First Millennium Papers: Western Europe in the First Millennium AD 9780860545163, 9781407346816

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First Millennium Papers Western Europe in the First Millennium AD

edited by

R. F. J. Jones, J. H. F. Bloemers S. L. Dyson and M. Biddle

BAR International Series 401

1988

B.A.R.

5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR -S401, 1988: 'First Millennium Papers' © Th e Individual Auth ors, 1988

The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860545163 paperback ISBN 9781407346816 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545163 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

C O N T E N TS L is t o f I lustra t ions C ontr ibutors P reface

P age

v i i i x i

PART 1 : GENERAL PAPERS I . 2 . 3 .

4 .

R .F .J . J ones T he F irs t M i l lenn ium R ichard Reece H ow t o s tudy t he m i ll e n ium J .H .F . B loemers P er iphery i np re-and p ro toh is tory : s t ructure a nd p rocess i nt he R h ine-Meuse b as in b etween c .600 B .C . a nd 5 00 A .D . K lays Randsbo rg D enmark a nd t he Med iterranean i nt he F irst M i l lenn ium AD : a n a rchaeo log ica l p erspect ive

1 3

3 7

PART 2 : NAT IVE POPULAT IONS AND ROMANS 5 . 6 . 7 .

8 . 9 .

1 0 .

J .H .F . B loeme rs N at ive p opu lat ions a nd Romans N ico Roy mans R e l ig ion a nd s oc iety i nL ate I r on Age n o rthern G au l R ichard H ing ley T he i n f luence o f Rome o n i n d igenous s oc ia l g roups i nt he u pper T hames v a l ley M . v an d er V een R omans , n at ives a nd c erea l c onsumpt ion -f ood f o r t hought M . Gechter a nd J ürgen Kunow Z ur l änd l ichen B es ied lungdes R he in landes v om I . J ahrhundert v . b i s i n s 5 . Jahrhundert n .Chr .Geb . L otte Hedeage r T he e vo lut ion o f G erman ic s oc iety , 1 -400 A .D .

5I 5 5 7 3

9 9 1 09

1 29

PART 3 : THE END OF THE ROMAN COUNTRYS IDE

1 2 .

1 3 . 1 4 . I S . 1 6 .

S tephen L . Dyson T he e nd o f t he Roman c ountrys ide P ame la Hemph i l l D e-forestat ion a nd r e-forestat ion i n ac entra l I t a l ian h inter land : L and u sage d ur ing a nd a fter t he R oman o ccupat ion R .F .J . J ones T he e nd o f t he Roman c ountrys ide i n S pa in J .L . B int l iff a nd A .M . S nodgrass T he e nd o f t he Roman c ountrys ide : av iew f rom t he E as t B a i ley K . Young S acred t opography a nd E ar ly C hr ist ian c hurches i n l a te A nt ique G au l W .J .H . W i l lems T he D utch R iver A rea . I mper ia l p o l icy a nd r ura l d eve lopments i n aL ate R oman f ront ier z one

1 45 1 47

1 59 1 75 2 19 2 4 1

PART 3 : AUTHOR ITY AND CONT INU ITY 1 7 . 1 8 . 1 9 .

Mart in B idd le A u tho r ity a nd c ont inu ity G lenn F oard A f r amewo rk f or S axon e v idence f rom Northamptonsh ire Margaret L . F au l l F rom A ng lo-Saxon t o No rman Y orksh ire

2 57 2 59 2 73

PART 4 : S HORTER CONTR IBUT IONS

P age

2 0 .

S a lvado r E scudero Ch ico a nd J ose Mar ia G omorra Caba l lero Cons iderac iones s obre l o s y ac im ientos d e e p "o ca v i s igoda e n l a p rov inc ia d e S egov ia ( Espana )

2 8 1

2I.

Raymond B ru let L a d efense d u t &r ito ire a u B asEmp ire d ans l en ord-oues t d e l aG au le P h i l ip Rahtz T he e nd o f R oman Wharram P ercy L loyd L a ing C e lts , Romans a nd t he g reat d iv ide

2 87

2 2 . 2 3 .

2 95 3 03

I LLUSTRAT IONS

F ig . 3 . 1: F ig . 3 .2 : F ig . 3 .3 : F ig . 3 .4 :

F ig . 3 .5 :

F ig . 3 .6 :

F ig . 3 . 7 : F ig . 3 .8 :

F ig . 3 .9 :

F ig . 4 . 1: F ig . 4 .2 :

P age

S t ructure o f i mper ia l ism . A fte r G a ltung 1 973 1 2 D is tr ibut ion o f E truscan b ronze S chnabe lkannen . A fter K i mm ig 1 983 1 5 O r ig in o f t he C e lt ic c o ins f ound i nt he R oman m i l ita ry s i tes a long 1 8 t he R h ine f r om t he A ugus tan p er iod . A fte r G echte r 1 979 D e lta a nd h i nter land o f S che lde , Meuse , R h ine , V echt a nd E ems ( Is t3rd c entu ry A .D . ) I . b oundar ies o f p o lygons ( u ncerta in ) ; 2 . b oundar ies o f p o lygons ( l ike ly ) ; 3 . l im its o f r esearch a rea ; 4 . f ront ie r o f t he R oman emp ire b etween c .50 a nd 4 00 A .D . ; 5 . c ap ita ls o f c iv itates ; 6 . c oncentrat ions o f n at ive h ab itat ion ; 7 . t r ibes , k nown f rom I s t3 rd c entury s ources C ap ita ls o f p rov inces a nd c iv itates : I . F o rum H adr ian i/Mun ic ip ium A e l ium o r A ure l ium C ananefatum ( Voo rbu rg-Arentsbu rg ) ; 2 . U lp ia N ov iomagus B atavorum ( N i jmegen ) ; 3 . C o Ion ia U lp ia T ra iana ( Xanten) ; 4 . C o Ion ia C laud ia A ra A g r ipp inens ium ( Co logne ) ; 5 . G anuenta ( ? ) ; 6 . A tuatuca T ungro rum ( Tongeren ) ; 7 . C as te l lum Menap io rum ( Kasse l l) ; 8 . T a rvanna ( Therouanne ) ; 9 . N emetacum ( Arras ) ; 1 0 . B agacum ( Bava i) ; I . S amarob r iva ( Am iens ) ; 1 2 . A ugusta V iromando rum ( Sa int-Quent in ) ; 1 3 . A ugus ta S uess ionum ( S o issons ) ; 1 4 . D uroco rto rum ( Re ims ) ; 1 5 . D ivodurum ( Metz ) ; 1 6 . C o lon ia A ugus ta T reve ro rum ( T r ie r) ; 1 7 . Mogont iacum ( Ma inz ) 2 1 H ouses teads . A lta r e rec ted b y t he c ives T u ihant i , w ho b e long t o t he c uneus F r is io rum . A fte r C o ll i ngwood/Wr igh t 1 965 , n o . 1 594 ( h . 1 23 ,6 cm ) 2 3 D e lta a nd h i n te r land o f S che lde , Meuse , R h ine , V ech t a nd E ems ( 4 th c entury A .D . ) I . b oundar ies o f p o lygons ( u ncer ta in ) ; 2 . b oundar ies o f p o lygons ( l ike ly ) ; 3 . l im its o f r esearch r ea ; 4 . f ront ie r o f Roman emp ire b e tween c .50 a nd 4 00 A .D . ; 5 . c ap ita ls o f c iv itates ( s ee F ig . 4 ) ; 6 . c oncentra t ions o f n at ive h ab itat ion ; 7 . t r ibes , k nown f rom I s t3rd c entury s ources ; 8 . t r ibes , k nown f rom 3 rd a nd 4 th c entury s ources ; 9 . t r ibes , w ho se n ames w e re u sed i n t he 4 th c entury t o d es igna te a r my u n its ment ioned i n t he No t it ia D ign itatum ( a fter H o ffmann 1 969 ) ; 1 0 . t r ibes , w hose n ames w e re u sed i n t he 4 th c entury t o d es ignate a rmy u n its ment ioned i no ther s ources 2 5 G e rmans i nR oman s e rv ice i nt he 4 th c entury A .D . A fte r Waas 1 965 2 6 G o ld h oards ( p robab ly ) h idden i n t he p e r iod c .375-425 /450 A .D . We ights e xpressed i n n umbe rs o f g o ld c o ins ( s o l id i) o f c .4 .5 g r . o n a verage . I . ' l arge ' g o ld h oards ; 2 . ' sma l l ' g o ld h oa rds 2 7 D e lta a nd h i nte r land o f S che lde , Meuse , R h ine , V echt a nd E ems ( 4 th c entury A .D . ) . I . b oundar ies o f p o lygons ( u nce rta in ) ; 2 . b oundar ies o f p o lygons ( l ike ly ) ; 3 . l im its o f r esearch a rea ; 4 . f ront ier o f R oman emp ire b etween c .50 a nd 4 00 A .D . ; 5 . c ap ita ls o f c iv itates ; 6 . c oncentra t ions o f n a t ive h ab itat ion ; 7 . t r ibes , k nown f rom 1 s t3 rd c en tury s ources ; 8 . t r ibes , k nown f rom 3 rd a nd 4 th c entury s ources ; 9 . ' l a rge ' g o ld h oards ( s ee F ig .3 .8 ) ; 1 0 . ' sma l l ' g o ld h oards ( s ee Fi g .3 .8 ) 2 8 R oman p e r iod s i tes i nS outh C amb r idgesh ire , E ng land . S ett lements i n" Ager F a l iscus" , t o t he n orth o f R ome . ( Afte r P o tte r ) .

-

4 1 4 2

P a _ge F ig . 4 .3 :

S ett lements i n p arts o f C entra l P a lest ine ( l ine ) &i n ap art o f C entra l Mesopo tam ia ( h istogram) . P a les t in ian s ett lements : n umbe r o f s i tes p er y ear ( Sca le P ) . Mesopotam ian s i tes : n umber o f h ectares p e r y ear 4 3

F ig . 6 . 1: F ig . 6 .2 :

P re-Roman s oc ia l o rgan isat ion i nn o rthern G au l 5 6 ' I rm inenw ingert ' -s tone c u lt b enches a t t he s anctura ry o f L enus Mars a t T r ier 5 8 D istr ibu t ion o f d ed icat ions t o n at ive Mars g ods i n North G au l . S ome d ed ica t ions o f Mars g ods wo rsh ipped o uts ide t he ir ' h omeland ' a re n o t mapped . a . L enus Mars d . Mars C nabet ius f . ( Mars ) I n tarabus b . Mars Smertr ius e . Mars V egn ius g . o ther Mars g ods c . Mars L oucet ius 6 0 D istr ibut ion o f p re-Roman c u ltp laces i n North G au l . a . c u ltp lace s i tuated i n aL ate L a Ur ie Opp idum b . c u ltp lace s i tuated n ear a G a l lo-roman t e mp le c omp lex w ith a c u lttheatre c . o ther c u ltp laces 6 2

F ig . 6 .3 :

F ig . 6 .4 :

F ig . 7 . 1: F ig . 7 .2 : F ig . 7 . 3 : F ig . 7 .4 : F ig . 7 .5 : F ig . 7 .6 : F ig . 7 .7 : F ig . 7 .8 :

F ig . F ig . F ig . F ig .

7 .9 : 7 . 10 : 7 . 11: 7 . 12 :

F ig . 7 . 13 : F ig . 7 . 14 : F ig . 7 . 15 :

L ocat ion o f t he S urvey A rea 7 4 D is tr ibut ion o f I r on A ge S i tes 7 6 I r on A ge S i tes i n t he O xfo rd C lay V a le ( s ites ment ioned i n t he t ext a re n amed ) 7 7 T he L owe r W indrush Mu lt ip le S ett lement 7 9 Mode l o f aH ypothet ica l Mu lt ip le S ett lement ( s ca le i s a pprox i mate ) 8 0 I r on Age S i tes i n t he O xfordsh ire U p lands ( s ites ment ioned i nt he t ext a re n amed ) 8 2 Mode l o f ah ypothet ica l B an jo E nc losure ( s ca le i sa pprox imate ) 8 3 T he D istr ibut ion o f D efended E nc losures i n r e lat ion t o E nc losed S ett lements ( dashed l i nes i nd ica te t he n orth a nd e ast e xtent o f t he s urvey a rea . K ey a s f o r F ig . 2 ) 8 4 D efended E nc losures i nt he S urvey A rea 8 6 D istr ibu t ion o f Romano-B r it ish S i tes 8 7 Romano-Br it ish S i tes i nt he O xfo rdsh ire U p lands 8 8 T he G r im 's D itch A rea i n t he R oman P er iod ( Key : I=No rth L e igh ; 2 =F aw ler ; 3=S tones f ie ld ; 4 =D itch ley ; 5=S hakenoak ; 6=C a l low H i l l ; 7=W i lco te ; 8 =C had l ington ; 9 =O ak lands F arm ) 8 9 Romano-B r it ish S i tes i nt he O xford C lay V a le 9 2 T he C o te A rea i n t he R oman P er iod 9 3 Romano-Br it ish S ett lement i n t he U pper T hames V a l ley ( box s hows l ocat ion o f s urvey a rea ) 9 4

F ig . 8 . 1:

T hree c ategor ies o f c arbon ised p lant r ema ins c ommon ly r ecovered f rom e xcava t ions ( a fte r J ones 1 985 , f i g . 4 .3 ) . 1 02 F ig . 8 .2 : S imp l if ied c rop p rocess ing s equence ( a fter J ones 1 983 , f i g . 2 . 1 03 F ig . 8 .3 : T r iangu lar S catter d iagrams s how ing t he l i ke ly c ompos it ions o f p lant a ssemb lages f rom s ett lements d ea l ing w ith p roduct ion f o r as urp lus o r w ith c onsump t ion . E ach c i rc le r epresents o ne s a mp le . ( After J ones 1 985 , f i g . 4 .5 ) . 1 04 F ig . 8 .4 : L ocat ion p lan , s how ing t he s i tes i n North-East E ng land f rom w h ich p lant r e ma ins a re n ow b ecom ing a va i lab le . 1 05 F ig . 9 . 1: F ig . 9 .2 :

D ie L age d er f ünf a usgewäh lten N aturräume . D ie V erte i lung r ömerze it l icher F unds te l len . -i v-

I1 13

P age F ig . F ig . F ig . F ig . F ig .

9 . 3 : 9 .4 : 9 .5 : 9 .6 : 9 . 7 :

F ig . 1 0 .1:

F ig . 1 0 .2 :

F ig . 1 0 .3 :

F ig . F ig . F ig . F ig . F ig .

1 2 .1: 1 2 .2 : 1 2 .3 : 1 2 .4 : 1 2 .5 :

F ig . 1 3 .1:

D ie D ie D ie D ie D ie

V e rte i lung V e rte i lung V erte i lung V erte i lung V e rte i lung

r öme rze it l icher F unds te l len . r ömerze it l icher F unds te l len . Römerze it l icher F unds te l len . r ömerze it l icher F undste l len . r ömerze it l icher F unds te l len i nP rozent .

16 19 1 2 1 1 23 1 24

T he d i s tr ibu t ion o f R oman i mpo rts ( b ronzes , g lass a nd s i lve r c ups ) f rom u nd is turbed g rave f i nds i n t he L ate R oman P e r iod i n e astern D enmark . 1 32 T he e vo lut ion o f t he D an ish I r on A ge h ouse , g round p l an a nd r econstruct ion . A t t he t op 5 00-300 B .C . , i nt he m idd le f rom 1 00 B .C . a nd a t t he b o ttom 2 00-500 A .D . ( r ev ised d raw ing o f F lemm ing B au , a f te r t he i lustrat ion i nL .Hvass , J erna lderen , C openhagen 1 980 ) . 1 35 T he e vo lu t ion o f t he D an ish I r on A ge v i l lage . G rontoft f rom 3 00150 B .C . , H odde a bout 1 00 B .C . , V o rbasse , s i ng le f a rm f rom t he b i rth o f C h r ist a nd t he v i l lage V o rbasse f rom 3 00 -400 A .D . T he v i l lage a reas a re r espec t ive ly 2 , 700 m 2, 1 5 ,000 m 2 a nd 1 35 ,000 m 2. ( Afte r L .Hvass , J e rna lderen , C openhagen 1 980 , i lus tra t ion b y F lemm ind B au ) . 1 36 L ocat ion o f S urvey A rea . T opography o f t he B lera -C iv ite l la C es i a rea . C iv ite l la C e s i : A ugustan S ett lements . C iv ite l la C e s i : R oman S i tes . C iv ite l la C e s i : F o rest C ove r T oday .

1 48 1 49 1 50 1 54 1 55

F ig . 1 3 .2 :

R oman S pa in : Ma in S i tes ment ioned . I . A gu i la fuente 2 . A lca la d e H enares 3 . B anos d e V a ldearrados 4 . B ayubas d e l A ba jo 5 . B rune l 6 . L a C ocosa 7 . F raga 8 . P edraza 9 . P edrosa d e l aV ega 1 0 . R ioseco d e S o r ia 1 . S entroma 1 2 . T o rre L lauder 1 3 . V i lauba 1 4 . V i l la joyosa 1 5 . V i l laverde B a jo 1 6 . B aetu lo 1 7 . B arce lona 1 8 . C on imb r iga 1 9 . I l uro 6 0 V i lauba : o i l p ress . 6 6

F ig . 1 4 .1: F ig . 1 4 .2a : F ig . 1 4 .2b : F ig . 1 4 .3 : F ig . 1 4 .4 : F ig . 1 4 .5 : F ig . 1 4 .6 : F ig . 1 4 .7 : F ig . 1 4 .8 : F ig . 1 4 .9 : F ig .I4 .10 : F ig .14 . I1 : F ig .I 4 . 12 : F ig .14 .13 : F ig .I4 . 14 : F ig .I 4 . 15 : F ig .14 .I 6 : F ig .14 .17 : F ig .I4 .18 : F ig .14 .I 9 :

T he B yzant ine Emp ire ( a fter B rown ing 1 980 , Map 2 ) 8 2 B oeo t ia 8 3 B oeo t ia 8 4 D ens ity o f t o ta l s i tes p er s q .km i ns u rveys 8 5 A sk ra 8 6 H a li a rtos 8 7 T hesp iae 8 8 H a l iartos 8 9 A skra 9 0 T hesp iae 9 1 B oeot ia : r u ra l s i tes o f A rcha ic/C lass ica l p e r iods 9 2 H a li a rtos 9 3 A skra 9 4 T hesp iae 9 5 B oeo t ia : r u ra l s i tes o f L ate H e l len ist ic a nd e ar ly R oman p er iods . 9 6 H a li a rtos 9 7 A skra 9 8 T hesp iae 9 9 B oeo t ia : r u ra l s i tes o f L a te R oman p e r iod . 2 00 H a li a rtos 2 0 1 -v -

P age F ig . I4 .20 : A skra F ig .I4 .2 1: T hesp iae Fi g .14 .22 : T hesp iae F ig .14 .23 : B oeot ia : p ost-Roman s ett lement a nd s o i ls F ig .I4 .24 : H a l iartos F ig .I4 .25 : A skra F ig .I4 .26 : T hesp iae F ig .I4 .27 : T hesp iae F ig .14 .28 : T hesp iae F ig .14 .29 : R eg ion-Macroreg ion mode l F ig . 1 5 .1: F ig . 1 5 .2 : F ig . 1 5 .3 :

F ig . 1 5 .4 :

F ig . 1 5 .5 : F ig . 1 5 .6 : F ig . 1 5 .7 : F ig .15 .8a : F ig .15 .8b : F ig .I5 .9a : F ig .15 .9b :

F ig .15 .10 :

F ig . 1 6 .1:

F ig . 1 6 .2 :

F ig . 1 6 .3 :

F ig . 1 6 .4 :

2 02 2 03 2 04 2 05 2 06 2 07 2 08 2 09 2 10 2 15

A utun i n t he E ar ly M idd le A ges , w ith t he c hurches i nt he c emetery t o t he e ast . 2 23 P ho to o f S a int-P ierre f rom t he n o rthwest , s how ing 1 9 th c entury b arn d oor i n terrupt ing t he R omanesque a rches . 2 24 S a int-P ierre : W -E s ect ion o f t he s tand ing b u i ld ing , s how ing t he mauso leum w a l l ( l owe r r i ght a top t he f oundat ions o f t he o lder R oman s t ructure) . 2 25 S a int-P ierre : S chemat ic g round-p lans o f t he Roman s quare s t ructure a nd d oub le-wa l l s t ructure , f o l lowed b y t he mauso leum a nd t he e ar ly b as i l ica ( hypothet ica l r econs truct ion 1 985 ) . 2 26 L ead s arcophagus w ith t he s ke leton o f ac h i ld ( Sa int-P ierre , 1 983227 Merov ing ian s tone s arcophagus f rom S a int-P ierre . 2 28 P lan o f t he B ibracte t e mp le a nd s ubsequent b as i l ica f rom t he e xcavat ions o f B u l l io t i n 1 872-73 . 2 29 R e l ig ious b u i ld ings i n V ienne , i n c lud ing t he t hree s uccess ive c hurches o f S a int-Ferreo l ( 3 ) . 2 30 P lan o f t he b as i l ica o f S a int-Ferreo l i nV ienne ( Mert 's c hurch a nd t he l a ter med ieva l p r io ry ) , a fter t he e xcavat ions o f Reynaud i n 1 977 .23 1 R econstruct ion o f t he memor ia u nder t he c hurch o f t he Made la ine i n G eneva . 2 32 P lan o f t he l a ter b as i l ica w h ich i n co rpo rated t he memo r ia , c hurch o f t he Made la ine , G eneva , a fter t he e xcavat ions o f B onnet i nt he 1 970 s . 2 33 P lan o f t he c hurch o f S a int-Ju l ien-en-Genevo is , a fter t he e xcava t ions o f C o larde ll e i n 1 975-76 . 2 34 T he g eo log ica l a nd a dm in is tra t ive c ontext o f t he D utch r i ver a rea i n t he s econd c entury AD : 1c oas ta l d unes , 2 ma r ine c lay d epos its a nd p eat , 3 Ho locene f l uv ia l d epos its , 4 P le istocene d epos its , 5 t heoret ica l b oundar ies o f t he c iv itates , 6 t he e astern r i ve r a rea ( f rame o f f i gs . 2 , 4 , a nd 7 ) , 7c iv itas c ap ita l , 8 p oss ib le c iv itas c ap ita l , 9s econdary c entre . 2 42 T he d i s tr ibut ion o f s ett lements ( AD 5 0-270 ) i nt he e as tern r i ver a rea : 1P le istocene d epos its , 2 f l ood b as in d epos its a nd p eat , 3 b ank d epos its a nd s t reamr idges , 4 meander-be lts a nd ma jo r b rooks , 5 p resent-day r i ver-channe ls , 6b oundar ies o f d epos its , 7r econs truc ted b oundar ies o f d epos its , 8 l eg ionary f o rtress a nd ( poss ib le ) f ront ie r f ort , 9r eg iona l c entre ( c iv itas c ap ita l) a nd s econdary c entre ( v icus , p agus c ap ita l) , 1 0 m i l itary v icus a nd s e tt lement . S ca le 1 : 300 ,000 2 43 H ypothet ica l r ank-s ize d i s tr ibut ions o f s ett lements i n t he a rea o f t he c iv itas B atavo rum i nt he 2 nd a nd 4 th c entur ies . T he e s t imated r ange o f v ar iat ion i ss haded . 2 45 T he d i s tr ibut ion o f s ett lements ( AD 2 70 - c .425 ) i n t he e astern r i ve r a rea : 1 -7 s ee f i g . 2 , 8f o rt if ied ( m i l itary ) s ett lement a nd p oss ib le

-v i -

P age

F ig . 1 6 .5 :

F ig . 1 6 .6 :

F ig . 1 6 .7 :

F ig . 1 6 .8 :

s t rongho ld o f u nknown s tatus , 9s ma l l f o rt ( burgus ) , 1 0 s ett lement . S ca le 1 : 300 ,000 . 2 47 C urve o f t he r e lat ive f requenc ies o f t ree ( A .P , ) v . n on-tree ( N .A .P . ) p o l len , b ased o n C 14-dated p o l len d iagrams f rom t he e astern r i ver a rea . A fter T eun issen 1 982 , f i g . I . 2 49 S ome o f t he g o ld t orcs a nd o ther o b jects i n t he s econd h oard f rom V e lp , d i scovered i n 1 85 1 ( s ee F ig . 1 6 .7 , 2 2 ) . A fter t he o r ig ina l p ub l icat ion b y L .J .F .Janssen ( 1852 ) . S ca le c . 2 :3 . 2 5 1 L ate-Roman g o ld h oards . G o ldwe ight o f J ewe lry c a lcu lated i n s o l id i o f 4 .5 g rams . A fter B loemers 1 983 , f i g . 3 1 , w ith a dd it ions . Hoards : 1G randhan , 2S uar l , 3F urfooz , 4N i jmegen , 5O bb icht , 6S t .Den i jsWestrem , 7 Würse len , 8X anten-Menze len , 9X anten , 1 0 S pradow , II E id inghausen , 1 2 Nottu ln , 1 3 Kö rbecke , 1 4 G ross-Bodungen , 1 5 E l lerbeck , 1 6 O str ich , 1 7 Westerkappe ln , 1 8 R henen , 1 9 0 1st , 2 0 K r ietens te in , 2 1 B e i len , 2 2 V e lp I , 2 3 D o rtmund , 2 4 V e lp l . 2 52 T he d i str ibu t ion o f s ett lements ( c .AD 4 25-750 ) i n t he e as tern r i ver a rea : 1 -7 s ee F ig . 1 6 .2 , 8( poss ib le ) l a rge s ett lement , 9s ett lement . S ca le 1 : 300 ,000 . 2 53

F ig . 1 8 .1: F ig . 1 8 .2 :

S axon No rthamptonsh ire . G laptho rn a nd C o tters tock t ownsh ips .

F ig . 2 0 .1:

S anchonuno , n os . 1 ,2 , 5 10 , 1 415 . G omerserracin , n os . 3 -4 , 113 . S anchonuf io , n os . 1 ,9 11 G omerserracin , n os . 2 -8

F ig . 2 0 .2 :

2 63 2 69

2 83 2 84

F ig . 2 1 .1:

L a G au le S eptentr iona le a u B as-Emp ire .

F ig . 2 2 .1:

Wharram P e rcy No rth Manor : P lan o f a rea 2 0 x2 0 metres s how ing mode l o f modes o f c ont inu ity . 2 96 S t ructura l s equence : ?c ont inu ity . 2 97 S trat igraph ic s equence : D iscrete l a yers mu lt i-contex t . 2 98 S t rat igraph ic s equence : S er iated f i nds -c ontext o n ly b y s p it . 2 99 Wharram P e rcy S i te 6 0 , North Manor , 1 980-3 . 3 00

F ig . F ig . F ig . F ig .

2 2 .2 : 2 2 .3 : 2 2 .4 : 2 2 .5 :

2 88

L IST OF CONTR IBUTORS P rof . Mart in B idd le

C hr ist C hurch , O xford , UK .

D r J ohn B int l iff

S choo l o f A rchaeo log ica l S c iences , U n ivers ity o f B radfo rd , B radfo rd BD7 I DP , UK .

P rof .D r .J .H .F .B loemers

A .E .Van G iffen I n s t ituut V oor P rae- e n P ro toh isto r ie , U n ivers ite it v an Ams terdam , S inge ! 4 53 , 1 0 12 WP Ams terdam , Net

P rof . Raymond B ru let

C entre d e R echerches d 'Archeo log ie N at iona le , UCL - C o l lege E rasme , P lace P asca l 1 ,B -1 348 L ouva inla-Neuve , B e lg ium .

P rof . S tephen L . Dyson

D ept . o f C lass ics Wes leyan M idd letown , CT 0 6457 , U .S .A .

J uan S a lvador E scudero Ch ico

N ava d e R oa , P rov .de B urgos , S pa in .

D r Margaret L F au l l

Y orksh ire M in ing Museum , C aphouse C o l l iery , N ew R oad , O verton , n ear Wakef ie ld , UK .

G lenn F oard

A rchaeo logy S ect ion , No rthamp tonsh ire County C ounc i l , C ounty Ha l l , Northampton , UK .

J ose Mar ia Gomorra Caba l lero

Nava d e R oo , P rov inc ia d e B urgos , S pa in .

D r M ichae l Gechter

L andschaftsverband R he in land , Rhe in . Amt f ür B odendenkma lpf lege , C o l mans trasse 1 41 6 , 5 300 B onn 1 , W .Germany .

D r L otte Hedeager

C enter f o r H is tor ica l U n ive rs ity o f C openhagen , 155 Kobenhavn K , D enmark .

P rof . P ame la Hemph i l l

D ept . o f A rt , West C hester U n ivers ity , West C hester , PA 1 9382 , U .S .A .

D r R ichard H ing ley

Warw icksh ire Museum , CV34 4 SS , UK .

D r R ick J ones

S choo l o f A rchaeo log ica l S c iences , U n ivers ity o f B radfo rd , B radfo rd BD7 I DP , UK .

D r J ürgen Kunow

L andschaftsverband R he in land , R he in . Amt f ür B odendenkma lpf lege , Co l manstrasse 1 41 6 , 5 300 B onn 1 ,W .Germany .

D r L loyd L a ing

S choo l o f A rchaeo logy a nd O r ienta l S tud ies , P .O . BOX 1 47 , U n ivers ity o f L ive rpoo l , L iverpoo l L 69 3 BX , UK .

U n ivers ity ,

A nthropo logy , K e isergade 2 ,

T he B utts , Wa rw ick

P rof . P h i l ip Rahtz

T he O ld S choo l , H arome , Yo rksh ire Y06 4 JE , UK .

H e lms ley ,

No rth

D r K lays Randsbo rg

F orh is tor isk-Arkaeo log isk I n s t itu , t , Kobenhavns U n ivers ite it , V andkuns ten 5 L , DK I467 Kobenhavn K , D enmark .

D r R ichard Reece

I n st itute o f A rchaeo logy , U n ivers ity C o l lege L ondon , 3 1-4 G ordon S quare , L ondon WC I H O PY , UK .

N ico Roymans

A .E . V an G iffen I n s t ituut v oor P rae- e n P rotoh isto r ie , U n ivers ite it v an Ams terdam , S inge l 4 53 , 1 0 12 WP Ams terdam , N ether lands .

P rof . A .M .Snodgrass

Museum o f C lass ica l A rchaeo logy , U n ivers ity o f C ambr idge , C amb r idge , UK .

Mar i jke v an d er V een

1 7 Mav in S treet , D urham , DH I3 AU , UK .

D r W .J .H . W i l lems

R i jksd iens t v oor L et O udhe idkund ig B odemonderzoek , K le ine Haag 2 , 3 8 11 HE Amersfoort , N ether lands .

D r B a i ley K . Young

1 9 R ue O rf i la , 7 5020 P ar is , F rance _ .

PREFACE T h is v o lume d er ives f r om t he F irs t M i l lenn ium S ympos ium h e ld i n B radfo rd i n S eptember 1 985 . T he s uccess o f t he S ympos ium w as d ue i n p art icu lar t o my t hree c o-ed itors , T om B loemers , S teve D yson a nd Mart in B idd le , w ho b rave ly a greed t o o rgan ise t he s ets o f c ontr ibut ions w h ich make u p t he b u lk o f t h is v o lume . T hose w ho se p apers a ppear h ere p layed a n o bv ious p art , b ut s o t oo d id t hose o thers w ho a ttended t he S ympos ium a nd t hose f rom many c ountr ies i n E urope i n N o rth Amer ica w ho l e nt t he ir s uppo rt t o t he O rgan is ing Comm ittee t o l a unch t he i d ea o f t he S ympos ium . A l l t he p apers p resented a t t he S ympos ium a re p ub l ished h ere w ith t he e xcept ion o f t hose b y Robert R ow land ( USA ) , T im T atton Brown ( UK ) , L eo B iek ( UK ) a nd P eter A ddyman ( UK) . P eter A ddyman s tepped i n a t t he l a st moment t o d i scuss t he l a tes t d i scover ies i ne ar ly med ieva l Yo rk , w hen w e l o st a t v ery s ho rt n o t ice c ontr ibut ions f rom H enr i G a l in ie ( France ) , P eter S . We l ls ( USA ) a nd Hayo V ierck ( W .Ger many ) , d ue t o s udden a cadem ic/f inanc ia l c r ises . We a re a l so e xtreme ly f o rtunate t o i nc lude e xtra p apers o ffered f or p ub l icat ion h ere f rom T om B loe rners ( Nether lands ) , K lays Randsborg ( Denmark ) a nd J uan S a lvado r E scudero C h ico a nd J ose Mar ia G omorra C aba l lero ( Spa in ) . Mos t c ontr ibutors h ave b een v ery e ff ic ient i n p roduc ing t he ir t exts o n t ime . However , t he p ub l icat ion h as b een d e layed l o nger t han w e h ad h oped , mos t ly d ue t o p ressures o n word-process ing f ac i l it ies i n B radford . l ti s ap leasure t o r ecord my g rat itude t o a l l t ho se w ho h ave h e lped t o p roduce t he b ook , e spec ia l ly t o P am C rook a nd S y lv ia D ransf ie ld w ho t ook o ver t he f i na l s tages o f t he f i n ished t ext a nd J ean B rown f or h er w ork o n t he i lus trat ions .

R ick J ones B radford

J une 1 987

I . THE F IRST M ILLENN IUM R . F . J . J ones T h is v o lume i s b ased u pon t he p apers g iven a t t he F irs t M i l lenn ium S ympos ium h e ld a t B radford U n ivers ity i n S eptember 1 985 . T he S ympos ium a rose f rom t he i dea t hat t here w ere many s hared p rob lems e xper ienced b y a rchaeo log ists a nd h i stor ians wo rk ing o n e ar ly h i stor ic E urope , t he f i rst m i l lenn ium A .D . We a l l h ave a va i lab le amounts o f w r itten e v idence , wh ich v ary c ons iderab ly i n q ua l ity a nd q uant ity . We a re a l l a l so c om ing t o t erms w ith t he d ynam ica l ly e xpand ing r esource o f modern a rchaeo log ica l e v idence . E ar ly h i stor ic E urope p rov ides a n a rchaeo log ica l d atabase u nr iva l led i n i t s a bundance a nd d epth o f s tudy . L ong t rad it ions o f i n teres t i n t he R oman a nd e ar ly med ieva l p er iods i n E urope h ave p roduced i n numerab le e xcavat ions t hroughout t he C ont inent . T he p ace o f i nvest igat ion h as a cce lerated i n t he p as t t wo o r t hree d ecades , a s t he modern e xpans ion o f s c ient if ic a rchaeo log ica l methods h as r a ised n ew p oss ib i l it ies o f u nders tand ing t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord . T h is c an b e s een t hrough u rban e xcavat ions , p a laeoeco log ica l r esearch , s c ient if ic a na lys is o f p o ttery a nd meta lwork , a nd l a ndscape a rchaeo logy . S uch a pproaches a re y i e ld ing i ncreas ing c omp lex a nd s pec ia l ised r esu lts . A t t he s ame t ime much a rchaeo log ica l r esearch b ecomes more a nd more c ompart menta l ised , a s s pec ia l ist t a lks t o f e l low-spec ia l ist . F ew h ave y et c ome t o t erms w ith t ry ing t o s ynthes ise n ew r esu lts w ith in a w ider f ramework . E ven f ewer h ave c onsc ious ly s ought t o e xp lore modern a rchaeo log ica l t heory i n t he c ontex t o f e ar ly h i stor ic E urope a nd i t s h igh-qua l ity a rchaeo log ica l r ec ord . T he F irst M i l lenn ium S ympos ium w as i n tended t o g o s o me w ay t owards f i l l ing t h is g ap . I t a imed t o p rov ide a f orum f o r t he i n terchange o f i deas b etween Roman ists a nd med ieva l ists , h i stor ians a nd e xcavators , s urvey a rchaeo log ists a nd p a laeoeco log ists , a nd a nyone e l se w ho h ad s ometh ing c onstruc t ive t o s ay , o r w ho w anted t o l i sten t o p eop le w ho h ad . I tw as a l so i n tended t hat t he a ttendance a t t he S ympos ium s hou ld b e q u ite s ma l l , s o t hat p eop le were a b le t o t a lk t o e ach o ther , r ather t han b e l o s t among h undreds o f c onference-goers . T he s cope o f i n teres t w as i n tended t o b e b road , a nd n o t j us t c onf ined t o i s sues g rouped a round t he f a l l o f t he R oman Emp ire . T he S ympos ium w as o rgan ised i n to t hree ma jo r t hemes , e ach a rranged b y as eparate i n d iv idua l : B loemers o n Nat ives a nd R omans , D yson o n t he E nd o f t he Roman C ountrys ide , B idd le o n A uthor ity a nd Cont inu ity . A w ide r ange o f t op ics a nd g eograph ica l a reas c ame t o b e r epresented , t hough mos t w ere c onf ined t o w es tern E urope , i fo n ly t o g ive s ome g eograph ica l c oherence t o t he d i scuss ions . T here w as s ome u np lanned b ias t owards n orthern E urope , o n ly a s ar esu lt o f t he p attern o f t hose w ho o ffered p ape rs . T he Med iterranean b as in i s h ere l a rge ly d i scussed b y p eop le b ased i n B r ita in o r t he U .S .A . T h is i su nfortunate , a nd i t i sh oped t hat f uture g ather ings w i l l a ttract more c ontr ibut ions f rom s outhern E urope . T he i d ea o f t he S ympos ium s eems t o h ave h ad s o me s t rength , a s i t h as b een f o l lowed b y ac onference o n t he F irst M i l lenn ium o rgan ised b y K lays Randsbo rg i n Rome i n J anuary 1 987 . l t i s n ow p lanned t o h o ld a nother F irst M i l lenn ium S ympos ium i n B e lg ium i n 1 988 . T here a re many i s sues t o b e e xp lored : n orthern E urope a nd t he Med ite rranean , u rban isat ion , r e l ig ious c hanges , t rad ing n etworks , d emography , monumenta l ity , t he e xp lo itat ion o f t he l a nd , p o l it ica l p ower a nd a utho r ity , t he p ass ing o n o f t echno log ies . T he e v idence o f t he f i rs t m i l lenn ium A .D . i sp art icu lar ly w e l l-su ited t o t he a pp l icat ion o f i deas o f al o ng p erspec t ive o n t he p ast f avoured b y F ernand B raude l a nd o ther h i s tor ians . H ere i fa nywhere c an a rchaeo logy make s ubstant ia l c ontr ibut ions t o o ur u nderstand ing o f t he p as t

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t h rough t he ma rr iage o f n ew i n te l lec tua l a pp roaches t o a bundan t a nd w e l lr esea rched e v idence . T he s ub jec t ma t te r , t h rough t he d eve lopmen t a nd d em ise o f t he R oman Emp ire , i st he f o rma t ion o f E u rope .

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2 . HOW TO S TUDY THE M ILLENN IUM R ichard Reece S ummary An a ttempt i s made i nt h is p aper t o s eparate o ut t he d i fferent s t rands f rom t he s tudy o f t he p ast . T he c orrect methods f o r t he s tudy o f t he mater ia l f rom t he p as t a re s een t o b e ma in ly n umer ica l a nd s t rat igraph ic . F rom t hese a f i rm s equence o f p ast mater ia l c an b e b u i lt u p . As equence o f mater ia l i sn o t s een t o b e as at isfactory e nd t o as tudy a nd t he p aper g oes o n t o e ncourage t he b u i ld ing o f myths b y wh ich t o i n terpret p ast mater ia l i n s uch a way t hat t h is c an b e a ccepted , u sed a nd e n joyed b y modern man . Cette a rt ic le a p ar o b jet d e s eparer d eux a spects d e l ' e tude d u p asse . L e p rem ier a spect e st r e tude d es mater iaux p our l eque l l e s me thodes p refe re s s ont l e mathemat ique e t l a s t rat igraph ie . Ces me thodes d onnent l a p oss ib i l ite d e c ons tru ire u ne s er ie c hrono log ique b ien e tab l ie p our l e s mater iaux a rch t i ) log iques d u p rem ier m i l lena ire . Ma is u ne s er ie f orme d e mater iaux c oncrets s emb le n e p as t ou jour s uff ir a t out l e monde ; q ue lqu 'uns v oudra ient q u 'on y a pporte q ue lque c hose d e l ' espr it o u q ue lques p lus amp les e xp l icat ions . P our s at isfa ire c ette d emande i f aut s ouven t a ugmenter l ' e tude d e mater iaux d u p asse a vec u n mythe . Ma is l ' usage d ' un mythe , c om me c omp lement dune e xp l icat ion , c ause s ouvent d e n ombreux p rob lemes q ue l ' on d o lt e xam iner a vec a ttent ion . T here a re t wo s t rands i na ny p lan f or t he s tudy o f t he f i rs t t housand y ears a fter t he b i rth o f C hr is t ; o ne i sa rchaeo log ica l a nd o ne i s mytho log ica l . Pt a nother way , we s hou ld p lan t o s tudy t he mater ia l w h ich r ema ins t o u s , a nd w e s hou ld e xam ine t he s ett ing i nw h ich w e c hoose t o u nders tand a nd a bso rb i t . T he p lan f o r a rchaeo logy must o bv ious ly b e t he s tudy o f t he mater ia l a nd t he p lan h ere i sc lear a nd s imp le , i fd u l l . I f ap o l icy d ocument i sn eeded Is ugges t t he f o l low ing : ' The p urpose o f a rchaeo logy i n t he s tudy o f t he f i rs t m i l lenn ium AD i st o e stab l ish t he s equence o f t he c hang ing mater ia l c u lture i ns pace a nd t ime ; t o r e late i t t o a s tudy o f c hanges i n r ura l s ett lement , l a nd-use a nd a gr icu lture ; a nd t o a ttemp t t o r e late t he c ountrys ide s o s tud ied t o a ny n uc leated s ett lements w h ich may e xpand a nd c ontract i nt h is t ime ' . T h is means t hat o nce t he g enera l t ime s ca le h as b een s ett led a l l f urther a rchaeo log ica l work must p roceed o n t he b as is o f mater ia l . T hus t he s tart ing p o int m ight b e t aken a s t he b eg inn ing o f l a rge s ca le p roduc t ion a nd d i str ibut ion o f r ed g loss t ab le w are f rom A rezzo i n I t a ly a nd t he f i n ish ing p o int m ight b e t he g ene ra l a dop t ion o f t he f u l ly f l edged R omanesque s ty le o f a rch itecture t hroughout w estern E urope . W ith in t he p er iod t hus mater ia l ly d ef ined w e o ught t o p roceed b y c ompar ison o f mater ia l a ssemb lages e stab l ish ing t he c ontemporane ity o f d i fferent p ottery s ty les , p er iods o f c o in l o ss , b u i ld ing s ty les , a nd a n i ma l b one a ssemb lages . T here wou ld b e n o h arm i nb u i ld ing u p a t t he s a me t ime a s er ies o f r ad io c arbon d ates w h ich c orrespond t o t he mater ia l a ssemb lages s o t hat t here i s av ery r ough a bso lute c heck o n o ur s equence a nd o ur i deas o f c hrono logy . What mus t n ever h appen i s t he s i t ing o f p art icu lar a ssemb lages i n t he c hrono log ica l s equence b y i n sp ired r eference t o h i stor ica l s ources . Iq uo te a s ac aut ionary t a le h ere t he c ont inu ing s aga o f F orum Ware i n I t a ly . T h is s tarted o ff a s aw e l l g lazed t ype o f p o ttery f rom t he R oman F o rum ( Bon i 1 90 1) a nd t hen b ecame e stab l ished a s a c lear med ieva l t ype o f p o ttery

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( Wh itehouse 1 965 ) . T here were t hen a ttemp ts t o p u l l i t b ack f ro m t he H igh Med ieva l p er iod t o t he e ar ly med ieva l p er iod a nd i t was s een t o o ccur a t t he e ar ly med ieva l s i te o f S anta Co rne l ia ( Wh itehouse 1 980 ) . If i rst s aw i t a t t he B r it ish S choo l i n Rome when Iwas work ing o n t he p ub l icat ion o f c o ins f rom t he c entre o t Rome , i nc lud ing a g roup s a id t o c ome f ro m t he s a me e xcavat ions a s t he f i rst F orum Ware i n t he L ocus l u turnae , n ea r t he e ar ly c hurch o f S anta Mar ia A nt igua . My f i rs t i mpress ion was o f al a te R oman g lazed ware s uch a s i sf ound i n modern Hungary a nd t he North o f I t a ly i n t he f ourth a nd f i fth c entur ies AD , a nd , p erhaps ma in ly t o c ause t roub le , Is a id a s much . T h is made Dav id Wh itehouse t houghtfu l . He went away t o c ons ider t he p lace o f F oru m Ware i n a ny s equences t hat were e stab l ished . Meanwh i le If i n ished t he g roup o f c o ins a nd s a id t hat t he l a test c o ins i n t he r e levant d epos it were a round 5 80 s o t hat , i f t he F o ru m Ware b e longed i n t h is c ontext i t was f i rm ly t o b e p ut a t t he e nd o f t he Roman s equence . T h is i dea h as b een t aken u p , a nd o ne o f t he l a test v iews o n t he s ub ject i s t hat t he f or mer med ieva l p ottery i s n ow e v idence o f. t he B yzant ine r econquest o f I t a ly i n t he s ixth c entury ( Potte r a nd Wh itehouse 1 981) . My p o int h ere i s n ot t hat a ny o f t hese v iews i s mo re l i ke ly t o b e r i ght t han a ny o ther b ut t hat much e ar l ie r work c ou ld h ave b een i mproved i f t he b as ic a tte mpt h ad b een made t o e stab l ish t he p lace o t F o ru m Ware i n s equence , r ather t han p u l l ing h istor ica l d ates a nd c ontexts f or i to ut o f t h in a i r . P erhaps t he b est t hat c an b e s a id t o r t he moment i s t hat t h is p ottery i s a bsent f rom t he m id f i fth c entury d epos its o n t he P a lat ine H i l l ( Wh itehouse a nd o thers 1 982 ) a nd s eems t o b e a l ready r es idua l b y t he t ime o f t he r e-organ izat ion o f S an la Co rne l ia i n t he n inth c entury ( Wh itehouse 1 980 ) . We o ught t o a ttempt t he s a me s o rt o f s equence d at ing i n t he t h ird c entury when s o much s eems t o b e c hang ing i n t he Roman Emp ire . A t p resent i t i s e xtre me ly d i ff icu lt , p robab ly i mposs ib le , t o c orre late a rchaeo log ica l e vents h appen ing i n I t a ly w ith t hose o f F rance , o f S pa in o r o f B r ita in . T he F rench a nd t he S pan ish h ave a lways ma inta ined t hat t h ings s topped i n t he t h ird c entury b ecause o f t he I nvas ions , a nd t h is h as t i ed a l l ma jo r a rchaeo log ica l e vents t o t he 2 30 s o r t he 2 60s . I n B r ita in d at ing h as b een t i ed , i n t he p ast , t o t he e vents o n Hadr ian 's Wa l l -t he b u i ld ing , t he f i rst , s econd a nd t h ird d estruct ions - a nd t hese h ad n o d i rect c onnect ion t o t he I nvas ions . How , o r whether , t he I t a l ians o f t he e ar ly p art o f t h is c entury c onstructed t he ir m id-Ro man c hrono logy Id o n ot y et k now . B ut g radua l ly , a s mo re g ood e xcavat ions a re d one , s tud ied , a nd w r itten u p , we s ha l l b e a b le t o u nderstand t he d i fferent mater ia l s equences a nd we s ha l l h ave t he c hance t o s ee h ow t he d isuse o f g reat v i l la h ouses i n d i fferent a reas o f t he emp ire t i t i n to a s i ng le mater ia l s equence . We s ha l l a l so b e a b le t o s ee h ow t he d isuse o f g reat v i l la h ouses f i ts i n t o t he l a st p hases o f t he Ger man f ront ier wh ich s eems t o h ave c hanged r ad ica l ly i n t he t h ird c entury a nd t o h ave b een r ee stab l ished l a te r o n t o t he S outh a nd West . I t we a re e ven more method ica l a nd b road m inded we m ight e ven l ook o uts ide t he emp ire t o s ee h ow t he p hases i n s ide c orrespond w ith t hose o uts ide . F ro m t h is we c ou ld e stab l ish v ery r ough c ontemporane ity o f e xpans ions a nd c ontract ions i n t he Ger man f ie ld a nd t he Roman f ie ld . T here a re s i tes o n t he b o rders o f t he t wo p eop les , s uch a s t he Runde B erg ( Chr ist le in 1 979 ) a nd t he s tud ies o t t he mater ia l t here l ead u s o n f ro m s imp le t empora l s equence t o t he e stab l ish ment o f a reas o f c onte mpo rane ity . O f c ourse a l l a reas e x ist a t t he s ame t ime ; what Imean b y t h is p hrase i st he e stab l ishment o f a reas o f s im i lar mater ia l c u lture j udged p ure ly o n mater ia l a nd c hrono logy l eav ing o ut a ny p reconce ived t err itor ia l b ackground , p robab ly d er ived f rom h istor ica l s ources o r f o lk memory .

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T h is i s n ot a d ra ft p roposa l f or s ome f ar r each ing r esearch p ro ject b ut a s imp le s tate ment o f what It h ink t he a rchaeo log ists i n terested i n t he f i rst m i l lenn iu m o ught t o b e d o ing . T he ir j ob i s b as ica l ly o ne o f d ea l ing w ith mater ia l , o f e stab l ish ing s t rat igraph ic s equences , o f e stab l ish ing z ones o f mater ia l c u lture , a nd o f c hart ing t he r i se a nd t a l l o f l i v ing u n its a nd s ett lements whether i n t he c ountrys ide , o r b anded t ogether i n an uc leus . B ut s ure ly t here s hou ld b e more t o t he p ast t han t h is? I f we c an a gree o n t he j ob a nd n ature o f t he a rchaeo log ist a s as tudent o f mater ia l , t hen Ic an a gree t hat t he t ota l s tudy o t t he p ast may we l l s pread o ut t ro m t he mater ia l l e ft t o u s t o r e lated s ub jects . We want t o i n terpret t he mater ia l f rom t he p ast , a nd we c hoose a s et o f myths w ith in wh ich t o d o i t . F irst I want t o emphas ize t he n ature a nd p urpose o f t hose myths , a nd t hen I want t o a sk f o r t he ir d rast ic r efurb ish ment . I n t a lk ing a bout F oru m Ware I i nev itab ly u sed d escr ipt ions s uch a s l a te Ro man a nd e ar ly med ieva l ; t he s ub ject o f t he Roman f ront ier i n Ger many b rought i n t houghts o t t he Romans i n s ide t he emp ire a nd t he Ger mans o uts ide . T hese l abe ls h e lp u s t o o rgan ize o ur mater ia l k now ledge a nd i n s ome c ases g ive u s t he s pur t o s earch f or mater ia l t o f i l l g aps o r p rov ide t he i ncent ive f or t he f u l l e xam inat ion o f ap ro m inent s i te . I tm ight b e p oss ib le t o s tudy t he p ast s o le ly i n t he way t hat Ih ave s uggested i n t he f i rst p art o f t h is p aper , b ut 1 d o n ot s ee a ny g reat a dvantage i n s uch a c ourse . I n t he f i rst p lace much mo t ivat ion i n many p eop le wou ld b e l ack ing , a nd , more i mportant , i n t he s econd p lace t he who le b us iness o f c om mun icat ion o uts ide t he a ct iv ity wou ld b e h igh ly c omp l icated , a nd t here fore much l e ss p ract ised . I n o ther wo rds i t i st he mytho logy wh ich b r ings p eop le t o t he s tudy o f t he p as t a nd i t i s t hrough t he mytho log ies a ccepted f rom t ime t o t ime t hat c om mun ica t ion a bout t he p ast ma in ly h appens . S o me p eop le o b ject t o t he u se o f t he wo rd myth i n t h is c ontext ; t he f avour ite a l ternat ive p roposed i s mode l . T he o b ject ion i sb ased , It h ink , o n t he i dea t hat a myth i sa t b es t f r ivo lous , a t worst , f raudu lent . S uch o b ject ions s uggest t o me a c omp lete m is-unders tand ing o f t he n ature o f t he myth . Iam u s ing i ti n t he s ense i n wh ich c onte mporary Chr ist ian T heo logy u ses i t( Mark 1 980 ) w ithout a t p resent s uggest ing t hat t here o ught t o b e s ometh ing r e l ig ious a bout a rchaeo logy . T hus a t heo log ian u s ing t he word a pprov ing ly means t o d escr ibe t he who le f ra me o f r eference w ith in wh ich c erta in b as ic h i stor ica l o bservat ions h ave t o b e s et i n o rde r t o a ch ieve a f u l l mean ing . T he d i tterence b etween s uch a c oncept a nd t hat o f a mode l may b e mo re i n t he s i ze a nd s ca le t han i n n ature . A mode l s ee ms t o me t o c ons ist o t as et o f p recepts wh ich c an b e c om mun icated t o a nyone w ith r e lat ive e ase , r ema in ing f i rm ly o n t he l eve l o f e xp l ic it c om mun icat ion , wh ich g ive t he r ece iver t he r u les t o r s ee ing h ow a s et o f o bservat ions may h ave worked i n p ract ice . A myth , s uch a s t he Romans a nd t he M idd le A ges , o r t he Romans a nd t he Ger mans , i ss o much b igger t han a ny mode l , i nvo lves s o many i mp l ic it f acets wh ich d epend o n s hared e ducat ion a nd e xper ience , a nd i s t herefo re s o d eep ly r ooted i n t he u nconsc ious p art o f t he m ind , t hat Ic anno t a ccept t he u se o f t he word mode l f o r t he s ub ject wh ich Iam t ry ing t o e xp lo re . T he p o int Iwant t o d i scuss i sn ot t he n ature o f t hese myths , t hough t hat w i l l t o s ome e xtent i n t he f uture b e i nev itab le , b ut whether o r n ot , a s a t p resent e xtant , t hey a re t he r i ght myths t or f uture i n terpretat ion o f t he p ast . A re t hese t he f ra meworks wh ich we want t o u se? T o many p eop le t h is i s n ot a r ea l q uest ion b ecause t hey a re t he f ra mewo rks a nd t he o n ly c ho ice i s whether t o u se t he m o r u se n oth ing , wh ich wou ld p resu mab ly b e a r e l iance o n my mater ia l s equence . An i nab i l ity t o c ons ider a l ternat ive f ra mewo rks ( myths ) d oes t ake u s

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v e ry c lose t o r e l ig ion - t he b e l ieve r s ees o n ly h i s f rame o f b e l ief , a nd t he o n ly c ho ice i st o b e l ieve o r n o t , n o t what t o b e l ieve . Id o n ot t h ink t hat e ven i n my w i lder moments Iwou ld d eny t he e x istence o f t he R oman Emp ire . S uch a bso lut ism wou ld b e p o int less t o r i t wou ld h ave v i rtua l ly n o e ffect . F ar b etter t o n ibb le a t t he e dges . J ust w hat i s t he Roman Emp ire? S hou ld i t b e d e f ined i n p o l it ica l t e r ms i n w h ich c ase i t h as n o mean ing f o r t he a rchaeo log ist f or h e c anno t d ea l i n c oncep ts t hrough mate r ia l -o r s hou ld i t b e d e f ined i n mater ia l t e r ms? O r s hou ld we p lo t t he p o l it ica l o n t he map f rom h i s to r ica l s ources a nd t hen c ompare t he mate r ia l f ro m t he a rchaeo log ica l s ources a nd c ompare t he t wo s ets o f i n fo rmat ion? T he l a tte r i s o bv ious ly t he b est c ourse b ecause i t w i l l b r ing u p a reas o f d isagree ment b etween t he t wo s ources a nd , b y a p rocess o f q uest ion a nd a nswe r l ead u s o n t o a b ette r u nders tand ing o f t he r e lat ionsh ip b etween t he mater ia l s equence a nd t he h is to r ica l i n fo r mat ion . T hus s o me a reas t ha t a re p o l it ica l ly w ith in t he Emp ire w i l l s how v e ry l i tt le mater ia l e v idence f o r t h is f act a nd s ome a reas t hat a re c lea r ly o uts ide t he p o l it ica l l im its w i l l a ppear t o b e c lose ly c onnec ted w ith t he mate r ia l wo r ld i n s ide . I t i s n ot a q uest ion o f wh ich d e f in it ion o f t he emp ire i s ' r ight ' t o r t hey a re b oth , i n t he ir own t er ms , r i ght , b ut a q uest ion o f w h ich f rame o f r e fe rence i sg u id ing o ur e nqu iry . Wh ich myth a re we wo rk ing w ith . T hus i n B r ita in t here a re t wo r ather d i fferent a pp roaches , o ne o f wh ich s tud ies R oman B r ita in a nd t he o the r wh ich s tud ies B r ita in i n t he p e r iod o f Roman a dm in istrat ion . T he d i fferences b etween t hese a pproaches i ss t rong ; i t i s n o t a matte r o f u s ing d i tterent mode ls w ith in t he s a me f rame o t r e ference b ut o f u s ing v e ry d i ffe rent f ra mes o t r e ference . T hus a q ues t ion a sked i n o ne f ra me o fr e te rence h as l i tt le o r n o mean ing w ith in t he o ther ; we a re n ot t a lk ing a bout d i tterent a nswe rs t o t he s a me q ues t ion . I n t he Nethe r lands o ur c o l leagues h ave p roduced a n i n te res t ing a nd u se fu l , i t i n p laces o paque , b ook o n t he Ro man a nd Nat ive i n t he N ethe r lands ( B randt a nd S lo tstra 1 983 ) w ith t he a ir n o f e xa m in ing t he i n teract ion b etween R oman i deas a nd n at ive i deas i n t he a rea o f t he mode rn Nether lands d ur ing t he t i rst f our c entur ies AD . T he b ook wo rks i n a n e xc it ing ly n ove l a nd a dventurous w ay a s r ega rds mate r ia l a nd i deas o n a ccu lturat ion , a nd y et If i nd i t i mpe rfect b ecause i t wo rks w ith in t he myth o f Roman a nd Nat ive . T o make t h is a p os it ive c r it ic ism Iw i l l s ugges t t hat Iwant a mo re emp ir ica l a pproach b y wh ich t he c hanges i n t he mater ia l c u lture o f t he Nethe r lands a rea a re c ompared w ith t he mater ia l c u lture d eep i n t he p rov ince o f Gau l a nd d eep i n t he t ree a rea o f Ge r many s o t hat , f i rs t , t he c hanges i n mater ia l c u lture a nd s ett lement p atte rn i n t wo o ther a reas mo re a nd l e ss h eav i ly d om inated b y t he I t a l ian c u ltura l a ssemb lage may b e mapped . a nd c ompar isons may t hen b e d rawn b etween t he c hanges i n t he mater ia l c u lture o f d i fferent a reas a nd c onnect ions . T h is wou ld a vo id t he p rocess wh ich I am g row ing t o d is l ike o f a ssess ing Roman izat ion b y t he a na lys is o f mate r ia l o b jects l ead ing t o ad i rect s ugges t ion o f s oc ia l c hange . T h is l eads u s o n t o F r& louv i l le ( P i let 1 980 ) , t he c emetery i n Nor mandy where t he myth o f Ge r mans r ep lac ing Ro mans h as b een f i rm ly c ha l lenged a t l a s t o n w hat s eems t o b e g ood e v idence . Iam n ot c omp la in ing o f t he mode l b y wh ich a s ke leton a ccompan ied b y R o man p o ttery i sc a l led Roman a nd o ne a ccompan ied b y S axon meta lwo rk i sc a l led S axon . Id o n o t l i ke t he mode l , b u t i ti sp erfect ly c omprehens ib le , c an b e e as i ly c om mun icated , a nd d i scussed t a ir ly r at iona l ly . I ndeed i n al im ited s ense i t i su se fu l a nd s e lf-suppo rt ing i tg ravegoods a re t aken a s d e f in ing c u ltura l a ff i l iat ion a nd c u ltura l a ff i l iat ion i s t aken a s n oth ing mo re t han t he n ature o f g rave g oods . Iam c omp la in ing a bout t he who le b atch o f mode ls i mp l ic it a nd e xp l ic it b y wh ich Merov ing ian F rance i s Ge r man ic ( excep t f o r l anguage a nd a f ew o ther f eatures ) wh i le a f ew c entur ies b e fo re Gau l was R oman ; t h is c ons t itutes mo re t han a b und le o t e xp l ic it mode ls f or i t i ss o d eep ly

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e ntrenched a s t o b e a myth . A nd i n t he p ast t he mater ia l h as b acked u p t he myth . B ut t he b one r eport o f t he c e metery a t F renouv i l le wh ich r uns f rom t he s econd t o t he s eventh c entury c an s ee n o d i fference i n t he p opu lat ion o ver t h is t ime a nd i n h is d octo ra l t hes is f rom wh ich t he b one c om mentary i s d rawn B uchet s ays ' S ur l e p lan a nthropo log igue , r i en n e p er met d onc d e d ist inguer l e s i nd iv idus p orteurs d e mob i l ie r s axon d u r este d e l a p opu lat ion d e F renouv i l le , d e me me , r ien n e n ous p er met d e l eur a ttr ibuer u ne q ue lconque a ft m ite n ord ique ' ( Buchet 1 977 ,25 I ) . T he myth o f Ro mans a nd S axons i s n o t s imp ly ' wrong ' , b ut , more i mportant ly , t he w rong myth f o r a bso rb ing a nd d igest ing t he i n for mat ion t hat i sc om ing f rom mater ia l s tud ies . l t i s n o t a matter o f r ep lac ing t he myth t hat i s w rong b y a no ther wh ich i s r i ght , b ut o f p lac ing b es ide t he myth c onstructed f o r t he h i stor ica l i n for mat ion a nother s u itab le f o r u nde rstand ing t he mater ia l i n fo r mat ion . A nd w ith t wo a l te rnat ive myths we s ha l l b e r i cher r ather t han p oorer . T he p rob lem w ith t he p resent Roman/Med ieva l a nd Roman/Ger man myths i st hat t hey h ave g rown f rom h istor ica l r eco rds a nd f o lk me mory wh ich c annot b e a nyth ing o ther t han b iased , p art ia l a nd t endent ious . T he myth o f t he Ro man Emp ire g iv ing way t o b arbar is m wh ich was t hen l ed t owards t he g lo r ies o f t he M idd le Ages i sn ot t he c onstruct o f o b ject ive t h ink ing b ut t he u nth ink ing p roduct o f s e lf-g lor if icat ion a nd t he v i l if icat ion o t o pponents , i . e . h istory . T here s hou ld t herefo re b e n o s urpr ise when a r easonab ly d isc ip l ined s tudy o f mater ia l f i nds t hat myth u nsat is facto ry . We n eed n ew myths i n o rder t o make s ense o f o ur mater ia l . T o s ome e ars t h is w i l l s ound l i ke t he r e-wr it ing o f h istory t o s u it a p urpose ; i n many ways t hat i s j us t what i t i s . We , i n t he d eve loped c ountr ies w ith t he l ongest w r itten h istor ies , s omet i mes sm i le s ad ly when we h ear t hat c ountr ies w ithout s uch d ocu mentat ion a re r e-o rder ing t he ir p ast , a s we k now i t , t o f i t i n b etter w ith t he p resent . Where t here a re c lear w r itten s ources , whose b ias c an b e a ssessed a nd whose o r ig ina l p urpose i sk nown , a ny r e-creat ion o f t he p ast t o s u it t he p resent i s q uest ionab le , i t n ot u nw ise . Unw ise s imp ly f rom a matte r o f e xped ience i n t hat i ti su nw ise t o e rect a ny ma jo r o r i mportant s t ructure o n a n e rroneous f oundat ion . B ut where t he r e-creat ion d oes n o more t han f l y i n t he f ace o f wes tern o rthodoxy , what we a l l b e l ieve , what e veryone k nows , i t must b e c o m mended . I t we w ish t o d eve lop o ur k now ledge o f t he p ast , t o u nderstand t he mater ia l c u lture o f t he p ast , a nd t o c om mun icate t hat i n terest a nd s earch i n t he p resent t hen we s hou ld b e d o ing e xact ly t he s a me t h ing look ing f o r t he myth o f t he p as t wh ich b es t e xp la ins i tt o t he p resent . Ih ave t a lked t hroughout a bout c ho ice a nd i nvent ion o f myths a s i t t hey we re t h ings t hat a re w ith in o ur own c ontro l . S o me p eop le may f ee l t hat i n s o me way t he myths d epend o n t he p ast r ather t han t he p resent ; t h is Id oubt . Id o n ot , h owever , d oubt t he p ract icab i l ity o f d educ ing t he c orrect myths f rom a s tudy o f t he mater ia l f ro m t he p ast : Iam q u ite s ure t hat t h is i s i mposs ib le . I f we want t o b u i ld o n f i rm f oundat ions a nd n o t t o b e c ontrad icted more t han o nce a g enerat ion t hen t he myths we c onstruct o r o verhau l o ught t o b e c ons istent w ith t he mater ia l e v idence , a nd e ach myth o ught t o b e a l tered a nd b rought u p t o d ate t o t ake a ccount o f t he mater ia l e v idence . My p resent g r ievances p robab ly g row f rom t he t act t hat o ur myths n ever h ave b een o verhau led b ecause p eop le b e l ieve t hem t o b e a bso lute a nd t rue r ather t han r e lat ive . B ut t he o ne t h ing t hat s ee ms t o me i mposs ib le i st he h ope t hat a r ea l a nd p roper myth , o r f ra me o f r eference , c an b e c onstructed b y s tart ing f ro m t he mater ia l i t se l f-. T here a re t wo ma in r easons why It h ink i t i s i mposs ib le t o c onstruct c omp lete f rames o f r eference t or mater ia l . T he f i rst c oncerns t he l a rgeness a nd t he

7

n ature o f a myth o r af rame o f r eference . I t i sb as ica l ly i nbu i lt a nd emo t iona l , o r r athe r i t i s made u p o f emot iona l p arts wh ich h ave g rown u p w ith u s , a nd , b e ing emo t iona l a nd i nbu i lt i ti sc onstructed o f t houghts a nd c oncepts wh ich h ave n o d i rect c orrespondance i n t he mater ia l wo r ld . T he s econd p o int f o l lows o n d i rect ly : s i nce t here i s n o d i rect , l og ica l , r at iona l , a nd n ecessary c onnect ion b etween t houghts a nd c oncepts a nd mater ia l a ny s earch b ased o n a s upposed c onnect ion must b e d oomed t o f a i lure . We may c ons truct f rom t houghts a nd f ee l ings a nd emot ions a nd p ast e xper ience a r ev ised myth t o f o l low more i n te l l ig ib ly t he c hanges o f t he y ears AD 3 00 t o 9 00 , a nd we may t ake g reat c are t hat o ur i mproved myth r e ma ins c ons istent w ith t he mater ia l e v idence , b ut t he myth c annot g row d i rect ly , l og ica l ly , r at iona l ly , a nd , most i mportant u n ique ly a nd n ecessar i ly ( i n t he s ense o f t he o n ly p oss ib le r esu lt ) f rom t he mater ia l . One o f t he ma jor p rob lems i s t he r at iona l , o r i r rat iona l man . S o much t hat i s d one t hat r esu lts i n a mater ie l r eco rd i s i log ica l , o r n on-rat iona l t hat a ny c onstruct u s ing l og ica l t hought a nd r at iona l ity a s b ases , must b e av ery p a le r ef lect ion o f man 's a ct iv ity . F or t hat a ct iv ity i ss o met i mes r at iona l , s omet i mes r e l ig ious , s omet i mes i n tu it ive , s o met i mes emo t iona l , a nd s o met i mes , b u t r are ly , l og ica l . I tt h is i sa greed , a nd t aken a s ap lan o f c a mpa ign i ts upposes a r esearch wo rker s i tt ing d own t o i n terpret a mater ia l a sse mb lage b y t he m is-use o t l og ic , t he a pp l icat ion o f emot ion , t he s usp ic ion o t r e l ig ion , a nd a h eavy i nvocat ion o f s oc ia l t aboo . T he a cade m ic i sn ot t ra ined t o d o t h is , t here a re n o r u les f o r s uch p rocedure , p erhaps c annot b e , s o t he r esu lt i sl i ke ly t o b e a n a cadem ic mess . A s a n i lustrat ion Iwou ld t ake t he P i lgr im r oute t o S ant iago d e Compos te la i n n orth western S pa in . T he mater ia l r esu lts o t t h is p i lgr im r oute a re c ons ide rab le a nd , i n t he f ie ld o t a rch itecture t here i s ar i ch c orpus i n t he work o f A K ings ley P orter ( 1923 ) . T he p o int a t i s sue i s what a p ure ly mate r ia l s tudy o f t he e v idence wou ld p roduce . A c erta in c hurch p lan i s s een i n F rance a nd p arts o f S pa in ; c erta in r eg iona l c haracter ist ics s uch a s t he B r it ish b eak h ead o rna ment t urn u p i n af ew i s o lated e xamp les i n n orth west S pa in ; t he mo t if o f t he h orse r i der a nd c apt ive t urns u p i n t he r eg ion o f P o it iers a nd i n Here fo rdsh ire . T he e xa mp les c an b e mu lt ip l ied b oth i n t ime a nd i n s pace u nt i l ac omp lex web o f c onnect ions r esu lts . T he a ctua l h u man j ourneys a nd c onnect ions , wh ich c an o n ly b e k nown f rom w r itten d ocu ments a nd t he mot ives f or t hose j ourneys c ou ld n ot p oss ib ly b e d educed t ro m t he o bservat ions o f mater ia l . No l og ica l p rocess o f r eason ing c ou ld s uggest t hat a l o rd o f a manor i n Here to rdsh ire , h av ing s i nned , d ec ided o n aj ourney t o S ant iago , f o r t he r e l ic t a t h i s s ou l f ro m e terna l t orture , a nd t ook w ith h im , v ia P arthenayle-V ieux , ab u i lder w ho was , o n t he ir r eturn t o b u i ld a v i l lage c hurch . Yet v irtua l ly a l l t hose p o ints a re e ssent ia l t o a n u nderstand ing o f why t he c hurches a round S hobden h ave l i nks w ith t he c entre Wes t o f F rance . I n e xact ly t he s a me way I d efy a ny p ure mater ia l is t t o e xp la in t he e xact c ontemporane ity o t t he a l most f eature less s imp l ic ity o f t he C iste rc ian c hurch a t P ont igny a nd t he c omp lex d eco rat ion G I t he B ened ict ine C luny w ithout t he l e tters o f Abbo t S uger o t S t Den is a nd t he r ab id B ernard o f C ta irvaux . T o t ry t o s um u p . Is ee t he mater ia l r ecord a s a mus ica l g round o r t he me . T o e n l iven a nd e xpand t hat t heme we n eed s ome h ar mony a nd t hat c an b e s upp l ied b y h istory a nd myth . B ut t he p ara l le l i s af a ir ly e xact o ne , t or j us t a s at heme c an b e h ar mon ized i n many d i fferent ways , t o many d i fferent t astes , n o o ne h ar mony c an e ver b e c a l led a l og ica l p roduct o f t he t he me , a nd n o h ar mony c an b e an ecessary a nd u n ique d eve lop ment f rom t he t he me . Af o lk s ong r ema ins t he s a me whether i n as ett ing a dm ired i n aV icto r ian d raw ing r oom o r as pare a nd s p iky r ender ing a pp lauded a t a modern f est iva l ; i n e ach c ase t he s ett ing , t he f ra me o f r e ference , w i l l h e lp d i fferent p eop le a nd d i fferent t imes t o b ene f it .

8

B ib l iography B on i , G . , 1 90 I .' I S acra r io d i J uturna ' , Not iz ia d eg l i S cov i : 4 1-144 . B randt , R . a nd S lo ts tra , J . , 1 983 . Roman a nd Nat ive i n t he L ow Countr ies . ( B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l Reports I n te rnat iona l S er ies 1 84 ; O x fo rd ) . B uchet , L . , 1 9 77 . E tude Anthropo log ique d ' une p opu la t ion d e B osse No rmand ie T h eese p our l e d octorat d e t ro is ieeme c yc le ( Caen ) C hr is t le in , R . , 1 979 . D ie Runde B erg b e i U rach I ( S igmar ingen ) . Ma rk , J . , 1 980 .

' Myth a nd T ruth ' , T heo logy 8 3 : 2 62-9 .

P i let , C . , 1 980 . L a N 8ecropo le d e F r inouv i l le . I n te rnat iona l S e r ies 8 3 ; O x fo rd ) .

( B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l R epo rts

P o rte r ,A .K . , 1 9 23 . Romanesque S cu lpture o f t he P i lgr i m Roads ( Bos ton ) . P otte r , T . a nd Wh itehouse , D . , 1 981 . ' The B yzant ine f ront ier i nS . E trur ia ' , Ant iqu ity 2 15 : 2 06-10 . Wh itehouse , D . , 1 965 . ' Fo rum Ware ' Med ieva l A rchaeo logy 9 : 5 5-63 . Wh itehouse , D . , 1 980 . ' The med ieva l p o tte ry f rom S . C orne l ia ' , P apers o f t he B r it ish S choo l a t Rome 4 8 : 1 25-56 . Wh itehouse , D . a nd o thers , 1 982 . ' S cho la P raeconum l ' , P apers o f t he B r it ish S choo l a t Rome 5 0 : 5 3-101 .

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3 . P ER IPHERY I N PRE-AND PROTOH ISTORY : S TRUCTURE AND PROCESS I N THE RH INE-MEUSE BAS IN B ETWEEN C . 6 00 BC AND 5 00 AD

J .H .F . B loeme rs I n troduct ion D ur ing t he l a st d ecades , t he western wo r ld h as a ttempted t o d igest i t s c o lon ia l a nd i mper ia l ist ic p ast ; h i stor ica l r esearch h as a lso made c ontr ibut ions t o t h is e nd a s w itnessed , f or e xamp le , b y t he 1 980 v o lu me H is tory a nd Underdeve lop ment . E ssays o n Underdeve lopment a nd E uropean E xpans ion i n A s ia a nd Af r ica IS evera l i n s ights g a ined t hrough s tudy o f s t ructures a nd p rocesses d ur ing e xpans ion c an b e u sefu l ly a pp l ied i n r esearch o f t he t ime i n wh ich o ur own a rea was t he g oa l o t ' imper ia l ist ic ' e xpans ion : t he Roman p er iod . I n h i s d escr ipt ion o f t he t erps a long t he s outhern c oast o t t he North S ea P l iny r ecorded h ow o ur a ncesto rs r eacted : ' Tw ice d a i ly , t he l and i sf l ooded t here , a nd b ecomes d ry a ga in , s uch t hat o ne d oes n o t k now i t i t i s l and o r water ; t he p eop le l i ve o n s e tt- made mounds ; b y f loodt i de , t hey a re l i ke s eatarers , b y e bb , mo re l i ke c astaways . A nd when c onquered b y t he Ro man p eop le , t hey s ay t hat i s. . s l avery ! ' . B y way o t i n troduct ion , an u mber o t u nderstand ings must b e d escr ibed : f i rst ly , t he r e lat ion b etween c o re a rea a nd p er iphery ; s econd ly , t he s oc io-po l it ica l t er ms s uch a s t r ibe , s tate a nd emp ire ; a nd l a st ly , t he p lace a nd t ime o f t he e vents o f p rotoh istor ic West E urope b etween a bout 6 00 BC a nd 5 00 AD . T oday , t he c oncepts c o re a nd p er iphery a re u sed , b y Wa l lerste in among o thers 2 , i n a na lys is o t E uropean c o lon ia l ism a nd t he r e lat ionsh ip b etween t he western a nd t h ird wor ld . T he c o re h as a r e lat ive ly h igh d egree o t d eve lop ment , w ith a h igh d egree o t s oc io-econom ic d i fferent iat ion ; t he p er iphery , i n c ontras t , i s l e ss d eve loped a nd h as a s imp le e conom ic a nd p o l it ica l s t ructure . T he p er iphery f unct ions a s as t rateg ic a nd e conom ic b utter z one i n r e lat ion t o t he c ore a rea . T he b orders a re f l ex ib le b etween t hese a reas . I n t he r e lat ionsh ip western wor ld :th ird wor ld , t he c oncept o f i mper ia l is m p lays a n i mportant p art , a nd i s u nderstood t o b e t he p ursu it o f d om inat ion b y s t ronger a nd mo re h igh ly d eve loped s tates o ve r t he weake r a nd l e ss d eve loped .3 A cco rd ing t o most c urrent t heor ies o n i mper ia l is m , t he c auses o t i mpetus b eh ind western i mper ia l is m must b e s ought e xc lus ive ly w ith in t he c ore i t se lf , i n i t s c onsc ious s t r iv ing t or e xpans ion , d ue t o e conom ic o r s oc io-po l it ica l mot ives .4 More i n terest ing a re t he i deas a bout ' p er iphera l i mper ia l ism ' d eve loped b y F ie ldhouse a nd Rob inson .5 I mper ia l ist ic e xpans ion n ot c ontro l led b y t he c ore c an b e a t l east p art ia l ly c aused b y f actors i n t he p er iphery : c o l labo rat ion w ith in t he e l ite , ma intenance o t p eace a nd o rder , a nd h igh-handed a ct ions t aken b y c ore r epresentat ives i n t he p er iphery . T he e l ite i n t he p er iphery a re w i l l ing t o c o l laborate w ith t he c o re a rea t o s t rengthen t he ir own i n terna l p os it ion . T he ir p os it ion c an b e u nderm ined i n i n stances o t t oo f ervent c ooperat ion , i n terna l r i va lr ies , o r c o re r epresentat ive i n terterence , a nd t he r esu lt may b e r evo lt , o ften n at iona l ist ic i n c haracter . T he c ore t hen i n t hat c ase may b e t empted t o ma inta in t he s tatus o t t he c o l laborat ing p arty b y d i rect i n tervent ion , a nd t he s tep t owards a ctua l e xpans ion i s t hereby e as i ly a ccomp l ished . H igh-handed a ct ions b y c ore r epresentat ives i n t he p er iphery a re i nduced b y v ar ious f actors : amb it ion a nd q uest f o r g lory , a s a b o lster t o o ne 's p os it ion i n t he c ore , o r d i tterence i n o p in ion o n p o l icy t o t hat h e ld b y t he c entra l a uthor ity . T he e xpans ion o t t he s phe re o t i n f luence i sn o t c onsc ious ly s ought b ut r esu lts t rom a n u navo idab le a nd u ncontro l lab le p rocess . J ohan Ga ltung h as r e lat ive ly r ecent ly a ttempted t o c o mb ine c ore a nd p er iphery t heor ies o f i mper ia l ism i n to o ne mode l . A s t ructura l d ependence r e lat ion e x ists b etween c o re a nd p er iphery wh ich i s b ased o n c o-operat ion o f t he e l ite f rom b oth a reas f o r s erv ing mutua l i n terests ( F ig . 3 .1 ) .6

Centre Centre P er iphery

Centre P en ph er y P er iphery

H ar mony o f i n terest D ishar mony o f i nterest

F ig . 3 . 1:

S tructure o f i mper ia l ism . A fter Ga ltung 1 973

1 2

S econd ly , an u mber o f s oc io-po l it ica l s ystems must b e d escr ibed : t he t r ibe , t he s tate , a nd t he emp ire . T he d ist ingu ish ing c haracter ist ics a re , among o thers , t he d egree o f s oc ia l s t rat if icat ion , o f c entra l ized g overnment , o f e cono m ic i ndependence a nd t he d egree t o wh ich t hese a re d eter m ined b y f actors s uch a s k insh ip , i nher itence , a ch ievement a nd o ccupat iona l s pec ia l izat ion . T hese t ra its a re u sed t o r ank s oc iet ies i n a n e vo lut ionary s er ies o t i ncreas ing c omp lex ity . O f c ourse , a l l manner o t i n ter med iate s tages o ccur s uch a s t he h igh ly d eve loped t r ibe o r c h ie fdom , a nd t he e ar ly s tate . T he s imp lest f o rm o f t r iba l s oc iety i s e ga l itar ian , k nows n o c entra l a uthor ity a nd i s e cono m ica l ly s e tt-support ing t o a g reat e xtent . T he e conom ic s ystem i s n o t c om merc ia l ised b ut r athe r embedded i n t he n etwork o f s oc ia l r e lat ions o f as oc iety a nd b etween s oc iet ies . T he s tate i sd i fferent iated t hrough s oc ia l s t rat if icat ion , c entra l ized c ontro l a nd a uthor ized means t or ma inta in ing u n ity ; t hrough c entra l ized c ontro l t here i s ad egree o f r ed istr ibut ion o f a va i lab le r esources a nd t he e conomy p rov ides f o r s tate a pparatus ma intenance . T he i mper iu m h as t he s ame c haracter is t ics a s t he s tate , b ut c o mb ines , u nde r o ne d eno m inator , d i tferent c u ltura l o r e thn ic g roups a nd p o l it ica l s t ructures o f v ary ing l eve ls . T he e cono m ic s ystem i s o ften o n ly p art ia l ly c om merc ia l ized i n e ar ly s tates a nd i n t he p er iphe ra l a reas o f d eve loped s tates a nd emp ires .7 What i s t he c onnect ion b etween t he t he mes o f c ore a nd p er iphery , p er iphera l i mper ia l is m a nd s oc io-po l it ica l d eve lop ment? T he more h igh ly d eve loped c ore c an s o a cce lerate d eve lop ment i n t he p er iphery t hat , f o r e xamp le , s econdary s tate f or mat ion b eg ins ; t hat i s , as tate d eve lops i n ap er iphera l a rea b ecause o t i n f luence b y t he s tate i n t he c ore . I mportant t o t he p rocess i s t he n ature a nd e xtent o f t he e xchange a nd wartare n etworks , t hrough wh ich much i n fo r mat ion a nd e nergy i s e xchanged a nd i n wh ich t he e l ites o f c ore a nd p er iphery h ave a n i mportant p art . B y c ons iderat ion o f t he a bove i n c omb inat ion , i n s ight may b e g a ined i n to t he ways a nd d egree o f t he p er iphery i s p art o f t he s phere o f i n f luence o f t he c ore a nd h ow i ts ubsequent ly d eve lops . F ina l ly , Imust f ix t he t ime a nd p lace o f t he e vents a nd t he r o les w ith in t he t hree a ct p rotoh istor ic p lay i n c on junct ion t o t he u nderstand ings ment ioned a bove . T he p er iod s t retches f rom a bout 6 00 BC t o 5 00 AD , t he t rans it ion f rom p reh istory t o p rotoh isto ry . Is ha l l s ubd iv ide t he d i scuss ion i n to t hree p hases : t he p re-Roman t hrough t o t he l a te s econd c entury BC ; t he e ar ly-Roman e nd ing i n t he l a te f i rst c entury AD ; a nd , am id a nd l a te Roman p er iod e x tend ing f rom t he l a te f i rst t o t he l a te f i fth c entury AD . T he r esearch a rea i nc ludes t he r i ver b as ins o t t he S che lde , Meuse , Rh ine a nd E rns i n so far a s t hey a re t o t he n orth o f t he A rdenne , E ite l a nd S auer land watersheds ( F ig . 3 .4 ) . Comparab le i n s ize t o E ng land , t h is a rea i s a g eograph ica l u n it wh ich a l lows a n e xtended s tudy o f s t ructure a nd p rocess w ith in a s pec if ic t ramewo rk .8 F or mo re t han a t housand y ears , i th ad a p os it ion p er iphera l t o t he c ore o f t he t hen a cknow ledged E uropean Wor ld , t he Med iterranean . T he r o les a re d iv ided among t he t r ibes o f Ger man ia , i n t he n orth ; t he Ro mans , b ut a lso t he G reeks a nd E truscans , i n t he Med iterranen a rea ; a nd i n b etween , t he Ce lts , i nc lud ing t he l a te r Gau ls . T he P re-Roman P er iod E ar ly s tates a nd c i ty s tates d eve loped i n t he western Med iterranean d ur ing t he s eventh t o t he t i tth c entur ies BC . T he p o l it ica l a nd e conom ic s pheres o t i n t luence o f t he G reek c i t ies a nd c o lon ies , o t E trur ia , a nd o f C arthage were i n e qu i l ibr iu m a l though o f c ourse c on f l ict was n o t a bsent . C raft p roduct ion a nd t rade f lour ished a s n ever b efore . T he s ea o ffe red g ood l ong d istance t rad ing l anes a nd f ac i l itated e xpans ion . Mass i t ia , t he p resent Marse i l le , i s t he most f a mous o f as er ies o f n ew t rad ing c entres wh ich a rose a t t h is t ime .

