -800

T he d e s i re t o s ee t he se l ong -d i s tan ce l i nk s a s e x p la in ing t he s pread o f Ch r i s t ian c u l ture , wou ld s eem t o b eg f a r mo re i mpo r tan tq ue s t ions t han i ta n swe rs . Ne i the r t he a ppea ran ce ,n or d i sappea rance ,o ft h e se l i nk ss hou ld b ei na ny way a t t r ibu ted w i th ama jo ri mpac tu pon s oc ie ty o re conomy ,i nv i ew o ft he i rp o ten t ialy l im i ted n a tu re .A t b es tt hey d i s suade u sf r om s e e ing B r i ta in a nd t he e a s te rn Med i te r ranean a sr ea l ly wo r ld sa pa r t ,b u tt oa t t r ibu te t o t hem ama jo rr o le i nt he s pread o fc u l tu re ,e ven i ft hey we re much mo re s ubs tan t ia l , i st oi mp ly af o rm o fc a rgo c u l t mode lf o rt h es pread o fb el i e f —a si fmomen ta ry c omme r c i a ll i nk sb e tween t wo s u i tab le r eg ion sw e re e xp lana t ion e nough o ft h ep roces s . T homa s ' si d ea t ha tt h ec r o ss in sc r ibed d i she sp layed ar o le i ns pread ing c ro ss form si smo re s uppo r tab le ,a st he k nown u se o fi mpor ted d i she s o ve r ap er iod o f t ime i s wha t wou ld b er equ i red ,n o tt he h ypo the t ica lp resence o f c u l tu ra lp ra c t i t ioner s .C on t r a Ha se lo f f ,h oweve r , we s hou ld n o tp lace t oo much empha s i s o n t h e c on tac t s a sh av ing p o ten t ia lt od a te t he s pread o fl e ss t ang ib le a r t is t ic i nf lu e nce s( Hase lo f f1 987 ,4 5 ) ,h oweve rs a t is fy ing t he c h rono l og i ca lc ompa r i son s may s eem . T he s i x th -cen tu ry i mpo r t s p rov ide a n i n terpre ta t i ve p rob lem wh ich mos t ly a r i ses f r om c on fu s ion a st ot h e t ype s o f i n fo rma t ion p rov ided b y a r chaeo logy a nd h i s t o ry . A s ar e la t ive ly s e cu re ly d a teab le , s ho r t te rm e xo t ic i mpo r tg roup , t h e Med i te r ranean wa re sc on s t i tu te as i g n if i can td a tum f o r ar eg ion wh ich ,i nt he a b sence o fc o in s , h as ar e la t ive ly i n secu re a r chaeo log ica lc h rono logy i nt he e a r ly med ieva lp e r iod .I nt h i sw e may c ompa re i t sr o le t o t ha tp layed b yR oman p er iod a r te fac t si nt h es e t t ing u po f c h rono log ie s i nI nd ian a nd A f r ican a r chaeo logy . T he se wa res c anno th ave p layed a ny ma jo rr o le i nt he e conomy o fB r i ta in a nd I r e land .G i ldas 's r e fe rence ( a bove ,2 5 )t oa p as t i n wh i ch w ine a nd o i l w e re l uxu r ie s wh ich were b rough ta l ong t h e S evern may r e fe rt ot h ee ven t s wh i ch b rough ti nt he Med i ter ranean wa re s , o rj u s t a s l i ke ly t o e ven t s l ong p a s t . E ven s o , t h e v a lue o ft h ese i mpor t s a s a r i s toc ra t ic s y mbo l s o f R oman i t a s , e ven i fc on s iderab le mus ter ing o fl o ca l r e sou r ces wa s made t oe xchange f o r t hem , wa sp robab ly j u s tt ha t : a ss y mbo l so n ly . T ha t am p ho rae were t r an spo r ted c on s ide rab le d i s tances t or oya l s i te si n land ,s uch a sC loghe r ,C a she la nd C adbu ry ,i nn o way d e t rac t sf r om s uch amode l .T he a c t iv i ty wou ld s t i l l h ave o n ly e n r i ched o rd ep le ted t he c o f fe r so f af ew i nd i v idua l s . S uch ac onc lu s ion d oes n o te n t i re ly v ind ica te t ho se c r i t ics who h ave o b se rved t ha t t oo much a t ten t ion h a s b een g iven t o t h e i mpo r t s ( Gr i f f i th s 1 992b ; H i l l 1 992a ) . W i thou tt he i mpo r t sa sd iagno s t ic a r te fac t s we wou ld n o t h ave mo s to ft h ea r chaeo log i ca le v idence wh i ch w ep o s s e ss f o re a r ly med ieva le conomy o nt he s ho re so ft he I r i sh S ea — tha ti s , we wou ld n o tb ec onv inced t ha t ag ood d ea l o fi twa se a r ly med ieva li nd a te . T he r ea lp rob lem i st he f a lse e quat ion t ha ts e es a r chaeo log i ca le v iden ce a sp r ima r i ly e v idence o fs e t t lemen ta nd e conomy . Ob jec t ss uch a s t he amphora s t oppe ro fe a s te r n Med i ter ranean t ype ,i m med ia te ly r e cogn i sab le f r om c ompa r i son sw i th B a ss 's Y a s s i Ada r epo r t ,h ave b een o ver looked i nB r i ta in b ecause o fa t endency t os l o ti mpor t s i n to a' r e sou rce/raw ma te r ia l/

5 4

r ed is t r ibu t ion ' p a rad igm , i n wh ich t h e ' r ewo rk ing ' o f a r te fac t sf o rr ed i st r ibu t ion i st he g ove rn ing a s sump t ion o f f i nd c l as s if i ca t ion . T h i s a pproach , wh ich h a s e ven more s eve re ly h a mpe red t he s t udy o f' Me rov ing ian 'g l ass ( s ee b e low , 8 4 f f ) , h a s d ownp layed t he e v idence t ha t who le v es se l si nt he i ro r ig ina lc omp le ted s t a te a r r ived o ns i tes ,a s i tc l ashe sw i th t h ed e s i re t os ee v a lue -added e xchange .T he ampho ra s t oppe r wa s' r eworked ' ,b u ti nt he e a s tb e f or et he ampho ra w as f i l led t os end t ot he w e s t . T he p ecul ia r i t ie so ft h i se ps iode a r eh e igh tened b y t he f a c t t ha t a ny p o ss ib ly a ssoc ia ted i mpor t s a r e s o f a r s mal i n n u mbe r . T he e a s tern Med i te r ranean o r ig in o f g l a ss f r agmen t s f r om T in tage l awa i t s d e ta i led p roo f . A c en se r o f c a s t c oppe r a l loy f r om G la s tonbu ry h a s b een n o ted a sb e ing o fd e f in i te e as tern Med i ter ranean o r ig in ( Rah tz 1 991 ,3 3 ) ,b u ts uch f i nds a re f ew a nd f a rb e tween . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o fs i x th -cen tury Med i ter ranean p o t te ry , where f ound i nB r i ta in ,I r e land a nd P o r tuga l ,i sa sc l o se t o i nd ica t ing a t yp ica l ' h i s to r ic ' e ven t a s a r chaeo logy c an c ome .I ti s ,f i r s t ly ,a ni n t ru s ive o u tl i e ro f an ew ,b u ts hor t l i ved ,B yzan t ine p resen ce i nt he wes t .S econd ly ,i t sc on tex t i nB r i ta in a nd I r e land i s mo s t ly o nv e ry h igh s t a tus s i tes , mo re s o t han i st he c ase f o r t he l a te r i mpor t s . F u l fo rd 's a t temp t st ol o ca te i ti nt h ec on tex to fh i s to r ica le v idence f o r B yzan t ine i n te res t i n t h e A t lan t ic a r e h ence f a r more a ppropr ia te t han c on t inued a t temp t st oc r ea te al ong term f l oru i tf o rt h e wa re so nt h eb a s i so ft he v a r ie ty p re sen t ,o r a t temp t st oa t t r ibu te t ot h e' e conomy 'o ft he i mpo r t sa ny r o le i ns oc ia lo rp o l i t ica lc hange .T ha tt h ec on tac t s wh ich b rough ti nt he i mpor t s may h ave h ad ap o l i t ica lr o le i sa n e n t i re ly s epa ra te ma t te r— so f a ru np roven ,b u t wo r thy o f f u r the rc on s ide ra t ion .

C hap ter F ive

G au la nd t he We s te rn S ea lane si nt he S ix th C en tu ry

I tc an p robab ly b e a s sumed t ha t m ig ran t p opu la t ion s a l ong t h e we s tern s ea lane sh ad c on sol ida ted t he i rs e t t le men t sa nd l e ssened t he i rp i ra t ica la c t iv i ty b ye a r ly i nt h e s i x th c en tury .T he c onque s to ft he Aqu i ta ine b yt he F rank s , i n5 07 , wou ld h ave f a c i l i ta ted F rank i sh n ava lc on t ro lo ft h e c oas t s o f B r i t tany a nd o f t he S axon s e t t lemen t s i n t h e B e ss in a nd L o i re -A t lan t ique r eg ion s . F rank i sh c on t ro li n w e s tern G au ld oub t les sa l so a c coun t sf o rt h ea ppea rance o fd i rec t ma r i t ime c on tac t sb e tween wes te rn G au la nd t h e C hanne lp o r ts .T he t ake -ove ro fs ou th -we s tG au lf r om t h e V i s igo th sb yt he F rank s may f o r at ime h ave d im in i shed l i nk s b e tween t ha t r eg ion a nd S pa in , whe re V i s igo th ic c on t ro l r ema ined . We c anno t b e s u re h ow much s uch p ol i t i ca lc hange a f fec ted c omme r ce , t hough w e may o b s e rve t ha ts i x th c en tury r e ference s t o ma r i t ime l i nk sb e t ween w e s tern G au la nd S pa in a r e mos t ly i nt h ec on tex to f p ol i t ica l e xchange c on ce rn ing t h e G al i c ian S uev i , who w e re u nder t h rea tf r om t h e i r Go th i cn e ighbou r s .T h i s may h ave e n cou raged a s pec ia l l i nk b e tween S uev ic G al i c ia a nd F rank i sh G au l o n t h e c omme rc ia l f r on t . A f te r t h e S ueves w e re c onque red ,l a te i nt h e5 00 s ,s uch d i rec t ma r i t ime l i nk s s eem t o d i sappea r f r om t h e r e co rd . I n t h e s even th c en tury ,o ve r land c on tac to f am il i ta ry n a tu re i sa l t ha ti smen t ioned i ns ou r ce ss uch a st he C hr on i c l eo fF r ed eg a r ( e .g .I V .5 ,I V .10 & L XX I I I ,e d . Wa l lace -Hadr i 1 11960 ,5 , 8& 6 0 -62 ) . A round t h i s t ime , i mpor t so fp a l& chr g t ienne g r i s e p o t tery a nd o fG aul i sh l a p ida ry f o rmu lae o fv e ry d i s t inc t i ve t ype ,s ugge s ti mpor tan tc on t inen ta ll i nk s , wh i ch p re c ede t h e s ubs tan t ia l f l ou r i sh ing o f G au l i sh l i nk s , more I r e land fo cused ,i nt he s even th c en tury . Whe re w e may b e c l ea ro nt h ec omme rc ia lc on ten to ft he l a t te r ,h oweve r ,w e c anno tb es os u re t ha tt r ade wa st h eb ackd rop t ot h es i x th c en tu ry v oyage s . T he A t l an t i cO r i en ta t ion o fW e s t e rn G au li nt h eS i x th C en tury T he i n secu r i ty o ft h e we s te r nc oas t s o fG au li nt he f i f th c en tu ry , i nt he f a ce o f p i racy a nd m ig ra t ion , may h ave made t h ec oas ta lp o r t sa nd i s land s s ome th ing o fa ne co n om i c b ackwa te r . A s w e h ave s e en , t hough t h e re a r e r epo r t so fn ava la c t iv i ty ,t h ere i sn o men t ion o f ma r i t ime t r ade . I nt h e s i x th c en tu ry h oweve r , w i th w e s tern G au l u nde r F rank ish d om ina t ion , w e s ee c omme r ce i n t h e c oa s ta lt owns a nd t r ave lf r om t h ec oa s ta lp o r t st oo f f sho re i s land sa nd f o re ign l ands . T he o f fsho re i s lands may h ave b een p i ra te b a ses i n t h ef i f th c en tury a nd t h i si sc e r ta in ly t r ue o ft hose a round

Ange r s where t he S axon s h ad c o lon ies ( s ee a bove , 3 0 ) . T hese S axon s e t t lemen t s may h ave p e r s i s ted i n ad i s t inc t f o rm i nt he s i x th c en tu ry , a sG rego ry o fT our s s eems t o h ave b een p a t ron t o ag roup o nt h eL o i re i n5 84 ( HFV I I I .18 , e d .K rusch 1 885a ,4 02 ) .I ns ome c a ses i s land s we re c en tre s f o r p roduc t ion . L euda s t , t he r ebe l c oun t o f T our s , wa s b or no na n =iden t i f ied i s land i nP o i tou c a l led G rac ina , whe re v ineya rd s w e re t ended . I n t he s even th c entury s o me o ft h ei s lands w e re t oh ou se mona s te r ie s , No i rmou t ie r f o re xamp le , wh ich wa sa l so ac omme rc ia lo rp roduc t ion c en t re ( s ee b e low ,6 7 ) . A round 5 70 Wa roch , t h e c oun t o f B r i t tany , wa s s h ipw recked wh i le t r y ing t o s a i l f r om V annes t o t he o f f sho re i s lands a round t he c oa s to f Mo rb ihan ( s ee a bove , 2 0 ) . Wa roch e s caped ,b u tw i th l o ss o fc argo .T h i se p isode make sc l ear t h ee a sy a va i lab i l i ty o fs h ips i np o r t si na nd a round B r i t tany . We c anno ta s sume t h e se w e re a l l' Gau l ish ' . T he p rox im i ty o fS axon sa nd B re ton st o Nan te sa nd S a in te s c ou ld h ave made s h ips o ft h ese p eop le sa va i lab le t oc ar ry c a rgoe s , e spec ialy i ft he ma r i t ime S axon s h ad a lway s r el ied o n ma r i t ime a c t iv i ty f o rb a s i cc ommun ica t ion . T he c l asses o f c era m ics k nown a s s i g i l l6es p a l go ch e ienne s o f f e r s o me p o in te r s t o t he g eog raph ica l p a t tern o ft he s eabo rne a nd r i ve rt r a f f i ci na nd o u to ft he p or t s o fs i x th - a nd s even th -cen tury G au l . T he se a r e f i ne o range wa res a nd b l ack -wa shed g rey wa res f ound i n F rance i nf i f th - t h rough s even th -cen tury c on tex t s . T hey a re a l so f ound i nw es te rn B r i ta in , where f i nds o ft he wa re a re g ene ra l ly l a beled ' D wa re '( Thoma s1 981b ,1 9 -20 ) ,a nd i ni n crea s ing n umbe r si nS pa in . On F rench s i tes t h er ange o f f o rm s i n c lude s b ow l s , s ha l low d i she s , mo r ta r ia a nd p i tche r s( bow l s ,d i she sa nd mo r tar ia a re f ound i ni n su la r c on tex t s ) .D eco ra t ion r ange sf r om e l abo ra te s t amped f l ow e r s a nd h a tch ing , t o v ery s imp le s co red l i ne s . S evera l ma jo r g roups o ft h e wa re a r e i s o la ted , t hough t he wa re d oes n o ty e th ave af u l ly r e f ined c h rono logy .T h ree b as ic G au l i sh g roups a re d e f ined b yt he R igo i r sa s' Languedoc ' , ' P rovença l 'a nd ' A t lan t ic '( R igo i r sa nd Me f f re 1 973 ) . T he L anguedo cg roup h a s av e ry much h ighe rp ropo r t ion o f o range v e sse l s( a bou t5 0% )t han t h eo the rt wo a nd t hese , i nc on junc t ion w i th t h ep re sence o fp a lm s t amps a nd o the r mo t i f s f r om A f r ica , h ave l ed Haye s t os ugges t t ha t t h is g roup i st h ee a r l ies ta nd ad i rec td er iva t ive o f ARS ( Hayes 1 972 ,4 02 -4 ) .L e ss t han 1 0% o ft he P rovença la nd A t lan t ic g roups a r eo range wa re sa nd t h i s ,a l ong w i th t h es pread o f s t amped d eco ra t ion t ot h es i des o ft he p o t ,a nd ag ene ra l ly f i f th -cen tu ry a nd l a te rh o r izon ,h as l e d Haye st op u tt hese

5 5

C ommun ica t ion a nd C ommer ce a l ong t h e W es te rn S ea lane s AD400 -800

a tt he e nd o f al i ne o fd e scen tf r om t he L anguedoc g roup ( Haye s1 972 ,4 02 f f ) . On t h i sb a s i s ,t he A t lan t ic g roup may b et he l a te s ti nd eve lopmen ta nd t h i si sc on s i s ten tw i th t he c h rono logy o f wes tern G aul i sh s i tes a sc u r ren t ly k nown ( Rando in 1 981 , 1 03 -112 ) . T he A t lan t ic g roup i so f mo s t i n te res tt ot he p resen ts t udy . I ti su n reso lved wh ich c en t r e s a c tua l ly p roduced t h e A t lan t ic g roup . T he R igo i r s f avou rB o rdeaux ( R igo i r sa nd Me f f re 1 973 ,2 07 f f ) ,b u tt h i s i sq ue s t ioned b y F rench s cho la r s ( S an t ro t , p e r s . c omm . ) . T he re a re a l so l o ca lv a r ian t s ,f o re xamp le i nt he T ou ra ine ( Rando in ,p e r s . c omm . ) . T he d i s t inc t ion b e tween t he A t lan t ic a nd t h eo the r p a l g o chr f i enne c e ram ic g roups a rgues f o r al a ck o fe asy e xchange o ve r t he Aude -Garonne wa te r shed — though t he i ndus t ry s p reads a ts o me p o in t , t he a c tua l wa re s a r e n o t c a r r ied a c ross t he wa ter shed . T he A t lan t ic g roup i s a ppo s i te ly n amed ,a si ti sf ound i n ac oa s ta ld i s t r ibu t ion a nd u p t h e r i ver s o f w e s tern G au l . I ts preads i n to t h e C hanne l ,f r om whe re i ti sf ound a tR ouen ,a nd t oB r i ta in , where a l l t he k nown f i nds a re o f t he A t lan t ic g roup ( Rando in 1 981 ,2 11 ) .C ampbel wou ld h in ta tt he p resence o fr eg iona l v a r ian t s f r om we s tern G au l , b u t t h i s i sa s a c av e a t ,n o to nt he b a s i so fa c tua li den t i f ica t ion s( Campbe l l 1 994 ) . J ame s ( 1 980 ,2 37 -8 )h a s mus tered t he s t ronge s ta r g umen t sf o rt he d ec l ine i no ver land t r a f f ic t h rough we s t er nG au lt ot he A t lan t i c , wh ich h et en ta t ive ly wou ld d a te t o a round 5 07 ( t he B a t t le o f V ou i l le ) . I n p ar t icu la r h e c oncen t ra te su pon t he s pread o fs t one s a rcophag i( J ames 1 977 , 2 34 f f ) , wh ich c e r ta in ly r ep resen t t he s or t s o fb u lk o b jec t s wh ich a r eu n l ike ly t ob ec a r r ied b yp r iva te ,l i gh t w e igh tt r a f f ic . T he d a t ing o ft hese o b jec t si ss t i l le qu ivo c a l— i t n o t b e ing c e r ta in whe ther t hey a r e f i f th o r s i x th c en tury i n d a te . J ame s ' a rgumen t s , t hough c onv inc ing , d epend h eav i ly u pon t ypo log ica lc r i ter ia .T he s ou th -wes t G au l i sh s a rcophag i , wha tever t he i r d a te , c e r ta in ly i nd i c a te ad eve lop ing d i s t r ibu t ion p rov ince f o cu sed o n t h e s eas . E xamp les wen t b o th t hrough B ordeaux a nd Narbonne ,b u tt he d i s t r ibu t ion s a r ec l ea r ly i n land a l ong t he r i ver v aley s f r om t h e s ea a nd n o t o ver land ( J ame s 1 980 ,2 29 f f ) .T he s ame p a t tern i ss een i nt h ed i s t r ibu t ion o f t he c ap i ta l so fP y renean ma rb le wh i ch ,l i ke t he s a rcophag i , o n ly h ave al im i ted d i s t r ibu t ion o u t s ide t he Aqu i ta ine a nd Narbonne ,b u ts pread b y s ea t o Nan te s a nd t ot h eS e ine ( J ame s 1 977 ,2 36 ) . J ame s wou ld c on c lude t ha tp ak ochr f i enne g r i s ef i nd s s uppor t t h i s p a t tern . R ecen t r e sea rch b yJ a cques L apa r t a nd t he R igo i r s ,h oweve r ,h a si nd ica ted t ha tf i nds i nt he G er s d epa r tmen t , r ough ly e qu id i s tan t a l ong t h i s r ou te f r om t h e Med i te r ranean a nd t he A t lan t i c , i n c lude e xam p les f r om b o th g roups ( Lapa r ta nd R igo i r s1 986 , 11 -24 ) . Wh i le ,a st h ey o bserve ( Lapa r ta nd R igo i r s1 986 ,1 23 ) ,t h i s mus t mod i fy J ames 'c onc lus ion s ,i td oes n o td emon s t ra te o ve r land c om mun ica t ion b e tween t h e t wo s eas . At o ta l e xc lu s ion o ft r a f f ic a l ong t h i sr ou te i sn o tl i ke ly : al a ck o f t h rough t r a f f ic i sd emon s t ra ted . At e r r i to ry m idway b e t ween b o th s eas w i l l r e ce ive g oods f r om b o th . B u t t h e o ccupan ts o ft he s ho re s d o n o tr e ce ive g oods f r om e ach o the r . Al o ft he a bove s t i l ld oes n o te xp la in t he a bsence o f d own the l ine c ommer ce ,b u tt he re i sn o t much i nd i ca t ion 5 6

t ha tt h rough t ra f f ic e x is ted .T h rough t ra f f ic wa so ccur r ing i ne a s tF ranc ia . Why n o th ere t hen ?I fc e ram ics c ou ld r each t h e D epa r tmen t d u G e r s f r om b o th d i rec t ion s , i t wa s p hy s i caly p o ss ib le f o rd own the l ine e xchange t oo ccu r . T he s o r t s o f p ol i t ica l b ounda r ie s p o s tu la ted b y J ame s m igh t mo re r e s t r ic tt he move men to fl a rge o b jec t ss uch a s s a r cophag i t han t he e xchange o f l i gh twe igh t c e ram ics t hough , a so bse rved a bove , t he b ronze b ow ls a nd o the r l i gh twe igh te a s te rn Med i ter ranean o b jec t s mov ing n o r th w a rd a l ong t he R h ine c o r r idor ( We rne r1 961 ,3 07 -46 ) d o n o t make t h e i rw ay o ve rt he wa te r shed t o wes te r nG au l ( J ame s1 980 ,2 39 ) . We r n e r 's s tudy o ft h ev a lues o fc o in si n e a s te r n a nd we s tern F ranc ia may b e s i gn i f ican t i n t h i s r ega rd ( We r n er 1 961 ;J ames 1 988 ,2 0O f f ) . Werne rh as p ro p osed amode lf o rt he u se o fc u r ren cy i ns ou th a nd wes t F ran c ia wh i ch s uppo se s af a ce v a lue f o rt he e xchange o f c u r ren cy ,a so ppo sed t oe a s tF ranc ia , whe re c o in wa su sed p r ima r i ly a sb ul ion .T he a rgumen tr e s t su pon ad i s t r ibu t i ona ls t udy o fm in ts ,w i th t he a dd i t iona li nd ica to ro ft he p resence o fb a lances a sg rave f i nd s .T he p resence o fb a l a n ce sa l one i sc o mmone s ti nG e rmany ,E ng land a nd t he P y renee s .I nt he a rea e a s to ft he S e ine a nd i nt he A lps t h e p ropo r t ion o f b a lances i ss t i l l h igh . Wes t o f t h e S e ine , h oweve r , t h e n umbe r o fm in t s i n c rea se s , b u t o n ly o ne b a lance h a sb een f ound . A t t he v e ry l e as t t h i s e v idence i nd ica te s s ome e conom ic , a s wel a sp ol i t ica l , d i f ference b e tween w e s te r n a nd e a s tern G au l . I f ,f o r e xamp le , e x c hange i nc u r rency wa s more r e s t r i c ted i n wes te r nG au l t h i s wou ld b e ac on s ide rab le r ea son f o rt h ee s tab l i shmen t o fl o ca lc e ram ic i ndus t r ie s ,r a ther t han d i rec te xchange f o r c e ram i cs manu fac tu red e l sewhere .I fe xchange s y s tem si n e a s t F ranc ia d epended o n we igh t v a lue o f c u r rency i t m igh tb en atu ra lt ha tw e s tern G au l i sh c o mmer ce l ooked i nwa rd . Wes te rn G au la l so e xchanged w i th we s te r nB r i t a i na nd I r e land ,b u tt hose r eg ion sd id n o tu se c o in . We w i l l c onc lude t ha t t h e w es te r n z one was a p rov ince t h ec onnec t ion so f wh ich w e re w i th t he A t lan t ic s ea lanes .E ven t h e re ,h owever ,o u re v idence i ss c an ty a nd wh i le t h e re i s at emp ta t ion t o make al i t t le g o al ong way , al o td epends o nh ow much i s o la ted e ven t sa re i nd ica t ive o fb roade rp a t te rn s a nd h ow t hey c an b e r e la ted t op a t t er n s wh i ch a r e much mo re c l ea r ly v i s ib le i nt he s even th c en tu ry : I an Wood 's s t udy o ft he No r th S ea i nt h es a me p e r iod t a ck le sp rec i se ly t h es ame p rob lem s . We w il n ow e xam ine t h er ou te sf o r wh i ch we h ave e v idence . R e la t i on sB e tw e en G au la nd G a l i c i a Ma r i t ime c on tac tb e tween G au la nd S pa in i nt he l a t te rp a r t o f t h e s i x th c en tu ry i sr e co rded i n t h e c on tex t o f t he c onve r s ion a nd c onques to fS uev ic G a l i c ia .I nD eV i r tu t ibu s S anc t i Mar t in i as h ip c a r r ie s s ome r el i c s o f S t Ma r t in o f T ou r st o ah a rbou ri nG al i c ia , a r r iv ing ,G regory s ay s , o n t h es ame d ay a s Mar t in o fB raga f r om t h e Med i ter ranean ( G rego ry o fT ou r s ,D eV i r tu t ibu s1 . 12 ;e d .K ru sch 1 885b ,144 6 ;T hompson 1 980b , 8 3f o rd i scu ss ion ) . I ti sa leged t ha t , e ven t hough t he r e l i cs t r ave l led f r om T our s ' n av ig io p r o sp e r o . . .v e lo c i t e r ' ,t hey a nd Ma r t in o fB raga h ad s e to u tt o t r ave l t oG al i c ia o n t he v e ry s ame d ay . T he i dea t ha t a t r avele rf r om a nywhe re i nt he Med i te r ranean c ou ld j ou r n ey t oG a l i c ia i nt he s ame s pace o f t ime t ha t i tt a kes t o

C hap t er F ive : G au la nd t h e W e s t ern S ea lane s

t r ave lf r om T our st oG a l i c ia i sp repo s te rous —even a l low i ng f o r c on t ra ry w ind s ! T he c o inc iden ce i sn o d oub t a h ag iog raph ic embel i shmen t mak ing al i nk b e tween t h e c on tempo ra ry Ma r t in a nd t he m is s iona ry a nd s p i r i tua l e thos o fh i se a rl ie rn amesake . A tt h ev e ry l e a s tt h es t o ry m igh tb et aken t oi nd ica te t ha t as e av oyage f r om T ou r st o G a l ic ia o ccu r red a ts ome t ime a round 5 50 -565 . T he m i ss ion s t o t he S uev i , t he i r s ubsequen t c on q ues t b y L euv ig i ld a nd V i s igo th ic p r inces se s ma r ry ing F rank i sh r oya l ty a lo cca s ioned much c om ing a nd g o ing o f n o tewo r thy p eop le b e tween G au la nd S pa in .T he d ea th o f Ch i lper i ca nd h i sr i va l ry w i th Gun t ram a l so s eem t oh ave b een o fi n te res tt ot he S pan i sh k ing s . Whe the rt h ese p eo p le wen tb ys ea i na ny o ra lc a se s ,a nd whe the rt hey wou ld h ave t r ave l led o nr egu la rv oyages o fc omme rce wh i ch i n t he n o rma l way wen tu n reco rded ,i su n c lea r . K ing M i ro f Gal i c ia s en t ambas sado r st o Gun t ram j u s ta f te r5 80 .T hey we re a r res ted ,h oweve r ,i n' t he n e igh b ou rhood o fP o i t ier s ' a tt he o rde r s o fC h i lper i c a nd i m p r isoned f o r ay ear ( c umque p e r P e c tavum t e rm inum p r ae t e r i r en t ,q uod t unc C h i lp e r i cu sr e xt e neba t ,n un t i a t as un t e i .A t i l es ub c u s tod i a s i b ie o s e xh ib e r e p r ae cep i te tP ar i s iu s c u s tod i r e : HF V .41 ,e d .K ru sch 1 885a ,248 ) .J us tp r io rt ot h i s we h ea ro ft he d ea th o ft h eF rank i sh b i shop E la f iu s wh i le o n am i s s ion i n S pa in ( HF V .40 , e d . K rusch 1 885a ,247 ) . L euv ig i ld s en ta n amba ssado rt oC h i lpe r ic ( hence p r io rt o 5 84 : t h ed ea th d a te o f Ch i lper i c ) c a l led Ag i lan , who h ad o cca s ion t o d i spu te w i th G rego ry a s ' Tou r s l a y o n h i s r ou te '( L euv i ch i ldu sv e ro r e x Ag i lanum l e g a tum a dC h i lp er i cum m i t t i t . Q uem c um v i a T o r onu s d e tu l i s s e t . . . : HF V .43 , e d . K rusch 1 885a ,249 ) . We a l so h ea r o f ambassado rs t o Gun t ram f r om S pa in i n5 86 . A mo re s pec i f ic ma r i t ime r e fe rence i si n5 85 when t he c onque s to f Ga l ic ia b yL euv ig i ld s aw t he s ubsequen t l oo t ing o fs h ips t r ave l l ing b e tween G au la nd G al i c ia ( s ee a bove ,2 1 ) . Had t hese s h ips b een mak ing t he s ame v oyage u nmo le s ted f o r al ong t ime? O ri si tmo re l i ke ly t h a tt h e i r p resen ce wa sa ccoun tab le t ot h es ame p o l i t ica l/ r el ig iou s e xchange h igh l igh ted a bove : p e rhaps t r a f f ic w i th G au l e s ca la ted a sr e la t ion sb ecame mo re s t ra ined w i th V i s igo th i c S pa in ?I ft he l a t ter ,L euv ig i ld 's a c t ion sm igh ts e em more e as i ly e xp l i cab le . Ac onquer ing k ing may d oa sh ep l ea se s , b u t s uch a c t ion s d i rec ted b y ak ing s ma ck o fp ol i t i caly mo t iva ted i n terven t ion . On t h e o the r h and t h e e p i sode r e fe r st ot h e' possess ion s '( r e s )b e ing t aken .T h i sc e r ta in ly m igh ts ugges tc o mme rc ia lv oyage s ,t hough t he wo rd r e si s n o ts pec i f ic t oc o mmer c ia lc a rgo es .T he l oo t ing i s =am b iguou s ly o fs h ips . T he r ou te st aken b yt he amba ssado r sa r eh in ted a t , b u t i ti sn o t s pec i f ied whe the r t h ey t r ave l led a ny o ft he way b ys ea . Av oyage t o Nan tes wou ld s e em t ob ei mp l ied b y t he r ou te t aken b y Ag i lan a nd t h en ce v ia t h e L o i re v aley t oP a r is o rS o isson s . Aj ou rney b ys ea t oB o rdeaux a nd t h ence v ia P o i t ie rs wou ld a l so b e o n as t ra igh tl i ne , h oweve r ,s on e i the rc an b es a id t ob e ac e r ta in c and ida te . G a l sw in th ,h oweve r , mak ing t h es ame j ou rney f r om T o l e do t oN eus t r ia , s eem st oh ave g one f r om P o i te r s t ot h e n o r th b ys e a .V enan t ius ,a ne yew i tnes s( Geo rge 1 992 ,9 7 -8 ) , w r i te so fh e rp rog re ss f r om P o i t ie r s :

E x c ip i t i nde r epens . . .L iger a lg idus . . .perven i t q ua s e p iscoso S equana f luc tu i n mare f e r t , i unc to i n R o tomag ien se s i nu . ( The c o ld L o i re s udden ly a ccep ted h e r . . .she a r r ived whe re t he S e ine f l ows i n to t he s ea , t he f i shy f l ood wh ich j o in s w i th R ouen :V enan t iu s ,O pe r aV I .5 ,1 .2 33 -4 ,e d .L eo a nd K ru sch 1 96 1 ,142 ) .

I ti sc l ea ri nt h i sc a se t ha tt he v oyage i sn o tu pt he L o ire t o Neve r sa nd o ve r land ,b u td own t he L o ire t o Nan te sa nd b y s ea t ot h eS e ine mou th . T he r ou te t aken b yt he amba ssa d o r so fK ing M i ri sl e ss e a sy t od i sen tang le . P re sumab ly t hey w e re h eaded t o Gun t ram 's c ou r t a tO rMan s ,n o t t o B u rgundy ,s o al and -ba sed r ou te wa sp robab ly u sed a lt he way . We s hou ld a ccep t t ha t t he emba ss ies b e tween t he V i s igo th sa nd t he F rank s wen tb yl and f r om S pa in t oG au l . T he V i s igo th i c c ap i ta l a nd h ea r t land were i nt he c en t ra l Mese ta ,t oj ou rney n or th t o aG al i c ian p or tt ot ake s h ip f o r B o rdeaux o rS a in tes wou ld b eu n l ike ly a si twa sn o ts a fe t e r ra in ,l y ing t oo n ea rt ot he S uev ic k ingdom ,n o r we re t he g eog raph ica lo bs tac le s much l e ss t han f o rt he f u l ly o ve r l and r ou te t oG au l . Embas s ies b e tween t he S ueves a nd t he F rank s , h oweve r , d oub t less wen t b y s ea f r om G au l t o S pa in ,t oa vo id t r ave l l ing t h rough t he V i s igo th ic t e r r i tory a nd b ecau se i t wa s t h e mo re c onven ien t r ou te . A s we c anno ti mag ine t h el a t te rp ol i t ica le xchange t ob eo n av e ry l a rge s ca le , w e wou ld a s sume t ha t t he r e fe rence t o t he s h ips s a cked b y L euv ig i ld i sa lmos t c e r ta in ly t o s h ips who se p r ima ry p urpo se was c o mmerce ,n o tp ol i t ic s . An a r chaeo log ica l d imens ion t o t r a f f ic a l ong t h i s r ou te i sl a rge ly l a ck ing . As ou th -we s tG au l ish s a rcopha g u sf ound a tV i l laneuva d eL o renzana i nG al i c ia m igh tb e e v iden ce o fe xchange w i th t h i sr ou te ( J ame s1 977 ,2 35 ) ,b u t G a l ic ia i sy e tt op roduce d e f in i te f i nds o fA t lan t ic g roup p a l go chr e " t ienne g r i se . Af ew f i nds h ave b een r epo r ted f r om C on imbr iga a nd o the rP o r tuguese s i te s( Haye s1 980 ,l x v i i ) , wh i ch may i nd ica te t ha ti n crea s ing P or tugue se i nve s t iga t i on w i l l r evea l mo re . T hese d o n o t s eem t o b e o f t he A t lan t i c g roup , h owever , t hough p ubl i shed l i t e ra tu re i s n o t c l ea r o n t h i s p o in t a nd i ti s wo r th o bserv ing t ha t f am i l ia r i ty w i th t he v a r iou sf abr ics i st he o n ly r ea lg u ide w i th f r agmen ta ry e xamp le s .E xcava t ion i nS pa in h a sb een p a t chy b y c ompa r i son w i th F rance , t hough S pan i sh a r c haeo log i s t sh ave b een c onsc ious o ft h el i ke ly o ccur rence o f s i g i l l a t a p a l e oc r i s t i ana . A l ook a t t he d i s t r ibu t ion a s r e co rded i n1 979 d emon s t ra te st ha tt he g r i sf o rm , where i t i ss of a r f ound , o ccu r s s o f a r a s ad i s t r ibu t ion r e la ted t o Med i te r ranean -o r ien ted t r a f f ic ( B lasquez a nd Mo l ina 1 979 , 2 40 -2 ) . E xamp les o fp a l eoc r i s t iana g r i s i n t h e v e ry n o r th , w i thou ta c company ing o range wa res , may s ugge s td i s t r i b u t ion a c ro s s t he P yrenees , b u t may a l so b e f r om t h e Med i te r ranean ,a l ong t he E b ro .F rom t he map we may a l so n o te t h a t t he Guad iana i sa ga in h igh l igh ted . H e re t he v a l ley may b eb e ing u sed t od i sper se ma ter ia l wh ich c ou ld h ave b een b rough to ve r land f r om t he Med i ter ranean . On t h eo the rh and ,G al i c ia may h ave e ncou raged c on tac tw i th w es tern G au l ,o na ccoun to fi t sh os t il i ty t ot he V i s igo th i c k ingdom , wh ich i t se l f e n joyed mo re f r equen t e xchange w i th s ou thern G au l .H ence we may f i nd t ha te xchange i n t h eA t lan t ic wa sl im i ted t o awes te r nG au l -Ga l ic ia mode l ,

5 7

C ommun ica t ion a nd C ommer ce a l ong t h e W e s te rn S ea lane s AD400 -800

F ig .

5

I ber ian

d istr ibut ion

5 8

7

o f P a leocr ist iana pot tery

C hap ter F ive : G au la nd t h e Wes tern S ea lane s

r a the rt han b e tween w es tern G au la nd S pa in i ng ene ra l . L euv ig i ld 's h o s t i l i ty t ot he F rank i sh s h ip si nG a l i c ia wou ld b eh a rd t oe xp la in i ft hey were s h ips t ha ta l so c a l led a th i s own p or t s . C onn e c t ion sB e tw een S p a in a nd B r i t a in E v idence f o rl i nk sb e tween G al i c ia a nd B r i ta in c an b es een i nt h el a te s i x th -cen tury f o cu su pon c hu rch a f fa i r si nt h e S uev i ck ingdom .As i x th -cen tu ry p a ro ch i a l eh a ss u rv ived , i n mo re t han o ne v e r s ion , l i s t ing t h i r teen s e e s o f t h e k ingdo m .T he f i na le n t ry o ft he l i s tr e fe r st ot h e' s ee o ft h e B r i ton s '( Ad s e d em B r i tono rum )c omp r i s ing c hu r che s' wh ich a re among t h e B r i tons ' a nd a monas te ry ( a d s e dem B r i t onorum e c c l e s i a sq ue s un ti n t r oB r i t one su na c um m ona s te r i o Max im ie tq u ei nA s tur i i ss un t :t ot h es e eo ft he B r i ton s :' t he c hu rche s wh ich a re among t he B r i ton st oge the rw i th t h e mona s te ry o f Max imu sa nd [ t he c hu rche s ] wh ich a r ei nt h e A s tu r ia s ' ,e d .D av id 1 947 ,4 4 ) .T h i si si na l lp robab i l i ty t h e t own o fB re tor i aa nd i t sh in ter land ,i nt h ev i c in i ty o fL ugo . C or robo ra t ive e v iden ce i sf ound i nt he n o tes o nt he s e cond c ounc i l o f B raga , i n 5 72 ( s ee T hompson 1 965 , 2 01 -5 ; L . O l son ,p e r s .c omm . ) .I nt he l i s t so fs i gna tu res o ft he v a r ious b i shops t h e b i shop o f B r i tonen s i s e c c l e s i a i so ne Ma i lo c . K enne th J a ck son h a s d ec la red t h i s t ob e a n u nden iab ly B r i t i sh C e l t ic n ame ( J ack son 1 953 ,4 64 ) .N e i the rt h es e en o r i t sb i shop a r ea ppended t ot he f i rs tC oun c i lo fB raga o f5 61 : aMal iosu ss i gned t ha td ocumen t ,b u tt h i si sp h i lo log i caly f a r f r om b e ing i den t i f iab le w i th Ma i loc . No o the rn ame among t h es i gna tor ies c ou ld c on ce ivab ly h ave b een C e l t i c . T he b i shop r i c sa re n o tl i s ted a ta l la tt h ef i r s tc ounc i l .T he p a r och i a l e d ocumen t s t he p a r i she s o f a l l t he s e e s e xcep t B re tor ia ,f o r wh ich i ts imp ly make s as weep ing i n c lu s ion ( e c c l e s i a s q ue s un t i n t r o B r i tone s ) . T he i mpl i ca t ion o ft h i s m igh tb eo f ac o mmun i ty a pa r t ,a bou t wh ich t he w r i te ro f t he p ar o ch i a l ek new l i t t le .T h is wou ld b el og ica li fB re tor ia h ad b een aC a tho l ic p ocke ti nt h eA r ian S uev ic k ingdom . T h i s m igh t h ave e ncou raged , a l so , t h e p er s i s tence o f a B r i t i sh i den t i ty a nd , d oub t le s s , t h ec on t inua t ion o ft h e i r d ia lec t . C lea r ly wha ti sd escr ibed i s aB r i t i sh c ommun i ty wh i ch m ig ra ted d own t he we s te rn s ea lanes s o me t ime i n t h ef i f th o rs i x th c en tu ry .T he o the ra l terna t ive ,B re ton s ,i s h a rd ly l i ke ly .T he i dea t ha t ac ommun i ty f r om t he B r i t tany s e t t lemen t s( t hemse lves o n ly r e cen t ) wou ld b ei nG a l ic ia i n5 72 ( a nd mos t p robab ly e a r l ie r ) s eem s u nnece ssa r i ly c omp lex . I fs o , i tm igh tb e d i spu ted t ha tt hey s hou ld b e t e rmed ' B re tons ' ,a nyway .T he B r i tons o fG a l ic ia a r eb es t e xp la ined a s ac ompa rab le m ig ra t ion a st ha to ft he B r i ton s t oB r i t tany .T he i dea t ha tt he c hu rch wa se s tab l i shed a sa m i ss iona ry c en t re ,h owever ,s hou ld a l so n o tb er u led o u t : i ns uch ac a se t he i n te res to ft h ec hu r ch a tT our si n Ma r t in o fB raga 's m i ss ion may b es ugge s t ive t ha tt he se c o lon i s t s a re B re ton sr e loca ted f r om G au lb yF rank i sh a u thor i t ie s ( s ee a bove , 3 0 ) . Whe the r a ny c on t inu ing c on tac t w i th B r i ta in was ma in ta ined i sn o tr e corded . I r e l and , W e s t e rn B r i t a in a nd G au l F o r t h e s i x th c entu ry we p o sse s s n ou nque s t ionab le t e x t ua l e v iden ce f o r t r ave l b e tween G au l a nd t h e I r i sh S ea

b as in . T he V i t a K y ar an i , aL a t in l i f e o f t he f ounde r o f C lonmacno i s ,t a lk so fh ow ' me rchan t sw i th w ine o fG au l c ome t oS tC ia ran a nd f i l al a rge v e s se l ' ( me r c a to r e s c um v i no G a l lorum v ene run ta ds anc tum K iar anum ,e ti mp l euerun t i n g en tum v a s . . . :V i t aK y ar an iX )O X I ,e d .P lumme r1 910 ,2 14 ) . T he p rob lem s o f t h i s t e x t a nd i t s e v idence h ave b een d i scussed b y ar ange o fa u tho r s . A t f a ce v a lue i t wou ld r epresen t e v idence t ha t as h ip f r om G au l s a i led t o t he S hannon a round 5 50 AD . T he manu sc r ip tf r om wh ich i t c ome s ,h oweve r ,i sp robab ly o fn oe a rl ier t han f i f teen th c entu ry d a te ( ed . P lumme r 1 910 , x lv i i i ) . I n t h i s c a se i t b ecomes h igh ly l i ke ly t ha tt he i n c iden ta sd esc r ibed r epre s en t s af am i l ia r med ieva ls c ene .B ya se a r ly a st he t we l f th c en tu ry w ine t r ad ing w i th F rance wa s aw idespread a c t iv i t y . Ap o ss ib ly e a r l ie rI r i sh v e r s ion o ft he l i fe c on ta in st he s ame s t ory , w i th t he e xcep t ion t ha t t he me rchan t s a re t he re s pec i f ica l ly d escr ibed a sF rank s( e d . Macal i s te r1 92 1 , 9 2 ;d i scu ss ion a t1 54 ) .T h i ss e cond f a c ti sp robab ly o fl i t t le i mpo r tance : t he wo rd i n a n I r i sh c on tex t i s ac ommon c oun te rpa r tt oL a t in ' Gau l ' . T he a g reemen tb e tween t he t wo r e cen s ion si s mo re s i gn i f ican ta si ta rgues f o ra tl e a s t as l igh t ly e a rl i e rp ro to type o ft h ev i ta c on ta in ing t h es a me i n c iden t .E ven s o ,n o amoun to fa rgumen tc an s uppor tt he u se o f t h i s t e x t a s e v idence f o r s i x th -cen tu ry a c t iv i ty . Whe re t he d a te o ft he e a r l ies tt e x tua lt r ad i t ion i smed ieva l , t he e v idence mus tb es uspec ted o fr e fe r r ing t o amed ieva l v i ew o ft r ad ing a c t iv i ty , t hough i ti sq uo ted s t i l l a s t he c o rne r s tone o ft he i dea t ha tw ine t r ader sf r om G au lv i s i ted I r e land i nt he e a r ly med ieva lp er iod ( O 'Ne il 1 987 .44 i sa t yp ica l r e cen t e xamp le : ' I n t he L i fe o f S t C ia ran o f C lon rnacno i s , t he re i s men t ion o fw ine f r om G au lb e ing b rough tu pt h eS hannon t ot he monas tery ) . T he r e fe rence t o B r i t i sh s h ips i n t he h a rbour o f B o rdeaux i nt he V i ta e tV i r tu t e sE par ch i i( ed .K ru sch 1 896b , 5 62 )i si n as im i la rp o s i t ion a se v idence t ot he V i t aK y ar an i , b e ing f r om al a te t e x tw i th n oo bv ious e a r ly t e x t t rad i t ion . R el iab le r e fe rences t ol i nk sb e tween t h eI r i sh S ea b a s in a nd w es tern G au la re n o tf ound b e fo re t he s even th c en tu ry . T h i s o bv ious ly r a i se s t h e q ues t ion whe the r t he a ppea r a n ce o fr e l iab le r e fe rence si nt he h i s to r i ca lr e co rd mus tb e t aken t og ive a ny r ea lg u ide t ot he b eg inn ing so fc on tac t b etween t he t wo r eg ion s .T he a r chaeo log ica le v idence o fE w a re i n crea s ing ly s ugge s t s , h oweve r , t ha t t h e s e v en th c en tury wa sa tt he c en t re o fc on tac t sb e tween G au la nd t he I r i sh S ea b a s in . One ,g ene ra l ly r el iab le ,t e x td oe sp urpo r tt od ep ic t ' Gau l i sh s a i lo r s , f r om t he p rov inces o f G au l ' v i s i t ing D a l r iada i nt he p e r iod 5 63 -597 ( t he t ime o fC o lumba ) .T he e p i sode r e la te st oC o lumba 's p rophesy o f ad i sas te ra broad t o L ugbe s ay ing : ' b e fo re t he y ea r i so u t . . .Ga l l ic s a i lo r s a r r iv ing f r om t he p rov ince so fG au lw i l lt e l ly ou t h es a me ' . Adomnän ,V i ta C o lumb ae 1 . 28 ,e d . &t r an s . Ande r son a nd Ande r son 1 961 , 2 62 ) . P e rhaps t he r edundancy i n t h i s s t a temen ti s ag lo ss t od i s t ingu i sh t he g ener ic G ael i cg a l l ( ' fo re igne r ' )f r om ' Gau l 'i . e .a na c tua lG au l ;i ft he wo rd h ad a cqu i red t h i sg ene r ic u se b y Adomnän 's t ime .T hough t he t e x t i sL a t in , t he I ona monk s wou ld h ave b een n a t ive G ael i c s peake r s . I nt h ec on tex ti ti su se fu l , a s t h e re i sn o d oub t a s t o whom Adomnän i sd e sc r ib ing . T ha t t he re m igh tb ee v idence i nt h i se p i sode f o rt he s easona lc ha rac t e r o fv oyages may b e n o ted . T he i d en t i f ica t ion o f t h i s 5 9

C ommun ica t ion a nd C ommerce a long t h e W e s tern S ea lane s AD400 -800

d i sa s te r , i n wh ich a n I t al ian c i ty wa s c on sumed i n s u l p hu rou sf i re ,i sn o tp o ss ib le ,t hough v o lcan ic e rup t ion si n I t a ly a re n o t u ncommon ( Thoma s 1 990 , 2 ) . T he c a pu t r e g ion i st o wh ich L ugbe t r ave l led wa sp robab ly Dunadd . F rom Dunadd c ome f i nds o fDa nd Ewa re p o t tery wh i ch a re s i x th o re a r ly s even th cen tury i mpo r t sf r om G au l .T he l a ck o f as pec i f ic l o ca t ion f o r t he c a pu t r e g ion i s m igh t i nd ica te af i c t iona lb as i s ,o r al a ck o f memory o f whe re t h e e ven tt ook p la ce . Mos tl i ke ly ,h oweve r ,i st ha ts uch s h ips wou ld b es een b y as even th -centu ry w r i ter t ob ec ommon v i s i tor st oD a l r iada ,n o tt oI ona b u tt o as ecu la rs i te s ome d i s tance away wh ich wa s c on t ro l l ing e xchange ( i . e . Dunadd ) .T he re i sn oc er ta in ty ,h oweve r ,t ha tt he e p i sode i sa ccu ra te f o rt he s i x th c en tury ,a si ti sw r i t ten l a te i nt h e s even th . I nB r i ta in ,t he c l a s s i f ica t ion D wa re wa sf i r s ts e tu p b y R ad ford ( 1 956 , 6 7 ) t oc ove r as e r ie s o f mor tar ia a nd g rey -sl ipped b ow l s among t he T in tage l ma te r ia l . F rag men t s f r om t he e a r ly t wen t ie th -cen tu ry e xcava t ion s a t Dunadd a nd t he Mo te o f Ma rk were s oon i den t i f ied a s b e ing o ft he s a me t ype . T he d i scove ry o f ac on s ide rab le q uan t i ty o ft he wa re a tD ina sP owy si nG lamorgan ( A lco ck 1 987 ,1 20 -1 )i nt he l a te ' f i f t ies ,e xh ib i t ing ar ange o ff o rm s , a lowed mos t D wa re t ob e s oon a f te r b e i den t i f ied a s b e long ing t ot he A t lan t i cg roup .T he a g reemen tb e tween t he R igo i r s 'c ho ice o fB o rdeaux f o ra no r ig in p o in ta nd t h e a ccep ted h i s tor ica l w i sdom o f aw ine t r ade emana t ing f r om B o rdeaux wa s , o f c ou r se , i mmed ia te ly o bse rved ( A lcock 1 987 ,1 20 -1 ) .T he ma t ter h as l a rge ly r e s ted a tt h i s p o in t . N ew f i nds we re a dded t o t he B r i t i sh c o rpu s b y e xcava t ion sa tC ong re sbu ry a nd C adbu ry ,b o th i nS ome r s e t ,a nd C logher i nT y rone ( t he C loghe rf i nd i sn ol onge r a ccep ted a s D wa re ) . S in ce t he p ub l i ca t ion o f t h e 1 981 c a ta logue n ew f i nds h ave c ome f r om Wh i tho m ( H i l l1 989 , 9 )a nd f r om t he r e sor t ing o ff i nd b ag sf r om a no ld e xcava t i on a t May 's H i l l ,I s les o fS c il ly ( Thoma s1 983 ,7 8 -80 ) .T he f i nds f r om S omer se t ( f rom C adbu ry a nd C ong re sbu ry ) h ave b een h e ld t os ugge s tt ha tt he wa re i sl a rge ly s i x th c entu ry i nd a te a nd t ha ti t sr ange i sd i f feren tt ot ha to fE wa re . S ome c on fus ion a nd d oub th a ss ubsequen t ly s prung u p r ega rd ing D wa re . No p e t ro log ica l s t udy h a s b een made o f t he k nown f i nd s . Howeve r many o f t he f i nd s c or respond c l ea r ly t ot h eG au l i sh t ypo logy , wh i le af ew c l ea r ly d on o t .O the r sa r es ou nce r ta in i nf abr ic t ha tt h ey c an b ee xc luded f r om c on s ide ra t ion .T he re was at endency t oi n c lude a ny mor ta r ia f ound i nt h i sc l a ss ,a s we l l ab el i e f t ha tt he c l ass o n ly c on ta ined mor ta r ia ( R . Wa rne r ,P .H i l l p e r s . c omm s . ) . B o th o ft h ese i dea s h ave l ed t oc on fus ion . T he l i s ted f i nd f r om C loghe r h a s , o n e xam ina t ion b y C ha r les T homas ( R . Wa rne r ,p e r s .c omm . )a nd s ubsequen t ly b yt he p re sen tw r i te r( 1 987 -8 ) ,b een f ound t ob eu n l ike D w are i nf o rm a nd f abr ic . T he f i nd s f r om T in tage l , i r on i c aly t he o r ig in o ft he d e s igna t ion ,h ave a l so b een f ound n o t t o b e p alochr g t ienne g r i s e . Cha r le s T homa s a nd t h e a u tho r r e -exam ined t he se p iece s i n 1 988 a nd f ound n o d e f in i te c o r re spondence sw i th t he p a l 6 o ch e i enneg r i se c o r p u s . T he f abr ic o f af ew p la in p iece s wa sn o ts u f f ic ien t ly p rese rved t oa low a ny j udgemen tt ob e made . T he o n ly p i ece t ob ea r as t rong ( t hough n o te xac t )r e semb lance t oa p a l&chH t ienne g r i se f o rm wa s d a rke r a nd h arde r i n t h e 6 0

f ab r ic t han n o rma lv e sse l so ft h ec l as s ( CAU e xcava t ion , 1 988 , s t ra t if i ed w i th amphorae o f c l as se s 4 3 a nd 4 4 — T homa s1 988c ,5 9 ) .T he o n ly p iece l a rge ly s im i la ri nf abr ic t op a l g ochr g t ienne g r i s e wa s ab eaded mor ta r ium more l i ke al a te -Roman v esse li nf o rm . An i den t ica lf r agmen ti nt he B r i t i sh Mu seum ( a l so f r om T in tage l , a cce ss ion n umbe r 1 949 ,5 1 ,4 ) wa se xam ined t here b y aR o man s pec ia l is ta nd s een t ob eu nl ike ly t ob ea ny th ing o the rt han R oman ( S . Y oung s ,p e r sc omm . ) . T h i si sp e r fec t ly c ons i s ten tw i th t he c ha rac te ro ft h eT in tage la s semb lage , wh ich c on ta in sl a te R oman p ie ce s( Thoma s1 981b ,1 6 ) .I tn eed h a rd ly b es a id t ha tt h i si n fo rma t ion d oe sn o ti nval ida te t he n o t ion o fD wa re a s ac l a s s , e ven t hough t he l a be l wa s c o ined w i th T in tage la s semb lage i nm ind . T he l a be li s ap o s t -Roman c l a s s if i ca t ion a nd r ema in s a t tached t o t he p o s t -Roman p iece sw i th in t he c o rpus f r om o the rs i tes . B ecau se p a le ' o ch e ienne g r i s e r ema in s t h e l e as t n u me rou s o fi mpor ted t ype si n wes te rn B r i ta in i ts eem s t o h ave b een g i ven t he l e a s t a t ten t ion i ns tud ie s o fB r i t i sh t r ade a nd c o mmun ica t ion . I t s e v iden ce h a s s e emed t o o f fe rl i t t le o ppo r tun i ty f o re xpans ion —even t h ef i nd ing o f ak i ln s i te wou ld n o ta dd s i gn i f i can t ly t o wha ti sa l ready k nown ,u n le ss t or e f ine t he d a t ing .S ome p o s s ib i l i t ies a re o pened u p ,h oweve r ,t or e f ine t he e v idence o nt h es t reng th o f wo rk b o th i n B r i ta in a nd i n F rance . A f ew g ene ra l o bse rva t ion sm igh tf i r s tb e made . E v idence f r om F rench s i tes h a sb een c o lou red b yv a ry ing s c a le sa nd s t andards o f e xcava t ion i nd i f feren tp a r t so ft he c oun try .T he s t ronges t l i nk so ft he B r i t i sh ma ter ia lh ave s of a rb een s een t ob ew i th p iece sf r om t h eG a ronne b as in .T he re a r es eve ra l way si n wh ich t h i s c onc lus ion m igh tb e p rema ture . T he R igo i r s ' r epo r ti sn o t much u se i nt h i sr ega rd a si tp ubl i shes mos t ly o n ly p i ece sf r om t he Aqu i ta ine f o rc ompar i son . An e xam i n a t ion ,f o re xamp le ,o ft he c olec t ion o ft he wa re i n Nan te s s hows t ha t o n ly a l im i ted s e r ies o f s t amped p i eces a re p re served ( p e r sona l o bserva t ion 1 988 — I wou ld l i ke t o t hank J a cque sS an t ro tf o rh i sa s s is tan ce i ns how ing me t h i s ma te r ia l a nd d i scu s s ing i tw i th me ) . T hese c o me f r om n ine teen th -centu ry e xcava t ions i n t h e C en t re d e V i l le . A lmo s tc e r ta in ly o the r ,l e ss o rna te ,p iece s we re d i sca rded ( c f . Kn igh t1 984 ,3 59 ) .I ft he re were g ood p a ra l le l sf o rt he B r i t i sh f i nds i n Nan tes t hey c ou ld h ave b een i nt he d i s c a rded g roup . A l lo ft h i sh as as t rong b ea r ing u pon t h es ub jec to f wes te rn s ea lanes t r a f f ic . T he e v idence o fp a l i o ch e ienne g r i se h a s b een i n c rea s ing ly h e ld u p a s t he o ne d e f in i te e xamp le o f ad i rec tI r i sh S ea l i nk w i th B o rdeaux ( A lcock 1 987 ,8 9 ) . New e v iden ce f r om T ou r s mu s tc a s ts ome d oub t u pon t h i sp o in t . E xcava t ion so ft he C ha teau a nd Monas t e ry o fS t Mar t in s i te s i nT our s h ave u nea r thed aw ide r ange o fp a l g ochr d t ienne g r i se f o rms ( Rando m n1 981 ,1 07 -110 a nd p e r s .c omm . ) .I n c luded amongs tt h e se a re s eve ra lo ft he f o rm sf ound a tD ina sP owys ( ad eco ra ted b eake r ,c on tex t n o .3 . 1091 -14 ,f r om t he C ha teau s i te i sa lmos ti d en t ica lt o t he v e s se li lu s t ra ted i nA l cock 1 987 ,1 20 ,F ig 6 . 4 ,n o .8 ;a l so s ee R igo i r s a nd Me f f re 1 973 , 2 40 ) . Wha t i si mpo r tan t i s t ha t , c on s ider ing t he q uan t i t ie s i n t h e L o i re b a s in , t he v es se l st ob et aken t oB r i ta in n eed n o th ave b een o b ta ined i nB o rdeaux .T he t e xtua le v idence f o rt h es even th c en tury f avou r sc on tac t sw i th t he L o i re b as in o ve rt he Aqu i ta ine , a sf a ra si tg oe s( s ee b e low ,6 5 f f ) .

C hap t er F ive : G au la nd t h e W es tern S ea lane s

T he e xcava t ion s i n T our sh ave r e f ined t he d a t ing o ft he A t lan t ic g roup t o ab road ly s i x th a nd s even th -cen tu ry h or izon ( R ando m n1 981 , 1 07 -110 ) .T he s i te a t Wh i tho m i n S co t land ,i n aw el p re served s equen ce s ou th o ft he p r io ry , p roduced ap i ece o fp a lg ochr g t ienne g r i s ei nh i l l wa sh w i th Ewa re a nd Me rov ing ian g l a ss ( obse rved b yt he a u tho ri n 1 987 ) :b o th b road ly o fs even th -cen tu ry d a te .T he wa re h a s o n ly o nce b een f ound a t aB r i t i sh s i te wh i ch d id n o t p roduce Med i terranean wa re s , n ame ly Dunadd . T he re t he a bsence o f Med i te r ranean wa re si sn o tl i ke ly t os ugges t a n a bsence o fs i x th -cen tu ry o ccupa t ion ( Lane 1 984 , 4 5 ) . P a lg ochr g t ienn eg r i se i sf ound a ts i te s wh ich d on o tp roduce E wa re , n ame ly Cong resbu ry a nd C adbu ry . T h i si ss een ( a long w i th o ther h in t s ) a s p rec lud ing s even th -cen tu ry o ccupa t ion a tt hese s i tes a nd b y i mp l i ca t ion p u t t ing t h e s t a r t o f p aM o chra ienn e g r i s e i mpo r ta t ion s l igh t ly e a r l ie r t han t ha to f Ewa re .T h i si sp robab ly t r ue ,t hough i ts hou ld b en o ted t ha tt he f a c tt ha t Ewa re i su n common i ns ou th we s tB r i ta in ( a nd n o tf ound a ta l lo nt h en o r th c oa s t ,e a s t o f t he K e l s ie s ) may mean t ha t t h e wa re s imp ly n eve r r eached S ome r se t . On t he o the r h and , t he f a c t t ha t i ti s f ound i nG lamorgan ,a lmos to nt h es ame l ong i tude o ft h e B r i s to l Channe la sC ong re sbu ry s hou ld s ugge s tt ha ti ta t l e a s t c ou ld h ave t r aveled t h e s ho r t d i s tance f u r the r t o S ome rse ti fr equ ired a nd t he re i so the re v iden ce t os how t ha tS ome r se tf i nds a r ep robab ly s i x th c en tury . I ng ene ra l ,h oweve r ,t he e v iden ce s ugges t s awa re i mpor ted a t as l igh t ly e a rl i er d a te t han Ewa re ,i t si mpo r t a t ion c on t inu ing p e rhaps i n to t he p e r iod o f Ewa re .T he f a c tt ha tt he t wo wa re sc ou ld h ave b een i mpo r ted f r om t h e s a me r eg ion ( wh ich w i l lb ee xp lo red f u r the rb e low ) ,m igh t s ugges tt ha tt h ea c t iv i ty wh ich b rough ti n Ewa re e x i s ted b e fo re E wa r eb egan t ob e i mpo r ted . Aga in , a sw i th t h e q ues t ions s u r round ing t he Med i ter ranean wa res , t he a r c haeo log ica ld i scon t inu i t ie sm igh tn o tr epre sen td i scon t i n u i ty o ft he r e la ted a c t iv i t ie s . O the rp o ss ib i l i t ies s hou ld a l so b e e n te r ta ined , h owever . T he t o ta l a bsence o f p a li och e ienn e gr i se f r om I r e land t o d a te ( i ndeed i ti s a lmos tt o taly c on f ined t oB r i t i sh speak ing a r ea s : Dunadd a nd , maybe ,L ongbu ry B ank b e ing e xcep t ion s ) may i nd i c a te i mpor ta t ion b y way o fs ome B r i t i sh a gen cy . P a l io ch e i enn eg r i s ei s ap uzz l ing a r te fa c t .T he d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h eA t lan t ic g roup o u t s ide o fw e s tern G au li s e x t reme ly l im i ted s of a r : o n ly ah and fu lo ff i nds c om ing f r om n o r the rn G au l , B r i t tany a nd B r i ta in . No s i te h a s p roduced mo re t han t he n ine v e s se l sf r om D ina sP owy s : n o mo re t han t h ree a ta ny o the rs i te ;a t Wh i tho r n ,C adbu ry a nd May 's H il t he n umbe ri so ne v esse lo n ly . S ome d oub t may a l so a t tach t oo the ri d en t i f ica t ion s a pa r tf r om T in tage l .T he C adbu ry p iece i sv e ry s ma l l ,b u t i sc onv in c ing a s D wa re . T he C ong re sbu ry p i eces a r e b ad ly d i sco lou red a nd n o te a s i ly ma tched a nd t h eS ome r s e tp ie ce sa r ef a i r ly c ruc ia li na s s ign ing as i x th c en tu ry d a te a nd s epa ra t ing Ewa re f r om D wa re . On a n e conom ic l e ve l t h e d i f fe rence s b e tween D wa re a nd E ware a r e f undamen ta l . Whe rea s E wa re i s c l ear ly e v idence o f ar egu la rc omme rc ia lc on tac tb e tween G au l a nd t he I r ish S ea , n o th ing a bou t t h e D wa re f i nd s n eces s i ta tes ad e f in i te c omme rc ia lc on tex t . How d id t he se p iece st r ave lt ot he s i tes whe re t h ey a r ef ound ?T he May 's H i l lp i ece d raws S c ily i n to t h ep i c tu re a nd make s ad i rec t

ma r i t ime l i nk b e tween B r i ta in a nd G au l l i ke ly . Wes te r n G au l i st h e o bv ious l aunch ing p o in t a s A t lan t ic g roup p o t tery i sc e r ta in ly f r om wes te r nF rance . Af o cus o n t he S eve rn e s tuary i si nd ica ted ,a st he S co t t i sh f i nds a re n u me r ica l ly l i ke ly t o b e s e conda ry . A long w i th t he g la s s f i nd s ,a l so v e ry l im i ted i nI r e land ,w es eem t ob el ook ing a to b jec t s wh ich a r e mo re ' B r i t i sh ' i nd i s t r ibu t ion t han E wa re , wh ich i so ve rwhe lm ing ly a s soc ia ted w i th I r e land a nd S co t land . T ha tl i t t le e v idence o fs uch aB r i t i sh p rov i n ce e x i s t s may b e a c coun tab le t o t he l a ck o f ad u rab le i mpo r tg ood s uch a s Ewa re . On t he o the rh and t here i st he p os s ib i l i ty t ha t t he se g oods a r e n o t p a r t o f at r ad ing p rov ince i nt he way t ha t Ewa re u ndoub ted ly i s .T he smal q uan t i t ies i nvo lved i n t he movemen t o f D wa re m igh t r e in fo rce t h i si d ea .T he g l a ss f i nds p re sen to ther p rob lem s , wh i ch w il b ed i scu ssed i nt he f olow ing c hap te r . We may c onc lude t ha tv ery l i t t le may b er ega rded a sp roven i nt he c a se o f D wa re . T he c on tex ti sp robab ly s epa ra te f r om E wa re , h oweve r , a nd o r ien ted mo re t owa rd t he B r i t i sh s ho re o ft h e I r i sh S ea . T he f a c t t ha t t he d i s t r ibu t ion e x c l ude s I r e land f o rt h e momen ts eem s s ugge s t ive o ft h i s , a l though af i nd o f D wa re i ne a s tern I r e land wou ld n o tb e i n compa t ib le w i th t h e p i c tu re o f r ed i s t r ibu t ive r ou tes i nd i ca ted b yt he Med i ter ranean wa res , wh ich i sd i f fe ren t f r om t ha to f Ewa re . I nt he I r i sh S ea b as in we s hou ld n o te t he a ppea rance o fc en t res o f ma r i t ime t r ade i nt h es i x th c en tu ry wh ich w il b ed i scussed f u r the ri nC hap te rS even . Any c onc lus ion s o nt h e se mu s tb et en ta t ive i nt h el i gh to fo u rp oo rk now l e dge o ff un c t ion o fc ruc ia l s i te s , b u t t wo a tl e a s t a low s o me p o ten t ia lt oi den t i fy t he f o cuse so fe xchange . Da lkey I s land ,C o . Dub l in , as mal i s land w i th a ne nc lo sed s e t t le men ta tt h en o r thern e nd ,h a sf i gu red i n mos td i scuss ion s o ft r ade i nt he e a r ly med ieva lI r i sh S ea ( Mytum 1 992 ,2 62 3 ;G r i f f i th s1 992a ,6 3 ;T homa s1 990 ,2 1 ) .B o th Hodges a nd My tum h ave s een t h i s s i te a s al i ke ly ' g a teway c o mmu n i ty ' ( Hodges 1 989 , 5 1 ; My tum 1 992 , 2 62 ) , t he i s land l o ca t ion a nd t he e nc lo su re o ft h e s e t t lemen t d u r ing t he s even th c en tury b e ing t aken a si nd ica t ion so fc om me r c ia l n eu t ra l i ty a nd p o l i t i ca lr egu la t ion ,r e spec t ive ly ( Hodge s 1 989 ,5 1 ) .T he f o rme rs e em s ab e t te ri nd ica t ion o fc o mme r c i a ls i gn i f i can ce t han t he l a t te ra s we wou ld h ave t ol ook t oa nach ron i s t ic c ompa r ison sw i th e nc losed n in th c en tu ry e mpo r i at of i nd p a rale l s .T homa s wou ld d oub tt he i mpo r t ance o fD a lkey I s land i nt he d i s t r ibu t ion p a t tern wh ich h e p ropo se sf o r Ewa re :s e e ing t he mo re p o l i t i ca l ly i mpo r tan t c en t re s a sc en t ra lt ot h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f E wa re ( Thoma s 1 990 ,2 1 ) .T h i s may b e ar ea sonab le a rgumen tf o r Eware , wh ich w ew i l ls ee i si mpo r ted b yv oyages f r om t he c on t i n en t a s f a r n or th a s S co t land . T he s i x th -cen tu ry r o le o f D a lkey I s land m igh tb e q u i te a no ther q ues t ion . Da lkey I s land i st he o n ly s i te n ea rt he c oa s tb e tween C o .C ork a nd C o .T y rone t op rodu ce f i nds o f Med i ter ranean p o t tery i n a ny q uan t i ty , wh i ch a sw eh ave s e en i sl i ke ly t ob eb rough t n o r th b ys e conda ry v oyages o u to ft h es ou th -wes tB r i t i sh p en in su la ( s ee a bove , 5 1f f ) . I ti sa l so t he o n ly s i te i nt h e s ame r eg ion t op rodu ce mo re t han o ne s he rd o fi mpor ted g l a sswa re , wh ich w ew il s ee may a l so b e as i x th -centu ry i mpo r t .B o th t hese s e t so fi mpo r t sa r er a re ri nI r e land t h an i nB r i ta in ,u n l ike Ew a re .I sD a lkey I s land as t opp ing p o in t , an eu t ra lp or to u t s ide o fI r i sh s o c ie ty ,i n a' B r i t i sh ' -or ien ted 6 1

C ommun ica t ion a nd C ommerce a l ong t h e W e s te rn S ea lane s AD400 -800

t r ad ing n e twork l i nk ing t he n o r th a nd t he s ou th o f t h e I r i sh S ea? T he d i s tr ibu t iona le v iden ce i ss upe r f ic ia l ly s ug g es t ive ,b u tf u r ther e xcava t ion may v e ry wel c hange t h i s p i cture .T he t ypo logy o fa ni s land empor ium i sa l so v e ry q ue s t ionab le i na nI r i sh S ea c on tex t . I nt he s i x th c en tu ry t he s e t t lemen t s eem s t oh ave b een u nenc lo sed a nd t h i s may r epresen t ac hange i n f unc t ion f r om t h e s i x th t o s even th c entu ry . Does t h i sr ef l ec t ac hange i nf unc t ion a s n ew n e twork s eme rge , wh ich s e em t oi nvo lve l a nd fa l l si n Mea th ,u n l ike t ho se o ft he s i x th c en tury? O ther s i x th c en tury B r i t i sh s i tes c l ea r ly e n joy l ong d i s tance l i nk s .T he mo s ti n te re s t ing o ft h ese i s Wh i tho rn , whe re a nu nenc lo sed s e t t lemen tf i ve k i lome t re sf r om t h e n ea res th a rbou rs how so ccupa t ion o ve rs eve ra lh ec ta re s : a n a u then t icaly u rban s e t t lemen t w i th aw ide r ange o f l o ca la nd i mpor ted g ood s ,i n c lud ing 1 7+ g l ass v e sse l sa nd ampho rae o ft h ree d i f fe ren t Med i ter ranean c l as ses ( unu s ua l o u t s ide o fC ornwa l l a nd S ome r se t ) . I tr ema in s u n c l ea r whe the rt he s i te i sp r ima r i ly r el ig ious i nf unc t ion . I n b o th t he se c a ses ( a s wel a s w i th T in tage l ) w e h ave s i tes w i th a s semb lage s o f u nusua l s i ze a nd s ome c l ue st os t ra teg ic o rh i s tor ica li mpo r tance , wh i ch we may s e ta ga ins tt he r i ch a s semb lages a tD inas P owy sa nd t he Mo te o f Ma rk , whe re t he f o ca l s t a tu s o f t he s i te i sn o t o bv ious i n ma r i t ime t e rm s ,o rh i s to r ica l ly r e co rded . T he c on tex t o f D wa re i n Wa le s , s ou th -wes tS co t l and a nd S ome r se t t akes i n t h e a r ea s i n wh ich L a t in memor ia l s t ones a re f ound . I ti sn o t f ound i n I r e land , whe re L a t in i n scr ip t ion s i ne a r ly f o rmu lae a r e r a re . T he e v idence o fs t ones a l ong t he s ho re so ft he I r i sh S ea w i th L a t in l a p ida ry i n sc r ip t ion s i n c on t inen ta l f o rmu lae h a s b een s e en t oi mp ly c on tac tw i th G au li nt he f i f th c entury a nd c on t inu ing i n to t h e s i x th . T he e v idence s hou ld b e t r ea ted c r i t ica l ly a si ti si nn eed o fs ubs tan t ia lr ev is ion ( s ee n ow T homa s 1 994 ) . T he L lan t r i san t s t one , o n Ang lesey , f o re xamp le ,u sed t ob et hough tt oc ommemo ra te ab i shop f r om Andecav io nt he L o i re ( Na sh W i l l iams 1 950 ,6 3 -4 ,n o . 3 3 ) ,b u tt h i si sn ow h e ld t ob e am i s read ing .T he p oss ib le r ead ing ' ANDOCO NAT IONE ' ,u pon wh ich t h ei den t i f i c a t ion w i th t h e A .ndecav ii ss ugges ted , i si n cor rec t . P a r t i cu la r ly o fn o te i st he m i ssed l e t te r ,( Na sh W i l l iam ss ug g es t s Go rS ,b u tc l ea r ly i ti sG ) wh ich p recede s NAT IONE a nd r ende rs t h e r ead ing : ' AU ( l igature : Uo r N ) DOCO GNAT IONE ' , p robab ly a udo c og na t ione . ( L . O l son , p e r s . c omm . ) . I ti ss u f f ic ien t t o s ay t ha t t he r ead ing i n to t h i s i n sc r ip t ion o f ac onnec t ion w i th t he L o i re ,o ra ny p a r to f G au li sn o t wo r thy o ft h ec r edence wh ich f r equen tc i ta t ion h as l e n ti t . A t P enmachno , i n Gwynedd , as t one i sv e ry p re c i se ly s e l f -asc r ibed t o t he r e ign o fJ us t inu s ( I n T empo r e I u s t in i ) ,t he c on su lo f5 40 ( Nash W i ll iam s1 950 ,9 3 ,n o .1 04 ; Kn igh t1 981 , 6 2 ;M ile r1 978 -80 ,3 16 ) . K n igh t 's a rgumen t t ha tt h i si s ad a t ing f o rmu la i mpor ted f r om G au l , whe re i t i sl im i ted i nu se t oL ugdunen s is I ,i smo re c onv in c ing t han J ohn s tone 's a t temp tt ot i ei tt os upposed b roade ru ses o f c on su la rd a t ing ( s uch a si nt h eH i s tor i aB r i t tonun i :J ohn s tone 1 962 ,1 02 -9 ) .T h i sf o rmu la , wh i ch wou ld p robab ly o n ly b e u sed b y a n i nd iv idua l who h ad b een r e s iden t i n G au l ( whe the rB r i t i sh o rG au l i sh o fb i r th w ec anno tt e l l ) ,i sg ood c h rono log ica l e v idence f o r ac on t inua t ion o ft h e s o r t o f d ia logue b e tween t h eB r i t i sh a nd G au l ish c hu r che s wh ich 6 2

t he t r ave l s o f R iocha tu s a nd F au s tus a nd t h e h i c i a c e t f o rmu la i nd i ca te i nt h ep rev ious c en tury ( s ee a bove ,3 5 ) . We s hou ld n o te t ha t ad a te n oe a rl i e rt han t he f i f th c entu ry s hou ld b ea c cep ted f o rt h el a t te r ,a st he e a r ly t om id f i f th c en tu ry i st h e/ I on& o ft h i s f o rmu la i n Gau l . Mc Manu s ( 1 991 ,6 2 ) ,f olows Na sh -W i l l iam si na ccep t ing t h eI t al i an l i on& o ft h e f ou r th c en tury a s at e rm inu s p o s tq uem , b u t t he se i sn or ea son t ob e l ieve t ha tt he i n su la ro ccu r rence sl i e o u t s ide t he G au l i sh u se o f t h i s f o rmu la . P a l e o chr e t i enn e g r i se may w el e n te rB r i ta in i nt h i ss o r to fc on tex t :i ti sa n u rban p o t te ry o f l im i ted c u l tu ra l a f f in i ty i n G au l , n o t c onnec ted w i th t yp i caly F rank i sh g roups a nd m igh t wel b e as y mp tom o f ap ha se o fB r i t i sh c hu rch a c t iv i ty wh i ch t he s even th c en tury l i nk s o f t h e I r i sh S ea b a s in h ave o bscu red . At r avele r who v oyaged w i th in t he ' B r i t ish p rov i n ce 'i nt h es i x th c en tu ry i sS tS am son o f Do l .T he e v idence o ft he V i ta S am son i si sc on t rovers ia la nd may o r may n o tb e r el iab le w i tne ss t ot h es i x th o rs even th c en tu ry ( t he f o rme r t he e ra o ft h es a in t ,t h el a t ter t he p o s tu la ted e a rl i es td a te f o rt he v i ta ) . T he a u tho r 's r e feren ce t oh av ing t r aced t h e p a th o ft h es a in tt h rough C ornwa l la nd Wa le sa dd s we igh t t oh i s t e s t i mony a s t or ou tes o f t r ave l u sed i nt h e e a r ly m idd le a ge s( V i t a S am son i sX LV I I I ,e d .F aw t ie r1 912 ,1 44 ; O lson 1 989 ,9 f f ; Hughe s 1 981 ,4 f f ;T homa s 1 994 ,2 24 f f ) . T he v i t ad esc r ibe ss eve ra li n c iden ts o fv oyag ing .S t S amson s a i led t oI r e land f r om Y ny sP y r( a l mo s tc e r ta in ly C a ldey I s land , Dy fed )a nd b ack . On h i sr e turn j ou rney h e wa s f o r ced t o wa i tf o r an o r ther ly w ind a t ap o r tn ea rby A r c e( V i ta S am son i s) ( X ) (V I I I ,e d . F aw t ier 1 912 , 1 34 ) .S ev e ra l manu scr ip t sr ead t h i sa sA r c eE t r i ,r ead b yL o th ( V i t a S am son i s X ) (X I I I , e d . F aw t ie r 1 912 , 1 34 & n o te A ;T ay lo r 1 925 ,4 0 ,n o te 1 )a s' Dun E ta i r '( How th ) .I n ac ha rac te r i s t i c aly e xemp la ry e p i sode t he s a i lo r sl e ave w i thou th im ,b u t a re f o rced t ob end t ot h es a in t 's w i l l .T hough t h ei n c iden t i s at o po s ,w es hou ld o bserve t ha tt h e ma r i t ime d e ta i li sa t l e a s tc on s i s ten tw i th r e a lc ond i t ion s .T he n eed f o r an or th e r ly w ind wou ld c e r ta in ly i nd ica te s omewhere n o r thward o fR o ss lare o nt h eI r i sh e as tc oas t .T he c hance o f an or th o r n or th -ea s te r ly w ind ( an o r th -wes te r ly wou ld make r ound i ng S ou th Wa le sv e ry d i f f icu l t )i ns ummer f r om Dub l in i s o n ly a round 2 5 -30% ,s ot h i sd e lay f i t st he e v iden ce q u i te w e l l . T he f a c t t ha t t h e s a i lo r s wou ld d epar t w i thou t t he s a in tm igh ti nd i ca te t ha t Dub l in (? )t os ou th Wa le s wa sa n orma lc omme r c ia lr ou te ,n o t as pec ia lc om m i s s ion ,b u ti t i st oo much as t ock i n c iden tt ob er el i ab le . Al s uch h ag iog raph i ce p isode s mus tb er e ad w i th c a re . How mu ch m igh t t h i s s t ory b e b ased o n g enu ine d e ta i l ?T he s t o ry o fS amson 's v oyage t oa nd f r om I r e land m igh tb ec on s idered mo re d oub t fu lt han t he d e ta i lo fh i s j ou rney b e tween Wa le s a nd B r i t tany : i n t he l i gh t o ft he i mpo r tance o ft h ee thos o fS tC o lumbanu si nG au li nt he s even th c en tu ry w e c anno t b e s u re t ha t aj ou rney t o I r e land d idn ' tb ecome an ecessary embel ishmen tt ot he s a in t 's s t o ry .A r chaeo log i ca le v iden ce ,h owever ,d oes s ug g e s ts t rong l i nk sb e tween S ou th Wa le sa nd I r e land i nt he s i x th/seven th c en tury ( s ee b e low , 1 01 ) . T he e p isode whe re S tS amson o f Do lt r ave l led f r om Wa les t o B r i t tany i sa l so o f r e levance . He t ook s h ip t o C o rnwa l l , wa lk ed a c ross t he p en insu la b y way o fS tK ew ( V i t aS am son i sX ILV ,e d .F aw t ier 1 912 ,1 42 )a nd t h en t ook

C hap t er F ive : G au la nd t h e W e s te rn S ea lane s

s h ip o n t h e o ther s i de t oB r i t tany ( V i ta S am son i s L I I , e d . F aw t ie r1 912 ,1 47 ) .C raw ford 's e xp lana t ion o ft he c ho ice o f t h i sr ou te a sb e ing d ue t o ad es i re t oa vo id av oyage a round L and ' sE nd i st enab le o n ly t ot he d eg ree t ha t ,f o r aj ou rney f r om S ou th Wa les t oB r i t tany , t h el a t te r wou ld b e av e ry r ound -abou tr ou te . O the rp rob lem sc on f ron tu s when c on s ide r ing B r i t t any .V ery l i t t le i sk nown o ft he t ypo logy o fe a r ly med ieva l s i te s i nB r i t tany . We may make s o me o bv iou s o bse rva t i on s a bou t t h e e x i s tence o fl i nk s b e tween B r i t tany a nd o ther r eg ion s . T he s ou th -we s t p en in su la o f B r i ta in wa s c e r ta in ly i nc on tac ta nd S amson o fD o l 's i ss u re ly o n ly o ne o f t hou sand s o f s uch v oyage s made b e tween t he t wo p en in su las . L ikew i se , l o ca l t r a f f i c mus th ave f r equen t ly b een i nc on tac tw i th wes te rn G au l .I nt he s even th centu ry s e t t ing o f t h e V i ta F i l ib e r t i , n av e s B r i t tan i c i a r e s e en a t No i rmou t ie r ( XL I I , e d . L ev i son 1 910 , 6 02 ) , t hough t he r a r i ty o fp a l g o chr g t i enne g r i se f r om B r i t tany s hou ld b en o ted . Whe the r c on tac t s w i th I r e land e x i s ted i su nce r ta in , b u t t he re i sp robab ly n or eason t os ee t h e se a ny e a rl i e rt han t h e s even th c en tu ry . I nt he n in th -cen tu ry V i t a W inw a lo e it h e s a in t e xpec t s t ob e a b le t o s a i l d i rec t ly b e tween B r@ha t ( Nor th B r i t tany ) a nd I r e land ( V i t a W inwa lo e i1 . 19 ,e d . D e Smed t1 888 ,2 05 -6 ) —even t hough h eu l t ima te ly d oes n o t d os o .B re ton g los se so ft he e i gh th c en tury a nd l a te rt e s t i fy t o c on tac t s w i th I r e land , Wa le s a nd C o rnwa l l ( F leu r io t 1 984 ) .W i th t he e xamp le o fS tS am son 's t r ave l st oa l lt h e se l and s ,b u tr e ach ing B r i t tany o ve r land t h rough C ornwal , we c anno tb ea bso lu te ly c e r ta in a ny o ft he g lossa to r sc ame d i rec t ly b ys ea f r om I r e land ( F leu r io t1 984 ,2 23 , whe re h e n o tes t h ed i sha rmony w i th T homa s 's t heo r ie s ) .L ikew i se , f olowe r s o fC o lumbanus we re r e s id ing i nB r i t tany a nd a re t he a dd ressees o f h i s 6 10 l e t te r f r om N an te s . Mo s t p robab ly t hey h ad c ome w i th h im t o Nan tes ,b e fo re mak i ng t he i r way i n to B r i t tany f r om t h es ou th ( s ee b e low ,6 5 ) . H i s tor i c a l Mod e l sf or S i x th -Cen tury W e s te rn S e a lane sT r af f i c T he p i c tu re o fe ven t si nt he s i x th c en tu ry i sv e ry u neven a nd t he re i sl i t t le d oub tt ha to u re v idence i sn o tr epresen ta t i ve o ft h e who le p ic tu re . We h ave s e en t ha tt he re i sr ea son t od oub tt ha to u re v idence i nd i ca te st he u se o ft h e s ame r ou te so ve rt he e n t i re c entu ry .T he V i s igo th i cc onques to f S uev i c G al i c ia p robab ly s aw a n e nd t o ma r i t ime l i nk s b e tween G au la nd S pa in .T here i sn od e f in i te e v idence y e t t o s ee l i nk s b e tween G au l a nd I r e land a nd a b sence o f p a l i . och e ienne g r i se f r om I r e land s hou ld b e n o ted . T he Med i te r ranean wares a t mos t i nd ica te af ew d ecade s o f a c t iv i ty .A r chaeo log ica lc l ue sd on o tg ive a ny th ing mo re t han av ery p a tchy p i cture .T h i sc on t ra s t ss ha rp ly w i th t h e e v idence o ft he u se o ft he w es te rn s ea lane si nt he s even th c en tu ry , wh ich w i l lb es hown t og i ve amuch mo re r egu la r p i c tu re o fa c t iv i ty . A rchaeo log ica la nd h i s to r i ca ls ou r ce sg ive o dd c l ue s wh ich w em igh tb et emp ted t od raw i n to amo re h a rmon i o us p i ctu re . I an Wood a s se r t s t h a t F rank i sh p ol i t ic s i n t r uded i n to t he a f fa i r so f mos to ft h e i rn e ighbou r sa nd a l so n o tes t h e B yzan t ine i n te res t i nt h i s F rank i sh h egemony (Wood 1 983 ,1 0 f f ) .B yzan t ine a gen t si nt h ew es t ,c o mme r c i a lo rp o l i t ica li ni n ten t , may b es e en a pproach ing B r i ta in

f r om d i f fe ren t d i rec t ion s , i nb o th c a se s l a rge ly a vo id ing G au l ,t hough t he re may h ave b een mar i t ime r ea son s why t he v oyages wh ich c ame t oB r i ta in v ia t h eS t ra i t so fG ib ra l t a ra vo ided al and ing i n we s te r na nd ,p robab ly ,s ou thern G au l .T ha tB yzan t ine a u tho r i t ie s we re i n te res ted i n wha t l a yb eyond F rank i sh G au l i sn o t u n l ike ly ,h oweve r —an i n tere s t t ha tt hey m igh tn o th ave l i ked t he F rank s t ob e awa re o f .I nt he f o l low ing c entu ry ,E bro in 's s usp ic ion t ha t T heodo re o f T a r sus wa s a n a gen t o f t he empe ro r may s how t he c on t inu i ty o f as u sp ic ion o fs uch i n te re s t ( s ee a bove ,2 1 )i nF rank ish G au l . We s hou ld n o tb ec a r r ied away b yo the ri nf luence s . Z immer wa si n c l ined t oh ighl igh tt he i mpo r tance o ft h e c u l to f Ma r t in i nt he s pread o f mona s t i c ism t oI r e land ,o n a ccoun t o ft he s eem ing ly e a r ly manu scr ip t t r ad i t ion s o f S u lp ic iu s 's v i t a i nI r e land ( Z immer 1 909c , 5 93 -610 ) , b u t J ame s( 1 982 ,3 67 -8 )h a sr i gh t ly s t ressed t he i n compa t ib i l i t y o ft he o rgan i sa t ion o ft he I r i sh c hu rch w i th Ma r t in 's mode l . None the les s ,w ea r et emp ted t oo bse rve t ha te a r ly d ed i ca t ion s t o S t Ma r t in a t Wh i thorn a nd C an te rbu ry c o inc ide w i th f i nds o fs i x th/seven th c en tury n o r th -we s t e rn G aul i sh a r te fac t s : a t Wh i tho rn , p o t te ry a nd g la ss ; a t C an te rbury ,c o in so fw es tern G aul i sh o r ig in ( R igo ld 1 975 , 6 55 ) .T he n ame o f Ma r t in o fT ou r sa l so c rops u pi nc onnec t i on w i th t he e s tabl i shmen to f Mar t in o fB raga i n Ga l ic ia . T he s t ronges th i s to r ica lc onnec t ion o ft h eB r i t ish c hu rches i nt he f i f th c en tury i sw i th Auxe r re ( Kn igh t 1 981 , 5 6 -7 ) , mos t l i ke ly o pe ra t ing v i a t h e o ve r land r ou tes t h rough wes te rn B r i ta in ( s ee a bove ,3 5 -6 ) . T he S axon c onques to f t he w es tc oun t ry i nt he s i x th c en tu ry ,h owever , may h ave f o rced s uch c onnec t ion sb e tween t he G au l i sh a nd B r i t i sh c hur che s t o u se t he ma r i t ime r ou te s t h rough wes te rn G au l i sh p o r t s . T he s i tua t ion i n Ga l ic ia s eem s t o h ave s t imu la ted a c t iv i ty t h rough t h e we s te rn p o r t sa l so . Does t h i sb r ing t he L o i re c onnec t ion a nd t h ec u l to fS t Ma r t in i n to g rea ter p rom inence? I n 6 80 J ohn t he A rch can to r , a bbo to ft he monas tery o f Ma r t in a tR ome ,t r aveled v i a T ou r st oB r i ta in ( Bede , HE r v .18 ,e d .C o lg rave a nd Myno r s 1 969 ,3 90 -1 ) ,s t opp ing a tt h es h r ine e nr o u t eb e fo re mak ing ac ro s s ing o ft h e' Ocean '( O c e anum t r an s i tum ) , wh ich wou ld s eem t oi nd i ca te a nA t lan t i cv oyage ,r a ther t han s imp ly a Channe lc ro ss ing ( t hough T om O 'Lough l in ,p e r s . c omm . , s ugge s ts t ha tB ede i sc on s i s ten t i nh i s u se o f ' Ocean ' t o d e sc r ibe a lt h es ea sa round B r i ta in ) .S tC o lumbanu sf o l l owed t h e s ame r ou te d own t h e L o i re t ot h e s ea i n6 10 . Ne two rk ing t h rough t he f am i l i a o f C o lumbanu s w il b e s hown t ob ei mpor tan ti nt he w es te rn s ea lanes a c t iv i ty o f t he s even th c en tury : we c anno ta f ford t oo ve r look p o ten t i aly i mpor tan tl i nk so f as im i la rn a ture i nt he s i x th .T he L o i re b eg in st o eme rge a s af o ca lp o in tf o r much ma r i t ime a c t iv i ty i nt he s i x th c en tury a nd t h i sc onnec t ion may r epay mo re i nves t iga t ion .

6 3

C hap ter S ix

C a rgoe sa nd C omme r ce b e tween wes te rn G au la nd I r e land i n t he S even th C en tu ry

Z imme r 's mode la s sumed t ha tc on tac t sb e tween w e s tern G au l a nd I r e land h ad e x i s ted a tl e a s t s i nce t he R oman p er iod ( Z im me r 1 909a , 3 63 -400a ) a nd t ha t when I r i sh p e r eg r in i s ough t t o g o a b road , t h ey t ook s h ips t o G au l wh ich we re a l ready r egu la r ly mak ing t h i sv oyage .J ame s , i nr ea sse ss ing t h is t hes i s , d oes n o t make a n i s sue o ft he q ues t ion o fp re -ex is t ing c omme rce ,e xcep tt o make a dm i r ab ly c l ea r t he n on -comm i t ta l c ha rac te r o f J ona s 's e v i d ence o nt h i sp o in t( J ame s1 982 ,3 75 -7 ) .H ea l so n o te st ha t t he p redom inan tt hea t re o fI r i sh m i ss ion o nt he c on t inen t wa se a s tF ranc ia ,n o t we s te rn G au l( J ame s1 982 ,3 80 )a nd t he re fore s t re sses t he l i ke l ihood t ha t ,a s Ang lo -Saxon E ng l and wa s C h r i s t ian i sed i nt he s even th c en tu ry , t h e I r i sh may i n c rea s ing ly h ave c ho sen t ot r ave lt ot h ec on t inen tb y way o fE ng land ,r a the rt han b y way o ft he we s te r nG au l . I n r e -exam in ing t h e s ou r ces w e t hus n eed t o r e s o lve ,f i rs t ly whe the rt he re i sa ny s o l id e v idence o fa c tua l v oyages b yc hu rchpeop le ;s e cond ly ,t he i rr e la t ion sh ip t o t r ad ing a c t iv i ty ; a nd t h i rd ly , h ow much t he c hang ing d i rec t ion s o f t r ave l may b e s een i n t e rm s o f l ong t e rm p a t te rn s .F o re xamp le ,d oes t he g rea te ri n s tan ce o ft r ave l t h rough Ang lo -Saxon E ng land a f ter t h em id seven th c en t u ry i nd ica te as h i f ti ng enera l t e rm s t o wha t wou ld , a l t h ing s b e ing e qua l , b e t he p re fer red r ou te , o r d oes t h i s s imp ly i nd ica te ag row th o fp e r sona lc on tac t sb e tween t he t wo c hurches a nd ag rea te r i nvo lvemen t o f t he I r i sh i n E ngl i sh a f fa i r s? I n o ther wo rd s , we re t h e s eaway s o n ly d rawn u pon f o r c ommun ica t ion when p a ths t h rough B r i ta in we re c l o sed? And d oe st r ade b e tween I r e land a nd G au lp re -ex i s t mona s t i ct r ave l ,o ri si te ven p os s ib le t ha t t he l a te -s ix th/ea r ly seven th c en tu ry f l ou r i sh ing o fc hu rch l i nk sa c tua l ly s t imu la ted t he g row th o fl ong -d i s tance e x c hange? When d id v oyage sb e tween w e s te rn G au la nd I r e l and b eg in? I fn oc e r ta in e v idence f o rs i x th -cen tu ry l i nk si s f o r thcom ing ,a t ten t ion mus tf o cus u pon t h er e l iab i l i ty o f t he t e s t imony o fJ ona s ( c .639 ) t ha t I r i sh c omme r ce wa s f ound i n Nan tes a s e a r ly a s6 10 . T he d e ta i l a s t oh ow S t C o lumbanu sr ea ched G au l ,a round 5 90 ,i sl e ss e xac tt han f o rt he e p i sode i n Nan te si n6 10 :J ona sw r i te so fC o lumbanu s g o ing t ot he s ho re w i th h i s c ompan ion s , whe re h e em b arked o n as h ip ,a nd w en tw i th ac a lm s ea a nd f avou rab le w inds f o r t he d ange rous v oyage t o b r i t tan ic i s s i nu s ( Car inamque i ng r e ss i , d ub ias p e r f r e ta i n g r ed iun te r v i a s m i temque s a lum , p ro spe r an t ibu s z e phe r o rum f l abr i s , p e rn ic i c ur sa a dB r i t tan i co sp erv en iun ts i nu s :J ona s ,V i ta C o lumban i 1 . 4 ,e d .K ru sch 1 902a ,7 1 ) .F rom t he re t hey p roceeded i n to G au l .T h is b r i t t an ic i ss i nu sh a sb een t aken t os ugge s tt ha t C o lumbanus l anded i na nd made at r an s i t o fC ornwa l l , 6 4

t hough Z imme r , mo re l og ica l ly , a s sumed a d i rec t s ea v oyage ( Z imme r1 909a ,3 95 f f ) . Mo re l i ke ly b r i t t an i c i ss i nu s i st he wes te rn o r s ou the rn c oa s to fB r i t tany , r a the r t han B r i ta in i t se l f . When C o lumbanu s i so rde red t or e tu rn t o I r e land ,B e r techa rt el sh im t og ot o Nan tes t o' r etu r nb y t he r ou te a l ong wh ich y ou f i r s tc ame t ot h i sp lace '( p erg a s e o i t i ne r e q uo p r imum h i s a duen t a s t i i n l o c i s : J onas , V i t a C o lumban i1 . 20 ,e d . K rusch 1 902a ,9 1 ) a nd h e t h en t ook a b oa to nt he L o i re s ot ha th em igh tc ome a ga in t ob r i t tan i c i s s i nu s( J ona s , V i ta C o lumb an i1 . 21 ,e d .K rusch 1 902a ,9 3 ) . I ti sc l ea rf r om t he a bove t ha tJ ona s i ss ugge s t ing t ha tC o lumbanus 's e x i tp o in tf r om G au l was i n tended t o b et h es ame a sh i se n t ry p o in t( un less w er ead B e r techa r 's wo rds a ss imp ly ' r e turn whence y ou c ame ' ,i n wh ich c a se t he p hrase m igh t b e h e ld t o b e n eed less ly e l abo ra te ) . C o lumbanu s ' own l e t te rf r o m Nan te si n6 10 o b se rves t ha t h i sc ompan ion sa r e' h e re i nt he r eg ion o ft he B r i ton s '( h i c i nv i c in i aB r i t tonum s un t :E p i s tu lae I V ,e d . &t r an s . Wa lker 1 957 , 3 6 ) . J ame s ( 1 982 , 3 76 ) h as , f u r the r , o bse rved t ha t V enan t iu sF o r tuna tus ( Op e r a ,e d .L eo a nd K ru sch 1 961 ,2 9 ) d esc r ibe st h es ea so f fP o i tou a so c e anu sb r i tann i cu s .T he re i sn o o bs ta c le t o t h i s t e rm ino logy i mp ly ing a n i n i t ia l a r r iva lo fC o lumb a nu si nt he v i c in i ty o ft he L o i re e s tua ry . I n t h e 6 10 j ou rney i ti sc l ea r t ha t N an te s wa s a lway s C o lumbanu s ' d es t ina t ion . Wa lke r , among o the rs , c on f u sed t h is b yi mp ly ing t ha t Nan tes wa so n ly c ho sen a sa n a l terna t ive d e s t ina t ion — tha t t he p ar ty d iver ted t o t he L o i re t h rough ad es ire t o a vo id Neu s t r ia (Wa lke r 1 957 , x xv i i ) .T h i si sn o te xpl i c i t ly s t a ted i nt he t e x t ,h oweve r ,a nd Wa lke re v iden t ly was a c t ing o nt he a s sump t ion t ha ta ny o ne who w i shed t o t r ave l f r om G au l t o I r e land wou ld s imp ly b y p re fe rence t r ave l t o t he C hanne l c oa s t r a the r t han t he A t lan t ic . Wa lke r 's g ene ra l p reoccupa t ion w i th o ve r land r ou te sb ecome sc l ear w i th h i ss ugges t ion t ha tt h e S t C o lumb d ed ica t ion s i n we s tern C o rnwa l l i nd i ca te a t r an s i to fC o rnwal e nr ou t et oG au l( Wa lker 1 957 ,x i x ;b u t s ee P ade l1 988 ,7 1 ) . A t Nan tes as h ip i nvo lved i nc o mmerce w i th I r e l and wa s f ound ( q uae S co t torum c omm e r c i a v ex e r i t :J ona s , V i t a C o lumb an i 1 . 23 , e d . K rusch 1 902a , 9 7 ) . J ona s was w r i t ing s o me d ecades a f te rt he e ven ta nd f r om I t a ly .T h i s o bv ious ly d o e sn o t make h im af i rs th and o bserve r ,b u th e c e r ta in ly k new men who h ad t r ave l led w i th t he s a in t .T he c o r robo ra t ive v a lue o f t he E p i s tu lae o ft h e s a in t h im se l f may f u r the r r ender t h e c ore o f t he e p i sode r ea sonab ly c e r ta in . I n h i s l e t te r o f 6 10 C o lumb a nu s w r i tes t h a t ' a me ssenge rh a sr e ached me ,s ay ing t ha tt h e s h ip i sr e ady f o r me ,i n wh i ch Is ha l lb eb o rne u nw i l l ing t o my c oun try ' . H eg oes o nt os ay ,h owever ,

C hap t er S i x : C argoe sa nd C ommer ce i nt h eS ev en th C en tur y

S ed S if ug ie ro ,n u l lu sv e ta tc u s to s ;n am h oc v iden tu rv e l le , u te go f ug ia m .S ii n ma re p ro ic ia r mo re I onae ,q u ie ti p se i nh eb raeo c o lumba d i c i tu r ,o ra te ,u tv i ce c e t is i tq u idam f e l ic ir evocan sr em ig io t u tu sc e la to r : ( Bu ti fIs hou ld e scape ,t he re i sn og ua rd t op reven ti t ;f o r t hey s eem t od e s i re t h i s ,t ha t Is hou ld e s cape .I fIam c a s t i n to t he s e al i ke J onah , who h im se l fi sc a l led C o lumba i n Heb rew , p ray t ha t s omeone may t ake t he p lace o f t he wha le t ob r ing me b ack i ns a fe c oncea lmen tb y ah appy v oyage :E p i s tu lae I V .8 ,e d . &t r an s . Wa lke r1 957 ,3 4 -5 ) .

I n al a ter e p i s t le h et a lk so f' J onah , whose s h ipw reck Ih ave a l so a lmos t u ndergone ' ( I onae . . .cu iu s e t p ene s ub iv i n auf r ag ium :E p i s tu lae V .16 ,1 . 21 ,e d . &t r an s . Wa lke r 1 957 , 5 4 -5 ) .T he f a c tt ha tt he f i rs tr e fe rence i st ob e ing ' c a s ti n to t he s ea 'a nd t h es e cond ,t o' a lmo s t 'b e ing s h ipw recked i s a tl e a s td i f fe ren te nough i nr e fe rence f o rt h ee a r l ie rt ob e c o inc iden ta l .T h i ss eem ing f o re shadow ing o fs ubsequen t e ven t s i n t h e f i r s t o f t hese r e fe rence s t o J onah mus t , h oweve r ,r a i se s o me i n te re s t ing q ue s t ion s .C o lumbanu s ' c ommen t s make r he to r ica lu se o ft he f a c tt ha th i s n ame mean s ' dove ' , j u s t a s d oes j o nah i n Heb rew . H ence t he h ag iog raph ic e p i sode o ft he b oa tb e ing s t randed u n t i lh e i sc as ta sho re p a ra l le l st he l e gend o fJ onah .S eve ra lp o ss i b i l i t ies a r er a i sed . One i st ha tJ ona sb a sed t he i n c iden to f C o lumbanu s 'r e lea se o nt he r e f e rence i nt h el e t te r .A l ter n a t ive ly t he l e t te r may b e af o rgery — though i ti sn o to ne o ft he wo rk sl i s ted b y Wa lke ra sb e ing o fd oub t fu la u thor s h ip . I fi ti s af o rgery i ti sa ne l abo ra te o ne . C o lumbanu s e l sewhe re t a lk s o fb e ing a' f ea r fu l s a i lo r ' ( t im idu s n au ta : E p i s tu la eV .3 ,1 1 .1 9 -20 ,e d . Wa lke r1 957 ,3 8 )a nd f r equen t ly u ses ma r i t ime me taphor ss uch a st i de s ,o cean s we l la nd p i lo tage ( E p i s to la eV .3 ,V .8 ,V .11 ,V .15 ,e d . Wa lke r1 957 ,4 4 5 ,4 8 -9 ,5 4 -5 ) ,p erhaps i nd ica t ing e a rl i e re xpe r iences a ts ea . One c an o n ly c ommen t i n a l l t h i s t ha t t h e i dea o f h i s e xpec t ing t ot ake s h ip a tNan te si sn o ti nd oub t ,n o ri st he re a ny r ea son t oe spec ialy d oub tt h ec omme rc ia lc on tex to f s uch s h ips , t hough t he l a t te rp o in t mu s tb e r ega rded a s u nproven .T he J onah c once i t s ,h oweve r , mus ta lway sg ive p ause t o a nyone w i sh ing t o r e ad t h ese e p i sode a tf a ce v a lue . A s i n t he c ase o f Adomnän 's r e fe rence t o ' Ga l l ic s a i lo r s ' ,t he S co t torum c omme r c i ao ft he V i t aC o lumban i may b e ad e ta i lo fJ ona s 's t ime ,c . 639 .C o lumbanu sd escr ibe sa s h ip p repa red f o r h im ( n av em p ar ar i : E p i s tu l ae I V , e d . Wa lke r1 957 ,3 4 ) , wh ich i sn o tt h es ame t h ing a sc omme rce . T rad ing s h ips wou ld b e l i ke ly t ob e c ha r te red e ven f o r c omme r c ia l v oyage s , a s w e w i l l s ee b e low . T here i sn o e v iden ce t ha ta ni n f ra s t ruc tu re f o rt r ade e x i s ted a nd e ach c omme rc ia lv oyage may h ave b een amo re o rl e s ss epa ra te e ven t .J ona sd oes n o tt hen c onc lu s ive ly p rove t ha td i rec t , i ndependen t ,c on tac t sp re -ex i s ted C o lumbanus . E ven mo re v ague i sa ny e v idence f o rI r i sh p e r eg r in i b e ing a c t ive i n G au l p r io r t o C o lumbanu s . K enney i s c or rec tt od i sm is se xamp les s uch a sF r ido l inu s ,a nI r i sh men who i ss a id t oh ave c ome t oP o i t ie r s i nt h e t ime o f C lov i s a nd l a te r t op reach i n G ermany . T he s t ory wa s ' r econ s truc ted 'i nt h et e n th c en tu ry b yB a l the ro fS ä ck ingen ( t he mona s tery f ounded b yF r ido l inu s )f r om memo r ie so f a' l o s t ' o r ig ina l . I ti sa cco rd ing ly v ague a nd f a bu lous — K enney c onv inc ing ly s hows t h a t t he c o re o ft h e s t o ry i s

g enu ine , b u t c once rn ing t he t ime o f C lov i s I , i n t h e s even th c entu ry ,n o tC lov i s I( Kenney 1 929 ,4 97 -80 ) .T he r e fe rence i ni tt or e la t ives o fF r ido l in b e ing i nvo lved i nt h e m i ss ion t o No r thumbr ia s eem st oc on f i rm t h i s( V i t aF r id o l in i XV , e d . K ru sch 1 896a , 3 61 ) a nd f i t s h im f i rm ly i n to t h e r egu la rs even th -centu ry p a t te rn o fl i nk sb e tween I r e land , Nor thumbr ia , wes te rn G au la nd G ermany . I t mu s t b e a dm i t ted , h oweve r , t ha t e v idence f o r I r i sh a c t iv i ty i nw e s tern G au li sr a re e nough a ta ny t ime .A w il o f An soa ld ,B i shop o fP o i t ier s , men t ion s aR omanu s , d e sc r ibed a s' a nI r i sh p i lg r im ' , whom h ep laces i nc ha rge o ft h e mona s tery a t Maze role s( Ta rd i f1 898 ,7 89 -90 ) .T he s ame R omanu ss eem st oa ppea re a rl ie r ,a ss i gna to ry o ft he d ona t io o f An soa ld t o No i rmou t ier i n 6 77 , where h e i s d e sc r ibed a s a' b i shop '( Ta rd i f1 898 ,7 86 ) . ' Thomeneu s 'i s af e l low w i tness , p erhaps t he s ame T om ianus o f Angou leme who a ppea r s i n t he A c t s o f t he C oun c i l o f Modoga momo C a s t ro ( CAM I ,e d . Maa sen ,2 16 ) .T om ianu s i s an ame k nown i nI r e land i nt h is p er iod .T he B i shop o f A rmagh a dd res sed i nt he l e t te ro fP ope J ohn i n5 40 ( Bede , HE 1 . 19 ,e d .C o lg rave a nd Mynor s1 969 ,2 00 ) ,f o re xamp le , b ea r st h i sn ame . However t h i sp a ra l le la l one s hou ld n o tb e r ega rded a sc onc lu s ive p roo fb ya ny means t ha tt he B i shop o f Angou leme was I r i sh . Ac oup le o fc ase s a pa r t , t he e v idence f o r c on tac t b e tween wes tern G au la nd I r e land i st hu s d i s t inc t ly c i r c um s tan t ia l . T h i s i sa l so t r ue o f t he a r chaeo log ica l e v i d ence , whe re t h e w es te rn G aul i sh c onnec t ion r e s t s o na f ew d e f in i te p a ra l le l sa nd ,f o rt h eg rea te rp a r t ,o nn ega t ive e v idence f o ro the rG au l i sh c onnec t ion s . We mu s tn o tf a l l i n to t h e d i f fus ion i s ta s sump t ion ,h oweve r , t ha tt he I r i sh p e r eg r in i we re n ece ssa r i ly l i ke ly t ob e mo s t a c t ive i nt he r eg ion where t hey made t he i r i n i t ia l l and fa l l . E ven C o lumbanu s ,p re sumab ly o ne o ft he e a rl i es tp e r egr in i ,d id n o ts t ay i n we s tern G au l ,t hough an umber o fh i sf olowe r s w e re i nB r i t tany ( po ss ib ly t he r eg ion a round Nan tes ) a t t he t ime o fh i s l e t te r o f6 10 . T ha t s o me wes tern G au l i sh c hu r ch c en t re s ma in ta ined c onnec t ion sw i th I r e land may b e a no the r ma t te r . P o i t ie r s a nd No i rmou t ie r a r e men t i oned mo re t han o nce i nc onnec t ion w i th I r i sh t r a f f ic .I n t h ec a se o ff i gu res s uch a sD ido o fP o i t ier sa nd P h i l iber to f No i rmou t ier , h oweve r , we k now t ha t t h e c hur chmen ma in ta in ing s uch c onnec t ions w e re n o tI r i sh b yb i r th ,b u t c u l t iva ted a nI r ish c onnec t ion ,p e rhaps o na ccoun to ft h e p re s t ige o ft he I r i sh mona s t ic e tho si nG au l .T ha tc hu rch men f r om I r e land a r r ived i nG au l t h rough s uch c onnec t i on s i so n ly l og ica l . B u t t hey n eed n o t h ave r ema ined whe re t hey l anded a nd t he re fo re t he e v idence o f t he i r a c t iv i ty i n we s tern G au li sn o td i rec t ly v i s ib le . T he c omp lex i t ie so ft he se r e la t ion s may b es e en i n t h es t o ry o ft he a bduc t ion o fD agober tI .T he L i b e rH i s to r i a e F r ancorum ( c .727 ) s t a tes t ha t , f o l low ing t he d em i se o f S ig iber t I I , G r im .oa ld t he m a j o r p a l a t i i h ad t h e k ing 's y oung s on t on su red a nd s en ti n to t he c a re o fB i shop D ido o fP o i t ie r s ,w i th i n s t ruc t ions t ha th eb es en to nt oI r e land . G r imoa ld t hen p u th i s own s on o nt h et h rone ( L ib e rH i s to r i a e F r ancorum XL I I I , e d . K rusch 1 888a , 4 3 ; P i card 1 991 ; G e rbe rd ing 1 987 , 4 7 -66 , 8 0 f f ; ÖC rö in in 1 987 , 4 0 -3 ) . T he V i t a W i lf r id i( w r i t ten b e tween 7 11 a nd 7 31 ) a l so g ives a n a c coun to ft he s t ory :

6 5

C ommun ica t ion a nd C ommer c ea l ong t h e W e s t e rn S ea lane s AD400 -800

Nam s uprad ic tus r ex i n i uven tu te s ua a b i n im ic is r egnan t ibu si ne x i l ium p e rd i t ion i sp u l sus ,n av igando a d H ibe rn iam i n su lam ,D eo a d iuvan te p erven i t . ( Fo rt h i sk ing D agober t when h e was ay oung man h ad b een d r iven i n to e x i le a nd r u in b yh i se nem ie s who we re t hen r e ign ing ,a nd s a i l ing a way ,c a me t oI r e land b y God 's h e lp :E dd ius ,V i t aW i lf r id i XXV I I I ,e d .a nd t r an sC o lg rave 1 927 ,5 4 -5 ) .

T he c h rono logy a nd c i rcum s tance so ft h i se p i sode a r ep robab ly t he mo s tc on t rover s ia li n Me rov ing ian h i s t o ry ,t hough t he d e ta i l sr e levan tt ot he p resen ts t udy a re n o te spec ialy d oub t fu l . T he e p i sode i su sualy d a ted t o 6 56 ,a l though G erbe rd ing h as a rgued f o rr eda t ing i tt o6 51 ( Ge rbe rd ing 1 987 ,6 6 ) . T h i si sn ow q ues t ioned b yP i ca rd ( P ica rd 1 991 ,2 8 -31 ,3 7 -8 ) . D ido wa sa tN ive l le sa tt he t ime ,n o tP o i t ier s ,h av i ng a r r ived t he re i n t he 1 6 th o fJ anua ry ( Add i tamen tum N iv i a len se d eF u i lano ,e d .K rusch 1 902b ,4 51 ) ,a s( 5C rö in in ( 1 987 , 4 0 ) h as n o ted . We m igh t s pecu la te t ha t , t oa vo id s usp i c ion f r om Dagobe r t 's r e la t ives a nd i nt he l i ke l ihood o fP o i tou b e ing i nr egu la r mar i t ime c on tac tw i th I r e land , i t wa s mos t l i ke ly t ha t D ido r e tu rned w i th D agobe r t t o P o i t ier s a nd f r om t he re s en t h im b y r i ve r a nd s ea t o I r e land ,b u tt he re i ss imp ly n oe v idence t oc on f i rm t h i s . G r imoa ld 's e n t rus t ing o fD agober t 's e x i le t oD ido ,h ow e ve r , may p resuppose e s tabl i shed l i nk sw i th I r e land ,o ra t l e a s tt ha tG r imoa ld t hough tt ha tt he B i shop o fP o i t ie r s wa s w e l lp laced t oc a rry o u ts uch at a sk . We h ave a l ready s een t ha t An soa ld ,D ido 's s uccesso ra sB i shop o fP o i t ier s ,h ad I r i sh c onnec t ion s ( s ee a bove , 6 5 ) . T o s end D agober t d i r e c t ly t oI r e land b y s ea wou ld h ave b een c onven ien t , a s t he re wou ld a lway sb et he p oss ib i l i ty t ha ti nt ak ing h im b y way o f Ang lo -Saxon E ng land s o me p owe r wou ld i n ter ro g a te aF rank i sh e n tou rage a nd d i scove rD agober t 's l i ne a ge . T he V i t a W i lf r id ic on t inues t he s t ory , P os ta nnorum c i rcu lum am ic ie tp rox im ie iu s ,v iven tem i n p e r fec ta a e ta te f l o ren tem a n av igan t ibu s a ud ien te s , m ise run tnun t io ss uo sa db ea tum W i l f r i thum e p iscopum , p e ten te s ,u te um d eS co t t ia e tH ibern ia a ds ei nv i tas se te t s i b ia d r egem em i s is se t . ( I n t he c ou r se o f y ea r s h i s f r iends a nd k in smen h eard f r om s ome t r ave l le r st ha th e was a l ive a nd f l ou r ish ing i n t he p r ime o f manhood . S o t hey s en t me ssenge r s t ot he B i shop W i l f red a sk ing h im t oi nv i te D agober ta c ro ss f r om S co t land a nd I r e land a nd t os end h im o u tt ot hem a sk ing : E dd ius ,V i ta W i lf r id i XXV I I I ,e d .a nd t r an s .C o lg rave 1 927 , 5 4 -55 ) .

T h i s wa s d u ly d one , a round Apr i l June 6 76 . T he ' t rave l l e r s ' who i n fo rmed D agobe r t 's r e la t ives a r ed esc r ibed a s n av igan t ibu s , wh ich m igh ti mp ly t ha tt h ey w e re s ea fa re r s . P e rhaps t he n ews wa s a cqu i red i n we s te r n G au l f r om s ea fa re r s who h ad c on tac t sw i th I r e land ,b u tn ol o ca t ion s a r eg iven . T ha tD agobe r tu sed d i f fe ren tr ou te st ot r ave lt oa nd f r om I r e land s hou ld n o tb er ega rded a so dd ,h owever — in f a c t ,t h i ss t ory s e rves t ou nde r l ine t he p o in tt ha tb e tween I r e land a nd t he c on t inen tn e i the rt he r ou te t h rough E ng -

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l and ,n o rt h ed i rec tr ou te b ys ea o ugh tt ob er ega rded a s mo re ' n a tu ra l ' . Al o t m igh t d epend u pon p o l i t ica l/re l i g iou s c onnec t ion s . T he s ame p o in t may b e s e en w i th r ega rd t o whe re ap e r son m igh t move a f te rl and ing o nt he c on t inen t .S uch p er sona lc onnec t ion sa l so v ery l i ke ly g ov e rned whe re g oods wou ld b e t r an spo r ted . D agobe r t 's r e tu rn t h rough Nor th B r i ta in m igh tb e t aken t os ugges t t ha t t r ave l b y s ea f r om I r e land t o Au s t ras ia was n o t p o ss ib le a nd t ha th e wou ld n o tr i sk t r ave lt h rough wes te rn G au l . On t h eo the rh and ,i ti sf a r mo re l i ke ly t ha tt h is wa s ama t te ro fW i l f red 's own p o l i t ica lc onnec t ion s .S ince t h e m id -660 s W i l f red h ad e n joyed c l o se p e rsona l t i es w i th Ag i lbe r t ,B i shop o fP a r i s( c f .V i ta W i lf r id iX I I ,e d .C o lg rave 1 927 ,2 6 ) , who h ad b een p resen ta tt h eS ynod o f Wh i tby . Mo re t han l i ke ly i t wa s t h i s c onnec t ion wh ich wa s e x p lo i ted t ob r ing D agober th ome .I no the r words ,D agober t 's r e turn wa sf a c i l i ta ted b yl i nk so ft he G aul i sh c hu rch wh ich h ad s prung u ps i nc et he t ime o fh i se x i le . Iwou ld s ugge s t t ha tt h i sa tl e a s t makes t h ei dea t ha tt he e arl ier j ou r ney wa s d i rec tr a the r more l i ke ly .P ac eJ ame sw e may s ay t ha tt h e u se o ft he r ou te v ia E ng land wa s l e s s o n a ccoun t o fi t s d i rec tne ss ,b u td ue t op e r sona lr e la t ion sh ips wh i ch g rew u pb e tween I r i sh ,E ng l i sh a nd G aul i sh c l e rgy a f te r6 60 . Ag i lbe r t i sa no the r who may h ave f olowed t h e w es tern G au l I re land c onnec t ion f r om G au le a rl i er i nt h e s even th c en tu ry . Ag i lbe r t , who b ecame t he B i shop o f We ssex a round 6 40 ,i ss a id b yB ede t oh ave b een ' aG au lb y b i r th , who h ad s pen t al ong t ime i nI r e land f o rt he p urpo se o fs t udy ing t h eS cr iptu re s ' (na t ione q u idem G a l lu ss e dt unc l e g end arum g r a t i as c r ip tur arum i nH ib ern i an on p aruo t empo r e d emo r a tu s :B ede , HE 1 1 .7 ,e d . &t r an s .C o lg rave a nd Myno r s 1 969 ,2 34 -5 ) .I ti sq u i te p robab le t ha tt h i s may b et aken t o mean t ha th eh ad n o tp rev ious ly b een t oE ng land a ta l l , s ugge s t ing ad i rec tv oyage t oI r e land f r om Gau l .H i sl a ck o fk now ledge o fE ngl i sh ( b arb ar ae l o que l lae ) wa sc e r ta in ly c ons ide red wor thy o f n o te a t t he t ime o f h i s Wes sex e p i scopacy ( B ede , HE 1 1 .7 ,e d .C o lg rave a nd Myno r s1 969 , 2 34 ) . Ag i lbe r tt ook t he p ar to ft he ' Roman 'p ar ty o f Wi l f red a t Wh i tby , wh ich mu s ts ugges tt ha th es pen th i st ime i nt h e s ou th o f I r e land , ( 5C rö i rün wou ld s ugges t among t h e Ang lo -Saxon c ommun i ty t he re ( ( 3 C rö in in 1 983 , 2 45 ) . Ag i lbe r th a s a t t rac ted s u rp r is ing ly l i t t le s cho la r ly a t ten t i on ( t hough t h i si sn ow r e c t i f ied t os o me e x ten tb yR ich te r 1 991 ) , d esp i te h i s o bv ious s i gn i f icance a s af i gu re who moved e a s i ly b e tween I r e land , G au l a nd Ang lo -Saxon E ng land .O rp e rhaps t h i si st h ev ery r ea son why : Ag i lbe r t 's movemen t s s i t awkwa rd ly w i th t ho se who d e fend a n ' i so la t ion ' mode l o f w es te rn i n su la r c u l ture . H is f am i ly h ad l i nk sw i th S tC o lumbanu sa nd w i th t he l a t te r 's mon a s ter ie s i nt h e P a r i s r eg ion a nd t h i s mus tb e s e en a st h e p robab le o r ig in o fh i sI r i sh c onnec t ion .T he se we re t he s or t o ff am i l ia lc onnec t ion s wh ich c ha rac te r i sed I r ish a c t iv i t ie s a broad ( Angenend t 1 982 , 5 2 -79 ) . Ag i lbe r t l a te r b ecame B i shop o fP a r i s whe re , f o re xamp le ,T heodore o fT a r su s s t ayed w i th h im i n6 68 .D e sp i te t he k nown a n tagon ism o f W i l f red a nd E bro in ,h e may h ave b een a ni n t ima te o fb o th . On h i s d ea th , h e was b u r ied a tJ oua r re , whe re h i s s a r c ophagu ss t il s urv ive sa nd i so ne o ft h eo n ly s a rcophag i i n Merov ing ian G au lt oh ave e x ten s ive f i gu re s cu lptu re — wh ich i th a sb een c l a imed t o owe t ob o th I r i sh a nd No r th umbr ian i n sp i ra t ion ( f o ri lu s t ra t ion s e eL a sko 1 971 ,1 0 1 ) .

C hap t er S i x : C argoe sa nd C ommer ce i nt h eS even th C en tu ry

T h i s u nu sua l f e a ture , l i ke t he I r i sh r e fe rence s i n s ome F rank i sh s a in t s ' l i ves , i s ac onsc iou s u nde r sco r ing o f Ag i lber t ' s l i nk s w i th a n i n su la r e tho s a nd s p i r i tua l i ty . Ag i lber t may h ave p layed ac ausa lr o le i nt he i nvo lvemen t o fE ngl i sh a nd I r i sh c hu rchmen i nt he c on t inen ta lp o l i t i c s o fk ing -mak ing b e tween Aus t ra s ia a nd Neus t r ia . T h i si n i t se l fm igh tn o tb es een a sa ppo s i te i n as t udy o fo ve r sea s c o mmun ica t ion ,e xcep t whe re we mu s tc on s ide rt he c en t r a l r o le p layed b y p e r sona lc on tac t s i nt he c au sa t ion o f o ve rsea sl i nk s . We s te rn G au l i sh c hu rchmen , s uch a s Amandu s , R emac lu s , E l ig ius a nd N i ce t iu s , w e re i nvo lved i n t h e c onve rs ion o fG ermany (Walace -Had r i 1 11985 ,1 43 f f ) .T he p resence o fs uch as e r ies o fm i ss iona r ie sf r om t h i sd i s tan t r eg ion i ss t r ik ing ,p a r t i cu la r ly i fwe a dd t he I r i sh m i s s ion a r ies a r r iv ing b y way o f wes te rn G au l( who may b et h en a s much ' we s te rn Gau l i sh 'r e cru i t sa s' I r i sh ' ) .T he A rnu l f ing l e ade r s e ncou raged t h i s l i nk ,b u t i t sb eg inn ing s may b e t r aced t oD agobe r t I .T he p ol i cy p u r sued b y D agobe r tI a nd h i ss on C lov i s Ii nvo lved t he e s tab l i shmen to f mon a s ter ies w i th in Neu s t r ia ,o f ten b y monk sb o rn o u t s ide o f N eu s t r ia . A s econd f i e ld o f a c t iv i ty i nvo lved s end ing o the r s o n m iss iona ry a c t iv i ty a broad : c e r ta in ly t o G e r many a nd Wood wou ld a l so s ugge s tt oE a s t Ang l ia ( Wood 1 991 ,9 f f ) . T he c ruc ia la spec to ft h i sa c t iv i ty f o ro ur p u rpose si s t ha t t he se move men t s e s tab l i shed c on t inu ing r e la t ion s h ips . C hu r chmen moved f r om t he c en t re t ot h ep e r iph e ry , b u t t h ey ma in ta ined l i nk s w i th t h e i r o r ig in p o in t s . S ome mona s ter ies i n N eus t r ia we re g ran ted c on t ro l o f e s ta tes i nw e s tern G au l .P e rhap st he se w e re c l a imed b yt h e monk s t h rough f am i ly c onnec t ions , o r p erhaps t he Neu s t r ian a nd Aus t ra s ian r u le r s we re s eek ing t oa ppro p r ia te t e r r i to ry i n we s tern G au lt oi n c rea se t he i rp e r sona l d i gn i ta s ( P i ca rd 1 991 , 3 2 -3 ) . Wha teve rt he p a t te rn , much movemen to fp eop le a nd g oods s eem s t oh ave b een a c c o mpl i shed t h rough t h e se r e la t ion sa round t h ep e r iphe ry o ft he N eu s t r ian h ea r t land o ft h eF rank i sh k ingdom i nt h e s even th c en tury . Ac ha r ter o fS ig iber tI I ,b u tl i nked w i th G r imoa ld , g ran ted c on t ro lo ft wo mona s t i cp or t st ot he mona s tery o f S t ave lo t -Ma lmedy ,n ea rA achen —name ly S e l l i s( Cha rnp to c eaux o nt h eL o ire )a nd V e t r ar i a( Po r t -Sa in t -Pk re-Ha lk in a nd R o land 1 909 , 1 2 -13 ) .S uch a r rangemen t s wou ld h ave b een a t t rac t ive t o mona s ter ies i nt h en or th -eas t , who wou ld b ene f i tf r om t he p roduce o ft h es ou th -we s t ,i np a r t icu la r w ine a nd o i l .T ha t an o r the rn mona s te ry was g iven c on t ro l o ft he p or t si ss i gn i f ican ti nt ha ti ti mp l ies a ni nvo lvemen t o f t he monas tery i n w e s tern ma r i t ime t r a f f ic . T hese a r e a dm i t ted ly r i ver p o r t s ,a nd t r a f f i cc ou ld h ave t r ave l led u p t he L o i re a nd o ve r land .J ona si nd ica te st ha t Neve r s was a p or tf o ro ve r land t r avele r st o emba rk o nt he L o i re ( J ona s , V i ta C o lumban i XX I , e d . K ru sch 1 885a , 9 3 ) a nd w e may r e ca l lG rego ry o fT ou r s 's t e s t imony t ot he u se o ft h eL o i re V aley t ob r ing g oods w e s tf r om O r lean s( s ee a bove ,3 1 ) .S t P h i l ibe r ts h ipped o l ive o i ld i rec tb ys ea f r om B o rdeaux t o J um ikge s , h owever , f o r t he l i gh t ing o f t h e c hu rch ( V i t a F i l ib e r t iX ) (XV I I ,e d .L ev i son 1 910 ,6 02 ) .T he a bbey o fS a in t Wand r ile a l so h e ld e s ta te si nt h e Angoumo i sa nd S a in tonge ( J ame s 1 977 , 2 23 ) . We c anno t b e c e r ta in whe the r t h i s wou ld h ave i nvo lved s eabo rne s h ipmen to fg ood sb ack t o

S a in t Wand r i l le ,t hough t h i s wou ld b e al og ica li n fe rence . One o ft he mos t i n teres t ing t e x t s t od i scu ss l i nk s a round t h e p er iphe ry o fG au l i st he V i ta F i l ib er t i , wh ich s u rv ive si n an in th -centu ry t e x t ,f r om ap robab le e i gh th c en tu ry o r ig ina l( Kenney 1 929 ,4 95 ) .T he p e r sona lc onnec t i on so fS tP h i l ibe r t , who se e spou sa lo f ac omme rc ia le thos w il b ee xam ined b e low ,p rov ide a ne xamp le o ft he way t h e wes te rn -ea s te r nG au li n ter face r e la te st ot he wes tern G au l I re land c onnec t ion . B o rn i nG ascony , P h i l ibe r tb e c ame af o l lowe ro ft he c u l to fC o lumbanus ( V i t aF i l ib e r t iV . e d . L ev i son 1 910 , 5 87 ;J ame s 1 982 , 3 77 ) , f i r s tf ound ing a mona s te ry a tJ umr eges , b e fo re mov ing t o No i rmou t ier , where h e f ounded amona s tery u nde r t he p a t ronage o f An soa ld o fP o i t ie r s , whose I r i sh c onnec t ion sh ave a l ready b een d i scu ssed . T he V i ta F i l ibe r t i s ugges t s t ha t ac onf l ic t w i th S t Ouen o f R ouen f o r ced h i s e x i le t o t he wes t— P h i l ibe r ta nd An soa ld b o th f o l low ing D agobe r tI ' sp a r ty a ga in s tE bro in ( Kenney 1 929 ,4 97 ;J ame s1 982 ,3 77 ) .A tt h i s d i s tance w eh ave d i f f icu l ty i na s se ss ing whe ther t h i s was t h e a c tua l r e ason , o r ar ef lec t ion o f t he c onven t ions o f h ag iog raphy i nt h et ime o ft h ew r i t ing o ft he v i t a( pe rhaps o f c on tempo ra ry p o l i t ic s ) . T he f a c t t ha t P h i l ibe r t was a c t ive b o th i n n o r thern a nd we s te r n G au l , h oweve r , i s c on s is ten tw i th s even th cen tu ry e ven t s . O f ten c i ted i sa ne p i logue t oc hap ter 4 2o ft he V i ta F i l ib er t i : N ec mu l tum p os tS co tho rum n av i sd ive r s i s me rc imon i is p lena a d l i tu s a d fu i t , q u i c a lc iamen ta a c v e s tamen ta f r a t r ibus l a rga c op ia m in i s t rav i t . ( No t much l a ter a nI r i sh s h ip w i th ad ive r s i ty o fg oods o n b oa rd p u ti n to s ho re a nd s upp l ied t he b re th ren w i th a n a bundance o fs hoe s a nd c l o th ing : V i t aF i l ibe r t iX L I I ,e d . L ev i son 1 910 ,6 03 ) .

T h i se p i sode i so bv ious ly i n tended t ou nde r sco re P h il ibe r t 's a dheren ce t o t he e tho s o f C o lumbanus . T h i s d oes n o t , h oweve r , i nva l ida te t he d e ta i ls o f as h ip f r om I r e land p u t t ing i na t as i te i nt he L o i re e s tua ry ,o rt he p resence o f s hoes i ni t sc a rgo , wh ich w e re ap roduc tf o r wh ich t he I r i sh w e re wel k nown .T he d e ta i lo fa nI r i sh s h ip i s af a c tor o f i n te res t t o c on t ra s t w i th t h e p redom inan t e v iden ce f o r G au l i sh v e sse ls i nvo lved i ns uch t r a f f ic ( s ee b e low 9 7 f f ) .I n t h ec on tex to ft h en eed t os t re ss t he I r i sh l i nk so fP h i l ibe r t 's mona s t ic i sm i tmay h ave s u i ted t h eh ag iog raphe rt oh ave I r i sh s h ips i nvo lved i ns uch t r a f f ic —bu t t he re may a l so h ave b een I r i sh s h ips mak ing t h i s v oyage . T he f a c t t ha t No i rmou t ie ri st h el i ke ly s i te o ft he c ompos i t ion o ft he v i ta , h oweve r , may b et aken t oa dd we igh tt ot he i dea t ha tt he a u tho rd e sc r ibes as c ene wh ich wa sl i ke ly t ob ef ound a t No i rmou t ie r . We w i l ls ummar i se t h ep i c tu re i d en t if i ed s of a r .T he monas te r ies wh ich g rew u po nt he p e r iphery o ft he F rank i s h h ea r t land s e em t o h ave e s tabl i shed e conom ic n e t wo rk s wh ich b rough t t h e w es te r n s ea lane s i n to c on ta c t w i th e a s tF ranc ia .D agobe r t 's p o l icy wa st o move m i ss ion a r ies f r om o ne p e r iphery t ot he o the r— the d ive r s ion o f Amandu st o wo rk o nt he f r on t ier m i ss ion may b et aken a s c ha rac te r i s ing h i sr e c ru i tmen to fm i ss iona r ie st oh i sp e r s ona l s e rv ice ( V i t a Amand i XV I I , e d . K rusch 1 910 , 4 40 1 ; a l so s e e Wood 1 991 , 9 ) . P resumab ly e conom ic f r eedoms

6 7

C ommun ica t ion a nd C ommerce a long t h e W e s t e rn S ea lane s AD400 -800

w ere a l lowed a s ar ewa rd f o r t he p a r t ic ipa t ion o f t h e mona s t ic f ounde rs i nt he s e t t lemen to ft h et e r ra in a cqu i red t h rough e xpan s ion . I ti sc l ea rt ha tt he F rank ish c onque s t a nd c onve r s ion o fG ermany wa s af o cu so fo ve r sea sc on t a c t i n wh ich I r i sh a nd E ng l i sh c l e r i cs we re h eav i ly i n v o lved ,p robab ly b yv i rtue o f amode lo fi n su la rp ol i t ica l i nvo lvemen t i n F rank i sh a f fa i r s s t re t ch ing b a ck e a rl i e r i n to t he s even th c en tu ry a nd e spec ia l ly l i nked t o t h e l e ga cy o fC o lumbanu s( Angenend t1 982 ,6 4 f f ;J ame s1 982 , 3 77 -81 ; Wa l lace -Had r il 1 985 ,6 8 f f ,1 43 ) . T he p e r sona ll i nk s o ft h em i ss ion o f Wil ibro rd t o G e rmany a l so i nd ica te a nu nder ra ted w es te rn ma r i t i me l i nk .T he s t ory b eg in sw i th E gbe r t , aNo r thumbr ian l i v ing i nI r e land ( Bede , HE V .9 ,e d .C o lg rave a nd Myno r s1 969 , 4 78 ) .T he m i racu lous e ven t so ft he s t o ry may c ause u st o t r ea t i tw i th s u sp ic ion , t hough t he a c tua l r ou te s o f t h e v oyages a re p laus ib le e nough . Wh i le as h ip i sb e ing p re p ared , E gbe r td i srega rds t he mes sage o f av i s ion t ha th e s hou ld s a i l t o I ona a nd n o t G ermany . B e fo re i tl e ave s h a rbou r , t he s h ip i sd r iven a g round b y as t o rm , wh ich l e ave st he s h ip ' l y ing o nh er b eam e nd si nt he wave s ' .T he p osse ss ion so fE gber ta nd h i sc ompan ion sa re s aved ,b u t t he s h ip 's s t o re s l o s t ( Bede , HE V .9 , e d . C o lg rave a nd Myno r s1 969 ,4 78 ) .T h i sc ou ld b ei n te rpre ted a sc on t rad i c t i ng t he e a rl ie ri mpre ss ion t ha tt he b re th ren we re t he s o le p ropr ie to r so ft he v oyage ,b u ti tmay s imp ly i mp ly t ha tt h e p un i shmen td id n o ti n c lude t h ep e r sona lp os se ss ion s o f t he b re th ren , b u t o n ly t hose s t o res n eeded t o make t h e v oyage p o ss ib le .I tc an o n ly b ea s sumed ( t hough t h e re i s n op laus ib le a l terna t ive )t ha tt h er ou te o ft h i sv oyage wa s i n tended t oh ave b een a round C ornwa l la nd u pt he C han n e l . I fE gbe r t wa s s t i l la tt h is t ime l i v ing a tR a th Me l s ig i ( Bede , HE 1 1 .27 , e d . C o lg rave a nd Myno r s 1 969 , 3 12 ) , wh ich i st hough tb y OC rö in in a nd F ann ing t oh ave b een j u s te as to ft he R iver B a r row ,n ea rC a r low ( Fann ing 1 984 , 4 3 ) ,t he p or ta t wh ich t hese e ven ts o ccu r red wou ld h ave b een p robab ly s o mewhe re i ns ou th -ea s tI r e land ,p e rhaps Wa te r fo rd o r Wex fo rd . As ou ther ly g a le a nd f l ood t ide i n t he B a r row e s tuary c ou ld d i sab le as h ip i nj u s tt h i s way , b u t i ti su nw i se t o r e ad t o much i n to B ede 's ma r i t ime d e ta i l , wh ich may b e wholy i mag inary . As e r ie so f No r thumbr ian e x i le si nI r e land t ook u p t he t a sk wh ich E gbe r t a bandoned . W ic t iber t ' t ook s h ip a nd a r r ived i nF r is ia ' ,b u t mee t ing n os ucce ss ,r e tu rned t o I r e land ( Bede , HE V .9 ,e d .C o lg rave a nd Mynor s1 969 ,478 8 0 ) .I n6 92 Wi l l ibro rd f olowed .H i sv i s i tt os e eP ipp in e n r ou t ei ss pec i f ica l ly d esc r ibed a s ad e tou r( Bede , HE V .9 ,e d . C o lg rave a nd Mynor s1 969 ,4 80 ) .T he l a t te r 's i n te rven t ion i nt he i rm i ss ion i ss ugge s t ive : ' s uppor t ing t hem w i th h i s i mper ia la u thor i ty s ot ha tn one s hou ld i n te r fe re w i th t h e i r p reach ing ,a nd g ran t ing many f a vou r st ot ho se who w i shed t o embrace t he f a i th '( Bede , HE V .9 ,e d . &t r an s .C o lg rave a nd Myno r s 1 969 , 4 80 ) . I n a no the r , p e rhaps c on fused , e p i sode ,t wo more No r thumbr ian e x i les i nI r e land ,b o th c a l led Hewa ld ,g ot oS axony a nd a re mar ty red ( Bede , HE V .10 ,e d .C o lg rave a nd Myno r s1 969 ,4 83 ) . T he se v oyages s e em t ob ec ons t i tu ted b yt h ec hurch men i nq ues t ion a nd p resumab ly t ake t h em u pt he E ng l i sh C hanne l , f r om a s t a r t ing -po in t s o mewhe re i n I r e land . T he re i sn o s ugge s t ion t ha t No r thumbr ia l a y o n t h e i r r ou te . A s B ede wa s w r i t ing a bou t e ven t s i n h i s own 6 8

l i f e t ime i tmay b ea ccep ted t ha tt h er ou te s d e sc r ibed a re c o r rec ta tl e as to nt h i sp o in t .T h i se v idence r a i se si mpo r t an ti s sue sf o rt he u nder s tand ing o ft he b a s i so fs even th c en tu ry e xchange b e tween G au la nd I r e land .I temerges a s mo s tl i ke ly t ha tI r i sh v oyage rs wou ld s t i l lt r ave lb y way o f t h eA t lan t ic s ea lanes ( j u s ta sW i l l ib ro rd d id )e ven t hough t he i r d es t ina t ion wa s G ermany . T he s ea i s amuch l e ss l a bou r in ten s ive t r an spo r t med ium t han t r ave lo ver land a nd i ft r aveler s were g o ing d i rec t ly t oG au lt h es ea r ou te wou ld b e mo re e ff i c ien t— i ft hey c ou ld a f fo rd t he c har ter o f as h ip . We may c on t ras tt hen t r aveler ss uch W i l l ibrord a nd C o lumbanus , whose d es t ina t ion s eem st oh ave b een t he c on t inen ta l la l ong ,t o at r ave l le rs uch a sF u r sa ( Bede , HE 1 1 .19 : e d . C o lg rave a nd Myno r s1 969 , 2 76 ) , who h ad s pec if i c c onnec t ions w i th a mona s tery i n Ang lo -Saxon E ng land ( s ee J ames 1 982 , 3 80 ) o rS tS am son o f Do l who may w e l lh ave l anded i nC ornwal w i thou ta ny s pec if i c i n ten t ion o fg o ing o nt oB r i t tany ( s ee b e low ,1 07 ) .I ti sh a rd t ob ep rec i se a st od e ta i li na ny o ft h e se c ases ,b u tw e mu s t a tl e a s t make t he a t temp t t o d i s t ingu i sh t he p o ten t ialy d i f fe ren t mo t iva t ions o ft r aveler s . C argo e sa nd C omme r c eB e tw een G au la nd t h eI r i sh S e aB a s in T he re i sn o d oub t a tl e a s t t ha t s h ips we re c om ing a nd g o ing b e tween I r e land a nd t he c on t inen ti n t he s even th c entury a nd o nt he b a s is o ft he a r chaeo log i ca le v idence we may make s o me f i rm s pecu la t ion s a s t o t he r ou tes a nd d es t ina t ion s o f ma r i t ime c o mme rce . T hese w i l l b e d i s c u s sed i nC hap te rS even .T he d ocumen tary e v iden ce s ug g es t st ha t ad ive rs i ty o fg oods m igh tb ef ound i n as h ip 's c a rgo .I td oe sn o ts ugge s t at r a f f ic d om ina ted b y as i ng le , r egu la rc ommod i ty . We h ave s een ,a nyway ,t ha tt h e' w ine t r ade ' mode lr e s t so nn oa pprec iab le e v idence . Ar egu la r r ange o fg oods i nvo lved i nc o mmer ce m igh tb ei den t i f ied , o f wh i ch w ine wa so ne e l emen t ,b u tt h e re i sn oe v idence t o s ugges t t ha t i t was t he p r inc ipa l , o r e ven a ma jo r , e l emen t . S u rv iv ing p as sage sf r om t he e a r ly I r ish Mu i rb r e tha ( ' Se aJ udg emen t s ' ) ,p rov ide c on s ide rab le d e ta i lo nt h ep o s s i b le c on ten t so fc a rgoes . We c an b es u re t ha t at e x to rt e x t s b ea r ing t h i st i t le f o rmed ap ar to ft he c orpus o fI r i sh l aw a t ad a te e a rl ie rt han t he t en th c en tu ry ,c over ing t he t op i cs o f f l o t sam ,j e t sam , owner sh ip o ft he s t rand a nd t he ma in te n ance o fs t randed mar ine r s . We a r e n ow , h oweve r , d e p enden tf o ra ni dea o fi t sc on ten t so n af ew q uo ted l i ne si n o the rt r a c t s .P a ssage sr e la t ing t ot he ma in tenance o fs h ip w recked ma r ine r sa re q uo ted i nD iC h e tha rf i ch tA thag abä la ( e .g .e d .B in chy ,C IH1978 ,3 69 .2 -369 .8 — these a re s pec i f ied a sb e ing m u i rb r e tha a t3 88 .18 , whe the rt h i s mean st ha tt hey a r e t aken f r om at e x tb y t ha tn ame i su n c lear ) . I nB r e tha g tg id i sd i scu s s ion o f t he owner sh ip o f g oods b rough t f r om i n s ide a nd o u t s ide o f t e r r i to r ia l wa ter s ( e .g . e d . B in chy , C IH 1 978 , 3 14 .17 -315 .28 , n amed a s f r om t he Mu i rb r e tha a t3 14 .17 ) .S ome o ft he s ame ma te r ia li sa l so t o b ef ound i nt h eH ep tad s( MacN ioca i l l1 97 1 )a nd t he r ange o ft op ic sc ove red i nt he Mu irb r e tha a re a l so b r ief ly l i s ted i n as e c t ion o fT e co sc aC orma i c( wh ich i sp robab ly c i t ing t he Mu i rb r e tha ) :

C hap t er S i x : C argoe sa nd C ommer ce i nt h eS even th C en tu ry

( i ft he re b eg o ld o rs i lve ro ro ve r seas t r ea su re sa nd as e t e qu iva len tt os i xs c r epa l si ft he re b ei r on o rh ides o r ae s cup o fh oney o r w ine i ft he re b e h oney o r w ine i n h e r ; e d . B in chy ,C IH ,1 978 , 1 39 ,1 . 32 -4 ) .

B ä r ca d ot hoco r ip or t IA l lma i re s e t IMu rchu ir the d i l se ( Br ing ing b ark s i n to h a rbou r , t r ea su re s f r om o ve r seas ; s ea -wa i f sf o r fe i ted :T e c o s c aC orm a i cI .25 -8 :e d . Meye r1 909 , 2 -3 , my t r ans la t ion ) .

O fc en t ra li n te res tt oo u rd i scu ss ion o fc a rgoes a r e t h ep assage sc once rn ing t he owne r sh ip o fg oods ' wh ich h ave b een b rough to ve rn ine w ave so ft h es ea ' :i nB r e tha g tg id ( i nT r in i ty E3 . 5 —ed .B inchy ,C IH 1 978 ,3 15 .26 -8 ) ,i n o ther p a s sages i nR aw l in son B5 06 ( e d .B inchy ,C IH 1 978 , 1 39 .32 -4 ) ,T r in i ty H 5 . 15 ( ed .B in chy ,C IH 1 978 ,2 155 .16 -22 ) a nd e n t r ie si nt he g lossa r ies o fC o r rnac a nd O 'Davo ren . T hese , t hough e v in c ing s o me d i f fe rence s , a r e c l ea r ly a l l q uo t ing v a r ian t s o ft h e s ame o r ig ina lt e x t wh ich s pe l led o u tt he l i ke ly c on ten t so ft he c a rgoes o fw recked s h ips .

Ano the rr e cen s ion ,i nT r in i ty H 5 . 15 ,a dds c l üman :' f ea th e r so r' f u r s '( e d .B inchy ,C IH ,1978 ,2 155 ,1 .20 ) .O 'Davoren ' s G lo s sary a dd s' B r i t i sh h o r se s ' : GA ILLT I l a i re b rea thnacha n o c no g [n ]ae 7 c u i rnd 7 b uabha i l l . . . ( O 'Davor en ' sG lo s sary ,e d .S tokes 1 862 ,9 5 ) . I n S ana s C o rma i c ( ' Cormac ' s G lo s sary ' ) t he Mu i rbr e tha i s e xpl i c t ly c i ted i n ac on tex t wh ich g ives v a luab le e v idence f o rd a t ing t h ep a s sages c once rn ing c a rgoes : E PSCOP F INA i s na Mu i rbre tha ib c enna ig ib G a l l 7F rangc .

T h i sd i scuss ion i nt he c o mmen ta r ies p rov ide st wo d e ta i ls o fv i ta l i n tere s t . T he f i r s t o ft h e se i st ha t c a rgoe s may b e made u po f av a r ie ty o fe l emen t s ,i n wh ich w ine i s n o ta cco rded a ny s pec ia ls t a tu s : I Sa nn a t a . s .u is c repa lu a i th in o . sf o ra ic iu ing i : i nt an t a in ic f ot homu sd u ine a i r i th ih i , 7n i' n al e sc l ama s in f e in d o ra la i a t saf e rann d u ine a i le ' n ac o mocu s , 7. s .U is c repa l d oa rc onnad 7u i sc id ol e cad d i ma sa s e ich ida 7i a rann 7 s a land a t a i nd t i , n o . s f o ra ic i u ing i masa c no g nae 7 c u i md , 7e scup f i na n o me la ma t af i n( no )m i li nd t i . ( Tha t[ c ase ] when as e to fs i xs c r ep a l sf r om h e r[ i sd ue ] ,o r as e t wor th a no unce o fs i lve r ,i swhe re s he c a me d i rec ted t o ap ar t icu lar p e r son ,a nd i tw as n o to n to h i sl and wh ich s he h appened t ob ed r iven ,b u ti n to t he l and o fa no the r p e r son i nh i sv i c in i ty ;a nd as e to fs i xs c r ep a l st oh im [ t he o the rp e r son ]f o ra low ing h e rf i rewood a nd wa te r ,i fi tb e h ide s a nd i r on a nd s a l t a r e i nh e r ; o r t o as e t wo r th a n o un ce o fs i lve r , i fi tb e e xo t ic n u t s a nd g ob le t s ; a nd a n e s cup o fw ine o ro fh oney ,i fw ine o rh oney b ei nh e r :e d . B in chy ,C IH , 1 978 ,3 15 ,1 . 24 -8 ) .