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D ur ing t he s a me p er iod i n t he a rea t o t he n o rth o f t he A lps , i n c entra l F rance , s outhern G ermany , a nd t he S aar-Mose l le r eg ion , l a rge f ort if ied s ett lements a nd e xceed ing ly r i ch g raves a ppear w h ich i s a n i n d icat ion o f i n creas ing t r iba l c omp lex ity .9 O ne o f t he s a l ient s y mptoms o f t h is d eve lopment i s t he n umerous a nd c os t ly i t ems i mpo rted f rom t he Med iterranean a rea : A tt ic w are , ampho rae a nd G reek-Etruscan b ronzes .I ° ( F ig . 3 .2 ) G enera l ly t he f i nds a re a ssoc iated w ith w ine c onsump t ion . A s ar u le , t hese s o e xcept iona l i t ems b e long t o t he i nventory o f t he v ery r i ch g raves o f t he l o ca l o r r eg iona l e l ite . T hese e l ite l e nt c ountenance t o t he ir s tatus e ven i n d eath b y t ak ing w ith t hem t o t he g rave p res t ige g oods t hey h ad g a ined d ur ing l i fe t hrough c ontacts w ith t he Med iterranean . C ontact c ou ld h ave b een o f a n e conom ic n ature o f , f o r e xamp le , s upp ly ing n atura l r esources o r manpowe r t o t he Med iterranean a rea . T he s outhern p res t ige g oods c an t herefore r epresent t he s oc io-po l it ica l e qu iva lents t hat c ontr ibuted t o ma inta in ing a nd s t rengthen ing r e lat ions a nd p os it ion . I T he r ef lect ions o f t hese c ontacts a re a l so v i s ib le i n t he S che lde-Meuse-Rh ineEms a rea . Med iterranean i mports a re s porad ica l ly f ound : E truscan b ronzes a t E igenb i lzen i n B e lg ian L i mburg ; A tt ic w are f rom t he K em me lberg i nF landers .1 2 T hese i t em s must h ave r eached o ur r eg ion t h rough med iat ion b y t he s outhern s oc iet ies , a s a l so a pp l ies t o t he e ar l ier a cqu ired b ronze s i tu lae a nd b r id le b i ts . I3 T he l e ve l o f s oc ia l o rgan izat ion h ere h oweve r was l e ss d eve loped t han t hat o f C entra l E urope . I mpo rtant c hanges a re s een i n t he Med iterranean d ur ing t he f ourth t o t he l a te s econd c entury BC . T he Roman a nd C arthag in ian s pheres o f i n f luence g rew a t t he c os t o f E trur ia a nd G reek c i t ies o f t he w es t . Roman h egemony b ecame c lear w hen C arthage was d efeated a round 2 00 BC . D ur ing t he s a me p er iod , t he I t a l ian a nd G reek wo r ld w as c onfronted w ith a s er ies o f C e lt ic i nvas ions . I n 3 90 BC , Rome f e l l i n to C e lt ic h ands ; i n 2 25 BC t hey a dvanced f ar i n to I t a ly . Northern I t a ly b ecame p ermanent ly o ccup ied . I n t he C e lt ic t err itor ies t o t he n orth o f t he A lps , r eg iona l c entres a nd r i ch g raves a re n o t s o c lear ly r epresented a s p rev ious ly .I 4 C ost ly i mports f rom t he Med iterranean a re s carce , b ut c onverse ly t here a re s i gns o f c ontact o f a n e nt ire ly d i fferent n ature . T he C e lt ic m i l itary c ampa igns mus t h ave r e su lted i n v ar ied t ypes o f b ooty , t he q ua l ity a nd q uant ity o f w h ich m ight b e s urm ised f rom t he s um p a id b y t he R omans i n 3 90 f o r C e lt ic w ithdrawa l : i n e xcess o f 3 00 k g g o ld ! C e lt ic mercenar ies w ere e n l isted b y Mass i l ia a nd C arthage , a nd t hey s erved f o r n othern I t a l ian t r ibes . T hey were p a id i n g o ld c o in» 5 S ign if icant ly , r epresentat ions o n t he e ar l iest C e lt ic c o ins - d at ing t o t he t h ird a nd s econd c entur ies BC - were b orrowed f rom Med iter ranean e xamp les ; t he s t aters o f s outhern a nd c entra l G au l were s im i lar t o t hose f rom Macedon ia ; t hose o f t he B e lgae i n t he n orth were c op ies f rom T arentum . I6 T he p rec ious meta ls o f c o ins go ld a nd s i lver -a nd t he r e lat ive ly g reat w e ight i n d icates t he i mpo rtance o f t he i n tr ins ic v a lue o f t he c o ins r athe r t han t he ir n om ina l worth» 7 A money e conomy w as a s y et n on-ex istent a nd t he many b ut s ma l l c o inissues a nd t he a bsence o f l a r9e f ort if ied s ett lements p o int t o l im ited s t rat if icat ion a nd c entra l izat ion» b i T he S che lde-Meuse-Rh ine-Ems b as ins r e ma ined a pparent ly u ntouched b y t hese p rocesses . T he Med iterranean f i l led t he r o le o f c o re a rea d ur ing t h is p re-Roman p er iod w h ich s aw i mportant s oc ia l , e conom ic a nd p o l it ica l d eve lopments . R ome f i na l ly g a ined s upremacy . Most d i scuss ions o n R oman i mper ia l ism t herefo re c oncentrate o n t he t h ird a nd s econd c entur ies BC . Two ma in a pproaches c an b e d ef ined : a ggress ive i mper ia l ism a nd d efens ive i mper ia l ism . A cco rd ing t o t he f i rs t , Roman e xpans ion was a c onsc ious e nte rpr ise ; t he s econd ma inta ins

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F ig . 3 .2 :

D is tr ibu t ion o f E truscan b ronze S chnabe lkannen . A f te r K i mm ig 1 983

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e xpans ion s tem med f rom a n u n intended s e r ies o f c auses a nd e ffects . a pproach e xh ib its p ara l le ls t o t ha t o f modern p er iphe ra l i mper ia l is m . '

T he l a tte r 9

Contacts e x isted b etween t he c o re a nd t he c lear ly p e r iphera l a rea t o t he n orth a nd wes t o f t he A lps . T he n ature o f c on f l ic t was d iverse : w arfare , t rade i n p rest ige g oods i n e xchange f o r n atura l r esources a nd m i l itary manpowe r , a nd l a ter , p erhaps s l aves . Contacts l ed t o t he e xchange o f i n fo r mat ion b etween t he p er iphery a nd t he c o re a rea . O n t he o ne h and , r epo rts f i nd f o rm i n t hose c ontempo rary h i sto r ica l a nd e thnograph ic s ources w r itten b y P l iny , L ivy a nd P os idon ius . 2u O n t he o ther h and , t he c o re i n f luenced t he s oc io-po l it ica l o rgan izat ion i n t he p e r iphery a nd i t s d eve lop ment t owards a mo re c omp lex s oc iety .2I T he E ar ly Ro man P e r iod I lus trat ive f o r a n e xp lanatory mode l o f p er iphera l i mper ia l ism i st he w ay Rome t ook o n a s e r ies o f o b l igat ions d ur ing t he e ar ly R oman P er iod i n G au l wh ich r esu lted f i na l ly i n c onquest o f t he a rea . A r eques t t or a ss istance made b y Mass i l ia c aused a c on frontat ion i n 1 25 BC w ith t he G a l l ic A l lobroges , who i n t he ir t urn c a l led o n t he A rven i i . T he r esu lt was a v ictory f o r R oman f orces , e s tab l ish ment o f t he p rov ince G a l l ia N arbonens is a nd a t reaty w ith t he a d jacent t r ibe o f t he A edu i who h ad l ong ma inta ined g ood c ontact w ith Mass i l ia . T hese s a me A edu i were t o c a l l t or C aesar ' s h e lp s ixty y ears l a te r a ga inst t he e ncroach ing He lvet ians a nd t he Ge r man ic S ueb i l ed b y A r iov is tus . A lthough C aesar was me re ly p roconsu l o f G a l l ia C isa tp ina a nd I lyr ia , h e d ea lt w ith t he p rob lems t o t he west o f t he A lps t o s t rengthen h i s i n te rna l p os it ion a t h o me i n r e lat ion t o P ompe ius a nd C rassus .2 2 T he c onques t o f e nt ire Gau l b etween 5 8 a nd 5 0 BC s hows t he n umerous g reate r a nd l e sse r e xamp les o f t he w ay Caesar b eca me i nvo lved i n o ne u nexpected s i tuat ion o tte r a no ther . A r eques t b y t he Ub i i , a Ge r man ic t r ibe t o t he e ast o f t he R h ine , f o r a id a ga ins t t he S ueb i r esu lted i n C aesar c ross ing t he R h ine . T he a id e xtended b y B r it ish t r ibes t o t he G au ls i nduced h im t o c ross t he c hanne l . T he b i tte r u pr is ing o f E bu rones i n n orthern G au l was b are ly s uppressed when a more t hreaten ing r evo lt b roke o ut i n 5 2 BC t o t he s outh when e ven C aesar 's t rus two rthy a l l ies , t he A edu i , a bandoned h im .2 3 R o man a r ms were f i na l ly t r iumphant d ue i n p art t o t he r e lat ive ly a dvanced s tate o f G a l l ic p o l it ica l a nd e conom ic o rgan izat ion , Roman k now ledge o f t he c ountry a nd i t s i nhab itants , a nd t he w i l l ingnes s o f a n umbe r o f Ga l l ic t r ibes t o c oope rate w ith t he Romans . N ash b e l ieves t he t r ibes o f s outhern a nd c entra l G au l h ad s tarted t o e xh ib it s i gns o f e ar ly s tate f o r mat ion i nc lud ing a c entra l ized a dm in istrat ion ma inta ined b y t he c om mun ity , c ontro l led b y n ob les , mag istrates a nd p r ies ts , t he D ru ids .2 4 . T he a rchaeo log ica l r e f lect ions t hereo f a re s een i n t he a ppearance o f v ery e x tens ive f ort if ied s ett lements i n a dd it ion t o c hanges i n t he c o inage s ys tem . I na rea , t hp ' o pp ida ' , a s C aesar c a l led t he s ett lements , were o ften l a rge r t han 5 0 h ectares . 2D Co inage c a me t o i nc lude s ma l l u n its i n s i lver a nd b ronze : t he em iss ions a re f ound o ver l a rge r r eg ions t han p rev ious ly a nd t hey c an b e more e as i ly d iv ided i n to g roups , wh ich c ou ld c o inc ide w ith t r iba l a reas . P rev ious t o , b u t c erta in ly d ur ing , t he G a l l ic w ars t hese c o ins mus t h ave b een i mportant f o r p ay ing Ga l l ic t roops .2 6 A cqua intance w ith t he a rea o f o perat ion was e ssent ia l . I n a dd it ion t o p o l it ica l c ontacts , t rade must h ave r esu lted i n much i n fo r mat ion a bout G au l t or t he R omans . T h is i s r e f lected n o t o n ly b y t he c lass ica l e thnograh ic a nd h i s tor ica l l i terature , b ut i s s een a lso a rchaeo log ica l ly i n t he v as t amount o f ampho ra f ragments . W ine was s o we l ll iked b y t he G au ls t hat t hey wou ld t rade a s l ave f o r aw inef i l led ampho ra .2 7

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O f g reat i mportance t o C aesar w as t he w i l l ingness t o s upport h im s hown b y p owerfu l t r ibes s uch a s t he A edu i i n t he s outh a nd t he Rem i i n t he n orth . Whenever p oss ib le , a dvantage w as t aken o f r i va lr ies e x is t ing b etween l e ad ing f am i l ies b y s t rengthen ing t he p os it ion o f t he more Roman-m inded members s uch a s t hose among t he T rever i . T he e l ite o r t he ir c h i ldren w ere k idnapped i ft h is t act ic f a i led . B y t hese means , C aesar p rocured w inter q uarters , p rov is ions a nd a ux i l iary t roops . C onso l idat ion o f C aesar 's s uccesses g enerated a n e nt ire ly n ew u ndertak ing o f e ven g reater p roport ions : a nnexat ion o f German ia u p t o t he E lbe . G erman ic t r ibes t o t he e ast o f t he R h ine c ont inued a fter C aesar d eparted t o c ause u nres t a nd t o o ffe r a id t o r ebe l l ious e lements o f Gau l . T he d efeat o f t he G a l l ic mag istrate Marcus L o l l ius i n 1 6 BC c aused A ugus tus t o i n it iate e xtens ive m i l itary o pe rat ions i n t he a rea b etween t he r i vers R h ine a nd E lbe . T h irtytwo y ears l a ter , h i s s uccessor T iber ius w as t o a bandon t he a ttemp t t o c onque r G erman ia . T he a tt itude t aken b y G erman icus , t he c om mander o f f orces i n G er man ia , i st yp ica l f o r t he mechan isms o f p er iphera l i mper ia l ism . G erman icus d i sagreed w ith t he d ec is ion a nd e xtended h i s o perat ions f o r ay ear .2 9 B road ly , t he R h ine w ou ld r e ma in t he b order o f t he Roman Emp ire u nt i l t he e ar ly f i fth c entury BC . C onquered o n ly a f ew d ecenn ia e ar l ier , G au l p layed a n i mportant p art a s h i nter land d ur ing t he Ge rman ia e nterpr ise a nd t he s ucceed ing p er iod o f c onso l idat ion o f t he R h ine f ront ier . G au l s upp l ied many a ux i l iary t roops w h ie a re a t t imes i dent if iab le t hrough d es ignat ion o f t he ir a reas o f o r ig in .i 0 N umerous b ronze c o ins i s sued i n t he n ame o f n orthern G a l l ic t r ibes a re f ound a t t he Augustan b ases o f V e lsen , N i j megen , X anten , N euss a nd Ma inz w h ich were c onstructed a long t he R h ine , a nd w h ich w ere u sed t o l a unch t he a ttack a ga ins t G erman ia . T he t r iba l a reas r ef lected b y t he c o ins a long t he n orthern R h ine were t hose o f t he R em i , T rever i a nd T ungr i o f t he r eg ions o f Re ims , T r ier a nd T ongeren , r espect ive ly . T he c o ins were u sed i n p ay ing a ux i l iar ies r ecru ited f rom t hese a reas ( F ig . 3 .3 ) . T he i mportance o f G au l f or t he a r my o f t he R h ine c an a l so b e j udged b y t he o r ig in o f p ottery f ound i n t he f orts . T he f i ne t ab leware t he t erra s i g i l lata - c ame o r ig ina l ly f rom I t a ly , b ut b y a bout 1 0 AD , t he p roduct ion c entre h ad s h ifted t o s outhern G au l . P la in w ares s how G a l l ic o r ig ins i nf orm a nd t echn ique .3 1 T he s oc io-po l it ica l o rgan izat ion o f G erman ic g roups t o t he n ortheas t o f t he R h ine h ad p robab ly n o t y et p assed t hat o f t r iba l s oc iety . A s T ac itus r eports , t he t r ibe o r warr ior l eaders g a ined t he ir p os it ion t hrough a ch ievement r ather t han d escent a nd t he ir a utho r ity w as g rounded i n g iv ing a dv ice r ather t han o rders . K insh ip r e lat ions were i mportant i n , f or e xamp le , t roop f ormat ion . L im ited t o s l aves a nd f reemen , s oc ia l d i fferent iat ion was w ithout p ro fess iona ly , a dm in istrat ive o r p r ies t ly c lasses .3 2 P o l it ica l a nd e conom ic c entres w ere l a ck ing wh ich i s a l so s upported b y t he a rchaeo log ica l ly g a ined p icture o f s e tt lements a nd c emete r ies . T hese a re n o l a rge f ort if ied s ett lements b ut r ather s ma l l g roups o f f arms teads s uch a s a re k nown f rom F ochte loo a nd Noord-Barge i n t he p rov ince o f D renthe , T he Nether lands , a nd F löge ln i n West Ge rmany .3 3 T o t he wes t o f t he E lbe , t he d ead were d epos ited v ery s imp ly . German ic c o inage w as u nknown a nd wou ld n ot b e i n troduced l a ter . R oman c ontac t w ith t he G ermans w as a ch ieved l e ss e as i ly t han w ith t he G au ls d ur ing t he p rev ious p hase . E ar ly Roman i mport f i nds a re s carce i nn orthwes tern G e rman ia a nd t hey a re e ven e xcep t iona l i ns ett lements c lose t o Roman o ffens ive b ases a long t he R h ine . H owever , Rome h ad a ttemp ted t o c reate b r idgeheads i n t he a rea t o b e c onquered b y mak ing a l l ies o f t r ibes o r g roups t hrough c ontact w ith t he ir l eaders . T he U b i i g a ined p erm iss ion t o s ett le i nt he C o logne r eg ion i f

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F ig . 3 .3 :

O r ig in o f t he C e lt ic c o ins f ound i nt he R oman m i l itary s i te s a long t he R h ine f rom t he A ugus tan p e r iod . A f te r G ech te r 1 979

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t hey g uarded a ga ins t i n f i ltrat ion b y o ther G erman ic t r ibes .3 5 A s t he e xpected p o l it ica l-re l ig ious c entre o f af uture p rov ince G erman ia , C o logne b ecame t he s i te w here a n ' Ara U b iorum ' -a n a l tar o f t he U b i i - was e rected b etween 8 BC a nd 6 AD . S ign if icant ly , ap rom inent member o f, t f le C herusc i t r ibe f rom t he t rans-Rh ine r eg ion b ecame p r iest o f t he s anctuary2 ° T he Romans a ttemp ted t o e stab l ish a s upport b ase n ear t he Wese r t hrough c ontact w ith a we l l-d isposed f act ion w ith in t he s a me t r ibe . T he U b i i a nd C herusc i , b ut a l so t he C ananefates , B atav i a nd F r is i i , s upp l ied v ary ing n umbers o f t roop c ont ingents t o t he R oman a r my . T he ir e l ite l e d t hese t roops i nw ar w ith t he G erman ic t r ibes ; s o me n at ive c om manders l a ter o rgan ized r es istence a ga inst t he R oman i n truders a nd i n s o d o ing g a ined a p lace a s t he f i rst n at iona l f reedom f i ghers i no ur h i s tory b ooks : i n t he D utch4 t he B atav ian C iv i l is , a nd f o r t he G ermans , A rm in ius o f t he C herusc i. 3 T he Roman R epub l ic w as a l tered t o Emp ire d ur ing t h is e ar ly p hase . Mo reover , R ome t ook t wo i mportant s teps o n t he way t o c onquer ing West a nd C entra l E urope . S tep o ne - G au l - was s uccessfu l ; t he o ther - G erman ia - w as n ot . D estab i l iza t ion t hreaten ing s outhern a nd c entra l G au l d ue t o a ttacks made b y t he S ueb i c ou ld h ave b een d angerous f o r I t a ly , a nd C aesar made w e lcome u se o f t he s i tuat ion t o a dvance h i s i n terna l p o l it ica l p os it ion . I t i sv ery d oub tfu l t hat c onquest o f G au l a l l t he w ay t o t he R h ine w as i n it ia l ly p lanned . T he o perat ion w as a t l east p art ia l ly s uccessfu l d ue t o t he p er iphe ra l s i tuat ion o f G au l a l ready h e ld f or h undreds o f y ears i n r e lat ion t o t he Med iterranean c o re a rea . D eve lopment o f a more c omp lex s oc iety p oss ib ly t o t he l eve l o f e ar ly s tate i n s ome a reas h ad b een s t i mu lated w hereby c entra l p laces c ame t o e x is t a l low ing a ccess t o t he s ys tem . S ome t r ibes a nd f ac t ions w ere i n c l ined t owards c o l labo rat ion w ith R ome w h ich h ad r e lat ive ly g ood i n fo rmat ion o n t he c ountry a nd i t s i nhab itants . F ina l ly , t he l og is t ica l l i nks w ith t he c ore a rea were c omparat ive ly s ho rt . T he s i tuat ion e ncountered a bout f orty y ears l a ter i n G erman ia w as f undamenta l ly d i ffe rent . A t t hat t ime , German ia h ad b een o n ly b r ief ly i n a p er iphera l p os it ion t o t he n ew ly a cqu ired Roman t err itory . T he l ower l eve l o f p o l it ica l a nd s pat ia l o rgan izat ion o ffered f ar f ewer p o ints o f c ontac t .3 8 T here w as l i tt le f urther d eve lopment a s G erman ia h ad b een l i tt le s t imu lated t hrough e xposure t o w arfare a nd t rade . K now ledge o f c ountry a nd p eop le mus t h ave b een l im ited . Mos t o f t he d eta i led d escr ip t ions , C aesar 's e xcepted , d ate t o t he p er iod o f m i l itary c ampa igns i n German ia o r t o t he s ucceed ing p er iod .3 9 L ines o f c ommun icat ion w ere v ery l o ng a s n orthern a nd c entra l G au l w ere n ot r eady t o r ep lace t he l og is t ica l p os it ion o f t he I t a l ian a nd s omewhat l a ter s outhern Gau l c o re a reas . H ence , m i l itary e xcurs ions were l e ss s uccessfu l i n G erman ia t han i n G au l . T he M idd le a nd L ate Roman P er iod A fter t he e nd o f t he f i rst c entury AD , Roman emperors a bandoned f urther a ttempts a t e xtens ive t err itor ia l e xpans ion o n t he West E uropean c ont inent . T hey d i rected more a t tent ion t o f ort ify ing a nd d eve lop ing t he f ront ier z one a long t he R h ine . T he i mpo rtance o f G au l a s h inter land q u ick ly g rew a s c raft s pec ia l izat ion , a gr icu lture a nd t rade d eve loped . F actory p roduct ion o f h igh q ua l ity p ottery s uch a s t erra s i g i l lata w as r e located f rom S outhern G au l t o t he n orth , i n t he r eg ion o f Metz a nd T r ier . No rth G a l l ic p otters o f more e veryday w ares s et u p s hop i n t he R h ine z one . T he S om me r eg ion p resents a n i mpress ive p icture o f d ense a g r icu ltura l a ct iv ity o n f ert i le l oess s o i ls i n Northern F rance a nd s outhern Belgium.40 T raders f rom G a l l ia B e lg ica were r esponsb i le f o r t ransport ing p roducts f r om t hese a reas t o t he n orth , a s i se v ident f rom t he a l tars d redged u p f rom t he O ostersche lde n ear C o l i jnsp laat .4 1 O n t he o ther h and , t he

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p resence o f t raders f rom T r ier i n L yon i lustrates c ontacts w ith s outhern F rance i nvo lv ing t hen , a s n ow , w ine i nc asks . G er man ic t e rr ito ry h e ld t o t he s outhwest o f t he R h ine b eca me t he p rov ince o f Ge r man ia I n ter io r w ith i t s c ap ita l a t Co logne . T he t r iba l r eg ions o f t he C anane tates o f Z u id-Ho l land , t he B atav i o f t he r i ver r eg ion , t he C uge rn i o f t he X anten a rea a nd t he Ub i i a round Co logne t o r med c iv itates ( F ig . 3 .4 ) . A dm in istrators w ere c u l led f rom t he l oca l e l ite . F lavus , t he s one o f V ih ir mas , t i l led t he s omewhat mys te r ious p os it ion o f ' h igh mag istrate ' d ur ing t he m idf irs t c entury i n t he B atav ian c iv itas . T he n at ive o r ig in o f l a te r mag is trates i su sua l ly masked b y l a t in ized n a mes , a l though a l tars t o i nd igenous g ods o r p resence o f g oods s how t he ir c onnect ion t o t r iba l r eg ions .4 3 T he n ow r egu lated a ux i l iary t roop r ecru it ment mus t h ave f o r med a n o t icab le d emograh ic a nd s oc ia l b urden f o r t he n at ive p opu lat ion . T he B atav i a lone s upp l ied e ight i n fantry d iv is ions a nd ac ava lry u n it , a t n o r ma l s t rength a t o ta l o f a bout 5 000 men . " S uch a d ra in o n t he t r ibes ' manpowe r d ecreased t he l i ke l ihood o f r ebe l l ion , b ut i tw as , i nt he e nd , o ne o f t he mo t ives f o r t he f amous r evo lt o f t he B atav i i n 6 9 AD . A no the r i mpo rtant measure t aken w as t he c reat ion o f ad ense c ha in o f t o rts a long t he s outh b ank o t t he R h ine ; t he ' l imes ' . V a lkenburg , Zwam merda rn a nd N i j megen a re t he b es t k nown a nd r esearched o f t hese t o rts i n t he N ether tands .4 5 B y a bout 1 00 AD , a round 3 5 ,000 t roops , l a te r r educed t o a bout 2 5 ,000 , were g arr isoned i n G e r man ia I n fe r io r . " T he b o rder p rov ince b ecame e cono m ica l ly d ependent o n n e ighbour ing Ga l l ia a nd Ge r man ia L ibera d ue t o t hese l a rge t roop n umbers , r i se o f c i t ies a nd v i l lages a nd t he g rowth o f t he r ura l p opu lat ion . A lthough Ge r man ia t o t he n o rtheas t o f t he R h ine was n o t f or ma l ly i n c luded i n t he Roman emp ire , a b road z one - p oss ib ly e xtend ing t o t he Weser - c ame u no ff ic ia l ly u nde r i t s i n f luence . I t a l icus , A rm in ius ' s s on w ho was r a ised i n R ome wh i le h e ld h ostage , b ecame t he n ew l eader o f t he Che rusc i i n 4 7 AD t hrough R oman i n f luence . R oman a r ms p rocured a n a l l ied r u le r among t he B ructer i , a no ther t r ibe o f Westpha l ia .4 7 D ur ing t he s econd c entury , Roman i mport o f g oods g reat ly i ncreased i n Ge r man ic t err ito ry . A z one o f a bout 2 00 km w ide a long t he R h ine i s c haracter ized b y r e lat ive ly c heap g oods , ma in ly p o tte ry . More c ost ly i t ems s uch a s b ronze , s i lver a nd g lass v esse ls d om inate o n ly a t g reate r d i stances .4 8 Co in c i rcu lat ion i n t he a rea a d jacent t o t he R h ine a ppears t o h ave d i ttered i n e x tent , b ut n o t i n r e lat ive c ompos it ion t o d i str ibu t ion b e low t he R h ine : c opper a nd s i lver c o ins a re f ound i n t he s a me p ropo rt ions i n b o th a reas . 49 T ac itus ' d escr ipt ion o f e xchange c ontacts w ith t he Ge r mans i s t yp ica l f o r t rade o n ly p art ia l ly c om merc ia l ized , whereby p ay ment was i n money a s we l l a s i n n atura .D° A l i ke ly e xp lanat ion o f t hese c ontacts i st hat Ge r man ia L ibera c ou ld s upp ly p art o f t he e conom ic n eeds o f t he ' l imes ' z one , p art icu la r ly i n so tar a s s upp ly ing l i ves tock a nd l i vestock b y-products . Moreover , t he F r is i i r egu lar ly s ent t roop u n its t o t he Roman a r my .5 1 ( F ig . 3 .5 ) T he R h ine b o rder p reserved a n u nsteady e qu i l ibr iu m b etween Gau l a nd Ge r man ia L ibera wh ich h owever b ecame i ncreas ing ly d i ff icu lt t o ma inta in a tte r t he b eg inn ing o f t he t h ird c entury . Centra l i mpe r ia l a utho r ity was u nde rm ined i n G au l , Ge r man ia a nd B r ita in t hrough r ebe l l ion b y mag istrates a nd a r my c om mande rs . T he l eg it i mate a nswe r t o t hese s igns o f d isun itcat i on was d ecentra l izat ion . T he emp ire was d iv ided i n to f our : T r ier b ecame o ne o f t he i mper ia l r es idences . A fte r r eo rgan izat ion o f t he monetary s ys tem , T r ie r , L yon a nd L ondon b ecame t he mos t i mportant m ints i n t he n orthwest o t t he emp ie .5 2 E nt ire r eg ions h ad i n t he meant i me b ecome d epopu lated a nd t he e conomy was d i srupted . Ge r mans were a l lowed t o s ett le i n t he n o rth Ga l l ic a gr icu ltura l r eg ions , s o i mpo rtant f o r s a feguard ing t he b o rde r , t o s erve a s ap easant m i l it ia t o r r ev iv ing c rop p roduct ion a nd d efens ive s ys tems . I n t he ir b ur ia l r i tua l , t hey c an b e d e l ineated f rom t he Ga l lo-Roman i n weapons , f as ten ings a nd j ewe lry .5 3

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F ig . 3 .4 :

D e lta a nd h inter land o f S che lde , Meuse , R h ine , V echt a nd E ems ( I s t3 rd c entury A .D . ) I . b oundar ies o f p o lygons ( u ncerta in ) ; 2 . b oundar ies o f p o lygons ( l ike ly ) ; 3 . l im its o f r esearch a rea ; 4 . f ront ier o f t he Roman emp ire b etween c .50 a nd 4 00 A .D . ; 5 . c ap ita ls o f c iv itates ; 6 . c oncentrat ions o f n at ive h ab itat ion ; 7 . t r ibes , k nown f rom I s t3rd c entury s ources C ap ita ls o f p rov inces a nd c iv itates : I . F o rum H adr ian i/Mun ic ip ium A e l ium o r A ure l ium C ananefatum ( Voorburg-Arentsburg ) ; 2 . U lp ia N ov iomc igus B atavo rum ( N i j megen) ; 3 . C o Ion ia U lp ia T ra iana ( Xanten ) ; 4 . C o Ion ia C laud ia A ra A gr ipp inens ium ( Co logne ) ; 5 . Ganuenta ( ? ) , 6 . A tuatuca T ungrorum ( Tongeren ) ; 7 . C aste l lum Menap iorum ( Kasse l !) , 8 . T arvanna ( Th &puanne ) ; 9 . Nemetacum ( Arras ) ; 1 0 . B agacum ( Bava i) ; 1 . S amarobr iva ( Am iens ) ; 1 2 . A ugus ta V iromandorum ( Sa int-Quent in ) ; 1 3 , A ugusta S uess ionum ( S o issons ) ; 1 4 . D urocortorum ( Re ims ) ; 1 5 . D ivodurum ( Metz ) ; 1 6 . Co lon ia A ugusta T reverorum ( Tr ier ) ; 1 7 . Mogont iacum ( Ma inz )

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l t was d isastrous f o r t he R h ine z one t hat i n terna l a narchy c o inc ided w ith g row ing e gress ion t aken b y t he Ge r man ic t r ibes t o t he e ast o f t he Rh ine . F ranks a nd S axons a ttacked t he f ront ier z one o f i he L owe r R h ine d ur ing t he t h ird a nd f ourth c entur ies . F ar mstead s ett le ments were a bandoned a nd c i t ies d ec l ined . T he western Nether lands was a l so e nsnared b y a mo re d ange rous e nemy : t he r i s ing s ea l eve l . T he t i rst s y mptoms were man itested b y 2 00AD a t t he o ut lets o t t he Meuse a nd Rh ine , a nd i t s ee ms p laus ib le t hat t he l a te Roman D unk irk I t ransgress ion was a n i mportant c ause o f t ourth c entury c oas ta l a rea d epopu lat ion . 54 P o l len a na lys is i nd icates f o rest r egenerat ion a t t he c ost o t c u lt ivated l and . M i l itary o rgan izat ion e spec ia l ly u nderwent d rast ic a l terat ion . T he n arrow c ha in o f t orts a long t he Rh ine g a ined g reater d epth t hrough d efenses b u i lt i n t he h inter land . E xceed injy mob i le t roops c ou ld i n tercept i n truders who h ad p enetrated t he R h ine l i ne . T axat ion i n n atura was l ev ied , t he a nnona m i l itar is , f o r p rov is ion ing t he a r my wh ich may s uggest a r e lat ive d ecrease i n t he i mportance o t c o inage .5 6 Not o n ly t he t hreat b ut a l so p art o f t he s a lvat ion was t o s te m f rom Ger man ia L ibera . T he No t it ia D ign itatu m , am i l itary a nd c iv i l ian o rgan izat iona l p lan f o r t he f ourth c entury emp ire , s u m mar izes t he t rans-Rh ine t r ibes wh ich s upp l ied u n its t o t he a rm ies o f t he Ger man ic a nd B e lg ic p rov inces ( F ig . 3 .6 ) . F o r t he most p art , t hey c a me f ro m t he r eg ion b etween t he U sse l , Weser a nd R uhr ; t hey b eca me c o l lect ive ly k nown a s t he F ranks . I n t he c e meter ies n ear l a te Roman t orts a long t he b o rder a nd i n t he h inter land s uch a s O udenburg , N i j megen , K refe ld a nd T ongeren , t he s a me f as ten ings a nd j ewe lry a re p resent a s i n t hose F rank ish a nd S axon r eg ions n ortheast o f t he R h ine .5 7 More t han a q uarter o f t he Ger man ic o tt icers i n Ro man s erv ice were o f F rank ish o r ig in ; s o me s ucceeded t o t he h ighest r anks .5 8 ( F ig . 3 .7 ) F urther , a s i n e ar l ier a nd mo re p rosperous t imes , a tte mpts were made t o w in o ver F rank ish r u lers , o r a t l east t o d issuade t hem f rom a gress ion . Monetary b r ibes h e lped i n t he f ace o f i n suff ic ient m i l itary m ight . Not iceab ly l a rge g o ld h oards h ave b een f ound d ated e spec ia l ly t o t he p er iod o f 3 75 t o 4 25 e xact ly i n t hose t r iba l a reas wh ich s upp l ied t roops ( F ig . 3 .8 a nd F ig . 3 .9 ) ) . T he B e i len h oard , c ons ist ing o f more t han o ne-ha lt k i lo g o ld c o in a nd j ewe lry d i rects a ttent ion t o t he n earby W i jster s ett le ment . T he l a rge n u mbe r o f more t han t wenty f ar msteads , t he d i s t inct ive c o mpound w ith s pec ia l h ouse , a nd t he h uts f or weav ing a nd o ther a rt isan a ct iv it ies c ou ld i nd icate s t rat if icat ion a nd s pec ia l izat ion w ith in t he s ett le ment a nd t he r eg ion . T he j uxtapos it ion o f c ons iderab le amounts o f g o ld a nd l a rge v i l lage c ou ld b e s een a s c haracter ist ic f o r o ther a reas where l a rge g o ld h oards h ave b een r ecovered . 59 I n t he m idd le a nd l a te Roman p er iod , Gau l t ook o ver t he r o le o f t he Med iterranean a rea . E conom ic a nd p o l it ica l i ndependence b eca me s o g reat t ha t l ega l a nd i lega l d ecentra l iz ing measures n o l onger o ccurred . Unautho r ized i ndependent a ct ion t aken b y mag istrates a nd m i l itary c om manders i s s y mptomat ic o f p er iphera l i mper ia l is m , wh ich n everthe less d id n ot n ow l ead t o f urther e xpans ion , b ut r ather t o a weakened p os it ion a nd u l t i mate ly t he l o ss o f t err itory c onquered . T he R h ine a nd a d jacent Ge r man ic r eg ions t ogether f or med t he p er iphery o f t he emp ire . P opu lat ion i ncrease d ur ing t he s econd c entury t hrough u rban izat ion a nd e xtens ion o f t he l imes r esu lted i n v u lnerab le f ront ier p rov inces . Good r e lat ions w ith t he t rans-Rh ine r eg ion were e ssent ia l f o r s tab i l ity . P rov id ing p rov is ions a nd t roops a nd t he p o l it ica l a l l iances f or med b etween l oca l e l ite a nd t he Ro man Emp ire a dvanced s oc io-po l it ica l d eve lop ment a nd i n tegrat ion o f t h is p er iphera l a rea . I t i s n ot a c o inc ident t hat v ar ious Ger man ic t r ibes c a me c o l lect ive ly ment ioned i n h istor ica l s ources a s F ranks o r S axons , o r t hat r eg iona l c entres d e l ineated t hrough t roop r ecru it ment a nd g o ld h oards a re p resented n ortheas t o f t he Rh ine b y t he e nd o f t he f ourth c entury . T he Ger man ic e l ite h ad a k ey r o le t here in . S ome w ith t he ir f o l lowers e ntered

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MAR TI z E DVA N S

A L A I S IAG I S 7 . -M i c

C ERC IV S TV IHNT I C V A E N FR I S IOR W VE R S ER -A L EXÄN K IAN IVO T\ JM S O LV ERV II T L iB E

F ig . 3 .5 :

' T N I

H ouses teads . A ltar e rected b y t he c ives T u ihant i , w ho b e long t o t he c uneus F r is io rum . A fte r C o l l ingwood/Wr ight 1 965 , n o . 1 594 ( h . 1 23 ,6 cm )

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R oman s e rv ice a nd s o l earned t he f i ne p o ints o f a dm in is trat ion a nd warfa re . T hey s ubsequent ly b ecame r u le rs i n t he f i fth c entury w hen Rome a bandoned t he p rov inces o f t he R h ine a nd B e lg ic° . A l l iances b ound t hem t o t he Roman t e rr ito ry o f c entra l Gau l . T hey c reated t he Merov ing ian k ingdom f rom t he n o rthern Ga l l ic p rov inces . ° Conc lus ion W ithout w ant ing t o i gno re t he i n terna l d ynam ics o f t r iba l s oc iety i n Wes t E urope d ur ing t he p e r iods d iscussed a bove , i t i sc lea r t ha t t he ir p o l it ica l a nd e conom ic d eve lopment was s t i mu lated t hrough i n f luence s tem m ing f ro m t he mo re e vo lved Med iterranean a rea . T hrough i nco rporat ion i n t he f o r ma l o r i n fo r ma l s phere o f i n f luence o f t h is a rea t hat h ad i t se lf a ch ieved t he l eve l o f emp ire , t r iba l s oc iety i n t he p er iphery a dvanced t o t he l eve l o f e ar ly s tate . I n ac erta in s ense , t he Roman emp ire h ereby b rought a bout i t s own e nd . E xpans ion o f t he c o re a rea o ve r t he p e r iphery was e ttected t hrough t he n e twork o f war fare a nd t rade . T he i mper ia l ism mode l o f r e lat ions b etween wes tern a nd t h ird wo r ld d eve loped b y F ie ldhouse , Rob inson a nd G a ttung f ocuses a ttent ion o f t he d e f ic ient c ontro lab i l ity o t a s im i lar p rocess a nd t he d ec is ive p art t aken b y t he e l ite o f b o th a reas . A s ar u le , t he e l ite a re t hose w ho a re b es t r emembered t hrough w r itten s ources , t he ir g oods a nd monuments . T hese t ypes o f d ata a re r e lat ive ly s carce ly s own i n t he r eg ion o f S che lde-Meuse-Rh ine-Ems , s uch t hat w e c oncentrate o n t he a rchaeo logy o f t he c om mon man -t he a ux i l iary s o ld ier o r t he n at ive f ar mer . C u ltura l ly , t he a rea was ma in ly p er iphera l d ur ing p re- a nd p rotoh istory wh ich h as r esu lted i n t he o ppo rtun ity t o s tudy e ncounte rs b etween d i tter ing c u ltura l s ys tems . Geo log ica l ly , a s t he a rea was a t rans it ion z one b etween l and a nd water , i nhab itants we re f o rced t o e xtreme a d just ments . T hese c haracter ist ics o f t he r i ver b as in a rea c ontr ibute t o t he v ery a ttract ive p oss ib i l it ies t o r a rchaeo log ica l s tudy d i rected a t p re- a nd p rotoh is to r ic s oc iet ies , t he ir s oc io-econom ic o rgan izat ion , t he ir r esponse t o t he n atura l m i l ieu a nd t he ir a d jus t ments t o n ew c u ltura l s ys tems . Acknow ledgement M s . L .L . T herkorn i st hanked f o r t rans lat ing t he t ext . NOTES T h is p aper i s t he u nchanged v ers ion o t a n i naugura l l ecture d e l ive red b e fo re t he U n ivers ity o f Amsterdam o n 31J anuary 1 983 . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

8 9 1 0 1 1 2 1 3

B lusse /Wesse l ing/W i n ius 1 980 Wa l lers te in 1 980 B rews te r 1 980 , 8 0 ; E kho l m/Fr iedman 1 980 , 7I . S . a .o . Marx a nd S chumpete r ; Mom rnsen 1 980 2,8I . Rob inson ( 1972 ) 1 976 ; F ie ldhouse 1 98 I . Ga ttung 1 973 a nd 1 981 . T r ibe : S erv ice 1 97 1 2, 1 25-6 ; K loos 1 9 76 3, 2 8 ; S tate : C laessen/Ska ln ik 1 98 1 , 4 85-9 ; Emp ire : S erv ice 1 97 1 2, 1 66 ; T hapar 1 981 , 41 0 ; E kho l m/Fr iedman 1 980 , 7 0 ; e conom ic s ys tem : D a lton 1 968 , X I I-XV I I ; Sm ith 1 976 . B loemers 1 980 a nd 1 983 . F o r ac omparab le a pproach : H ing ley 1 982 . F rankenste in/Row lands 1 978 ; We l ls 1 980 , 4 7-5 I , 9 7-102 , 16 a nd 1 41 2 ; K imm ig 1 983 , 5 0 -65 . We l ls 1 980 , 1 6 -2 I ;B itte l a .o . 1 98 I , 2 56 A bb . 1 47 , 2 58 A bb . 2 49 a nd 2 67 A bb . 1 57 ; K imm ig 1 983 , 3 4-43 . F ischer 1 973 , 4 55-9 . V an Doorse laer 1 97 I , 1 0 , D e L aet 1 979 , 5 55-7 . K ossack 1 953 ; K imm ig 1 962-3 , a .o . A bb . 5 , b ut s ee a l so P au l i 1 97 I ; V e rwe rs 1 976 ; B loe mers/W i l lems 1 980 - I ,3 9 .

2 4

F ig . 3 .6 :

D e lta a nd h i nte r land o f S che lde , Meuse , R h ine , V ech t a nd E ems ( 4 th c entu ry A .D . ) I . b oundar ie s o f p o lygons ( u nce r ta in ) ; 2 . b oundar ies o f p o lygon s ( l ike ly ) ; 3 . l im its o f r esearch r ea ; 4 . f ron t ie r o f R oman emp ire b e tween c .50 a nd 4 00 A .D . ; 5 . c ap ita ls o f c iv ita tes ( s ee F ig . 4 ) ; 6 . c oncen tra t ions o f n at ive h ab ita t ion ; 7 . t r ibe s , k nown f rom 1 s t-3 rd c en tury s ources ; 8 . t r ibes , k nown f rom 3 rd a nd 4 th c entury s ources ; 9 . t r ibes , w hose n ames w e re u sed i n t he 4 th c entury t o d es igna te a rmy u n it s men t ioned i n t he N o t it ia D ign itatum ( a f te r H o ffmann 1 969 ) ; 1 0 . t r ibes , w ho se n ames w e re u sed i n t he 4 th c entury t o d e s igna te a rmy u n its ment ioned i no the r s ou rces

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F ig . 3 .9 :

D e lta a nd h inte r land o f S che lde , M euse , R h ine , V ech t a nd E ems ( 4 th c entu ry A .D . ) . I . b oundar ie s o f p o lygons ( u ncerta in ) ; 2 . b oundar ies o f p o lygons ( l ike ly ) ; 3 . l im its o f r esearch a rea ; 4 . f ront ie r o f R oman emp ire b etween c .50 a nd 4 00 A .D . ; 5 . c ap ita ls o f c iv ita tes ; 6 . c oncentra t ions o f n a t ive h ab ita t ion ; 7 . t r ibes , k nown f rom 1 s t3 rd c entu ry s ou rces ; 8 . t r ibes , k nown f rom 3 rd a nd 4 th c entu ry s ources ; 9 . ' l a rge ' g o ld h oards ( s ee F ig .3 .8 ) ; 1 0 . ' sma l l ' g o ld h oards ( s ee F ig .3 .8 )

2 8

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B ittte l a .o . 1 98 1, 6 8-9 ; C o l l is 1 982 , 7 7 n o te I . N ash 1 98 1, 1 5 ; S cheers 1 98 1, 2 3 n o te 8 ;S tory 1 98 1, 3 02 . Co lbe rt d e B eau l ieu 1 973 , 1 73-80 , N ash 1 976 , 1 23 F ig . 1 ; S cheers 1 977 , 1 7 a nd 1 98 1, 2 3 n o te 1 0 . F o r t he c hrono log ica l a spects : P o lenz 1 982 , 1 334 6 . N ash 1 98 1, 1 3 N ash 1 978 , 4 67-8 A .o . G arnsey/Wh ittake r 1 978 , 1 2 ; N o rth 1 98 1 A .o . T ie rney 1 959-60 , 1 93-7 . F rankens te in/Row lands 1 978 , 1 09 10 . C aesar , De B e l lo Ga l l ic ( ) 1B runt 1 978 , 1 79 . C aesar , De B e l lo Ga l l ico I V . 16 ( Ub i i ) , I V . 10 a nd V I ( B r itann ia ) , V . 2 6 s qq . a nd V I ( Eburones ) , V I ( Arvern i a .o . ) . N ash 1 978 , 4 67 -70 ; 1 98 1, 1 5 -6 ; 1 984 , 9 5-8 ; C aesar , D e B e l lo G a l l ic° V I . 1 3 -6 a nd 2 0 . Co l l is 1 975 , 3 2-6 a nd 1 982 , 7 4 F ig . 9 . 1. N ash 1 976 , 1 25-6 a nd 1 98 1, 1 2 -3 ; S chee rs 1 977 , 1 7 -8 . N ash 1 976 , 14 -7 a nd 1 978 , 4 58 -60 ; T chern ia 1 983 ; G a thou 1 984 . A ux i l iar ies : a .o . C aesar , De B e l lo G a l l ic° 1 .24 ( T reve r i) ; I V .34 a nd V I .7 ( Atrebates ) ; V I 1 1 . 11 ( Rem i/L ingones ) ; V I I .67 , 7 0 , V I I I . ,10 , 1 3 a nd 3 6 ( Ge rmans ) ; 1 .25 a nd V I I I . 10 ( Ga l l i ) . I n tr igue a nd h os tages , C aesar , D e B e l lo G a l l ico V .3 a nd 1 .5 . K ra ft 1 95 1, 2 5 -6 ; A lt ö l dy 1 968 , 7 8 . Gechte r 1 979 , 3 -38 a nd 7 1-6 . C ass ius D io L V I . 18 ; T ac itus , Ge r man ia 7 , 1 , 1 5 -1 6 ; T impe 1 970 , 8 5-8 . S chm id/Z i mme rman 1 976 ; H arsema 1 980 , 3 6-43 . W i lhe lm i 1 967 , 1 5 -3 1. T ac itus , Ge r man ia , 2 8 . T ac itus , A nn . 1 . 57-8 ; Rüge r 1 968 , 2 0 . A ltö ldy 1 968 , 7 7 -8 a nd 1 1-6 ; T impe 1 970 , 5 5-62 . G roenman-van Waate r inge 1 980 , 1 037-44 . K rüge r 1 976 , 4 6-9 . A gache 1 978 . D eae N eha lenn ia 1 97 1; S ch l ippschuh 1 974 , 1 48 -9 . B loeme rs 1 978 , 2 08 15 ; C aspar ie 1 978 ; K r ie r 1 98 1, 1 72 . B ogae rs 1 960 1, 2 68-7 1; R uger 1 968 ; V an E s 1 98 1 2,2 35 -6 ; B eche rt 1 982 , 4 7-5 1 A ltö ldy 1 968 , 8 6 . B ogae rs/Ruge r 1 974 . A ltö idy 1 968 , 1 5 1 a nd 1 60 1. P l in ius , M in . E p . 1 .7 .2 ; T ac itus , A nn . X I .6 . H edeage r 1 978 . V an E s 1 960 ; B oe rsma 1 963 a nd 1 967 . T ac itus , Ge r man ia 5 . B loeme rs 1 983 . C arson/H i l l/Kent 1 965 . R oosens 1 967 ; B öhme 1 974 . J e lge rsma e .o . 1 970 , 1 44 ; R oe leve ld 1 974 , 12 . L uttwak 1 976 ; V on P etr ikov its 1 978 , 2 18-30 ; W i l lems 1 983 . V an B e rchem 1 976 . Böhme 1 974 . Waas 1 965 . Wate rbo lk/G lasbe rgen 1 955 ; Z adoks-Josephus J i tta 1 955 ; V an E s 1 967 . V on P e tr ikov its 1 978 , 2 77-8 1; Ew ig 1 980 , 9 17 .

2 9

B ib l iography A gache , R . , 1 978 : L o S omme p re -roma ine e t r o ma ine , Am iens . A lfö ldy , G . , 1 968 : D ie H i lfs truppen d e r öm ischen P rov inz Ger man ia I n fe r ior , Dü sse ldor t ( Ep igraph ische S tud ien , 6 ) . B echert , T . , 1 982 : Röm isches Ge r man ien zw ischen Rhe in u nd Maas . D ie P rov inz Ger man ia I n fer io r , München . B e rchem , D . v an , 1 976 : L 'annone m i l ita ire e s t e i le u n mythe? , i n : A rmees e t t i sca l ite d ons l e monde a nt ique , P ar is ( Co ! toques n at ionaux d u C en tre N at iona l d e l a R echerche S c ient it ique , 9 36 ) . B itte t , K ./W . K imm ig/S . S ch iek ( eds . ) , 1 98 1: D ie Ke lten i nB aden-Wü rttemberg , S tuttgart . B loeme rs , J .H .F . , 1 978 : R i jsw i jk ( Z .H . ) , De B u tt ' . E ine S ied lung d er Canane faten , Ame rs toort ( Neder landse O udheden , 8 ) . B loeme rs , J .H .F . , 1 980 : E nge ls d rop . E en p og ing t ot o nt ied ing v an h e t R oman isat ieproces i n Nede r land , Weste rheem 2 9 , 1 52-73 . B loemers , J .H .F . , 1 983 : A ccu lturat ion i n t he R h ine/Meuse B as in i n t he R oman P e r iod : aP re l im inary S urvey , i n : R .W . B randt/J . S io fstra ( eds . ) , R oman a nd Nat ive i nt he L ow Countr ies : S phe res o f I n te ract ion , ( B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l Reports I n ternat iona l S er ies 1 84 : O x ford ) , 1 54 -204 . B loeme rs , J .H .F ./W .J .H . W i l lems , 1 9801: A rcheo log ische k ron iek v an L imburg o ve r d e j a ren I9 77-1979 , P ub l icat ions d e l aS oc iete H istor ique e t A rcheo log ique d ons l e L i mbourg 16-7 , 7 -94 . L ./H .L . Wesse l ing/G .D . W in ius ( eds . ) , 1 980 : H isto ry a nd Unde rd eve lopment . E ssays o n Unde rdeve lopment a nd E uropean E xpans ion i n A s ia a nd A fr ica , L e iden . B öhme , H .W . , 1 974 : Ge r man ische G rab funde d es 4 . b is 5 .J ahrbunde rts z w ischen Unte rer E lbe u nd L o ire , München ( Münchener B e iträge z ur V o r-und F rühgesch ich te , 1 9 ) . B oersma , J .S . , 1 963 : De R ome inse muntvonds ten i nd e p rov inc ie N oo rd-B rabant , J aarboek v an h e t Kon ink l i jk Neder lands Genoo tschap v oo r Munt-en P enn ingkunde 5 0 , 1 75 . B oe rsma , J .S . , 1 967 : T he R oman C o ins f rom t he P rov ince o f Z ee land , B e r ichten v an d e R i jksd ienst v oo r h et Oudhe idkund ig B odemonderzoek 1 7 , 6 5-96 . B ogaers , J .E . , 1 960 1: C iv itas e n s tad v an d e B ataven e n C anane faten , B e r ichten v an d e R i jksd ienst v oo r h e t Oudhe idkund ig B odemonderzoek 1 0 1, 2 633 17 . B ogaers , J .E ./C .B . Rüge r , 1 974 : De r n iede rgerman ische L i mes , Kö ln ( Kuns t u nd A ltertum am R he in , 5 0 ) . B rewe r , A . , 1 980 : Marx is t T heor ies o f I mpe r ia l ism . AC r it ica l S urvey , L ondon . B runt , P .A . , 1 978 : L aus i mpe r i l , i n : P .D .A . G arnsey/C .R . Wh ittake r ( eds . ) , I mper ia l ism i nt he Anc ient Wor ld , C amb r idge , 1 59-9 1. 3 0

C arson , R .A .G ./P .V . H i l l/J .P .C . K ent , 1 965 : L ate Roman B ronze Co inage A .D . 3 24-498 , L ondon . C aspar ie , W .A . , 1 978 : U eber d ie H o lzarten d er z we i r ömerze it l ichen F ässer v on R i jsw i jk ( Z .H . ) , i n : J .H .F . B loemers , R i jsw i jk ( Z .H . ) , B o lt ' . E ine S ied lung d er C ananefaten , Amersfoort ( Neder landse O udheden , 8 ) , 4 38-46 . C laessen , H .J ./P . S ka ln ik , 1 98 1: U b i s u mus? T he S tudy o f t he S tate C onference i n R etrospect , i n : H .J . C laessen/P . S ka ln ik ( e ds . ) , T he S tudy o f t he S tate , T he H ague , 4 69-5 10 . C o lbert d e B eau l ieu , J . -B . , 1 973 : T ra itede n um ismat ique c e lt ique . I . Me thodo log ie d e s e nsemb les , P ar is ( Centre d e R echerches d 'H isto ire Anc ienne , 5 ) . C o l l ingwood , R .G ./R .P . W r ight , 1 966 : T he Roman I n scr ipt ions o f B r ita in , Oxford . C o l l is , J . , 1 975 : Defended S i tes o f t he L ate L a T ine , ( Br it ish A rchaeo log ica l R eports S upp l . S er . , 2 , O xford ) . C o l l is , J . , 1 982 : G radua l G rowth a nd S udden C hange : U rban isat ion i nT emperate E urope , i n : C . R enfrew/S . S hennan ( e ds . ) , Rank ing , Resource a nd E xchange . A spects o f t he A rchaeo logy o f E ar ly E uropean S oc iety , Cambr idge , 7 3-8 . D a lton , G . , 1 968 : I n troduct ion , i n : G . D a lton ( ed . ) , P r im it ive , A rcha ic a nd Modern E conom ies . E ssays o f Kar l P o lany i , B oston . Deae Neha lenn iae , 1 971: G ids b i j d e t entoons te l l ing , M idde lburg/Le iden . Doo rse laer , A . v an , 1 97 1: I n le idende b eschouw ingen o ver d e Ken n me lberg n a d r ie o pgrav ingscampagnes , B russe l ( Archaeo log ica B e lg ica , 1 3 1) . E kho lm , K ./J . F r iedman , 1 980 : T owards a G loba l A nthropo logy , i n : L . B luss H .L . Wesse li ng/G .D . W in ius ( eds . ) , H istory a nd Underdeve lopment . E ssays o n Underdeve lopment a nd E uropean E xpans ion i nA s ia a nd A fr ica , L e iden , 6 1-76 . E s , W .A . v an , 1 960 : D e Rome inse muntvondsten u i t d e d r ie n oorde l i jkeprov inc ies , G ron ingen . E s , W .A . v an , 1 976 : W i js ter , a Nat ive V i l lage b eyond t he I mper ia l F ront ier , G ron ingen . E s , W .A . v an , 1 98 1

2:D e

Rome inen i n Neder land , B ussum .

Ew ig , E . , 1 980 : F rühes M itte la lter , D üsse ldo rf ( Rhe in ische G esch ichte 1 , 2 ) . F ie ldhouse , D .K . , 1 98 1: Co lon ia l ism 1 8701945 . An I n troduct ion , L ondon . F ischer , F . , 1 973 : K e ime l ia . B emerkungen z ur k u lturgesch icht l ichen I n terpretat ion d es s ogenannten S üd imports i nd er s päten H a l lstatt- u nd f rühen L at he Ku ltur d es west l ichen M itte leuropa , German ia 5 1 , 4 36-59 . F rankenste in , S . /M .J . R ow lands , 1 978 : T he I n terna l S tructure a nd Reg iona l Contex t o f E ar ly I r on A ge S oc iety i nS outhwes tern Germany , I n s t itute o f A rchaeo logy B u l let in 1 5 , 7 3112 .

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G a l l iou , P . , 1 984 : D ays o f W ine a nd R oses? E a r ly A rmo r ica a nd t he A t lant ic W ine T rade , i n : S . Macready/F .H . T hompson ( e ds . ) , C ross-Channe l T rade b etween Gau l a nd B r ita in i n t he P re-Roman I r on A ge , L ondon , 2 4 -36 . G ahung , J . , 1 973 : E ine s t rukture l le T heor ie d es I mpe r ia l ismus , i n : D . S enghaas ( ed . ) , I mper ia l ism u nd s t rukture l le Gewa lt . A na lysen ü ber a bhäng ig ige Rep rodukt ion , F rank furt , 2 9-104 . G a ltung , J . , 1 98 1 : As t ructura l t heory o f i mper ia l ism , 1 0y ears l a ter , M i l lenn ium 9 , 1 83-96 G a rnsey , P .D .A ./C .R . Wh ittaker 1 978 : I mper ia l ism i nt he A nc ient Wo r ld , C amb r idge . G echte r , M . , 1 9 79 : D ie A n tänge d es N iedergerman ischen L i mes , B onner J ahrbücher 1 79 , 1 138 . G roen rnan-van Waater inge , W . , 1 980 : U rban iza t ion a nd t he North-wes t F ront ier o f t he R oman Emp ire , i n : W .S . H anson/L .J .F . K epp ie ( eds . ) , Roman F ront ier S tud ies 1 979 . P apers p resented t o t he 1 2 th I n ternat iona l Congress o f Roman F ront ier S tud ies , ( B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l R epo rts , I n te rnat iona l S er ies 7I : O x fo rd ) , 1 037-44 . H arsema , 0 .H . , 1 980 : D rents b oeren leven v an d e b ronst i jd t o t d e m idde leeuwen , A ssen . H edeage r , L . , 1 978 : AQ uant itat ive A na lys is o t R oman I mports i nE urope N o rth o t t he L i mes ( 0 -400 A .D . ) , a nd t he Q ues t ion o f R oman-German ic E xchange , i n : K . K r ist ionsen/C . P a ludan-Mü l ler ( eds . ) , New D irec t ions i n S cand inav ian A rchaeo logy , Copenhagen ( S tud ies i nS cand inav ian P reh is to ry a nd E a r ly H is to ry , I ) , 1 91 2 1 6 . H ing ley , R . , 1 982 : R oman B r ita in : t he s t ructure o f R oman i mper ia l ism a nd t he c onsequences o f i mper ia l ism o n t he d eve lopment o f ap er iphera l p rov ince , i n : D . M i les ( ed . ) , T he Romano-B r it ish C ountrys ide . S tud ies i n Rura l S ett lemen t a nd E conomy , ( B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l R eports , B r it ish S e r ies 1 03 : O x fo rd ) , 1 7 -52 . H o ttrnann , D . , 1 969 : Das s pätröm ische B ewegungsheer u nd d ie No t it io D ign itatum , Dü sse ldor t ( Ep igraph ische S tud ien , 7 ) . J e lge rsma , S . /J . d e J ong/W .H . Z agw i jn/J .F . v an R egteren A ltena 1 970 : T he Coas ta l D unes o f t he Wes tern N ether lands : Geo logy , V egetat iona l H is to ry a nd A rchaeo logy , Medede l ingen R i jks g eo log ische d ienst , n . s . , 2I ,9 3-167 . K im m ig , W . , 1 962-3 : B ronzes itu len a us d em R he in ischen G eb irge , H unsrückE i te l-Weste rwa id , B er ich t d er Röm isch-Ge rman ischen Komm is s ion 4 3-4 , 31 106 . K i mm ig , W . , 1 983 : D ie g r iech ische K o lon isat ion i m west l ichen M itte lmee rgebe it u nd i h re W irkung a u t d ie L andscha ft ern d es west l ichen M itte leuropa , J ah rbuch d es Röm isch-Ge r man ischen Z entra l museums Ma inz 3 0 , 3 -78 . K loos , P . , 1 976 : Cu lture le a ntropo log ie , A ssen/Amsterdam . K ossack , G . , 1 953 : P te rdegesch irr a us G räbern d er ä l te ren H a l lstattze it B ayerns , J ahrbuch d es Röm isch-Ger man ischen Z enta l musems Ma inz , I , 11-78 .

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K ra ft , K . , 1 95 I :Z ur R ekrut ierung d er A len u nd Koho rten a n Rhe in u nd Donau , B ern ( D issertat iones B ernenses , S e r . 1 , 3 ) . K r ier , J . , 1 98 I :D ie T reverer a usserha lb i h rer C iv itas . Mob i l ität u nd A ufs t ieg , T r ie r . K rüger , B . ( ed . ) , 1 976 : D ie Ge r manen . Gesch ichte u nd Ku ltur d e r g erman ischen S tämme i n M itte leuropa , B er l in . L aet , S .J . d e , 1 979 : P reh isto r ische k u lturen i nh e t z u iden d er L age L anden , Wette ren . L uttwak , E .N . , 1 976 : T he G rand S trategy o f t he Roman Emp ire , B a lt imore/London . Mom msen , W .J . , 1 980 2: I mper ia l ismus theo r ien . E in Ueberb l ick ü ber d ie n eueren I mper ia l ismus in terpretat ionen , Gö tt ingen . N ash , D . , 1 9 76 : T he G rowth o f U rban S oc iety i nF rance , i n : B . C un l ifte/T . R ow ley ( eds . ) , Opp ida i nB arbar ian E urope , ( B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l R epo rts S upp lementa ry S er ies 1 , O x ford ) , 9 5-133 . N ash , D . , 1 9 78 : T err itory a nd S tate F o rmat ion i nC entra l Gau l , i n : D . G reen/C . H ase igrove/M . S pr iggs ( eds . ) , S oc ia l O rgan isat ion a nd S ett lement , ( B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l R eports , I n te rnat iona l S er ies 4 7 , O x fo rd ) , 4 55-75 . N ash , D . , 1 981 : C o inage a nd S tate D eve lopment i nC entra l G au l , i n : B . C un l itte ( ed . ) , Co inage a nd S oc iety i n B r ita in a nd Gau l , L ondon ( CBA R esearch R epo rt , 3 8 ) , 1 0 -7 . N ash , D . , 1 984 : T he B as is o f C ontact b etween B r ita in a nd G au l i nt he L ate P reRoman I r on A ge , i n : S . Macready/F .H . T hompson ( eds . ) . C ross-Channe l T rade b etween Gau l a nd B r ita in i nt he P re-Roman I r on Age , L ondon , 9 21 07 . N o rth , JA . , 1 981: T he D eve lopment o f R oman I mper ia l ism , J ourna l o f Roman S tud ies 7 1 , 1 9 . P au l i , L . , 1 9 71 : D ie Go lasecca-Ku ltur u nd M itte leuropa : e in B e itrag z ur Gesch ichte d es Hande ls ü ber d ie A lpen , H amburg ( Hamburger B e iträge z ur A rchäo log ie , I ) . P etr ikov its , H . v on , 1 9 78 : A ltertum , Dü sse ldo rf ( Rhe in ische Gesch ichte , I ) . P o tenz , M . , 1 982 : Munzen i n l a teneze it l ichen G räbern r n itte leuropas a us d er Z e it z w ischen 3 00 u nd 5 0 v or C hr is t i G eburt , B ayer ische V o rgesch ich tsb lätter 4 7 , 2 8-222 . Rob inson , R . , 1 972 ( 1976 ) : Non-European F oundat ions o f E uropean I mper ia l ism : S ketch f o r aT heory o t Co l labo rat ion , i n : W .R . L ou is ( ed . ) , T he Rob inson a nd Ga l lagher Controversy , N ew Y ork/London , 1 28-51 . Roe leve ld , W . , 1 974 : T he Ho locene E vo lut ion o f t he G ron ingen Mar ine-C lay D is tr ict , ' s -Gravenhage ( Supp l . B er ichten v an d e R i jksd iens t v oo r h et O udhe idkund ig B ode rnonde rzoek 2 4 ) .

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R oosens0 . , 1967Laet i , F oederat i u nd a ndere s pätröm ische B evä lkerungsn iedersc läge i m b e lg ischen R aum , D ie Kunde 1 8 , 8 9-109 . Rüge r , C .B . , 1 968 : German ia I n fer io r , Kö ln-Graz ( Bonner J ahrbüche r , B e ihe ft 2 0 ) . S cheers , S . , 1 9 77 : T ra ite d e n um ismat ique c e lt ique I . L a Gau le B e lg ique , P a r is . S cheers , S . , 1 98 I :T he O r ig ins a nd E vo lut ion o t C o inage i nB e lg ic G au l , i n : B . C un l itte ( ed . ) , Co inage a nd S oc iety i nB r ita in a nd Gau l , L ondon ( CBA R esearch R epo rt , 3 8 ) , 1 8 -23 . S ch l ippschuh , 0 . , 1 974 : D ie Händ ler i m r öm ischen Ka iserre ich i n Ga l l ien , German ien u nd d en Donauprov inzen Rä t ien , Nor icum u nd P annon ien , Ams te rdam . S erv ice , E .R . , 1 97 1 2: P r im it ive S oc ia l O rgan izat ion . A n E vo lut iona ry P erspect ive , N ew Y o rk . S chm id , P ./W .H . Z i mmer man , 1 9 76 : F löge ln . Z ur S t ruk tur e iner S ied lung d es I . b i s 5 . J hs . n .Chr . i m Kü s tengeb iet d e r s üd l ichen No rdsee , P rob leme d er Kü s ten forschung i m s üd l ichen Nordseegeb iet 1 , 1 77 . Sm ith , C .A . , 1 976 : E xchange S ys tems a nd t he S pa t ia l D is tr ibut ion o f E l ites : T he O rgan izat ion o t S t ra t if icat ion i n A gra r ian S oc iet ies , i n : C .A . Sm ith ( ed . ) , Reg iona l Ana lys is , v o l . I , S oc ia l S ys tems , New York 3 09-74 . S to ry , P .F . , 1 981 : U rsprung u nd A usbre itung d er e i senze it l ichen O va lsch i lde m it s p inde lt ö rm igem S ch i ldbucke l , German ia 5 9 , 2 87-306 . T chern ia , A . , 1 983 : I t a l ian w ine i nG au l a t t he e nd o t t he R epub l ic , i n : P . G arnsey/K . H opk ins/C .R . Wh ittaker ( eds . ) , T rade i nt he a nc ien t e conomy , L ondon , 8 7-104 . T hapar , R . , 1 98 1 :T he S tate a s Emp ire , i n : H .J . C laessen/P . S ka ln ik ( eds . ) , T he S tudy o f t he S tate , T he H ague , 4 09-26 . T ierney , J . J . , 1 959-60 : T he C e lt ic E thnography o f P os idon ius , P roceed ings o f t he Roya l I r ish Academy 6 0 , 1 89-275 . T impe , D . , 1 968 : Der T r iumph d es Ger man icus . U ntersuchungen z u d en F e ldzügen d er J ahre 1 4 -16 n .Chr . i n German ien , B onn . T impe , D . , 1 970 : A rm in ius-S tud ien , H e ide lberg . V e rwers , G .J . , 1 976 : Het v o rs tengra f v an Meer lo , Maastr icht . WO GS , M . ,

1 965 : Ger manen i m r öm ischen D iens t i m 4 . J h . n .Chr . , B onn

Wa l lers te in , I . , 1 980 : T heo r ies , R esearch D es igns a nd Emp ir ica l Measures , i nL . B lusse /H .L . Wesse l ing/G .D . W in ius ( eds . ) , H is tory a nd Unde rdeve lopment . E ssays o n Underdeve lopment a nd E uropean E xpans ion i n A s ia a nd A fr ica , L e iden , 21 8 . Waterbo ik , H .T ./W . G lasbergen , 1 955 :

D e r s pät röm ische G o ldschatz v on B e i len . I .F underber icht u nd B eschre ibung , P a laeoh isto r ia 4 , 81 10 1 .

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We l ls , P .S . , 1 980 : Cu ltu re Contact a nd Cu lture Change : E ar ly I r on A ge Centra l E urope a nd t he Med iterranean Wo r ld , C ambr idge . W i lhe im i , K . , 1 967 : B e iträge z ur e inhe im ischen Ku ltur d e r j üngeren v orr öm ischen E isenze it u nd d er ä l teren r öm ischen Ka iserze it z w ischen N iederrhe in u nd M itte lweser , Müns ter ( Bo ldena ltertümer Wes t fa lens , I ) . W i l lems , W .J .H . , 1 983 : R omans a nd B atav ians : R eg iona l D eve lopments a t t he I mper ia l F ront ie r , i n : R .W . B randt/J .S lo f istra ( eds . ) , Roman a nd Nat ive i n t he L ow Countr ies : S pheres o f i n teract ion , ( B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l Reports , I n terna t iona l S er ies 1 84 : Ox fo rd ) , 1 05-28 . Z adoks-Josephus J i tta , A .N . , 1 955 : T he L a te R oman Go ld H oard o f B e l len , I . T he C o ins , P a laeoh isto r ia 4 , 1 03-11 .

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4 . DENMARK AND THE MED ITERRANEAN I N THE F IRST M ILLEN IUM A .D . : AN ARCHAEOLOG ICAL PERSPECT IVE K lavs Randsborg I n troduct ion E conom ists a nd p o l it ic ians i n Denmark a nd t he r est o f Wes te rn E urope f ear t oday t hat we a re l o s ing o ur p lace among t he l ead ing n at ions . T he North A t lant ic a rea s t i l l d om inates t he w o r ld e conomy , b ut a l though No rth Amer ica s eems t o h ave r ega ined i t s f o r me r s t rength , Wes tern E urope s t i l l s uffers a fte r t en y ears o f c r is is . S imu ltaneous ly t here a re c lear i n d icat ions o f e conom ic g rowth i n E as t A s ia , a nd t he P ac if ic O cean h as e ven b een a dvocated a s t he n ew c entre o f g rav ity . I n t h is c ase D en mark wou ld f i nd i t se lf i n t he p e r iphery o t e conom ic a ct iv ity w ith e nsu ing s oc ia l a nd p o l it ica l p rob lems a nd i nca lcu lab le c u ltura l c hanges . I n t he p ast , t hough , t he r o le o f Den mark h as a lways b een marg ina l i n r e lat ion t o t he e conom ic a nd p o l it ica l c entres , whethe r t hese were s i tuated i n Wes tern E urope , i n t he Med iterranean ( a s i n t he C lass ica l A nt iqu ity ) , o r e ven i n t he M idd le E as t . V ery f ar b ack i n t ime i t makes n o s ense t o t a lk a bout e conom ic a nd p o l it ica l c entres , b ecause o f t he u ndeve loped s tate o f e conom ic l i fe , b ut d ur ing t he s econd h a lf o f t he f i rs t m i l len ium B .C . we c an c atch a g l i mpse o f a n e conom ic a nd p o l it ica l s ys tem emb rac ing v ast p a rts o f E urope a nd c onsequent ly a l so a ffect ing D en mark b y e vents h appen ing i n t he d istant s outh . A s i n o ur t ime , t he c entres o f p owe r o f. C lass ica l A nt iqu ity a nd t he E ar ly M idd le A ges c hanged c oncurrent ly w ith t he e xpans ion a nd r educt ion o f t he e conom ic s pheres . I n b r ie t t he e vo lut ion o f t he Med iterranean b as in c an b e d escr ibed a s f o l lows . I n t he l a st c entur ies b e fore t he b i rth o f C hr is t t he e conom ic c entre s t i l l l a y i n t he E astern Med iterranean c lose ly c onnected w ith t he d eve lop ment o f t he N ear E as t a s a who le . T he c entra l p art o f t he Med ite rranean , e spec ia l ly I t a ly , was , h oweve r , g row ing v igo rous ly , a nd i n t h is a rea t he Roman Emp ire t ook s hape , a round t he b eg in ing o f o ur e ra , c reat ing a n ew p o l it ica l c entre . T he R oman Emp ire e ven o ve rcame t he c lose d ependence o n t he Med ite rranean a gr icu ltura l e conomy o t t he p rev ious h igh c iv i l izat ions a nd p enetrated i n to t he h eart o f t e mperate E urope . Y et a l ready d ur ing t he t h ird c entury A .D . t he n orthern , western a nd e ven c entra l p arts o f t he Emp ire w ith t he c ap ita l , R ome , were l o s ing t he ir s t rength , a nd t he p o l it ica l a nd e conom ic c entre o nce mo re was e s tab l ished i n t he E as tern Med iterranean w here Cons tant inop le , t oday ' s I s tanbu l , i n 3 30 A .D . b ecame t he c ap ita l . A round 6 00 A .D . we h ave t o g o a s f ar a s t o t he Near E as t t o f ind a reas d i sp lay ing e conom ic g rowth a nd t he Roman Emp ire h ad g reat d i ff icu lt ies s urv iv ing , a lbe it i n as t rong ly a l te red f o rm , o n t he n orthern s ho res o f t he E as t Med iterranean . A n a pparent ly marg ina l , b u t i n t he e nd d ec is ive , d eve lopment t ook p lace a t t he s a me t ime i n r e mo te Wes te rn E urope where t he f oundat ions o f t he d ynam ic s oc iet ies o f t he H igh M idd le A ges were l a id , b ased s ound ly o n l oca l a gr icu ltura l r esources b ut w ith c u ltura l r oots i n t he C lass ica l wo r ld ( t o r d eta i led a rgu ment , s ee R andsborg f o rthcom ing ) . O ur k now ledge o f t he wo r ld o ne o r t wo t housand y ears a go s tems p art ly f rom h i sto r ica l , p art ly f rom a rchaeo log ica l s ources . T he a rchaeo log ica l s ources h ave t he f orce o f b e ing t ound e ve rywhere a nd f rom a l l p er iods , a nd , a s we we l l k now e ven t he mos t h umb le f i nds d isc lose a s tock o f k now ledge a bout t he s oc iet ies where in t hey we re made . When we c ons ider t he r e lat ions b etween D en mark a nd t he Med iterranean a rea o ne o r t wo t housand y ears a go , t he a rchaeo log ica l f i nds a re t he n atura l f ocus , e spec ia l ly s i nce t he w r itten s ources a re s cant .

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T he Contact O ne o f t he mos t we l l k nown f i nds f rom D an ish P reh istory i s t he G undestrup c au ldron a do rned w ith magn if icent p ictures i nb eaten s i lver ( K l indt J ensen 1%1) . T he c au ldron was f ound i n ab og i n H i mmer land ( i n n orthern J ut land ) b ut t he e xo t ic r epresentat ions o f e lephants , l i ons a nd d o lph ins i nd icate t ha t i t was manufactured t a r f rom i t s p lace o f d i scovery . T he p ictures o f g ods a nd h u man b e ings p o int t o t he C e lt ic wo r ld , w h i le t he s ty le a nd t echn ique , a s w e l l a s t he a n i ma l r epresentat ions , p o int t owards a reas f urther t o t he s outheas t . F rom R uman ia a nd B u lgar ia w e h ave s im i lar s i lverwo rk , b ut t he e ar l ies t mode l f o r t he G undestrup s ty le i s f rom E as t A nato l ia , modern T urkey , a nd a d jacent a reas i n t he S ov ie t U n ion ( Urartu ) ( Powe l l 1 97 I ;c f . S anders 1 971) . P oss ib ly t he P e rs ians b rought e xamp les o f s uch N ear E as tern s i lve rwo rk t o t he E uropean C ont inen t d ur ing t he ir l egendary e xpans ion t owards t he w es t a round 5 00 B .C . T hough t he master o f t he G undes trup c au ldron p robab ly wo rked f o r a Ce lt ic l o rd , a nd a t a s l ight ly l a te r d ate , t he c au ldron i sa n i mpor tant p roo f o f t he s t rong r o le o f t he Near E ast a nd t he E as te rn Med iterranean d ur ing t he c entur ies p r io r t o t he R oman Emp ire . T he G undes trup c au ldron i sn ot t he o n ly e xo t ic v esse l i np rec ious meta l f rom t he D an ish E ar ly I r on A ge . B es ides s ome C e lt ic wo rks t here i s av e ry i n terest ing g roup o f v esse ls manufactured i n I t a ly , s ome o f t hem f rom t he o ld G reek c o lon ies i n t he s outh a nd s ome o f t hem f rom t he E truscan c i t ies i n t he n o rth ( R i is 1 959 ) . T hese v esse ls e nded u p i ns o me D an ish g raves o r l i ke t he G undes trup c au ldron , i n b ogs a s v a luab les , s acr if iced t o s at is fy t he n eed o f men a nd g ods . B e fo re t h is h appened w e may a ssume t hat t he v esse ls were d i sp layed a t t he f easts a nd r e l ig ious c eremon ies o f t he c h ie fs . F rom t he E ar ly R oman Emp ire c ome t he t wo f a mous s i lver c ups f rom Hoby i n L o l land . T ogethe r w ith b o th l oca l a nd Roman a rt ic les - o ne o t w h ich was a n e xcept iona l ly b eaut ifu l b ronze j ug - t hey w ere f ound i n av ery r i ch c h iefta in g rave f rom t he f i rs t c entury A .D . , at ime when I t a ly was t he c entre o f p o l it ica l a nd e conom ic l i fe i n t he Med ite rranean . T he t wo c ups a re p robab ly p roduced i n I t a ly d ur ing t he r e ign o f Empero r A ugustus w ho e x tended t he m i l itary b o rders o f t he Emp ire t o t he R h ine a nd e ven i n to n orthwestern Ger many . T he H oby c ups may r e f lect a m i l itary-po l it ica l s i tuat ion where a h ighrank ing R oman o t t ice r maybe t he S IL IVS t hat i n c ised h i s n ame o n t he b ottom o f t he c ups -p resented t hem a s a g i ft o f p o l it ica l s i gn if icance t o a p r ince among t he G e rmans , a p oss ib i l ity t hat a l ready F r i is J ohansen p roposed i n h i s mode l p ub l icat ion o f t he t i nd i n 1 923 . H e a l so a dvanced t he h ypo thes is t hat S IL IVS m ight b e ah i s to r ica l ly k nown g ove rno r-genera l o t t he R h ine p rov inces ment ioned b y T ac itus . T he ma in s cene o n o ne o f t he c ups r epresents K ing P r iam o t T roy b egg ing t he G reek h ero A ch i l les t o h and o ve r t he c o rpse o f h i s s on H ector , t he h ero o f T ro jans , d e feated b y A ch i l les i n s i ng le c ombat . T he s cene i s n o t o n ly e xc it ing b ecause o f t he R oman emp loy ment o f a n o ld G reek myth ( f rom Homer 's I l iad ) a nd a d e l iberate c lass ica l , c a lm a nd b eaut ifu l c ompos it ion , b ut a l so b ecause t he h e ro c arr ies t he t eatures o f t he t r iumphant Roman Emperor , A ugustus . T hough Id oub t t hat t he p eop le o f L o ! land o f t wo t housand y ears a go u nderstood t he d epth o f t he s to ry ! V ery i n format ive a l so a re t he b eaut ifu l r i bbed b lue c ups i n marb led g las s f ro m a g rave a t E spe i n F unen ( A lb rechtsen 1 956 , 7 5 t . ) . T hey were manufac tured a t t he s ame t ime a s t he t wo Hoby c ups a nd b e long t o o ne o f t he mos t d i ffused R oman g lass t ypes , k nown f rom s uch e xo t ic p laces a s Yemen ( Bowen e t a t . 1 958 , 1 99 t . ) a nd S outh I nd ia ( Whee le r e t a l . 1 946 ) a nd a g ood r ef lect ion o f t he d ynam ic s oc iety o f t he e ar ly Emp ire w ith i t s many c onnect ions a l l o ver t he t hen k nown wo r ld ( S itwe l l 1 984 ) .

3 8

T he s oc iet ies s ub jugated b y t he R omans i n t he t emperate p arts o f E urope , i nc lud ing t he Ce lts , may h ave b een u nacqua inted w ith t he f i ne r n uances o f C lass ica l c u lture , b u t t hey p ossessed o q u ite d eve loped t echno logy a nd a gr icu ltura l e conomy o f t he ir own o n wh ich t he Romans b ased t he ir h egemony . T he Emp ire o n ly s ubdued a reas a b le t o p roduce a v i rtua l f ood s urp lus ( Groenman v an Waate r inge 1 980 ) . A lso t he p o l it ica l o rgan isat ion was e xp lo ited b y t he R omans , p rov ided i td id n ot c onf l ict w ith t he o ve ra l l o b ject ives ( H ing ley 1 982 ) . D ur ing t he f i rs t a nd s econd c entur ies A .D . t he a reas i m med iate ly w ith in t he R h ine-Danube f ront ie r we re o rgan ized w ith p aved ma in a nd s econdary r oads , w ith t owns a s a dm in istrat ive a nd e conom ic c entres , a nd w ith t housands o f v i l las a fte r t he I t a l ian mode l , b u t e xp lo it ing t he l oca l a n i ma l a nd p lant s pec ies . I n t h is p er iod Roman g oods b ecame mo re a nd more c om mon o uts ide t he f ront ie rs o f t he Emp ire a nd a rt ic les o t l uxury , e spec ia l ly f rom t he c i t ies o n t he R h ine , f ound t he ir way t o t he l ead ing f am i l ies i n Den mark . T he a rt ic les i n q ues t ion a re h undreds o f g lass v esse ls , b ronze v esse ls , weapons , t ext i les e tc , f ound i n r i ch ly f urn ished c onte mpo rary g raves ( c f . H ansen 1 976 ) . A lso a n umbe r o f c o ins i n p rec ious meta l a re f ound . S ome b eaut ifu l ly p a inted g lass c ups p roduced i n t he R h ine a rea , p robab ly a t C o logne a round 2 00 A .D . , a re p rom inent e xamp les o f R oman l uxury a rt ic les r eco rded f rom D en mark ( B rondsted 1 960 , 2 02 ) . T hey b e long t o g roup o f c ups d eco rated w ith r epresentat ions o f a n i ma l f i ghts , h unt ing s cenes a nd o ther s angu inary e p isodes . T hese c ups a re f ound i n s ome v ery r i ch g raves i n S tevns ( Eas t Z ea land ) , o ne o f t he D an ish a reas t ha t h as g iven t he most e xqu is ite t i nds . A no the r e xamp le i s t he b ronze d i sc w ith r osettes , sma l l f acemasks , r epresentat ions o f Mars e tc . i n mou lded , g i lded s i lver , t hat c ame t rom a Roman o ft icer 's a r mou r . T h is d i sc was l a te r a dorned w ith sma l l a n i ma l f i gures i n Ger man ic s ty le a nd i t was f ound t ogethe r w ith i t s t w in i n a weapon s acr if ice f rom T ho rsb jerg i n S outh S lesv ig ( We rner 1 941) . T hese g igant ic s acr if ices o f weapon a nd o ther p e rsona l b e long ings a re c om mon i n D en mark f rom t he t h ird t o t he f i fth c entur ies A .D . a nd p robab ly r e f lect t he f i ght ing t ak ing p lace a l mos t a l l o ver E urope i n t he L ate R o man p er iod . Among r ecent f i nds a re E jsbo l i n No rth S lesv ig ( Orsnes 1 963 ) a nd I le rup i n M id-Jut land ( I lk jaer a nd L ons trup 1 982 ) , t he l a tter w ith a n i ncred ib ly l a rge n u mbe r o t Roman s wo rds . T he d iscard ing o f s uch l a rge q uant it ies o f v a luab les p robab ly r e f lects a s oc ia l s ys tem w here t he e l ite c ou ld n o t y et a ccumu la te o r c onvert l a rge r amounts o f c hatte ls . T he s oc iety was c onsequent ly s o f ar f rom a market-economy t hat a n e ventua l s urp lus o f v a luab les h ad t o b e d estroyed , as i tuat ion c onf ir med b y t he a bsence o f t reasure-hoards among t he f i nds . D u r ing t he f i fth c entury , t reasure-hoards o f p rec ious meta l b ecame c om mon , d eno t ing t hat a t t h is p o int v a luab les c ou ld b e a ccu ma lated t o b e r ea l ised a s u seab le wea lth . A t t he s ame t ime t he b ig s acr if ices o f weapons g ive way t o p ars p ro t o to o ffe r ings t o d isappear c omp lete ly s hort ly a fte rwa rds ( t o r as im i lar a rgument i na no ther c onnect ion , s ee B rad ley 1 984 , 9 6 f . ) . T he l uxur ious a nd v e ry l im ited r ange o f Ro man g oods f rom t he y ears a round 2 00 A .D . a ctua l ly r ef lects a s oc iety t ha t d oes n o t c arry o n c om mon t rade w ith t he R omans , a nd where t he magnates t ook p osess ion o f o b jects o f p res t ige t o t he Ger man ic s tandards o f v a lue . Mart ia l v i rtues , d r ink ing-bouts w ith g ues ts o f r ank a s we l l a s w ith f a ith fu l s ub jects a nd t he e xchange o f v a luab le g i fts o bv ious ly p layed a n i mpo rtant r o le , c reat ing a mo ra l c ode a nd a u n ity wh ich made t he d i tt icu lt t ask o f g overn ing t hese s oc iet ies e as ier . A lready D en mark was a v ery d ense ly p eop led c oun try w ith t housands o f v i l lages . I n t he v i l lages t he i nd iv idua l f ar ms h ad g rown t o l a rge i ndependent u n its o f t he s ize o f a sma l le r R oman v i l la . Ag ood e xamp le i sV o rbasse i n J ut land ( Hvass 1 982 ) where t he c ro tts w e re l a id i n r ows a long s t reets a nd o pen s quares . I mper ia l Dec l ine D ur ing t he t h ird c entury A .D . t he R oman e conomy i n Western E urope p art ly b roke d own ( K ing a nd H en ig 1 98 I ) . Many v i l las were a bandoned , many c i t ies i n

3 9

F rance a nd Ger many we re d rast ica l ly r educed i n s ize . T he Roman m i l itary h ad g reat d i ff icu lty i n s ecur ing t he f ront iers o f t he Emp ire o n r educed a ppropr iat ions a nd v ast a reas were e xposed t o p lunder ing . S imu ltaneous ly t he p o l it ica l a nd a dm in istrat ive a pparatus was c haracter ized b y g reat i n stab i l ity . E ven i n I t a ly , l ong s i nce c ompe l led t o d iv ide t he i ncomes o f t he Emp ire w ith t he p rov inces , t h is c r is is was f e lt . Monu menta l b u i ld ing a l mos t s topped a nd t he C lass ica l u rban c u lture w ith i t s c onsp icuous a rch itectura l a nd a rt ist ic t rad it ions c eased t o e x is t o r was t rans fo r med . S ee m ing ly t he e xpans ion i n Western a nd Centra l E urope t o l lowed b y t he c reat ion o f a n e nor mous i n fras tructure c ou ld i n t he e nd n ot b e ma inta ined e cono m ica l ly o n t he a va i lab le means a l though t he d ec l ine c a me t o a t emporary s tandst i l l i n t he f ourth c entury A .D . . I t was c omparat ive ly e asy t o e s tab l ish t he n ew p rov inces o n " borrowed" money f rom l oo t a nd t r ibute b ut i t was t ar mo re d i tt icu lt t o ma inta in s uch a n a dvanced p o l it ica l , a dm in is trat ive a nd e conom ic s yste m b ased o n a r e lat ive ly u ndeve loped a gr icu lture a nd r esources t hat i n F rance a nd Ger many were r ather s cant . T he Ro man e cono my was c entered o n t he market a nd s uccu mbed t o p ro f it-mak ing . I t was a l so o f g reat s i gn if icance t hat t he s upra-reg iona l Roman e cono my w ith i t s many s l aves a nd o ther f o r ms o t c oerc ion h ad d i tt icu lt ies i n f unct ion ing w ithout s tab le p o l it ica l a nd m i l itary c ond it ions ( c t . Dock s1 982 ) . I n s evera l Med iterranean a reas , among t hem I t a ly , t he e co log ica l c ond it ions c hanged a t t h is p o int p oss ib ly a s a r esu lt o f i n tens ive a gr icu lture ( V ita F inz i 1 969 ) . I n North A fr ica a nd e spec ia l ly i n t he E ast Med iterranean , t hough , t here we re r e lat ive ly f ew s i gns o f ar ea l e cono m ic c r is is , e ven i ft he c u ltura l p attern u nderwent c hanges h ere , t oo , w ith t he d ec l ine o f p r ivate i nvest men ts i n , s ay , u rban a rch itecture . T he s tate o f d epress ion i n t he e as t was s oon o ve rco me b y a mass ive p rogress t hat c ont inued we l l a fter t he o ff ic ia l b reakdown o f t he Emp ire i n t he west s hort ly a tter 4 76 A .D . , t he y ear when t he l a st Western Ro man Empero r was d ethroned b y t he Ger man mercenar ies . T hese mercenar ies h ad b ecome t he s h ie ld t owards i nner a nd o ute r e ne m ies , f i rs t f or t he Western Emp ire , l a te r most ly t o r t he Empero r h imse lf a nd t he c entra l a dm in is trat ion . I n t he e ast t he Roman Emp ire c ont inued t o e x ist a l most u naffected u nt i l t he d evastat ing wars a ga inst t he P ers ians a nd t he s ubsequent I s lam ic e xpans ion d ur ing t he 7 th c entury . Constant inop le , t he c ap ita l o f t he Emp ire a l ready i n 3 30 A .D . h ad r ep laced Ro me . I t was n ow s i tuated i n ad epressed a rea , b u t c ont inued i t s f unct ion u nt i l t hat e ar ly s u m mer 's d ay i n 1 453 when T urk ish s o ld ie rs c l i mbed t he wa l ls o f t he c i ty a nd k i l led t he l a st Ro man , o r r ather B yzant ine , Empero r i n t he b att le . T h is p rocess i s i lustrated b y t hree d iagrams ( F ig . 4 .1-3 ) o ver t he d eve lop ment i n s ett le ment i ns o me c hosen p arts o f t he Roman Emp ire p lus n e ighbour ing a reas t o t he e ast . T he f i rs t d iagra m s hows t he s ette l ment i n Cambr idgesh ire i n E ng land i n t he Ro man p er iod ( data t rom W i lkes a nd E tr ington 1 978 , 3 5 t . ) ( F ig . 4 .I ) . T he n u mber o f s i tes i se spec ia l ly l a rge i n t he s econd c entury ; i n t he t h ird c entury a n o t iceab le r ecess ion i n s ett lement i ss een , wh ich i ss o mewhat c hecked d ur ing t he f ourth c entury , i m med iate ly b e to re t he p rov ince o f B r itann ia i s a bandoned a nyhow . T he s econd d iagram s hows t he s ett lement i n Ager F a l iscus n orth o f Rome ( Po tter 1 976 ) ( F ig . 4 .2 ) . We o bserve a v e ry marked e xpans ion d ur ing t he E ar ly Emp ire , t o l lowed b y ad rast ic d ec l ine b eg inn ing i n t he t h ird c entury A .D . T he t h ird d iagram s hows t he d eve lop ment o t t wo a reas . T he f i rst i n Centra l P a lest ine ( data t rom Kochav i 1 972 ) ( F ig . 4 .3 ) , where t he d ec l ine i n s ett le ment i s s een o n ly a fte r 5 00 A .D . T he s econd i n Mesopota m ia ( data A dams 1 981) ( a lso F ig . 4 .3 ) , where t he s ett le ment p eaks a s l a te a s t he E ar ly I s lam ic p er iod . A ga in ac ons iderab le r ecess ion i n s ett lement i so bserved , b oth i n t he c i t ies a nd i n t he c ountrys ide , b ut h ere a s l a te a s t he n inth c entury A .D . T h is c o l lapse o f t he c entra l p art o f t he I s la m ic wor ld w i l l b e d ea lt w ith b e low .

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S e t t lemen ts i np ar ts o f C entra l P a les t ine ( l ine ) &i n ap a r t o f C entra l Mesopo tam ia ( h is tog ram ) . P a les t in ian s ett lemen ts : n umbe r o f s i tes p er y ear ( S ca le P ) . Mesopo tam ian s i tes : n umbe r o f h ec ta res p e r y ea r .

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B efo re t he c r is is o f t he west i n t he t h ird c entury A .D . t he Roman Emp ire n ot o n ly e xported l uxury a rt ic les b ut a lso i t s t echno logy t o t he B arbar ian a reas b eyond t he E uropean f ront ier . T he p o tter 's w hee l f or e xa mp le was i n troduced i n S outh-east Ger many a nd P o land , a nd g lass p roduct ion s tarted i n S outhern Russ ia a nd i n t he a reas n orth o t t he B lack S ea ( Näs man 1 984 , 9 1 t . ) . Many s uch " ro man ized" g lasses a re f ound i n Northern E urope . T hey a re o ften b ag-shaped w ith o va l f acets a nd made o f y e l low ish a nd r ather i mpure g lass . T he c onnect ions b etween t he n on-Ro man , i . e . B arbar ian , s oc iet ies s eem t o i n tens ity p ar i p assu w ith t he d ec l ine o t t he Western Emp ire , b ut t hey d id n ot e xc lude t he o ld r e lat ions t o t he Emp ire . D ur ing t he c haot ic p er iod i n t he f i fth c entury A .D . t he B arbar ians t ook h o ld o f , t o t he m , e nor mous r i ches t hrough p lunder ing a nd , l i ke t he Hunn ish c onfedera t ion , b y t r ibute p ay ments f rom t he Emp ire . T hrough t he t r iba l c onfederat ions s ome o f t hese r i ches t l owed t o t he a reas t a r b eyond t he o ld f ront iers o f t he Ro man Emp ire . However , mo re i mportant i n t he l ong r un was t hat t he Ger man a nd o ther f ore ign w a rlords t ook p ossess ion o f t he r e ma in ing p o l it ica l p owe r o f t he West . I n t he s ame p er iod i n Gudme i n E ast F unen was s i tuated a c h ie fta in c entre , c omp lete w ith l and ing p laces t o wh ich a modest p art o f t he l o st t reasures o f t he Roman Emp ire f lowed ( Thr one 1 985 ) . T he a rea h as b een k nown a bout t or a l o ng t ime b ut i n r ecent y ears i th as e nr iched Dan ish a rchaeo logy w ith d ra mat ic f i nds b y t he h e lp o f meta l d etectors . T he f i nds c ompr ise b oth l oca l p roducts o f av e ry h igh c rafts mansh ip , many i n -prec ious meta l , a nd Ro man g o ld a nd s i lve r c o ins a nd o ther v a luab le i t ems . O ther a rt ic les were p roduced i n o ther b arbar ian s oc iet ies i n E urope , a lso o f h igh q ua l ity . Worth n oth ing i st he Northern g o ld j ewe l lery , t he s o-ca l led B racteates , w ith mot ifs i n sp ired f rom Ro man meda l l ions c arry ing t he p ortra it o t t he Empero r , c her ished g i fts t o o ff ic ia ls , o tt icers a nd B arbar ian a l l ies . T he B racteates a re a f i ne e xamp le o t t he d yna m ic "m in i ma l a rt" t hat f l our ished o uts ide t he Emp ire . O f t he Ro man c o ins f ound i n Gudme a rea t he most wo rn o t t he s i lver h ave c i rcu lated f or a t l east t wo h undred y ears b efore t he d epos it ing o f t he h oards , a s l i ke ly a s n o t i n t he B arbar ian p arts o f E urope . O f t he many n ew c o ins , s ome h ave b een s t ruck i n t he p rosperous E ast Roman Emp ire b ut most o f t hem a re t rom t he Western Emp ire , among t hem s o me g o ld c o ins t rom t ourth c entury T r ier . A lso wo rth ment ion ing i s af i nd o f Ro man s i lverp late b roken t o p ieces . l t i s made u p o f o ld d inner s ets t hat s eem t o b e a t l east o ne h undred y ears o lder t han t he more r ecent No rthern o b jects i nt he t i nd . Many o f t he g o ld a nd s i lve r o b jects f ound i n D en mark f rom what we may c a l l t he " Gud me" p er iod a re b roken t o sma l ler a nd l a rger p ieces , p robab ly t o e nte r e xchange a nd t rade t ransact ions . T h is i san ew p henomenon , l a ter k nown f rom t he L ate V ik ing A ge where we ighed-out b i ts o f p rec ious meta l s erved a s c o ins . T hough i ti sr egrettab le , o f c ourse , t hat t hese b eaut ifu l o b jects h ave b een b roken t o p ieces , t he ir v e ry c ond it ion d isc loses t he e x istence o f a more d yna m ic a nd market o r iented e conomy t han b efore i n t hese B arbar ian s oc iet ies , t hough market p laces were f ew a nd emphemera l . T he e l ite c ou ld n ow a ccu ma late v a luab les , a nd t he v a luab les c ou ld b e t urned i n to d isposab le wea lth . T here a re e ven s i gns o f ac erta in i nf lat ion ; t he Dan ish o b jects c onta in more s i lve r t han t he s im i lar o b jects t rom Norway a nd S weden , c ountr ies t hat d id n ot y et p art ic ipate s o a ct ive ly i n t he e conom ic a nd s oc ia l d eve lop ment . S ho rt ly o tte r t he " Gud me" p er iod , t he E as t Ro man Emp ire i s t hreatened b y d isrupt ion c aused amongs t o ther t h ings b y a n a tte mpt t o r ega in t he Med iterranean p arts o f t he o ld West Ro man Emp ire , a wastefu l a dm in istrat ion a nd a s tagger ing b u i ld ing p rogram , e .g . t he c hurch o f Hagh ia S oph ia i n Constant inop le . More i mportant , t hough , i s t he g enera l u nde rm in ing o f a gr icu lture a nd t he m i l itary p ressures f ro m t he e ast , f i rst b y t he P ers ians a round

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6 00 A .D . l a te r b y t he I s lam ic a rm ies . No rthern a nd Wes te rn E urope h ad l ong b een f ar f rom t he e conom ic a nd p o l it ica l c entres i n t he Med iterranean a nd t hey we re n ow c omp lete ly i s o lated a nd h ad t o s eek s t rength i n t he ir o wn r esources . I n t he e nd t h is r esu lted i n t he f o r mat ion o f s oc iet ies t hat c erta in ly c arr ied o n p art o f t he c u ltura l h er itage o f C lass ica l A nt iqu ity , mos t p ronounced t hrough Chr ist ian ity a nd t he b u i ld ing o t c hurches , b ut w ho t i rs t a nd t orernos t r es ted o n a l oca l a nd t herefo re mo re s tab le e conom ic b as is t han t he o ver-d i mens ioned a nd s upra-reg iona l Roman p rov inces i n t empera te E urope . I n t he c ourse o t t ime t hese marg ina l s oc iet ies e ventua l ly d eve loped i n to t he d om inat ing c entre o f t he wo r ld e conomy . T he B irth o f Wes te rn E urope L ong b efo re t h is h appened t he I s lam ic wo r ld a nd Wes te rn E urope h ad t i ed s ome r e markab le b onds n orth a nd s outh o f t he r e mnants o f t he E as t R oman Emp ire , c onnect ing t he d ynam ic e conom ies o f t he Near E as t , S outh A s ia a nd e ven E as t A s ia w ith t he y e t i nd is t inct Western E urope . A round 7 80 A .D . Canton was o pened u p t o Mus l i m me rchants a nd b e fo re l ong t he a reas a round t he I nd ian Ocean a nd i n t he M idd le E as t we re c lose ly c onnected i n d i rect t rade . A t t he p o rt o f S i ra f o n t he P ers ian G u lf a s much a s 5% o t t he f i ne c eram ics o r ig inated f rom Ch ina a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he n inth c entury ( Hodges a nd Wh itehouse 1 983 , 1 46 ) . I n t he Med ite rranean t he d eve lopment i n t rade was l e ss e xp los ive b ut a l so h ere n ew e conom ic t i es were e s tab l ished . T o t he n o rth t he I s lam ic t rade i nvo lved R uss ia , h ereby s weep ing a long S cand inav ia a nd Wes te rn E urope i n t h is g igant ic s ys te m . I n S cand inav ia , f o r i n s tance , mo re t han a q uarte r o f am i l l ion A rab ian c o ins h ave b een d i scovered i nV ik ing A ge t reasures . I n ap rev ious ly p ub l ished d iagram Ih ave d emonstra ted t he d at ing o f A rab ian a nd af ew o ther f o re ign c o ins f rom t he g raves o t B irka , al a rge p o rt o f t rade n ear S tockho lm , t hat c eased t o e x is t a round 9 60 A .D . ( Randsbo rg 1 981) . We n o t ice f rom t h is d iagram t hat t he i mpo rts c ome i n t wo waves , o ne a round 8 00 ( c t . Noonan 1 981) a nd a no the r a round 9 00 A .D . T he c o ins f rom t he f i rst g roup c ome p redom inant ly f rom Mesopotam ia i n t he p e r iod b e fo re t he d rast ic r ecess ion i n s ett le ment i n t he n inth c entury . T he c o ins f rom t he s econd g roup c ome f rom S a markand a nd o ther m ints i n T urkes tan , o ne o t t he I s lam ic a reas v igo rous ly e xpand ing i n t he wake o t t he Mesopotam ian r ecess ion . S eem ing ly t he d eve lop ment i n t he I s lam ic a reas h ad s er ious e ffects o n S cand inav ia a nd Wes te rn E urope . T he b reakup o f t he e as tern t rade r outes p ut a s e r ious s t ra in o n Dan ish s oc iety wh ich i s r e f lected i n as e r ies o t p redato ry e xped it ions t o No rthwes te rn Ge r many , F rance a nd E ng land , i . e . t he V ik ing r a ids , t hat c ame t o a h a lt j us t when t he s econd wave o f I s lam ic t rade r eached t he n orth . Dur ing t he t enth c entury Den mark b ecame a S tate ( Randsbo rg 1 980 ) . T hrough t he h e lp o f a rchaeo logy we c an d i scern h ow t h is d eve lopment t akes o ff i n Western Denmark w ith J e l l ing a s t he c entre . I n t he wes t t he f i rs t t owns a nd t he T re l lebo rg f o rtresses we re e s tab l ished , b ut s oon a fte r t he who le c ountry was o rgan ized w ith t owns a nd a p rope r market s ys tem ( c f . A ndr in 1 985 ) . T he s t rengthen ing o t p r ivate r i ghts a nd t he n eeds o f t he a dm in is trat ion make s ett le ment s tab le w h ich i s t he r eason w hy mos t o f t oday 's v i l lages h ave t he ir r oo ts i n t he L ate V ik ing A ge ( GrSngaard J eppesen 1 981) . T h is d eve lop ment i s p ara l le l t o t he s tate t o rrnat ions i n t he r es t o t Western E urope a nd e ven i t Den mark t hrough i t s e astern t rade was i n t ouch w ith a reas a t l eas t a s d ynam ic a s Rome o f t he E ar ly Emp ire , i t was t he c onstant c ontac t w ith n earby Wes tern E urope t hat e xerc ised t he p er manent i nf luence . T he J e l l ing S tone i sn ot c ove red w ith Ku t ic w r it ings b u t w ith No rd ic R unes a nd i t s r epresentat ion o t C hr is t o n t he C ross i s Western E uropean i n s ty le . T o t he Wes tern E uropean s tates t he L ate E as t Ro man a nd t he B yzant ine Emp ires e xerc ised a r o le ma in ly t hrough t he c ourt c u lture , t he m int ing a nd t he c haracter o f t he monumenta l a rch itecture . A s f ar

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a s D enmark i s c oncerned , ( V ie rck 1 984 ) .

t he

i n f luence w as mere ly i nd irect v ia t he F ranks

B ut we k now t hat No rd ic V ik ings v is ited B yzant ium t hemse lves . S ome o f t hem c ame t o s erve i n t he Empero r ' s Guard r eg i ments , a nd o ne o f t hem , a n o therw ise u nkno wn H a ltdan , h as i nc ised a R un ic i n scr ipt ion o n t he g a l lery o t t he c hurch o f H agh ia S oph ia ( Lunds tr öm 1 984 ) . T h is H a ltdan mus t h ave g o t a much more v iv id i mpress ion o f C lass ica l A nt iqu ity t han t hose o f h is a ncestors who a t housand y ears e ar l ie r a dm ired t he Hoby c ups o ne l a st t ime b e fore t hey were p laced i n t he g rave . T hey l i ved i n as imp le I r on A ge S oc iety t hat h ad o n ly l a te ly b egun t o p erce ive a nd u nde rstand i t s d ependence o n t he p o l it ica l a nd e cono m ic f orces t o t he s outh . T o H a ltdan i t w as p robab ly c lear t hat h i s k ins men i n t he f ar No rth s hared t he f ate o f much s t ronge r e conom ic a nd p o l it ica l s ys tems , a nd t hat i th ad t o b e s o t herea fte r .

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B ib l iography A dams , R . McC . , 1 98 I . Heart land o f C it ies , S urveys o f A nc ient S ett lement a nd L and U se o n t he Centra l F loodp la in o f t he E uphrates ( Ch icago ) . A lbrechtsen , E . , 1 956 . F ynske J erna lde rgrave I , Ae ldre r omersk j e rna lder ( Kq Sbenhavn ) . A ndren , A . , 1 985 . ' Den u rbane s cenen , s täder o ch s a mhä l le id et mede lt ida D anmark ' , A cta A rchaeo log ica L undens ia S er ies i n8 ' , N r . 1 3 . B owen , J r . , R . L eB . 8 (A lbr ight , F .P . , 1 958 . A rchaeo log ica l D iscover ies i nS outh A rab ia ( Ba lt i mo re ) . B rad ley , R . , 1 984 . T he S oc ia l f oundat ions o f p reh is tor ic B r ita in , t hemes a nd v ar iat ions i nt he a rchaeo logy o f p ower ( London ) . B rondsted , J . , 1 960 . D anmarks O ldt id I , J erna lde ren ( 2nd e d . ) ( Kobenhavn ) . D ocks , P . , 1 982 . Med ieva l S lavery a nd L iberat ion ( London ) . F r i is J ohansen , K . , 1 9 23 . 1 -b byfundet , No rd iske F ort idsm inder I :3 . G roen rnan-van Waater inge , W . , 1 980 . ' U rban izat ion a nd t he No rth-Wes t F ront ie rs o f t he R oman Emp ire ' , i nW .S . H anson a nd L .J .F . K epp ie ( Eds . ) , Roman F ron t ier S tud ies , 1 979 ( B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l R epo rts I n terna t iona l S er ies 7I ;O x fo rd ) : 1 037 f t . G r c hngaard J eppesen , T . , 1 981 . M idde la lder landsbyens o ps taaen , k ont inu itet o g b rud id en t ynske a grarbebygge lse me l lem y ngre j erna lde r o g t i d l ig m idde la lde r , F ynske S tud ier X I ; ( Odense ) . H ansen , U .L . , 1 976 . ' Das G räberte ld b e i H arpe lev , S ee land . S tud ien z ur j ünge ren r öm ischen K a ise rze it i nd er S ee land ischen I n se lgruppe ' , Acta A rchaeo log ica 4 7 : 9 1 t . H ing l e y , R . , 1 982 . T he S t ructure o t R oman I mper ia l ism a nd t he Consequences o f I mpe r ia l ism o n t he D eve lop ment o f aP e r iphe ra l P rov ince ' , i nD . M i les ( Ed . ) : T he Romano-B r it ish Countrys ide , S tud ies i n R ura l S ett lement a nd E conomy . ( B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l R eports B r it ish S er ies ( 03 ; O x to rd ) : 1 7 f t . H odges , R . a nd Wh itehouse , D . , 1 983 . Mohammed , Char lemagne & t he O r ig ins o f E urope , A rchaeo logy a nd t he P irenne t hes is ( London ) . H vass , S . , 1 982 . ' Länd l iche S ied lungen d er K a iser -u nd Vö lkerwanderungsze it i n D änemark ' , O ffa 3 9 : 1 89 f t . I l k jaer , J . &L ( 6nstrup , J . , 1 982 . S ka lk 2 : 1 8f t .

' K laeder f l aengedes , b ryn jer s q 5nderhuggedes ' ,

J S rgensen , L .B . , 1 984 . ' North E uropean T ext i le P roduct ion a nd T rade i nt he i s t M i l len ium AD . -A R esearch P ro ject ' , J ourna l o f Dan ish A rchaeo logy 3 : 1 24 t . K ing , A . a nd H en ig , M . ( Eds . ) , 1 98 I .T he Roman Wes t i nt he T h ird Century , Contr ibut ions t rom A rchaeo logy a nd H isto ry , ( B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l R epo rts I n te rnat iona l S e r ies ( 09 ; O x to rd ) .

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K l indt-Jensen , 0 . , 1 96 I . Gundestrupked len ( Kobenhavn ) . Kochav i , M . ( Ed . ) 1 972 . J udaea , S amar ia a nd t he Go lan , a rchaeo log ica l s urvey 1 967-68 P ub l . o f t he a rchaeo log ica l s urvey o f I s rae l 1 ;J e rusa lem ) . L undstr öm , A . , 1 984 . ' Vae r ingerne iM ik lagard ' , S t inx 7 ,N r .

2 : 5 4 f i t .

Noonan , T .S . , 1 981 . ' N inth-century d i rham h oards f rom E uropean R uss ia : A p re l im inary a na lys is ' , i n M .A .S . B lackburn & D .M . Metca lt ( Eds . ) , V ik inga ge Co inage i nt he No rthe rn L ands , T he S ix th Ox fo rd S y mpos ium o n Co inage a nd Monetary H isto ry ( B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l R epo rts I n te rnat iona l S er ies ( 22 ; O x fo rd ) : 4 7 f t . Näsrnan , U . , 1 984 . G las o ch h ande l is enrome rsk t id o ch f o lkevands r ings t id , E n s tud ie k r ing g las f rän E ketorp1 1 , O land , S ver ige ( = A un , A rchaeo log ica l S tud ies , U ppsa la U n ivers ity I n s t itute o f North-European A rchaeo logy , 5 ) . P o tte r , T .W . , 1 976 . ' Va l leys a nd s ett lement : s ome n ew e v idence ' , Wo r ld A rchaeo logy 8 ( 2 ) : 2 07 f . P owe l l , T .G .E . , 1 971 . ' F rom U ra rtu t o G undes trup : t he a gency o t T hrac ian meta lwo rk ' , i n J . B oardman , M .A . B rown & T .G .E . P owe l l ( Eds . ) , T he E uropean c ommun ity i n l a ter P reh is to ry ( London ) : 1 8 It . R andsbo rg , K . , 1 980 . T he V ik ing Age i n Den mark , T he F o r mat ion o f aS tate ( London & New Y o rk ) . R andsbo rg , K . , 1 981 . ' Les a ct iv its i n te rnat iona les d es V ik ings : r a ids o u c om merce? ' , A nna les E conom ies S oc ii . t e s C iv i l isa t ions 3 6 ( 5 ) : 8 62 t f . R andsborg , K . , f o rthcom ing . T he F irs t M i l lenn ium . R i is , P .J . , 1 959 . ' The D an ish b ronze V esse ls o t G reek , E ar ly Campan ian , a nd E truscan Manufactures ' , A cta A rchaeo log ica XXX : 1t f . S andars , N .K . , 1 971 . ' O r ien t a nd o r ienta l iz ing i ne ar ly c e lt ic a rt ' , Ant iqu ity XLV , No . 1 78 : 1 03 t . S i twe l l , N .H .H . , 1 984 . T he Wor ld t he Romans K new ( London ) . T hrone , H . ( Ed . ) , 1 985 . Gudme p rob lemer ,oB eretn ing f ra e t b ebygge lsesa rkaeo log isk s y mpos ium p 8 Ho l lufgard , a fho ldt d en 2 4 . -2 5 . Oc tober 1 984 : S kr itte r t ra h i sto r isk i n s t itut , O dense U n ive rs itet 3 3 . V ierck , H . , 1 984 . M itte l- u nd westeuropä ische E inw irkungen G ut d ie S achku ltur v an H a ithebu/Sch lesw ig , i nA rchäo log ische u nd n aturw issenscha ft l iche Untersuchungen a n S ied lungen i m d eutschen Kü stengeb iet 2 = H ande lsp latze d es f rühen u nd h ohen M itte la lters , We inhe im 1 984 . V ita-F inz i , C . , 1 969 . T he Med iterranean V a l leys ( Cambr idge ) . Werner , J . , 1 941 . ' D ie b e iden Z ie rsche iben d es T ho rsberger Moorfundes ' , Röm isch-ger man ische F o rschungen 1 6 . Whee ler , R .E .M . , G osh , A . &D eva , K . 1 946 . ' Ar ikamedu : a n I ndo-Roman T rad ing-stat ion o n t he E as t Coas t o f I nd ia ' , A nc ient I nd ia , B u l let in o f t he A rchaeo log ica l S urvey a t I nd ia 2 , 1 7 f t .

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W i lkes , J . J . &E lr ing ton , C .R . ( Eds . ) , 1 9 78 . Roman C amb r idgesh ire . AH is to ry o f t he C ounty o f C amb r idge a nd t he I s le o f E ly V I I ( Ox fo rd ) . O rsnes , M . , 1 9 63 . ' T he Weapon F ind i nE jsb q S l Mose a t H aders lev . P re l im ina ry R epo rt ' , A c ta A rchaeo log ica XXX 1V : 2 37 f t .

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5 . NAT IVE POPULAT IONS AND ROMANS J .H .F . B loemers H ere Ia ttempt t o g ive o n ly a g enera l b ackground t o t he c ho ice o f t he t heme ' Nat ive P opu lat ions a nd R omans ' a nd t he way i t may b e a pproached . I ndub itab ly , t h is i n troduct ion i s o f a p ersona l , a nd t hus o f a s ub ject ive c haracter . T he c omb inat ion o f s peakers a nd t he ir c hosen s ub jects r ef lect t he g enera l t op ics . T he p apers e xh ib it w hat must b e s een a s e xemp lary a na lyses o f t he v ar ious t op ics , a spects , r eg ions a nd p er iods . U navo idab ly , t he a na lyses a re i n d i fferent s t ages o f c omp leteness . T aken t ogether , t he p oss ib i l it ies a re i lus trated f o r g a in ing n ew i n s ight t hrough t he a pproach . O ne o f t he ma in r esearch t hemes i nR oman p er iod a rchaeo logy i st he r e lat ionsh ip b e tween t he a utochthone a nd t he a l lochthone c u lture s ystems . S tudy o f t hese r e lat ionsh ips a l so a pp l ies t o t he f i rs t m i l lenn ium AD a s t rends a r is ing d ur ing t he R oman p er iod s ubsequent ly a ffected p os t-Roman p er iod d eve lopments . W ith in p rov inc ia l R oman ist a rchaeo logy , t h is t heme o n ly i nc identa l ly r ece ives t he a ttent ion i td eserves -t ha t i s , f o r o n ly s o me a reas , b y af ew r esearchers . O n t he w ho le , t he s ub ject i si n frequent ly s ys temat ica l ly a pproached a nd e ven l e ss a t a n i n ternat iona l l e ve l o f a pp l icat ion a nd d i scuss ion i n c ontras t t o , f o r e xamp le , s t udy o f t he m i l itary i n fras tructure o r u rban d eve lopment w ith in t he Roman Emp ire . C entra l a spects o f t he t heme a re d eterm in ing t he s t ructure o f t he a utochthone a nd n a l ready r ece ived s erv ice ( ' Dankopfer ') . T he b as ic t hought i s , a ccord ing t o K y l l ( 1966 , 9 ) , t he n o t ion t hat t he g ods a nd g oddesses r esemb le h uman b e ings a s f ar a s t he ir f ee l ings a nd n eeds , a nd a cco rd ing ly l e t t he ir b ehav iour b e i n f luenced w ith a n e ye t o a dvantage a nd p leasure . A lthough l i tt le r esearch h as y et b een s ource o f i n fo rmat ion f o r t he s tudy o f s ymbo l ise t he c lose , r ec iproca l r e lat ion e nv ironmenta l s ystem , i n sofar a s t hese h o l ist ic i nc haracter .

d one , v ot ive o b jects a re a n i mportant p re-Roman r e l ig ion . V o t ive o ffer ings w h ich e x is ted b etween d ed icatura l a nd a re o f i mportance , l e ad ing t o as tudy

C arry ing o ut t h is t ype o f r esearch d emands , i n t he f i rs t p lace , a mu lt id i sc ip l inary a pproach i n c omb inat ion w ith a t heoret ica l ly a nd p ract ica l ly o r iented a pp l icat ion . D irected t owards t he i nd iv idua l h omes tead , t he h am let , t he r eg ion , a nd t he e nt ire s tate o r emp ire , t he s ca le o f r esearch c an b e e normous ly v ar iab le . S tudy a t t he f i rs t t wo l eve ls i s t rad it iona l ; t hat a t t he t h ird l e ve l d eve loped d ur ing t he 1 970 s i n an umbe r o f c ountr ies . E xamp les a re t o b e f ound i n t h is v o lume . S tudy a t t he h ighest l eve l f or t he R oman p er iod i n t he a bove s cheme h as b een h ard ly a ttempted i n as ystemat ic w ay , a nd e ven l e ss i n t he f orm o f c omparat ive r esearch . I n terest ing e xamp les o f t he p oss ib i l it ies a re t hose a na lyses b y R eece , ( 1973 ; 1 977 ) o n t he mean ing o f t he c o inage s ys tem , b y D yson ( 1975 ) o n n at ive r evo lt p atterns , a nd b y G a ltung e t a l . ( 1980 ) o n i mper ia l is m . As ympos ium v o lume s uch a s Roman a nd Nat ive i n t he L ow Countr ies ; s pheres o f i n teract ion p recedents s uch r esearch a l though c onf ined t o ar e lat ive ly s ma l l a rea ( Brandt a nd S lofstra 1 983 ) . T h is p art o f t he F irs t M i l len ium S ympos ium c an b e c ons idered t o b e a modes t e xtens ion i n g eograph ic o ut look . T he c ontr ibut ions b y Roy mans , a nd myse lf , i n a dd it ion t o t hat b y W i l lems ( s ee D yson 's s ect ion ) c lose ly f o l low-up t he D utch s ympos ium o f 1 980 . I n e xemp lary f ash ion , Roymans

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h and les a n i mpo rtant a spect o f North G a l l ic s oc iety i n t he l a te I r on Age a nd e ar ly R oman p er iod . H is a pproach i se xp l ic it ly a nthropo log ica l a nd i ss im i lar t o t hat o f H ase lgrove ( 1984 ) a nd N ash ( 1984 ) . H e s ketches a p ic ture o f t he r e lat ionsh ips b etween s oc io-po l it ica l a nd r e l ig ious o rgan izat ion d ur ing t he l a te I r on A ge a nd t he manner i n w h ich t hey c ont inue i n t he e ar ly R oman p er iod . I n my own p aper I u se t he c oncep t o f p er iphe ra l i mpe r ia l ism a nd o f c entre : p er iphery a s a mode l o f R oman p ower e xpans ion i n r e lat ionsh ip t o a utochthone g roups . H edeage r 's c ontr ibut ion i sh ere i mpo rtant a s a n i n te l l igent a na lys is o f t he s oc ia l d eve lopments i n n orthern G ermany a nd D enmark , a s p er iphera l r eg ions o f t he R oman Emp ire d ur ing t he R oman I r on A ge , whereby among o ther f ac to rs R oman p res t ige g oods p layed a r o le . T he R oman Emp ire b enef ited mos t f rom c ontacts w ith t he n at ive e l ite o f t he R h ine z one ; i n G erman ia L ibe ra , t he n at ive e l ite w as e ventua l ly t he w inn ing p arty : t he p rocess o f s econdary s tate f ormat ion l e d u l t i mate ly t o c onso l ida t ion i n to F rank ish a nd S axon b locks . Wh i le Hedeage r 's i n terpretat ion i s b ased o n e xtens ive r esearch w ith in a n a nthropo log ica l f ramework , c arr ied o ut o ver s eve ra l y ears , t he p aper b y G echte r a nd K unow d emons tra tes t he c haracter is t ics o f a n o r ientat ion p hase w h ich p receeds f ormu lat ion o f n ew d i rec t ions i n a na lys is . T he ir c ontr ibut ion i s o f g rea t i mportance f or f uture r esearch w ith in t he b oundary z one t o b o th s i des o f t he p rov inc ia l c ap ita l o f G erman ia I n fer ior a t C o logne , t he p o l it ica l a nd e conom ic c entre o f t he l ower R h ine-Meuse r eg ion . T he e xtens ive a nd e xce l lent r esearch i n t h is a rea d emands a n i n tegrated a pproach a long t he l i nes s ugges ted . T he s e lect ion o f e nv ironmenta l e nt it ies p ub l ished h ere f orms t he f i rs t s tep i n t h is d i rect ion . T he t wo p ape rs b y H ing ley a nd V an d er V een c oncern ing B r itann ia a re c ounterparts t o r esearch i n North G a l l ia a nd G erman ia . H ing ley 's a na lys is d emonstrates t he p oss ib i l it ies f or c omb in ing e co log ica l ly d ef ined r eg ions t o a d iachron ic p erspect ive o f t he I r on A ge a nd R oman p er iod . T he a na lys is o f a utochthone s oc ia l s t ructure b ased o n s ett lement p attern a nd t he e conom ic p oss ib i l it ies f o r s ubs is tence a nd s urp lus p roduct ion f or a market e conomy i s e xce l lent a nd i n v ites f urthe r r esearch i n t h is a rea a nd e l sewhere , s uch a s t he R h ine land . V an d er V een p resents a n e qua l ly e xc it ing p erspect ive , t hrough a rchaeobotan ica l a na lys is , o f h ow t o d eterm ine t he i mportance o f t he n at ive a grar ian e conomy f o r R oman g arr isons i n t he n orth B r it ish f ront ier z one . R esearch i s i n f u l l-sw ing a nd t here a re a s y et n o d eta i led r esu lts , b ut t he p rob lems a re f u l ly o ut l ined a nd t he methodo logy c lear ly f ormu lated . I ti so n ly a matter o f t ime b efore r esu lts w i l l b e f orthcom ing . Hopefu l ly , t he t ime w i l l b e a va i lab le . Iam g ratefu l t o t he a utho rs f or t he ir c ontr ibu t ions . T hese h ave s t reng thened my f ee l ing t hat t h is f o rm o f r esearch i s v a luab le . A dd it iona l ly , t he i n terconnectedness o f t he v ar ious a na lyses i s f a r g reater t han e xpected : s o , a fter t he s econd s tep , at h ird? B ib l iography B randt , R . , a nd S lofstra , J . , ( eds ) . 1 983 . Roman a nd Nat ive i n t he L ow Countr ies . S pheres o f i n teract ion , ( Br it ish A rchaeo log ica l Repo rts , I n ternat iona l S er ies 1 84 ; O xford ) . C larke , D .L . , 1 978 . Ana ly t ica l A rchaeo logy ; ( London ) . D yson , S .L . , 1 975 . ' Nat ive r evo lt p atterns i nt he R oman Emp ire ' , i n H . T empor in i ( Hrsg . ) , Aufst ieg u nd N iedergang d er r öm ischen We lt 1 .3 ; ( Ber l in/New Y ork ) : 1 38-75 . G a ltung , J . , H e iestad , T . , a nd R udeng , E . , 1 980 . ' On t he D ec l ine a nd F a l l o f Emp ires : T he Roman Emp ire a nd Western I mper ia l ism Compared ' , Rev iew 4 : 9 1153 .

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H ase lgrove , C . , 1 984 . ' " Roman iza t ion" b efo re t he c onques t : G au l ish p recedents a nd B r it ish c onsequences ' , i n B lagg , T .F .C . , a nd K ing , A .C . ( e ds . ) , M i l itary a nd C iv i l ian i n Roman B r ita in . C u ltura l R e lat ionsh ips i na F ront ier O xfo rd ( B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l R epo rts , B r it ish S er ies 1 36 ; O x ford ) : 5 -63 . N ash , D . , 1 984 . ' The B a s is o f C ontact b etween B r ita in a nd G au l i nt he L ate P reR oman I r on A ge ' , i n S . Macready a nd F .H . T hompson ( e ds . ) . C rossChanne l T rade b etween Gau l a nd B r ita in i nt he P re-Roman I r on A ge , ( London ) : 9 2107 . R eece , R . , 1 973 . ' Roman C o inage i nt he Wes tern Emp ire ' , B r itann ia 4 : 2 27-5 1. R eece , R . , 1 977 . ' Co ins a nd f ront iers -o r s upp ly a nd d emand ' , i nJ .F i tz ( e d . ) , L i mes . A kten 4 . 1 I .I n t . L i meskongr . , S ze i xesfehi rvar 1 976 : 6 43-6 .

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6 . REL IG ION AND SOC IETY I N LATE I RON AGE NORTHERN GAUL N ico Roymans I n troduct ion I n t h is a rt ic le , w h ich i sp art o f al a rger s tudy s t i l l i n p reparat ion ( 1 ) o f t he l a te I r on A ge i n n orthern G au l , Iw i l l b e d i scuss ing s o me a spects o f p re-Roman r e l ig ious o rgan isat ion i n t he r eg ion r ough ly c o inc id ing w ith p resent n orthern F rance , t he T r ier a nd t he German L ower R h ine a rea , B e lg ium a nd t he s outhern Nether lands . 1w i l l b e p roceed ing f rom a n h o l ist ic a pproach t o r e l ig ion w h ich may b e d ef ined a s t he t ota l ity o f h uman c onceptua l isat ion a nd b ehav iour i nvo lv ing b e l ief i n s upernat u ra l p owers a nd f o rces , a nd w h ich i s embedded i n t he b roader s oc iocu ltura l s ystem . U s ing t h is a pproach , i t i s p oss ib le t o s tudy r e lat ions b etween t he r e l ig ious s ys tem , a nd o ther s ubsys tems . R e l ig ion c annot , a nd t h is c erta in ly a pp l ies t o t he l e sser c omp lex s oc iet ies , b e s tud ied i n i s o lat ion . H uman b ehav iour t hat i sc lass if ied a s ' r e l ig ious ' i so ften i n separab le f rom s oc ia l , p o l it ica l a nd e conom ic a spects o f b ehav iour ; i n o the r words , i t a ppears t o b e i n tertw ined i n v ar ious w ays w ith ' n on-re l ig ious ' s pheres . Mo re s pec if ica l ly , I a dhere t o t he v iews o f t hose a nthropo log ists w ho s ee r e l ig ion a s ar ef lect ion o f t he s oc ieta l s t ructure ( e .g . D urkhe im 1 96 1; Ma l inowsk i 1 954 ) . G ods , myths a nd r i tua ls a re i mportant i n t he i n teg rat ion o f s oc iety a nd t he l e g it i mat ion o f v a lues a nd n orms . R e l ig ion p rov ides f or c oherency , s tab i l ity a nd c ont inu ity . I n t he f o l low ing , Iw i l l a ttemp t -u s ing a rchaeo log ica l , h i stor ica l a nd e p igraph ic d ata a va i lab le f rom t he North G a l l ic a rea -t o s ketch s ome p atterns o f r e lat ions b etween r e l ig ious o rgan isat ion a nd t he o the r s pheres o f s oc iety . D ifferent l eve ls o f r e l ig ious o rgan isat ion F igure 6 . 1 i s as chemat ic r epresentat ion o f p re-Roman s oc ieta l o rgan isat ion i n n orthern ' Gau l . T he s oc iet ies c ons ist o f s evera l s oc ia l l eve ls - t he h ouseho ld , t he ' l ineage ' , t he ' c lan ' , t he p agus , a nd t he t r ibe o r c iv itas , r espect ive ly w h ich a re i n tegrated p r i mar i ly t hrough k insh ip p r inc ip les . T he s oc iet ies a ppear t o h ave b een d ecentra l ised , w ith n o s t rong p o l it ica l a utho r ity p resent a t t he o ve rarch ing c iv itas l eve l . As egmentary s t ructure c an b e s een , b ut more s o f o r t he n orthern t han f or t he s outhern t r ibes . L ower o rgan isat iona l l eve ls , e spec ia l ly t he p agus , h ave a h igh d egree o f a utonomy . T he q ues t ion a r ises a s t o w hat d egree t h is s egmentary s t ructure a nd t he h ierarch ia l d imens ion i n i t a re r epresented i n r e l ig ious o rgan isat ion . C omparat ive r esearch o n r e l ig ion w ith in l e ss c omp lex , n on-western s oc iet ies h as c lear ly r evea led t h is t ype o f r e lat ionsh ip . I n t h is c ontext , S ah l ins ( 1968 , 1 8 ) c onc ludes : ' i t i si nappropr iate t o s peak o f t he r e l ig ion o f at r ibe . T he t r iba l r e l ig ion i s o rgan ised a t v ar ious s egmentary l eve ls . T o a pprec iate t he " system" i n i t , r e l ig ious p ract ice h as t o b e d i ssected i n to i t s c omponent l e ve ls a nd r e lated t o t he s oc ia l c onst itut ion a nd l i fe p rob lems o f t he g roup a t i s sue . P erhaps o n ly t hen d oes o ne d i scover , o r b eg in t o u nderstand , t he p attern o f o rder i n as eem ing b ew i lder ing a rray o f s p ir itua l e nt it ies . T he s p ir its h ave t he ir o wn h ierarchy , o ften r ecogn ised a s s uch b y t he p eop le ( . . ) . T he " sys tem" i s t he s egmentary s ystem o f t he t r ibe , t he r ank ing o f t he s p ir its a s ymbo l ic t ranspos it ion o f t he s egmentary h ierarchy . T he h igh g ods a re t r iba l g ods , s p ir its o f e veryone , c oncerned w ith t h ings t hat h appen t o e veryone . A ncestera l s p ir its a re t ute lar ies o f t he c lan o r l i neage , c oncered w ith t he p art icu lar d es t in ies o f t hese g roups , wh i le g hos ts o f t he r ecent ly d eparted ( . ) p art icu lar ly i n f luence f am i l ia l a nd i nd iv idua l f ate ' . D ifferent l eve ls o f r e l ig ious o rgan isat ion , c orrespond ing t o t he p r inc ipa l l eve ls w ith in t he c iv itas s t ructure , c an a l so b e d e l ineated f or t he North G a l l ic r eg ion . T here a re a lmos t n o h i s tor ica l d ata p erta in ing t o t he l owest s oc ieta l l e ve ls d ue t o c lass ica l w r iters ' d i s interes t . O ne e xcep t ion i s t hat p assage i n T ac itus

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F ig .6 .1:

P re-Roman s oc ia l o rgan isat ion i nn o rthern G au l

( Ge r man ia 1 0 ) w here a s acerdos c iv itat is i sc ontrasted t o t he p ater f am i l ias a s e xecuto r o f r i tua ls . F o r t he f i rst , p ub l ic r i tua ls a t t he c iv itas l e ve l a re i n vo lved ; f o r t he s econd , ' p r ivate ' a ffa irs a re c oncerned a t t he l eve l o f t he f am i l ia , p robab ly r eferr ing t o t he ' l ineage ' o r f am i ly g roup . T he g enea log ica l ly e ldest p erson o f a n a pparent ly p atr i l inea l k in g roup f u lf i ls t he p r iest ly f unct ion ; h e a cts a s med iator b etween h i s k in a nd t he g ods . A nother i nd icat ion f o r r e l ig ion a t t he ' l ineage ' o r ' c lan ' l e ve l i st he G a l lo-Roman c u lt o f mother g oddesses -c a l led matronae -i nt he R h ine land . T he g reat d ens ity a nd n ame d ivers ity o f matronae g roups i n t he r eg ion b etween t he Meuse a nd L ower Rh ine p o int t o t he e x istence o f r e lat ive ly s ma l l c u lt c ommun it ies , f unct ion ing b e low t he c iv itas o r p agus l e ve l , a nd h av ing t he ir o wn s anctuar ies . S ign if icant ly , t he l oca l e p ithets o f t he matronae g roups a re u sua l ly a d ject ives o f g roup n ames , a s i sp art icu lar ly c lear i n t hose c ases w here t he g roup d es ignat ions a re a l so k nown . F o r e xamp le , t he E trates a re ment ioned i n a d ed icat ion t o Mercury , a s a re t he Ma tronae E trahenae i n o ther i n scr ipt ions . A d ed icat ion t o t he Matronae o f t he G esat iones c omes f rom J ü l ich , w h i le o n o the r a l tars t he s a me g oddesses a re r e ferred t o a s t he Gesahenae . V o t ive i n scr ipt ions f rom Mo rken-Harff ment ion t he Austr iates , a s w e l l a s t he Matronae Austr iahenae . ( 2 ) T he worsh ip o f t he R h ine land mo ther g oddesses s eems c oup led t o r e lat ive ly s ma l l k in g roups , p robab ly ' l ineages ' o r ' c lans ' , s t i l l f unct ion ing a s c u lt c ommun it ies i n R oman t imes . I n t hose r are c ases i n w h ich o ne s i ng le d ed icat ion i sd i rected t o t wo d i fferent Matronae g roups , o ne c ou ld a ssume r eference i s made t o t he d iv ine mothers o f t he p aterna l a nd o f t he materna l k in-group o f t he d ed icator . T here a re s evera l c ases i n w h ich t he matronae c u lt i sc onnected t o t he worsh ip o f n at ive Me rcury g ods . Two a l tars t o Mercur ius A rvernus h ave b een f ound a t t he s anctuary o f t he Matronae Octocannae a t G r ipswa ld ; n ine d ed icat ions t o Mercur ius Gebr in ius c ome f rom t he t e mp le c omp lex o f t he Matronae Aufan iae a t B onn ; Mercur ius L eudanus i s n amed i n a d ed icat ion f rom We iswe i ler a nd a Mercur ius Chann in i i sk nown f rom Rohr . A n a l tar t o t he Matronae A laferhv iae , f ound a t E schwe i ler i s d ecorated w ith a c aduceus , a nd a t Morken-Harff a f ragment o f a n a l tar t o Mercury h as b een f ound t ogether w ith many a l tars t o t he Matronae Austr iahenae . T hese n at ive d iet ies a ssoc iated w ith Mercury a ppear t o h ave f unct ioned i n t he L ower R h ine land a s t he ma le c ounterparts t o l oca l mo ther g oddesses . ( 3 ) I n r egards t o t he p agus w e a l so h ave s ome h i s tor ica l a nd e p igraph ic i n d icat ions t hat p o int t o t he e x is tence o f ac u lt c ommun ity a t t hat l e ve l . Cons ider ing t he h igh ly a utonomous p os it ion o f t he p agus a s as oc ia l , p o l it ica l a nd m i l itary u n it ( Ju I l ion 1 90 1a ; Nash 1 976 , I l l f . ) , i t i s o bv ious t hat t h is l eve l o f i n tegrat ion man ifests i t se lf a s ar e lat ive ly i n dependent u n it i nt he r e l ig ious s phere . F irs t ly , t here i s e p igraph ic i n fo rmat ion d at ing f rom t he Roman p er iod . T h is p art icu lar ly c oncerns d ed icat ions t o ap agus o r t he g en ius o f ap agus , o ften i n a ssoc iat ion w ith a s pec if ic d e ity . V ar ious e xamp les a re k nown f rom t he T r ier r eg ion . F rom t he T ite lberg ( Lux .) c omes a n a l tar d ed icated t o t he g en ius o f t he V osugones a nd a d ed icat ion t o Mars a nd t he g en ius o f t he T a l l iates i s k nown f rom R ipsdorf . T he g od C reto a nd t he g enius o f t he p agus Ac . . . a re h onoured i n t he d ed icato ry i n scr ipt ion o f ac u lt t heatre i n t he v icus B e lg inum a t H inzerath . A n i n scr ipt ion f rom t he t e mp le c omp lex a t T r ier- " I rm inenw ingert ' i sd ed icated t o L enus Mars a nd A ncamna a nd t he g en ius o f t he p agus V i lc ias , a nd a s econd i n scr ipt ion i s t o t he g en ius o f t he p agus T eucor ias . S im i lar d ed icat ions a re k nown f rom n orthern F rance . I n a n i n scr ip t ion f rom N izyle-Comte ( A isne ) a c u lt t heatre i s d ed icated t o A po l lo a nd t he p agus o f t he V ennec t i , a nd i n t he t e mp le c omp lex a t E u ( S e ine - Mar it i me ) , o r ig inat ing i n t he L ate L a Une p er iod ,

5 7

F ig .6 .2 :

' I rm inenw ingert ' -s tone c u lt b enches a t t he s ancturary o f L enus Ma rs a t T r ier

5 8

a n i n scr ipt ion h as b een f ound i n w h ich a s acerdos Romae e t Augus t i d ed icates a c u lt t heatre t o t he p agus o f t he Catus lug i a nd a d e ity . ( 4 ) I n t he a bove ment ioned i n scr ipt ions , t he p agus i sd ep icted a s ad iv ine b e ing t o w h ich d ed icat ions c ou ld b e made . An at ive g od , w ho c an b e s een a s t he p atron o f t he r e lated p agus , i sa l so ment ioned a t t imes . I mportant a dd it iona l i n format ion i sg a ined f rom a n i n sc r ipt ion , d at ing t o t he f i rs t h a lf o f t he I s t c entury , f ound i n t he K le in-W internhe im s anctuary , t o t he s outh o f Ma inz . A s pr ing i sc eded t o t he t e mp le o f Mars L oucet ius a s ar esu lt o f w h ich t he A resaces , p robab ly a s ubt r ibe o f t he T rever i , p ub l ic ly p laced a n i n scr ipt ion . L oucet ius c an b e c ons idered h ere t he t ute lary d e ity o f t he A resaces . ( 5 ) T he i nd icat ions c o l lected h ere f or t he e x istence o f t he p agus a s a n a utonomous c u lt c om mun ity i mp ly t hat p r iests f unc t ioned a t t h is l eve l . D irec t h i stor ica l o r e p igraph ic e v idence f o r t h is i s u nknown f rom n orthern G au l . However , i n a n i n scr ipt ion f rom S eysse l ( Haute-Savo ie ) as acerdos p ag i i s ment ioned . Moreover i ti sn ot i mposs ib le t hat t he s acerdos Romae e t Augus t i o f t he v o t ive s tone f rom E u w as n o t o n ly a l l ied t o t he i mper ia l c u lt , b ut a l so f unct ioned a s p r iest a t t he s anc tuary o f t he C a tus lug i a t E u . ( 6 ) O f e xcept iona l i mportance f or t he s tudy o f t he i deo log ica l l i nks b etween p ag i a nd o f t he ir i n tegra t ion i n to a w ide r t r iba l u n it i sT ac itus ' we l l k nown p assage o n t he German ic S ueb i ( German ia 3 9 ) : ' They d escr ibe t he S emnones a s t he mos t a nc ient a nd b est b orn o f t he S ueb i . T h is c red ib i l ity o f t he ir a nt iqu ity i s c onf ir med b y r e l ig ion . A t f i xed s easons a l l t r ibes o f t he s a me n ame a nd b lood g ather t hrough t he ir d e legat ions a t ac erta in f orest , ( . ) . A nd a fter p ub l ic ly o ffer ing u p ah uman l i fe , t hey c e lebrate t he g r im i n it iat ion o f t he ir b arbarous w orsh ip . ( . . ) . T he w ho le s upers t it ion c ame t o t h is , t hat i t was h ere w here t he r ace a rose , h ere w here d we l ls t he g od w ho i sl o rd o f a l l t h ings . ' O ne c an a ssume t ha t e ach o f t he S ueb ian s ub-tr ibes f unct ioned a s ar e lat ive ly a utonomous c u lt c ommun ity . A t t he p an-tr iba l l e ve l , h owever , ah ierarch ica l s t ructure a ppears i n t he r e l ig ious o rgan isat ion c ons istent w ith S ueb ian d escent t rad it ion . T he b as ic n ot ion i s b e l ief i n t he d iv ine o r ig in o f t he S ueb ian p eop le . T he s ub-tr ibe w ith t he g enea log ica l ly h ighest p os it ion s tood c loses t t o t he myth ica l o r ig in . Among t he S ueb i , t hese w ere t he S emnones . T he ir f avoured g enea log ica l a nd r e l ig ious s tatus i ss ymbo l ised b y t he s i tuat ion i n t he ir t err ito ry o f t he p r imary c u lt c entre , t he dwe l l ing p lace o f t he S ueb ian c h ief g od . A t p art icu lar t imes , a l l o f t he s ub-tr ibes s ent r epresentat ives t o t h is c u lt c entre t o c arry o ut r i tes c o l lect ive ly . T he S ueb i d id n ot c ons t itute a ' c iv itas ' i n t he s t r ict s ense d ur ing t he e ar ly Roman p er iod , b ut were r ather a f ederat ion o f a n umbe r o f a utonomous s ub-tr ibes ( Tac itus German ia 3 8 . ) . However , t he ir r e l ig ious s t ructure may b e u sefu l a s a mode l f or t he i n terna l r e l ig ious o rgan isat ion o f C e lt ic a nd German ic s oc iet ies i n tegrated a long k insh ip l i nes . T races o f as im i lar o rgan isat ion a ppear t o h ave b een s t i l l p resent among t he T rever i i n t he Roman p er iod . D ur ing e xcavat ion o f t he c entra l s anctuary o f L enus Mars a t T r ier- ' I rm inenw ingert ' t wo i n scr ibed s tone c u lt b enches ( exhedrae ) were f ound a long t he e ntrance t o t he ma in t e mp le . T he f i rst ( F ig 6 .2 ) i s d ed icated t o L enus Mars , t he g oddess A ncamna a nd t he g en ius o f t he p agus V i lc ias , t he s econd i s d ed icated t o t he g en ius o f t he p agus T eucor ias b y t wo p e rsons , o ne o f w hom w as a h igh-pr ies t ( ant is tes ) . I f e xcavat ion h ad c ont inued a t t hat t ime , t he b enches o f t he r e ma inde r o f t he T rever ian p ag i wou ld n o d oub t h ave b een f ound . T hese e xhedrae a re i n terpreted a s h av ing b een t he s eats f o r t he r e l ig ious r epresentat ives f rom t he p ag i , w ho g athered a t f i xed t imes t o c o l lect ive ly p ract ice r i tes i n h onour o f t he c h ief g od L enus . ( 7 ) A s s uch , t hese b enches may s y mbo l ise a s im i lar o rgan isat ion a s t hat 5 9

F ig .6 .3 :

D is tr ibu t ion o f d ed ica t ions t o n a t ive Ma rs g ods i nN o r th G au l . S ome d ed ica t ions o f M ars g od s w o rsh ipped o uts ide t he ir ' h omeland ' a re n o t mapped . a . L enus Ma rs d . Mars C nabet ius f . ( Ma rs ) I n tarabus b . Ma rs Smert r ius e . Ma rs V egn ius g . o the r M a rs g od s c . Ma rs L ouce t ius

6 0

s ketched b y T ac itus i n h i s d escr ipt ion o f t he S ueb i . Mo re a va i lab le o n t he f unc t ion ing o f t he c iv itas a s ac u lt c ommun ity .

i n format ion

i s

A t t he c iv itas l e ve l , r i tua ls a re p ub l ic ly e xecuted i n t he n ame o f t he e nt ire t r ibe , w hereby l a rge g roups o f p eop le a re p resent a t t imes . T he t r ibe a cted a s c u lt c ommun ity n ot o n ly d ur ing r e l ig ious f es t iva ls , b ut a l so w hen t he a ssemb ly g athered f o r i mportant d ec is ion mak ing , s uch a s t he c ho ice o f ak ing , a nd t he d ec larat ion o f war o r p eace . F urther , p r iests e x isted w ho f unct ioned a s med iators b etween g ods a nd t he t r iba l c ommun ity , p erform ing r i tua ls a nd mak ing o f fer ings . I n s evera l p assages , T ac itus r efers t o G erman ic t r ibes o perat ing a s c u lt c om mun it i e s . I n German ia 1 0 , t here i s a ment ion o f as acerdos c iv itat is a s t he e xecutor o f t he p ub l ic r i tua ls . I n German ia 1 0 , ac u lt a ct i s ment ioned w h ich i s c arr ied o ut a t t he t r iba l l eve l b y as acerdos t ogethe r w ith t he k ing o r t he p r inceps c iv itat is . German ia I d ea ls w ith t he r o le o f t he t r iba l p r ies t a t t he g enera l a ssemb ly t ak ing p lace o n c erta in d ays a t n ew o r f u l l moon , w h ich i sn o d oubt c onnected t o t he e xecut ion o f r i tua ls . A t t he a ssemb ly , t he p r iests ma inta in o rder a nd h ave t he r i ght t o p un ish . I n Anna les 1 3 .57 , t he H ermundur i a s w e l l a s t he C hatt i v ow t o s acr if ice p r isoners a nd b ooty t o t he ir g ods i f v icto r ious . A dd it iona l ly , S trabo ( 7 .1.4 ) ment ions t he t r iba l p r ies t o f t he C hatt i w ho w as c arr ied a long i nG erman icus ' t r iumpha l march . Among t he G au ls w e a l so s ee p r iests p res id ing o ver p ub l ic r i tua ls . T he d ru ids c ou ld d eny i n d iv idua ls , o r e ven w ho le g roups , p art ic ipatory r i ghts i n s acr if ic ia l p ract ices . Among t he Aedu i , t he p r iests p layed a r o le i n e lect ing t he h igh mag istrate . ( 8 ) O ne c an a ssume t hat t he h igh p r iest p os it ions w ith in a c iv itas w ere f i l led b y membe rs o f t he i mportant a r istocrat ic f am i l ies . T he o n ly Ga l l ic d ru id k nown b y n ame , t he A eduan D iv ic iacus , was a s c ion o f t he mos t p rom inent f am i ly o f h i s t r ibe ( 9 ) C u lt c om mun it ies a l so e x isted a t t he s upra-tr iba l l eve l i n t he G a l l ic a nd G erman ic wor ld . I n t he f ew e xamp les k nown , w e a re d ea l ing w ith t r ibes w ho c ons idered t hemse lves k insfo lk , a nd w ho t raced t he ir o r ig ins t o t he s a me ( d iv ine ) a ncestors . A ccord ing t o t he G erman ic Mannus myth , Mannus , s on o f t he g od T u isto , was t he f ounder o f t he G erman ic p eop le . He h ad t hree s ons w ho b ecame f ounders o f t r iba l g roup ings n amed a fter t hem . P resumab ly , s uch d escent myths w e re r e lated t o r egu lar ly o ccurr ing r e l ig ious g ather ings w here r epresentat ives f rom a l l t he t r ibes p ar t ic ipated , s im i lar t o t he s i tuat ion a s s ketched f or t he S ueb i . Among t he G au ls , t here w as t he myth , p ropagated b y t he d ru ids , t hat t hey a l l d escended f rom D is p ater . A l a rge r e l ig ious g ather ing was h e ld a t a c erta in t ime o f t he y ear a t ac u lt c entre i n t he t err itory o f t he C arnutes . ( 10 ) F rom t he a bove c ons ide rat ions , i ta ppears t hat o ne c an g a in i n s ight i n to n at ive r e l ig ion b y d i st ingu ish ing v ar ious l eve ls i n i t s o rgan isat ion . Nat ive r e l ig ion w as p o lycentr ic a nd t h is may h ave b een t he mos t i mportant e xp lanat ion f o r t he e normous v ar iety o f d e it ies i n n orthern G au l a nd t he h ierarch ica l d imens ion w h ich i ss omet i mes p erc ieved i n i t . I n r egards t o t he l a tter , Iwou ld l i ke t o r efer t o t he c u lt o f n at ive Mars g ods , t hat s eems t o b e c oncentrated i n T reveran t e rr itory ( F ig 6 .3 ) . I n t o ta l , s i x n at ive d e it ies a re a ssoc iated w ith Mars : L enus , Smertr ius , L oucet ius , C nabet ius , V egn ius a nd I n tarabus . ( 1 I ) L enus i sg enera l ly c ons idered t o h ave b een t he c h ief g od o f t he T rever i ; mos t d ed icat ions a re d i rected t o h im a nd t hey a re s pread o ver much o f t he T r ier a rea . Mo reover , h e w as h onoured a t t he i mpress ive t emp le a t T r ier I rm inenw ingert o n t he Mose l , most l i ke ly t he t r iba l s anctuary o f t he T rever i ( 12 ) . I n c ontrast , worsh ip o f t he o ther Mars d e it ies s eems t o h ave b een o f more l oca l i mportance . I n s ome c ases , i n scr ipt ions c lear ly c oncentrate i n c erta in s ubreg ions o f t he T r ier a rea , s uch a s 6 1

F ig .6 .4 :

D istr ibut ion o f p re-Roman c u ltp laces i n North Gau l . a . b . c .

c u ltp lace s i tuated i n aL ate L a Une Opp idum c u ltp lace s i tuated n ear a G a l lo-roman t e mp le c omp lex w ith a c u lt-theatre o ther c u ltp laces

6 2

t hose t o Mars C nabet ius i n t he S aar land o r t hose t o Mars L oucet ius i nt he r eg ion t o t he s outh o f Ma inz , c entred o n t he s anctuary a t K le in-W internhe im . I n a n i n scr ipt ion f ound t here , L oucet ius i s h onoured a s t he g od o f t he A resaces w ho w ere p robab ly a s ubtr ibe o f t he T rever i . T he r i ch v ar iety o f T reveran Mars d e it ies a nd t he a pparent h ierarchy among t hem i sp oss ib ly r e lated t o t he a l ready ment ioned p o lycentr ic s t ructure o f n at ive r e l ig ion . C u lt p laces T he p o lycentr ic mode l o f p re-Roman r e l ig ious o rgan isat ion c an a l so s erve a s a s t art ing p o int f or t he s tudy o f c u lt p laces . I mportant r esearch h as t aken p lace d ur ing t he l a st y ears , p art icu lar ly i n n orthern F rance , o n t he p re-Roman o r ig ins o f G a l lo-Roman s anctuar ies ( 13 ) . A t p resent , a n i n ventory o f c . 2 5 c u lt c entres c an b e c omp i led f or n o rthern G au l wh ich d ate f rom t he l a te L a Une p er iod , o r t he t rans it ion t o t he R oman p er iod ( f ig .4 ) . A n i mportant q uest ion w h ich c an b e p osed h ere i st hat c oncern ing t he r e lat ionsh ip b etween c u lt c ommun ity a nd c u lt p lace . I t w as s ugges ted a bove t ha t t he v ar ious l eve ls w ith in t he t r iba l o rgan isat ion f o r med r e lat ive ly a utonomous c ommun it ies i n t he r e l ig ious d oma in a nd t hat t hese h ad t he ir own c u lt p laces . Cont inu ing t h is l i ne o f r eason ing , a h i erarchy o f c u lt c entres c an b e p os tu lated a nd o ne may a ttempt t o c ategor ise t he a rchaeo log ica l ly k nown c entres a s t o w h ich l e ve l t hey b e long . O n t he b as is o f t he a va i lab le d ata , i t s eems t he ma jor ity f unct ioned a t t he p agus o r c iv itas l e ve l . T hree a rguments c an b e p ut f o rward . F irst ly , o ne c an p o int o ut t he s i tuat ion o f s evera l r e l ig ious p laces i nl a te L a Une o pp ida o r h i l lforts , s uch a s t hat a t Gournay-sur-Aronde , t he ' Martberg ' n ear P om mern a nd t he ' C ite d e L i mes ' n ear B racquemont . S econd ly , t here i s e p igraph ic i n format ion i n d icat ing t hat s o me o f t he c u lt p laces were u sed a s p agus o r t r iba l s anctuar ies i n t he Roman P er iod . T he t emp le o f T r ierI rm inenw ingert c an b e i d ent if ied a s t he c entra l s anctuary o f t he T rever i ; t hat a t E u a s t he c u lt c entre o f t he C atus lug i ( a p agus o f t he Amb ian i) a nd t he t e mp le c omp lex a t K le in-W internhe im a s t he s anctuary o f t he A resaces . T h ird ly , i t i s s i gn if icant t hat many o f t he p resent ly k nown c u lt p laces h ave d eve loped i n to l a rge t emp le c omp lexes w ith c u lt t heatre a nnexes d ur ing t he Roman p er iod , o ften l y ing i nv icus-type s ett lements , h ut n ever w ith in l a rge u rban c entres . T h is i s t he c ase f or R ibemont-sur-Ancre , V endeu i l-Cap ly , Gena inv i l le , E u , E p ia isR hus , O rrouy , Möhn a nd T r ierlrm inenw ingert ( F ig . 6 .4 ) . T hat t hese p laces g rew t o b ecome i mportant r e l ig ious c entres d ur ing t he Roman p er iod i s p robab ly r e lated t o t he ir e xcept iona l s tatus a s l ocus c onsecratus o f ac iv itas o r p agus w h ich t hey a l ready h ad i nt he p re-Roman p er iod . T h is l a st h ypo thes is i s d i rect ly c onnected t o i d eas h e ld b y P icard ( 1970 ) a nd C ha iron ( 1983 ) o n t he o r ig ins o f t he l a rge G a l lo-Roman s anctuar ies w ith a c u lt t heatre s i tuated o uts ide t he l a rge u rban c entres . T he p resence o f a t heatre i n d icates t hat i mportant r e l ig ious f est iva ls were h e ld h ere a t c erta in t imes o f t he y ear w h ich were a ttended b y l a rge n umbers o f p eop le . A cco rd ing t o P icard , t h is t ype o f s anctuary o r ig inated f rom p re-Roman c onc i l iabu la , t r iba l o r s ubt r iba l c u lt c entres u sed f or p er iod ic g ather ings . T h is p ropos it ion i ss upported b y a rchaeo log ic a l r esearch o ften d emonstrat ing t he p re-Roman o r ig ins o f t hese ' r ura l ' t e mp le s i tes w ith a c u lt t heatre . F urthermore , t here a re i n scr ipt ions f rom t he t e mp le c omp lexes a t H inzerath-Be lg inum , N izyle-comte a nd E u d ed icat ing t heatres t o ap agus a nd a p agus d e ity . O ne c an a l so r efer t o t he s tone c u lt b enches f rom t he t emp le c omp lex a nnexe t heatre o f L enus Mars a t T r ier' I rm inenw ingert ' , u sed d ur ing r e l ig ious c eremon ies b y r epresentat ives f rom t he p ag i . I f i t i s a ssumed t hat mos t o f t he p resent ly k nown p re-Roman c u lt p laces o f n orthern G au l a re a ssoc iated w ith t r ibes o r s ubtr ibes , i tt hen f o l lows t hat w e 6 3

a re p oo r ly i n formed o n s acred p laces r e lated t o l ower l e ve ls o f t r iba l o rgan isa t ion . T h is may b e d ue t o t he ir more p r im it ive c harac te r w h ich makes t hem l e ss e as i ly t raceab le t hrough a rchaeo logy . T he s ame p rob lem , t hat o f a rchaeo log ica l r ecogn isab i l ity , i s a l so p resent w hen i n terpret ing t he e ar l ies t c u lt-p lace d i s tr ibu t ion p attern ( F ig . 6 . 4 ) . T he d i str ibut ion i s r es tr icted t o t he s outhern h a lf o f G a l l ia B e lg ica . G a l lo-Roman s anctuar ies w ith l a te L a T he p redecessors a re n o t k nown f rom t he n o rthern p ar t ; h owever , t h is d oes n o t mean t hey d id n o t e x is t h ere . T he mos t p laus ib le e xp lanat ion f or t he ir a bsence i s t he d i ff icu lty i n r ecogn is ing t hem a rchaeo log ica l ly d ue t o t he ir mo re p r im it ive c haracter . V ar ious f ac to rs may b e c ontr ibutory , s uch a s t he a bsence o f c u lt b u i ld ings o r i mp ress ive e nc losure d i tches a nd t he s carc ity o f e as i ly r ecogn isab le v o t ive o ffer ings s uch a s weapons a nd C e lt ic c o ins . V o t ive O ffer ings At yp ica l p henomenon a t p re-Roman c u lt p laces i n n orthern G au l i st he p resence o f l a rge q uant it ies o f v o t ive o ffer ings , o r t he r e ma ins t hereo f . T he v o t ive o b jects a re o ften s o c haracter is t ic i n r egards t o n umbe rs a nd c ompos it ion , t hat t he r i tua l c haracter o f a n a rchaeo log ica l s i te c an o ften b e d ete rm ined o n t h is b as is a lone . T yp ica l i s t he c omb ined o ccur rence o f h uman , a s w e l l a s a n ima l b ones , a nd o f meta l o b jects , p art icu lar ly c o ins , f i bu lae a nd weapons ( Tab le 6 . 1) . a n ima l b ones

1B racquemont 2E u 3G ena inv i l le 4E p ia is-Rhus 5O rrouy-Champ l ieu 6P ierrefonds 7G ournaysur-Aronde 8V endeu i l-Cap ly 9C h i l ly 0R ibemont-sur-Ancre ID igeon 2 Moeuvres 3C hateau-Po rc ien 4N anteu i l-sur-A isne 5B ouve tl emont 6F lav ier 7 Matagne-La-Pet ite 8 Möhn 9T r ierIrm inenw ingert 2 0 P ommern-Ma rtberg 2 1 K le in-W internhe im 2 2 B ennecour t 2 3 Meaux-La B auve

h uman b ones

weap ons

Ga l l ic c o ins

f i bube

meta l whee ls

x x x x x -

x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x

x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x

x x

x x x x x -

x x x x x x x x x -

x x x x x x x x x x -

T ab le 6 . 1. S urvey o f t he mos t i mpo rtant c atego r ies o f v ot ive o ffer ing s f ound a t c u lt p laces d at ing f rom t he l a te I r on Age o r t he t rans it ion t o t he Roman p er iod . T he n umber ing o f t he s i tes r e fers t o t he d i str ibu t ion map i nF ig .6 .4 .

6 4

O ffer ings a re u sed i n many s oc iet ies i n s ome s ort o f r ec iproca l r e lat ionsh ip b etween s upp l iant a nd d e ity w hereby t he f i rs t o ffers g i fts i n e xchange f or d iv ine s upport . T he d ed icator h as c erta in e xpectat ions a s t o t he e ffects o f h i s o ffer ings ; t hese may b e r e lated t o f ert i l ity , h ea lth , m i l itary s uccess , p eace , a nd s o o n . T he r e lat ion b etween d ed icator a nd d e ity i sc haracter ised b y a symmetry . T he g reat d i fference i n s tatus a nd p ower i s e xpressed i n t he d e ity 's r i ght t o r efuse o ffer ings ; i n a rcha ic s oc iet ies , t h is i st he p rerogat ive o f t he h igher p laced ( G lad igow 1 984 , 2 2 ) . T hese g enera l r emarks s eem a l so a pp l icab le t o t he mak ing o f o ffer ings i n G a l lo-Roman s oc iety . T hrough e xtend ing g i fts , o ne a pp l ied f or h e lp f rom t he g od ( ' B ittopfer ' ) o r o ne t hanked t he d e ity f o r a n a l ready r ece ived s erv ice ( ' Dankopfer ' ) . T he b as ic t hought i s , a ccord ing t o K y l l ( 1966 , 9 ) , t he n o t ion t hat t he g ods a nd g oddesses r esemb le h uman b e ings a s f ar a s t he ir f ee l ings a nd n eeds , a nd a ccord ing ly l e t t he ir b ehav iour b e i n f luenced w ith a n e ye t o a dvantage a nd p leasure . A lthough l i tt le r esearch h as y et b een d one , v ot ive o b jects a re a n i mportant s ource o f i n format ion f o r t he s tudy o f p re-Roman r e l ig ion . V o t ive o ffer ings s y mbo l ise t he c lose , r ec iproca l r e lat ion w h ich e x isted b etween d ed icator a nd d e ity , a nd a s s uch t hey c an b e u sed t o g a in i n fo rmat ion o n b o th p art ies . I n t h is p aper , Iwou ld l i ke t o f urther e xp lore o ne a spect , n ame ly t he d i st inct ion b etween i n d iv idua l ly a nd c o l lect ive ly made o ffer ings . T he f i rst c ategory i n vo lves a n i nd iv idua l w ho a cts a s ad ed icator a nd w hose mo t ives a re o ften o f ap ersona l n ature : d emand f o r h ea lth , f ert i l ity , a grar ian o r m i l itary s uccess , a nd s o o n . A n a ppea l i s made t o t he d e ity a s h e lper o f t he i n d iv idua l , a nd a p ersona l r e lat ionsh ip a r ises b etween d ed icato r a nd g od . T he n ature o f t h is r ec iproca l r e lat ionsh ip c an b e i d ent ica l t o t hat s hown b y mos t o f t he G a l lo-Roman v o t ive i n scr ipt ions ( c f . , among o thers , K y l l 1 966 , 1 8 ff . ) : t he d ed icator r equests a f avour f rom a d e ity , v ows a p art icu lar o ffer ing , a nd f i na l ly makes g ood h i s v ow when t he f avour i sg ranted . T he v o t ive o ffer ings o f t h is t ype c an v ary f rom p rec ious t o v ery s imp le . A r iov istus , l e ader o f t he G a l l ic l n sub r i i n t he 3 rd c en tury BC , p rom ised Mars a v a luab le g i ft , at orc , i fh e c ou ld d efeat t he R omans ; t h is ( p robab ly g o lden ) o rnament w ou ld h ave b een f rom t he b ooty ( F lorus 1 . 20 .4 ) . T he l a rge ma jor ity o f p r ivate o ffer ings a re h owever o f as imp le n ature . A s ide f rom a grar ian p roducts , f i bu lae , meta l w hee ls , e tc . , c o ins may h ave p layed a n i mportant r o le , a s t hey a re o ften f ound i n l a rge n umbers u nder G a l lo-Roman t e mp les . C e lt ic c o ins , l a rge ly l ow-va lue p ieces ( Tab le 6 .2 ) , a re e spec ia l ly s u itab le f or s ma l l i nd iv idua l p ayments t o t he g ods . Weapons c an a l so h ave b een o ffered b y i nd iv idua ls i nt hanks f or mart ia l s uccess o r s afe r eturn f rom b att le . T he s econd c ategory c oncerns c o l lect ive o ffer ings b y w h ich a n e nt ire c ommun ity ( u sua l ly a t r ibe o r as ubtr ibe ) a cts a s ad ed icator . O ffer ings a t t h is l e ve l a re p ub l ic a ffa irs , o ften i n vo lv ing l a rge n umbers o f p eop le . E spec ia l ly i n t h is c ontext h u man s acr if ice o ccurs , a nd s pec ia l ised p r iests a re n eeded t o e xecute t he c omp lex s acr if ic ia l r i tes . T he d e ity i s i n voked h ere a s s upporter a nd p rotector o f t he c ommun ity . C haracter ist ic f o r b e l l icose s oc iet ies i st hat many c o l lect ive d ed icat ions a re a ssoc iated w ith w arfare . War r egu lar ly c reates s er ious s t ress s i tuat ions w hereby t he c ont inued e x istence o f t he e nt ire g roup c ou ld b e a t s take . D ur ing s uch c r it ica l s i tuat ions , a n a ppea l i s made t o t he mart ia l q ua l it ies o f t he c h ief g ods o f a t r ibe o r p agus . I n t h is r egard , af ew h i stor ica l p assages a re e n l ighten ing . T ac itus ( Anna les 1 3 .57) ment ions t he c ase o f t he G erman ic C hatt i a nd H ermundur i w ho h ad d ec lared w ar a ga ins t e ach o ther . B efore g o ing i n to b att le , b o th p art ies c a l led u pon t he ir g ods Mars a nd Mercury a nd v owed t hat i f s uccessfu l , p r isoners a nd b ooty wou ld b e o ffered : T h is v ow i mp l ied t he s acr if ice

6 5

1B racquemont ( F r ) 2E u ( Fr ) S a int-Sa & ls ( Fr ) 3G ena inv i ll e ( Fr ) 4E p ia is-Rhus ( Fr ) 5O rrouy ( Fr ) 6P ierrefonds ( Fr ) 7Gournay-sur-Aronde ( Fr ) 8V endeu i l-Cap ly ( F r ) S a int-Maur ( F r ) 9C h i l ly ( Fr) 1 0 R ibemont-sur-Ancre ( Fr ) I D igeon ( Fr ) 1 3 C hateau-Porc ien ( F r ) 1 4 Nanteu i l-sur-A isne ( Fr ) 1 5 B ouve l lemont ( F r ) 1 6 F lav ier ( Fr ) 1 7 Matagne-La P et ite ( B ) F onta ine-Va l mont ( B ) H annut ( B ) Hofstade ( B ) 1 8 Möhn ( BRD ) 1 9 T r ier- I rm inenw ingert 2 0 P om mern- Martberg ( BRD ) 2 1 K le in-W internhe im ( BRD ) 2 3 Meaux- L a B auve ( F r )

Go ld

S i lver

Copper/ P o t in

1 7 1f ourre ? 4 x Is auce 1 5 I 4 -

x 1 93 1 1b i l lon ? 9 1b i l lon x x 8 7 9 x -

x 2 99 x 1 0 1 6 3 3 x x 2 1 1 50 x x 2 98 I c o 3 000 3 x 8 5 x x 1 0 I I 1 4 4 3 1 8 1 x x x

T ab le 6 .2 . S urvey o f t he Ga l l ic c o ins f ound a t L ate L a T ine a nd E ar ly Roman c u lt p laces i nn orthern Gau l . x =a f ew c o ins x x = many c o ins .

o f t he e nt ire b eaten s i de w ith t he ir h orses a nd a l l t he ir p ossess ions . C aesar ( BG 6 . 17 .3-4 ) d escr ibes a s im i lar s i tuat ion among t he G au ls : T o Mars , when t hey h ave d eterm ined o n ad ec is ive b att le , t hey d ed ica te a s ar u le whatever s po i l t hey may t ake . A fter a v ictory t hey s acr if ice s uch l i v ing t h ings a s t hey h ave t aken , a nd a l l t he o ther e ffects t hey g ather i n to o ne p lace . I n many s tates h eaps o f s uch o b jects a re t o b e s een p i led u p i nh a l lowed s pots . F lo rus ( 1 .20 .5 ) r epo rts t he G a l l ic l n subr i , b efore g o ing i n to b att le w ith t he Romans i n t he 3 rd c entury BC , v owed t he ir g od V u lcanus e nemy w eaponry i f v ictor ious . F urther , O ros ius ( 5 .16 .1-7 ) ment ions t he o ffer ings o f b oo ty b y t he t r iumphant C imb r i a nd T eutones , a nd D iodorus ( 5 .32 .6 ) n otes , f o l low ing P os idon ius , t he s ame c ustom among t he Gau ls . T h is t rad it ion o f mak ing p ub l ic t hank o ffer ings a fter a m i l itary s uccess s eems t o b e a rchaeo log ica l ly r ef lected i n North G au l b y t he l a rge v ot ive h oards o f ap ronounced m i l itary c harac ter . T h is a pp l ies p robab ly t o t he o ssuar ia w ith w eapons f rom R ibemont-sur-Ancre a nd Moeuvres ( Cadoux 1 984 ) , a nd p erhaps a s we l l t o al a rge p art o f t he r i tua l d epos its f rom t he d i tch a t G ournay-sur-Aronde , w here mo re t han 9 0% o f t he meta l o b jects c an b e c lass if ied a s w arr io r e qu ipment ( Brunaux a nd Men ie l 1 983 ) . T he o ssuar ium a t R ibemonts ur-Ancre h as b een r ecent ly p ub l ished a nd d escr ibed a s t he r e ma ins o f a t l e ast 2 00 y oung a du lts , s ome 1 0 h o rses a nd a q uant ity o f weapons .

6 6

I n c ons ider ing v o t ive o ffer ings , a ttent ion s hou ld a l so b e g iven t o t he s oc ia lp o l it ica l a spects o f t h is t ype o f r e l ig ious b ehav iour . O f a l l s oc ia l g roups i n G a l l ic s oc iety , o n ly t he w arr ior a r istocracy w as c apab le o f r egu lar ly d ed icat ing l a rge a nd v a luab le g i fts t o t he g ods . D ur ing p ub l ic t hank-offer ings a fter a v ictory a s w e l l , t he w arr ior a r is tocracy c ou ld man ifest i t se lf a s t he mos t i mportant d ed icator d ue t o b e ing i n p ossess ion o f most o f t he s po i ls . Mak ing l a rge s acr if ices o ffered t he a r istocracy n ot o n ly t he p oss ib i l ity o f e nter ing i n to a s pec ia l r e lat ionsh ip w ith t he g ods , b ut i t s p rest ige w ith in s oc iety c ou ld b e h e ightened a s w e l l . A ccord ing ly , t he s acr if ice o f w ea lth b y t he e l ite c an a l so b e s een a s as oc ia l-po l it ica l i n ves t ment . D iv ine Descent And S oc ia l Rank ing F ina l ly , Iwou ld l i ke t o d i scuss a t heme , wh ich , b ecause o f t he s carc ity o f d ata , c an o n ly b e d ea lt w ith i n aw ide r c ontext , b ut w h ich may p erhaps c ontr ibute t o t he u nderstand ing o f C e lt ic s oc ia l-po l it ica l o rgan isat ion : n ame ly t he r e lat ionsh ip b etween d escentideo logy a nd s oc ia l r ank ing . I n t he o ldest w r itten s ources o f many I ndo-European s oc iet ies o ne f i nds i n d icat ions f o r t he e x is tence o f d escent myths w hereby e nt ire c ommun it ies o r p arts t hereof t race t he ir o r ig ins t o g ods a nd h a lf-gods . I n a rcha ic G reece , members o f s evera l p o l is c ommun it ies c ons idered t hemse lves k insmen b y r e ferr ing t o d escent f rom a c ommon myth ica l a ncestor . A dd it iona l ly , i mportant a r istocrat ic l i nes , e spec ia l ly t he r oya l h ouse t raced t he ir g enea logy b ack t o a g od , o ften Z eus . T h is n ot ion i sa l ready r eco rded i n t he Homer ic e p ics ( Van d er V l iet 1 98 1) . T he Magnetes , a mounta in p eop le o f n orth-eas tern G reece b e l ieved i n c om mon d escent f rom t he myth ica l a ncestor Magnes . T he ir s eparate s ubc ommun it ies ( po le is ) wo rsh ipped l oca l ma le o r f e ma le p rogen itors w ho a re a ga in r e lated t o t he o verarch ing Magnes i n s o me g enea log ies . T he i mpress ion i s t hat t he r e lat ions b etween t he s ub-commun it ies w ere e laborated i n p ed igrees ( Bakhu izen 1 98 1) . I n Roman mytho logy t he Roman p eop le , a nd p art icu lar ly t he r oya l d ynas t ies , a re a scr ibed d iv ine o r ig ins ; Romu lus , s on o f Mars , was f ounder a nd f i rst k ing o f t he R omans . H erodo tus ( 5 .7 ; 4 .511) r eports o n t he T hrac ian k ings w ho c la i med d escent f rom t he g od H ermes a nd h e f urthe r e labo rates o n t he v ar ious myths a bout S cyth ian o r ig ins . A cco rd ing t o o ne myth , t hey w ere t he d escendants o f T arg itaus , s on o f Z eus a nd t he r i ver B o rysthenes ; T arg itaus ' t hree s ons a re c ons idered t o b e t he f ounders o f S cyth ian s ub-groups . A cco rd ing t o a nother t r ad it ion , t hey d escended f rom S cythus , s on o f Herac les a nd a s nake g oddess , a nd t he p rogen itor o f t he S cyth ian k ings . S im i lar c oncepts o n d iv ine d escent a re f ound among C e lt ic a nd G erman ic s oc iet ies . I n fo rmat ion o n t he e ar l iest C&t ic p er iods i sa lmos t e nt ire ly l ack ing . O ne c an o n ly c i te t hat a ccount o f t he Ga l l ic k ing V ir idomarus ( Propert ius 4 . 10 .4 1) , w ho c ons idered i n t he 3 rd c entury BC t he R h ine t o b e h i s p rogen itor ; a nd t he myth , p ropagated b y t he d ru ids , t hat a l l o f t he G au ls d escended f rom D is p ater ( Caesar BG 6 . 18 .1) . O f g reater s i gn if icance i s t he e ar l ies t myth ica l t r ad it ion o f t he I r ish C e lts . H ere , g ods a nd h eroes a re f requent ly n amed a s t he f ounders o f g roups o f p eop le o r r oya l d ynas t ies . I n t he myths o f t he U ls ter C yc le , t he d iv ine c oup le F ergus a nd Medb a re s een a s f ounders o f v ar ious C onnacht l i neages . I n o ther e p ics , t he h ero Cona l l C ernach i sd escr ibed a s o ne o f t he t hree a ncestors o f t he p eop le o f n orth-east a nd c entra l I r e land . T he r oya l d ynas ty o f D a l n Ara ide t raced i t s d escend f rom t h is h a lf-god . T he g od t he D agda i so ne o f t he myth ica l k ings o f t he T uatha D eD anann a nd a ncestor o f ar oya l l i ne ( 1 4 ) .

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O f s pec ia l i mportance a re t hose d ata a va i lab le o n t he e ar ly G ermans . T he r oya l d ynas t ies o f aw ho le s er ies o f G erman ic p eop les a re g enea log ica l ly t r aced b ack t o t he h ighest g od . E xamp les a re t he S wed ish/No rweg ian r oya l h ouse o f t he Y ng l ingar w hose f ounder was c ons idered t o b e t he g od Yngv i , a nd t he e ight A ng lo-Saxon d ynast ies o f E ng land w h ich t raced t he ir a ncestry b ack t o Wodan a nd G eat i n p art icu lar ( 15 ) . S acra l d escent t rad it ions c an a l so b e f ound i n T ac itus ( German ia 2 ) , w here t hey a re r e lated t o o r ig ins o f t r ibes a nd s ub-tr ibes . A cco rd ing t o t he Mannus-genea logy , Mannus , s on o f t he g od T u isto , was t he f ounder o f t he G erman ic p eop le , a nd h i s t hree s ons b ecame t he f ounders o f s ub p eop les . T ac itus ' f urthe r r e marks t hat i n a dd it ion t o t he Mannus t r ibes o ther G erman ic p eop les w ith a nc ient n ames a l so c la imed d iv ine o r ig ins . T h is t heme i s f urther e labo rated o n f o r t he S ueb i ( German ia 3 8-39 ) . t hat p eop le c ons isted o f a n umber o f s ub-group ings o f wh ich t he S emnones w ere c ons idered t o b e t he mos t a nc ient ( vetust iss im i) a nd most n ob le ( nob i l iss im i) b ranch . T hey f o rmed t he h eadtr ibe ( caput ) a nd w ere c loses t t o t he s acra l o r ig ins o f t he t r ibe , r ef lected b y t he p resence o f t he p r i mary c u lt c entre i n t he ir t err itory w here t he c h ief g od ( r egnator o n in ium d eus ) r es ided . R epresentat ives o f t he s ub-tr ibes g a thered h ere a t p art icu lar t imes t o c e lebrate t he i n it ia g en t is , t he o r ig ins o f t he ir p eop le . A s ment ioned , l i tt le i sk nown a bout s acra l d escent t rad it ions i n G a l l ic s oc iet ies . H owever , t hat d oes n o t mean t hat t h is p r inc ip le d id n o t e x ist h ere , o r t hat t hey b e l ieved i n p rofane d escent . O n t he c ontrary , t he l i tt le i n format ion a va i lab le p o ints t o t he p resence o f a n i deo logy s im i lar t o t he s tandard p attern i n I ndoE uropean s oc iety . A lso o f r e levance i st hat r emark made b y J u l l ian t hat many p agus a nd c iv itas n ames i n Gau l a re d er ivat ions f rom p ersona l n ames , a nd h e d oes n ot e xc lude t he p oss ib i l ity o f t hese b e ing t he n ames o f myth ica l a nces to rs ( 16 ) . A lthough a d eta i led a nd c oherent p icture i s l a ck ing , i t a ppears t hat b e l ief i n d iv ine o r ig ins o f ap eop le , a nd i n p art icu lar a r oya l f am i ly , was a d eep ly r oo ted t rad it ion among many I ndo-European s oc iet ies . We a re n ot d ea l ing h ere w ith a s pec if ic E uropean p henomenon . Comparab le t rad it ions a l so o ccur i nc entra l A s ia a nd p arts o f A fr ica . What may h ave b een t he d eeper s oc ia l f unc t ion o f s uch d escent m y ths? I t i s o ften emphas ized t hat s acra l g enea log ies c o rrobo rate t he s oc ia l-po l it ica l o rder o f l i v ing s oc iety . T he n ot ion o f ac ommon d iv ine o r ig in f orms a n i mpo rtant f orce i n duc ing s o l idar ity a nd g roup i dent ity a nd c ounter ing f i ss ion . D iv ine d escent t rad it ions c an a l so b e u sed t o j u s t ify t he s oc ia l h ierarchy w ith in a s oc iety . A s s uch , t he S ueb ian d escent myth c onf irmed a s oc ia l-po l it ica l r ea l ity ; t he S emnones w ere , a s ide f rom b e ing t he o ldes t a nd mos t n ob le s ub-tr ibe , a l so t he most p owerfu l b ranch , a s r evea led b y t he ir d emograph ic s uper ior ity . S im i lar ly , t he p r iv i leged s oc ia l-po l it ica l p os it ion o f e l itar ian f am i l ies , e spec ia l ly t he r oya l h ouses , c ou ld b e l eg it i mated b y t he ir s pec ia l g enea log ica l p os it ion . D iv ine d escent i s a n i d eo logy c onf irm ing a n e xs is t ing s oc ia l-po l it ica l s t ructure b y p ropos ing i ta s as upernatura l o rder , i n st ituted b y g ods . I t i su t i l ised h ere a s a p o l it ica l i n s trument . I n s tudy ing t he p ower p os it ion o f t he s oc ia l e l ite i n Ce lt ic a nd G er man ic s oc iet ies , a rchaeo log ists c oncentrate o n t he s oc ia l-econom ic b as is o f s oc ia l r ank ing a nd t he w ay i ti s mater ia l ised i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r eco rd . H istor ica l ly t ransm itted d escent t rad it ions s how t hat i d eo log ica l f acto rs , w h ich r e ma in a lmost t ota l ly e lus ive a rchaeo log ica l ly , w ere a l so o f i mportance i n s t ructur ing t he h ierarch ica l ly d i fferent iated s oc iet ies o f t he L ate I r on Age .

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N o tes I . T h is a rt ic le i s as ho rt v e rs ion o f ap art o f as t udy w h ich i si n tended t o s erve a s ad octo ra l t hes is . 1am g ratefu l t o T he N ether lands O rgan iza t ion f o r t he A dvancement o f P ure R esearch ( ZWO ) f o r ag rant w h ich e nab led me t o d o t he b as ic r esearch f o r t h is s tudy ( g rant n o . 1 23-2 1-023 ) . 2 . R üger 1 972 ; S ch i l l inger-Häfe le 1 977 , n rs . 1 47148 . 3 . C IL X I I I 8 579-80 , 7 859 , 7 78 1; L ehner 1 930 , n rs . 4 4-52 ; G a itzsch/Hermanns 1 98 1, 1 26 ; K o lbe 1 960 , n r . 1 56 . C f . t he mo re g enera l r emarks i n R üger 1 972 , 2 58 .4 . N esse lhauf 1 937 , n r . 4 3 ; C IL X I I I 3 450 , 7 777 ; F inke 1 927 , n rs . 1 3 14 , 2 38 ; M angard 1 982 . 5 . C IL X I I I 7 252 . C f . a bout t he A resaces , K lumbach 1 959 . 6 . C f . a s ap ara l le l t he T r ier i n scr ip t ion F inke 1 927 , n r . 3 22 , i nw h ich a s acerdos R omae e t A ugus t i a cts a l so a s f l a rnen o f t he n at ive g od L enus Mars . F o r t he i n scr ip t ion f rom S eysse l , c f . C IL X I I 7 252 . 7 . S ee f o r t he c u lt b enches G ose 1 955 , 9 1-98 ; F inke 1 927 , n rs . 1 3 14 . C f . a l so W igh tman 1 970 , 2 14 ; H a tt 1 979 , 1 32 . 8 . C aesar BG 6 . 13 ; 6 . 1617 ; 7 .33 ; S t rabo 4 .4 .5 . 9 . J u l ian 1 90 1 1 3 ; P iggo t t 1 974 , 9 1-94 . 1 0 . T ac itus Germ . 2 ;C aesar BG 6 . 18 .1; 6 . 13 . 10 . I . F o r as urvey o f t he e p ig raph ic d ata , c f . H att 1 979 , 1 23 f . ; Me rten 1 985 . 1 2 . G ose 1 955 ; H att 1 979 , 1 30 ; W ightman 1 970 , 2 11 f . 1 3 . T he mos t s pectacu lar r esu lts w ere o b ta ined a t G ournay-sur-Aronde a nd R ibemont-sur-Anc re . C f . B runaux/Men ie l 1 983 ; C adoux 1 984 . 1 4 . O lms ted 1 979 , 1 54 ; R oss 1 974 , 1 96 ; O os ten 1 985 , 7 3 . 1 5 . Hö f ler 1 956 , 7 8 f . ; i d em 1 973 ; C han ley 1 970 , 15 ; O os ten 1 985 , 2 1 . 1 6 . J u l l ian 1 90 Ia , 9 1 f . H e f urthe r r emarks t ha t among t he H e lvet i i t wo o f t he t h ree p agus n ames k nown t o u s c ons is t o f ap ersona l n ame a nd ag enus s uff ix . B ib l iography C lass ica l S ources C aesar , De B e l lo Ga l l ico . E d . H .J . E dwards , L oeb C lass ica l L ib rary , L ondon/Camb r idge/Mass . 1 970 . D iodo rus S icu lus . E d . C .H . O ldfather , L oeb C lass ica l L ib rary , L ondon/Camb r idge/Mas s . 1 96 1. F lo rus , E p itomae E d . E .S . F ors ter , L oeb C lass ica l L ibrary , L ondon/Camb r idge/Mass . 1 947 . H erodo tus . E d . A .D . G od ley , L oeb C lass ica l L ib rary , L ondon/Camb r idge/Mass . 1 971. O ros ius , H is to r iarum a dve rsum P aganos , l i b r i 7 .E d . C . Z angeme is ter , L ips iae 1 889 . P ropert ius , E leg iarum . E d . W .A . C amps , C amb r idge U n ivers ity P ress , C amb r idge 1 965 . S t rabo , Geograph ica . E d . H .L . J ones , L oeb C lass ica l L ibrary , L ondon/Camb r idge/Mass . 1 960

1 960 .

T ac itus , German ia . E d . M . H utton & Warn n ington , L oeb C lass ica l L ib rary , L ondon/Camb r idge/Mass . 1 970 .

6 9

T ac itus , Anna les . E d . J .J ackson , L oeb C lass ica l L ibrary , L ondon/Camb r idge 1 962 . Modern Wo rks B runaux , J . -L . &P . Men ie l 1 983 . " Le s anc tua ire d e G ournay-sur-Aronde ( O ise ) ," i nL es C e ltes d ans l e Nord d u B ass in P a r is s ien ( Revue A rcheo log ique d e P icard ie 1 983 , n r . 1 ) : 1 65173 . B akhu izen , S .C . , 1 98 1. " Magnes e n d e Magneten ," i nR .R . H ages te in & E .Ch .L . v an d er V l iet ( e ds . ) , L eg it im ite it o f l eugen ; a chterg ronden v an macht e n g ezag i nd e V roege S taat , L e iden ( I CA P ub l icat ie , 4 1) : 65-9 1. C adoux , J . -L . , 1 984 . " L 'ossua ire g au lo is d e R ibemont-sur-Ancre ( Somme ) , p rem ieres q ues t ions ," Ga l l ia 4 2 : 5 3-78 . C ha iron , F . , 1 983 . " Les t heatres r u raux d ' epoque g a ll o -roma ine e n G au le d u n ord o ues t : e ssay d ' inte rpretat ion ," A nna les A rche a log igues d u Nord O ues t d e l aF rance 1 983 : 1 2 -25 . C han tey , W .A . , 1 970 . T he c u lt o f k ingsh ip i nA ng lo-Saxon E ng land . B e rke ley . C IL =Co rpus l n scr ip t ionum L at inarum D urkhe i m , E . , 1 96 1. T he e lementary f orms o f t he r e l ig ious l i fe , N ew Y o rk . F inke , H . , 1 927 . " Neue I n schr iften ," B e r ich te d e r Röm isch-Ge rman ischen Komm iss ion 1 7 : 1 107 . G a lt z sch , W . &J .Hermanns 1 98 1. " Das Matronenhe i l igtum v on E schwe i ler We iswe i ler ," i n A usg rabungen i m Rhe in land ' 79/80 , B onn ( Rhe in isches L andesmuseum B onn ) : 1 22128 . G lad igow , B . , 1 984 . " D ie T e i lung d es O p fers . Z u r I n te rpretat ionen v on O p fern i n v or-und f rühgesch icht l ichen E pochen ," F rühm itte la lter l iche S tud ien 1 8 : 1 9 -43 . G ose , E . , 1 955 . D er T empe lbez irk d es L enus Mars i nT r ier , B er l in ( T r ie re r G rabungen u nd F o rschungen ,2 ) . H att , J . -J . , 1 979 . " Le c u lte d e Mars i n d igene d ans l eN o rd Est d e l aG au le ," Revue A rch t io log ique d e l ' Es t e t d u Centre-Est 3 0 : 1 2 1-38 , 1 83-95 . H öf ler , 0 . , 1 956 : " Das S akra lcharakte r d es g erman ischen K ön ig tums ," i n D as Kön ig tum , s e ine g e is t igen u nd r echt l ichen G rund lagen , L indau/ K ons tanz ( Vo rträge u nd F o rschungen , 3 ) : 7 5104 . H ö f ler , 0 . , 1 973 . " Abs tammungs trad it ionen ," i nR ea l lex ikon d er German ischen A ltertumskunde , I : 1 8 -29 . J u l l ian , C . , 1 90 1a . " A p ropos d es ' p ag i ' g au lo is a vant l ac onque te r oma ine ," Revue d es E tudes A nc iennes 3 : 7 7-97 . J u l l ian , C . , 1 90 1b . " Le d ru ide D iv ic iac ," Revue d es E tudes A nc iennes 3 :205-2 10 . K lumbach , H . , 1 959 . " Aresaces ," i nL i mes-S tud ien . V orträge d es 3 . I n terna t iona len L i mes-Kongresses i n Rhe infe lden/Base l 1 957 , B ase l : 6 97 6 . 7 0

K o lbe , H .-G . , 1 960 . " D ie n euen Matronen inschr iften v on Mo rken-Harff , K r . B erghe im ," B onne r J ahrbücher 1 60 : 5 0124 . K y l l , N . , 1 966 . " He idn ische We ihe-und V o t ifgaben a us d er R ömerze it d es T r ierer L andes , T r ierer Z e itschr ift 2 9 : 5 113 . L ehner , H . , 1 930 . " Röm ische S te indenkmä ler v on d er B onner Müns te r K irche ," B onner J ahrbüche r 1 35 : 1 48 . M a l inowsk i , B . , 1 954 . " Mag ic , s c ience a nd r e l ig ion ," i nB .Ma l inowsk i , Mag ic , S c ience a nd R e l ig ion , a nd o ther e ssays , G arden C ity , N ew Y o rk . M angard , M . , 1 982 . " L ' inscr ip t ion d e d icat io re d u t heatre d u B o is l ' Abbeä E u ( S e ine Mar it ime ) ," G a l l ia 4 0 : 3 5-5 1. M erten , H . , 1 985 ( i n p r int ) . " Der K u lt d es Mars i m T reve reraum ," T r ierer Z e itschr ift 4 8 . N ash , D . , 1 976 . " The g rowth o f u rban s oc iety i nF rance ," i nB .Cun l iffe & T .Row ley ( e ds . ) , O pp ida : t he b eg inn ings o f u rban isat ion i n B arbar ian E urope , O xfo rd ( BAR , S upp l . S er . 1 ) : 9 5133 . N esse lhauf ,H . , 1 937 . " Neue I n schr iften a us d em r öm ischen G erman ien u nd d en a ngrenzenden G eb ieten ," B er ichte d er Röm isch-German ischen K omm iss ion 2 7 : 5 1134 . O l ms ted , G .S . , 1 979 . T he Gundes trup Cau ldron , B ruxe l les ( Co l lect ion L atomus , 1 62 ) . O s ten , J .G . , 1 985 . T he Wa r o f t he Gods . T he s oc ia l c ode i nI ndo -European Mytho logy , L ondon . P icard , G . , 1 970 . " Les t he atres r u raux d e G au le ," Revue A rcheo log ique 1 :1 85-92 . P iggo tt , S . , 1 974 ( 1 968 ) . T he D ru ids ( Pe l ican B ooks ) . R oss , A . , 1 974 ( 1967 ) . P agan C e lt ic B r ita in : s tud ies i n i conography a nd t rad it ion , L ondon . R üger , C hr . B . , 1 972 . " Ga l l isch-German ische K ur ien ," E p igraph ische S tud ien 9 : 2 5 1-260 . S ah l ins , M .D . , 1 968 . T r ibesmen , A nthropo logy S er ies ) .

E ng lewood

C l iffs

( Foundat ions

o f

Modern

S ch i l l inger-Häfe le , U . , 1 977 . " V ierter N achtrag z u C IL X I I I u nd z we iter N achtrag z u F r . V o l l mer , I n scr ip t iones B a ivar iae R omanae ," B er ichte d e r Röm isch German ischen K omm iss ion 5 8 : 4 47-603 . V l iet ,

E .Ch .L . . v an d er , 1 98 1. " Leg it imat ie v an d e s toat i n h et v roege G r ieken land ," i nR .R . H ages te in & E .Ch .L . v an d er V Ii e t ( e ds , )Leg it irn ite it o f l eugen ; a chterg ronden v an macht e n g ezag i nd e V roege S taat , L e iden ( I CA P ub l icat ie , 4 1) : 6 5-9 1.

W ightman , E .M . , 1 970 . Roman T r ier a nd t he T rever i , L ondon .

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7 . THE I NFLUENCE OF ROME ON I ND IGENOUS SOC IAL GROUPS I N THE UPPER THAMES VALLEY R ichard H ing ley S um mary A n a ttempt i s made t o i n terpret I r on Age a nd Romano-B r it ish s ett lement p atterns i n a n a rea o f S outhern B r ita in . Contras t ing r eg ions o f s ett le ment o rgan isa t ion i n t he I r on A ge a re i dent if ied : l a rge s ca le c ommuna l s oc ia l g roups i nt he v a l ley a nd i so lated i ndependent c om mun it ies i n t he Up lands . I n t he Roman p er iod c ontras t ing r eg iona l p atte rns o f ' wea lth ' a nd ' pove rty ' a re r ecogn ised . An a ttemp t i s made t o e xp la in I r on A ge/Roman s ett lement p attern ing t hrough t he u se o f a mode l p roposed b y Co l l ingwood o ver f o rty y ears a go . D iffer ing d egrees o f Roman isat ion a re t he c onsequence o f Rome ' s i n f luence o n v ary ing i nd igenous s oc ia l g roups w ith in t he c ons tra ints p rov ided b y t he p hys ica l e nv ironment a nd s oc ia l b ackground o f t hese g roups . I n t he Up lands sma l l-sca le i ndependent s oc ia l g roups b ecome Ro man ised i n ac ompet it ive s oc ia l e nv ironment . B y c ontrast i n t he v a l ley l a rge-sca le c om muna l s oc ia l g roups s tagnate a nd f a i l t o d eve lop . I n troduct ion T h is s tudy i s b ased o n t he p rem ise t hat t he p rocess o f Roman isat ion h as t o b e e xp la ined r athe r t han a ssu med , T he a dopt ion o f ' Roman ' s tandards b y i nd igenous s oc ia l g roups was n ot a mere p ass ive a cceptance o f ' p rogress ' , a nd a n u nde rs tand ing o t h ow a nd why p eop le were a b le t o , a nd i ndeed w ished t o , a dopt s y mbo ls o f mater ia l wea lth a nd c iv i l izat ion i si mpo rtant . T he s tudy p resented i n t h is p ape r i s o f a n a rea w ith t wo v ary ing modes o f s ett lement o rgan isat ion i n t he f i rs t m i l lenn iu m BC a nd e ar ly t i rs t m i l lenn ium AD . T he e xp lanato ry p owe r o t a mode l wh ich was d eve loped b y Co l l ingwood ( No te 1 ) w i l l b e s t ressed . T he mode l , wh ich h as i n tended t o e xp la in Ro man s ett lement o n C ranbo rne C hase , r e lates i nab i l ity t o e xpand p roduct ion a nd p revent ion o f c ap ita l a ccumu lat ion t o d ense a nd n uc leated p opu lat ion . B y c ontras t i n r eg ions o t s parse p opu lat ion a n a l ternat ive p icture o t e xpans ion , c ap ita l a ccumu lat ion a nd Roman isat ion i s t o b e s een ( Co ( l ingwood a nd Myres 1 945 , 2 14 ) . C o l l ingwood 's mode l s eems t o f i t a rchaeo log ica l e v idence f rom t he Uppe r T hames V a l ley . T h is w i l l b e d emonstrated b y e xam in ing t he e v idence f o r I r on A ge a nd Romano-B r it ish s ett lement .

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T he s urvey i s o f as ma l l a rea o f t he Upper T hames B as in i n Ox fo rdsh ire ( F ig . 7 .I ) . T he a rea a ppears t o b e marg ina l t o ma jor l a te I r on A ge u rban a nd p o l it ica l 'd eve lopments ( Hose !grove 1 983 , F igure 1 0 :6 ) . T he b oundary l ocat ion o f t he a rea i s ma inta ined i n t he R oman p e r iod . T he a rea i sp robab ly p art o f t he t err ito ry o f t he Dobunn i , b ut w ith t he t r iba l b oundary o f t he A trebates r unn ing t hrough t he V a le o t t he Wh ite Ho rse j us t t o t he s outh o f t he s urvey a rea ( H ing ley 1 985 , 2 09 ; t o r a mo re d eta i led d i scuss ion o f t he I r on A ge/Roman b ackground s ee M i les 1 982 ; H ing ley a nd M i les 1 984 ) . I n t e r ms o f p hys ica l g eography , t o t he s outh a re t he g rave ls a nd c lays o f Ox fo rd C lay V a le , t o t he n o rth a re t he O x to rd U p lands . G rave ls o f t he c lay v a le p rov ide v a luab le , f e rt i le a rab le s o i ls a nd a re d ense i n l a te r P reh is tor ic , Romano-B r it ish a nd Med ieva l s ett lement e v idence . B y c ontras t t he l imestones o f t he Ox fo rd U p lands p rov ide l e ss e v idence f or d ense s ett lement a t t hese t imes ( H ing ley a nd M i les 1 984 , 5 7 ) .

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I RON AGE S ETTLEMENT AND SOC IAL ORGAN ISAT ION Hose !grove a nd A l ton i n ad i scuss ion o f I r on A ge/Roman s ett lement i n County D urham h ave a ttemp ted t o r e late s ett lement mo rpho logy t o e conom ic a nd s oc ia l a spects o f s oc ia l o rgan isat ion ( Hase 'grove a nd A l ton 1 982 , _ 4 2 ) . I t i s s ugges ted t hat t he p resence o f a n e nc losure d i tch d e l im it ing t he s ett lement i ss oc ia l ly a nd e co log ica l ly more a ppropr iate t o l a rge ly d i spersed p opu lat ions r a is ing s tock i n a wooded l andscape . A s ac ontrast t o t h is a g reate r emphas is o n c erea l p roduct ion i sc on -I -nano * a ssoc iated w ith d enser p opu lat ions , w here i nd iv idua l s ett le ments b e long t o o rgan ised a nd l a rger-sca le s oc ia l a nd p o l it ica l u n its . T hese c om ments a ppea r t o h ave s o me r e levance t o t he s tudy o f I r on A ge s ett le ment i n t he Uppe r T ha mes V a l ley . I n t he s urvey a rea t wo r eg ions c an b e d ef ined ( F ig . 7 .2 ) . T he Ox ford _C iay Va le i s a n _ a rea w ith p ro l if ic s ett le ment e v idence a nd i n t h is a rea ' o pen ' ( unbounded ) s ett lement f o r ms a ppear t o p redom inate . B y c ontrast i n t he Ox fo rd Up lands e nc losed a nd p hys ica l ly i s o lated s ett le ments a ppear t o b e c om mon —I t_wi l l . b e a rgued b e low t hat s ett lement e v idence i n t he Ox fo rd C lay V o te i nd icates . , _ the e xi stence o t l a rge-sca le c o-ope rat ive s oc ia l g roups wh ich s hare . t he means _o f p roduct ion , wh i le i n t he Up lands t err ito ry i s c ontro l led a t t he s ca le o f t he i nd iv idua l s ett le ment . L arge S ca le Com mun it ies i n t he Ox ford C lay V a le E xcavat ion a nd r esearch i n t he g rave l a reas o f t he Upper T hames V a l ley b egan i n t he 1 850 's a nd s i nce t he 1 930 's / 1940 ' s t he a rea h as r ece ived much a ttent ion b ecause o t t he t hrea t o f g rave l e xcavat ion ( H ing ley a nd M i les 1 984 ) . I n 1 973 a rchaeo log ica l e ffo rts w ere c en tra l ised i n to a r eg iona l r esearch p ro ject w ith t he f o r mat ion o f t he Ox to rd A rchaeo log ica l U n it ( Benson a nd M i les 1 974 ) . T he c omb ined e v idence o f a er ia l p ho tography a nd e xcavat ion i nd icate a v a r iety o f s i tes a ssoc iated w ith d i ffe r ing e nv iron menta l z ones ( F ig . 7 .3 ; s ee H ing ley a nd M i les ( 984 ) . O n t he T hames f l oodp la in a n o pen e ar ly/m idd le I r on A ge s ett lement a t F ar moo r p roduced e v idence f o r s easona l s u m mer o ccupat ion t o e xp lo it t he r i ch p astures o t t he f l oodp la in ( Lambr ick a nd Rob inson 1 979 ) . I n a dd it ion a n umbe r o f o the r u nexcavated o pen s i tes o n t he f loodp la in may a lso h ave b een s esona l ly o ccup ied p astur ing c amps ( F ig . 7 .2 ) . T he t i rs t/second t o t ourth g rave l t erraces p rov ide i s lands a bove t he s easona l f l ood o f t he T hames . H ere o pen s ett lements c ons is t ing o f s preads o f r ound h uts a nd p its a re a c om mon f eature o n a i r p ho tographs ( Benson a nd M i les 1 974 ) . A n umber o f t hese o pen e ar ly/m idd le I r on A ge s i tes h ave b een e xcavated , a nd a r ange o f o pen s i tes h ave b een d iscussed b y H ard ing ( 1972 , 1 ( -21 ; 1 974 , I 7n ) . H a rd ing d iscussed t our s ett lements wh ich f o rm t he ' Lower W indrush Mu lt ip le S ett le ment ' : ' n e ither e xcavat ion n or a i r-photography h as r evea led a ny e v idence f o r a n o uter b oundary d i tch o r s tockade ; i n e ach i n s tance t he s ett le ment c ompr ises o ne o r mo re sma l l h ouse o r p addock e nc losures , t ogether w ith a pparent ly m isce l laneous p i t-c lusters a nd s eem ing ly a rb itrary l engths o f g u l ly , w ith n o o bv ious d e f in it ion o f t he l im its o f t he s ett lement ' ( Hard ing 1 972 , ( 7 ) . I nc ontras t t o t he o pen s ett lements o f t he U pper T hames V a l ley g rave ls e nc losed s i tes a re a lso k nown . E nc losed s i tes a t B urroway ( Lamb r ick I 984b ) a nd C ass ington ( Case ( 983 ) f a l l i n to t he c lass o f d e fended e nc losures a nd a re d i scussed b e low . S i tes a t M ing les ' D itch a nd No rthmoor a re s ma l l , n on-defended , e nc losed s ett le ments . T he s i te a t M ing ies ' D itch , o n t he f loodp la in o f t he r i ve r W indrush , i so f e ar ly o r m idd le I r on A ge d ate a nd may h ave b een o ccup ied y earr ound a nd a ssoc iated w ith t he p as tur ing o f c att le . T he e nc losure a t No rthmoor ,

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I tw ou ld a ppear t hat o pen s ett lements p redom inate o n t he g rave ls o f t he s urvey a rea . E nc losed s ett lements a re t a ir ly r are ( F ig . 7 .2 ) a nd may e i the r h ave h ad s pec ia l f unct ions ( de fence i n t he c ase o f C ass ington a nd B urroway ) o r h ave b een l ocated i n marg ina l e nv iron menta l z ones ( t he e nc losed f loodp la in s ett lements a t M ing ies ' D itch a ppears t o h ave e x is ted i n a mo re marg ina l l andscape t han t he o pen t ioodp la in s i te a t F ar moo r ; L ambr ick 1 978 , 14 ) . I t h as b een s uggested a l ready t hat o pen s ett lements may h ave b een i n tegrated i n to l a rge s ca le p o l it ica l a nd s oc ia l u n its . E lsewhere i th as b een a rgued t hat t he o pen s ett lements o f t he s urvey a rea we re p arts o f l a rge-sca le ' t r iba l ' c om mun it ies ( H ing ley 1 984a , 1 984b ) . Here a t urthe r a ttempt w i l l b e made t o t hrow s ome l i ght o n t he p o tent ia l s t ructure o f t hese l a rge-sca le s oc ia l u n its . A ttent ion h as a l ready b een d rawn t o H ard ing ' s d i scuss ion o f t he s o c a l led L owe r W indrush Mu lt ip le S ett lement ( LW MS ) . H ard ing a rgued t hat t he LW MS was a c oo perat ive a ssoc iat ion o f f our o pen s ett lements l y ing b etween B eard M i l l i n t he n orth a nd L inch H i l l c o rner i n t he s outh . H ard ing a rgued t hat t he s ett lements were a rranged s o t hat t he h ouse e nc losures , l i near d itches a nd o ther p hys ica l f eatures s erved a s b arr iers t o t he movement o f c att le b etween t he f loodp la in a nd t he h igher g rave l t erraces t o t he e ast ( Hard ing 1 9 72 , 1 ln ; 1 974 , 2 7 ) . F urther e v idence may i nd icate t hat H a rd ing 's t our s ett lements a re a ctua l ly j us t p art o f al a rge r a nd mo re c omp lex p henomenon . Af i fth s ett le ment i n t h is g roup ( Grave l ly G uy ) i s c urrent ly u nder e xcavat ion ( Lamb r ick I 984a ) . I n a dd it ion f u rthe r s i tes h ave b een l ocated b y a e r ia l p ho tography t o t he n orth a nd e as t o f t hose d i scussed b y H ard ing ( F ig . 7 .4 ) . I ts eems p oss ib le t hat t hese s ett lements f o rm a r i ng d e t in ing a n a rea o f s econd/th ird t er race g rave l f rom f loodp la in/ f irs t t e rrace g rave l . I t s o t he s ett lements may f o rm a c om muna l d iv is ion o f i n f ie ld ( a rab le l and ) o n t he f ert i le u ppe r t erraces t rom o ut f ie ld ( pas ture a nd meadow ) o n t he f l oodp la in a nd wet f i rs t t e rrace ( F ig . 7 .5 ) . I tt he s ett lements o f t h is e xpanded LW MS d o f o rm a c om muna l d iv is ion o f i n f ie ld f rom o utf ie ld i t may b e s upposed t hat c att le w ere t ed o n t he i n f ie ld o tte r h arves t . T he c att le c ou ld h ave b een w intered i n t he sma l l e nc losures among t he o pen s ett lements t hat were n ot iced b y Hard ing a nd wou ld h ave b een d r ived o nto t he f lood p la in a nd t i rs t t errace p astures f o r t he s pr ing a nd s u m me r . S easona l ly o ccup ied p astur ing c amps a t F ar moor a nd e lsewhere o n t he f loodp la in ( F ig . 7 .2 ) may h ave b een t he t empo rary s u m me r h omes o f t he c ow h erders f rom t he Mu lt ip le S ett lements . I n a dd it ion t o t he LW MS o ther p oss ib le Mu lt ip le S ett lements c an b e r ecogn ised o n t he g rave ls o f t he s urvey a rea ( F ig . 7 .2 ) . S ome r i ngs o f s ett le ment d o n o t a ppear t o b e c omp lete , b ut t h is may b e d ue t o t he i ncomp lete n ature o f t he a rchaeo log ica l e v idence ( to r i n s tance a reas o f modern s ett lement a nd q uarry ing ) . However , i t i s q u ite p robab le t hat t he Mu lt ip le S ett lement d oes n ot f o rm t he o n ly mode o t s ett lement o rgan isat ion i n t he O x fo rd C lay V a le . I t h as a l ready b een s ugges ted t hat M ing ies ' D itch a nd No rthr noo r may i nd icate a v a ry ing e conom ic a nd s oc ia l t o rm . I na dd it ion t o t he Mu lt ip le S ett lement mode l may n o t b e r e levan t f o r t he wes te rn a rea o f g rave ls a round L ech lade ( s ee M i les a nd P a l me r 1 983 o n C laydon P ike ) . F urther r esearch w i l l b e r equ ired t o a ssess n ature o f s ett lement o rgan isat ion a nd v ar iat ion i n t he n ature o f s ett le ment o rgan isa t ion i n t he Ox fo rd C lay V a le . However , i t wou ld s eem t hat t he Mu lt ip le S ett lement mode l p rov ides e v idence

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T he e vo lut ion o f t he D an ish I r on A ge v i l lage . G ronto ft f r om 3 00150 B .C . , H odde a bou t 1 00 B .C . , V orbas se , s i ng le f a rm f rom t he b i rth o f C hr is t a nd t he v i l lage V o rbasse f rom 3 00-400 A .D . T he v i l lage a reas a re r espec t ive ly 2 ,700 m 2, 1 5 ,000 m 2 a nd 1 35 ,000 m 2. ( Af te r L .Hvass , J e rna lde ren , C openhagen 1 980 , i lus trat ion b y F lemm ind B au ) .