S econd ly ,c a rgoes may b e' d i rec ted t o ap a r t icu la rp e r son ' , o r , a s s t a ted e a r l ie ri nt he s ame p a ssage , t o ap a r t icu la r t u a th ( i nt a nt a in i cf ot omu st u a i th ia i r i th ih i :e d .B inchy ,C IH , 1 978 ,3 15 .17 ) . Wh i le t h ere i s ad anger i nt a lk ing i ne vo lu t i onary t e rm s , we may o bse rve t ha t t h i s s o r t o f mode l wou ld f i tt h ei dea o f as oc ie ty i n wh ich e x te rna lc omme rce p layed af a i r ly l im i ted r o le a nd whe re g oods f r om o u t s ide e n tered u nde rv ery p rec i se t e rm s . T he v ar ie ty o fg ood s l i s ted h e re c a r r ie s i mpo r tan t i mpl i ca t ion sf o rt ho se who wou ld s ee s i ng le -e lemen tc a r g oes a s t h e n o rm i n e ar ly med ieva l w es tern s ea lane s t r a f f i c . Whe re w ine i smen t ioned ,i ti sn o tg iven a ny s pec ia l p r ior i ty a nd t he e s cup — in S ana s C orma i c s imp ly a' w ine measure '— i s h e re u sed t o mea su re h oney a s w el . T he r ecen s ion o fp ar to ft h es ame p a s sage i nR aw l in son B5 06 , p u ts h oney a head o f w ine i n t h e r e fe rence , a s wel a s a dd ing f u r ther g oods : RA WL INSON B5 06 ma sa o r ( no ) a i rge t ( no ) a l lmha i re s e t 7s e t f o ra icce s e s c r ip la d o masa i a rand ( no )s e chedha 7e scub mea la ( no ) f i na ma t am i l( no )f i ni nd te .

e sc ra t o ma i sf i na l e

( Ep s cop E l la [ s i c ] i n t he Mu i rb r e th a i . e . v esse ls f o r t he measu remen t o f w ine among s t t he me rchan t s o f t he G au l so rF rank s :e d .S tokes 1 862 ,1 9 ) .

I ti sc l ea rt ha tv a r ian tf o rm so ft h i sl i s to fc ur rency i t em s f o rmed t h eb a s i so fv a r ious c o mmen ta r ie si nt he c orpus o f I r i sh l aw .T hey may h ave f o rmed ar egu la rs e to fi n terpre t a t ion s t o t h e s t atu te s r e la t ing t o t he l aw o f d i s t ra in t r ega rd ing f l o t sam a nd j e t sam —pe rhaps u nder t he t i t le Ä l lmu i r eS f t , wh ich i su sed i nT e co sc aC orma i c( s ee a bove ) . T ha tt he p h ra se e s cup f i na i sq uo ted b y C ormac may b e t aken t oi nd i ca te t ha ts uch al i s t wa sa ne a r ly p a r to ft he Mu i rb r e tha p rope r —even t hough i tn ow o n ly a ppea r s i n t h ec ommen ta r ie s —o r ,a l te rna t ive ly ,i tmay i nd ica te t ha t t he t e x th ad c ommen ta r ies e ven i nt he O ld I r i sh p e r iod . B inchy wa s p repa red t o a ccep t t ha t s ome c ommen tary ma ter ia l o n t e x t s r ega rd ing d i s t ra in t wa s o n l i ngu i s t ic g rounds a se a r ly a st he n in th c en tu ry ( B inchy 1 973 ,7 2 -80 ) . C o rmac 's o b i to f9 08 p rov ide s at e rm inu sa n t eq uem f o rb o th t he n ame a nd o ne p h ra se n ow o n ly f ound i nt he c ommen t a r ies . T e co sc a C o rma i c ( c . n in th c entury ) a l so may b e q uo t ing t h i sl i s to fc a rgoe s when i tn o te s t ha t mead a nd w ine a re among s tt he t r ea su res wh ich ak ing w i l la t t rac tt o h i sc ou r t( T e co sca C orma i c1 . 44 ,e d . Meyer 1 909 ,4 5 ) . We may n o t b e s o c e r ta in a s t o t he e a r ly d a te o f t he o the r r e fe rence st oc a rgoe s ,b u tt he re i s as t rong p o ss ib il i ty t ha t t he se ,t oo ,a r ee a r ly med ieva lr e fe rences . T he f a c t t ha t t he e s cup h as h e re b ecome p u re ly a w ine v esse l ( e p scop f i na ) c a r r ies n o i mpl i ca t ions t ha t t he e s cup wa sp r inc ipa l ly f o ru se w i th w ine , when c on s ide red i nt h e l i gh t o ft he se v a r ian t s . We may a ccep t Z immer 's c onc lu s ion t ha tt he ma laprop ism e p scop i sap lay o n wo rds w i th t he wo rd f o rb i shop ( Z imme r1 909b ,4 41 )a nd a s sume t ha tt he a bb rev ia t ion o ft he Mu irb r e tha ' sf ul r e fe rence i sa c onven ien ce t o t h i s e nd . T he Mu i rb r e tha 's r e fe rence t o mea sur ing v es se l s wou ld t a l ly b es t w i th t he i dea o ft he w ine b e ing i mpor ted i nc ask s , wh ich wou ld s t ay o nb oa rd t h e v e sse l , w i th t h e w ine b e ing s o ld i n smal q uan t i t ie s d u r ing t h e v oyage f r om p o r t t op o r t . D e sp i te C ormac 's a s c r ip t ion o ft he e s cup t o aG au l i sh c on tex t ,h oweve r , we n eed n o ts e et h eu se o fe s cup v e sse l sa sl im i ted t oG au l i sh g oods .T he wo rd e s cup i su l t ima te ly f r om L a t in s c opa ,b u t whe re w ef i nd i th e re ,s c up i t se l fi sl i ke ly t ob e al o ca l word , 6 9

C ommun i ca t ion a nd C omme r c ea l ong t h eW e s t e rn S e a l ane sA D400 -800

n o t aG aul i sh b or row ing ( t hough u l t ima te ly al oan -wo rd t hrough B r i t i sh :s ee B inchy 1 958 ,2 91 ;O 'Rah ily 1 942 ,4 3 ) . I nt he Mu i rb r e tha w ine i sc i ted a s ap oss ib le c a rgo . T he p hra se ' i fw ine b e i nh e r ' , i mpl ie s t ha t i t was n o t a u b iqu i tou sc a rgo . Wine wa sp robab ly i mpor ted i nc a sk s , t hough s k in s a re a no ther p os s ib i l i ty . We may d i scoun t c eram ic v e sse ls a st he se wou ld l e ave a r chaeo log ica lt r ace s . T homa s 'r e fe rence t o Adomnän 's me tapho ro f' w ine o oz i ng f r om ac ask '( Thoma s1 976 ,2 52 -3 ) ,i sa c tualy t on o th i ng more s pec i f ic t han ' c rack s '( r imu l a s )i n a' l a rge v e sse l ' ( p len iv a s s i s : Adomnän , V i ta C o lumb a ee p i logue t oB ook I , e d . Ande r son a nd Ande r son 1 961 ,3 22 ) , wh ich c ou ld j u s t a s e a s i ly b e c era m i c . H i s much q uo ted r e fe rence t o r e ma in s o fc a sk s a tt he ( i n land ) s i te s o fL ago re a nd L ough F aughan ( Tho ma s 1 976 , 2 52 -mo s t r e cen t ly i n My tum 1 992 , 2 65 ) p roves l i t t le , a s t he re i sn o e v idence t ha t t he c ask sa re G aul i sh .T he se c ommen t sb yT homa sa re i na ny e ven tt ob es een i nt he c on tex to fh i sa rgumen tf o r al i nk b e tween Eware a nd w ine .T h i sa pproach i sa l so p a r t icu l a r ly s een i n t he s tud ies o f Hodge s . T he o n ly p o ss ib le c onnec t ion wou ld b ei nt e rm so f ac ommon o r ig in a rea E wa re i t se l f c an h ave n o c on ce ivab le c onnec t ion w i th w ine , u n le s s we t ake t he f a r fe tched s t ep o fi mag in ing E wa re p i t che r s ( E iv ) t o b e t he e s cup v esse l s . I ti s wo r th s t a t ing c a tegor icaly t ha t n o o the r E wa re v es se l c ou ld e ven r e mo te ly b e i mag ined a s ac a r ry ing c on ta ine r f o r w ine . L e tu sn ow c on s ide rt he o the rc a rgoe s men t ioned i n t he Mu i rb r e tha o r i t sc o mmen ta r ie s . Honey wa s t he o n ly swee tene r a va i lab le i n t he e a r ly m idd le a ges a nd t he p r inc ipa li ng red ien to f mead , wh ich wa s av a lued d r ink f or r egu la rs e cu la rc on sump t ion i ne a r ly med ieva lC e l t ic s oc ie ty ( J ack son 1 961 ,3 5 -6 ) .T ha th oney wa s ma rke ted i n Gau li ss ugges ted b yc ha r te re v idence o ft he t en th c entu ry ( s ee b e low , 7 2 ) . C lea r ly i ts hou ld b e r ega rded a s ag ood wh ich wou ld h ave ah igh e xchange v a lue ,e spec ia l ly i ft he r o le o f w ine c on sump t ion i sd im in i shed . I r e land wa s a p roducer o f h oney ( e .g . B e chbr e tha XX I , e d . Cha r les E dwa rds a nd K ely 1 983 , 6 2 -3 ) , wh ich may r ende r i t s p resence i nt he Mu i rb r e tha a sb e ing e i the rt ha to fa no b jec t o fl o ca le xchange ,o ra ne xpo r tg ood . Ma l t wa sd oub t le s s a l so a no b jec to fe xchange ,f o ru se i na l coho lp roduc t ion , i n wh ich c on tex ti tf i nds men t ion i no the rI r ish l aw s( C a in A ic i l ln e ,e d .B inchy C IH 1 978 ,4 81 ,1 1 .9 f f ) ,t hough n o ti nt he Mu i rb r e tha . I r e land wa s ama jor p roduce ro fh ide sa nd t he se a r e a l so men t ioned i nt he Mu i rb r e tha c ommen ta r ie s .E xpo r to f l e a the rg oods i sa l so a t tes ted i nt he V i t aF i l ib e r t i 's r e fe ren ce t os hoe s( s ee a bove ,6 7 ) .I ts hou ld b en o ted f o rt he u nwa ry t ha tt he e v idence o ft he V i ta F i l ib e r t i' sr e fe ren ce h a sb een s o mewha ti nf la ted b yr epe t i t ion . Hodges ( 1 989 ,1 27 ) wou ld h ave Med i te r ranean s r e turn ing w i th l e a the r t o B yzan t i um ,w ine b e ing e xchanged f o rl e a the rb y ' I r i sh monk s ' ( a c tua l ly I r i sh s a i lo r s ) i n t he ' Lo i re v a l ley ' ( a c tua l ly No i rmou t ie r )a nd ,o na no the ro cca s ion ,c a r r ied t he re a l ong w i th h un t ing d og s ( Hodges 1 989 ,3 8 ) . D e sp i te h i sp lu ra l i s t ic u se o ft h i sr e ference ,h oweve r , we m igh tt ake n o te o f Hodges 's p o in ta st oi t ss i ngu la r i ty :t ha tt he V i t aF i l ib e r t ii s ar a re t e x ti nr e fe r r ing t ol e a the rgoods a sa ne a r ly med ieva l e xpo r t g ood ( Hodge s 1 989 , 1 27 ) . E a r ly med ieva l I r i sh s hoes we re o f av e ry h igh q ua l i ty ( My tum 1 992 ,2 45 ) .S i te s 7 0

s uch a sB a l l inder ry Hand I ona h ave p roduced d ebr i sf r om s hoe mak ing ( Hencken 1 942 ; B a rbe r 1 982 , 1 03 -6 ; L uca s 1 956 ,3 67 f f ; Wa te re r1 968 ,7 0 -82 ; Ne i 1 11991 ,1 4 -15 ;O 'Rou rke 1 991 ,2 2 -3 ) a nd t he f i n i shed p roduc t sf r om t he l a t te rs i te a re s im i la rt op ic tor ia le v idence f r om i n su lar manuscr ip ts , f o re xamp le t he B ook o f Dur row ( Hende rson 1 987 ,5 1 ) . I t may b et ha to n ly I r e land t r ea ted l e a the rgoods a sa no b jec t f o r e xpor t , o r p e rhaps o n ly t ho se o fI r e land were o f a q ua l i ty s u f f ic ien t t o c ommand a ma rke t a broad . H ide s we re c er ta in ly ama jo re l emen to fI r e land 's e xpor tt r ade i n t he h igh -med ieva lp er iod ( O 'Ne i 1 11987 ,7 7 -83 ) .T he r e fer e nce t o ' c lo th ing ' a s a n e xpor t f r om I r e land i n t he V i ta F i l ib e r t i a l so f i nds ap a ra l le l i n l a te r I r ish t r ade ( O 'Ne i l l 1 987 ,6 8 -89 ) . F ea the r s ,n o ted i no ne v ar ian to ft he c o mmen ta r ies , a re a l so al i ke ly e nough I r i sh e xpo r t , g a thered f r om o f f s ho re i s le t s .C er ta in ly t hey were c ommerc ialy t r aded f o r t he mak ing o f ma t re sse sa nd p i l low si n more r e cen tt imes ( Mac C ongha i l1 987 ,3 2 ) . I r on ,c a r r ied a s ar aw ma ter ia la nd a s av a lue -added p roduc t ,i sl i ke ly t oh ave b een ac ommon c argo . Ma ter ia l f o ri n ten s ive s t udy o ft he i r on i ndu s t ry i sb e ing u n cove red a t Wh i tho m ,f o re xamp le , where e x ten s ive e v idence o fo n s i te sme l t ing e x i s t s ,u t i l i s ing o re b rough tf ro m as ou r ce a t s ome d i s tance ( H il 1 992a , 2 1 -3 ) , p robab ly f r om c oa s ta l t r ade . I r on o b jec t s a r e a l so a no the rp o s s ib le i mpo r tf r om a broad .T h i sw il b ed i scu s sed b e low .G o ld a nd s i lve ra re men t ioned i n R aw l in son B 506 , a nd a r e l og ica l e nough ma te r ia l st ob es h ipped a ta ny t ime . ' Exo t i c n u ts ' ( c no eg nä e ) wou ld a ppear t ob e s e l f e xp lana to ry . Ac ommen ta ry o n B r e tha i m F hu i l l ema G e l l ( ed .B inchy C IH 1 978 ,4 72 . 1 .16 )d esc r ibe st hese a s' e a s te r n ' i no r ig in .K ely wou ld s ugge s tt hese a r e Wes tI nd ian n u t s b rough tb y t he Gu l f S t ream , b u t i ti sn o t c l ea r o n wha t g rounds ( Kely 1 988 ,2 49 ,n .3 7 ; Mac C ana 1 994 ) . T he e v idence f o r as a l tt r ade h a sn o ta t t rac ted much d i scus s ion .S a l th as ac l ea re rc onsume rc on tex tt han w ine , a s t he e a r ly I r i sh L aw s make r e feren ce t os a l ted mea t . I t may i n t ime b e p o s s ib le t o t r ace c hanges i n e a t ing a nd c ook ing h ab i ts i ne a r ly h i s to r ic I r e land , w i th c ommuna l k i l l ing a nd i m med ia te c on sump t ion o f mea tg iv ing way t o k i l l ing a nd s t o r ing o fi nd iv idua l ly owned b eas t s ,f o r wh ich s a l t wou ld b en ece s sa ry (Wood ing 1 988a , 1 5 ) . T he r e fer e nces t os a l ted mea t( C r i th G ab lach 1 .2 70 ,3 00 ,3 50 ,3 81 ,e d . B inchy 1 940 )i n at e x ts uch a s C r i th G ab l ach ( ea r ly e i gh th c en tu ry )m igh ts ugge s tt h i s .S a l tr e fer red t oi nd iv idua l ly i s ' s ea s a l t ' ( C r i th G ab l ach XV , 1 .1 90 , e d . B inchy 1 940 ) : mur lüa i th :l i t .' s ea a sh ' ,t he n ame p oss ib ly c om ing f r om t he e x t rac t ion p rocess i nvo lv ing t he h ea t ing o fb r ine o ve r a f i re , o rp e rhaps t he a na logy t ha ts a l ti st h e r es idue o ft he s ea , whe re a sh i st he r e s idue o ft he f i r e( c f . Adomnän ,D e L oc i sS anc t i s , I1 5 -16 though Smy th 1 996 ,2 63 -5 makes a c ase t ha t s a l t f r om s eaweed i s wha t i s r e fer red t o ) . Adom .nän 's e x ten s ive d i scou r se o n r o ck s a l t a nd i t s o r i g in s may b et aken a sa ni nd ica t ion t ha to n ly s ea s a l t wa s k nown i nI r e land : A l i te ru e ro s a li nq uodam S i cu lo m on t eh abe n s o le t .N am i l iu sm on t i sl a p ide sd et e r r ae uu l s in a tu ra l i te rs a l i s s imum s a le s se g u s tu c onp raban tu r ,q uod p r op r ie n om ina tu rs a l t e r r ae .A l i t e re r go s a lm a ns a t que a l i t e rs a lt e r rae u o c i t a r i s o le t :

C hap t er S i x : C argoe sa nd C ommer ce i nt h eS ev en th C en tur y

T he se t hen a r et he g ood sd esc r ibed i nt h e Mu i rb r e tha . B o th t h i s t e x t a nd t h e V i t a F i l ib e r t i s t res s t he v a r ie ty o f g oods wh i ch m igh tb eo nb oa rd as h ip o pera t ing i na nd o u t o fI r e land .T hey a r ep robab ly many o ther g oods i nvo lved i ns uch t r a f f ic . T he mak ing o fq uern s t one s( V i ta B r ig id ae X ) (X I ,t r an s .C onnoly a nd P i ca rd 1 987 ,2 4 -5 ) wa sc er ta in ly a na c t iv i ty f o r wh ich s u i tab le s t one sw ere b rough t f r om q u i te ad i s tance ( Campbel 1 987 , 1 05 -17 ;J ope 1 966 , 1 31 ; P roud foo t 1 961 , 9 4 -122 ; Hodges 1 989 , 1 24 ) . Ove r s hor t d i s tances w eh ave r e fe rence st ot he movemen to ft imbe r ( s ee a bove ,9 )a nd r e ed -cu t t ing ( Adomnän ,V i ta C o lumbae 1 .39 , e d . Ander son a nd Ander son 1 961 , 4 34 -5 ) . F i sh ing i ndu s t r ie s we re d oub t less i nvo lved i ns ho r t -d is tance t r a f f i c . A t r a f f ic i n v e ry s mal f r agmen t s o f S am ian wa re , wh ich c ou ld b ei mpo r t sf r om t he c on t inen to rf r om l o ca l R oman p er iod s i te s , a l so e x i s ted t hough i t s c onsu me r c on tex ti su nknown ( B rad ley 1 981 -2 ; Warne r1 976 ,2 85 -8 ; L ynn 1 984 ,2 8 ) . We s hou ld n o tp ush s pecu la t ion o ng oods i nvo lved i ns uch e xchange b eyond t h e l im i t s o ft he e v i d ence .F u r the ri t em si nvo lved i ne xchange w i l lb ei den t i f i ed a s f u r ther s i te s w i th w e l l -preserved s equences a re e xcava ted a nd l i t t le -known t e x t s , s uch a st h e I r i sh l aw s , a r et r an s la ted a nd d a ted . T he i dea t ha te xo t i cp igmen t sa nd d eco ra t ive s t one w e re l ong - a nd s ho r t - d i s tance t r ade g oods i nt he e a r ly m idd le a ges h a sb een i nd i ca ted b yr e cen te xcava t ion s .H i l l h a s s ugge s ted t ha t at r a f f i c i n l ime f r om t he e a s tern S o lway , f o r d eco ra t ive u se , i se v inced b y d a tab le f i nd s f r om Wh i tho r n( H il 1 992 ,2 ) . L ime t r a f f ic h a sc e r ta in ly f olowed t h i sr ou te i n mo re r e cen tt ime s( Donnach ie 1 97 1 , 1 46 -7 ) .T he e a r ly med ieva lt r a f f i ca l ong t h i sr ou te m igh tb e b e s t d a ted t o t he Ang l ian p e r iod a t Wh i tho rn , wh ich b r ing s Cumbr ia a nd t h ee a s te rn S o lway i n to c l oser c on tac t w i th t h e r e s to ft h eI r i sh S ea . C o lou r ing ma t te r i sa l so a v e ry l i ke ly e xchange g ood ,t hough whe re i ti sk nown f r om w e s te rn s ea lane s c on tex t s ,h oweve r , i ti sn o t a bso lu te ly c l ea r whe the ri tw as as eabo rne a r r iva l .C o lou r ing ma t te r u sed i ni n su la rg o spe ld ecora t ion i n c lude s( Roosen -Runge a nd We rne r 1 960 , 2 62 -7 ; F uch s a nd O l t rogge 1 994 , 1 35 1 48 ) o rp imen t ( y e l low ) , l a p i s ( b lue ) , k erme s ( f rom t he p regnan tk e rmoc cu sv e rm i l lo , aMed i te r ranean i n sec t ,t h i s was a va i lab le i nS pa in :S t rabo ,G eog r aph i ca 1 1 .2 ;e d .J ones 1 949 ,V o l .1 ,3 3 )a nd c r ozopho r at i nc to r i a( ma roon ) . Whe re s uch c o lou r ing i su sed i n u nprovenanced manuscr ip t s s uch a st he B ook o f Du r row a nd t h eB ook o fK e l l s , o bv i o u s ly t h eq ues t ion o ft h er ou te sb y wh ich s u ch c o lou r ing ma t te r wa si mpo r ted c anno tb ei n fe r red w i th a ny p rec i s i on .A lcu in ,i n al e t te rf r om No r thumbr ia t oh i ss tuden t J o seph i nG au li n7 90 ,a sk st ob es en t' p len ty o fp a in t so f f i ne s u lphu r a nd d ye s f o r c o lou r ing ' ( s ee b e low , 9 6 ) . A p i ece o f o rp i men t wa s d i scove red a t Dunadd i n 1 981 ( Campbel 1 987 , 13 ) ,h oweve r , s how ing p e rhaps t ha ti t wa sn o t c on f ined t ot h e e cc les ia s t ica ln e two rk o n ly a nd t h i sf i nd h as a tl e a s t as t rong l i ke l ihood o fh av ing a r r ived b yt he wes tern r ou te f r om t h ec on t inen t . Ewan C ampbel ( 1 996 f o r thcom ing )h a s made much o ft he c a se f o r madde r ( r ub i at i nc torum )a s at r ade g ood , wh ich w i l lb ed i scussed i nt h en ex ts e c t ion .

( The r e i sa no the r way o f g e t t ing s a l t i n amoun ta in i n S i c i ly .T h es t one so ft h is moun ta in , when t o rn away f r om t he e a r th ,a re f ound o nt a s t ing t ob eg enu ine ly t he p u re s t n a tu ra l s a l t , wh ich i sp rope r ly c a l led s a l t o ft he e ar th . T hu si ti sc u s tomary t od i s t ingu i sh t he n ame ss ea s a l ta nd s a l to ft h ee a r th : Adomnän ,D eL o c i sS a n c t i s1 . 17 -18 ,e d .& t r an s . Meehan 1 963 ,8 8 -9 ) .

T h i s s e ems t o i mp ly t ha t s ea s a l t i ni t s e x t ra c ted f o rm ,a nd n o ts imp ly s eaweed b r ine , wa sf am i l ia rt ot he I r i sh . I st h e re ac ase f o r s a l th av ing b een i mpo r ted? T he w e s tern c oas t so fF rance a nd B r i t tany a re ma jo rs a l tp ro d uce rs ( L eFond 1 969 , 1 83 ; G a i l lou a nd J ones 1 991 , 9 5 -6 ) a nd t he L o i r e v aley wa s c en t ra l t o s a l t t r ad ing b y t he e i gh th c en tu ry ( s ee b e low , 7 2 ) . T he monas tery o f No i rmou t ier ,f o re xamp le , wa si nvo lved i ns a l tt r ad ing .I n t h e c ase o fI r e land i tm igh t s eem l og ica l t ha t i t wou ld s imp ly p rodu ce i t s own s a l t —bu t a n h i s to r ica l s en se i s n ecessa ry h e re .I r e land may h ave b een l e s sl i ke ly t oi n i t i a t es ubs i s ten ce e x t rac t ion o fs a l ti fl a rge q uan t i t ies o fs a l t o n ly b ecame n eces sa ry f o r t he f i r s t t ime i n t h e e a r ly C h r is t ian p e r iod . V ik ing Age I r e land i mpo r ted s a l tf r om Ang lo -Saxon E ng land ( S a lann S ax anach : A i s l ing e Me i c C ong l inne ,e d . Meye r 1 892 , 6 2 ) a nd I r i sh p lace -name e l e men t s a s soc ia ted w i th s a l t p roduc t ion ( e .g . ' S a l tpan , S a l twork s ' )a r ea lE ngl i sh ,b e ing c o mp le te ly a bsen tf r om t h e G ael i c s t ra tum ( S co t t 1 981b , 15 -6 ) . T h i s wou ld s ug g e s t t ha t s a l t p roduc t ion wa s al a te - Med ieva l o r l a te r d eve lopmen t :p robab ly l a te r .S a l tp roduc t ion i sn o t men t i oned i nt h eI r i sh L aw s ,e ven where t he re i sr e fe rence t o ownersh ip o f t he s t rand . Whe the r s a l t wa s p roduced e l sewhe re a r ound t h e I r i sh S ea i sh a rd t o d e te rm ine . C er ta in ly i tw a sa nI r on -Age a c t iv i ty i n Wa le s( whe re i ti s a t te s ted b yV ery C oa r se P o t te ry )a nd C o rnwa l l( Peacock 1 969 ) . No th ing i nt he n a tu re o fe a r ly med ieva lb r iqu e t ag e , h oweve r ,h a sb een d i scovered .T he c a se i sn o ta sc l ea ri n t h ep lace -name e l emen t sf o rB r i ta in a sf o rI r e land .C ha r les T homa s( p e r s .comm . )h a so bse rved t ha tt he C o rn i sh f o rs a l t i sh i l e ,e a s i ly c on fused w i th h e ly ( ' hun t ing ' —v iz Goonh i l ly D own s wh ich i sd e f in i te ly ah un t ing ,n o t as a l two rk ing , n ame ) .E a r ly n ames f o rs a l two rk ings c ou ld w el b eh idden b eh ind t h is s o r to fs im i la r i ty o fe l emen t s .I fI r e land d id n o t p os sess s a l t i ndus t r ie s f r om p reh i s to ry , e a r ly med ieva l e conom i c s t ruc tu re s may n o t h ave a ccommoda ted t h e f ound ing o ft hem . Do t he p lace -name s s ugge s t t ha t t h i s w a i ted u pon t he mu ch l a te ra r r iva lo fa nE ng l i sh b ou rgeo i s i e? A tl e as t we s hou ld r ema in a ware t ha ts a l t wa st r aded , a nd mo re t han o ne s ou r ce m igh t b e a c commoda ted i n e xchange p rocesses . T he r e ference t og ob le t si sn o tc l ea ra st ot he c l a s so f v esse l i nvo lved , t hough ar e la ted g l o ss i nH5 . 15 r e ads c u irn b u aba i l l :' d r ink ing h or n s '( e d .B inchy C IH 1 978 ,2 155 , 1 . 22 ) , wh ich may b e i nd i ca t ive o f t h e o r ig ina l r ead ing , t hough O 'Davoren ' s G lo s sary ( s ee a bove ) r e ads c u i rnd 7 b uabha i l l . Mac C ana ( 1 994 8 1 -93 )h as d i scus sed t h i sp h rase i n ar e cen tn o te . A sw ew i l ls e ei nt he f o l low ing c hap te r , t h e re i s al i ke l ihood t ha t l ong -d i s tance c a rgoe s c a r r ied b o th c e ram ic a nd g l a ss v e sse l s . We c an o n ly s ay t ha tt h e e v iden ce o f t he Mu i rbr e tha f o r t he movemen t o f s ma l l c onsump t ion v esse l so ve r al ong d i s tance i ss uppor t ive o f t h i s mode l .

T he c om merce wh ich was a ssoc ia ted w i th D agobe r t 's mona s t i cf ounda t ion si nG au lp rov ides s o me i n tere s t ing p a ra l le l sf o rt he r ange o fg oods i nvo lved i nt h e 7 1

C ommun ica t ion a nd C ommer ce a l ong t h e W e s tern S ea lane s AD400 -800

l ong -d is tance i n su lar t r a f f ic . A t S t D en is i n 6 34 -5 , D agober t 's f ounda t ion c har te r ,n ow l o s tb u tc i ted i n al a te r s ou rce ,g ran ted t he mona s te ry t he r i gh tt oh o ld af a i ro n O c tobe r 9( G e s t aD ag ob e r t i) (XX V ,e d .K ru sch 1 888b ,4 13 ) . T he i n su la rf o cu s o ft he f a i ri sh igh l igh ted i nt he f o rged f ounda t ion c ha r te r ( p robab ly t en th c en tu ry ) wh i ch d e s c r ibe st he ma rke t( me r ca to )o fS tD en i si n6 29 a nd t he p o r t s o fR ouen ( Ro thomo ) a nd Quen tov ic ( W i cu s ) , whe re t h e re a re ' t ho se c om ing f r om o ve rt he s ea t ob uy w ines ,h oney a nd madder '( q u iv en iun td eu l tr a m ar ep r ov i na e tm e l l ee t g ar an t i ae mendum :D ip loma t aS pur i a No .2 3 ,e d .P er tz 1 872 , 1 40 ) . T h i s i sn o t g ood e v idence t os uppor t ac onnec t ion w i th wes tern s ea lane s t r a f f ic , b u t C ampbel r ea sonab ly s ugges t s t ha t i td oes g ive s o me n o t ion o ft h e v a lue a c c orded t ot hese p a r t icu la rc ommod i t ie si nt he c omme r c ia l n e twork s o f n or the rn G au l . Ha tche r ( 1 973 , 1 6 ) wou ld a rgue t ha tt he Abbé R ayna l i n1 782 h ad a c ce s s t o al o s t c ha r ter o f D agober t , e s tabl i sh ing ma rke t s i n s even th c en tury G au l whe re S axon s b rough t l e ad a nd t i n f r om B r i ta in .T h i sm igh t we l li nd i ca te c on tac ti nvo lv ing C or n wal ,b u ti ti s ad oub t fu lr e fe rence . T he c olec t ion o fc ha r ter sf r om S tD en i s ,a u then t i c a nd o the rw ise , i se xcep t iona l ,b u t we f i nd c l ues i no the r s ou rces t ha t t h i s t ype o f t r a f f ic wou ld h ave e x i s ted i n e a r l ie r c on tex t s , a nd i nf ounda t ion s o n t he A t lan t ic s ea b oa rd .I nt he V i t aF i l ib e r t i ,t h e mona s te ry 's c omm i tmen tt o c omme r ce , u s ing s u rp lu s p roduc t ion f r om i t s e s ta te s , i s made i n to ar e l ig iou se thos where t he s a in tp ronounces o n ' ho ly c omme rce ' ( V i ta F i l ibe r t i X ) ( I I I , e d . L ev i son 1 910 , 5 96 )a nd t he n eed t o' g ive mo re t han l a y me rchan t sg ive ' ( V i t a F i l ib e r t i )X I I I , e d . L ev i son 1 910 , 5 96 ) . T he n in th c en tu ry M i r acu la o ft he s a in td esc r ibe t he s a l tp roduc t ion o f t h e monas tery a nd t h e e xchange o ft h i s w i th B r i t i sh ma r iner s ( Doehae rd 1 978 , 1 56 ) , maybe B re ton , who h ad b rough t whea t t oL a F u rca . Wine i sa l so s o ld a tf a i rs a t No i rmou t ie r( Doehaerd 1 978 ,1 56 )a nd t h eu se o ft h eL o i re a s ad i s t r ibu t ion r ou te f o r s a l t a nd w ine f r om v a r iou s c en t res ,w i th No i rmou t ie ra nd O r lean sa sf o ca lp o in t s ,i s i nd i ca ted i ns our ce ss uch a st h en in th c en tury M i r acu la o f S tB ened i c t ( Doehae rd 1 978 , 1 56 ) . Doehae rd wou ld s ug g es tt ha tD agobe r to f fe red i n cen t ive st oe ncou rage mona s t i cg roup st os e t t le mo re ma rg ina la r ea s :c i t ing e xamp le s s uch a st h ec l earance o fs c rub t of ound t h e mona s te ry o fS t Wandr ile i n6 49 ( Doehae rd 1 978 ,3 3 -4 ) ,t hough h eg oe so n t ol i nk t h is w i th t he d e s e r tum e tho s ,a l so .T ha tt h ere wa sa d i rec tb ene f i tt ot he c rown t ob eg a ined f r om e ncou rag ing t h i se conom ic d eve lopmen ti n mona s t ic s e t t lemen ti sc l ea r : c ompa rab le t o t ha t wh ich t h e s e cu la r e mpo r ia w e re t o c on fer . We s hou ld n o td i scoun tt he p o ss ib il i ty t ha tt h ese n e twork s p layed ap a r t i nt h e e s tab l i shmen t o ft he l a te s i x th t h rough e i gh th c en tury n e two rk s wh ich s en tg oods b e tween G au la nd I r e land a nd we s te rn B r i ta in . I fmonas ter ies i nG au lp rov ided o ppo r tun i t ies a nd ma rke t sf o rt r ade , we may s e e t h is n e i the ra si nd i ca t ing t ha t a l l t r ade was u nde r mona s t ic c on t ro l , n o r t ha t a l l c omme rce a tt he B r i t ish a nd I r i sh e nd r e ached mona s t ic p or t s .T rade rs s uch a s worked i na nd a round No i rmou t ier may h ave r e sponded t oo rde r sc onveyed v i at h e mona s t ic n e twork s , o r mona s t ic f i gu re s w i th r oya lc onnec t ion si n I r e land may h ave s en tg ood st ot he i rf am i l ie sb ack h ome . T ha t mona s ter ie s u l t ima te ly a t ta ined p rom inence i nt h e 7 2

g row th o f ama rke te conomy o fI r e land a f te rt he e i gh th c en tury may s ugge s tt ha tt he c omme r c ia l/ mona s t ic e tho s i nG au lc ou ld h ave b een i n sp ira t iona li nt h i sp rocess ,w i th D agobe r t 's mode lb e ing a dop ted i nI r e land . We s hou ld r ema in r e la t ive ly o pen -m inded a st ot he t ype s o fs i tes wh ich were l and fal sf o r s h ips f r om G au l . T homa sf avou r st he v i ew t ha ti mpo r ted g oods w e re c han n e l led t h rough s e cu la rc en t res a tt he B r i t ish a nd I r ish e nd , wh ich wou ld t a l ly w i th t he e i gh th cen tury t e x t T e co sc a C orma i ci n wh ich ak ing i sd e f ined a s' i nv i t ing b a r cs i n to p or t ,w i th o ve r sea s t r ea su res ' ( s ee a bove , 6 9 ) . C ampbe l l , t oo , h a s d i scu ssed t he means b y wh ich h e s e e s l o ca l e xchange mechan i sm s u sed t o g ene ra te s u rp lu s f o r t he p u rcha se o ft he i mpor t s b y l o ca lp o ten ta te s . E ven i ft he s e cu la r d om inance o ft he l and ing p l aces i ss hown t ob e d e f in i te ,w ed on o tk now i fa l lc a rgoe s were d e s t ined f o r s e cu la rc on sump t ion .I fs e cu la ra u tho r i t ies d om ina ted t he l and ing p laces , mona s t ic p urcha se s m igh t h ave t op ass t h rough t hem . T ha t D iu-t a dd e v ince s aw ide r r ange o f i mpo r t s t han I ona , f o r e xamp le ( Lane 1 994 , 12 ) , may s imp ly b e ma t ter o fi t sc onven ien ce a s at e rm inu sf o rs h ips f r om a b road ( s ee b e low , 1 07 ) a nd w e s hou ld b e wa ry o f s e e ing t h i sa sc a r ry ing a ny i mp l i ca t ion f or ag enera lr oya l ' c on t ro l 'o fi mpo r t s . L e tu ss umma r i se t he i mpo r tan tp o in t s r ega rd ing o u rp i ctu re o fs even th -centu ry t r a f f ic . Undoub ted ly g oods w e re n ow b e ing c a r r ied d i rec t ly b ys ea b e tween G au la nd I r e land .T erm ss uch a sc omme r c ia a nd c e nna ig ii nd ica te t ha t t h e a c t iv i ty c ou ld b e c ommerc ia l , s t epp ing a s ide f o r a momen tf r om wha teve r c ausa l l i nk se x is ted w i th p o l i t i c a l/ecc le s ias t i ca la c t iv i ty . Adomnän c on f irm st ha tc on t i n en ta l s h ips s a i led a s f a r n or th a sD a l r iada . Two o ft he mo re s pec i f ic r e fe ren ces i nd ica te ac onnec t ion b e tween t he L o i re e s tua ry a nd I r e land , i np a r t i cu la r , r a the r t han t he B o rdeaux c onnec t ion f avou red b yZ immer .T he e p i sode o f 6 10 AD ,i n wh ich S tC o lumbanus w a st aken t oN an tes t o b ep u to nb oa rd av es se l( V i ta C o lumb an i1 . 23 ,e d .K ru sch 1 902a ,9 7 ) , wou ld s t i l ls eem t ob e ac l a ss ic i lu s t ra t ion o f Z i mme r 's mode l . I ts hou ld b en o ted , h oweve r , t ha tt h i s c onnec t ion c anno tb es hown t oe x i s t much p r io rt o6 00 AD , i fa ta l . T he p ove r ty o f e v idence f o r t he f i f th a nd s i x th c en tu r ie s mu s tb e a dm i t ted ,b u t t h i s , a l though i tf a i l s t o d i sprove Z i mme r 's l ong t e rm c on t inu i ty mode l , i ta l so d oes n o th ing t oc on f i rm i t .I ti sa l so wo r th r eprea t ing t ha t a tn ot ime i st here e v idence f o r al a rge s ca le w ine t r ade , t hough w ine w a st r aded among o the rg oods . T he s even th a nd e i gh th c en tu ry s ources a l ls ugges t t ha t ad ive r s i ty o fg oods wa si nvo lved i n we s te r ns ea lanes c o mme r ce ,q u i te as im i la rd ivers i ty a nd r ange o fg oods t o t ha t wh i ch t yp i f ied G au l i sh c oa s ta lc o mmerce o ft h es ev e n th a nd e i gh th c en tu r ie s . G au l i sh A r t e f ac t si nI r e l and a nd We s t e rn B r i ta in T he G aul i sh/F rank ish l i nk w i th t he I r i sh S ea b a s in i nt he s even th c en tury i sc on f i rmed b y ar ange o fa r chaeo log ica l i nd ica to r sf ound o ns i tes i n wes te rn B r i ta in ,I r e land a nd S co t land : r unn ing t h rough o b jec ts o fG au l i sh manu fac t u re s uch a s c e ram ic a nd g l ass v e s se l s t oo b jec t s wh ich s how s t rong G au l i sh/F rank i sh s t yl i s t ic i nf luences , s uch a s d eco ra t ive me ta lwork , s cu lp tu re , i r on weapon s a nd

C hap t er S i x : C argoe sa nd C ommer ce i nt h eS even th C en tu ry

h orse t r app ings . T he se w i l l n ow b e d i scus sed a tl e ng th a nd t he i r e v idence f u l ly i n teg ra ted i n to t h e h i s tor ica l p i c tu re .T hough t he g l a ss o f' Me rov ing ian 't ype i sp o ss i b ly a l so r e levan t t o t h e s i x th -cen tu ry p a t te rn , i tw i l lb e d i scu ssed i n more d e ta i lh e re o na c coun to ft h ec ompa ra t i ve v a lue o fc ons ide r ing i t sr e sea rch p rob lem si nc on junc t i on w i th t ho se o f Ewa re . T he i t ems o f mo re d e f in i te f o re ign manu factu re ,t h e mo s t ly h omogeneou sc o l lec t ion o ft a b lewa re sk nown a s' E wa re 'a nd t h e c olec t ion o fg l a ss t ype sp u ta t ive ly i d en t i f i ed a s ' Merov ing ian ' h ave a t t rac ted t he mo s t r e sea rch i n tere s t o n a ccoun t o ft he i r w ide ly a ccep ted d iagno s t ic r o le i ns i x th ,a nd e spec ia l ly s even th ,c en tu ry s i te c h rono l o gy ,t hough b eyond t h i sp o in tt he re i smuch d i sag reemen t a s t o b o th t he f i ne r p o in t s o f t he i r c h rono logy a nd t he s oc ia lc on tex to ft he i ri mpo r ta t ion a nd u se ( Thoma s1 990 , 1 26 ;C ampbel 1 988a ;A lcock 1 987 ,8 9 -90 , 1 22 ; Wood ing 1 996 ) . T he d i s t r ibu t ions o ft hese w a res f o l low g ene raly i den t i f iab le mar i t ime p a ths a nd s oo f fe rg rea tp o ten t ia lf o r i den t i fy ing t he o r ig in s , r ou te s a nd d es t ina t ion p o in t s o f c omme r ce . T he re i s al a ck o fa g reemen t o n many b a s ic p o in t s r ega rd ing t he c ha rac te r a nd s i gn i f i cance o f t h e ' Gaul i sh 'f i nds ,h oweve r ,e spec ialy Ewa re .S ome s c ep t i c i sm h a s a l so b een e xpres sed a st ot h e v a lue o fr e sea rch u nde r taken i n to t hem ( Duncan 1 988 ,7 0 -1 ;L a ing 1 985 ,1 69 ; G r i f f i th s 1 992b , 9 10 ;C ampbe l l 1 984 , 3 5 -8 ) . I ti s , a c co rd i ng ly ,i mpo r tan tt ha tw en ow make c l ea rd e f in i t ion so ft h e f olow ing :t h ev a lue o ft he r e sea r ch q ues t ion ss of a ra sked o ft hese f i nds ;t he i rp robab le d a te a nd g eog raph ica lr ange , a nd t he i rs oc ia la nd e conom ic c on tex t . Ew ar ea nd R e la t ed T yp e s E wa re i st he mos tn ume rou s o ft h e i mpor ted c e ram ics : f ound o n mo re t han 6 0i n su la rs i te s . Ewa re i s amuch l e s s p repo sse s s ing wa re t han e i the rt h e Med i ter ranean ware s o rp a l& ch e i enne g r i s ea nd t h i sf a c t make si tamo re c om p lex p rob lem i nt e rm so fl o ca t ing i t so r ig in sa nd i d en t i fy i ng i t s s oc ia l c on tex t . E wa re i s ac oa r sewa re p o t tery : =g lazed , f i red i n ar educ ing a tmo sphe re . B a s ic f o rm s h ave b een we l ld ocumen ted ,b u tw i l lb eb r i e f ly l i s ted h ere ( af ul c o rpu si se xpec ted s oon f r om Ewan C ampbel ) .S ome f o rm sf ound i nB r i ta in a nd I r e land ,n o tt he f u l lr ange ,a r e i lus t ra ted i n my F igu res 6 & 7 ,t o a id i n c ompa ra t ive d i scuss ion o fc on t inen ta lf i nd s . E i :t he c o mmone s tf o rm o f Ew a re , aj a rs eem ing ly i nt wo b a s ic s i ze s ,a round 1 5a nd 2 0c en t ime t re si nh e igh t . T he r im d ia me ter sa r ea round 1 3a nd 1 5c en t ime t re sa nd t he s hou lde r d iame te rb e tween 1 5 a nd 1 8 c en t ime t re s . I ti s c ommon , b u t n o t u b iqu i tou s f o r t he re t o b e as imp le h o r izon ta l s co red s hou lde r ma rk ,j u s ta bove t he w ide s t p o in t , r unn ing r i gh t a round t he v es se l . T he r im f o rm s s how t he g rea te s tv a r ie ty :o ne t ype i ss harp ly e ve r ted a nd f l a t tened o nt op ;o the r sa re f l a t tened ,b u t mo re h o r izon ta l t h an e ver ted ;o the r se ve r ted ,b u tn o ta t as harp a ng le . E i i : ad i s t inc t ive s t y le o fc a r ina ted b eake ra round 8c en t i m e t re sa tt he s hou lde r .V ir tua l ly e very e xamp le i ss l igh t ly d i f fe ren tt ot he o the r s .

E i i i : ad i s t inc t ive b ow l , a ga in w i th s l igh t v ar ie ty f r om p iece t op iece . E xamp le s f r om Wh i tho m e v ince al i gh t b rown s l ip . E iv : ap i tche rf o rm wh ich c an h ave e i the r as imp le l i po r at r e fo i l s pou t . T he h and le h as t wo p a ra l le l g roove s . O therw ise t hey r e semb le E ij a r s .T he l i pped v e s se ls s eem t oh ave t he l e s se ve r ted r im f o rm s , wh i le t he t r e fo i lp iece s h ave s harp ly e ve r ted r im s . E v :l i d sf o rl a rge rE ij a r si ns t anda rd f abr ic . E v i : as ma l l' unguen tp o t ' . One e xamp le i den t i f ied b yM . O 'Donne l l o u to ft he c o l lec t ion o fm isce l laneou ss herd s f r om B a l lyca t teen — the se a re n o t l i s ted a s E ware i n T homas 's 1 981 c a ta logue .

D esp i te m ino rv a r ia t ion so ff o rm f r om p o tt op o t , Ewa re i sah omogeneou sc l a s s . Al p iece sh ave l a rge s ub -angu la r q uar tz i n c lu s ion sa nd ar ed g rog w i th ah igh i r on c on ten t . F abr ic c o lou rv a r ies c on s ide rab ly ,b u tf a i r ly c ons i s ten t ly , b e tween l i gh tg rey ,p ink a nd b r ick r ed . I n many c a ses i t wou ld a ppea rt ha tp ink i st he o r ig ina lc o lou r , o the rc o l o u rs b e ing t he r e su l t o f h ea t ing a nd p o s t -depos i t iona l d i sco lou ra t ion .T he amoun to fi r on g rog may v a ry ,h ow e ver ,a nd t h i sc ou ld c au se d i f fe r ing d eg ree so fp ink c o lou r a tt he t ime o ff i r ing . S ugge s t ion s b y O 'Ke l ly ( 1 963 , 1 05 ) t ha t t h i s g rog i sa bsen t f r om s o me p ieces a re e r roneou s ( t hey w e re b ased o n e xagge ra ted e xpec ta t ions a r i s ing f r om t he l i t e ratu re ) . E wa re i so f ten n o t f i ne ly f i n i shed . S ome f r om G a r rydu f fa r es op oo ri nf o rm a st oi n sp i re O 'Kely t ot he v i ew t ha tt h ey we re wa s te r s ,o rc rude c op ie s made o ns i te ( O 'Ke l ly 1 963 ,1 07 ) . Mo s t Ewa re b ase sh ave s t r ing mark s i nd ica t ing t ha t t h ey w ere c u t f r om amov ing whee l . A p i ece f r om D er ryna f lan l a ck ing t h i s ma rk may s imp ly b e t he l a s t o f ab a t ch , c u t o f f a f te r t h e whee l h ad b ecome s t a t iona ry .T h i ss e em ing s peed o fp roduc t ion may a ga in a ccoun tf o rs o me s l igh td i ss im i la r i t ies .T hese d i f ferences d on o ti nd ica te al a ck o fh omogene i ty i nc l a ss E .T he f abr ic o f E wa re i sa lmo s t i d en t ica l f r om p i ece t op iece a nd a t endency n o t t of uly u pda te t he c o r pu s h a s p e rhaps o b s cured t h i s . I th a sb een a rgued t ha tt he f abr ic i sc l ose i n c harac te rt o al a te rS co t t i sh c e ram ic ,k nown a s' Eas tC oa s t G r i t ty Wa re ' ( ECG ) ,b u tt h i sn o tc or rec t a nd s t ems f r om c ompa r i son o f ECG w i th p ieces wh ich a r e e r roneous ly i den t i f ied a s Ewa re o nf o rma ls im i la r i t ie s ,b u t wh ich a re a c tua l ly E CG . A n umbe r o f t he l a t te r a re s t i l l l i s ted i n T homa s ' ( 1 981b ) c a ta logue a nd h i s 1 990 map ( Thomas 1 990 ,1 5 ) :f o re xamp le ,t he s upposed Ewa re f r om C ra ig 's Qua r ry i n e a s t L o th ian ( Thoma s 1 981b , 2 1 , n ow i n t he Na t iona l Mu seum o f An t iqu i t ies , E d inbu rgh ) a nd t he f i nds f r om Aberco m , a l so i nL o th ian . L a ing h as a rgued t ha tE CG f o rms may b ec op ied f r om Ewa re p ieces ( La ing 1 973 , 1 85 f f ) , b u t t h i s mu s t r ema in a n o pen q ues t ion . W i ll iam s 's ( 1 982 ) p e t ro log i ca l c ompa r ison , f o re xamp le , b e tween p iece sf r om S a in tC hr i s to ly ( as i te w i th in t he u rb s o fB o rdeaux ) ,a nd B r i t i sh f i nds o f Ewa re ,s eem st oh ave u sed t h e Abe rco m f i nds f o r c ompa ra t ive p urposes : t he i d en t i f ica t ion o f wh ich a s Ewa re T homa sh a sd oub ted f o r s o me t ime ( p er s . c omm . 1 988 —on e xam ina t ion , i n 1 988 , t h ey w e re c l ea r ly n o t Ewa re ) .I nt ime i tmay b ep oss ib le t o i d en t i fy i nd iv idua lb a tche so f Ewa re ,b u ta sw eh ave s een 7 3

C ommun ica t ion a nd C ommer ce a l ong t h e W e s tern S ea lane s AD400 -800

i nt he c ase o ft he Med i te r ranean wa res t he re i sn or ea son t oa ccep ta ny s l igh tv a r ie ty o ft h i ss or ta si nd ica t ing c hange a c ro ss t ime ( any mo re t han v a r ie ty b e tween b road ly c on t empora ry b a t ches ) . I d en t if y ing aS ourc ef o r Ew ar e T ha t E wa re h a sa t t rac ted ag rea td ea lo fs cho la r ly a t ten t i on may b es e en t or ef l ec ta na pprec ia t ion o fi t sp o ten t ia l i ns o lv ing c h rono log ica la nd c u l tura lp rob lem so ft he e a r ly m idd le a ge si nt he C e l t ic We s t— too o f ten ,h oweve r ,w i th s harp e choe so ft he ' w ine t r ade 'f i xa t ion a nd i t sa t tendan t s a p i en te s ( H i l lga r th 1 984 , 1 5 ;T homa s1 981a ,2 7 1 ; Hodges 1 977 ,2 41 ) .T he s eem ing i n t rac tab i l i ty o fi t sp rob lem sh a s a l so p roved al u re t or e sea rche r s . Hodge sf o re xamp le h a s s een ad e f in i te s o lu t ion t ot h ep rob lem o fi t se xac to r ig in s a st an ta l i s ing ly j u s to ve rt he h o r izon ( Hodge s 1 977 ,2 40 ; 1 984 ,4 0 ) ,c i t ing G io t 's f o r th com ing p e t ro log ica la na ly se s . P ro fesso rG io t( p er s .c omm . )a nd Ewan C ampbe l l( 1 984 ,3 5 4 1 ) ,h oweve r ,h ave c onv inc ing ly q ue s t ioned t h ea b il i ty o f s uch a na ly s i st oa n swe rt he se q ue s t ion si nt h e way t h ey h ave b een u sed s o f a r . I ti si mpo r tan t t hen t ha t w e r e e xam ine t h ep rocess o fr e sea r ch i n to Ewa re ,t oe s tab l i sh wha t q ue s t ions h ave b een a sked a nd why t h e a nswer s h ave n o t b een mo re p rec i se . T h i s i sa l so a n i mpo r tan t p roce ss t op u r sue i nt he c a se o ft he g l a ss f i nd s . E wa re , n o t b e ing p re sen t i n t h e T in tage l a s sem b lage wh ich f o rmed t he c o re o fR ad fo rd 's s t udy , wa s a l a ter a dd i t ion t o t he a l phabe t ica l t ypo logy o fi mpo r ted wa res :h en ce i ti ss omewha tg ro tesque t oo cca s ionaly s e e i tr e fer red t oa s ' T in tage l wa re E ' . B e fo re T homa s p ro p osed i ta s ah omogeneou sc l a ss o fe a r ly C h r i s t ian i mpo r t s u nde rt he l a be l' E ' wa re i n1 957 ( Thoma s1 957 ,1 5 ) ,i th ad b een k nown i nc on s ide rab le q uan t i ty f r om s i te s s uch a s L ago re , Dunadd a nd G a r rane sf o rs ome d ecades . T he r e a sonab le a s sump t ion h a sb een t ha tt he B r i t i s ha nd I r i sh f i nds o f Ewa re a r e at i ny s ubse to f amas so f s uch u ndeco ra ted c oa r sewa res i n F ran ce , b egg ing t h e q ues t ion o f why s uch ap la in d ome s t ic p o t te ry wou ld b e i mpo r ted t o az one whe re p o t tery u se wa s p rev iou s ly a lmos tn on -ex i s ten t( Thoma s1 990 ,8 ; Wood ing 1 988a ,1 4 1 6 ) .R esea rch i n i t ialy p roceeded o nt h ea s sump t ion t ha tE wa re b e longed t o t he w e l l -known s ub -Roman R hen i sh g roups a nd h ad a r r ived o ver land v i a Ang lo -Saxon E ng l and .T he e xpe r t ise o fs cho la r ss uch a s Whee le ra nd Dun n ing , who h ad d one v ery e a r ly wo rk o nt h eR hen ish w a re s , was e n l i s ted ( Hencken 1 950 ,1 24 ;1 942 ,4 9 -50 ) .I nh i s tor ica l t e rms , we may t hus v iew t h e e a r ly mode l s a s ac on se q uence o ft h eb e t te rp ub l ica t ion o ft h eR hen i sh ma te r ia l a nd o ft he f a c t t ha t an umbe r o fB r i t i sh r e sea rche r sh ad worked o n t h em , mos t ly a s ab yproduc t o fR oman a nd h igh med ieva lp e r iod i n te res t s . T he s ame p a t te rn i sa l so t r ue o ft he s t udy o fe a r ly med ieva lg l a sswa re , whe re t h e R hen i sh p roduc t sa re s t i l lb e t te rk nown ( s ee b e low ) .T he r e searche so f Wa i le s ( 1 963 , 1 42 ,F ig . 1 02 -58 ;P eacock a nd T homa s1 967 ,3 6 )e s tabl i shed t ha tc ompa rab le ,a nd l a rge ly c l oser , p a rale l s f o r E wa re e x is ted i n Nor thern F rench a s semb lage s , wh i le ma cro scop icaly s im i la r f a br ic s e x i s ted i nw e s te rn F rance ,u sualy f r om l a te r wa re s .F o rt he mo s tp a r tt h e se l a t te rp a ra l le l s were c o l lec ted u n sys tem a t ica l ly ( Thomas , G io t , Warner , B ruce -M i t ford p e r s . 7 4

c omm s . —examp le sa re t he p ieces f r om C amp -du -Cha i l lo t a nd Pe i ron ) .T h rough t he work o f Hodges ( 1 981 ) ,B rown a nd T imby ( 1 988 ;D . G a ims ter ,p e r s .c omm . )t he No r the rn F rench wa res h ave b ecome b e t ter k nown , wh i le t h e we s t e rn f i nds h ave n o ts een s uch e x ten s ive r eana lys is . T he f o rm s o ft he E i iü , a nd s ome E i v , v es se l s a r e i ndeed b es t p a ra l le led among n o r the r n a nd we s tern Me rov ing ian a s semb lage s .E xac tp a rale l sh ave b een h a rd t o l o ca te i n F rance , h owever , l e ad ing t o d oub t s i n t h e m inds o f many s cho la r sr egard ing t h i si den t i f i ca t ion .I ti s a rguab le ,h oweve r , whe the ra ny s ho r tt e rm i den t i f ica t ion o ft he e xa c to r ig in so f Ewa re c an b ee xpec ted — the p rob l em o n t he c on t inen ta l s i de i so f t h e n eed le in the -hay s t ack v a r ie ty . C ompa ra t ive ly l i t t le e xcava t ion h a s b een d one .R andom s ea rche s amongs tk nown wes te rn F rench c o l lec t ion sh ave t u rned u p ab a re m in imum o fp a rale l s o u t s ide o fB r i t tany :f r om e a r ly e xcava t ion ss uch a sH erpe s a nd C hadenac ( G io t & Que r re 1 985 ,9 )a nd t he C ha teau e xcava t ion sa tT our si nt he 1 970s ( Rando in 1 981 ,1 06 -7 ) . T he p rob lem may n o t b e s o lved b y t he s imp le a dop t ion o f awa i t ing b r ie f .S uch ap o l icy h as b een e f fec t i ve i n t h e c a se o ft he s i x th c entu ry Med i ter ranean i m p or ted wa re s ,b u tt he re t h er e sea rch i n te res t a broad h a s b een f ue l led b yt h e wes te rn i n su lar d eba te s .T h i si sc l ea r ly e v inced i nt h eu se o ft he n a r row i n su la r t e rm ino logy B i , B i i ,e t c . i nt h e Med i te r ranean c on tex t( Thoma s 1 982 ,2 3 ) . And t here a r e o bs tac le s t oe asy i den t i f ica t ion o f E wa re . Mun sel c o lou r s ,f o re xamp le ,a re o fl i t t le u se i ni den t i fy i ng wa res w i th t he w ide r ange o fd i sco lou ra t ion o f Ewa re . T ha ts o me o ft h i si sc aused b y wea the r ing o ns i te i sc l ea r f r om t he v a r ia t ion o fc o lou rf r om s he rd t os herd o np i ece s f r om t he s ame v e sse l( O 'Ke l ly 1 963 ,1 03 ) .D i sco lou ra t ion i s a l so c au sed b yt he h ea t ing o ft he p o t s ,o f ten a ga in v a ry ing f r om s he rd t os he rd d epend ing o n t h e c l osene ss o fp o r t i on so ft he v e sse lt ot he h ea ts ource .T he c o lou r may v a ry f r om d ul g rey t ot he o r ig ina lp ink i sh -o range —bo th c o l o u rs b e ing s e en ,f o re xamp le o n ab eake rf r om Herpe s( a cc . n o . B r i t i sh Museum 1 905 5 20 1 76 ) . On ly c e r ta in r im f o rm s , eme rgen tg ra ins ,s t r ia t ion s a nd b a sa ls t r ing ma rk ss t ud ied i nc omb ina t ion a l low e xa c t i d en t i f ica t ion . A s c oa r sewa res h ave n o t g ene ra l ly b een c ruc ia lt oa r chaeo log ica lc h rono logy ,f a b r ic b a sed r e sea rch me thod sa c co rd ing ly a re n o t we l la dap ted t ot he p rob lem s o fl o ca t ing s ou rce sf o rt he se wa res . We t u rn n ow t o as e cond me thodo log ica l i s sue . R e sea rch i n to E wa re h a s b een h eav i ly i nf luenced b y h i s tor i ca lp a rad igm s . Wh i le t h i si ss omewha tc on t ra ry t o a c cep ted n o t ion so ft he o b jec t iv i ty o fa r chaeo log ica ls t udy , i tmus tb ea c cep ted t ha ts u ch a na ly se sh ave b een made — a nd p o s tf a c to a r ep a r to ft h ei nd iv idua lh i s tory o f Ewa re s cho la r sh ip .T hey a re , mo reove r ,f u l ly d e fen s ib le i n me th o do log i ca lt e rm s .F or v es se l si mpo r ted i n ac l ear ly l im i ted s e r ie s o f e ven t s i ti sl i ke ly t ha t ah i s to r ica l c on tex t c an u l t ima te ly b ee s tab l i shed .T he f o rmu la f o rs uch r e sea rch p ropo sed b yR ah tz ( 1 985 ;f o ra ne xamp le o ft h i sa pp roa ch : My tum 1 986 ,3 75 -8 ) wou ld s ugges tt ha tt h eh i s to r ica ld a ta a r e b e s t i n t roduced a f te r t h e c omp le t ion o f t he manua l s ea rch f o rp a ra l le l s .B u ti st h is n ecessa ry ?I ft he s ea rch f o r p a ra l le l s may b e a ided b y t he t e s t ing o f a n h i s to r ica l mode l , t h is d oe s n o t p reven t t he g radua l t e s t ing o ft he mode lb yf u r the rp ub l ica t ion a nd s t udy o ft he ma te r ia l .

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C ommun ica t ion a nd C ommer ce a long t h e W e s te rn S ea lanes AD400 -800

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7 6

C hap t er S i x : C argoe sa nd C ommer ce i nt h eS even th C en tur y

T he p os i ted l i nk b e tween t h ee a r ly med ieva lI r ish S ea b a s in a nd t he R h ine land h ad n oh i s to r i ca lb a s i s .P er h aps d oub t ing t he l i ke l ihood o fa no ver land l i nk t h rough Ang lo -Saxon E ng land , T homas f ound a na r chaeo log ica l c ompa ra t ive mode l i n t h e i mpo r ta t ion o f t h e ` B a r -Lug ' c e ram i cf o rm i n to C o rnwa l lf r om t h eR h ine land a tt h ee nd o f t he f i r s t m i l lenn ium AD ( Hu t ch in son 1 979 , 8 1 f f ) . I n s t r ic t ly h i s tor ica lt e rm s ,h oweve r ,t h e ma r i t ime l i nk so ft he p er iod o fB ar L ug p o t te ry a r eo f awho l ly d i f feren tc ha rac t e rt ot ho se o ft he s i x th a nd s even th c en tu r ie s . E wa re i s a l so r a re i nC or nwa l l —hence i nvok ing t he B a r -Lug mode l i ss ca rce ly a ppo s i te t oe xp la in t he f o rce sb eh ind i t si mpor t a t ion t ot h eC e l t ic Wes t . I n 1 967 T ho mas a nd P eacock a bandoned t h e i dea t ha t Ewa re wa sp r ima r i ly R hen i sh i no r ig in .T he p r inc ipa l e v idence mu s tered wa s f r om h eavy m ine ra l a na ly s i s o f t he t empe r ing s ands , wh i ch we re i d en t i f ied a sp os t -T r ia s s ic a nd mo s tp robab ly T er t ia ry i nc ha rac te r . S uch s and s a re r a rer i nt h e R h ine land a nd n o t f ound i nR hen i sh wa res ( Thoma s ,p e r s .c omm . ;P eacock a nd T homa s1 967 ,4 3 ) .T he c onc lus ivene ss w i th wh ich t he se a na ly ses h ave b een a c c ep ted h a sb een q ues t ioned b yC ampbe l l( 1 984 ,3 8 ) .F i r s t o f a l mu s t b e n o ted t he f a i lu re o f n on -pe t ro log i s ts t o a pprec ia te t he me thodo logy o f p e t ro log ica l s t ud ies : a s im i la rp rob lem t ot he way i n wh ich t he wo rk o fp h i lo lo g i s t sa nd n um i s ma t i s t si sa c cep ted b yn on spec ial i s t s .T he h eavy m ine ra l sp resen ta r en o tu n ique t oT er t ia ry m ine ra l a s semb lage s .T e r t ia ry a nd p os t -T r ia s s ic s ands t hem se lves a re k nown f r om an umbe ro fp a r t so fE u rope ( G io tp e r s . c omm . )a nd we s hou ld a l so n o te t ha ts uch i st he i rs u i tab i l i t y f o r c e ram ic t empe r ing t ha t s mal p ocke t s m igh t b e s ough to u ti na rea s whe re t hey a r el e s sc ommon .P eacock 's p o in t i ss t i l l r easonab le : t ha t t h e a s semb lage p re sen t i s mo re l i ke ly t or e f lec t a c t iv i ty i no ne o rt wo a r ea s where k yan i te a nd a nda lu s i te a r e p re sen t i n T e r t ia ry s and s . I den t i f ica t ion o fl i ke ly s ou rce s ,h owever ,i ss t il s o me th ing o f as ho ti nt he d a rk .I ti sc l ea rf r om t h e1 967 s t udy t ha tt he h i s to r i ca l l i nk o f I r e land w i th Aqu i ta ine , a nd a t l e a s t w es te r na nd No r thern G au l , i nf luen ced g rea t ly t h en ew c ho ices o fl i ke ly a rea st ot e s t .A sT homa so bse rved i nh i s 1 967 s t udy :' .there i sn or e a ll i nk b e tween t h eR h ine land a nd Wes te r nB r i ta in ' , wh i le : ' On t h eh i s to r ica ls i de , B o r d eaux a nd t he mou th o ft h eG a ronne a r e who l ly r e levan t t ot he i d ea o fl i nk sb e tween p o s t -Roman G au la nd p o s t R oman B r i ta in '( Peacock a nd T homa s1 967 ,3 9 ) .I nf a c t ,a s we h ave s e en , B o rdeaux i sl e s s r e levan t t han t he L o i re , t hough t h i s d oes n o t d e t rac t f r om T homas ' b a s i c p o in t a bou t h i s to r ica l l i ke l ihood . Doub t s r a i sed b y t h e t hen r e cen t f i e ldwork o f Wa i le s ( 1 963 ; P eacock a nd T homa s 1 967 ,3 6 )a nd t he i den t i f ica t ion o fG aul i sh A t lan t i cg roup p a l g ochr& i enne g r i se w i th t he i n su la r c l a ss D s eemed t o s uppo r tt h el i ke l ihood o f al i nk ,b u tt h e wo rk o fZ i mmer a nd t h e ' wes tern s eaway s ' r e sear che r s wa s c l ea r ly a l so c au sa t ive ( Thoma s1 981a ,2 7 1 ;T homa s1 976 ,2 52 -4 ;T homa s 1 990 ,1 0 ,1 6 -17 ) . Ew ar ei nF r anc e I n mo re modern c on tex t s Ewa re wou ld b ed esc r ibed a st he p roduc to f ar ura li ndus t ry r a ther t han a nu rban ( whe re i n mode rn B r i t tany ,f o re xamp le ,t h e re w e re b road ly s im i la r

p o t st ot he E it ype ,t e rmed p o t äl a i ta nd p o t äb eur r e ,c f .P i l le t 1 980 ) .T h i sd i s t in c t ion may mean l i t t le f o rt he e a r ly m idd le a ges ,t hough t h ee xcava t ion sa tt he u rban c en t re o fT ou r s p roduced o n ly ac oup le o fs he rds o f awa re wh ich m igh t b e Ewa re , among s t ag rea t amoun to fp a l g ochr j t ienne g r i se wh i le ,c onve r se ly , Ewa re i sf ound i nF rank ish c e me te r ies i nw es te rn F rance f r om wh ich p a l go chr g t ienne g r i se i sa l mo s tt o ta l ly a bsen t( e .g .H erpes a nd Chadenac :s ee a bove , 7 4 ) .P a l 6 o chr g t i enne g r i se i sa l so a bsen tf r om I r e land , whe re t h e re i sl e s so bv iou si n f luence o ft he u rban Galo -Roman c hu rch t han i n Wa les , whe re b o th t ypes o ccur .T h i sq ue s t i on may d eserve mo re a t ten t ion , t hough c h rono log ica l d i f fe rence si nt h eo ccu r ren ce o ft hese wa res c ou ld a l so b e r e spon s ib le . S ome i n term i t ten t a t temp t s t o l o ca te E wa re i n F rance h ave b een c a r r ied o u t d ur ing t he l a s t d ecade b y Ma ry O 'Donne l l , Ewan C ampbel , A lan L ane a nd t he a u tho r .T he se h ave c oncen t ra ted o nP o i tou a nd h ave b een , u nder s tandab ly , f ounded o n aw ider u nder s tand ing o f t h er ange o ff o rm a nd f abr i cv a r ian t sf ound i nB r i ta in a nd I r e land t han Wa i les wa s a b le t oo b ta in i nt he 1 950 s a nd ' 6 0 s . We a r en ow c l ea rt ha tt he p roduc t ion a rea w il b ea s ma l l o ne : t he u n i fo rm i ty o f E wa re f o rm s a nd f a br ic i nd i ca te al i ke ly s i ng le s ou r ce f o ra lt he B r i t i sh a nd I r i sh f i nds . T he f i r s tp r io r i ty o ff i e ldwo rk h a sb een t oc l a r i fy i f Ewa re a c tua l ly wa s aG aul i sh p roduc ta nd t og a in ac l ea re r i d ea o fi t sl i ke ly c u l tu ra lc on tex ti n wes te rn G au l . T hese r e sea r che sh ave n o tb een s y s tema t ic i nves t iga t ion s ,h ow e ver , a nd mo s t ly o n ly a n a d junc t t o a t temp t s t o f uly u nder s tand t he B r i t i sh a nd I r i sh d i s t r ibu t ions . T he s i tua t ion o nt h ec on t inen ti sh a rd ly c ompa rab le t ot ha t i n B r i ta in . F ren ch a r chaeo log i s t s d o n o t d epend u pon c oa r sewa re sa s ac o rne r s tone o fc h rono logy .T he f a c t t ha tp a ra l le l sf o r Ewa re a r er a re i sn o ta ta ls urpr i s ing a nd s ugge s t ions o fs ea rches i nt h el e ss -l ike ly t e r ra in o fS pa in o r P o rtuga l a r e p e rhaps p rema tu re ( Campbe l l 1 984 , 3 6 ; Hodge s1 984 ,4 0 ) . D i s t r ibu t ion maps w i th l im i ted c on t inen ta ld i s t r i b u t ion sh ave b een c on fu s ing t ot he v i ewer a nd h ave l e dt o s ugge s t ion so f aB r i t i sh o r ig in f o r Eware ,b u tt here i sl i t t le r e a son why aB r i t i sh -made c oa r seware wou ld b ee xpor ted t oG au l ,e xcep tp e rhaps f r om C or nwa l lt oB r i t tany , wh ich r e ce ived f ew i mpo r t sf r om G au l . Ewa re h a sb een f ound i nc on t inen ta la ssemb lages t ot h e s ou th o fB r i t tany . T h ree r e cen t f i nds f r om P o i tou a nd t h eT ou ra ine f i tw i th t h eh i s tor ica ll i nk w i th t he L o i re e s tua ry .I nP o i tou ,' a nE ü ib ow l ' wa s as ur face f i nd f r om a c hu rchya rd a tC hadenac ( Campbe l l ,p e r s . c omm . ; o n t he s i te :B a r r ik .e -F lavy ,n .d . ,2 01f f ) .T he c on tex ti su nknown , t hough ama jor e ar ly med ieva lc e me te ry wa s e xcava ted t h e re l a s tc en tu ry . F rom t h ec olec t ion o ft he B r i t i sh Mu s eum ,t h ree b eake r so fE i it ype a re f r om as i x th -t os even th c en tu ry a s semb lage i na ne no rmous c e me tery a tH erpe s , e xcava ted i nt h e l a s t c en tu ry b y P .D e lama in . T he e xac t c on tex ti su nknown ,b u tr e cen td oub t sa st ot he r el iab il i ty o ft h es i te a t t r ibu t ions f o rp i eces i nt he D e lama in c o l lec t ion a r e i n t h i s c ase d i speled b y p ub l i shed i lus t ra t ion s ( D . K idd p e r s .c omm . ) .A ccess ion n umbe r sa re 1 76 ,1 78 a nd 1 79 . Wa i le sa nd C ampbe l ll i s t1 76 a s Ewa re ,b u td on ' ts eem t o h ave s e en t h eo the rt wo .1 76 i sn o tp rec i se ly ac ommon E l i 7 7

C ommun ica t ion a nd C ommer ce a l ong t h e W e s te rn S ea lane s AD400 -800

f o rm ,b e ing e l onga ted a bove t h ec a r ina t ion a nd h av ing a n a typ ica l r im . I t s f a br ic i so ft h e d u l l g rey d i sco loura t ion t yp ica lo ft he Ewa re f r om G a r rane sa nd L ago re ,t hough o ne p a tch i so ft he b r igh ter o range wh ich i ss uspec ted t ob e t he o r ig ina lc o lou r .1 79 ,h owever ,i se x t reme ly c onv inc ing a s E wa re ( s ee b e low ) . I ti so fp a rale lf o rm t oB r i t i sh E l v esse l s a nd i so fa n o range/brown f a br ic w i th ' p imp ly ' emergen tq ua r tz g r i t sa nd o dd r ed i n c lus ions .T he s t r ing c u t -o f fb a se i si den t ica lt o Ewa re b ase -ma rk s . F rom T our s ag ood p a rale lt o Ewa re i sa nE is t y le r im a nd s hou lder f r om t he C ha teau s i te ( s ix th -t os even th c en tury c on tex t ) .T he f o rm i sc l ose ly b u tn o te xac t ly p a ra l l e led a t Wh i tho m i nS co t land .T he f a br i ci sh a rd ,g rey i sh wh i te a nd h as r ounded , u n sor ted q ua r tz a nd o dd i r on ( p robab ly h aema t i te ) i n c lus ion s . R ando in d esc r ibe si ta s ' Pa te g r i sb e ige c l a i r ,f i ne ,a vec i n c lus ion sd eq ua r tz e td e f e ldspa th ' ( s igh ted b y B . R ando in , E . C ampbe l l , M . O 'Donnel ,P -R . G io t ,J . Wood ing ) . F rom t h e Mona s ter ie d eS a in t Ma r t in ,t he re i sa nE l it ype b eake rw i th c o l la rf r om as i x th - t os even th -centu ry c on tex t . T he f a b r ic wou ld b e a ga in a ccep tab le a s E wa re , a s i th as t he p ink i sh t i nge wh ich i sl a ck ing f r om t he o the rf i nd .I ti sn o tp a ra l le led i n d eco ra t ion o n B r i t i sh s i te s ( t hough s uch ac ola ri sc om mon o nE ip o t s ) ,t hough f o rm i sa ccep tab le a s Ewa re a nd t he c ola ri so ft he t ype f ound o n many E iv e sse l s( s igh ted b yB .R ando in ,E .C ampbe l la nd J .Wood ing ) .A l so wo r th n o t ing a tT ou r s i s al o ca l v a r ian t o fp a li o ch e i enn eg r i se ( No . 3 . 2063 .27 )w i th t r e fo i ls pou t sv e ry s im i la rt oE iv . T he se f i nds a dd t ot h ep iece sf r om B r i t tany a l ready a ccep ted a s Ewa re .O ft h e se ,t he Gu i sseny p i ece i se xac t ly p a ra l le led o nB r i t i sh s i te s( c f . my F igu re 6 , Ew4 ) . Un for tu n a te ly t h e Morb ihan a nd L es C leon s p iece s h ave b een m is la id .T he L es C leon sp iece sa re p a r t icu la r ly o fi n te res t a st hey a r ef r om t he L o i re e s tua ry , wh ich h a sa nh i s to r ica l l i nk w i th I r e land .S ome o f Wa i les 's d raw ing so ft he p i ece s f r om t h i ss i te s eem t or epre sen t g ood Ewa re p ieces a nd s o me d o n o t (Wa i le s 1 963 , F ig . 1 04 —he n o tes t ha t t h i s v es se li sp a le ra nd mo re f i ne ly g r i t ted t han mos t Ewa re ) . Ar epor tf r om P ro fes so rG io t( p er s . c omm . )o f af i nd f r om t he L ouv re e xcava t ion si nP a r i sh a sy e tt ob ec on f i rmed b y o ther o bse rve r sa nd s hou ld n o tb et aken a tf a ce v a lue . T he a u tho r 's s t ud ie s i n F rance i n 1 987 a nd 1 988 we re c onduc ted o n ac on sc iou s ly l im i ted s c a le , s o o n ly t ho se c o l lec t ions a l ready i d en t i f ied w e re e xam ined ,a l ong w i th c ompa ra t ive v i s i t st oP a r i s ,R ouen ,E v reux , Nan te s , B eauva is a nd O r leans ( c i rcums tance sp reven ted a c ce ss t o ma ter ia l a tP o i t ie r s a nd s ome a tO r leans ) . E x ten s ive u se was a l so made o ft he wo rk o f Wa i le sa nd Hodges .T he re w ere ,i n1 987 ,v ery f ew s cho la r s who w ere c onv inced t ha t a ny e xac tp arale l st o Ewa re e x is ted o u t s ide o fB r i ta in a nd t h i s e v idence wa s v i ta l t o ac r i t i ca l u se o f E wa re a s h i s tor ica le v idence . T he re i sc e r ta in ly E w a re i n we s tern -F rench c on t e x t s . T h i s i sn o t ac l a im t ob e made l i gh t ly . O f ten t he re h ave b een r epo r t so f Ewa re b e ing f ound o nt h ec on t inen t wh ich h ave a l ong l i f e i n o ra l h i s tory ( pe rhaps i n t h e p rocess b ecom ing mo re c onc lus ive t han t h e i r c l a iman t s i n tended t hem ) . E xamp le s a r e Swan 's f i nds f r om S a in t C hr is to ly ( Wa rner ,p e r s . c omm . ; Wi l l iams , u npub l i shed ) , G io t 's f r om I l e L av re t ( G io t a nd Quer re , 1 985 , 9 8 -9 a nd e xam ined b y t he a u tho r i n 1 988 : t h ey a r e t h in , r i bbed 7 8

s he rds i n ah a rd , wh i t ish f abr i c , c l ea r ly n o t E wa re ) a nd a l so f i nds f r om O r lean s( Hodge s1 977 ,2 41 ) , mos to f wh ich a re n o tv e ry l i ke Ewa re a ta l l . Mie ri n ar e cen tn o te ( Be ie r 1 995 ,2 61 -5 )h a sa l so s ugge s ted t ha t Ewa re i sa n Aqu i tan ian t ype ,b u th e rd i scu ss ion o f fer sn oe v idence o ru p to -da te i n forma t ion .T he re a r ev ar ious f e a tu res o ft he f i nds f r om T ou r s wh i ch make t hem i n conc lu s ive : t he b es t f a br ic p ara l le li sn o tc onv inc ing i nf orm a nd t he b e t ter f o rm i sl e s s c er ta in i nf a br i c .T he Gu i sseny p iece i se xac t ly ma tched b y I r i sh f i nd si nf o rm a nd f abr ic ,b u tn or the rn B r i t tany i sn o t we s te r nF rance . T he c onc lus ive p roo f c omes , i r on ica l ly n o tf r om F rench c o l lec t ion s ,b u tf r om t he B r i t ish Mu seum . T he p rev iou s ly u n s igh ted Herpes 1 79 i s ama tched E l f o rm , macro scop ica l ly i den t ica lt oB r i t i sh Ewa re i nf a br ic a nd c o lou r a nd w i th t h e s t r ing c u t -o f fb ase e xac t ly l i ke o the r Ewa re f i nd s .I tawa i t sc l ose rf a br ic c o mpar i son w i th B r i t i sh f i nd s . Ag ood d ea lo f emphas i si nr e f in ing t he o r ig in so fE wa re h a sb een p l aced u pon c ompa r i son sw i th l a te r ,w e s t e rn F ren ch c e ram ic t r ad i t ion s .P eacock a nd T homa s '1 967 s t udy i n c luded a na lys i so f ap iece f r om C amp d uC ha i l lo t , n ea rS a in te s ( P eacock a nd T homa s 1 967 ;C ampbel 1 984 , 3 6 -8 ) . Ap i ece f r om S a in t Ch r i s to ly ,p rov ided b yL eo Swan , wa se xam ined i n1 982 b yD av id Wi ll iam s .T hese h ave b o th e v inced f a br i cs im i la r i t ie st o Ewa re ,b u ta r en o ti den t ica l . Ap iece i nt h ep o sse ss ion o fP -R .G io t ,f r om a na s semb lage o f med ieva l wa re sf r om ac ave mou th a tG ro t te d eV ileb o r s ( Po i tou )i ss ol i ke i nf o rm a nd f abr ic t op a s sa s Ewa re ( i fi t i sn o t ag enu ine p i ece ,o u to fc on tex t :F ig .9 , Ew13 ;c f .F ig . 6 , Ew6 ) .A l lo ft h i s may s eem t oa dd t ot he l i ke l ihood o fE wa re b e ing a P o i tou p roduc t , b u t i ti sc i rcum s tan t ia l e v idence a tb e s t . T he e a rl i e r d i s t r ibu t ion m igh t h ave s ugge s ted a n o r ig in i nB r i t tany —howeve rt h i si sn o tl i ke ly o ng eo log ica l g rounds . T he h eavy m ine ra l s i n E wa re a re r a re , i fn o t u nknown ,i nB r i t tany .T he f i nds s of a rp o in tt ot he r eg ion s o ft he T ou ra ine ,S a in tonge a nd P o i tou ,t hough t he re i sa d ange ro fe xagge ra t ing t h ee v idence o fs uch as mal n umbe r o ff i nd s .T h i s make ss ense i nt e rms o fa nh i s to r ica l mode l o fl i nk sb e tween t h eI r i sh S ea b as in a nd t h eL o i re v aley , s uch a sh a sb een a rgued i nt he p re sen ts t udy .T ha tt he re i s n o Ewa re f r om t h eB o rdeaux r eg ion ,s l igh t ly f ur the rt ot h e s ou th ,i sl og ica le nough i nt h is c onnec t ion .R e f inemen to f t h eh i s tor i ca le v id e nce h a sr e jec ted t he e ar l ie r mode l wh i ch l e dT homa st oa rgue f o rt h el i nk w i th t he G a ronne mou th , c i ted a bove . We wou ld e xpec tt of i nd t he o r ig in p o in to fE ware s o mewhe re i nt he L o i re r eg ion o rP o i tou o np resen t h i s to r ica l e xpe c ta t ion s . I fn o t , h oweve r , t h e re s eem s n o n eed t of o l low T homa si na t t r ibu t ing Ew a re t o ar e s idua l R oman c e ram ic t r ad i t ion i nt he v ery s ou th -wes to fG au l— i nd ica ted b y s i te s s uch a sP ep i ron ( Thomas 1 981b , 2 4 -5 ; G abe t1 969 ;S an t ro t1 986 ,e . g .1 41 ) .F inds f r om s i tes s uch a s S tP ie r re d eV auv ray a nd O r leans a re s ugge s t ive o fs im i la r c e ram i c t r ad i t ion s i n n o r thern Gau l c l o se t o t he L o i re , wh ich a r er e levan ti nt he l i gh to ft he k nown t r a f f ic a l ong t he L o i re v a l ley . A s E wa re i sn ow i den t i f ied c on f iden t ly o n s ome w es tern F rench s i tes ( Tou r s , Chadenac , H erpes ) , e ven t hough t h en umbe ri ss ma l la nd s ome f i nds ( He rpe s )a r e mo re c onv in c ing t han o the r s ( Tours ) , l ook ing wes twa rd o f t he R h ine land f o r as ou rce s eem s mo re l i ke ly t o b e

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C hap t er S i x : C argoe sa nd C ommer ce i nt h eS even th C en tur y

T eeshan p iece a nd i ti sh ence d oub t fu lt ha tt h i sc an b eh e ld t op rove t ha t E wa re wa s u b iqu i tous ly u sed t o i mpor t madder . T he l og ica l s uppo s i t ion i st ha t t he T eeshan j a r wa su sed t oh e a t madder ,a f te r wh ich i twa sd i sca rded a s u se les so na ccoun to fb e ing s e tw i th madde rb eyond t he p o in t whe re i tc ou ld b ec l eaned .I n te res t ing ly ,i ti st he mo s t c omp le te ly p rese rved ( a pprox ima te ly 4 0% o ft he v es se l : a lt h el owe rp ar to ft he j a r )o fa l lI r i sh o rB r i t i sh f i nds o fE wa re , wh ich may f u r the r s ugges t t ha t t he v esse l wa s , u nu sua l ly ,a bandoned b e fo re b e ing b roken i nu se . Al t h i s e v idence i mpl i es wa st ha tt h ese we re a l -purpo se v e sse l s , o cca s iona l ly u sed t oh ea td ye . We s hou ld b ec au t ious o f g iv ing a ny s ugges t ion t ha t Ewa re d i rec t ly r e la ted t o as o r t o fv a lue -added e xchange ,i nvo lv ing d y ing , wh i ch may b e a nach ron i s t i c . I den t i fy ing au n ive r sa l u sage p a t te r nf o r E wa re may p rove d i f f icu l t , a s a ny c onsume r may h ave f ound t h e i r own u se f o ri t .I n ar eg ion whe re n oo the rp o t tery wa s u sed i tc an h ave n o e s tabl i shed u se -pa t te r n t o f i t i n to . S ubsequen t d eve lopmen t s m igh t b e n o ted . C aro l ine E arwood h a s s ugge s ted t h a t wooden v es se l s f r om L och G la shan a r e modeled o n Ewa re f o rm s( Ea rwood 1 990 ,8 5 : a l so L ago re v e sse l sa r es im i la rt oE i i i : My tum 1 992 , 2 47 , No s . 1& 4 ) . T he emergence o fS ou ter ra in Wa re p o t tery , v e ry d i ss im i la ri nf o rm t o Ewa re ,i n No r thern I r e land a t t h eb eg inn ing o ft h eV ik ing p e r iod may s ugges t a tl e a s t s ome c on t inu i ty o f as o c ia lr e cept iv i ty f o rp o t tery .I fwooden v e sse l sw e r e made i ni m i ta t ion o f Ewa re i tm igh ts ugge s t t ha tt he f unc t ion o f Ew a re i ns uch r eg ion s wa s n o t o ne whe re e x te rna lh ea t ing o ft h ep o t wa sr equ i red .I n No r th e rn I r e land ,o nt h eo ther h and ,t he eme rgence o fS ou ter ra in w a re m igh ts ugge s tt ha tt he c e ram ic c ha rac ter o fv e sse l s w a st he mos td e s i red c ha rac ter i s t ic . T he e conom i cc on tex to f Ewa re i sap uzz le ,b u ti ti s t oo e a sy t ot ake t he v i ew t ha ti tc an o n ly b ee xp la ined a sa t h rowaway a dd i t ion t o al u c ra t ive t r ade i n more v a luab le i t em s .I nt h i s madde ri sn o more d e fen s ib le ac ho ice t han w ine .O the ra t temp t sh ave b een made t op rove t ha t Ewa re wa s al uxu ry g ood i n I r ish s oc ie ty . I n av e ry d oub t fu l a rgumen t Ha ro ld My tum h a s i n terpre ted a ni n c iden ti n t h en in th -cen tu ry t e x tB e thu B r ig t et o as e rvan ti n sp i r ing t h e w ra th o f t h e k ing f o r d ropp ing a v a luab le v esse l ( My tum 1 986 ,3 75 -6 )a sb e ing t oa n Ewa re v esse l :

e f fec t ive t han t he e a r l ie ra pproach .I r on icaly ,i fa ny th ing s l owed d own t h ei nves t iga t ion i twa sT homas 'a dherence t o t h e B o rdeaux l i nk o ve r t he b e t te r -a t te s ted h i s to r ica l l i nk sw i th t h eL o i re e s tuary wh ich p reven ted mo re a t ten t i on b e ing g iven t oP o i tou a nd t he T ou ra ine . H is tor ica lr e sea r ch h as l ed t ot h en a r row ing d own o ft h ep r in c ipa lf l oru i to fI r i sh p e r eg r in it ot he c on t inen tt o t h es even th c en tury , w i th S tC o lumbanus s een a s ap io n ee r ,r a the rt han c on t inu ing at r end o ft he s i x th c en tu ry . T h i s a ss i s t s i n a s sess ing t he l i ke l ihood o f t he b road ly s even th -cen tu ry h or izon p ropo sed i nr e cen ts t ud ies ( s ee b e low ) . T h eS oc ia la nd E conom i cC on t ex to f Ew ar e I na s se ss ing t he p oss ib le c on sume ru se o f Ewa re ,t h ere a r e s o me b a s ic p o in t s wh ich c an b e made .T he I r i sh S ea b a s in , a nd e spec ia l ly t he p a r t so fI r e land a nd S co t land whe re E wa re i sf ound ,h ad n od omes t ic p o t tery a tt h et ime o ft he i mpor ta t ion o f Ewa re ( Wood ing 1 988 ) . Ewan C ampbel ( 1 996 ;a l so L ane 1 994 )h a sa rgued t ha t t he E wa re v e sse l s a re c on ta ine r s —and h ence e v i d ence f o rt h ev ascu la rs y s tems o fc om me r ce . H eh a su sed b o th Ewa re a nd t he Med i ter ranean wa re sa se v idence f o r a ne vo lv ing e xchange mode l— in wh ich t h e se c e ram ics a re s ugges t ive o fs i tes f o re mpor i a . T ha t E wa re v esse l s we re c on ta ine r s ,h oweve r ,s eem se x t reme ly u n l ike ly .E ia nd E l i t ype s c ou ld h ave h ad c ove r s b ound o ve r t hem—E i i n p a r t i cu la ru sualy h av ing as ha rp ly e ver ted r im .B u tt h ey wou ld b e makesh i f tc on ta ine r s a tb es t . T h i si sn o tt os ay t ha tt hey wou ld h ave b een p acked i n to as h ip emp ty a st he d ry s pace i n s ide t he j a r s wou ld h ave b een u se fu l f o r s t orage . A tb es t ,h oweve r , we m igh ti mag ine as i tua t ion whe re t he j a r wa s ab onu so f fe rw i th t he c on ten t s :s uch a s o ne f i nd s i n Ch ine se g roce ry s hops t oday , whe re p re s e rved f r u i t i ss o ld i n l i dded j a r s o fe qua l v a lue t o t he c on ten t s . Any a t temp tt os ee Ewa re a sr egu la rc on ta iner s f o r g oods , a nd h ence d i rec t e v idence f o r e xchange i n c ommod i t ies i n t he s a me way a s t h e amphorae , mu s t e xp la in why t he se ' c on ta ine r s ' a r e i nt h e s ame f abr ic a s v e sse l s ( Eü i a nd E iv ) wh i ch a r e mo re o bv ious ly s e rv ing v esse ls . L ane ( 1 994 , 10 )i sc o r rec tt oq ue s t ion t he c on s tan t r e fe rences t o Ewa re a s' k i tchen w a re ' ,b u t ,i nt he a bsence o fa ny e v idence t ha ts im i la rv esse ls w e re c on ta ine r si na ny c on t inen ta l c on tex t , t he c ase t ha tt h ey w e re i mpo r ted a s c on ta ine r sr e ma in st ob ep roven ,r a the rt han d i sproven . Ewan C ampbel h a sd i spu ted t h ei d ea t ha t Ewa re wa su sed t oc ook i n ,n o t ing t h ei r regu la r i ty o fs oo t -s ta in i ng o ft h ef abr ic , wh ich i so f ten i n terna la sw e l la se x terna l ( Campbel 1 996 ) . I ti sd i f f icu l t t ob e c onc lus ive o n t h i s , h oweve r ,a nd much d i sco lou ra t ion c ou ld h ave b een c au sed b yd amage s u s ta ined a f te rt he p o t sw e re b roken .C ampbel h a s a l so s ugges ted t ha t t he re i s ap os s ib le a s so c ia t ion b e tween Ewa re a nd t he u se o f madde r .T he E iv e sse lf r om T ee shan , i n C oun ty An t r im , c on ta in s at h i ck d epos i t o f madde r (Wa rner , f o r thcom ing ; L ynn 1 985/6 , 5 1 ) . O the r p i eces f r om I r e land ( Ba l l inde r ry No s . BE 63 47 ; AE 65 47 , n ow i nt he Na t iona l Mu seum o fI r e land )a nd S co t land ( i n t h e p ossess ion o f L . A lcock ) a l so h ave p u rp l ish s t a in s wh ich may b e madde rd epo s i ts . Howeve rn one o ft he se s how s t a in ing o f a ny th ing l i ke t h e s ame q ua l i ty a s t h e

D o r igene a t [h ]ech at i gh i nd r i g b e t ma r . Du c e r a i r i a i r i t [h ]ech l ogma r i nd r i g c o r nmeba id f r i s in me i s a ra b e la ib i nd r i g .B ai ngnad al e s ta r ,b ad ia [ s ]e ta ib i ngan ta ib i nd r i g . ( Ac hu r li nt he k ing 's h ouse h ad d one at e r r ib le t h ing .H e l e tf a l l av a luab le g ob le tb e long ing t ot he k ing s ot ha ti t smashed t op i ece s a ga in s tt he t ab le i nf r on to ft he k ing . T he v e sse l wa s awonde rfu l o ne , i t was o ne o ft he r a re t r ea su re s o ft he k ing : B e thu B r ig t e )XX , 1 .3 24 -6 , e d . & t r an s .( 5 hAodha 1 978 ,1 0 ,t r ans .2 7 -8 ) .

Mytum 's a rgumen td epends o nt he d e ta i lt ha tt he v e sse l wa sb reakab le .H ea s sumes t h en t ha tt he v esse li s Ewa re a nd c onc ludes t ha t Ewa re v esse l sc ou ld h ence b et e rmed a' r a re t r ea su re '( My tum 1 986 ,3 77 ) .T h i si swho l ly u ncon v inc ing .L e s tar ( ' ve s se l ' )i sa n amb iguous t e rm i nI r i sh ( a s i ti si n We l sh — see b e low ,9 2 ) .I tc ou ld i mp ly me ta lv e sse l s , 8 1

C ommun ica t ion a nd C ommerce a l ong t h e W e s ter nS ea lane s AD400 -800

wh ich m igh t s t il b e f r ag i le e nough t os ha t te r , o r m igh t a l so b eu sed o fg l a ss . My tum c on tends t ha ti tc anno th ere b e ag l a ss v es se l , o n a ccoun t o f Ha rden 's t h es is t ha tn o i n tac tg l as sv e sse l sw e re i nu se i nt h is p e r iod ( My tum 1 986 , 3 76 ) .T he re i sn ob as i sf o rH a rden 's t hes i s ,a s we w i l ls ee b e low a nd Mytum 's e xpec ta t ion s o fi den t i f i ca t ion mu s t a nyway b ec on s ide red h igh ly o p t im i s t ic . I fwe may u se t e x tua ls ou r ces t of i nd a ny c on tex tf o r Ewa re i nC e l t ic s oc ie ty i tmu s tb ei nb roade rt e rm s .T ex t s s uch a st he e i gh tc en tu ry I r i sh s t a tu s law t r a c tC r i th G ab la ch s how aw ide r ange o fv e sse l s u sed i nt he s o r t s o fs ma l l h ou seho ld s wh ich c ha rac ter i sed t he c omp lex s oc ie ty o f s even th t h rough n in th c en tury I r e land ( f i d lann ,1 . 139 ;i a n , 1 . 74 ,1 84 ;c üad ,1 . 116 ,1 76 ;c o i r e ,1 . 174 -5 ,3 38 ,5 49 ;l e s tar ,1 . 1 41 ,3 38 ,3 64 ,e d .B inchy 1 940 ) . We s hou ld s e ek t he v a lue o f Ewa re i nt h i ss o r to fc on tex t :p e rhaps i mpor ted t oa i d i n c ook ing o n a more i nd iv idua l b a s i s t han was d one b e fo re ; o r p e rhaps t oi n t roduce ag rea te r r ange i n to t he v es se l s a va i lab le , s o t ha t e ach r ank o fn ob leman m igh t h ave ac ook ing p o to f av a lue a ppo s i te t oh i sr ank . T he D a t eo f Ew ar e T he c h rono logy o f E wa re h a s b een a no the r c ause f o r d eba te . T homa s , i nt h e 1 960 s a nd ' 7 0 s , wa s p repa red t o a ccep t ad a te a se a r ly a st he f i f th c en tu ry ,i n wh ich c onnec t i on h e a s soc ia ted i tw i th Z i mme r 's t he s i s . Much o fh i s a rgumen td epended u pon t h es equence a t Gw i th ian , wh ich h as n ever b een c omp le te ly p ubl i shed . Wa rne r 's d i scove ry o f Ewa re i n ad i tch -f il a tC loghe r , whe re i ti sc on s i s ten t ly s epa ra ted f r om Med i te r ranean wa re sb y as t e r i le ' y e l low ' l a ye r ,t ended t oc on f i rm ag row ing v i ew t ha t Ewa re wa s mo s t ly s epa ra te i nd i s t r ibu t ion a nd d a te t ot h e Med i ter ra n ean wa re s .I th a sb ecome i n crea s ing ly c l ea rf r om Med i t e r ranean s i tes t ha t t he Med i te r ranean wa res we re v ery u n l ike ly t ob ea r r iv ing i nB r i ta in l a te rt han t h em id s ix th c en tu ry . T h i s wou ld i mp ly t ha t E wa re wa s l a rge ly a s even th -cen tury p henomenon ,o rl a te r . T he p o ten t ia l d a t ing o f E wa re r e s t s o n s eve ra l f ounda t ion s wh ich s hou ld b et r ea ted c r i t icaly .F i r s t ly ,o ne may h ighl igh tt he h i s to r i ca le v iden ce f o rs even th cen tury l i nk s w i th G au l ,b u tn o tf o r much e a r l ie rt han 6 00 . T h i s p o in t ,o dd ly e nough , wa sn o tt aken u pi n wo rk o n Ewa re p r io rt ot he 1 980 s , mos ta r chaeo log i s t s wo rk ing o n Ewa re f o l low ing t he o lde r ( no t e n t i re ly s upe r seded ) v i ew t ha t l i nk sa sf a rb ack a st he f i f th c en tury w e re e v inced b yt he s ou rce s . T he b et te re v idence f o rt he s even th c en tu ry , o n t he o the rh and ,s hou ld n o tb ea ccorded v e ry much w e igh t i n d a t ing E wa re a s , f i r s t ly , i tr e f lec t s amuch b roade r d i s t inc t ion b e tween s i x th a nd s even th -cen tury s ou rces , w i th B r i ta in a nd I r e land h av ing f ew s i x th -century h i s tor i c a ls ou rce so fa ny r el iab i l i ty a nd ,s e cond ly ,t h et o ta ll a ck o f r e fe rences t ot he Med i te rranean l i nk se v inced b yt h es i x th c en tury p o t tery f i nds wa rn s u s t ha t t he re c ou ld e qua l ly h ave b een s i x th -century G au l ish l i nk s wh i ch h ave l e f tn o t r ace . As econd f ounda t ion f o rt h ed a t ing o f Ewa re i st h e p a t tern o fd i s t r ibu t ion .T he e v idence f o rt h es epa ra t ion o f t he E wa re d i s t r ibu t ion f r om t ha t o ft h e Med i te r ranean wares i sb eyond d oub ta nd mu s tc e r ta in ly i mp ly as epa r a te i mpo r ta t ion c on tex t .T he e xc lus ion o ft h e Med i te r ra 8 2

n ean wa re sf r om Ewa re d i s t r ibu t ion so nt he c on t inen th as b een d i scu ssed a bove a nd s eem s c onc lu s ive . E wa re i s t o ta l ly a bsen tf r om a tl e a s tt wo B r i t i sh r eg ion s wh ich h ave p roduced t he Med i te r ranean wa re si ns ome q uan t i ty . I n o ne o ft h ese c a se s , No r th Wa le s ,t h ec ompa ra t ive ly sma l l amoun to fe xcava t ion o fe ar ly med ieva ls i te s maybe n o ted ( t hough ,i np a r t ,t h i si s ac i rcu la ra rgumen t ,a st he f i nd ing o f Ewa re i so f ten d iagno s t ic i nt h ei n terpre ta t ion o f as i te a se a r ly med ieva l ) .T he f a c tt ha ti ti sn o tf ound o na ny s i tes i nS ome r se t ,a nd o n ly i nm in ima l amoun ts i nC o rnwa l l ,i s mo re p e r t inen t .C ornwa l lh as b een a tt he c en t re o fs t udy o f t h ei mpo r ted wa res s i nce t he 1 960 s .T he r ecen ti d en t i f ica t i on o ff i nd so fi mpor ted wares f r om a no ld e xcava t ion a t May 's H i l l may i nd ica te t he p o s s ib i l i ty o f f i nd s b e ing o ve r looked e ven t h ere ,b u ti ng ene ra li tmus tb es a id t ha t t he c hance s o fa ny r e cen t ly -excava ted ma te r ia lb e ing i n c o r rec t ly i d en t i f ied a re v e ry smal . T he d a t ing o f E wa re i sy e t t ob e r e f ined b y a ny c on t inen ta ld a ta . On ly t he p ieces f r om T ou r sw e re f ound i nc on tex t o n as i te w i th al ong s equence : i n as even th c en tu ry p i t . Ou rp rob lem ,t hen ,i sp r in c ipaly o ne o fr e la t i ng t he o ccu r rence o f Ewa re t ot he d a tum l i ne p rov ided b y t he Med i te r ranean wares , a nd o the r r e l iab le d a t ing e v i d ence . T he w r i te r , a l ong w i th o the r a r chaeo log i s t s , h a s h e ld t h e v i ew f o r s ome t ime t ha t E wa re i s al a rge ly s even th -cen tu ry p henomenon ,b u to na na ly s i st h i sb ea r s s o me r e -con s ide ra t ion .T he f i nds f r om Aber co r n ,w i th i t s c onven ien t ly n a r row h i s to r ica lf l oru i t ,a r en o t Ewa re ( Iam g ra te fu lt oP ro fe s so rT homa sf o ra low ing me t or e -exam i n e t he A ber co r n f i nd s w i th h im i n 1 988 ) . S i te s s u ch a s Dunadd ,w i th ab road ly s even th -cen tu ry h i s tor ica lf l oru i t , h ave y i e lded r ad ioca rbon d a tes wh i ch s ugges ts i x th -cen t u ry a c t iv i ty ( A . L ane p e r s . c omm . ) . R ecen te xper ience ,i n a ny e ven t , s hou ld wa rn a ga ins t a t temp t s t o a s soc ia te o ccupa t ion p ha se s o n h i s to r ic s i tes w i th a c tua l h i s tor ic e ven t s ,a tl e a s tf o rd a t ing p u rposes .T h i sh a sb een s e en i n t he c ase o fC on imb r iga w i th r ega rd t ot h ed a t ing o f ARS , a nd i sa l so d emon s t ra ted b y Warne ri n ar e a ssessmen to f L ago re ( Wa rne r1 985 -6 ,7 6 ) .T he re a re p rob lems a l so w i th t he s epa ra t ion o ft h ed i s t r ibu t ion . T he a bsence o f Ew a re f r om s i te si nS ome r se t mu s tb ec ons ide red i nt he l i gh to f t he g ene ra lr a r i ty o f Ewa re i nC ornwa l la nd D evon .A sn o f i nds o f Ewa re h ave b een made e as to ft h eK e l s ie s( n ea r N ewquay )o nt h en o r thern c oa s t ,t he re may b en oe spec ia l r ea son t ot h ink t h ey wou ld h ave r eached S omerse ti nt h e n orma lc ou r se o fe ven t s , t hough we s hou ld n o t f o rge tE wa re i sf ound a sf a re a s ta sG lamorgan , o nt he o ppo s i te s ho re o ft h eB r i s to lC hanne l .T he C loghe rs equence mu s t s im i la r ly b ec on s ide red i nt he l i gh to fi t sl o ca t ion .C loghe r i t se l fi sw e l l i n land a nd , t hough a ni mpor tan tr oya ls i te , may h ave r e ce ived o n ly i n term i t ten t a nd u n repre sen ta t i ve i mpo r t s . Ou rd i scu s s ion o f Ewa re d a t ing i sb es ti n formed b y t ho se s i te s w i th c o mp lex s equences c on ta in ing b o th E wa re a nd t he Med i te r ranean wa res : g ood e xamp le s a r e s i te ss uch a s Wh i tho rn ,C logher ,D a lkey I s land a nd D ina s P owys . O ther s i tes s uch a s G arrydu f f , Garranes , D e r rynaf lan , R anda l s town , Dumbar ton , I ona , B an tham , May 's H i l l ,C a ldey a nd L ongbury B ank a l lh ave p roduced b o th t ype so fw a re s ,b u tn o ti n as t ra t i f ied c on tex t .C ampbel ( p e r s . c omm . ) s ugge s t s t ha t t h e D ina s P owy s s equence

C hap t er S i x : C argoe sa nd C ommer ce i nt h eS even th C en tu ry

s hows ad i s t inc t ion b e tween t he Med i te r ranean wa re sa nd Ewa re . Two p rov is iona l ly -pub l i shed s equence ss uppo r t t h i sc h rono log ica ld i s t inc t ion b e tween t he wa re s . A t Wh i thorn t he l a rge n umber o f E wa re a nd Me rov ing ian g la ss f i nd sa re mo s t ly f r om t he wa te r logged s ou the rn s e c tor a t t he b a se o f t he h i l l . P e te r H il , t he e xcava to r ,n ow i n terpre t st he G au l i sh ma te r ia la s` r ubb i sh s t rewn o n t he f i e lds o f t he s i x th? c en tu ry monas te ry ' , p erhap sf o r manur ing .T h i si sa na r ea wh ich w a sh eav i ly t r amp led a nd p loughed i n l a te r c en tu r ie s . T he r e cen t i n ter im r epo r t se v ince l i t t le d oub tt ha tt he Med i te r ranean wa res f r om t he s i te a r e a s soc ia ted w i th e a rl i e r f e a tu res t han t h eG aul i sh f i nd -depo s i t s ( H i l l 1 990 ,4 5 ; 1 992b ,4 7 a nd p e r sona l o bse rva t ions ) . S he rd s o f ampho rae we re f ound i n ar ubb ish p i t ,t he u pca s tf r om a no the rp i ta nd a d i tch f i l l f r om p ha se 3 a ( H i l l 1 992b , 4 ) . T h i s p ha se i s a ssoc ia ted w i th as e r ie s o fr ound g u t te rs a nd o ther f e a t ure s ,d i s t inc t ly e arl i e ri nt he s equence t han t h ec o l luv ia l p ha se wh ich p roduced t h eG au li s h ma te r ia l .H i l li st emp ted t os ee t h ef i e ld wa sh a ss i x th c en tu ry ,b u tw es hou ld n o te t ha tt h i si sp robab ly o n ly o nt he b a s i so ft he c . 560 -720 d a te r ange wh ich s eem sp o s i ted f o r Ewa re i nh i sr epo r t( H i l l 1 992b , 5 ) . L ikew i se , h e i sw i l l ing t o a ccep t al a te f i f th c en tu ry d a te a sp o ss ib le f o rt he Med i ter ranean wa res ( H il 1 992b ,4 ) .I fmy r eda t ing o ft he se wa re s ,s ugge s ted a bove , i sa c cep ted ,t h is c ou ld make h i s Ewa re p ha se mo re r e cen t . As e cond a spec to fi mpo r tance i st he r e la t ion sh ip o f t he p ha se o ft imbe rb u i ld ings i nt h es ou the r ns e c to r .T h i s p ha se H il wou ld a s soc ia te w i th t h e No r thumbr ian a c t iv i t y f u r ther n or th o n t he s i te , o n t he b as i s o f ad end ro c h rono log i ca ld a te f o ro ne o ft he b u i ld ing s ;t h ep resence o f o ne o rt wo Nor thumb r ian a r te fac t s( s uch a s ac r e sse t ) ;a nd t he g ene raly h a rmon ious a l ignmen tw i th t h e Nor thum b r ian s t one b u i ld ing si m med ia te ly t ot he n o r th ( H i l l1 992b , 1 4 18 ) . T ha t a l t h e b u i ld ing s a r e No r thumbr ian i sn o t c e r ta in ,t hough t hey a ppea rt ob eb u i l tf r om as l igh t ly l a te r c on tex tt han t he f i nds o fp o t te ry a nd g la ss .S t r ic t ly s peak i ng , t h eb u i ld ing p ha se d oes n o tf u l ly s ea l t h et r amp led h ilwa sh p ha se o ft he G au l i sh f i nds ,b u tt hey a r ec l ea r ly l a te rt han t he p ha se 3 b , wh ich i sad i s t inc th o r izon .O ft h e ` No r thumbr ian 'p hase , s ome d eba te m igh ta t tach t oo ne b u i ld ing , No .11 , wh ich g ives t h e d end roch rono log ica l d a te c . 687 -732 AD f r om i t ss e cond p ha se ( H i l l1 992b ,1 4 ) . T he n on -con form i ty o ft he a l ignmen to ft h i ss t ruc ture w i th t h e No r thumbr ian monas te ry b u i ld ing s m igh t s ugge s t t ha tt h e e a rl ie s tp ha se o ft h i sb u i ld ing i se a r l ie rt han t h e ' p robab ly e ar ly e i gh th c en tu ry ' d a te t ha tH i l l c i te s ( H i l l 1 992b ,1 7 )— cer ta in ly h ep u t si t se a r l ies tp ha se e a rl i e rt han t h es u r round ing s t ructu res a nd t he i rs ha le f l oo r s . How much d oes t he a s soc ia t ion o ft h e Ewa re a nd g l a ss w i th ap ha se e a r l ier t han t he b u i ld ing s ma t te r ? We may n o te t ha t t h e i mpor t s i n q ues t ion h ave g ene raly ' C e l t ic ' , r a ther t han Ang lo -Saxon a s soc ia t ion s , b u t t h i s d oe sn o ti mp ly t h e re wou ld b e ac e ssa t ion o fi mpor ta t ion d u r ing aNor thumbr ian p re sence . Much c ou ld d epend o n t h e n atu re o f t h e t akeove r , h owever : i ti sp o s s ib le t ha t u nder an ew p owe rt he s h ips wh i ch b rough tt h em wou ld n ol onger b e s a fe ly a b le t op u ti nn ea rt o Wh i tho m . T he l a yer o fs ha le wh ich s ea l s t h e c l ea res tb u i ld ing p ha se i s i ndeed o ve r la in w i th e i gh th cen tury c o in s wh i ch a r et he s i gn i f ier so f an ew e conom i co rde r .

A t C loghe r , p r ima ry i n tere s t h as f o cused o n t he c ons t ruc t ion s equence o ft he d i tch , wh ich s eem sc l ea r ly t o p u tt he Med i ter ranean wares a nd Ewa re t oe i the rs i de o f t h ec on s t ruc t ion p hase o f ar eve ted r i ng fo r t (Wa rne r1 979a , 3 7 -40 ) . Ap ha se o fy e l low b ou lder c l ay c ons i s ten t ly s ea l s d epos i t s o f Med i ter ranean ampho rae o ver as i l ted I r on Age d i t ch .T h i sb ou lde rc l ay l aye rr un su nder t he r eve tmen t a ts o me p o in t sa nd may h ave b een p a r to ft he r ebu i ld ing p rocess o ft he f o r t (Warner 1 979a , 3 8 ) . E wa re i sf ound c ons is ten t ly s t ra t i f ied a bove t h i sl a ye r ,i nl ayer s wh ich s i t a ga in s t a nd r un u nde rt he r eve tmen t . T he v i r tue o ft h i s e v idence i si t sq uan t i ty :i nT rench X a l one s herds o fs o me 3o r mo re Ewa re v esse l so ve r ly s o me 2 2 ampho ra s herd s ( a tl e a s t 4v es se l s : Wa rne r1 979a ,3 8 -9 ) .T here i sn op o ss i b i l i ty t ha tt he Ewa re c ou ld b eu pcas tf r om t he s ame l aye r a st he Med i te r ranean wa res , wh ich i st he mo s ts i gn i f ican t p o in t .T he d a t ing o ft he u ppe rp ha se si smo re c omp lex . We wou ld l i ke t ob ec l ea re ro n whe the rt h er eve tmen ta c tua l ly s ea l s a ny E wa re s he rd s . T h i s i ss ugges ted i n e a r l ier i n ter im r epor t s ,t hough n o te xpl i ca ted i nt he 1 979 d i scus s i on ( Wa r ne r1 972 ,2 8 ) .T he Ewa re s he rds may b eu pca s t f r om t he b u i ld ing p ha se o ft he r eve tmen t .I fs o( a s Wa r n er s ugges t s ) , t he i r c h rono logy m igh t n o t b e f a r r emoved f r om t ha to ft he Med i te r ranean wa res . I n a ny e ven t , t he s epa ra t ion i su nques t ioned . A t t h ese s i te s , t h e c h rono logy o f E wa re a nd t he ampho rae i sc l ea r ly s epa ra ted . I ft h ere i sg ood r ea son t o p u tt he Med i te r ranean wa re sa sn ol a ter t han t he 5 60s ,E wa re wou ld s eem t o b e ac . 600 o r l a ter i mpo r t . T h i s c o r responds v ery c l o se ly w i th o u r e a rl ies t t e xtua l e v i d ence f o r c on tac ts b e tween I r e land a nd G au l . C ha r les T homa sh a sc l ung s t rong ly t ot h ei dea t ha t Eware o ccu r s i n e a r ly s i x th -cen tu ry c on tex t s i n C o rnwa l l , s ugges t ing t ha ti tc ame f i r s tt oC or nwa l l ,o fa l lp a r ts o ft he B r i t i sh I s le s . T hough t h i s mode lf i t st h ei mpo r ta t ion o ft he Med i te rra n ean wa re s ,i t sa pp l ica t ion t o Ewa re mus tb ec on s idered d oub t fu l . S ol i t t le E w a re o ccu r s i nC o rnwal t ha t d oub t m igh tb ec a s tu pon t he i d ea t ha t Eware wa se ve rd i rec t ly i mpo r ted t h e re ,t hough t h i sm igh to n ly r ef lec t af a i lu re t o f i nd t he w es tC o rn i sh c en t re s .T he d i s t r ibu t ion m igh tb e s e conda ry f r om S c i l ly o rI r e land .I nt he l i gh to ft h e Gw i th ian s equence b e ing o n ly o ne s a mp le ,a nd n o tf uly p ubl i shed , w ep e rhaps s hou ld n o ta t tach s uch w e igh tt oi t st e s t imony a sd oes T homa s . T he d i s t r ibu t iona l p a t te rn o f E wa re w il b e d i s c u ssed i nc hap te rS even .F or t he momen t we w i l lc onc lude t ha tt h ew a re i smo s tl i ke ly aG au l ish i mpor tf r om as i ng le s ou rce , t h e f l o ru i t o f wh ich i sp robab ly measu rab le i n d ecades ,c en t red o nt he s even th c entury . I mpor t ed G la s s F ragmen t so fg l a s sv e sse l so ccu ro ns o me t h i r ty -odd wes t e rn i n su la r s i te s . T he g rea te rp a r to ft hese v es se l s a re o f p u ta t ive ly ' Merov ing ian 't ype ,s ot hey a re a l so l i ke ly t ob e d i rec ti mpo r t sf r om G au lt ot he I r i sh S ea b a s in ,t hough t h i s i d ea h a s o n ly b een g i ven c on s ide ra t ion s i nce t he m id 1 980s ,b e fo re wh ich i mpo r ta t ion o ver land t h rough B r i ta in wa s c on s ide red more l i ke ly . T he g l a s s v esse l s a r e o f a d i s t inc t ive c ha rac ter ,t hough t h ere i ss o me v a r ie ty o ff o rm a nd c o lou r ,a nd o n ly af ew a r ea sy e tp a ra l le led b yf i nds 8 3

C ommun ica t ion a nd C ommer ce a l ong t h e W e s tern S ea lane s AD400 -800

e i ther f r om t he c on t inen t o r f r om Ang lo -Saxon s i tes i n E ng land .T he g enera lf e atu res o ft he a s semb lage may n ow b e e s tab l i shed , h oweve r , a nd s o me p rog res s made i n d e f in ing t h ep oss ib le p lace o fg l a ss i n mar i t ime e xchange . R ecen td i scover ie s wh i ch a r en o ty e tf uly p ubl i shed h ave a dded g rea t ly t o o u r u nde r s tand ing o f t h e t op ic , mos t n o tab ly f i nds f r om Wh i thorn i nS co t land a nd L ongbury B ank i n Wa le s , t hough p r ior t ot he se d i scover ie s i th ad b een s ugges ted t ha tt he re wa sa l ready s u f f icen te v idence t od oub tt h ep reva i l ing o r thodoxy ( Campbel 1 989a ;1 989b ; Wood ing 1 988a ) .I ti st ob eh oped t ha t af u l lc a ta logue o f t he wes te r nB r i t ish a nd I r i sh f i nds w il s oon b ep ub l i shed , wh ich a re mos t ly l i s ted i nu npubl i shed t heses b y Ewan C ampbe l la nd E dwa rd B ou rke ( wh ich we re =ava i lab le f o rc onsu l ta t ion a tt he t ime t h i s s t udy wa s c onduc ted — B ourke 's t h es i si sn ow s umma r ized i nB ou rke 1 994 ) .T he f o l low ing d i scuss ion i sb a sed u pon my own f i e ldwork c onduc ted i n1 987 -9 ( t hough Iwou ld l i ke t ot hank Ewan C ampbe l lf o r much h e lp fu ld i scuss ion ) . T he s t udy o ft he v e s se lg la ss h a sb een d om ina ted b y t he v iews o f Ha rden a nd a c cep tance o fh i st heor ie ss e rved t o d i scou rage c omprehen s ive s t udy o f t he v e sse l mo r p ho logy o ft he g la ss , wh ich wou ld a ppea r wor thy o ft he s ame c ha ra c te r o f a t ten t ion a s t he i mpo r ted c e ram ics . Harden a nd A lcock a rgued t ha t t he i mpor ted ma ter ia l f r om t he we s tr epresen ted as e lec t ion o ff r agmen t sb rough t i n a s ' c ule t ' , i . e . a s at r ade i n s c rap g l a ss f o r u se i n me ta lwo rk ing ( Ha rden 1 956b ,1 54 ;1 987 ,1 42 -3 )a nd h ence i mpl i ed t ha t r e con s t ruc t ion o f t he f o rm s o f t he v e s se l s wou ld b e p o in t le ss . Doub t h a s a l so b een c a s t u pon t he p oss ib i l i ty o f r e con s truc t ing t he f o rm s o f v esse l s f r om f r agmen t s ( Hun ter 1 975 , 7 9 ) . Ha rden 's e r roneous v i ew h a so n ly b een q ue s t ioned i np r in ti nr e cen tt ime s( Campbel 1 989b ,2 44 ; Wood ing 1 988a , 1 4 ;A lco ck a nd A lcock 1 990 , 13 -15 ) ,s ob e fore p roceed ing t od i scu ss ion o ft he i mpor t t ype s , we mu s tf i r s tr e -exam ine t h i st he s i sa nd i t sb a se s . H arden ' sT h e s i s T he v e sse l f o rm s f r om wh ich t he g l a ss f r agmen t s f r om wes te r nB r i t i sh a nd I r i sh s i tes d er ive a r eo fs evera lt ype s . B y f a rt he mo s tc ommon i s ac one o fp a le y e l low/g reen me ta l ,d eco ra ted w i th wh i te marvered t r a i l s .S tudy o ft h i s f o rm ( and i t sm i s in terpre ta t ion ) was c en t ra lt ot he f o rmu l a t ion o f Ha rden 's mode l . I n s e ek ing t o r e con s t ruc t t h e f o rms o ft he wes tern B r i t i sh a nd I r i sh v e sse lf i nds , wh ich a r e a li nf r agmen ta ry f o rm a pa r tf r om a t yp ica l f i nd s o f f l ask sf r om Mu l laroe ,C o .S l igo (Wa r n e r1 979b ,1 24 -5 ;a l so n ow Moynagh L ough ,C o . Mea th —Bou rke 1 996 ,1 68 -70 ) , t he d eco ra t ive f o rm so nt h ee a s t ern B r i t i sh f i nds o fc ones o f ' Merov ing ian 't ype w e re a c cep ted a sp rov id ing t he mos t l i ke ly mode l .T he e a s te r nB r i t i sh f i nds , mos t ly f r om Ang lo S axon g rave s ,a re t r a i led p r inc ipa l ly i n as p i ra lb e low t he r im a nd s ome t imes i n ab and o fc ombed f e s toons a tt he wa i s t( Ha rden 1 956b , 1 46 , 1 60 ; Ha rden 1 987 , 1 46 ) . T hese f e s toons r a re ly r eached t he u ppe ro rl owe re x t remes o ft he v esse l , h owever , a nd d id n o t e xp la in t he s t ubs o f t r a i l s f i n ish ing c l ose u nde r t h e s ub r im s p i ra l t r a i l s o n f r ag men t sf r om D ina sP owy s( Harden 1 987 ,1 43 :F ig 9 . 1 , No s 2 6 &2 9 ) .T he t r a i led p ropo r t ion o ft he e a s tern B r i t i sh c ones was c on s ide rab ly l e ss t han t h er a t io o ft r a i led t ou n t ra i led 8 4

f r agmen t s i n t he D inas P owys a nd o ther c o l lec t ions ( Ha rden 1 987 ,1 43 ) .T h i sa lowed t he t h eo ry t o eme rge t ha t t r a i led p i eces h ad b een s e lec t ive ly c o l lec ted f o rs e condary u se .T he f i nd ing o f mo l ten d rop le t sa tD ina sP owy ss e rved t os uppo r tt he i dea t ha ts c rap g la s s wa s me l ted d own f o r d eco ra t ive u se . T he f a c tt ha tp a le y e l low g la ss ,t r a i led o r u n t ra i led , wa sn o t among s tt he r e -used p ieces ,h oweve r , s hou ld h ave b een g iven g rea te r a t ten t ion ( Harden 1 987 , 1 49 ) . T he c o r rec tc onc lu s ion i st ha t many wes te r nB r i t i sh c ones a re t r a i led o ver amuch l a rge rp ropor t ion o ft he i r s ur face t han t hose f r om Ang lo -Saxon a nd Rhen i sh s i tes . T he ' f es tooned c hevron ' a nd ' f ea the red f e s toon ' a r e t he c ommone s tt ype s( Iowe t h e se t e rm st o Ewan C ampbel ) . T he se o f ten r un t he f u l ll e ng th o ft he v e s se lf r om t he b a se , s o me t ime s t o merge w i th t he s ub -r im s p i ra l . A s ma l l n umber o fw es te rn i n su la rg l ass f i nd s ,h oweve r ,d og enu i n e ly f o rm as ubse to ft he a s semb lage o nS axon s i te s .T he se i n c lude f r agmen t s o ft wo c l aw b eake r sa nd o the rS axon p i ece s f r om D ina s P owy s ( Campbel 1 989b , 2 39 -45 ) a nd s ome c l ea r t ra i led v es se l s f r om Wh ithorn . A f ew o the r f r agmen t s , wh ich s how e ng rav ing w i th as harp whee l ,a r e f ound a ts u ch s i tes a s D a lkey I s land a nd Wh i thorn may r ep re sen t a n a s semb lage s ha red b e tween Ang lo -Saxon E ng land a nd t h eC e l t ic We s t ,a st he Wh i thorn p iece s e em s t ob ev ery c l o se ly ma tched b yt he wel -known v e sse lf r om Ho lme P i erpon ti n No t t ingham sh i re ( Ha rden 1 956b ,1 36 ) . T he se p a rale l sa r et he e xcep t ion ,h oweve r ,r a the rt han t h e r u le a nd Ha rden was o the rw ise i ne r ro rt os ugges tt ha tt h e w es tern B r i t i sh f i nds w e re as ubse to ft h ee a s tern B r i t i sh d i s t r ibu t ions . R e sea rch h a su ndoub ted ly b een h ampered b y t h e v ery smal p o r t ion so fg l a ss f ound ,b u tt h i st oo e a s i ly l e d t ot he s u spen s ion o f f o rma l a pproache s a f ter t he 1 960 s . S ubs tan t ia lp ropo r t ion s o fv e sse l s c an b e r e con s t ruc ted . C ampbe l lh a sb een a b le t od ot h is f o rs ome o ft he D ina s P owys v e sse l s( p e r s .c omm . ) .A t Wh i tho rn an umbe ro fr im p i ece s we re a b le t ob ef i t ted t oge ther b y t h ea u tho r ( S ee F ig .1 2 ,H 1 &H 2 ) .T hese a t temp t sh ave b een made p r inc i p aly b yf o l low ing d eco ra t ive p a t tern s . Unde co ra ted p iece s p re sen t mo re p rob lem s , b u t we may o bse rve t ha t t he c o lou r a nd t h i ckness may v a ry c ons iderab ly a l ong t he l e ng th o f ac one , wh ich a ga in may h ave e n cou raged b e l ie f i n ag rea te r n umber o f v es se l s b e ing p re sen t t han wa s a ctua l ly t h ec a se .F ina l ly , Ha rden made mu ch o ft he l a ck o f b a ses among s t t he D ina s P owys a s semb lage . T he se h ave b een f ound a t Wh i thorn a nd A rmagh ,h owever ,a nd a st hese a r et he mo s to b tru s ive p a r t s o ft he v e sse l ,b e ing t he t h i cke s ta nd s harpe s tf r agmen t s ,t hey may h ave b een mo s tt ho rough ly d i spo sed o fo ns i te . T he f a i lure t or e cogn i se t he wes te rn i n su la ra ssem b lages a s mo s t ly s epara te f r om t he e as te r nw a s a l so t he c on sequence o f t oo e a sy a c cep tance o f a n ' i ndus t r ia l ' mode lf o rg l a ss u sage .I ts t ands t or e ason t ha tg l a ss v esse l s s hou ld b es t ud ied a so b jec t sw i th af unc t iona lu se .T h is i s c on t ra ry t o c ommon a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd ing p rac t ice , h oweve r , whe re much r e sea rch f o cuse s o n t h et e chn ica l q ues t ion o fg l a ss manu fac tu re . I ti sp leas ing t os ee my Aus t ral ian c o l league F rank B roeze ( 1 990 ,1 26 )t ak ing i s sue w i th t he s ame q ue s t ion i nr ev iew ing ar e cen ts h ipwreck s i te r epo r t . We may c on t ras tt he e xpec ted r o le o fp o t te ry t o

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t ha to fv es se lg l a ss .T he d iagnos t ic v a lue o fg l ass i sc on t ro v e r s ia l . Un l ike p o t tery ,g l as si sn o ti ndes t ruc t ib le ,t hough t h er epu ta t ion f o rp oo rs urv iva lo fg l a s sw i th ah igh p o ta sh c on ten ti so f ten f a lse ly c a r r ied o ve rt ot h ew e s te rn i n su la r a s semb lage . T he i mpo r ted g l ass f r om C e l t i c B r i ta in a nd I r e land i smo s t ly o ft he d u rab le s oda l i me s il i ca t ype .T he wo rk ing l i f e span o fg la s s may b e much t he s ame a st ha to f p o t tery — the g l a ss may h ave b een t r ea ted w i th mo re c a re a si twa s mo re h igh ly v a lued ,b u ti twa sa l so mo re f r ag i le a nd e a s i ly b roken . T he p r ima ry p o in t , a nyway , i st ha t f r agmen t so fv esse ls w i th a ni den t i f iab le mo rpho logy t u rn u p f r equen t ly o n wes te rn i n su la rs i te s a nd may p lay a n e qua l ly i mpo r tan td iagno s t ic r o le t ot ha to ft he i mpor ted c e ra m i cs .I ti sf r us t ra t ing t hen t ha tt h ef r agmen ta ry s t a te o f t h ea ssemb lages h as b een b e ing t aken t oi nva l ida te c e r ta in t ypes o f t ypo log ica l a na lys i s ( S ande r son , Hun te r a nd War ren 1 984 ,5 3 ) .T he re i sn on eed t oa rgue t he e xc lus ive v a lue o fs c ien t i f ic a pproaches o ve rt ypo log ica li nt h i s way . H ende r son a nd I ven s ( 1 992 ) h ave t a ck led f u r the r q ues t ion sr e la t ing t ot he r o le o fc u l le ti nI r i sh d eco ra t ive g l a ss a nd e name l wo rk .I nt he l i gh to ft he s mal n umbe r s o fv esse lf i nd s ,t hey c onc lude t ha td e t r i tus f r om ac on t inu i ng g la s su sage i s mo re l i ke ly t ob et he ma jo rc on t r ibu to r t o me ta lwo rk d eco ra t ion ,r a ther t han s i gn i f ican ti mpo r ta t i on o fc u l le t( Hende r son a nd I ven s1 992 ,6 1 ) .

( e .g . Wh i tho rn + 87/4100 ; Mo te o f Ma rk F ig . D —Harden , 1 956 ,1 50 ) .V e ry o f ten t hey h ave wh i te marve red t r a i ls o n t he b ody i nf e s tooned c hev ron sa nd f e a the red f e s toon s . O the r b ody d eco ra t ion may b e af o rm o f t h ick l oop t r a i l ing ,u ncer ta in ly r e la ted t ot he c hev ron ( e .g Dumba r t on 7 1 : A lcock a nd A lcock 1 990 , 13 -15 ) . A l lt h i sg l ass I p ropo se t oc a l lt he ' A t lan t ic 't ype ,a si ti sn o ty e tp a ra l le led f u r the r e as t i n Ang lo -Saxon E ng land o r Me rov ing ian G au l . T h i s i sb y f a r t he p redom inan tt ype . O the r t ype s i n c lude p a le ambe r( e .g .F ig . 1 2H 1 & H2 ) a nd i r on b lue c one s( e .g . Mo te o f Mark F ig . F—Harden 1 987 ,1 50 )w i th wh i te marve red s p i ra l t r a i l s u nde r t he r im , wh ich a re p robab ly p a r t o f t he ' A t lan t ic ' g roup a l so . S ome o the r p a le y e l low v e sse l sh ave o p t ic b u lge s( e .g . Wh i tho rn No . + 89/9898 ; Mo te o f Ma rk F ig . J—Ha rden 1 956b , 1 50 ) , o the rs a r ep la in a nd v e ry t h ick a tt he r im ( Mo te o f Ma rk F ig . A —Ha rden 1 956b ,1 50 ;D inas P owy s No .4 6 —Harden 1 987 ,1 43 & 1 47 ) .T he se l a t te rt wo a re n o td e f in i te ly c one s a nd may b eb ow ls o rp a lm c ups . T he b a s ic ' A t lan t ic 'c one a nd b ow lf o rm sa nd c o lou r sa re f ound a tt h ef o l low ing s i te s ,i ns ome c a ses a long w i th b lue a nd ambe rp i ece so ft he ' A t lan t ic 'c l a ss —as mo s tf i nds a re n o tf u l ly p ub l i shed a tt ime o fw r i t ing t he f o l low ing i sn o t ac omprehen s ive c a ta logue ( r e fe rence sa re g iven f o rd i s c ove r ie s made s i nce t he p ub l ica t ion o f Harden 1 956 ) : A rmagh ( Ha rden 1 984 , 1 35 -6 ) . B a l l inde r ry B a l lyca teen C adbu ry ( P r ice a nd C o t tam 1 995 , 1 01 ) C as t leh i l l( PSAS 5 3 [ 1 918 -19 ] 1 23 — c f . Wh i thorn + 88/ 7 705 + 89/10149 ) . C loghe r( Bou rke 1 994 ,1 70 ) . C ong re sbury ( P r ice 1 992 ,1 40 -2 ) D a lkey I s land ( Ha rden 1 966 , 1 93 -5 ) . D inas P owy s( Ha rden 1 987 ) . Dumba r ton ( A lcock a nd A lcock 1 990 , 13 -115 ) . Dunadd ( Na t iona l Museum o f An t iqu i t ies o fS co t land . No tl i s ted i nH arden 1 956b ) . G ar rane s G ar rydu f f Gw i th ian ( r im s he rd i np a le y e l low/g reen . I nt h eR oya l I n s t i tu t ion o fC or nwa l l ) . L ongbury B ank ( 1 p a le ambe r , 1 9 p a le y e l low -g reen . C ampbe l la nd L ane 1 988 ) . Ma rgam D ee rP ark ( Campbe l l1 989b ,6 3 -4 ) . Mo te o f Ma rk ( Ha rden 1 956b , 1 50 ;D .L ong ley ,p e r s . c omm . ) . N ew P ie ce s( Lane 1 988 ,9 7 ) . T re thu rgy ( P r ice 1 988 ,2 6 ) . Wh i tho rn ( au tho r 's o bserva t ion s1 987 -9 .4 0+ v e s se l s ) .

T yp e so fG l a s sP r e sen t T he g l a s swa re f al si n to t h ree d e f in i te d eco ra t ive c a tego r i es ,w i th h in t sa tf u r the rg roup ing s . C la s s One i sp iece so fp u ta t ive ly Med i te r ranean o r ig in . C lass One ( a )i sp iece sf r om T in tage l wh ich a r el i s ted b y H a rden a s l i ke ly t o b e o f Med i ter ranean o r ig in . B o th C ampbe l l( 1 995 ;f o r thcom ing )a nd t he a u tho rh ave d oub t s a bou tt he Med i te r ranean a sc r ip t ion o ft he se p ie ce s ,b u t t he ma t te ra wa i t sf ur the ra na ly s i s . One ( b ) i st he p iece s w i th whee l -eng raved d eco ra t ion , wh ich a re o f l i ke ly Med i ter ranean o r ig in .P iece so ft h i st ype a re f r om D a lkey I s land ,C ong re sbury ( P r ice 1 995 ,1 39 ,n o .1 )a nd Wh i tho rn ( no .+ 88/8362 —Harden 1 966 ,1 93 -5 ;c fG rave 4 9a tH igh D own : We lch 1 983 , 1 45 ) . T he se may a l so b e a n a s sem b l age s ha red b e tween t he e a s tern a nd we s tern z one so f t he B r i t ish I s les ( s ee a bove ) . C lass Two i sp iece s wh ich a r e l i ke ly i mpor t s f r om o r t h rough Ang lo -Saxon E ng land .T he se i n c lude t h ec oba l t b lue s qua tj a r sf r om D ina sP owy s a nd C hew S toke a nd t he c l aw b eake r s f r om D ina s P owy s ( Campbe l l 1 989b , 2 39 -45 ) .V ar iou sp iece sf r om C ong re sbu ry a l so f a l lw i th in t h i s g roup . C ong re sbu ry ( P r ice 1 992 , 1 394 1 , n o . 1 4 -19 ) a nd C adbu ry ( P r ice a nd C o t tam 1 995 ,1 0 1 ,n o .2 1 -3 )h ave a l so p roduced ' Kemps ton 's t y le b eake r sa nd p ie ce sf r om Wh i tho rn ( no .+ 88/8484 )w i th s im i la r ly t r an spa ren tt r a i ls m ay a l so b ei nt h is g roup . C lass Th ree i sc one sa nd b ow l so fp a le y e l low ,y e l low/ g reen ( ve ry many e xamp le so fb o th t he se c o lou r s )g reen ( e .g . Ma rgam ,A rmagh )o ry e l low / ambe r( Wh i tho rn + 88 / 7 707 ;S ande r son 1 987 ,f i che 7 1— th i sc o lou ri se xp la ined a s a n i mpe r fec t ion i n t he me ta l ) o r p a le b lue ( e .g . B a l lyca teen ) me ta l . S ome a ppear t ob e u ndeco ra ted . I n o the r s ,d e co ra t ion i n c lude s wh i te marve red s ub -r im t r a i ls i n as p ira l .O the rp iece sh ave h a ir l ine t r a i ls u nde rt he r im

Odd p i eces r ema in u nc la ss i f ied . Amber p a lm c up r im s f r om Wh i tho rn ( s ee F ig . 1 4 , PC3 ) a nd L ago re may b e C a ro l ing ian .F l a sk sf r om Mu l la roe , Moynagh L ough a nd L ough G a ra s e em u ndoub ted ly t ob e f r om t h e s even th c en tu ry ( Bou rke 1 996 ,1 68 -70 ) . C ampbe l l( f o r thcom ing ) ,h a ss e tu ph i s own t ypo l o gy wh ich more o rl e ss a g rees w i th t he a bove ,b u tn o ts o c l o se ly t ha t i t wou ld b e c onven ien t t o a dop t i th ere . C ampbe l l 's g roup A i st h e Med i ter ranean t ype s( Wood ing c l a ss One ) ,h i sc l a ss Bi s' Me rov ing ian 't ypes s ha red w i th Ang lo -Saxon E ng land ( Wood ing c l ass Two ) ,h i sg roups C a nd D a r e p la in a nd t r a i led ' Me rov ing ian ' t ype s r e spec t i ve ly ( Wood ing c l a ss T h ree i n c ludes b o th o f t h ese t o -

8 7

C ommun ica t ion a nd C ommer ce a l ong t h e W e s t e rn S ea lane s AD400 -800

g e the r ) a nd h i s g roup E i n c ludes p ieces , o f at ype o n ly f ound a t Wh i thorn , wh ich h e s ugge s t s m igh t b e l o ca l a t temp t sa ti m i ta t ing t he i mpor ted t ype s —bu tt h i ss e em s u nab le t ob ep roved . Ia l so p re fer n o tt oa dop th i sd i s t inc t i on b e tween p la in a nd d eco ra ted t ype sa si td oes n o ts e em l i ke ly t or ef l ec t a ny r ea l d i s t inc t ion i ni mpor ta t ion ( and C ampbe l lh im se l fs ugge s t s t h i s b y mak ing t h i s mo re o r l e s s ac omb ined c l as sI C /D ' ) .T hese a r ev e ry m ino rd i sa g reemen t s ,h oweve r , a nd o u r r e sea rche s a r e f undamen t aly i na g reemen t . T he d a t ing o ft he g roups a lf a l ls b e tween t he y ea r s 4 00 -800 a nd ad a te b e tween t he m id -s ix th a nd e a r ly s ev e n th wou ld b e l i ke ly f o r a l l b u t t he ' Kemps ton ' t ypes ( po ss ib ly f i f th c en tury ) a nd t he n in th -century Mula roe f l ask ( Ha rden 1 956b , 1 54 ) . T he c oba l tb lue j a r s o fc l a ss 2 wou ld b ed a ted b yC ampbe l lt ot he e a r ly 6 00s ( Campbe l l 1 989b ,2 44 )a nd t h ec l aw b eake r sa r e as i x th -cen tu ry t ype ( Harden 1 987 ,1 45 ) .C la ss 3i su nknown o u t s ide o ft h eI r i sh S ea z one a nd c an o n ly b ed a ted b ya s soc ia t ion w i th i m p or ted p o t tery . Ab road c on tempo rane i ty w i th E wa re s eem sl i ke ly f r om a s soc ia t ion sa t Wh i thorn ,b u tH i l l( p er s . c omm . ) wou ld s ugges tt ha tt he g la ss a ppea r se a rl i e ri nt he s equence t han Ewa re ,t hough i tc on t inue si n to t he s ame p er iod . Whe the rt h eg l as sf r agmen t sf r om e a r l ie ra nd l a te r p er iods o ns i te a r eo ft he s ame g roup n eed sf u r the ri nves t i ga t ion .F o re xamp le , ab eaker i np a le y elow me ta lw i th c ombed f e s toon s( CF1 :f ound i n at r ench o pened i n af i e ld n or th -we s to ft he ma in a rea i n1 987 ) ,a so pposed t of e a th e r ed f e s toon s o r f e s tooned c hev ron s , wa s f ound i n a n o therw ise s t er i le c on tex ta t Wh i thorn , away f r om t he ma in s equence s .I ti sv e ry s im i la rt o ,b u tn o tt he s a me a s , mo s t A t lan t ic g roup p iece s . When t hese s o r t s o ff i ne d i s t inc t i on s a re made , i ft hey a r e i ndeed i mpo r tan t , we m igh t o bserve an a r rowe rd a t ing r ange f o ri nd iv idua li mpo r ted g lass g roups . C ampbe l l ( f or thcom ing ) s ugges t s t ha t f e s tooned v e sse l s a r e e a r l ie r t han t hose w i th c hev ron d eco ra t ion .P end ing f u r the ri nves t iga t ion o ft h i sq ue s t ion , a nd t he d i scove ry o fo the r s i te s equence s , we may o n ly o bserve t ha t t he g l a s s i mpor ta t ion s , o n s i te c h rono logy a l one , s eem l i ke ly t o s pan aw ide r c h rono log ica l r ange t han Ewa re p o t tery .T ha tg l a ss a ppea r so nt h eh il fo r ts i te s o fS ome r se ta nd w es te rn C o rnwa l l ,i sa ga in s ugges t ive o f s i x th -cen tury i mpo r ta t ion a nd t r a i led g l a ss o f p o s t -Ro man t ype i sf ound i nt he s ame c on tex t sa s Med i ter ranean ampho rae a ts ome s i te s( A l cock 1 995 ,3 9 ;B ou rke 1 996 ,1 67 8 ) . A tC ong resbury t h e g l a ss a s semb lage i sb o th ' S axon ' ( c la ss 2 )a nd ' A t lan t ic '( c la s s3 ) ,w i th s eve ra lp iece sb e ing o f t he ' Kemps ton ' t ype ( P . R ah tz , p e r s . c omm . ) , wh i le p rev iou s ly n o ted p ieces f r om C adbu ry a nd T in tage l a re n o t d emon s t rab ly s im i la r t ot he b e s t -known t ype s . T he mo re r e cen tf i nd f r om T in tage li so f mo re n orma l 'A t lan t i c ' t ype , h oweve r , w i th wh i te h or izon ta l t r a i l s ( P r ice 1 988 , 2 6 ) . As even th -cen tu ry c on tex ti su n l ike ly a tT in tage l . We w il r e turn t o t he d i s t r ibu t iona l q ue s t ion s l a te r i n t h i s c hap ter . T h eS our c eo ft h eG l a s sI mpo r t s I ns earch ing f o ra no r ig in f o rt he g l a ss i mpor t s , w e may s t ra igh t away o bserve t ha t s cho la r sh ip h as f o l lowed a v e ry s im i la r p a t te rn t o t ha t f o l lowed i ni nves t iga t ing E 8 8

wa re . T he d i f feren t me thods o fr e search c on s ide red n o r ma lf o rt h ese f i nds ,h owever ,h ave r eg re t tab ly s e en t he E wa re a nd g l a ss d i s t r ibu t ions o n ly r a re ly c ompa red t oe ach o the r —a f te ra ni n i t ia lc ompar i son wh i ch w en t al ong way t oi n sp i r ing t h eR h ine land o r ig in t h eo ry f o r Ewa re ( Pea c ock a nd T homas 1 967 , 3 6 ) . T he l i ke ly s ou r ce i d en t i f ied was t he R h ine land a nd t he a ssumed e n t ry p a th wa so ve r l and b y w ay o fB r i ta in . T h is wa s s o mewha t c on t rary t o h i s tor i ca ll i ke l ihood . Aga in , a si nt h ec ase o f Ew a re , t he f a c tt ha tt h e c l o ses tp a ra l le l s we re i nt he R h ine land wa s r ef l ec t ive o ft he i n tens i ty o fr e sea rch a nd e xcava t ion wo rk i nt ha tr eg ion a nd t he p auc i ty o fs uch wo rk f u r the rw e s ti n F rance . T he i n c idence o fc ones w i th wh i te ma rve red f e s t oon si ss e en a s more o f aB e lg ian/no r the r nF ren ch t r a i t ( Van L i th 1 988 ,6 7 )— jus ta st he n o r the r nF rench p a ra l le l s f o r Ewa re a r es uper io rt ot he R hen i sh . Ac one i ng reen i sh me ta lw i th wh i te ma rve red f e s toon sw a sf ound a tH e rpe s i n C ha ren te -Ma r i t ime ( B r i t ish Mu seum 1 905 5 20 6 1 )— ma tched e xac t ly b y af i nd f r om H ighdown i n S u s sex (We lch 1 976 ,1 5 ) .T hese p i eces a re n o tc l o se t ot he w e s te r n B r i t ish f i nds i nd ecora t ion ,b u ta re c l ose e nough t os ugges t t ha t t he re a r e mo re wes te r ly t r a i led c one t r ad i t ion s ( o f c oa s ta ld i s t r ibu t ion )t han t he R hen i sh wh ich o f fe rp o ten t i a lf o rp lac ing t he ' A t lan t ic 'g roup . Mu seum c o l lec t ion si nF ran ce d on o tc on ta in w ide r anges o fg l a ss v e sse l s f r om l a te s ix th/seven th c en tu ry c on tex t s .P robab ly t h i ss imp ly r ef lec t s ap a s tl a ck o fi n te r e s t i n c o l lec t ing f r agmen t s f r om d ome s t ic r e fuse . Two p a lm c ups i nt h ec o l lec t ion a tS a in tG e rma in -en -Laye ( s ee F ig . 1 4 ) s ugges t t ha t t he s a me c o lou r s a nd marvered t r a i l ing a sf ound o nB r i t i sh s i tes a l so e x i s ted i nt he Ma rne r eg ion i nt he l a te -s ix th c en tu ry ,b u tt h e se a re o n ly v ague c l ues a nd o n ly s y s tema t i cs t udy o fn ew g l a ss d i scover ies i sl i ke ly t or evea lt he s ou rce f o rt he B r i t i sh f i nds . T he C u l tur a la nd C omme r c ia lR e la t ion so ft h eG la s s Two t e xtua l s ou r ces d emons t ra te t ha t t h e u se o f g l a s s v es se l sw as k nown t ol i t e ra ry a ud ience si nt h eC e l t i c We s t . I n t he G ododd in , t he h ero B le idd ig mab E l i d rank w ine f r om b r imm ing g l a ss v es se l s ( B le id i cm ab e l ie r v i s s e tg w in g wydy rl e s tr il avn :G ododd in XC I I ,e d .W i l l iams 1 961 ,4 5 ) . D r ink ing w ine f r om g l as sv e sse l si sa l so u sed a s ame ta p hor f o rt he e a se w i th wh ich ah e ro p ick su ph i ss pea r( h u t a r o l l iw ayw m a lg w in g l o ew ow ydy rl e s tr i :G ododd in L XV ,e d . W il iam s 1 961 , 3 2 ) . T h is t e x t i so f i nde te rm ina te d a te , h oweve r , a nd t hough i te s tab l i shes ac ou r t ly c on tex tf o r t h ed r ink ing o fw ine we s hou ld n o tp lace t o o much v a lue u pon i ti nt he l i gh to fo u rc onc lu s ions u pon t h ev a lue o ft h e h ero i cl i t e rature o fI r e land ( s ee a bove ,3 4 ) . Ar e fe ren ce i n Adomnän a l so d ep ic t s t he u se o f ag l a ss v esse l i n t h e P i c t i sh c our ta tI nve r n e ss , when t he s a in tp rophe s ie s : ' Nunc B ro ichanu sf o r t i te rc on cussus e s t ;n am a nge lus d e c ae lo m isu s g rav i te r i lum p e rcu t ien s v i t rea m i n manu e jus d e q ua b ibeba t c on f reg i t i n mu l ta b ibe ram f r agmen ta . . . ' Adhuc s anc to h aec l oquen te v e rba , e cce s i cu t ip raed ix i td uo ar ege m is ie qu i te sa dven iun t ; omn ia q uae i n r eg i s mun i t ione d e F ro ichano j ux ta s anc t i v a t ic in ium s un ta c ta e na r ran te s . ( 'Now B ro ichan h as r e ce ived ah ard b low . F o ra na nge l

C hap ter S i x : C argoe sa nd C ommer ce i nt h eS even th C en tu ry

F 8

F ig .

1 2 G lass c ones :

w i th hor izonta l s ub -r im t ra i l ing F 8 ) D inas P owys , N o .2 6 ( w i th t i po fc hev ron ) H 1) Wh i thom ,+ 87 /4032 H 2 ) Wh i thom , + 88 /83 18 ( j o ins w i th H 1 )

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C en t im e t r e s

w i th

c o mbed

f estoons

F 9 ) Wh i thom + 88 /8442 F 10 ) Mo te o f Ma rk ( Ha rden , p .1 50 , ' MI

C ommun ica t ion a nd C ommer ce a long t h e W e s ter nS ea lane s AD400 -800

0 1)

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v esse ls : f estoons

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opt ic

d ecorat ion

0 1 )V Vh i thom + 89 /9898 02 ) Mo te o f Ma rk ( Ha rden , p .1 50 , V ) . w i th

e ngraved

decorat ion

E G 1) Wh i thom + 88 /8326 9 0

C hap ter S i x : C argoes a nd C ommerce i nt h eS even th C en tury

P C3

3

C en t ime t re s

F ig . Poss ib le

p ara l le ls

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c ont inent :

P C 1) P a le y e l low p a lm c up f r om C haou i l ly -su r -Mame ( c o l lec t ion : S t Ge rma in -en -Laye ) PC2 ) Ambe rp a lm c up w i th f o lded r im ( co l lec t ion : S t Ge rma in -en -Laye ) F or

c o mpar ison :

P C3 )Ambe rp a lm c up w i th f o lded r im : Wh i tho rn 4 87 4 2 16 9 1

C ommun ica t ion a nd C ommer ce a l ong t h e W e s t e rn S ea lane s AD400 -800

s en tf r om h eaven h a ss t ruck h im h eav i ly a nd b roken i n to many p iece si nh i sh and t he g l as sv e s se lf r om wh ich h e was d r ink ing . . . ' Wh i le t he s a in t was s t i l ls peak ing t he se wo rd s ,b eho ld , a sh eh ad p red ic ted , t wo men o nh o r se b ack , s en t b y t he k ing , a r r ived , a nd t o ld a l l t ha t h ad h appened c once rn ing B ro ichan ,i nt he k ing 's f o r t re s s ,i n a cco rdance w i th t he p rophecy o f t he s a in t : Adomnän , V i ta C o lumbae 1 .34 ,e d . &t r an s . Ande r son a nd Ande r son 1 961 ,4 00 -1 ) .