1 36

v i l lages o f t he p re-Chr is t ian e ra w ith t hose o f t he t h ird a nd f ourth c entur ies ( F ig . 1 0 .3 ) . T he s t ructura l r eo rgan isat ion o f t he v i l lage , f a rms tead a nd f i e ldsys tem w h ich t ook p lace e verywhere i n F ree G e rmany d ur ing t he R oman I r on A ge h as b een i n te rpreted a s a n e xpress ion o f ap rofound c hange i nt he a ccess t o a nd c ontro l o f l a nd . L im ited o pportun it ie s f o r e xpans ion a nd t e rr itor ia l g row th a re p erce ived a s c ausat ive f ac to rs . I t i sd i ff icu lt , h oweve r , t o d ec ide w hether t he p r imary c ause o f t he c hanges i n a gr icu ltura l s t rategy a nd v i l lage o rgan isat ion w as d emograph ic o r s oc io-po l it ica l b etween t he f i rs t a nd f our th c entur ies A .D . Y et t o t r y t o p inpo int c ause a nd e ffec t i n a n e vo lut ionary p rocess b y c oncentrat ing a lone o n o ne o r t wo t rends c anno t a nd s hou ld n ot b e d one . T herefo re t he c omp lex i n ter-act ion o f p o l it ica l , m i l itary , e conom ic a nd s oc ia l f acto rs w i l l b e b r ief ly t ouched u pon i n t he f o l low ing ( Note 2 ) . Conc lus ion I nt he f our c entur ies w h ich s aw t he e xpans ion , c onso l idat ion , d ec l ine a nd d iv is ion o f t he R oman Emp ire , t he r es t o f E urope u nderwent c hanges w h ich meant t hat a f ter t he d em ise o f t he Emp ire , t he a reas c lose t o i tw ere o n t he t h resho ld o f a n ew e ra : t he M idd le A ge s . C ommun it ies f urthe r t o t he n o rth i n t he G e rman ic h i nte r land e xpe r ienced a d ec is ive c hange . T he o ld t r iba l s t ructure b ased o n t i es o f k i nsh ip a nd c lan t ransfo rmed g radua l ly i n to p ermanent ly c lass-d iv ided s tates . T h is d eve lopment , h oweve r , w as n o t e xc lus ive ly d eterm ined b y t he i n f luence o f t he R oman Emp ire , b ecause a l ready b efore t he e xpans ion o f t he Emp ire i t i s e v ident t hat t he G e rman ic t r ibes o f No rthern E urope w ere s t ructura l ly p er iphera l i n r e lat ion t o t he a rcha ic C e lt ic s tate s ys tem . T he c omp let ion o f R oman e xpans ion i n E urope t ook p lace i n a cco rdance w ith t h is p re-ex ist ing f r amework . B u t t he G e rman ic p er iphery w as a l so c haracter ised b y r eg iona l v ar iat ions i n s oc ia l s t ruc tu r e a s r e f lected b y d i f ferences i n t he d i s tr ibut ion o f R oman p rest ige g oods i nb ur ia ls . I ng enera l , as t ructura l t r ansfo rmat ion o f F ree G ermany d id n o t t ake p lace u nt i l t he t h ird c entury , v iz , t he p er iod a fter t he Marcomann ic Wars . D ur ing t he l a tter l a rge c ont ingents o f G erman ic mercenar ies w ere o n b o th s i des o f t he b o rder , a nd l a rge s u ms o f money w e re p a id t o t he G erman ic t roop s i n a n a ttemp t t o s ecure p eace a long t he n o rthe rn b o rder . D ur ing t he s ame p er iod G erman ic s oc iet ies u nderwent d ras t ic s oc ia l a nd p o l it ica l c hange w h ich r esu lted i n p o l it ica l c en tra l isat ion o n a s ca le n ever s een b efore i n t h is a rea . N one o f t he t r iba l n ames o f t he E ar ly R oman p er iod s urv ived a s p o l it ica l e nt it ies a s t hey h ad b een r ep laced b y much l a rge r t r iba l c onfederat ions , f o r e xamp le t he F ranks , S axons , F r is ians , T hür ing i i , a l l l a ter t o b ecome t he f i rs t a nc ient s tates o f t he e ar ly med ieva l p er iod . I t i s t empt ing t o i mag ine t hat a n emp ire o n t he d efens ive o pened u p n ew a nd h i therto i n conce ivab le c hances o f a ccumu lat ion t o b e s e ized b y t hose a reas s t i l l w ith in i t s p o l it ica l s phe re b ut b eyond i mper ia l f ront iers . I tw ou ld p rov ide t hem n o t o n ly w ith mater ia l g a in i n t he f o rm o f b oo ty , b ut a l so w ith e xper ience i n m i l itary s ys tems , d i sc ip l ine , money w ages , c ommand h ierarch ies , a dvanced f i ght ing t echn iq u es , e tc . I ti sh ard t o s ee h ow t he a nc ient t r iba l s oc iet ies , b ased o n t he s en io r ity o f a ge , c ou ld w iths tand s uch i n f luences . P o l it ica l a utonomy , m i l itary d i sc ip l ine a nd g ood p ay w ere i n novat ions w h ich c ou ld b e a ss im i lated b y l o ca l c h iefs a nd p ower fu l men a s l o ng a s l o ca l c ond it ions w e re u nder c ontro l . S po i ls o f w ar a nd a c h ie f ly r e t inue ( housecar ls ) w ere p art o f t he p roces s s parked o ff b y t he R omano-Ge rman ic w ars , e spec ia l ly t he Marcomann ic Wars , a nd b y 1 37

mercenar ies r eturn ing h ome . I n terna l r a ids t ook o ver o n a n i ncreas ing s ca le i n o rde r t o k eep t he s ystem g o ing . A t f i rs t t hey w ere p robab ly i n tended t o s ecure b ooty , a nd p r isoners o f w ar f o r s a le a s s l aves ; l a te r , p robab ly t o ma inta in t err ito r ia l c ontro l i n o rder t o e s tab l ish a more p ermanent c la im t o p ayments o f t r ibute . I tc ou ld b e s uggested t hat t he r eorgan isat ion o f s ett lement r epresented a n a d justment t o a more e labo rate s ystem o f t r ibute p ayments . B ut t he q uest ion r e ma ins w hether c ontact w ith t he Roman Emp ire a nd R oman a rm ies i ss uff ic ient e xp lanat ion f o r t he e v ident ly p rofound c hanges w h ich t ook p lace i n t he b arbar ian h ome lands d ur ing t he l a te Roman I r on Age . P e rhaps w e o ught b etter t o i mag ine t hat Roman i n f luences a cted a s c ata lysts i n ap rocess w h ich h ad a l ready b egun . T o d eterm ine w hethe r t h is i si n deed t he c ase , w e h ave t o c ons ider t he r e lat ion b etween t he i n terna l f acto r : l eve ls o f s ubs is tence , a nd t he e xterna l f actor : t rade i np res t ige g oods . T he emergence o f a l a ndown ing/contro l l ing c lass i s u n l ike ly t o h ave o ccurred t hrough m i l itary d om inance . T he means w ou ld r ather h ave b een a mass ive l eg it im isat ion o f t he i deo logy o f c erta in g roups o f p eop le . And i n t h is c ontext R oman i mports f u lf i l led t he f unct ions n ecessary i fp rest ige a nd s tatus h ad t o b e emphas ised . T hey c ou ld c i ru late a s d owry , a s t r ibute , a nd o ther f orms o f p ayment . C ontro l o ver p rest ige g oods t hus i mp l ies s oc ia l a nd p o l it ica l p ower ( Ekho lm 1 977 ; F r iedman & Row lands 1 977 , 2 24f ) , u sefu l i n t he n egot iat ion o f a l l iances ( poss ib ly i n c on juct ion w ith a rmed f orce ) , t hereby e xpand ing t he p o l it ica l a nd e conom ic p ower b ase o f ac h iefta in . R eg iona l ly , i t wou ld b e d one b y e stab l ish ing p o l it ica l a nd m i l itary d ependence i nt he f o rm o f " pro tect ion" o ffered i n r eturn f or t r ibute s uch a s , f o r e xamp le , m i l itary s erv ice , s l aves o r w ares , t he p ayment f or wh ich was t o b e i n p rest ige g oods ( c f . F ig . 1 0 .1) . L oca l ly , i n t he v i l lages , p res t ige g oods may h ave b een u sed a s a means o f c reat ing e conom ic a nd s oc ia l p ressure , g radua l ly l ead ing t o t he s urrender o f l and a nd l i vestock , a nd t o t he s tatus o f s l ave/serf . I f t he p rocess were i n tens if ied i t c ou ld c ause t he s ystem t o b reak d own a nd b y ac ontr ibutory f actor i n t he r eorgan isat ion o f l a nd t enure a nd t he v i l lage . T he d ecrease a fter t he c hange i n t he n umber o f f armsteads i n av i l lage wou ld b e e xp la ined b y a p rocess s uch a s t h is . A lthough f ewer i n n umber , f arms teads b ecame l a rger w ith more r oom f or p eop le a nd l i vestock -w h ich l e ads u s t o p roduct ion . T o u nderp in t he s ystem a s urp lus i n p roduct ion w as a n ecess ity , a nd l i kew ise t he c ontro l o f t he l a nd a nd o ver t hose p roduc ing t he c rops . I t h as a l ready b een s hown h ow t he e xp lo itat ion o f l a nd i ncreased t hroughout n orthern E urope i n t he e ar ly a nd l a te Roman I r on Age , w ith s tead i ly i n creas ing d eforestat ion a nd s pread ing c om mon . T he o ldest D an ish p lace-names i nd icate a t remendous i ncrease i n s ett lements i n e astern Denmark ( i .e . C lausen 1 9 16 ; Ha Id 1 950 a nd 1 966 ; S $ndergaard 1 972 ) . T here i sa l so e v idence o f as harp r i se i n t he p opu lat ion . Women a ppear t o h ave marr ied l a te , a nd t h is may h ave b een o ne o f t he mechan isms t o c ontro l p opu lat ion g rowth ( Gebuhr e t a l . i n p ress ) . T he e xpand ing p opu lat ion c omb ined w ith t he h igh marr iageab le a ge o f women ( and t hereby t he n eed o f b igger d owr ies ) , a l so s ugges ts t hat many y oung men l ooked u pon m i l itary s erv ice n ot o n ly a s as ource o f p rest ige a nd r i ches ( Note 3 ) , b ut a s a n a ttract ive a l ternat ive t o l i fe a t h ome i n t he v i l lage . T hus , G erman ic s oc iet ies i n t he p er iod 1 -400 A .D . e xper ienced p opu lat ion g rowth , e xpand ing s ett lement , a nd a n i ncreas ing d emand f o r s urp lus p roduct ion i n o rder t o f eed t he p opu lat ion a nd a s p ayments o f t r ibute , wh ich w ere 1 38

c hanne l led f urther i n to a l l iances a nd l o ng-d is tance t rade i n R oman p res t ige g oods . T o mee t t hese p re ssures i n tens ive a gr icu lture w as d eve loped t hrough t he i n f ie ld/outf ie ld s ys tem , t he r ed is tr ibut ion o f l a nd t ook p lace , a s w e l l a s t he r ep lann ing o f t he v i l lage . T hese p rocesses w ere a ccompan ied b y more s uccessfu l , c entra l ly o rgan ised t rad ing a nd r a id ing e xped it ions , b ased o n a f o l low ing o f w ar r iors ( h ird /housecar ls ) . T he c i rc le i s c losed . We a re a b le t o d escr ibe t he p rocesses o f c hange a nd t o p o int o u t c lar ify ing f ac to rs , b u t n o t o ne s o l itary f acto r a s w e a re d ea l ing w ith t he i n teract ion o f many . T he s t ronges t i n f luence h as u ndoub ted ly b een t he s oc ia l p rocesses r esu lt ing f rom t he c onvers ion o f p res t ige g oods i n to p o l it ica l a nd e conom ic p owe r , a l though t hese p rocesses w ere b ased o n t he o rgan isat ion o f p roduct ion . I tw as t he c hanges i n t he o rgan isa t ion o f p roduc t ion w h ich g ave t he s y stem a n ew b as is f o r e xpans ion . When l a nd b ecame a c ommod ity t o b e e xchanged t he c ond it ions w ere e s tab l ished f o r t he f o rma t ion o f a l a nded a r is tocracy . T herefo re t he t ransformat ion o f t he s oc ia l o rgan isat ion o f p roduct ion a fter 2 00 A .D . w as o f p aramount i mpor tance t o t he e vo lut ion o f a c l ass s oc iety a nd t he s t ate . C ons idered i n t he l o ng-term e vo lut ionary p erspect ive , h owever , t he f o rma t ion a nd e xpans ion o f t he Wes tern Emp ire d id n o t a l ter t he t ra jecto ry o f t hese p rocesses b u t r esponded t o t hem . T he f ounda t ions h ad a l ready b een l a id i n t he c entur ies a round 5 00 B .C . Y et R oman e xpan ion ism t o t he w es t a mp l if ied t he e vo lut ionary p o tent ia l o f t he p e r iphery , s o t hat i nt he s hor t t erm , i tt i pped t he b a lance o f p ower i n f avour o f t he p er iphery . T he s oc ia l l a ndscape i n E urope a fte r 4 00 A .D . w as l a rge ly d eterm ined b y t h is p rocess . W ith t he d ec l ine a nd d i s integ ra t i o n o f t he R oman Emp ire , a t r ans it iona l e vo lu t ionary p hase p reva i led i n n orthern E urope -a c yc l ica l p rocess o f p o l it ica l c entra l isat ion a nd d i s integrat ion . T h is e vo lut ionary s t ruc ture ( No te 4 ) r eached a n ew c l imax d ur ing t he V ik ing P e r iod w h ich f i na l ly l e d t o i t s t r ans fo rmat ion , i n S cand inav ia , f o r e xamp le , w ith t he f o rmat ion o f n at ion s tates f r om a bout 1 , 000 A .D . No tes T rans lated b y J ean O lsen . T h is a rt ic le i s b ased o n my p rev ious r esearch ( Hedeage r 1 978 a & b ; 1 980 ; H edeage r & K r is tensen 1 98 1; H edeage r i n P ress ) , s upp lemented b y s ome mate r ia l f rom a c omprehens ive a na lys is o f t he e vo lut ion o f I r on A ge s oc ie t ies i n D enmark b e tween 5 00 B .C . a nd 7 00A .D . e nt it led " From T r ibe t o S tate" ( i n p repa ra t ion ) . Af u l ler a ccoun t o f t he p rocesses d escr ibed i n t h is a rt ic le i s f ound i n H edeage r ( 1 987 ) . Ir efer t he g enera l r eader t o t he e xhaus t ive a nd u sefu l s e lect ion o f d escr ip t ive s yntheses o f G e rman s oc ie t ies i n t he I r on A ge , p ub l ished i n t wo v o lumes : J . H e rrmann ( ed . ) D ie Germanen , 1 2 , 1 976 a nd 1 983 . I . Warr io r g raves a re a bsent i n t he n o rth-eas tern p ar t o f F ree G ermany ( Wesk i 1 982 ) , w hereas r i ch f ema le b ur ia ls w ith r athe r s tandard ised g rave-goods p redom in a te . T h is i n d ica tes a s oc ia l a nd s y mbo l ic u n ifo rm ity w h ich l i nked t he c h ief ly e l ite o f t h is a rea t h rough r egu lar t i es o f e xchange/marr iage i n to a n i d eo log ica l a nd p o l it ica l n etwork . R oman p res t ige g oods a re emp loyed i n t he s ame manner a s i n t he n o rth-wes t , a l though n o p o l it ica l modu les s eem d etectab le . H e re , t he d i s tr ibu t ion o f r i ch g raves i s mo re i r regu lar a nd o ver g reate r d i s tances , w h ich may s ugges t a more c entra l ised s t ruc ture . 2 . I n a n i n sp ir ing a r t ic le P earson ( 1984 ) d i scusses , i n ter o l io , t he e conom ic c hanges w h ich o ccurred d u r ing t he c ourse o f t he I r on A ge i n a n a rea w h ich i n c luded s outh a nd c entra l J ut land . H oweve r , t he i n terpretat ion o f c hanges i n 1 39

p roduc t iv ity i s f ounded o n d oub tfu l p rem ises . T he e ar l ies t I r on A ge i s e xemp l if ied b y t he v i l lage o f G ronto f t i nw es t J u t land ( Becker 1 97 1) w h ich , u n t i l r ecent ly , i s t he o n ly D an ish s ett lement t o d ate f r om t he e ar ly P re-Roman I r on A ge . G enera l isa t ions o n t he b as is o f o ne v i l lage a re s ub jec t t o s ome u nce r ta inty . T he e xamp le o f s ett lement f rom t he c lose o f t he P re-Roman I r on A ge i sb ased s o le ly o n a n a na lys is o f H odde ( Hvass 1 975 ) . Y e t among t he i n nume rab le i n ves t igated v i l lages f rom t h is p er iod H odde i su n ique . I ti sc ons iderab ly l a rge r a nd b ette r o rgan ised t han t he o thers , a nd a s s uch c anno t b e t aken a s t he b as is f o r g enera l c onc lus ions a bout t he p roduct ion c apac ity o f J ut land . T he e xamp le u sed t o i lustra te t he l a te I r on A ge ( i nc lud ing t he l a te R oman I r on A ge ) i sa ga in o ne v i l lage , n ame ly V orbasse . I t s p l an a nd o rgan isat ion r ecu r i n o the r c on tempo rary v i l lages , a l though t he s i ze o f f a rm v ar ies . U nt i l af ew y ears a go i t w as t hought t hat s ett lement d ec l ined c . 5 th-6 th c entur ies . T here fo re b ecause t he f arms i n V orbasse d ecreased o n a n a ve rage i n s i ze f rom t he 4 th t o t he 5 th c entury , P earson i n terprets i ta s as ymp tom o f g enera l e conom ic c r is is a nd f a l l i n t he p roduct ion c apac ity o f J ut land . Y e t i n ves t iga t ions c arr ied o ut mo re r ecent ly b o th a t V o rbasse a nd o ther v i l lages s how t hat s ett lements c ont inue t o g row ( Hvass 1 983 ) . A t t he s a me t ime a s t he f arms i n V o rbasse d ecrease s l igh t ly i n s i ze o ve r ap er iod , t he f arms i n o ther v i l lages i n t he s ame a rea b ecome s l ight ly l a rger . A g enera l isat ion o n t he b as is o f V o rbasse i s d ecept ive . I t mus t b e a dded , h owever , t hat t he r e su lts o f t he l a tes t i n ves t igat ions i n w h ich t he c ont inu ity o f v i l lage s t h roughou t t he l a te I r on A ge h as b een c onf irmed , p os t-date P earson 's a rt ic le . 3 . C hanges i n t he r i ght o f i n her itance i n c onnect ion w ith t he r eorgan isa t ion o f l a nd may a l so h ave e ncouraged s ons w ith n o h e r id itary r i ghts t o s eek t he ir f o rtune a s w arr io rs . 4 . T he p rocesses w h ich c haracter ise t he d eve lopment a nd c hanges w ith in G e rman ic s oc iety i n t h is p er iod c onta in e lements o f w ha t h as b een t e rmed a p res t ige-goods e conomy . T here a re a l so s ome e l ements s ummed u p b y F r ied i n t he t e rm " s trat if ied s oc iety" . Marx a nd e spec ia l ly E nge ls t e rmed t he G e rman ic s oc ia l s t ructure a " m i l itary d emocracy" . I n ar eva luat ion o f t h is s tage o f s oc ia l d eve lopment J oach im H errman h as d escr ibed i t mo re g enera l ly a s " the t rans it ion t o c lass s oc iety" ( Herrman 1 982 ) . T he d ynam ic c haracte r is t ics c o rrespond b y a nd l a rge t o t hat p hase i n t he d eve lopment o f G e rman ic s oc iety w h ich h as b een d escr ibed i nt h is a r t ic le . B ib l iog raphy B ecke r , C .J . , 1 97 1. ' F rühe isenze it l ich Dö rfer b e G röntoft , Wes t jut land ' . Ac ta A rchaeo log ica 3 9 . B rad ley , R . , 1 978 . ' P reh is tor ic f i e ld s ys tems i nB r ita in a nd n orth-wes t E urope -a r ev iew o f s o me r ecent wo rk ' . Wo r ld A rchaeo logy 9 ( 3 ) . B uch , D .W . , 1 973 . ' S ied lungwesen u nd g ese l lscha f t l iche . V erhä ltn isse b e i d en S tammen d er f rühe isenze it l i chen B i l lenfo r fer G ruppe ' . E tnog raph ischA rchäo log ische Z e itschr ift . B e r l in . C lausen , H .V . , 1 9 16 . ' S tud ier o ver D anmarks O ld t id sbebygge lse . ' A A rb i f oger f o r n o rd isk O ldkynd ighed o g H is to r ie . C rum l in-Pedersen , 0 . , Museer 2 .

1 975 .

" Ae L e i" o g " Ma rg rethes b ro ' " .

1 40

Nord s lesv igske

E ggers , H .J . , 1 949/50 . ' Lübsow , e in g erman ischer F ü rs tens itz d er ä l teren K a iserze i t ' . P raeh isto r ische Z e itschr ift 3 4/35 . E ggers , H .J . , 1 95 1. Der r öm ische I mport i m f re ien Ge rman ien . H amburg . E kho lm , K . , 1 977 . ' Ex terna l e xchange a nd t he t ransfo rma t ion o f c entra l A fr ican s oc ia l s ys tems ' . i nJ .F r iedman & M . R ow lands ( e ds . )T he E vo lut ion o f S oc ia l S ys tems . L ondon . E nge lhardt , C . , 1 863 . T ho rsb jerg F undet . S onder jyske Mosefund I . Konder jyske Mosefund I . K obenhavn . E nge lhardt , C . , 1 865 . Nydam F undet . S onder jyske Mosefund I . K obenhavn . E nge lhardt , C . , 1 867 . K ragehu l F unde t . F ynske Mosefund I . Kobenhavn . E nge lhard t , C . , 1 869 . V i mose F undet . F ynske Mosefund 1 K obenhavn . F rankens te in , S& M . R ow lands . 1 978 . ' The i n terna l s t ructure a nd r eg iona l c ontext o f e ar ly I r on A ge s oc iety i ns outhwes te rn G e rmany ' . U n ivers ity o f L ondon , I n st itute o f A rchaeo logy B u l let in I S . F r iedman , J . &M . R ow land s . 1 977 . ' No tes t owards a n e p igenet ic mode l o f t he e vo lut ion o f c iv i l iza t ion ' . i nJ . F r iedman & M R ow lands ( e ds . ) . T he E vo lut ion o f S oc ia l S ys tems , L ondon . G ebhü r , M . , 1 970 . ' Be igabenve rge l lschaftungen i n meck lenburg ischen G räberfe ldern d er ä l teren r öm ischen K a iserze it ' . Neue A usgrabungen u nd F o rschungen i nN iedersachsen 6 . G ebühr , M . , 1 974 . ' Zur D e f in it ion ä l terka iserze it l iche r F ürs tengräber v om L übsow-Typ . ' P raeh isto r ische Z e itschr if t 4 9 . G ebühr , M . , 1 975 . ' Versuch e iner s tat is t ischen A uswe rtung v on G rabfunden d er r öm ischen K a iserze it am B e isp ie l d er G räberfe lder v on H amfe lder u nd K emn itz y . Z e itschr if t f ü r O s tfo rschung 1 975 , 2 4 . J ahr . H f . 3 . G ebhü r , M . &J . K unow , 1 976 . ' Der U rnenfr iedho f v on K emn itz , K r . P o tsdamL and ' . Z e itschr ift f ü r A rchäo log ie 1 0 . G ebhü r , M . , U . H ar tung & H . Me ier , i np ress . ' Das G räberfe ld v on N eubrandenburg . B eobachtungen z um a nthropo log ischen u nd a rchäo log ischen B efund ' . Z e itschr ift f ü r A rchäo log ie . H aI d , K . , 1 950 . V o re S tednavne . Kobenhavn . H a Id , K . , 1 966 . S tednavne o g Ku lturh is tor ie . K obenhavn . H ansen , T . , E geberg , 1 882 . ' En l a ndsby f ra g u ldho rnenes t i d ' . V e j le amts A rbog . H edeager , L . , 1 978 a . ' A q uant ita t ive a na lys is o f R oman i mpo rts i nE urope n o rth o f L i mes ( 0 -400 AD ) , a nd t he q ues t ion o f R oman G erman ic e xchange ' , i n K . K r ist iansen & C . P a ludan-Mü l ler ( e ds . ) . New D irect ions i n S cand inav ian A rchaeo logy . T he N at iona l Museum . D enmark .

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H edeager , L . , 1 978 b . ' P rocesses t owards s ta te f o rmat ion i nE ar ly I r on A ge D enmark ' . i nK . K r ist iansen & C . P a ludan-Mü l ler ( e ds . ) New D irect ions i n S cand inav ian A rchaeo logy . T he N at iona l M useum . D enmark . H edeager , L . , 1 980 . ' Bes ied lung , s oc ia le S truktu r u nd p o l it ische O rgan isat ion i n d er ä l teren u nde r j üngeren r öm ischen K a ise rze it O s tdänemarks ' . P roeh isto r ische Z e itschr ift 5 5 , B d . l. H edeager , L . , 1 987 . ' Emp ire , F ront ier a nd t he B a rbar ian H inte r land . R ome a nd Northern E urope f rom A .D . 1 400 ' , i nK . K r is t iansen , M . T ro l le L arsen & M . R ow lands ( e ds . ) , Cen te r , P er iphe ry a nd D ependency i n Anc ient Reg iona l S ys tems . C amb r idge . H edeager , L . i np reparat ion f o r p ub l icat ion . F rom T r ibe t o S tate . T he e vo lu t ion o f I r on Age s oc iet ies i nD enmark 5 00 B .C . -7 00 A .D . H edeager , L . &K . K r is t iansen , 1 98 1. ' Bends trup -e n f yrs teg rav f ra a e ldre r o mersk j e rna lder , d ens s oc ia le o g h i sto r iske m i l jo . ( Bends trup -a p r ince ly g rave f rom t he E ar ly R oman I r on A ge : I t s s oc ia l a nd h i s to r ica l c ontex t ) ' . Kum l . H ermann , J . ( e d . ) , 1 976 . D ie Ge rmanen B d . l . B er l in . H e rmann , J . ( e d . ) , 1 982 . ' Tendenzen u nd G rund l in ien d e r P rodukt ivkraftentw ick lung a n d er Wende v on d er A nt ike z um M it te la lte r ' . i nJ . H errmann & I . S e l lnow ( eds . ) P roduk t ivkra -f te u nd Gese l laschafsfo rmat ionen i nv orkap ita l is t ische Z e it . B er l in . H er rmann , J . , ( e d . ) , 1 983 . D ie G ermanen B d . I . B e r l in H vass , S . , 1 975 . ' Das e i senze it l iche D orf b e i H odde , Wes t jü t land ' . A c ta A rchaeo lo-g ica 4 6 . H vass , S . , 1 983 . ' Vo rbasse . T he d eve lopment o f as e tt lement t h rough t he f i rs t m i ll e n ium A .D . ' J ourna l o f Dan ish A rchaeo logy 2 . I l k jaer , J . &J .L ons trup , 1 983 . ' Der Moo rfund i m T a l d er I le rup-A b e i S kanderbo rg i m O s t jüut land ' . German ia 6 1 . K ossack , G . , K .E . B ehre & P . S chm id ( e ds . ) , 1 984 . A rchäo log ische u nd n aturw issen s chaf t l iche U nte rsuchungen a n l änd l ichen u nd f rühs täd t ischen S ied lungen i nd eutsch e n Küs tengeb iet v om 5 .J ahr . v .Chr . b i s z um I . J ahrh . n .Chr . A c ta H uman iora . We inhe im . Köh ler , R . , 1 975 . U nte rsuchungen z u G rabkomb lexen d e r ä l te ren r öm ischenKa iser z e it i n Böhmen u nter A spekten d er r e l ig iösen u nd s oz ia len G l iede rung . N eumüns te r . K r is t iansen , K . , 1 980 . ' Bes ied lung , W ir tschaftss t ra teg ie u nd B odennutzung i nd er B ronzeze it D änemarks ' . P raeh is tor ische Z e itschr ift 5 5 . K r is t iansen , K . , 1 984 a .' Kr ieger u nd H äupt l inge i nd er B ronzeze it D änemarks ' . J ahrbuch RGZM 3 1. J ahrg .

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K r is t iansen , K . , 1 984 b . V a lue , r ank ing a nd c onsump t ion i nt he B ronze A ge . P aper p resented a t t he 1 984 TAG c onference i nC amb r idge . K uns t , M . , 1 978 . ' Arm u nd R e ich -J ung u nd A lt ' . O ffa 3 5 . L indqu is t , S . -0 . , 1 974 . ' The d eve lopment o f t he a grar ian l a ndscape o n G o t land d ur ing t he E ar ly I r on A ge ' . No rweg ian A rchaeo log ica l Rev iew 7 , ( I ) . Mü l ler-W i l le , M . , 1 965 . E isenze it l iche F luren i nd en f est land ischen No rdseegeb iet e n . ( S ied lung u nd L andschafte i n Wes tfa len 5 ) .

Müns ter .

M yhre , B . , 1 978 . ' Ag rar ian d eve lopment , s ett lement h i s tory a nd s oc ia l o rgan izat ion i nS ou thwest N orway i nt he I r on A ge ' . i nK . K r is t iansen & C . P a ludan-Mü l ler ( e ds . ) New D irect ions i nS cand inav ian A rchaeo logy . T he N at iona l Museum , D enmark . N eumann , H . , 1 977 . ' D ie B efest igungsan lage O lgerd ige u nd d er j ü t ischen H eerwep ' . S tud ient z ur S achsenfo rschung I . N eumann , H . , 1 982 . O lderd ige -e t b id rag t i l D ann narks t i d l igs te h i s to r ie . H aders lev . O s lo ja-Zago rsk i , J . , 1 983 . A n a ttemp t a t t he r econs truct ion o f e conom ic t ransfo rmat ions i nt he H a l ls tatt p er iod i nt he n o rth a nd w es t z one o f t he O der a nd V istu la R ive r B as in . U nconvent iona l A rchaeo logy V -5 . P earson , M . P arke r , 1 984 . ' Econom ic a nd i d eo log ica l c hange : C yc l ica l g row th i n t he p re-s tate s oc ie t ies o f J ut land ' . i nD . M i l ler & C . T i l ley ( e ds . ) . I deo logy , P ower a nd P reh istory . N ew D irec t ions i nA rchaeo logy . C amb r idge . R andsbo rg , K . , 1 974 . ' S oc ia l s t rat if icat ion i nE a r ly B ronze A ge D enmark : as t udy i nt he r egu lat ion o f c u ltura l s ys tems ' . P raeh is to r ische Z e itschr ift 4 9 . S teue r , H . , 1 982 . F rühgesch icht l iche S oz ia ls trukturen M itte leuropa . Gö tt ingen . S ondergaard , B . , 1 972 . I nd ledende s tud ie r o ver d en n ord iske s tednavnetype l ev ö v ) . K obenhavn . T u rney-H igh , H .H . , 1 949 . P r im it ive War . U n ivers ity o f S outh C aro l ina P ress . C o lumb ia . ( 2 .ed . 1 9 7I ) . W e sk i , T . , 1 982 . Waffen i ng erman ischen G räbern d er ä l te ren r om ischen K a iserze it s üd l ich d e r O s tsee . B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l R eports , I n te rnat iona l S er ies , 1 47 . O xfo rd . W idgren , M . , 1 983 . S ett lement a nd F arm ing S ys tems i nt he E ar ly I r on Age . S tockho lm . W idg ren , M . , 1 984 . ' The s e tt lement a nd f arm ing s ys tem i nO s tergöt land S weden , 1t o A .D . 5 00 ' , i nK . K r is t iansen ( e d . ) . S ett lement a nd E conomy i nL ater S cand inav ian P reh is to ry . B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l R eports , I n te rnat iona l S e r ies , 2 11. O xfo rd .

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W ind lehed , B . , 1 984 . "Ce lt ic f i e lds" a nd p reh is to r ic a grar ian l a ndscapes ' , i nK . K r is t iansen ( e d . ) S e tt lement a nd E conomy i nL ater S cand inav ian P reh is tory . B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l R epo r ts , I n ternat iona l S er ies , 2 1 1. O x fo rd . O rsnes , M . , 1 963 . T he Weapon f i nd i nE jsbo l Mo se a t H aders lev . A c ta A rchaeo log ica , 3 4 O rsnes , M . , 1 964 . ' Mosefund -s t ra t igra f i o g k rono log i ' . T o r 1 0 . O rsnes , M . , 1 968 . D er Moo rfund v on E jsbo l b e i H eders leben . Deutungsp rob leme d er g rossen n ordgerman ischen Wa ffenopfer funde . A bhand lung d e r A kadem ie d er W isse n schaft in Gö t t ingen . O rsnes , M . , 1 984 . S e jrens P r is . H ade rs lev museum .

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II . THE END OF THE ROMAN COUNTRYS IDE S tephen L . Dyson C hanges i n t he l a nd , b o th i t s e co logy a nd t he s oc ia l a nd e conom ic s t ructures o f t hose w ho l i ved u pon i t , were o ne o f t he most i mportant a spects o f t he F irst M i l lenn ium w or ld t hat w as t he f ocus o f t he B radford c onference . T owns m ight c ome i n to b e ing , r each p eaks o f p rosper ity u nder t he Roman Emp ire , f a l l i n to n ear o b l iv ion d ur ing t he l a te Roman-ear ly med ieva l t rans it iona l p er iod a nd r i se a ga in a s t he m i l lenn ium d rew t o a c lose . However , t hey w ere mere ly a s upers tructure , a t b es t o rgan iz ing more e ff icent ly t he p roduct ive f orces o f t he r u ra l f o lk a nd p rov id ing t hem w ith b etter a ccess t o al a rger market wor ld a nd a t w orst , h arbo r ing a h os t o f p aras it ica l s oc ia l u n its t hat e xtracted much a nd p roduced l i tt le . T he e ssent ia l means o f p roduct ion l ay i n t he c ountrys ide a nd t o u nderstand t he c omp lex , c hang ing wor ld o f F irst M i l lenn ium E urope a nd t he Med iterranean , o ne h as t o s tudy a nd u nderstand t he c omp l icated e vo lut ion o f t he c ountrys ide . S cho lars h ave l o ng a pprec iated t he h i stor ica l i mpo rtance o f t hese r ura l t r ansfo rmat ions , b ut h ave o ften l acked b o th q ua l ity e v idence a nd c urrent , s oph ist icated mode ls f o r t he a na lys is o f t hat s oc iety a nd e conomy . H istor ians w r it ing i n t he G reat T rad it ion h ave n o rma l ly b een o n ly marg ina l ly c oncerned w ith t he c ountrys ide . F or much o f t he p er iod o f t he F irst M i l lenn ium t he d ocumentary e v idence o f t he a rch iva l t ype i s e x iguous a nd a rchaeo log ica l i n vest igat ions h ave c entered o n e l ite e stab l ishments s uch a s v i l lae o r monaster ies . T he p icture i s c hang ing . Masses o f n ew w r itten d ocuments a re u n l ike ly t o a ppear , b ut t hose t ha t d o e x ist a re b e ing s ub jected t o i ncreas ing ly s oph ist icated a na lys is . S c ient ists , e spec ia l ly i n n orthern E urope , a re p rov id ing more e v idence o n t he e co log ica l s phere w h ich b oth s haped a nd w as s haped b y man 's a ct iv it ies d ur ing t h is p er iod . A rchaeo log is ts h ave t urned i ncreas ing ly t o s urvey a rchaeo logy w h ich a l lows t he r econstruct ion o f w ho le s ett lement s ys tems . A g reater r ange o f s i tes i s r ece iv ing t he a ttent ion o f e xcavators a nd e ven e l ite s i tes s uch a s R oman v i l lae a re b e ing i n vest igated i n t erms n o t o n ly o f t he h igh c u lture o b jects w h ich t hey y ie ld , b ut a l so i n t erms o f t he s oc io-econom ic s t ructures o f w h ich t hey w ere a p art . F undamenta l p rob lems w i l l a lways r e ma in . We w i l l p robab ly n ever b e a b le t o s ett le t he q ues t ion o f w ha t h appened t o t he r ura l p opu lat ion a s t he Roman wor ld c o l lapsed . Were t hey w iped o ut i n t he c haos a ssoc iated w ith t he e nd o f Roman r u le o r d id t he s ever ing o f r ura l s oc iety f rom t he c onsumer p roduct n etworks t hat h ad b een s o f u l ly d eve loped i n t he f i rs t t wo c entur ies A .D . j u st make t hem a rchaeo log ica l ly i n v is ib le? G iven t he h i story o f i n tense , f ocused a rchaeo log ica l i n vest igat ions p rov ing t he e x istence o f p opu lat ions w here n one w ere t hought t o e x ist , i t i s n o t u n l ike ly t hat t he n ext t wenty f i ve y ears o f r esearch w i l l d emonstrate a h igher l e ve l o f d emograph ic c ont inu ity t han w as p rev ious ly t hought . What t he c urrent h i s tor ica l a nd a rchaeo log ica l e v idence i lus trates a nd t he p apers i n t h is s ect ion d i scuss i s t he c o l lapse o r t ransfo rmat ion o f s ys tems . C entra l t o o ur u nderstand ing o f t he Roman r ura l wor ld i n t he w est i st he v i l la s ys tem , av ague c oncept t hat embraces a r ange o f h ouseho ld a nd e xtended f am i ly u n its p roduc ing a t l east i n p art f or t he market . T he d eath a gon ies o f t he v i l la w or ld h as b een t he c entre o f much r ecent Roman r ura l r esearch . V irtua l ly e verywhere t h is n ew r esearch h as s hown t hat t he f i na l s tages o f t h is s ystem were more p ro longed a nd c omp l icated t han p rev ious ly s uspec ted . T h is i s we l l 1 45

i lustrated b y t he p aper o f R .F .J .Jones w here t he s l owness o f t he d em ise a nd t he p rob lem o f s eparat ing o ut a ctua l c o l lapse f rom t he p rocess o f s eparat ion o f t he p opu lace f rom t he markets w h ich p rov ided t he e as i ly d atab le a rchaeo log ica l mater ia ls a re d i scussed a nd a t ime ly p lea made f o r more p rec ise a nd s ys temat ic r esearch o n t h is p rob lem i nt he I ber ian p en insu la . T he e co log ica l b ackground a ga inst w h ich t h is e bb a nd f l ow o f Roman a nd e ar ly med ieva l s ett lement t ook p lace h as r ece ived r e lat ive ly l i tt le a ttent ion i n t he Med iterranean . T he p aper o f P ame la Hemph i l l c onveys a s ense o f t he t enac ity o f o ne e lement i n t h is e cosystem , t he f ores ts , w h ich w ere e xtens ive ly c ut b ack d ur ing t he Roman p er iod , b ut w h ich a lmost a lways s urv ived i n s uff ic ient s i ze t o r egenerate t hemse lves w hen r ura l p opu lat ion o r a t l e ast e xtens ive f a rm ing d ec l ined . F ocus o n t he p rob lems o f Western E urope a nd t he Western Med iterranean d ur ing t he R oman-med ieva l i n terface makes h i stor ians f orget t hat c ond it ions a nd d eve lopments o ften t ook a v ery d i fferent c ourse i nt he o ther a reas o f t he R oman Med iterranean . T he r esearch o f J ohn B int l iff a nd A nthony S nodgrass o n t own a nd c ountry d eve lopments i n G reece d ur ing t h is p e r iod s hows c r is is a nd f l uctuat ion i nb o th t own a nd r ura l v i ta l ity , b ut t hat t hese c ame a t v ery d i fferent t ime p er iods a nd r e f lected h i stor ica l p rocesses s pec ia l t o G reece a nd t he B yzant ine wo r ld o f w h ich i tw as a p art . C erta in r eg ions w ere b ound t o b e e spec ia l ly a ffected b y t he c o l lapse o f R oman c ontro l . P rom inent among t hese w ere t he f ront ier z ones . T he p hys ica l v u lnerab i l ity i s u sua l ly s t ressed w ith i mages o f b arbar ians mov ing i n a nd s l aughter ing t he r ura l p opu lace . T h is was c erta in ly p art ly t rue , b ut t he r ura l f ront ier z one p opu lace s uffered i n o ther w ays f r om t he c o l lapse o f t he R oman m i l itary a nd a dm in istrat ive o rder . T he e x istence o f l a rge n umbers o f m i l itary a nd b ureaucrat ic p ersonne l who n eeded f ood a nd s upp l ies a nd h ad t he f unds t o p urchase t hem h ad c reated a p rosperous , b ut l a rge ly a rt if ic ia l market w o r ld f or f armers n ear t he f ront ier z one . T h is e nded w ith t he c o l lapse o f t he l imes s ystem a nd t he r esu lt was a ma jo r a l terat ion i n s ett lement s t ructure . W i l lem W i l lems , u s ing a n i mpress ive amount o f d ata d er ived f rom l o ng t erm g eo log ica l r esearch i n a reas o f t he D utch R h ine f ront ier , d ocuments t hese s h ifts i n t he r ura l l a ndscape d ur ing t he Roman p er iod . T ogether w ith t he p o l it ica l a nd m i l itary c hanges a nd t he s oc ia l a nd e conom ic t ransformat ions , t h is p er iod a l so s aw a ma jor r e l ig ious c onvers ion . S low ly , b ut i n exorab ly t he p agan g ods were r ep laced b y t hat o f t he C hr ist ians a nd w ith t h is c ame a n ew s acred t opography i n b oth t own a nd c ountry a reas . Much h as b een w r itten o n t h is p rocess o f c onvers ion , b ut a s B a i ley Y oung p o ints o ut i nh i s p aper , o n ly r ecent ly h as modern a rchaeo log ica l r esearch b een a pp l ied t o t he p rob lem . I t i s s ugges t ing t hat t he C hr ist ians , r ather t han s ystemat ica l ly d estroy ing a nd r eus ing p agan r e l ig ious s i tes s et o ut t o c reate t he ir own s acred t opography , o ne t hat a nswered t o t he ir own n ew a nd v ery d i fferent b e l ief s t ructures . None o f t he p apers i n t h is g roup c la ims t o b e d ef in it ive a nd n one p rov ides a l l embrac ing a nswers t o t he p rob lems o f c hange i n t he F irst M i l lenn ium . R ather t hey s how t he c omp lex ity o f t he s i tuat ion a nd d emonstrate t hat a nswers w i l l c ome o n ly t hrough a r ea l izat ion o f t hat c omp lex ity , t he d eve lopment o f i mag inat ive mode ls a nd t he c o l lect ion a nd a na lys is o f much n ew i n fo rmat ion t hrough i n terd isc ip l inary r esearch .

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1 2 . DE-FORESTAT ION AND RE-FORESTAT ION I N A CENTRAL H INTERLAND : LAND U SAGE DUR ING AND AFTER THE OCCUPAT ION

I TAL IAN ROMAN

P ame la Hemph i l l S ummary R oman d efores tat ion , w h i le i t c e rta in ly t ook p lace , was n o t , o ve ra l l , a s d estruc t ive a s h as b een p rev ious ly t hough t . L arge ly t hrough t he a pp l icat ion o f c urrent s tud ies o f p lant e co logy a nd t he r esu lts o f s pec if ic work b y f ores te rs , i t i s n ow p oss ib le t o u nders tand t he d eve lopmen t o f f o rest p lant c ommun it ies . D egenerat ion i st he r esu lt o f h uman i n terference a nd a r eversa l , r egene rat ion , i s p o ss ib le , p rov id ing t hat c l imate a nd s o i l c ond it ions r ema in t he s ame . T he h uge amount o f wood a nd t imber n eeded i n Rome a nd b y f armers a nd t ownsfo lk i n t he s urround ing a rea , mus t h ave r esu lted i n t he e x tens ive d efo res tat ion o f Centra l I t a ly . Resu lts o f t he C iv ite l la Ces i S urvey i n S outh E trur ia , 6 0 km . n orth o f R ome , s how t ha t i n a n a rea o f 1 00 s q . kms . t he f orest c overage i s g rea ter t oday t han i t was i n t he 2 nd c entury A .D . T h is p rov ides e v idence t ha t r egenera t ion o f f o rest l ands h as t aken p lace s i nce t he Roman p er iod a nd , t hus , t hat t he Roman u sage was n o t t o ta l ly d evas tat ing t o s o i l c ond it ions . B ien q ue l e d e fr ichement r oma ine a i t c er ta inement e u l i eu , i ln e f u t p as d ans l ' ensemb le a uss i d e structeur q u ' i l l ' a g i t e a uparavan t s uppose . Ie st ma intenant p os s ib le d e c omp rende l e d ive loppement d es f am i l ies d e p lantes f o res t ie res e n g rande p art ie g r8ce 8 l a m ise e n p rac t ique d ' e tudes e n c ours s ur P eco log ie d es p lantes e t a u r e su ltat d ' un t rava i l s pec if ique p ar l e s f o res t iers . L a d egene ra t ion e st l er e su ltat d e l ' i nterven t ion h uma ine e t , s on c ontra ire , l a r e 4e rat ion e st p oss ib le p ourvu q ue l ec l imat e t l e s c ond it ions d u s o l r es ten t l e s r nemes . L es b eso ins e no rmes e n b o is d 'oeuvre e t e n b o is d omes t ique d es Roma ines , d es f erm iers e t d es h ab itants d es r eg ions a vo is inantes o n d i ) g tre l ac ause d ' un v as te d e fr ichement e n I t o l ie c entra le . L es r e su ltats d e r enque te d u C iv ite l la C es i d ans l ' Etrur ie d u s ud , ä6 0 km . a u n o rd d e Rome , montre q ue , s t ir u ne s urface d e 1 00 kms . c arre , l a f orgt r ecouvre a u jourd 'hu i t i n p lus g rand t err ito ire q u 'e l le n e f a isa it a u d eux ieme s i ec le a p r e s J .C . C ec i p rove q ue l a r e g ene ra t ion d e l a f o rè t s ' es t f a lte a pres l a f i n d e l a p e r iode r oma ine . A ins i d onc , l et ra itemen t d e l e f org t p ar l e s Roma ines n e f ut p as e n t ie rement d evasta teu r e n c e q u i c oncerne l e s c ond it ions d u s o l . A s ar esu lt o f t he ( s t i l l o ngo ing ) C iv ite l la C es i S urvey , i th as b ecome a pparent t ha t t he p resent e xtent o f t he f orest c over i sg reate r t han t ha t i n t he R oman e ra . R egenera t ion h as c lear ly t aken p lace , e v idence s o mewhat i n t he f ace o f c onvent iona l ly a ccep ted w isdom a bou t R oman d efores tat ion . T he g ene ra l ly a ccepted v iew o f t he e x tent t o w h ich t he R omans d enuded t he c ountrys ide , p resents a g loomy p ic ture i n deed , o f r apac ious c lear ing o f f ores t l a nds , e xacerbated b y t he omn ivo rous g oat . S uch v egetat ion a s e scaped t he l o ggers w as t o rn u p b y t he g oats , t hus l e av ing a b are , r ocky h i l ls ide i n capab le o f s o i l r enewa l a nd f rom w h ich s uch s o i l a s d id s urv ive w as q u ick ly w ashed d ownh i l l . T he t r ue p icture o f R oman d efores tat ion i s , o f c ourse , a n i mmense ly c omp lex o ne , o ne i n w h ich f acto rs o f g eo logy , c l imate a nd g eograph ic l o cat ion h ave t he ir e ffect . C erta in ly t here a re p laces , f o r e xamp le i ns outhern E ng land a nd i n p arts o f t he h igh A penn ines , w here R oman c hanges t o t he o r ig ina l f o res ts h ave n o t b een r eversed , b u t t h is c an n o l o nger b e t aken f o r g ranted e verywhere a s a f actor o f t he p os t-Roman w o r ld . 1 47

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T he C iv ite l la C es i S urvey a rea l i es n orth o f R ome , s et i n t he m idd le r eches o f t he M ignone v a l ley a nd i n c lud ing t he b as in o f i t s t r ibutary , t he V esca ( F ig . 1 2 . 1) . T he a rea i sc ente red o n t he E truscan s i te o f S an G iovena le w h ich i s 1 2 km . s outh o f B lera . T he l a ndscape i sv ar ied . W ith in i t s 1 00 s q km . t hree d i s t inc t t e rra ins p rov ide a w ide r ange o f t opograph ies -a nd t hus l a nd-use p o tent ia l ( F ig . 1 2 .2 ) . A s e r ies o f s ed imentary r ocks f o rm t he o ldes t t e rra in h ere , r ocks w h ich h ave b een d e formed a nd s l ight ly m etamorphosed a nd w h ich c omp r ise t he mos t r e s istant r ocks o f t he a rea . H i l ls a nd v a l leys d eve loped o n t hese r ocks f ormed t hose w h ich , b y 2m i l l ion y ears a go , l a y p art ia l ly c overed b y t he s ea . T he more r e s is tant r ocks f o rmed i s lands , p romonto r ies a nd b ays i n aT yrrhen ian S ea w ider t han t oday 's . U nder t h is r e lat ive ly s he ltered w ater , c lay w as l a id d own . T h is a rea i sw e l l k nown a s v o lcan ica l ly a ct ive , l y ing a s i td oes i n t he s a me z one a s E tna a nd V esuv ius . V o lcanoes e rupted u p t hrough t he o ld l a ndscape o f t he a rea c reat ing , i n t he p roces s , t he c a lderas o f t he A lban H i l ls , B racc iano , V ico a nd B o lsena , am id many o ther c raters . T hese e rupt ions w ere o f a k ind n ever r eco rded ( o r p resumab ly s een ) b y h umans . T he v o lcanoes e rupted g reat c louds o f i n candescent , p u lver ized r ock t hat t rave led a t h undreds o f k i lometers p er h our . S uch a c loud a c ts r ather l i ke w ater - r ush ing d ownh i l l , f l ow ing t hrough e x ist ing v a l leys , s p i l l ing o ver f r om o ne l eve l t o a nother a nd e ventua l ly c om ing t o r es t , p ar t ia l ly f i l l ing t he o ld v a l leys a nd e ven b ury ing t he l owe r h i l ls . I n t he C iv ite l la C es i a rea t he v o lcan ic d ebr is r eaches a t h ickness o f o ve r 6 0 m . T he p resent d ay l a ndscape s hows h i l ls d eve loped f rom o lder , r es is tant r ocks , t he g ent le c lay s l opes a nd t he f l at v a l ley f i l l o f t he v o lcan ic a sh o r t u fo . T h is t u fo h as c erta in c ha racter is t ics w h ich p rov ide d es irab le l a nd . F lat , i t i s e as i ly p lowed . V o lcan ic , i tc onta ins a l l t he n utr ients e ssent ia l f o r p lant l i fe . I t i sp e rmeab le a nd w e l l-d ra ined a nd y et , b ecause i tl i es o n d ense c lay , t he g round w a ter i sh e ld u p a nd i tb ecomes a ccess ib le t h rough w e l l o r s pr ing . T he c anyons a re s teep a nd t hey a re c ut b ack b y t he r i ve rs . H ere a nd t here a n ecked p romontory i sl e ft s tand ing a t t he s harp a ng le o f t wo c onverg ing s t reams -t hus f o rm ing a dm irab ly d efens ive s i tes . I tw as t o s uch s i tes t hat t he f i rs t B ronze A ge p eop le c ame ; h ere t he V i l lanovans a nd E truscans s ett led . F rom t he d i s tr ibut ion o f R epub l ican a nd A ugustan s i tes , h oweve r o ne s ees a g radua l s pread ing o nto t he c l ay s l opes , s t i l l t oday u sed e xtens ive ly f o r c e rea l c rops , w hea t a nd b ar ley . ( s ee F ig . 1 2 .3 ) . T h is p at tern o f e xpans ion c ont inued , a nd b y t he e ar ly 2 nd c entury A .D . , i t s w ides t e xtent , t he o ccupat ion o f t he a rea h ad s preand e ven b ury ing t he l owe r h i l ls . I n t he C iv ite l lad i n to t he l imestone u p lands . ( S ite d i str ibut ion d ata i sf o rmed f rom u npub l ished r esu lts o f t he C iv ite l la C es i s urvey ) . A l l t hrough t h is o ccupat ion , b ecause o f h uman i n tervent ion , t he i n d igenous f o res ts o r c l imat icc l imax c ommun it ies , w ere d i sp laced . L arge ly a s ar e su lt o f p o s t-war c oncern a bout t he p o tent ia l t o ta l d es truct ion o f t he w o r ld 's f ores ts , f ores te rs b o th t heoret ica l a nd p ract ica l h ave d one much wo rk i n t he u nders tand ing o f h ow f o res ts w ork . H ow t he f o res ts k eep t he ir b a lance , h ow t hey c an b e u sed w ithout d estroy ing t hem a re matters o f c urrent i n teres t . C ontro l , o r l a ck o f c ontro l , a nd t he e ffects o f s oc iet ies w h ich p erm it i n d iscr im inate l o o t ing o f t he f ores ts -o ften w ith d i sp lacement o f t he i n d igenous p opu lat ions -a re a l so u nder c ons iderat ion ( Boserup 1 98 1) . P lant c ommun it ies ma in ta in a d e l icate b a lance b ut t end t o f o l low c erta in p at terns . W ith a g iven c l imate a nd s o i l , p lant c ommun it ies i na n a rea w i l l move t owards , a nd ma inta in , an atura l o r c l imat ic-c l imax c ommun ity o r p opu lat ion . N o rma l ly , e xcep t f o r t he t undra , t h is p opu lat ion i s af o res t o f s o rts . W ith a s t ab le c l i mate , n atura l c ommun it ies w i l l d egene rate o n ly w ith t he i n terference o f h umans a nd t he ir a n ima ls . F orests d egenerate t o t h ickets o r maqu is , i n to g ar igue o r h eath , f i na l ly i n to w as te lands . T he r egene rat ion r eve rses t h is p rocess , p rov ided t hat h uman i n te rference i s r emoved a nd t hat s o i l c ond it ions h ave n o t 1 5 1

b een a l tered s o d rast ica l ly t hat r e-growth c annot t ake p lace ( R ick le ffs Rackham 1 982 ) .

1 979 ;

L itt le i s l e ft o f t he o r ig ina l v egetat ion o f t he Med iterranean l a nds , j u s t af ew p atches b etween a reas o f r e- o r d egenerat ion ; t hat i s , f orests b etween t he t rans it iona l s tages o f t h icket o r h eath . O f t hese p opu lat ions , s ome o f t he p lants a re s urv ivo rs f rom b efore t he I ce A ges , f o r e xamp le t he o leander , m yrt le a nd v ine , b u t i n e ffect t he I ce A ge w iped t he s l ate c l ean . A s t he c l i mate s g radua l ly w ar med a fter t he e nd o f t he l a st I ce A ge , p lants r eturned . I n S outh E trur ia t undra g ave w ay t o c on iferous f orests , t hen t o b road l e aved d ec iduous t r ees w ith t he f i na l a dd it ion o f i l ex a nd p ine s u ited t o t he c urrent c l imate o f t he Med iterranean l i ttora l . ( Bonatt i 1 961; 1 970 ) T oday , i n g enera l , t he p lant c om mun it ies o f t he Med iterranean a rea a re d iv ided i n to t hree g roups , z ones d i fferent iated b y h e ight a bove s ea l eve l . B e low a bout 5 00 m . , a nd a long t he c oas t , l i e t he e vergreen f orests o f i l ex , h o lm o ak a nd p ine . B etween a bout 5 00 a nd 1 800 m . d ec iduous f orests o f o ak , a sh , h o rnbeam a nd c hestnut a re n orma l . O nce a bove 1 800 m . t he s ub-a lp ine c on ifers o f p ine , s i lver f i r a nd , i n p laces , c edar , f orm n atura l p opu lat ion c ommun it ies ( Pu lan in a nd H ux ley 1 965 ) . T he s urvey a rea l i es 3 0 km . f rom t he c oast a nd b etween 1 00 a nd 6 00 m . b ut , s i nce i ti sn ot a long t he s ea , i t s n orma l p lant p opu lat ions t oday a re t he d ec iduous f orests , p art icu lar ly o f o ak . T here a re s o me d angers i n herent i n e xtrapo la t ing f rom c urrent v egetat ion t o t hat o f t he a nc ient wo r ld b ut i t n ow a ppears e v ident t hat t here h ave b een n o s ubs tant ia l c l i mate c hanges i n t he l a s t 2 500 y ears , s o t hat s im i lar p lant c om mun it ies may b e a ssumed ( Shaw 1 98 1; J udson 1 984 ) . I ndeed t he R omans u sed t he s pec ies o f t rees p resent t oday . T here h ave b een s o me a dd it ions t o t he I t a l ian t ree p opu lat ions , f o r e xamp le t he e uca lyptus a nd t he North Amer ican D oug las f i r . O ther t rees , s uch a s t he c hestnut w h ich w as n ot p opu lar w ith t he R omans , a nd t he h aze l , a re c om mon t oday . T here i sa l so t he q ues t ion o f a b ies a lba , t he s i lver f i r , w h ich t he R omans a re s upposed t o h ave u sed s o r e lent less ly t hat t hey w iped i to ut . O r w as i tj u s t ac ase o f m istaken i d ent ity a nd t hat i t was , i n f act , t he p ines w h ich w ere b e ing e xp lo ited? I n a ny e vent , t hough t here h ave b een c hanges s i nce Roman t imes , t hey a re s uperf ic ia l . E v idences f o r t he u se o f wood b y t he Romans c omes f rom v ar ious s ources . T here i ss ome a rchaeo log ica l mater ia l b oth i nt erms o f b u i ld ing ( o ften n egat ive , s uch a s t he l ocat ion o f p os t h o les o r w a l l t imbers ) o r af ew s urv iv ing wooden o b jects . T he b u lk o f t he e v idence i sl i terary , t hough p erhap s s urpr is ing ly l e ss t han m ight b e e xpected f rom t he a g r icu ltura l w r iters . O rchards a nd o l ive g rove s , t he ir c reat ion a nd e xpans ion , a re t reated i n d eta i l b ut t he c ontro l led u se o f f o rests i s b are ly ment ioned . P r i me s ources a re t he work o f t he 4 th c entury B .C . b otan ist T heophrastus a nd P l iny t he E lder , a utho r o f t he e ncyc loped ic Natura l H istory . V itruv ius o n t he u se o f wood a s ab u i ld ing mate r ia l i sa l so u sefu l . A s t he R oman wo r ld e xpanded m i l itar i ly , a gr icu ltura l ly a nd c u ltu ra l ly , t he d emand f o r l a nd i t se lf a nd t he t imber f rom i tb ecame i mmense . T he p at tern o f s ett lement t hroughout t he R epub l ic s aw t he s ett le rs mov ing i n to a reas p rev ious ly c leared o n a modest s ca le b y n at ive p opu lat ions , a nd t hen r ad ica l ly i n c reas ing t he amount o f l and i n u se f o r f arm ing . E ven w hen t he s e lf-suff ic ient f a rmers g ave w ay t o l a rger e s tab l ishments -manager-run e s tates b ased o n s l ave l a bour o r w ith s ate l l ite f arms r un o n al ease o r s hare-cropp ing b as is , a ttendant c hanges i n t he u se o f l a nd t end t o b e t hose o f s ca le r ather t han k ind . T he f i rst c lear ing o f t he f orests was t o p rov ide l a nd f or f arm ing . A rab le l and w as a p r ime n eed , w ith e nough o f i tt o e nsure t hat t he f armer c ou ld r o ta te w ith 1 52

f a l low . S ome l a nd w as m a inta ined f o r p as ture , b o th f o r g raz ing a nd f o r h ay . O l ive g roves a nd v ineya rd s w ere d eve loped o n al a rge , o ften c ommerc ia l , s ca le , f r equen t ly w ith c rops r a ised b e tween t he r ows . O rcha rds a nd v ege tab le g ardens w ere a l so n eeded . L ives tock w e re k ept e xtens ive ly o n t he R oman f arm , e i the r t o ma inta in s e lfs u ff ic iency o r f o r p ro f it . Wo rk ing a n ima ls s uch a s o x , mu le a nd d onkey w ere r a ised , o f n eces s ity , a nd f l ocks o f s heep , u p t o 1 00 h ead o r mo re , w e re k ept t o mee t t he c ont inua l d emand f o r w oo l . I f a marke t w ere n earby , y oung l ambs w ou ld b e s o ld a nd t he s hepherds make c heese f rom t he e xces s m i lk . O ther f l ocks , r ang ing d i s tant a reas , p rov ided w oo l o n ly . T he i n d iv idua l f armer 's f l ocks d i d n ot s t ray f ar f rom t he f arm a nd e ven i n s ummer w hen t he h igher g raz ing i s b et ter , t hey c e r ta in ly r e turned a t n igh t t o a n e nc losure o f s o r ts . L ong d i s tance t r anshumance w as c onf ined t o t he w oo l p roduc ing f l ocks o f t he h igh A penn ines a nd i tw as l a rge ly a ma t te r o f a n o wne r t rans fe rr ing h i s s heep f rom o ne e s tate t o a no ther . I f f l ocks w ent t hrough p ub l ic l a nds t hey p a id a g raz ing t ax . P igs r oamed t he woods , e spec ia l ly i ns earch o f mas t , a co rns , b eechnu ts a nd c hes tnuts . J us t a s t he s hephe rds s tayed w ith t he s heep , s o t he s w inehe rds s tayed w ith t he p igs , k eep ing t hem t oge the r a nd p utt ing t hem i n to s he lte r a t n ight . C a tt le a l so r an i n t he w oods , a s t hey d o t oday . I n a dd it ion , t rees p rov ided f odder f o r t he w in te r ( Wh ite 1 970 ) . C at t le , s heep a nd p igs , u nder c ont ro l led c ond it ions w i l l n o t d es troy a f o res t . G oa ts w i l l . G oa t s e at t he s ap l ings a nd t ear o ff b ranches i n aw ay i nw h ich o ther a n ima ls d o n o t . T he g oat i s -r a ther s urp r is ing ly -a d e l icate c reature a nd mus t a lways b e h oused i n aw arm , d ry s he lte r a t n ight a nd o n c o ld d ays . T hus , w h i le h e rds o f g oat s w e re i n deed k ept b y t he R omans , i t w as o f n eces s ity o n a r e la t ive ly s ma l l s ca le . Mea t , m i lk , s k ins a nd h a ir t o meet t he f arme r 's n eeds w ere p rov ided b u t h e rds w ou ld n eve r h ave b een a l lowed t o r ange u ncont ro l led . I n a dd it ion t o t he u se o f w ood land s f o r a n ima l h usbandry , t rees w ere a l so e s sent ia l i n p rov id ing w ood f o r f arm u se ( Me iggs 1 982 h e re a nd t hroughout f o r t he u ses o f w ood a nd t imbe r ) . T rees w ere c ut a s n eeded f o r b u i ld ing , f urn iture a nd mach inery a nd t he re w as a c ont inu ing d emand f o r p os ts , f ences , p o les a nd w ith ies . T he R omans w ere p e rfec t ly a ware o f t he p os s ib i l it ies i n he rent i n c opp ic ing , r efe rr ing t o i ta s s i lva c aedua ( Cato 1 0 . 1 1 . ) . When a t r ee i sc ut o f f a t g round l e ve l c e r ta in s pec ies , n o tab ly c hes tnut , o ak a nd a lde r , w i l l s end u p n ew s hoo ts f r om t he r oo ts tock , e ventua l ly s urround ing t he r emnant o f t he o ld t runk w ith s ap l ings . D epend ing o n t he s i ze n eeded , g row ths c an b e c ut a f ter 7 t o 1 0 y ears , a nd t he p rocess c ont inue s . D ur ing t he R oman Emp ire , t he S ta te a lways n eeded w ood . O nce t he P ax A ugus ta w as e s tab l ished , t he i n ces sant d emand f o r f i r ( o r p ine ) f o r s h ip-bu i ld ing f e l l o ff b u t e x tens ive p ub l ic b u i ld ing p rog rams s oon c rea ted a n ew market . F o res ts w ere h e ld i no wne rsh ip b y t he S ta te t hroughou t t he Emp ire t o mee t t hese n eeds . T he e xp lo itat ion o f S tate f o re s ts a ppears t o h ave b een c ontro l led , a s i tc er ta in ly w as f o r g raz ing . I n t he p r iva te s ecto r t here w as a lways a d emand f o r b u i ld ing t imbe r . I fw e a l so c ons ide r t he d emand f o r f ue l f o r a l l t hose b aths , p ub l ic a nd p r iva te a nd t he n o rma l R oman p ract ice o f c remat ion , i tc an c lear ly b e s een t hat t he d emands o n t he f o res ts w e re e no rmous . T imbe r , a nd w e s peak h e re o f l o gs u p t o 4 0 m . i n l e ng th i n s ome r eco rded i n s tances , ( P l iny 1 6 .200 ) w as moved b y w a te r w here a t a l l p os s ib le . L ogs w ere d ragged d own t o t he r i ve rs r eady f o r f l oat ing d owns tream w hen t he w a te r w as h i gh e nough ; i ns ome r i ve r s t h is w a s o n ly i nw inter . T hus t he w ho le o f t he T ibe r 1 53

F ig . 1 2 .4 :

C iv ite l la C es i : R oman S i te s .

1 54

F ig . 1 2 .5 :

C iv ite l la C e s i : F orest C over T oday .

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b as in b ecame f eas ib le f or l ogg ing , p erm itt ing a ccess t o t he s tands o f f i r a nd p ine o f t he u pper v egetat ion z one . T he h ardwoods f ound o n t he l ower s l opes o f t he A penn ines w ere a l so t he n atura l v egetat ion o f S outh E trur ia w h ich i nc ludes t he s urvey a rea . No p art o f S outh E tur ia i s mo re t han 4 0 km . f rom t he T iber , i t s t r ibutar ies o r t he s ea . Two ma jo r a nd s evera l s econdary r oads , i n c lud ing t he V ia C lod ia , g ave a ccess t o t he a rea i n R oman t imes . T hus , t he h ardwoods o f S outh E tur ia , o ak , e lm a nd b eech , mus t h ave b een a c onven ient s ource o f s upp ly f or R ome , a n e ver-ready market f o r s urp lus t imber a nd w ood , p roduced b y c opp ic ing , f o r f i rewood . T he s urvey a rea i so n ly 6 0 km . f rom Rome a long t he V ia C lod ia a nd o n ly 3 0 km . f rom t he T iber . T he o ccupants o f t he a rea w ere t herefore i n a n e xce l lent p os it ion t o s end g oods t o R ome a nd mus t h ave s ent e xcess wood t o t he Roman market . T he n umber o f s i tes i n t he s urvey a rea w as a t i t s a pogee i n t he 2 nd a nd 3 rd c entur ies A .D . ( F ig . 1 2 .4 ) . A s i n t he 4 th-3rd c entur ies B .C . ( t he t ime o f t he d ec l ine o f t he ma jor E truscan c i t ies o f t he c oas t) , t he a rea a ppears t o h ave e n joyed a n u nusua l ly l a te f l our ish ing . E v idence o f Roman s i tes i s t o b e f ound h igh i n t he l imestone h i l ls a s w e l l a s i np laces w ith e asy a ccess t o t he c l ay s l opes a nd t he f l at v o lcan ics . B ased o n t he r e lat ive s i zes a nd t he d i stances b etween s i tes , ( t hey v ary f rom f a ir ly l a rge v i l las t o w hat may w e l l h ave b een s hepherds ' h uts ) o n t he s tudy o f t he t opographpy a nd , t o ac erta in e xtent , o n e xtrapo lat ion f rom c urrent l and-use , i t i s p oss ib le t o e s t imate t he e xtent t o w h ich t h is l a nd w as d efores ted a t t he h e ight o f t he Roman e xpans ion ( F ig . 1 2 .4 ) . T o w hat e x tent t he l and w as o pened u p i n c on junct ion w ith c ommerc ia l e nterpr izes i s , o f c ourse , i mposs ib le t o s ay . I n s u m mary , t he a rea c an b e p resumed t o h ave b een e xtens ive ly d efores ted d ur ing t he R oman o ccupat ion b o th b ecause o f t he b road s pread o f a g r icu ltura l s ett lements a nd i t s n earness t o ag reat c ommerc ia l market , Rome . F rom t he 3 rd c entury A .D . o nward , s urvey r e su lts t hroughout I t a ly s how a r educt ion i n t he n umber o f s i tes o ccup ied ( Barke r , L loyd a nd Web ley 1 979 ; P o tte r 1 979 ) . I ns ome p arts o f t he p en insu la t h is i se ar l ier , f aste r a nd more d rast ic t han i n o thers . I n t he C iv ite l la C es i a rea i ta ppears t o h ave b een a l i tt le s l ower a nd l a ter t han t he emerg ing p attern o f t he n o rm . T he d ec l ine among d atab le s i tes s hows a v ery s ma l l d rop b efore t he e nd o f t he 3 rd c entury A .D . a nd e ven b efo re t he e nd o f t he 4 th c entury , t here i s o n ly a 2 3% d ec l ine o n t he 3 rd c entury f i gures . A fter t hat , t he n umber o f s i tes h a lves e ach c entury , y et l e av ing 7 s t i l l o ccup ied i n t he 5 th 6 th c entur ies . A rchaeo logy a bandons u s a t t h is p o int w ith t he e xcept ion o f t he d i scovery o f a n 8 th c entury r ock-cut c hape l a t L un i-su lM ignone ( He l lström 1 975 ) a nd t he 1 0 th c entury c hape l a t S an G iovena le ( Tho rdeman 1 967 ) . We t urn t o t he C hurch r eco rds f o r t he p er iod a fte r t he 6 th c entury A .D . ( Ross i a nd E g id i 1 908 ) . Cont inu ity i sr ecorded i n t he n earby t own o f B lera w h ich b oas ted a b i shop , a s i n deed d id N orch ia s o me 1 0 km . n orth o f B lera a long t he V ia C lod ia . T he V ia C lod ia i t se lf a ppears t o h ave c ont inued i n u se , t hough i n w hat s o rt o f c ond it ion i sh ard t o i mag ine . B lera w as a f oca l p o in t o f s t rugg le o n s evera l o ccas ions d ur ing P apa l a nd F rank ish a ttacks o n t he L ombards ; i n deed , t he s urvey a rea mus t h ave b een a b uffer z one , e spec ia l ly i n t he 8 th c entury . I t a ppears t o h ave b een a bandoned . O n ly i n p laces w ith d efens ib le l ocat ions , s uch a s B lera , o r i n p laces s o f ar r emoved f rom t he p assage o f p eop le , s uch a s [ un i , d id a f ew i nhab itants c l ing o n . A nd w ith a bandonment t he f orests r eturned .

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F ig . 1 2 .5 s hows t he e xtent o f t he f o res t c over t oday . e s t ima ted c ove r o f t he 2 nd - 3 rd c entur ies A .D . i n F ig . c lear t hat i ti s much more e x tens ive t oday .

C ontrast i t w ith t he 1 2 .4 , a nd i t b ecomes

O nce t he a gr icu ltura l e xpans ion a nd t he c ontro l led f e l l ing o f t rees w as f i n ished , t he t r ees w ere a b le t o r egenerate , a nd d id s o . T he e xpanded f o res t s tand o f t he s urvey a rea - n ow i n p laces a ctua l ly c over ing t he s i tes o f R oman b u i ld ings i lus t ra tes t h is . F urther e v idence s hows t hat b y t he 1 2 th c entury A .D . w hen t he c athed ra l o f O rv ieto ( at own a l so i nS outh E trur ia a nd i n ad i s tr ic t s ub jec t t o t he s ame u ses a s t he C iv ite ll aC es i a rea ) w as b e ing b u i lt , t imbe r f o r i t s c ons truct ion , i n p ar t icu lar f o r t he r oo f , w as a va i lab le l o ca l ly . T he l o ca l f ores ts must h ave r egenera ted ( Fun i 1 89 1) . B y t he 1 5 th c entury , S outh E trur ia i sr eco rded a s b e ing w e l l f o res ted ( Bu ll a r ium V at i c anum 2 . 138 1 45 1) . T o b e s u re , t he R omans w ere c apab le o f t he k i nd o f o ve r-exp lo itat ion s t i l l p e rm it ted , e ven e ncouraged , b y s oc iet ies i n w h ich t he p ower e stab l ishment c an a pprop r iate t he b es t l a nd . L arge s ca le r anch ing , a s i n many p ar ts o f t he R oman w o r ld , f u r ther p o lar izes t he l a nded a nd t he l a nd less . A nd t he r u th less c utt ing b ack o f t he f o res ts f o r w hatever r a t iona le -n at iona l s ecur ity , " better l i v ing" o r e ven p ro f its c an d es troy t he f o res ts ( Mondan i 1 98 1) . O ne s ma l l s ecto r o f t he s urvey a rea i lus trates t h is . T oday t here i s ab are , r ocky h i l ls ide a rea o f a pprox ima te ly 4 0 h ectares w h ich h as v i rtua l ly n o s o i l a nd ma inta ins a f ew h ardy b ushes a nd t ho rns . A b roken t rapetum s tone , p art o f a R oman o l ive p ress , w as f ound i n 1 98 1 i n t he m idd le o f t h is a rea ( Cato 2 0-22 ; Wh ite 1 975 ) . T h is h i l ls ide l i es i n c onven ient p rox im ity t o t he g reat v i l la a t P etro la a l l o f w h ich s ugges ts t hat h ere t here h ad b een a R oman o l ive p lantat ion w hose r emnant l a nd h as n eve r r egenerated . N ever the less , t he R oman d es truct ion o f t he f ores ts h as b een e xagge rated . U se o f t hem w as c ont ro l led a t t he l o ca l l e ve l b y i n d iv idua l f armers n ot p repared t o s ee t he ir u sefu l w ood lands d es troyed b y o ver-cutt ing o r b y u ntended g oats ; n o r y et b y p ro f iteers . T he u se o f t he S tate f o res ts w as f i rm ly c ontro l led a s l o ng a s t he c entra l p owe r h e ld , a nd b y t he t ime t h is c ontro l l a psed , t he r ura l p opu lat ion d ec l ine a nd e conom ic c o l lapse h ad s et i n . T he ma jo r f actor i nt he d i sappearance o f t he f o res ts i nI t a ly , t he r esu lts o f w h ich c an b e s een w ide ly t hroughout t he A penn ines a nd i n t he C a labr ian S i lo , f o r e xamp le ( Doug las 1 9 15 ) , h as b een t he a dvent o f t he r a i lways . O nce t r anspor tat ion w as n o l o nge r d ependent o n w ater , many mo re a reas c ou ld b e o pened u p . 1 9 th a nd 2 0 th c entury c ommerc ia l e xp lo itat ion h as d one w hat t he R omans e v ident ly d i d n o t . B ib l iography B arke r , G . , L loyd , J .a nd Web ley , D . , 1 979 . ' A c lass ica l l a ndscape i n Mo l ise ' , P apers o f t he B r it ish S choo l a t Rome 4 6 : 3 5-5 1 B onatt i , E . , 1 96 1, ' Is ed iment i d e l L ago d i Monteros i ' , E xper ient ia 1 7 : 1 4 . B onat t i , E . , 1 970 . ' Po l len s equence i nl a ke s ed iments ' . i nG .E .Hutch inson ( e d . ) ' Lanu la -a n a ccount o f t he h i s to r ica l d eve lopment o f t he Lo go d i Monteros i , L at ium , I t a ly , ' T aph i los .S 4 0 ( 4 ) : 2 6-3 1. B oserup , E . , 1 98 1. P opu lat ion a nd T echno logy ( Oxfo rd ) . C ato . O n Ag r icu lture .

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D oug las , N . , 1 9 15 . O ld C a labr ia ( London ) . F un i , L . , 1 89 1. l d uomo d i O rv ieto ( Orv ieto ) . H e l ls tröm , P . , 1 979 . ' Lun i s u l m ignone : Z one o f t he L arge I r on A ge B u i ld ing ' , S kr ifter U tg itna a v S venska I n st itutet iRoma S er ies 4 ; XXV II: 1 ,2 . J udson , S . , 1 984 . ' I ta l ian S t reams a nd t he Med ite rranean A l luv ia l C hrono logy ' , Abs trac ts o f t he P rograms o f t he Geo log ica l S oc iety o f Amer ica 1 6 ( 6 ) : 5 53 . Mamdan i , M . , 1 98 1. ' The I d eo logy o f P opu lat ion G rowth ' , i nK .M ichae lson ( e d . ) , And t he P oo r Ge t C h i ldren ( New Y o rk ) . Me iggs , R . , 1 982 . T rees a nd T i mber i nt he A nc ient Med iter ranean Wo r ld ( Oxfo rd ) . P l iny t he E lder , Na tura l H is tory . P o tter , T .W . , 1 979 . T he C hang ing L andscape o f S outh E trur ia ( London ) . P u lan in , 0 . , a nd H ux ley , A . , 1 965 . F lowers o f t he Med iterranean ( London ) . R ackham , 0 . , 1 982 . ' Land-use a nd t he N at ive V ege tat ion o f G reece ' , i nM .Be l l a nd S .L i mbrey ( e ds . ) , A rchaeo log ica l A spec ts o f Wood land E co logy . ( S ympos ium o f t he A ssoc iat ion f or E nv ironmenta l A rchaeo logy 2 ,B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l R epo rts , I n ternat iona l s er ies 1 46 ; O xfo rd ) . R ick leffs , R .E . , 1 979 . E co logy , 2 nd . e d . ( Po rt land , O regon ) . R oss i , L . a nd P .Eg id i , 1 908 . ' O rch ia n e l P atr imon io ' , A rch ivo d e l la S oc ietä Romano d iS to r ia P atr ia 3 1 : 4 46-477 . S haw , B .D . , 1 98 1. ' C l imate , e nv ironment a nd h i s tory : t he c ase o f R oman N o rth A fr ica ' , i nT .M .C .W ig ley , M . Ing ram a nd G .Farmer ( e ds . ) , C l imate a nd H is tory ( Camb r idge ) . T heophras tus , E nqu iry i n to P lants . T ho rdeman , B . , 1 967 . ' S an G iovena le . T he Med ieva l C as t le o f S an G iovena le ' , S kr ifter U tg itna a v S venska I n s t itutet iRoma S er ies 4XXV I ; V o l . 4 . V itruv ius , O n A rch itecture . Wh ite , K .D . , 1 970 . Roman F arm ing ( I thaca , N ew Y o rk ) . Wh ite , K .D . , 1 975 . F arm E qu ipment o f t he Roman Wor ld ( Cambr idge ) .

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1 3 . THE END OF THE ROMAN COUNTRYS IDE I N THE I BER IAN PEN INSULA R . F . J . J ones H ow l o ng d id R oman p er iod s i tes c ont inue i n o ccupat ion? What c hanges t ook p lace i nt he o vera l l s ett lement p attern? What c aused t hem? T hese a re t he ma in q ues t ions r a ised i n t h is p aper . T he a nswers w h ich c an b e p ut f orward a re v ery i mpo rtant f or u nderstand ing h ow t he Roman wor ld w as t ransformed i n to t he med ieva l . T he I ber ian p en insu la s hou ld b e a k ey a rea f or e xam in ing t he t rans it ion f rom Roman t o Med ieva l . However , t he r ecent e ndorsement o f P irenne 's i d eas b y R ichard H odges a nd D av id Wh itehouse ( 1983 ) o n t he g rounds o f t he a rchaeo log ica l e v idence o n ly p a id s cant a ttent ion t o t he P en insu la , d esp ite g row ing s i gns t hat i ts hou ld p rov ide much r e levant i n format ion . T here i s ag enera l a greement o n t he h i stor ica l s equence . T he P en insu la r ece ived i t s s hare o f G erman ic i n vaders i n t he e ar ly f i fth c entury , s ome t o s tay , s ome t o p ass t hrough . F ew s cho lars wou ld s uggest t hat f i fth c entury S pa in w as d i srupted o n t he s a me s ca le a s c ontempo rary B r ita in o r n orthern G au l . T he w r itten s ources s ugges t t he l o ng s urv iva l o f many Roman i n s t itut ions . I n t he e ighth c entury h owever , more i mportant i n vas ions c ame f rom t he s outh . T he A rabs t hen p layed a c entra l r o le i n t he l o ng-term d eve lopment o f t he P en insu la ( c f . T hompson 1 976 , 1 977 ; J ackson 1 972 ) . B efore t ry ing t o a nswer t he f i rs t o f my t hree q ues t ions , i t i s e ssent ia l t o d i scuss t he b as ic mater ia ls o f t he d ebate , n ame ly t he s i te e v idence a nd t he d at ing e v idence . I . THE NATURE OF THE EV IDENCE V i l las i nS pa in a nd P ortuga l T he ma jor s ource o f e v idence w e h ave a va i lab le i s d er ived f rom t he R oman v i l las . We a re t herefore f ortunate t hat t wo ma jo r s tud ies o f I ber ian v i l las h ave r ecent ly b een p ub l ished b y G orges ( 1979 ) a nd F ernändez C astro ( 1982 ) . G orges ' d eta i led i nventory o f s i tes t hroughout t he P en insu la p rov ides a n e ssent ia l s tart ing p o int f o r a ny a t tempt t o make a s ens ib le o vera l l s ynthes is . E ven i f t here a re s ome s hortcom ings i nd eta i l , t he wo rk p rov ides a n e xce l lent s tatement o f t he c urrent s tate o f k now ledge o n i nd iv idua l s i tes . V i l las h ave b een r eco rded i n a lmost e very p art o f t he P en insu la . T here a re e xpected g aps i n t he more mounta inous r eg ions a nd i n t he d i ff icu lt l a ndscapes o f E xtramadura a nd L a Mancha . O therw ise , w herever t here a re s ubstant ia l t racts o f r easonab le a gr icu ltura l l a nd , v i l las h ave b een f ound , e ven i n t he n orth-west . T he ma in g roups o f we l l-stud ied v i l las l i e i n C ata lunya , t he G uada lqu iv ir v a l ley , a nd i n t he n orthern Meseta o f O ld C ast i le , f rom t he v a l ley o f t he r i o E bro a cross t he b as in o f t he D uero ( F ig .I 3 . 1) . However , a l though w e k now o f t he e x istence o f many h undreds o f v i l las , we n ear ly a lways h ave t o a ssume w hat t he ir f unct ions were . T he t rad it iona l e xc itement o f f i nd ing mosa ics a nd h ypocaus ts i s w e l l i lustrated i n G orges ' c ata logue . V irtua l ly a l l t he v i l las a re k nown b y t he ir ma in h ouses , w ith l i tt le a ttent ion g iven t o t he w o rk ing a reas w h ich h o ld t he k ey t o t he r ura l e conomy . T he o n ly way t o u se t he i n fo rmat ion t hat i sa va i lab le i st o a ssume t hat t he v i l la h ouses r epresent wea lth t hat w as d er ived f rom e xp lo it ing t he l a nd ( c f . P a lo l 1 977 ) . A lthough t here a re s ome s i tes w ith c lear i ndustr ia l o r mar it i me c onnect ions , t he a ssump t ion s eems f a ir o n t he b as is o f o ur k now ledge o f a nt iqu ity a s aw ho le . T here i st hus v ery l i tt le s pec if ic t o s ay a bout t he c rops a nd a n ima ls o f Roman f arm ing a nd h ow t hey may h ave c hanged . T here i s as im i lar l ack o f i n fo rmat ion o n t he s ma l ler s i tes w h ich s hou ld b e t he e qu iva lents o f t he p easant f arms n ow f am i l iar f rom n orth-western p arts o f t he Emp ire , w here t hey w ere c lear ly much more n umerous t han v i l las . 1 59

F ig . 1 3 .1 : R oman S pa in : Ma in S i tes ment ioned . I . A gu i la fuente 2 . A lca lä d e H enares 3 . B a r los d e V a ldearrados 4 . B ayubas d e l A ba jo 5 . B ru f ie l 6 . L a C ocosa 7 . F raga 8 . P edraza 9 . P edrosa d e l aV ega 1 0 . R ioseco d e S o r ia I . S entromö 1 2 . T o rre L lauder 1 3 . V i lauba 1 4 . V i l la joyosa 1 5 . V i l laverde B a ja I 6 . B aetu lo 1 7 . B arce lona 1 8 . C on imbr iga 1 9 . I l uro

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D a tes T he s i tes a re mos t ly d ated b y p o ttery . H ere t he mos t d ramat ic p rogress h as b een a ch ieved i n t he s t udy o f l a te R oman f i ne w ares ( Hayes 1 972 , 1 980 ) . T he c ont inu ing r eassessmen ts a nd r e f in ing o f t he d ates a re l e s s o f ap rob lem t han t he e xo t ic n ature o f t he se p roducts . T hey f requent ly o ccur a s v ery s ma l l p ercentages o f p o ttery a ssemb lages o n r u ra l s i tes , e ven i n c oas ta l r eg ions ( c f . P revos t i 1 98 1a , J ones , e t a l . , 1 982 ) . T he ir u se t o d ate s i tes i nt he i n ter io r o f t he P en insu la d epends t herefore n o t j u s t o n t he ir b e ing r ecogn ised , b ut o n w hether t hey e ver r eached t he s i te i n a ny q uant ity i n t he f i rst p lace . I n i t se lf t he ir a bsence i sh ard t o u se c onv inc ing ly a s a n a rgument f o r as i te i n t he i n te r io r n o t b e ing i n o ccupat ion . H ayes ' maps s how t ha t t rad ing c ontacts i n f i ne w ares w ith t he r es t o f t he Med iter ranean w ere q u ite s t rong o n t he Med ite rranean c oas ts a nd i n t he s outh o f S pa in , a nd c an e ven b e t raced o n t he A t lant ic c oas ts ( Hayes 1 972 ) . A t C on imb r iaa i n P o rtuga l , l a rge u rban a ssemb lages s how t hat t he s i te w as a p ar t o f t he Med iterranean t rad ing n etwo rk w e l l i n to t he s econd h a lf o f t he f i fth c entury ( De lgado e t a l . , 1 975 ) . S uch u rban e v idence h e lps i n u nders tand ing t he c ountrys ide , e spec ia l ly i ft he t r ade w as o rgan ised t hrough t he t owns , b ut a l so f o r t he p ure ly p ract ica l r eason t hat t he l a rge a ssemb lages w h ich c an b e e xpected f rom t owns a re more l i ke ly t o c onta in s herds o f r ecogn ised f i ne w ares . T he d ependance o n d ated f i ne w ares i mpo rted f rom t he C entra l a nd E as tern Med iterranean i s b e ing r educed a s s tud ies a dvance o f t erra s i g i l la ta h i span ica . H ayes ( 1972 , 4 15 ) a rgued t hat t hese w ares d om inated t he S pan ish market i n to t he f ourth c entury , w hen A fr ican a nd G au l ish f i ne w ares c ame t o b e i mpo rted i n q uant it ies . I t i s n ow c l ear t hat t erra s i g i l lata h i span ica d id c ont inue i n i a te R oman f o rms , b ut i t s d at ing s t i l l n eeds much c loser r e so lu t ion ( Maye t 1 983-4 ; L opez 1 985 ) . S ince t here w ere e ffect ive ly n o n ew i s sues o f R oman c o ins i n c i rcu lat ion i n much o f t he P en insu la a fte r t he f i rs t d ecade o f t he f i fth c entury ( Pere ira e t a l . , 1 974 ) , t he f i ne w ares a re f o r t he moment t he mos t u sefu l w ay o f d a t ing t he f i fth a nd s i x th c entur ies i n t he v i l las , e ven t hough t hey d id n o t n o rma l ly r each t he r u ra l s i tes i na ny a bundance . C are mus t b e t aken n o t t o b u i ld e xp lanat ions o f t he c hrono logy o f t he v i l las w h ich a re n o more t han a r tefacts o f t he f l uctuat ions i ns upp ly o f t he d ateab le p o tte ry . 2 . HOW FAR D ID ROMAN S ITES CONT INUE? V io lent e nds D id t he Roman v i l la s y s tem e nd t h rough f i re a nd s wo rd? T he d es truct ion o f v i l las b y G e rman ic i n vade rs i n t he l a te t h ird c entury i s a n " event" w ide ly a ccep ted b y many s cho la rs b u t n ow c om ing i n creas ing ly i n to q ues t ion ( Arce 1 980 ; C aba l lero 1 984 ) . G orges p rov ides a map o f v i l las a pparent ly a ffected , c omp lete w ith a r rows t o s how t he r outes f o l lowed f rom t he P yrennees i n to C ata lunya a nd t he D uero b as in ( 1979 , 4 6 , f i g . 7 ) . T h irty-one s i tes a re l i s ted a s e i the r h av ing b een d es troyed b y t he G e rman ic i n vas ions o r a t l e as t h av ing as harp i n te rrupt ion i n t he s econd h a lf o f t he t h ird c entury . H owever , o f t he t h irty-one n amed , t wentythree a re r eco rded i n G o rges ' o wn c a ta logue a s h av ing h ad a s i gn if icant f ourth c entury p hase , a nd many s how a t ransfo rmat ion t o g reate r s tandards o f l u xury . I f o n ly e ight s i tes s eem t o h ave c eased a ct iv ity a t mos t , t he d amage d one t o t he v i l la s ystem c an h ard ly b e c la imed a s s er ious . S ome s i tes h ave c erta in ly p roduced e v idence o f b urn ing , s uch a s B ayubas d e l A ba jo ( S o r ia ) a nd P edraza ( Segov ia ) ( Garc ia Mer ino 1 967 ; C a ll e ja G u i jarro 1 965 ) . H owever p rec ise d a t ing i so ften d i ff icu lt t o a ch ieve , a s a t V i l la joyosa ( A l icante ) o r V i l lave rde B a jo ( Madr id ) ( Be Ida D ominguez 1 947 ; Wrez d e B arradas 1 93 1-2 ) . T h is d emons trates t he n ow f am i l iar p rob lem o f p rec ise ly a t tes ted a nd d ated h i s to r ica l e vents h av ing a t tached t o t hem a r ange o f a rchaeo log ica l p henomena w h ich a re a pprox imate ly

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i n t he s a me d ate b racket . Y et t hat b racket c an e x tend t o ac entury o r more . R ecent e xper ience i n Roman B r ita in , p art icu lar ly i n t he a rchaeo logy o f t he n orthern m i l itary z one , h as i lustrated t he s evere d i ff icu lt ies o f t ry ing t o t i e a rchaeo log ica l d epos its t o h i sto r ica l ly a ttested o ccurrences ( e .g . J ones 1 98 1; G i l lam 1 974 ) . T he t wo k inds o f e v idence a re s o d i fferent i n n ature t hat i t i s n ear ly i mposs ib le t o make s uch s pec if ic c onnect ions ( M i l lett 1 98 1) . E ven t he i d ent if icat ion o f d es truct ion b y e nemy a ct ion o n t he B r it ish f ront ier h as b een mos t e ffect ive ly q uest ioned ( Breeze a nd D obson 1 972 ) . L itt le c ase r ema ins f or s i gn if icant d amage t o t he H ispano-Roman c ount rys ide f rom t he t h ird c entury i n vas ions . T here h ave b een f ewer c la ims t hat t he ir f i fth c entury s uccessors l e d t o w idespread d es truct ion . O vera l l t here i s l i t t le t o s ugges t t hat v io lence f rom r a iders h ad a ny d etec tab le d i rect e ffect o n t he c ountrys ide a nd r ura l l i fe ( c f . K eay 1 98 1, 4 72 f . ) . B aet ica C hanges i n t he a gr icu ltura l r e g ime i n t he m idth ird c entury h ave b een c la imed o n t he i n d irect e v idence o f t he amphorae e xported f rom S pa in , p art icu lar ly f rom B aet ica . I tc an n ow b e s hows t hat S pan ish ampho rae c ont inued t o b e e xpo rted t o I t a ly , t he e as tern Med iterranean a nd t he n orthern p rov inces , c erta in ly i n to t he f ourth c entury ( Rodr iguez A l me ida 1 98 1; B e lträn L lor is 1 983 ; L yd ing W i l l 1 983 ; Mart in-K i lcher 1 983 ) . A t t he s a me t ime a d ec l ine i n t he r e lat ive i mpo rtance o f t he S pan ish s upp ly t o c entra l I t a ly c anno t b e a rgued a way , p art icu lar ly i nv i ew o f t he e v idence f rom t he T erme d e l N uatatore i nO s t ia . C arand in i a -r l P ane ll ah ave s hown a s harp d rop i n t he p roport ion o f ampho rae o r ig inat ing f rom S pa in i n t he s econd q uarter o f t he t h ird c entury , c ompared t o t he s econd c entury p os it ion ( 198 1) . T he o n ly k i ln s i te e xcavated a nd p ub l ished f rom t he G uada lqu iv ir a l so c ame t o a n e nd i n t he m id-th ird c entury ( Remesa l R odr iguez 1 977-8 ) . H owever , e ven i ft he e xpo rt t rade f rom t he G uada lqu iv ir w as t o s o me d egree i n d ec l ine i n t he l a ter Emp ire , t he s ett lements f ound b y P ons ich 's b r i l l iant s urveys t here a re n ear ly a l l s hown t o c ont inue t o t he f ourth c entury a t l east ( Pons ich 1 974 ; 1 979 ) . I n t he S ev i l le a rea , f or e xamp le , o f f i fty-n ine d ated s i tes , f i fty-seven a re r eco rded a s y ie ld ing f ourth c entury p ottery : t he o ther t wo h ave l a ter m ater ia l ( Pons ich 1 974 , 2 1-6 1) . K eay h as a l so s ugges ted t ha t t hose f ourth c entury d ates a re p robab ly t oo e ar ly i n v iew o f more r ecent f i ne w are s tud ies ( Keay 1 984a , 4 03 ) . C erta in ly Hayes ' mos t r ecent ly p ub l ished d ates f o r s ome o f t he f orms s pec if ica l ly ment ioned s uggest e xtens ions i n to t he f i fth c entury a nd b eyond ( e .g . H ayes F o rms 7 3 , 9 1 , 9 4A , 6 7 ) . Af u l l r ev iew o f t he p o ttery i su rgent ly n eeded t o r ef ine t he d at ing . T he c omb inat ion o f t h is e v idence w ith G arc ia Mer ino 's o ut l ine o f V is igoth ic a ct iv ity a nd K eay 's d emonstrat ion t hat B aet ican ampho rae were r each ing C ata lunya i n t he f ourth a nd f i fth c entur ies make i t n ow c erta in t hat r ura l l i fe c ont inued i n t he G uada lqu iv ir v a l ley w ithout s udden d i srupt ion , e ven i f t he h eady d ays o f mass ive e xports h ad p assed ( Garc ia Mer ino 1 98 1; K eay 1 984a , 4 02 f . ) . O ld Cast i le T he D uero b as in o f n orthern S pa in c onta ins s evera l l a rge l a te Roman v i l las , b ut i ti sh ard t o f i nd a p attern i n t he ir e ventua l f ates . L a O l meda a t P edrosa d e l a V ega ( Pa lenc ia ) c erta in ly c ont inued i n to t he f i f th c entury a nd r ece ived l a te R oman f i ne wares ( Pa lo l a nd C ortes 1 974 ) . R ioseco d e S or ia ( So r ia ) was e xtended i n t he f ourth c entury , b ut a pparent ly d es troyed i nt he e ar ly f i f th , a fte r w h ich t here may h ave b een s ome c asua l o ccupat ion , l e av ing t races o f h earths o n t he mosa ics ( Ortego d e F r ias 1 974 ; 1 977 ) . A gu i lafuente ( S egov ia ) w as o ccup ied i n to t he f i fth c entury a nd t he s i te was l a ter r e-used a s aV is igo th ic c emetery

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( Lucas a nd V i f ias 1 977 ) . S im i lar ly , aV is igo th ic c emetery i s r ecorded o ve r a p resumed v i l la a t A lca lä d e H enares ( Madr id ) ( Fernändez G a ll i ano-Ru iz 1 976 , 4 6 , n o . 4 9 ) . A med ieva l c emete ry w as t he l a tes t a ct iv ity a t a no ther s p lend id f ourth a nd f i fth c entury v i l la , B a r ios d e V a idearrados ( Caba l lero Z o reda a nd A rgente O l ive r 1 975 ; A rgente O l ive r 1 979 ; A rgente O l ive r a nd D iaz D iaz 1 985 ) . T he ma in c onc lus ion t o b e d rawn f r om s uch s i tes i st hat t hey s t i l l f l our ished i n t he f i fth c entury , b ut t hat t here a re s i gns o f d ec l ine i nf o rtunes a f ter t hat . T he V is igo th ic c emeter ies o n s uch s i tes c an b e i n terpreted e i the r a s c ont inu ity o r d i srup t ion a cco rd ing t o c ho ice . T hey may s how c ont inu ing r ecogn it ion o f t he i mpo rtance o f t he p lace ; t hey may r a ise q ues t ions o f w ha t i sc a l led R oman a nd w hat i sc a l led V is igo th ic ; t hey may r e f lect a c omp lete u pheava l o f s oc ia l s t ructures i nt he f ace o f ag roup o f p owerfu l i n come rs . W ithout much more t horough i n ves t igat ions i t i si mposs ib le t o s ay . T he p o ss ib i l ity o f s ett lement b y i mm igrant p opu lat ions i sr a ised b y t he c ur ious c emete r ies o f t he D ue ro b as in w h ich c onta in g raves w ith d i s t inct ive meta lwork . T h is h as b een c l a imed as G erman ic i n s ty le , d enot ing l aet i s e tt led i n t he r eg ion , o r a s o ff ic ia l R oman , d eno t ing s o ld ie rs a nd o ff ic ia ls , o r p erhaps a s t he e qu ipment o f members o f p r ivate a rm ies ( B ldzquez 1 980 ; P a lo l 1 969 ; 1 970 ; R ivera 1 936-9 ; C aba l lero 1 974 ; A b6so lo e t a l . , 1 984 ) . T hese p ieces o f meta lwo rk , i n c lud ing b e lt b uck les , b rooches a nd w eapons , h ave c aused c onfus ion t o s tudents o f many p arts o f t he l a te R oman Emp ire . T here s eems t o b e s ome c onsensus emerg ing t hat t hey n orma l ly s i gn ify m i l itary o r o ff ic ia l l i nks , b u t c anno t b e u sed i n t hemse lves t o i d ent ify r ac ia l o r ig ins ( c f . S impson 1 976 ) . I t may b e s i gn if icant t ha t i n t he D ue ro c emeter ies t he g raves w ith t h is k ind o f meta lwo rk a re u sua l ly v ery much i n t he m ino r ity amongs t more c onvent iona l ly a rranged g raves . W ithou t af u l l c omparat ive s t udy o f t h is meta lwo rk i n S pa in a nd e l sewhere i n E urope , a nd o f t he c emeter ies a s aw ho le , i ti sh ard t o a ccep t o r r e jec t t he t heo ry o f s ubs tant ia l l aet i s ett lement i nc ent ra l S pa in ( c f . C aba l le ro 1 984 ) . Cata lunya T he re i s n ow i mpress ive e v idence o f c ont inu ity o n many C ata lan v i l la s i tes , a t l e as t i n to t he f i fth c entury a nd p robab ly b eyond ( Keay I 9 84b , 5 60 f . ) . S urveys o f s ma l l r eg ions c onf irm t h is ( P revos t i 1 98 1a ; 1 98 1 1 ) ; N o I la a nd C ases 1 984 ) . I n t he a rea a round t he R oman t owns o f I l uro a nd B aetu lo , n orth-eas t o f B arce lona , P revos t i h as s hown t hat a s i gn if icant p ropo rt ion o f t he s i tes e xam ined c onta ined t he l a test p o ttery , o n at o ta l o f 1 46 s i tes s tud ied ( P revos t i 1 98 1a , 5 43 f . ) : S i tes w ith :

C ampan ian w are A rret ine/ Ita l ian s i g i l lata S .G au l ish/ t .s .h ispan ica T .S . C lara A T .S . C lara C /Lucente T .S . C lara D /s tamped

N umber

%o f t ota l s i tes

7 1 4 1 19 5 3 2 9 5 3

4 9 2 8 8 2 3 6 2 0 3 6

O n t he 3 8 b es t d oc , mented s i tes t he r epresentat ion o f l a te p ottery i s much s t ronger :

S i tes w ith :

Number

C ampan ian w are A rret inenta l ian s i g i l lata S . G au l ish/t .s . h i span ica T .S . C lara A T .S . C lara C T .S . C lara D

3 4 3 0 3 8 3 3 2 4 2 6

%o f t ota l s i tes 8 9 7 9 1 00 8 7 6 3 6 8

T he f i gures s how a t l e as t h ow e ffect ive was t he s upp ly o f f i ne wares f rom t he f i rst c entury BC t o t he s econd AD , a nd p e rhaps t hat s ett lement w as mo re i n tense t hen . T hey a l so d emons trate c lear ly t ha t many s i tes were i n o ccupa t ion i n t he l a ter R oman p er iod , e ven i ft here may h ave b een f ewer o vera l l. Many o f t he e xcavated s i tes c an b e s hown t o h ave b een o ccup ied i n t h is l a te p e r iod , a l though i ti so ften u nc lear e xact ly w hat t he n ature o f t hat o ccupat ion w as . T he d i ff icu lt ies o f d at ing a re a ga in u nder l ined b y P revost i 's f i gures f or t he l ow p roport ion o f l a te f i ne w ares i n t hese v i l la a ssemb lages ( P revos t i 1 98 1a , 5 50 ) . O ver a t o ta l o f 3 5 s i tes c ons idered , h er c a tego r ies o f T . SC lara D , S ig i l la ta H ispan ica T ardana , T .S . C lara D s tamped w ares a nd T .S . C lara G rey s tamped w ares make u p t ogether l e ss t han 5% o f i dent if ied p ottery . A t i nd iv idua l s i tes w ith s i gn if icant ly s i zed a ssemb lages , t he t ota l c ou ld r i se t o more t han 1 0% ( Can B ut inya , 1 5% f rom a t o ta l o f 3 05 f ragments ; E is C aputx ins , 1 2% f rom a t o ta l o f 3 07 f ragments ; S entromä , 1 4 .4 % f rom a t ota l o f 9 87 f ragments ) . S entromä i sa p art icu lar ly i n terest ing s i te s i nce i ta ppears t o h ave b een o ccup ied more o r l e ss c ont inuous ly f rom t he f i rs t c entury BC , a nd i s o ccup ied n ow b y a l a rge t rad it iona l f arm h ouse ( mas ia ) ( Gu itart 1 970 ; P revost i 1 98 1b , 1 89 f . ) . T hat t he s a me s ort o f l i nks may h ave e x isted e l sewhere may b e s uggested b y t he f act t hat a bout a q uarte r o f t he v i l las i dent if ied b y P revos t i n ow h ad e i ther a mas ia o r a c hape l o ccupy ing t he s i te . l t may a l ternat ive ly b e p ut t hat t hree-quarte rs o f t he s i tes a re n ow n o t o ccup ied . furthermo re , P h i l ip B anks ' wo rk o n t he B arce lona r eg ion u rges c aut ion o n t he s imp le a ssumpt ion o f s i gn if icant c ont inu ity o f o ccupa t ion j ust b ecause o f c o inc idence o f s ett lement . U s ing e ar ly med ieva l d ocuments a s h i s ma jor s ource , B anks h as a rgued t hat s imp le f ormu lae o f c ont inu ity o r h iatus a re m is lead ing . T he ' v i la' p lace n ame w h ich h as b een much f avoured a s a n i nd icator o f Roman o r ig ins c an o n ly c onf ident ly b e r egarded a s s how ing med ieva l l i nks , u n less t here i s e xp l ic it e v idence f or R oman a ct iv ity . Mo reove r , B anks r i ght ly i n s is ts t hat c ont inu ity c an o n ly b e a ccepted w here t here i s p os it ive e v idence o f a ct iv ity b etween t he Roman p er iod a nd a ny l a ter f armhouse o r c hape l . B anks a rgues t hat w h i lst t here was p robab ly c ont inuous s ett lement i n t he c ountrys ide a round B arce lona u p t o t he e leventh c entury a nd b eyond , t hat s ett lement e vo lved i n t he c ond it ions o f t he t ime , a nd t he Roman v i l la s ystem a s s uch d id n o t s urv ive ( Banks 1 984 ) . What s eems t o h ave h appened o vera l l i n C ata lunya i st hat many v i l las r ema ined i n o ccupat ion i n to t he f i fth , s i xth a nd e ven s eventh c entur ies , b ut t hat t he n umber was g radua l ly d ec l in ing , s o t hat b y t he e ighth t here w as l i tt le l e ft o f t he v i l la s ystem , e xcep t f o r af ew s i tes w h ich o ccup ied p laces w h ich h ad o nce b een R oman v i l las .