T he re a r en od e f in i te I r i sh r e ference s ,t hough t he i nde f i n i te word l e s t ar ( t he s a me l e x ica li t em u sed i nt he G ododd in r e fe rence ) m igh ts ome t imes b e d esc r ib ing g l a s s v e sse l s . T he c on tex ti se v iden t ly ' c our t ly 'a nd t h i si sr ef l ec ted a l so i nt he a r chaeo log ica ld i s t r ibu t ion : wh ich i smo re c on f ined t oh igh s t a tu ss i te st han t ha to f Eware . Adomnän d oe sn o t s pec i fy w ine a s t he c on ten t s o f t he g l a ss , t hough t h e G ododd in d oe s ,s o we s hou ld n o ta s sume t ha ts u ch v e sse l s w e re o n ly u sed f o rw ine ( s ee G ododd in L XXX I I I , where a h ero d r ink s mead f r om a g l a ss : t a v loyw a c y sg e th t a v l e t w yd r in ,e d . Wi l l iam s1 961 ,4 0 ) . T he e v idence o f me ta lwo rk ,e spec ia l ly i r on o b jec t s o fs upposed ly F rank i sh o r ig in i nI r e land a nd S co t land i so f i n teres t , i nt he l i gh t o ft he d e f in i te c e ram i c e v idence f o r G au l i sh l i nk s . T homa s h as r e turned d eba te t ot h i s e v i d ence i nh i s r e cen tr ea sse ssmen to ft he G au l i sh ma te r ia l ( Thoma s 1 990 , 1 8 -19 ) . F inds o f s uch o b jec t s h ave b een s porad ic , w i th me ta l h av ing a l ower r a te o f p os t d epo s i t iona l s u rv iva l t han p o t te ry o r g l as s— the l a rges t c o l lec t ion sb e ing f r om c r annög s i tes s uch a sL ago re a nd B u s ton , whe re a na nae rob ic c on tex t wa sp resen t .T h i sf a c t s hou ld b ea pprec ia ted a sy e ta no the re xamp le o ft he way s i n wh ich t he omn ipresence o fF rank i sh i n f luence may b e h idden b eh ind t h e u n represen ta t ive q ua l i ty o f t he e v i d ence . None the le ss , i t wou ld s eem e asy t o o ver ra te t h e e v idence o ft he me ta lwo rk —a F rank i sh o r ig in i sn o tp roven f o r mos tp iece s ,b o th Ang lo -Saxon o rl o ca l manu fa c tu re c anno tb er u led o u t . B eyond t ha t , we c an a l so o n ly g ue s s a tt he s oc ia lc on tex tw i th in wh i ch s uch a r te fac t sm igh ts i t . S ome o b je c t sa r eu n ique i ni n su la rc on tex t s a nd a r eb e s t e xp la ined a sp er sona lp o sse ss ions o fi nd iv idua lt r ave l ler s . F rom am idden a tT ean ,I s le so fS c i l ly , ab ronze l oop a nd ar i ve ted o penwo rk p la te a r ed e f in i te ly Me rov ing ian i m p or t s .T homa si n terp re ts t he f o rmer a sp a r to f ac h ä t e l a in e , o rg ür t e lg ehäng e ( Thoma s 1 990 , 1 8 ; T homa s 1 985 , 1 95 -7 ) . T he r i ve ted o penwo rk p la te i si nf a c ta l so a lmo s tc e r ta in ly p a r to f ac hä t e la ine a ss i x th/seven th c en tu ry e xamp les a r e c ha rac te r ised b y s uch s t udd ing o n a n o penwo rk p la te ( Renner 1 970 p rov ides at ypo logy f o rr ound t ypes o n ly , b u tt he r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t he se a nd t he T ean p iece i s c l ea r ) . An o b jec t s uch a s t h i s i nS c i l ly i st e s t imony t oa ma r i t ime l i nk w i th s o mewhe re . Mo s t o ther s upposed f i nds o fF rank i sh me ta lwo rk i nI r e land a nd w es tern B r i t a i n( J a me s1 982 ,3 85 -6 )a r eu nce r ta in e v idence o ft r ade o r e ven d i rec t t r ave l . A v a r ie ty o fb eads , b rooche s , h o r se t r app ing sa nd i r on weapon s may a l lb eo fF rank i sh o r ig in ( Thoma s1 990 ,1 9 -20 ;H encken 1 950 ,9 3 f f ) :f o rs ome ,h ow e ve r , n o mo re t han a ' Ge rman ic ' o r ig in c an b e h e ld a s c e r ta in a nd Ang lo -Saxon may b e a s l i ke ly a s F rank i sh . T ho se wh ich a r eo fF rank i sh o r ig in may b eb e s te xp la ined a s p er sona l p ossess ion s . T homas ' s ugges t ion , o n t h e

9 2

s t reng th o f l a te r u sage s o f t he wo rd f r anc i n We l sh ( W i l l iam s1 944 ,3 1 ) ,o f ap resence o fF rank i sh mer cenar ie s s eems o ver ly i ngen iou s ( Thoma s 1 990 , 6 ) a nd mu s t b e b a lanced a ga in s tR ow land 's r e in te rpre ta t ion o ft he word a s mo re l i ke ly t o mean ' f reeman '( Row land 1 993 ,2 3 ;a l so B reeze 1 991a ;B reeze 1 991b ) .A l so p o s s ib le i st he i dea t ha t a rm sm igh tb et r aded ( Doehaerd 1 978 ,1 63 ) . C e r ta in ly u nl ike ly t ob et r ade g oods a re t wo F rank i s hc o in sf r om I r e land ,b o th f r om t h eS ar the d epa r tmen t : o ne ,a tP o r tL aogha i se ,m in ted i nL e Man s ;a nothe r ,f r om T r im ,m in ted a tB eau fay ( R igo ld 1 975 ,6 60 ) .I ti so fi n teres t i nt h i s c onnec t ion t ha tP i ca rd wou ld s ugges tt ha tS l ane , v ery n ea rT r im , f i gure s i nt he F rank i sh mach ina t ions o f t he s even th c en tury —be ing whe re D agober t I was s en t i n to e x i le ( P icard 1 991b , 2 7 -52 ) . T hese c ompa re w i th R igo ld 's c o inage p ha se s Ia nd I i nB r i ta in —made u p o f c o in s f r om t he p er iod p re -625 AD i n c lud ing 3 /4 o f t he S u t ton I T oo a s semb lage a nd t he p re -Augus t in ian c o in si n t he C an te rbu ry c e me te ry , wh ich c on ta in s as t rong w es tern a nd n o r thern G au l ish e l e men t ( R igo ld 1 975 , 6 53 -77 ; G r ier son a nd B la ckbu r n1 986 ,1 22 -7 ) .T he 6 25 d a te mu s tb e r ega rded a ss omewha ta rb i t ra ry :b e ing o b trus ive ly b a sed u pon t h ed e s i red h i s tor ica la s soc ia t ion w i th R edwa ld ( s ee a l so Wood 1 991 ,4 ) . L a te r F rank i sh c o in i mpor t s t oE ng l and a r ef r om e a s tF ranc ia e xc lus ive ly ( R igo ld 1 975 ,6 55 ) . T he a s soc ia t ion o ft he se c o in sw i th t r ade b yb o th P eacock a nd e spec ia l ly Hodge si nd i scu ss ion so f Ewa re a r et o taly u n ju s t i f iab le ( Hodges 1 984 ) :q u i te c l ea r ly t he C an terbu ry a nd S u t ton Hoo a s semb lages a re p e r sona l c o l lec t ion s , r a the rt han a ny th ing t od ow i th e conom ics .T he o f f shoo t s i nI r e land a r e l i ke ly t ob e p er sona l p os se ss ion s , a l so , a s I r e land d id n o tu se c o in i nt h i sp er iod — con tr a Hodge st h is n on -use o f c o in r ef lec t s mo re t han a s h i f t i n w es te rn G au l i sh mone ta ry p o l icy wh ich s aw c o inage l e ss o f ten t r aded . I n c on c lus ion , w e may b e much l e ss o p t im i s t ic c once rn ing t h e p o ten t ia l o f t he me ta lwo rk a nd r e la ted i mpo r t s , u n le s s f u r the r f i nds s how r epea ted p a t te rns o f c on tac tw i th o ne o rt wo s ou rce s . Where e ven l e ss t ang ib le e v idence i sc once r ned , s uch a s t he G au l ish s cu lptu ra l i nf luences p o s tu la ted b y H en ry , Ham l in , J ame s ( 1 982 , 3 84 -6 ) , Wa rne r( p e r s .c omm . who o bserve s af u r the rs t rong l i nk b e tween P o i tou a nd t he s l abs o f t he R a th rn ichae l/ G lenco lumc i l le g roup )a nd S heehan ( 1 994 ) ,t r ansm i ss ion o fi d ea sv i at he w es te rn s ea lanes m igh tn o tb eu nl ike ly ,b u t i ss of a ru nprovab le .B o th t he Eware a nd g l a s so f fe rb e t te r p oss ib i l i t ie sf o rr e f in ing p a t tern so fc on tac to therw i se o n ly v ague ly i nd i ca ted b y t e x tua l s ources a nd f o r r e so lv ing q ues t ion so fs i te c h rono logy wh ich a re t hem se lves c ruc ia l f o ro u ru nde r s tand ing o fe conomy .T he g l as s emerges a s p o ten t ia l ly t he more i n te res t ing g roup o f a r te fac t s . We s hou ld n o te , a l ong w i th t he A lcock s ( 1 990 , 13 ) , t ha tt he g l a ss i s more n umerou s t han t he p o t te ry a t s i tes , f o r e xamp le D ina s P owy s a nd Wh i thorn , whe re t he re a r e l a rge a s semb lage s o fb o th . T he g la ss i sp robab ly o fl e s s l im i ted c h rono log i ca lr ange t han Ewa re ,a sw eh ave s een , wh ich may u l t ima te ly make E wa re amo re u se fu lf i n i te d a tum , wh i le t h ev a r ie t ies o fg l a ss may b ei nd iv idua l ly a nd r e la t ive ly d a tab le t od i f feren tp e r iods .

C hapter S even

R ou te so f Ma r i t ime T rade i nt he L a te -S ix th t h rough E igh th C en tu r ie s Whe re o b jec t sa r ef ound d i s t r ibu ted a l ong ac oa s t l ine a nd a re a l so f ound i n land f r om t ha tc oa s t ,a nd whe re we h ave a ccoun t so ft r ave lb ys ea a nd i n land f r om t he s ea , we a r e c on f ron ted w i th a n umber o f p os s ib le e xp lana t ion s o f t he i rd i s t r ibu t ion .A re a lt he s ea s ide s i te sr egu la rl a nd fa l l s f o r s h ip s f r om o u ts ide t he r eg ion , o r a r e s o me s i te s p r i mary l a nd fals f r om wh ich s e conda ry v oyage sd i s t r ibu te g oods t h rough ' c oa s ta l ' t r a f f ic? Whe re o b jec t sa r ef ound i n land f r om t he s ea we n eed t oe xp la in f r om wh i ch c oa s ta l p o in t st h ey h ave t r ave l led i n land . We a l so n eed t oe xp la in t he me chan ics o ft he d i s t r ibu t ion .I st r ade r e spon s ib le f o r mos t movemen to fg oods? O ra r ew el o ok ing a tc omp lex mode l so fe xchange w i th in k in sh ip o rp o l i t ica ln e two rk s , t os ecu re p ol i t ica la nd s oc ia lp re s t ige f o rt hose who c on t ro l t he s ou rce o fi mpor ts ? Ac ruc ia lq ue s t ion h e re i swhe the r t he p r ima ry l and ing s i te i sh ence mo re ac omme rc ia lo ra p ol i t i ca lc en t re .T h i sh as i mp l ica t ion sf o r many p a r t so ft h e wes te rn s ea la r ie s , whe re we a re u nc lea ra st ot h es t a tu so f v ar ious s i tes a nd whe re as t anda rd t ypo logy f o r s e t t le men t s i so f ten l a ck ing . I ta l so h a s i mpl i ca t ion s f o r t h e d eg ree t o wh ich t he n eeds o ft h ep o l i t ica la u tho r i t ies a nd t he d eg ree t o wh ich t h en eeds o ft h e ma r ine ra r et a ken i n to a ccoun t when as i te i sc hosen f o r ah a rbou r .I ft h eh a rbou r s a re n o tt h ep r ima ry e xchange s i te s , whe re a r e t h e ma jo r p o in t so fe xchange? Al o ft hese q ues t ion sa f fec to u ra b i l i ty t od e te rm ine t he e x i s tence o fl ong -d i s tance t r a f f i c .

e v idence wh i ch s pec i f ie st h ep resence o fs h ips wh ich h ave u nques t ionab ly t r aveled o ve r al ong d i s tance .S ome t imes s uch e v idence may b ea nu namb iguou sl i t era ry r e fe rence , s o me t ime sd i s t r ibu t iona le v idence l e ave sl i t t le d oub t .A ta c e r ta in p o in t , h oweve r , t h e l ong -d i s tance v oyage w i l l c ea se a nd s e conda ry n e two rk sw i l lt ake o ver .T h i si sn o ta s imp le ma t te r . Ac omb ina t ion o f f a c to r s may p rov ide a l a ck o fi n cen t ive f o rc on t inua t ion o ft h ev oyage . L ong -d i s tance t r a f f i ch as r e ce ived t he g rea ter a t t e n t ion i nw e s tern s ea lane s s t ud ie s , a nd r e cen tc r i t iques h ave s e en t h i s a s ar e su l t o ft he t endency t oa t t r ibu te t o i den t i f iab le l ong -d i s tance l i nk st he r o le o f ac u ltu ra ld eu se x m ach ina , a tt h e e xpen se o fa n u nde r s tand ing o fa l ready e x i s t ing c u l tu ra l f o r ces ( My tum 1 992 , 7 f f ) . On e conom i c q ues t ion s ,D av id G r i f f i th s wou ld s i ng le o u tf o rc r i t ic ism t ho se , s uch a s Hodge s ( 1 989 , 6 7 ; 1 978 , 1) , who h ave a ppl ied t h et ypo logy o ft he e mpor ium t ot he we s te rn z one o fB r i ta in b e fo re 8 00AD ,a si mp ly ing t he e x i s tence o f at ype o ft r ad ing n e twork wh i ch d id n o te x i s ti nt he e a r ly med i e va lp er iod .H eq ues t ion st h e empha s i sp laced u pon t he s t udy o ft h ei mpo r ted c e ram ics i nt e rm so ft he l i ke ly m ino r e c onom i c r o le o f l ong -d i s tance e xchange i n t he I r i sh S ea b a s in : C oas ta ls i te ss how e ve ry i nd ica t ion t ha tt hey d epended mo re o nf i sh ing ,f a rm ing a nd l o ca lr ed is t r ibu t ion t han o n l ong -d is tance t r ade r ou tes w i th e xo t ic , b u t o ccas iona l , i mpo r t s . . . . the e x i s t ing p o l i t ica lr o le o ft he r oya ls i te s( and t he i rr e la t ion sh ip t os i te sw i th in t he ir t e r r i to r ie s )c an b e s a id t ob e f a r mo re i mpor tan t t han t he i r l ong -d is tance t r ad ing l i nks ( G r i f f i th s1 992b , 1 0 ) . ,

S hor t -d i s t anc ea nd C oa s ta lT r af f i c F rom e a rl ies t p reh i s tory s ho r t d i s tance t r ave l a nd e x c hange mus th ave o ccu r red o n al o ca lb a s i s ,f o rt he p u r p ose o fg a ther ing r aw ma te r ia l sa nd f ood g a the r ing .S uch a c t iv i ty may h ave o pera ted b o th o ve r land a nd a c ro s s s ho r td i s tances o fs ea .T he l a t te ri so f ten t e rmed ' c oas ta l ' e xchange .' Down the l ine 'e xchange o ccu r s when as e r ie s o fs ho r t -d is tance e xchange l i nk s ,o f ten i n i t ialy s e tu pf o r l o ca le xchange ,a r eu sed t od i s t r ibu te g ood so ve r al onge r d i s tan ce .R ed is t r ibu t ive e xchange may o ccu r when s ho r t d i s tance l i nks a r eu t i l i sed t od i s t r ibu te g oods wh ich h ave a r r ived a t ap r ima ry i mpor ta t ion s i te f r om al ong d i s tance away — the r ou te s a nd s h ips i nvo lved i n t r an s i t t o t he s e conda ry s i tes i nt he n e two rk may b et he s ame a sa r eu sed i nl o ca l ,' c oas ta l 'e xchange i nr aw ma te r ia l sa nd p roduce . L ong -d i s tance ma r i t ime e xchange i nvo lves t h e u se o ft h es ea a s amo re d i rec t means o ft r ave l ,b ypas s ing s ho r t -d i s tance e x change mechan i sm su n t i l ap r ima ry l a nd f a l li sr e ached .I n mak ing ac a se f o rt he e x i s ten ce o fl ong d i s tance v oyage s , much i mpo r tance mu s tb ea t tached t o

P e te rH il h a sr a i sed s ome s im i la ro b jec t ion si n as t udy o f t he e a r ly e conomy o f Wh i thorn , t hough mo re c l ea r ly n o t ing t h e d eg ree t o wh ich p rev ious s t ud ies l a cked t he c l ea r e v idence t o make s t ud ies o f m idd le - a nd s ho r t d i s tan ce e xchange ( H i l l1 992 ) . Whe re t he i mpor ted c e ram i c s a r e c once rned w e mu s t b e c l ear t ha t t he i s sue o f o ve rempha s i s i ss o f a r a n a r chaeo log i ca l r a the r t han a n e conom i co ne .T ha ti mpo r ted c e ram ics h ave ama jo rr o le t op lay i ni d en t i fy ing r ou te s a nd p o r t s o f ma r i t ime e x c hange wou ld s eem t ob et aken f o rg ran ted i n ar ange o f s t ud ies o ft h e I r i sh S ea b as in , a s wel a s i n t he s t udy o f No r th S ea a nd r e la ted e xchange ( Gr i f f i th s1 992a ,6 3 ;A lcock a nd A lcock 1 990 , 19 , 1 30 -8 ) . A rno ld , h oweve r , h a s e x p re s sed s t rong c r i t ic i sm o f Hodges 's i mpl i c i t c o ro l lary b e tween c e ram ic d i s t r ibu t ion sa nd c ommerc ia ln e two rk s ( A rno ld 1 983 , 8 0 -1 ) . Marx ( t h ink ing i n t e rm s o f t oo l mak ing i ndus t r ies a nd t h eT h ree -Age s ys tem : Ma rx 1 930 , 9 3

C ommun ica t ion a nd C ommer ce a l ong t h e W e s t e rn S ea lane s AD400 -800

1 72 )s ugge s ted t he s uper ior i ty o fa r chaeo logy wa st ha ti t empha s i sed t he i mpo r tance o f p roduc t ion t h rough i t s f o cu s o n t he ' o sseou s s y s tem s ' ( t oo l s ) n o t t he ' v a scu la r s y s tem s '( c on ta iner s ) .I ne a r ly med ieva la r chaeo logy ,h ow e ver , t h e n eed t o e s tab l i sh f i rm d a tum l i nes f o r i n su la r c h rono logy h as s een t he v a scu la rs ys tem sb rough tt ot he f o re .A sf i rm ly d a tab le f i nd s ,t he i mpor ted c e ram ics p ro v ide t h ef r amewo rk f o rd a t ing o ther p roduc t ion a nd e x c hange a c t iv i t ies .A s My tum s ays ' t hey c an b eo fs i gn i f i c ance b ecause t hey c an b e p rovenanced , t he i r d i s t r ibu t i on sp lo t ted a nd t he mechan ic so ft r ade a nd d i s t r ibu t ion s ugge s ted ' ( My tum 1 992 ,2 52 ) . T he s hor t te rm n a ture o f t he i ri mpo r ta t ion make st he d a tum t hey p rov ide e spec ia l ly f i n i te . Al t h is may s e rve t od e fend a na pproach i n i t ia l ly i n formed b y l ong -d i s tan ce i mpor t s . Howeve r , i ti sc e r t a in ly t ime we r e con s idered t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween l ong - a nd s hor t -d i s tance t r a f f ic i nh i s to r ica l s t udy . Doe s o ne g row d i rec t ly o u to ft h eo ther ?T hough t he i d en t i f iab le g oods s e em t oh ave a r r ived i nt he I r i sh S ea b as in i nf o re ign v esse l s ,t he re i ss ome p o ten t ia lt os ee t h i st r a f f ic a sh av ing al i nk w i th Gau l i sh c oa s ta l t r a f f ic ( s ee a bove , 6 8 f f ) . T he a b i l i ty t oa b sorb i mpo r t s may i nd i ca te al e ve lo fd emand f o r g oods a cqu i red t h rough i n te r na l e xchange . C oa s ta l n e two rk s i nt he I r i sh S ea may h ave b een s t imu la ted b y i n c lus ion i nf o re ign i mpo r tp roce sses . How d oes al and ing s i te r e la te t or eg iona lc om me rce a nd e xchange ? McG ra i l 's d e f in i t ion o f t h e l i ke ly r e la t ion s o f al and ing s i te i s wo r th q uo t ing a s as t a r t ing p o in t : T he [ l and ing ] s i te s hou ld i dea l ly b ea tt he c en t re o ft he r eg iona le conomy o rw i th g ood a cce ss t oi t .T he n a tu ra l e conom ic a nd p o l i t ica lc en t re sf o r many r eg ion sl i e away f r om t he c oas t a nd i nt hese c a se s t he t r ade r 's i dea l s i te wou ld b ei n land , u p ar i ve ra nd p o s s ib ly a t af o rd a sa t Dub l in T he p o l i t ica la u tho r i ty r equ i re s awe l l -de f ined , p o ss ib ly d e fended ,s i te ,p re fe rab ly n ea rt he c oas t( i . e . a s n ea rt he c ommon f r on t ie ra sp rac t icab le ) , whe re t r ade r s c an b es eg rega ted ,p ro te c ted a nd s uperv ised ,j u s t ice i m p o sed a nd t o l ls c o l lec ted .S e t t lemen t si nc oas ta lz one so n p romon to r ie s o r i s land s a re s u i tab le l o ca t ion s f o r t he se a c t iv i t ie s ( McG ra i l1 983 ,3 11 -12 ) .

T he c ruc ia lq ues t ion f o rt h e wes tern s e a lanes i s whe the r w e wou ld s ee s i tes w i th t h ese c r i te r ia a sp u re ly t r ad ing s i tes ,o r whe the rs i tes w i th i mpo r ted g ood s wh ich f i tt h ese c r i ter ia may h ave o the r p ol i t ica l o r r e l ig ious f unc t ion s . McGra i l 's c r i te r ia a re d e r ived f r om a ne x tens ive t h eore t i c a ld i scu ss ion i np reh is to r ic a r chaeo logy , wh ich i si nt u rn f ounded i n c ompa ra t ive a n th ropo logy —de f in ing s i tes wh ich a r eu sua l ly p ure ly f o re xchange .T he c l as s i ct ypo l o gy o fe mpor i a ( marke ts i tes whe re l o ca l s a re r e s iden tt o s e rv ice t he n eed s o f c ommerc ia l v i s i to r s ) a nd ' g a teway c ommun i t ies ' ( bounda ry s i te s whe re t r ade r s c an b e i s o l a ted a nd t he movemen to fg oods i n to s oc ie ty r egu la ted ) h as i n t ruded i n to wes tern s ea lanes s t ud ie s .D a lkey I s land h as b een d escr ibed a s a' g a teway c ommun i ty ' ( My tum 1 992 ,2 62 -3 ) .L ongbury B ank a nd Wh i thorn a re s ugges ted a sp o ss ib le e mpor ia ( Campbe l la nd L ane 1 988 ;A l cock a nd A lcock 1 990 ,1 21 ) .V a r iou ss i te sa l ong t h ew e s te rn s ea lane s h ave f e a tu res wh ich s uper f ic ia l ly f i t McGra i l 's c r i te r ia :

9 4

T in tage la nd Dumbar ton a re d e fended p romon to r ies ;t he S c i l l ie s ,D a lkey a nd C a ldey a re i s land s wh i ch h ave p ro d uced e v idence f o r o verseas e xchange i n t he f o rm o f i mpo r ted p o t tery . T he t enuou sne s s o f t h i s e v iden ce i s d emon s t ra ted b yt he f a c tt ha tN endrum ,c i ted mo re t han o nce b y My tum ( 1 993 , 2 62 -3 ; 2 66 ) a s a n e xamp le o f a n i s land t r ad ing s i te , h a s a c tualy p roduced n o E wa re , d e sp i te e a r l ie rr epo r t s ( M . O 'Donnel , E .C ampbel ,p e r s . c omm s . ) . I n mos tc a ses we may n o te t ha ta c tua le v idence f o rh in te r land r e la t ion si s mos t ly l a ck ing , a nd t ha tt hese i nden t i f ica t ion s d epend o n s l igh t s im i lar i t ie s t ot h e a c c ep ted t ypo logy a nd o n ah and fu l o fi mpo r ted p o t tery s he rd s . T homa s h a s s ugges ted t ha t t h i s d eba te i so n ly ma rg inaly r e levan tt ot he t r a f f ic o ft he w es te rn s ea lane si n o u r p e r iod ( Thoma s 1 990 , 1 0 )— though i th a s p layed a ma jo rr o le i nt h ei n terp re ta t ion o ft h eF r is ian a nd V ik ing c omme rc ia ln e two rk s i nt he e a r ly m idd le a ges ( Hodges 1 989 ,1 3 -25 ) .T homa s ,w i th A lcock , wou ld s ee t he c oa s taly l o ca ted i mpo r t c en t re s a s s ea t s o fp o l i t ica l p owe r , u s ing w ea l th d er ived f r om l e v ies a nd t r ibu tes t oa cqu i re p re s t ige g ood s t ob e r ed i s t r ibu ted t h rough f am i ly n e two rk s a nd l e vel ing mechan i sms . T he e xchange e conomy o ft he I r i sh S ea z one i ss t i l l s o me th ing o f amy s te ry . T he f a c t t ha t many h igh s tatu s s i te s w e re s e lec t ive ly d raw ing u pon l a rge a g r i cu l tu ra l e conom ies i sb ecom ing c l ea r f r om t h e s t ud ies o fa n ima l b one sf r om s i tes s uch a sD inas P owy s( G i lch r i s t1 988 ,5 0 6 2 ) a nd Wh i tho rn a nd I r i sh t e x t s ( e .g .G er r ie ts 1 987 ;a l so C r i th G ab l ach ( e d . B inchy 1 940 ) . T he d a ta wou ld s ugge s t t ha t s e lec t f oods , f o r e xamp le c ho ice c u t s o f mea t , w e re b rough t f r om t h e h in te r land t o s i tes wh i ch c on t ro l led manu fac tu r ing a nd e xchange o fp res t ige g oods , wh i ch i n t u rn w e re r ed i s t r ibu ted b ack d own t h e l i ne . I n to t h i s p roce ss a l so f i t st h eg a the r ing o fp res t ige i mpor t st h rough i n terna t iona lt r ade a nd t h eg a ther ing o fr aw ma te r ia l sf o r manu fac tu r ing o fb rooches ,c ombs ,b ead sa nd o the ri t em s . We mu s tp ro ceed c a re fuly w i th t h i s mode l ,h oweve r ,a s t h ec on ju r ing u p o fi mage s o f many s mal v esse l s g o ing e ve ry wh i ch w ay w i th l o ca lg oods a nd ma te r ia l si sd an g e rou s ly u n spe c i f i c a nd u n founded , wha tever i t s l i ke l i h ood , a nd i n c l ined t o l e ave u s w i th a p i c ture n o l e ss c h ime r ica l t han t ha t o f B owen 's mu l t ipl i c i ty o f s a in t ly s ea fa re rs . We h ave a l so q ue s t ioned s ome o ft he i ndu s t r ia l mode l s i nvo lved i n t h e i n te rpre ta t ion o f f i nds s uch a s p o t tery a nd g l as s( s ee a bove ,8 4 -7 ) . Z imme ra nd h i s c on tempora r ie s d on o t s eem t o h ave b een i na ny d oub tt ha tt r ade o f al a rge -sca le , c om me rc ia ln a tu re w a sp redom inan to nt he w e s tern s ea lane s a nd t h i s mode lu nderp inned i n terpre ta t ion o ft he d i s t r i b u t ion o fi mpo r ted c e ram ics u n t i lt he e a r ly 1 980s .S tud ie s o fe xchange s y s tem si np reh i s tor ic s oc ie t ie su nde rwen ta r evo lu t ion i nt h e1 930 s ,h oweve r —a sa n th ropo log ica lf i e ld wo rk b y Ma l inow sk i ( 1 922 ) a nd Mau ss ( 1 954 ) p rov ided mode l so fa l te rna t ive p rocesses t ot r ade t oe xp la in c i rcu la t i on o fi mpo r ted g oods i ne a r ly s oc ie t ies . T hese a re e x p la ined i nt e rm so fs uch me thod s a sp res t ige g i f t -g iv ing a nd e xchange a tn eu t ra l p o in t s , e x terna l t ot h e s oc ie ty , w i th n on -comme rc ia ls oc ia ln e twork su sed t or ed i s t r ibu te g ood s . As pec ial i sed t e rm ino logy h as b een d eve loped b y t ho se who c ons ide rf o rma le conom ic t e rm st ob ei nappro -

C hap t er S even :R ou te so f Mar i t ime T rad e

p r ia te t oa n te r io re conom ie s :w i th s uch t e rm sa st he ' por t o f t rade 'a nd ' g a teway c o mmun i ty 'i n t roduced t oe xp la in s i te s s e t a s ide f o r l and ing a nd t r ad ing o f g ood s . T he s t ronges tu se o ft h i st e rm ino logy ( known a s' s ubs tan t iv i s t ' ) i nw es te rn s e a la r tes s tud ie sh as b een b y Hodges ( 1 989 ,6 7 ; Hodges 1 978 , 15 ) a nd D ohe r ty ( 1 980 ,6 7 -70 ) . Dohe r ty a nd Hodges h ave a t temp ted t oe xp lo re t h et heo re t i ca lp a rad igm i nt he c a se o fI r e land —beg inn ing w i th e nc lo sed t r ad ing a nd a s semb ly s i tes o nt he b ounda r i e s o f k ingdom s , a nd r unn ing t h rough t ot he d eve lop men to ft r ad ing l e ases i nc onnec t ion w i th mona s te r ies i n t h ee igh th c en tu ry o nwa rd ( Dohe r ty 1 980 ,8 0 f f ) .A t temp t s t oi den t i fy t h ee a r l ier s t y le o f ma rke ts i te h ave b een i n con c l us ive , h owever , w i th Hodges 's ( 1 975 ) e xamp le o f K nock c ihu d epend ing t oo much o nf o rma lc ompa r i son s a nd Dark 's i nves t iga t ion o fA r ra l la si nC ornwa l l ,r e s t ing t oo much o n t he s ugge s t ive c ha ra c ter o f an ame ( f rom a r ghan s * l y s : ' s i lve rc ou r t ' :P ade l1 985 ,2 44 ;P res ton Jones a nd R ose 1 986 , 1 38 ) .T he l a t te rn ame i so fi nde te rm ina te , p e rhaps p re -med ieva l , d a te —be ing o f ac l a ss o fn ame s wh ich P ade l wou ld d a te a s a n e a r l ie r s t ra tum t han t he a verage , o n a ccoun t o f t he g ene r ic / qua l if ie r e l emen t s b e ing i nt h e r everse o ft h e u sua l o rder ( Pade l 1 985 , x v ) . L oca t ion n ea r ab ounda ry may h ave b een s i gn i f ican t a t l a ter d a te s ,b u tf o rr ea son su n ique t ot he e a r ly med ieva l p er iod ,n o ta sa ni nd ica to ro fa na n te r io rf o rm o f ma rke t . T in tage l i sl o ca ted n ea r a n a nc ien t b ounda ry ( Thoma s 1 964 ,7 0 -9 ) .O r lean si so nt he b oundary b e tween N eu s t r ia a nd B u rgundy a nd t he re a r ei mpl i ca t ion sf o ri t si nvo lve men ti ne cono m ic a c t iv i ty . We may a l so n o te t ha tg a teway c o mmun i ty mode li sa ppl i cab le i ns o me mode rn c on tex t s , s uch a s Hong Kong , whe re i ti ss c a rce ly i na ne vo lu t iona ry c on tex t .A l cock h a sr e cen t ly wa rned a ga in s ta ppl i ca t ion o f e x te r na l p a rad igm s t o p o s t -Roman s oc ie t ies wh ich d i s p lay c omp lex i t ies wh ich b e l ie t h e mode l s( A lcock 1 988 ,2 2 ) a nd P e te rS .Wel sh as f u r the rs ugge s ted t ha tt he e v idence o fh i s to r i c a r chaeo logy mu s tb eh e ld t os how t ha ts o me e xchange mode l s ,t ak ing i npu tf r om a n th ropo logy ,a r et oo s impl i s t i cf o re ven t he I r on Age c on tex t s wh i ch t hey were d eve loped t oi n te rp re t( Wel s1 992 ,43 -9 &p e r s .c omm . ) . We may n o te i nc onc lu s ion t h en eed f o rd i scr im ina t ion i nt h e u se o ft h e s ubs tan t iv i s t t e rm ino logy a nd mode l s , wh ich c arry ab aggage o fe vo lu t iona ry d eba te wh ich h as n o tb een a dequa te ly c omp rehended i nt h eA t lan t i cc on tex t . Much e xchange wa sp robab ly n on -comme r c ia li n n atu re ,a tl e as ta ts o me p o in t .T he Mu i rb r e tha a ppea rf r om t he c ommen tar ies t oh ave s t a ted t ha t ac argo wou ld b e ' c on s igned t o ac e r ta in p e r son '( i nt a nt a in i cf ot h omu sd u ine a i r i th ih i ,e d .B inchy C IH 1 978 ,3 15 ,1 1 .2 4 -5 ) ,o r` t o ac e r ta in t ua th ' ( i n t a n t a in i cf o t h omus t u a i th ia i r i th ih i , e d . B inchy C IH 1 978 ,3 15 ,1 .1 7 ) ,b u ti fwa shed o n to a no the r 's l a nd a p or t ion wou ld b ef o r fe i t .D oe st h is i mp ly t hen t ha tg oods wou ld n o tb eb rough ti n to I r e land u n less t hey w e re e a r ma rked f o r a n i nd iv idua l c u s tome r ? A lcu in h a s g ood s p u r cha sed i nG au lw i th h i s own money b y af o l lowe rt h ere a nd s h ipped t oh im i nY o rk ( Ep i s to l ae V I I I ,e d . Dümm le r 1 895 ,3 ) .T h i s may a l so i mp ly t ha tc omme rc ia lp u r cha se i so n ly p oss ib le i nG au l ,n o ti nB r i ta in ,t hough t h e re may b e o the r e xp lana t ions . S tF i l iber t r e ce ive s o i l f r om B o r d eaux b y p r io r a r rangemen t ( V i t a F i l ib e r t i X ) (XV I I , e d . L ev i son 1 910 ,6 02 ) ,b u tt h e re may b ed i f f icu l t ie si nt ak ing

t h ei n forma t ion o fs a in t s 'l i ves l i t e ra l ly .T he t o po io fh ag i o g raphy r equ i re f o r tu i tous ly a r r iv ing ma r ine r sw i th g i f t s o r d e layed o rde r s t o d emon s t ra te t he omn i sc ience a nd p a t ience o f t h e s a in t , b u t t he se e xamp les may s t i l l b e d rawn f r om t he e veryday a c t iv i ty o ft he t ime o ft he h ag i o g raphe r . C on s ignmen ts o f g oods f r om a broad may b e g i f t s , wh ich p re sumab ly p romp ted r e c ipro ca lg i f t s .A lcu in ( Ep i s to lae V I ,e d . Dümm le r1 895 ,3 2 )s ends g i f t so fr oo f ing t i n a nd w ine t oE anba ld o fY o rk . T he re a re a c coun t s o f h igh s ta tu s g i f t -g iv ing i nG regory o fT ou rs ( Gregory o f T ou r s , HF V I I .1 ,e d .K rusch 1 885a ,3 70 ) ,B ede ( HE 1 1 .5 ,e d . C o lg rave a nd Mynor s 1 969 , 2 26 ) a nd a r ange o f o the r s ource s .T h i ss o r to fe xchange may r ange f r om g i f t sg iven b ya no u t s ider t of a c i l i ta te s oc ia li n ter cou rse , o rt oc u l t i v a te ap owe r fu lv i s i to r ,t h rough g i f t so f ar e c ip roca ln a tu re among s t h igh -s tatus e qua ls ( k ing s , c hu rchmen a nd t h e l i ke ) ,o rg i f t sf r om ar u ler t o ac l i en t —the l a t te rt ak ing t h e f o rm o fr i tua l f e a s t ing a s a n a f f i rma t ion o f t he p ol i t ica l r e la t ion sh ip . I mpor ted g oods may b e p a ssed d own t h e l i ne i n t h i s way , f r om a c en t ra l p lace t o q u i te h umb le h o ld ing s . S uch r ed is t r ibu t ive e xchange s ys tem ss e rve t o e xp la in t he r ange o fs i te s whe re o b jec t s s uch a s t he i m p or ted c e ram ic s a re f ound o n we s te r n B r i t i sh a nd I r i sh s i tes . T hese o b jec t s we re p a ssed o n a l ong w i th p res t ige i t em s manu fac tu red i nt h ed i s t r ibu t ion c en t res . T he g row th o f ama rke te conomy i nt he I r i sh S ea b a s in i sa no the r ma t ter . Whe ther t he t r iba l a s semb ly ( 6 ena ch ) wa sa c tualy u sed a s ama rke tp lace i sad eba tab le p o in t . C e r ta in ly , h oweve r , mona s t ic a s semb l ie s t ook o n t h i sr o le i nt he e i gh th c en tu ry o rl a te r( Dohe r ty 1 980 ,8 1 ) . I nv i ew o ft h ee x i s tence o f mona s t ic f a i r si nG au l ,h oweve r , a nd movemen tb e tween G au l i sh a nd I r i sh monas te r ie s ,i t i sp o ss ib le t ha tt h i s wa sa ni dea c a r r ied o ve rf r om G au lt o I r e land . G au l i sh e xchange s y s tem si nt he p er iod AD400 8 00 we re mo re s oph i s t ica ted t han t hose o pera t ing i nB r i t a i n . C o in wa s i ne x ten s ive u se — We r n er wou ld s ugge s t mo re i nw es te r nG au l t han e l sewhe re (Werne r 1 961 ) . A r e fe rence i nG rego ry o fT ou r st o merchan t ss el ing f ood a t e xorb i tan t p r ice s ( i n c o in ) i n t ime o f f am ine s ugges t s s oph i s t ica ted c o mme rc ia l e xchange e ven a tt h e l e ve l o f b a s ic n ece ss i t ie s( Grego ry o fT ou r s , HF V I I .45 ,e d .K rusch 1 885a ,3 65 ) .C a rgoes o fw ine a nd o i lb e ing i mpo r ted i n to G au l( Grego ry o fT ou r s , HF V I I .29 ,e d .K rusch 1 885a ,348 ) , wh ich wa s a l ready ap r ima ry p roduce r o f t he se i t ems , s ugge s t s ama rke t e conomy whe re s upp ly a nd d emand m igh tb e me tt h rough c ompe t ing s ou rce s ,p rov id ing d i f f e ren t q ua l i ty o fg oods . T he p rov i s ion o f al oan b y t he c r own t ot he b u s inessmen o fV erdun ( Gregory o fT our s , HF 1 1 .34 ,e d .K ru sch 1 885a ,129 -30 )i mp l ie st ha tw es hou ld b ewa re o fi mpo r t ing a ny b u tt he mos ts oph i s t ica ted i n te r p re ta t ive mode l st oe xp la in t he G au l i sh e conomy i no u r p er iod . Whe re d id s h ipp ing f i ti n to t h i sp i c tu re a nd h ow w a si to pe ra ted ?T h i si s amuch l e ss d i scu ssed t op ic t h an t h eq ue s t ion o fr ed i s t r ibu t ion .I nt he Med i ter ranean a tt h i s t ime s ou r ces s uch a st he R hod ian S e aL aw g ive e v idence o f t h et r an s i t ion t o owne r -opera ted s h ips , mo s t ly u s ing t he i r own c ap i ta lt ob uy a nd s e l lc a rgoes .T he p o ignancy o ft h e p os i t ion o ft he s ea -cap ta in who mu s ta ccep t ac a rgo f r om t h ec hu rch i nT he L i f eo fS tJ o hn t h eA lm sg iv e r( s ee a bove ,4 6 ) 9 5

C ommun ica t ion a nd C ommerce a long t h e W e s tern S ea lane s AD400 -800

s hows t ha t t he i ndependence o f t hese o pe ra tor s wa s a ma t te ro fs ome p r ide .I nt h e wes tern s ea lane s we mu s ta l so p resume t he e x i s tence o f owne r -ope ra ted v es se l s . We f i nd s h ips wo rk ing r egu la r ly f o r mona s te r ies , s uch a si nt he V i t aF i l ibe r t i( s ee a bove ,7 2 ) .I nt he V i ta C o lumbae ,L ibran i s r e fused p assage b yi n as h ip 's c r ew i nD e r ry , who ' r epe l led h im a nd wou ld n o tr e ce ive h im b ecause t hey w e re n o to f t h e monk s o f S a in t C o lumba ' ( s ed i p s i n on s u sc ip ien t e s r e f u tav e run te um q u i an on e r an td em onac i ss anc t iC o lumbae — V i t aC o lumb ae 1 .39 ,e d . &t r an s . Ander son a nd Ande r son 1 961 ,4 28 -9 ) . Whe ther t he s a i lo r sw ere a c tualy monk si s amb iguous . I n1 986 t h ew r i ter ( Wood ing 1 987 ,1 17 ) ,f olow i ng t he s ugges t ion o f my c oleague J ohn P ryo r ,d i scussed t he i dea t ha t t he mode r n ' t ramp s t eame r ' p rov ided a mode lt oa s s i s ti ne xp la in ing t he n a tu re o fw es te rn s ea lane s s h ipp ing .T h i st e rm h a sb een u sed b yo the r sr e cen t ly i na s l igh t ly d i f fe ren ts en se t o my u se a nd r equ i re sc l ea rd e f i n i t ion . A' t ramp s t eame r ' i s av es se l wh ich t r ave l s f r om p o r tt op or t , wherever ac a rgo i sa va i lab le .I tmay s a i lo ne r ou te r egu la r ly ,b u t d oe sn o tr e ly o n d o ing s o . I t sc a rgo may v ary f r om as i ng le e l emen t , t o ac ompo s i te o fe l e men t s , maybe c on s igned t o mo re t han o ne d es t ina t ion . S ome e l emen t s may h ave c ar tage p re -pa id ,s ome may b e o rdered i n a dvance a nd t he o pe ra to r s may a l so h ave b ough tg ood so n as pecu la t ive b as i s .I ft he p r ice wa sr i gh t ap assenger m igh tb ea lt ha ti sc a r r ied ,t hough o ne wou ld s uspec tt ha tg oods f o rs a le wou ld b ec a r r ied o nt he c hance t ha te x t ra p ro f i tm igh tb e made .T he re i sl i t t le d oub tt ha t w es tern s ea lane st r a f f i c wa s mo s t ly o nt h i s mode l . Mo s t r e fe rences t os h ips i mp ly i ndependence f r om e i the re c c le s i as t ica lo rr oya lc on t ro l :a tl e a s t amb igu i ty o nt h is p o in t . T he mode l h a s v al id i ty i n h e lp ing t o e xp la in t r ade i n v ar ious g oods i n r e cu r ren t p a t te r n s a nd c an o f f se t t he mono l i th ic i mage o f e s tabl i shed t r ade c ond i t ion ing t h e movemen to ft r ave l ler s .I nt he c a se o fr oya l ty a nd i mpo r t an tc l ergy , who a re a lmos to u ro n ly r e co rded p a s senge r s o nv oyages o ver l ong d i s tances ,i ti sp os s ib le t ha tc omm i s s i ons t o c a r ry p a ssenge r s made v iab le l onger -d i s tance v oyage sa nd t ha tt r ade g oods we re c a r r ied i n i t ialy o n ly a s as i de l ine . T he t r amp s t eamer m igh t g o t o p o r t s i n a d i f feren to rde ro nd i f fe ren tv oyage sa nd m igh ts o me t imes t ake c oas ta lt r a f f ic a sw e l la si n terna t iona l . A rchaeo log ica lu se o ft he ' t ramp s t eame r ' mode l h a sb een t oo l im i ted i nt he we s te r ns ea lane sc on tex t :w i th T homa sa nd C ampbel c i t ing t he t e rm o n ly i n ap o lem ica l r e spon se t ot ho se who wou ld a ccep t am in ima ln umbe ro f c a rgoe sa sb e ing r e spon s ib le f o rb r ing ing i mpo r ted c e ram i c s t o wes te r n B r i ta in a nd I r e land . T h i s s usp ic ion o f r educ t ion ism i st yp ica l o f a r chaeo log ica l a pproache s t o a s semb lages wh ich a r e f a r f r om f uly k nown —A l cock 's r e cen td i scu ss ion o ft he p rob lem o fe s t ima t ing t h en umber o f ampho rae f r om s he rd q uan t i t ie s i s mak ing t h e s ame p o in t ( A lcock a nd A lco ck 1 990 , 1 38 -9 ) . T he se a r e a rgu men t sa ga in s tt h ei mpo s i t ion o fs i ng le -e lemen t ,b u lk c a rgo mode l s .T he t r amp s t eamer mode lh a sl i t t le t oo f fe rt h e se a rgumen t s , h owever , a s t he l i ke l ihood i st ha t at r amp s t eame r wou ld n o th ave r epea ted ly made t h es ame l ong v oyage o ver many y ea r s .I nt h ec a se o fb o th t he ampho rae a nd Ewa re p o t te ry t he e v idence d oes n o ts ugge s ti mpo r t a t ion o ve r al ong p er iod . 9 6

R ou t e so fT r af f i c A r te fac t s wh ich d emon s t ra te ama r i t ime d i s t r ibu t ion o f fe r p o ten t ia lt oi den t i fy t he p a ths o f ma r i t ime e xchange a nd t o l o ca te t h e p o r t s whe re s h ips l a nded . I n t h e f o l low ing d iscus s ion ,c en te r ing o nt he d i s t r ibu t ion o f Ewa re , we w i l l l ook a tp o ss ib le r ou tes i n to a nd w i th in t he I r i sh S ea a nd t he ma r i t ime c on s ide ra t ion so fv oyage s .I ti sc on tended h e re t ha t mo re a nd l e s sp robab le s pecu la t ion sa st ou se o ft he se s ea lane s c an b e made f r om c r i t i ca lu se o fa r chaeo log ica l a nd l i t e ra ry s ou rce s ,a l ong w i th i npu tf r om ma r ine d a ta . F i r s t we mus tc on s ider t h ed i s t r ibu t ion p a t tern so f t he i mpor t ed a r te fac t sa nd h ow much t hese p a t te rns may r epresen tt h eo r ig ina lp a th so fi mpo r ta t ion a nd r ed i s t r ibu t i on . T he q uan t i ty o f E wa re s e em s f a r t oo g rea t t o b e e xp la ined b yo ne ,s pecu la t ive c a rgo —no ri si tt h et ype o f g ood ( unl ike t h e Med i te r ranean a mphorae a nd t h e i rc on t en ts ) wh ich wou ld b el i ke ly t of o rm t h eb u lk o f as i ng le c argo . T he o ve ral E wa re f o rm s a r e v e ry u n i fo rm a nd t he re a ppea rt ob en og rounds f o rc l a im ing t ha tw eh ave a d iver s i ty o fc on t inen ta l wa res i nt h i s c l a ss —excep t p er h aps i n t he c a se o f t he n umer ica l ly s mal c l a ss o f E iv ( whe re t here a r et wo d i s t inc t ly d i f fe ren tf o rm so fs pou t ) . Any d emand f o rp o t tery i n wes te r nB r i ta in a nd I r e land a t t h i st ime was b e ing f i led b yi mpor t sf r om o ne c on t inen ta l c en t re .E i the rw e mu s ti mag ine t ha tr e gu la rv oyage sf r om I r e land w ere o n ly c onverg ing o no ne c on t inen ta lc en t re t o o b ta in p o t tery o r ,f a r mo re l i ke ly ,t ha tt h ei mpe tu sf o rt he i mpo r t s wa sG aul i sh a nd t ha to ne s e to f' s a i lors f r om G au l ' were b r ing ing i nt he i rl o ca lp o t tery . T he f a c tt h a tt he l a rges tc oncen t ra t ions o f Ew a re a re i nt he n o r th o ft h e I r i sh S ea b as in s ugge s t s t ha t f o re ign v es se l sc a r r ied t h e wa res i n to t he n o r th o ft he z one — l ike Adomnän 's g a l l i cn au t ae g o ing a s f a rn or th a s t h e C lyde e s tua ry a nd a d ja cen t wa te r s . T h i s i sn o t t o s ay t ha t a l d i scover ie so ft h e wa re a tc oa s ta ls i te sa r ep r imary i mpo r t a t ion s . We may i ndeed d i s t ingu i sh ap r imary v oyage f r om s e conda ry d i s t r ibu t ion s ,t hough t h es e conda ry v oy a ges we re p robab ly o ve r as hor te r d i s tance t han t h e r ed is t r ibu t ive v oyage s wh ich c a r r ied t h e Med i te r ranean wa re s n or thwa rd —a s t he l a t te r a re c on cen t ra ted i nt he s ou th o ft h eI r i sh S ea z one a nd t he p r ima ry v oyage ss e em l i ke ly t oh ave s t opped t he re . Al ook a t as imp le d i s t r ibu t ion map o f E wa re i s l a rge ly ar ef lec t ion o fa r chaeo log ica le n te rp r ise ,h owever , r a ther t han ab a s ic g u ide t o ma r i t ime r ou tes . We may o f f se tt h i sp rob lem b yd i scu ss ion o ft he c ha rac ter o fs ome o ft he i nd iv idua ls i te s .I nt he e a rl i es td i scove r ies o f Ewa re , c l us ter so fd o t sa ppeared o nt he map t h rough i nd iv idua l e ven ts s uch a s t h e Ha rva rd a r chaeo log i ca l m iss ion a nd c on cen t ra ted wo rk o nt h ee a r ly med ieva lp e r iod b yO 'Kely , A lcock , T homa s , L ane a nd C ampbe l l i nd i f feren tp la ce s a nd d ecades . Mo s t o ft he e a r l ie s tr e sea r ch was o n o bv i o us ly h igh -s ta tu ss i te ss uch a sG a r rane s ,G a r rydu f f ,L ago r e , Dunadd a nd D ina sP owy s . F inds f r om amo re e conom i c a l ly d ive r se r ange o f s i tes h ave o n ly b een a dded w i th mo re s y s tema t ic e xcava t ion wo rk :f o re xamp le i n No r th e rn I r e land , s i nce 1 950 ( e .g . A r magh , C o . A rmagh , B a l ly founder , Downpa t r ick a nd L ough F aughan , C o . Down ,L i sdhu C o .F e rmanagh ,S c rabo ,C o .D e r ry ,T eeshan , C o . An t r im ) ; a nd t h e R epub l ic o f I r e land s i nce 1 970

C hap t er S even :R ou t e so f Mar i t ime T rad e

( Derrynaf lan a nd K i l lededad rum ,C o .T ippe rary ,K i l lucan C o . We s tmea th , R anda ls town , C o . Mea th , R ea sk , C o . K erry ) .T h i si sa l so s een mos tr e cen t ly i nS c i l ly , whe re t h e n u mber o ff i nd -s i tes o f Ewa re h a sd oub led a s ar e su l to f T homa s ' f o cu s o n t he se i s lands s i nce 1 980 . T he g rea te s t c oncen t ra t ion o f E wa re f i nds i si n Nor the rn I r e land a nd s ou thern S co t land , t hough t he f a c t t ha t many s i te s we re a bandoned i n Nor the rn I r e land a tt h e e nd o f t he e a r ly Chr i s t ian p er iod h a sa ided i nt he r e covery o f much d a ta i n t ha tr eg ion .

No r th Wa le s D ina s Em ry s , Gwynedd E C JW S co t land A be r co r n , We s tL o th ian E C CT JW C ra ig s Quar ry ,E as tL o th ian E C JW Din A rd t reck ,S kye E C E l ie ,F i fe sh i re E C

Ewa re f i nd sa sl i s ted i nT homa s , AP rov i s ion a lL i s t ,p p .2 0 2 4 . Add i t ion s a nd D e le t ion s a r e g i ven h e re i nT homa s ' f o rma t . F orm s p re sen t a re n o ted whe re k nown . An ew , c o mp le te ,c a ta logue i se xpec ted s ho r t ly f r om t he work o f Ewan C ampbel . I den t i f ica t ion sb y : LA = L esl i e A lcock , EC = Ewan C ampbel , MOD = Ma ry O 'Donne l l , CT = Cha r le sT ho mas , JW =J ona than Wood ing .

Add i t ion s S ou th -we s tB r i ta in B ryhe r ,I s le o fS c i l ly ( Thomas ,' B ryhe r ' ) C T D ia lR o ck sH i l l ,I s le o fS c i l ly ( Thoma s ,' B ryhe r ' )

C T

May ' sH i l l ,I s le o fS c i l ly ( Thomas i nF .T u rk ,' AS tudy ' ,p p .7 8 -80 ) 1 / E i C T JW S eve rn —Sou th Wa le s C a ldey I s land , Dy fed ( Campbe l l , 1 989a ) . 1 / E i E C i s le o fM an P or t eC andas ,G e rman ,I s le o f Man E C S co t land A rd i fu i r , A rgy l l ( i n Na t iona l Mu seum o f An t iqu i t ie s , E d in b u rgh )1 / E i JW LA L och spou t s ,A rgy l l( La ing ,' Cook ing P o t s ' ,p p .1 85 -92 )E iE C JW Wh i tho rn , Wig town sh i re ( H i l l ,p e r s . c omm . a nd a u tho r 's o bse r v a t ion s ) 1 0/ E i , 1 / E i i ,4 / E i i i , 1 / E iv JW E C I r e land C lonmacno is ( 4s he rds ,H ea the rK ing ,p e r sc omm . ) . D e r rynaf lan ,C o .T ippe ra ry 1 / E i JW E C K ed rah , Co .T ippe rary E C L i s leagh , Co .C o rk MOD Ma r she s Uppe r ,C o .L ou th E C Moynagh L ough C rann6g ,C o . Mea th E C

D e le t ion s : S ou th -we s tB r i ta in H e l le svean ,C or nwa l l C T JW

L i t t le Dunago i l ,B u te E C L uce B ay ,W ig town sh i re E C I r e land N end rum ,C o . D own MOD

G row th o f t h e d i s t r ibu t ion i n l a s t t wo d ecades h a s f o l l owed ad i s t in c tp a t te rn ,h oweve r : n ew f i nds h ave b een f r om a r eas whe re E wa re wa sa l ready f ound , o ri na rea s c l o se ly l i nked . Odd f i nds i na rea so therw i se b a re o f Ewa re h ave b een g radualy r e cogn ised a sm i s iden t if i ed :s uch a s D ina s Em rys i n Gwynedd ( i n spec ted b yt he a u tho ri nt he Na t iona l Mu seum o f Wa les i n1 988 ) ,f i nds f r om L o th ian ( Cra ig s Qua r ry , Abercorn ) a nd o ne f r om S kye ( D lin A rd t reck ) .S ome a r ea sr ema in u nce r ta in ,h owever , ow ing t o al a ck o fa b i l i ty t oi den t i fy e a r ly med ieva ls i te s .L ane a nd C ampbel ,w i th p e r s is tence ,h ave i d en t i f ied an umbe ro f e a r ly med ieva l s i te s i n S ou th Wa le s— in Dy fed t wo o f t h e se , b o th u n fo r t i f ied a nd o n ly l o ca ted b y s t ray f i nd s , p roduc ing Ewa re ( Longbu ry B ank ,C a ldey I s land ) . B r i t t any h a ss im i la rp rob lem s ,w i th n one o fi t se a r ly med ieva l s i tes b e ing i d en t i f iab le b yv i s ib le morpho logy ( G io ta nd F l eu r io t1 977 , 10 ) . S ome a r ea sa r en ow v e ry l i ke ly t ob ee xc luded f r om t h ed i s t r ibu t ion . McPeake 's s ugges t ion t ha t Ewa re e x i s ted i n C he s te r ( McPeake e ta l . 1 980 , 1 43 8 ) w as i naccura te . D e sp i te i t s I r i sh S ea o u t look i t was ar e la t ive ly i s o la ted p o r t ( Gr i f f i th s 1 992a , 6 8 f f ) . S ome r se t h a s s een e nough a r chaeo log i ca le ndeavou rt oh ave t u rned u p Ewa re i fs uch w e re t h e re .C en t ra la nd w es te r nC or nwal r ema in al i t t le mo re p uzz l ing . P i ece s o f E wa re f r om H igh P eak a nd B an tham , o nt h es ou th c oa s to fD evon ,a nd Gu isseny o n t h en o r th B re ton c oa s t ,s e em t os ugges tt ha t Ewa re c ou ld h ave b een i mpo r ted i nc a rgoe sb rough ti n to t he E ng l ish C hanne l , t hough , i fs o ,t he p auc i ty o ff i nds d oes n o ty e t i nd ica te whe the rs uch a c t iv i ty f o cu ssed o ne i the rs hore i n p a r t icu la r ,o r wa sp r imary o rr ed is t r ibu t ive i nc ha rac te r . Ewa re o ccur rence w il c on t inue t oi n c rea se ,a si ti s c l ea rt ha tw eh ave o n ly f ound asma l lp e rcen tage o ft he amoun ti mpo r ted ,b u tt h eo ccu r rence sw i l lp robab ly n ow b e mo re p red ic tab le .T he l a rge s tt o ta l so f Ewa re a ti nd i v idua ls i te sh ave b een f ound a t Dunadd , Wh i tho rn ,D ina s P owy s a nd G a r rydu f f . Al o f t hese s i tes h ave b een t he s ub jec to fs u s ta ined e xcava t ion o ve rs eve ra ly ea r s— in t h e c a se o ft h ee a r ly t wen t ie th c en tu ry e xcava t ion sa t Dunadd t h et e chn ique s u sed w e re p r im i t ive a nd l i ke ly t oe x t ra c t l a rge rp e rcen tages o ff i nds t han wou ld b e t he c a se w i th modern me thod s .T he q uan t i t ie sf ound r ange f r om a round 2 0v e s se l sa t Dunadd a nd 1 6a t Wh i thorn t os i ng le v esse l s 9 7

C ommun ica t ion a nd C ommer ce a long t h e W e s ter nS ea lane s AD400 -800

a tt he ma jo r i ty o fs i te s .F o rc ompa r i son w e may n o te t ha t n os i ng le s i te c on ta ins a sl a rge ap ropor t ion o ft h ee n t i re i n su la ra s semb lage o f Ewa re a st he T in tage la s semb lage d oes f o rt he Med i te r ranean wa re s .T h i si sn o t aq ue s t ion o f s ca le o fe xcava t ion a sa tT in tage lt he Med i te r ranean p o t t e ry i s au b iqu i tou ss u r face f i nd . Al o ft h i si nd ica tes t ha t Ewa re was p robab ly as ubs id ia ry g ood ,n ever f o rm ing t h e p hys ica l( l e ta l one e conom ic )c o re o f as i ng le c a rgo . T he f i nds o fs i ng le v e sse l s mu s tb e s e t i nc on tex t w i th t he r eg ion i n wh ich t hey a r ef ound . One v e s se lf r om at o taly e xcava ted s i te a tT re thu rgy i nC o rnwa l li se xp l i c ab le i nt e rm so ft h eg ene ra lr a r i ty o f Ew a re i nt he s ou th wes tp en insu la .S ing le f i nds f r om s i te so nt h eI s le o f Man mu s tb e s een i nt h e l i gh to fc ompa ra t ive ly l i t t le e xcava t i on — though t he a bsen ce o f E wa re f r om r e cen t ma jo r e xcava t ion s a tP ee l i si n teres t ing t on o te ( F reke 1 983 -7 ) , e ven t hough i ti sf ound a tt he n ea rby s i te o fP or te C anda s ( German ) . Odd f i nds t h rough t r ia l t rench ing a t Wh i thorn a nd L ongbu ry B ank h ave e xpanded n a tu ra l ly a l ong w i th t he a s semb lage s— in a r ea s where Ewa re h ad p rev iou s ly b een r a re . On t h eo the rh and , as i ng le f i nd f r om P roud foo t ' s n ar row t r ench a t Downpa t r ick h a sn o tb een s i gn i f ican t ly a dded t o b y l a te r e x cava t ion , e ven t hough E wa re i s u b iqu i tous i n No r thern I r e land . I tc an b es een t ha to u rp a t te rn i sa ch iev ing g rea te r s t ab i l i ty when we n o te t ha t mo re f i nds a r eb e ing made i n t he h in ter land o ft he s i te s whe re t h el a rge s tt o ta l sa l ready e x i s t . A round Dunadd , E wa re f i nd s i d en t i f ied f r om A rd i fau r ,L och G la shan , Duno l l ie a nd Dumba r ton i nr e c en t d ecades h ave h e lped i nd e f in ing ah in te r land p rov i n ce .F ind sf r om L i sdhu i nC o .F e rmanagh a r el i ke ly t ob e c l ose ly l i nked t ot he c en t re a tC loghe r ,a nd f i nds i n No r th C o .C o rk a nd T ippe ra ry e x tend t he r ange o ff i nd sa t ma jo r s i tes i nS ou th C o rk .R ou tes i na nd o u to fD ina sP owys c an b er e la ted t o more r e cen tf i nds a tL e sse rG a r th C ave a nd i n Dy fed . T he D i s t r ibu t ion o fG la s s V e s se l s Wi th t he d i sm i ssa lo f Ha rden 's t h e s i sf r om c on s ide ra t ion , c ompa r i son so ft he A t lan t i cg l as sa nd Ewa re d i s t r ibu t ion s h ave a ga in b een made ,t hough f ew d i scus s ion sh ave a p p ea red i n p r in t ( Wood ing 1 992 ) . Ewan C ampbel ( p e r s . c omm . ) c on s ider s t he t wo t ob e r e la ted i mpo r t s a nd t h i s i dea i s wor thy o fd i scu ss ion . T he g l a s swa re d i s t r ibu t ion i sh eav i ly we igh ted t o ward t he e a s te r ns i de o ft he I r ish S ea , i nc on t ra s t t ot h e wes tern a nd n or the rn f o cu s o f E wa re . V e ry l a rge t o ta l s f r om D ina s P owys a nd Wh i tho rn c e r ta in ly r e f lec t t he l a rge rs ca le o fe xcava t ion a tt ho se s i te s .D i f fe rence si ns c a le b e tween e xcava t ion si nI r e land a nd w e s te r nB r i ta in c ou ld a ccoun t f o r d i f fe rence s . V e ry f ew o f t h e h umb le r s i te s p roduc ing E wa re h ave p roduced g l a ss f i nds , e i ther i n B r i ta in o r I r e land . T he h igh s t a tus s i te s i n I r e land i n g enera l h ave n o t b een e xcava ted o n t h e s c a le o fD ina s P owy s , Dunadd o r Wh i thorn . T h i s i sc e r ta in ly l i ke ly t o make t he d i s tr ibu t ion l ops ided . T he s i tua t ion i sn o t t h e s ame a sw i th p a l&chr g t i enne g r i se , whe re t h e re i sn oI r i sh d i s t r ibu t ion a ta l . None the less , a sn o ted p rev iou s ly , t h e g l a ss f i nds c ompa re i n te res t ing ly w i th t h er ed i s t r ibu t ive p a t tern o f t he Med i te r ranean wa re s i nb e ing f ound i n 9 8

q uan t i ty a ts i te si n we s te rn B r i ta in a nd a t Da lkey I s land , b u ti nl e s ser q uan t i t ies e l sewhere i nI r e land — though g lass i sf ound a ts i te si nC o . Mea th ,a t Dunadd a nd a tt h e Mo te o f Ma rk , whe rea st he Med i ter reanean wa res a r en o t . R ou t e so fMar i t ime T r af f i c :T he S ev e rn a nd S ou the rn C o a s t so f I r e l and a nd B r i ta in T he p a t te rn o fB r i s to l Channe lt r a f f i c , wh ich we h ave s een i nt h es i x th c en tu ry w i th r egard t ot h ed i s t r ibu t ion o ft he Med i te r ranean wa res ,i sn o tr ep l ica ted i nt he s even th . On t he n o r th s i de t he re may h ave b een l i t t le c hange . T he We l sh s i te so fD ina sP owy sa nd L ongbu ry B ank p roduce t he f u l lr ange o fG au l i sh i mpo r tc l a s se s : E wa re , D wa re a nd ' Me rov ing ian 'g la ss ,w i th f ur the rf i nds o f Ew a re a nd g l a ss i nG lamo rgan a nd Dy fed .T he Ew a re a tl e a s tc an b e e xp la ined b y al and fa l l i n G la mo rgan , c l ose t o D inas P owys ( pe rhap s i nC a rd i f fi t se l f ) a nd a no ther a tC a ldey I s land i n Dy fed , n ear t oL ongbury B ank . T here i sg ood r ea son t os e e t h e L e sse r G a r th f i nd s a sl i nked t oD ina s P owy s . C ampbel h as s ugge s ted t ha ti r on o re s ou r ce s a t L es se rG a r th s uppl i ed t he i r on -work ing a c t iv i t ie sa tD ina s P owy s ( Campbel 1 988b , 8 6 -7 ) . T he L ongbury B ank s i te was c l ea r ly i nc on tac tw i th t he i s land mona s tery o fC a ldey ( Campbe l l1 989a ,2 59 f f ) . T he f i nds o fe a r l ie ri mpo r ts a tC ong resbu ry ,v i r tu a ly o nt h es ame l ong i tude a sD inas P owy s ,s ugge s tt ha t t he v oyage s , r ed is t r ibu t ive o r p r i ma ry , wh ich t ook t h e Med i te r ranean wa res t o D ina s P owy s , C oygan C amp , L ongbu ry B ank a nd C a ldey we re l i ke ly t oh ave b een t h e s a me a sb rough tt he wa re st oS omerse t .T h i sp a t tern i sn o t r epl i ca ted i nt h es even th c en tu ry f i nds .O nt he s ou th s i de o ft h eB r is to lC hanne l Ewa re i sf ound n of u r ther e a s tt han T he K e ls ie s( n ea r Newquay )a nd Ewa re i sc on sp icuou s ly a bsen t f r om t h e h eav i ly -excava ted s i te s o fT in tage l a nd C ong re sbu ry , whe re i ti sa cco rd ing ly u n l ike ly e ve rt ob e f ound . T he re a r ec on t inen ta lg l a ss f i nd sa tC ong re sbury , b u tt he se c on ta in av e ry s ubs tan t ia lS axon c o mponen t . We m igh ts ugges tt h en t ha tt here i sar e a lc hange t o t he p a t tern o fc on tac t i nt h is a r ea . T he r e lo ca t ing o ft h e p a l6 o chra ienne g r i se a nd much o f t he g l a s s t o aB r i t i sh f o cu sed t r ad ing n e two rk o f t he m id -s ix th c en tury , p ro p osed i nC hap te rF ive , wou ld s ee i ts epa ra ted f r om t h eE wa re e v idence , wh i ch may s ugge s tt ha tt h eB r is to lC han n e lb ecame l e s sc en t ra la f ter S axon i ncu r s ion si n to No r th S ome r se ta nd D evon .B yt he m id seven th c en tury i mpo r t s i n to Dy fed a nd G lamorgan may h ave b een c om ing f r om I r e land . T he we igh to ft h ed i s t r ibu t ion o f Ew a re i s ,a f te r a l l ,t owa rds t he n or th o ft h ez one a nd t he ma r i t ime i n cen t i ve sf o r av oyage n o r th a l ong t h ee as tern s ho re o ft he I r i sh S ea a re n o ta sg rea ta sa l ong t he wes tern s ho re . P a r t i cu la r ly i n tere s t ing i n t h is c onnec t ion i st h e h ag iog raph ica l e v idence l i nk ing C a ldey t oI r e land , i m p l ied t ob e mo re t h an a ni s o la ted v oyage ( s ee a bove ,6 2 ) . T he l i nk s i n me ta lwo rk f i nds b e tween G lamo rgan a nd Mea th a r ea l so e spec ia l ly c ompe l l ing . Ap enann .u la rb roo ch f r agmen tf r om D inas P owys i so fK i lbr ide Jone sC lass C 4 , o ne o f t he o n ly f i rm ly -p rovenanced t ype s , c en t r ing o n C oun ty Mea th ( Graham -Campbe l l1 987 ,1 22 -4 ) .T h is i nd i c a te se i the rt h ep re sen ce o fa nI r i sh c ra f t sman ,o r ad i rec t i mpo r tf r om I r e land .G raham -Campbe l l wou ld f avour t he

C hap ter S even :R ou te so f Mar i t ime T rad e

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1 0-19

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2 -9

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1

S ugges ted R ou tes o f I mpor ta t ion : P r ima ry V oya ge s S e conda ry V o yage s

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9 9

C ommun ica t ion a nd C ommerce a long t h e W e s tern S ea lane s AD400 -800

G lass v esse ls o f ' A t lant ic ' t ype : B r i t ish a nd I r ish d istr ibu t ion

1 00

C hap t er S even :R ou te so f Mar i t ime T rad e

l a t te r( Graham -Campbel 1 991 ,2 24 )a nd s ugges t s at r ade i n s c rap me ta l a s t he mos t l i ke ly e xp lana t ion . T h i s i s p lau s ib le ,t hough I r ish s t y le me ta lwo rk a l so o ccu r so na n i ndu s t r ia ls i te a tL esse rG arth ( A lcock 1 959 ,2 21 -7 ) .T he E wa re c ou ld e a s i ly b e as e conda ry i mpor t f r om I r e land , a l so . I t s a b sence f r om mos t o the r p a r t s o f t h e B r i s to l C hanne l make D inas P owys l e ss l i ke ly t oh ave b een p r i ma ry i mpo r ta t ion p o in tf r om t h ec on t inen t . On t he o the rh and , ap r ima ry l a nd fa l li nS c ily i sn o t E ware p o t te ry o ccu r s t he re o n s o me 6 s i te s ( B ryhe r ,D ia lR ock sH il ( T re sco ) , May sH i l l( S t Ma r t in s ) , S am son ,S t Ma ry 's , T ean ) a nd mos to ft h eo the rC o rn i sh f i nds a re i nt h ev ery we s to fC o rnwa l l , whe re t h ey c ou ld b e s e conda ry d i s t r ibu t ion sf r om S c ily .T he ma r i t i me a dvan t age s o fS c i l ly a s ap r ima ry l a nd fa l l f r om t h e c on t inen t h ave b een o u t l ined i nc hap ter 4 .T he p r imary i nvo lvemen t o fS c ily i nv oyages i n to t h eI r i sh S ea z one i nt he s even th c en tu ry , h oweve r , c ou ld j u s t a s e a s i ly b e e n r ou te t o s ou thern o re as te rn I r e land a st ot he B r i s to lC hanne lp o r t s . Ou to fS c i l ly , Ewa re f i nd sa t Gw i th ian p o in tt ot h en atu ra l h a rbou r o f S t I ves B ay . F ind s o n a n u nenc lo sed s i te , wa shed b y t he t i de , a tB an tham , o n t h e s ou th c oa s t o f D evon p o in tt o al and fal t he re .I nb o th c a se st h i si sl i ke ly t oh ave b een ac oas ta lt r ad ing v oyage o u to fS c i l ly . T h eE a s tC o a s to fI r e land a nd N or th W a l e s T he q uan t i ty o f Ewa re p o t te ry f r om C o .C o rk wou ld make i tal i ke ly ap r ima ry l and fal b y af o re ign v e sse l .I ndeed i n v i ew o ft h e p rob lem s o ft he o u t fa l l o ft h e mou th o ft h e E ngl i sh C hanne l , av e s se ls e t t ing o n an o r thwa rd v oyage f r om B r i t tany m igh te a s i ly f i nd c ond i t ion sf o rl a nd ing i n S c i l ly u n favou rab le a nd h ead i n s tead f o r Mun s te r , wh ich may t hen h ave a l te r na ted w i th S c i l ly a s ap r ima ry l and fal f r om a broad . A c l u s te r o f s i te s w i th in r each o f C o rk h arbou rm igh tf avou rt h i sa st h ep r in c ipa ll and ing p o in t . F rom Mun s te ri ti sp o s s ib le t o make ab road r ea ch a c ro s s t he p reva i l ing w ind t ot h ee as to rt he w es t .F inds o f Ewa re a tR ea sk a nd I n ishcea l t ra d on o tn ece ssa r i ly i mp ly v oy a ge sf r om Gau ld i rec t ly i n to t h eS hannon .T he u n rel iab le s t ory i n t he V i ta K y ar an i ( s ee a bove , 5 9 ) r epre sen t s t he c omme r c ia l i n te res t s o f al a te r a ge , when s h ips f r om F ran ce s ough tf i sh f r om t he S hannon a sp a r to fr e s t r ic ted med ieva lc ommod i ty n e twork s , wh i ch d id n o to b ta in i n o u rp e r iod . T ha tt he S hannon p layed as e conda ry r o le i n d i s t r ibu t ion o f E wa re s e em su ndoub ted ( perhaps a l ong w i th f i sh f o rl o ca l ma rke t s ) ,b u t( c on t r aT homa s )t h et r a i lo f Ewa re t o We s tmea th f r om Dub l in s e em se qua l ly l i ke ly t o h ave f i r s tb rough tt he wa re t ot h eS hannon s ho res , o n ly f r om t h e re t ob ed i s t r ibu ted s ou thwa rd t oI n i scea l t ra a nd R ea sk .S tS amson 's v oyage s e em st oi nd ica te t h ep resence o f ap o r ti n Dub l in B ay ( s ee a bove ,6 2 ) .T homa s ,h oweve r , wou ld s ugges t t ha t as i te i n t h e B oyne e s tua ry i s mo re l i ke ly t ob e r e spons ib le f o r t h e Ew a re f i nd s w es t i n to Mea th ( Thoma s1 990 ,2 1 ) . A s we h ave s e en , v oyage s u p t h e I r i sh S ea t oI r e l and ,S co t land a nd Wa le s a re s ugges ted b yb o th l i t era ry a nd a r chaeo log ica le v idence .T ha tt h e se f olowed t h e we s t e rn s ho res ,i . e .t he e a sy c oa s to fI r e l and , wou ld s e em mo s t l og ica li n mar i t i me t e rm s .S ign i f ican to bs tac le se x i s to nt h e c oa s to f Wa les ,e spec ia l ly Dy fed , wh i ch i sh eav i ly e ncum -

b e red w i th s hoa l s .A ta l lt ime so ft he y ea r ,e xcep tS pr ing , s ou th -wes te r ly w inds a r e mo s tp reva len t .I nS ummer t he c hance so f awe s ter ly o rs ou th -we s te r ly i nt he I r i sh S ea a re a round 6 0% . T he e v idence o f Ewa re p o t te ry ,p resen ti n g rea te r amoun t s o n t h e we s te rn s ho re s o ft he I r ish S ea , may r ef lec t t h e ma r i t ime c once r n s o f s a i lo r s f r om t he c on t inen tf avou r ing t he s a fe rw e s te r ns ho re o ft he I r i sh S ea i nt he f a ce o fp reva i l ing c ond i t ion s wh ich r ende red t he e as te rn s ho re l e ss s a fe f o rn o r thward n av iga t ion .T ha tt he g l a ss a nd Med i te r ranean wa res ,o the rw i se r a re i ne a s tern I r e land , a r e f ound i n q uan t i ty a t D a lkey I s land m igh t s ugge s tt ha te ven aB r i t i sh focu sed n e twork wou ld p ro c eed n o r th v i a al e gt owa rd t h ee a s tc oa s to fI r e land ( s ee a bove ,5 2 ,6 1 -2 ) . T he re i sn o E wa re i n Gwynedd . Med i te r ranean f i nds , h oweve r , a re r epor ted f r om D inas Emry s a nd D egannwy i n Gwynedd ,t hough b o th a r ep rob lema t ica l . T he D ina s Em ry s ma te r ia lo fd e f in i te e a r ly med ieva lt ype i sl im i ted —even t he Med i ter ranean p o t te ry i samb iguou s , b e ing o fC la ss 4 5 , wh ich c an b eo fe i the rR oman o rp os t R oman d a te — the v ery f r agmen ta ry D egannwy B wa re h as b een i mpo s s ib le t ol o ca te f o rr e -exam ina t ion . B ede 's t e s t imony t o Ang lo -Saxon i n cu r s ion si n to Gwynedd a nd Man i nt he 6 20 s , wh ich h ec l a im s' b rough tt he i s les o f Man a nd Ang lesey u nde r E ngl i sh r u le ' ( Bede , HE 1 .9 , e d . & t r an s .C o lg rave a nd Myno r s1 969 ,1 62 -3 ) , may a ccoun tf o r t h ea bsence o ft he s o r t so fc onnec t ion s wh ich m igh th ave b rough ti n Ewa re . T he N or the rn B a s in o ft h eI r i sh S e a I nt he n o r the rn b a s in o ft he I r i sh S ea ,t i da ls t ream si nt he S o lway a re e spec ialy s t rong ,a sa r et ho se o f ft he c oas to f L ancash i re . On t he S o lway c oa s t ,n o Ewa re o ccu r se a s to f t he Mo te o f Ma rk , wh i le n oi mpo r ted c e ram ics a re f ound a ta li nt he Me r sey a r ea ,t hough t h i si sl i ke ly t or ef l ec tt he b ounda ry b e tween C e l ta nd S axon a s much a st he d ange r o us t i des a nd s hoa l s . B owen h igh l igh t st he r o le o ft h eI s le o f Man i nI r ish S ea t r a f f i c ( Bowen 1 969b ,2 6 -7 ) ,t hough a ne a r ly Ang l ian p re sence h e re i sa l so s ugge s ted b y B ede . T he l a ck o f e xcava t ion o n Man r ende r si t sr o le u ncer ta in .C e r ta in ly i t i sal i ke ly s t opp ing p o in ta nd l andma rk f o rv es se l so pe ra t i ng a round t h es i gn i f i can tr eg ion o f Wh i tho r n .T ida ls t ream s d iv ide a round Man a nd f r om Man as h ip c an wa i tt op i ck u p at i da ls t ream t oa lmo s ta ny p a r to ft he r eg ion . A ma jo r s l a ck wa te ra r ea i sp resen to f fC oun ty L ou th ,b e tween t he B oyne mou th a nd U l s te ra nd ad e tour t oward Man i so f ten n ece ssary f o r as a i l ing v es se lh ead ing n o r th a l ong t he I r i sh c oa s t .T he h ighe s tp o in to f Man ,S nae fel ,i s6 20 me t re sa nd c an b e v i ewed f r om b o th I r e land a nd S co t land , t hough c l oud e nve lops i tmuch o ft he t ime .I ts hou ld b en o ted i n p ass ing t ha te xcava t ion i nt he I s le o f Ma l l may h ave much t ot el u sa bou tt h ep o ss ib le d iv is ion sb e tween ' B r i t i sh 'a nd ' I r i sh 't r ad ing p rov ince s . F ind so f Ewa re i n No r thern I r e land a re v e ry l i ke ly t oh ave b een f r om ap r ima ry v oyage f r om t he c on t inen t .A c l u s ter o ff i nd si nC o .D own m igh th igh l igh tt h i sc oa s ta s ap r imary l and fa l l ,r a ther t han t he t r eache rous c ond i t ion s o fB e l fa s to rt h e An t r im c oa s t . Un l ike t he S ound o fJ ura ,t h e p a ssage o f ft h e Mu l l o fG aloway p resen t s f ew d anger s , 1 0 1

C ommun ica t ion a nd C ommer ce a l ong t h e W e s t ern S ea lane s AD400 -800

t hough t he t i da l r a ce i sf i e r ce . T he Adm i ra l ty P i lo t d e s c r ibe s i ta s ' f ree f r om d ange r s , e xcep t i nt he v i c in i ty o f C ra ig L aggan '( Hyd rog raphe r1 974a ,2 8 )a nd t he s ame i s g ene raly t r ue o ft he Ay r sh i re c oa s t ,e xcep ta round G i rvan . Hence i ti sa rguab le t ha tc on t inen ta ls h ipp ing wou ld h ave v en tu red a tl e a s ta sf a ra st he C lyde e s tua ry .A tt he h ead o f n av iga t ion o ft he C lyde i s ap o l i t ica lc en t re whe re t he re i s aw ide c hrono log ica l r ange o f i mpo r t s i n Dumba r ton R ock .T h is i st he wel -a t tes ted B r i t i sh f o r t re ss o fA l tC lu t— men t ioned i nB ede , Adomnän a nd l a ter s ou rce s —doub t l e ss c ommand ing ah a rbou rn ea rby a nd a ni dea ll andma rk f o r as h ip a pp roach ing f r om t he s ou th o rw es t . Av oyage i n to t he s ea s a round t h e H ebr ide si sa n e n t i re ly d i f fe ren tp ropos i t ion t o av oyage u p t h e C lyde . T ida ls t ream sa re s t rong o f ft he wes te rn s i de o ft he t i po f K in ty re , ow ing t ot he f unne l l ing b e tween t he l andma sse s o f Nor thern I r e land a nd we s tern S co t land . T h i s r ende r s b o th t he J ura a nd K i lbrannan S ounds d ange rou s .S ou th o f t he I s le o f Mul t he wa ter s a re v ery t r eache rou s i ndeed w i th i n equal i t ies i n t he s eabed c au s ing p o ss ib le t i da l r ace s ,h eavy s u r fa tt he c hange o ft i de a nd e dd ie s .F o rt h e momen t we may n o te t he d i s incen t ive s f o r v oyage s o f s h ips t r avel ing u pt he I r i sh S ea f r om a broad . I f av es se l p u ti n to t he C lyde e s tuary i twou ld a l so h ave t ob ack t rack t og oo nt o Duno l l ie o rI ona .T here i sn od e f in i te e v idence t ha tt he r ou te a round K in ty re o ra l ong t h e An t r im c oas t wa s u sed i nt h is p e r iod , t hough we s hou ld n o to ve rem p ha s i se n ega t ive e v idence when t he s ou rces a re l im i ted .E wa re i sr a re i n An t r im a nd D er ry a nd n o ts ugge s t ive o fa p r ima ry i mpo r ta t ion t oD e r ry o ra ny p o in t we s to fB e l fa s t L ough o rK in ty re .T he c a se f o rt he i n te rmed iacy o f Dunadd i nt he D a l r iada i mpo r ta t ion sh a sa l ready b een made ( a l so s ee b e low ,1 07 ) .V oyages b e tween I r e land a nd I ona a re o f c ou r se k nown ,b u tt h e re i sn oe v iden ce t ha ta ny o ft he se l e f tI r e land f r om e a s to fK in ty re/ D er ry .L ibran ,f o re xam p le , s a i l s f o rI ona f r om D er ry ( Adomnän , V i ta C o lumba e 1 .39 ,e d . Ande r son a nd Ande r son 1 961 ,432 -3 )a nd t hough h i sg ene ra ld e s t ina t ion i ss t a ted a s' B r i ta in ' ,i ti sc l ea rt ha t t he i s l and o f B r i ta in i s wha t i s mean t ( i . e . i n t h is c a se D a l r iada ) .T he f ami l ia la nd p o l i t ica ll i n l c sb e tween D a l r iada ( i np a r t icu la rI ona )a nd I r e land were o f ac ha rac te r wh i ch wou ld b e wel s e rved b y ma r i t ime l i nk sw i th D e rry . Wi th in t he n or the rn z one o ft he I r i sh S ea t he re h ave b een an umbe ro fa t temp t s t oi den t i fy ar ange o f move men t s o f r aw ma ter ia l s a nd p roduce b e tween s i tes . T he e xcelence o ft he f i sh ing c ond i t ion s o f ft h e w es tc oa s to f Man a nd t he s ou th c oa s to f Dum f r ie sa nd G a l loway may h ave b een amo t iva t ion f o rt he e x i s tence o fr egu la rc on t a c t sb e tween t h ese s hores f r om a ne a r ly d a te —a long w i th t he f a c to ft he e asy v i s ib i l i ty o fn e ighbou r ing l andma sse s , n o t a ma jo r i s sue i n i n te rna t iona l t r ade , b u t p robab ly c ruc ia li nt he p a rad igm o fc oa s ta lv oyag ing . Wh i tho rn h a s ar ange o f f i nd s s ugges t ing l ong d i s tance t r a f f i ca s we l la s al i ke ly p a t tern o fe as t -wes tt r ade a l ong t h es ou th c oas to f Du m f r ies a nd G aloway . Wh it horn i t se l f i sf i ve k i lome t res f r om a h a rbou r a t t he I s le o f Wh i tho r n , wh ich S ym son ,i nh i sD e sc r ip t ion o fG a l low ay o f 1 684 ,d e scr ibed a s' av e ry a dvan tageou sp or t i n wh ich s h ips o fg rea tb ur the r nw e re s a fe i na ny s t orm ' ( Graham 1 979 ,4 9 f f ) .A sw i th G renv il le 's e s t ima t ion o fT in tage l( s ee a bove ,5 2 ) ,w es hou ld p u ts ome we igh ti nt h et e s t imony o f 1 02

e a r ly mode rn ma r iner s who j udged t hese h a rbour sb yt h e r equ i remen t s o fs h ips c o mpa rab le i n s i ze a nd p er fo rm a nce t o t ho se o f t he e a r ly m idd le a ge s , who s aw t he se h a rbou r sb e fo re mode rn i mprovemen t s were made u pon t he n atu ra l c ond i t ion s . Wh it ho r n c l ea r ly c on s t i tu ted a c en t re wh i ch b rough t i n a nd p roces sed ma te r ia l s f r om l ong a nd s ho r td i s tan ces . D i scover ie si nD av id P olock ' s 1 992 e xcava t ion sh ave o pened u pa na r ea o nt h en or th s i de o ft h ec hu rch h i l l ,w i th s e t t lemen tc omparab le i ne x ten tt o t ha tc ove red b yt he s i te e xcava ted i n1 986 -91 ,i den t i fy ing i ta s ac en t re o fc on s ide rab le s i ze b yt he s even th c en tu ry . I nt h ea b sence o fe v idence f o rt he e x t rac t ive i ndu s t ry i nt h e i mmed ia te v i c in i ty ,a nd t ak ing a ccoun to ft he c en t ral i ty o f Wh it ho r ni nt h en o r the rn p ar to ft he I r i sh S ea ,w e may s e e t he e conom ic i mpor tance o f Wh i tho r na sp red ica ted i na l a rge d eg ree u pon l o ca t ion — though t h ep o l i t ica la nd r e l i g iou s c on t r ibu t ion s t ot he s t a tus o ft he s i te r ema in l e s s c l ea r . Whe the rt he i mpo r ted wa res a t Wh i tho r nr epresen t p r i ma ry l a nd fa l l sf r om a broad o r ,p e rhaps mo re l i ke ly i n t e rm s o f an o r thwa rd v oyage t o Dumba r ton , Dunadd o r b eyond , s e conda ry i mpo r t s f r om Man o r I r e land mu s t r ema in f o rt h e momen tu nso lved . I ns umma ry ,t he d i s t r ibu t ion o f Ewa re o f fe r se v i d ence f o r ag enera l n or th -sou th v oyage p a t te rn , w i th h ypo the t i ca ll a nd ing -po in t sa tS c i l ly ,C o rk ,D a lkey I s land , Man ,I s le o f Wh i tho rn ,C o . Down , Dumbar ton a nd Dunadd . T hese i nt u rn may c onnec tw i th i den t i f iab le c oa s ta lt r a f f ic o u to fS c ily t of a r wes tern a nd s ou the r nC ornwal ;o u to f C o rk t oK e r ry a nd t he S hannon ; o u t o f Dub l in t oS ou th Wa le s ; b e tween Man , Wh i tho r n a nd t he S o lway ; a nd b e tween Dunadd a nd D a l r iada . F r anc e A tt h eo the re nd o ft he v oyages ,t he f i nd so f Ewa re f r om w es te rn B r i t tany may o r may n o t r epresen t ma r i t ime d i s t r ibu t ions .C e r ta in ly t he t h ree k nown f i nd s i tes a r eo n o rn ea rt h ec oa s t .I ti smos tl og ica lt oe xp la in t he i rp resence a sd ue t ol o ca lt r a ff i c w i th t he L o i re e s tuary , s uch a st he a ppea ran ce o fB r i t tan ii nt he V i ta F i l ib e r t i may r epresen t ( s ee a bove , 6 7 ) . However , l i nk s b e tween B r i t tany a nd w es te r nG au l i sh p o r t sr ema in s o me th ing o f amy s te ry :f o r e xamp le t h e re i sa lmo s tn op a lochra ienne g r i se i nB r i t tany ( G io t a nd F l eu r io t 1 977 , 10 ) . T he f i nd s f r om Gu i s seny may b ei mpo r t sf r om C ornwa l l .T he we s te rn c oa s to fG au l d oe sn o tp re sen ti dea lc ond i t ions f o rt h e ma r ine rs e t t ing o u t .T he re i so n ly a3 0% c hance o f af a i rw ind f o rl e av ing N an te s o r B o rdeaux a nd s uch a w ind c on t inues t ob e n ece ssary u n t i l o ne r ea ches ap o in t we s t o fU shan t . T he e s tua r ie s o fb o th t he L o i re a nd t he G a ronne a r e e n cum b e red b ys hoa l s .T he s t ory o fS t Co lumbanu s 's h ip b e ing o bs t ruc ted a nd s t randed wh i le s e t t ing o u t f r om Nan te s , h oweve rm i racu lou s , c e r ta in ly p resen t s ap i c tu re wh i ch f i t st he g enu ine ma r i t i me p rob lems o f Nan te s .F o r av e s se l v oyag ing o u to f Nan tes ,h oweve r ,t he c hance so f af avou r a b le r e tu rn w ind a re a round 7 0% wh ich m igh th ave e n c ou raged l o ca le n terpr i se , wh ich c ou ld wa i tf o r af a i rw ind t ol e ave ,k now ing t ha tt he i rr e tu rn c ou ld b er e l ied u pon . F o r f o re ign v e s se ls a r r iv ing , t he i s land o f No i rmou t ie r , a pa r t f r om i t s s a l t r e sou rces , m igh t h ave r epresen ted a g ood p lace t oo b ta in p i lo tage f o rt he d i f f i cu l te n t ry o ft h e

C hap t er S even :R ou tes o f Mar i t ime T rade

P or t s i tes d iscussed

D a lkey I s land

Wa t e r fo rd H a rbou r

C o rk H arbou r • C a ldey

C adbu ry C ong re sbu ry

T in tag e l

N an te s • N o i rmou t ie r

C ommun ica t ion a nd C ommer ce a l ong t h e W e s tern S ea lane s AD400 -800

L o i re — jus ta s , o nr e a ch ing B r i ta in , t h eS c i ll i e s may h ave u se fu lf o rt he s ame r e a son . C hang e st ot h e Mar i t ime R ou t e si nt h eE igh th C en tury T he Ewa re e v idence c en t res o nt he s even th c en tu ry .C lea r d e f in i t ion o ft he e i gh th c en tu ry i nt he w es tern s ea lane si s l a ck ing .I np a r t so ft h ew es te rn s ea lanes t h ee i gh th c en tu ry wou ld h ave s een d rama t ic c hange s . T ha t S pa in f el t o I s la m ic i nvader si n7 11 m igh tb ee xpec ted t oh ave s t imu l a ted t he A t lan t ic c onnec t ions o f t h e C hr i s t ian p ocke t s r ema in ing i nt he A s tu r ia s .T he mos tl og ica lt a rge t ,s ou th wes tG au l ,h owever ,w a sa l so c onque red i nt he 7 20 s .I nt he l i gh t o f t he se d i srup t ion s i t may n o t b e s urpr i s ing t ha t c l ea re v idence f o rA t lan t i c a c t iv i ty i nw es tern G au l a nd S pa in i sl a ck ing i nt h ee i gh th c en tu ry . I n t he I r ish S ea n o d e f in i te ly e i gh th -cen tu ry a r te f a c ts s how a n i den t i f iab le ma r i t ime d i s t r ibu t ion . I n I r e l and , af ew l i t e rary s ou rces h ave b een n o ted ,s uch a sS ana s C orma i ca nd T e co sca C orma i c , wh ich s ugges tt ha tf o re ign , a nd i np a r t icu la r G au l ish , l i nk s m igh t n o t h ave c ea sed w i th t h ec e ssa t ion o fi mpor ta t ion o f Ewa re ,b u tp o l i t ica l c hanges wou ld c e r ta in ly h ave c l o sed s ome p o r t s a nd r ou tes . Angl ian c onque s to fG a l loway h ad o ccu r red b yt he e ar ly 7 00s ,b r ing ing mea su rab le c hange si nt he s equence o f i mpor t s a t Wh i tho m . C onsol ida t ion o f o the r c oa s ta l h o ld ing s ,s uch a si n Ang lesey , Man a nd C o rnwa l l , wou ld h ave s een g rea ter Angl ian n ava lc on t ro lo ft he I r i sh S ea . An a s sau l to nI r e land i sr e co rded i n6 84 ( Bede , HE I V .26 , e d .C o lg rave a nd Mynor s1 969 ,4 26 -7 ) . How e a r ly Ang lo S axon p or t si nt he Me r sey e n te red i n to t h ea c t iv i ty o ft h e I r ish S ea i su nc lea r . S i te s s uch a s Meo l s i n t h e Wi r ra l ( Gr i f f i ths 1 992a ,6 8 ) ,a nd L uce S and s( Co rmack 1 965 ,1 49 5 0 )a nd Wh i thorn ( H i l l1 990 ,8 14 )i nW ig town sh i re p ro d uce e i gh th cen tu ry s c ea t ta s wh ich a tl e a s t s how an ew p re sence i nc oas ta l t r ad ing c en t res i nt h e e a s te rn p a r to f t he I r i sh S ea ,e ven i fw ec anno ts how s uch c o in st ob et h e o b jec t so f mar i t ime a c t iv i ty . I nI r e land t he t r an s i t ion b e tween t he e i gh th a nd t h e n in th c en tury AD c o in c ide s w i th c hanges i n d ecora t ive t e chn iques i n i n su la r me ta lwo rk a r t . N in th -cen tury b rooches a nd o the r d eco ra ted p iece s f r om I r e land u se ambe rb yp re ference t oe name la nd g l a ss or namen t s .T he n in th c en tu ry s eem s v e ry e a r ly f o r s u ch c hanges t ob e a t t r ibu ted t o' V ik ing i nf luence ' ( Ryan 1 983 , 3 8 -41 )— in a p er iod whe re r a id ing s e em s t oh ave b een t he n o rm ,i ti s h ard t os ee V ik ing i n f luence sp ene t ra t ing e s tab l i shed I r i sh f a c to r ie s ,s uch a st ho se wh i ch p roduced t h eA rdagh a nd D er rynaf lan c hal i ces ( t he l a t ter s how ing t h es h i f tt o amber o rnamen t ) .S ome a r chaeo log i s t sa r ee ven p repa red t os e e amber a r r iv ing i nt he s even th c entu ry ( Young s1 989 ,2 08 ) . T h i si sac hange wh i ch b r ing st he f a rn o r the r nr eg ion si n to c on tac t w i th t he wes tern s ea lane s —pre f igu r ing V ik ing p er iod l i nk s a nd wha t B owen wa s t o d escr ibe a s t h e ' s eaways i nr eve rse —w i th I r e land a nd t h e I r i sh S ea r e c e iv ing r egu la r i mpor t s a nd s e t t lemen t v i a t he s ea lane s a round n or thern S co t land t ot he No r th S ea a nd I c e land : t he r ever se o ft he p a t te rn i n AD400 -800 .D id t h i s' r eve r sa l ' h ave aa n e a r l ie r c oun te rpa r t i n I r ish l i nk s w i th t he f a r n or th? I r i sh v oyage s n o r thwa rd h ad b egun i n t h e l a te s i x th c entury , when t h ev oyager C o rma ce xp lo red n o r th 1 04

b y s ea a nd C o lumba , v i s i t ing t h e P i c t ish c ou r t a tI nve r n es s , n ego t ia ted p ro tec t ion f o r h im f r om t h e K ing o f O rkney i fh i s v oyage t ook h im t he re ( Adomnän V i t a C o lumba e1 . 42 ,e d . Ande r son a nd Anderson 1 961 ,4 40 -1 ) . D icu i l , w r i t ing e a r ly i nt he n in th c entury ,p rov ides c l ea r e v idence o ft he p e r s i s tence o ft h i sc oa s ta la c t iv i ty n or th wa rd o u t o f I ona . T hough h e d e sc r ibes ' I r i sh ' v oyage s n or thwa rd ,h ei s amonk o fI ona ( t h i si se v iden tf r om t h e r e fe rence t oS u ibhne , Abbo to fI ona 7 66 -72 a sh i s' ma s te r ' : D icu i l ,L i b e rd e Men sur aO rb i sT e r r a eX I I ,e d .T ie rney 1 967 , 6 2 ; Smy th 1 984 , 1 67 -9 )a nd t a lk so fh av ing v oyaged h im s e l ft os ome o ft he n or thern i s les ( D icu i l ,L ib e rd e Me r zsur a O rb i s T e r r a e XV ,e d . T ierney 1 967 , 7 6 -7 ) . I r i sh a c t iv i ty i n t h i s r eg ion c l ea r ly o ve r lapped w i th Norse a c t iv i ty a nd may b ei nf luen t ia li nt h e Nor se s e t t lemen to ft h eF ae roe s a nd I c e land . I ta l so may h ave o pened u pn ew s ou rces o f ma te r ia l s .T he p o ss ib i l i ty t ha tr e indee ra n t ler wa sa r r iv ing i nO rkney i nt he e i gh th c en tury h a sb een c anva ssed (We b er 1 992 ) a nd s im i la r s pecu la t ion h a sb een made o ft he i mpo r ta t ion o f amber t oO rkney ( Roe sdah l 1 992 ) . T hese l i nk s may e xp la in s ome c hanges i nt h eo r ien ta t ion o fI r i sh e xchange ,t hough s ou rce sv ia Ang lo -Saxon E ng land may a l so b ec on s ide red f o rt he amber i mpo r ts . I nC hap te r sF ou r ,F ive ,S i xa nd S even w eh ave e xam ined d e f in i te c a se so fo ve rseas e xchange wh i ch s ugge s tt ha tt he e conom ic i mpac t o fi mpo r t s a nd l ong -d i s tance o ve r sea s c on tac t wa s l e ss t han i sa s su med i n mos t s t ud ie s . T he e v idence f o rc a rgoe ss hows n oe v iden ce f o rt r a f f ic h av ing b een s uppo r ted b yo ne c en t ra lc a rgo o rs e to fc om sumer d emands . T h e e v idence o f t he Med i te r ranean c e ram ics a nd E wa re , mo reove r , s hows l i t t le s i gn o fb e ing p a r to f s us ta ined ,l ong term i mpo r ta t ion p a t te r n s . T he a s sump t i on t ha tt h ey a r et he a r chaeo log icaly -v i s ib le d e t r i tu s o f l a rge ly a r chaeo log icalyinv i s ib le , l ongterm , t r a f f ic h a s b een s hown t ol e ss l i ke ly t han t ha t t r a f f i c c ar ry ing s uch i mpo r t s wa s i n term i t ten t a nd e p i sod i c . F u ture a r chaeo l og ica lr e sea rch w i l lr e f ine a nd c or rec tt h e mode l ss ke t ched h ere — the re i s ag rea td ea l more t o b e d one i nd e f in ing a c t iv i ty , e spec ialy o n al o ca l l eve l . T he mo s t i mpo r tan t c onc lu s ion so ft he p resen ts t udy s hou ld b es een i nt h ec a se f o rt he a bandonmen to fd i f fu s ion is tp e r spec t ives a nd t h e n eed f o rg rea te ra t ten t ion t ot h ed e ta i l sa nd mechan i c so f ma r i t ime c ommun ica t ion e ven t s .

A ppend ix O ne : Two Un subs tan t ia ted C a ses o f S even th -Cen tu ry T rave l T he s ubs tan t ia le v idence o f Ewa re a lows u st oe xam ine a d e f in i te c on t inen ta l c onnec t ion a nd s ubs id ia ry r ou tes w i th in t he I r i sh S ea . Obv iou s ly t h i ss hou ld n o tl e ad u st o o ve r look t h e p oss ib il i ty o f o the r l i nk s a nd o the r r ou te s wh ich a re n o t s o t ang ib le . H i l lga r th h as a t temp ted t o c oun ter Z imr ne r 's t he s i sb ys t ress ing t h ei mpo r tan ce o ft he c u l tura l l i nk sb e tween I r e land a nd S pa in i nt h e s even th c en tury ( H ilga r th 1 961 ;1962 ;1 965 ;1984 ) .A s May r -Har t ing r i gh t ly o b se rves ,h oweve r : ' one may s ea r ch t he t e x ta nd v o lu m inou s n o tes o f t h e l e a rned a r t ic les o f . . .H i l lga r th , who s eek st oe s tab l i sh s uch l i nk s ,w i thou tf i nd ing as i ng le p i ece o fe v idence o ft r ave lo rw r i t ten c o r respondence o r d i rec t c ommun ica t ion o fa ny k ind b e tween I r e land a nd S pa in ' ( May r -Ha r t ing 1 972 , 1 27 ) . T he re i sn o th ing o ther t han c i rcum s tan t ia le v idence t os uppo r tt he e x i s tence o f s uch c on tac t s a t a ny p o in t i n t h e e a r ly m idd le a ge s . H i l lga r th 's c a se i sf ounded o nt he c i r cum s tan t ia le v idence o f s t rong i nf luence o f S pan i sh w r i t ing s u pon s even th c en tu ry I r i sh l e a rn ing .H i l lga r th 's t h e s i so bv iou s ly h igh l i gh t s q ues t ions a s t ot he i mpo r tan ce o ft he e v idence o f d i rec tt r ave lf avou red b yZ imme ra nd L ev i son t oi den t i fy r egu la r c on tac t b etween r eg ion s . H i l lga r th h a s r e cen t ly s h i f ted t h e emphas i s o fh i s d eba t eb y o bse rv ing t ha t , i n c u l tu ra lt e rm s , t he r ou te b y wh ich i n f luence sa r r ive may b e' s econda ry t ot he q ues t ion o fr e cept ion '( H i l lga r th 1 984 , 1 6 ) . B u tb o th a re i mpo r tan ti nt he i r own r i gh t . D ow ea ssume ,t hen ;f o l low ing Z i mme r ,t h a tc om me rc ia ll i nk sh ave ad e term in ing r o le i nt he f o rma t ion o f c u l tu ra lc on tac ts? C an we ,l i ke Hi l lga r th ,a ccep tt ha td e f i n i te c u l tu ra lc onnec t ions b e tween t wo r eg ion sa low u st o a ssume t h ee x i s tence o fd i rec tc om me rce f o r wh ich t h ere i sn oo the rs ubs tan t ive e v idence ? And d oe st he f a c tt ha t t he ma jo r i ty o fI r i sh c hu rchmen t r ave l l ing t oG au l wo rked i n e a s t F ranc ia a l low u s , f olow ing J ames , t od oub t t h e p redom inance o ft h ew e s tern s ea lanes r ou te ?T he a n swer i sn o t o a l l o f t he se q ue s t ion s . H ilga r th i sc o r rec t t o empha s i se t he i mpo r tance o f r e cep t ion o ve r r ou te s o f c ommun ica t ion f o r c u l tura l s t ud ie s . I n telec tua l s , c a r ry i ng t e x t s , may h ave t r ave l led o nt r ad ing s h ips t o we s tern G au l .B eyond t h i sp o in t ,h oweve r ,t hey e n joyed p owe r so f movemen tb eyond t ha to ft r ade r s .T he e v iden ce f o rc om me r ce s ugges t sw es te r nG au l ish l i nk sw e re p redom inan t . T os e ek t he ma jo ri n f luence so nI r e land i nw e s te r nG au l , h oweve r ,i sn o mo re l og ica lt han l ook ing f o rt h es ource so f , s ay ,c on tempora ry E ng l i sh i n f luences o nS co t t i sh c u l tu re i nK ing sC ros sa nd E u s ton r a i lway s t a t ion s . I n ad i scu s s ion o fw e s tern s ea lanes t r a f f ic i nt h e s even th c entu ry , we a r ea l so o bl iged t oc on s ider t h es t o ry o fA rcu l f , ab i shop o f' Gau l i sh r a ce ' who v i s i ted t h eN ea r E a s t ,a nd who p rov ided t h ed e ta i l sf o r Adomnän 's b ook D eL o c i s S anc t i s . Adomnän o n ly s t a te st ha tA rcu l f wa s a G au l i sh b i shop a nd t ha t h e d i c ta ted t h e a c coun t t oh im ( Adomnän , D eL o c i s S anc t i s ,P ro logue ,e d . Meehan 1 963 , 3 6 -7 ) .B ede f u rn i she su sw i th t h ed e ta i l sa st oh ow Adomnän c ame t o mee tA rcu l f :

P a tr ia mque n av ig io r ever tens , v i t e mpes ta t is i n o cc iden ta l ia B r i t tan iae l i t to ra d e la tu se s t : a cp o s t mu l ta , a d memo ra tum Ch r i s t i f amu lum Ada mnanum p e rv e n ien s , u b i d oc tu s i nS c r ip tu r i s an c to rumque l o co rum g narus e s se c ompe r tu s e s t . . .cunc ta mox i s te l i t ter is manda re c u rave r i t . ( Com ing h ome b ys ea [ A rcu l f ] w as d r iven b y am igh ty t empe s tt ot he we s tc oas t so fB r i ta in ;a nd a f te rs u f fe r ing many t h ing sh er eached t h ea fo re sa id s er van to fC h r i s t , Adomnan ,a nd was f ound t ob el e arned i nt he S c r ip tu re s a nd a cqua in ted w i th t he h o ly p lace s . . .a l lt hese Ado rnnan b ya nd b yp rocured t ob ep u ti nw r i t ing : B ede , HE V .15 , e d . &t r an s .C o lg rave a nd Myno r s1 969 ,5 06 -8 ) .

As im i la r a c coun t p recede s B ede 's own D e L oc i s S anc t i s ( l a rge ly b a sed o n Ado rnnän )w i th n oa dd i t iona ld e ta i l : S ed c um p a t r iam r ev i se re v e l le t , n av is , q ue v eheba tu r , p os t mu l to s , a n f rac tu sv en t i c on t rar io i nn os t rum , i de s t

B r i t tanno rum i s u lam p e r la ta e s t , t andemque , i s te p o s t n onnu l la p e r icu la a d p re fa tum v i rum v enerab i lem Adamnanum p erven ien s . . . (Bede , D e L oc i s S anc t i s , e d . G eye r1 975 ,3 02 ) .

B ede may h ave r e ce ived t h i ss t ory f r om monk so f I ona ,t hough h e a l so r e co rd s as t o ry whe reby Adomnän p re sen ted A ld f r i th w i th ac opy o ft h eb ook i n No r thum b r ia ( Bede , HE , e d . C o lg rave a nd Mynor s 1 969 , 5 04 -6 ; Meehan 1 958 ,4 5 ) .F rom wha tever s ou rce B ede r e ce ived t h i si n fo rma t ion may a l so h ave c ome t h ese f u r the rd e ta i l s r ega rd ing A r cu l f . Wha ta r et h el og i s t ic so ft h i ss t ory? T he q ue s t ion s wh i ch h ave c once rned mo s tc ommen ta to r sh ave b een why at r ave l le rr e tu rn ing t oG au lf r om t h e Nea rE a s t wou ld h ave t r ave l led b ys ea a ta l la nd h ow ,h av ing d one s o ,h e wou ld b ew recked o f ft h ew es tern c oa s to fB r i ta in . I ti st emp t ing t o s e e t he s t ory a s c on fused o r c onf la ted b y B ede . C e r ta in ly Adomnän 's s i lence o n t he p o in ti si mpo r tan ti nt h i sr ega rd . As t orm -dr iven c hu rch man i s al i ke ly t o po s i n i n su la r w r i t ing . B ede , o r s o me i n termed ia ry b e tween h im a nd t he e ven t s , may h ave f e l t t h i s amo re c onven ien te xp lana t ion o fA rcul 's p resence a t I ona t han amo re l e ng thy , p ro sa ic a nd l e ss e n ter ta in ing a ccoun to fh i sp resence t h e re .C e r ta in ly t he f a c tt ha th ei s i mp l ied t oh ave t r ave l led s t ra igh tf r om t he Med i ter ranean t oB r i ta in i ss u sp ic ious ly n ea t . On t h e o the rh and s ome d e ta i l s o f t he s t o ry a r e n o t i mp laus ib le . S h ips o n t h e w e s te rn s ea lane s may b ed r iven b ys t orm f a ro f fc ou r se b y c on t ra ry w inds ( Bede 's v en t ic o n tr ar io ) .T hey may b ef o rced t o s a i l l ong d i s tance s i n t h e o ppo s i te d i rec t ion t o t he i r c our se , whe re t he a l te rna t ives wou ld b e ad ange rou sh ead s ea o r ar each , b roads ide o n t o t h e p reva i l ing s we l l . I f A r cu l f we re t r ave l l ing t o we s te r nG au lv i a t h eS t ra i t s o f G ibra l ta r ,f o re xamp le ,i twou ld n o tb ei mpo ss ib le f o rh im t of e t ch u pi nw e s tern B r i ta in .I ns umme rt h es ou th w es t e r ly w inds wou ld b eq u i te l i ke ly t od r ive as h ip i n to t he w e s te rn c hanne l o fB r i ta in . Ano the rp o in ti st ha t A r cu l f m igh t we l lh ave p lanned av oyage v i aB r i ta in .T he re i sn o a s su rance t ha tA rcu l f wou ld h ave owned h i s own v e sse l o rc ou ld h ave o rde red as h ip t oc hange i t sr ou te o ft r ave l t os e th im a sho re a ny mo re t han amodern t r aveler c an a sk a ne xpress t r a in t op u tt hem d own a t ar ura lh a l t . When w e

1 05

C ommun ica t ion a nd C ommerce a long t h e W e s te rn S ea lane s AD400 -800

c on s ide r ac a se l i ke t ha to fJ ohn t h eA rchcan to r ,t r avel ing t o B r i ta in v ia T ou r s , i ti si mp l ic i t t ha t c oa s ta l v oyage s a round B r i t tany a nd u p t he E ng l i sh C hanne l may h ave b een c on temp la ted a s a n a l te rna t ive t oo ver land t r ave l t h rough Neus t r ia .I fw e we re t os pecu la te t ha tA r cu l f wa s f r om t he n or th -ea s to fG au l( Meehan 1 958 ,5 6 ) ,t he h os t i l i t yb e tween Neu s t r ia a nd Au s t ra s ia i nt h i s p e r iod ( 6 79 6 86 )p rov ide sa na dequa te r ea son why s ea t r ave lm igh tb e c ons ide red a sa na l terna t ive t oc r oss ing N eus t r ia : wh ich e xp lana t ion m igh ta l so s u f f ice f o rt he r ou te o fJ ohn A rch C an to r( 6 80 ) .F ina l ly ,A rcu l f 's s h ip may h ave b een w recked we l lt ot he s ou th o fI ona .B ede s imp ly s ay si no c c id en t a l i a B r i t tan iae l i t tor a , wh ich may i mp ly a nywhe re b etween C or nwal a nd t he H eb r ides .C once ivab ly Wa le so rC o rn wal may n o tb eu n l ike ly . We s hou ld a l so n o te t ha tt he re i st he p os s ib i l i ty t ha t Adomnän d id n o t mee t A rcu l f a t I ona , p e rhaps mee t ing h im i nI r e land b e fo re c om ing t o I ona ( t h i s may make l i t t le p rac t i ca ld i f fe rence ,a s Adomnän wou ld s t i l l mo s tl i ke ly h ave b een i nt he n o r th o fI r e land ) . T he b es t e xp lana t ion o ft h i s s t o ry i st ha t i ti sa c on f la t ion , o rs imp le f an ta sy . T he d e ta i lo f ac hu rchman t r ave l l ing b y ar oundabou tr ou te i sb e l ievab le e nough i n t he c on tex to ft he l a te s even th c en tu ry ,b u tt he c hance so f t he c a se f o r t h i sb e ing ad i rec t v oyage f r om t h e e a s te r n Med i ter ranean mus tr ega rded u nproven i nt he a bsence o f a ny s uppo r t ing e v idence .T he l i ke l ihood t ha tA rcu l f wa s mak ing av oyage o f f we s tern G au li s mo re l i ke ly . I nB r i ta in , whe the rb ya c c iden to rb yd e s ign ,A rcu l f may h ave f ound ar e turn v ia I ona t h e mos t c onven ien t r ou te .T h i s may s eem i log i ca lt ot he modern t r avele r .A l a ck o fe a s t -wes tc on tac t sb e tween Ang lo -Saxon E ng land a nd C e l t i c B r i ta in s ou th o f S co t land i n t h i s p e r iod i s i mpl i c i t f r om a v a r ie ty o f s ou rce s . I ona h ad l i nk s w i th Nor thumbr ia wh ich wou ld a s sure A r cu l f as a fe j ou rney a nd No r thumbr ia l i kew i se w i th G au l .I ts hou ld b en o ted t ha t Dagober tr e tu r n ed t oG au lf r om I r e land v i at he s ame r ou te a round t he s ame t ime ( s ee a bove ,6 6 ) . Al o ft he a bove i ss imp ly s pecu la t ion . I tr a i se s q ue s t ions , h oweve r , wh ich a re f undamen ta l t os t udy o f h i s tor ica l a s sump t ions r ega rd ing e a r ly med ieva l t r ave l . B o th ma r ine r s a nd c hu rchmen w e re l im i ted b yp ol i t ica l a nd e conom ic c on s ide ra t ion s i n r e spec t o f whe re t h ey c ou ld s a fe ly p u t i n to s hore a nd a c ro s s whose l a nd t h ey c ou ld s a fe ly t r ave l .T he s ea i smo re n eu t ra lg round .L ike w i se ,e a r ly med ieva lc omme rc ia lv oyage s may h ave b een r a re a nd r oundabou tr ou tes e xpl i cab le i nt he c on tex t .T he d e ta i l so fA rcu l f 's v oyage ,h oweve r ,a r ed i f f icu l tt or e con c i le w i th t he o ther e v idence f o r we s te r ns ea lane su sage i n t he s even th c en tu ry . L ikew i se i t mu s tb eh e ld t ob e u n l i ke ly t ha t Med i te r ranean s h ips were a r r iv ing i nB r i ta in a l ong t he s ame l i nes o fc omme r ce a si nt h em id s ix th .T ha t We r n e r a nd No rden fa lk h ave s e en t h i s s uppo sed ly ' d i r e c t 't r avele ra r r iv ing c onven ien t ly l aden w i th t h e many manu sc r ip te xemp la rs r equ i red t ou nde rp in t he i rt heo r ie s o fi n su la ra r t (Werner ,f o r thcom ing ; No rden fa lk 1 977 ,2 ) mu s tb e r ega rded a s q u i te u naccep tab le i nt e rm s o ft h e q ual i ty o ft he e v idence .

1 06

Append ix Two : T he ' P en in su la rR oad ' Mode l I nl ook ing a tt h eq ues t ion o fd i s t r ibu t ion ,C raw fo rd ( 1 936 , 1 85 ) , B owen ( 1 969b , 1 4 )a nd M ile r( 1 978 -80 ,3 17 )p laced c ons ide rab le emphas i s o n t he e x i s tence o f ' p en in su la r r oads ' , amode l wh ich C raw ford i mpor ted f r om aMed i t e r ranean c on tex t : mo s tp a r t icu la r ly i n sp i red b yt he i s th mu so fC o r in th ( Craw fo rd 1 936 ,1 85 )a nd f i r s ta ppl i ed t o p reh is to r i cd i s t r ibu t ion sa round t he I r i sh S ea .I nh i ss em i n a ls tudy o ft h ee a r ly med ieva lu se o ft h e we s te rn s ea lane s , h oweve r ,h ei n teg ra ted h i sp reh i s to r i cd a ta w i th h i s to r ica l e v idence wh ich h et ook t od emon s t ra te t he v al id i ty o ft h i s mode l . D i s t r ibu t ion s o f a r te fac t s a nd t h e l o ca t ion s o f monumen t si n Wa les h ave b een i nvoked t os uppo r tt he e x is ten ce o fp en insu la r r oads a c ro s s t he t i ps o f Dy fed , Gwynedd ,C o rnwa l l ,t he Mu l lo fG a l loway a nd K in ty re ( Bowen 1 969b ,1 9 ) .T h i s mode la nd i t sr e levan ce mus tb e r ega rded a sd ub iou si nt he e x t reme .T ha tp en in su la sw e re f e a rsome z ones t ot he ma r ine ri su ndoub ted .T h i sd oe sn o t i mp ly t h a tt r aders wou ld h ave u n loaded t h e i rs h ips a nd c a r ted g oods o ve r land t o a vo id t h em . T he c o s t o fl a nd t r anspo r ti smass ive ly g rea te rt han t ha to fs e a t rave l .T he C or in th c a se a l so n eeds t ob eu nde r s tood i nt h ec on tex to f t he d i s t anc eo ft he v oyage a round t h eP e leponne se ,l e av i ng a s ide t h eu nrel iab le s ea so ft he S ou the rn A egean .T he v oyage a r ound , s ay , Dy fed i so fn o th ing l i ke t he s ame l eng th .I fl a nd ing s i tes e x i s ta tt he e nds o fp a th st ha tc ro ss t he p en in su la s ,t h i sp resumab ly i mp l ies t h ee x i s tence o f c en tra lp l aces s t radd l ing t hese p a th sa nd r equ i r ing l i nk s t oe a ch s ho re . T he e xamp le o fS tS am son o f Do l ,t hough a ne xam p le o f ap e r son who t r aveled o ve r land a c ro ss C ornwa l l , d oes n o ta i dt he ' pen in su la rr oad 't h eory .I nh i sv i ta h es e t s o u t t ob e ' ap i lg r im , a nd b eyond t he s ea , g rea t i n t h e c hurch '( V i t aS am son i sX LV ,e d .F aw t ie r1 912 ,1 41 ) .L and i ng i nt h ee s tuary o ft he F owey ( V i ta S am son i s X LV ,e d . F aw t ie r1 912 , 1 42 ) ,h ea ppea r sq u i te w i l l ing t o make h i s h ome i nC o rnwal a nd when h ec r o sse st ot h ec on t inen t ' a cco rd ing t oh is p rom i se '( V i ta S am son i sL I I ,e d .F aw t ie r 1 912 , 1 47 ) ,t he p rom i se i nq ues t ion was s imp ly t ot r ave l a c ros s t h e s ea u n t i l h e f ound ap lace t os e t t le . I n o the r wo rd s ,t h eh ag iog raphe rb el i eved t ha tS am son l ef t Wa le s w i thou tt h e e xpl i c i t i n ten t ion o ft r ave l l ing a sf a r a s B r i t t any .T he re i sn oc a se t hen t oa rgue t ha th et r aveled a c ro s s C o rnwa l lt oa vo id t he s ea so f fL and ' sE nd . Qu i te d i f fe ren t c i rcums tan ces may b e f ound i n S co t land , where a t l e a s t t wo l i ke ly ' p en in su la r ' r oad s e x i s ted , a c ross K in ty re a nd b e tween L och N e ss a nd t h e Mo ray F i r th . T he s i te o f Dunadd c ommands t h e C r inan i s thmu s a nd i t s h in te r land r e la t ions c l ea r ly e x tend i n to t he C lyde e s tua ry , a s we l l a s f u r the r we s t i n D a l r iada ( N iek ea nd Duncan 1 988 , 1 6 f f ;C ampbel 1 987 ) . He re w e mu s tb ec onsc iou so ft he l i ke l ihood o f ap en in su la rt r an s i t f r om t h ee v idence o f Eware p o t te ry .T he ma r i t ime c ond i t i on sb e tween F a i rhead a nd K in ty re a r et r u ly i n t im ida t i ng ( s ee a bove ,8 )a nd t h i ss e em st ob er ef lec ted i nt he l a ck o ff i nd so f Ewa re a td i s t r ibu t ion p o in t s wh i ch n eces sa r i ly r ef l e c tu se o ft h i sc hanne l .T he f u r thes ts ou th f i nd -s i te i n D a l r iada o n t he w e s t s i de o fK in ty re i sA rd i fu i r , wh i ch mu s tc e r ta in ly b ei no ver land c on tac tw i th Dunadd .N ieke

a nd Duncan c onv inc ing ly e xp la in f i nds n ear t he t i p o f K in tyre o nt he e a s ts i de a ss e conda ry f r om Dunadd ( N ieke a nd Dun can 1 988 ,1 7 -18 ) . V e ry r e levan th e re i st h e much d i scussed e p i sode i n t he V i t aC o lumbae whe re t he s a in tp rophesy ing ad i sa s te r i nI t a ly ,t e l l s aman t ha t' b e fo re t he p re sen ty ea ri se nded ( t he )G a l l ic s a i lor sf r om t h ep rov inces o fG au lw il t el y ou t he s a me '( e ta n t equam p r ae sen sf in i a tur a nnu sg a l l i c in au tae d eG a l l iarum p r ov inc i i sa dven t an t e sh a e ce a dem t i b ie nar r abun t : Adomnän ,V i t aC o lumb ae 1 . 28 ,e d . &t r ans . Ande r son a nd Ander son 1 961 ,2 62 -3 )a nd t he man d u ly g oes t ot he ' c h ie f p lace ' whe re h eh ea r s t h en ews f r om G au l i sh s a i lor s , a s p rophes ied . T he i den t i f ica t ion o ft he ' c h ie fp lace ' ( c apu t r e g ion i s )h a sb een d i scu s sed a tl e ng th s evera lt ime s (Wa t son 1 926 ,9 2 ;C ampbel 1 987 , 14 ;T homa s1 990 ,3 ;A lcock a nd A l cock 1 987 , 1 43 ) , mo s t d i scuss ion s f avour ing Dunadd , t hough r e jec t ing t he p o ss ib il i ty t ha t c a pu t r e g ion i s i sa c a lque o fO ld I r i sh c e nn t i r e( K in ty re ) .A lcock h a sa rgued t ha t Dunol ie i st h e ' c h ie f p la ce ' o f t he ' I ona d i s t r ic t ' ( A lcock a nd A lcock 1 987 ,1 43 )a nd i ti sc e r ta in ly t r ue t ha t Dunadd ' s c l a im t ob e t h ec ap i ta lo fD a l r iada a s awho le r e s t s o n amb iguou s e v idence ( Lane 1 984 , 4 3 ) . T here a re c e r ta in ly g ood r eason s why as h ip m igh to n ly c ome a sf a r a st he g ood h a rbou ra t Duno l l ie t ol and g oods , ma r i t ime c ond i t ion sa round I ona b e ing much l e ss p red ic tab le . On t he o the rh and ,i fw ea r et oi mag ine Dunadd t ob et he c apu t r e g ion i s ,t h ef a c tt ha ts h ips f r om a broad mu s ts t op s of a r f r om I ona wou ld b e mo re wo r thy o f men t ion . I nt h en o r th -ea s to fS co t land ,t he I nverness r eg ion c ommends i t se l fa sa no bv ious p en in su la rr oad . AP ic t i sh c ap i ta la tI nverne s si nt h es i x th c entu ry o pened u pl i nk s w i th Da l r iada ,b yb oa ta l ong L och Ness s ou th t ot he e as t c oa s tf o r t ss uch a s Duno t ta ra nd C la tcha rd C ra ig ( C lo se B rook s 1 986 ) a nd b y s ea a l ong Mo ray F i r th ( Adomnän , V i t aC o lumbae 1 .34 ,e d . Ande r son a nd Ander son 1 961 ,404 7 ) ;a nd n o r th t ot he O rkney s ,a si ss een i nt he V i ta C o lumbae ( 1 .42 ,e d . Ande rson a nd Ande r son 1 961 ,4 40 -1 ) , when t he s a in ts ough ta s su rances f r om t h ek ing o fO rkney , who h ad c ome t o I nve rne ss , t ha t monk s o f I ona , e xp lor ing t he we s te r ns ea r ou te s , wou ld b es a fe i ft hey c ame t oO rkney b yt h i sn ew r ou te . I nb o th t he a bove c a se sw ea re d ea l ing w i th p en in s u la rr oads wh ich s hou ld b er ega rded ,n o ta sp a r to ft he we s te r ns e a lane s ,b u ta st r ave r s ing p en in su la s wh ich i s o l a te g ene ra l ly s epa ra te t ha la ssocrac ie s f r om t h e wes tern s ea lane s( A rm i t1 990 ,2 3 ; Ha rd ing 1 990 ,7 ) . When C raw fo rd p roposed h i s' p en in su la rr oad ' mode lt here h ad b een l i t t le t heo re t i ca l d i scu ss ion o f r ed i s t r ibu t ive n e twork s i n t h e s pa t ia l a r rangemen t s a nd l o ca t ion o f l and ing s i te s . We wou ld n ow b ei n c l ined t os ee t h es a me e v iden ce a si nd ica t i ng r ed i s t r ibu t ion o fg oods b y i n land r ou te s a nd c oa s ta l t r a f f i c .

1 07

Ande r son ,W .B .1 936 & 1 965 ( ed .and t r ans . ) :S idon iu s ,P oem sa nd

Abbrev iat ions AA

A uc to r e sA n t i qu i s s im i .

B AR

B r i t i sh A r ch aeo log ic a lR epo r t s .

B BCS

B u l l e t in o ft h eB oa rd o fC e l t i cS tud i e s .

C BA

C oun c i lf o rB r i t i sh A r ch aeo logy .

CMCS

C amb r idg e Med i ev a lC e l t i cS tud i e s1 25 ;C amb r i an

L e t t er s( LCL ) , New Y o rk a nd L ondon , 2v o l s . Andrews ,P .1 988 ( ed . ) : S ou thamp ton F i nd s , V o lume 1 :T h e C o in s a nd P o t te ry f r om H amw ic ,L ondon . Angenend t , A . 1 982 : ' D ie I r ische P eregr ina t io u nd i hre Au skw i rkungen a u fd em K on t inen tv or d em J ah re 8 00 ' , i nL öwe 1 982 ,5 2 -79 .

Med i ev a lC e l t i cS tud i e s2 6 . UNA

I n te rna t iona lJ o urna lo fN au t i c a lA r ch ae o logy .

A rm i t ,I .1 990 ( e d . ) :B ey ond t h eB r och s ,E d inbu rgh . A rno ld , C . 1 982 : T h eA ng lo -Saxon C em e t e r i e so ft h eI s l eo fW igh t ,

L CL

L oeb C l a s s i ca lL i b r a ry .

MGH

Monumen t aG e rman i ae H i s tor i c a .

P L

P a tr i log i aL a t ina .

P R IA

P r oc e ed ing so ft h eR oy a lI r i sh A c ad emy .

J CHAS

J o urna lo ft h eC or kH i s tor i c a la nd A r cha e o log i c a lS o c i e ty

L ondon . A rno ld ,C . 1 983 :R ev iew o f Hodge s ,D a r kA g eE conom i c s ,SAR 2 , 8 0 -8 1 . A rno ld , C . 1 988 : A n A r chae o logy o ft h eE ar ly Ang lo -Sax on K ing d om s ,L ondon .

J I A

J o ur na lo fI r i sh A r cha e o logy

J RGZ MM

J a hrbuch R öm i s ch -Ge rman i sch en Z en t r a lMu s eum s Ma inz

J RSA I

J o urna lo ft h eR oy a lS o c i e ty o fA n t iquar i e so fI r e land .

A she ,G . 1 963 :L and t ot h eW e s t ,L ondon .

P SAS

P r oc e ed ing so ft h eS oc i e ty o fA n t i quar i e so fS c o t l and .

Aube t , M .E . 1 993 : T h eP ho en i c ian sa nd t h e W e s t :p o l i t i c s ,c o l on i e s

A shbu rne r ,W .1 909 ( ed . ) : T h eR hod i an S e aL aw , Ox fo rd .

a nd t r ad e ,t r an s .M .T u r ton ,C amb r idge .

S LH

S c r ip to r e sL a t in iH i be rn i c i .

S Sr e r . Merov .

S c r ip to r e sr e rum Me r ov ing i c arum .

B anne rman ,J .1 974 :S tud i e si nt h eH i s to ry o fD a lr iada ,E d inbu rgh .

S AR

S c o t t i sh A r ch ae o log i c a lR ev i ew

B a rbe r ,J .1 982 : ' Observa t ion so nE ar ly I r i sh F oo twear ' ,' CHAS

TDGNHAS

T r an sa c t i on so ft h eD umf r i e s sh i r ea nd G a l l oway

8 6 , 1 03 -6 . B a r ley , M .W . a nd Han son , R .P .C . 1 965 ( e dd . ) : C hr i s t i an i ty i n

N a tur a lH i s to ry a nd A r cha e o l og i c a lS o c i e ty U JA

U l s te rJ o urna lo fA r cha e o logy

ZCP

Z e i t sch r i f tf ü rC e l t i s ch eP h i l o log i e

B r i ta in 3 00 -700 ,L e ice s te r . B a r r ire -F lav ry ,C .n .d . :E tude ss ur l e sS epu l tu r e sB arbar e sd uM id i e td el ' Oue s td el aF r anc e ,T ou lou se/Pa r i s .

B ib l iography

B a s s ,G . 1 966 :A r chaeo logy U nde r Wa te r ,L ondon . B a ss , G . 1 972 ( e d . ) : AH i s tory o fS eaf ar ing b a s ed o n U nd e rw a t e r

A bra m s , L . a nd C ar ley , J . P . 1 991 ( edd . ) : T h e A r cha eo logy a nd H i s to ry o fG la s tonbury A bbey , Woodb r idge .

A r ch aeo l ogy ,L ondon . B a ss ,G .a nd V an D oo r n inck ,F .1982 :Y a s s iA da : AS ev en th C en tu ry

Ade lson , H . 1 960 : ' Ear ly Med ieva l T rade R ou te s ' , Ame r i c an H i s tor i c a lR ev i ew 6 5 ,2 7 1 -87 .

B y zan t in eS h ipw r e ck ,C o l lege S ta t ion ,T exas . B a te son ,J .D . 1 973 :' Roman Ma te r ia l i nI r e land : AR econ s ide ra -

A i r l ie ,S .1 989 :R ev iew o fD r i sco l la nd N ieke 1 988 ,S AR 2 ,1 33 -7 . A la rcao ,J .1 988 :R oman P o r tug a l , Wa rm in s te r .

t i on ' ,P R IA 7 3C ,2 1 -97 . B a te son ,J .D . 1 976 : ' Fu r the rF inds o fR oman Ma te r ia l f r om I r e -

A lcock , L .1 959 : ' Da rk Age Ob je c t s o fI r i sh O r ig in f r om L e s se r G ar th C ave ,G lamo rgan ' ,B BCS 1 8 ,2 2 1 -7 .

l and ' ,P R IA 7 6C , 1 7 1 -80 . B aumgar ten ,R .1 984 : ' The G eog raph ica lO r ien ta t ion o fI r e land

A lcock , L . 1 959 -60 : ' Po s t R oman S he rd s f r om L ongbury B ank C ave ,P emb roke sh ire ' ,B BCS 1 8 ,7 7 -9 . A lcock ,L .1 963 :D ina sP owy s ,C a rd i f f . A lcock ,L .1 969 : ' Wa st he re a nI r i sh S ea C u l tu re P rov ince i nt he D ark Age s? ' ,i n Moo re 1 969 ,5 5 -64 .

i nI s ido re a nd O ros iu s ' ,P e r i t ia 3 ,1 89 -203 . Mie r ,A -C . :' No te s u rl ac e ram ique E ( E -wa re ) ' ,i nP ica rd 1 995 , 2 6 1 -264 . B enne t t ,I .1 994 ( e d . ) ,E x c av a t ion s1 993 , B ray . B ie le r ,L .1 963 ( e d . ) : T h eI r i sh P en i ten t ia l s , Dub l in .

A lcock ,L .1 972 : ' B yS ou th C adbury i st h a tC am e lo t . . . ' ,L ondon .

B inchy , D .A . 1 940 ( ed . ) : C r i th G ab lach ( Med ieva l a nd Mode rn

A lcock ,L .1 973 :A r thur ' sB r i ta in ,H armondswo r th . A lcock ,L .1 975 -6 :' A Mu l t i -D i sc ip l inary Ch rono logy f o rA l tC h i t R ock , Dumbar ton ' ,P SAS 1 07 , 1 03 113 . A lcock ,L .1 982 :' F or tev io t : AP i c t i sh a nd S co t t ish R oya lP a lace ' , i nP ea rce 1 982 ,2 11 -39 .

I r ish S e r ie s2 ) , Dub l in . B inchy , D .A . 1 958 : R ev iew o fJ a ckson L anguag e a nd H i s to ry i n E ar ly B r i t a in , C e l t i c a4 ,2 88 -92 . B inchy ,D .A . 1 962 :' S tP a t r ick a nd h i sB iog raphe rs : Anc ien ta nd Mode rn ' ,S tud i aH ib e rn ic a2 ,7 173 .

A lcock , L . 1 981 : ' Ea r ly H is to r i c F or t i f ica t ion s i nS co t land ' , i n Gu i lbe r t1 981 , 1 50 -81 .

B inchy ,D .A . 1 973 :' AT ex to nt he F orm so fD i s t r a in t ' ,C e l t ic a1 0 , 7 2 -80 .

A lcock , L .1 987 : E c onomy , S oc i e ty a nd W ar f ar ea mong t h e B r i ton s a nd S axon s ,C ard i f f .

B inchy ,D .A .1 976 :' I r i sh H is to ry a nd I r ish L aw ' ,S t ud ia H ib e rn i c a 1 6 , 1 36 .

A lcock ,L .1 988 :' The A c t iv i t ie so fP o ten ta te si nC e l t ic B r i ta in AD

B inchy ,D .A . 1 978 ( e d . ) :C o rpu sI u r i sH ibe rn i c i ,D ub l in , 6v o l s .

5 00 -800 : A P o s i t iv i s t App roach ' , i nD r isco l l a nd N ieke 1 988 ,2 2 -39 .

B inchy ,D .A .1 98 1 :' B rew ing i nE igh th -Cen tu ry I r e land ' ,i nS co t t

A lcock , L .e ta l . 1 995 : C adbury C a s t l e S ome r s e t : t h ee a r ly m ed i ev a l

B i rd ,J .1 977 : ' A f r ican R ed S l ipwa re i nR oman B r i ta in ' , i nD o re a nd G reene 1 977 ,2 69 -77 .

a r chaeo logy ,C a rd i f f . A lcock ,E .a nd A lco ck ,L .1 987 :' E xcava t ion sa t Duno l l ie C a s t le , Oban ,A rgy l l , 1 978 ' ,P SAS 17 , 19 -147 a nd f i che .

1 981a ,3 6 .

B i scho f f ,B .1 976 :' Tu rn ing P o in t si nt he H i s to ry o fL a t in E xege s i s i nt he E a r ly M idd le Age s ' ,i nM . McNama ra ( ed . ) ,B ib i l i c a l

A l cock , E .a nd A lcock , L .1 990 : ' E xcava t ion s a tA l t C h i t , C lyde R ock ,S t ra thc lyde , 1 974 -5 ' ,P SAS 1 20 , 19 -30 a nd f i che .

S tud i e s :t h eM ed i ev a lI r i sh C on tr ibu t ion , Dub l in ,7 4 -160 . B lagg , T .e ta l . 1 984 ( e dd . ) : P ap e r s i nI b er i an A r ch ae o logy ( BAR

Ande r son , A .O . a nd M .O . 1 96 1 ( edd . ) : A domnän ' s L i f e o fS t C o lumb a , E d inbu rgh .

1 08

I n te rna t iona lS e r ie s1 93 ) ,O x fo rd .

B ib l iography

1 28 -66 .

B l azquez , J .M . 1 979 ( ed . ) : C a s tu lo 2 ( Ex c av ac ione s A r chae o log ic a E span a ) . B l azquez ,J .M .a nd Mo l ina ,F .1 979 :' La V i l la U rbana d e lO l iva r ' ,

B y rne ,F . J .1 980 :' The L amen tf o r Cumm ine F o to ' ,gr iu 3 1 ,111 -122 . B y rne ,M .1 932 :' On t he P un i shmen to fB e ing S e t Adr i f t ' ,g r iu 1 , 9 7 -102 .

i nB lazquez 1 979 , 1 09 -268 . B o i s sonade ,P . 1916 -18 :' Le sR e la t ion se n t re l ' Aqu i ta ine ,l eP o i tou , e tl ' I r lande d uV ea uI Xe S i èc le ' ,B u l l e t in d el aS oc i e te d e s

C ame ron ,P .1 982 : ' S axon s ,S ea a nd S a i l ' ,I JNA 1 ,3 19 -32 . C ampbe l l ,E .1 984 :' E Ware a nd Aqu i ta ine : AR econ s ide ra t ion o f t he P e t ro log ica lE v idence ' ,S AR 3 ,3 5 -41 .

An t i qua i r e sd el 'Ou e s t4 ,1 81 -202 . B onne r ,G .e ta / .1 989 ( edd . ) :S tC u thbe r t ,h i sC u l ta nd C ommun i ty

C ampbe l l ,E .1 987 : ' AC ro s s - Ma rked Que rn f r om Dunadd a nd

t o AD 1 200 , Woodbr idge . B ou rke ,C . 1 995 ( e d . ) :F r om t h eI s l e so ft h eN or th :e a r ly m ed i ev a la r t i nI r e l and a nd B r i t a in ,B e l fa s t .

o the rE v idence f o rR e la t ion sB e tween Dunadd a nd I ona ' , P SAS 17 ,1 05 -117 . C ampbe l l ,E .1 988a :' The P o s tR oman P o t te ry ' ,i nE dwa rds a nd

B ou rke ,E .1 989 :` S toney fo rd : af i r s tc en tu ry R oman B u r ia lf r om I r e land ' ,A r chaeo logy I r e l and ,5 6 -7 .

L ane 1 988 ,1 24 -136 . C ampbe l l ,E .1 988b : ' Le s se rG ar th C ave ' ,i nE dwa rd sa nd L ane

B ou rke , E . , ' G la s s V esse l s o ft he F i r s tt oN in th C en tu r ie s AD ' , P SRA I2 4( 1 994 ) ,1 63 -209 .

1 988 ,8 6 -7 . C ampbe l l , E .1 989a : ' New F inds o fP o s t -Roman I mpo r ted P o t -

B owden ,M . 1 989 ( ed . ) :F r om C ornwa l lt oC a i thn e s s( BAR B r i t i sh

t e ry a nd G las sf r om S ou th Wa le s ' ,A r cha eo log ia C amb r en s i s

S e r ie s2 09 ) , Ox fo rd . B owen ,E .G .1 944 :' The T rave l so ft he C e l t ic S a in t s ' ,A n t iqu i ty 1 8 ,

1 37 ,5 9 -66 . C ampbe l l ,E .1 989b :' AB lue G las sS qua tJ a rf r om D ina sP owy s ,

1 6 -28 . B owen , E .G . 1 954 : T he S e t t l em en t s o ft h e C e l t ic S a in t s i n Wa l e s ,

S ou th Wa le s ' ,B BCS 3 6 ,2 39 -45 . C ampbe l l ,E .1 995 : ' New E v idence f o rG la ss V e s se l si n we s te r n

C a rd i f f .

B r i ta in a nd I r e land i nt he 6 th/7 th c en tu r ie s AD ' ,i nF oy

B owen , E .G . 1 969a : S a in t s , S e aw ay sa nd S e t t l em en t s i nt h e C e l t i c L and s ,C a rd i f f .

1 995 ,3 5 -9 . C ampbe l l , E .1 996 : ' The A rchaeo log ica l E v idence f o r E x te r na l

B owen , E .G . 1 969b : "B r i ta in a nd t he B r i t i sh S ea s" , i n Moo re 1 969 ,1 3 -28 . B owen ,E .G . 1 972 : B r i t a in a nd t h e We s t e rn S e aw ay s ,L ondon . B owman ,A . 1 990 : ' Underwa te r S u rvey a tT in tage l Haven ' , i n Mo r r i s1 990 ,2 3 . B rad ley ,J .1 98 1 -2 : "Med ieva l" S arn ian Wa re : A Med ic ina lS ug g e s t ion ' , U JA 4 4 &4 5 ,1 96 -7 . B reeze ,A .1 99 1a :' O ld E ng l i shf r anc a ," Spea r" ,N o t e sa nd Q ue r i e s 2 36 ,4 5 . B reeze , A . 1 991b : ' Hen S ae sneg f r an ca ; H en Gym raeg f r an c ' , B BCS 3 7 ,9 8 -9 . B r ind ley , A . a nd L an t ing , J .N . 1 990 : ' A R oman B oa t f ound i n I r e land ' ,A r ch ae o logy I r e l and 4 . 3 ,1 0 -11 .

C on tac t s :I mpo r ts a nd t he E conomy o fC e l t ic B r i ta in ' ,i n D a rk f o r th com ing . C ampbe l l ,E . ,f o r thcom ing :' AR ev iew o fG lass V e s se l si n We s t e rn B r i ta in a nd I r e land AD 4 00 -800 ' ,i nP r i ce ,f o r th com i ng . C ampbe l l , E . a nd L ane , A . 1 988 : E x c av a t ion s a tL ongbu ry B ank 1 988 ,I n ter im R epor t ,C a rd i f f . C anner ,A .C . 1 982 :T he P ar i sh o fT in tag e l ,E n f ie ld . C ardoso ,G .1 978 :' An fo ras n o Mu seu d o Ma r ' ,C on imbr ig a1 7 ,63 7 8 . C ar ney ,J .1 97 1 :' Th ree O ld Ir i sh A ccen tua lP oe rn s ' ,gr iu 2 2 ,23 -80 . C arney ,J . 1975 : IThe I nven t ion o ft he Ogam C iphe r ' ,gr iu 2 6 ,53 -65 . C arve r , M . e ta / . 1 992 ( edd ) : Mar i t im e S tud i e s , P o r t s a nd S h ip s , Med i ev a lE ur op e1 992 P r e -Pr in t ed P ape r s , V o l . 2 ,Y o rk .

B roeze , F . 1 990 : R ev iew o f J .N . G reen , T h e VOC R e tour sch ip B a t av i a , T he G r e a tC i r c l e1 2 .2 , 1 25 -6 . B re me r ,A .W .a nd S he tel ig ,H . 1 951 :T h eV ik ing S h ip s ,L ondon .

C a rve r ,M . 1 992 ( ed . ) :T h eA g eo fS u t ton H oo , Woodbr idge . C asey ,P . J .1 979 ( ed . ) :T h eE nd o fR oman B r i ta in ( BAR B r i t ish S er ie s 7 1 ) , Ox fo rd .

B rown ,P .1 97 1 : T h e Wo r ld o fL a t eA n t iqu i ty ,L ondon . B rown , T . J . 1 972 : ' Nor thumb r ia a nd t he B ook o fK ei l s ' ,A ng lo -

C a s sa rd ,J -C . ,' Les S a in t sb re ton se tl a me r ' , Memo i r e sd el aS oc ie te d 'h i s to i r ee ta r ch e o log i ed eB r e tagne 6 4 ( 1 987 ) ,5 17 .

S ax on E ng land 1 ,2 19 -46 . B ruce -M i t fo rd ,R . 1 975 ( ed . ) : T h eS u t ton H oo S h ip B ur i a l ,V o l . 1 . ,

C ede r lund ,C .1 985 ( e d . ) :P o s t -M ed i ev a lB o a ta nd S h ip A r chaeo logy ( BAR I n terna t iona lS e r ie s2 56 ) , Ox fo rd .

L ondon . B ruce -M i t fo rd ,R .1 989 :' The Du rham -Ech te rnach C a l l ig raphe r ' ,

C hadw ick ,N .K .1 954 ( ed . ) :S tud i e si nE ar ly B r i t i sh H i s to ry ,C am b r idge .

i nB onne re ta l . 1 989 ,1 75 -88 . B uchanan ,R .1 989 :' The I r ish S ea :t he G eog raph ica lF ramewo rk ' ,

C hadw ick , 0 . 1 954 : ' The E v idence o fD ed ica t ion s i nt he E ar ly H i s tory o ft he We lsh C hu rch ' ,i n Chadw ick ,N . 1 954 ,8 3 -

i n McCaughan a nd App leby 1 989 , 1 12 .

1 36 .

B u l lough ,D .1 982 :' The M iss ion st ot he E ng l ish a nd t he P i c t sa nd t he i r Her i tage t oc .8 00 ' ,i nL öwe 1 982 ,8 0 -98 . B u r row ,I .1 973 :' T in tage l -S ome P rob lem s ' ,S co t t i sh A r chae o log i c a lF orum 5 ,8 8 -103 .

Cha r le s -Edwards , T . 1 976 : ' The S oc ia l B ackg round t o I r i sh P e r eg r ina t io ' ,C e l t ic a 1 ,4 3 -59 . C ha r les -Edwa rds ,T .1 986 :' C r i th G ab l ach a nd t he L aw o fS ta tu s ' , P e r i t i a5 ,5 4 -73 .

B u r row ,I .1 981 :H i l l f o r t sa nd H i l l top S e t t l em en ti nS ome r s e t( BAR B r i t i sh S e r ie s9 1 ) , Ox fo rd .

C ha r les -Edwa rds ,T .1 993 :' P a l lad iu s ,P ro spe ra nd L eo t he G rea t : M i ss ion a nd P r ima t ia l Au thor i ty ' ,i n Dumv i l le ,e ta l .1 993 , 1 18 .

B u ry , J . B . 1 905 : T h e L i f e o fS t P a tr ick a nd h i s P l ac e i n H i s to ry , L ondon . B ux ton ,D . 1 936 ( e d . ) : C u s tom i sK ing : S tud i e si nH onour o fR .R . Mar e t t , L ondon . B y rne ,F . J .1 97 1a :' I re land B e fo re t h e No rman I nva s ion ' ,i n Moody 1 97 1 , 1 15 . B y rne ,F . J .1 97 1b :' T r ibe sa nd T r iba l ism i nE a r ly I r e land ' ,g r iu 2 ,

Cha r les -Edwards ,T .a nd K e l ly ,F .1 983 ( edd . ) :B e chb r e th a ,Dub l in . Ch i lde ,V .G . 1 946 :S c o t land B ef or et h eS co t s ,E d inbu rgh . Ch i lde ,V .G . 1 958 : ' Re t ro spec t ' ,A n t iqu i ty 3 2 ,6 9 -74 . C h i lde , V .G . 1 973 : T h eD awn o fE ur op e an C iv i l i sa t ion , r epr in to f 1 957 e d i t ion ,S tA lban s .

1 09

C ommun ica t ion a nd C ommer ce a l ong t h e W e s t e rn S ea lane s AD400 -800

C larke , H . a nd B rennan , M . 1 981 ( edd . ) : C o l i tmban t ts a nd Me rov ing ian Mona s t i c i sm ( BAR I n te rna t iona lS e r ie s 13 ) ,

D av ie s ,W .1 983 :' An H i s to r ian 's V iew o fC e l t ic A rchaeo logy ' ,i n H in ton 1 983 ,6 7 -73 . D av i s ,R .H .C . 1 976 : T h eN o rman sa nd t h e i r My th ,L ondon .

O x fo rd . C laude ,D .1980 :' De rH ande li m we s t l ichen M i t te lmee r wäh rend d e s F rühm i t te la l te rs ' , U n t e r suchung en z u H and e l u nd V e r k ehr d e rv o r -und f rühg e sch i ch t l i chen Z e i t i nM i t t e l -u nd

D awe s , E .a nd B ayne s , N . 1 948 ( t ran s . ) : T hr e eB yz an t ine S a in t s , L ondon . D e C le rcq , C . 1 963 ( e d . ) : C onc i l i a G a l l i ae A511 -A695 ( Co rpus C h r i s t i anorum S e r i e sL a t ina V o l .1 48A ) ,T urnhou t .

N o rd europ a ,G ö t t ingen . C lo se -B rook s , J .1 986 : ' Excava t ion s a t C la tcha rd C ra ig , F i fe ' ,

D eC ou rcy I r e land ,J .1 987 :I r e land a nd t h eI r i sh i n Ma r i t im eH i s tory , Dub l in .

P SAS 16 , 17 -84 .