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3 . WHAT CHANGES TOOK P LACE? S tructura l c hanges What I h ave t r ied t o e s tab l ish s o f ar i s t hat Roman v i l las d id c ont inue i n o ccupat ion v ery w ide ly i n t he I ber ian p en insu la a t l eas t t hrough t he f i fth c entury . E ven i ft hat c an b e a ccepted , i td oes n ot p rove t he s urv iva l o f t he v i l la s ystem o f l a nd management a nd e conom ics , u n less i t c an b e s hown t ha t t hese s i tes i n t he f i fth c entury a nd l a ter r eta ined t he e ssent ia l c haracter is t ics o f R oman v i l las . A t am in i ma l l eve l, t hese c an b e d ef ined a s t he ma intenance o f s ubstant ia l r es ident ia l a nd w ork ing b u i ld ings a nd t he c ont inuat ion o f t he v i l la a s t he c entre o f a work ing e state . A t p resent t he f i rst p o int i se as ier t o d ea l w ith t han t he s econd . O ur k now ledge o f t he a gr icu ltura l e conom ies o f most s i tes i s b ased e nt ire ly o n r ather t enuous i n ference a nd c annot n o rma l ly a l low a ny c hanges i n p attern t o b e r ecogn ised . I n many c ases e xcavators h ave d one l i tt le more t han n o t ice l a te p er iod p ottery ; t hey h ave b een u nab le o r u nconcerned t o e s tab l ish w hat b u i ld ings t o a ssoc iate w ith t he p ottery . O ften t hey h ave n o t e ven w o rked o ut a f u l l s t ruc tura l s equence f o r t he b u i ld ings . A t s ome s i tes e ar ly C hr is t ian b as i l icas h ave b een i dent if ied a t al a te s tage i n t he s i te 's d eve lopment , a s a t F raga ( Huesca ) , L a Cocosa ( Bada joz ) a nd T orre L lauder ( Barce lona ) ( Serra R afo ls 1 943 ; S erra R afo ls 1 952 ; P revos t i 1 98 1b ) . A t B ruKe l ( Jab ) a d oub le a ps ida l b u i ld ing w as e rec ted o ver t he v i l la , a pparent ly i n t he f ourth c entury , b ut o f u nknown p urpose ( Pa lo l a nd S otomayor 1 972 ) . I n many ways s uch s t ructures l e ave more q ues t ions t han t hey a nswer , s i nce w e d o n ot k now i f a nyth ing e lse w as h appen ing a t t he s i te , where i t i s t he a gr icu ltura l p roduct ion o f t he v i l la w h ich s hou ld b e c ruc ia l t o i t s i dent ity . A t t he v i l la o f V i lauba n ear t he modern t own o f B anyo les ( G irona ) we d o h ave a s equence o f w e l l-dated s t ructures w h ich c an b e u sed a s a n e xamp le o f w hat was h appen ing i n o ne p lace ( J ones , e t a l . 1 982 ) . I n s u mmary , d ur ing t he t h ird a nd f ourth c entur ies t he a rea o ccup ied b y t he v i l la 's a ct iv it ies r educed s ubstant ia l ly . H owever t he b u i ld ings o f t he w ork ing f arm w ere s t i l l b e ing c hanged a nd r ebu i lt t h rough t he f ourth a nd f i fth c entur ies . A t s ome d ate i nt he f i rs t h a lf o f t he s i xth c entury , a n ew b u i ld ing w as c ons tructed t o p roduce o l ive o i l , c ons ist ing o f a. p reparat ion r oom , p ress r oom , c i stern a nd s torage a rea . I t i s l i ke ly t hat t he e x is t ing r ange o f b u i ld ings i mmed iate ly t o t he n orth r ema ined i nu se a t t h is t ime , a l though t he s urv iv ing s t rat if icat ion d id n ot p rov ide p os it ive p roo f t here ( F ig . 1 3 .2 ) . T he d at ing i sb ased o n i mported ampho ra a nd f i ne w ares f ound i n s ea led d epos its i n t he p ress b u i ld ing ( Jones , e t a l 1 982 , 2 701) . V i lauba t herefore s hows b o th a r educt ion i n t he s ca le o f t he v i l la f rom i t s H igh Emp ire p eak , wh ich t ook p lace g radua l ly o ve r ap e r iod o f s ome t hree c entur ies , a nd y et a c ont inu ity o f R oman b u i ld ing s ty le , Roman t echno logy , a nd Roman p rocess ing o f a gr icu ltura l p roduce , u p t o t he s eventh c entury . As t rong d egree o f c ont inu ity i n l a nd h o ld ing a nd f arm ing p ract ices i sa l so i mp l ied . T he f u l l r esu lts o f s tud ies o n t he b o tan ica l mater ia l a nd a n i ma l b ones a re n ot y et a va i lab le a nd may b e o f l im ited u se f or w o rk ing o ut a ny c hanges b etween p hases b ecause o f t he q u ite s ma l l q uant it ies w h ich s urv ived t o b e r ecovered i n t he a reas e xcavated . Howeve r w e c an a t l east b eg in t o r econstruct t he p roduc t ion r 6 g ime o f t he v i l la . E ar ly r esu lts h ave s hown t ha t o ats a nd s ome w hea t were c u lt ivated , a s w e l l a s g rapes , o l ives a nd s i gn if icant q uant it ies o f w a lnuts ( Green , i nJ ones , e t a l . 1 982 , 2 74-5 ) . I ti sa l so i mportant t hat a t V i lauba t he l a test p hase was d e l iberate ly d emo l ished . T he o pus s ign inum f l oor o f t he p reparat ion r oom w as s t r ipped o ut a nd t he w ho le b u i ld ing l eve l led . T he d ate o f d emo l it ion i su ncerta in , b ut i t i su n l ike ly t o h ave b een e ar l ier t han t he s eventh c entury . T h is s hows t hat t he l oca l p opu lat ion d id n o t s imp ly f ade away . T he o n ly r easonab le e xp lanat ions f o r t h is t reatment o f t he s i te a re e i ther t hat s ome p eop le w anted t o r e-use t he b u i ld ing mater ia ls , o r

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F ig . 1 3 .2 :

V i lauba : o i l p res s .

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t hat s ome p eop le wanted t o c u lt ivate t he l a nd , o r a t l e as t u se i ti ns o me w ay , o r t hat s ome p eop le wanted t o d o b o th . I nw h ichever c ase , w e mus t i n fer t hat t here was s t i l l a n a ct ive p opu lat ion i n t he a rea . A lthough i t s eems t hat o ccupat ion o f s o me s ort may h ave c ont inued f rom t he l a te Roman p e r iod i n to t he med ieva l i n t he s a me n e ighbourhood a t P orqueres , l e ss t han 2 km t o t he n o rth , we k now o f n o d i rect s uccesso r t o t he Roman v i l la a t V i lauba . I n 1 0 17 a d ocument ment ions a n e state o f V i l la A lba s omewhere i n t h is a rea , t he c entre o f w h ich a t al a ter p er iod h as b een i d ent if ied w ith a mas ia o n t he h i l ls ide a bove t he s i te o f t he Roman v i l la n ear t he v a l ley f l oo r . However , t here i s o n ly s pecu lat ion t o l i nk t he t wo e states . Mo re g enera l ly , t he e ar ly med ieva l d ocuments o f t h is p art o f Cata lunya s eem t o s how t hat t he med ieva l p attern o f s ett lement c entres w as e stab l ished i n o ut l ine b y t he t enth o r e leventh c entur ies . T h is f o l lowed t he Reconques t o f t h is c orner o f t he p en insu la , d r iv ing o ut t he A rabs f rom a n o ccupat ion o f o n ly s ome e ighty y ears ( Jones , e t a l . 1 982 ) . B anks ' more e xhaust ive s tud ies i n t he B arce lona r eg ion s how a s im i lar p attern ( 1984 ) . B eyond t he v i l las O f c ourse , a l though t he v i l las h ave c ommanded c entra l a ttent ion , t hey w ere t he c entrep ieces o f a more c omp lex s ett lement s ystem made u p o f s ma l ler l e ss e labo rate s i tes . T he d i ff icu lty o f u nderstand ing w hat h appened t o t h is s ys tem a s aw ho le i n l a te a nt iqu ity i sy et a ga in t he l a ck o f r e l iab le f i e ld work . T here a re a n i n creas ing n umber o f r eg iona l a nd p rov inc ia l s tud ies o f a l l t he k nown e v idence f or Roman f i nds , b ut v ery r are ly c an a c lear v iew o f t he s ett lement h ierarchy b e d rawn f rom s uch d i spara te i n format ion ( e .g . Ma i ianes 1 979 , 1 983 ; Ga rc ia Mer ino 1 975 ; P revost i 1 98 1a , 1 98 1b ; No I la a nd C asas 1 984 ) . I n t he B anyo les r eg ion , o ur own f i e ld w ork h as d emons trated t hat s uch a n etwork o f m inor s i tes d id e x is t , b ut o ur k now ledge i s b ased e nt ire ly u pon s urface f i e ld s urvey . We h ave n o e xcavat ion o f t he r e ma ins w h ich l i e b eneath s catters o f p ottery a nd t i le w h ich o ften e xtend o ver a reas o f n o more t han 2 0 x2 0 m . More i mportant f or p resent p urposes i s t he s ho rtage o f d at ing mater ia l : t he ma in d ateab le p o ttery f ound c ons istent ly o n t hese s i te s i sI t a l ian amphora o f t he f i rst c entury BC . Wh i le t hat may b e t aken t o p rove t hat t hese s i tes w ere g enera l ly i n o ccupat ion b y t hat p er iod , i tc an h ard ly b e i n terpreted a s s ugges t ing t hat t hey were o n ly o ccup ied t hen . T he r es t o f t he a ssemb lages f rom t hese s i tes c ons ists o f s i gn if icant q uant it ies o f a pparent ly R oman p er iod c oarse w ares , w h ich a re a t p resent n o t d ated more p rec ise ly t han t hat . T here i s t herefore n oth ing mo re t o b e s a id f or t he moment a bout h ow t hese s i tes c hanged i n t he f i fth a nd s i xth c entur ies . ( Jones , e t a l . 1 985 ) . O ther e lements w h ich m ight b e e xpected i n t he s ett lement s ystems o f t h is p er iod a re r ura l s i tes a ttr ibutab le t o V is igoth ic g roups . T hese a re e ven more e lus ive t han t he m inor Roman s i tes . C and idates f or s uch i d ent if icat ions h ave s imp ly n ot b een f ound w ith a ny c lear ly d i s t inc t ive p ottery t ypes o r o the r mater ia l c u lture . P ara l le ls w ith t he A ng lo-Saxon s ett lement o f B r ita in a re a lmos t c erta in ly m is lead ing . A b etter a na logy i s l i ke ly t o b e t he c ontempo rary p os it ion i n Gau l where Merov ing ians c an h ard ly b e p icked o ut b y t he ir " barbar ian" mater ia l c u lture . S ome p rogress i sn ow b e ing made t o t ease o ut t he n ature o f s ett lements o f t he t rans it iona l p er iod , b ut i t d epends o n c arefu l e xcavat ion o f Roman a nd med ieva l s i tes a nd o n t horough c lass if icat ions o f t he c oarse p o ttery ( c f . E scudero a nd G omorra 1 987 , t h is v o lume ) .

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However , o ne a spect o f t he l a ndscape o f t he m idd le o f t he m i l lenn ium h as b ecome much b etter u nde rstood i nr ecent y ears : g eomorpho log ica l c hange i n t he l a ndscape . T here i sn ow n o r ea l d oub t t hat t he v a l leys o f Med iterranean S pa in e xper ienced l a rge-sca le i n f i l l ing i n t he p ost-Roman p er iod , p resumab ly t hrough t he a ccumu lat ion o f f l oor d epos its a nd h i l l-wash . T he Younger F i l l o f t hese v a l leys h as n ow b een s hown c ons istent ly t o s ea l Roman f i nds ( V ita-F inz i 1 969 ; J ones , e t a l . , 1 985 ) . I t i so f c ourse e as ier t o d emonstrate t he e x istence o f t he p henomenon t han t o d eterm ine i t s c auses . C l imat ic c hange , t oo much f arm ing , a nd e ven t oo l i tt le f arm ing h ave b een p ut f o rward a s e xp lanat ions . H ere i t i s b est t o c oncentrate o n w hat t he i mp l icat ions o f s uch p rocesses o f d epos it ion , a nd t herefore o f e ros ion t oo , were f o r t he p attern o f s ett lement d ur ing t he f i fth t o s eventh c entur ies . T he s ca le o f g eomorpho log ica l c hange must h ave h ad t he mos t s er ious l o ngterm e ffects f or a nyone f a rm ing i n t he r eg ion . I n t he l a test p hase o f t he V i lauba v i l la i ta ppears t ha t s ubstant ia l a ccumu lat ions o f h i l l-wash b u i lt u p o n t he w estern s i de o f t he b u i ld ing . N everthe less i ti sn ot y et p oss ib le t o b e c onf ident i n l i nk ing e ros ion a nd d epos it ion t o t he o ccupat ion h i sto ry o f s pec if ic s i tes . I t c an b e n oted t hat i n t he B anyo les r eg ion where Ih ave d i rect k now ledge t he v i l lages w h ich f i rs t c ome t o n o t ice w ith t he R econquest a re g enera l ly s i tuated o n h igher g round , a s a re t he t r ad it iona l f armhouses , t he mas ia . T here i ss t i l l much t o b e d one t o t urn t hese i mpress ions i n to h ard e v idence , b ut t he e vo lut ion o f t he l a ndscape a s aw ho le c an n o l o nger b e i g nored i na ny a na lys is s uch a s t h is . 4 . THE CAUSES OF CHANGE I ft he mater ia l a va i lab le t o a nswer t he q uest ions p osed a l ready i su nsat isfactory , t he p rob lem o f t he c auses a nd d ynam ics o f c hange i n t h is p er iod i s v i rtua l ly u napproachab le . W ithout a much f u l ler k now ledge o f what was h appen ing , i t wou ld b e f oo l ish t o t ry t o g uess a t why . Y et t here a re p o ints wh ich c an b e made w ith s ome c onf idence . I t i sv ery p robab le t hat t he Roman t rad it ion r ema ined s t rong i n t he c ountrys ide o f t he I ber ian p en insu la t hroughout t he f i fth c entury a nd p robab ly w e l l i n to t he s i xth . T he s i tes w here i n fo rmat ion e x ists a re mos t ly t he l a rge v i l las o f t he l a te Roman r u l ing c lasses . T he s urv iva l o f t he s i tes p o ints s t rong ly t o t he s urv iva l o f t he p eop le , o r a t l e as t o f p eop le o ccupy ing s im i lar p os it ions i n t he s oc ia l s t ructure . T he i n adequacy o f t he a rchaeo log ica l i nvest igat ions a t p resent means t hat i t i s i mposs ib le t o k now y et t he n ature o f t he c los ing p hases o f t he v i l las t hemse lves , o r o f t he ir r e lat ionsh ips w ith l e sse r s i tes i n t he s ett lement h ierarchy . T he most o bv ious g ap h owever l i es i n s imp ly k now ing w here p eop le were l i v ing i n t he s i xth , s eventh , e ighth a nd n inth c entur ies , t he g ap s t retches w ide ly b etween t he p erce ived e nd o f t he Roman ised s ett lements a nd t he b eg inn ing o f t he med ieva l v i l lages , t hemse lves most ly a ttested o n ly b y w r itten r ecords . Many q ues t ions may b e r a ised o ve r t hat g ap : h ow f ar a s t here g enu ine d epopu lat ion? h ow many med ieva l s ett lements h ave Roman o r ig ins s t i l l t o b e s ought a rchaeo log ica l ly? h ow i mportant w e re c l imat ic a nd e nv ironmenta l c hanges? w hat h appened t o t he s oc ia l s t ructure? F or n one o f t hese i st he e v idence c urrent ly a va i lab le a dequate e ven t o a l low t he f ormu lat ion o f s er ious h ypo theses , l e t a lone t o d raw s er ious c onc lus ions . T he b est t hat c an b e d one i s t o p ut f o rward h ypotheses b ased o n ac omb inat ion o f a na logy f rom e l sewhere a nd s pecu lat ion : L ate R oman v i l las o ften c ont inued i n r ecogn isab le f orms i n to t he s i xth c entury , b u t d ec l ined i nt he ir s ca le o f o pe rat ions .

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T he e x tent o f t rad ing n etwo rks b ecame mo re r estr icted i n t he f i fth a nd s i x th c entur ies , l im it ing t he o pportun it ies f o r t he p ro f itab le d i sposa l o f a gr icu ltura l s urp luses . T he s carc ity o f mater ia l r e ma ins f rom t he s i xth c entury t o t he n inth g enu ine ly r ef lec ts a s ubstant ia l ly r educed p opu lat ion o n t he l a nd . A n ew c yc le o f g rowth i n e conom ic a ct iv ity a nd i n t he e stab l ishment o f n ew s ett lements w h ich w ere t o b ecome t he med ieva l v i l lages , c o inc ided w ith t he A rab c onquest i t se lf a nd t he r eact ion t o i t i n t he f orm o f t he Reconqu ista . S uch g enera l isat ions may o r may n ot p rove t o b e we l l-founded . T he ir r e l iab i l ity w i l l v ary f rom r eg ion t o r eg ion . Neverthe less , t hey a re a l l c apab le o f b e ing t ested o n t he a ppropr iate a rchaeo log ica l d ata . T here a re o pt im ist ic s i gns t hat wo rk i s g o ing o n i n d i rect ions w h ich w i l l p roduce d ata t hat w i l l e nab le t hese p rob lems a nd o ther r e la ted o nes t o b e t ack led . T he p otent ia l i sp la in t o s ee . T he f i na l c onc lus ion t o t h is p aper must b e ap rescr ipt ion f o r more h igh q ua l ity b as ic a rchaeo logy . T he p r i mary n eed i sf or t he t rad it iona l a rchaeo log ica l v i rtues o f t horough s t rat igraph ic e xcavat ion a nd d eta i led s tudy o f t he p o ttery a nd o ther ( a r tefacts . T o make f u l l u se o f t h is w o rk , i ts hou ld b e c arr ied o ut w ith in r eg iona l r esearch d es igns , i nco rporat ing s e lect ive e xcavat ion a nd s ystemat ic f i e ld s urvey , i n tended t o e xam ine t he d eve lopment o f t he w ho le s ett lement h ierarchy i n t he s econd h a lf o f t he f i rs t m i l lenn ium . O n f oundat ions l a id t here c an b e b ased f urther c ontr ibut ions t o t heor ies o f w ider a pp l icat ion . Acknow ledgements Iam p art icu lar ly g rate fu l t o T omas Mananes a nd A lberto B a l i l o f t he U n ivers idad d e V a l lado l id f o r f ree a ccess t o t he l i brary o f t he D epartamento d e A rgue° logia a nd f or much g enerous a dv ice . S imon K eay h as a l so k ind ly c ommented o n v ar ious i s sues . Respons ib i l ity f o r t he v iews e xpressed h ere i s o f c ourse n ot t he irs , b ut m ine . B ib l iography Ab6 so lo , J .A . , J . C ortes , F . P e-e z a nd A . V igh i , 1 984 . E xcavac iones e n e l y ac im iento d e l a Morterona , S a lda t ia ( Pa lenc ia ) ; ( Pa lenc ia ) . A rce , J . , 1 980 . ' La " cr is is" d e l s i g lo I l d e C . e n H ispan ia y l a s i nvas iones b arbaras" , Acta o f t he I n ternat iona l Congress o f H istor ica l S c iences . A rgente O l iver , J .L . 1 979 . L a V i l la T ardorromana d e B aKos d e V a ldearrados ( Burgos ) , E xcavac iones A rqueo log icas e n E spaMa 1 00 ; ( Madr id ) . A rgente O l iver , J .L . , a nd A . D iaz D i az , 1 985 . ' Tercera c ampana d e e xcavac iones e n l av i l la t ardorromana d e B anos d e V a ldearrados ( Burgos ) ' , No t icar io A rqueo lög ico H ispan ic° 2 3 : 2 9 1-35 1. B anks , P .J . , 1 984 . ' The R oman i nher itance a nd t opograph ica l t rans it ion i ne ar ly med ieva l B arce lona ' , i nT .F .C . B lagg , R .F .J . J ones a nd S . J . K eay ( eds . ) P apers i nI ber ian A rchaeo logy ( Br it ish A rchaeo log ica l R eports I n ternat iona l S er ies 1 93 ; O xfo rd ) : 6 00-634 . B e Ida Dominguez , J . , 1 947 . ' I ngresos p rocedentes d e l c er i l lo d e T orre d e l a c ruz ,

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V i l la joyosa ( A l icante ) ' , Memo r ias d e l o s Museos A rqueo ldg icos P rov inc ia les 7 : 1 43153 . B e ltr c in L lor is , M . , 1 983 . ' E l a c iete e n H ispan ia at rove s d e l a s d nforas : l a c oncurrenc ia d e l a c iete i t d l ico y a fr icano ' , i nP roducc ion y Comerc io d e l Ac iete e n l a Ant igüedad . S egundo Congreso I n ternac iona l ( Madr id ) : 5 15 5 49 . B ldzquez , J .M . , 1 980 . ' Der L i mes H ispan iens i m 4 .u nd 5 . Jh . F o rschungstand ; N ieder lassungen d er L aet i o der G ent i les am F luss lauf d es D uero ' , i n W .S . H anson a nd L .J .F . K epp ie ( eds . ) , Roman F ront ier S tud ies 1 979 ( Br it ish A rchaeo log ica l R eports I n ternat iona l S er ies 7 1 ; Ox fo rd ) : 3 45-395 . B reeze , D .J . , a nd B . D obson , 1 972 . ' Hadr ian 's Wa l l : s o me p rob lems ' , B r itann ia 3 : 1 82-208 . C aba l lero Z o reda , L . , 1 974 . L a Necröpo l is T ardo rromana d e F uentespreadas ( Zamora ) , E xcavac iones A rqueo log icas e n E spa i la 8 0 ; ( Madr id ) . C aba l lero Z o reda , L . , 1 984 . ' Arqueo logra t a rdorromana y v i s igoda e n l a p rov inc ia d e S or ia ' , Actas d e l 1S ympos ium d e A rqueo logra S or iano ; ( Sor ia ) : 4 33-458 . C aba l lero Z o reda , L . , a nd J .L . A rgente O l iver 1 975 . ' Ce rdm ica p a leocr ist iana g r is y a naran jada p roduc ida e n E spaf ia . C e rdm icas t a rdorromanas d e l a v i l la d e B a r ios d e V a ldearrados ( Burgos ) ' , T raba jos d e P reh is tor ia 3 2 : 131 46 . C a ll e ja G u i jarro , T . , 1 965 . ' La a rqueo logra , l ah i s to r ia y l al e yenda e n t om b a l a s V egas d e P edraza ' , [ stud ios S egov ianos 1 7 : 1-14 . C arand in i , A . , a nd C . P ane ll a , 1 98 1. ' The t rad ing c onnect ions o f Rome a nd c entra l I t a ly i nt he l a te s econd a nd t h ird c entur ies : t he e v idence o f t he T erme d e l N uatato re e xcavat ions , O st ia ' , i nA . K ing a nd M . Hen ig ( eds . ) , T he Roman Wes t i nt he T h ird Century ( B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l Reports I n ternat iona l S er ies 1 09 ; O xfo rd ) : 4 87-503 . D e lgado , M . , F . Mayet , a nd A . Mout inho d e A la rd io , 1 975 . F ou i l les d e Con i mbr iga I V . L es S ig i l lies ( Par is ) . E scudero , S . , a nd J .M . G amarra 1 987 . ' Cons ide rac iones s obre l o s y ac im ientos d e e t a 'o ca v i s igoda e n l ap rov inc ia d e S egov ia ( E spa r la ) ' , i nR .F .J . J ones , J .H .F . B loeme rs , S .L . D yson a nd M . B idd le ( Eds . ) , F irst M i l lenn ium P apers ( Br it ish A rchaeo log ica l Reports I n ternat iona l S er ies ; O xfo rd ) . F erndndez C astro , M .C . , 1 982 . V i l las Romanas e n E spana ( Madr id ) . F ernändez G a l l iano-Ru iz , D . , 1 976 . Carta A rqueo lög ica d e A lca lä d e Hena res y s u p art ido ( Co lecc . U n ivers itar ia , 2 ; A lca l6 d e Henares ) . G arc ia Mer ino , C . , 1 967 . ' T res y ac im ientos d e e poca r o mana i n ed itos ' , B o leti n d e l S em inar io d e A rte y A rqueo logi a 3 3 : 1 67187 . G arc ia Mer ino , C . , 1 975 . P ob lac iön y P ob lam iento e n H ispan ia Romano . E l Conventus C lun iens is ( Va l lado l id ) .

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G a rc ia Mer ino , L .A . , 1 98 1. ' Cont inu idad o d i scont inu idad d e l ap roducc ion o lerco la h i spana d urante l aA nt igüedad t ard ia ( S ig los V -V 1 1) ' , i nP roducc idn y Come rc io d e l A c ie te e n l aA nt igüedad . P r imero Congreso I n ternac iona l ( Madr id ) : 3 0 1-3 10 . G i ll am , J .P . , 1 974 . ' The f r ont ie r a fte r H adr ian ' , A rchaeo log ic A e l iana , 5 th s er ies , 2 : 1 15 . G o rges , J .G . 1 979 . L es V i l las H ispano-Roma ines ( Pub l . d u C entre P ie rre P ar is 4 P ar is ) . G u ita rt , J . , 1 970 . ' Excavac iön e n l az ona s udes te d e l av i l la r omana d e S entromä ( T iana ) ' , P yrenae 6 : II1 165 . H ayes , J .W . , 1 972 . L a te R oman P ottery ( London ) . H ayes , J .W . , 1 980 . S upp lement t o L a te Roman P o ttery ( London ) . H odges , R . , a nd D . Wh itehouse , 1 983 . Mohammed , Cha r lemagne a nd t he O r ig ins o f E urope ( London ) . J ackson , G . , 1 972 . T he Mak ing o f Med ieva l S pa in ( London ) . J ones , R .F .J . , 1 98 1. ' Change o n t he f ront ier : n o rthern B r ita in i nt he t h ird c entury ' , i nA . K ing a nd M . H en ig ( e ds . ) , T he Roman Wes t i nt he T h ird Century ( B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l R epo rts I n ternat iona l S e r ies 1 09 ; O xfo rd ) : 3 93-4 14 . J ones , R .F .J . , T .F .C . B lagg , C .M . D eve reux , D .W . J ordan a nd M . M i ll e t t , 1 985 . ' S ett lement , l a ndscape a nd s urvey a rchaeo logy i nC ata lunya ' , i nS . Macready a nd F .H . T homp son ( e ds . ) , A rchaeo log ica l F ie ld S urvey i n B r ita in a nd Ab road ( S oc ie ty o f A nt iquar ies o f L ondon O ccas iona l P ape r V I ; L ondon ) : 16128 . J ones , R .F .J . , S . J . K eay , J .M . N o ll aa nd J .T a rr6s , 1 982 . ' The l a te R oman v i l la o f V i lauba a nd i t s c ontex t ' , A nt iquar ies J ourna l LX I I ( 2 ) : 2 45-282 . K eay , S . J . , 1 98 1. ' The C onventus T arraconens is i nt he t h ird c entury A .D . : c r is is o r c hange? ' i nA . K ing a nd M . H en ig ( e ds . ) , T he Roman Wes t i nt he T h ird Century , ( Br it ish A rchaeo log ica l R epo rts I n te rnat iona l S e r ies 1 09 ; O xfo rd ) : 4 5 1-486 . K eay , S . J . , 1 984a . L ate R oman Ampho rae i nt he Wes te rn Med ite rranean , ( B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l R epo rts I n terna t iona l S e r ies 1 96 ; O x fo rd ) . K eay , S . J . , 1 984b . ' Dec l ine o r c ont inu ity? T he c oas ta l e conomy o f t he C onventus T arraconens is f r om t he f ourth c entury u nt i l t he l a te s i xth c entury ' , i n T .F .C . B lagg , R .F .J . J ones a nd S . J . K eay ( e ds . ) , P apers i nI ber ian A rchaeo logy , ( B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l R epo rts I n ternat iona l S er ies 1 93 ; O xfo rd ) : 5 52-577 . L opez R odr iguez , J .R . , 1 985 . T erra S ig i l la ta H ispan ica T ard ia D eco rada a Mo lde d e l aP eni nsu la l be r ica ( Va l lado l id ) . L ucas , M .R . , a nd P . V i r ias 1 977 . ' La v i l la r omana d e A gu i lafuente ( S egov ia ) ' , i n S egov ia y l aA rqueo logi a Romano ( Barce lona ) : 2 39-255 .

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L yd ing W i l l , E . , 1 983 . ' Expo rtat ion o f o l ive o i l f r om B aet ica t o t he E as te rn Med iterranean ' , i nP roducc ion y Comerc io d e l Ac iete e n l aA nt igüedad . S egundo C ongreso I n te rnac iona l ( Madr id ) : 3 9 1-440 . MaNanes , T . , 1 979 . A rgue° logi c ! V a l l iso letana : L a T ierra d e Campos y e l S u r d e l D uero ( Va l lado l id ) . Md ianes , T . , 1 983 . A rgue° log ia V a l l iso letana I :T o rozos , P isuerga y Cerrato ( Va ll a do li d ) . Mart in-K i lcher , S . , 1 983 . ' Les ampho res r oma ines ä h u i le d e B e r t ique ( D res se l 2 0 e t 2 3 ) d 'Augs t e t K a iseraugsf , i nP roducc iön y Comerc io d e l Ac ie te e n l a A nt igüedad . S egundo Cong reso I n ternac iona l ( Madr id ) : 3 37-347 . Mayet , F . , 1 983-4 . L es C e ram igues S ig i l lees H ispan iques ( Pub l . d u C entre P ierre P a r is 1 2 ; P ar is ) . M i l lett , M . , 1 98 1. ' Whose c r is is? T he a rchaeo logy o f t he t h ird c entury : a w arn ing ' , i nA . K ing a nd M . H en ig ( e ds . ) , T he Roman Wes t i nt he T h ird C entury ( B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l R eports I n te rnat iona l S er ies 1 09 ; O x fo rd ) : 5 25-530 . N o ll a , J . M . , a nd J . C asas , 1 984 . C a rta A rqueo lög ica d e l e s Comarques d e G irona . E l p ob lament d ' epoca r omana a l NE d e Cata Iunya ( G irona ) . O rtego d e F r ias , T . , 1 974 . ' Excavac iones a rqueo ldg icas e n " Los Q u intana res" ( R ioseco d e S o r ia ) ' , B e l las A rtes 3 8 : 3 0-32 . O rtego d e F r ias , T . , 1 977 . ' La v i l la r omana d e " Los Q u intanares" e n e lt g rm ino d e R ioseco ( So r ia ) ' , i nS egov ia y l aA rqueo log ia Romano ( Barce lona ) : 2 852 92 . P a lo l , P . d e , 1 969 . ' La n ec rdpo l is d e S an M !,g ue l d e A rroyo y l o s b roches h i spano rromanos d e l s i g lo I V ' , B o let in d e l S em inar io d e A rte y A rgueo log ita 3 4-35 : 9 3160 . P a lo l , P . d e , 1 970 . ' Necr6po l is h i spanorromanos d e l s i g lo I V e n e l v a l le d e l D uero I l : l o s v asos y r ec ip ientes d e b ronce ' , B o le tr n d e l S em inar io d e A rte y A rqueo logr a 3 6 : 2 05-236 . P a lo l , P . d e , 1 977 . ' Romanos e n l a Meseta : e l B a jo I mper io y l aa r is toc rac ia a g r ico la ' , i nS egov ia y l aA rqueo log ia Romano ( Barce lona ) : 1 97-308 . P a lo l , P . d e , a nd J . C o n es , 1 974 . L a V i l la Romano d e l aO l meda , P edrosa d e l a V ega ( Pa lenc ia ) A cta A rqueo log ica H ispan ica 7 ( Madr id ) . P a lo ! , P . d e , a nd M . S o tomayo r , 1 972 . ' Excavac iones e n l av i l la r omana d e B ru r ie l ( Quesada ) d e l ap rov inc ia d e J a' , i n Ac ta s d e V I I I Cong reso I n ternac iona l d e A rqueo logi a C r is t iana -B arce lona 1 969 : 3 75 f . P ere ira , 1 . ,J .P . B ost , a nd J .H iernard , 1 974 . F ou i l les d e Con imbr iga I . L es Monna ies ( Par is ) . P e rez d e B ar radas , J .M . 1 93 1-2 . ' Las v i l las r omanc ts d e V i l lave rde B a jo , ( Madr id , A nuar io d e P reh istor ia Madr i le r ia 2 -3 : 1 00 125 . P ons ich , M . , 1 974 . I mp lanta t ion r ura le a nt ique s u r l eB as-Guada lqu iv ir ( Madr id ) .

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P ons ich , M . , 1 979 . I mp lan tat ion r ura le a nt ique s ur l eB as-Guada lqu iv ir I ( Madr id a nd P ar is ) . P revos t i , M . , 1 98 1a . C ron° log ic iP ob lament a I t ärea r ura l d ' I luro ( Ma taro ) . P revos t i , M . , 1 98 1b . C rono log ia iP ob lament a K irea r ura l d e B aetu lo ( Bada lona ) . R emesa l R odr iguez , J . , 1 9 77-8 . ' La e conom ia o le irc o la n uevas f o rmas d e a n c i li s is ' , A rch ly ( ) E spa r io l d e A rqueo logi a 5 0-5 1: 8 7142 . R ive ra Manescau , S . , 1 936-9 . ' La n ecröpo l is v i s igoda d e S imancas ' , B o le tr n d e l S em ina r io d e A rte y A rqueo logr a 1 3 -2 1: 7 -20 . R odr iguez A l me ida , E . , 1 98 1. ' A lcun i a spett i d e l la t opog raf ia e d e l l 'archeo log ia a ttorno a l Monte T es tacc io ' , i nP roducc iön y Comerc io d e l Ac iete e n l a A nt igüedad . P r ime ro Congreso I n ternac iona l ( Madr id ) : 5 7130 . S erra R afo ls , J .C . , 1 943 . ' L a v i l la F ortunatus , d e F raga ' , Ampur ias 5 :5 -35 . S erra R afo ls , J .C . , 1 952 . L a V i l la Romano d e l aD ehe sa d e " La Cocosa" ( Bada joz ) . S impson , C .J . , 1 976 . ' Be lt b uck les a nd s t rap-ends o f t he l a te r R oman Emp ire ' , B r itann ia V I I : 1 92-223 . T hompson , E .A . , 1 976 . ' T he e nd o f R oman S pa in , p art l ' , No tt ingham Med ieva l S tud ies XX : 3 -28 . T hompson , E .A . , 1 977 . ' T he e nd o f R oman S pa in , p ar t I ' , No tt ingham Med ieva l S tud ies XX I : 3 -3 1. V ita-F inz i , C . , 1 969 . T he Med ite rranean V a l leys ( Camb r idge ) .

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1 4 . THE END OF THE ROMAN COUNTRYS IDE : AV IEW FROM THE THE EAST J ohn B int l iff a nd Anthony S nodgrass S ummary T he c iv i l isat ion o f B yzant ium i so ne o f t he wo r ld 's mos t n eg lected c u ltures , mos t e spec ia l ly i f we c ons ider q uest ions o f e veryday l i fe f rom a n a rchaeo log ica l v iewpo int . A nd y et t he B yzant ines c ons idered t hemse lves a s as urv iv ing a nd i ndeed u l t i mate ly r e inv igo rated c hunk o f t he Roman Emp ire . I n t he c ontext o f t h is s ympos ium i ti s an atura l q uest ion t o a sk what e xact ly was g o ing o n i n t he E astern Roman Emp ire , i n t own a nd c ountry , d ur ing t hose c entur ies f rom a round 2 00 AD t o 1 000 AD when i mmense t ransformat ions were o ccurr ing i n t he a rea o f t he Western Roman Emp ire . T he d ata-base t aken a s i lus trat ion o f c hanges i n t he E ast w i l l b e t hat a ssemb led b etween 1 978 a nd 1 985 i n Centra l G reece b y aj o int e xped it ion f rom B radford a nd Cambr idge Un ivers it ies ( c f . B int l iff a nd S nodgrass 1 985 ) . Reference w i l l a lso b e made t o c omparab le e v idence f rom o ther p arts o f t he E astern Med iterranean r eg ion . D iscuss ion o f t he B oeo t ia P ro ject d ata-base f or t he p er iod c oncerned w i l l b e p refaced b y as hort d escr ipt ion o f t he f i e ld methodo logy u t i l ised . F o l low ing a p hase b y p hase a na lys is o f t he c hang ing p icture i n t he r ura l l andscape a nd t ownscapes o f Centra l G reece o ver t he I s t m i l lennm ium A .D , a n a ttempt w i l l b e made t o c ompare t he a rchaeo log ica l e v idence w ith h istor ica l s ources f or t he s ame p er iod , a nd t o make c aut ious c ompar isons w ith c ontemporary d eve lopments i n t he West . F ina l ly , an umber o f ma jor t heoret ica l i s sues t hat emerge n atura l ly f rom t he p reced ing a na lys is a nd c ompar isons w i l l b e b roached . B yzant ium i s a n eg lected c iv i l isat ion ( F ig . 1 4 .1) , p art ly b ecause o f t he o verconcern w ith l i te rature , r e l ig ious a nd s ecu lar a rch itectura l h i sto ry , a nd a p ro longed n eg lect o f e veryday a rchaeo logy ; b ut a l so , a s T i mo thy G regory h as s hown ( 1984 ) , b ecause med ieva l h i sto ry h as a lmos t e xc lus ive ly t reated B yzant ium a s ad ead e nd , af oss i l w ithout r e levance t o t he ' r ise o f t he West ' a nd o f med ieva l a nd l a ter c iv i l isat ion i n E urope . S cho lars o f Western E uropean h i sto ry g enera l ly i g nore t he b e l ief o f t he B yzant ines t hat t hey w ere mere ly t he Roman Emp ire ' Part Two ' , a l a rge c hunk o f t hat Emp ire t hat c arr ied o n Roman r u le a nd t rad it ion f or a t housand y ears a fter t he f a l l o f Rome i t se lf a nd t he d i sso lut ion o f t he Western Emp ire . I n stead o f o ur t erm - B yzant ines - t h is c iv i l isat ion p referred t he t erm ' Roma io i ' o r ' Romans ' f or t hemse lves , a nd i r on ica l ly t oday , t he e ssence o f b e ing a modern G reek i s s u m med u p i n t he c oncep t o f ' Roma ios ine ' o r ' Roman-ness ' . Ac entra l i s sue , t herefore , wh ich w e wou ld l i ke t o a ddress i n t h is p aper , i s t he d egree t o wh ich r ecent a rchaeo log ica l r esearch i s r evea l ing t he r ea l ity o f t he t rans it ion f rom a nc ient t o med ieva l l i fe i n t he E astern Emp ire . T he d ata-base w e w i l l u se w i l l b e e ssent ia l ly t hat c o l lected s i nce 1 978 b y t he B oeo t ia P ro ject , a1 0-year f i e ld s urvey o f a ma jo r r eg ion o f C entra l G reece ( F ig . 1 4 .2 a ,b ) c arr ied o ut j o int ly b y t he U n ivers it ies o f B radford a nd C ambr idge u nder t he c o-d irecto rsh ip o f t he a uthors . We w i l l a l so r efer b r ief ly t o a rchaeo log ica l d ata o bta ined e l sewhere i n t he E ast Med iterranean r eg ion a nd a ttemp t t o d raw c aut ious c ompar isons a nd c ontrasts w ith t he s i tuat ion i nt he West Med iterranean . F ina l ly we s ha l l e ven mo re c aut ious ly i n d icate t he i n tr igu ing t heoret ica l i s sues r a ised b y o ur a na lys is .

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B ut f i rst i t i sn ecessary t o p rov ide s o me b ackground o n t he B oeot ia p ro ject , a nd i n p art icu lar a bout t he methodo logy emp loyed i n o bta in ing t he d ata a bout t o b e d i scussed ( B int l iff a nd S nodgrass 1 985 ; B int l iff 1 9 85 ) . I tc annot b e s t ressed e nough t hat a c lear s tatement o f t he methods u sed i n o bta in ing s i te s urvey i n fo rmat ion i s r equ ired , b efore i t s i n co rporat ion i n to s ummary f orm a s d i str ibut ion maps , w h ich may t hen b e u sed b y o ther s cho lars f o r h i stor ica l p urposes ( c f . F ig . 1 4 .3 ) . T he modern p rov ince o f B oeot ia i sa lmos t i d ent ica l t o t he a nc ient t r iba l r eg ion , t he l a tter h av ing a s urface a rea o f s ome 3 800 km 2. S ince t he f i rst f u l l f i e ld s eason w e h ave f i e ldwa lked 3 3 km 2 ( 19791984 ) o f r ura l c ountrys ide i nt he S outhWestern s ecto r o f t he r eg ion , f i nd ing o n a verage 4 p re-modern s i tes p e r s quare k i lometre . F ie ld w a lkers a re s paced a t 1 5 metre i n terva ls a nd 1 00% o f t he l andscape i s s urveyed o n f oo t . T he d i str icts s o f ar c overed were c hosen t o r epresent a c ross-sect ion o f t opography a nd g eo logy t yp ica l f or B oeo t ia a s a w ho le , a nd t o i n c lude l and b e long ing t o more t han o ne a nc ient c i ty-s tate ( i n t h is c ase t he t err itor ies a re t hose o f T hesp iae a nd H a l iartos ) . U s ing a n a utomat ic c ount ing d ev ice o r ' c l icker ' e ach f i e ldwa lker r eg isters t he v i s ib le d ens ity o f p remodern s urface a rtefacts w ith in e ach t ransect ( wh ich a re u sua l ly 1 00-200 metre l o ng ) . When r ecorded d ens it ies r i se b eyond a c erta in l im it t he f i e ldwa lkers s h ift t o a mo re i n tens ive s tage o f s urface r ecord ing , w a lk ing a t 7 4 metre s pac ing a nd p roceed ing i n m in itransects o f 1 0 metres l e ngth . F o r e ach m in itransect a t ota l c ount o f p ottery d ens ity i s made a nd a r easonab le s a mp le t aken o f ' f eature ' p o ttery f o r d at ing p urposes ; t hese d ata p erm it t he mapp ing o f b oth c hrono log ica l a nd a ct iv ity v ar iat ions a cross e ach s urface s i te . T hese s i tes c an a l so b e s tud ied i nr e lat ionsh ip t o t he s urround ing b ackground s catter o f p ottery t hat c arpets t he c ountrys ide . T he c r it ica l t hresho ld i n d ens ity t hat d i st ingu ishes c oncentrat ions o f h uman a c t iv ity o r ' s ites ' a ppears t o l i e a round 0 .45 s herds p e r s q . metre w ith h i s tor ica l s ett lements i nB oeot ia . F rom 1 9791984 f i e ldwa lk ing t ook p lace i n a l a rge b lock o f c ountrys ide s urround ing t he a nc ient c i t ies o f T hesp iae a nd H a l iartos . A r e markab le d ens ity o f r ura l s ett lements was i d ent if ied , a s w e l l a s ap rev ious ly u nknown t own s i te t hat h as t o b e t he c om mun ity o f A skra , as ate l l ite t own o f t he c i ty-state o f T hesp iae . I n 1 985 w e t urned o ur a ttent ion t o t hese t hree u rban c entres , i n e xpectat ion t hat a d eta i led s urvey o f t he ir s urface p ottery wou ld p rov ide a n i n terest ing c ompar ison w ith t he c hang ing d i s tr ibut ion o f r ura l s i tes i n t he ir d ependent t err itor ies . T he s ate l l ite t own o f A skra w as a na lysed a s f o l lows ( F ig . 1 4 .4 ) : t he i n d iv idua l f i e lds t hat c onta in t h is s i te w ere u sed a s macrosamp le u n its , f o r e ach o f w h ich q uant itat ive s urface p ottery d ens it ies w ere r ecorded a nd r epresentat ive c o l lect ions r ecovered . A s econd s er ies o f s amp les , much sma l le r t han t he p rev ious ' t own s a mp les ' was s et u p i n an etwo rk a cross t he w ho le t own a rea ; t hese were s tandard 1 0 b y 3 0 metre s a mp le u n its a s w e emp loy t hem i n a l l r ura l s i tes , b ut t he ir r o le i n t he t owns w as t o a ct a s ac ontro l o n t he s a mp l ing e rror t hat m ight o ccur i n t he 1 00 % c ove r o f macro-samp les . T he c i ty s tate c entre o f Ha l iartos w as a na lysed w ith a more r egu lar s ys tem o f c ont iguous ' t own s amp les ' a t t he macroleve l , b locks o f 5 0 b y 6 0 metre s i ze ; t he n etwork o f m in i-samp les w as s paced e ven ly a cross t he s i te a nd w as a ga in i n u n its o f 1 0 b y 3 0 metre ( F ig . 1 4 .5 ) . Whereas A skra a nd Ha l iartos a re med ium-s ized G reek c i t ies , a pprox i mate ly 2 0 a nd 2 5 h ectares , t he c i ty s tate c entre o f T hesp iae w as k nown t o b e much l a rger , a round 1 00 h ectares o r more . Moreove r t he e xact l ocat ion o f t he c i ty b oundar ies w as u nknown . T rave l lers ' a ccounts d id h owever a l low u s t o r econstruct t he p robab le l i ne o f al a te a nt ique t own wa l l , w h ich i n t he e ar ly 1 9 th c entury a ppeared t o e nc lose o n ly t he w esternmos t t h ird o f t he r u ins . O n t he b as is o f t h is i n fo rmat ion w e s et u p av ery l a rge g r id o f ' t own s a mp les ' , n o rma l ly 5 0 b y 6 0 metres , d es igned t o c over t he w ho le t own a nd d ef ine i t s e dges i n to t he

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n on b u i lt-up c ountrys ide ; a t t he m icroleve l t hese c . 2 60 s a mp le u n its were c omp lemented b y av e ry n u merous s er ies o f m in i s a mp les o f 1 0 b y 3 0 metres ( F ig . 1 4 .6 ) . D ur ing t he 1 985 s eason a l l t he p o ttery c o l lected a t A skra a nd Ha l iartos was d ated , b u t a t T hesp iae w e s t i l l h ave t o p rocess t he mater ia l f rom t he western e nd o f t he s i te f or d at ing p urposes . However , t he g enera l c haracter o f t h is s ector i s k nown , a nd i t i s n o t e xpected t hat t he a na lys is o f i t s p ottery i n 1 986 w i l l s i gn if icant ly a ffect o ur p rov is iona l i n terpretat ion o f t he o ccupat iona l h i story o f t he o vera l l s i te b ased o n t he mater ia l a na lysed f rom t he c entra l a nd e astern s ectors . I n t he f o l low ing s ect ion w e s ha l l b r ief ly p resent t he p icture w e n ow h ave a va i lab le f o r t he c hang ing n ature o f t own a nd c ountry d ur ing t he c onsecut ive h i stor ic e pochs i nS outh-Wes t B oeo t ia . I tw i l l b e a pprec iated t hat t he i n terpretat ions o ffered a re p rov is iona l , a nd may b e mod if ied a s ar esu lt o f f uture s easons , work i nB oeot ia . Geometr ic t o A rcha ic p er iod c . 9 00 t o 6 00 BC We s ha l l n ot i lustrate t he d i s tr ibut ion o f r ura l s i tes f or t h is p er iod , a s o n ly a h andfu l o f s i tes a re k nown f rom t he a rea o f o ver 3 0 s q kms . h i therto s urveyed . T h is s uggest ion o f e xtreme ly l ow p opu lat ion d ens ity i sc onf irmed f rom t he t hree u rban s i tes . A t Ha l iartos ( F ig . 1 4 .7 ) t he p lo t o f i nd iv idua l d ated s herds o f t h is p er iod f rom t he s a mp le c o l lect ions s hows a s ma l l b eg inn ing o f t he s ett lement o n t he u pper a cropo l is s ec tor , i n l a te Geometr ic t imes , f o l lowed b y a more e xtens ive o ccupat ion i n t rans it iona l G eometr ic/Archa ic a nd f u l l A rcha ic t imes . A t A skra ( F ig . 1 4 .8 ) we i lustrate o ccupat iona l i n tens ity b y d egrees o f s had ing . O n ly i n t he f ar n orth i sa ny s i gn if icant s ett lement a ttested , w ith s porad ic l owl eve l a ct iv ity i n al im ited n umber o f t own s a mp les e l sewhere o n t he s i te ( t he z ero s ymbo l d enotes n o f i nds o f t h is p er iod r ecovered i n ap art icu lar s a mp le a rea ) . A t T hesp iae ( F ig . 1 4 .9 ) i n d iv idua l d ated s herds a re p lotted . Here w e may b e s ee ing a s l ight ly d i fferent p attern o f e ar ly o ccupat ion w ith s evera l a rguab ly d i screte b ut sma l l f oc i o f s ett lement . Whether t h is c orresponds t o t he mode l o f h am let-c lusters f or t he P roto-Po l is ( Greek c i ty ) , s et o ut b y S nodgrass ( 1980 ) s hou ld b ecome c learer w hen we h ave t he a dd it iona l r esu lts f rom t he m in is a mp les a t T hesp iae ( t he p lots u sed i n t h is p aper r e ly e nt ire ly o n t he ' t own ' s a mp les ) . O nce more , t he l a ter p o ttery o f A rcha ic d ate s hows a more e xtens ive c ommun ity d eve lop ing . I n s u m mary , t he r eg ion s eems t o h ave b een t h in ly-popu lated u nt i l mature A rcha ic t imes . R ura l s ett lements d atab le b efore c .600 BC a re e xtreme ly r are , a nd a t t he l a ter t own f oc i s ma l l h am lets c an b e i dent if ied . S ince t he s ubsequent , r ap id e xpans ion o f p opu lat ion i s s ynchronous f or b oth r ura l a nd u rban s e tt lements , t hese p art icu lar B oeo t ian t owns wou ld s eem t o h ave g rown a s much b y i n terna l d emograph ic t ake o ff a s b y t he i n f lux o f r ura l p opu lat ion . I n o ther p arts o f Ma in land G reece s uch a s A tt ica a nd t he A rgo l id t h is p er iod o f l ow p opu lat ion i s w e l l-attes ted t i l l m idd le Geometr ic t imes , b ut a l ready f rom l a te G eometr ic t imes ( t he 8 th c entury BC ) p opu lat ion b eg ins t o r i se d ramat ica l ly , i n b o th t own a nd c ountry ( c f . S nodgrass 1 980 , F igs . 3a nd 4 ) . I ti st e mp t ing t o l i nk t he r etarded d eve lopment i n B oeot ia w ith t he l a te c l i max o f B oeot ian p ower c ompared t o i t s n e ighbou r s tates , a nd p erhaps t o i t s f a i lure t o merge i t s c ons t ituent c i ty-states i n to a u n if ied t e rr itor ia l s tate . A rcha ic C lass ica l a nd E ar ly He l len is it ic p er iod c 6 00 BC t o 2 00 BC T he d i str ibut ion o f r ura l s i tes f or t h is e ra ( F ig . 1 4 .10 ) s hows a f orm idab le d ens ity o f s ett lement e nt ire ly c onsonant w ith t he h igh ly f l our ish ing p icture o f c lass ica l G reek c iv i l isat ion a va i lab le f rom t he h i stor ica l s ources . A l mos t a l l t hese r ura l s i tes a re sma l l f arms , t he r e ma inder b e ing r ura l h am lets t ogether w ith s ome p o tent ia l s anctuary s i tes . T he t own s i tes o ffer t he s a me p icture o f c u ltura l c l imax . A t Ha l iartos ( F ig . 1 4 .11) t he p lo t o f i n d iv idua l s herds i s ad ense o ne

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t hroughout t he c i ty a rea . A t A skra ( F ig . 1 4 .12 ) t here i sd ense o ccupat ion i nt he n orth a nd c entra l s ectors o f t he s i te , a nd v ery f ew f i e lds w ithout a ct iv ity d ur ing t h is p er iod . F ina l ly a t T hesp iae ( F ig . 1 4 .13 ) i n t he s a mp les s o f ar d ated , w e s ee a v ery e xtens ive c ommun ity c over ing a lmos t e very t own s a mp le f o r w h ich i n fo rmat ion i sa va i lab le , w ith o n ly a h andfu l o f c e l ls l ack ing d ef in ite f i nds o f t h is e ra . T he h i stor ica l p icture o f t h is e ra a s t he c l i max o f G reek c i ty-state l i fe , a nd e spec ia l ly f o r t he 4 th c entury BC a s b e ing a t ime o f v ery h igh p opu lat ion d ens ity i n B oeot ia , i sf u l ly b orne o ut b y r ura l a nd u rban a rchaeo logy . I ndeed w e h ave s uggested e l sewhere ( B int l iff a nd S nodgrass 1 985 ; B int l iff 1 985 ) t ha t t h is d emograph ic c l i max w as s er ious ly b eyond t he l a ndscape 's c apac ity t o s uppo rt i t i nt he l o ngterm . L ate He l len is t ic a nd E ar ly Roman p er iod , c .200 BC t o 3 00 AD . T he r ura l s ett lement o f t h is e ra ( F ig . 1 4 . 14 ) ( no te t hat t h is p art icu lar map o n ly s hows a reas s urveyed b y 1 983 ) e xh ib its a s evere c ontract ion o f p opu lat ion , n ot o n ly i n t erms o f ag reat ly r educed n umber o f o ccupat ion s i tes , b ut a t n umerous o f t hese s i tes a ct iv ity f or t h is p er iod i so n ly s l ight . T he d ec l ine i s mos t n otab le i nt he n orthern z one , t hat b e long ing t o t he c i ty o f H a l iartos . A t f i rst s i ght , t he d rop i n s urface f i nds a t Ha l iartos s eems u nbe l ievab ly s evere ( F ig . 1 4 .15 ) b ut i nf act t he c i ty was d estroyed b y t he Romans i n 1 7 1 BC a nd o ur s herd f i nds a ttest t o t he a bsence o f a ny s i gn if icant r eoccupat ion o f t he s i te f or t he r est o f t he p er iod . T here i s s o me s l ight h i stor ica l e v idence s ugges t ing a r e locat ion o f t he s urv ivors , w h ich w e h ave s ugges ted may r efer t o al a rge s i te a c oup le o f k i lometres t o t he e as t . T he r educt ion i n r ura l s ett lement i se spec ia l ly d rast ic i n t he p utat ive h inter land o f H a l iartos , u nders tandab ly , a l though i t i s p ronounced t hroughout t he t err itory o f T hesp iae a s w e l l . A t A skra ( F ig . 1 4 .16 ) w e s ee a v ery much r educed a rea o f i n tens ive o ccupat ion i n t he c entre o f t he s i te , a nd mos t o f t he t own s amp les s how n o a ct iv ity d atab le t o t h is e ra . T hesep iae ( F ig . 1 4 .17 ) l i kew ise d emons trates a c lear u rban c ontract ion , w ith o ccupat ion c oncentrat ing o n t he s ecto r e nc losed b y al a te a nt ique wa l l a nd t hat p art o f t he s i te i m med iate ly t o t he e as t o f t he w a l l . L ate Roman p er iod , c .300 t o 6 50 AD . T he r ura l s ett lement d i str ibut ion ( F ig . 1 4 .18 ) s hows a d ramat ic r ecove ry o f p opu lat ion , p art icu lar ly i n t he ' c hora ' o r l ands o f T hesp iae . T he p otte ry f rom r ura l s i tes i sd om inated b y l a te f orms w h ich p o int t o t he 5 th t o 7 th c entur ies a s t he c l i max w ith in t h is p hase . O n t he o ther h and , u nt i l s urvey w as e xtended t o t he u rban s i tes , s ome d oub t e x isted t hat d iagnos t ic p ottery f orms f o r t he e ar l ier h a lf o f t he p er iod w ere n ot b e ing d i str ibuted t o i n land C entra l G reece . T he 1 985 u rban s urveys , e spec ia l ly a t T hesp iae , d emonstrated o n t he c ontra ry , t hat t he p e r iod c .300 t o 5 00 AD was i n deed p robab ly a c ont inuat ion o f t he E ar ly R oman s l ump , w ith r ecovery b eg inn ing i n t he 5 th a nd c ont inu ing t hrough t he 6 th c entur ies , p oss ib ly e ven i n to t he f i rst h a lf o f t he s eventh c entury AD . Ha l iartos ( F ig . 1 4 .19 ) o bv ious ly h as n ot r ecovered i t s u rban s tatus , i n deed t he t h in s catte r o f s herds i n d icated , c oncentrated i n t he s outh-eas t s ecto r , n eed r epresent l i tt le more t han a s ma l l f arm ing s i te . T he p robab le r ep lacement c om mun ity i sh owever e xtens ive a nd f l our ish ing a t t h is t ime . A skra ( F ig . 1 4 .20 ) h as b ecome o nce a ga in a l a rge u rban f ocus , w ith i n tens ive o ccupat ion c oncentrated i n t he c entra l a nd s outh-centra l s ectors o f t he s i te . V ery f ew t own s a mp les l a ck a ct iv ity f or t h is p er iod . A t T hesp iae t he much l a rger p roport ions o f t he t own i n a l l p er iods e nab le a l o ca l isat ion o f p ottery e xc lus ive ly d atab le t o t he e ar ly h a lf o f t h is p hase ( c .300 t o 5 00 AD ) ( F ig . 1 4 .21) w h ich w e s ha l l t erm ' M id R oman ' . T he a reas i n d icated a re e xact ly t hose t o w h ich t he t own

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was c onf ined d ur ing t he p reced ing p er iod . S ign if icant ly t here i sa n i n scr ipt ion r eferr ing t o a ma jor r ewa l l ing o f T hesp ic te i n t he 4 th c entury , a nd t he n umerous i n scr ip t ions t hat were b u i lt i n to t he wa l l c i rcu it , s t i l l v i s ib le i n t he e ar ly 1 9 th c entury , i nc lude many e ar ly I mper ia l p ieces ( i ndeed t he w a l l w as a lmost c omp lete ly d emo l ished b y F rench ' a rchaeo log ists ' a t t he e nd o f t hat c entury f or t he s ake o f i t s c ontent o f i n scr ipt ions !) . T he c omparat ive ly l im ited d efens ive e nc losure wou ld c erta in ly b e a ppropr iate f or t he s he lter o f at own p opu lat ion c onf ined t o t he wa l led s ecto r a nd a n a d jacent e astern s uburb , t ogethe r w ith a r ura l p opu lat ion s t i l l p erhaps a t t he s a me r educed l eve l a s i nE ar ly Roman t imes . I fw e t urn , i n c ontrast , t o t he p icture f o r t he L ate Roman e ra a s aw ho le ( F ig . 1 4 .22 ) b ear ing i n m ind t hat t he c eram ics a re t yp if ied b y 5 th t o 7 th c entury AD f o rms , we s ee a much more e xtens ive c ommun ity , w ith t he s a me c ore z ones i n t he e nce inte a nd t o i t s i mmed iate e as t , b ut a ccompan ied n ow b y s i gn if icant r eoccupat ion i n aw ider s wathe t o t he s i te l im its . We c an r e late t h is L ate R oman r ev iva l , e spec ia l ly f or t he p hase f o l low ing t he s ack o f Rome , t o a g ene ra l f l our ish ing o f s ett lement i n t he E astern Med iterranean l a nds . We l l-pub l ished e xamp les i n c lude t he c i t ies o f A s ia M inor a nd t he e xpans ion o f v i l lage l i fe i n S yr ia a nd I s rae l ( i nc lud ing t he l a tter 's s outhern d eserts ) ( c f . F oss a nd Magda l ino 1 977 ) . S ome North A fr ican e v idence t ends t owards t he s ame v iew , G raeme B arker 's ( 1982 ) mode l f o r r ura l C yrena ica f or e xamp le , a nd t he c umu lat ive h i s tor ica l s ources f o r C arthage ( C lover 1 978 , 1 982 ) . O n t he o ther h and , c ontrast ing w ith a s upposed r i se o f p opu lat ion a nd e xpans ion o f t he r ura l e conomy i n C yrena ica i st he e xcavated e v idence f or v ery i mpover ished t own l i fe a t f o r mer c entres s uch a s S id i K reb ish , a nd f o r a l l t he l i ve l iness o f C arthage i n o ur s ources , r ecent e xcavat ions a ga in r evea l av ery d ecrep it u rban f abr ic ( Hurst 1 985 ) . I ti st herefore o f i n terest t hat s cho lars a re i ncreas ing ly s uggest ing t hat t he t owns o f t he E astern Emp ire h ad a l ready b egun t o t ransfo rm t hemse lves i n to t he s upposed ly ' I s lam ic ' p attern o f d ecentra l ised r es ident ia l a nd c ommerc ia l q uarters w ith t ortuous p aths o f c ommun icat ion ( c f . K ennedy 1 985 ) . I n t h is r espect i t i s n oteworthy t hat t he f l our ish ing r ura l l a ndscape o f T hesp iae i sf ocussed u pon a n o bv ious ly l a rge a nd t hr iv ing t own , y et a t t he b eg inn ing o f t h is p er iod t he 4 th c entury d efence w a l l i s b u i lt b y d i smant l ing a c ons iderab le q uant ity o f t he monumen ta l a ccoutrements o f p reced ing c entur ies . J us t h ow ' c lass ica l ' t he r ev ived L ate Roman t own r e ma ined i st herefore a n o pen q ues t ion . Med ieva l t o Modern p er iod , c .650 AD t o p resent . We s ha l l c onf ine d i scuss ion t o t he mo re i mportant s i tes o f t h is l o ng p er iod , f o r r easons o f s pace a nd c lar ity . F igure 1 4 .23 s um mar izes t he k ey p o ints o f s ett lement d eve lopment . P rov is iona l ly w e wou ld d i s t ingu ish t wo s ett lement t ypes f o r t he p ost-Roman e ra . O ne i s ah i l ltop o r h i l ls lope c ommun ity w ith d efens ive a dvantages , t yp ica l f or r ecent t rad it iona l v i l lage l ocat ions i nB oeot ia ; t he o ther i sal ow l y ing h ab itat , much more a ccess ib le t o a gr icu ltura l l a nd a nd c omparab le t o o r i ndeed o ver ly ing a nc ient s ett lement f oc i o f t he G reco-Roman e ras . A n o vera l l t endency h owever , u n it ing b oth s ett lement modes , i st owards n uc leat ion o f s ett lement i n p os t-Roman t imes , w ith t he emphas is b e ing o n h am let/v i l lage s i tes s paced r egu lar ly a cross t he l andscape , a nt ic ipat ing a nd p robab ly f or m ing t he o r ig ins o f t he modern v i l lage n etwo rk . Sma l ler , d i spersed f arm s i tes , a s wou ld a ppear t o b e t he c haracter ist ic f eature o f t he G reek a nd R oman c ountrys ide , a re n ot c ommon , i n deed t here i sn o e veryday wo rd i n Modern G reek f o r a' f arm ' i n t h is s ense , s o n atura l h as n uc leated c ommun ity l i fe b ecome . T he e ar ly t o h igh med ieva l p hases i n G reece a re d iv is ib le a s f o l lows : EARLY BYZANT INE r uns f rom t he m id 7 th t o m id 9 th c entur ies AD , a nd i s g enera l ly t er med a ' Dark A ge ' b ecause o f t he b reakdown o f I mper ia l a utho r ity o uts ide o f t he ma in c i t ies o f t he B yzant ine Emp ire a nd t he i ncurs ions i n to a nd c onquests o f

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I mper ia l l a nds b y A rabs a nd S lays . T he M IDDLE BYZANT INE p hase i s o ne o f r ecovery o f t he Emp ire u nder t he v igorous Macedon ian d ynasty , d ated f rom m id 9 th t o t he e nd o f t he 1 2 th c entury . T he LATE BYZANT INE o r FRANK ISH e ra c om mences i n 1 204 AD w ith t he c onquest o f C ons tant inop le b y t he L at in F ourth C rusade , a fter w h ich G reece i s c arved u p i n to f euda l d oma ins b y a mot ley c o l lect ion o f n ob les f rom F rance , I t a ly a nd I be r ia . T he p er iod i s b rought t o a n e nd b y t he i n exorab le a dvance o f t he O ttoman T urks , who a re a l ready t he d om inant f orce i nC entra l G reece b y t he e nd o f t he 1 4 th c entury b ut w hose t o ta l c onquest o f B yzant ine G reece i s s i gna l led b y t he f a l l o f t he I mper ia l c ap ita l i n 1 453 . I t i s i mportant t o n o te t hat a l though l a ter M idd le a nd L ate B yzant ine p ottery s hou ld b e r ecogn isab le i n p rov inc ia l G reece , t he n ature o f p rov inc ia l p o ttery i n t he E ar ly B yzant ine e ra i s a lmost u nknown , a nd we h ave o n ly t he mos t t entat ive s uggest ions f or o ccupat ion s i tes i nt h is p er iod i n o ur s urvey a rea . R eferr ing o nce more t o F igure 1 4 .23 , a n o bv ious e xamp le o f o ur f i rst mode l o f p os t-Roman s ett lement i s t he c ommun ity o f t he E xped it ion b ase v i l lage , Mavrommat i . O ur f i e ld s urvey t ends t o c onf irm t he f o lk-memory o f t he v i l lagers , t hat t he o r ig ina l s ett lement l ay a c oup le o f k i lometres t o t he n o rthw est ( med ieva l ' Pa laeomavrom mat i l ) . S urface p o ttery c onf irms t he e x istence o f t he s ett lement i n l a te M idd le a nd L ate B yzant ine t imes , wh i lst a f ew s herds m igh t c once ivab ly b e long t o E ar ly/ear ly M idd le B yzant ine t imes . I n t he E a r ly T urk ish p er iod a rchaeo logy a nd f o lk-memory p o int t o t he t ransference o f t h is c ommun ity t o t he modern v i l lage s i te . B oth l o cat ions a re i n h idden , d efens ive l o cat ions , p er iphera l t o t he ir f arm ing l a nd . T he p redecessor o f modern Neocho r i v i l lage l i es u ph i l l o f t he modern s i te . B oth a re h i l l l ocat ions , t he e ar l ier b e ing w e l l h idden i n c ompar ison t o t he modern s i te . Med ieva l N eochor i i si ne x istence a t l e ast b y l a ter M idd le B yzant ine t imes , a nd p oss ib ly e ar l ier . I n a dd it ion t o t hese modern v i l lages , o ur f i e ld s urvey h as c ome a cross t wo p rev ious ly u nknown med ieva l s i tes , p robab ly sma l l h am lets , i n d icated a s ' D .M .V . ' ( deserted med ieva l v i l lage ) i n t he s outh-centre a nd s outh-west o f F igure 1 4 .23 . T he w es te rn e xamp le l i es o n t he f r inges o f t he a nc ient S anctuary o f t he Muses , a nd i s a B yzant ine a nd E ar ly T urk ish c om mun ity i n av ery s ec luded a nd d efens ive l ocat ion o n t he p er iphery o f i t s p utat ive f arm ing l and . T he o ther DMV l i es i n al owl y ing , e xposed p la in-edge l ocat ion b ut h as a v ery s ho rt o ccupat ion i n t he l a te M idd le a nd e ar ly L ate B yzant ine e ra ; a t l e as t a t t h is t ime i t wou ld s eem t hat s ecur ity was n ot t he v i ta l f actor f or r ura l p opu lat ions , a l though t he c ommun ity i s c erta in ly l a rge r t han a f arm . T h is l a tter h am let r epresents o ur f i rs t e xamp le o f a Mode l Two l ocat ion . T urn ing t o t he f ate o f o ur t hree u rban s i tes i n t he p ost-Roman e ra , we c an b eg in w ith Ha l iartos ( f ig . 1 4 .24 ) . T he a nc ient t own l i es o n al ow h i l l i n an arrow p l a in b order ing L ake C opa is ( d ra ined i n t he l a te 1 9 th a nd e ar ly 2 0th c entur ies ) . T he modern t own o f H a l iartos i s al a rge ' s treet t own ' s t radd l ing t he o ld ma in r oad t hrough C entra l G reece , a nd i t s w es tern s uburbs e xtends o nto t he e astern s l opes o f t he a nc ient t own . H oweve r modern H a l iartos i s av ery r ecent s ett lement p ostdat ing t he C opa is d ra inage , a nd t he i mmed iate p redecessor i s at yp ica l h i l lv i l lage o n s teep mounta in s l opes a k i lometre s outh o f t he a nc ient a nd modern t owns ( Maz i) . S urface s urvey s hows t hat t he a nc ient t own s aw o n ly s l ight a ct iv ity d ur ing t he p ost-Roman e ra , w ith a t t he mos t al im ited s ett lement o f t he u pper a cropo l is s ector i n L ate B yzant ine/Frank ish t imes . Whether t h is w a s a s ma l l m i l itary p ost u t i l is ing t he a nc ient f ort if icat ions , o r a n a gr icu ltura l h am let i sb eyond t he l im its o f o ur d ata . H owever o ur r esearch i n t he f i na l d ays o f t he 1 985 f i e ld s eason s ugges t a more i n tr igu ing s to ry , wh ich s eems t o i nd icate t hat H a l iartos c onforms n ot t o Mode l Ib ut Mode l 2f or p os t-Roman s ett lement . A bout a k i lometre e ast o f modern H a l iartos i s a l a rge a nd i mpos ing F rank ish t ower , wh ich w ith n umerous o ther e xamp les i n B oeot ia h as b een a ss igned t o a n etwork o f r oute d efences . O ur o ngo ing r esearch o n t hese t owers i n c l ines r ather

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t o t he i n terpretat ion o f t hem a s f euda l k eeps a ssoc iated w ith d ependent v i l lages a nd a mosa ic o f l a nd f i efs ( c f . a l so t he f orthcom ing a rch itectura l a na lys is b y P . L ocke i n Annua l o f t he B r it ish S choo l a t A thens ) . L oca l c onf irmat ion i sh inted a t i n t he d escr ip t ion o f t h is l oca l ity b y C o lone l L eake i n 1 835 : a l though t he c ontemporary v i l lage l a y a t Maz i , L eake r ecords a r u ined med ieva l a nd e ar ly T urk ish v i l lage i n t he a rea o f t he modern t own o f H a l iartos . A b r ief r econna issance f o l low ing L eake 's d i rect ions r e located o ne o f h i s r u ined c hurches t ogethe r w ith s urface p ottery o f l a te M idd le a nd L ate B yzant ine a ge . I t wou ld s eem p robab le t herefo re , t hat t he ma in p os t-Roman s ett lement f ocus i n t he H a l iartos l oca l ity r e ma ined i n t he e xposed l ow land n ear t he a nc ient c i ty u nt i l a r e locat ion o ccurred i n l a te O ttoman t imes t o ah i l l-v i l lage w ith p er iphera l a ccess t o t he b est l a nd . A t A skra ( F ig . 1 4 .25 ) w e f i nd o urse lves a ga in i n at yp ica l l ow ly ing t opography . c entra l t o t he e xtrao rd inary a rab le r i chness o f t he V a l ley o f t he Muses . T he p lot o f p os t-Roman p o ttery i s s uggest ive o f c ont inu ity , a s t he e ar l ies t c lear lyd atab le f i nds c ome f rom t he s outh-centre a nd s outh ' t own ' s a mp les o f t he s i te , w here we h ave s een t he ma in o ccupat iona l emphas is s h ift ing t o d ur ing t he G reco-Roman e ras . T h is c o l lec t ion o f p ottery o f M idd le a nd/or M idd le-Late B yzant ine d ate r are ly r i ses a bove a t h in s catter e xcept a round t he r u ined r e l ig ious b u i ld ing marked o n t he p lan , a n A y iasma o r s acred s pr ing c omp lex . T h is l o ca l ity h as a modern t oponym ' Ep iskop i ' . P ottery o f L ate B yzant ine d ate s hows a more e xtens ive u se o f t he s i te , a l though mos t s i gn if icant a c t iv ity c ont inues t o b e f ocussed i n t he s outh a nd s outh-centra l s ectors . T he p o ttery o f t he n ext p hase , w ith t rans it iona l L ate B yzant ine/Ear ly T urk ish s ty les , h as a v ery s im i lar d i str ibut ion . L ater T urk ish f i nds p o int t o t he l i ke ly a bandonment o f t he s i te e xcep t f or s porad ic a c t iv ity , p robab ly o f an on-occupat iona l c haracter . T here a re a f ew p ieces o f p o ttery f rom t h is med ieva l s ett lement a rea t hat c ou ld c once ivab ly b r idge t he a pparent g ap i n o ccupat ion f o r E ar ly t o e ar ly M idd le B yzant ine t imes , a nd t he t oponym E p iskop i m ight e ven s uggest t hat t he Roman c i ty s urv ived i n to med ieva l t imes w ith a s pec ia l a ttachment t o aB ishop . D id t he D ark Ages w itness c ont inu ity o f o ccupat ion a t A skra l i nked t o e cc les iast ica l c ont inu ity o f a uthor ity i nt h is r eg ion , a nd was t he med ieva l v i l lage a d ependency o f ab i shop n ow r es id ing e l sewhere? T hese a re mere s pecu lat ions a t t h is s tage o f o ur e nqu ir ies , b ut i t may h e lp t o e xp la in t he s i gn if icant o ver lap o f o ccupat ion b etween A skra a nd i t s e ventua l s uccessor , al a rge med ieva l v i l lage f ounded i n l a te M idd le B yzant ine t imes a bout a k i lometre t o t he e as t a nd i n a much more d efens ive a nd a rab le-per iphera l t opography . I n L ate B yzant ine t imes a n i mpress ive F rank ish t ower i se rected o n ah igh c rag a bove t h is n ew v i l lage . Was t h is a s ecu lar c ounterpart t o a p utat ive e cc les iast ica l e state v i l lage o n t he a nc ient t own s i te? I n a ny c ase b y E ar ly T urk ish t imes A skra i sa bandoned a nd a l l t he l oca l p opu lat ion i sc oncentrated i n to t he h i l l v i l lage . I n L ate T urk ish t imes o nce a ga in t he v i l lage i sr e located , t h is t ime a bout a k i lometre a nd a h a lf f u rther t o t he e ast , where i te x is ts t oday a s t he l a rge v i l lage o f P a laeopanag ia . T h is f i na l l ocat ion i s ar ocky r i dge p ro ject ing i n to f ert i le l and f rom i mpove r ished l imestone h i l ls , a nd c omb ines a d efens ive s tance w ith e xce l lent a ccess t o i t s f i e lds . T he a va i lab le s urface d ata f rom T hesp iae i s s hown i n F igure 1 4 .26 . E ar ly t o M idd le B yzant ine s herds f rom t own s a mp les a re i nd icated i n d iv idua l ly b y s ymbo ls , t hose o f t he L ate B yzant ine/Frank ish e ra b y af i l led c i rc le o r n umbers . I nt he n orth-eas t s ecto r o f t he s i te a f ew p ieces may a ttest c ont inu ity o n av ery s ma l l s ca le t hrough t he D ark A ge o f E ar ly B yzant ine t imes . 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s pann ing F rank ish t o E ar ly T urk ish t imes h as a n i d ent ica l d i s tr ibu t ion . F o rtunate ly i n 1 204 w e h ave a r ecord o f t he h and ing o ver o f t h is v i l lage t o t he L a t in o rder o f t he P remons tratens ians , w here i t i s c a l led E r imokas tro . T h is n ame , w h ich means ' d eserted c ast le ' a p t ly d esc r ibes o ur v i l lage l y ing d i s t inc t ly o u ts ide a nd t o t he e as t o f t he L ate R oman d efended e nce inte . T he v i l lage w as c l ea r ly l a rge a nd i mpo rtant , a nd t here a re s t i l l v i s ib le t he f oundat ions o f s evera l l a rge c hurches a cross t he e as tern s ector o f t he s i te . B y L ate T urk ish t imes h owever , a s F igure 1 4 .28 d emons trates , t he v i l lage i s a l l b ut d eserted . T h is h a rmon izes e xce l lent ly w ith t he r epo rts o f E ng l ish t rave l lers . I n 1 682 Whe le r r eco rds t wo v i l lages o n t he h igh r i dge o ver look ing t he a nc ient a nd med ieva l s i te , a nd o ne o n t he p la in b e low . C o lone l L eake i se ven more h e lpfu l , i n fo rm ing u s t ha t i n 1 802 h e s aw o n ly 3 i n hab ited c o ttages a t t he p la in s i te , t hen n one i n 1 835 . T he t wo h i l ltop v i l lages w ere k nown t o t he t r ave l lers a s E r imokas tro a nd K a skave l i , ( t oday r enamed T hesp ioe a nd L eondor i ) , a nd a re t yp ica l e xamp les o f M ode l Id efens ive l o cat ions , e ven t hough t hey h ave t he a dvantage o f e xce l lent a cces s t o t he f e r t i le p lateau l a nds t o c ounterac t t he s teep j ourney d own t o t he ir p l a in f i e lds . T here i s m in ima l s urface p o ttery a t t hese h i l l v i l lages f o r ap reM odern o ccupa t ion ( a lthough C lass ica l r ema ins may h int a t a n ' a cropo l is ' r o le t o t he ma in c i ty d own i nt he p l a in ) . T he o vera l l d eve lopment o f p os t-Roman s ett lement i n S outh-Wes t B oeo t ia m a tches t he h ighpo ints o f t he b es t-known monuments i n t h is p rov ince o f G reece . T he M idd le B yzant ine r ev iva l i sb o rne w itness t o l o ca l ly b y t he c ons truc t ion o f t he s p lend id c hurches a t S kr ipou ( anc ient O rchomenus ) a nd a t t he H o ly L uke monas tery , w h i ls t t he c ont inued f l our ish ing o f v i l lage l i fe i n to t he t ime o f t he F rank ish o ccupa t ion i s r e f lected i n t he n umerous F rank ish k eeps t hat p robab ly o nce f ormed a d ense a nd c ont inuous n etwork a cros s t he mo re f ert i le z ones o f C entra l G reece . F o r t he O ttoman c entur ies w e h ave n o v i s ib le t race o f a mosque o r Mos lem g raveyard , b ut t here a re e xtens ive r ema ins o f e labo rate i r r iga t ion w o rks a nd m i l ls t hat s hou ld b e long t o t h is e ra ; t hough mos t ly r u ined , p ar ts a re s t i l l i n u se . T he B oeo t ia P ro jec t i sc urrent ly i n ves t iga t ing t he T urk ish p e r iod i n t he f o l low ing w ays : I )r ecord ing s urface s i tes a s p art o f t he c ont inu ing f i e ld s urvey p rogramme 2 )v i s it ing d eserted v i l lages r eco rded i nh i sto r ic s ources 3 ) s t udy ing t he p hys ica l e vo lut ion o f t he modern v i l lages w ith t he a id o f v e rnacu lar a rch itecture , v i l lage p lans a nd l o ca l t rad it ion 4 )c o l labo rat ing w ith O ttoman a rch ive s pec ia l is ts w ho h ave v a luab le i mper ia l t ax r e turns f o r B oeo t ia i nt he E ar ly T urk ish p er iod 5 )w o rk ing s ys temat ica l ly t h rough t he t rave l b ooks o f Wes tern E uropean a utho rs w ho f r equent ly v i s it C entra l G reece f rom t he 1 7 th c entury o nwards . P re l im inary r esu lts f rom o ther f i e ld s urveys i n G reece p rov ide a s im i lar p ic ture o f r ecurrent f l uctuat ions i n p opu lat ion d ens ity , g enera l ly c ontempo raneous w ith t ho se d escr ibed a bove f o r B oeo t ia . F o r t he A rgo l id S urvey f or e xamp le , a n o ve ra l l s ummary v iew h as r ecent ly b een p ub l ished b y P ope a nd V an A nde l ( 1984 ) . D iscuss ion ( J ohn B int l iff ) I ts eems a w orthwh i le e xe rc ise i t t h is p o int t o s ugges t a ppa rent c ont ras ts a nd p ara l le ls t o c ond it ions i n t he Wes tern R oman Emp ire , h av ing f o l lowed o ne r eg ion o f t he E as t a cros s t he t roub led d iv ide o f A nc ient t o Med ieva l . I t i sw ide ly a ccep ted t hat t he L ate R epub l ican a nd E ar ly I mper ia l c entur ies , u p t o t he c r ises o f t he 3 rd c entury AD , s aw t he c l imax o f t he Wes tern Emp ire , e spec ia l ly i nI t a ly i t se lf . F rom t hen o n t here a re w idespread s i gns o f d ecay , b oth i n many a reas o f 2 11

t he c ountrys ide , a nd i n t he s i ze a nd v i s ib le w ea lth o f t owns . Iam a ware t hat t h is s tate o f a ffa irs i sl oca l ised a nd n o t n ecessar i ly t he c ase f or a l l r eg ions o f t he Wes t , b ut t he u sefu l s u mmary f or North a nd C entra l I t a ly g iven b y T im P otter ( 1979 ) s u ms u p aw idespread t rend o f d ec l ine . O ne p oss ib le e xcep t ion t o t he t rend i s Roman North A fr ica , t o j udge b y r ecent f i e ldwo rk o n r ura l s ett lement i n t he L ibyan V a l leys a nd i nC yrena ica . F or E ar ly I mper ia l t imes , i n G reece a t l east , t he c l i max o f t he West i s at ime o f av i rtua l ly emp ty c ountrys ide a nd s hrunken t owns , ( t hough i n t he l a tter r e levant i mports s t i l l a ccumu late a nd l im ited p rosper ity c an b e f ound a rchaeo log ica l ly a nd i n t he s ources ) . F rom c .300 AD o nwards , a nd e spec ia l ly f or t he 5 th-6th c entur ies AD , t here a re p lent ifu l s i gns t hroughout t he E as t Med iterrranean o f a f l our ish ing u rban a nd r ura l l i fe , e ven o f e xpans ion a nd/o r r eco lon isa t ion o f l and u nder c u lt ivat ion . F o r t he p os t-Roman e ra Is ha l l c onf ine my E astern d ata b ase t o t he B yzant ine h eart land o f G reece ( and l e t u s r eca l l t hat p os t-Roman b eg ins i n m id-7th c entury !) . H ere , wh i lst i n much o f Western E urope b etween 7 00 a nd 9 00 AD t here a re p lent ifu l s i gns o f r ev iva l a nd r epopu lat ion , c u lm inat ing i n t he C aro l ing ian R ena issance , we h ave i nG reece t he o ppos ite , t he mos t s eve re p hase , ag enu ine D ark A ge ( Ear ly B yzant ine ) i n w h ich t races o f h uman a ct iv ity a re m in i ma l i n c ountrys ide a nd r ura l t owns a l ike ( and matched b y t he c u ltura l n egat iv ism o f I conoc lasm ) . O n ly w ith t he l a tter p art o f t he M idd le B yzant ine e ra , t he I l th12th c entur ies AD , d o o ur p roto-v i l lages a nd h am lets g row t o a ny s i ze a nd n umber , b efore b e ing t aken o ve r a s e xpand ing c oncerns b y t he F rank ish f euda l g entry . T hat F rank ish c onquest , a fter 1 204 AD , i si n deed s y mptomat ic o f t he more d eve loped e conomy a nd s urp lus p opu lat ion p roduced b y t he e ar l ier r ecovery o f Western E urope f rom t he t raumas o f t he c o l lapse o f Roman r u le . T heoret ica l I s sues I n t he f i na l s ect ion o f t h is p aper Is ha l l r a ise t wo i mportant t heoret ica l i s sues t ha t emerge f rom t he p rev ious d ata a nd d i scuss ion . ( 1 ) T he d isappearance o f t he c omp lementary t own a nd r ura l f arm s e t t lement p attern , a nd t he r i se o f t he n uc leated h am let/v i l lage p attern i sc harac te r is t ic f or p os t-Roman G reece a s i ti sf or l a rge a reas o f t he Western Emp ire . C erta in ly i n G reece u nt i l t h is c entury t here h as n ever b een a s i gn if icant r ev iva l o f d i spersed s ett lement f or mos t o f t he c ountry , t he e ar ly med ieva l h am lets mere ly g row ing i n to v i l lages a nd t hence more r ecent ly i n to mega-v i l lages o ften n umber ing s evera l t housand i n hab itants . I n t ry ing t o u nderstand t he r easons b eh ind t h is f undmenta l b reak w ith t he G recoRoman r ura l l a ndscape o ne mus t c ons ider t he c atastroph ic d rop i n p opu lat ion s eem ing ly e v idenced b y s i te s urvey a rchaeo logy : we h ave t o e nv isage a f o rmer ly p opu lous l andscape n ow i nhab ited b y t i ny h am lets g enera l ly k i lometre s a part . S uch s ma l l s ett lements w ou ld h ave s ubs isted a dequate ly o n t he i mmed iate ly s urround ing f i e lds , l e av ing t he v ast b u lk o f a p rev ious ly h igh ly-cu lt ivated c ountrys ide r evert ing t o w aste land a nd s crub . F o r s uch s ma l l c ommun it ies , w ith t he k nown b reakdown o f c entra l I mper ia l a dm in istrat ion a nd i n p art icu lar o f l oca l s ecur ity a rrangements , i n t he D ark A ge , s afety s hou ld h ave r anked f oremos t , a nd t he n eed t o c oncentrate i n to mu lt i-househo ld u n its i n d e fens ib le a nd h idden l ocat ions o n t he marg ins o f c u lt ivab le l and a n atura l b ehav ioura l r esponse . However , a s w e h ave s een , a t l east i n B oeot ia t h is Mode O ne s eems t o b e o n ly a g radua l d eve lopmen t i n s ett lement h i story , o ften o n ly c omp leted i nL ate T urk ish t imes , r ather t han a n i m med iate ly p os t-Roman c reat ion . T he d ec l ine o f t he

2 12

O ttoman Emp ire , f rom a t l e ast t he 1 7 th c entury , was a ccompan ied b y r ura l i n secur ity a nd a buse o f p ower o n a mass ive s ca le , c oup led w ith e ndem ic ma lar ia a nd a p oss ib le c l i mat ic d eter iorat ion ( t he L itt le I ce A ge o f E urope ; t he p resent d ay i nhab itants o f T hesp iae v i l lage e xp la in t he ir move f rom t he p la in b e low a s d ue t o s wamp d i seases ) . A mo re d om inant mode o f p os t-Roman s ett lement s hows t he s a me p reference f o r mu lt ifam i ly n uc leat ions b ut r e ma ins i n t he a nc ient l ow ly ing l ocat ions o n o r b es ide t he a nc ient c i t ies , o r i n s im i lar t opography ; i n t he f o rme r c ase c ont inu ity o f s ett lement may b e p ostu lated b ut n ot y et p roven ( Mode Two ) . I fa nyth ing t i es t ogether t hese t wo modes o f p ostR oman s ett lement , a part f rom t he l ong d rawn-out t rend f rom t ype 2 t o t ype I s e tt lements , i ti st he a pparent emphas is u pon t he s upra-fam i l ia l l oca l c ommun ity i nt he f ace o f e xterna l p ressures . I t i s a ppropr iate a t t h is p o int t o r efer t o ag enera l mode l d escr ibed e l sewhere ( B int l iff 1 982 ; 1 984 , c hap ter 5 ) w here Ih ave s uggested t hat c yc l ica l p atterns i n t he i n take a nd a bandonment o f t he a gr icu ltura l l a ndscape i n p reIndustr ia l E urope h ave b een i n t ima te ly r e lated t o t he e laborat ion o f s oc ia l e l ites a nd t o v ar iab i l ity i n t he e conom ic d ependency o f t he r ura l p easantry . L et u s a pp ly t h is mode l t o a n h i stor ic c ontext n o t d ea lt w ith i n t he a bove-c ited a pp l icat ions : t he p os t-Roman D ark Age o f t he E astern Emp ire . We m ight s uggest t hat t he l o ss o f a uthor ity o ve r t he G reek c ountrys ide b y B yzant ine g enera ls a nd b ureaucrats w ent h and i n h and w ith t he c o l lapse o f r ura l s ecur ity a nd o f markets f or n on s ubs is tence p roducts a nd s erv ices . B y ac omb inat ion o f t hese e lements , p lus t he t ho rough ly o bscure i n curs ion i n to G reece o f S lav p eop les , a c atastroph ic p opu lat ion d ec l ine o ccurred f rom t he 7 th t hrough t o t he 9 th c entury AD . T he t i ny r e mnant p opu lat ions n ecessar i ly c u lt ivated b ut a f ragment o f t he a va i lab le l a nd , a nd l oca l e l ites w ou ld h ave b ecome i n effect ive o r e ven n on-ex istent . O n ly w ith t he r ev iva l o f I mper ia l c ontro l a nd o f t he g enera l e conomy i n G reece , f rom t he l a te 9 th c entury t hrough t o t he 1 2 th c entury AD , wou ld t he e xpand ing v i l lage p opu lat ions a nd g row ing p otent ia l f or s urp lus p roduct h ave e ncouraged t he r i se o f an ew r eg iona l e l ite s t ructure , b ased i np art o n l oca l s oc ia l d i fferent iat ion a nd i n p art o n t he i mport o f e l ites b ack i n to a reas o f c ountrys ide a s t hese w ere e f fect ive ly r eabsorbed i n to t he I mper ia l a dm in istrat ion . R emarkab ly , t h is g enera l is ing p red ict ive mode l matches v ery w e l l w ith a mode l p ut f orward b y B yzant ine h i sto r ians e nt ire ly f rom w r itten s ources f o r t he s a me p er iod o f t he l a tter I s t m i l lenn ium AD . T hese s cho lars ( c f . A nton iad is-B ib icou 1 977 , P at lagean 1 975 , B rown ing 1 980 ) , a rgue t ha t t he p os t R oman e ra w itnessed t he emergence o f ac lass o f f ree p easant c u lt ivators o ut o f t he t i ed p opu lat ions o r c o lon i o f a nt iqu ity . T h is c lass b ecame c oncentrated i n to d i s t inc t l oca l c om mun it ies w ith a s t rong s ense o f s o l idar iTy . B y t he e nd o f t he m i l lenn ium h owever , t h is c lass i s u nder g enera l a ttack b y a n e xpans ive , a ggress ive s e igneur ia l e l ite -t he c onf l ict o f t he ' p owerfu l a nd t he w eak ' . D esp ite a ttemp ts b y t he c entra l g overnment t o p rotec t t he p easant c ommun it ies , a s ystemat ic s wa l low ing-up o f t he s em i-autonomous v i l lages i n to s e igneur ia l d oma ins i s a c haracter ist ic p henomenon o f t he 1 0 th t o 1 3 th c entury B yzant ine e conomy a nd p o l it ica l d eve lopment . F rom t h is s i tuat ion w h ich s ome c ompare t o Marx 's c oncep t o f t he ' As iat ic Mode o f P roduct ion ' , a smooth t rans it ion o ccurs t o t he i mposed f euda i s ys tem o f t he F ranks a nd t hen t o t he management s t rategy o f t he O ttoman Emp ire w ith i t s p o l icy o f t reat ing t he r ura l c ommune a s a s em ia utonomous u n it t o b e m i lked f or t axes a nd manpower . 2 . More c omp lex i st he a pparent o ut-o f-phase r e lat ionsh ip b etween t he r i se a nd f a l l o f t he Western p rov inces a nd t hose o f t he E as tern Emp ire a nd p oss ib ly p arts o f North A fr ica . O ne c ou ld b e t empted b y ab ipo lar mode l , w here t he r i se o f t he R oman Emp ire b ased i n I t a ly h ad f ed u pon t he n ew ly-conquered E astern a nd A fr ican p rov inces , s uck ing t hem d ry o f t he ir r esources i n f ood , m inera ls a nd