D eC ou rcy I r e land ,J .a nd S heehy ,D .1 989 ( edd . ) :A t lan t i cV i s ions ,

C o les ,K .A .a nd B lack ,A .N . 1 970 :N or th B i sc ay P i lo t ,L ondon . C o lg rave ,B .1 927 ( e d . ) :T h eL i f eo fB i shop W i l f r ed b yE dd i t t sS t eph an i t s , C ambr idge . C o lg rave ,B .a nd Myno r s ,R .1969 ( edd . ) :B ed e ,H i s to r i aE c c l e s i a s t i c a , O x fo rd . C o l l in s ,R .1 980 : ` Mi r ida a nd T o ledo :5 00 -585 ' ,i nJ ame s1 980a , 1 89 2 19 . C ondam in ,J .a nd F o rmen t i ,F .1 976 :' Reche rche d eT race sd 'Hu i le d 'O l ive e td eV in d an sl e Ampho rae s An t ique s ' ,F ig l ina 1 ,

Dun L aogha i re . d eP ao r ,L .1 993 :S tP a t r i ck ' s Wor ld ,B l ack rock ,3 8 -45 . D e Smed t , C . 1 888 ( ed . ) : ' V i ta S . W inwa loe i , p r im i a bba t is L andevenecens is , a uc tore Wurdes t ino ' , Ana lec ta B o l land i ana 7 ,p p . 1 67 -264 . D e t s ica s ,A .1 981 ( ed . ) : C o l l e c tanea H i s t o r i c a :E s say si n Memory o f S tuar tR igo ld , Ma ids tone . D evoy ,J . .1 990 :' Con t ro l so nC oas ta la nd S ea L eve lC hange sa nd t he Appl i ca t ion o fA rchaeo log i ca l -H is to r ica lR eco rds t o

1 43 -58 . C onno l ly , S . 1 987 : ' Cog i to su s ' s L i f e o fS t B r ig i t : C on ten t a nd

Unde r s tand ing R ecen tP at te rn so fS ea -Leve l Movemen t ' , i n McGra i l1 990 , 1 7 -26 .

V a lue ' ,J RSA I 17 ,5 10 . C onno l ly ,S .a nd P i card ,J .M .1 987 ( t ran s . ) :' The L i fe o fS tB r ig i t ' ,

D ew ing , H .B . 1 914 -35 ( ed . ) : P r ocop i z t s , W ork s ( LCL ) , N ew Y o rk a nd L ondon , 7v o l s .

J RSA I 17 , 1 -27 . C op le s tone -Crow ,T .1 98 1 -2 :' The Dua lN a tu re o ft he C o lon i sa t i on o f Dy fed i nt he D a rk Age s ' ,S tud i aC e l t i c a1 6/17 ,1 24 . C o rmack , W . 1 952 : ' No r thumbr ian C o in s f r om L uce S ands ,

D oehae rd ,R .1 978 :T h eE ar ly M idd le A g e si nt h e We s t :E c onomy a nd S o c i e ty ,t r an s .W .G . D eak in , Am s te rdam . D oher ty , C . 1 980 : ' Exchange a nd T rade i nE ar ly Med ieva l I r e l a nd ' ,P RSA I 10 ,6 7 -89 .

W ig town sh i re ' , TDGNHAS 5 2 ,1 49 -50 . C os ta ,D .1 958 : 1C 6 ram ique P a leoch r& ienne G r i se d e couve r te ä N an te s ' ,B u l l e t in d el aS oc i e t eA r chd o l og ique d eN an t e s9 7 ,6 5 -

D o l ley , M . 1 976 : ' Roman C o in s i n I r e land a nd t he D a te o f S t P a tr ick ' ,P R IA 7 6C , 1 81 -90 . D onnach ie ,I .1 971 :' The L i me I ndu s t ry i nS ou th -we s tS co t land ' ,

7 6 .

TDGNHAS 4 8 ,1 46 -56 .

C o t te r ,C .H . 1 974 : T h eA t l an t i cO c e an ,G lasgow . C raw ,J .H . 1 930 : ' Excava t ion so nt he P o l ta l loch E s ta te s ,A rgy l l ' ,

D o re , J .a nd G reene , K . 1 977 ( edd . ) : R oman P o t t e ry S tud i e s i n

P SAS 6 4 , 11 -27 . C raw fo rd ,B .1 994 ( ed . ) :S c o t l and i nD ark A g eE ur op e ,S t Andrews . C raw fo rd ,H . 1 979 ( ed . ) : S ub te r r ane an B r i t a in ,L ondon .

B r i ta in a nd B eyond ( BAR S upp lemen ta ry S e r ie s 3 0 ) , Ox -

C raw fo rd , O .G .S . 1 912 : ' The D is tr ibu t ion o fE a r ly B ronze Age

f o rd . D r inkwa te r ,J .a nd E l ton ,H .1 992 ( edd . ) :F i f th c en tury G a z t l : ac r i s i s o fi d en t i ty ,C ambr idge . D r isco l l ,S . 1988 :' The R e la t ion sh ip B e tween H is tory a nd A r chae -

S e t t lemen t si nB r i ta in ' , G eog r aph i c a lJ o urna l4 0 ,1 84 -203 . C raw fo rd ,O .G .S .1 936 :' We s te rn S eaway s ' ,i nB ux ton 1 936 ,1 8 1-

o logy :A r te f ac t s , Documen ts a nd P owe r ' ,i nD r i sco l la nd N ieke 1 988 , 1 62 -87 .

2 00 . C rehan , J . E . 1 976 : ' The L i tu rg ica l T rade R ou te E a s t t o We s t ' , S tud i e s6 5 ,8 7 -100 .

D r iscol ,S .a nd N ieke ,M .1 988 ( edd . ) :P ow e ra nd P o l i t i c si nE ar ly Med i eva lB r i t a in a nd I r e l and , E d inbu rgh .

C rum l in P ede r sen , 0 . 1 978 : ' The S h ips o f t he V ik ing s ' , i n T .

Du f f ,J .W . 1 969 ( e d . ) :L z tc an , P h ar sa l i a ( LCL ) ,L ondon a nd N ew

Ande r sson a nd K . I .S and red ( edd . ) ,T h eV ik ing s , Uppsa la , 3 5 -41 .

Du f f , J .W . a nd A .M . 1 932 ( edd . ) : R z t t i l iu s , D eR ed i to S uo ,M inor

C u l len , L .M . 1 984 : ' E s tab l i sh ing a C ommun ica t ion s S y s tem :

Y o rk . L a t in P o e t s ,V o l . 2( LCL ) ,N ew Y o rk a nd L ondon ,7 64 -829 . Dün-t m le r , E . 1 895 ( e d . ) : A l cu in , E p i s to l ae , i n MGH : E p i s to la e

N ews ,P o s ta nd T ran spo r t ' ,i nB .F ar re l l1 984 , 1 8 -29 .

K a ro l in iA ev i ,V o l .2 ,B e r l in .

C un l i f f e ,B .1 973 : I n t roduc t ion t oC h i lde 1 973 ,i v -x iv . Cun l i f f e ,B .1 984 :' Re la t ions b e tween B r i ta in a nd G au li nt he F i r s t C en tu ry B Ca nd t he F i r s tC en tury AD ' ,i n MacReady a nd

Dumv i l le , D . 1 977 : ' Sub -Roman B r i ta in , H i s tory a nd L egend ' , H i s to ry 6 2 ,1 73 -92 . Dumv i l le , D . 1 984 : ' S ome B r i t i sh A spec t s o f t h e E ar l ie s t I r i sh

T hompson 1 984 ,2 4 -36 .

C h r i s t ian i ty ' ,i nN iC ha thä in a nd R ich te r1 984 , 1 6 -24 .

D an sgaa rd , W . e ta l . 1 975 : ' C l ima t ic C hange s , No r semen a nd Mode rn Man ' ,N a tur e2 55 ,2 4 -8 .

Dumv i l le ,D .1 988 :' Two Approache st ot he D a t ing o f" Nav iga t io

D ark ,K .R .1 985 :' The P lan a nd I n te rpre ta t ion o fT in tage l ' , CMCS 9 ,1 18 .

Dumv i l le ,D . ,e ta l . 1 993 : S tP a tr i ck , AD 4 93 1993 , Woodbr idge .

D ark ,K .R .f o r thco r rüng ( ed . ) :E x t e rna lC on t ac t sa nd t h eE conomy o f

Duncan ,A .A .M .1 988 :R ev iew o fC .T ho ma s ,C e l t i cB r i ta in ,S co t -

S anc t iB rendan i" ,S tud i Med i ev a l i2 9 ,8 7 -102 .

t i sh H i s tor ic a lR ev i ew 6 7 ,7 0 -1 .

L a t e -Roman a nd P o s t -Roman B r i t a in , Woodb r idge . D av id ,P .1 947 :E tud e sH i s tor iqu e ss ur l aG a l ic ee tl eP o r tug a ld uV l e

Duncan ,H .1 982 :' A spe c t so ft he E a r ly H is to r ic P e r iod i nS ou th we s tS co t land ' , =pub l i shed M .L i t tt h e s i s ,G lasgow Un i -

a uX I l eS i èc l e ,L i sbon . D av ie s ,M . 1 946 : ' The D i f fu s ion a nd D is t r ibu t ion P a t te rn o ft he Mega l i th ic Monumen t so ft he I r ish S ea a nd No r th C han n e lC oas t lands ' ,A n t iquar i e sJ o urna l2 6 ,4 0 -6 .

10

v e r s i ty . E arwood , C . 1 990 : ' The Wooden A r te fac ts f r om L och G la shan C rann6g ,M id A rgy l l ' ,P SAS 1 20 ,7 9 -94 .

B ib l iogr aphy

E arwood , C . 1 993 : D om e s t ic Wood en A r t e f a c t s , Un ive r s i ty o fE x -

F reke ,D . 1 983 -7 :P e e lC a s t l eE x c av a t ion s ,I n te r im R epor t s ,L ive r p oo l .

e te r . E dwards , H . J . 1 9 17 ( ed . ) : C a e sar , B e I lum G a l l icum ( LCL ) , N ew

F re re ,S . S .1 966 :' The E nd o fT owns i nR oman B r i ta in ' ,i n Wache r

Y o rk a nd L ondon . E dwards ,N .a nd L ane ,A .1 988 ( edd . ) :E ar ly Med i ev a lS e t t l emen t s

1 966 ,4 05 -420 . F uch s ,R .a nd O l t rogge ,D .1 994 :' Co lou r ing Ma te r ia la nd P a in t i ng T echn ique i nt he B ook o fK e i l s ' ,i nO ' Mahony 1 994 ,

i nW a l e s ,B angor a nd C a rd i f f .

1 33 17 1 .

E inar ( M .S ve in s son 1 934 ( ed . ) :L ax c lx l aS ag a( i s lenzk F o rnr i tV o l . 5 ) ,R eyk jav ik .

F u l fo rd ,M .1 977 :' Po t te ry a nd B r i ta in 's T rade i nt he L a te R oman P e r iod ' ,i nP eacock 1 977 ,3 5 -84 .

E l l i sE vans ,D .1 987 ( ed . ) :P ro c e ed ing so ft h eS ev en th I n t e rna t iona l C ong r e s so fC e l t ic S tud i e s ,O x fo rd .

F u l fo rd , M . 1 978 : ' The I n terp re ta t ion o f B r i ta in 's l a te R oman

E l lmer s ,D .1 969 :' Ce l t ische S h i f fbau ' ,I RGZ M M 1 6 ,7 3 -122 .

T rade :t he S cope o f Med ieva lH i s to r ica la nd A r chaeo log i c a l Ana logy ' ,i nT ay lo ra nd C lee re 1 978 ,5 8 -69 .

E l lme r s ,D .1 979 :' The C og o fB remen ' ,i n McGra i l1 979 ,1 -12 . E r icsson , C .H . 1 984 : N av i s O ne r ar i a : t h e C argo C ar r i e r o f L a t e

F u l fo rd , M . 1 979 : ' Po t te ry P roduc t ion a nd T rade a tt he E nd o f

An t iqu i ty A c ta A cadem iae A boen s i s ,S er ie sA : Human io ra

R oman B r i ta in : T he C a se A ga in s tC on t inu i ty ' , i nC asey 1 979 ,1 20 -30 .

6 3 ,n o .3 , Abo . E s tyn -Evan s ,E .1 973 : T h eP e r sona l i ty o fI r e land ,C amb r idge .

F u l fo rd ,M .1 989 :' Byzan t ium a nd B r i ta in : aMed i te r ranean P e r s pec t ive o nP o s t -Roman Med i te r ranean I mpo r t si n We s t -

E v ison , V . 1 974 ( ed . ) : Med i ev a l P o t t er yf r om E xc av a t ion s : E s say s

e rn B r i ta in a nd I r e land ' , Med iev a lA r chaeo logy 3 3 ,1 6 .

P r e s en t ed t oG e r a ld C lough D unn ing ,L ondon . E v ison , V . 1 983 : ' Some D i s t inc t ive G la ss V e sse l s o f t he P o s t

F u l fo rd ,M .a nd P eaco ck ,D .P .S .1 984 :E x c av a t ions a tC ar thag e :T he B r i t i sh M i s s ion V o lum e1 .2 :t h eP o t t e ry f r om t h eA v enu ed u

R oman P er iod ' ,J o urna lo fG l a s sS tud i e s2 5 ,8 7 -93 .

P r e s id en tH ab ib B ourgu ib a ,S he f f ie ld .

F ac ts o nF i le S e r ie s 1 990 :N or th e rn W o r ld , New Y o rk . F ann ing ,T .1 984 : ' Some F i e ld Monumen t si nt he T own lands o f

G abe t ,C .1 969 :' L aC e ram ique G a l lo -Roma ine R ecue i l le äP dp i ron C ha ren te Ma r i t ime ' ,G a l l i a2 7 ,4 5 -70 .

C lonme lsh a nd G a r ryhundon ,C o .C ar low ' ,P e r i t ia 3 ,4 3 9 .

G a ilou ,P .F u l fo rd ,M .a nd C lemen t ,M .1 980 :' La D if fus ion d el a

F ar re l l , A .W . 1 984 : ' The B oa t Mo t i fo nt he T in tage lS l a te F rag -

C e ram ique äl ' eponge ' d an sl a No rd -Oue s td el ' Emp ire

men t :I t sI mpl i ca t ion s ' , Mar ine r ' sM i r r o r7 0 ,7 1 -2 . F a rre l l , A .W . a nd P enny , S .1 975 : ' The B ro igh te r B oa t : AR eas -

R oma in ' ,G a l l i a3 8 ,1 85 -206 . G a i l lou ,P .1 984 :' Day so fW ine a nd R o se s? E a r ly A rmo r ica a nd

s e s smen t ' ,I r i sh A r chaeo log i c a lR e s e ar ch F orum 2 ,1 5 -28 .

t he A t lan t ic W ine T rade ' , i n Mac ready a nd T hompson

F ar re l l , B .1 984 ( ed . ) : C ommun i c a t ion sa nd C ommun i ty i nI r e l and , D ub l in a nd Co rk .

1 984 ,3 23 . G a i l lou , P .a nd J one s , M . 1 991 : T h e B r e ton s , Ox fo rd a nd C am -

F ar re l l ,R .T .a nd Neuman d eV egva r ,C .( edd . ) ,S u t ton H oo :F i f ty Y e ar s Af t e r , Ox fo rd , Oh io ,1 992 .

b r idge MA . G a l in ie ,H . 1 981 ( ed . ) :R e ch e r ch e ss z t rT our s ,T ou r s .

F aw t ie r ,R .1 912 ( ed . ) : V i ta S am son i s ,P ar is .

G ar n sey ,P .e ta l .1 983 ( ed . ) :T r ad ei nt h eA nc i en tE conomy ,L ondon .

F enw ick ,V .1 972 ( ed . ) :T h r e e Ma j o rA nc i en tB o a tF ind si nB r i ta in ,

G arv in , J .N . 1 946 ( e d . ) : V i ta s P a tr z tm S anc torum Em e r e t en s ium

G reenw ich .

C a tho l ic Un ive r s i ty o f Ame r ica ,S tud ie si n Med ieva lH is -

F il igue ra s ,0 . 1 977 : ' The X avega B oa t ' ,i n McG ra i l1 977 ,7 7 -114 . F i l igue ra s , 0 . 1 979 : ' A P re sump t ive G e rman ic H e r i tage f o r a P o r tugese B oa tbu i ld ing T rad i t ion ' ,i n McGra i l 1 979 ,4 5 -

t o ry ,N ew S e r ie s1 9 , Wash ing ton D .C . G eo rge ,J .W . 1 992 : V enan t ius F o r tuna tu s , Ox fo rd . G e rbe rd ing , R . 1 987 : T h e R i s e o ft h e C ar o l ing i an s a nd t h e L i b e r

8 2 . F lanagan , L .1 975 : ' Sh ips a nd S h ipp ing i nP re -V ik ing I r e land ' ,

H i s tor i a eF r anc or z tm ,O x fo rd . G e r r ie t s ,M .1 983 :' E conomy a nd S oc ie ty :C l ien tsh ip A cco rd ing

C u l t z tr a Mar i t im a 11 975 ,3 8 .

t ot he I r i sh L aws ' , CMCS 6 ,4 3 -62 .

F lanagan ,L .1 988 :' I r ish Anna ls a s aS ou rce f o r Mar i t ime H i s tory ,

G eye r , P .1 975 ( ed . ) : B ed e , D eL o c i s S anc t i s i nI t in er ar ia ( Co rpu s

1 400 -1600 AD ' , i n Mac N ioca i l l a nd Wa l lace 1 988 , 5 00 -

S c r ip to rum E c c l e s i a s t icorum L a t inor z tm V o l .3 9 ) , New Y o rk

5 02 . F leu re ,H .J .a nd R obe r t s ,) .E .1 9 15 :' A rchaeo log ica lP rob lem so f

a nd L ondon . G ibb in s , D . 1 995 : ' Wha t S h ipwreck s c an t e l l U s ' , A n t iqu i ty 6 9 ,

t h e Wes tC oas to fB r i ta in ' ,A r chaeo log i aC amb r en s i s7 0 ,4 05 2 0 .

4 09 -11 . G i lch r is t , R . 1 988 : ' A R eappra isa l o f D ina s P owy s : L oca l E x -

F leu r io t , L . 1 984 : ' The O ld B re ton G los se s a nd t he Cu l tu ra l

c hange a nd S pec ial i sed L ive s tock i n 5 th -7 th C en tury

I mpor tance o fB r i t tany i nt h eE a r ly M idd le Age s ' , i nN i C ha thä in a nd R ich te r1 984 ,2 18 -225 .

Wa le s ' , Med ie va lA r chaeo logy 3 2 ,5 0 -62 . G i lda s , B .1 989 : ' Sh ips , H a rbou r s a nd Nav iga t ion b e tween t he

F ox , A . 1 955 : ' Some E v idence f o r aD ark Age T rad ing S i te a t

C on t inen ta nd t he C e l t ic I s lands d u r ing t he e a r ly m idd le

B an tha m , n ear T hu r le s tone , S ou th D evon ' , A n t iquar i e s

a ge ' ,i nD eC ou r cy I r e land a nd S heehy 1 989 , 1 55 -157 . G io t ,P -R .a nd F l eu r io t ,L .1 977 :' Ea r ly B r i t tany ' ,A n t iqu i ty 5 1 ,1 06 -

J o urna l3 5 ,5 5 -67 F ox ,C .1 922 :T h eA r cha eo logy o ft h eC ambr idg eR eg ion ,C ambr idge . F ox ,C .1 946 : T h eP er sona l i ty o fB r i t a in 4 th E d i t ion C a rd i f f . F ox ,C .a nd D icken s ,B .1 950 ( e dd . ) :E ar ly C u l tur e so fN o r th -W e s t

16 . G io t ,P -R .a nd Que r re ,G .1 985 :' L eT e sson d 'Ampho rae B 2d el ' i le L avre t ,B reha t ,C ö te s -du -No rd e tl eP rob leme d e sI mpo r -

E urop e ,C ambr idge . F oy , D . 1 995 : V er r ed el ' An t iqu i te T ard iv ee td u H au t Moy en A g e ,

t a t ion s ' ,R evue A r ch eo log ique O ue s t2 ,9 5 -100 . G is l iS igurds son 1 988 :G a e l ic I n f luenc ei nI c e l and ( S t z td i aI s l and i c a

Musee A rcheo log ique d uV a ld 'O i se . F re i l l ,J .a nd Wa t son ,W .1 984 ( e dd . ) :P i c t i sh S tud i e s( BAR B r i t i sh

4 6 ) ,R eyk jav ik . G od ley ,A .D . 1 926 ( e d . ) :H e r odo tu s ,H i s tor i e s ,V o l . 2( LCL ) ,N ew

S e r ies 1 25 ) , Ox fo rd .

Y o rk a nd L ondon .

1 11

C ommun ica t ion a nd C ommer ce a l ong t h eW e s t er nS ea lane s AD400 -800

G raham -Campbe l l , J .1 987 : ' A L os t Z oomorp lüc P enannu la r

H awke s , C .F .C . 1 984 : ' I c t is D isen tang led a nd t he B r i t ish T in T rade ' ,O xf o rd J o urna lo fA r cha e o logy 3 ,2 11 -33 .

B rooch f r om K e l ls ,C o . Mea th ' ,J RSA I 16 , 1 22 -4 . G raham -Campbe l l , J .1 991 : ' D inas P owy s Me ta lwo rk a nd t he d a t ing o fE name l led Z oomorph ic P enannu lar B roo che s ' ,

H aye s ,J .1 972 :L a t eR oman P o t te ry ,R ome . H aye s , J .1 977 : ' Nor th A f r ican F l anged B ow ls : A P rob lem i n F if th -Cen tury Ch rono logy ' , i n D o re a nd G reene 1 977 ,

B BCS 3 8 ,2 20 -232 . G raham -Campbe l l ,J .1 992 : V ik ing T r e a sur ef r om t h eN or th W e s t :

2 79 -283 .

T h e ae rd a l eH oard i ni t sC on tex t( P r oc e ed ing so ft h eV ik ing s

H aye s ,J .1 980 :S upp l emen tt oL a te R om an P o t te ry ,R ome .

i nt h eI r i sh S e aP rov inc eC onf er enc e ) ,L iverpoo l .

H aywood , J .1 991 : D ark A g e N av a l P owe r : A R e a s s e s smen t o f

G reenwood ,L .1976 ( ed . ) :C i c e r o ,V e r r in eO r a t ion s ,( LCL ) ,London .

F r ank i sh a nd A ng lo -Saxon N av a lA c t iv i ty , L ondon .

G r ie r son ,P .1 959 : ' Comme rce i nt he D a rk Age s ' ,T r an sac t ions o f

H encken , H .O 'N . 1 932 : T h e A r chaeo l ogy o fC ornw a l l a nd S c i l ly , L ondon .

t h eR oy a lH i s tor i ca lS o c i e ty 9 ,1 23 -4 . G r ie r son ,P .a nd M . B lackbu rn 1 986 : Med i ev a lE ur op e an C o inag e :

H encken ,H .O 'N . 1 942 :' Ba ll inder ry C rannög No .2 ' ,P R IA 4 7C , 1 76 .

T h eE ar ly M idd l eA g e s5 t h -10 th C en tur i e s ,C amb r idge . G r i f f i th s ,D .1 992a :' The C oas ta lT rad ing P or t so ft he I r i sh S ea ' ,i n

H encken ,H .O 'N .1 950 : ' Lago re C ram * : AR oya lR e s idence o f t he 7 t h 10 th C en tu r ie s AD ' ,P R IA 5 3C , 1 -247 .

G raham -Campbe l l1 992 ,6 3 -72 . G r i f f i th s , D . 1 992b : ' Te r r i to r ie s a nd E xchange i n t he I r i sh S ea R eg ion 4 00 -1100 ' ,i nH a l l , Hodge sa nd C la rke 1 992 ,9 12 . G r i f f i th s , D . 1 994 : ' T rade a nd P roduc t ion C en t res i nt h e P o s t R oman No r th :t he I r ish S ea P er spec t ive ' ,i nN ie l sen ,e ta l .

H ende r son ,G . 1 899 ( ed . ) :B r i c r i z i ' sF e a s t ,L ondon . H ende r son ,G . 1 987 :F r om D ur row t oK e l l s ,L ondon . H ende r son ,J .a nd I ven s ,R .1992 :' Dunm i sk a nd G las s -Mak ing i n E a r ly C h r i s t ian I r e land ' , An t iqu i ty 6 ,5 2 -64 . H en ry ,F .1 940 :I r i sh A r ti nt h eE ar ly C h r i s t i an P er iod , Dub l in .

1 994 , 1 84 -8 . Gu i lbe r t ,G . 1 98 1 ( ed . ) :H i l l f o r tS tud i e s :E s say sf o rA . H .A .H ogg ,

H e rber t ,M . 1 988 :I o na ,K e l l sa nd D er ry ,O x fo rd . H e r ren , M . 1 970 : ' B ig er ro s e rmone c l e f ab o : No tes o n t he L i fe o f

L e ice s te r . H addan ,A .W .a nd S tubbs ,W .1 869 ( edd . ) :C ounc i l sa nd E c c l e s i a s t i c a lD ocum en t s r e l a t ing t oB r i ta in a nd I r e land , V o l . 1 ,O x -

V i rg i l iu s Ma ro G ra rnma t icus ' , C l a s s i ca e t Med i ev a l i a 3 1 , 2 53 -7 . H er ren ,M . 1 979a ( ed . ) :H i sp e r i c aF am in a ,V o l . 1 ,T oron to .

f o rd . H a lk in , J .a nd R o land , C .G . 1 909 ( edd . ) : R e c i ted d e s C h ar t e s d e

H e r ren , M . 1 979b : ' S ome New L igh t Upon t he l i fe o fV i rg i lus Ma ro G ramma t icus ' ,P R IA 7 9C ,2 1 -7 1 .

l ' Abb ay ed eS t av e lo t -M a lm edy , B ru s se l s . H a l l ,R .e ta l .1 992 ( ed . ) :E x chang ea nd T r ad e , Med i ev a lE ur op e1 992 ,

H e r ren ,M .1 980 :' The E a r l ie s tI r ish Aqua in tance w i th I s ido re o f S ev i l le ' ,i nJ ame s 1 98 1 ,2 43 -50 .

P r o c e ed ing s , V o lum e5 ,Y o rk .

H e r ren ,M .1 989 : ' M is s ion a nd Monas t ic i sm i nt he C on fe s s io o f

Han son ,R .P .C . 1 968 : S tP a tr i ck h i sO r ig in sa nd C ar e e r ,O x fo rd . H arb ison , P . 1 994 : ' H igh C ro sse s a nd t he B ook o f K e l l s ' , i n

P a t r ick ' ,i n( 5C o r rä in e t .a l . 1 989 ,7 6 -85 . H i l l , P . 1 987 : Wh i thorn 1 :E x c av a t ions 1 984 -6 , I n te r im R epor t ,

O ' Mahony 1 994 ,2 66 -9 . H arden ,D .B . 1 956a ( ed . ) :D ark A g eB r i t a in , L ondon .

Wh i thom .

H arden , D .B . 1 956b , ' G la s s V e s se ls i n B r i ta in a nd I r e land ' , i n Harden 1 956 , 1 32 -70 .

H i l l , P . 1 989 : Wh i thor n 2 :E x c av a t ions 1 984 -7 , I n te r im R epo r t , Wh i thom .

Harden ,D .B .1 966 : Append ix 1 0 :' No te o nG las sF ragmen t sf r om D a lkey I s land ' ,i nL ive r sage 1 966 , 1 93 -5 .

H i l l ,P .1 990 : Wh i thorn 3 :E x c av a t ions a t Wh i tho rn P r iory 1 988 -90 , I n te r im R epor t , Wh i tho m .

H arden ,D .B .1 984 :' Ename la nd G lass ' ,i n' Excava t ion sa tC a the d ra lH i l l ,A rmagh ' , U JA ,1 35 -6 .

H i l l ,P .1 991 : ' Wh i tho rn : t he M is s ing Y ear s ' ,i nO ra m a nd S t e l l 1 991 ,2 7 -44 .

Hard ing ,D .W .1 990 :' Chang ing P e r spec t ive so nt he A t lan t ic I r on Age ' ,i nA rm i t1 990 ,5 16 .

H i l l , P .1 992a : ' A T hou sand Y ea r s o f Con tac t : t he E conomy o f Wh i tho m f r om 4 50 -1450 ' , Ha l le ta l .1 992 , 1 9 -24 .

Harden ,D .B . 1 987 : ' The G las s ' ,i nA lcock , 1 987 ,1 42 -50 .

H i l l ,P .1 992b : Wh i tho rn 4 ,I n ter im R epo r t , Wh i tho m .

H ardy ,A .C . ,S e aw ay sa nd S e aT r ad e ,L ondon , 1 927 .

H i l lga r th ,J .N . 1 961 : ' The E as t , V i s igo th ic S pa in a nd t he I r i sh ' ,

H ar r ison , K . 1 980 : T h eF r amew o rk o fA ng lo -Saxon H i s tory , C am b r idge .

S tud i aP a t r i s t i c a4 ,4 42 -56 . H i l lgar th ,J .N . 1 962 : ' V i s igo th ic S pa in a nd E a r ly Ch r is t ian I r e -

H ar t , J .1 989 : ' L epro sy i nD evon a nd C o rnwa l l , P rob lem s a nd P e r spec t ive s ' ,i nB owden 1 989 ,2 61 -9 .

l and ' ,P R IA 6 2C , 1 67 -94 . H i l lgar th ,J .N .1 965 :' O ld I r e land a nd V i s igo th i cS pa in ' ,i n McNa l ly

H ar tg rove s ,S .a nd Wa lke r , R .1 988 : ' Excava t ion si nt he L owe r Wa rd ,T in tage lC as t le ,1 986 ' ,i nT homas 1 988b ,9 31 .

H i l lgar th ,J .N .1 984 :' I re land a nd S pa in i nt he S even th C en tury ' ,

Harvey ,A . 1 985 :' The S ign i f icance o fC o th r ige ' ,£ r i z i 3 6 , 1 9 . Harvey , A . 1 987 : ' Ear ly L i te racy i nI r e land : t he E v idence f r om

H i l lgar th ,J .N . 1 987 : ' Mode s o fE vange l i sa t ion i n Wes tern E u -

Ogam ' , CMCS 1 4 , 1 15 .

1 965 ,2 00 -27 . P e r i t i a3 ,1 16 . r ope i nt he S even th C en tu ry ' ,i nN iC ha thä in a nd R i ch te r

Hase lo f f ,G .1 987 :' I n su lar An ima lS ty le sw i th S pec ia lR e fe rence

1 987 ,3 11 -32 .

t oI r ish A r ti nt he E a r ly Med ieva lP e r iod ' ,i nR yan 1 987 ,

H in ton ,D .1 983 ( ed . ) :2 5Y e ar so fMed ieva lA r ch a e o logy ,S he ff ie ld .

4 4 -55 .

H ir th , K .G . 1 978 : ' I n te r reg iona l T rade a nd t h e F o r ma t ion o f

H a tche r , J .1 973 : E ng l i sh T in P r oduc t ion a nd T r ad e b e f or e 1 550 , Ox fo rd .

H i tchne r ,R .B . :' Me r id iona lG au l ,T rade a nd t h e Med i terranean

H awk in s , A .B . 1 971 : ' S ea L eve l C hange s a round S ou th We s t

E conomy i n L a te An t iqu i ty ' , i n D r inkwa te r a nd E l ton

E ng land ' , Mar ine A r ch ae o logy :C o l s ton P ap e r s ,B r i s to l ,6 78 8 H awke s , C .F .C . 1 977 : P y th e a s : E ur op e a nd t h e G r e ek E xp lor e r s , Ox fo rd .

G a teway C ommun i t ie s ' , Am er ic an An t iqu i ty 4 3 , 3 5 -45 .

1 992 ,1 22 -131 . Höckmann ,0 . 1 986 :' Röm i sche S ch i f f sve rbände a u fd e m Obe ru nd M i t te lrhe in u nd d ie V er te id igung d e rR he ing renze

1 12

B ib l iography

i nd e rS pä tan t ike ' ,J RGZ MM 3 3 ,3 69 -4 15 . Hodge s ,R .1 97 5 :' Knockdhu P romon to ry F o r t ' , U l s t e rJ o urn a lo f A r ch a eo l ogy 3 8 1 975 1 9 -24 .

J ohn s tone ,P .1 974 : T h eA r cha eo logy o fS h ip s ,L ondon . J ohn s tone ,P .1 980 : T h eS e ac r af to fP r eh i s tory ,L ondon . J ohn s tone , P .K . 1 962 : 'A C on su lar Ch rono logy o f D ark Age

Hodges , R . 1 977 : S o me E ar ly Med ieva l F rench Wa re s i n t h e B r i t i sh I s le s ' ,i nP eacock 1 977 ,2 39 -262 .

B r i ta in ' ,A n t iqu i ty 3 6 ,1 02 -9 . J one s ,H .L . 1 949 ( ed . ) :S t r abo ,G eog r aph i c a( LCL ) , New Y o rk a nd

Hodges , R . 1 978 : ' Por t s o f T rade i n E a r ly Med ieva l E u rope ' , N orw eg i an A rch aeo log i c a lR ev i ew 1 ,9 7 -117 .

L ondon . J one s ,M .E .1 993 :' The L i te ra ry E v idence f o r Mas ta nd S a i l Du r ing

Hodge s , R .1 981 : T he H amw ih P o t t e ry :L o c a la nd I mpor t ed W a r e s

t he Ang lo -Saxon I nva s ion s ' ,S tud i e si n Med i ev a la nd R en -

f r om 3 0Y e ar sE xc ava t ions i na tM idd l eS axon S ou th amp ton a nd t h e i r E urop e an C on tex t ( CBA R e search R epo r t 3 7 ) ,

a i s s anc eH i s to ry ,n ew s e r ie s1 3 ,3 1 -67 . J ön s son ,G .1953 ( e d . ) :A r iT ho rg i l s son ,L i b e l lu sI s lendorum / I s lend ing a

L ondon .

S ögur ,R eyk jav ik ,1 20 .

Hodge s ,R .1 984 :' The D a te a nd S ou rce o f Ewa re ' ,S AR 2 ,3 9 -40 .

J ope ,E . ,e ta l . 1 966 :A r chaeo log i c a lS ur v ey o fC o . D own , B e l fa s t .

Hodge s ,R .1 989 :D ark A g eE conom i c s ,L ondon ,2 nd E d i t ion .

J ung ,E .1 995 :' I bk-e se nH ibe rn ie ? ' ,i nP i ca rd 1 995 ,2 2 1 -23 .

Hodge s , R .a nd Wh i tehou se , D . 1 983 : Moh ammed , C h ar l emagne

K eay ,S . J .1 984 :L a t eR oman Amphor a ei nt h e We s t e rn Med i t e r r ane an

a nd t h eO r ig ins o fE urop e ,L ondon . Hood , A .B .E . 1 978 ( ed . ) : S tP a tr i ck : H i s W r i t ing sa nd M z t i r chu ' s L i f e ,L ondon .

( BAR I n te rna t iona lS e r ie s1 96 ,i -) , Ox fo rd , 2v o ls . K e l ly ,F .1 988 : AG u id et oE ar ly I r i sh L aw , Dub l in . K endr ick , T .D . , e ta l . 1 960 ( edd . ) : E v ang e l iorum Q ua t tuor C od ex

Ho rne l l ,J .1 936 : ' B r i t i sh C o rac le s ' , Mar in e r sM ir r o r3 2 ,5 -2 1 . Horne l l ,J .1 946a : Wa t e rT r an spor t ,C amb r idge .

L ind i s f arnen s i s ,O l ten ,V o l .2 . ,2 62 -7 . K enney , J . F . 1 929 : T h e S our c e sf o r t h e E ar ly H i s tory o fI r e l and :

Horne l l ,J .1 946b :' The R o le o fB i rds i nE a r ly N av iga t ion ' ,A n t i q u i ty 2 01 946 , 1 42 -9 .

E c c l e s i a s t i c a l ,N ew Y o rk . K idd , D . 1 989 : ' The H is tory o f t he E ar ly Med ieva l E u ropean

Hughe s ,E .1 938 :S tud i e si nA dm in i s t r a t ion a nd F inanc e , New Y o rk . Hughe s ,K . 1 981 : ' The C e l t ic Chu r ch : i st h i s aV a l id C oncep t? ' , CMCS 1 ,1 20 .

C o l lec t ion si nt he B r i t i sh Mu seum ' ,J ourna lo ft h eH i s to ry • o fC o l l e c t ion s1 ,1 03 -7 . K i lbr ide Jone s , H . 1 980 : Z oomo zph i c P enannu lar B r oo ch e s , L on -

Hu mph rey ,J .H . 1 98 1 ( e d . ) :E xc av a t i on sa tC ar thag eC onduc t ed b y t h eU n iv e r s i ty o fM ich ig an ,V o l .6 , Ann A rbo r .

d on . K i l leen , J . F . 1 976 : ' I re land i nt he G reek a nd R oman Wr i ter s ' ,

Hun te r ,J .1 975 : ' G la sse sf r om S cand inav ian B u r ia l si nt he F i r s t M i l len ium AD ' , Wo r ld A r ch aeo l ogy 7 ,7 9 -86 .

P R IA 7 6C ,2 07 -215 . K ing , J .W . 1 893 : T h e P i lo t ' s H andbook f o r t h e E ng l i sh C h ann e l ,

Hu tch in son , G . 1 979 : ' B a r -Lug P o t te ry o f C o rnwa l l ' , C o rn i sh A r c haeo logy 1 8 ,8 1 -104 .

L ondon . K n igh t ,J . 1984 :' G lamo rgan 4 00 -1100 :A rchaeo logy a nd H i s tory ' ,

Hu t ton , M . 1 914 ( ed . ) : T ac i tu s , A g r i c o l a ( LCL ) , N ew Y o rk a nd L ondon .

i nS avo ry 1 984 ,3 15 -64 . K n igh t ,J .1 981 : ' I n T empor e I u s t in i C on s z t l i s : C on tac t s b e tween

Hydrog raphe r o f t he N avy 1 970 : Med i t e r r ane an P i lo t , V o l . 1 . ,

B r i t i sh a nd G au l ish C hu rche s b e fo re S t Augu s t ine ' , i n

T aun ton . Hyd rog rapher o f t he N avy 1 974a : W e s t C oa s t o fS c o t land P i lo t ,

D e t s icas 1 981 ,5 4 -62 . K rusch ,B .1880 :S tud i en z ir C hr i s t l ich -m i t t e l a l t e r l i ch en C hr ono log i e ,

E l even th E d i t ion ,T aun ton . Hydrog rapher o f t he N avy 1 974b : W e s t C o a s t s o fE ng l and a nd

L e ipz ig . K rusch ,B .1 885a ( e d . ) :H i s tor i aF r anco rum ( MGH : S Sr e r . Me r ov .

W a l e sP i lo t ,E leven th E d i t ion ,T aun ton . Hydrog rapher o ft he N avy 1 974 c :C hanne lP i l o t ,T aun ton .

V o l . 1 . 1 ) ,H annove r . K ru sch ,B .1 885b ( e d . ) :D eV ir t z t t ibu sS anc t i Mar t in i ,i n MGH . S S

Hydrog rapher o ft he N avy 1 974d :A dm i r a l ty T id a lS t r e am A t l a s : I r i sh S e aa nd t h eC hanne l ,T aun ton . I r e land ,C .1 991 : ' S ome A na logue so ft h eO .E . S eaf ar er f r om H ib emo -La t in s o u r ce s ' ,N euph i lo log i sche M i t t e i lungen 9 2 , 1 14 . I s ing s ,C .1 957 :R om an G l a s sf r om D a ted F i nd s ,G rön ingen . J a ck son , K . 1 952 : L anguag e a nd H i s to ry i n E ar ly B r i ta in , E d in b u rgh . J a ck son ,K . 1 961 ( t ran s . ) : T h eG ododd in , E d inbu rgh . J a ck son ,K . 1 963 :T h eO ld e s tI r i sh T r ad i t ion : AW indow o nt h eI r on A g e , E d inbu rgh . J ame s , E .1 977 : T h e Me r ov ing i an A r chaeo logy o fS ou th -W e s t G au l ( BAR S upp lemen tary S e r ie s2 5 ,i -) ,O x fo rd , 2v o l s . J ame s ,E .1 980a ( e d . ) : V i s igo th i cS p a in :N ew A pp r o ach e s ,O x fo rd . J ame s ,E .1 980b :' S ep t iman ia a nd i t sF ron t ie r : An A r chaeo log ica l Approach ' ,i nJ a me s1 980a ,2 43 -50 . J ame s , E .1 982 : ' I re land a nd We s te rn G au l i nt he Me rov ing ian P e r iod ' ,i n Wh i te lock e ta l .1 982 ,3 62 -86 .

r e r . Me r ov .V o l . 1 . 2 , Hannove r ,1 35 -211 . K rusch ,B .1 888a ( e d . ) :L i b e rH i s tor i ae F r ancorum ,i n MGH :S Sr e r . Me r ov . V o l .2 ,H annove r ,2 38 -328 . K ru sch ,B .1 888b ( e d . ) :G e s ta D agob e r t ii n MGH :S Sr e r . Me rov .V o l . 2 ,H annove r ,3 96 -425 . K ru sch ,B .1 896a ( e d . ) : V i t aF r ido l in i ,i n MGH :S Sr e r . Me r ov .V o l . 3 ,H annove r ,3 51 -69 . K ru sch , B . 1 896b ( e d . ) : V i t a e tV i r tu te s E p ar ch i , MGH : S S r e r . Me r ov . V o l .3 , Hannove r ,5 50 -564 . K ru sch , B . 1 902a ( e d . ) : J ona s , V i ta C o lumban i , i n MGH : S S r e r . Me r ov . V o l .4 , Hannove r ,6 4 -108 . K ru sch ,B .1 902b ( e d . ) :A dd i tamen tum N iv i a len s ed eF u i l ano , MGH : S Sr e r . Me r ov . V o l .4 ,H annove r ,4 49 -451 . K ru sch ,B .1 910 ( ed . ) :V i t a Amand i , MGH :i n MGH :S Sr e r . Me r ov . V o l .5 , Hannove r ,4 28 -449 . L a ing ,L .1 966 -7 :' L in l i thgow P a lace E xcava t ion s ' ,P SAS 9 9 , 11 4 7 . L a ing , L . 1 973 : ' Cook ing P o t s a nd t he O r ig in s o f t he S co t t i sh

J ame s ,E .1 988 :T h eF r ank s ,L ondon .

Med ieva l P o t te ry I ndu s t ry ' , A r chaeo log ic a l J o urna l 1 30 ,

J a r re t t ,M .a nd D ob son ,B .1 965 ( e dd . ) :B r i ta in a nd I r e l and ,K enda l . J ohn s tone , P .1 962 : ' A Med ieva lS k in B oa t 'A n t iqu i ty 3 6 ,3 2 -37 . J ohn s tone ,P .1 964 : ' The B an t ry B oa t ' ,A n t iqu i ty 3 8 ,2 77 -85 .

1 2 1 -5 . L a ing , L .1 975 : T h eA r chaeo logy o fL a t eC e l t i c B r i ta in a nd I r e l and , L ondon .

1 13

C ommun ica t ion a nd C ommer ce a l ong t h eW e s t er nS ea lane s AD400 -800

L a ing , L .1 985 : ' The R oman isa t ion o fI r e land i nt he F if th C en t u ry ' ,P e r i t ia 4,2 6 1 -78 . L amb , H .H . 1 977 : C l im a te : P a s t , P r e sen t a nd F u tur e , V o l . 2 ,A H i s to ry o fC l im a t e ,L ondon . L amb , H .H . 1 992 : ' C l ima te a nd t he H i s to ry o fE u rope a nd i t s O f f ly ing S ea s ' ,C arve re ta l . 1 992 ,1 26 . L ane ,A . 1 980 :E x c av a t ion sa tD unadd 1 980 ,I n te r im R epor t ,C a r d i f f . L ane ,A . 1 981 :E x c ava t ion sa tD unadd 1 98 1 , I n te r im R epor t ,C ar d i f f . L ane ,A .1 984 :' S ome P ic t i sh P rob lem sa t Dunadd ' ,i nF re i 1 1a nd Wa t son 1 984 ,4 3 -62 . L ane ,A .1988 :' New P iece s , Mon tgome ry sh i re P owy s ' ,i nE dwa rds a nd L ane 1 988 ,7 8 . L ane , A . 1 994 : ' F if th t o S even th -Cen tury T rad ing S y s tem s i n we s te rn B r i ta in a nd I r e land ' ,i nC raw fo rd 1 994 , 1 04 -115 . L ang lo tz , E .1 969 : ' Beobach tungen i nP hoka ia ' ,A r ch aeo log i sch e A nz e ig e r2 5 ,3 77 -85 . L apar t ,J .a nd R igo i r ,J .a nd Y . 1 986 : ' L e s D er ivee s -de s -S ig i lde s P a l6 Dch ra ienne s D e co re s d u G e r s ' , S o c i e t e F r anc a i s e d 'E tud ed el aC e r am iqu eA n t ique e nG lu ck :A c t e sd uC ong r e s d u T ou lou s e , 11 -24 .

L yon ,B .1 974 :H enr iP i r enne : aB iog r aph i c a la nd I n t e l l e c tua lS tudy , Ghen t . Maar leve ld , T . J . 1 995 : ' Type o r T echn ique . S ome t hough ts o n b oa ta nd s h ip f i nds a s i nd ica t ive o fc u l tu ra lt r ad i t ions ' , I JNA 2 4 .1 ,3 -7 . Maca l i s te r ,R .A .S . 1 92 1 ( e d . ) : T h eL a t in a nd I r i sh L iv e so fC iaran o f C l onm acno i s ,L ondon . Maca l i s te r , R .A .S . 1 938 -56 ( ed . ) : L ebo r G ab c i la g r enn , Dub l in , 5 v o l s . Maca l i s te r , R .A .S . 1 945 -9 ( e d . ) : C o rpu s I n sc r ip t ionum I n su larum C e l t i c arum , Dub l in , 2v o ls . Mac C ana ,P .1 993 :' I r .B uab a l l ,W B ua l' D r ink ing Ho rn ' ,g r i z t4 4 , 8 1 -93 . Mac a nB ha i rd ,A . 1 991 -2 : ' P to lemy R ev i s i ted ' ,A inm :B u l l e t in o f t h e U l s t e rP l ac e -n am eS oc i e ty 5 :1 20 . McCaughan ,M .a nd App leby ,J .1 989 ( e d . ) :T h eI r i sh S e a ,A sp e c t s o f Mar i t ime H i s tor y , B e l fas t . McCone ,K .1 990 ,P ag an P a s ta nd C hr i s t i an P r e sen ti nI r i sh L i t e r a t u r e , Maynoo th . Mac C ongha i l ,M . ,T h eB l a sk e t s :a ni s l and l i b r ary , Dub l in . Mac E o in ,G .1977 :' The L amen tf o r Cu im ine F o ta ' ,g r i z t2 8 ,1 7 -31 , 2 1 -22 . McG ra i l ,S .1 977 ( e d . ) :S our c e sa nd T e chn i qu e si nB oa tA r ch ae o logy

L asko ,P .1 97 1 : T h eK ingdom o ft h eF r ank s ,L ondon .

( BAR S upp lemen tary S e r ies 2 9 ) ,O x fo rd .

L aw ,V . 1 980 :I n su l ar L a t in G r ammar i an s , Woodb r idge .

McG ra i l , S . 1 979 ( ed . ) : T h e A r chaeo logy o f Med i ev a l S h ip s a nd

L eFond ,J .1 969 :H andbook o f Wo r ld S a l tR e sour c e s ,N ew Y o rk . L ehmann , L .T h . 1 978 : ' The F l a t -Bo t tomed B oa t f r om D ru ten , N e the r land s ' ,I JNA 7 ,2 39 -67 . L eo , F .a nd K ru sch , B .1 961 ( edd . ) : V enan t iu sF or t z ina tu s , O p e r a ( MGH : AA I V ) ,B e r l in ,r p r . L ev ison ,W . 1 910 ( ed . ) : V i ta F i l ib e r t i , MGH :S Sr e r . Me r ov .V o l .5 , H annov e r ,5 68 -604 . L ev ison ,W .1 946 :E ng l and a nd t h eC on t inen ti nt h eE igh th C en tury , Ox fo rd . L ew i s ,A .R . 1 953 : ' L eC omme r ce e tl aN av iga t ion s u rl e sC ö te s A t lan t ique sd el aG au le d uV ee tV I I Ie S i& le s ' ,L e Moy en A g e5 9 ,2 49 -98 .

H ar bour si nN o r th ern E urope ( BAR S upp lemen tary S e r ies 6 6 ) ,O x fo rd . McG ra i l ,S .1 983 :' C ro s s -Channe lS ea man sh ip a nd Nav iga t ion i n t he L a te F i r s tM i l len ium B C ' ,O xf o rd J o urna lo fA r ch ae o logy 2 ,2 99 -337 . McG ra i l ,S .1 987 :A nc i en tB o a t si nNW E ur op e ,L ondon . McG ra i l , S .1 989 : ' P i lo tage a nd Nav iga t ion i nt he T ime s o fS t B rendan ' ,i nD eC ou rcy I r e land a nd S heehy 1 989 ,2 5 -36 . McG ra i l ,S .1 990a ( e d . ) : Mar i t im eC e l t s ,F r i s i an sa nd S axon s( CBA R e sea rch R epo r t7 7 ) ,L ondon . McG ra i l ,S .1 990b :' Boa t sa nd B oa t s man sh ip i nt he L a te -P reh is t o r ic No r th S ea a nd C hanne lR eg ion ' ,i n McG ra i l1 990a ,

L ew i s ,A .R . 1 959 : T h eN o r the rn S e a s ,P r in ce ton . L ew i s ,A .R .1 978 :' Byzan t ine L igh twe igh tS o l id ia nd T rade t ot he Nor th S ea a nd t he B a l t ic ' , i ni d em . . T he S e aa nd Med i ev a l C iv i l i sa t ion ,V ar io rum ,S ec t ion V . L ew i s , A .R . a nd R unyan ,T . 1 985 : E ur op e an N av a la nd Mar i t im e H i s to ry ,3 00 -1500 , B loom ing ton . L 'Hou r ,M .1 987 :' Un S i te S ous - Mar ine s u rl aC ö te d eL 'A rmo r ique L 'Epave An t ique d e P loumanach ' , R evue A r che o log iqu e Q ue s t4 , 13 -3 1 . L indsay ,W .M . 1 911 ( ed . ) :I s ido r e , E tymo log i arum S i ue O r ig inum , O x fo rd . L ive r sage ,G .D .1 966 :' Excava t ion sa tD a lkey I s .C o . Dub l in 1 956 9 ' ,P R IA 6 6C ,5 3 -233 . L or ren ,C .1 980 :' De sS axon se nB asse No rmand ie a uV Ie

3 2 -48 . Mack inde r ,H . 1 902 :B r i ta in a nd t h eB r i t i sh S e a s ,L ondon . McLeod 1 982 : ' The C oncep t o fL aw i n An c ien t I r ish J ur i spru d en ce ' , T h eI r i sh J u r i s tN ew S er ie s1 7 ,3 56 -67 . Mc Manu s , D . 1 983 : ' A Ch rono logy o ft he L a t in L oanwo rd s i n E a r ly I r ish ' ,t r iu 3 4 ,2 1 -7 1 . McManu s ,D .1 984 :' The S o -Ca l led C o thr a ig ea nd P ä tr a ic S t ra ta o f L oanwo rds i nE ar ly I r i sh ' , i n N i C ha thä in a nd R ich te r 1 984 , 1 79 -96 . McManu s ,D . 1 991 : AG u id et oO g am , Maynoo th . Mac Ma th l ina ,S .1 994 :' The S t ruc tu re a nd T ran sm i s s ion o fE a r ly I r ish V oyage L i te ra tu re ' ,i nT r i s t ram 1 994 ,3 13 -358 . McNa l ly ,R .1 965 ( e d . ) :O ld I r e l and , Dub l in . MacN ioca i l l , G . 1 97 1 : ' J e t sam , T reasu re T rove a nd t he L o rd 's

S tud i en z i ir S ach s enf o r schung 2 ,2 31 -69 . L öwe ,H .1 982 ( ed . ) :D i eI r en u nd E ur op a i mF rüh e r en M i t t e l a l t e r , S tu t tga r t . L ucas ,A .T . 1 965 : ' Foo twea ri nI r e land ' ,C o . L ou th A r ch ae o log i c a l J o urna l1 3 . L ue t johann , C . 1 887 ( ed . ) : S i don ius , O p e r a , MGH : AA V o l . 8 , B e r l in . L ynn , C . 1 984 : ' S ome F ragmen t s o fE xo t ic P o rphy ry f ound i n I r e land ' ,J IA 2 ,1 9 -32 . L ynn ,C .1 985 -6 :' S ome E a r ly I r ish R ing for t sa nd C rannög s ' ,J IA 3 ,4 7 -57 .

S hare i n Med ieva lI r e land ' ,T h eI r i sh J u r i s t6 ,1 03 -10 . MacN ioca i l l , G . a nd Mac A ir t , S .1 983 ( edd . ) :A nna l s o fU l s t e r , Dub l in . MacN ioca i l l ,G . a nd Wa l lace , P .1 988 ( edd . ) : K em e l i a : S tud i e si n Memo ry o fT om D e l aney ,G a lway . McPeake ,J . C . ,B u lme r ,M .a nd R u t te r ,J .1 980 :' E x cava t ion si nt h e G a rden o f No . 1 , Abbey G reen , Che s te r ' , J o urna l o ft h e C h e s t e rA r ch a eo l og ic a lS o c i e ty 6 3 , 1 4 -38 . MacReady . S .a nd T hompson , F .H . 1 984 ( edd . ) : C r o s s C h anne l T r ad eb e tw e en G au la nd B r i ta in i nt h eP r e -Roman I r on A g e , L ondon .

1 14

B ib l iography

Ma l inow sk i ,B .1 922 :A rgonau t so ft h eW e s t e rn P ac if i c ,L ondon . Ma l lory ,J . P . 1 987 : ' S i lve r i nt he U l s te r C yc le o fT a le s ' , i nE l l i s E van s1 987 ,3 3 -65 . Marcus ,G .J .1 953 -4 :' F ac to r si nE a r ly C e l t ic Nav iga t ion ' ,E tud e s C e l t iqu e s6 ,3 12 -27 . Marcus , G . J .1 955 : ' H af v i l l a : A No te o n No r se N av iga t ion ' , S p e cu lum 3 0 ,6 0 1 -5 . Marcu s ,G .J . 1980 :T h eC onque s to ft h eN or th A t l an t i c , Woodb r idge . Mar sden , P . 1 972 : ' Sh ips o f t he R oman P e r iod a nd Af te r i n B r i ta in ' ,i nB as s1 972 , 14 -24 . Mar sden , P .1 976 : ' A B oa t f r om t he R oman P e r iod f ound i n B ruge s ,B e lg ium i n1 899 ,a nd R e la ted T ype s ' ,I JNA 5 ,3 7 4 5 . Ma r sden , P .1 990 : ' A R easse ssmen t o f B lack f r ia r s S h ip 1 ' , i n McG ra i l 1 990 ,6 6 -74 . Marx ,K .1 930 : C ap i ta l ,t r an sE .a nd C .P au l ,L ondon . Mau s s ,M .1 954 : T h eG i f t ,t r an s . I .Cunn i son ,L ondon . May r -Har t ing ,H .1 972 :T h eC om ing o fC hr i s t ian i ty t oA ng l o -S axon E ng l and , L ondon . Meehan ,D . 1 958 ( ed . ) :A domnän , D eL o c i s S anc t i s ( SLH V o l . 3 ) , Dub l in .

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Meye r ,K .1 890 : ' The O lde s tV e r s ion o fT o chma i r c Em ir e ' , R evu e C e l t ique 1 ,4 24 -57 . Meye r ,K .1 892 ( ed . ) :A i s l ing e Me i cC ong l inne ,L ondon . Meye r ,K .1909 ( ed . ) :T e co s c aC orma i cT odd L ec tu re S e r ie s ,V o l .1 5 , Dub l in . Meye r ,K .1 910 : ' Gau l si nI r e land ' ,g r iu 4 ,2 08 . Meye r , K . 1 913a : L e arn ing i nI r e land i nt h eF i f th C en tury a nd t h e T r ansm i s s ion o fL e t t e r s , Dub l in . Meye r ,K .1 913b :' Au sd em N ach lass H e in r ich Z i mme r s ' , ZCP 9 ,

B r i ta in ' ,i nD r i sco l la nd N ieke ,6 21 . N ie l sen , P .O . e ta l . 1 994 ( edd . ) : T h e A r ch aeo logy o fG und e a nd L und ebo rg A rk eo log i sk eS tud i e r1 0 ,C openhagen . No rda l ,S .1 933 ( ed . ) :E g i l sS ag a( f s l enzk F o rnr i t ,V o l .2 ) ,R eyk jav ik . No rden fa lk ,C .1 977 : C e l t i ca nd A ng lo -Saxon P a in t ing ,L ondon . Novakowsk i , J .a nd T homas , C . 1 990 : E x cav a t ions a t T in tag e l P ar i sh C hur chy ard ,I n te r im R epor t ,T ru ro .

OC ao imh ,T .1 989 : ' S tB rendan S ou rce s : S tB rendan a nd E ar ly I r i sh H ag iog raphy ' , i n D e C ou rcy I r e land a nd S heehy

8 7 -120 . M igne ,J .1 846 ( ed . ) :P r o sp e r : O pe r a ,P L ,V o l .5 1 . M igne ,J .1 860 ( ed . ) :C og i to su s ,V i t aB r ig id ae ,i nP L .V o l .7 2 ,7 75 -90 M igne ,J .1 862 ( ed . ) : I s ido r e , D e V i r i s I lu s tr ibu s , i nP L . V o l . 8 3 ,

1 989 , 1 7 -24 .

OC a thasa igh ,T .1 984 :' The I X i s ia nd Dy fed ' , Ag s e2 0 , 1 33 . O 'Conne r ,A .a nd C la rke ,D .1 983 ( edd . ) :F r om t h eS t one Ag et ot h e ' 4 5 ,E d inbu rgh .

P ar i s , 1 082 -1106 .

C o r rä in ,D .1 989 ( ed . ) :I r i sh A n t iqu i ty :p ape r si nh onour o fM i ch ae l

M ike t , R . a nd B u rge s s , C . 1 984 ( edd . ) : B e tw e en a nd B eyond t h e W a l l s ,E s say so n t h eP r eh i s to ry a nd H i s to ry o fN or th B r i ta in P r e sen ted t oG e o rg eJ o b ey , E d inbu rgh .

O 'K e l ly ,C o rk .

OCorräin ,D .1 994 :' The H i s tor ica la nd Cu l tu ra lB ackg round o f t he B ook o fK e i l s ' ,i nO ' Mahony 1 994 , 1 32 .

M i l le r ,M . 1 978 -80 :' H ibe rn iR eve r su r i ' ,P SAS 10 ,3 05 -27 .

C o r rä in ,D .a nd B rea tnach ,L .a nd B reen ,A .1 984 :' The L aws o f

Mo rnm sen ,T .1 892 ( ed . ) :P r o sp e r ,C hron i c on ,i n MGH : AA V o l .9 ,

t he I r i sh ' ,P e r i t i a3 ,3 82 -438 .

B e r l in ,3 4 1-499 .

C o r rä in , D . e ta l . 1 989 ( edd . ) : S a in t s , S ag e s a nd S t o ry t e l l e r s ,

Mo r r un sen ,T .1 894 ( e d . ) :H yd a t iu s ,C h ron i con ,i n MGH : AA ,V o l . 1 , B e r l in , 1 36 . Moody ,T .W . 1 971 ( ed . ) :I r i sh H i s to ry 1 945 -70 , Dub l in . Moo r e , D . 1 969 ( ed . ) : T h e I r i sh S e a P r ov inc e i nA r ch aeo logy a nd H i s tory ,C ard i f f . Mo r r i s , C . , e ta l . 1 99 1 : T in tag e l C a s t l e E x c av a t ion s , 1 990 , I n te r im R epo r t ,E ng l i sh H e r i tage . Mo r r i s ,J .1 965 :' Da rk Age D a te s ' ,i nJ a r re t ta nd D obson 1 965 ,1 45 8 5 . Mo r r i s ,J .1 977 : T h eA g eo fA r thur ,C h iche s te r . Muh lberge r ,S .1 990 : T h eF i f th -C en tury C hr on i c l e r s ,L eeds . Munn , M . 1 985 : ' A L a te R oman K i ln S i te i n t he H e rm ion id , G reece ' , Ame r i c an J o urna lo fA r ch aeo logy 8 9 ,3 42 -3 . Mun ro , D . 1 895 ( t ran s . ) : T h eL i f eo fS tC o lumb an ,P h i lade lph ia . Mu rphy ,J .1 977 ( ed . ) : R uf u sF e s tu s Av i enu s , O r a Mar i t im a ,C h i c ago . Mu r ray ,J .1 991 :' Mega l i th s Aga in : aV iew f r om t he S o lway ' ,S AR 8 ,2 6 -32 . Mu s se t , L . 1 975 : T he G e rman i cI n v a s ion s t r an s . E .a nd C .J ame s , L ondon . My tum ,H . 1 986 :' H igh S t a tu sV e sse ls i nE a r ly H i s to r ic I r e land :

S tud i e si nH onour o fJ am e sC arney , Maynoo th .

OC r iomh tha in ,T .1 929 :A n t O f l eänach , Dub l in . OC rö in in ,D .1 983 :' The I r i sh P rovenance o fB ede 's C ompu tus ' , P e r i t i a2 ,2 29 -247 .

OC rö in in , D . 1 984 : ' Ra th Me l s ig i , W i l l ibro rd a nd t he E a r l ie s t E ch te r n ach Manu sc r ip t s ' ,P e r i t i a3 ,1 7 -42 .

OC rö in in ,D . 1 986 :' New L igh to nP a l lad iu s ' ,P e r i t ia 5 ,2 76 -283 . C rö in in ,D . 1 987 :' Me rov ing ian P o l i t ic sa nd I n su la rC a l l ig ra p hy : T he H i s to r ica l B ackg round t ot he B ook o f Dur row a nd R e la ted Manu sc r ip t s ' , i nR yan 1 987 ,4 0 -3 .

OC rö in in , D . 1 989 : ' The Aug sbu rg Go spe lC odex , aNor thum b r ian Manu sc r ip t ' ,i nB onne r ,e ta l . 1 989 , 1 89 -201 .

OhA .odha ,D . 1 978 ( ed . ) :B e thu B r ig t e , Dub l in . O 'Ke l ly ,M . J .1 952 -3 :' Th ree P romon to ry F o r t si nC o .C ork ' ,P R IA 5 5C ,2 5 -60 . O 'Ke l ly , M . J . 1 963 : ' Two R ing -For ts a t G ar rydu f f , C o . C o rk ' , P R IA 6 3C ,1 7 -125 . O ld fa the r , C .H . 1 939 ( ed . ) : D iodo rus S i cu lu s , H i s tor i c a l L i br a ry ( LCL ) ,N ew Y o rk a nd L ondon .

1 15

C ommun ica t ion a nd C ommer ce a l ong t h e W e s te rn S ea lane s AD400 -800

O lson ,L .1 988 :E ar ly Mona s t er i e si nC ornwa l l , Woodb r idge . OL ü ing ,S .1 991 :K uno Mey e r1 858 -19 19 : aB i og r aphy , Dub l in . L ü ing ,S .1 994 : ' Ce l t ic S cho la r so fG e rmany ' , ZCP 4 6 ,2 49 -7 1 . O ' Mahony ,F .1 994 ( ed . ) :T h eB ook o fK e i l s :P ro c e ed ing so faC onf e r e nc eh e ld a tT r in i ty C o l l eg e Dub l in ,A lde r sho t . O ' Mahoney ,T . ,e ta l .1 865 -1901 ( edd . ) :T h eA nc i en tL aw so fI r e l and , 6v o l s , Dubl in . O ' Meara , J . J . 1 949 : ' G ira ldus C a mbren s is i n T opog raph ia H ibern ie ' ,P R IA 5 2C , 13 -178 . O ' Meara , J . J . 1 978 : ' I n t he Wake o f t he S a in t ' , T ime s L i t e r ary S upp lemen t ( 1 4/7/ '78 ) .

P i card ,J -M .1 991b :' Chu r ch a nd P o l i t i c si nt he S even th C en tury : t h eI r i sh E x i le o fK ing D agobe r tI ' ,i nP ica rd 1 99 1a ,2 7 -52 . P i card ,J -M . 1 995 ( ed . ) : A qu i ta ine a nd I r e land i nt h eM idd l eA g e s , Dub l in . P i l le t ,M .1 980 :P o t i e r se tP o t i g r i e sP opu l a i r e se nF r anc e ,P a r i s . P i renne , H . 1 939 : Mohammed a nd C h a r l em agne t r an s . B .M ia l l , L ondon . P lumme r ,C .1910 ( ed . ) :V i ta eS anc torum H ib e rn iae ,O x fo rd , 2v o ls . P lumme r ,C .1 92 1 -2 : ' No te so nS ome P a ssage si nt he B rehon L aws ' ,g r in 9 ,3 1 -42 P lumme r ,C .a nd E a r le ,J .1 892 ( ed . ) : T w oo ft h eS axon C h r on ic l e s

O ' Meara , J . J . 1 982 : T he H i s tory a nd T opog raphy o f I r e land , H a rmondswo r th .

P ar a l l e l ,O x fo rd . P o lany i , K . 1 963 : ' Po r t s o fT rade i n E a r ly S oc ie t ie s ' , J o urna l o f

O 'Ne i l l , T . 1 987 : Me r chan t s a nd Mar ine r s i n Med i eva l I r e l and , Dub l in .

E conom i cH i s to ry 2 3 ,3 0 -45 . P o l la rd , S .1 966 : ' Neo l i th ic a nd D ark A ge S e t t le men t s a tH igh

O 'Rah i l ly ,T .F . 1 942 : T h eT wo P a t r ick s , Dub l in .

P eak ,S idmou th ,D evon ' ,P roc ed ing so ft h eD evon A r chaeo -

O ram ,R .a nd S t e l l ,G .P . 1 991 ( edd . ) :G a l low ay L and a nd L ord sh ip ,

l o g i c a lE xp lo r a t ion S o c i e ty 2 3 ,3 5 -59 .

E d inbu rgh .

P oo l ,P .A .S .1 964 :' The He rm i tage Chape lo fS tM ichae lo fB rea ,

R ia in ,P .1 984 ' S am son a l ias S an (c ) tan ? ' ,P e r i t i a3 ,3 20 -3 .

OR iordä in , S .P . 1 942 : ' The E xcava t ion o f aL a rge E ar the rn R ing fo r ta tG a r rane s ,C o .C o rk ' ,P R IA 4 7C ,7 7 -150 .

OR io rdä in ,S .P .1 947 :' Roman Ma te r ia li nI r e land ' ,P R IA 5 1 ,3 5 8 2 . O 'Rou rke ,D .1 991 :' F i r s tS t eps i n Med ieva lF oo twear ' ,A r ch ae o l o gy I r e l and 5 . 1 ,2 2 -3 . O ska mp ,H .P . 1 970 ( ed . ) : T h eV oy ag eo f Ma e lD u in ,G rön ingen . Ou thwa i te ,L .1957 :T h eA t lan t ic : AH i s to ry o f a nO c e an ,N ew Y o rk . P ade l , O . J . 1 981a : ' The C orn i sh B ackg round t ot he T r i s tan S to r i e s ' , CMCS 1 ,5 3 -81 . P ade l ,

O . J .

1 981b : ' T in tage l : An A l te rna t ive V iew ' , i nT homas

1 981b ,2 8 -9 . P ade l , P ade l ,

O . J . O . J .

S tJ u s ti nP enw i th ' ,A nnua lR epor t so ft h eC ornw a l lP o ly t e ch n i cS o c i e ty 1 01 ,2 4 -39 . P re s ton Jone s ,A . a nd R o se ,P .1 986 : ' Med ieva lC ornwa l l ' , C o r n i sh A r cha eo logy 2 5 ,1 35 -85 . P r ice ,J .1 988 : ' The G las s F ragmen ts f r om t he L owe r Wa rd ' , i n T homa s 1 988b ,2 5 -6 . P r ice ,J .e ta / .1 992 : ' The G las s ' ,i nR ah tz e ta / .1 992 , 1 31 144 . P r ice ,J .a nd C o t tam ,S . 1995 :' L a te R o man a nd E a r ly p os t -Roman G las s ' ,i nA lcock 1 995 ,9 -103 . P r ice ,J .f o r thcom ing ( ed . ) :G l a s si nB r i ta in 3 50 -800 AD ,L ondon . P r ie to , N . 1 984 : ' A lguno s d a to s s obre l a s i mpor tac ione s d e c e räm ica " Pho cean R ed S l ip" e nl ap en in su la I be r ica ' ,i n B l agg e ta / .1 984 ,5 40 -8 .

1 985 : C orn i sh P l ac e -name E l emen t s , L ondon . 1 988 : A P opu la r D i c t iona ry o fC o rn i sh P l ac e -name s ,

P enzan ce . P a rke r ,A . J .1 984 :' Sh ipwreck sa nd T rade i nt he Med i ter ranean ' , A r chae o log i c a lR ev i ew f r om C ambr idg e3 ,9 9 -114 . P eacock , D .P .S . 1 969 : ' A R omano -Br i t ish S a l two rk ing S i te a t T reba rve th ,S tK eve rne ' , C orn i sh A r cha eo logy 8 ,4 7 -65 . P eacock ,D .P .S .1 977a ( ed . ) :P o t te ry a nd E ar ly C omme r c e ,L ondon . P eacock , D .P .S . 1 977b : ' La te R oman Ampho rae f r om C ha lk , K en t ' ,i n Do re a nd G reene 1 977 ,2 95 -300 . P eacock ,D .P .S .a nd T homa s ,C .1 967 :' C las s EI mpo r ted P o t tery , AS ugge s ted O r ig in ' , C orn i sh A r chae o logy 6 ,3 5 -46 . P eacock ,D .P .S . a nd W i l l iam s ,D . 1 986 : Ampho r a ea nd t h eR om an E conomy , L ondon . P eake ,H . J . a nd F l eu re ,H . J . 1 927 -36 : T h eC o r r ido r so fT ime s e r i e s , O x fo rd , 9v o l s . P ear ce , S .M . 1 982 ( e d . ) : T h e E a r ly C hur ch i nB r i ta in a nd I r e l and : S tud i e s P r e s en t ed t oR a l egh R adf o rd ( BAR B r i t ish S e r ie s 1 02 ) ,O x fo rd . P ea te ,I . C .1 974 -6 :' The An t iqu i ty o fL epro sy i n Wa le s ' ,B BCS 2 6 , 3 61 -3 . P enha l lur ick ,R .D .1 986 : T in i nA n t iqu i ty , L ondon . P en tz ,P .1 992 : ' Chang ing P a t te rn so fL a te -Roman/Ea r ly Med i e va l T rade i nt he We s te r n Med i ter ranean ' , i n Ha l le ta l . 1 992 , 1 7 . P e r tz ,K . 1 872 ( ed . ) : D ip lom a t =I mp e r i i , H annove r . P e ske t t ,A .1 914 ( ed . ) :C ae sar ,B e l lum C iv i l e( LCL ) ,N ew Y o rk a nd L ondon . P h i l ipsen ,J .1 965 : ' The U t re ch tS h ip ' , Mar ine r sM i r r or 5 1 ,3 5 -46 . P i card ,J -M . 1 991a ( e d . ) :I r e l and a nd N o r th e rn F r anc e , Dub l in .

P roud foo t , V . 1 96 1 : ' The E conomy o f t he I r i sh R a th ' , Med i ev a l A r chaeo l ogy 5 ,9 4 -122 . P ryo r ,J .H . 1 988 :G e og r aphy , T e chno logy a nd W ar ,C a mb r idge . P ucc i , G . 1 983 : ' Po t te ry a nd T rade i n t he R oman P e r iod ' , i n G ar n sey e ta l . 1 983 , 1 05 117 . Qu inn . B .1 986 : A t l an t e an : I r e l and ' s N or th A f r i c an a nd Mar i t im e H e r i t ag e ,L ondon a nd N ew Y ork . R ackham ,H .1942 ( e d . ) :P l iny ,N a tur a l i sH i s to r i a( LCL ) , New Y o rk a nd L ondon . R ademache r ,F .1 942 : ' F ränk i sche G läse ra u sd em R h ine lande ' , B onne rJ a h rbuch e r1 47 ,2 40 -65 . R ad fo rd ,C .A .R .1 956 :' Impor ted P o t tery f ound a tT in tage lC o rn w a l l ' ,i nH a rden 1 956a ,5 9 -70 . R ad fo rd ,C .A .R .1 966 :' Cu l tu ra lR e la t ionsh ips o ft h eE ar ly C e l t ic Wo r ld ' , i nP r o c e ed ing so ft h e2 nd I n te rn a t i ona lC ong r e s so f C e l t ic S tud i e s ,C a rd i f f ,3 27 . R af t e ry , B .1 994 : P ag an C e l t i cI r e l and : t h eE n igm ao ft h eI r i sh I r on A g e ,L ondon . R af te ry ,J .1 965 : ' E xO r ien te 9 0 . R ah tz , P .1 974 : ' Po t te ry i n S ome r se t , AD 4 00 1066 ' , i n E v i son 1 974 ,9 5 -126 . R ah tz ,P .1 982 :' Ce l t ic S oc ie ty i nS ome r se t AD 4 00 -700 ' ,B BCS ,3 0 , 1 76 -200 . R ah tz ,P .1 985 :I nv i t a t ion t oA r ch aeo logy , Ox fo rd . R ah tz , P . 1 991 : ' P agan a nd C h r i s t ian b y t he S eve rn S ea ' , i n A bram sa nd C a r ley 1 991 ,3 37 . R ah tz , P .e ta / . 1 992 : C adbury C ong r e sbury 1 968 -7 3 ( BAR B r i t i sh S e r ie s2 23 ) ,O x fo rd .

1 16

J RSA I9 5 , 1 93 -204 .

R a f te ry ,J .1 989 :' Conce rn ing Ch rono logy ' ,i n 0C o r rä in 1 989 ,8 2 -

B ib l iography

R ando in , B .1 98 1 : ' E ssa i d e C las s if i ca t ion Ch rono log ique d e l a

S avory ,H .N .1 973 :R ev iew o fT homa s ,T h eI r on A g ei nt h eI r i sh S e a P r ov inc e ,A r ch a eo log i aC amb r ens i s 1 22 , 1 87 -9 .

C e ra rn ique d eT ou r sd uI Ve a uX Ie S i èc le ' ,i nG a l in ie 1 98 1 , Vo l . 1 ,1 03 -113 .

S avory ,H .N . 1 984 ( ed . ) : G l amorgan C oun ty H i s tory , V o l .2 ,C a r d i f f .

R edknap ,M .1 992 :' S ea a nd L ake U se i n Wa le s ,4 00 -1100 AD ' ,i n C arve r ,e ta l . 1 992 ,1 07 -118 . R e i th , E . 1 985 : ' Research o n Nau t ica l A r chaeo logy a nd T rad i t i ona lB oa t si nF rance ' ,i nC ede r lund 1 985 ,4 13 -20 .