2 13

manpower ( a p aras it ic ' co re-per iphery ' mode l) , j u st a s t he c ore r eg ion a round Rome h ad d one t o t he r es t o f I t a ly i n a n e ar l ier p er iod . I n t he L ate Emp ire a more i n dependent E as t a nd S outh e ntered i n to p ronounced r ecovery a nd g rowth , p rec ise ly matched b y t he o ppos ite s y mptoms o f d emograph ic a nd e conom ic c ontract ion i n t he E uropean Wes t . T he t e mpo rar i ly s uccessfu l a ttemp t b y t he B yzant ine Emp ire u nder J ust in ian , i n t he 6 th c entury , t o e xpand i n to I t a ly a nd North A fr ica , mere ly r ep layed t he emp ire-bu i ld ing g ame , b ut f rom t he o ppos ite e nd o f t he p i tch . L ong b efore , w hen R ome w as b ut a s l eepy l i tt le h i l l-town i n t he 8 th c entury BC , b ut t hen o n t i l l a t l e as t t he 4 th c entury BC , p o l it ica l i n it iat ive a nd c o lon ia l e xpans ion h ad a l so c ome f rom a f l our ish ing E astern Med iterranean , w ith t he mass ive s pread o f c i ty c o lon ies o f G reeks a nd P hoen ic ians t hrough t he Western Med iterranean . B ut i n c ons ider ing t h is e bb a nd f l ow o f p ower a nd e conom ic p rosper ity o ver t he c entur ies , t he ' c ore-per iphery ' mode l makes , Ib e l ieve , af a lse a ssumpt ion t hat a u n iform p o l it ica l s ys tem i mp l ies a t ota l ly i n tegrated e conomy a nd p opu lat ion b a lance . I n a r ecent p aper ( 1984 ) F ergus M i l lar d i scusses t he l a te R oman R epub l ican e ra , when t he Med iterranean l a nds a re c r iss-crossed b y t he a rm ies o f t he C iv i l War , w h i lst e xorb itant d emands a re b e ing made o n t he l oca l p opu lat ions b y t he r i va l p owers . M i l lar a sks : h ow f ar d id t hese e vents a ffect t he c ont inu ity o f r eg iona l l i fe? H e c onc ludes , s urpr is ing ly , t hat v ery b road ly , n o t much l ongt erm d i srupt ion o ccurred i n p rov inc ia l l i fe . H ow c an t h is b e? S ure ly t he g iant R oman s tate must h ave i r revers ib ly t ransformed p rov inc ia l t owns a nd v i l lages i n to h armony w ith t he u ps a nd d owns o f p o l it ica l a nd m i l itary e vent s a t t he c entre o f p ower? L et me t ake a b o lder p aradox . R ichard Hodges i n 1 984 , i n a s i ng le p age , p ackaged t he D ec l ine a nd F a l l o f R ome . B ut w hat i si n tr igu ing i s h ow e rroneous i t wou ld b e t o u se h i s mode l f or L ate R oman I t a ly , i n o ther p rov inces o f t he Emp ire . When t he B arbar ian t r ibes s wept t hrough a lmos t e very p rov ince i n t he 4 th-5th c entur ies AD , l oca l c ond it ions were v ery f a r f rom u n iform . W ith in t he E ar ly a nd t hen L ate Roman Emp ire t he a pparent ' h ea lth ' o f i nd iv idua l p rov inces v ar ied marked ly a cross t he Emp ire a nd l oca l ly f rom c entury t o c entury . T h is o n ly s eems s t range t o u s i fw e a re t h ink ing i n t erms o f a modern n at iona l e conomy , w here market f orces a nd a c onstant f l ow o f money t o t he c entres o f p ower h ave t he e ffect o f i nvo lv ing a l l t he c ons t ituent r eg ions o f ap o l it ica l u n it i n t he g rosser s w ings a nd d ives o f e conom ic p roduc t iv ity . S ome p eop le d o t ry a nd p ortray p re-cap ita l ist emp ires a s i ft hey were mu lt i-nat iona l c o rpo rat ions o r u n if ied , c entra l ly-d irected e conom ic b locs . A g reat d ea l o f e v idence s eems t o r un c ounter t o s uch a v iew , s uggest ing t hat a nc ient emp ires w ere i n many r espects a g ood d ea l l e ss c omp lex t han w e o ften i mag ine f rom t he ir i mpos ing r u ins . R ather t han s ee ing a n a nc ient emp ire a s a n o rgan ic w ho le , w ith R ome f or e xamp le a ct ing a s a t yp ica l ' b ra in o rgan ' a nd e ach l imb d ependent o n a l l t he o thers f or t he f l ow o f v i ta l n our ishment a nd p reservat ion f rom d i sease , w e s hou ld i n s tead p erhaps c ons ider s uch emp ires a s mechan ica l a gg lomerat ions o f d i screte r eg ions , we lded t ogether b y p o l it ica l f orces b ut i n i mpo rtant r espects f o rm ing a s er ies o f s ern i-autonomous e conom ies . O f c ourse t here a re f l ows o f t ax t o t he c entre , f l ows o f e xchange b etween p rov inces , b ut i tc an b e a rgued t hat t hese a re o f l e ss i mportance t han t he s tate o f h ea lth o f t he r eg iona l , i n terna l e conomy . I m manue l Wa l lers te in , i n h i s i n f luent ia l s tudy ( 1974 ) o f p re- a nd p roto-cap ita l ist E urope h as d rawn a d i st inct ion b etween ' wo r ld emp ires ' a nd ' wor ld e conom ies ' . A nc ient emp ires e xpand i n to mu lt i-reg iona l f orm a s p o l it ica l ly c entra l ised u n its , b ut f a i l t o i n tegrate c omponen t r eg iona l e conom ies o n as ca le t o c reate t ota l i n terdependence a s i n a' market s ys tem ' . Wor ld e conom ies o n t he o ther h and , a re e xact ly t he l a tter k ind o f s phere o f e conom ic i n terdependence , a nd o ve r t ime Wa l lerste in h as a rgued t hat t hey r ep lace t he mo re p r im it ive ' emp ires ' . I n E urope t he d em ise o f wor ld ' emp ires ' o ccurs w ith t he g row ing p enetrat ion o f a n 2 14

i n ternat iona l monetary e conomy a nd a l i nked i n ternat iona l c ommerc ia l/ industr ia l s ecto r t hroughout t he Western E uropean n at ion s tates f rom t he l a ter M idd le A ges . Iw ou ld l i ke t o c lar ify t he s i tuat ion e xposed b y M i l lar f or t he L ate R epub l ic a nd t ha t j u s t o ut l ined f o r t he b reakdown o f t he R oman Emp ire , t hrough t he f o l low ing mode l ( F igure 1 4 .29 ) . F o r t he a nc ient Med iterranean w e c an i s o late t hree ma jor e lements a t wo rk mou ld ing r eg iona l c ommun ity l i fe : F IRSTLY l oca l t rends i n p opu lat ion d ens ity , t i ed t o t he e xpans ion o r c ontract ion o f l o ca l f ood-produc ing a ct iv ity -t hese i nd icate t he e co log ica l h ea lth o f t he h uman c ommun it ies i n t he ir e nv ironment , a nd t o a s i gn if icant e xtent c an f orm p art o f l o ngterm s em ia utonomous a gr icu ltura l a nd d emograph ic c yc les . S ECONDLY t he l oca l ly-based ' modes o f p roduct ion ' i . e . t he w ays i nw h ich l oca l p roduct ive f orces -l a nd , l abour a nd s urp lus p roducts a re c ontro l led a nd man ipu lated b y d i fferent s oc ia l g roups w ith in p rov inc ia l s oc iety . C hr is W ickham i n a ma jor p aper ( 1984 ) h as h igh l ighted t he u sefu lness o f k eep ing t h is f acto r s eparate f rom o ur e lement n umber THREE : t he s tate 's ' mode o f p roduct ion ' i . e . t he w ay i n w h ich t he c entra l a uthor ity d raws o n t he r esources o f i t s p rov inces o r h inter land t o s upport i t s a pparatus o f o ff ic ia ls , b ureaucrats a nd p ermanent a r med f orces . F ig . 1 4 .29 Reg ion

Macroreg ion Mode l

( I )

L oca l A g r icu ltura l -D emograph ic C yc les ; L oca l H uman E co logy o r ' Hea lth '

( 2 )

Mode (s ) o f P roduct ion O perated a t L oca l L eve l

( 3 )

Mode (s ) o f P roduct ion O perated a t Macroreg ion L eve l e .g . b y t he S tate

S uch a mode l , w ith s cope f or s em i-autonomous d eve lopments w ith in t he v ar ious p rov inces o f t he R oman Emp ire , may h e lp t o make s ense o f d ivergent d eve lopments o ver t ime , b ut d oes u nderm ine o ur e ar l ier s ugges t ion t hat t he s w ing o f p rosper ity f rom E as t t o Wes t t hen E as t a ga in i s d ue t o a l ternate p aras it ica l e xp lo itat ion . A more s at isfactory s o lut ion m ight r un a s f o l lows :

I tc an b e a rgued f or C lass ica l G reece , f o r e xamp le , t hat i tu nderwent a d ramat ic p hase o f d emograph ic a nd e conom ic g rowth ( E lement b etween t he 8 th a nd 3 rd c entur ies BC , t hat o versho t a va i lab le r esources ; t he l ow p opu lat ion l eve ls a nd p o l it ica l weakness o f i t s c i ty-states i n t he s ubsequent L ate He l len ist ic a nd E ar ly R oman e ras w ere a n i n ev itab le r esu lt . E xterna l p o l it ica l c ontro l ( E lement I ) a cted a s as econdary f o rce i n h ib it ing l o ca l r ecovery . F or t he E ar ly Roman e ra M i l lar a rgues t hat w ith in t he R oman s tate t here e x isted a w ho le s er ies o f r eg iona l e conom ies , f undamenta l ly f ocussed o n t he o lder f orm o f t he p o l ls o r c i ty s tate u n it ; t he s tate was b urden ing t hese c i t ies w ith h eavy d emands f rom i t s i n ner a nd o uter c onf l icts . T h is i sW ickham 's A nc ient Mode o f P roduct ion a t t he s tate l eve l ( E lement I l ) . A t t he l oca l l e ve l ( E lement I ) h e r efers t o t he F euda l Mode o f P roduct ion , s t ress ing t he d om inant r o le o f l o ca l l a nd magnates i n c ontro l l ing s urp luses a nd p ower . B ut w hereas t he e co log ica l a nd d emograph ic h ea lth a t t he r eg iona l l e ve l ( E lement I )w as g ood o r a t l eas t s afe ly a bove t he l e ve l o f c o l lapse i n t he Western P rov inces , i n G reece a t l east l oca l c ond it ions w ere p oor t o c atastroph ic . I n t he l a te R oman e ra , we a l so f i nd c ontrasted e v idence ; n ow i n t he West , a ccord ing t o W ickham , we f i nd a d i sastrous l oca l a gro-demograph ic p icture ( E lement 1 ) , u nbearab le s tate d emands o n t he r eg ions ( E lement 1 1 ) t o s uppor t i t s h ope less w ars a ga ins t t he b arbar ians a nd r i va l emperors , a nd a g reat s t rengthen ing o f t he l o ca l F euda l mode o f p roduct ion 2 15

( E lement I ) a s l o ca l e l ites w ithdraw t he ir i n vo lvement i n t he s t ate mode , c onvert ing t he f ree p easantry t o s erfs . W ickham s ees t h is a s t he b i rth o f t he med ieva l e conomy a t b o th l o ca l a nd s ta te l e ve l . B ut i n t he E . Med ite rranean p rov inces ( and p oss ib ly i n N o rth A fr ica ) ad i fferent s to ry must b e w r itten . B y t he L ate Emp ire i n d igenous g rowth ( E lement I )h as r esumed a nd w i l l b e s u sta ined w e l l b eyond t he c o l lapse o f R oman I t a ly ; w e s ee t he s ame s tate p ressu re ( I I) b u t a much h ea lth ier l o ca l h uman e co logy ( 1 ) a nd a g reater c omm itment o f t he l oca l l a ndowners ( 1 ) t o t he c i ty s ta te u n it - h ence t he s urv iva l o f t he G reco-Roman w ay o f l i fe a nd l a ndscape s ome t wo c entur ies a f te r i t s c o l lapse i n I t a ly . I ndeed w hen d i sas ter d oes s t r ike t he E as tern Emp ire , o bv ious ly f rom t he P e rs ian a nd t hen A rab a t tacks a nd l e ss c lear ly f rom S lav i n f i ltrat ion i n to t he c oun trys ides d ur ing t he s o-ca l led D ark A ges f rom t he m id 7 th t o 9 th c entur ies AD , Western E urope i s emerg ing f rom t he w o rs t o f i t s p os t-Roman D ark A ge i n to a n ew a nd d i fferent c iv i l isat ion h igh l ighted b y t he C aro l ing ian R ena issance . B ib l iography A nton iad is-B ib icou , H . 1 977 . " Byzant ium a nd t he A s iat ic mode o f p roduc t ion" , E conomy a nd S oc iety , 6 : 3 47-376 . B arker , G . 1 982 . " Econom ic L ife a t B eren ice" , i nJ .A . L loyd ( ed )E xcava t ions a t S id i K hreb ish B enghaz i ( Beren ice ) I . L ibya A nt igua , S upp l . V , I I : 1 49 . B int l iff , J .L . 1 982 . " Sett lement p atte rns , l a nd t enure a nd s oc ia l s t ruc ture : a d iachron ic mode l" , i nC . R enfrew a nd S .S hennan ( e ds . ) Rank ing , Resource a nd E xchange . C amb r idge U n ive rs ity P ress : 1 06111. B int l iff , J .L . 1 984 . " I ron A ge s oc ia l e vo lu t ion" , i nJ . B int l iff ( e d . ) E uropean S oc ia l E vo lut ion . U n ivers ity o f B radfo rd : 1 57-225 . B int l iff , J .L . 1 985 . " The B oeo t ia S urvey , C entra l G reece" , i nS . Macready a nd F .H . T hompson ( e ds . ) A rchaeo log ica l F ie ld S urvey i nB r ita in a nd A b road . S oc . o f A nt iquar ies , L ondon : 1 96-2 16 . B int l iff , J .L . a nd S nodg rass , A .M . 1 985 . " The C amb r idge/B radfo rd B oeo t ian E xped it ion : t he f i rs t f our y ears" , J ourna l o f F ie ld A rchaeo logy 1 2 : 1 231 6 1. B rown ing , R . 1 980 . T he B yzant ine Emp ire .

We idenfe ld a nd N ico lson . L ondon .

C lover , F .M . 1 978 . " Carthage i nt he A ge o f A ugus t ine" , i nJ . H umphrey ( e d . ) E xcavat ions a t C arthage 1 976 . U n ive rs ity o f M ich igan , A nn A rbo r : 1 14 . C lover , R .M . 1 982 . " Carthage a nd t he V anda ls" , i nJ .H . H umphrey ( e d . ) E xcava t ions a t C arthage 1 976 . U n ivers ity o f M ich igan , A nn A rbo r : F oss , C . a nd Magda l ino , P . O xfo rd .

1 -22 .

1 977 . Rome a nd B yzant ium . E lsev ie r-Pha idon ,

G rego ry , T . 1 984 . " C it ies a nd s oc ia l e vo lut ion i nR oman a nd B yzant ine s ou th e as t E urope" , i nJ . B int l iff ( e d . )E uropean S oc ia l E vo lut ion . U n ive rs ity o f B radfo rd : 2 67-276 . H odges , R . 1 984 . " The d ec l ine o f R ome t o af as tfood emp ire" , Nature 3 09 : 2 11. H urs t , H . 1 985 . " The D ec l ine a nd F a l l o f R oman C arthage" , Current A rchaeo logy 9 5 : 3 66-369 .

2 16

K ennedy , H . 1 985 . " From P o l is t o Med ina : u rban c hange i nl a te a nt ique a nd e ar ly I s lam ic S yr ia" , P as t a nd P resent 1 06 : 3 -27 . K utu la , T . 1 974 . " Snob isme mun ic ipa l o u p rosper ite r e lat ive?" , A nt iqu ite s a fr ica ines 8 : 1I1 13 1. M i l lar , F . 1 984 . " The Med iterranean a nd t he R oman R evo lut ion : P o l it ics , Wa r a nd t he E conomy" , P as t a nd P resent 1 02 : 3 -24 . P a t lagean , E . 1 975 . " Econom ie p aysanne e t f eoda l ite B yzant ine" , A nna les , E conom ies 1 975 : 1 3 711396 . P ope , K .O . a nd V an A nde l . T . 1 984 . " Late Q uaternary a ll u v iat ion a nd s o i l f o rmat ion i nt he S outhern A rgo li d " , J ourna l o f A rchaeo log ica l S c ience 1 : 2 8 1-306 . P o tter , T .W . 1 979 . T he C hang ing L andscape o f S outh E trur ia .

E lek , L ondon .

S nodgrass , A . 1 980 . A rcha ic G reece : t he Age o f E xper iment . D ent , L ondon . Wa l lers te in , I .1 974 . T he Modern Wo r ld S ys tem . A cadem ic P ress , L ondon . W ickham , C . 1 984 . " The o ther t rans it ion : f rom t he a nc ien t w o r ld t o f euda l ism" , P as t a nd P resent 1 03 : 3 -36 .

2 17

I S . S ACRED TOPOGRAPHY AND EARLY CHR IST IAN CHURCHES I N LATE ANT IQUE GAUL B a i ley K . Young S ummary D es f ou i l les r e cen tes s ur l es i te d e l ' anc ienne e g l ise S a int-P ierre l ' Es tr ier ä Autun d e rnontrent q ue l ' or ig ine d e P eg l ise r emonte a u I Ve s ié c ie . D ons l ' eta t a ctue l d es h ypo the ses , u ne p rem ie r-e b as i l ique f un g ra ire i nco rporan t u ne r nauso lee a ura it e t e c ons tru ite e n g rande p art ie s udr u n e d if ice a nte r ieur , äp lan c arre . P eut-on y v o ir u n e xemp le ( r une b as i l ique c hre t ienne r emp lacant u n t emp le p o len e t a ins i c onservant l a t opograph ie s acree t rad it ione l le , c omme Em i le Ma le a va it p ropose d ans L a f i n d u p agan isme e n Gau le . L 'auteur a rgue p lut8 t p our l ' or ig ina l ite d e l a t opograph ie c hre t ienne e t u ne r upture a vec l e p asse , 8l a s u ite d ' un e xamen d e p lus ieurs f ou i l les r e centes ( V ienne , Gene 4e , S avo ie ) . AB u i ld ing a t S a int-P ierre l ' Es tr ier D ur ing t he f i rs t h a lf o f t he f our th c entury a n ew b u i ld ing w as p ut u p i n t he c emetery t hat l a y o n t he e as tern s i de o f A utun , ap rom inent c i ty i n C entra l G au l , q u ite n ear t o t he h ighway l e ad ing e as twards t owards t he S aone V a l ley . T he s i te s e lec ted w as o n ag ent le em inence , o ffer ing a c lear v iew o f t he w a l led t own t wo km . t o t he w est . I tl a y i n t he m idst o f av as t n ecropo l is w h ich h ad b een i n u se f o r a t l e as t ag ene rat ion , p oss ib ly more , a nd i tw as b u i lt a top s o me o f t he f oundat ions o f a n e ar l ie r b u i ld ing , o r as er ies o f b u i ld ings , w h ich h ad b een r azed . O f p art icu lar i n teres t i st he f ac t t ha t t he n ew c ons truc t ion i n corpo ra ted , a t i t s w e s tern e nd , a mauso leum a bout 4 x 8 m , w h ich h ad i t se lf b een b u i lt o n ly a f ew y ears p rev ious ly . T h is b u i ld ing w as t o b e t he f i rs t i n as er ies o f s t ructures w h ich w e re t o o ccupy t he s a me s i te t o f u lf i l l v i rtua l ly t he s ame f unc t ion f or t he n ext 1 500 y ears . T he f unct ion w as r e l ig ious a nd C hr is t ian , w ith a p ar t icu lar emphas is . T h is w as f unera ry . T he s i te , k nown t oday a s S a int-P ierre l ' Estr ier , l i es o n t he o utsk irts o f t he c i ty f ounded u nder A ugus tus t o b e t he c ap ita l o f t he p owerfu l A edu i , l e ad ing a l l ies o f R ome i n C easar 's d ay . I fA utun , w h ich c e lebrated i t s 2 000 th a nn ive rsary i n 1 985 , c anno t c la im t o b e o ne o f t he o ldes t u rban s i tes i n F rance ( n o s i gns o f ap reR oman p as t h ave b een f ound ) , i t may w e l l h ave f os tered o ne o f t he f i rst C h r is t ian c ommun it ies i n G au l ( Fontenay 1 889 ; G r ivo t 1 967 ; S ap in 1 984 ) . T he e v idence f o r t h is d er ives p art ly f rom h i s tor ica l s ources : t he mar tyr b i shop S ympho r ien w as c ons idered i n t he M idd le A ges t o h ave b e longed t o t he f i rs t g enerat ion o f C hr ist ian m iss ionar ies w ho p er ished d ur ing t he t h ird c entury p e rsecut ions . E ven i fo ne i sd i s inc l ined t o r es t t oo much w e igh t o n s ources w h ich h ave a n a dm itted p enchan t f o r m ix ing l e gend w ith r e l iab le h i s tor ica l t rad it ion , t here i sn o d oub t t ha t A u tun s he ltered a w e l l-o rgan ised a nd p res t ig ious C hr is t ian c ommun ity b y t he t ime o f B i shop R us t icus ( a ttes ted 3 13-3 14 ) , at heo log ian c i ted r e spectfu l ly b y S a ints J erome a nd A ugus t ine . F urthe r e v idence i sp rov ided b y a n e p itaph , f ouond i n 1 829 s ome 5 0 m . f rom t he f ormer c hurch o f S a int-P ierre : i t s d ono r , P ector ius , e xhorts h i s f ather A scand ius , i nG reek , a s w e l l a s h i s u n-named mo ther a nd b ro thers , c o l lec t ive ly a ddressed a s " Ce les t ia l r ace o f t he d iv ine f i sh" t o r emembe r h im a nd t o r e jo ice i n t he l i gh t o f t he S av iour . A cco rd ing t o D om L ec lercq ( DACL , t .I ,2 e p ar t ie , c o l . 3 194-3 198 ) t he u se o f G reek , t he e ar ly t ypes o f s ymbo l ism , t he u se o f f o rmu lae a na logous t o t hose o f t he e p itaph o f A ber icus t he P hy rg ian , a nd t he n ame A scand ius a l l s uggest a l i nk t o t he C hr is t ian c ommun ity o f L yon , h i s to r ica l ly a ttes ted s i nce t he 1 70 's , a nd d om inated b y G reeks a nd A s iat ics ( Gr if fe 1 964 ) . T he l a tes t e p igraph ic s tudy o f t h is i n scr ip t ion ( Gaut ier 1 985 ) r egards a n e ar ly , p erhaps t h ird o r f ourth c entury d ate , a s l i ke ly e nough . No r d oes t he e p itaph s tand a lone ; s i nce f ragments o f E ar ly C hr is t ian a r t a nd i n scr ipt ions f rom A u tun h ave b een k nown f o r s ome t ime ( Fontenay 1 8 19 ; 2 19

G r ivo t 1 967 ; A utun G a l lo-Roma in 1 985 ) . O ne c ou ld a dd o ther a rguments b ased o n i n fe rence . O ne wou ld b e t hat t he t rad it iona l p o l it ica l c u ltura l p res t ige o f t he A eduan c ap ita l -n otab ly r ea ff irmed b y t he r hetor E umenes d ur ing t he Emperor C ons tant ine 's v i s it i n 3 11 - wou ld h ave made i t al i ke ly p lace f o r t he L yon c ommun ity t o s eek c onverts . A no ther i s t hat t he e cc les iast ica l l i nks b etween t he t wo c i t ies a re i ndeed v ery o ld a nd v ery s t rong : d ur ing t he M idd le A ges t he B ishop o f A utun was t he s uffragan o f t he A rchb ishop o f L yon , s tand ing i nf o r h im d ur ing a v acancy . T he e xcava t ions u ndertaken b y aF ranco-Amer ican r esearch t eam o n t he s i te o f S a int-P ierre l ' Estr ier s i nce 1 976 ( 1) h ave a dded n ew e v idence t o s uppo rt t he v enerab i l ity o f C hr is t ian ity i n A utun , a nd o pen i n teres t ing d imens ions o n t he q ues t ion o f t he i mpact o f C hr ist ian ity o n w ha t Iw i l l t erm t rad it iona l s acred t opography . L et me b eg in b y s u mmar is ing t he e v idence a s i t c urrent ly s tands ( Sap in 1 98 1; S ap in , Y oung & B erry 1 986 ) . E xcavat ion h as c entered o n a d e lap idated s tone b arn , f ash ioned i n t he 1 9 th c entury o u t o f w ha t r e ma ined o f t he p re-Revo lut ionary c hurch . I t c o rresponds r ough ly t o t he n ave o f t hat c hurch i n i t s f i na l s tate . B ut t he s tand ing s t ructure i ncorpo rates a rch itectura l e lements w h ich r ange i nd ate f rom t he Roman p er iod t o t he t went ieth c entury ; i ti nc ludes n otab ly a v ery h andsome e ar ly R omanesque t r iumph a l a rch w hose marb le c o lumns a nd l imestone c ap ita ls n o d oub t p roved d ec is ive i n g e tt ing t he b u i ld ing c lass if ied a s a n H istor ica l Monument i n 1 980 , t hus a ssur ing , s o w e h ope , i t s p reservat ion . We a re h ere c oncerned , h owever , w ith t he e ar l ier p hases . I ts eems t hat a b u i ld ing w ith a s quare p lan ( about IIm . o n as i de ) s tood o nthe s i te i n t he t h ird c entury , i fn ot e ar l ier . A l i tt le t o t he w est o f t h is w e l o cated o ne w a l l - a ctua l ly a d oub le wa l l , i nc lud ing a n e ntranceway o f f a ir ly i mpos ing d imens ions - o f a nothe r s t ructure . B y t he e ar ly f ourth c entury b o th t hese b u i ld ings s eem t o h ave b een r u ined ; t he w es tern o ne a t a ny r ate - t he d oub le-wa l l s t ructure -h ad b een r azed t o f oundat ion l e ve l , a nd a n ew e d if ice w ith t h ick , we l lla id a nd b onded w a l ls was b u i lt p art ly u pon i t . A lthough much o f t h is s t ructure l i es u nder a r oad t oday w e w ere a b le t o e xam ine e nough o f i tt o r econst itute a mauso leum d iv ided i n to t wo c hambers . T h is was c ut i n to t he h i l ls ide a nd p art ly b ur ied w ith a v au lted r oof p ro ject ing a bove g round . D ur ing t he f i rs t h a lf o f t he f ourth c entury a n ew w a l l was b u i lt , r unn ing a top o f t he o ld d oub le-wa l l f oundat ions u nt i l i t t urned s harp ly e as t t o l i nk u p w ith t he n orth c los ing wa l l o f t he r u ined ( ? ) s quare-p lan b u i ld ing , w hose f ounda t ions were n ow r e-used f o r an ew c onstruct ion . I n o ther w o rds , t he mauso leum w as l i nked t o an ew b u i ld ing w ith a r ectangu lar p lan . S ho rt ly t hereafter t wo b ur ia ls were l a id i n to f i l l l e ve ls f rom t he f oo t ing t rench o f t he n ew w a l l . O ne w as a sma l l c h i ld b ur ied i n al e ad c off in w h ich l ooks l i ke a s hoebox . O n t he o uts ide o f t h is b ox a n Xh ad b een c rude ly s cratched . T he o the r w as a n a du lt b ur ied w ith a c o in d at ing t o t he l a ter r e ign o f C onstant ine o r o f h i s s ons , t hus p rov id ing a t erm inus p ost q ue rn f o r t he n ew b u i ld ing w h ich s eems s ecure . T hat t h is b u i ld ing w as t he f i rst f unerary c hurch t o b e b u i lt a t S a int-P ierre l ' Estr ier ( t he n ame , a ttes ted o n ly i n t he M idd le A ges b ut d oubt less o lder , s i gn if ies " by t he h ighway" ) s eems h ard ly l e ss c erta in . T he b u i ld ing w as mod if ied a n umber o f t imes d ur ing t he e ar ly M idd le A ges , p r io r t o i t s e xtens ive Romanesque f acel ift ing , b ut a s w e a re n o t p r imar i ly c oncerned w ith a rch itectura l h i story h ere , Is ha l l s u mmar ise t he r e levant p o ints b r ief ly . A s em i-c ircu lar a pse was a dded o n l a ter ( f ifth c entury?) ; h opefu l ly t he c eram ic a na lys is n ow b e ing d one w i l l e nab le u s t o b etter p inpo int t he d ate . T he w estern f acade w as a dvanced - f i rs t s l ight ly , t hen s ome 8 m . i n r egard t o t he o r ig ina l

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w a l l . A r obus t masonry p latfo rm w as b u i lt u p a ga ins t t he n orthern w a l l ; t h is s eems t o h ave b een p ar t o f a monumenta l a rcoso l ium t omb w here w e s ugges t t he r e l ics o f o ne o f t he v enerated e ar ly s a ints , t he " ancesto rs" o f t he C hr is t ian c ommun ity , w ere k ept ( S ap in 1 984 ) . B y t he l a te r s i xth c entury t he o ld C hr is t ian c emete ry w as a c e lebrated p i lgr image s po t i n G au l . B ishop G rego ry o f T ours ( 539-94 ) , w ho v i s ited t here h imse lf , d escr ibes a m irac le t hat t ook p lace i n t he b as i l ica d ed icated t o S a intS tephen , w h ich s tood q u ite n ear S a int-P ierre ( V ie i l lard-Tro iekouro ff 1 976 ) . T hough h e d oes n o t d i rect ly ment ion t he l a tter c hurch , h i s d escr ip t ion s ugges ts t ha t t h is p ar t o f t he c emetery w as t he f oca l p o int f or p i lgr ims w ho c ame f rom a far t o v i s it t he v enera ted g raves . T he r ecent w orks o f P eter B rown ( B rown 1 976 ; 1 98 1) h ave d rawn a ttent ion t o t he p ionee r ing r o le t hat t hese v enerated s i tes p layed i ns t ruc tur ing Wes te rn C hr is t ian ity d ur ing l a te A nt iqu ity . I n A utun , t he i mportance o f t hese b ur ia ls w as f e lt f o r av ery l o ng t ime . O ne i n d ica t ion o f t h is r espect i st hat t he o ld mauso leum o f S a int-P ierre s eems t o h ave s urv ived many a rch itectura l t rans fo rmat ions , d own t o t he C aro l ing ian p er iod . A no ther i n d icat ion i st hat t he R omanesque r ebu i ld ing , s ho rt ly a f te r 1 000 A .D . , r espected t ha t p ar t o f t he o ld s t ructure w here t he monumenta l a rcoso l ium t omb w as l o cated . I n deed , t he R omanesque b u i ld ing p rogramme s eems t o h ave i n c luded t he c onstruc t ion o f a n ew a rcoso l ium monumen t f urthe r e as t , o ver a n e ar ly med ieva l s tone s arcophagus w h ich r ema ins i n p lace . Y et a no ther i n d icat ion t hat d ur ing t he s i xteenth t o e ighteen c entur ies t he o ld " Po !yonder" , o r o ld c emete ry a round S a int-P ierre , w as s t i l l w e l l-known f o r t he g raves o f t he e ar ly B i shops o f A utun . O ne s cho lar d escr ibed t he f unerary monument o f R ust icus a s w ith in t he c hurch " under a s ma l l v au lt w ith in t he t h ickness o f t he w a l l" a nd h e q uo tes t he i n scr ipt ion , s a id t o b e r ecent , f u rther p roo f t ha t t he u pkeep o f t he t omb r ema ined a mat te r o f c oncern ( Fontenay 1 889 ) . S acred T opography : D id C hurches Rep lace t he T emp les? I tr ema ins t o e xam ine t he i mp l icat ions o f t he c hurch b u i lt a t S a int-P ierre , a nd o f o the rs l i ke i t , f o r t he g ene ra l t op ic t hat h as b rought u p t ogethe r : t he e nd o f t he R oman c ountrys ide . D iscuss ion o f t h is p er iod o f ten o pposes a dvocates o f as harp b reak b etween p agan a n t iqu ity a nd t he C hr is t ian M idd le A ges t o t hose w ho p refer t o s t ress l o ngl ived e lements o f c ont inu ity b etween t he t wo . T he c reat ion o f aC hr ist ian t opography , w ith a v igorous p hase o f c hurch b u i ld ing , a nd i t s r e lat ionsh ip t o t he e ar l ie r s acred t opography w ou ld s eem t o b e o ne a rea w here t he a rchaeo logy c an c o l labo ra te mos t f r u itfu l ly w ith o ther d i sc ip l ines - a rt h i s tory , e p igraphy , h ag iog raphy -i na ddress ing t he i s sue . T he c lass ic t hes is w as a dvanced b y t he g reat a r t h i sto r ian Em i le Ma le ( Ma le 1 950 ) i n h i s b ook L a f i n d u p agan isme e n Gau le , p ub l ished i n 1 950 b u t b ased o n m uch o lder r e search . I n h i s s econd c hapte r , " Les e g l ises r emp lacent l e s t emp les" , M . Ma le makes a s t rong p lea f o r t he c ont inu ity o f s acred t opography . " There i s s carce ly a p rov ince" , h e w r ites , " where v es t iges o f t emp les h ave n o t b een f ound u nde r o ld c hurches ." H e s ugges ts t ha t o nce t he f i rs t w ave o f i do lb reak ing e nthus iasm h ad s ubs ided , C hr is t ian l e ade rs r ea l ised t hat t he p agan s acred p laces c ou ld b e c onverted t o more p roper u se . H is c h ief h i s tor ica l e xamp le , i n deed , t akes u s r i ght t o A utun . S a int Mart in o f T ours , t he c e leb rated l a te f ourth c entury i d o l-breake r , i ss a id t o h ave a ttacked t he t oo-so l id w a l ls o f a d e serted p agan t emp le i n A utun w ith l i tt le s uccess u nt i l h e r ea l ised t hat t he b u i ld ing c ou ld b et ter b e u sed . H e t hen c reated a c hape l t here ; t wo h undred y ears l a ter Q ueen B runh i lde r e founded t he s i te a s t he c e lebrated monas te ry w h ich b o re M ar t in 's n ame . U nfo rtunate ly t h is s tory d oes n ot w iths tand c r it ica l s crut iny ; i tc anno t b e t raced f u rther b ack t han t he 1 th c entury , w hen t he monks o f S a int-Mart in h ad e ve ry 2 2 1

i n te res t i np rov ing t hat t he ir a bbey d escended f r om t he s a in t h imse lf r a the r t han f rom a d i s reputab le Merov ing ian q ueen ( P icard , J .C . 1 985 ) . T here i si n f ac t n o r e l iab le t rad it ion t hat S a int Mart in e ve r s ought t o e vange l ise A utun i t se lf ; h i s b iog raphe r S u lp ic ius S everus a lways d ep icts h im d estroy ing r ura l s h r ines , a nd o n ly i n o ne v ague , h yperbo l ic p assage d oes h e s peak o f Mart in p ut t ing u p C hr is t ian s hr ines i n t he ir p lace ( Fonta ine 1 967 ) .( 2 ) D oes t he a rchaeo log ica l e v idence t ha t Ma le c i tes c arry a ny mo re w e ight? H ere t he S a in t-P ierre c ontr ibut ion c ou ld p rove mos t i n teres t ing , f o r t he e ar ly b as i l ica s eems t o h ave b een b u i lt i n g reat p ar t o n a n e ar l ier b u i ld ing w ith a s quare p lan , a nd i ti sw e l lk nown t ha t many C e lt ic f ana i n G au l , a nd e l sewhere , h ad a s quare p lan ( Gren ier 1 958 ; L ew is 1 966 ; A gache 1 978 ) . I n deed , o n t he o ther s i de o f A utun a C e lt ics ty le s quare t emp le , t he s o-ca l led T emp le o f J anus , s tand s t o t h is d ay . More s i gn if icant ly , p erhaps : t he e xtens ive 1 9 th c entury e xcava t ions o f B ib rac te , t he p re-Roman A eduan c i tade l l o cated a top Mont B euv ray , u ncovered a G a l lo -Roman t emp le w ith a s quare p lan u pon w h ich a C hr is t ian b as i l ica w as s a id t o h ave b een b u i lt ( Bu l l io t 1 899 ) . M . Ma le d we l ls o n t h is e xamp le ; i n deed , h e q uo tes a l e gend t hat h o lds S a int Mart in h imse lf r espons ib le f o r d estroy ing t he B ib racte t emp le . T o g ive h i s to r ica l p laus ib i l ity t o t he l e gend h e e ven s o l ic ites t he a rchaeo log ica l e v idence : t he e xcavat ions t urned u p a " t reasure" o f c o ins d eposed a s o ffer ings b y p agan p i lgr ims ; t he l a test o f t hese d ate t o V a lent in ian Iw hose r e ign ( 364-375 ) c o inc ides w ith t he b eg inn ings o f Mar t in 's e p iscopate ( 3 71-397 ) ; t h is i se nough t o a rgue t ha t Mart in h imse lf mus t h ave b een t he a gent o f d es truct ion ! Im ight a dd t hat t he d imens ions o f t he B ibracte t emp le a s p ub l ished b y B u l l io t a re r ough ly t hose o f o ur s quare b u i ld ing a t S a int-P ierre . O nce a ga in t he e v idence c anno t s tand t he w e ight p ut u pon i t . A lthough B u l l io t 's e xcavat ions w ere amb it ious a nd c arefu l b y n ineteenth c entury s tanda rds , o ne w ou ld h es ita te o n p r inc ip le t o a ccep t s o t emp t ing a nd e xact a s upe rs it ion w ithou t e xce l lent s t rat igraph ic a nd c hrono log ica l p roo f . T h is d oes n o t c u rrent ly e x is t . T here a re g ood g rounds f o r h op ing t hat t he q ues t ion w i l l o ne d ay b e r e so lved , f o r s i nce 1 984 n ew e xcavat ions a re u nderway a t B ib rac te b y at eam o f CNRS r esearchers w ho h ave a l ready r eopened t he t emp le s i te . ( 3) A t t he moment a l l t hat c an d ef in ite ly b e s a id i st hat Mont B euv ray w as t he s i te o f aC h r is t ian p i lg r image l a te i n t he M idd le A ges . Wh i le t he B u l l io t h ypothes is o f a n e ar ly C hr is t ian b as i l ica b u i lt d i rec t ly a top a p agen t emp le , u ncr it ica l ly e ndo rsed b y Ma le , r ema ins p oss ib le , t he C hr is t ian r e-occupa t ion o f B ib racte c ou ld w e l l d ate t o much l a te r t han t he l a s t d ays o f p agan ism i nG au l . N one o f t he o ther e v idence p resented b y Ma le o f c hu rches d i rect ly r ep lac ing t emp les s tands u p t o c lose s crut iny . l t i sn ever b ased o n more t han a n a l leged j ux tapos it ion o f p agan a nd C hr ist ian r ema ins ; mos t o ften v ague i nd eta i l o r b ased o n h earsay , t here a re s ome c ases w here i t i s i mmed iate ly a pparent t ha t t here w as o n ly t he mos t c asua l o f c onnect ions b etween t he t wo . T ake t he e xamp le o f t he mut i lated p i l lar o f t he N autes , a f i rs t c entury monument t o C e lt ic a nd R oman d iv in it ies , f ound i n 1 7 11 u nder t he c ho ir o f No tre-Dame i n P a r is . T he b roken-up b locks were f ound r eused i na n u ndated w a l l ( p os s ib ly t he L ate-Roman r ampar t? ) a nd t he f i nd c an h ave n o r e levance t o t he c ho ice o f t he s i te o f t he e ar l ies t c athedra l o f P ar is : i t i s n o t e ven k nown w hether t he p i l la r o r ig ina l ly s tood o n t he I l e d e l a C ite o r t he L eft B ank , a nd i t s eems t o h ave b een a n i n dependent monumen t i n a ny c ase , n o t a t emp le ! ( Duva l , P .M . 1 984 ) . O r c ons ider t he Mercury t emp le a top Mont D öme , n ear C le rmont-Ferrand , b eyond d oub t o ne o f t he p rom inent p agan s anctuar ies o f G au l ; i t i s a l so b eyond d oub t t hat i t h ad b een r u ined a nd a bandoned l o ng b efo re a med ieva l o r R ena issance c hape l t o S a int B arnaby w as b u i lt o ff t o o ne s i de ( Sanc tua ires a rvernes 1 985 ) . A nd t o s ugges t , a s M . Ma le d oes , t hat t he c e leb rated C aro l ing ian monas tery o f 2 22

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2 34

F leury-sur-Lo ire w as b u i lt i n t he m ids t o f w hat j u s t m ight h ave b een t he s acred a s semb ly a rea o f t he G au ls e voked b y J u l ius C aesar i st o p ush o ne 's p et t heory w e l l b eyond t he l im its o f r easonab le d i scuss ion . D id c hurches r ep lace t he t emp les o f p agan G au l , c hang ing t hereby t he r e l ig iousc u ltura l r eferences b ut l e av ing t he t rad it iona l s acred t opography f undamenta l ly i n tact? T here i sl i tt le , i fa ny , c onv inc ing e v idence f o r t h is a t a n e ar ly d ate , ( 4) a nd Ib e l ieve t hat t h is h ypo thes is m isunders tands t he e ssent ia l o r ig ina l ity o f t he n ew C hr ist ian s acred t opog raphy , a s i t i s b ecom ing k nown f rom r ecent a rchaeo log ica l r esearch f i rm ly s uppo rted b y ac r it ica l u se o f h i s tor ica l s ources . O ne must b eg in b y p os ing t he q ues t ion o f t he n ature o f t he t rad it iona l t opography o r , i n t he t e rms o f t h is s ynmpos ium , o f t he s acred p laces i n t he G a l lo-Roman c ountrys ide . Ih ave n o s t r ik ing ly o r ig ina l o bservat ions t o make o n s o v as t a nd c omp l icated a s ub ject - Iw ou ld o n ly l i ke t o p o int o ut t hat s acred s i tes n ow a ppea r t o h ave b een much more n umerous a nd v ar ied t han w as r ea l ised ag enerat ion a go . ( Lew is 1 966 ; A gache 1 978 ) . T hey r anged f rom modes t r ura l f ana a nd ways ide s hr ines t o t he i mpos ing p antr iba l o r i n ter-tr iba l meet ing p laces c a l led c onc i l iabu la b y G i lbe rt-Char les P icard , w here t heatres , b aths a nd h ea ted i n ns s urrounded t he t emp les . ( P icard 1 970 ) . F o r t he p urpose o f o ur t op ic Iw ou ld l i ke t o make t wo o bservat ions , w h ich a re i mp ress ions . T he f i rs t i st hat f o r t he G a l lo-Romans , l i ke t he C e lts i n g enera l , t he s acrednes s o f t he p lace i t se lf a ppears i n herent a nd p r imary , p receed ing i t s a rch itectura l embe l l ishment . S pr ings a nd h igh p laces - l i ke M t . D ome - s hare t he h onours w ith s acred g raves a nd s tones a s t he f oca l p o ints o f r e l ig ious v enerat ion ( Touta in 1 920 ; D e V r ies 1 977 ; T heveno t 1 968 ) . V ery o ften t h is c an b e s hown t o h ave b egun b efore t he G a l lo-Roman p er iod , a nd t o h ave c ont inued w e l l i n to i t . B ut h ow f ar i n to i t ? T h is l e ads t o my s econd i mpress ion : many t rad it iona l s acred s i tes s eem t o h ave b een s evere ly a f fected , o r e ven a bandoned b efore o r d ur ing t he f i rs t w ave o f b arbar ian i n vas ions a nd t he a ccompany ing m i l itary a narchy o f t he l a tte r t h ird c entury . R . A gache u nder l ines t he ir d i srupt ing i n f luence o n t he v i l la s ys tem ( Agache 1 978 ) a nd t he u ndefended t emp les p rov ided t emp t ing t argets a s w e l l . A t l e as t i n sofar a s t he g reat r ura l s hr ines a re c oncerned , t here i s ac ase f o r a d ramat ic t rans fo rmat ion i n many r eg ions , d ur ing t hese g enerat ions . B ut t he C hr is t ian t opog raphy h ad n o t y et b een c reated ; o f i t s d eve lopment o ver t he n ext f ew g enera t ions w e h ave t oday more a nd mo re e v idence , t o w h ich w e s ha l l n ow r eturn . Id o n o t p ropose t o t ake u p h ere t he c omp lex q ues t ion o f t he c athedra l g roup s w h ich g rew u p w ith in t he w a l ls o f t he f o rt if ied t owns d ur ing t he f ourth a nd f i fth c entur ies . T hat w ou ld r equ ire s eparate a nd d eta i led t reatment b eyond o ur means h ere . What I s ee a s t he o r ig ina l ity o f t he n ew C hr ist ian t opography c an b e d emons trated w ith t he e xamp le o f t he f unerary b as i l icas . T he f i rs t e xamp le t akes u s t o V ienne o n t he R höne r i ver : q u ite a n i mpo rtant c i ty d ur ing t he l a te R oman Emp ire a nd s o met ime I mper ia l r e s idence ( Pe l let ier 1 974 ) . E ar ly h ag iog raph ic t rad it ion d escr ibes t he mar tyrdom , d ur ing t he l a s t g reat w ave o f p e rsecut ions , o f t wo o f f ice rs a ttached t o t he g arr ison t here . O ne o f t hem , J u l ian , f l ed t o A uvergne w here h e w as c aught a nd k i l led ; h i s h ead w as s ent b ack t o V ienne b u t h i s b ody w as b ur ied a t B r ioude , w here a c hurch g rew u p a round h i s t omb w h ich b ecame o ne o f t he p r inc ipa l p i lg r image s po ts i n Me rov ing ian G au l ( V ie l lard-Tro iskouroff 1 9 76 ) . H is c omrade F erreo l w as i mpr isoned a nd t o rtured i n V ienne ; h e e scaped , s wam t he R höne , o n ly t o b e t aken a nd b eheaded r i ght o n t he r i verbank . H is c u lt w as a l so v e ry p opu lar i n Merov ing ian G au l ; t he s i xth c entury B ishop G rego ry o f T ours t e l ls u s h ow i n h i s d ay p i lgr ims f l ocked t o t he b as i l icas b u i lt b y S a int Mamert , B ishop o f V ienne f rom 4 62-474 , t o h onour t he martyr 's r e l ics . B ut t h is w as n o t , G rego ry r emarks , t he o r ig ina l s hr ine . T h is h ad b een b u i lt o n t he v ery s po t w here t he s a int w as martyred , n o t l o ng a fter t he 2 35

e vent . B ut i tw as s o c lose t o t he r i ver t hat b y Mamert 's d ay i tw as menac ing c o l lapse f rom w ate r d amage ; i n deed , t he p o rch h ad a l ready c o l lapsed . Mamer t t hus d ec ided t o move t he b as i l ica t o an ew s po t , ab i t f urther a way f rom t he r i ver . H e h ad i tb u i lt , s ays G rego ry , " o f a n e legant a rch itecture a nd r e l ig ious ly a cco rd ing t o t he s ame p lan ." I no ther w o rds , i tw as i mpo rtant t hat t he b u i ld ing b e h andsome e nough f o r t he d ign ity o f t he v enerated a ncesto r o f C hr is t ian ity i n V ienne , a nd t hat i t b e f a ithfu l t o t he t rad it ion . I n 1 977 r escue e xcava t ions u ndertaken b y J ean-Franco is R eynaud d ur ing u rban r enewa l were a b le t o r ecove r t he b as ic p lan a nd t o c onf irm t he d at ing o f Mame rt 's c hurch ( Reynaud 1 978 ) . T he d imens ions w ere i mpos ing : 5 0m b y 1 8 ,5m o ve ra l l ; t he a pse a lone w as o ver 1 0 m w ide a nd t he f oundat ions d escent 4 m b e low t he c urrent s urface . T h is b as i l ica w as a bandoned d ur ing t he e ighth c entury i n vas ions ; B ishop V i l icar ius t r ansferred F e rreo l 's r e l ics w ith in t he t own w a l ls . T he monas tery w a s r es to red o n t he o l d s i te d ur ing t he e leventh c entury , b ut b y t he f our teenth c entury i th ad b ecome a p ar ish c entre a nd t he l i nk w ith t he mar tyr s a in t s eems t o h ave b een f o rgo tten e ven t he d ed ica t ion p assed t o S a int J oan . T h is med ieva l p r io ry c hurch w as o n ly a bout h a lf t he s i ze o f Mamert 's b as i l ica ; d ur ing t he Wars o f R e l ig ion i t d i sappeared t o ta l ly . T he e xcava t ions d id n o t t u rn u p e v idence t ha t t he s i te h ad a ny r e l ig ious s i gn if icance p r io r t o Mamert 's d ay : i t w as p art o f a n i n dustr ia l s uburb d ur ing t he R oman Emp ire . A s im i lar c ase h as b een s tud ied w ith met icu lous method b y C har les B onnet i n G eneva ( Bonnet 1 977 ) . T he c hurch o f t he Made la ine , n ear t he l a kefront , h ad b een t hought t o b e aR omanesque f oundat ion h eav i ly t rans fo rmed i nl a te r t imes b o th i t s d ed icat ion t o Mary Magde la ine a nd t he r e su lts o f e xcava t ions d one i n 1 9 1418 w ere c i ted i n e v idence . B onnet 's e xcava t ions d emons trate t hat t he c hu rch g rew o ut o f a memo r ia - q u ite a modes t o ne a bout 2 .4 x 3 . 2 m -b u i lt d ur ing t he f i fth c entury i n ac emetery o uts ide t he w a l ls o f t he R oman c i tade l . T he a rea h ad e ar l ier b een a n i n dus tr ia l q uarte r o f t he R oman t own , n ear t he p o rt . N o t l o ng a fterwards t he memo r ia w as i n co rpo rated i n to a b as i l ica ; t h is w as e xpanded d ur ing t he Merov ing i a n p e r iod , w hen a f une rary a nnexe w a s a dded . N o t u nt i l t he C aro l ing ian p er iod d id ma jor a rch itectura l c hanges i n d icate t hat t he o ld f une rary f unc t ion h ad b een e c l ipsed -t he memor ia w as s uppressed - a nd t he b u i ld ing w as r e-adapted t o t he l i turg ica l u ses o f ap ar ish c hurch . T he e xamp les Ih ave d i scussed a re p en-urban , b u t e v idence i s emerg ing t hat f unerary b as i l icas w ere c reated i n t he c ountrys ide a s w e l l . Ar escue e xcava t ion c onducted b y M iche l a nd R enee C o larde l le a nd t he ir G renob le-based r esearch g roup s tud ied i n 1 975-77 t he e vo lut ion o f as er ies o f b u i ld ings a t S a int-Ju l ien-enG enevo is , 9 km f rom G eneva ( Co larde l le 1 983 ) . O nce a ga in a s imp le L ate A nt ique s t ructure c onta in ing a b ur ia l o pens t he s equence . B es ide i t , p erhaps u p a ga ins t i t , w as b u i lt d ur ing t he l a ter f i fth c entury ( ? ) ar ectangu lar ( 8 .5 x 4 0 .8 m ) b as i l ica w ith a s em i-c ircu lar a pse . I t c onta ined s evera l " pr iv i leged b ur ia ls" ( Crete i l C o l loqu ium 1 984 ) : n otab ly a n a rcoso l ium t omb a long t he n orth w a l l ; a p a ir o f g raves i n t he n ave c entred o n t he e ntrance t o t he a pse a nd s e t o ff b y a r a ised b a rr ier ; a nd a s tone s arcophagus i n t he a p se i t se lf . H ere t oo a l a tera l f unerary a nnexe e xpanded t he a rea a va i lab le f o r b ur ia l , p robab ly d ur ing t he s eventh c entury . B y t he C aro l ig ian p er iod t he s i te w as a bandoned a nd f o rgo tten . We c an , Ib e l ieve , n ow o ffe r s ome g enera l o bserva t ions a bou t t he n ew C hr is t ian t opography w h ich emerged i n G au l a t t he e nd o f A nt iqu ity . I ta ppears t o h ave l i tt le t o d o w ith t he e ar l ie r s acred t opog raphy . O n t he o ne h and i td er ived f rom t he o rgan isat iona l n eeds o f t he y oung C hurch , w h ich r o se r ap id ly f rom a l ly o f t he S tate u nde r C ons tant ine t o s o le l e ga l r e l ig ion o f t he Emp ire w ith T heodos ius i n 3 95 ( Bury 1 923 ) . T he b i shop n eeded h i s c hurch ( o r c hurches ) a nd b apt is try i nt he t own t o mee t l i turg ica l r equ irements a nd , a s h e b ecame t he f ocus o f much o f t he 2 36

r ema in ing a ff luence - n o t i n cons iderab le - t o h ave s et a bout b u i ld ing t hem w ithou t s t int ( V ie l lard-Tro iekouro ff 1 976 ) . A t t he s ame t ime h e , a nd t he o ther w ea lthy p atrons a s w e l l , r ose t o meet t he g row ing d emand f o r s p lend id monuments t o h onour t he memo ry o f t he v enerated d ead ( Grabar 1 946 ; B rown 1 98 1) . T he mos t s ought-af ter o f t hese " Chr ist ian f ounders" w ou ld b e ag enu ine h ome-g rown martyr , l i ke F err o l o f V ienne , b ut a s t hese a re h ard t o c ome b y a n h ones t c onfesso r -a n e a r ly B ishop l i ke Marce l o f P ar is , G ermanus o f A uxerre o r R he t ice o f A utun wou ld a l so d o v e ry w e l l . O the rw ise r e l ics c ou ld b e i mpo rted f r om a far a nd s o lemn ly i n s ta l led i n ab as i l ica , t hereby " natura l is ing" t he s a int : B i shop V ictr ic ius o f R ouen s e t ap recedent a s e ar ly a s 4 05 , mode l l ing t he e vent o n t he I mpe r ia l a dventus c eremony w hereby a c i ty w e lcomed a n Empo ror ( MacCo rmack 1 972 ; G us sone 1 976 ) . T h is e xamp le t oo w as w ide ly i m itated b y a v ar iety o f p a trons a nd e xpanded t o i n c lude , b es ides t he a ctua l " re l ics" o r b ones o f a s a int , o b jects c lose ly a ssoc iated w ith h im . I n P ar is , f o r e xamp le , K ing C h i ldebert ( d . 5 55 ) b u i lt a b as i l ica t o h ouse t he t un ic o f S a int V incent w h ich h e h ad p i l laged f r om a c hurch i n S pa in ; t h is b ecame t he a bbey o f S a int-Germa ind es-Pre s ( Par is Merov ing ien 1 985 ) . I ti sd i f f icu lt t o c once ive t oday t he i n tens ity a nd t he d urab i l ity o f t he b u i ld ing p rogramme i n t hese e p iscopa l c entres d ur ing w hat h as l o ng b een c ons idered a p er iod o f r eg ress ion a nd p ove rty . E ven a modes t t own l i ke A uxe rre i n n o rthern B urgundy b oasted s o me 2 3 c hurches w h ich d ef ined an ew C hr is t ian t opog raphy d i s t inct f rom t he n eg lected monuments o f t he p agan p as t ; f o r a n e xponent o f s i x th c entury C hr is t ian ised c iv ic p atr io t ism , t he r i ng o f s acred b as i l icas w ith h o ly g raves o uts ide t he t own w a l ls c ons t ituted t he t r ue , s p ir itua l r ampar t o f t he c ommun ity ( P icard , J -C . 1 976 ) . T h is d ense n ew n etwo rk o f h o ly f oca l p o ints o wed n o th ing t o t he o ld s ent iment - n ow c ondemned a s " pagan" - t hat c erta in p l aces a re i n herent ly s acred b ecause d i rect ly l i nked t o p owerfu l n atura l f orces . S uch f o rces , f o r t he C hr is t ians , s me l led o f s upers t it ion , a nd t he works o f t he E nemy . H o l iness , f o r t hem , w as a n ew c ond it ion i mposed o n ap rev ious ly n eutra l s po t b y as acra l is ing C hr ist ian a ct . T h is m ight b e a n e vent , l i ke t he b ehead ing o f S a int-Ferreo l . B y f ar t he c ommones t s anct ity -c onferr ing man ifestat ion o f C hr is t ian ity w as t he p resence o f av ene rated g rave . S a intP ierre l ' Estr ier i s ac ase w here t h is s ense o f s anc t ity s urv ived a l l t he c r ises a nd t r ansfo rmat ions o f t he M idd le A ges a nd t he Wars o f R e l ig ion , o n ly t o s uccumb t o t he F rench R evo lut ion . I t i s i n s truct ive t o c ontras t t h is l o ngev ity w ith S a intF e rreo l o f V ienne . Mamert 's b as i l ica l o s t i t s r a ison d ' être e ar ly i n t he M idd le A ges w hen t he r e l ics w e re t ransferred i n to t he t own . T hey n eve r r e turned , a nd t he med ieva l p r iory , f o rgetfu l o f i t s o r ig ins , d i sappeared i n t he P ro tes tant t empes t . Was t here o nce a t S a in t-P ie rre l ' Estr ie r at emp le w ith a s quare p lan o n w ho f oundat ions a C hr is t ian b as i l ica r ose? P oss ib le . B u t Iw i l l a rgue t hat e ven w ere t h is s o , t he e xamp le h ard ly s uppo rts Em i le Ma le 's c ase f or t he c ont inu ity o f s acred t opog raphy . What c ounted h ere w as t he mauso leum , w ha t c ounted w as t he p r iv i leged a nd v ene rated g rave . S acredness f o r t hese e ar ly C hr is t ians w as n o t i n dwe l l ing i n c er ta in p laces , a s i t h ad b een f o r t he ir a ncesto rs ; i t w as c onferred f rom w ithout . A n a r is tocra t 's t own h ouse o r ap ub l ic b u i ld ing c ou ld b e t r ansfo rmed i n to t he B i shop 's c athedra l ; a n i n d ifferent r i ve rs ide c ou ld b e c onsecra t ed t he t heat re o f as acred d rama . B ut t he g reatest r epos itor ies o f C hr is t ian memor ies t ha t r eached b ack t o t he f ound ing e ra w ere t he c emete r ies s u rround ing t he t owns ; t he v enerated g raves w ere t he s eeds f rom w h ich many a med ieva l C hr is t ian monument w as t o g row . N otes T he e xcava t ions a re u nder t he g enera l ( CNRS ) , a long w ith J ean-Char les P icard B erry ( ABD , U n ivers ity o f M issour i ) , A nne a utho r , w ho w ishes t o t hank h i s c o l leagues 2 37

d i rect ion o f C hr is t ian S ap in ( Un ive rs ity o f Metz ) , Wa lter B ossou tro t ( Arch itect ) a nd t he f o r t he ir h e lp i n a l low ing h im

t o a dvance t hese i d eas , f o r w h ich h e c l a ims s o le r e spons ib i l ity , i na dvance o f f u l l p ub l icat ion . T h is i s c urren t ly b e ing p repared , a nd f urther e xcava t ion p lanned f o r 1 986 may mod ify s ome o f t he s ugges t ions made h ere . T he s ens it ive s t rat igraph ic i n fo rmat ion u pon w h ich m os t o f t he c onc lus ions h ere r es t w as c onducted b y Wa lte r B erry . T he A s soc iat ion BURGOND IE , a ff i l ia ted w ith U .R .A . 2 6 o f t he CNRS , n ow o versees t he r esearch p rogram me ; t he e xcavat ions h ave b een g enerous ly s upported b y EARTHWATCH ( The C entre f or F ie ld R esearch , B e l mont , Mas s . , U .S .A . ) t o w hom w arm t hanks a re o wed . 2 .

T he p assage c onc ludes o ne o f f i ve e p isodes d eve loped b y S u lp ic ius S eve rus t o d ep ic t Mart in 's l o ng d rawn-ou t d ue l w ith r u ra l p agan ism ( Ch . X I I , 9i n F onta ine 1 967 ) . I n h i s c ommentary o n S u lp ic ius 's t r eatment o f t h is p hase o f t he s a int 's c areer ( t ome I , 7 56-66 ) F onta ine s t resses t h is a utho r 's p enchant f o r h yperbo le -e .g . " tout c e b a r io lage n a if e st d ans l eg out d e l a I i t te ra ture a d em i-popu la ire d es A pocryphe s" ( p .756 ) . T h is j u s t if ies , t o my m ind , e x treme c aut ion i n u s ing t h is p assage t o a rgue t hat Mar t in , o r o ther m iss iona r ies i n G au l a t t hat t ime , a ctua l ly s ought t o t urn t he t emp les t hemse lves i n to p laces o f C hr is t ian w o rsh ip .

3 .

T he t eam o f t he URA 3 3 o f t he CNRS , d i rec ted b y C hr is t ian P eyre ( Labo ra to ire d ' archeo log ie , E co le N o rma le S upe r ieure , r ue d 'U lm , P ar is ) , i n c lude s F ranco ise B eck , J ean-Lou is B runaux , O l iv ier B üchsenschutz , A la in D uva l , J ean-Pau l G u i l laumet , K ather ine G rue l a nd R obe r t P e r ichon . T he a utho r t hanks t hem f o r w e lcom ing h im o n t he s i te a nd d i scuss ing i t w ith h im ; t hey a re n o t t o b lame f o r w hat h e h ad made o f i t !

4 .

L e t me s t ress t hat w e a re c oncerned w ith G au l h e re ; t he s i tua t ion may w e l l h ave b een d i fferent e l sewhere i n t he Emp ire . Noe l D uva l , f o r e xamp le , h as r ecent ly p resented e v idence f o r t he e ar ly C hr is t ian isa t ion o f s ome t emp le s i tes i n No rth A fr ica ( Duva l 1 97 1) . B ut e ven h ere C laude L epe l ley r egards t he r ecuperat ion o f p agan s i tes b y C hr is t ians a s u ncommon a t a n e ar ly d ate , a nd p o ints o u t t hat t here w ere l e ga l o bs tac les t o t h is ( Lepe ll e y 1 979 ) .

B ib l iog raphy A gache , R . , 1 978 . L a S omme p reroma ine e t r oma ine ( Am iens ) . A utun G a ll o -Roma in 1 985 . C ata logue d e l ' expos it ion : Autun G a ll o -Roma in ( Autun ) . B onnett , C . , I 9 77 . L es p rem iers e d if ices c hre t ien s d e l a Made la ine ä Geneve ( Geneva ) . B rown , P . , 1 976 ( 1982 )- " Re l ics a nd S oc ia l S ta tus i nt he A ge o f G rego ry o f T ours" , i nP . B rown , S oc iety a nd t he Ho ly i nL ate Ant iqu ity ( Berke ley a nd L os A nge les ) : 2 22-250 . B rown , P . , 1 98 1. T he C u lt o f t he S a ints . I t s R ise a nd F unc t ion i nL at in C hr is t ian ity ( Ch icago ) . B u lI i o t , J .G . , 1 899 . F ou i l les d u Mont B euvray ( Anc ienne B ib rac te ) d e 1 862 ä 1 875 ( Au tun ) . B ury , J .B . , 1 923 . H is tory o f t he L ate r Roman Emp ire ( London ) . C o larde ll e , M . , 1 983 . S epu ltures e t t rad it ions f un g ra ires d u V e a u X I l le s ik le o p .

2 38

j . c . d ans l e s c ampagnes d es A lpes f ranca ises d u Nord ( Grenob le ) . C re te i l C o l loqu ium 1 984 ( 1 986 ) . L ' Inhumat ion p r iv i l ig iee d u I Ve a u V i l le s i ec le e n Occ ident ( Cre te i l ) . DACL , D ict ionna ire d 'Arch eo log ie C hre t ienne e t d e l aL iturg ie ( Par is ) . D e V r ies 1 977 . L a r e l ig ion d es C e ltes ( Par is ) . D uva l , N . , 1 97 1. " Eg l ise e t t emp le e n A fr ique d u N o rd" , B u l le t in A rcheo log ique d u C om ite d es T ravaux h i s to r iques e t s c ient if iques 7 ( n .s . ) : 2 65-296 . D uva l , P .M . , 1 984 . " Lu tece e t l av ie r e l ig ieuse" , i nL utece . P a r is d e Ce sa r ä C lov is ( Par is ) : 5 7-59 . F onta ine , J . , 1 967 . L a v ie d e S a in t Mar t in , p ar S u lp ic ius ( Par is , S ources C hre t iennes 1 33-5 ) . F ontenay , H . d e . , 1 889 . A utun e t s es monuments ( Au tun ) . G au t ie r , N . , 1 985 . " I nscr ip t ion d e P ector ius" , Autun Ga l lo-Roma in ( Autun ) . G rabar , A . , 1 946 . Ma rtyr iu m . Recherche s ur l ec u lte d es r e l iques e t l ' a rt c hre t ien a nt ique ( Par is ) . G ren ier , A . , 1 958 . Manue l d ' archeo log ie g a l loroma in . T . I l : A rch itec ture d es monuments ( p ur ls ) . G r iffe , E . , 1 964/66 . L a G oo le c hre t ienne a l ' epoque r oma ine ( Par is ) . G r ivo t D . , 1 967 . Autun ( Au tun ) . G ussone , N . , 1 9 76 . " Advantus-Ze remon ie l l u nd T rans lat ion v on R e l iqu ien : V ic tr ic ius v on R ouen De l aude s anc torum" , F rühm itte la lte r l iche s tud ien 1 0 : 1 25-33 . L e P e l ley , C . , 1 979 . L es c i te s d e l ' Afr ique r oma ine a u B as-Emp ire . T . I :L a p ermanence d ' une c iv i l isat ion mun ic ipa l ( Par is ) . L ew is , M .J .T . , 1 966 . T emp les i n Roman B r ita in ( Camb r idge ) . Ma le , E . , 1 950 . L a f i n d u p agan isme e n Gau le e t l e s p rem ie res b as i l iques c hre t iennes ( Pa r is ) . P ar is me rov ing ien 1 985 . Co l lec t ions me rov ing iennes d u Musee Carnava let ( Par is ) . P e l let ier , A . , 1 974 . V ienne g a l lo-roma in a u B as Emp ire ( Lyon ) . P icard , G .C . , 1 970 . " Les " Conc i l iabua" d e l aG au le" , B u l let in d e l aS oc iete n at iona le d es A nt iqua ires d e F rance : 6 6-9 . P icard , J .C . , 1 976 . " Espace u rba ine e t s epu ltures e p iscopa les ä Auxerre" , Revue d e l ' H isto ire d e l ' Eg l ise d e F rance 6 2 : 2 05-22 . P icard , J .C . , 1 985 .

" Abbaye d e S a int-Mar t in" , 2 39

Cata logue d e l ' Expos it ion Au tun

Ga l lo-Roma in ( Autun ) . R eynard , J .F . , 1 978 . " Sa int-Ferr o l , u ne d es p l us a nc iennes e g l ises v ienno ises" , A rchio log ia 1 22 ( s ep t . ) : 4 4-5 1. S anc tua ires a rve rnes 1 985 . S anc tua ires . E xpos it ion a u C entre d u P arc n ature l d es V o Icons d u P uy d e Dame ( C lermont-Ferrand ) . S ap in , C . , 1 982 . " L 'anc ienne e g l ise d e S a int-P ierre l ' Es tr ie r aA utun : p rem ier b i lan d ' une e tude a rcheo log ique e n c ours" , A rcheo log ie Med ieva le X I I : 5 0105 . S ap in , C . , 1 984 . " Les t ombeaux d es p rem iers e vgques e t l ' occupat ion c hre t ienne d ue c imet ie re d 'Autun : a rcheo log ie d u s i te" , I 0 9e C ongre s d es S oc ie tes S avantes ( Archeo log ie ) ( D i jon ) I : 13129 . S ap in , C . , Y oung , B . , B e rry , W . , 1 986 . " Sa int-P ie rre l ' Es tr ier" , Gesta . T heveno t , E . , 1 968 . D iv in ite s e t s anctua ires d e l a Gau le ( Par is ) . T outa in , J . , 1 920 . L es c u ltes p a rens c l ans l ' Emp ire Roma in . T ome I : L es c u ltes i nd igenes ( Par is , B ib l io theque d e l ' Eco le p ract ique d es H autes E tudes , 3 1. V ie i l la rd-Tro iekouroff , M . , 1 976 . L es monumen ts r e l ig ieux d e l a Goo le d ' ap re s l e s o euvres d e G rego ire d e T ours ( Par is ) .

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1 6 . THE DUTCH R IVER AREA . I MPER IAL POL ICY DEVELOPMENTS I N A LATE ROMAN FRONT IER ZONE

AND

RURAL

W . J .H . W i l lems A rchaeo log ica l r esearch i n t he D utch r i ver a rea , t he d e lta o f R h ine a nd Meuse , h as b een a ma jor o b ject ive i n t he t o ta l r esearch e ffort o f t he ROB , t he D utch s t a te A rchaeo log ica l S erv ice , f or t he l a st 1 5 y ears . O ne p ro ject i sc oncerned p r imar i ly w ith t he Roman P er iod i n t he e astern p art o f t he d e lta , t he h eart land o f t he B atav ian t r iba l a rea a round t he t own o f N i j megen , c ap ita l o f t he c iv itas B a tavorum ( F ig . 1 6 .I ) . T he p ro ject w as s et u p t o p rov ide a b ackground f o r t he l a rge-sca le e xcavat ions o f m i l itary a nd c iv i l ian s i tes i n N i j megen , b ut a l so a nd e spec ia l ly t o p rov ide d ata t o mon ito r a nd h opefu l ly t o h e lp u s u nderstand w hat h appened i n t he a rea d ur ing t he Roman P er iod . T h is n ecessar i ly l e d t o a n a ct ive i n teres t i n t he L ate I r on A ge a nd e ar l iest M idd le A ges , t he Merov ing ian P er iod , b ecause i n o rder t o s ee d eve lopments i n t he Roman P er iod o ne h as t o k now what w ent b efore a nd w hat c ame a fter . T he e xcavat ions a nd d eta i led r eg iona l a rchaeo log ica l a nd g eo log ica l s urveys 2 h ave , f or t he f i rs t t ime , p rov ided a n o pportun ity t o g a in a t l east s ome i n s ight i n to d eve lopments f rom t he l a te-3rd t o 6 th c entur ies . A lthough w e a re s t i l l f aced w ith many u ncerta int ies a nd h ypo thet ica l s tatements t hat n eed f urther t e s t ing , t h is i s a n e ncourag ing d eve lopment : u sua l ly t hese t hree c entur ies a re d i scussed o n ly i n t he c onc lud ing o r i n troductory r e marks t o p ub l icat ions . E spec ia l ly a t a r eg iona l l e ve l o f r esearch n ew i n format ion i s i n creas ing ly b ecom ing a va i lab le ,iw h ich may we l l l ead t o af undamenta l r eappra isa l o f t he p o tent ia l o f t he a rchaeo log ica l d atabase i n t he n ear f uture . B e fore e nter ing a d i scuss ion o f l a te-Roman a nd e ar ly-Med ieva l d eve lopments , t he s tage must b e s et b y a n o verv iew o f t he n atura l a nd s oc ia l l a ndscape : t he g eo logy o f t he r i ver a rea a nd c ond it ions b efore t he l a te-3rd c entury . T he e as tern r i ver a rea a s d ef ined o n F ig .16 .I i s r e lat ive ly s ma l l , s o me 1 650 km 2 c overs o n ly t he c entra l p ar t o f t he c iv itas , w h ich i s i n d icated o n as imp l if ied s up ra-reg iona l g eo log ica l b ackground t ogether w ith a mode l o f t he a dm in istrat ive s i tuat ion i nt he 2 nd a nd 3 rd c entur ies . T he t heoret ica l l im its o f t he B atav ian a rea c onfo rm v ery w e l l t o n atura l b oundar ies : t he R h ine i n t he n orth , t he w atershed b etween t he b as ins o f t he M euse a nd S che ldt i n t he s outh , t he l a rge c oasta l p eat a reas i n t he w est , a nd a no ther p eat a rea a nd t he Meuse v a l ley i n t he e ast . T he d i str ibut ion o f l a rger s i tes ( v ic i) i n r e lat ion t o t he l a ndscape s t rong ly s uggests a n a dm in is trat ive s ubd iv is ion o f t he B atav ian c iv itas i n to 5 d i fferent u n its w h ich c ou ld we l l b e i d ent if ied a s p ag i . T hree o f t hese l a rge r s i tes , t hose a round N i jmegen , a re a l so i n d icated o n F ig . I6 .2„ a n o verv iew o f t he s ett lements i nt he e as tern r i ve r a rea f rom t he m id1 s t t o l a te-3rd c entur ies o n a v ery much s imp l if ied v e rs ion o f a d eta i led g eo log ica l r econstruct ion o f t he r i ver a rea b etween a pprox imate ly t he 2 nd c entury BC a nd t he 5 th c entury AD . 4. A s ound b as is f or s uch r econs truct ion i s p rov ided b y v ery i n tens ive g eo log ica l a nd p edo log ica l s urveys d ur ing t he l a st 3 0 y ears . I t i so therw ise a lmost i mposs ib le t o o b ta in a c lear p icture o f ar i ver a rea w here f ree ly meander ing r i vers c onstant ly c hanged t he ir c ourse a nd p rocesses o f e ros ion a nd s ed i mentat ion a re d i ff icu lt t o f o l low . F o rtunate ly , D utch g eo log ists h ave a lways b een f asc inated b y u nrave l ing t he c omp lex it ies o f t h is a rea a nd a t t he moment a n a bso lute m in i mum a verage o f t wo b or ings p er h a i s a va i lab le . T h is i mp l ies t hat a t t he v ery l e as t 3 30 ,000 2 4 1

r 3

F ig . 1 6 . 1:

4

5

•7

08

09

T he g eo log ica l a nd a dm in is tra t ive c ontex t o f t he D utch r i ve r a rea i n t he s econd c entury AD : Ic oas ta l d unes , 2 mar ine c lay d epos its a nd p ea t , 3 H o locene f l uv ia l d epos its , 4 P le is tocene d epos its , 5 t heo re t ica l b ounda r ie s o f t he c iv ita tes , 6 t he e as te rn r i ver a rea ( f rame o f f i gs . 2 , 4 , a nd 7 ) , 7 c iv ita s c ap ita l , 8p oss ib le c iv ita s c ap ita l , 9s econdary c entre .

2 42

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'YA 1 1 1 11 1

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W NANVO ICA I II

W 1 1 .

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2

F ig . 1 6 .2 :

3

6

4

7

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9

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T he d i s tr ibu t ion o f s e tt lemen ts ( AD 5 0-270 ) i nt he e as te rn r i ve r a rea : 1P le is tocene d epo s its , 2 f l ood b a s in d epo s its a nd p ea t , 3 b ank d epo s its a nd s t reamr idges , 4m eander-be lts a nd ma jo r b rooks , 5 p resent-day r i ve r-channe ls , 6b oundar ies o f d epos its , 7r econs truc ted b oundar ies o f d epos its , 8l e g ionary f o rtress a nd ( p os s ib le ) f ront ie r f o rt , 9r eg iona l c entre ( c iv itas c ap ita l) a nd s econdary c entre ( v icus , p agus c ap ita l ) , 1 0 m i l ita ry v icus a nd s e tt lement . S ca le 1 : 300 ,000 .

2 43

b o r ings h ave b een a na lysed f o r t he a rea s hown o n F ig .16 .2 . .T h is i se spec ia l ly i mportant b ecause t hese s ame b o r ings h ave p rov ided a bundant a nd d e ta i led i n fo rmat ion a bout t he l o cat ion o f f o rmer s e tt lements , i n c lud ing t ho se i n H o locene a reas w h ich l i e b ur ied u nder l a ter s ed iment . O ur d ata a re t hu s much b etter t han e ven t he mos t i n tens ive a rchaeo log ica l s u rvey c ou ld e ve r h ope t o p roduce . A s f ar a s t he g eo logy i sc oncerned , t he P le is tocene s ands a nd g lac ia l d epos its ( F ig . 1 6 .2 ,1) s urround t he H o locene a rea , w here t here a re t wo ma in t ypes o f r i ver d epos its , n ame ly , t he s andy c lays a long r i ve rs w h ich a re h ab itab le a nd v e ry f ert i le , a nd t he h eavy , u n inhab itab le c lays o f t he f l ood b as ins o f b ack s wamps ( F ig . 1 6 .2 , 2 ) . T he h ab itab le s andy c lays b e long t o t h ree p hases . T he l a tes t a re t he p os t-Roman d epos its w h ich h ave b een d e leted . O n ly t he c hanne ls o f t he p resent-day r i vers a re marked . T he s econd p hase ( F ig . 1 6 .2 , 4 )a re t he meanderb e lts o f t he r i vers w h ich w ere a ctua l ly f unc t ion ing d ur ing t he R oman P e r iod . T he h igher p ar ts o f t hese a re t he n atura l l e vees a long t he r i ve rs a nd t hose w ere h ab itab le . T he o ldes t h ab itab le d epos its a re t hose f o rmed b y r i ver-b ranches w h ich w ere a l ready f oss i l d ur ing t he R oman P e r iod ( F ig . 1 6 .2 ,3 ) . When a r i ver c hanges i t s c ourse , i t s p rev ious b ranch r ema ins a s o met imes v ery b road b ed o f s andy c lay w h ich r i ses a bove t he s urround ing b ack s wamp a nd i sc a l led a s t reamr i dge . T he s t ream-r idges w h ich w ere h ab itab le d ur ing t he Roman P e r iod a re i n d icated o n F ig . 1 6 .2 . H a9tat ion o n t he s t reamr idges i sv e ry d ense , w ith a n a ve rage o f o ne s i te p er km . O n t he b as is o f t he s ett lement d a ta a nd t he i n dependent i n fo rmat ion o n t he n umber o f Ba tav ians i n t he Roman a r my , i tc an b e c a lcu lated t hat i nt he I s t c entury t here must h ave b een i n t he e nt ire c iv itas n o t v ery much l e s s t han 4 0 ,000 B atav ians i n hab it ing a bout 1 250 s et t lements .5 I n t he 2 nd c entury t h is p opu lat ion g rew t o a pprox ima te ly 5 0 ,000 s ou ls . T he c arry ing c apac ity o f t he r eg ion , a nd e spec ia l ly o f t he f e rt i le H o locene c lays , i s more t han a dequa te t o f eed s uch a p opu la t ion a nd a l so t he c ons ide rab le o verhead i n t he f o rm o f m i l itary a nd a dm in is tra t ive p ersonne l , a nd o thers , a long t he R h inel imes a nd i n N i jmegen . I n f ac t t h is n eve r h appened a nd t here a re v ar ious c lues i n d icat ing t hat t he r i ve r a rea w as n eve r s oc ia l ly a nd e conom ica l ly t r u ly i n teg ra ted i n G a l lo-Roman s oc iety a nd t ha t i t s s t ruc ture w as a rt if ic ia l ly ma inta ined u nt i l t he i n vas ions o f t he l a te-3rd c entury . T h is c an b e i lus tra ted i n s eve ra l w ays .6 F irs t , t he I r on A ge s ubs is tence s t rategy , w h ich w as p r imar i ly g eared t owards s tockbreed ing , c hanged i n to a n e conomy w ith mo re a rab le c u lt iva t ion o n ly a round t he m id-2nd c entury AD a nd t hen s t i l l o n al im ited s ca le . E v idence c omes f rom e xcavat ions a s w e l l a s p o l len a na ly s is . T he i mpor t o f g ra in i sa l so i lus trated b y t he r ecent e xcava t ion o f ab arge a t t he f ront ier f o rt o f Woerden ( Bogaers & H aa lebos 1 983 ) . I t s l a s t c argo w as g ra in a nd t he weed s m ixed w ith t hat g ra in h ave s hown t hat i tc annot h ave b een g rown i n t he r i ver a rea b u t t hat i tw as i mported f rom a l imestone/ loes s r eg ion . T h is c an b e f ound i n az one f rom t he G erman R h ine land o ver t he s outhern N ether lands i n to B e lg ium . T h is i st he r eg ion w ith t he d enses t c oncentrat ion o f v i l lae : e ven w ithou t t he n ew e v idence , p rec ise ly t he z one w here o ne w ou ld e xpect g ra inimpor ts t o b e c om ing f rom . A no ther i n d icat ion i ss ta te e xpend iture i n t he c iv itas , c a lcu lated o n t he b as is o f a r my c os ts . F o l low ing r ecent f i gures p roposed b y MacMu l len ( 1984 ) a nd H opk ins ( 1980 ) , i tc an b e c a lcu la ted t ha t i n F lav ian t imes t he t ax p roduct o f 6 70 ,000 p eop le w as e xpended i n t he B atav ian a rea w ith o n ly 4 0 ,000 p eop le l i v ing t here . I n t he 2 nd a nd 3 rd c entur ies , w hen t here w ere 5 0 ,000 i n hab itants , e xpend iture w as s t i l l e qu iva lent t o t he t ax p roduct o f 2 70 ,000 p eop le . T here a re a l so a 2 44

1 0000 6 000

1 000 5 00

4 000

1 000 5 00

1 00

F ig . 1 6 .3 :

H ypo thet ica l r ank-s ize d i s tr ibut ions o f s ett lements i nt he a rea o f t he c iv itas B atavo rum i nt he 2 nd a nd 4 th c entur ies . T he e s t ima ted r ange o f v ar iat ion i ss haded .

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n umbe r o f a rchaeo log ica l a nd e p igraph ica l d ata w h ich s how t ha t t he amb it ious F lav ian f ounda t ion o f t he t own o f N i jmegen n ever l e d t o i t s f urther d eve lopment i n to a p roper R oman t own i na l l r espects . I tr ema ined r e lat ive ly l a rge a nd h ad t o b e s uppo r ted b y u nusua l means . E xamp les a re t he p resence o f p o tter 's k i lns w ith in i t s p er imete r e ven i n t he 2 nd c entury , t he l a ck o f a n amph itheatre , a nd t he f ac t t ha t o f t he f our i n scr ip t ions o f c ounc i l men , d ecur iones , w e k now t he ir p rofess ion i n t wo c ases a nd t hose t wo a re me rchants , n ego t iatores , w h ich i sv e ry u nusua l i n deed ( W i l lems 1 986 , 4 18 ) . I t means t hat p eop le w ere n eeded a s d ecur iones w ho , a cco rd ing t o D r inkwater es r ecent o verv iew f or G au l ( D r inkwa ter 1 983 , 1 99 ) , w ere n eve r u nde r n o rma l c i rcums tances a dm itted t o s uch a p os it ion . T he v ery l im ited e v idence f o r ar i ch l a ndown ing e l ite i n t he r i ve r a rea ( v i l lae ) f i ts i n to t h is p icture r athe r w e l l . T he a r t if ic ia l ly ma inta ined c haracter o f t he R oman s upers tructure i n t he r i ve r a rea i s , a s a rgued b efore ( W i l lems 1 983 ; 1 984 ) , mos t ly t he r esu lt o f t he p ermanent p resence o f t he a rmy . T h is l e d t o ak ind o f ' c o lon ia l ' s i tuat ion w h ich p revented t he u sua l i n teg ra t ion-process , a nd i n terna l d eve lopment l e ad ing t o a b a lanced e conom ic s ys tem w ith a h i nter land s uppo rt ing i t s own s upers tructure . T he c ap ita l a t N i jmegen w a s much t oo l a rge . T he t entat ive r anks ize c urve 7 o f 2 nd c entury B a tav ian s e tt lements ( F ig . 1 6 .3 ) i s s t rong ly p r imate a nd t he d eve lopment t owards a l o gno rma l c urve i n t he 4 th c entury i sn o t a t a l l g radua l . I tw as i nf act t he r e su lt o f t he F rank ish i n vas ions o f t he l a te-3rd c entury , w h ich s udden ly r educed t he s upers truc ture b ecause t he t own , Nov iomagus , w as a bondoned a nd i t s r educed p opu lat ion c onve rged i n ah eav i ly f o rt if ied c entre o n t he r i ver Waa l , t he s o-ca l led V a lkho f . A lthough t he l imes d id n o l o nger e x is t a fter AD 2 75 t here i sn o r eason t o a s sume t ha t t he c iv itas B atavo rum a s a n a dm in ist rat ive e nt ity o r t he B atav ians a s a n at ion c eased t o b e a fter t he F rank ish i n vas ions . I n a dd it ion t o t he a rchaeo log ica l e v idence , t h is c an a l so d e d educed f rom t he f ac t t ha t t he B atav ians a re s t i l l ment ioned i nt he N o t it ia D ign itatum , w h ich d oes n o t l i s t o ther n at ions s uch a s t he c oas ta l g roups o f C ananefates a nd F r is iavones . T he re a re a l so a n umber o f r easons ( W i l lems 1 986 ) t o c onc lude t hat t he n at ive w ar r io r e l ite o f t he e ar ly B atav ian t r iba l s oc iety h ad , a l ready a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he 3 rd c entury , d eve loped i n to a k i nd o f m i l itary c as te o f R oman B atav ians . T ha t i s a l so t he r eason w hy , w e l l b efore b arbar ians c ou ld r i se t o i mportant p os it ions i n t he R oman a r my , f rom C ons tant ine o nwards , h igh-rank ing B atav ians w ere a l ready i n s uch p os it ions . A n e xamp le i s ac erta in A ure l ianus l a nuar ius , B atav ian a nd v ir p erfect is s imus , w ho w e k now f r om a n i n scr ipt ion ( C IL I l , 1 098 1) t o h ave b een d ux o f t he p rov ince o f P annon ia S uper io r i n AD 3 03 . A n e ven b ette r e xamp le c ou ld b e o f t he d ux P os tumus , w ho f ounded t he G a l l ic Emp ire . T h is man w as p robab ly a l so a B atav ian a nd h e i ss ure ly t he o n ly p erson w ho c ou ld b e t he a lumnus u nder w hose r e ign B atav ian l a nds w e re s et t led b y F ranks 8. We k now w h ich B atav ian l a nds a re meant , b ecause t hese F ranks w ere r epu lsed b y C ons tant ius C h lo rus a nd h i s a ct ion w as d i rec ted t owa rds t he a rea e ncompassed b y b o th b ranches o f t he R h ine a nd t hus t o t he r eg ion b etween Waa l a nd L ower R h ine , t he n orthern p art o f t he c iv itas B atavorum ( Betuwe ) . F ig . 1 6 .4 s hows t he s ett lement s i tes i n t he e as tern r i ver a rea f rom t he l a te-3rd t o e ar ly-5 th c entur ies . I td oes n ot i lus trate w hat h as j u s t b een ment ioned , b u t f o r mos t s i tes b etween Waa l a nd L ower R h ine t here i s mo re e v idence f o r l a te- t han f o r e ar ly4 th-century h ab itat ion . T he G erman ic g roups t hat a re r eported t o h ave s ett led i n t he n orthern a nd w es tern p ar t o f t he D utch r i ve r a rea a re s o f a r v ery d i ff icu lt t o i d ent ify a rchaeo log ica l ly . T here i ss ome p o ttery , w h ich i si n conc lus ive , a nd t here i st he n egat ive e v idence o f s carc ity o f i mpo r ted w hee lturned w ares . A t l e as t w e h ave

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2

F ig . 1 6 .4 :

3

4

X 15

6

7

8

9

•

1 0

T he d i s tr ibu t ion o f s et t lements ( AD 2 70 - c .425 ) i nt he e as te rn r i ve r a rea : 1 -7 s ee f i g . 2 , 8 f o rt if ied ( m i l itary ) s e tt lement a nd p os s ib le s t rongho ld o f u nknown s ta tus , 9s ma l l f o r t ( b u rgus ) , 1 0 s e t t lement . S ca le 1 : 300 ,000 .

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s ome i d ea w ho t he i mm ig rants w e re , b ecause t hey c ou ld w e l l b e o ne g roup o f H eru l i w e k now w as a ct ive i nt he r i ver a rea . I ti sn o c o inc idence t ha t t here i sa n a ux i l iary d oub le u n it l i s ted a s t he a ux i l ium H eru lorum a nd B atava rum i n t he N o t it ia D ign itatum . A s H o ffmann s howed i nh i s s tudy o f t hese l i s ts ( Hoffmann 1 969 ) , t hose a ux i l ia mus t h ave b een f ormed u nder D ioc let ian a nd t here i se ve ry r eason t o d ate t h is a fter AD 2 93 , w hen C ons tant ius C h lo rus r ees tab l ished s ome d egree o f R oman c ontro l i n t he r i ve r a rea . I n a dd it ion , a s w as t o b e e xpec ted f rom B atav ians , t here w as o r ig ina l ly a l so o ne c ava lry u n it , t he v ex i l lum B atavo rum . T he s t rength o f t hese l a te-Roman u n its i sn o t k nown v e ry p rec ise ly , b u t t he t o ta l n umbe r o f s o ld ie rs i n vo lved s hou ld b e b e tween 1 700 a nd 2 000 . A ssum ing t ha t o ur i n fo rmat ion a bout t he n umber , s t rength , a nd o r ig in o f t hese t roops i s mo re o r l e ss c o rrec t a nd t ha t t he n umbe r o f s o ld iers i nr e lat ion t o t he t o ta l p opu lat ion i s s im i lar t o t hat i n t he f i rs t c entury , w hen t hat p opu lat ion c an b e mo re r e l iab ly e s t ima ted , t h is w ou ld y ie ld a p opu la t ion o f b etween 1 0 ,000 a nd 1 4 ,000 s ou ls . T hat w ou ld i mp ly a r educ t ion o f t he r i ve r a rea p opu lat ion i n a bou t AD 3 00 t o b etween 2 0 a nd 2 8% o f i t s s i ze i n AD 2 00 . O bv ious ly , t here a re s evera l r easons w hy t hese a ssump t ions c ou ld b e w rong , b ut t hey d o a t l e as t a gree w ith o ther e v idence . T he v e ry d eta i led s urveys ment ioned a bove h ave p rov ided a n a dequa te o verv iew o f t he n umber , l o cat ion , a nd c hrono logy o f s ett lemen ts . I t i s r emarkab le t hat t he t o ta l n umbe r o f s i tes f rom t he l a te Is t t o e ar ly-3rd c entur ies , c ompared t o t he t o ta l f rom t he l a te-3 rd t o e ar ly-5 th c entur ies , s hows t ha t t he t o ta l n umbe r o f s e tt lements w as r educed t o 2 5% o f i t s f o rmer l e ve l ! A lso , w e h ave t he p a lyno log ica l e v idence f rom r ad iocarbon-dated p o l len d iag rams o n w h ich t he g ene ra l o verv iew i n F ig .1 6 .5 i sb ased . I tp resents a b r ie f s ummary o f t he e v idence b y i n d icat ing t he f l uc tuat ions b etween t r ee- a nd n ont ree-po l len . H uman i n te rfe rence i n t he l a ndscape w as a t i t s p eak i n t he l a s t c entury BC a nd t he f i rs t c entury AD . T he r i ver f ores t , mos t ly a lde r w oods , s tar ted t o e xpand a ga in a l ready a t t he e nd o f t he I s t c entury a nd h ad i n c reased marked ly b y t he m id-3rd c entury . T he d ecrease o f c u lture i n d icato rs d ur ing t he h eyday o f t he R oman o ccupat ion w ith a d emons tra t ing ly g row ing p opu lat ion i sn o t a s c ur ious a s i ts eems t o b e . I ti sc onnec ted t o t he c hang ing e conomy ment ioned a bove . T he B a tav ian p as tora l is ts o f t he l a teIron A ge w ar r io r s oc iety i nt he r i ve r a rea s l ow ly c hanged i n to f a rmers w ith a mo re b a lanced e conom ic s ys tem , a nd t ha t meant t ha t t he h uge d ra inage b as ins o r b ack s wamp s f o rmer ly u sed t o g raze h erds o f c att le w ere n ow c overed b y a lde r w oods a ga in . B ut t he c urve c ont inues i t s d ownward t rend a nd i t i se v ident t hat i n t he 4 th c entury p arts o f t he s t reamr i dges mus t a l so h ave b een c overed w ith woods a ga in . T h is i mp l ies a r educed p opu la t ion . T hat t he r i ve r a rea c anno t h ave b een a p leasant p lace t o l i ve i n i s , o f c ourse , r e lated t o i t s e xposed p os it ion a t t he i mper ia l f ront ier . T he l a te R oman p o l icy o f i mper ia l d efence w as n o l o nger t he l imes-based p rec lus ive s ys tem o f f o rwa rd d efence . A lthough s omet imes t h is i d ea l w as n ear ly r eached a ga in , f r om C onstant ine o nwards w e a re d ea l ing e ssent ia l ly w ith a s ys tem o f d efenceind epth ( c f . L uttwak 1 976 ) . I mportant e lements i n t h is s ys tem a re s t rongho ld s a t o r e ven b eyond t he l i ne c ons idered t o b e t he f r ont ier , f o rt if ied r oad s ta t ions , a nd an umbe r o f mob i le , r eg iona l f i e ld a rm ies . A s a d efens ive s t rategy f o r t he emp ire t h is w o rked q u ite w e l l . T here a re a n umber o f h i s tor ica l ly a ttes ted F rank ish i n vas ions w h ich a re n o rma l ly u sed t o i lus trate t he l ack o f R oman f o rce . B ut t hese w ere i n f act a l l s topped a t s ome p o int a nd t hus i lus trate t he e ffect ivenes s o f t he s ys tem . F o r t he f ront ier r eg ions , h owever , t hat c anno t h ave b een much c onso lat ion b ecause t hey w ere t he f i rs t t o b e a ffected . F o r t he D utch r i ve r a rea t he mos t d ramat ic e vents o ccurred a f ter t he u nsurpat ion o f 2 48

N .A .P

y e a r s B C / A D

A .P

F ig . 1 6 .5 :

6 00

1 350

7 00

1 250

8 00

150

9 00

1 050

1 000

9 50

100

8 50

1 200

7 50

1 300

6 50

1 500

4 50

1 700

2 50

1 800 2 000 2 100 2 500 3 100

1 50 50 150 550 1 150

3 500

1550

3 800 4 100

1850 2 150

4 500

2550

4 800 5 000

2850 3050

C aro l ing ian Me rov ing ian

R oman

I r on A ge B ronze A ge

L a te N eo l i th ic M idd le N eo l i th ic

C urve o f t he r e lat ive f requenc ies o f t ree ( A .P . ) v . n ontree ( N .A .P . ) p o l len , b ased o n C 14-dated p o l len d iagrams f rom t he e as tern r i ver a rea . A fte r T eun issen 1 982 , f i g . I .

2 49

Magnent ius i n AD 3 50 , w hen t he C ons tant in ian d efens ive s ys tem w as d ep le ted o f t roops a nd a mass ive F rank ish i n vas ion f o l lowed . H is to ry s ays t hat f rom t hat t ime o nwards t he re w as n o mo re c iv itas B atavo rum a nd l e ads o ne t o s uspec t t hat t he F rank ish S a l i i h ad s ett led i n a nd s outh o f t he r i ve r a rea . A rchaeo logy c onf irms t h is p ic ture . F o r e xamp le , t he c o in e v idence i n d icates t hat t he h uge i n ne r d i tch a round t he f o rt if ied V a lkho f s i te i nN i jmegen , a s w e l l a s a n o u te r r i ng o f d oub le d i tches , w ere f i l led i ns ho rt ly a f ter AD 3 50 . H owever , t he c oesar J u l ianus i sr epo rted t o h ave s ubdued t hese S a l i i a nd t o h ave r estored R oman p ower u p t o a nd b eyond t he R h ine . F o r n o g ood r eason t h is h as b een d en ied i ns ome r ecent l i terature a nd i th a s e ven b een a ssumed t ha t t he a rea o f t he f o rmer B atav ian c iv itas w as r educed i n t he n orth . A s i lus trated b y F ig . 1 6 .4 , e ven t hough s ome o f t he f o r t if ica t ions t here a re n o t b eyond a l l d oub t , t h is i sv e ry d ef in ite ly n o t t r ue . T here a re a l so a n u mber o f r e fo rt if ied f orme r l imes f o rts f urthe r t o t he w es t . A s G roenman-van Waa ter inge ( 1986 ) h a s s hown , t h is i s e ven t r ue f o r t he w e l l-known f ort o f V a lkenbu rg . D endrochrono log ica l e v idence p roves t ha t w e mus t n ow r eckon w ith a 4 th-century V a lkenburg p er iod 7 . I n a dd it ion , t here i so f c ourse s t i l l t he e n igmat ic B r ittenburg a t t he mouth o f t he R h ine . I t n ow l i es s evera l h undred meters i n to t he s ea b ut a p lan b y a 1 6 thc entury a r t is t i s c lear ly r em in iscent o f a d oub le h o rreum a nd a l a te-Roman f ort if ica t ion . We c anno t p rove t h is , b u t t here i s e ve ry r eason t o s ee t h is s i te a s a t ranssh ipment b ase f o r t he B r it ish g ra in w e k now w as t ransported t o t he G e rman R h ine land . F o r t he s a me r eason t he D utch r i ve r a rea must h ave b een o f g reat s t rateg ic i mportance , w h ich e xp la ins a l l t he t roub le t hat w as t aken t o c ontro l i t . T he G e rman ic S a l i i w e re e v ident ly r e l iab le f oederat i , a nd w ere s upp l ied w ith g oods f rom t he R oman h inter land . T he a pparent ly i n creased n umbe r o f s i tes s outh o f t he R h ine i sa n i n d icat ion f o r r e lat ive s t ab i l ity . C o in s er ies o f an umber o f f or t if ied s i tes , w ith c haracter is t ic p eaks i n d icat ing C ons tant in ian o r V a lent in ian r e fort if icat ion , o r b o th , s how t hat t he t roops w ere r egu lar ly p a id . I am n o t p repared , b y t he w ay , t o a ttach a ny s pec if ic i mpo r tance t o t he c ons iderab le n umbers o f v e ry s ma l l c o ins f rom t he House o f T heodos ius o n s ome o f t he s i tes . T he ir p resence i sd i rect ly d ependent o n t he u se o f meta l d e tecto rs a nd r epresents t he p oo l o f c i rcu lat ion i n t he l a s t d ecades o f e ffect ive c ont ro l o f t he R oman s tate i n t he r i ve r a rea . T hese c o ins may w e l l h ave b een d i sca rded w hen t hey b ecame o bso lete , a nd t hat h appened w hen t hey c ou ld n o l o nge r b uy t he g o ld n eeded f o r t axes w h ich n obody c la imed a ny more . T h is a ppears t o h ave h appened n o t t oo l o ng a f te r t he V anda ls c ros sed t he R h ine a t Ma inz i n AD 4 06 . B u t t h is d i sas te r , w h ich e ventua l ly meant t he e nd o f t he w este rn Emp ire , d id n o t h ave much d i rect c onsequence i n t he r i ve r a rea . T he n ew G e rman ic p opu la t ion h ad r ap id ly d eve loped a R omano -German ic c u lture o f i t s o wn , w h ich i s r e f lected , f o r e xamp le , i n t he b ur ia l r i tua l . T here a re a l so a n umbe r o f o b jec ts , s uch a s l o ng h a irp ins a nd c haracter is t ic S tü tzarmf ibu lae , w h ich a re t he G e rman ic v a r iety o f t he c ros sbowf ibu lae . T he d i s tr ibut ion o f t hese a nd many r e lated a r tefac ts c an b e f ound i n B öhme 's we l l k nown s tudy o n G erman ic g rave g oods ( Böhme 1 974 ) . T hey s how c lose r e lat ions w ith p eop le i n t he n o rth , o n t he N o rth S ea c oas t . A t l e as t s ome o f t he meta lware s eems t o h ave b een p roduced i n t he r i ve r a rea . A nother i n teres t ing o r ig ina l d eve lopment c an b e o bserved i n t he p o ttery . F or e xamp le , t he w e l l k nown t e rra n igral ike c ar inated c ups o f t ype C hene t 3 42 , w h ich a re a m ixture o f R oman t echn ique a nd n a t ive f o rms a nd q u ite n umerous i n t he r i ve r a rea . O n o ne s i te , s herds h ave b een f ound w h ich c ou ld c once ivab ly b e k i ln r e fuse , a nd l o ca l p roduc t ion i sa l so s uppo r ted b y t he d i str ibu t ion p a ttern . O ther f o rms o f t e rra n igral ike w ares w ith a m ixture o f R oman a nd F rank ish 2 50

F ig . 1 6 .6 :

S ome o f t he g o ld t o rcs a nd o the r o b jec ts i n t he s econd h oard f rom V e lp , d i scove red i n 1 85 1 ( s ee F ig . 1 6 .7 , 2 2 ) . A f te r t he o r ig ina l p ub l icat ion b y L .J .F .Jans sen ( 1852 ) . S ca le c .2 :3 .

2 5 1

: 2 00

g o ldwe igh t i n n u mber o f c o ins 1 80 -

i mper ium r omanum

2 08 c a400

g erman ia l i be ra

c o ins

I I

1 60 -

j ewe lry

1 40 -

1 20 -

1 00 -

8 0 -

6 0 -

4 0 -

2 0 -

1

F ig . 1 6 .7 :

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

1 0

1

1 2

1 3

1 4

1 5

1 6

1 7

1 8

1 9

2 0

2 1

2 2

2 3

2 4

L ate-Roman g o ld h oards . G o ldwe igh t o f J ewe lry c a lcu lated i n s o l id i o f 4 .5 g rams . A fter B loemers 1 983 , f i g . 3 1 , w ith a dd it ions . Hoards : IG randhan , 2S uar lge , 3F urfooz , 4N i jmegen , 5O bb icht , 6S t .Den i jsWes trem , 7 Wü rse len , 8X anten-Menze len , 9X anten , 1 0 S pradow , I E id inghausen , 1 2 N o ttu ln , 1 3 Kö rbecke , 1 4 G ross-Bodungen , 1 5 E l lerbeck , 1 6 O s tr ich , 1 7 Wes terkappe ln , 1 8 R henen , 1 9 0 1s t , 2 0 K r ietens te in , 2 1 B e i len , 2 2 V e lp I ,2 3 D o r tmund , 2 4 V e lp l .

2 52

2

F ig . 1 6 .8 :

3

4

5

6

7

•

8

•

9

T he d i s tr ibu t ion o f s e t t lements ( c .AD 4 25-750 ) i n t he e as te rn r i ve r a rea : 1 7 s ee F ig . 1 6 .2 , 8( p o ss ib le ) l a rge s e tt lement , 9s e t t lement . S ca le 1 : 300 ,000 .

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c haracte r is t ics s eem t o h ave b een d eve loped i n t he r i ve r a rea a s w e l l a nd t hey h ave e ar l ier b een d escr ibed a s ' l owe r R hen ish g rey s i g i lI o ta d er iva t ives ' .9 T here a re v ar ious o ther i n d icat ions f o r t he n ew a nd v iab le m ixture o f R oman a nd G e rman ic e lements i n t he F rank ish s oc iety i n a nd a round t he r i ve r a rea . I n a ny c ase t he f o rmer a nd r a ther e ga l itar ian G erman ic t r iba l g roups h ad b ecome a d i s t inct ly s t ra t if ied s oc iety . B u t f urthe r d eve lopments w ere n o t t o t ake p lace i n t he r i ve r a rea . F rom t he e ar ly 5 th c entury w e h ave a n umber o f g o ld h oards , c onta in ing c harac ter is t ic g o ld t orcs ( F ig . 1 6 .6 ) , u ndoub ted ly manufactured f rom me lted d own s o l id i a nd s ome k ind o f s tatus s ymbo l o f F rank ish c h ie fta ins . B loemers h as r ecent ly p rov ided a n o verv iew o f s uch h oards ( B loemers 1 983 ) , i n c lud ing a f ew e ar l ier o nes . Two mo re h ave b een a dded t o t h is o n F ig .16 .7 . A par t f rom t he i n teres t ing d i fference i n t he c ompos it ion o f t he g o ld h oards w ith in a nd o uts ide t he R oman f ront ie r , i ti sa l so r e levant t hat f our o f t he f i ve l a rges t h oards , t he t wo f rom V e lp i n t he D u tch r i ver a rea a nd t he t wo f rom X anten i n G e rmany , w ere b u r ied p rec ise ly a t t he f ront ier , a lmos t o n t he b ank o f t he R h ine . Is ee n o r eason w hy t hese c ou ld n o t a l l h ave b een t he t hesaur i o f F rank ish c h iefta ins o r , w e m ight s ay , l e sser k ings . T he ir u nfo rtuna te o wners may w e l l h ave b een k i l led i n t he e vents l e ad ing t o o r d ur ing t he F rank ish move s outhward . I n a bout AD 4 50 , t he S a l i i h ad a l ready e s tab l ished a k ingdom r each ing a s f ar s outh a s t he r i ver S om me i n F rance u nder C h log io o r C lo io , t he f i rs t o f t he Merov ing ian k i ngs w e k now b y n ame . T h is c an b e p ro f itab ly s een a s as econd s tep t owards s tate f o rmat ion , b y c reat ing a l a rger a nd mo re v iab le p o l ity . T he f i rs t s tep , o f c ourse , h ad b een t he move i n to t he f o rme r c iv itas B a tavo rum w h ich c an i n many w ays b e s een a s t he n urse ry o f t he F rank ish k i ngdom . A fter a l l , i t w as t he r oya l l i neage o f t he S a l i i , t he Me rov ing ians , w hose members l a ter b ecame R ex F ranco rum , a nd i t w a s t he ir l aw , t he L ex S a l ica , w h ich l a te r b ecame F rank ish l aw . O n t he o the r h and , t h is c ou ld p art ly h ave b een , a s i tw ere , ah i s to r ica l a cc ident , c aused b y t he p e rsona l i n f luence a nd c apac it ies o f Me rov ing ians s uch a s C h i lder ic a nd e spec ia l ly h i s s on C h lodoweg w ho u n if ied t he d i fferent g roup s i n to o ne F rank ish k ingdom a nd t hereby c omp leted t he p rocess o f s tate f o rmat ion . T hese d eve lopments , h oweve r , d id n o t t ake p lace i nt he r i ve r a rea b u t i nB e lg ium a nd F rance . F rom a s uprareg iona l p erspect ive , t he D utch d e lta w as n o l o nger o f s t rateg ic i mpo rtance w hen i t c eased t o b e a t rade c o rr ido r f o r t ransports b etween B r ita in a nd t he R h ine land , a nd a b u ffe r a rea b etween G au l a nd G e rman ia L ibera . A fte r ab r ief p er iod o f b e ing a c entre d eve lopments a s a f ront ier z one , h ab itat ion o f t he r eg ion i n t he l a ter 5 th a nd 6 th c entu r ies i s a rchaeo log ica l ly a lmos t , t hough n o t e nt ire ly , i mpercep t ib le . T he p a lyno log ica l e v idence ( F ig . 1 6 .5 ) c onf irms t h is , w ith a n i n c rease o f f o res t a nd d ec rease o f c u lture i n d icato rs n ow r each ing B ronze A ge l e ve ls . T he r i ve r a rea r ega ined i t s i mpo rtance o n ly s l ow ly f rom t he 7 th c entury o nwa rds . An umbe r o f s ett lements were c ont inuous ly i n hab ited , i n c lud ing N i jmegen w h ich r ema ined a p er iphera l F rank ish s t rongho ld . B ut mos t s ett lements o n t he d i s tr ibu t ion map o f Merov ing ian s i tes ( F ig . 1 6 .8 ) w h ich s hows a n i n crease c ompared t o t he L ate-Roman P er iod , d o i n f ac t d ate t o t he 7 th a nd e ar ly 8 th c entur ies . T hey a re t he r esu lt o f t he g radua l r e integ rat ion o f t he e nt ire r i ver a rea i n t he F rank ish k i ngdom , ap rocess w h ich w as c omp leted b y t he f i na l v ic tory o f t he F ranks o ve r t he F r is ians i n AD 7 20 . A fte r t hat , t he f avourab le g eograph ica l p os it ion o f t he r eg ion l e d t o r ap id e conom ic d eve lopment a nd s t imu lated t he h eyday o f C aro l ing ian D ores tad a s a n i n ternat iona l p o r t o f t r ade . B ut t h is i s t he s tart o f an ew c yc le o f d eve lopments w h ich c ont inues s moo th ly b eyond t he e nd o f t he f i rs t m i l lenn ium .

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NOTES I . F o r a n i n troduct ion , s ee V an E s 1 977 . 2 . F o r a n e ncompass ing o verv iew , w ith r e ferences t o a l l r e levant r ecent a nd o lder p ub l icat ions , s ee W i l lems 1 986 . T he s a me i n fo rmat ion c an b e f ound i nt wo a rt ic les i nt he B e r ichten ROB ( W i l lems 1 98 1 a nd 1 984 ) . 3 . Mü l ler-W i l le & O ldens te in 1 98 1 h ave c omp i led a n o verv iew o f s uch r eg iona l i n vento r ie s i nG e rmany a nd t he N ether lands . 4 . T he o r ig ina l map i si n c luded i nW i l lems 1 98 1 a nd 1 986 , A ppend ix 3 . 5 . W i l lems 1 984 , 2 34 -237 ; 1 986 , 3 94-397 . B atav ian a ux i l iary t roops b efo re AD 7 0 n umbered n ine q u ingenary c ohortes e qu itatae a nd o ne a la q u ingenar ia , t o w h ich s hou ld b e a dded c . 5 00 B atav ians emp loyed i nR ome a s c o rpo r is c ustodes , t he empero r 's mounted b odyguard ( n umerus B atavorum ) . 6 . Af u l l d i scuss ion i sp rov ided i nW i l lems 1 986 , c hapte r II . 7 . F or f urther d i scuss ion , s ee W i l lems 1 983 , 14120 . 8 . P anegyr ic i L at in i V I ( V I I) , 5 : P anegyr icus C ons tan t ino A ugus to . S ee W i l lems 1 984 , 2 49 b u t a l so Kön ig 1 98 1, 5 1-2 f o r f urther r e ferences . 9 . S ee W i l lems 1 98 1, 1 7 1177 . B ib l iog raphy B loemers , J .H .F . , 1 983 . " Accu lturat ion i nt he R h ine/Meuse B as in i nt he R oman P er iod : aP re l im inary S urvey" , i nR .W . B randt & J . S lo fs tra ( e ds . ) , Roman a nd Na t ive i nt he L ow Countr ies : S phe res o f I n teract ion . B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l R epo rts , I n terna t iona l S er ies , 1 84 ; ( Ox fo rd ) : 1 59-209 . B öhme , H .W . , 1 974 . Ge rman ische G rab funde d es 4 .b i s 5 .J ahrhunde rts zw ischen u nterer E lbe u nd L o ire : S tud ien z ur C hrono log ie u nd B evö lkerungsgesch ichte ( München ) . B ogaers , J .E . &J .K . H aa lebos , 1 983 . " Op Z oek n aar c as te l lum i n Woerden" , S p iege l H is tor iae l 1 8 : 3 02-309 . D r inkwater , J .F . , 1 983 . R oman Gau l . T he t hree p rov inces , 5 8 BC-AD 2 60 ( London ) . G roenman-van Waater inge , W . , 1 986 . " The H o rrea o f V a lkenburg Z .H ." , i nC . U nz ( ed . ) , S tud ien z u d en M i l itärgrenzen Roms I ( S tuttgart ) : 1 59168 . H offman , D . , 1 969 . Das S pä tröm ische B ewegungshee r u nd d ie No t it ia D ign itatum ( Düsse ldo rf ) . H opk ins , K . , 1 980 . " Taxes a nd t rade i nt he R oman emp ire" , J ou rna l o f Roman S tud ies 7 0 : 1 0 1125 . J anssen , L .J .F . , 1 852 . " Ove r d e g ouden h a lsbanden e n r i ngen t e V e lp g evonden" , B i jdragen v oor v ade r landsche g esh ieden is e n o udhe idkunde 8 : 1 6 1180 . Kön ig , 1 . , 1 98 1. D ie g a l l ischen U surpatoren v on P os tumus b is T etr icus ( München ) . L uttwak , E .N . , 1 976 . T he G rand S trategy o f t he Roman Emp ire ( Ba lt imo re a nd L ondon ) . Macmu l len . R . , 1 984 . " The R oman Empero rs ' A rmy C os ts" , L atomus 4 3 : 5 7 1-580 .

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Mü l ler-W i l le , M . &J . O ldens te in , 1 98 1. " D ie L änd l iche B es ied lung d es Um landes v on Ma inz i ns pä tröm ischer u nd f rühm itte la iter l iche r z e it" . B er icht d er Röm isch-German ischen Komm iss ion 6 2 : 2 6 1-3 16 . T eun isses , D . ( e d . ) , 1 982 . 2 2e B e lg isch-Neder landse P a lyno logendagen N i jmegen , 3 0 s ep tember e n 1o ktober 1 982 ( N i jmegen ) . V an E s , W .A . , 1 977 . " Das N ieder länd ische F lus sgeb iet v an d er Römerze it b i s i n s M itte la lte r : e in a rchäo log isches F o rschungsp rogramm" , B e ihe ft z um B er icht d er Röm isch-German ischen Komm iss ion 5 8 : 1 05126 . W i l lems , W .J .H . , 1 98 1. " Romans a nd B atav ians . Ar eg iona l S tudy i nt he D utch E astern R iver A rea , 1 " , B er ichten ROB 3 1 : 7 -2 17 . W i l lems , W .J .H . , 1 983 . " Romans a nd B atav ians : R eg iona l D eve lopments a t t he I mper ia l F ront ie r" , i n R .W . B rand t & J . S lofstra ( eds . ) Romans a nd Nat ive i n t he L ow Countr ies : S phe res o f I n terac t ion , B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l R epo rts , I n terna t iona l S e r ies , 1 84 ( Oxfo rd ) : 1 05128 . W i l lems , W .J .H . , 1 984 . " Romans a nd B atav ians . AR eg iona l S tudy i nt he D utch E as tern R ive r A rea , 1" , B er ichten ROB 3 4 : 3 9-33 1. W i l lems , W .J .H . , 1 986 . Romans a nd B atav ians . A Reg iona l S tudy i nt he D utch E astern R iver A rea ( Amersfoo rt ) .

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I i . AUTHOR ITY AND CONT INU ITY Mart in B idd le I t i s r e markab le t o r eca l l h ow r ecent ly d i scuss ion o f c ont inu ity b etween l a te Roman B r ita in a nd e ar ly med ieva l E ng land h as a r isen , a nd h ow l o ng t he c ont inu ity p rob lem h as b een d i scussed e l sewhere . T he F irst Wo r ld War b rought a s udden e nd t o t he E uropean c ontext o f E ng l ish h i stor ica l s cho larsh ip , t o t he d ays o f w ine a nd r oses w hen S eebohm a nd V inogradoff c ou ld e xp lore t he o r ig ins o f i n su lar i n st itut ions i nt he s ett ing o f ab road c om mon e xper ience . No t u nt i l we l l a fter t he S econd Wor ld War , h a lf a c entury l a ter , d id i ta ga in s eem r easonab le t o s ugges t , a t l e as t a s ab as is f o r d i scuss ion , t hat E ng land may h ave emerged f rom L ate A nt iqu ity i n w ays n ot w ho l ly u n l ike t hose i n w h ich t he o ther n ascent s tates o f e ar ly med ieva l E urope a rose f rom t he d ecay ing l andscapes ( i f d ecay ing t hey r ea l ly were ) a nd mutat ing i n s t itut ions o f l a te I mper ia l a utho r ity . T he mechan isms o f c ont inu ity ( and t hey a re t he s a me a s t hose w h ich w i l l d ef ine d i scont inu ity ) a re n ow b e ing s ought i np erhaps f our b road a reas : i n t he d escent o f s ecu lar a utho r ity , a s r ef lected i n t he u se o f t rad it iona l s eats o f p ower a nd i ne v idence f o r t he c ontro l o f t err itor ies ; 2 .

i nt he p ers istence o f C hr is t ian p ract ice , e spec ia l ly i nt he c u lt o f s a ints ;

3 . i nt echno logy a nd r esource s upp ly ; 4 . a nd e spec ia l ly i n t he u se a nd management o f t he l a nd i t se lf . T he w ho le q ues t ion d emands t he mos t s crupu lous c are i n t he d ef in it ion o f c oncepts a nd p rob lems , a nd n ot l eas t i n w hat w e w ish t o i mp ly b y ' c ont inu ity ' , ' d iscont inu ity ' , ' d ec l ine ' , ' d ecay ' , ' c hange ' , a nd ' g rowth ' . D iscuss ion o f u rban c ont inu ity h as l o ng b een p lagued , a s i s w e l l k nown , b y af a i lure t o d i st ingu ish b etween t he c ont inu ity o f u rban l i fe w ith a l l t hat t hat i mp l ies , o n t he o ne h and , a nd c ont inu ity o f o ccupat ion o f n on-urban c haracter i n f ormer t owns , o n t he o ther . We h ave c ome t o r ea l ise t oo t hat c ont inu ity ( i f s uch t here w as ) may b e s een n ot i n t he p ers is tence o f o ccupat ion o r a ny o ne p art icu lar s po t , b e i t i n c ountry o r t own , b ut r athe r i n t he c ont inued u se o f t err itory ( wh ich may i t se lf p ers ist w ith in c onstant b oundar ies ) f rom s h ift ing c entres o f a ctua l s ett lement . We h ave t herefore t o c onfront t he p aradox t hat s i te d i scont inu ity may b e t he s urest s i gn t o l ook e l sewhere , i f( t hat i s ) w e a ccept a s a n a x iom t hat b y a nd l a rge t he l and h as r e ma ined i n u se . A nd t hat , i t s eems t o me , i s p erhaps t he s i ng le mos t i mportant l e sson o f t he l a st d ecades . I t i ss een f or e xamp le i n t he p o l len d iagrams f o r c ha lk Wessex w here t he c erea l c ount i sc ont inuous , s omet i mes ( e .g . i n t he W inches ter a rea ) a t ah igh l e ve l ; d esp ite a r e lat ive d ec l ine e l sewhere i n Wessex i n t he l a te R oman p er iod , f o l lowed b y a r ecovery a l ready i n t he s i xth/seventh c entury , c erea l p o l len a nd h ence a rab le c u lt ivat ion , d oes n o t f a l l o ff u nt i l t he r unn ing o f s heep t akes o ver f rom c ropp ing i n t he c entra l m idd le a ges ( Waton 1 982 ) . I n t he p apers w h ich f o l low , a nd e ven more i n t he s y mpos ium i t se lf ( f or s evera l a utho rs h ave n ot b een a b le t o s ubm it p apers f or p ub l icat ion ) , we e xp lored t hese p rob lems i n t he c i ty ( York a nd C anterbury ) , i n t he c ountrys ide ( Yorksh ire a nd Northamptonsh ire ) , a nd i n t echno logy o r e thnotechno logy a s L eo B iek s uggests we s hou ld c a l l t h is p art icu lar w ay o f l ook ing a t t echno log ica l o r ig ins a nd c hange .

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Wha t a l l t he p apers s howed w as h ow r ap id ly t he s t ate o f t he c ont inu ity q ue s t ion i s n ow d eve lop ing , a nd h ow c omp lex a nd mu lt i-d isc ip l inary a re t he w ay s o f i n ves t iga t ing i t . S ad ly t he p ressures o n a cadem ic f und ing i n t wo c ont inents p revented t he p lanned p ar t ic ipa t ion o f H en r i G a l in ie ( F rance ) , H ayo V ie rck ( Federa l R epub l ic o f G ermany ) , a nd P e te r We l ls ( USA ) w ho w ou ld h ave w idened o ur p e rspec t ives b ackwo rds t o t he I r on A ge a nd more b road ly a cross E urope -b ut f o r t h is w e mus t l o ok f o rward t o f u ture meet ing s o f t he S ympos ium . B ib l iog raphy Wa ton , P au l V . , 1 982 . ' Man 's I mpact o n t he C ha lk lands : S ome N ew P o l len E v idence ' , i n Mart in B e l l a nd S usan L imbrey ( e ds . ) , A rchaeo log ica l A spec ts o f Wood land E co logy . ( B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l R epo rts , I n ternat iona l S e r ies 1 46 ; O x fo rd ) : 7 5-9 1.

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1 8 . A FRAMEWORK FOR S AXON EV IDENCE FROM NORTHAMPTONSH IRE G lenn F oard S ummary Over t he p as t d ecade t here h as b een a d ramat ic i nc rease i n t he amount o f a rchaeo log ica l e v idence f o r t he S axon p er iod . T h is i sn owhere mo re t rue t han i n Northamptonsh ire , where l a rge n umbers o f S axon s ett lements h ave b een d iscovered , ma in ly b y f i e ldwa lk ing , a nd where ma jo r e xcavat ions h ave r evea led l o ng s equences o f S axon o ccupat ion o n s evera l s i tes . T he n ew s t rat ig raph ic e v idence i sa l so a l low ing a r ef inement o f p o ttery d a t ing t o p rov ide f o r t he f i rst t ime a s ound c hrono logy f o r a rchaeo log ica l e v idence f rom t he 6 th t o t he II t h c entur ies . S uch n ew i n fo rmat ion h as l ed t o t he a bandonment o f many l ong h e ld b e l ie fs a bout t he o r ig ins o f t he E ng l ish mano r a nd v i l lage . T h is h as o ccurred a t a t ime when q ues t ions a re a l so b e ing r a ised a s t o t he t rue n ature o f t he s ett lement , a dm in is tra t ion a nd e conomy o f L ate Roman B r ita in . Reece ( 1980 ) f o r e xamp le s ees a c hange f rom a t own b ased t o av i l la a nd v i l lage b ased s ystem i n t he 3 rd c entury , a nd a L a te Roman p atte rn wh ich i s " none o ther t han t he E ng l ish l andscape w ith i t sv i l lages o f t he 7 th o r 8 th c entur ies" . F or t he moment t he 5 th c entury w i l l r ema in a s hadowy t ime , ma in ly b ecause o f o ur i nab i l ity t o i s o late t he p ottery o f t he p er iod , a nd s o i ti sd i ff icu lt a t p resen t t o t ack le t he q ues t ions o f c ont inu ity d i rect ly . What we c an d o i st o b u i ld s ound f oundat ions o n e i ther s i de o f t he d iv ide , d eterm in ing t he c hang ing c harac ter o f t he l andscape i n t he 3 rd t o 4 th c entur ies , a nd t he 6 th t o II t h c entur ies . I n t h is way we c an d e f ine mo re c lose ly t he f ramework w ith in wh ich a ny c ont inu ity s hou ld b e s ought . An i mpor tant r equ iremen t i s a mode l w ith in wh ich t o v iew t he a rchaeo log ica l e v idence f or S axon No rthamp tonsh ire , wh ich t hen p robab ly c ompr ised s evera l M idd le Ang l ian p rov inces . T he mode l h as b een d eve loped b y p ro ject ing d ocumented a dm in is tra t ive a nd e cc les iast ica l r e lat ionsh ips , r eco rded ma in ly i n t he Med ieva l p er iod , b ack t owa rds t he u ndocumented M idd le S axon . B ecause t he mode l h as b een d eve loped s o le ly f rom d ocumentary e v idence i t c an b e e ffec t ive ly t es ted a ga ins t t he a rchaeo log ica l a nd p lacename e v idence w ithout c i rcu la r a rgument . D raw ing h eav i ly u pon t he wo rk o f G lanv i l le J ones . Cam a nd o thers a n a dm in is trat ive h ie rarchy h as b een p roposed r unn ing f rom t he p rov ince , t hrough t he s oke o r t un ( G lanv i l le J ones 's mu lt ip le e state ) , d own t o t he l oca l ' manor ' a nd t hen t he i nd iv idua l f arms . T he ' s oke ' a ppears t o b e t he f undamenta l u n it o f o rgan isa t ion . Compar ison o f t he d i str ibut ion o f t he s oke c entres w ith t he p lacename e v idence h as s hown a s ign if icant r e la t ionsh ip w ith t he e lement ' b urh ' . L im ited a rchaeo log ica l a nd d ocumentary e v idence m igh t s uppo r t a n i n terpretat ion o f M idd le o r e ven E ar ly S axon d efended r es idences a ssoc iated w ith t he s okes . T here a lso a ppears t o b e a c o rre lat ion w ith t he d i s tr ibut ion o f u nwa l led Roman sma l l t owns , o r a t l eas t ma jo r v i l las t o wh ich t hey may h ave b een a ttached . Hence a t t h is l eve l a dm in istrat ive c ont inu ity r ema ins a p oss ib i l ity . A t t he l ower l eve l , i n c ontras t , t he v i l lage a nd t ownsh ip a nd o pen f i e ld s ys tem s een i n t he Med ieva l p er iod , a nd o ften u sed a s t he p attern a ga inst wh ich t he Roman d ata i s v iewed w hen l ook ing f or c ont inu ity , may b e t he r esu lt o f r eorgan isat ion a nd s ubd iv is ion o ccurr ing i nt he L ate S axon p er iod . A s p ar t o f t he Rounds A rea P ro ject d eta i led i n format ion i s b e ing c o l lec ted f rom t he v i l lage , h am lets a nd s urround ing l andscape o f Rounds wh ich may a ss ist i n t he d eve lopment o f i deas o n t he n ature o f t he a dm in is trat ive a nd s et t lement p at tern wh ich p receded a ny l a te S axon r eorgan isat ion . A s im i la r s tudy o f t he Roman l andscape i n t he s ame a rea i sa lso u nder way . I tr ema ins t o b e s een whethe r t h is 2 59

a rchaeo log ica l e v idence w i l l a l low a ny mean ing fu l e xam inat ion o f t he q ues t ion o f c ont inu ity a t t h is ' l oca l ' l eve l . UN CADRE DE TRAVA IL POUR L 'ETUDE DES DONNEES ARCHEOLOG IQUES DE L 'EPOQUE S AXONNE DANS LE NORTHAMPTONSH IRE L es d ix d ern ie rs a rmies o nt v u u ne a ugmenta t ion q uant ita t ive c ons ide rab le d es e l ements d ' info rmat ion a rcheo log iques c oncernant P ipoque S axonne . C ec i e s t t out p art icu l ie rement v ra i p our l e No rthamptonsh ire o ü u n g rand n omb re d ' hab itants o nt e t ed ecouverts , e ssent ie l lement p ar p rospec t ion e n s urface , e t o ü d es f ou i l les i mpo rtantes o n t r 6 v e ie , s ur p lus ieurs s i tes , d es t races d ' occupat ions s ucce ss ives d urant P epoque S axonne . D e n ouve l les d onnees s t rat ig raph iques o nt e t eega lement p erm is u n o ff i nement d e l a d atat ion d e l a p o te r ie d e P epoque , f ourn issan t a ins i , p our l a p rem ie re f o is , u n b ar e rne c hrono log ique s o l ide ä P archeo log ie d u s i x i eme s ik les . C es d ecouve rtes n ouve l les o nt meneä l ' abandon d e c onv ic t ions l ong temps r econnues q uant GUX o r ig ines d e l aS e igneur ie ( mano r ) e t d u v i l lage a ng la is . C ec i s urv ien t a u moment o ü l a c ompos it ion v e r itab le d e l ' hab itat , d e l ' adm in is t rat ion , e t d e P econom ie e n G rande-B retagne ä l a f i n d e P epoque Roma ine , e s t r em ise e n q ues t ion . Reece ( 1980 ) , f or e xemp le , p erc o i t u n c hangement d 'un s yser ne u rba in äu ne o rgan isat ion b as ic s ur l a v i l la e t f v i l lage a u c ours d u t ro is ie rne s i èc le , a bout is sant ä u n s che rn a , äl a f i n d e P epoque R oma ine , q ue ' Wes t a utre q ue l e p aysage a ng la is d u s ep t ie rne a u n euv ieme s ik les , a vec s es v i l lages" . P our l ' i ns tant , l e c inqu ieme s iè c le r es te a ssez o bscur , p r inc ipo lement a c ause d e n o tre i ncapac ite d ' iso ler l ap o ter ie d e r epoque . Ie s t d one e xtr e rnement d i ff ic i le äp re sen t d ' aborde r d i rectement l e s p rob l e rnes d e c ont inu ite . Ce q u i e st p os s ib le , e n r evanche , c ' es t d e c onstru ir : - d e s o l ides f onda t ions d e p art e t d ' autre d e c e s iè c le c harn ie re , e n d e te rm inan t l e s c aracte res e vo lut ifs d u p aysage d u t ro is i eme e t q uantr ie rne s i ec les , e t d u s i x ieme a u o nz i e rne s ik les . D e c ette man i e re , n ous p ouvons d e f in ir p lu s p rec isement l e c adre d e t rava i l d ons l eque l l e p rob leme d e c ont inu itedev ra it e tre a bo rde . L a p rem i e re n ecess ite e s t u n s ys te rne mode le c ontre l eque l l e s d onnees a rcheo log iques s ur P epoque S axonne d uns l e No rthamptonsh ire , q u i a lo rs e ng loba it p lus ieurs p rv ince d e M id-Ang l ia , p u issent e tre e xam inees . Ce s ys teme mode le a e t e c onstru it e n p ro jetant s ur P epoque S axonne p our l aque l le l e s s ources e c r ite s f on t d e faut , d es e l t inents d ' informat ion s ur l ' o rgan isat ion a dm in is trat ive e t e cc le s ias t ique r ecue i l l is s ur d es d ocuments d 'o r ig ine med ie va le p our l a p lupart . E tant e n t i e remen t b ase s ur l e s s ources &r ite s , c e s ys teme mode le p eu t e tre d i rec tement c ompare a u d onnees a rch eo log iques s ans r i sque d ' argu rnent c ircu la ire . F o rtement i n sp ire d es t ravaux d e G lanv i l le J ones , Cams , e t d ' autres , u ne h ierarch ie a dm in is trat ive a e t e a vancie : h i P rov ince , l e " Soke" o u " Tun" ( l e d oma ine mu lt ip le d e G lanv i l le J ones ) , l a S e igneur ie l oca le ( Mano r ) , e t l a f e rme i nd iv idue l le . L e " Soke" s emb le c ons t ituer P un ite f ondamenta le d u s ys t eme . L 'ana lyse c ompara t ive d e l ar epart it ion g eograph ique d es c hefs l i eux d e " Soke" e t d e l eur t oponym ie a m is e n e v idence u ne c onnec t ion s ign if icatr ice a vec K lement " Burh" . L es d onnees d e P archeo log ie e t d es s ources e c r ites , q uo ique p ourra ien t a rgumenter e n f aveur d ' une a ssoc iat ion t heo r ique e ntre l e s r e s idences f or t if iä es d u h au t e t moyen S axon e t l e s "S akes" . U ne c orre lat ion a vec l a r epart it ion d es p et ites a gg lometrat ions r oma ine s n on f ort if iees , o u d u mo ms c e l le d es v i l las i mpor tan ts d ont c e l les-c i a ura ien t p u dk iendre , p ourra it e ga lement e x ister . Ie s t d onc p os s ib le q u 'une c on t inu ite a dm in is tra t ive a i l e x is t eä c e n iveau . A u n n iveau mo ms

a e v e ,

p ar c ontre , l e v i l lage , l a v i l le , e t l e s ys t eme a g ra ire

m e d ie va l , s ouvent c ompa re a u mode le Roma in d ons l a r echerche d ' une c ont inu i te , p ourra it e n f a it e tre l e r e su ltat d ' une r e -o rgan isa t ion e t s ub-d iv is ion s urvenus ä l a

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f i n d e r epoque S axonne . D ons l e c adre d u " Rounds A rea P ro ject" , d es a e rnents d informat ion a rcheo log iques s ont a ctue l lement r ecue i l l is d ons l e v i l lage mme , ma is a uss i l es h ameaux e t l ac ompagne e nv ironante , q u i p ourront p eut -etre a ider a u d e ve loppement d es i d s q uant a l as t ructure d e l ' adm in is trat ion e t d e l ' hab itat q u i o nt p recede u ne e ventue l le r e -o rgan isat ion ä l a f i n d e r epoque S axonne . Une e lude s emb lab le d e l a c ampagne Roma ine a e te e ga lement e ntrepr ise . Nous v e rrons s i c es c onnees r cheo log iques n ouve l les p ermettrons u ne e tude p os it ive d e l aq uest ion d e c ont inu iteä c e n iveau " loca l" . O ve r t he p as t d ecade t here h as b een a d ramat ic i ncrease i n i n fo rmat ion o n S axon s e tt lement , a s a r esu lt o f b oth i n tens ive a nd e xtens ive p rogrammes o f f i e ld s u rvey a nd ma jo r e xcavat ions . I ndeed , we n ow p robab ly k now f ar more a bou t t he a rchaeo logy o f t he e ar ly a nd m idd le S axon p er iods t han w e d o a bout t he e ar ly Med ieva l . I n g enera l , S axon s i tes h ave b een c hosen f o r e xcavat ion b ecause t hey w ere s imp ly t here a nd w ere u nder t hreat . S im i lar ly t he d ata r ecovered f rom f i e ld s urvey h as u sua l ly b een a ccumu lated t hrough p rogram mes o f f i e ldwa lk ing d etern i i n ed , a t b es t , b y v ery g enera l c r iter ia o f mu lt i-per iod s i te i dent if icat ion . When k nown s i tes were f ew s uch a n a pproach was u ndoub ted ly v a l id . Now w e a re a b le , t hrough f i e ld s urvey , t o i dent ify many S axon s ett lements , t ota l ly u nstructured d ata c o l lect ion i sn o l o nger a ppropr iate . S axon s oc iety w as h igh ly s t rat if ied a nd t h is s hou ld b e r ef lected i n ah ierarchy o f s et t lement . T here i sa n eed t o u nderstand t he s t ructure o f t hat s ett lement h ierarchy , a nd t o b e a b le t o i d ent ify t he s i tes i n e ach l eve l , b efore we c an f u l ly u nders tand t he a rchaeo log ica l e v idence t hat i s b e ing r ecovered f rom a ny s pec if ic s i te . I n d iv idua l e xcavated s i tes c annot p rov ide mode ls f or a l l s i tes . F o r e xamp le , Wharram P ercy w i l l n o t e xemp l ify t he e vo lut ion o f e very n uc leated s ett lement . I tw as a n e state c entre w ith d ependent t ownsh ips w ith in i t s p ar ish a nd i ta ppears , f rom p lacename e v idence , t hat t here w as a l so a n a s y et u ndeterm ined r e lat ionsh ip d ur ing t he S axon p er iod w ith a t l e ast o ne o ther p ar ish , Wharram l e S t reet . Roman t o S axon c ont inu ity d emonstrated a t Wharram may p rove a n i mportant mode l , b ut o n ly p erhaps a t t he l eve l o f manor ia l e s tate c entre . U nt i l w e s pec if ica l ly s a mp le s i tes a t e ach l eve l , t he e v idence f o r many a spects o f t he o rgan isat ion o f t he p er iod w i l l r ema in p oor ly u nders tood . What i s r equ ired i sa mode l w h ich w i l l e nab le t he c lass if icat ion o f s i tes a nd p rov ide a f ramewo rk f or s amp l ing a nd p reservat ion . A rchaeo log ica l e v idence f or t he S axon p er iod i sa t p resent i n suff ic ient ly d eta i led o r e xtens ive , a s c ompared t o t he Roman w here a h ierarchy o f s i tes c an b e r ecogn ised , t o a l low t he d ef in it ion o f a p ure ly a rchaeo log ica l ly b ased s i te c lass if icat ion . E ven i f s uch a c lass if icat ion c ou ld b e a rr ived a t i t wou ld b e i g nor ing t he u n ique p otent ia l o ffered b y t he f i rs t m i l lenn ium AD , t he o n ly p er iod i n l ow land E ng land where a s i gn if icant i ndependent d ata s ource f rom d ocuments c an b e a pp l ied t o a r ed is tr ibut ive e conomy a nd k in b ased s oc iety . F or many y ears h i stor ians a nd h i sto r ica l g eog raphe rs h ave b een d eve lop ing i deas o n t he o rgan isat ion o f S axon s oc iety . T hese i deas c an p rov ide t he b as is f or e xact ly t he k ind o f mode ls w h ich w e r equ ire t o s t ructure o ur a rchaeo log ica l s tud ies . A lthough Med ieva l a rchaeo logy h as f os tered l i nks b etween h i s tor ian , h i s tor ica l g eographer a nd a rchaeo log ist , t h is a pproach h as b een g eared p r i mar i ly t o t he p os t-conquest p er iod a nd e ven t hen o n ly u sua l ly a pp l ied a t t he s i te l e ve l o r t o p lace a n i nd iv idua l s i te w ith in a w ider c ontext . A s tudy i sr equ ired o n an at iona l s ca le t o t ake t he e v idence a l ready p ub l ished , i n t he VCH v o lumes , i n o ther l oca l h i stor ies a nd i n works b y C am a nd o thers , t o p lace i tw ith in a t ru ly g eograph ica l f ramework , a nd t o u se t h is a s t he s tart ing p o int f or t he c reat ion o f a n ' a rchaeo log ica l g eography ' f o r t he I s t m i l len ium AD . Rescue a rchaeo logy i n p art icu lar h as b een s l ow i nc om ing t o t erms w ith t he n eed f or s uch a n a pproach , a nd i na pp ly ing i deas b e ing d eve loped i na cadem ic c i rc les t o t he d eterm inat ion o f p r ior it ies f or r escue f i e ldwork , wh ich i sn ow b y f ar t he g reates t p roducer o f n ew 2 6 1

i n fo rmat ion , a nd f o r t he p rese rvat ion o f w hat w i l l b e t he d atabase f o r f uture a rchaeo log is ts . T he a pp l ica t ion t o r escue a rchaeo logy o f t hese h i sto r ica l a nd g eograph ica l mode ls w i l l o f c ourse r equ ire c arefu l c ons ide ra t ion b y t he h i s tor ians w ith s pec ia l is t k now ledge o f t he d a ta , a nd s o i ti si mpo rtant t hat t hey b e mo re d i rect ly i n vo lved i n t he p rocess o f d ete rm in ing a rchaeo log ica l p r io r it ie s . I n o ur w o rk w e h ave a t temp ted t o t ake i d eas b e ing d eve loped i n h i sto r ica l a nd g eograph ica l f i e lds , a nd t o a pp ly t hem t o t he d ef in it ion o f p r io r it ies f o r r escue a rchaeo logy i n No rthamptonsh ire . I n ar ecent p aper ( Foard 1 985 ) w e p roposed a n a dm in is tra t ive a nd s ett lement mode l f or S axon No rthamptonsh ire , w h ich i s b r ief ly s ummar ised b e low ( F ig . 1 8 . 1) . R eg iona l O rgan isat ion T he a pproach c hosen w as b ased u pon i d eas o f t he h undreda l mano r a nd t he mu lt ip le e s ta te b y d i scussed b y C am ( 1 944 ) , J ones ( eg , 1 979 ) a nd o the rs , wh ich h ad b een a pp l ied w ith s ome s uccess e l sewhere . A lthough i n No rthamp tonsh ire , a s i n many o the r c ount ies o f E as tern E ng land , d ocumentry e v idence f r om t he S axon p er iod i sa lmos t n on e x is tant , t he d egree o f c ont inu ity t hrough t he S axon t o t he Med ieva l p er iod w ou ld s eem t o a l low s ome l a te r e v idence t o b e p ro jected b ack , w ith c are , t owards t he M idd le S axon . I n format ion o n p at te rns o f d ependency f rom Med ieva l a nd P os t Med ieva l s ources w as c o l lec ted f r om a s urvey o f s econdary s ources , h i s tor ic maps a nd , mos t i mpo rtant o f a l l , f r om t he D omesday S urvey . A n i n dependant a nd more d eta i led s tudy o f t he e ar ly e cc les ias t ica l o rgan izat ion b e ing u ndertaken b y F rank l in ( 1 985 ) f o r t he RCHM s hou ld e nhance t he mode l a nd c o rrec t s o me o f t he i n accurac ies i n o ur own b r iefer s urvey , f o r t he e cc les ias t ica l h ie rarchy f r equent ly a ppears b o th t o h s cr 'e f o l lowed a nd m irro red t he s ecu lar . Ap attern o f d ependency h as b een r ecovered w h ich , w e w ou ld s ugges t , r ef lects t he f ragmented r ema ins o f ar egu lar p a t tern o f M idd le S axon a dm in is trat ive u n its , f o r w h ich w e h ave u sed t he t erm ' s oke ' , wh ich w ere i n o r ig in t he d i s tr ic ts a dm in is te red f rom a r oya l o r f o rmer ly r oya l c entre , t he k ings ' t un ' o r ' v i l la r ega l is ' . A lthough t he t e rm ' s oke ' , mean ing ( a n a rea o f ) j u r isd ic t ion , d oes n o t a ppear u nt i l t he v ery e nd o f t he S axon p er iod , i ti sp robab ly e qu iva len t t o t he t e rm ' manung ' w h ich d oes a ppear i nt he l aws ( Cam 1 944 , 9 0 ) . I t h as b een a rgued b y v ar ious a utho rs , mos t r ecent ly b y S awye r ( 1983 ) , t ha t t here w as a n etwo rk o f s uch ' t uns ' t h roughou t E ng land w here t axes f o r e ach d i str ic t w e re c o l lected a nd f rom w h ich t he k i ng 's r eeve a dm in is tered j u s t ice . T he d es igna t ion " v i l la r ega l is" may h ave h ad a more f o rma l a dm in is tra t ive m ean ing t han S awye r w ou ld s ugges t . E very e state h e ld b y t he c rown may n o t h ave b een c ons idered a k ings ' t un ' . I ndeed e very k ings ' t un ' n eed n o t h ave b een h e ld b y t he c rown , a t l e ast b y t he l a te S axon p er iod , f o r H ugh C and idus ( Me l lows 1 980 , 3 4 ) r e lates t ha t A bbo t E arnw ig g ave u p " h is r oya l v i lI "o f O lney ( Bucks ) w h ich w as i n t he d emesne o f P ete rbo rough A bbey . A h ighe r l e ve l o f ' p rov inc ia l ' a dm in is tra t ion w as t entat ive ly i d ent if ied w ith c entres a t O und le , K ings S utton a nd No rthampton . T h is t ype o f g roup ing , w h ich e l sewhere i n M idd le A ng l ia may p erhaps b e e qua ted w ith n amed ' t r ibes ' s uch a s t he S topp ingas o r A rrowsaetna , wou ld a ppea r t o h ave b oundar ies w h ich i n tent iona l ly e ncompass a r ange o f e nv ironmenta l s i tuat ions t o g ive a b a lance o f d i fferent r e sources . H ence i n N o rthamptonsh ire , w here wood land a nd g ood a rab le l a nd i sf ound i nc lose p rox im ity b ecause o f t he v ery v ar iab le c harac te r o f t he g eo logy o f t he c ounty , t he u n its a re r e lat ive ly c ompac t . I n Warw icksh ire s uch t e rr itor ies a re f ar mo re e longa ted t o a l low e ach t o h ave a cces s t o t he d i s t inc t a nd d i s tant z ones o f a rab le a nd w ood land , t he F e !don a nd A rden ( Ford 1 979 ) . I n t he ir t u rn t hese ' p rov inces ' w e re g rouped i n to k i ngdoms . No rthamptonsh ire w as p ar t o f t he k ingdom o f t he M idd le A ng les , r u led i n t he m id 7 th c entury b y P eada , s on o f P enda , f o r b y t h is t ime M idd le A ng l ia h ad b een a bso rbed i n to t he e xpand ing Merc ian ' emp ire ' . T h is a dm in istrat ive s ys tem was r ep laced i n t he L ate S axon p er iod w hen t he k i ngs o f Wessex i mposed a n ew 2 62

F ig . I 8 .I : S axon N o r thamp tonsh ire .

2 63

s ys tem o f t he Hundreds a nd S h ires , f o l low ing t he ir r econquest o f t he D ane law , c rea t ing a more f u l ly i n tegrated n at iona l a dm in is trat ive s ystem . T he c on jectura l M idd le S axon a dm in istrat ive p attern w as c ompared t o t he t wo i n dependent d ata b ases p rov ided b y a rchaeo logy a nd p lacenames , a nd t o t he h andfu l o f c ontemporary d ocumentry r eferences . Remarkab ly b oth c ompar isons y ie lded c lose t hough n o t p erfect p attern ing . T he p lacenames y ie lded t he i mportant c o inc idence o f ' t uns ' w ith a ssoc iated ' b urh ' p lacenames , wh ich i t i s s uggested may r epresent e ar ly o r m idd le S axon s e igneur ia l r es idences , n o t t o b e c onfused w ith t he l a te S axon m i l itary b urhs . O ther r e lat ionsh ips were n o ted , s uch a s t he a ssoc iat ion o f a' p reston ' ( p r ies t 's t un ) p lacename w ith ' t uns ' a t F aws ley , Y ard ley H ast ings a nd K ings S utton . I t w as f ound t hat a s i gn if icant r ange o f a rchaeo log ica l e v idence s uppo rted t he e ar ly o r m idd le S axon i mportance o f an umber o f t he c entra l p laces . F o r e xamp le , a n i mportant S axon c hurch s urv ives a t t he r oya l c entre o f B r igstock ; a t Y ard ley H as t ings , wh ich was h e ld b y t he E ar l o f Northampton , e v idence e x ists f or o ccupat ion a round t he manor f r om t he 6 th c entury o nwards . A t D esborough , t he b urh a ssoc iated w ith t he r oya l manor o f R othwe l l , p r ince ly b ur ia ls o f t he e ar ly 7 th c entury h ave b een r ecovered . A lso a t D esborough a nd a t G u i lsborough r ectangu lar e arthworks h ave b een r eco rded w h ich may r epresent t he d efens ive e nc losures o f t he b urhs . S uch e v idence wou ld a ppear t o c onf irm t he e ar ly s tatus o f t he c entra l p laces i d ent if ied f rom t he p atterns o f d ependency , b ut t here i sn eed f or a more f o rma l t es t ing o f t he mode l t hrough d eta i led a rchaeo log ica l i n vest igat ion a t t he c entra l p laces . T h is wou ld n ot o f c ourse p rove t he a nt iqu ity o f t he ' s oke ' i t se lf a nd s o t hought must b e g iven t o i dent ify ing t ypes o f a rchaeo log ica l d ata w h ich m ight b e c o l lected t o c heck t he a nt iqu ity o f t he d ependent t e rr itor ies . A w ider r ang ing r eg iona l r econs truct ion o f t he a dm in istrat ive s t ructure a t t he n at iona l s ca le may w e l l y ie ld o ther i mportant a ssoc iat ions , n ot o n ly w ith a rchaeo log ica l e v idence o f h igh s tatus f rom t he a dm in istra t ive f oc i b ut a l so w ith r egard t o mo re g enera l d i s tr ibut ions . F or e xamp le , at entat ive i n it ia l a na lys is o f t he l a ter 5 th a nd 6 th c entury p o ttery t rad it ions i np art o f M idd le A ng l ia s ugges ts ac o inc idence o f b oundar ies w ith t he O und le/No rthampton p rov inc ia l b oundary w e h ave p roposed ( T . P earson , p ers .com m . ) . A c arefu l r e-exam inat ion o f t he d at ing o f t he S axon c emeter ies i n t he a rea m ight y ie ld s im i lar r esu lts , d emonstrat ing d i ffer ing c u ltura l t rad it ions o n e i ther s i de o f t he b oundar ies , o r p erhaps d i fferent c hrono log ies w h ich m ight r e late t o d i fferent d ates o f c onques t o f t he t err itor ies . Ac urso ry e xam inat ion o f o ne t ype o f a rchaeo log ica l e v idence f o r h igh s tatus e ar ly a nd m idd le S axon s i tes , a nd d ocumentry e v idence f o r a dm in istrat ive g roup ings , p rov ides a n e xamp le o f t he t ypes o f w ider s tudy w h ich m ight b e p ursued . I n ar ecent r ev iew o f t he a va i lab le e v idence o f e ar ly-m idd le S axon s ett lements i n l ow land a nd e astern B r ita in t wo d i st inct t ypes o f s i te , t hought t o r e late t o s tatus , were d ef ined o n t he b as is o f t he s i ze r ange o f t he b u i ld ings p resent ( James , Marsha l l & M i l lett 1 985 ) . T he s i tes f a l l ing i n to t he h igh s tatus c lass i nc lude : Yeaver ing a nd M i l lf ie ld ( Hope-Tay lor 1 977 ) , S prous ton ( S t .Joseph 1 982 ) a nd ( ? ) Doon H i l l ( Hope-Tay lo r 1 972 ) i n t he No rthumbr ian k ingdom o f B ern ic ia ; A tcham ( S t .Joseph 1 975 ) i n Merc ia ; H atton Rock ( Rahtz 1 970 ) , a n ew ly r ecogn ized s i te a t L ong l t ch ington ( Warw icksh ire SMR ) , a nd Northamp ton ( W i l l iams a nd S haw 1 985 ) i n M idd le A ng l ia ; a nd F oxe ly ( H inchc l iffe 1 986 ) a nd C owderys D own i n Wessex ( M inett 1 983 ) . Yeaver ing a nd i t s s uccesso r M i l !f ie ld a re b o th d escr ibed b y B ede a s a v i l la r ega l is ; H atton R ock , l y ing c entra l ly w ith in t he t err itory o f t he S topp ingas , w as p art o f Hampton L ucy , a r oya l e state c entre i n t he 8 th c entury ( Rahtz 1 970 ) ; L ong l t ch ington , l y ing c entra l ly w ith in t he a d jacent t err itory , was a r oya l e state c entre w ith 2 5 manses g ranted t o at hegn b y C anute i n 1 00 1 (Warw icksh ire SMR ; VCH Warw icksh ire , v o l .6 p . 1 25 ; F o rd 1 979 ) , w h i le t he n ext t err ito ry i so ur s uggested ' p rov ince ' o f Northampton w ith i t s ' p a lace ' s t ructure . C owderys D own w as w ith in t he p ar ish 2 64

o f B as ing , a S axon r oya l manor ( M i l lett 1 983 ) , i mmed iate ly a d jacent t o B as ingstoke w h ich h ad s i x Med ieva l h undreds d ependent u pon i t , t hought t o r epresent t he r e mnant o f aS axon ' p rov ince ' ( S tenton 1 947 , 2 97 ) . F oxe ly l i es w ith in 3 km . o f Ma l mesbury , w h ich i sd escr ibed a s ' u rbs ' b y B ede ( Campbe l l 1 979 ) a nd w as t he c entre f or t h ree Med ieva l h undreds ( Cam 1 944 ) . H owever , i ti ss t i l l f ar f rom c lear e xact ly w here i n t he u pper l eve ls o f t he s ett lement a nd a dm in is trat ive h ierarchy t hese s i tes l i e . T he e v idence w ou ld t end a t p resent t o s uppor t t he i d ent if icat ion a s ' p rov inc ia l ' c entres r ather t han s imp ly ' t uns ' a dm in ister ing a s i ng le ' s oke ' , b ut f ar more e v idence must b e r ecovered b o th f rom n ew a nd k nown s i tes b efore t he q ues t ion c an b e r eso lved . S o , f o r e xamp le , t o c a l l t he Northampton b u i ld ing a ' p a lace ' a ssumes a g reat d ea l a bout t he f unct ions o f t he b u i ld ing a nd i ndeed t he s i te , w h ich c anno t a t p resent b e s ubs tant iated . We c annot e ven b e c erta in w hether t he s i tes c onta in ing l a rge h a l ls r epresent t he a dm in istrat ive o r r es ident ia l f oc i b ecause , a s w e h ave s uggested w ith t he p a ir ing o f ' t un ' a nd ' b urh t , t he p resence o f d i fferent f unct ions o n d i fferent s i tes may b e c ommon i n t he S axon p e r iod ; a t t he k ingdom l eve l i n t he h ierarchy , w e f i nd a dm in istrat ive ' c ap ita l ' a nd c ommerc ia l ' w ic ' o n s eparate s i tes . A t Y eaver ing a nd Doon H i l l t here a re p erhaps t he d efended e nc losures t o b e e xpected a t t he b urh , b ut t hese h ave n ot b een i dent if ied o n t he o ther s i tes . I n t h is c ontext i t wou ld b e i mpo rtant t o c ompare s i tes w h ich l i e i n c lose p rox im ity , s uch a s H atton R ock a nd t he a s y et u n located r oya l p a lace a t We l lesbourne . D id t hey s erve t he s a me f unct ions a t t he s a me t ime i nd i fferent s okes? D id o ne h ave a dm in istrat ive a nd t he o ther r es ident ia l f unct ions w ith in w hat was o nce a s i ng le s oke , wh ich f ormed t he c entra l p lace o f t he p rov ince o f t he S topp ingas? A lternat ive ly , was o ne a l a ter r ep lacement f o r t he o ther , a s w e k now w as t he c ase w ith t he 4 km . s h ift f rom Yeaver ing t o M i l lf ie ld? I s i t i n deed r e levant t o t h ink i n t erms o f p rov inc ia l a nd h igher l e ve l ' c ap ita ls ' i n t he e ar ly a nd m idd le S axon p er iod , b ecause o f t he p er ipa tet ic n ature o f k ingsh ip a nd t he f act t hat much o f t he a dm in is trat ion w ou ld h ave moved w ith t he k ing f rom r es idence t o r es idence? I n t he e ar l ier S axon p er iod t he c entres may h ave s erved s ome k ind o f ' t r iba l ' f unct ion b ut , a s L oyn ( 1984 , 1 4 1) p o ints o ut , p erhaps b y t he 7 th a nd c erta in ly b y t he 8 th c entury a d iv is ion i n to r egu lar t axat ion u n its w as e ssent ia l . T h is s ystem wou ld r equ ire c entra l p laces f rom w h ich i tc ou ld b e r un , a nd t he c entra l p laces may b e e xpected t o r ef lect t he ir f unct ions i n t he s t ructures a nd a rt ifacts t hey c onta in . T he ' t un ' w ou ld t herefore h ave b een a n e ssent ia l e lement i n t he a dm in istrat ive h e irarchy , a s t he c entre f o r t he c o l lect ion o f f ood r ents , s erv ices a nd f or t he a dm in is trat ion o f j u st ice , b ut w hat f unct ions wou ld r equ ire t he e x is tence o f s pec ia l h igher l eve l , p rov inc ia l a nd k ingdom , c entres? T ha t w e f i nd s ett lements , l i ke S onn ing , w h ich c arry t he n ames o f d ocumented 7 th o r 8 th c entury p rov inces a nd w h ich , o r l i ke O und le , were i n t he l a te S axon o r Med ieva l p er iod a dm in is trat ive c entres f o r g roups o f h undreds , i mp l ies t hat t h is c entra l p lace f unct ion may b e o f M idd le S axon o r e ar l ier o r ig in . C ompar ison o f t he c haracter o f t he a rchaeo log ica l r e ma ins o n o rd inary ' t uns ' w ith t hose w h ich a re k nown t o h ave b een p rov inc ia l c entres a t al a ter d ate , may a ss is t i n d eterm in ing w hen h igh l eve l a dm in is trat ive f unct ions b ecame a ttached t o s pec if ic s i tes . T he c reat ion o f t he f u l l h ie rarchy may p erhaps h ave b een d eve loped i n r esponse t o t he a dm in istrat ive n eeds o f t he e xpand ing 7 th c entury k ingdoms , b ut o f c ourse i t w as o n ly w ith t he d eve lopment o f t he n at ion s tate d ur ing t he l a te S axon p er iod t hat a s i ng le , f u l ly i n tegra ted s ystem o f n at iona l a dm in is trat ion a ppeared . T he mode l we h ave d ef ined f or Northamptonsh ire i s c once ived i n t erms o f t he r oya l a dm in is trat ion o f ak ingdom a nd s o , e ven i fb road ly c o rrect , i ti so n ly l i ke ly t o b e d i rect ly a pp l icab le i nt he p er iod f o l low ing t he u n if icat ion o f M idd le A ng l ia u nder t he Merc ian k ings . H ence a s ubs tant ia l c onceptua l a s w e l l a s c hrono log ica l g ap s t i l l d iv ides t h is s ys tem f rom t he Roman . I n t he l a ter 5 th a nd 6 th c entur ies , i n M idd le Ang l ia a t l e ast , t he p rov inces ( o r t r eg iones0 were p erhaps t he l a rges t p o l it ica l u n its , a nd t he ir i n terna l o rgan isat ion w as p robab ly b ased f ar more o n k in 2 65

s t ructures . S uch a s ys tem c ou ld s t i l l h owever s uppo rt c entra l p laces , a nd J ones ( 1 983 , 1 64 ) h as s ugges ted t ha t i mpo rtant c entres , s uch a s t he monas te ry a t B r ixwo rth , m ight o r ig inate a s t he ' o rnament o f ak i ndred ' . T he r econstructed m idd le S axon p attern , i f s ubs tant iated b y f u rther i n ves t igat ion , may p rov ide a more s ound f oundat ion u pon w h ich t o e xam ine a dm in is tra t ive c ont inu ity f rom R oman t o S axon . C ompar ison o f t he d i s tr ibu t ion o f S axon ' t un ' a nd R oman ' sma l l t own ' h as s hown a s i gn if icant a ssoc iat ion . Mo reove r , i t wou ld a ppear t hat t he w a l led s ma l l t owns t end t o l i e c lose t o o ur p rov inc ia l b oundar ies , w h i le u nwa l led t owns l i e c lose t o t he c on jectura l p rov inc ia l c entres . T hough t h is may s ugges t a dm in istra t ive c ont inu ity i t d oes n o t p rove t hat c ont inu ity , f o r w e a l so f i nd a n a s soc iat ion n ot o n ly w ith I r on A ge h i l lfo rts b u t a l so n eo l ith ic c ausewayed e nc losures a nd h enges ! O ther f ac to rs may b e a t w o rk . C ons idera t ion o f t he g eo logy o f N o rthamp tonsh ire s hows t ha t mos t c entra l p laces l i e w ith in t he l a rges t a reas o f p ermeab le g eo logy . T h is i s u ndoub ted ly b ecause s uch l a nd s uppo rted a h i gher d ens ity o f p opu lat ion a nd w ea lth t hrough i t s h igher a g r ictu lura l p roduct iv ity , a s c an b e s een f r om Med ieva l t axat ion r eco rds ( Foard , i n p reparat ion ) . A dm in is tra t ive c ont inu ity mus t t herefore b e p roven a rchaeo log ica l ly b y d eta i led w o rk a t t he c entra l p laces . O n o ther e v idence o ne m ight a rgue t hat l a rger t r iba l g roup ings i n t he S axon p er iod o r ig ina ted w ith I r on A ge/Romano-Br it ish t r ibes . F o r e xamp le , as ubstant ia l p art o f w hat w as l a ter t he t e rr ito ry o f t he Hw icce f e l l u nder S axon c ontro l f o l low ing as i ng le b att le i n 5 77 i n w h ich a n a l l iance o f t h ree k ings w as d efeated . T he ' c iv ita tes ' t aken w ere t he t h ree ma jo r t owns o f t he D obunn i . S im i lar ly t he c ap ture o f t he f our ' t uns ' f rom t he B r it ish f o l low ing t he b att le o f B e idanfo rd i n 5 7 1 w ou ld s eem t o r epresent t he t ake o ver o f w hat w as l a ter r eco rded a s t he ' t r ibe ' o f t he C h i lternsaetna . H owever , a ga in i t c ou ld b e s ugges ted t hat t he p atte rn r esu lts f rom e xtens ive a reas o f h igh ly p roduc t ive a g r icu ltura l l a nd g enerat ing t he c ond it ions f o r t he i n dependent c reat ion o f s uch g roup ings i n t he s ame a reas i n b o th p er iods . I n o ther a reas , s uch a s N orthamp tonsh ire , t he a pparent e x is tence o f o n ly s ma l l t r iba l u n its , w h ich w ere e ventua l ly a b so rbed b y e xpand ing k i ngdoms i nb o th p er iods , m ight b e s een a s ar e su lt o f t he p resence o f much s ma l ler c oncentrat ions o f p roduct ive l a nd i n dependent ly g ene rat ing sma l l u n its i n e ach p er iod . I t i s o n ly w ith f i rm a rchaeo log ica l e v idence f r om t he c entra l p laces t ha t t h is q ues t ion o f c ont inu ity o f p o l it ica l o rgan isat ion may b e r eso lved . U s ing t he a dm in istrat ive mode l o ut l ined a bove w e a re b etter p laced t o d ef ine w hat d ata i s r equ ired , a nd f rom w h ich s i tes t h is d ata m ight b e r ecove red , t o d eve lop a n u nders tand ing o f t he o r ig ins a nd o rgan isat ion o f t he S axon a dm in is tra t ive l a ndscape . S o , f o r e xamp le , i tw ou ld n ow a ppear i n adequate t o s t udy i n g reat d eta i l a s i te l i ke t he ' p a lace ' a t No rthampton u n less a mo re c omp le te g roup ing o f s t ruc tures i sl i ke ly t o b e r ecoverab le , f o r s i ng le s t ructures w i l l n o t t e l l o f o ve ra l l s i te f unc t ion . S im lar ly , t he c entra l p lace c annot b e s tud ied w ithout c ons iderat ion o f t he a d jacent I r on A ge h i l lfort s i te w h ich w as r eoccup ied , i fn o t r e fo rt if ied , i nt he 5 th c entury , w e l l b efo re o ccupat ion i sf ound i n No rthampton i t se lf ( T . P earson , p ers .comm . ) . T he a d jacent s i tes o f t he s ubs id iary manors a t K ings tho rpe a nd U pton , a nd p erhaps K is l ingbu ry ( a no ther ' b urh ' p lacename ) may a l so h ave p layed a n i mpo rtant r o le i n t he e vo lut ion a nd o vera l l f unc t ion ing o f t he c entra l p lace . E xam inat ion o f t hese s i tes may h e lp t o e xp la in w hy t he f i rs t h igh s tatus s t ructure i n N o rthampton was n o t a pparent ly c ons tructed u nt i l t he l a te 7 th o r 8 th c en tury . I ft he q ues t ion o f c ont inu ity o f a dm in is trat ive a utho r ity f rom t he R oman p er iod i sa l so t o b e t ack led t hen i t i s e ssent ia l t o e xam ine t he n earby R oman s ma l l t own s i te a t D uston a nd p os s ib ly a ma jo r R oman v i l la i n t he i mmed iate a rea , f o r i t may b e t hat t he R oman a dm in is tra t ive f unct ions w ere e xerc ised n o t f rom t he s ma l l t own s i tes t hemse lves , b u t f rom a v i l la u pon w h ich t he t own i t se lf was i n s ome w ay 2 66

d ependent . B ecause o f t he d amage a l ready s uffered b y an umbe r o f t hese s i tes a round Northampton , a nd p erhap s t he l o ss o f as ubs tant ia l p art o f t he ' p a lace ' c omp lex i t se lf , i tw i l l n ever b e p oss ib le t o a nswer many i mpo rtant q ues t ions a t No rthampton . O ther b et ter p reserved g roup ings o f c entra l p lace s i tes , l i ke t hat a t Y eaver ing , a t ' t un ' , p rov inc ia l a nd k ingdom l e ve l s hou ld b e i d ent if ied a nd p reserved f o r f uture s tudy . A s ys tema t ic s urvey i sr equ ired o f a l l t he p oss ib le h igh l e ve l c entres t o i d ent ify w h ich o ffer t he b es t p o tent ia l i n t e rms o f l i ke ly s urv iva l o f e v idence , a s w e l l a s t he q ua l ity o f t he d ocumenta t ion . T h is i sn o t t o s ay t hat f urther wo rk o n t he N o rthamp ton s i te , o r o ther s uch ' p art ia l ' s i tes i sn o t v a l id , i ndeed i t i s v i ta l f o r , u n l ike a l l t he o ther s i tes s o f ar i d ent if ied , N o rthampton i s t he o n ly o ne t o c ont inue t o s uppo rt h igh l e ve l a dm in is trat ive f unct ions . T he r ep lacement o f t he t imbe r h a l l b y a mass ive s tone b u i lt h a l l i n t he 9 th c entury , as equence s o f ar w ithou t p ara l le l i nE ng land , may i mp ly a g reat d ea l a bout t he w ay a nd t he t ime a t w h ich t he s ys tem o f p rov inc iae w e re r eo rgan ised i n to t he l a rge r s h ires . T he a bandonment o f a l l t he o ther h igh s tatus s i tes w e h ave l i s ted may b e ar e f lec t ion o f t h is p rocess o f r eo rgan isa t ion . A ga in w e n eed c omparat ive a rchaeo log ica l s tud ies . I s as im lar s equence t o b e f ound a t B as ingstoke r a ther t han a t C owderys D own , a nd a t Ma l mesbury r athe r t han F ox ley , o r i si to n ly t o b e s een i nt hose c entres w h ich , l i ke N o rthamp ton , b ecame s h ire t owns? L oca l O rgan izat ion B e low t he s oke l i e t wo f u rther l e ve ls o f o rgan isat ion , o ne t he mano r , t he o ther t he a gr icu ltura l c ommun ity . A t t h is l e ve l t he p aroch ia l s ys tem i s s econdary , a pp l ied t o a nd u s ing t he e x is t ing c ommun ity a nd mano r ia l d iv is ions , a nd s o i ti s n o t d i rec t ly r e levant t o ac ons iderat ion o f t he o r ig ins o f t h is l o ca l l e ve l o f o rgan isat ion . I n many a rchaeo log ica l d i scuss ions , p art icu lar ly t ho se c oncerned w ith R oman t o S axon c on t inu ity , t he mano r ia l a nd t he a gr icu ltura l s ys tems h ave b een c onfused , w ith i l d ef ined c oncepts s uch a s ' l and u n it ' a nd ' e s tate ' b e ing u sed . C la i ms h ave b een made t hat t he p at tern o f Med ieva l ' a g r icu ltu ra l u n its ' w as d er ived w ith l i tt le mod if icat ion f rom a R oman p atte rn . I n s ome a reas o f E ng land t h is may w e l l b e t r ue , b u t i n t he o pen f i e ld l a ndscape o f t he M id lands t he c ase h as n ot b een c onv inc ing ly d emons trated . T he o rgan isat ion o f t hat Med ieva l s ys tem i su sua l ly n o t c ons idered i n d eta i l , w h i le t he i n terven ing s i x o r s even c entur ies o f c hange b e tween R oman a nd Med ieva l i sg iven l i tt le t hought . T he c oncepts o f mano r a nd c ommun ity a re q u ite d i s t inc t , t he mano r c ontro l l ing l a nd a nd t enan ts i n o ne o r mo re t ownsh ips , o r p arts t hereof , w h i le t he Northamptonsh ire t ownsh ips a lmos t i n var iab ly a re u n its o f a g r icu ltura l e xp lo itat ion w ith t he ir o wn c ommon f i e ld s ys tem . T he manor a nd t ownsh ips a re f ound i nv ery c omp lex i n teract ion , a nd o n ly w hen t h is c omp lex p attern h as b een c lear ly d ef ined i s i t p os s ib le t o l o ok f o r t he o r ig ins o f t hese u n its . I n s ome s i tua t ions , a s a t E ar ls B a rton , w e f i nd i n 1 086 a s i ng le c onso l idated mano r ia l h o ld ing w h ich c ompr ised , o r h ad b een r eo rgan ised i n to , f our d i s t inc t t ownsh ips . I nc omp lete c ontras t , a s a t R aunds , w e f i nd a n umbe r o f mano rs h o ld ing l a nd i n d i fferent t ownsh ips , s ome h e ld a s s oke land a nd s ome w ith f u l l r i ghts . I t may b e , a s w e h ave s uggested e l sewhere ( Cadman a nd F oard 1 984 ) , t hat a t a n e ar l ie r d ate t he s ys tem h ad b een f a r s imp ler a t R ounds , a nd t hat s uch c omp lex p at te rns w ere p r i mar i ly t he r esu lt o f af r agmentat ion o f mano r ia l a uthor ity . I fa ny c ont inu ity o f a utho r ity o ccurred b e low t he l e ve l o f t he s oke , i ti ss ure ly b etween t he S axon mano r a nd t he R oman v i l la t hat a l i nk must b e s ought . U nfo rtuna te ly o ur u nders tand ing o f t he a rchaeo log ica l e v idence i sf ar t oo i n adequate a t p resent t o b e a b le t o d eterm ine t he f unc t ion a nd s tatus o f t hese v i l las . O ur c lass if icat ion i s v ague a nd d ete rm ined p r imar i ly o n t he g rounds o f a rch itectura l f o rm a nd s i ze . I t may w e l l b e t ha t o ur ' v i l las ' i n f act c ompr ised s o me c entra l p laces a ssoc iated w ith a mano r ia ll ike o r e ven a k in b ased s ys tem , s ome w h ich w ere s o le ly c ommerc ia l f arms , s ome w h ich w ere p r imar i ly c ountry r es idences a nd o the rs w h ich w ere d ependenc ies o f l a rge r v i l las . T o t ake a n e xtreme v iew , o ne m ight 2 67

a rgue t hat i tw as o n ly a t t he s ame l e ve l a s t he l a ter ' t un ' t hat t he v i l las w ith ' a utho r ity ' e x is ted , a nd t hat o n ly a t t h is l e ve l d id a dm in istra t ive c on t inu ity o ccur , w ith t he Med ieva l mano rs o r ig inat ing t h rough t he f ragmenta t ion o f t he a utho r ity o f t he ' t un ' . O ne i mpo rtant e lement i n t he a rgument must b e a n u nders tand ing o f t h is d evo lut ion o f mano r ia l a utho r ity d ur ing t he S axon p e r iod . I t may b e p oss ib le f o r h i sto r ica l e v idence t o a s s is t f urthe r i n t he d ef in it ion o f s i tes f o r a rchaeo log ica l i n ves t igat ion o f t h is q ue s t ion . F o r e xamp le , o ne m ight t ake t he c ase o f R ounds , w here B urys tead mano r a ppears t o h ave b een c rea ted i n t he p os t-conquest p er iod o ut o f f o rmer ly p easant l a nd . I t h as a d i spe rsed d emesne . A c oun tyw ide a na lys is o f manor ia l d emesnes w ou ld p rov ide a l i s t o f t hose w h ich w ere d i spersed a nd t hose w h ich w ere c onso l idated . M ight t he f o rme r i n d ica te s econdary mano rs c rea ted i n t he p er iod a f te r t he l a y ing o u t o f t he o pen f i e ld s ys tem , w h i le t he l a tte r i n d icate p r imary manors? T he t ownsh ip a lmos t c erta in ly h as i t s o r ig ins q u ite s eparate f rom t he mano r . I t s c harac te r may h ave b een d ete rm ined b y p r imar i ly a g r icu ltura l c ons tra ints a nd i t i sl i ke ly t o h ave b een p receeded b y ak in b ased s ys tem . D raw ing a na log ie s w ith mo re r ecent c o lon is ing l a ndscapes , t he o r ig in o f t hese c ommun it ies h as b een s een i n t he s ubd iv is ion o r l a rge r u n its . V ar ious e v idence i sp resented : t he b oundar ies o f t he t ownsh ips a re s een f requen ly t o f o l low , a nd h ence p robab ly p os t-da te t he l a y ing o ut o f t he f i e ld s ys tems , a nd much i s made o f t he c lear ly d ocumented e xamp les o f f i ss ion i n t he p os t c onques t p e r iod ( Dodgshon 1 980 ) . A t f i rs t s i gh ' , s uch a n e xp lanat ion w ou ld f i t o ur E ar ls B arton e xamp le , al a rge c onso l idated u n it f ragment ing i n to a n umber o f s eparate t ownsh ips . N o i n d icat ion i s h owever g iven a s t o h ow t hese e ar l ie r a nd f ar l a rger t e r r ito r ies w ou ld h ave f unc t ioned a gr icu ltura l ly , e spec ia l ly w hen t he a rea c onta ins a s er ies o f S axon s ett lements b o th i nl o ose a gg lomera t ion a nd i ni s o lat ion ( Foard 1 978 ) . T he f i ss ion mode l d oes n o t s eem t o f i t o ther e xamp les a t a l l . T ownsh ips s uch a s T hurn ing o r L udd ington w ere c e ra in ly n o t c reated b y t he f ragmentat ion o f as i ng le mano r ia l u n it , f or e ach c onta ins d ependenc ies o f ma jo r manors a t O und le a nd A lconbury ( Cambs . ) w h ich a re 2 0 k i lomete rs a par t . I n s tead o f t he p roces s o f f i ss ion , w h ich was c erta in ly a n i mpo rtant p rocess w ith r egard t o t he d eve lopment o f m ano r ia l o rgan isat ion , i nt he o r ig in o f t he t ownsh ip o ne m ight c ons ide r t he p oss ib i l ity o f a p rocess o f f u s ion , w ith a s e r ies o f s ma l ler a g r icu ltura l u n its , s omet imes b e ing t he d ependenc ies o f d i fferent mano rs , b e ing g rouped t ogethe r a nd r eo rgan ised . I t i s f a r f rom c lear w hat f o rces , w hether a g r icu ltura l o r a dm in is trat ive , c reated s uch a p at tern o f t ownsh ips , i n w h ich t he ma jo r ity o f f arms i n e ach t ownsh ip c omp r ised v i rgate h o ld ings o f a lmost e qua l s i ze a nd w ith e qua l r i ghts a nd d ues , o u t o f ap resumed k in b ased s ys tem o f e x tended f am i ly g roups w h ich mus t s ure ly h ave h ad a w ide ly v ary ing r ange o f h o ld ings . I n deed o ne m ight a sk , i fo ne a ccepts t he a rguments f o r av e ry h igh d egree o f s urv iva l o f R omano-Br it ish p opu lat ion , h ow a f u l ly d eve loped k i n b ased s y s tems c ou ld h ave b een c rea ted a t a l l i ns uch a s hor t s pace o f t ime , i n t he 6 th a nd 7 th c entu r ies , u n less o f c ou rse i t a l ready e x is ted i nt he 4 th c entury . T he c omp lex ity o f t he p rob lem o f t ownsh ip o r ig ins c an b e s een f rom t he c ase o f G lapthorn a nd C o tters tock n ear O und le ( F ig . 1 8 .2 ) ( Foard , i n p reparat ion ) . H ere c ommon r i ghts e xtended w e l l b eyond t he b oundary o f t he t ownsh ip . D ur ing t he Med ieva l p e r iod G lap tho rn t ownsh ip e xpanded t o t ake i n p art o f t h is l a nd , w h ich l a y w ith in t he r oya l f o res t . I ta l so a cqu ired f u l l c ontro l o f a nother s ma l l b l ock o f l a nd i ne xchange f o r t he e xt ingu ish ing o f i t s c ommon r i ghts o n l a nd f o rmer ly i n t he f o res t b u t p art o f O und le l o rdsh ip , w h ich h ad b een c leared t o c reate B igg in g range i n t he 1 2 th c entury . Mos t i mportant h oweve r , i s t he f ac t t ha t t he b oundary w h ich d iv ided C o tte rs tock a nd i t s c hape lry o f G laptho rn , f o l low ing f ur long b oundar ies , w as o n ly d e f ined i n t he 1 7 th c entury . P r io r t o t h is , t hree a reas o f o pen f i e ld l a nd h ad e x isted : o ne w ho l ly o wned a nd c ommoned b y G lapthorn , o ne w ho l ly o wned a nd c ommoned b y C o t te rstock , a nd a t h ird ,

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F ig . 1 8 .2 :

G lap tho rn a nd C o tte rs tock t ownsh ips .

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l a n d o f O u n d l e m a n o r o n c e

f i e l d s h a r e d p r e 1 6 3

r o y a l f o r e s t 1 2 9

P E R I O C H A S E

0 C 0 0 0

i n ter med iate a rea , owned a nd c om moned b y b o th . I ti sp erhaps c o inc ident ia l b u t , t hough t here i s n o Med ieva l s ett lement w ith in t h is t h ird b lock o f l and , a t i t s c entre l i es a ma jo r R oman v i l la . I n t h is c ase w e s ee a p rocess o f r eo rgan isat ion r athe r t han s imp le f i ss ion d ef in ing p art o f t he t ownsh ip b oundary . O uts ide t he o ther b oundar ies o ne h as t o e xp la in h ow t he t ownsh ip c ou ld h ave r i ghts o ve r l a nd w ith in t he f ores t w here v ar ious R oman s ett lements h ad p rev ious ly e x is ted . J us t a s a t t he h igher a dm in istrat ive l eve l , s o a t t he manor ia l a nd a g r icu ltura l l eve l , many q uest ions a re o n ly g o ing t o b e a nswered t hrough t he i n ves t igat ion o f as er ies o f s i tes w h ich r epresent t he d eve lopment o f a utho r ity o ve r t ime i n a s i ng le a rea . Rescue e xcavat ion n ow u nder w ay a s p art o f t he R ounds A rea P ro ject i sa ttempt ing t o t ack le s o me o f t he p rob lems b y t ak ing a s i ng le a rea o f l and , t hought t o c ompr ise e ssent ia l ly o ne S axon e state c ons ist ing o f a l l o r p art o f f our Med ieva l t ownsh ips ( Foard 1 986 ) . T he ma in S axon manor , F urne l ls , h as b een f u l ly e xcavated ; t he d om inant p os t c onques t mano r , c reated i n R ounds o u t o f d ependent s oke land o f t he manor o f H igham , i sa t p resent u nder e xcavat ion ; a t h ird , s ubs id iary mano r l i es w ith in t he we l l p reserved e arthworks o f t he d ependent h am let o f Ma l lows C o tton a nd s hou ld b e c ons idered f o r l ong t erm r esearch e xcavat ion . T he o r ig ins o f p easant o ccupat ion i n t he v i l lage o f R ounds i sa l so b e ing e xam ined , a s i st he d eve lopment a nd c haracter o f o ccupat ion i nt he d ependent h am let o f West C o tton . A n i n tens ive p rog ram o f f i e ldwa lk ing i s a imed a t p rov id ing t he c omp lementary e v idence f or t he d i spersed f arms o f S axon a nd e ar l ier d ate . T he ma jor ( S tanw ick) v i l la w ith i t s a ssoc iated s ett lement w i l l a l so b e f u l ly e xcavated . I ti sh oped t hat t he c o l lect ion o f d ata f rom s uch a g roup o f i n terre lated s i tes w i l l a l low a b etter u nderstand ing t o b e g a ined o f t he e vo lut ion o f s ett lement a nd a dm in istra t ion t hroughout t he f i rst m i l len ium AD . I t s hou ld b e p oss ib le t o l ook f o r e v idence o f s ynchrone ity i n t he d eve lopments o n d i fferent s i tes , a nd t o s ee h ow s i tes o f d i fferent s tatus d eve lop i n r e lat ion t o e ach o ther . I t w i l l a l so b e p oss ib le t o c ompare d eve lopments i n d i fferent p er iods , l ook ing , f or e xamp le , a t t he v i l la t o d eterm ine w hether i t s a ssoc iated s ett lement c ompr ised a s er ies o f d ependent f arms a nd was s im i lar i no rgan isat ion t o t he Med ieva l mano r a nd v i l lage , o r w hether t he s ett lement w as mere ly o ccup ied b y l abourers o n ap ure ly c om merc ia l v i l la f arm . S uch i n fo rmat ion w i l l h ave i mportant i mp l icat ions a s r egards t he c ont inu ity o f a utho r ity b etween v i l la a nd manor ( b ut s ee F oard 1 986 ) . T o d ate t he e v idence i sa ga ins t c ont inu ity , f or w h i le t he v i l la a ppears n ot t o h ave c ont inued l o ng i n to t he 5 th c entury , t he e ar l ies t a c t iv ity o n a nd a round t he manor s i te i n R ounds v i l lage ( Furne l ls manor a nd t he a d jacent L angham Road s i te ) d oes n ot b eg in u nt i l t he 6 th c entury . O n ly o ne s i te s o f ar s eems t o s how R oman t o S axon c ont inu ity , t he h am le t o f Ma l lows Cotton , w hose manor i s a t p resent t hought t o h ave c ome i n to e x is tence a s a r esu lt o n Med ieva l s ub infeudat ion . B ib l iography C adman , G . , a nd F oard , G .R . 1 984 . ' Rounds : manor ia l a nd v i l lage o r ig ins i n M .L . F ou l ' , ( ed . ) , S tud ies i n l a te Ang lo-Saxon s ett lement ( Oxfo rd ) . Cam , H . , 1 944 . L ibert ies a nd Commun it ies i n Med ieva l E ng land . C ampbe l l , J . , 1 979 . ' Bede 's words f or p laces ' i nP . S awyer , ( Ed .) , Names , wo rds a nd g raves . D odgshon , R .A . , 1 980 . T he o r ig ins o f B r it ish f i e ld s ystems . F oard , G .R . 1 978 . ' S ystemat ic f i e ldwa lk ing a nd t he i nves t igat ion o f S axon s ett lement i n Northamptonsh ire ' Wor ld A rchaeo logy 9 : 3 57-374 .

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F oard , G .R . 1 985 . ' The A dm in is trat ive o rgan izat ion o f N o rthamp tonsh ire i nt he S axon p er iod ' A ng lo-Saxon S tud ies 4 : 1 85-222 . F oard , G .R . 1 986 . ' An i n troduc t ion t o t he R ounds A rea P ro jec t ' Northamp tonsh ire A rchaeo logy 2 0 . F oard , G .R . ( i n p repara t ion ) . ' The o r ig ins a nd d eve lopment o f t he v i l lage i n e as tern N orthamptonsh ire ' . F ord , W .J . , 1 979 . ' S ome s e tt lement p at terns i nt he c entra l r eg ion o f t he Warw icksh ire A von ' i nP . S awye r , ( Ed . ) , E ng l ish Med ieva l S e tt lement . F rank l in , M .L . , 1 985 . ' The i d ent if ica t ion o f m in is ters i nt he M id lands ' A ng loNorman S tud ies 7 . H inch l if fe , J . , 1 986 . ' An e a r ly Med ieva l s et t lement a t C owage F arm , F ox ley ' A rchaeo log ica l J ourna l 1 43 . Hope-Tay lo r , B . , 1 977 . Y eaver ing :A n A ng lo-B r it ish c en tre o f e ar ly Northumb r ia ' . Hope-Tay lor , B . , 1 980 . ' Ba lbr id ie . . .and D oon H i l l ' , C urrent A rchaeo logy 7 2 : 1 8 1 9 J ones , G .R .J . , 1 983 . ' Nuc lear s et t lement a nd i t s t enur ia l r e lat ionsh ips ' i nB .K . R oberts , a nd R .E . G lasscock ( Eds ) , V i l lages , F ie lds a nd F ront iers ( B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l R eports I n ternat iona l S e r ies 1 85 ) : 1 53170 . J ames , S . , Marsha l l , A . a nd M i l lett , M . 1 985 . ' An e ar ly med ieva l b u i ld ing t rad it ion ' , A rchaeo log ica l J ourna l 1 4 1. L oyn , H .R . , 1 984 . T he Governance o f A ng lo-Saxon E ng land 5 001087 . Me l lows , W .T . ( Ed . ) 1 980 . T he P ete rbo rough Chron ic le o f Hugh C and idus . M i ll e t t . M . , 1 983 . ' Excava t ions a t C owdery 's D own , B as ingstoke , 1 978 198 1 ' , A rchaeo log ica l J ou rna l 1 40 : 1 52-279 . Rah tz , P . , 1 970 . ' A p oss ib le S axon p a lace n ear S tratfo rd-upon-Avon ' , A nt iqu ity 4 4 : 1 37143 . S t . J o seph , J .K . , 1 975 . ' A ir R econna issance: r ecent r esu lts ' , A n t iqu ity 4 9 : 2 93-5 . S t . J o seph , J .K . , 1 982 . ' S p rous ton , R oxburghsh ire : a n A ng lo-Saxon s ett lement d i scove red b y a i r r econna issance ' , i nP . C lemoes , ( Ed . ) , A ng lo-Saxon E ng land 1 0 : 1 9 1199 . S awye r , P .H . , 1 983 . ' The r oya l t un i np re-conques t E ng land ' , i nP . Wo rma ld ( Ed . ) , I dea a nd Rea l ity i nF rank ish a nd A ng lo-Saxon S oc iety . S tenton , F .M . , 1 947 . A ng lo-Saxon E ng land . W i l l iams , J .H . a nd S haw , M . , 1 985 . M idd le S axon p a laces a t No rthamp ton .