S awye r ,P .1 975 :T h eA g eo ft h eV ik ing s ,r ev .e d . ,L ondon . S co t t ,B .G . 1 981a ( ed . ) : S tud i e si nE ar ly I r e l and , B e l fas t . S co t t ,B .G . 1 981b :' S ome C on f l ic ts a nd C o r re spondence so fE v i d en ce i n t he S tudy o f I r ish H i s tory a nd L anguage ' , i n

R enne r ,D .1970 :D i eD ur chbr o ch en Z i e r s ch e ib en d e r Me r ow ing e r z e i t , Ma inz . R eyno lds ,P .1 984 :' A f r ican R ed S l ip a nd L a te R oman I mpo r t si n V a lenc ia ' ,i nB lagg e ta l . 1 984 ,4 74 -539 . R eyno lds , R .L . 1 957 : ' Recons ide ra t ion o f t he H i s tory o f t he S uev i ' ,R evue B e ig ed eP h i lo log i ee td 'H i s tor i e3 5 ,1 9 -57 .

S co t t1 981a , 15 -119 . S eeck ,0 .1 883 ( ed . ) :S ymmachus ,O p e r a , MGH : AA V o l .6 ,B e r l in . S e lme r ,C . 1 939 ( ed . ) :N av ig a t io S anc t iB r endan i , No t re D ame . S eve r in ,T .1 978 : T h eB r endan V oyag e , L ondon . S ha rpe ,R .1 984 : 'Prob lem sC once rn ing t he O r ig in so ft he C hurch i nE a r ly Med ieva lI r e land ' ,P er i t i a3 ,2 30 -270 .

R i chards ,M .1 960 : ' The I r ish S e t t lemen t si nS ou th We s t Wa le s ' , J RSA I8 0 ,1 33 -62 . R iche ,P .1 976 :E duca t ion a nd C u l tur ei nt h eB ar bar i an We s t ,t r an s . , J . J .C on t ren i , Un i .o fS ou th C aro l ina ,3 20 ,n .7 1 . R iche ,P .1 98 1 :' Co lu rnbanu s ,h i sF o l lowe r sa nd t he Me rov ing ian C hu r ch ' ,i nC larke a nd B rennan 1 981 ,5 9 -72 .

S harpe ,R .1 989 :' Qua t to rs anc t i s s im ie p i scop i :I r ish S a in ts b e fo re S t P a t r ick ' ,i n OC or rä in e ta l . 1 989 ,3 76 -99 . S harpe , R . 1 991 : Med i ev a l I r i sh S a in t s ' L i v e s , A n I n t roduc t ion t o V i ta eS anc torum H ib e rn i ae , Ox fo rd . S haw , R .C . 1 967 : ' P ro legomena t o ar e -appra isa l o f t he E ar ly

R ich te r , M . 1 991 : ' The E ng l ish L ink i nH iberno -F rank ish R e la -

C h r i s t ian i ty o ft he I s le o f Man R e la t ive t ot he I r i sh S ea

t i on s ' ,i nP icard 1 991a ,9 5 118 .

P rov ince ' ,P r o c e ed ing so ft h eI s l eo fMan N a tur a lH i s to ry a nd

R ichmond , I . A . 1 958a ( ed . ) : R oman a nd N a t iv e i nN o r th B r i t a in , E d inbu rgh .

A n t iquar i an S oc i e ty 7 ,1 15 . S heehan ,J . .1 994 :' A Me rov ing ian B ackg round f o rt he Ar d monee l

R ichmond ,I . A .1 958b :' Anc ien tG eog raph ica lS ou rce sf o rB r i ta in n o r th o f Chev io t ' ,i nR ichmond 1 958a , 1 3 1 155 .

S tone ? ' ,J CHAS 9 9 ,2 3 -31 . S impson ,W .D . 1 940 :S tN in i an a nd C hr i s t ian O r ig ins i nS c o t l and ,

R igo i r ,J .&Y .a nd . Me f f re ,J F .1 973 :' L e sD e r ivee sP a ldo ch ref i enne s d uG roupe A t lan t ique ' ,G a l l i a3 1 ,2 07 -264 . R igo ld , S . E . 1 975 : ' The S u t ton Hoo C o in s i n t he L igh t o f t he C on temporary B ackg round o fC o inage i nE ng land ' , i n B ruce -M i t ford 1 975 ,6 53 -77 . R i ley ,J .1 98 1 :' The P o t te ry f r om t he C i s te rn s ' ,i n Humph rey 1 98 1 , 8 5 -124 . R oesdah l ,E .1 992 u npub l ished :' Denma rk ,S cand inav ia ,E u rope -T rade a nd E xchange 1 12 th C en tu r ie s ' , l e c tu re t ot h e Med i eva l E ur op e1 992 c on f e rence i nY o rk . R oosen -Runge , H .E .A . a nd We rne r ,A .E .A . 1 960 : ' The P i c to r ia l T e chn ique o ft h e L ind i s fa r n e Go spe ls i nK end r ick e ta l . 1 960 ,2 62 -7 . R ow land ,J .1 993 : ' O ld We lsh f r anc :a nO ld E ngl i sh B or row ing ' , CMCS 2 6 ,2 1 -5 . Ru s se l l ,J . C . 1 968 : ' Tha tE ar l ie rP l ague ' ,D emog r aphy 5 ,1 74 -183 . R us se l l ,P . 1988 :' The S ound so f aS i lence :t he g row th o fC ormac 's G lo ssary ' , CMCS 1 5 , 1 30 . R u le , M . 1 990 : ' The R omano -Ce l t i c S h ip E xcava ted a tS tP e te r P o r t , Gue rn sey ,i n McG ra i l1 990 ,4 9 -56 . R yan ,M . 1 973 : R ev iew o fB owen 1 972 ,S tud ia H ib e rn ic a 1 3 , 1 98 -

E d inbu rgh . Smy th ,A .P . 1 973 : R ev iew o fK . Hughe s ,E ar ly C hr i s t ian I r e l and : A nI n t r oduc t ion t ot h eS our c e s ,S tud ia H ib e rn i c a1 3 ,1 68 -71 . Smy th ,A .P . 1 984 : Wa r lord sa nd H o ly Men ,L ondon . Smy th ,M .1 986 :' The P hy s ica l Wo r ld i nS even th C en tu ry H ibe rno L a t in T ex t s ' ,P e r i t i a5 ,2 01 -34 . Smy th ,M . 1 987 : ' I s ido re a nd E a r ly I r ish C osmog raphy ' , CMCS 1 4 ,6 9 102 . Smy th , M . 1 996 : U nd e r s tand ing t h e U n iv e r s e i nS ev en th -C en tury I r e l and , Woodbr idge . S t even s ,C .E . 1 933 :S i don iu sA po l l inar i s ,O x fo rd . S t even son ,J .1 989 :' The B eg inn ing so fL i te racy i nI r e land ' ,P R IA 8 9C ,1 27 -65 . S t even son ,W . 1 904 :A s s er ,L i f eo fA l f r ed ,O x fo rd . S tokes ,W . 1 862 ( ed . ) : T hr e eI r i sh G lo s sar i e s , L ondon . S toke s ,W .1 887 ( ed . ) :T r ipar t i t eL i f eo fP a tr i ck w i th o t h e rD ocumen t s R e l a t ing t ot h a tS a in t , Dub l in . S ynge ,J .M . 1 919 :I nW i ck low , W e s tK e r ry a nd C onnemar a , Dub l in a nd L ondon . T a rd i f ,J .1 898 : ' L e s C har te s Me rov ing iennes d e No i rmou t ie r ' , N ouv e l l eR evue H i s tor ique d ed r o i tF r anv a i se t Ar ang e r2 2 ,

2 00 . R yan ,M . 1 983 : T h eD er rynaf l an H o a rd , Dub l in . R yan ,M .1 987 ( ed . ) :I r e l and a nd I n su l ar A r t AD 5 00 1200 ,D ub l in . R yan ,M .1 994 : ' Rev iew o fD r isco l la nd N ieke P ow e ra nd P o l i t i c s i nE ar ly Med i ev a lB r i ta in a nd I r e l and ,P er i t i a 8( 1 994 ) ,2 46 -8 . S ande r son ,D . 1 987 :' Ana ly t ica lR e su l t sf r om Two G las sS he rd s f r om Duno l l ie 'i nA lcock a nd A lcock 1 987 ,f i che ,6 6 -72 . S ande r son , D . , Hun te r ,J .& War ren ,S .E . 1 984 : ' Ene rgy D i spe r s i ve X -Ray F luo resence Ana lys is o fF i r s tM i l len ium AD G las sf r om B r i ta in ' ,J o urna lo fA r cha eo log ic a lS c i enc ell ,5 3 6 9 . S an t ro t ,J .1 986 :C i . r am ique sC ommune sG a l lo -Roma ine sd 'A qu i ta in e , P ar i s . S arauw ,C .1 900 :I r sk eS tud i e r ,C openhagen .

7 63 -90 . T ay lo r ,J .d uP .a nd C lee re , H . 1 978 ( edd . ) : R oman S h ipp ing a nd T r ad e :B r i ta in a nd t h eR h ine P r ov inc e s ,L ondon . T ay lo r ,T .1 925 ( t ran s . ) : T h eL i f eo fS tS am son o fD o l ,L ondon . T homas ,C .1 957 : ' S ome P o s tR oman I mpor ted S he rds i nC or n wa l l ' ,P r o c e ed ing so ft h eW e s tC ornwa l lF i e ld C lub 2 ,1 5 -22 . T homa s ,C . 1 959 : ' Impor ted P o t tery i nD ark Age We s te r nB r i t a i n ' , Med i ev a lA r ch aeo logy 3 ,8 9 -111 . T homa s ,C .1 960 :' P eop le a nd P o t tery i nD a rk Age C ornwa l l ' ,O ld C o rnw a l l 51 960 ,4 52 -60 . T homas ,C . 1 964 : ' S e t t lemen tH i s tory i nC ornwa l l ' , C orn i sh A r c h a eo logy 31 964 ,7 0 -79 . T homa s ,C .1 972a :' The I r i sh S e t t lemen t si nP o s tR oman We s tern B r i ta in ' ,J o urna lo ft h eR oy a lI n s t i tu t ion o fC ornw a l l6 ,2 60 -5 .

17

C ommun ica t ion a nd C ommer ce a l ong t h e W e s te rn S ea lane s AD400 -800

T homas ,C .1 972b ( ed . ) :T he I r on A g ei nt h eI r i sh S e aP r ov inc e( CBA .

L a s t5 000 Y ear s ' ,i n McGra i l1 990 , 1 16 . T ranoy ,A .1 974 : Hyda t iu s( Sou rce sC h rd t ienne sn o .2 18 ) ,P ar i s ,2

R e sea rch R epor t9 ) ,L ondon , 1 972 . T homas ,C .1 976 :' Impor ted P o s t -Roman Med i te r ranean P o t te ry i nI r e land a nd Wes te rn B r i ta in ,C h rono log ie sa nd I mp l i c a t ion s ' ,P R IA 7 6C ,2 45 -55 . T homas , C . 1 979 : ' S tP a t r ick a nd F if th C en tury C h r is t ian i ty : A

v o l s . T r i s t ram ,H .1 994 ( ed . ) : T ex ta nd Z e i t t i e f e ,T üb ingen . T u t in ,T . ,e ta l . 1 976 :F l o r aE z tr opae a ,C ambr idge . Unge r ,R .1 980 : T h eS h ip i nt h e Med i ev a lE c onomy , L ondon . U s san i , V . 1 932 ( ed . ) : H eg e s ipp i ts , H i s to r i ae ( Corpu s S c r ip torum

H i s to r ica l Mode lE xp la ined ' ,i nC asey 1 978 ,8 1 -10 1 . T homas ,C . 1 981a : C hr i s t ian i ty i nR oman B r i ta in t o5 00AD , L on -

E c c l e s i a s t i corum L a t inorum 6 6 ) ,N ew Y ork a nd L ondon . V an D oo r n inck ,F .W . 1 972 :' Byzan t ium ,M i s t res so ft he S ea ' ,i n

d on . T homas , C . 1 981b : AP r ov i s i ona lL i s to fI mpo r t ed P o t t e ry i nP o s t R oman We s te rn B r i t a in a nd I r e l and , I CS S pec ia lR epo r t7 ,

B as s1 972 ,1 34 -56 . V an L i th , S .M .E . 1 988 : ' La te R o man a nd E ar ly Med ieva l G la ss f r om aS e t t lemen tS i te a t Maa s t r i ch t , Du tch S ou th L imbu rg ,

R edru th , 1 981 . T homa s , C . 1 982 : ' Ea s t a nd We s t : T in tage l Med i te r ranean I m p o r t sa nd t he E a r ly I n su lar Chu r ch ' ,i nP ea rce 1 982 ,1 7 -34 . T homas , C . 1 983 : n o te i n F .T u rk , ' A S tudy o f t he V er teb ra te R ema in sf r om May 's H i l l ,S t Mar t in s ' ,C o rn i sh S tud i e s1 ,

P ar t2 ' ,J o urna lo fG l a s sS tud i e s3 0 ,6 2 -8 . V endrye s ,J . 1920 :' Le sV in sd el a Gau le i nI r lande e tl ' exp re ss ion F in A icn e t a ' ,R evue C e l t ique 3 8 ,1 9 -24 . V lek ,R .1 987 :T h e Med iev a lU t r e ch tB o a t( BAR I n terna t iona lS e r ie s 3 82 ) ,O x fo rd .

7 8 -80 . T homas ,C .1 984 :' Abe rco rn a nd t he P r ov inc i aP i c torum ', i nM ike t

V oge l ,F .1 885 : E nnod ius ,O p e r a (MGH : AA 7 ) , B e r l in . Wache r , J . S . 1 966 ( ed . ) : T h e C iv i ta s C ap i t a l s o fR oman B r i ta in ,

a nd B u rge ss 1 984 , 31 -7 .

L e ice s te r .

T homas ,C . 1 985 :E xp lo r a t ion o f aD r owned L and s c ap e ,L ondon . T homas ,C .1 986 : T in tag e lC a s t l e( Eng l i sh H er i tage Gu ide ) ,L on -

Wadde l l ,J .1 991 -2 : ' The I r ish S ea i nP reh i s tory ' ,J IA 6 ,2 9 -40 . Wa i le s ,B .1 963 : ' S ome I mpo r ted P o t te ry i n Wes tern B r i ta in AD

d on . T homas ,C .1 988a :' The C on tex to fT in tage l : aNew Mode lf o rt he D i f fu s ion o f P os t -Roman I mpo r t s ' , C o rn i sh A r chaeo logy

4 00 -800 ' ,u npubl i shed d oc to ra lt h e s i s , Un ive r s i ty o fC am b r idge . Wa lke r ,G .S .M . 1 957 ( ed . ) :S anc t iC o lumb an iO pe r a ( SLH V o l .2 ) ,

2 7 ,7 25 . T homas , C . 1 988b ( ed . ) : T i n t ag e l P ap e r s ( Corn i sh S tud i e s 1 6 ) ,

Dub l in . Wa l lace -Hadr i l l ,J .M .1 960 ( e d . ) :T he F ou r th B ook o ft h eC h r on ic l eo f

R edru th . T homas ,C .1 988c :' The CAU E xcava t ion sa tT in tage lI s land a nd

F r ed eg a r ,L ondon . Wa l lace -Hadr i l l ,J .M . 1 985 :T h eF r ank i sh C hu r ch , Ox fo rd .

t he i rI mp l ica t ion s ' ,i nT homas 1 988b ,4 9 -60 . T homas , C . 1 988d : ' M ino r S i te s a tT in tage l I s land , i nT homa s

Wa l ton , K . 1 974 : ' A G eog raphe r 's V iew o f t he S ea ' , S c o t t i sh G eog r aph i c a l Mag az ine 9 0 ,4 -13 .

1 988b ,3 1 -48 . T homas , C . 1 988e : ' B ryhe r ' , No te o n f i nds f r om S ou th -we s t

Wa rd ,J .O . 1 968 : ' P rocop iu s ' B e l l . G o th . I .6 ,2 8 : t he P rob lem o f C on tac t sb e tween J us t in ian Ia nd B r i ta in ' , B y z an t i on 3 8 ,

E lec t r ic i ty B oa rd E xcava t ion s . T homas ,C .1 990 :' G a l l i c iN au t a ed eG a l l i a rum P r ov inc i i s -A S i x th/

4 60 -7 1 .

S even th C en tu ry T rade w i th G au lR econ s ide red ' , Med i -

Wa r ne r ,G .F . 1 906 & 1 915 ( ed . ) :S tow eM i s s a l ,L ondon , 2v o ls .

e va lA r chae o logy 3 4 ,1 26 .

Warne r ,R .1 972 :' C loghe rD emen se ' ,E x c av a t ions :B u l l e t in o ft h e

T homa s ,C .1 992 : Wh i thorn ' sC hr i s t ian B eg inn ing s :1 992 Wh i tho rn

A s soc i a t i on o fY oung I r i sh A r chae o l og i s t s ,2 8 . Wa r ne r ,R .1 976 :' S ome Ob serva t ion so nt h eC on tex ta nd I mpo r -

L e c tur e , Wh i tho rn .

t a t ion o fE xo t ic Ma te r ia li nI r e land f r om t he F i r s tC en tu ry

T homa s ,C .1 994 :A nd S h a l lt h e s e Mu t eS t one sS p e ak? ,C a rd i f f . T hompson ,E .A .1 965 :' B r i ton ia ' ,i nB a r ley a nd H an son 1 965 ,20 1 -

B Ct ot he S econd C en tu ry AD ' ,P R IA 7 6C ,2 67 -92 . Wa r ne r ,R .1 979a :' The C loghe rY e l low L aye r ' , Med ieva lC e r am ic s

5 . T hompson , E .A . 1 980a : ' P rocop iu s o n B r i t t i a a nd B r i tt a n i a ' ,

3 ,3 7 -40 . Warne r ,R .1 979b :' The I r ish S ou te rra in sa nd t h e i rB ackg round ' ,

C l a s s i c a lQ uar t e r ly 3 0 ,4 98 -507 . T hompson ,E .A .1 980b :' The C onver s ion o ft he S pan ish S uev it o

i nC raw fo rd 1 979 , 1 00 -144 . Wa rne r ,R .1 981 :' The B ro igh te r Hoa rd ' ,i nS co t t 1 981 ,2 9 -38 .

C a tho l ic i sm ' ,i nJ a me s1 980a ,7 7 -92 .

Wa rne r ,R .1982 :' AC ase S tudy :C lochar ma cc n Da im in i ' ,B u l l e t in

T hompson ,E .A . 1 982 :R oman sa nd B ar bar i ans , Mad ison . T hompson ,E .A .1 984 :S tG e rm an u so fA u x e r r ea nd t h eE nd o fR o man

o ft h eU l s t e rP l ac enam eS oc i e ty 4 ,2 7 -31 . Wa rne r ,R .1 983 :' I re land ,U l s te ra nd S co t land i nt he E ar l ie rI r on

B r i ta in , Woodb r idge .

Age ' ,i nO 'Conne ra nd C larke 1 983 ,1 6 1 -87 .

T hompson ,E .A . 1 985 : Who w a sS tP a t r i ck ? , Woodb r idge . T hom son ,D .S . 1 961 :B r an zv en z t e r ch L l y r , Dub l in .

Warne r ,R .1 985 -6 :' The D a te o ft he S tar to fL ago re ' ,J IA 3 ,7 5 -7 .

T ho rpe ,L .1974 ( t ran s . ) :T h eH i s t o ry o ft h eF r ank s ,H a rmond swor th .

Wa te re r ,J .1 968 :' E ar ly I r ish B ook S a tche l so rB udge ts ' , Med i ev a l

T ie rney ,J . . 1 960 :' The C e l t ic E thnog raphy o fP o s idon iu s ' ,P R IA 6 0C , 1 89 -275 .

A r ch a eo logy 1 2 ,7 0 -82 . Wa t son ,W .1 926 :T h eH i s to ry o ft h eC e l t ic P l a c e -name so fS c o t land , E d inbu rgh .

T ie rney ,J . J .( ed . )1 967 :D icu i l ,L i b e rd e Men s z tr aO rb i sT er r a e( SLH V o l .6 ) , Dub l in .

Webb ,J . F . 1 965 ( t ran s . ) :L iv e so ft h eS a in t s , H armondswor th .

T ie rney ,J . J .1 976 :' The G reek G eog raph ic T rad i t ion a nd P to lemy 's

Webe r , B . 1 992 : ' Norweg ian E xpo r t s i n O rkney a nd S he t land d u r ing t he V ik ing Age ' ,i n Ha l le ta l . 1 992 ,1 59 -167 .

E v idence f o rI r ish G eog raphy ' ,P R IA 7 6C ,2 57 -65 . T i mby ,J . R . 1 988 : ' The M idd le S axon Wa re s ' , i n Andrew s 1 988 , 7 3 -174 .

We lch ,M .G . 1 976 :H ighdown a nd i t sS axon C em e t e ry , Wo r th ing . We lch ,M .G . 1 983 : E ar ly A ng lo -Saxon S us sex ( BAR B r i t ish S e r ie s 12 ) ,O x ford .

T odd ,M . 1 987 : T h eS ou th W e s tt o AD 1 000 , L ondon . T oo ley ,M . J . 1 990 :' S ea -Leve la nd C oas t l ine C hange sd u r ing t h e

1 18

B ib l iography

We l l s ,P .S . 1 992 :' O r ig ins a nd C on ten to fE a r ly Med ieva lT rade :

Z i mme r ,H .1 909c :' Ga l l ien s An te i la nI r lands C h r is t ian i s ierung

AL ong P e r spec t ive ' ,i nH a l le ta l .1 992 ,4 3 -9 .

i m 4/ 5J ah rhunder tu nd a l t ir ische rB i ldung A :A l lgeme ine

We rne r ,J .1 961 :' F ernhande lu nd N a tu ra lw i r t schaf ti mÖ s t l ichen Merow ingerre ich

n ach

a rchäeo log ischen

u nd

G e s ich t spunk te ,B :E inze lhe i ten ' ,5 43 -613 . Z imme r ,H .1 910a :' De rG ascogne rV irg i l iu s Mar oG r amma t i cu si n

n um isma t ischen Z eugn issen ' , B er ich t d er R öm i sch G e rm an i s ch en K omm i s s ion 4 2 ,3 07 -46 .

I r land ' , 1 031 -1098 . Z i mme r ,H .1 910b :' We s teu ropä isch ir ische r Hande l sve rkeh ri m

Wh i tehou se ,D . ,' The Med i te r ranean P e r spec t ive ' ,i nF ar re l la nd

e r s ten J ah rhunde r tv .C h r . ' ,1 098 1119 .

Neuman d eV egvar 1 992 , 17 -124 . Wh i te lock , D . 1 950 : ' The I n te rp re ta t ion o ft he S ea fare r ' , i nF ox a nd D icken s 1 950 ,2 67 -75 . Wh i te lock ,D .e ta l . 1 982 ( edd . ) :I r e land i nE ar ly Med iev a lE ur op e : S tud i e si n Memo ry o fK a th l e en Hugh e s ,C amb r idge . W i l l ia ms ,D . c . 1983 : ' Pe t ro log ica lE xam ina t ion o f aS he rd f r om S a in tC h r i s to ly ' ,S ou thamp ton ,u npub l i shed r epor t . W i l l ia m s ,I .1 944 :L e c tur e so nE ar ly We l sh P o e t ry , Dub l in . W i l l ia ms ,I .1 96 1 ( ed . ) : C anu A ne i r in ,C a rd i f f . W in terbo t tom ,M .1 978 ( ed . ) :G i lda s :T h eR u in o fB r i t a in a nd o t h er Wr i t ing s , Ch iche s te r . W o r ld A t l a so fA r chaeo logy 1 985 ,C ambr idge . Wood , I1 982 :' The V i t aC o lumb an ia nd Me r ov ing i an H ag iog r aphy ' , i nC larke a nd B rennan 1 982 ,6 3 -80 . Wood ,I .1 983 :T h e Me r ov ing i an N o r th S e a ,A l ing sä s . Wood ,I .1 990 :' The Channe lf r om t he 4 th t ot he 7 th c en tu r ie s AD ' , i n McG ra i l1 990 ,9 3 -7 . Wood ,I .1 991 :' The F rank sa nd S u t ton Hoo ' ,i n Wood a nd L und 1 99 1 ,1 17 . Wood ,I .1 992 :' F rank i sh Hegemony i nE ng land ' ,i nC a rve r1 992 , 2 35 -24 1 . Wood ,I .a nd L und ,N . 1 991 ( edd . ) :P e op l ea nd P l ac e si nN o r th e rn E urop e 5 00 -1600 : E ssay s P r e sen ted t o P e ter S awyer , Woodb r idge . Wood ing ,J .M .1 987 :' S ome E v iden ce f o rC argoe si nT rade o nt he We s te r nC oas t so fE u rope 4 00 -900 AD ' ,S a i l ing S h ip sa nd S a i l ing P eop l e ,P r o c e ed ing s ,S e c t ion 3 ,P e r th , We s te rn Au s t r a l ia ,1 17 . Wood ing , J .M . 1 988a : ' Wha t P o r r idge H ad t he E a r ly I r i sh ? ' , A u s t r a l ian C e l t i cJ o urna l1 ,1 2 -17 . Wood ing ,J .M . 1 988b :' S axon s Who F u r row t he B r i t ish S ea w i th H ide s ' , T h eG r e a tC i r c le 1 0 ,3 3 -6 . Wood ing ,J .M .1 992 :' Gau l i sh A r te fac t si nt he C e l t ic We s t :S ome P rob le m so f Approach ' ,i nH a l le ta l . 1 992 ,1 69 -172 . Wood ing , J .M . 1 996 : ' Ca rgoe s a nd T rade a l ong t he We s te r n S eaboard o fB r i ta in ,4 00 -800 AD ' ,i nD ark ,f o r th com ing . Wr igh t ,E .V .1 972 :' The B oa t so f No r th F e r r iby ' ,i nF enw ick 1 972 , 3 7 . Y oung s ,S .1 989 ( ed . ) :T h e Wo rk o fA ng e l s , L ondon . Z i mme r , H . 1 902a : ' Ke l t i sche K i rche i nB r i t tan ien u nd I r land ' , R e a l encyk lopäd i ef ir P r o t e s t an t i sch e T h eo log i e u nd K i r ch e , L e ipz ig , 1 90 1 t r an s . A . Meye r a s T h e C e l t i c C hu r ch i n B r i t a in a nd I r e l and , L ondon ,1 902 . Z i mme r ,H . 1 902b :P e l ag ius i nI r l and ,B e r l in . Z i mme r , H . 1 909 -10 : ' Übe r d i rek te Hande lsve rb indungen Wes tga l l iens m i t I r land i m A l ter tum u nd f rühen M i t te la l te r ' , S i tzung sb er ich t e d e r k ön ig l i ch p r eu s s i s ch en A k ad em i ed e rW i s sen schaf t en : Z i mmer , H . 1 909a : ' Zeugn isse f ür wes tga l l isch ir ischen H ande lsve rkeh r v on G ir a ldus C ambren s i s , a . 186 b i s T ac i tus , a .9 8 ' ,3 63 -400 . Z i mme r ,H .1 909b :' De r We inhande l We s tga l l ien sn ach I r land i m 1 .b i s 7J ah rhunde r t n . C h r u nd s e in N iede r sch lag i n i r i sche rS age u nd S prache ' ,4 30 -76 .

1 19

i ndex

B eauva i s ,F rance ,7 8 B e chb r e th a , 7 0 B ede -au tho ro fH i s tor i aE c c l e s ia s t i c aa nd D eL o c i sS anc t i s : o n Ag i lber t ,6 6 o nA r cu l f ,1 05 -6 o nc onque s to f Ang le sey a nd Man , 1 01 ,1 04 o nE ngl i sh i nI r e land , 1 8 ,2 0 ,6 8 o ng if t -g iv ing ,9 5 o nJ ohn t he A rchcan tor ,6 3 o nP apa ll e t te ro f5 40 t oI r e land ,6 5 o nT heodo re o fT a r su si nG au l ,2 1 ,6 3 o nv ine sg row ing i nI r e land ,3 B e lgaela te rp reh is to r ic m ig ran t st oB r i ta in ,3 B e l i sar iu s -Byzan t ine g ene ra l ,4 7 B e r l in -Z imme ra ppo in ted t o Cha i ro fC e l t ic i n ,2 B e thu B r ig t e ,8 1 b i rds -a sn av iga t ion a id s ,1 7 B o rdeaux ,F rance ,2 9 ,3 2 ,3 7 ,4 3 ,5 6 -60 ,6 7 ,7 3 , 7 7 -9 ,8 1 ,1 02 B ounda r ie sin f luence o nl o ca t ion o fe xchange s i te s ,9 5 b ow ls ,4 0 ,4 7 ,56 B oyne ,R ive r( I re land ) ,1 07 b race le t s ,4 0 B r@ha t ,B r i t tany ,5 0 ,6 3 B r e tha g tg id ,6 8 -9 B r e tha i nF hu i l l em aG e l l ,7 0 B re tof ia ,S pa in ,5 9 B re ton g lo s se s ,6 3 B re ton s ,3 0 ,55 B r is to lC hanne l ,7 8 ,1 7 ,2 5 ,3 1 ,5 3 ,6 1 ,8 2 ,9 8 ,1 01 B r i t i sh a b road ,3 0 -1 ,5 9 b rooche ssee ' me ta lwo rk ' B ryhe r ,I s le so fS c i l ly ,9 7 B u rgundy ,F rance ,9 3 B yzan t ine i n te re s t si nn or the r nE urope ,2 0 1 ,4 1 ,4 5 -8 ,5 3 -4 ,6 3 C adbury ( Cadbu ry C as t le ) ,S ome rse t( Eng land ) ,5 4 ,6 0 1 ,8 7 -8 C aesa r ,J u l iu s ,6 ,1 0 , 1 2 ,2 3 -4 C a in A dm anä in see ' Adomnän ' C a la is ,F rance ,2 5 C a ldey I s land ( Yny sA y r ) , Wa le s ,6 2„ 8 2 ,9 4 ,9 7 -8 C ame l ,R ive r( Co rnwa l l ) ,1 9 ,3 8 C amp d uC ha i l lo t ,F rance ,7 4 ,7 8 C an tabr ia ,S pa in ,1 7 C an te rbu ry ,E ng land ,6 3 ,9 2 C ape C o rnwa l l ,5 2 -3 c ap i ta l s , ma rb le t ran spo r ted w i th in G au l ,5 6 C ar thage ,T un i s ia ,4 2 -3 ,5 1 C a she l ,I r e land ,5 0 -54 c a sk s ,6 9 -70 ' Cas s i te r ide s ' -my th ica l' t in i s le s 'o fa n t iqu i ty ,2 3 C as t leh i l l ,S co t land ,8 7 c a t t le ,2 5 C e l t ic S ea ,5 2 c en se r ,f r om G la s tonbury ,5 4 C hadenac ,F ran ce ,7 4 ,7 7 c ha l ice ssee ' me ta lwo rk ' C hanne lI s lands ,1 3 c har te r s : f o rged ,S tD en is ,7 1 -2 o fS ig iber tI ,6 7 c hä te la ine see ' me ta lwo rk ' C he sh i re ,E ng land ,3 8 C he s te r ,E ng land ,9 7 C hew S toke ( Some r se t ) ,E ng land ,8 7 C h i lde r ic I -K ing o fF rank s ,3 0 C h i lpe r ic -K ing o fF rank s ,5 7 C hr is t ian i ty Ir ish s ou rce so f , 1 ,2 ,5 ,3 2 ,3 5 -6 ,6 4 C hr on i c l eo fF r ed eg ar ,5

Abe rco rn ,S co t land ,7 3 ,8 2 ,9 7 A dd i t amen tum N iva l i en se d eF u i l ano ,6 6 Adomnän o fI ona : C a in A domnä in ,3 3 d e scr ibe sb reak ing o fg l ass v e sse l ,8 8 -9 D eL o c i sS anc t i s , 1 05 -6 g a l l i c in au tae i nV i ta C o lumba e ,5 9 ,6 5 ,9 6 v oyage si nV i t aC o lumb ae ,2 0 ,2 1 ,1 02 ,1 04 ,1 07 t e rm ino logy f o rs h ips i nV i t a C o lumba e ,9 12 ,1 6 ,1 8 A egean ,1 6 ,4 2 ,5 1 A f r ica ,9 ,2 9 ,4 1 ,4 9 ,5 1 ,5 4 Ag i lan -Go th ic amba ssado rt oG au l ,5 7 Ag i lbe r t -B i shop o fP a r i s ,6 6 -7 A i s l ing e Me i cC ong l inne ,7 1 A lan s ,3 2 A lb ione s -Span ish p eop le men t ioned b y Av ienu s ,2 6 A lcu in o fY o rk ,9 5 a l e ,3 3 A lexande rt he G rea tin te re s ti nn or th ,2 3 A lexandr ia ,5 1 A l lmu i r eS g t' t reasu re sf r om o ve r sea s 'i nI r e land ,1 0 ,6 9 Amandu s -Gau l i sh m i ss ionary ,6 7 ambassado r s ,2 9 ,5 7 ambe r , 1 04 ampho rae see ' Po t te ry ' Ange r s ,F rance ,3 0 Ang le sey ,I s le o f ,6 2 , 1 01 ,1 04 A ng lo -Saxon C h r on ic l e s ,1 0 -11 Ang lo -Saxon E ng land ,5 ,4 7 ,6 4 ,6 6 ,6 8 ,7 0 ,7 4 ,7 7 ,8 4 ,8 7 ,1 06 Ang lo -Saxon s ,3 ,8 3 ,9 2 ,1 01 , 1 04 A nna l e sC ambr ia e ,5 3 Anna l so fU l s t e r , 1 8 ,2 0 ,3 4 -5 ,5 3 An soa ld -B i shop o fP o i t ie r s ,6 5 -7 An t r im I r i sh c oun ty , 1 06 Aqu i ta ine -F rench r eg ion ,2 4 ,5 ,6 0 ,7 7 A ra l las ,C o rnwa l l ,9 5 A rcu l f -Gau l i sh b i shop who v i s i ted I ona , 1 05 -6 ,1 07 A rd i fu i r ,S co t land ,1 07 A rezzo ,I t a ly ,2 6 A rk low ,I r e land ,8 A r le s ,3 5 A rmagh ,I r e land ,3 3 ,8 4 ,8 7 ,9 6 a rm st r ade ,9 2 A s ia M ino r ,4 2 A s se r -b iog raphe ro fA l f red ,1 7 A s tu r ias ,S pa in ,9 8 ,1 04 Aude ,R ive r( F rance ) ,5 6 Aure l iu sV ic to r , 1 ,2 4 ,26 Aus t ras ia -F rank i sh k ingdom ,6 7 Av ienu s , 1 0 ,2 4 -6 Av i tu s -Roman Empe ro r , 1 4 ,1 5 Ay r sh i re ,S co t land ,1 02 Azo re s -A t lan t ic i s lands ,7 B a i le n ab hF ionnü rach ,I r e land ,5 0 b a lance s ,5 6 B a l l inde rry I C ram * ,I r e land ,7 0 ,8 1 ,8 7 B a l lyca teen ,I r e land ,8 7 B a l ly founde r ,I r e land ,9 6 B a l the ro fS äck ingen -b iog raphe ro fS tF r ido l inu s ,6 5 B an tham ,D evon ( Eng land ) ,5 0 ,8 2 ,9 7 ,1 01 B ar row ,R ive r( I re land ) ,3 7 -8 ,6 8 B ayeux ,F rance ,3 1 B ay o fB i scay ,7 ,2 9 ,3 0 ,5 2 B eacon h e rm i tage s , 1 7 ,5 3 b ead s ,9 4

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c hu rch c oun c i l s , i nG au l ,3 0 ,5 9 i nS pa in ,3 0 ,5 9 Modoga mo mo C as t ro ,6 5 C ice ro , 1 5 C las s ica ll e a rn ing i nI r e land ,2 4 ,3 3 ,3 7 C la tchard C ra ig ,S co t land ,1 07 ' c l i f fc as t le s 'supposed ,i nI r e land ,2 3 c l ima te ,7 C logher ,I r e land ,6 0 -1 ,8 2 -3 ,8 3 ,8 7 ,9 8 C lonmacno i s ,I r e land ,5 9 ,9 7 c l o th ing -a st r ade g oods ,6 7 C lov i sI ,K ing o fF rank s ,6 5 C lov i sI ,K ing o fF rank s ,6 5 ,6 7 C lyde ,R ive r( S co t land ) ,8 ,1 02 , 1 07 C og i to su s ,s ee V i ta B r ig id ae c o in s : Ang lo -Saxon ,i nC e l t ic We s t ,8 3 ,1 04 G au l i sh ,i nB r i ta in ,9 2 ,9 5 i n we s tern a nd e a s te rn F ranc ia ,5 6 l a ck o f ,i nC e l t ic We s t ,4 1 ,4 5 -7 c ombs ,3 8 ,4 0 C ong re sbu ry ( Somerse t ) ,E ng land ,4 9 ,5 0 ,5 3 ,6 0 -1 ,9 8 C on imbr iga ( Co i mbra ) ,P or tuga l ,2 9 ,4 3 ,4 5 ,5 7 ,8 2 c on ta ine r s -E ware a s ,8 1 c ook ing ,7 0 ,8 1 C o rk ,I r i sh c oun ty ,2 3 ,3 7 -8 ,9 8 ,1 01 C o rmac -monas t ic v oyage rf r om I ona ,1 0 ,2 1 , 1 04 C ormac o fC ashe l -au tho ro fS ana sC o rma i c ,6 9 C ornwa l l8 ,1 6 -18 ,2 3 ,2 5 -6 ,3 0 ,5 2 ,6 2 -4 ,6 8 ,7 0 ,7 2 ,7 7 -8 ,8 2 -3 , 8 ,9 5 ,9 7 , 1 04 , 1 06 ,1 07 C o ruf ia ,S pa in ,6 C oygan C amp , Wa le s ,9 8 C ra ig L aggan ,S co t land ,1 02 C ra ig s Qua r ry ,S co t land ,7 3 ,9 7 c r annög scharac te ro ff i nd sf r om ,9 2 c r esse tf rom Wh i tho m ,8 3 C r i th G ab l ach ,3 3 ,7 0 ,8 2 ,9 4 c ro ss mo t i f ssou rce so ff o ri n su la rc hu rch ,5 4 c u l le t ,s e e' g lass ' c ur ren t s ,5 1 ,5 2 D agobe r tI ,K ing o fF rank s ,6 7 ,7 2 D agobe r tI ,K ing o fF rank s ,6 5 -7 , 1 06 D a lkey I s land ,I r e land ,5 0 ,6 0 ,8 2 ,8 79 4 , 1 01 ,1 02 D a lma t ia ,3 5 D a l r iada -ea r ly S co t t i sh k ingdom ,4 ,6 ,3 0 ,5 9 ,6 0 ,1 02 , 1 07 D anube ,R ive r ,4 7 d ed ica t ion ssee ' s a in t s 'd ed ica t ion s ' . d end roch rono logy ,1 3 ,8 3 D er ry ,I r i sh c oun ty ,9 6 ,1 02 D er rynaf lan ,I r e land ,5 0 ,7 3 ,8 2 ,9 7 D evon ,E ngl i sh c oun ty ,5 0 ,9 7 D ia lR o ck sH i l l ,I s le so fS c i l ly ,9 7 D iC h e th a r s l ich tA thag abä la ,6 8 D icu i lI r i sh g eog raphe r ,9 ,1 8 ,2 3 , 1 04 D ido ,B i shop o fP o i te r s ,6 5 -6 d i f fu s ion i sm ,i i , 1 3 ,6 5 D ina s Em ry s , Wa le s ,9 7 D ina sP owys , Wa le s ,4 3 ,5 0 ,5 3 ,6 0 -2 ,8 2 ,8 4 ,8 7 ,9 2 ,9 4 ,9 7 -8 D iodoru sS i cu lu s ,2 3 ,2 5 ,3 4 d ip in t i -on Med i te r ranean ampho rae ,5 1 d i s t ra in tI r ish l aw o f ,6 9 d og s -as at r ade g ood ,2 5 ,3 5 ,3 6 ,7 0 D ona tu s -La t in g rammar ian ,3 7 D ou ro ( Duero ) ,R ive r( Por tuga l ) ,5 2 D ownpa t r ick ,I r e land ,9 6 ,9 8 ' down the l ine 'e xchange ,9 3

Dub l in ,I r e land ,8 ,6 2 ,1 0 1 Dumbar ton ,S co t land ,5 0 ,8 7 ,9 4 ,9 8 ,1 02 Dunadd ,S co t land ,5 5 ,6 0 -1 ,7 1 -2 ,7 4 ,8 2 ,8 7 ,9 7 -8 , 1 02 ,1 07 D i m A rd t reck ,I s le o fS kye ,9 7 Duno l l ie ,S co t land ,1 8 ,9 8 ,1 02 ,1 07 Duno t tar ,S co t land , 1 07 Du r row -Book o f ,7 0 -1 d ye ing i ndu s t r ie s ,8 1 D y fed , Wa le s ,2 4 ,3 0 ,3 7 -8 ,5 2 ,9 7 -8 ,1 01 , 1 07 E a s t Ang l ia -Ang lo -Saxon k ingdom ,6 7 E bro in -F rank i sh mayo r ,6 3 ,6 6 -7 E gber t -Ang lo -Saxon r n i ss ionar ie t oG e rmany , 1 0 ,6 8 E g i l sS ag a ,1 9 -20 E gyp t ,4 2 E la f iu s -F rank i sh b i shop i nS pa in ,5 7 E l ie ,S co t land ,9 7 embaymen t ,7 Empo r i atheory o f ,5 ,6 2 ,8 1 ,9 3 -4 e name l ,1 04 E ng l i sh C hanne l ,7 ,7 ,1 3 ,2 0 ,2 5 ,2 9 ,5 0 ,5 2 ,5 5 ,6 4 ,6 8 ,1 01 e s cup v e s se l -mea su remen to fc u r rency i t em s ,6 9 ,7 0 E v reux ,F rance ,7 8 F ae roe I s lands ,6 ,1 04 F a i rhead ,I r e land ,8 F au s tu s -Br i t ish c hu rchman i nG au l ,6 2 f e a the r s ,6 9 ,7 0 F e rgu s Mö r ,K ing o fS co t s ,3 0 f i sh , 1 0 1 macke re l ,8 F i sh ing ,2 1 f l o t sam in I r i sh l aw ,6 8 F owey ,R ive r( Cornwa l l ) ,1 07 F rank s ,5 ,9 ,1 4 ,2 0 -1 ,2 2 -5 ,2 9 -30 ,4 7 ,5 1 ,5 5 ,5 7 ,6 7 -8 ,7 2 ,9 2 F redegund , Queen o fF rank s ,3 1 f u r s ,6 9 g a le s ,7 ,1 8 G a l ic ia ,6 -7 ,1 7 ,2 2 ,2 6 ,2 9 -30 ,4 8 ,5 2 ,5 5 ,5 7 ,5 9 ,6 3 G a l loway ,S co t land ,3 8 ,1 02 ,1 04 ,1 07 G ar rane s ,I r e land ,5 ,7 4 ,7 8 ,8 2 ,8 7 ,9 6 G ar rone ,R ive r( F rance ) ,5 6 ,6 0 ,7 7 -8 , 1 02 G ar rydu f f ,I r e land ,7 3 ,8 2 ,8 7 ,9 6 -7 ' g a teway c o mmun i t ie s 'theory o f ,6 1 ,9 4 ,9 5 G aza ,N ea rE a s t ,4 2 ,5 1 g eog raphy ,3 ,8 ,2 4 G e r s ,F rench d epar tmen t ,5 6 G e s ta D agob e r t i ,7 1 G ibra l ta r ,S t ra i t so f ,6 ,1 4 -15 ,2 0 ,2 6 ,2 9 ,4 1 -2 ,4 7 ,6 3 g if t s ,9 3 -95 G i lda s ,1 4 , 1 5 ,2 5 ,3 0 -1 ,4 0 G i ra ldu sC ambren s i s , 1 ,3 4 ,4 0 G lamo rgan , We l sh c oun ty ,8 2 ,9 8 g l a ss ,4 ,5 ,5 4 ,6 1 -2 ,7 2 -92 ,9 8 ,1 04 ' A t lan t ic 't ype ,8 7 -8 b ow l s ,8 7 c l aw b eake r s ,8 8 -9 c one s ,8 7 c u l le t ,8 4 ,8 7 e ng raved ,8 4 ,8 7 ' Kemps ton 'b eake r s ,8 7 -8 manu f ac tu re o f ,8 4 ,8 7 Med i te r ranean ,5 4 ,8 7 o p t ic d eco ra t ion ,8 7 p a lm c up s ,8 7 t r a i led ,8 4 ,8 7 G louce s te r sh i re ,E ng land ,2 5 g ob le t s -as t r ade g ood ,6 9 ,7 1 G ododd in ,8 ,9 2

1 21

C ommun ica t ion a nd C ommer ce a l ong t h e W e s t er nS ea lane s AD400 -800

g o ld see ' me ta l s ' G oonh i l ly ,C o rnwa l l ,7 1 G o th s , 1 4 ,2 9 ,3 2 ,4 7 ,5 5 G ra f f i t i -on Med i ter ranean amphorae ,5 1 g ra in ,2 5 ,2 6 ,4 6 G reek e xp lo re rs ,7 G reek s ,7 ,5 1 G reen land ,7 G rego ry o fT ou r s ,1 0 ,1 5 ,2 0 ,3 0 -1 ,4 7 -8 ,5 1 ,5 3 ,5 5 -7 ,9 5 G r imoa ld -F rank ish mayo r ,6 5 -7 G ro t te d eV i l lebor s ,F rance ,7 8 Gu i sseny ,B r i t tany ,7 8 ,9 7 ,1 02 Gun trum -F rank i sh k ing ,5 7 Gw i th ian ,C ornwa l l ,8 2 -3 ,8 7 ,1 01 Gwynedd , We l sh r eg ion/k ingdom ,3 8 ,1 01 ,1 07 H adr ian ,B i shop ,2 1 h ag iog raphy ,s ee ' s a in t s 'l i ve s ' Hambu rg compa red b yZ imme rw i th B o rdeaux ,3 3 H ang ing b ow l s ,s ee ' bow l s ' h a rbou r s/por t s ,6 ,8 ,1 9 ,2 4 ,3 1 ,3 6 ,4 7 ,5 0 ,5 3 ,6 9 ,7 2 ,9 3 ,9 6 H ebr ide s ,S co t land ,6 ,1 06 H e l le svean ,C o rnwa l l ,9 7 H ep t ad s ,6 8 He rodo tu s ,4 6 H e rpe s ,F rance ,3 1 ,7 4 ,7 7 ,8 8 H e ru l s ,2 9 ,3 0 H ewa ld -Eng l ish m is s ionary t oG e rmany ,6 8 h ide s ,s ee ' l ea the r ' H ighdown ,E ng land ,8 7 -8 H igh P eak ,D evon ,5 0 ,9 7 H i sp e r ic aF am ina ,3 2 H i s tor i aB r i t tonum ,6 2 h i s tor iog raphy ,2 ,8 Ho lme P ie rpon t ,E ng land ,8 4 ,8 7 Ho lyhead , Wa le s ,3 7 h oney ,2 6 ,5 1 ,6 9 h o r se s ,6 9 How th ,I r e land ,6 2 Hun s ,3 2 Hyda t iu s , 1 4 ,2 9 h ype r -d i f fu s ion ism ,6 ,1 0 , 1 6 ,2 1 ,2 4 I c e land ,6 ,8 ,1 7 ,3 0 ,1 04 I c t i s -un iden t i f ied A t lan t ic s i te i nR oman s ou rce s ,2 3 l i ed eB en ique t ,B r i t tany ,7 l i eL av re t ,B reha t ,B r i t tany ,5 0 t i ed 'Oue ssan t ,B r i t tany ,7 ,5 2 I mmr am c ur a ig A / Ida -d i1 i n ,9 i mmr am a ,1 0 I n i shcea l t ra ,I r e land , 1 01 i n sc r ip t ion s : i nG au l ,3 5 L a t in ,i nB r i ta in ,5 1 ,6 2 o gham ,2 4 ,3 7 ,3 0 ,3 7 -8 I nve rne ss ,S co t land ,8 ,1 07 I ona ,S co t land ,1 8 ,7 0 ,8 2 ,8 8 ,1 02 , 1 04, 1 06 ,1 07 I r i sh l aw ,2 0 ,3 4 ,6 8 ,7 0 ,8 2 I r i sh S ea ,6 ,1 6 ,3 1 ,3 8 ,4 0 ,5 0 ,5 9 ,6 1 -2 ,8 1 ,8 ,9 3 -4 ,9 6 -8 , 1 0 1 , 1 04 -5 , 1 07 ' I r i sh S ea P rov ince ' ,3 ,4 ,4 0 i r on see ' me ta ls ' I s ido re o fS ev i l le , 1 0 , 1 5 ,2 4 ,3 3 ,4 7 -8 ,1 05 I t a ly ,3 1 ,4 1 j e t sam in I r i sh l aw ,6 8 J onah ,2 0 ,6 5 J ona s -au tho ro fV i t a C o lumb an i , 1 9 ,3 3 ,6 4 -5 ,6 7 ,7 2 J ouar re tomb o f Ag i lbe r ta t ,6 6 J um iege s ,F rance ,6 7

J u s t in ian -Byzan t ine empe ror ,4 6 K edrah ,I r e land ,9 7 K e l l s -Book o f ,7 1 K e l s ie s ,C o rnwa l l ,8 2 ,9 8 k e rme ssee ' p igmen t s ' K e r ry ,I r i sh c oun ty ,3 8 K i l ladedad rum ,I r e land ,9 7 K i l lucan ,I r e land ,9 7 k in sh ip n e two rk s ,9 3 K in ty re ,S co t land ,6 ,8 ,1 02 ,1 07 k i tchenware ,8 1 -2 L aF u rca ,F ran ce ,7 2 L agore ,I r e land ,5 ,2 2 ,7 0 ,7 4 ,7 8 ,8 2 ,8 7 L anca sh i re ,E ng l i sh c oun ty ,3 8 L and 's E nd ,C o rnwa l l ,8 ,2 3 ,1 07 l a t i tude r e ckon ing , 1 7 L axdx la S ag a ,2 1 l e ad see ' me ta l s ' l e arn ing i nI r e land ,3 2 -4 l e a the r ,2 5 ,5 1 ,6 9 ,7 0 L e in s te r ,2 4 ,3 7 L e in s te rP oem s ,9 ,1 0 L eo ,P ope ,3 5 L eon t iu s -au tho ro fL i f eo fS tJ o hn t h eA lm sg iv e r ,4 6 ,9 5 l e prosy in e ar ly med ieva lE u rope ,5 3 L e sC leon s ,F ran ce ,7 8 L e sse rG ar th , Wa le s ,9 8 , 1 01 L euda s trebe lc oun to fT our s ,5 5 L euv ig i ld -Go th i ck ing o fS pa in ,2 2 ,2 9 ,5 7 L eyden G lo s sary ,3 2 -3 L i b e rH i s tor ia eF r anco rum ,6 5 L ib ran I r i sh v oyage ri nV i t aC o lumbae ,9 6 ,1 02 L i f eo fS tJ o hn t h eA lm sg iv e r ,s ee ' Leon t iu s ' l ime ,7 1 L i sdhu ,I r e land ,9 7 ,9 8 L i s leagh ,I r e land ,9 7 L i t t le Dunago i l ,S co t land ,9 7 L lan t r isan t , Wa le s ,6 2 l o an -wo rds in to I r ish a nd B r i t i sh ,9 ,3 6 ,3 7 ,7 0 L o ch G lashan c r annög ,S co t land ,8 1 ,9 8 L o ch spou t sc r am * ,S co t land ,9 7 L o i re ,R ive r( F ran ce ) ,4 ,1 5 , 1 6 ,2 5 ,3 0 ,5 5 ,6 0 ,6 2 -5 ,6 7 ,7 0 ,7 7 , 8 1 ,1 02 ,1 04 L ongbu ry B ank , Wa le s ,6 1 ,8 2 ,8 4 ,8 7 ,9 4 ,9 798 l ong -d i s tan ce t r ave l ,1 , 8 ,9 3 l ong sho remen ,8 L ough F aughan ,I r e land ,9 7 L ough G a ra ,I r e land ,8 7 L ough sh inney ,I r e land ,i v L ou th ,I r i sh c oun ty ,1 0 1 L ouvre ,P a r is -excava t ion sa t ,7 8 L ucan , 1 0 L uce S ands ,S co t land ,9 7 ,1 04 L ugbe charac te ri nV i ta C o lumb a e ,5 9 L tmdy I s land , 1 7 macke re l ,s ee ' f i sh ' madde r'p igmen t s ' Ma inz , 1 3 ma l t ,7 0 Man ,I s le o f , 1 7 ,9 8 ,1 0 1 , 1 02 ,1 04 manusc r ip t s ,1 06 Ma rgam D ee rP a rk F a rm s ,8 7 Ma r inu s ,2 4 Ma r ne r eg ion ,8 8 Ma r she s Uppe r ,9 7 ' M a s s i l io t eP e r ip lu s ' ,2 4 mas t sa nd s a i ls ,6 ,1 , 1 3 , 1 6 , 1 8

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I nd ex

May 's H i l l ,S c i l ly ,6 0 -1 ,8 2 mead ,3 3 ,7 0 ,9 2 m ea t ,9 4 Mea th ,6 2 ,9 8 ,1 0 1 Med i ter ranean ,6 ,9 ,1 3 -16 ,1 8 -19 ,2 2 -3 ,2 5 ,3 1 -2 ,4 1 ,4 6 ,4 8 -9 , 5 1 ,5 3 m ega l i th s ,4 ,7 Meo ls , 1 04 me rcenar ie s ,1 ,2 2 ,9 2 me rchan t s ,3 1 Me rsey ,R ive r( Eng land ) ,1 04 m e ta ls g o ld ,2 5 ,3 4 ,7 0 i r on ,2 5 ,6 9 ,7 0 ,7 3 l e ad ,2 5 ,5 1 ,7 2 s c rap m e ta l , 1 01 m e ta lv e s se l s ,8 1 me ta lwork ,2 ,9 2 ,9 8 ,1 01 , 1 04 b rooche s ,3 1 ,4 0 ,9 4 ,9 8 c hä te la ine ,f r om I s le so fS c i l ly ,9 2 c hal i ce s ,1 04 p in s ,4 0 r i ng s ,4 0 M i les ian l e gends ,4 ,2 4 M ir -K ing o fG a l ic ia ,5 7 M ir acu l ao fS tB ened ic t ,7 2 M ir acu la o fS tP h i l iber t ,7 2 m iss ion s ,6 4 ,6 7 -8 ,7 2 mona s t ic i sm : s pread o f , 1 ,5 3 monk s : a sp e r eg r in i ,6 5 a st r ave l le r s ,6 7 -8 ,9 6 i nvo lved i nc omme rce ,6 7 -8 ,9 5 s h ip su sed b y ,1 Mo rb ihan ,B r i t tany ,7 8 mor ta r ia ,6 0 Mo te o f Ma rk ,S co t land ,6 0 -2 ,8 7 Moun t sB ay ,C ornwa l l ,8 Moynagh L ough ,I r e land ,8 4 ,8 7 ,9 7 Mu irbr e th a ,i v , 1 9 -20 ,3 3 ,5 1 ,6 8 -7 1 ,9 5 Mu i rche r tach Mac E rca -dea th o f ,3 4 Mu i rch t i -b iog raphe ro fS tP a t r ick ,3 6 Mu l la roe ,I r e land ,8 4 ,8 7 -8 Mun s te rI r i sh r eg ion ,2 4 Nan te s ,F rance ,5 6 ,6 0 ,6 4 -5 ,7 2 ,7 8 , 1 02 N av ig a t i oS anc t iB r endan iA bba t i s , 1 0 ,1 ,1 2 n av iga t ion ,6 ,8 ,1 6 ,1 7 ,1 8 ,1 9 ,5 3 Nendrum ,I r e land ,9 4 Neu s t r ia -F rank ish k ingdom ,6 4 ,6 7 ,9 5 , 1 06 Neve r s ,F rance ,6 7 New P i e ce s , Wa le s ,8 7 N ice tu s -F rank i sh m i ss ionary ,6 7 No i rmou t ie r ,F rance ,3 1 ,5 5 ,6 5 ,6 7 -8 ,7 0 -2 , 1 02 Normandy -F rench r eg ion ,3 0 ,3 1 No r th S ea ,9 3 , 1 04 Nor thumbr ia -Ang lo -Saxon k ingdom ,6 5 ,6 8 ,1 05 ,1 06 Nor thumbr ian p re sen ce a t Wh i tho m ,8 3 n u t s ,6 9 -70 o ak b ark -use i nt ann ing ,1 -12 O 'D av o r en ' sG lo s s a ry ,6 9 ,7 1 ' Oes t rymn ides ' -my th ica li s lands men t ioned i n Av ienu s ,2 6 o gham see ' i ns cr ip t ion s ' o i l ,2 6 ,3 8 ,3 8 ,4 0 ,5 1 ,5 4 ,6 7 ,9 5 O rkney ,I s lands ,6 ,2 1 , 1 04 , 1 07 O r lean s ,F rance ,2 9 ,4 3 ,6 7 ,7 8 ,9 5 O ro s iu s ,2 4

o rp imen tsee ' p igmen t s ' p ack i c e , 1 3 P aen i ten t i a l eC umm e an i ,3 4 P a l lad iu s ,3 5 ,3 7 P annon ia ,4 7 -8 P ee lC a s t le ,I s le o f Man ,9 8 P e lag iu s ,3 5 p en in su la rr oads ,1 ,4 ,6 2 ,1 07 p en in su la s ,7 P enmachno , Gwynedd ,6 2 P ep i ron , Aqu i ta ine ,7 8 P e r eg r ina t io ,1 0 ,6 5 ,8 1 p e t ro logy -o fc e ra m ic s ,7 4 P h i lemon ,2 4 P hoen i c ian s ,2 ,2 3 P i c t s ,3 0 ,3 7 p igmen t s ,5 ,2 2 k e rme s ,2 6 ,7 1 madde r ,7 1 ,8 1 o rp imen t ,7 1 p i lo t manua ls ,7 ,1 6 p i lo t s ,1 7 ,5 3 p in ssee ' me ta lwo rk ' P ipp in ,K ing o fF rank s ,6 8 p i racy ,8 ,1 4 ,2 2 ,2 9 -32 P i renne t he s is ,2 ,2 2 ,4 1 p i tch ,2 6 p lace -name s--on map o fP to lemy ,2 4 p lague ,5 3 P l iny ,1 0 ,2 4 P o ,R ive r( I ta ly ) ,2 6 P o i t ie r s ,F rance ,5 7 ,6 6 P o i tou -F rench r eg ion ,8 1 P on tu s ,9 P or t eC andas ,I s le o f Man ,9 7 -8 p or t ssee ' ha rbou r s ' ' por ts o ft r ade 'theory o f ,9 5 P or tuga l ,1 4 -16 ,1 8 ,2 0 ,2 2 ,2 6 ,2 9 ,4 1 -5 ,4 7 -8 P o s idon iu s ,2 4 P o s i t iv i sm ,i v ,2 ,3 p o t te ry : A f r ican ,3 1 A f r ican t ab lewa re s ,3 1 ,4 2 ,4 8 ,4 9 ,5 1 A f r ican R ed S l ipware ( ARS ) ,2 9 ,4 2 ,4 3 ,4 5 ,5 5 ,8 2 A rgonne w are ,2 5 B a rL ug P o t te ry ,7 7 B i ,i ,i v ,v ,s ee ' c la s s4 3 ,4 4 ,4 5 ,4 9 ' B v i ,s ee ' c las s3 4 ' B yzacena ampho rae ( C la ss 3 4 ) ,4 3 ,4 5 ,4 9 C lass 4 3 ampho rae ,4 2 ,4 5 ,4 8 -50 ,6 0 C las s4 4 ampho rae ,4 2 ,4 5 ,4 8 -50 ,6 0 C las s4 5 ampho rae ,4 2 ,4 5 ,4 9 -50 , 1 01 C las s4 9 ampho rae ,4 2 ,4 5 ,5 0 D i t e äl ' epong e ,2 5 ,3 1 D re s se l ampho rae ,c l a sses 1 4 ,2 5 ,2 6 ,3 4 E a s tC oas tG r i t ty ware ,7 3 E as te r n Med i te r ranean ampho rae ,2 9 ,4 1 -5 ,4 8 -51 ,8 2 -3 , 9 6 ,1 01 Eware ,3 2 ,5 9 ,6 0 -1 ,7 0 ,7 2 -84 ,8 8 ,9 2 ,9 6 -8 , 1 01 ,1 02 , 1 04 -5 ,1 07 i mpo r ted ,1 ,3 ,4 ,1 5 ,2 2 ,4 0 ,8 2 -3 ,1 07 I t a l ian f i newa re s ,2 6 Med i te r ranean ( g ene ra l ) ,3 2 ,4 1 -2 ,4 6 ,5 3 -4 ,6 1 -2 ,7 3 , 8 1 -3 ,9 6 ,9 8 , 1 01 P a l e o ch r e t i enne g r i s e( D ware ) ,5 5 -6 ,6 0 -3 ,7 7 ,9 8 , 1 02 P a l e oc r i s t i ana g r i s ,5 6 P hocaean R ed S l ipwa re ( PRS ) ,2 9 ,4 2 -5 ,5 1 ,5 7

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C ommun i ca t ion a nd C ommer ce a l ong t h eW e s t e rn S ea lane s AD400 -800

P or tugue se amphorae ,2 6 R hen i sh ,7 4 S am ian ware ,7 1 S ou ter ra in wa re ,8 1 P ozzuo l i ,I t a ly ,2 6 P rocop iu so fC ae sa rea ,2 4 ,3 0 ,4 6 -7 P ro spe ro f Aqu i ta ine ,2 2 ,3 5 P seudo Je rome -au tho ro fC omm en t a ry o n Mark , 1 P to lemy ,2 4 -5 P y theas o f Ma ss il ia ,2 3 ,4 7 Quen tov ic ,F rance , 1 3 ,3 1 q uern s tone s ,7 1 r ad ioca rbon d a te s , 1 2 R and le s town ,I r e land ,8 2 ,9 7 R a th Me / s ig i -mona s tery i nI r e land ,p e rhaps i nC o .C a r low ,6 8 R ea sk ,I r e land ,9 7 ,1 01 r ed i s t r ibu t ion -o fi mpor t s ,9 3 R em ig iu s -F rank i sh m is s iona ry ,6 7 R h ine land ,9 ,1 3 ,4 7 ,5 6 ,7 4 ,7 7 -8 ,8 8 R hod i an S e aL aw ,9 5 r i ng ssee ' me ta lwo rk ' R iocha tu s -Br i t i sh c hurchman i nG au l ,6 2 R oman E d ic to f4 19 ,1 4 R oman i mpo r t si nI r e land ,3 7 -40 R oman s : r u le i n we s t ,2 ,3 1 i n f luence o n/repor t so fs h ips i nA t lan t ic , 6 9 ,1 -13 c u l tu ra li n f luence i nI r e land ,3 7 -8 ,4 0 t r ade w i th A t lan t i c ,2 1 -5 ,3 4 R omanu s ,I r i sh c hu rchman i nF rance ,6 5 R ome -Monas te ry o fS t Mar t in i n ,6 3 R ouen ,F rance ,5 6 r ow ing ,1 8 R u t i l ius N ama t ianu s , 1 7 ,3 0 ,3 2 s a i l ing ,6 ,7 s a i ls ,s ee ' mas t sa nd s a i ls ' S tB rendan o fC lon fer t , 1 0 S a in t Ch r i s to ly ,C ha ren te ,7 3 ,7 8 S tC o lumb ,C o rnwa l l ,6 4 S tC o lumba o fI ona ,5 9 ,9 6 S tC o lumbanu so fB obb io ,2 0 ,3 3 ,6 3 -5 ,6 7 -8 ,7 9 ,8 1 ,1 02 S a in tD en i s ,F rance ,7 2 S a in te s ,F rance ,3 0 ,5 5 ,5 7 S tF r ido l inu s ,6 5 S tG ermanu so f Auxer re ,3 5 S t Govan s , Wa le s ,5 2 S tI ve s ,C or nwa l l ,5 3 S tJ e rome ,3 5 S tJ ohn o fA lexandr ia ,4 6 S tJ ohn t he A rchcan to r ,6 3 , 1 07 S tK ew ,C o rnwa l l ,6 2 S t Mar t in o fB raga ,4 7 -8 ,5 2 S t Ma r t in o fT ou r s ,4 7 -48 ,6 3 S t Ouen o fR ouen ,6 7 S tP a t r ick ,2 2 ,3 3 ,3 5 -6 ,3 8 S tP h i l ibe r to f No irmou t ie r ,6 5 ,6 7 ,7 2 S a in tP ier re d eV auv ray , 7 8 S tS am son o f Do l ,6 2 -3 ,6 8 ,1 0 1 ,1 07 s a in t s 'd ed ica t ion s ,4 s a in t s 'l i ve s ,2 -4 ,9 ,1 ,9 5 S a in t Wandr i l le ,F rance ,6 7 ,7 2 S t Wi l f red o f Hexham ,6 6 S tW i l l ib ro rd ,6 8 s a l t ,6 9 -72 s a l ted f i sh ,2 6 S ana s C o rma ic ,6 9 , 1 04 s ap i en t e ssuppo sed e x i le st oI r e land i nL eyden G lo s sary

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s a rcophag i : t r an spor ta t ion w i th in Gau l ,5 6 s a r cophagus o f Ag i lber ta tJ oua r re ,6 6 S ar the ,F rance ,9 2 S aumu r ,F ran ce , 3 0 S axon s ,1 4 15 ,1 9 -21 ,2 9 -30 ,5 5 S axony ,6 8 S cand inav ia , 1 4 S ch le sw ig ,1 4 S c i l ly ,I s les o f ,1 6 ,5 2 -3 ,6 1 ,9 2 ,9 4 ,9 7 ,1 0 1 ,1 02 S co t land ,6 ,9 ,1 7 ,2 4 ,6 1 ,9 2 S c rabo ,I r e land ,9 7 s cu lp tu re , 9 2 s ea leve l ,7 S e ine ,5 6 S e l l i s -por to nL o ire ,6 7 S enchu sF e rn A lb an ,9 S enchu s Mar ,3 3 S hannon ,R ive r( I re land ) ,6 ,2 4 ,5 9 , 1 0 1 ,1 02 S he t land ,6 s h ips : B r i t ish ,3 1 B l ack f r ia r s , 1 3 B ro igh te r ,9 ,1 2 , 1 6 , 1 8 -19 B ruge s ,1 3 c arve lb u i l t , 1 2 -13 c l inke rb u i l t ,9 c u rach s , 1 ,6 ,9 13 , 1 5 -16 ,1 8 -20 ,2 6 d ugou t s , 1 0 -11 ,1 4 ,2 6 F o s su r - Me r ,1 3 -14 , 1 6 , 1 9 ,5 1 G au l ish ,1 3 14 ,1 6 ,5 9 I r i sh ,9 ,1 0 ,1 3 , 1 8 ,3 1 ,6 7 l o gboa t s ,s ee ' dugou t s ' L ough L ene ,9 ,1 2 ,1 3 l ugge r s ,1 0 Ma inz , 1 3 Med i te r ranean ,4 ,7 ,9 10 ,1 5 ,1 7 ,4 1 ,4 6 ,4 8 -53 m erchan ts h ips ,9 ,1 0 ,3 5 mor t ice -and tenon j o ined ,9 ,1 6 Nydam , 1 4 P loucmanac 'h ,2 5 R oman ,1 2 -13 ' S e ine b oa t s ' , 1 0 S tP e te rP or t ,1 3 T hame sb a rge ,1 3 U t rech t ,9 ,1 3 o fV ene t i ,6 ,1 2 ,1 3 Wa te r s t raa t ,1 3 Y a s s i Ada ,1 6 ,1 9 ,4 8 -50 ,5 4 s h ipw re ck , 1 8 ,2 0 ,2 5 ,4 9 ,6 5 ,6 9 ,8 4 ,1 05 s hoe s ,6 7 ,7 0 S h ropsh i re ,2 5 S idon iu s , 1 0 , 1 4 , 1 5 ,2 9 ,3 0 s i lve r ,2 5 ,3 4 ,4 6 ,6 9 ,7 0 S l ane ,C o . Mea th ,9 2 s l ave s ,2 5 S o l inu s ,1 0 S ome r se t ,4 9 ,5 2 -3 ,6 2 ,8 ,9 7 s ound ing l e ads ,1 7 S ound o fJ u ra ,1 01 -2 S pa in ,i ,5 7 ,1 6 -18 ,2 0 ,2 9 ,4 1 -2 ,4 7 -8 ,5 1 ,5 5 ,7 s p ice s ,5 1 S t ephanos o fA lexandr ia ,4 6 s t oppe r s -ampho ra ,4 9 ,5 4 S t ow eM i s sa l ,3 3 S toney fo rd ,C o .C a r low ,3 7 S t rabo , 1 ,1 2 , 1 4 ,1 6 ,2 3 ,2 5 -6 ,4 0 ,7 1

I nd ex

s ubs tan t iv ism ,5 ,2 1 ,9 4 S uev i ,5 5 ,5 7 ,6 3 S u ibhne ,A bbo t t ,o fI ona ,1 04 S u lp ic iu sS even ' s ,6 3 S u t ton Hoo ,E as t Angl ia ,9 2 S ym rnachu s ,3 5 S ym son ,1 02 T ac i tu s ,2 4 -5 t ann ing ,1 2 T ar ragona ,9 T ean ,I s le so fS c i l ly ,5 3 ,9 2 T eco sc aC orma i c ,1 0 ,3 3 -4 ,6 8 -9 ,7 2 ,1 04 T ee shan ,I r e land ,8 1 ,9 6 t empe ra tu re ,7 t e r r i tor ia lw a te r s -po ss ib le c oncep ti ne ar ly I r i sh l aw ,6 8 T er tu l l ian ,3 8 ' Theod im i r ' ,S pan ish k ing ,4 8 T heodo re o fT ar su s -a r chb i shop o fC an te rbu ry ,2 1 ,6 3 ,6 6 t i de s -as af a c to ri nn av iga t ion ,8 ,1 2 ,5 3 , 1 01 T i maeu s ,2 4 t i n ,2 3 ,2 5 ,3 5 ,4 6 ,5 0 -1 ,5 3 ,7 2 ,9 2 ,9 5 T in tage l ,C o rnwa l l ,3 1 ,4 2 ,4 5 ,4 8 ,5 0 -2 ,6 0 ,6 2 ,7 4 ,8 7 -8 ,9 5 , 9 8 ,1 02 T ippe rary ,I r ish c oun ty ,3 7 T ochma i r c Em i r e ,3 4 T o ledo ,5 7 T om ianu so f Angou leme Ir ish c hu rchman i nG au l ,6 5 T ou lou se ,F ran ce ,3 3 T ou ra ine -F rench r eg ion ,8 1 T ou r s ,F rance ,2 9 ,4 3 ,5 5 ,5 7 ,6 0 -1 ,6 3 ,7 4 ,7 7 ,7 8 t r ade ,s ee ' e xchange ' ' t ra mp s t eame r ' mode l ,9 6 T re thu rgy ,C o rnwa l l ,8 7 ,9 8 T r im ,I r e land ,9 2 T robr iand I s lands ,i i ,4 T uy ,G a l ic ia ,2 9 t ypo log ica la na ly ses ,8 7 U ls te rI r i sh r eg ion ,1 7 U ls te rC yc le t a le s ,3 4 U r a ic e ch tB e c c ,9 ,1 0 U shan t ,B r i t tany ,8 ,1 02 V anda l s ,1 4 ,2 0 ,2 9 V anne s ,B r i t tany ,5 5 V enan t iu sF or tunatus ,5 7 ,6 4 V ene t i ,6 ,1 2 ,1 3 ,3 4 V e rdun ,F ran ce ,9 5 V e tr ar i a -por to nL o i re ,6 7 V ik ing s ,1 2 -13 ,1 8 -20 ,7 0 ,8 1 ,1 04 V i rg i l iu s Maro G ra mma t icu s -g ra rnmar ian ,p robab ly I r i sh ,3 3 V is igo th ssee ' Go th s ' V i ta Amand i ,6 7 V i ta B r end an i , 1 V i ta B r ig idae ,3 3 ,7 1 V i ta C o lumba e ,s ee ' Adonmän ' V i ta C o lumban i ,s ee ' J onas ' V i ta e tV ir tu t e sE p ar ch i ,5 9 V i ta F i l ib e r t i ,3 1 ,6 3 ,6 7 ,7 0 -2 ,9 6 -6 ,1 02 V i ta K y ar an i ,5 9 , 1 01 V i ta sP a tr um Eme r e tens ium ,4 7 ,4 8 V i ta S am son i s , 1 8 ,6 2 ,6 8 ,1 07 V i ta W i l f r id i ,2 0 ,6 5 -6 V i ta W inw a loe i ,6 3 V ou i l le ,B a t t le o f ,5 6 Wa le s , 1 7 ,2 5 ,6 2 -3 Wa ro ch coun to fB r i t tany ,2 0 ,5 5 Wa te r fo rd ,I r ish c oun ty ,1 8 ,3 7 ,6 8 w ax ,2 6

We ssex ,6 6 ' We s te rn S eaway s ' ,i , 1 ,3 ,6 ,3 7 Wex fo rd ,I r ish c oun ty ,8 Wh i tby ,S ynod o f ,3 2 ,6 6 Wh i tho m ,S co t land ,i v ,5 0 ,6 0 -3 ,7 1 ,7 8 ,8 2 -4 ,8 7 -8 ,9 2 -4 , 9 8 ,1 0 1 ,1 02 ,1 04 W ick low ,I r i sh c oun ty ,3 8 W ick low Moun ta in s ,I r e land ,1 7 W ic t iber t ,E ngl i sh m i ss iona ry t oG e rmany ,6 8 w ind s -a s af a c to ri nn av iga t ion ,7 8 , 1 2 ,1 6 ,1 8 -19 ,2 4 ,5 7 ,6 2 , 1 01 -2 ,1 05 L ev an t e r ,7 ,5 2 Me l t em i , 1 6 P en i en t e s ,7 V endev a l e s ,7 w ine ,2 6 ,3 1 -4 ,3 8 ,4 0 ,5 1 ,5 4 ,5 9 ,6 9 -70 ,7 2 ,7 7 ,9 2 ,9 5 w ine t r ade ,i , 1 ,5 ,2 2 ,3 2 ,6 0 ,6 8 ,7 4 wooden v e sse l s ,8 1 woo l ,1 2 ,2 6 Y eo ,R ive r( Cornwa l l ) ,5 3

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