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1 9 . FROM ANGLO-SAXON TO NORMAN YORKSH IRE Margaret L . F au l l T h is y ear 1 986 s ees t he n ine-hundredth a nn iversary o f t he c omp i lat ion o f D omesday B ook , p erhaps o ne o f t he mos t i mportant d ocuments f o r t he s tudy o f t he h i story o f t h is c ountry e ver p roduced , a nd c erta in ly t he ma jor s ource f or t he r econstruct ion o f t he t err itor ia l a nd t enur ia l s t ructure o f e leventh-century E ng land . T o mark t he a nn iversary t here w i l l b e an umber o f c onferences a nd p ub l icat ions , i n c lud ing t he a ppearance o f t he l a st v o lumes o f t he P h i ll imore s er ies o f D omesday B ook c ounty v o lumes , amongst t hem t hose f or Yorksh ire e d ited j o int ly b y t he a utho r a nd Mar ie S t inson . T he l a st p rev ious e d it ion o f t he Y orksh ire f o l ios w as t hat b y W . F arrer i n t he V ictor ia County H istory , b ut w ith t he n ew e d it ion n ow a va i lab le , i t w i l l b e p oss ib le t o c arry o ut a ma jo r r eassessment o f t he s oc ia l , e conom ic a nd p o l it ica l s tate o f e leventh-century Yo rksh ire . S uch a s tudy w i l l t ake s o me t ime , a nd t h is p aper i s i n tended t herefore n ot t o p resent f i na l r esearch c onc lus ions , b ut r a ther t o s u m mar ise what h as b een d one t o d ate a nd t o s et o ut s o me f uture p oss ib le l i nes o f e nqu iry i n t h is f i e ld , i n p art icu lar w ith r egard t o t he e v idence o f b o th c ont inu ity a nd d i scont inu ity i nt he c ounty . A . CONT INU ITY T he t e rm ' c ont inu ity ' c an c over a w ide v ar iety o f a spects , r ang ing f rom t he p hys ica l s urv iva l o f f eatures , w ithout n ecessar i ly i mp ly ing c ont inu ity o f o ccupat ion o r u se , t o t he c ont inuat ion o f i n s t itut ions a nd c us toms r e lated t o t he s urv iva l a nd s tatus o f t he p eop le i nvo lved w ith t hem . I n Yorksh ire t here i s e v idence f or t he c ont inu ity t hrough t he C onquest p er iod b o th o f u se o f l a ndscape f eatures a nd o f t err itor ia l a nd t enur ia l s t ructures . I .S ett lements a nd t ownsh ips Much a ttent ion h as b een p a id i n r ecent y ears t o t he e v idence w h ich D omesday B ook p rov ides a bout t he p hys ica l l ayout o f t he l andscape . A n umber o f s cho lars h ave s t ressed t hat D omesday B ook i s d escr ib ing n ot i n d iv idua l s ett lements b ut v i l ls a nd mano rs , a s i n f act d o most p re-th irteenth-century d ocuments i n n orthern E ng land ( f or e xamp le , A ust in 1 984 ; F au l l 1 984b ; O 'Su l l ivan 1 984 ; S awyer 1 976 ) , a nd t hat t he t ext c anno t b e u sed t o p lo t s ett lement p atterns , a s h as a l l t oo f requent ly b een d one b y s ome a rchaeo log ists . T he p rob lems i n vo lved i n Yorksh ire h ave b een d i scussed i n d eta i l e l sewhere ( Fau l l 1 984b , F au l t a nd Moorhouse 1 98 1) . I ti si mportant t o r emember t hat , wh i le i tc annot b e t aken f o r g ranted t hat e very s ett lement w hose n ame i st he s a me a s t hat o f t he v i l l w ith in w h ich i t i s l o cated w as n ecessar i ly i n e x istence i n 1 086 , t here w ere p robab ly many more s ett lements t han c ou ld s imp ly b e a ssumed b y c ount ing u p t he n umber o f v i l l n ames r ecorded i n Domesday B ook ; t h is i s e spec ia l ly t rue i n t he u p land a reas o f t he P enn ines a nd t he North Yorksh ire moo rs , w here d i spersed s ett lement p atterns p robab ly p redom inated . H ere t here wou ld a lmos t c erta in ly h ave b een a n umber o f s ett lements i n e ach i n d iv idua l v i l l . When r eco rds f rom w h ich s ett lements c an b e i dent if ied d o f i na l ly emerge i n t he t h irteenth c entury , we f i nd , f o r e xamp le , u p t o f orty-one s ett lements i n a n u p land v i l l l i ke No rthowram ( Fau l l a nd Moorhouse 1 98 1, map 2 6 ) , a nd t h is i s t yp ica l o f o ther P enn ine t ownsh ips . Wha t s tud ies i n Wes t Yorksh ire h ave r evea led i sh ow s tab le was t he i n st itut ion o f t he v i l l , o r t ownsh ip , i n t hat a rea . T he c lose c o inc idence o f t he v i l ls r ecorded i n Domesday B ook t hroughout Yorksh ire w ith t he l a ter med ieva l t ownsh ips i n d icates t hat t hese b as ic u n its o f t he l andscape were c erta in ly i n e x istence i n t he e leventh c entury , a nd o ther e v idence e xtends t hem b ock t o t he L ate A ng lo-Saxon p er iod ( M iche l more 1 979 ) . F urther r esearch i s r equ ired o n t he l i ke ly d ate o f t he emergence o f t he v i l l u n its ( s ee F au l l 1 984b , 2 73

1 39 ) . A lso e ssent ia l i s t he p roduc t ion o f a map f o r t he w ho le o f Y o rksh ire s how ing a l l t he med ieva l v i l ls , a s w as d one f o r Wes t Y o rksh ire i n F au l t a nd Moorhouse 1 98 1; t h is w ou ld t hen f o rm t he b as is f o r p roduc ing maps t o r econstruct t he e conom ic , s oc ia l , t enur ia l a nd l a ndscape o rgan isat ion o f t he e leventh-century c ounty . P rev ious s t ud ies h ave f requent ly u sed d o ts l i nked b y a rrows t o s how s ubs id iary p arts o f e s tates , w h ich i s m is lead ing i n g iv ing a n i mpress ion o f t he s i ze a nd s t ructure o f e s tates . 2 .P hys ica l f eatures D omesday B ook d oes n o t , t hen d ea l w ith s ett lements , b ut i t d oes r eco rd t he e x is tence o f an umbe r o f l a ndscape f eatures , n o tab ly c hurches , m i l ls , f i sher ies a nd h a l ls . T he s i gn if icance o f t hese i t ems f o r l a ndscape s t ud ies h as a l ready b een d i scussed i n d eta i l f o r Y o rksh ire ( Fau l t 1 984b , 1 32-6 ) . I t w ou ld a ppea r i n t he c ase o f m i l ls a nd f i sher ies t hat s ome h ad b een a bandoned a nd w e re n o l o nger p roduct ive i n 1 086 . T he ma jo r ity o f t he f eatures r eco rded a s i n o perat ion i n 1 086 w ere , h owever , p robab ly c ons tructed i n t he A ng lo-Saxon p e r iod , f o r t he c ond it ions i n Y o rksh ire i mmed ia te ly p r io r t o 1 086 w ere n o t c onduc ive t o t he b u i ld ing o f many ma jor n ew s t ructures , a part , o f c ourse , f r om s pec ia l c ases s uch a s t he c as t les e rected i n Y ork t o e nsure c ontro l o f t he c i ty f o r t he K ing ( Fau l t a nd S t inson 1 986 , C la ; C la n o te ) . T he f act t hat i n o ne c ase D omesday B ook s pec if ica l ly d escr ibed t wo m i l ls w o rth t wo s h i l l ing s a s ' n ew ' ( i b id . , C 22 ) s ugges ts t hat t he o ther e xamp les r eco rded w ere n o t s o . C ont inu ity o f s i te o r s t ructure i s mos t e as i ly d emons trated w ith c hurches , a s t hese w ere ma in ly b u i lt o f s tone ( Fau l t I 984b , 1 32-3 ) , a nd t he ir f ab r ic w as t hus l e ss v u lnerab le t o n atura l f o rces t han w ere s t ructures s uch a s f i sher ies o r m i l ls , w h ich w ere l i ab le t o b e d amaged o r d estroyed b y f l oods . I n Wes t Y o rksh ire t here i s e v idence t hat many o f t he l a te r c hurches w ere a l ready i n e x is tence b efore t he N o rman C onques t ( Fau l t 1 98 1) , a nd r ecent e xam inat ion o f t he f abr ic o f an umber o f S ou th Y orksh ire c hurches s uggests t ha t t h is w as a l so t he c ase i n t ha t a rea ( Ryde r 1 982 ) . Wha t i s n ow r equ ired i s as t udy o f t he d i s tr ibut ion o f r eco rded f eatures s uch a s m i l ls a nd f i sher ies , f o l lowed b y f i e ldwo rk t o i d ent ify t he ir e xac t s i tes . 3 .P ar ishes I t s eems l i ke ly t hat i n Y o rksh ire n o t o n ly many o f t he c hurches b u t a l so t he e cc les ias t ica l p ar ishes w h ich t hey s e rved w ere p re-Conques t i n o r ig in . T he d i s tr ibut ion o f A ng lo-Saxon c hurches r e lates t o s ecu lar c oncerns : c hurches p roduced r evenue f o r t he l a ndho lders w ho b u i lt t hem , a s s t rong d iocesan c ontro l w as a p os t-Conques t p henomenon . T h is f i nanc ia l a spect o f c hurch o wnersh ip i s t he r eason f o r t he ir i n c lus ion i nD omesday B ook a s p ar t o f t he a sset s o f e s ta tes ; w here a c hurch k nown t o h ave b een i n e x is tence i n 1 086 i s om it ted f rom t he D omesday B ook r eco rd , i t i s n o t b ecause t he r evenue f rom i t w as b e ing u sed s o le ly b y t he o wner ( a s s ugges ted i n A s ton 1 985 , 4 9 ) , b u t b ecause i t s v a lue h ad b een s ubsumed i n t hat g iven f o r t he e s tate a s aw ho le ( Fau l l 1 984b , 1 32 ) . I tw as o bv ious ly t o t he f i nanc ia l a dvantage o f l a ndho lders t o s upp ly c hurches t o s e rve t he ir e s tates . I t h as b een a rgued t hat i n Wes t Y o rksh ire t he med ieva l e cc les ias t ica l p ar ishes r epresent f oss i l ised L ate A ng lo-Saxon e s tates ( Fau I I 1 98 1) . T he n ex t s tep i st o e x tend t h is s tudy t o Y o rksh ire a s aw ho le i nt e rms o f l o ok ing a t t he g roup ings o f t ownsh ips i n to p ar ishes i nr e lat ion t o t he g roup ings o f v i l ls w h ich f o rm t he 1 066 A ng lo-Saxon e s tates . 4 .L andho ld ing I th as b een s hown t hat i n Wes t Y o rksh ire t here w as a f a ir d egree o f s urv iva l o f t he e ar l ier A ng lo-Saxon l a ndho lders i n p ossess ion o f t he ir l a nd a f ter 1 066 , b u t t hat t hey h ad b een d epressed t o t he s tatus o f mesne l o rds h o ld ing f r om N o rman t enantsin-ch ief ( M iche l more 1 98 1, 2 5 1-2 ) ; o f t he e ar l ier A ng lo-Saxon l a ndho lders i n Y orksh ire o n ly G ospatr ic c ont inued t o h o ld a s ac h ie f l o rd ( Fau l t a nd S t inson 1 986 , 2 8W ; a ppend ix ) . C are a ppears t o h ave b een t aken t o g ive l a nds 2 74

w ith f ew i fa ny s i tt ing A ng lo-Saxon l o rds t o t hose N o rmans w ho w ere t o h o ld f o r v ery l ow k n ights ' f ees , a nd s o h ad l i tt le i n cent ive t o s ub infeudate w hereas t hose w ho w e re t o h o ld f o r l a rge k n ights ' f ees w ere g iven l a nds a l ready e ffect ive ly s ub in feudated f o r t hem b y t he p resence o f n umbe rs o f A ng lo-Saxon a ntecesso rs . T hus t he E ar l Warenne , w ho h e ld f or o ne k n ight 's f ee , w as g iven t he manor o f Wake f ie ld , mos t o f w h ich h ad p rev ious ly b een r oya l l a nd , w h i le I l bert d e L acy , w ho h e ld t he h onour o f P ontefract f or s i x ty k n ights ' f ees , r ece ived t he l a nds o f a c ons ide rab le n umbe r o f E ng l ish l a ndho lders ( M iche l more 1 98 1, 2 50-2 ) . I ti sn ecessary t o e xtend t he Wes t Y orksh ire s tudy t o t he r e s t o f Y orksh ire t o s ee whethe r t h is w as a u n iver sa l t rend t hroughou t t he c ounty , o r w hethe r t here w ere r eg iona l d i ffe rences ; w as , f or e xamp le , t he g reat h onour o f R ichmond i n t he f ar n or th o f t he c ounty s im i lar i n i t s t enur ia l h i sto ry t o t he h onou r o f P ontefract? T he s i tuat ion h as i n t he p as t b een p art ly o bscured b y t he t endency o f A ng loS axon l o rds t o g ive t he ir s ons No rman n ames a fter t he C onques t . T hus Gospa tr ic , s on o f t he 1 086 G ospatr ic , w as t he f ather o f S imon d e Mohaut , w ho b ears a n a pparent ly No rman n ame ( M iche l more 1 98 1, 2 52 ) . I n t he mos t r ecent e d it ion o f D omesday B ook ( Fau l l a nd S t inson 1 986 ) , a l l p re-Conques t p e rsona l n ames h ave b een r egu lar ised t o t he ir Northumbr ian f o rms . A s D omesday B ook w as c omp i led b y aN o rman s cr ibe w r it ing i n L at in , p oss ib ly f rom a v ar iety o f d ocuments c omp i led i nE ng l ish , t here a re c ons iderab le v ar iat ions i n t he f o rms i n w h ich t he n ame o f t he s a me p erson a ppears i n t he t ext , a nd i t i s o n ly b y r egu lar is ing t he n ames t o s tandard f o rms t ha t i ti sp oss ib le t o i d ent ify i n d iv idua l A ng lo-Saxons p roper ly . S ome n ames s uch a s G ama I I were p opu lar i n e leventhc entu ry Yorksh ire , a nd o n ly o ccas iona l ly a re t he E ng l ish l a ndho lders g iven p atronym ics , a s w ith T ok i s on o f O ttarr ( i b id . , C 36 ) . I n many c ases t he N orman i ncome rs a ppear t o h ave b een g iven t he l a nds o f s pec if ied A ng lo-Saxon l a ndho lders e n b loc ( t h is i s a pparent , a s i n t he C la ims i t f o rmed t he b as is o n wh ich d ec is ions w ere made i nt he c ase o f d i sputed l a nd ) , s o t hat , f o r e xamp le t he U htred n amed a s t he a ntecesso r o f t he C ount o f Mo rta in i n as e r ies o f e ntr ies ( i b id . , 5 N9 , 1-2 1, 2 5-6 , e tc . ) i sl i ke ly t o b e t he s a me man , b ut i sn o t n ecessar i ly t he s ame a t t he U htred n amed a s t he a ntecesso r o f an umber o f o ther N o rmans ( e .g . i b id . , 6 N3 -4 ; 9W 18 ; 2 9E10 , 3 0W27 ) . T h is r equ ires f urther wo rk , t ogether w ith a n e xam inat ion o f t he o r ig ins o f t he n ames o f t he mesne l o rds . F o r e xamp le , a mesne l o rd w ith a B reton n ame s uch a s P ico t ( i b id . , I 3W7 , 1 2 ) , i s l i ke ly t o b e a n i n comer n o t as urv iv ing A ng lo-Saxon . Where p rev ious E ng l ish t enantsin-ch ief r e ma ined i np ossess ion a s mesne l o rds , i t i s l i ke ly t hat t hey w ou ld h ave c ont inued t o o ccupy t he s ame d we l l ings . E ven t oday t here i ss t i l l as t r ik ing c ontrast b etween t he v ery s im i lar l a ndscape a reas o f t he m anor o f Wakef ie ld , w ith l i tt le s ub infeuda t ion , ma in ly p easant o ccupat ion a nd f ew s urv iv ing med ieva l d we l l ings , a nd t he h onour o f P ontefract , w ith e xtens ive s ub infeudat ion , m esne l o rds a nd c onsequent ly many s urv iv ing med ieva l a nd E l izabethan g entry h ouses . I t i s p oss ib le t ha t s o me o f t hese h ouses may o ccupy t he s i tes o f e ar l ier L ate A ng lo-Saxon a nd E ar ly N orman h ouses , b ut f urthe r work i sn eeded o n t h is s ub ject ( Fau l II 984b , 1 35-6 ) . 5 . Reco rds I t i so f ten s a id t hat t he s peed w ith w h ich D omesday B ook w as c omp i led w as a g rea t a ch ievement b y t he N o rmans , b u t i n f ac t t he r ea l a ch ievement w as t hat o f t he c omp i lers o f t he L ate A ng lo-Saxon r eco rds o n w h ich i tw as b ased . D omesday B ook i lustrates t he c ons ide rab le c ont inu ity o f b ureaucrat ic o rgan isat ion a nd r eco rd k eep ing t hrough t he p er iod o f t he No rman C onques t . T he ma in t ext o f t he Y o rksh ire s ec t ion o f D omesday B ook i sl a id o ut b y l a ndho lder , w hereas t he o rgan isa t ion o f t he S ummary a t t he e nd i sb y w apentake a nd v i l l , w ith t he n ames o f t he l a ndho lders w r itten i n m in iscu le a bove t he v i l l n ames . D r . S .P .J . H arvey ( 197 1; 1 9 75 ) h as a rgued t hat t he S ummary i sb ased o n a n A ng lo-Saxon g e ld l i s t . 2 75

T here i s av e ry c lose r e lat ionsh ip b etween t he o rder i nw h ich v i l ls a re r eco rded i n t he ma in t ex t a nd i n t he S ummary , b ut o ften w ith d i fference s i nt he f o rms o f t he p lace-names a nd w ith s ome d i fferences b e tween t he l a ndho lde rs g iven i nt he ma in t ex t a s a ga ins t t he S um mary ; a pparent ly e ven t he ma in t ex t w a s n o t c omp lete ly s at isfactory a s a t v ar ious p o ints t he s cr ibe h as w r it ten r o r r q f o r r equ ire ' e nqu ire f u rthe r ' i n t he marg in . Moreove r v ar ious d ec is ions g iven i n t he C la ims d o n ot a ppear t o h ave b een i nco rpo ra ted i n to t he ma in t ex t ( s ee f u r ther F au l l a nd S t inson 1 986 , a ppend ix ) . T here i ss t i l l ac ons iderab le amount o f w o rk t o b e d one i n a na lys ing t he r e lat ionsh ip b etween t he ma in t ext , t he S ummary a nd t he C la ims t o a scerta in t he t r ue s equence o f t he ir c omp i lat ion a nd t he e x ten t t o w h ich t hey a re i n terre lated . B . D ISCONT INU ITY I ti se spec ia l ly i n t he s oc ia l a nd e conom ic s ys tems o f Y o rksh ire t hat D omesday B ook p rov ides e v idence f o r b reaks b etween t he L ate A ng lo-Saxon p e r iod a nd t he s ucceed ing N o rman e ra . I .E conom ic Much h as a l ready b een w r itten o n w hat t he Y o rksh ire s ec t ion o f D omesday B ook s hows o f t he e ffec ts o f W i l l iam t he C onqueror 's H arry ing o f t he N o r th . T he t ex t r eco rds c ons iderab le d ecreases i n t he v a lues o f s ome v i l ls i n t he c ounty b e tween 1 066 amd 1 086 , a l though t here a re a l so s ome c ases o f i ncrea se s i n v a lues . A ttemp ts h ave b een made t o l i nk t he a reas r eco rd ing d ecreases i nv a lues w ith t he p rogres s o f W i l l iam 's a rmy t hrough Y orksh ire d ur ing t he H ar ry ing . F u rther w o rk i sn ecessary o n t h is q ues t ion , e spec ia l ly i n r e lat ion t o s uch a spects a s s o i l q ua l ity a nd t he d i fferent t ypes o f a gr icu lture -a rab le v ersus p as to ra l -l i ke ly t o h ave b een p ract ised i n t he d i ffe rent r eg ions . A nother q ues t ion i s t he e xact i n terpreta t ion o f t he L at in t e rm v as ta f requent ly f ound i n t he Y o rksh ire f o l ios . ' Was te ' i sa n emo t ive t erm , a nd i n s ome c ases i t may b e t hat t he t e rm w as u sed t o d escr ibe r ough g raz ing r ather t han l a nd t o ta l ly w as te . T h is i sn o t t o d etrac t f r om t he f act t hat s uch l a nd p a id much l e ss i nv a lue t han d id t he s ame l a nd w hen a va i lab le f o r c rops , b u t ad i s t inc t ion a l so n eeds t o b e made b etween t he f i nanc ia l i mp l icat ions f o r t he l o rds c oncerned , a nd t he p os s ib le e f fects o n t he l o ca l p eop le a nd s ett lement p atterns . E ven g iven c ons iderab le h ardsh ip a nd s u f fer ing , p eop le w ith a c lose r e lat ionsh ip t o t he l a nd may n o t h ave moved a way p e rmanent ly o nce t he No rman a r my h ad l e ft . T here s eems l i tt le h ope i n t he n ea r f uture o f e luc idat ing t h is q ues t ion , a s w e s imp ly d o n ot h ave t he e v idence f r om w h ich t o r econstruc t e i the r L ate A ng lo-Saxon o r E ar ly N o rman s ett lement p atterns i n Y orksh ire ( Fau l l 1 984b , 1 37-8 ) . 2 . I nher itance s ystems A l l o ur s u rv iv ing A ng lo-Saxon w i l ls , c harters a nd o ther d ocuments p resent a c ons is tent p icture t ha t t he A ng lo-Saxon s ys tem o f i n her itance was g enera l ly t hat o f p art ib le i n her itance , a nd t h is w as c erta in ly t he c ase i n n o r thern E ng land ( M iche l mo re 1 98 1, 2 4 1-4 ) , n o t o n ly b etween s i b l ings , b u t a l so s ome t imes b etween f i rs t c ous ins . E ven i fw e d id n o t h ave t hese s ources , D omesday B ook wou ld h ave i n d icated t ha t t h is w as t he A ng lo-Saxon s ys tem , w ith i t s r e ferences t o mano rs b e ing h e ld b y , f o r e xamp le , ' Gama l l 's s ons ' ( Fau l l a nd S t inson 1 986 , 6 NI03 ) o r s imp ly i n t erms s uch a s ' f ive b ro the rs ' ( i b id . , 5 E1 1 ) . I t i s p os s ib le t ha t o n o ccas ion a n a greement w ou ld h ave b een r eached t o d iv ide t he r evenue b etween t he h e irs , w h i le ma inta in ing t he e s tate a s au n it , a s may b e t he c a se w ith t hose r eco rded i n D omesday B ook a s b e ing h e ld j o int ly , b u t i tw ou ld a ppear t hat i tw as more n o rma l f o r t he e s tate t o b e d iv ided p hys ica l ly . A fter t he No rman Conques t t here w as a t r end t owards t he ama lgamat ion o f v i l ls t o f orm g reat ly e n larged t ownsh ips , b u t i tw ou ld a ppear t ha t i nt he L ate A ng lo-Saxon p er iod t he t rend w as i n t he o ppos ite d i rect ion w ith t he s ubd iv is ion o f v i l ls . I ns ome c ases t he t wo n ew

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t ownsh ips b o th r e ta ined t he o r ig ina l n ame , a l though s ubsequent ly d i ffe rent iated f rom e ach o ther b y d i s t ingu ish ing a d ject ives . T hus i n D omesday B ook O ver H awkswo rth a nd L itt le H awkswo rth a re d escr ibed s imp ly a s ' Hawkswo rth a nd a no ther H awkswo rth ' ( Fau l l a nd S t inson 1 986 , 2W4 ) , s ugges t ing t ha t t he d iv is ion w a s s u ff ic ient ly r ecent i n 1 086 f or t he a d ject ives n o t y et t o h ave b een a dded . S ome t imes t he s ubd iv is ion w as r e lat ive ly i n secure ; t hus t he d iv is ion o f a n o r ig ina l y in o f H ew ick i n to B r idge H ew ick a nd C op t H ew ick ( Hadeuu ic a nd Hauuank i n D omesday B ook ) a ppears t o h ave o ccurred a l ready b y t he t ime o f t he memo randum o f t he A rchb ishop o f Y o rk c . 9 72 , w h ich l i s ts Heaw ic a nd ° her Heaw ic , y et a n i n terven ing d ocument , t he 1 030 l i s t o f t he a rchb ishop 's l a nds , r eco rds t he t wo t ogether w ith t he ir c omb ined c arucage s imp ly a s Heaw ic ( i b id . , 2W 10 n o te ) . I t i s o bv ious t hat t he r eason f o r t he s ubd iv is ion o f v i l ls i n t h is manner mus t b e r e lated t o t he p ract ice o f p art ib le i n her itance a nd t he p hys ica l d iv is ion o f t he e s ta te b etween h e irs . O n o ccas ion t h is w as a n e xtreme ly a r t if ic ia l mat ter , e xemp l if ied b y t he d iv is ion o f C umberwo rth i n to C umberwo rth a nd C umberwo rth H a lf , w hose t err ito r ies a re t ota l ly i n ter l inked ( Fau l l a nd Moorhouse 1 98 1, 3 54 , F ig . 3 ) . I th as b een a rgued t hat p ar t ib le i n her itance i sa n i mp ract ica l s ys tem l i ab le t o l e ad t o t i ny e conom ica l ly u nv iab le h o ld ings , a nd s o u n l ike ly t o h ave b een w idespread i n A ng lo-Saxon E ng land . T h is a rgument , h owever , o n ly a pp l ies w here t here i s a l so a n i n creas ing p opu la t ion l e ad ing t o c ons tant d iv is ion a nd s ubd iv is ion ; w here t he p opu lat ion r ema ins r e lat ive ly c ons tant , a s i ta ppears mus t h ave b een t he c ase i n L ate A ng lo-Saxon E ng land , t hen d iv is ion b etween h e irs w ou ld b e b a lanced b y ama lgamat ions r esu lt ing f rom ma r r iages o r f rom i n her itance f rom u nc les w ho h ad n o h e irs . A fte r t he Norman C onques t t he f o re ign p ract ice o f i n her itance b y t he e ldes t s on a lone w as i n troduced a nd r ap id ly t ook h o ld ( M iche l mo re 1 98 1, 2 44-5 ) . T he o lde r s ys tem may w e l l h ave c ont inued t o b e f o l lowed f o r s ome t ime amongst t he p easants , b ut e ventua l ly t he No rman p rac t ice o f p r imogen iture b ecame t he a ccep ted method . 3 .T he p os it ion o f women D omesday B ook p rov ides l e ss e v idence f or p art ib le i n her itance i n vo lv ing d aughters , a l though o the r s ources s uch a s w i l ls make i t a pparent t ha t i t w as n orma l f or e s ta tes t o b e d iv ided b etween a l l t he c h i ldren n o t j u s t t he s ons . T he re i s , h oweve r , amp le e v idence i nt he Y orksh ire f o l ios f o r w omen h o ld ing l a nd i n t he ir o wn r i ght . W ith t he n ew P h i l l imo re e d it ion i nw h ich t he n ames o f w omen l a ndho lders h ave n ow b een c lear ly d i s t ingu ished , i t w i l l b e p oss ib le t o p lo t o ut t he ir l a nds t o a scerta in w hat p ropo rt ion o f t he l a nd w as h e ld b y women . I ns ome c ases w here a mano r i ss ta ted t o h ave b een h e ld j o int ly i n 1 066 b y a man a nd a w oman , i t may b e t he c ase t hat t hese w ere n ot h usband a nd w ife b u t b ro ther a nd s i ste r , b u t i td oes n o t s eem p oss ib le a t p resent t o i d ent ify s uch c ases . T he i d ea o f w omen h o ld ing t he ir o wn l a nd w as , o f c ourse , a l ien t o t he N o rmans w ho d owngraded t he p os it ion o f w omen . H encefo rth t hey c ou ld o n ly i n her it i f t he ir f a ther h ad n o l e g it imate s ons , i n w h ich c ase t he p rope rty w as d iv ided e qua l ly b etween t he d aughters a nd t hen b ecame e ffect ive ly t he p roperty o f t he ir r espec t ive h usbands . T he d i ff icu lt ies e xper ienced b y t he N o rmans i n u nde rs tand ing t he A ng lo-Saxon s ys tem a re b es t i lus trated b y a n e ntry i n t he C la ims s ect ion o f t he Y orksh ire f o l ios . I nt he ma in t ext t he l a nds o f A sa , w ife o f B jornu lfr , a re a ttr ibuted t o W i l l iam o f P ercy , w ho a l so h e ld a l l t he l a nd s o f h er h usband . B ut i t i so bv ious f rom t he C la ims t hat A sa 's l a nds h ad i n f oc i b een a l loca ted t o R ober t Ma le t a nd t ha t W i l l iam o f P ercy h ad c la imed t hem f o r h imse lf b ecause h e h ad s imp ly a ssumed t hat i fh e h ad b een a l located B jo rnu lfr 's l a nds , t hen h e w as e nt it led t o A sa 's a s we l l . T he r esu lt w as a d i spute b etween W i l l iam o f P e rcy a nd R obe rt Ma let . a nd i t w as n ecessary f o r t he men o f t he w apentake i nt he ir e v idence t o s pe l l o u t t he s i tuat ion : 2 77

C oncern ing a l l A sa 's l a nd t hey t es t ify t hat i to ught t o b e R obert Ma let 's b ecause s he h erse lf h ad h er l a nd s epa rate a nd f ree f rom t he c ontro l a nd p owe r o f B jornu lfr h er h usband , e ven w hen t hey w ere t oge the r , s o t hat h e c ou ld make n e ither g i f t n o r s a le o f i t , n o r f orfe it i t . I n deed , a f ter t he ir s epara t ion s he h erse lf w ithdrew w ith a l l h er o wn l a nd a nd p o ssessed i ta s l a dy . ( Fau l l a nd S t inson 1 986 , CE 1 5 ) . L ad ies w ho s epara te f rom t he ir h usbands , t ak ing t he ir o wn l a nd w ith t hem , w e re s ometh ing q u ite n ew t o t he No rmans ; w omen w ere n o t a ga in t o r ecove r t h is p os it ion o f i n dependence u nt i l t he Marr ied Woman 's P roperty A ct s ome e ight h undred y ears l a ter . C . CONCLUS ION I n t he p hys ica l l a ndscape w ith i t s l a yout o f v i l l u n its a nd e cc les ias t ica l p ar ishes a nd t he ir a ttendant c hurches , t here w as c ons iderab le s urv iva l a fte r t he No rman C onques t , a nd t h is w as p robab ly a l so t he c ase w ith t he i n d iv idua l l a ndscape f eatures s uch a s t he m i l ls , f i sher ies a nd h a l ls . L inked t o t h is w as t he c ont inu ity o f l a ndho ld ing b y t he e ar l ier A ng lo-Saxon l o rds , a lbe it o f i n fe r io r s t atus t han p rev ious ly , a nd o f t he r eco rds w h ich e nab led D omesday B ook t o b e c omp i led i n s uch a s ho rt s pace o f t ime . B ut e ven t hough t here w as c ons iderab le c ont inu ity i n t he p hys ica l l a ndscape a nd e ven a t t he t enur ia l l e ve l , t he f ab r ic o f Yo rksh ire s oc iety w as r ent , t he s ys tem o f i n her itance w as r ad ica l ly c hanged , a nd t he e conomy o f t he c ounty w as d epressed , s o t ha t i na reas s uch a s p ersona l f reedom i ng enera l , a nd t he p os it ion o f w omen i n p ar t icu lar , t he N o rman C onques t c an b e s a id t o h ave b een o ne o f t he g reates t d i sas ters e ve r t o h ave s t ruck E ng land . B ib l iography A s ton , M . , 1 985 . I n terp ret ing t he L andscape : L andscape A rchaeo logy i nL oca l S tud ies ( London ) . A us t in , D . , 1 984 . " Late A ng lo-Saxon s e tt lement i nt he n orth-eas t o f E ng land" , i n F au l l 1 984a : 1 97-207 . F au l l , M .L . , 1 98 1. " The p re-Conques t e cc les ias t ica l p atte rn" , i nF au l t a nd Moo rhouse 1 98 1: 2 10-23 . F au l l , M .L . ( e d . ) , 1 984b . S tud ies i nL ate Ang lo-Saxon S ett lemen t ( Ox fo rd ) . F au l t , M .L . , 1 984b . " Late A ng lo-Saxon s ett lement p atterns i nY orksh ire" , i n F au l l 1 984a : 1 29-42 . F au l l , M .L . , a nd Moorhouse , S .A . ( e ds . ) , 1 98 1. Wes t Yo rksh ire : a n A rchaeo log ica l S urvey t o A .D . 1 500 , 4v o ls . ( Wakef ie ld ) . F au l t , M .L . , a nd S t inson , M . ( e ds . ) , 1 986 . Domesday B ook , 3 0 : Yorksh ire ( Ch iches ter ) . H arvey , S .P .J . , 1 971. " Domesday B ook a nd i t s p redecesso rs" , E ng l ish H is tor ica l Rev iew 8 6 : 7 53-73 . H arvey , S .P .J . , 1 975 . " Domesday B ook a nd t he A ng lo-Norman g ove rnance" , T ransact ions o f t he Roya l H is tor ica l S oc iety , 5 th s er ies , 2 5 : 1 75-93 . M iche lmore , D .J .H . , 1 979 . " The r econs truct ion o f t he e ar ly t enur ia l a nd t err ito r ia l d iv is ions o f t he l a ndscape o f n o rthern E ng land" , L andscape H is tory 1 : 1 9 .

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M iche l more , D .J .H . , 1 98 1. " Townsh ip a nd t enure" , i nF au 1 1 a nd Moo rhouse 1 98 1: 2 3 1-64 . O 'Su l l ivan , D .M . , 1 984 . " Pre-Conques t s ett lement p atterns i nC umb r ia" , i nF au l l 1 984a : 1 43-54 . R o ffe , D . , 1 984 . " Pre-Conques t e s tates a nd p ar ish b oundar ies : ad i scuss ion w ith e xamp le s f rom L inco lnsh ire" , i nF au l I1 984a : 15-22 . R yder , P .F . , 1 982 . S axon C hurches i nS outh Y o rksh ire , S outh Y o rksh ire C oun ty A rchaeo logy Monog raph 2 ( Barns ley ) . S awyer , P .H . , 1 976 . " I ntroduc t ion : e ar ly med ieva l E ng l ish s ett lement" , i nP .H . S awyer ( e d . ) , Med ieva l S ett lement ; Cont inu ity a nd Change ( London ) : 1 7 .

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2 0 . CONS IDERAC IONES SOBRE LOS YAC IM 1ENTOS DE EPOCA V IS IGODA EN LA PROV INC IA DE S EGOV IA ( ESPANA ) S a lvado r E scudero Ch ico J o s Mar ia Gomorra Caba l lero S um mary T here h ave b een many i nvest igat ions o f t he V is igoth ic p er iod i n S pa in . A rchaeo log ica l r esearch h as t aken p lace ma in ly i nc emeter ies a nd c hurches . U nfortunate ly t here i sl i tt le i n fo rmat ion a bout s ett lement . Neverthe less s evera l s urveys h ave b een u nder taken o n t he c entra l a rea o f R iver Duero b as in . T h is a rea h as a lways b een c ons idered a s t he p art o f V is igoth ic s ett lement . Dur ing t h is r esearch we h ave f ound p o ttery w ith i nc ised u ndu lat ing d eco rat ion . T hese p o ts p ots r a ise c hrono log ica l q ues t ions . I n g enera l t hey h ave b een c ons idered a s med ieva l . We h ave f ound t hem i n S egov ia . S omet i mes t hey a re a ssoc iated w ith mater ia ls wh ich d ate f rom t he l a te Roman Emp ire . T hey h ave b een s ome s im i lar it ies w ith mater ia l f ound i ns ome c emetr ies o f t he V is igo th ic p er iod . We s uggest t hat mos t o f t h is p ottery , c ons idered a s med ieva l u p t o n ow , m ight b e long t o t he V is igoth ic p er iod . F urther e xcavat ion i s n eeded t o c onf irm t h is h ypo thes is . B asta e char u n v i stazo a a lg i in r epertor io b ib l iogrä f ico p are c omproba r q ue l o s e s tud ios s obre e l p eriod° v i s igodo e n l a P eni nsu la 1 b6r ica s on a bundantes ( 1 ) . S in embargo , s i a na l izamos mds d eta l ladamente e sa b ib l iografi a , f äc i l mente p odremos e sbozar a lguna s i deas : I Muchos t raba jos s e h an c entrado e n l a s v io las y o b ras d e l o s p ersona jes m6s i mportantes d e l o s s i g los V a l V I I I c omo l s idoro d e S ev i l la , I l defonso d e T o ledo . . . . 2 E n l o q ue s e r ef i e re a l a s f uentes a rqueo l6g icas , a penas s e h a a vanzado a lgo d esde l o s a i los 4 0 o 5 0 , c uando a l s erv ic io d e u na d eterm inada i deo logic , s e b uscaban l o s h a l lazgos I l amat ivos ( b roches y f i bu las d e l a s n ecröpo l is . . ) . 3 E l p ano rama e s d eso lado r c uando n os e nfrentamos a l p rob lema d e l h äb itat o d e l p ob lam iento v i s igoda . No s e h an h a i led° r estos d e h äb itat e i g noramous d onde s e e ncuentran l o s y ac im ientos d e eoca v i s igoda . Y s i c omparamos l a d i spers idn d e l o s n üc leos r omanos , s ob re t odo r ura les , c on l a d e l o s s i g los V a l V I I I , e l r esu lted° e s a un mäs d esa lentador . P rd ct icamente , a penas c onocemos md s q ue u nas c uantes n ecr6po l is ( de l a s c ua les l a s mas i mportantes e stän e n l a p rov inc ia d e S egov ia : C ast i lt ierra y D urat6n , f echadas e n e l s i g lo V I d . d e C . , Madrona , V entos i l la y T e jad i l la . . . ) ei g les ias ( l a c r ip ta d e S an A nto li n oS an J uan d e B anos e n P a lenc ia . S an P edro d e l a N ave e n Z amo ra . . ) . C abe p reguntarse p ues d önde e stän l o s n üc leos d e p ob lac i6n c o rrespond ientes a e sas n ecräpo l is e i g les ias v i s igodas , b ien s e t rate d e g odos d e l o s s ucesores , e n l o s s i g los V a l V I I , d e l ap ob lac iön h i spannorromana . Y , p aradö j icamente , p ara le lamente c on e s te d esconoc im iento , a unque s e d i scuten a l gunos a spectos r e lac ionados c on l o s v i s igodas ( como s u n ümero o s i s e e s tab lec ieron e n t oda l a P eni nsu la o s 6 10 e n d eterm inadas r eg iones ) , t odos l o s h i s tor iadores c o inc iden e n q ue s e a sentaron e n u n ä rea q ue t endri a c omo c entro l a p rov inc ia d e S egov ia y q ue a barcari a l a s a ctua les p rov inc ias d e V a l lado l id , B urgos , S or ia , P a lenc ia , G uada la jara , Madr id y a iceres , s i b ien e x ist iri a u n a sentam iento d e t i po a r is tocrat ic° q ue , a unque d i sperso , s e c oncentrari e mäs e n

2 8 1

T o ledo ( 2 ) . N o o bs tante , c oda v ez a parecen mäs r es tos , i n scr ipc ione s ei nc luso n ecrdpo l is e n l a s z ones e x trema r las y a nda luza s . A n ues tro j u ic io , l a s c ausas d e q ue n o s e h a l len l o s l u ga res d e a sentam iento d e e poca v i s igoda n o s e e xp l ican s o lamente c on a rgumentos c omo l a e x is tenc ia d e u na s imp le c ont inu idad e n e l p ob lam iento ( d ado q ue e n y ac im iento s r omanos a parecen h a l lazgos v i s igodos ) , p o r s u i n s ta lac ian c erca d e l a s n ec ropo l is y a c onoc idas , p o r l a c aduc idad d e l a s c ons trucc iones d est inadas a v iv ienda c o t id iana ( 3 ) op or l a f a lta d e p rospecc iones ( c uando , e n p rospecc iones m inuc iosas e n l a p rov inc ia d e V a l lado l id , z ona c ons iderada t r ad ic iona l mente d e a sentam iento v i s igodo , s e h an d escub ierto c ientos d e y ac im ientos e ntre l o s q ue a penas s r e x is ten h a l lazgos d e e poca v i s igoda ( 4 ) ) . E l p rob lema e s td , an ues tro modo d e v er , n o t anto e n e l h a l lazgo d e r e s tos d e e poca v i s igoda , c omo e n s u i d ent if icac i6n , e n q ue m ientras t odo e l mundo i d ent if ica i n s i g i l lata y s abe a dscr ib ir la a u na e poca) h ay u n d esconoc im iento s obre l o s r e stos d e e poca v i s igoda ( a n o s er q ue s ean t i p icamente g odos c omo l o s o b jetos d e l a s n ecrdpo l is o monumenta les c omo l a s i g les ias ) . F a I la a n ues tro j u ic io e le stud io d e l ac e rc im ica d e e poca v i s igoda ( apenas l o s ü n icos e s tud io s s on l o s d e I zqu ierdo B en ito q ue s e r e fi e ren a e jemp lares c erdm icos p rov in ientes d e n ecropo l is ( 5 ) ) . A sr , e n u na p rospecc iön e n l a q ue n o a parezca s i g i l lata , t odos l o s mater ia les c erdm icos s ue len s er c a l if icados d e med ieva les ( s ean d e l s i g lo V I oV I I od e l X I oX I I) . S on d iez s i g los d e l o s q ue s e i g no ra t odo . A lgo s im i lar s ucede e n e l p er iod° med ieva l . E x isten g randes d i f icu ltades p ara d i ferenc iar q ue c erc im ica p er tenece a l a A lta E dad Med ia y c uc i l a l p e rfodo p os te r io r . C omo c onsecuenc ia , s e d esconoce l af echa a prox imada d e n umerosos y ac im ientos q ue s on c a li fcados c on e l t 4 rm ino , y am uy i mprec iso , d e " med ieva l" . Y , p a radö j icamente , a ntes d e a c larar e stos p un tos , s e l a nzan g randes i d eas : S e h ab la d e d espob lac id n d e l V a l le d e l D uero ( S anchez A lbornoz ) o d e l a p ermanenc ia d e p ob lac iones marg ina les , s i n c ontar c on u na b ase a rque lög ica fi rme . A n uestro modo d e v er , e s tos p rob lemas s ob re p ob lam iento v i s igodo y m ed ieva l s a lo p ueden s o luc ionarse med iante l ae xcavac iOn d e a lgün h db ita t med ieva l j unto c on u na i n tensa l a bo r d e p rospecc i6n . E s ta ü l t ima t a rea e s l a q ue v en imos r ea l izando e n e l s ecto r n o rocc iden ta l d e l a p rov inc ia d e S egov ia , e n l a s p rox im idades d e C ue l lar , z ona d om inada p o r u na v egetac iän d e p inar , l e jos d e l a s n ecrOpo l is v i s igodas y a c onoc idas y c uyo n üc leo a rqueo lög ico mäs p röx imo e s l av i l la r omana d e A gu i lafuente . N ues tras p rospecc iones h an p ues to d e man if ies to y ac im ientos d e muy d i fe rentes c u lturas . S i n embargo , d os s on l o s g rupos mas c arac terr s t icos : a )

L os h i spanorromanos b i en d e f in idos p o r l o s v es t ig ios d e s i g i l lata y p o r s u emp lazam iento e n p equeKas e levac iones p röx i mas a c ursos d e a gua .

b )

U n s egundo t i po r epresentado , e nt re o t ros , p o r l o s y ac im iento s d e " l a c o tarra d e l a e rm ita" e n G omezserraci n , " Los B lancares " e n N ava l manzano , " La N ava" e n S anchonuno . . . T odos e l los p resen tan d os n o tas c omunes : - S u emp lazam iento , e n modo a lguno d e fens ivo . A d i ferenc ia d e l o s r omanos , n o o cupan l a s t i erras md s f e ' r t i les s i no p eque P ias e levac iones a renosas . A demds , t odos e l los h an s i do d escub iertos c uando e l p i nar h a s i do d e smontado . 2 82

1 0

«

O

K 1 4

0

F ig . 2 0 . 1:

S anchonu i io , n os . 1 ,2 ,5 10 , 1 4 15 . G omer se r ra dn , n os . 3 -4 , 113 .

2 83

m

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5 cm .

5

7

• 1 0

1

m .

F ig . 2 0 .2 :

S anchond r io , n o s . 1 ,9 11 G omer se rraci n , n os . 2 -8

2 84

-E l p redom in io d e u na c erdm ica g r is . Av eces e sta c erdm ica s e p resenta a soc iada a r es tos t ardorromanos , a unque s i empre muy e scasos ( una l u cerna e n S anchonu r io . . . ) . E sta c erdm ica p resenta l a s s i gu ientes c aracteri st icas : P astas d e g rano f i no y med io , e n c o lo r g r is c laro y marrön o scuro . D estacan l a s p iezas g randes c on f o rma g lobu lar ( F ig . 2 0 .2 , 2 -4 ) a si c omo l a s a b iertas d e p aredes g ruesas y b o rdes r ectos ( F ig . 2 0 .1, 3 ) ; e n meno r n ümero a parecen p latos ( F ig . 2 0 .1, 1 2 ) , c uencos ( F ig . 2 0 .1, 4 ) , p ucheros ( F ig . 2 0 .1, 5 13 ) , t apaderas ( F ig . 2 0 .1, I 415 ) . . . E stc in d ecoradas c on i n c is iones h or izonta les r ectas y o ndu ladas ( F ig . 2 0 .2 , Iy 5 -11) , r ea l izadas a p e ine ( F ig . 2 0 .2 , 7 -9 ) o p unzön , c on u n c aso e n l i neas p ara le las b ru l l idas ( F ig . 2 0 .2 , 1 0 ) . E l p rob lema a parece a l ah ora d e f i jar l a c rono logr a d e e sta c erdm ica . Mana r ies l a c a l if ica e n g enera l c omo med ieva l p ero d uda a l p rec isar s u e poce : r econoce q ue muchas d e e l las s e e ncuentran e n y ac im ientos t ardorromanos , p or l o q ue p odri e t ratarse d e c erdm ica v u lgar d e e sa e poca . Mana r ies , s i n embargo , c las if ica l a mayor p arte d e " a ltomed ieva l" ( s ig los V I I I a t X ) a unque t rata c omo " ba jomed ieva les" o tros f r agmentos d e s im i lar d eco rac iön ( a l h acer los p ara le los d e o tros e ncontrados e n l ab ase d e l a s mura l las d e Murc ia ) ( 6 ) . S i n embargo , l at ecn ica , e lc o lo r ye sa m isma d eco rac i6n o ndu lada a parecen e n l a c erdm ica c omün d e C on i mbr iga ( 7 ) , e n c erdm icas d e e poca v i s igoda ( 8 ) , p or e jemp lo e n l a n ecr6po 1 1s d e P i6a d e E sgueva ( Va l lado l id ) ( 9 ) . D e l m ismo modo , Mo l iner° c a l if icaba d e v i s igodo u n f ragmento d e c erdm ica g r is c on d eco rac ien o ndu lada a p e ine h a l lado e ntre l o s mater ia les d e l a n ecr6po l is v i s igoda d e V entos i l la y T e jad il l a ( compuesta d e 1 6 s epu lturas d e a juar p obre ) , a unque e l m ismo a utor , a l e ncontrar e jemp lares s im i lares e n S anchonu r io ( Segov ia) , l e s d ef inia c omo r estos d e v as i jas t oscas d e eoca i mprec ise ( 10 ) . T ambWn e n Monte C i ldä ( Pa lenc ia ) , Garcia G u inea f echaba e ntre e l s i g lo V y e l V I I I u na s er ie d e c erdm icas g r ises c on d eco rac iön o ndu lada ; a l li m ismo e ncontraba u na e spada s im i lar a l a s d e C ast i lt ierra ( Segov ia ) ( 1 1) . I ndus° , e l p rop io Manages , e n V i l lanueva d e D uero ( Va l lado l id ) , j unto c on u n f ragment° d e d ecorac i6n o ndu lada , h a l laba o tro c on s em icr rcu los o e spec ies d e g u irna ldas e stampadas , s im i lar a l o s mo t ivos q ue s e c l an e n l ac erdm ica g r is e s tampada ( 12 ) . E n

d ef in it iva ,

q u izd s

c abr ia a dm it ir u na f echa mäs t emprana p ara e s tas D e t odas maneras u rgen n uevos e stud ios p ara d atar l a e poca d e e stos a sentam ientos q ue , b ien s ean d e 6 poca v i s igoda ( V 1 a V I I I) o a l tomed ieva l ( s ig los V I I I aX ) r eve lan u na c u ltura mater ia l muy p ob re q ue h ace p ensar e n g entes d e c ond ic iön h um i lde . S in d uda , c uando c onozcamos me jor e stas e tapas , muchas i d eas d eberdn s er r ev isadas .

c e rdm ica s ( e v is igodas? ) .

No tas b ib li og red icas ; ( 1 ) A lonso A v i la , A . , S agredo S an E us taqu io , L . , C respo O rt iz d e Z arate , S . : H ispan ia v is igoda . B ib l iograf s i stemdt ica y s i ntes is h i stdr ica , D epartmento d e H is tor ia A nt igua , U n ivers idad d e V a l lado l id , V a l lado l id , 1 985 .

t o

( 2 )

I b idem , p egs . 1 0 11. Mangas Man jarres , J . , S o lana S a inz , J .M . : Roman izac idn y German izac ito d e l a Meseta Norte , H istor ia d e C ast i l la y L eön , t o mo 2 , V a l lado l id , 1 985 , p ägs . 1 08 , 1 23 y 1 37 .

2 85

( 3 )

A lonso A v i la , A . , S agredo S an E us taqu io , L . , C respo O rt iz d e Z a rate , S . : H ispan ia v i s igoda . . . , p dg . 1 8 .

( 4 )

Maganes , T . : A rgue logra V a l l iso letana . L a T ierra d e Campos y e l S ur d e l D uero , V a l lado l id , 1 979 , p 6g . 5 4 .

( 5 )

l zqu ierdo B en ito , R . : C erdm ica d e n ec ropo l is d e d poca v i s igoda d e l Museo A rque lö g ico N ac iona l , Rev ista d e A rch ivos , B ib l io tecas y Museos , Madr id , t omo 8 0 , 1 977 n o . 3 , p dgs . 5 69-6 11. I d em : E nsayo d e u na s i s tema t izac iön t i po l6g ica d e l a c e rc im ica d e n ecröpo l is d e 6 poca v i s igoda , R ev ista d e A rch ivos , B ib l io tecas y Museos , t omo 8 0 , 1 977 , n o . 4 ,p dgs . 8 37-865 .

( 6 )

Md ianes , T . : A rqueo log ia V a l l iso letana . . . , p 6gs . 12 , 1 30 , 1 3 1.

( 7 )

A la ra fo , J . d e : Ce ram ica c omun C o imb ra , 1 974 , n o . 9 53 , 9 84 , 9 96 . . .

( 8 )

l z qu ie rdo B en ito , R . : E nsayo . . . , p 6g . 8 39 .

( 9 )

P erez V i l lanueva , J . , T ovar , A . , S up io t , J . : L a n ec r eo l is v i s igoda d e P r na d e E sgueva , B o le tin d e l S em inar io d e A r te y A rqueo log ia , V a l lado l id , t omo 1 ,1 9321933 y t o mo 1 , 1 9331934 .

( 10 )

Mo li n ero , A . : Apo rtac iones a l a s e xcavac iones y h a l lazgos c asua le s ( 194 I 1 959 ) a l Museo A rqueo ldg ico d e S egov ia , E xcavac iones A rqueo l6g icas e n E spana , n o . 7 2 , 1 971, p ögs . 6 5 y 15 , L am ina C I yp dg . 7 1 , l am ina CXX .

( I I)

G a rci a G u inea , M .A . , G onza lez E chega ray , J . , yS an M igue l E xcavac ione s e n Monte C i ldd . 0 1 1eros d e P isuerga ( Pa lenc ia ) . d e 1 9631965 , E xcavac iones A rqueo l6g icas e n E spa r la , n o . 6 1 , 1 2 , 1 3 , 1 5 , 2 7-30 . G arci a G u inea , M .A . , I g les ias G i l , J .M . y E xcavac iones d e Mon te C i ldd , 0 1 1eros d e P isuerga ( Pa lenc ia ) . d e 1 966 a 1 969 , E xcavac iones A rqueo ldg icas e n E spana , n o . 8 2 , 6 -8 , 1 5 16 , 2 2-26 , 3 7 , 3 9 y4 5 .

( 1 2 )

Mananes , T . : A rqueo log ia V a l l iso letana m , p ägs . 9 4 -96 .

2 86

l o ca l

e r eg iona l

d e C on imb r iga ,

R u iz , J .A . : C ampaf ias 1 966 , p ägs . C a loca , P . : C ampanas 1 9 73 , p dgs .

2 1 . LA DEFENSE DU T ERR 1TO IRE AU BAS-EMP IRE DANS LE NORD-OUEST DE LA GAULE R aymond B ru let L a s t ra teg ie m i l ita ire d e R ome a pp l iquee ä s es t e rr ito ires f r onta l iers a c onnu u ne m u tat ion f ondamenta le ä l a f i n d u H aut-Emp ire ; l e c hangement a c ons is te ä l ' adop t ion d ' une s t ratä g ie d e d e fense a ct ive mate r ia l ise e p ar l a f o rt if icat ion d e l ' i nte r ieur d u t e rr ito ire , c e dant l e p as ä l a t r ad it ionne l le d e fense d u s eu l c o rdon f r onta li e r . L o in d ' être b rusque e t d e f in it ive , c ette mutat ion a e t ed ictee p ar l e s f a its t out l o ng d u I le s i èc le , p romue d e man ie re emp ir ique s ous G a l l ien e t äl ' e poque l ' Emp ire g au lo is , p u is v e r itab lement i n s t itut ionna l is ee d e s l e d ebut d u I Ve l e s i n s t itut ions m i l ita ires e l les-memes n e p e rmettant p as d e d outer l ' impo rtance a ccrue q u i s e ra a cco rdee ä l a d e fense d u t e rr ito ire a ssure p ro fondeur .

a u d e d e e n

L e p et it n ombre d e t ex tes d ont n ous d i sposons p our l a G au le s eptentr iona le e ntra ine q ue l e s s ources a rche o log iques c ons t ituent l e s s eu ls t e rno ins d e c ette mod if icat ion s t rateg ique . L es r echerches r e centes e ntrepr ises t ant s ur l e l imes q u 'ä l ' i nte r ieur d u t err ito ire p e rmettent n e anmo ins d ' apprehender l a p hys ionom ie d es p rov inces d e B e lg ique S econde e t d e G e rman ie S econde , a u B as-Emp ire . P our e va luer c o rrectement l ' impact d e l a n ouve l le s t rate g ie m i l ita ire , i ls ' ave re q ue l ' e tude d es f o rt if ica t ions e t d es s ys te rnes d e fens ifs n e p eut s uff i r e . L a c onfrontat ion d e c es d e rn iers a vec d es e t udes d ' occupat ion d u s o l p eu t a bout ir ä d es c onc lus ions c omp lementa ires . D ans u n p rem ier t e mps , i ln ous r ev ient d e p roposer u n b i lan d e l ' o rgan isat ion m i l ita ire d e l aG au le s eptentr iona le . A u p lan d es r e formes i n s t itut ionne l les , o n n o tera l ' i ndependance d u p ouvo ir m i l ita ire q u i s e f a it j ou r äp ar t ir d e D ioc le t ien e t d e C ons tant in: l eD ux p rend e n c harge u n s ecteur f ronta l ier q u i p eut e tre p lus e t endu q u 'une s eu le p rov ince . A ins i e n e sti l d u D ux T ractus A rmo r ican i e t N erv ican i . L e t roupes d ont i l d i pose s ont d es L im itane i , a u mo m s äp art j rd e 3 25 . L a c reat ion l a p lus i mpo r tante e s t c e l le d ' une a r me e mob i le , l e s c om ita tenses , p l acee s ous l e s o rdres d ' un C omte e t d ont l e s o b ject ifs r e jo indront c eux d e l a d e fense e n p ronfondeur d u t e rr ito ire . P ar a i l leurs , o n i n s ta l le d es m i l ices e t range res r n i l ita ires e t a gr ico les , s ous l ' auto r ited 'un P re fet .

c omme

c o lon ies ,

ä l a f o is

D ans l ed e ta i l , o n s a it q ue l e s c entres u rba ins p art ic iperont ä l ad e fense p u isqu ' i ls s on t d o te s d ' une e nce inte d e s l a f i n d u I l e s iè c le e t a br itent u n d e tachement . L es a gg lome rat ions s econda ire s d i spara issent p our l ap lupart e n G ay le s eptent r iona le . C e l les q u i s ub s istent s ont mun ies d ' un r empart , c omme B avay , F amars , M aas tr icht , A r lon , e tc . , m a is l e ur c aract e c iv i l p rend l e p as n e anmo ins s ur l ' aspec t m i l ita ire . D eux s ys te rnes d e d e fense d es f ront ie res c oex is tent e n G au le s eptent r iona le :l e s y s t e rne d e p ro tect ion d es f r ont ie res t erres tres e t mar it imes .

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F ig . 2 1 . 1:

L a G au le S ep tentr iona le a u B as-Emp ire .

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L e l imes r henan , d an s e p hys ionom ie t r ad it ionne l le , t o mbe e n d e sue tude e ntre 2 54 e t 2 60 . Q ue lques t ex tes e t l e s r echerches r e centes p rouvent q u ' i l n e f u t j ama is a bandonne . D es f o rt if icat ions p lus i mpo rtantes c omme c e l les d e N imegue , C uyk , X anten , G e l lep , N euss , D eutz , B onn e t R emagen c oex is tent a vec d es f o rts p lus p et its . C erta ines f o rt if icat ions r emontent a l ap e r iode c ons tant in ienne , d ' autres d o ivent e tre a ttr ibuees ä l ap er iode v a lent in ienne . M e rne s i l e s ys teme d e c o rdon f ronta l ier a p erdu d e s on e f f icac ite d urant l eB asEmp ire , c erta ins empereu rs d u I Ve s iè c le n ' he s itent p as ä l a ncer p e r iod iquement d es c ampagnes d e r econs truc t ion d u d i spos it if f ronta l ier . S ur l ef ront mar it ime , l ap hys ionom ie d es c ö tes a t r e s p rofondemment e t e mod if iee s u ite ä l a t ransgress ion mar ine d u D unkerke I . L es t extes f ont e ta t d ' un s ys teme , a ppe le L itus S axon icum , d ont l a p lupart d es p os tes f o rt if ie s p ara issen t e s sent ie l lement a b r ite r d es p orts d e g uerre , ä e n j uger p ar l a t e rm ino log ie u t i l is o zk p our l e s s i tes d ans l a No t it ia D ign ita tum . A rcheo log iquement , l e s s i tes r econnus n e s ' ident if ient p as a utomat iquement a ux s i tes a ttes ts p ar l a N o t it ia . A ins i e n e s ti l d ' A ardenburg e t d e B ou logne ;O udenburg p ourra it a u c ontra ire c orrespondre ä P ortu E pat iac i . L es r e centes f ou i l les d e B ou logne o nt r e s . /e le l e s s t ructures d u c amp d e l a C lass is B r itann ica d u II l e s i èc le s ous l e s f ondat ions d e l af o rt if icat ion d u B as-Emp ire ;A A ardenburg c omme ä O udenburg , o n e nreg istre l a p re sence d ' un c amp i mpo rtant d e s l e I le s i èc le . O n p eu t d onc e s t imer q ue l e c reat ion d u s ysteme d e d e fense mar it ime r emonte b ien a vant l e B as-Emp ire e t e t a it s ans d oute c ommande p ar l ' i nsecur ite d u l i tto ra l , p lus G igue e t p lus p recoce q ue c e l le p rovenant d es f r ont ie res t erres tres . L e s y teme mar it ime a p e rdure j u squ 'ä l af i n d e l ' Emp ire . Al ' i nte r ieur d u t err ito ire , l ap o l it ique d e d e fense e n p ro fondeur p roprement d i te , s e t r adu it p ar l a m ise e n d e fense d es a xes r out iers l e s p lus i mpo rtants , e n p art icu l ier d e l a v o le C o logne-Bavay . U n r e seau t r e s d ense d e p et its b urg i , r e part is ä 1 6 kms d ' inte rva l le , y ae t e r econnu d e l o ngue d ate . Ma lheureusement , o n i g nore , ä l ' heure a ctue l le , s i l e r e seau e n q ues t ion s e p ro longe , a u-de lä d e B avay , v ers l a Me r d u N o rd , p ar T ourna i , o u s ' i l d e fenda it l a r oute e n d i rect ion d 'Am iens . L es r e su ltats e nco re i n e d its d es r echerches s ur l e s ys teme d e m ise e n d e fense d e c et te r oute p rouvent q ue l e s ys teme a s urvgeu ä t out l e B as-Emp ire e t q u ' i l a c onnu d eux p hases p r inc ipa les d ' ame nagement . U ne p rem ie re p hase c o rrespond l a c ons truct ion d e b urg i e n mate r iaux l e gers , e d if ie s äl ' e poque d e l ' Emp ire g au lo is ( L iberch ies , T av iers , B ra ives , e tc ) . U ne s econde p hase , e n p ierres , r emonte ä P e poque c ons tant i n ienne e t ae t eentrepr ise s ur d es s i tes d e so rma is i n hab ite s o u s ur d es s i tes q u i n e l ' ava ient j ama is e t e a uparavant ( Mo r lanwe lz , L iberch ies I , G oudsberg , e tc ) . D ans l es ecteur r u ra l , l e s f o rt if icat ions d e h auteur s e mu lt ip l ient d ans l en ord d e l aG au le , S urtout d ans l es ud d e l aC iv itas T ungro rum . L es t ravaux rents f ont a ppara f tre , g race a u t emo ignage d es f ou i l les menees d ans l e s f o rt if icat ions ma is a uss i g race a u t emo ignage d es f ou i l les menees d ans l e s f o rt if icat ions ma is a us s i g race ä l ' e tude d es n ecropo les q u i l e ur s ont a ssoc iees , d eux p er iodes p r inc ipa les d ' amenagement d e c e s s i tes . L a p rem ie re p e r iode , d e l a f i n d u I le s iè c le e t d e l a p rem ie re mo it ie d u I Ve s iè c le , e st marquee p ar d es c onstruct ions e n p ierres d e b onne q ua l ite e t u ne o ccupat ion m i l ita ire d e t ype t r ad it ionne l . L a s econde p g r iode d ebute a pr e s l e m i l ieu d u I Ve s iè c le , l ap lupart d es s i tes f a isant e t at d e v io lents t roub les s urvenus ä c c moment . C et te s econde p hase c o rrespond ä l ' i ns ta l lat ion d e m i l ices g erman iques , s ans l i en a vec l e s

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o ccupants p recedents . L es n ouve l les c ommunaute s g uerr ie res o ffrent d es t races d e p re sence s ur l e s s i tes e n q uest ion j usqu 'au m i l ieu d u ye s ik le . Ip ara i t e ssent ie l d e c onfronter l a p hys ionom ie m i l ita ire p re sentee p ar l a G au le s eptentr iona le a vec u n e xamen d e l ' occupat ion d u s o l d e c es r e g ions . L a p lupart d es b ourgardes r ura les s ont t r e s n e ttement a bandonnees a u I Ve s ik le c omme d u r este d e n ombreux e tab l issements r uraux . L e s ecteur s i tue e ntre l a f ront i e r henane s eptentr iona le , a ux P ays-Bas , e t l a l im ite d e l a z one l imoneuse e n B e lg ique a ctue l le , s e t rouve p resque c omp le tement a bandonne t out-au-p lus y e nreg istre-t-on c es c ern ie res a nnees ,et l ' e lement e st i mpo rtant , d es h ab itats d e t ype g erman ique a nte r ieurs ä l af i n d e l ' e poque r oma ine . D ons l eb ass in mosan e t d ans l es ud d e l aC iv itas T ungrorum , l e s t ravaux e n c ours i n d iquent u ne o ccupat ion p lus g ene ra l isee d e l a z one e n q uest ion q ue c e l le ä l aque l le o n p ouva it s ' attendre . L 'hab itat y p rend d es f ormes p lus v ar iees : q ue lques g rands d oma ines t rad it ionne ls o nt s urve cu d urant l e l ye s ik le m a is o n e nreg istre a uss i d es r e occupat ions p art ie l les d ' e tab l issements r uraux , d es amenagements s econda ires d e mauva ise q ua l ite , e n mate r iaux p e r issab les , d es h ab itats g erman iques p arfo is i mportants c omme c e lu i d e Neerharen , D onk e t V oerendaa . A u t ota l , d onc , g race a ux f ou i l les r e centes , l a G ay le s eptentr iona le o f frre l a p hys ionom ie d ' une v aste z one , p ar ie l lement a bandonnee e t p art ie l lement o ccupee p ar u ne p opu lat ion a yant s ub i u n m ixage t r e s p rfond , ds l em i l ieu d u I Ve s ik le . A l a l um ie re d e c ette i n terpre tat ion d e l ' occupat ion d u s o l , o n c omprendra d avantage l ' impact d e l a n ouve l le s t rateg ie m i l ita ire d e Rome p our l e s t err ito ires s eptentr ionaux . L a s t rateg ie d e d e fense e n p rofondeur , l a s eu le p oss ib le d ans d es t e rr ito ir is t rava i l le s p ar l e s i n dondat ions e t l e s mouvements d e p opu lat ion , n ' offrent p as q ue d es a vantages , e i le l e s t ransforme e n z one d ' op&at ions m i l ita ires p ermanentes l ' i nsecur iteregne e n mai tre . L e H aut Commandement m i l ita ire n e p arai t j ama is a vo ir r enonce a u ma int ien o u a u r enforcement d es c o rdons f ronta l iers , ä l ' i nte r ieur d u p ays , d o te d e f ort if icat ions u rba ines , r out ie res e t p arfo is r u ra les , i l a o rgan ise u n n ouveau d i spos it if v i sant ä u ne p rotect ion e ff icace d e l a l og ist ique : e n p art icu l ier , l e s z ones p roductr ices d e c e rea les , s ont m ises e n d e fense . P our l e r este , u ne p o l it ique d e p ermeab i l it ie d es f r ont ie res , d ' accue i l d es r e fug ie s g erman iques o u d e t ra ite s , s emb le r e su lter d u t emo ignage d e l a p hys ionom ie d e l ' hab itat r ura l , p arfa itement h e te rogene . P ar l as u ite , a pre s l em i l ieu d u I Ve s ik le , c ette p o l it ique e t range re r ecevra c onf irmat ion j u sque d ans l e d oma ine m i l ita ire , p u isque t outes l e s f ort if icat ions r ura les d e c ette p & iode p assent d ans l e s m a ins d e c ommunaute s g erman iques , a l l ies o b l igees d u p ouvo ir r o ma in . E n d e f in it ive , l o rsque l ' on a borde l e p rob leme d e l a d e fense d u t err ito ire , If aut s ' interroge r s ur l ' e ta t d e l ' arr ie re-pays . L a p o l it ique m i l ita ire men ep ar Rome e st c omp le tement s ous-tendue , e n Gau le s eptentr iona le c omme d ans d ' autres r e g ions , p ar e xemp le e n A fr ique d u Nord , p ar u ne p o l it ique d e r em igrat ion e t d e c oex istence p ac if ique a vec l e s n ouveaux v enus i n f i ltre s o u t ransp lante s v o lonta irement .

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B ib l iograph ie B e rsu , G . e t U nverzag t , W . , 1 96 1, ' Le c as te l lum d e F anum Mor t is ' , G a l l ia 1 9: 1 59190 B ogaers , J .E . , 1 974 . ' Rome inse m i li t a iren a an h et H e l in ium ' , Wes terheem , 2 3 : 7 07 8 . B ogaers , J .E . e t R üger , C .B . , 1 974 , Der N iedergerman ische L i mes , Kö ln . B öhme , H .W . , 1 974 . G erman ische G rabfunde d es 4 /5 J ahrhunderts zw ischen E lbe u nd L o ire ( Müchne r B e iträge z ur V o r-und F rügesch ichte , I 9 ) ,2 v o ls . B ru let , R . , 1 974 . L a Roche a Lomme ä Dourbes . F o rt if icat ion d u B asEmp ire r oma in e t r efuge m ed i &a l ( Archaeo log ia B e lg ica , 1 60 ) . B ru let , R . , 1 975 . Recherches a rcheo log iques s ur l eB asEmp ire r oma in d ons l e s c iv itates T urnacens ium , C amaracens ium e t T ungorum . E tude d e l ' occupat ion d u s o l e t d e l ad e fense d u t err ito ire ( D isser t . D oc torat , U n ive rs ite d e L ouva in ) . B ru let , R . , 1 977a . 'Bra ives :b urgus d u B as-Emp ire ' , A rcheo log ie 1 977: 9 3 . B ru let , R . , 1 977b . ' La t ou r d e g arde d u B as-Emp ire r oma in d e Mo r lanwe lz ( Be lg ique ) ' , S tud ien z u d en M i l itärgrenzen Roms , 1 091 1 4 . B ru let , R . , 1 977c . ' La d e fense d u t err ito ire a u B as-Emp ire ' , L es D oss ie rs d e L 'Archä D log ie , 2 1 :9 8107 . B ru let , R . , I 9 78a . L a f o r t if icat ion d e Hauterecenne ä F urfooz ( Pub l icat ions H isto ire d e l ' Ar t e t d 'Archeo log ie d e l ' Un ivers ite C atho l ique d e L ouva in , 1 3 ) . B ru let , R . , 1 978b . ' Fo rt if icat ions e t d e fense d u t err ito ir ie a u B as-Emp ire e n G au le s eptentr iona le ' , T ravaux m i l ita ires e n Goo le r oma ine e t d ons l e s p rov inces d u n o rd-oues t , Caesarodunum , 1 :3 -20 B ru let , R . e t C ou lon , G . , 1 977 . L a n ecropo le g a l lo-roma ine d e l aR ue P e rdue ä T ourna i ( Pub l ica t ions d 'H isto ire d e l ' Ar t e t d 'Archeo log ie d e l ' Un ivers ite C atho l ique d e L ouva in , 7 ) . D e B oe , G . , 1 982 . ' Meer c l an 1 . 500 j aar b ewon ing r ond d e R ome inse v i l la t e Neerharen-Rekem ' . A rchaeo log ia B e lg ica , 2 47 : 7 0-74 . D ev i l lers , L . , 1 97 1. ' La v i l la r oma ine d e Wancennes ' , Anna les d e l aS oc ie te A rcheo log ique d e N amur , 5 6: 9 7152 . G reene , K . , 1 979 . ' I nvas ion a n r esponse: p o ttery a nd t he R oman a r my ' , i nB .C . B urnham e t H .B . J ohnson ( eds . ) I nvas ion a nd r esponse . T he c ase o f Roman B r ita in , B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l R epo rts B r it ish s er ies , 7 3: 9 9106 . H o ffman , D . , 1 970 . D as s pätröm ische B ewegungsheer u nd d ie No t it ia D ign itatum ( Ep ig raph ische S tud ien , 7 ) . H o ffman , D . , 9 73 .: 1 D ie G a ll i enarmee u nd d er G renzschü tz am R he in i nd er S pätant ike , Nas sau ische Anna len , 8 4: 1 18

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T he Roman F orts o f t he S axon S hore .

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V an O sse l , P . , 1 979 . ' Les e r t ab l issements r u raux d u B as-Emp ire d ans l ap art ie m Md iona le d e l aC iv itas T ungrorum ' , Revue d es A rcheo logues e t H istor iens d 'Art d eL ouva in , 1 2 :9 -27 . W ightman , E .M . , 1 971. ' S ome A spects o f t he L ate R oman D efens ive S ys tem i n G au l ' , Roman f ron t ier S tud ies , 1 967 , T e l A v iv: 4 6-5 1. W i l l , E . , 1 962 . ' Les e nce intes d u B as-Emp ire ä B avay ' , Revue d u Nord , 4 4: 3 9 14 0 1. W i l lems , W .J .H . , 1 983 . ' Romans a nd B atav ians :r eg iona l d eve lopments a t t he i mper ia l f ront ier ' , i nR .W . B randt a nd J . S lo fstra ( e ds . ) Roman a nd Nat ive i nt he L ow Coun tr ies , B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l R epo rts , I n ternat iona l S er ies , 1 84 : 1 05128 .

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2 . THE END OF ROMAN WHARRAM P ERCY P h i l ip Rahtz S ummary Modes o f t rans it ion f rom Roman t o A ng lo-Saxon a re d iscus sed , t ogethe r w ith t he mean ing o f c ont inu ity . A t Wharram P ercy , i nE as t Yorksh ire E ng land , o ne a rea s howed t hat s i x th c entury s unkenfeatured b u i ld ings ( g rübenhäuser ) h ad b een b u i lt i n a Roman h o l low way . P rob lems o f i n terpretat ion c entre o n t he f i fth c entury , a nd o n t he c eram ic s equence i nt he a rea . Wharram P ercy i s a mu lt iper iod r u ra l s ett lement s i te o n t he Y o rksh ire Wo lds ( Be resfo rd a nd H urs t 1 979 ; H urs t 1 984 ) . S ubs tant ia l l a te I r on A ge o ccupa t ion i s s ucceeded b y e x tens ive R oman s ett lement , w hen t he p opu lat ion o f t he a rea w as p robab ly h igher t han i t h as b een b efo re o r s i nce . T h is i s w itnessed b y t he i n d icat ions o f l a dde r p a ttern e nc losures f rom t he a i r , b y t he e v idence o f i n tens ive f i e ld wa lk ing ( Hayf ie ld 1 980 ) , a nd b y l im ited e xcavat ion o f t h ree v i l las i nt he p ar ish ( Rahtz e t . a l . 1 986 ) : t he marke t a nd p robab ly a dm in is trat ive f ocus f o r t he a rea w as Ma lton , w here a R oman f o rt a nd v icus h ave b een p art ia l ly e xp lored . A part f rom t he n ume rous A ng lo-Saxon b ur ia ls i n t he a rea ( N ie lson 1 985 ) , t he e xcavat ion o f Wharram P e rcy , n ow i n i t s 3 5 th y ear , h as l o ca ted s evera l a reas o f o ccupa t ion o f h igh s tatus , o f t he 4 thI I t h c entur ies . T h is i s f o l lowed b y a n uc leated med ieva l v i l lage a ssoc ia ted w ith t wo mano rs , e ach r epresented b y s ubs tant ia l b u i ld ings o n t he s i te ( Andrews a nd M i lne 1 979 ) . I t i s t h is l a s t ( d eserted ) c omp lex w h ich w as t he o r ig ina l f ocus o f i n teres t f o r t he a rchaeo log is ts J ohn H urs t a nd Maur ice B e res fo rd . M y o wn i n teres t i n t he s i te w as i n t he modes o f t rans it ion b etween t he c lear ly i n tense l a te R oman v i lla-based e s tates o r f arms , a nd t he a dm in istra t ive c hanges w h ich b y t he 7 th c entu ry h ad made E as t Y o rksh ire p ar t o f t he e ar l ier k i ngdoms . F or o ur s tudents , we d i scussed t heoret ica l ly w hat o ne m ight mean b y c on t inu ity o r d i scont inu ity b etween t he 4 th a nd 6 th c entur ies , w hat k inds o f a rchaeo log ica l e v idence m ight b e r e levant i n s uch a n e nqu iry , a nd h ow t hey m ight v a r ious ly b e i n te rpreted ( F igs . 2 2 . 1 4 ) . I n t he e vent w e e xcavated c . 4 00 m .2 o f a n a rea a d jacent t o t he N o rth Manor ( F ig . 2 2 . 5 ) . T he a rchaeo log ica l e v idence w as , i na r e str ic ted a rea , t hat a h o l low w ay i n e x tens ive u se i n t he l a te R oman p e r iod i n a s soc iat ion w ith a v i l la c omp lex h ad g one o ut o f u se b efo re t wo 6 th c entury s unkenfeatured b u i ld ings ( SFB o n F ig . 2 2 .5 ) ( g rübenhäuser ) h ad b een b u i lt i n t he h o l low w ay . T h is i t se lf w as c lear e v idence o f d i scont inu ity i nt he u se o f a ma jo r e l ement i n t he l o ca l l i near movement s ys tem ( r esumed h oweve r i n l a ter c entur ies ) . I f t he e v idence f o r a h iatus b etween t he u l t imate c essat ion o f R oman ised a ct iv ity a nd A ng lo-Saxon s ett lement c ou ld b e mu lt ip l ied a nd e xpanded a t housand-fo ld , i tw ou ld d o much t o s uppo rt t he s choo l o f t hought t hat s ees t he A ng lo-Saxon s e tt lement a s ar esu lt o f e conom ic a nd s oc ia l d ec l ine , r a the r t han a s t he c ause o f i t . T he p rob lem , a s a lways i nt hese d i scuss ions , i st he 5 th c entury , a nd t he c haracte r o f t he mater ia l c u lture t hat o ne w ou ld e xpec t t o b e a ssoc ia ted i n NE E ng land w ith a s ett lement i n e x is tence i n , s ay , 4 75 . My o wn b e l ief i st hat i tw ou ld b e i n d is t ingu ishab le f rom t ha t o f t he s ame s i te i n c 4 00 a nd may o n ly b e d i s t ingu ished b y s t rat igraph ic a nd s t ructura l s equences f o l low ing t erm in i p os t q uem g iven b y l a te 4 th c entury c o inage . My o wn b e l ie f i st ha t many c ontexts o f c . 4 75 h ave b een e xposed i n e xcava t ion b ut h ave b een a scr ibed t o t he l a te 4 th o r e ar ly 5 th c entury b ecause o f t he l a ck o f i n novat ion i n a ny a spec t o f mate r ia l

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c u lture i n t he 5 th c entury a nd t he c ont inued u se o f t he mass ive a ssemb lages o f p o tte ry a nd o the r g oods w h ich w ou ld h ave b een s o p ro l if ic i n c4 00 . W h i le s ome f i nds f r om E as t Y o rksh ire i n A ng lo-Saxon c emete r ies may s ugges t t hat t he e ar l ies t G e rman ic s e tt lements i n t he a rea w ere i n s ta l led b efore 5 00 , t hese f i nds a re i n r es tr ic ted l o ca l it ies a nd may w e l l h ave b een e xcep t iona l i na n o the rw ise ' u lt imate R oman ' s ett ing . I n t he 6 th c entury , t he c eram ics e xh ib it a marked c hange f rom a c oarse g r itty c e ram ic t rad it ion t hat b egan i n E as t Y o rksh ire a t l e as t a s e a r ly a s t he l a te B ronze A ge a nd c ont inued t hrough t he R oman p er iod w ith a n u ncerta in t e rm inus . W h i le s uch u l t imate R oman w ares a re s t i l l f ound i n 6 th c entury c ontex ts , t here c an b e l i tt le d oub t t hat t he l e gacy o f t he e nd o f t he R oman E as t Y o rksh ire a nd o f Wharram i n p art icu lar h ad b een f u l ly i n he r ited b y t he e ar ly E ng l ish , f i na l ly emerg ing i n to h i s tory i nt he 7 th c entury . B ib l iog raphy A ndrews , D . , a nd M i lne , G . , ( Eds . ) 1 979 . Domes t ic S e tt lemen t , 1 : A reas 1 0 &6 . , V o l .! o f Wharram , AS tudy o f S e tt lement o n t he Y orksh ire Wo lds ( S oc . Med ieva l A rchaeo logy Monograph S er ies 8 ) . B eresfo rd , M .W . , a nd H urst , J .G . , 1 979 . ' The Wharram R esearch P ro jec t : R ecent R esu lts ( 1 974-78 ) ' , i nP .H .Sawyer ( e d . ) , E ng l ish Med ieva l S e tt lement ( London ) , 8 3-85 . H ayf ie ld , C . , 1 980 . ' Wharram P ercy P ar ish S urvey ' , i nC . H ayf ie ld ( Ed . ) , F ie ldwa lk ing a s a Method o f A rchaeo log ica l Research . ( D irecto ra te o f A nc ient Monumen ts a nd H is to r ic B u i ld ings , O ccas iona l P aper I ) , 2 6-33 . H urs t , J .G . , 1 984 . ' The Wharram R esearch P ro jec t 8 : R esu lts t o 1 9831984 , ' Med ieva l A rchaeo logy x xv i i i , 7 7- III . N ie lson , L . , 1 985 . Ang lo -Saxon B ur ia ls a round Wharram P ercy ( Unpub l . MA D isser tat ion , D ep t . o f A rchaeo logy , U n ive rs ity o f Y o rk ) . R ahtz , P .A . , H ayf ie ld , C . , a nd B ateman , J . , 1 986 . Two Roman V i l las a t Wharramle-S tree t ( York U n ive rs ity A rchaeo log ica l P ub l icat ions 2 ) .

3 0 1

2 3 . CELTS , ROMANS AND THE GREAT D IV IDE L loyd L a ing A rchaeo logy i sb eset w ith q uas i-h is to r ica l d ates w h ich , o nce a dvanced , s eem t o b ecome d iv ides a cros s w h ich mater ia l c u lture c anno t p ass . O ne s uch i n B r it ish a rchaeo logy h as b een 4 10 AD , w h ich h as c ut o ff t he ' Dark A ges ' f rom a l l t hat w ent b efore . I n t he C e lt ic a reas o f B r ita in t he g u lf s eparat ing t he f i fth c entury f rom w hat w ent b efore i s p art icu lar ly mean ing less . A lthough 4 09/ 10 AD i s v i ta l ly m ean ingfu l f r om a h i s to r ian 's v iewpo in t , a rchaeo logy p o ints t o ap rocess o f c hange i nC e lt ic s oc ie ty a nd ma ter ia l c u lture w h ich b egan much e ar l ier . A t t he S ympos ium Is poke o f R oman t ra its i n I r ish mater ia l c u lture a nd t he d ate a nd s ource o f t he ir a rr iva l . A s t he d eta i led e v idence o n w h ich t h is w as b ased i s n ow a t p ress ( La ing f o r thcom ing ) , Is hou ld l i ke h ere t o t ake u p f rom w here t hat p aper l e ft o ff a nd o ffe r ab a l lon d ' essa i w h ich may s erve f o r d i scuss ion p end ing a f u l le r a na lys is o f t he e v idence . C hrono logy a nd Dark Age A rchaeo logy T he c hrono logy o f ' Dark A ge ' C e lt ic B r ita in a nd I r e land i s f i l led w it ' l i mponderab les . T he b u lk o f t he mater ia l a ssemb lage c ompr ises s ubs istence e qu ipment t he c urrency o f w h ich s pans c entur ies , a nd t he re i s n o c o inage a nd l i t t le n at ive p o tte ry o n w h ich t o f a t ! b ack . No w onder t hen t hat t he a rchaeo log is ts d epend o n w hat P rofesso r C har les T homas h as a p t ly t e rmed t he ' l i fe r aft ' o f i mported Med iterranean p o ttery ( 1976 , 2 45 ) , i n p art icu lar l a te R oman No rth A fr ican a nd P hocaean r ed s l ip w ares a nd t he ampho rae a nd l a genae t ha t c o l lect ive ly a re k nown i n B r ita in a nd I r e land a s ' A ' a nd ' B ' Wares . I n t he mo s t r ecent ly p ub l ished s u rvey t he c hrono log ica l p rob lems p osed b y t hese w ares a re r ev iewed , a nd i ti sp o inted o u t t hat t he t r ade may h ave b egun i n t he f ourth o r e ven t h ird c entury AD ( Thomas 1 98 1, 4 ) . D esp ite t he e ar ly d at ing o f s ome f l anged b ow ls ( Hayes 1 977 ) , t he t ypes o f ' A ' w ares f ound i n t he C e lt ic Wes t s eem s t i l l t o b e a ttr ibu tab le t o t he p er iod c .4755 50 AD , t hough s ome B ampho rae a nd j a rs c an b e long t o t he f ourth c entury , o r , i n t he c ase o f t he B iv w ares , e ven e ar l ier ( Fu lfo rd 1 979 , 1 26-7 ; P eacock 1 977a ,1977b ) . D esp ite a l l e ffo rts , t he s tart ing d ate f o r ' E ' Ware i su nknown , a nd t he re a re s t i l l many p rob lems c onfound ing t he c hrono logy o f ' D ' mo rtar ia . O ther c lasses o f d at ing e v idence - r e ferences i n d ocumentary s ources a nd t ypo log ica l s tud ies o f meta lwo rk - a re o f m in ima l v a lue . C ompar isons o f me ta lwo rk c rea te c i rcu la r a rguments , a nd t o t ry t o d a te a b urnt l a ye r i n af or t f r om a d ocumentary r e fe rence t o a n a t tack o n as i te i n ap ar t icu lar y ear c an l e ad t o a l l s o rts o f c on fu s ions . R ad iocarbon a nd T L d ates a re f ew , a nd f o r o ur p er iod n o t s uff ic ient ly p rec ise . T he C u ltura l D iv ide i nB r ita in a nd I r e land A n i n terest ing r e su lt c an b e a ch ieved b y d ivo rc ing t he a rchaeo log ica l e v idence f r om t he d ocumentary , a nd s eek ing c hang ing p atterns i n s ett lement , e conomy a nd s oc ia l o rgan izat ion . I s t here , f o r e xamp le , a ny ma jo r d i srupt ion i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r eco rd t hat c ou ld h e ra ld t he b eg inn ing o f t he ' Dark A ges '? T here s eems , i n f act , t o b e n o s harp b reak , b ut a p ro longed p er iod o f c hange w h ich s tarts much e ar l ie r t han i su sua l ly a ssumed . T h is p hase c ommences i n t he l a te s econd c entury AD , a nd a cce lerates i nt he t h ird .

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I n S co t land i n t he A t lant ic P rov ince b rochs s eem t o h ave b een r ep laced b y w hee lhouses a nd v ar ious o the r f o rms o f p os t-broch h uts a t s ome t ime i n t he s econd c entury , p robab ly t he l a tte r y ears ( MacK ie 1 965 , 1 38-9 ) . I nt he r eg ion t o t he S outh , i n w hat b ecame s outhern P ic t land , s ou terra ins s uch a s t he r ecent lye xcava ted e xamp le a t N ewm i l l ( Pe rths ) , w ere d e l iberate ly f i l led i n i n t he l a te r s econd t o t h ird c entury ( Wa tk ins 1 984 , 7 1-2 ) . N one o f t he o ut ly ing s ou terra ins , b rochs o r d uns i nL ow land S co t land ( s uch a s B uch lyv ie o r L eck ie , t o t ake r ecent ly e xcava ted e xamp les ) , s eem t o o ut las t c .200 AD ( B reeze 1 982 , 1 4 1) . I n S outhern S co t land t oo t he c rannogs , s uch a s t hose a t H yndfo rd ( Lanark ) , M i lton L och ( K irkcudb r ight ) o r L och lee ( Ay rs ) d o n o t a ppea r t o h ave o ut l ived t he e nd o f t he s econd c entury ( S tevenson 1 966 , 2 8 ) , t hough t here s eems t o h ave b een much l a te r o ccupat ion a fte r a p er iod o f a bandonment a t L och lee i f n o t t he o thers . T oo l i tt le w ork h as b een d one o n t he l a te r p hases o f h i l lfort o ccupat ion i nt he s outh t o d raw mean ing fu l c onc lus ions , t hough t here a re h ints t ha t s ome o f t he f o rts o f SW S co t land w ere r e -occup ied f o r w hatever p urpose b efo re t he e nd o f t he f ourth c entury AD . B eyond t he F or th-C lyde l i ne , t he p henomenon o f r e furb ished f orts a ppears a ga in t o p re-date 4 00 , t o j udge f r om r ad iocarbon d ates f o r B urghead ( Mo ray ) ( Edwards & R a ls ton 1 978 ) , C u l lykhan ( Banff ) ( Gr ieg 1 97 1; G r ieg 1 972 ) , o r C ra ig P hadr ig ( I nve rness ) ( A lcock 1 984 , 2 3 ) . I n Wa les a s im i lar s to ry c an b e r eco rded . R oman o ccupat ion i n t he t h ird a n . 1 f ourth c entur ies AD h as b een n o ted i n t he h i l lfo rt a t D inorben ( C lwyd ) ( Gardne r & S avo ry 1 964 , 2 05-7 ) , a nd t h ird-century u sage o f t he f o rt a t C oygan C amp , G lamo rgan h as b een r eco rded ( Wa inwr ight 1 967 , 7 01, 1 57-8 ) . R ecent r e a ppra isa l b y t he a utho r o f t he s i te a t D inas Emrys ( Gwynedd ) i n d ica tes a l a te R oman p hase o f a ct iv ity a s w e l l a s ap os t-Roman o ne ( f o rthcom ing , b u t s ee a l so S avo ry 1 96 1) , w h i le t here w as i n tens ive l a te R oman o ccupat ion a t t he B re idd in ( Mont ) ( Musson 1 972 ) . O ther f orts w ith l a te R oman o ccupat ion i n c lude C ae r D ynnaf , L lanb leth ian a nd C as t le D itches , L lancarfan ( L loyd-Jones 1 984 , 5 0 ) . A l a te R oman h oard i s among t he e v idence f or r e -use o f F oe l F en I l i ( C lwyd ) i n t he s ame p er iod ( Mo rr is 1 975 , 6 2-5 ) . T here i sg row ing e v idence t oo t ha t t he e nc losed h ut g roups o f Wa les w ere o ccup ied f rom t he l a ter s econd c entury o nwards . W r it ing o f t he l a rge g roup o f h u t e nc losures i n NW Wa les Hogg h as s ugges ted t hat t hey w e re o ccup ied f i rs t i nt he e ar ly t h ird c entury , p oss ib ly a s ar e su lt o f a d e l iberate p lantat ion i na n u nder-popu lated a rea ( Hogg 1 966 , 3 5 ) . I n S a lop b o th t he B erth a nd O l ive r 's P o int h ave p roduced l a te R oman mater ia l ( Burrow 1 98 1, 2 15 ) . S outh-wes t E ng land l a y w ith in t he c iv i l z one o f R oman B r ita in , a nd t hus may b e a ffec ted b y o ther f actors t han t hose o pe ra t ing o uts ide i t . T he e v idence f o r S omerse t h as b een e x tens ive ly d i scussed b y B ur row ( 1979 ; 1 98 1) . B u rrow h as a rgued t hat o n ly i nt he c ase o f L ydney i st here e v idence f o r l a te R oman r a mpar t c onstruct iona l w o rk i n a ma jo r f o rt ( 1979 , 2 13 ; a l so R ahtz & Watts 1 979 , 1 90-2 ) , b u t t hat ' a s ubs tant ia l p roport ion o f h i l lforts h ave p roduced Roman mater ia l ' ( 1 979 , 2 12 ) . B urrow h as a l so d rawn a ttent ion t o s ma l l f o rts i nt he a rea w ith l a te R oman r ampart c ons truct ion o r r e furb ishment ( 1 979 , 2 17 ) . I n I r e land t he e v idence i sv e ry c omp lex t o e va luate . C ons iderab le d ebate h as s urrounded t he q ues t ion o f t he d ate o f t he f i rst o ccurence o f r aths a nd c rannogs . Wh i le o ne s choo l o f t hought h as a rgued t hat many o f t he s i tes o f E ar ly C hr ist ian d ate c ou ld b e p ushed b ack i n to a n I r on A ge p as t ( Raftery 1 98 1; C au lf ie ld 1 98 1) , o thers h ave c ogent ly s ugges ted t hat t he ma jo r ity o f e xcavated s i tes d o i n f ac t b e long t o t he m idd le c entur ies o f t he f i rs t m i l len ium AD , a nd l a ter ( Lynn 1 98 1) . Wh i le c onf ident t hat t here i sn o e v idence f o r t he ir c ons truct ion a nd o ccupat ion i n t he f i rs t t wo c entur ies AD , L ynn i sl e ss c lear a bout t he a ctua l d a te o f t he ir

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a ppearance , s ugges t ing t hat t hey a re d er ived f rom s im i lar monuments i nB r ita in ( 1 98 1, 5 5-56 ) . I n f ac t t here i sn o r ea l d at ing e v idence t o s ugges t au sage o f a ny r a th o r c rannog b efo re t he l a t ter y ears o f t he s econd c entury . T oo l i tt le a ga in i s k nown a bout h i l lfo rts , b ut t he R oman mate r ia l f rom t he c are fu l ly-excavated e xamp le a t F rees tone H i l l ( Co K i lkenny ) i mp l ies t hat i t w as o ccup ied i n t he f our th c entury , i fn o t e ar l ie r ( Rafte ry 1 969 ) . B y a s epara te p rocess , c hanges t ook p lace i n t r ad it ions o f meta lwork ing i n B r ita in a round t he e nd o f t he s econd c entury . T h is marks t he l a s t f l oru it o f t he C a ledon ian a nd B r igant ian meta lwo rk ing s choo ls ( Macg regor 1 976 ) . A round t he s ame p er iod o r s l igh t ly l a te r w e s ee t he eme rgence o f n ew t rad it ions o f z oomo rph ic p enannu lar b rooches , v ar ious t ypes o f p in a nd o ther d ressfasteners t ha t were t o c ont inue t o b e p roduced i n t he f u l l E ar ly C hr is t ian p er iod ( Long ley 1 975 ) . A lthough t he a nces tors o f t hese b rooches a nd p i ns l i e i n ar emo te r p as t , t he ir p ro l ife rat ion i n t he f our th a nd f i fth c entur ies i sp e rhaps i n d icat ive o f n ew f a sh ions i nd res s a s w e l l a s o rnament . C auses o f Change Two e lements among t he many t hat r equ ire c ons idera t ion i n ad i scuss ion o f t he c hanges i n s ett lement t ypes a nd p resumab ly a l so s oc ia l o rgan iza t ion i n t he l a te s econd t o f i fth c entur ies AD p erhaps may b e c ons idered h ere . T he f i rs t i s t ha t t hese c hanges s eem t o b e a ttendant w ith s oc ia l a nd p o l it ica l u pheava ls a nd t o b e c ontempo rary w ith a f a l l i np opu lat ion a nd u nres t ( I r ish r a ids i n Wa les s tar t a t l e as t a s e ar ly a s t he s econd h a lf o f t he t h ird c entury ) . I n S co t land i n t h is p er iod t he P icts emerge o ut o f e ar l ier t r iba l g roup ings , t o t ake b ut o ne o bv ious e xamp le . T hat t h is p henomenon i sn o t c onf ined t o C e lt ic B r ita in b ut t o ag reate r o r l e sser d egree a ffects much o f t he Wes tern Emp ire a nd t he t r ibe s o f n o rthern E urope i s a pparent f rom t he p roceed ings o f t h is c onfe rence , a nd c an p erhaps b e s een mos t c lear ly i nt he R h ine land a nd i nH o l land . T he p henomenon i n t he Western Emp ire h as b een d i scussed b y A H M J ones ( 1 966 , 3 66 ) , w ho a rgued f o r ad ec l ine o f p opu lat ion i n t he f our th c entury . T he e v idence f o r R oman B r ita in h as b een d ebated , b ut t he l a tes t r ev iew o f t he e v idence b y A rno ld ( 1 984 , 1 23 ) w ou ld s eem t o s uppor t t h is . O uts ide t he Emp ire , t he e v idence f rom D enmark s how s t ha t a fter a c l imat ic o pt imum t he t emperature b ecame c oo le r f rom t he t h ird c entury o nwards , r each ing i t s l owes t l e ve l a round 5 00 . I n d i scuss ing t h is , A rno ld h as p o inted o ut t hat t he p oo rer w eather l e d t o r educed n utr it ion a nd d i sease , a nd a ' r eturn t o mo re e x tens ive f o rms o f s ub s is tence w ith , f o r i n s tance , a h eav ier s t ress o n t he r a is ing o f c att le ' ( Arno ld 1 984 , 1 7 ) . A rno ld a rgued t hat R oman B r ita in w as i n s ome measure c ush ioned f rom t he e ffec ts o f c l imat ic d eter io ra t ion b y t he e conom ic s t ructure o f t he Emp ire . T h is c an h ard ly b e s a id t o a pp ly h oweve r t o C e lt ic B r ita in . S econd ly , f o r C e lt ic B r ita in a nd p erhaps f o r o ther b arbar ians b eyond t he f ront ie rs t here may h ave b een a s ubs idary e ffect . E conom ic i mpove r ishment may h ave l e d t o ag row ing d es ire t o a cqu ire t he c u lture o f t he R oman Emp ire , a nd a g row ing a wareness t ha t i tw as w ith in t he ir g rasp . I ti st h is f acto r w h ich p robab ly a ccounts f o r t he R oman iza t ion o f t he mater ia l c u lture o f C e lt ic B r ita in , a nd f rom B r ita in I r e land , i nt he l a ter f ourth a nd f i fth c entur ies AD . B ib l iography A lcock , L . , 1 984 . ' A S urvey o f P ic t ish S ett lement A rchaeo logy ' , i nF r ie l ! , J .G .P , & Watson , W .G . ( Eds . ) , P ict ish S tud ies , ( B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l R epo rts , B r it ish S er ies 1 25 ; O xfo rd ) : 7 -4 1.

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A rno ld , C .J . , 1984 . B reeze , D . , 1 982 .

Roman B r ita in t o S axon E ng land , L ondon . T he Northern F ront ie rs o f Roman B r ita in , L ondon .

B urrow , I . , 1 979 . ' Roman Mater ia l f rom H i l lfo rts ' , i nC asey , P . J . ( Ed . ) , T he E nd o f Roman B r ita in , ( B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l R epo rts , B r it ish S er ies 7 1 ; O xfo rd ) : 2 12-29 . B urrow , I . C .G . , 1 98 1. H i l lfo rt a nd H i l ltop S et t lement i nt he F irs t t o t he E ighth Centur ies AD , ( B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l R epo rts , B r it ish S er ies 9 1 ; O xfo rd ) . C au lf ie ld , S . , 1 98 1. ' S ome C e lt ic P rob lems i nt he I r ish I r on A ge ' , i nO 'Co rra in , D . ( Ed . ) , I r ish A nt iqu ity , C o rk : 2 0515 . E dwards , K .J . &R a lston , I . , 1 978 . ' New d at ing a nd e nv ironmenta l e v idence f rom B urghead f o r t , Mo ray ' , P roceed ings o f t he S oc iety o f A nt iquar ies o f S co t land 1 09 ( 1977-8 ) : 2 0210 . F u lfo rd , M . , 1 979 . ' Po ttery p roduct ion a nd t rade a t t he e nd o f Roman B r ita in : t he c ase a ga ins t c ont inu ity ' , i nC asey , P .J . ( Ed . ) , T he E nd o f Roman B r ita in , ( B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l R epo rts , B r it ish S er ies 7 1 ; O x fo rd ) : 1 203 2 . G ardner , W . , a nd S avo ry , H .N . , 1 964 . D ino rben : aH i l lfor t o ccup ied i nE ar ly I r on Age a nd Roman T i mes , C ard iff . G re ig , J .C . , 1 97 1. ' Excavat ions a t C u l lykhan , C as t le P o int T roup B anffsh ire ' , S co tt ish A rchaeo log ica l F orum 3 : 1 5 -2 1. G re ig , J .C . , 1 972 . ' Cu l lykhan ' , C urrent A rchaeo logy 3 2 , May 1 972 :

2 27-3 1.

H ayes , J .W . , 1 972 . L ate Roman P o ttery , B r it ish S choo l a t R ome ; L ondon . H ayes , J .W . , 1 977 . ' North A fr ican f l anged b ow ls : ap rob lem i nf i fth-century c hrono logy ' i nD ore , J . &G reene , K . ( Eds . ) , Roman P o ttery S tud ies I n B r ita in a nd B eyond , ( B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l R epo rts , S upp lementa ry S er ies 3 0 ; O xfo rd ) : 2 79-88 . H ogg , A .H .A . 1 966 . ' Nat ive S ett lement i n Wa les ' i nT homas , C . ( Ed . ) , Rura l S e tt lement i n Roman B r ita in , ( Counc i l f o r B r it ish A rchaeo logy R esearch r epo rt 7 ;L ondon ) : 2 8-38 . J ones , A .H .M . 1 966 . T he D ec l ine o f t he A nc ien t Wo r ld ; L ondon . L a ing , L . , F o rthcom ing . ' The R oman isat ion o f I r e land i nt he f i fth c entury , P er it ia 3 . L loyd-Jones , M . , 1 984 . S oc iety a nd S et t lement i n Wa les a nd t he Marches , 5 00 BC t o AD 100 , ( B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l R epo rts , B r it ish S er ies 1 2 1; O xfo rd ) . L ong l e y , D . , 1 975 . Hang ing b ow ls , P enannu lar B rooches a nd t he Ang lo -Saxon Connex ion , ( B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l R epo rts , B r it ish S er ies 2 2 ; O x fo rd ) . L ynn , C .J . , 1 983 . ' S ome " Ear ly" R ing-fo rts a nd C rannogs ' , J ourna l o f I r ish A rchaeo logy I : 4 7-58 .

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Macgrego r , M . , 1 976 . E a r ly C e lt ic A rt i n No rth B r ita in , L e ices te r . MacK ie , E . , 1 965 . ' The O r ig in a nd D eve lopment o f t he B roch a nd Whee lhouse b u i ld ing c u ltures o f t he S co tt ish I r on A ge ' , P roceed ings o f t he P reh is tor ic S oc iety , XXX I ( 1 965 ) : 9 3146 . Mo rr is , J . , 1 975 . T he A ge o f A r thur , 2 nd E d ; L ondon . Musson , C . , 1 9 72 . ' Two W inte rs a t t he B redd in ' , C urrent A rchaeo logy 3 3 : 2 63-267 . P eacock , D . , I 977a . ' Roman Ampho rae : T ypo logy , F abr ic & O r ig ins ' i n Me thodes C lass iques e t Me thodes F orme l les d ons l eude d e s Amphores , C o l lec t ion d e l ' Eco le d e R ome 3 2 ; R ome : 2 6 1-78 . P eacock , D . , I 9 77b . ' Late R oman ampho rae f rom C ha lk , n ear G ravesend , K ent ' i nD o re J . &G reene , K . ( Eds . ) , Roman P o tte ry S tud ies i nB r ita in a nd B eyond ( B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l R epo rts , S upp lementary S er ies 3 0 ; O xfo rd ) : 2 95-300 . R ahtz , P . & Wa tts , L . , 1 979 . ' The E nd o f R oman T emp les i nt he West o f B r ita in ' , i nC asey , P . ( Ed . ) , T he E nd o f Roman B r ita in , ( B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l R epo rts B r it ish S e r ies 7 1 ; O xfo rd ) : 1 83-2 10 . R a fte ry , B . , 1 969 . ' F rees tone H i l l , C o K i lkenny ; a nd I r on A ge h i l lfo rt a nd B ronze A ge C a irn ' , P roceed ings o f t he Roya l I r ish A cademy , LXV I I I ( 1969 ) : 1 108 . R aferty , J . 1 98 1. ' Concern ing C hrono logy ' i nO 'Co rra in , D . ( Ed . ) , I r ish A nt iqu ity , C o rk : 8 2-90 . S avo ry , H .N . , 1 96 1. ' Excavat ions a t D inas Emrys , B eddge lert ( Caern ) , 1 954-6 ' , A rchaeo log ia C amb rens is 1 09 : 1 3 -77 . S tevenson , R .B .K . , 1 966 . ' Meta lwo rk a nd s ome o ther s ub jects i nS co t land a nd t he ir c u ltura l a ff in it ies ' , i nR ivet , A .L .F . ( Ed . ) , T he I r on Age i n No rth B r ita in , E d inbu rgh : 1 7 -44 . T homas , C . , 1 976 . ' Impo r ted L ate Roman Med ite rranean p o ttery i nI r e land a nd Wes tern B r ita in : c hrono log ies a nd i mp l icat ions ' , P roceed ing s o f t he Roya l I r ish A cademy 7 6 : 2 45-56 . T homas , C . , 1 98 1. A P rov is iona l L ist o f I mpor ted Med iterranean P o ttery i n P ost-Roman B r ita in a nd I r e land , I n s t itute o f C o rn ish S tud ies S pec ia l R epo rt 7 , Redruth . Wa inwr ight , G .J . , 1 967 . C oygan C amp , aP reh is to r ic , Romano B r it ish a nd D ark Age s e tt lement i n Carmarthensh ire , C ard iff . Watk ins , T . , 1 984 . ' Who w ere t he P icts? A n e ssay i ns e tt lement a rchaeo logy ' , i n F r ie l ! , J .G .P . & Watson W .G . ( Eds . ) , P ic t ish S tud ies - ( B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l R eports , B r it ish S er ies 1 25 ; O xfo rd ) : 6 3-86 .

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